{"text": "What is Biology? Biology is the branch of science that deals with the study of living things. In Greek, Bios means life while Logos means knowledge. Branches of biology There are two main branches: 1. Botany: Study of plants 2. Zoology: Study of animals br br The others include: br br 1. Ecology: Study of living things in their surroundings. 2. Genetics: The study of inheritance and variation. 3. Entomology : Study of insects 4. Parasitology: Study of parasites 5. Taxonomy: Study of classification of organisms 6. Microbiology: Study of microscopic organisms 7. Anatomy: S tudy of structure of cells 8. Cytology: Study of cells 9. Biochemistry: Study of chemical changes inside living br br organisms br br Name at least six other smaller branches of biology 6 marks . Importance of Biology br br 1. Solving environmental problems e.g. Food shortage, poor br br health services, pollution, misuse of environmental resources etc. br br 2. Choice of careers e.g. Medicine, Agriculture, public health, Veterinary, Animal husbandry, Horticulture, Dentistry etc. 3. Acquiring scientific skills e.g. observing, identifying, recording, br br classification, measuring, analyzing, evaluating etc. br br 4. International co-operation e.g. Development of HIV AIDS vaccine, fight against severe Acute respiratory Syndrome SARS , fight to save ozone layer from depletion, management of resources through international depletion. Others br br Help on study of other subjects Learn what living things are made up of and their bodies br br work br br Acquire knowledge about plant and animal diseases and br br their treatment. br br Know the effects of our bodies on drug and substance abuse br br and can kill. br br Learn about HIV AIDS diseases and other viral diseases e.g. its treatmentbalanced diets, proper hygiene, spreading, sexual behavior, cultural practices etc. br br List five professional occupations that require the study of biology. 5 marks Characteristics of living things; br br 1. Nutrition: Process by which living things acquire and utilize nutrients: plants photosynthesize; animals feed on already manufactured foods. br br 2. Respiration: energy-producing process occurring in all the cells br br of living things. br br 3. Gaseous Exchange: where living things take in air oxygen and br br give out air carbon iv oxide across respiratory surfaces. br br 4. Excretion: Process by which waste or harmful materials resulting br br from chemical reactions within cells of living things are eliminated. Excess of such materials poison living things. br br 5. Growth and Development: Growth is the irreversible increase in size and Mass.Essential for body function . Development Irreversible change in complexity of the structure of living things. 6. Reproduction: Process by which living things give rise to new br br individuals of the same kind. br br 7. Irritability: Is the ability of living things to perceive changes in br br their surroundings and respond to them appropriately. E.g. reaction to changes in temperature, humidity, light, pressure and to the presence of certain chemicals. br br 8. Movement: Change in position by either a part or the whole br br living thing. Locomotion Progressive change in position by the br br 2 whole living thing. In animals, movement include; swimming, walking, running, flying. In plants, closing of leaves, folding of leaves, closing of flowers, growing of shoots towards light etc. br br Question br br 1. List four uses of energy obtained from the process of br br respiration. 4 marks . br br 2. List six characteristics of living things 6 marks . br br Collection of specimens Apparatus used br br 1. Sweep net: for catching flying insects. 2. Fish net: For trapping small fish and other small water br br animals. br br 3. Pooter: For sucking small animals from rock surfaces and br br tree barks. br br 4. Bait trap: For attracting and trapping small animals e.g. br br rats. br br 5. Pit fall trap: For catching crawling animals. 6. Pair of forceps: picking up small crawling animals e.g. br br stinging insects. br br 7. Specimen bottles: keeping collected specimen. Larger br br specimens require large bottles. br br 8. The magnifying lens: Instrument used to enlarge objects. br br Lenses are found in microscope and the hand lens magnifier . Its frame is marked e.g. x8 or x10indicating how much larger will be the image compared to object. Precautions during Collection and Observation of specimens Collect only the number of specimen you need. Do not harm the specimens during the capture or collection br br exercise. br br Handle dangerous or injurious specimens with care e.g. stinging plants or insects i.e. use forceps or hand gloves. The teacher will immobilize highly mobile animals. diethyl br br ether, formalin, chloroform br br Do not destroy the natural habitat of the specimens. br br Practical activity 2 br br 3 Practical activity 3 Comparison between plants and animals br br Plants 1. Green in colour have Animals 1. Lack chlorophyll thus br br chlorophyll 2. Their cells have feed on readymade food. 2. Cells lack cellulose cell br br cellulose cell walls. 3. Respond slowly to changes in the environment. 4. Lack specialized excretory organs. 5. Do not move about. br br walls. br br 3. Respond quickly. br br 4. Have complex excretory organs. 5. Move about in search of food and water. 6.Growth occurs in all body parts9intercalary growth . br br 6. Growth occurs in shoot and root tips. apical growth br br Revision questions CLASSIFICATION I br br INTRODUCTION Living things are also known as living organisms. Organisms forms of life have distinguishing characteristics and therefore are grouped. The Magnifying lens -Is used for enlarging small objects. Diagram Procedure of its use br br Place the object on the bench. Move the hand lens from the object to the eye. An enlarged image is seen. br br Drawing magnification Length of the drawing/ drawing Length Length of the object/Actual Length br br 4 External features of plants and animals External features of plants br br i Rhizoids as in moss plant. ii Fronds in ferns. iii Roots, stems, leave, flowers, seeds, fruits, and cones in higher br br plants. br br External features of animals i Tentacles in hydra ii Feathers in birds iii Shells in snails iv Wings in birds v Fur and hair in mammals vi Scales and fins in fish vii Proglotids in tapeworms viii Mammary glands in mammals ix Locomotory Structures e.g. limbs in insects x Body pigmentation Practical activity 1 To collect and observe animal specimens To collect and observe plant specimens br br What is classification? -I s an area of biology that deals with the grouping of living organisms according to their structure. Organisms with similar structures are put under one group referred to as a taxontaxa plural . The groupings also consider evolutionary relationships phylogeny since all living organisms had a common origin at one time. TaxonomyScience of classification. TaxonomistBiologist who studies taxonomy. Need for classification. Reasons 1. To identify living organisms into their correct groups for br br reference and study br br 2. To bring together living organisms with similar characteristics but br br separate those with different features. br br 3. To arrange information of living organisms in an orderly manner. br br This avoids chaos and confusion. br br 4. To understand the evolutionary relationship between different br br organisms Taxonomic Units Are groups taxa into which organisms are placed as a matter of convenience. Groups are based on observable characteristics common in the group. In a classification scheme taxonomic units or groups, a hierarchy of groups are recognized starting with the first largest and highest group; the Kingdom to the smallest and lowest unit; the species . There are 7 major taxonomic units. The Kingdom There are five Kingdoms of living organisms, namely: br br 1. Kingdom Monera : bacteria 2. Kingdom protoctista : algae, protozoa, amoeba, paramecium 3. Kingdom Fungi : Moulds, Yeast, Mushrooms 4. Kingdom Plantae : Moss plants, ferns, maize, garden pea, pine, br br meru oak, bean etc. br br 5. Kingdom Animalia : hydra, tapeworms, bees, human beings etc. br br 6 A kingdom is divided into Phyla in animals or divisions in plants and sorts out organisms based on body plan and form. Plan is the adaptation to a special way of life. The Class is further divided into small groups; Orders using structural features. Orders are divided into families using structural features, then Families into Genera singular genus based on recent common ancestral features that are less adaptive. Genus is divided into species i.e. kind of plant, or animal. Down the hierarchy, the number of organisms in each group decreases but their similarities increases. The Species group members naturally interbreed to produce fertile off springs. Minor differences are exhibited in the species groups e.g. on colour of the skin in human beings and varieties of plants. The groups of the species are termed to as varieties, races or strains. Classification of A human being and a maize plant Human being maize Taxonomic unit kingdom Phylum or division class order family genus species br br bean br br Animalia Chordata plantae Angiospermaphyta Angiospermae br br plantae br br Mammalia monocotyledonae Dicotyledonae Primates Hominidae homo sapiens Graminales Graminaceae zea mays Rosales Leguminosae Phaseolus Vulgaris br br Scientific name Homo sapiens Zea mays phaseolus vulgaris Scientific Naming Of Living Organisms P resent naming was developed by carolus Linnaeus 18th c, where organisms were given 2 names in Latin language. Living organisms have their scientific names and common names i.e. local or vernacular names. br br 7 Scientific naming uses the double naming system Binomial system . In binomial system, an organism is given both the genus and species name. Binomial nomenclature Double naming system -Is the assigning of scientific names to living organisms governed by a definite set of rules recognized internationally. Principles of binomial nomenclature br br a The first, genus name, should begin with a capital letter and the br br second name, species, should begin or written in small letters e.g. Lion---- Panthera leo Leopard ----- Panthera pardus Domestic dog ----- Canis farmiliaris Human being--- Homo sapiens Maize plant--- Zea mays br br Lion and Leopard are closely related ---Same genus but distantly relateddifferent species. br br b The scientific names must be printed in italics in textbooks and br br where hand written to be underlined e.g. Panthera leo. br br c The specific name species is frequently written with the name of br br the scientist who first adequately described and named the organism e.g. Phaseolus vulgaris i.e. Vulgaris is the scientist who described and named the bean plant. d Biologists should give a Latinized name for a newly described br br animal or plant species where Latin name is missing e.g. Meladogyne kikuyuensis Is a scientific name of a nematode from kikuyu. Aloe kilifiensis --- A member of Aloeceae family from Kilifi discovery. Garinsoga parviflora waweruensis --- a member of Macdonald eye family discovered by Waweru. br br Study Question 1 Complete the table below Lion Taxon br br Domestic dog Garden pea Napier grass br br kingdom br br 8 CLASSIFICATION 1 br br Review of the magnification lens Calculating Magnification External characteristics of plants and animals br br Diversity of Living Organisms br br Organisms with similar characteristics are placed under one group br br called taxon taxa . br br The science of classification is known as taxonomy . Biologists who study taxonomy are called taxonomists . br br Need For Classification br br 1. Help in identifying living organisms into their correct groups for br br reference. br br 2. It brings together organisms with similar characteristics and br br separates those with different features. br br 3. Help to organize information about living organisms in an orderly br br manner avoiding any confusion. br br 4. Help to understand the evolutionary relationship between br br different living organisms. br br Historical Background of Classification br br Long time ago classification was artificial where living things br br were classified as either plants or animals. br br Plants were classified as herbs, shrubs and trees. Animals were further divided into carnivores, herbivores and br br omnivores. Today modern classification uses evolutionary relationships br br between living organisms. Taxonomic Units of Classification br br This refers to the groups into which living organisms are placed br br in classification. br br These units start from the first largest and highest group kingdom to the smallest and lowest unit species . br br There are seven taxonomic units as shown below. Kindom Phylum division Class Order Family Genus Species br br 1. Kingdom br br Carolus Linnaeus 1707-1778 initially introduced the two kingdom system of classification. However many new life forms have been discovered which are neither animals nor plants. This has led to a more accepted classification system that adopts five kingdoms. These are; i. Monera .eg bacteria ii. Protoctista e.g algae and protozoa iii. Fungi e.g. mushrooms, moulds and yeast. iv. Plantae e.g. maize, ferns and all types of trees. v. Animalia e.g. man, cow tapeworm, flies etc. Kingdom is further divided into several phyla in animals or divisions in plants. br br 2. Phylum phyla or Division in plants. br br It is the second largest and further divided into classes. br br 3. Class br br Each class is divided into several orders . br br 4. Order Orders are divided into smaller groups called families . br br 5. Family br br Family is divided into several Genera. br br 6. Genus br br Here members are closely related. It is further divided into the species. br br 7. Species br br This is the smallest unit of classification. Species is defined as a group of organisms whose members naturally interbreed to produce fertile offsprings . Members of a given species have small differences such as skin colour, height etc. Classification of Man and Maize plant. Table 2.1 KLB Bk 1 Scientific Naming of Living Organisms. br br Today organisms are given two names in Latin language. This br br was developed by Carolus Linnaeus. br br Latin language was used because it was widely spoken during his br br time. br br In scientific naming, an organism is given the genus and the br br species name . br br This double naming system is known as Binomia l system two br br name System Binomial Nomenclature. This is the double naming system of organisms where organisms are assigned two names i.e. the generic name and the specific name. In binomial nomenclature the following rules are observed. br br i. Generic name is written first followed by the specific name. First letter in the generic name is in capital and the rest are in small letters. Specific name is written in small letters. br br ii. The two names are underlined separately when handwritten or br br italicised when printed. br br iii. Newly discovered species must be given Latinized names. iv. Specific name is frequently written with the name of the scientist br br who first adequately described and named the organism. br br 11 Revision Questions br br CELL PHYSIOLOGY br br This is the study of the functions of cell structures. br br Membrane Structure and Properties br br A membrane is a surface structure which encloses the cell and br br organelles. Membranes regulate the flow of materials into out of the cell or organelle. br br Examples of membranes: cell membrane, tonoplast membrane surrounding the vacuole , nuclear membrane, mitochondrial membrane, chloroplast membrane etc. br br The Cell Membrane br br It has three layers, two protein layers and a phos-pholipid layer br br sandwiched in between the two. br br Diagram Properties of Cell Membrane br br 1. Semi-permeability. It has small pores allowing for the passage of molecules of small size into and out of the cell. Cell Wall however allows all materials to pass through it hence it is referred to as being Permeable . br br 2. Sensitivity to Changes in Temperature and pH Extreme br br temperature and pH affects the cell membrane since it has some protein layers. Such changes alter the structure of the membrane affecting its normal functioning. br br 3. Possession of Electric Charges it has both the negative and br br positive charges helping the cell to detect changes in the environment. These charges also affect the manner in which substances move in and out of the cell br br Physiological Processes br br The ability of the cell to control the movement of substances in and out of the cell is achieved through physiological processes such as Diffusion, Osmosis and Active Transport . br br 12 Diffusion br br This is a process by which particles move from a region of high br br concentration to a region of low concentration . br br Practical Activity 1 To demonstrate diffusion using potassium permanganate VII The difference in concentration of particles between the region of high concentration and the region of low concentration is known as the diffusion gradient. br br Role of Diffusion in Living Organisms br br 1. Absorption of Materials Mineral salts in the soil enter the root by diffusion since their concentration in the soil is greater than in the root hair cells. Digested food glucose and amino acids diffuse across the wall of the ileum into the blood for transport to rest of the body. br br 2. Gaseous Exchange in Plants and Animals In both plants and animals, respiratory gases oxygen and Carbon IV oxide are exchanged through simple diffusion depending on their concentration gradient. br br 3. Excretion of Nitrogenous Wastes 4. Transport of Manufactured Food form Leaves to other Plant br br Parts. br br 5. br br Factors Affecting Diffusion a Diffusion Gradient A greater diffusion gradient between two points increases the rate br br of diffusion. br br b Surface Area to Volume Ratio The higher the ratio the greater the rate of diffusion and the lower br br the ratio the lower the rate. br br This means that small organisms expose a large surface area to c Thickness of Membranes and Tissues The thicker the membrane the lower the rate of diffusion because the distance covered by the diffusing molecules is greater. The thinner the membrane, the faster the rate. br br Size of the Molecules Small and light molecules diffuse faster than large and heavy br br molecules. d Temperature Increase in temperature increases the energy content in molecules br br causing them to move faster. br br Osmosis br br This is the process where solvent molecules water move from a lowly concentrated solution dilute to a highly concentrated solution across a semi-permeable membrane . br br Diagram fig 4.6 The highly concentrated solution is known as Hypertonic br br Solution . br br The lowly concentrated solution is called Hypotonic solution . Solution of the same concentration are said to be Isotonic . Osmosis is a special type of diffusion because it involves the br br movement of solvent water molecules from their region of high concentration to region of low concentration across a semi permeable membrane. Practical activity 2 Practical activity 3 Osmotic Pressure br br This is the pressure which needs to be applied to a solution to prevent the inward flow of water across a semi permeable membrane. This is the pressure needed to nullify osmosis. br br Osmotic pressure is measured using the osmometer. br br Osmotic Potential br br This is the measure of the pressure a solution would develop to withdraw water molecules from pure water when separated by a semi permeable membrane. Water Relations in Animals br br Cell membrane of the animal cell is semi permeable just like the br br dialysis/visking tubing. br br Cytoplasm contains dissolved sugars and salts in solution form. If an animal cell e.g. a red blood cell is placed in distilled water br br hypotonic solution , water flows in by osmosis. br br The cell would swell up and eventually burst because the cell membrane is weak. The bursting of the red blood cell when placed in hypotonic solution is called Haemolysis . br br If a similar red blood cell is placed in a hypertonic solution, water br br is drawn out of the cell by osmosis. The cell will shrink by a process called Crenation . br br Body fluids surrounding the cells must therefore have same br br concentration as to that which is found inside the cell. br br Diagrams Water Relations in Plants br br When a plant cell is placed in a hypotonic solution it gains water br br by osmosis and distends outwards. br br As the cell gains more water, its vacuole enlarges and exerts an br br outward pressure called turgor pressure. As more water is drawn in, the cell becomes firm and rigid and is said to be turgid . The cell wall in plant cell is rigid and prevents the cell from bursting unlike the case in animal cells. br br The cell wall develops a resistant pressure that pushes towards the inside. This pressure is equal and opposite the turgor pressure and is called wall pressure. br br Diagrams br br When a plant cell is placed in hypertonic solution, water br br molecules move out of the cell into the solution by osmosis. The cell shrinks and becomes flaccid . br br If the cell continues to lose more water, plasma membrane pulls br br away from the cell wall towards the center. The process through which plant cells lose water, shrink and br br become flaccid is called plasmolysis. br br Plasmolysis can be reversed by placing a flaccid cell in distilled br br water and this process is called deplasmolysis. br br Study Question 5 Practical Activity 4 Wilting br br When plants lose water through evaporation and transpiration, cells lose turgidity , shrink and the plant droops . This is called wilting. br br If water supply from the soil is inadequate, plants do not recover br br hence permanent wilting. br br Study Question 6 Role of Osmosis in Organisms br br 1. Absorption of water from the soil br br Root hair cells of plants absorb water from the soil by osmosis. br br 2. Support br br Cells of herbaceous plants, which are less woody, absorb br br water, become turgid hence support. br br 3. Opening and closing of the stomata br br During the day, guard cells synthesize glucose, draw in water, br br become turgid hence open the stomata. br br During the night, they lose turgidity since there is no br br photosynthesis. As a result, they shrink thus closing the stomata. br br 4. Feeding in insectivorous plants br br These plants are able to change their turgor pressure on the leaves which close trapping insects which are digested to provide the plant with nitrogen. Factors Affecting Osmosis br br i. Concentration of Solutions and Concentration Gradient. The br br greater the concentration gradient between two points, the faster the rate of osmosis. br br ii. Optimum Temperature as long as it does not destroy the br br semi-permeability of the membrane. br br Active Transport br br This is the process that moves substances across cell br br membranes against a concentration gradient. br br This process requires energy to move these substances across br br cell membranes and involves carriers. br br Substances such as amino acids, sugar and many ions are taken br br in by living organisms through active transport. br br Role of Active Transport br br i. Re-absorption of sugars and useful substances by the kidney ii. Absorption of some mineral salts by plant roots iii. Absorption of digested food from the alimentary canal into br br the blood stream br br iv. Accumulation of substances in the body to offset osmotic br br imbalance in arid and saline environment br br v. Excretion of waste products from body cells br br Factors Affecting Active Transport. br br i. Oxygen concentration. ii. Change in pH. iii. Glucose concentration. iv. Temperature. v. Enzyme inhibitors. NB/ Any factor affecting energy production affect the rate of active transport. Revision Questions. Cell Specialization, Tissues, Organs and Organ Systems br br 1. Cell specialization This is where cells are modified to perform specific functions. br br Such cells are said to be specialized. Examples include the sperm cell which has tail for swimming and the root hair cell which is extended creating large surface area for water absorption. br br br br 2. Tissues. These are cells of a particular type that are grouped together to br br perform the same function. br br Animal tissues include; br br - Epithelial tissue which is a thin continuous layer of cells for br br lining and protection of internal and external surfaces. br br - Skeletal it is a bundle of elongated cells with fibres that can br br contract. Its contraction and relaxation brings about movement. br br - Blood tissue this is a fluid containing red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets. It transports many substances and protects the body against infections. br br 18 br br - Connective tissue made up of strong fibres that connect br br other tissues and organs holding them together. br br Plant tissues include: br br - Epidermal tissue of a plant this is a single layer of cells br br protecting the inner tissues of the plant. br br - Palisade tissue this is a group of cells rich in chloroplasts containing chlorophyll. They absorb light energy during photosynthesis. br br - Parenchyma tissue it is made thin walled irregularly shaped br br cells. They store water and food. br br - Vascular bundle consists of the xylem and phloem. Xylem conducts water and mineral salts while phloem conducts food substances. br br 19 3. Organs br br Many tissues become specialized and grouped together to br br perform a functional unit called the organ . br br Examples of organs in plants include; roots, leaves, flowers br br and stem. br br In animals they include heart, lungs, kidney, brain, stomach br br and the liver. 4. Organ systems. br br This is made of several organs whose functions are coordinated br br and synchronized to realize an effective action is called an organ system . Examples include; digestive, circulatory, excretory, respiratory, reproductive and nervous system . br br Revision Questions MICROSCOPE Microscope Parts Function Parts of the Microscope br br 1. Eyepiece br br Contains a magnifying lens that focuses the image from the objective into your eye. br br br br 2. Course Adjust br br For focusing under low magnification br br 3. Fine Adjust br br For focusing under high magnification or low br br 4. Low Power Objective For large specimens or overview br br 20 5. High Power Objective For detailed viewing or small specimens br br 6. Specimen on glass slide br br What you want to look at br br 7. Stage br br Supports specimen in correct location to lens br br 8. Condenser Focuses the light on specimen br br 9. Diaphragm iris or disc br br Regulates amount of light and contrast br br 10. Light Source br br Illuminates the specimen for viewing Handling and Care of the Microscope The following rule should be observed: br br 1. Use both hand when carrying the microscope. One hand should br br hold the base and the other holds the limb. br br 2. Never place the microscope too close to the edge of the bench. 3. Do not touch the mirror and the lenses with the fingers. 4. Clean dirty lenses using soft tissue. 5. Clean other parts using a soft cloth. 6. Do not wet any part of the microscope. br br 7. Make sure the low power clicks into position in line with the eye br br piece before and after use. br br 8. Always store the microscope in a safe place free from dust and br br moisture. br br Using the Microscope br br 1. Place microscope on the bench with the stage facing away from br br you. br br 2. Turn the low power objective lens until it clicks into position. 3. Ensure the diaphragm is fully open. 4. Look through the eyepiece with one eye. Adjust the mirror to br br ensure maximum light can pass through. br br 5. Place the slide containing the specimen on the stage and clip it into position. Make sure the slide is at the centre of the field of view. br br 6. Again look through the eyepiece while adjusting the mirror to br br ensure maximum light reach the specimen. br br 7. Use the coarse adjustment knob to bring the low power objective lens to the lowest point. While viewing through the eyepiece, turn the coarse adjustment knob gently until the specimen comes into focus. br br 8. Use the fine adjustment knob to bring the image into sharp focus. 9. Make a drawing of what you see. 10. br br For higher magnification, turn the medium power into position and adjust the focus using the coarse knob. Use the fine adjustment knob for sharper focus. 11. For even large magnifications, turn the high power objective br br lens into position. In this case use only the fine adjustment knob to bring details into sharper focus. br br Magnification Magnification of the object viewed under the microscope is br br calculated by; Magnification Eye Piece Lens Magnification X Objective Lens Magnification. If the eyepiece lens has the magnification of x5 and the low power objective lens has a magnification of x10, the total magnification is 5x10 50. br br Study Question 1 Fill the table below. Eye piece lens maginification X5 X10 X10 br br Objective lens magnification X4 X5 br br Total magnification br br X100 X600 br br X40 X100 X10 Practical Activity 1 Cell Structures as Seen Under the Light Microscope The following cell organelles can be seen under the light br br microscope. - Cell wall. - Cell membrane - Cytoplasm - Nucleus - Vacuole. - Chloroplasts. br br Diagrams- plant and animal cells br br The Electron Microscope. It is more powerful than the light microscope. It can magnify up to 500,000 times and has high resolving power. The high resolving power of the electron microscope enables it to br br separate objects which lie close to one another. br br Electron microscope uses a beam of electrons instead of light to br br illuminate the object. br br Study Question 2 Practical Activity 2 Diagrams Plant and Animal Cells The Cell Organelles br br i Cell membrane Plasma Membrane . It has three layers i.e. one layer of phospho-lipid layer br br sandwiched between two protein layers. br br It is flexible with pores and ahs the following main functions. br br a Encloses all the cell contents. b It allows selective movement of substances into and out of the br br cell since it is semi-permeable. br br Diagram ii Cytoplasm It is s fluid medium in which chemical reactions take place. It has some movement called cytoplasmic streaming. It contains organelles, starch, glycogen, fat droplets and other br br dissolved substances. br br iii Nucleus It has double membrane called the nuclear membrane. The membrane has pores allowing passage of materials into and br br out of the cell. br br Nucleus has a fluid called nucleoplasm in which the nucleolus br br and chromatin are suspended. br br Nucleolus manufactures ribosomes while chromatin contains the br br hereditary material. br br iv Mitochondria Mitochondrion They are sausage shaped and are the respiratory sites . Mitochondrion has two membranes. Inner membrane is greatly folded into cristae to increase the surface area for respiration. Some endoplasmic reticulums have granules called Ribosomes on their surfaces hence referred to as rough endoplasmic reticulum. br br Others do not contain ribosomes hence the name smooth br br endoplasmic reticulum . br br Rough endoplasmic reticulum transport proteins while the br br smooth endoplasmic reticulum transports lipids. br br Diagrams vi Ribosomes They are spherical in shape and form the site for protein br br synthesis . vii Lysosomes They contain lytic enzymes which break down large molecules, br br destroy worn out organelles or even the entire cell. br br viii Golgi Bodies Golgi apparatus Their function is to package and transport glyco-proteins. They are also associated with secretion of synthesized proteins br br and carbohydrates . br br Diagram ix Centrioles They are rod shaped structures that are used in cell division and in br br the formation of cilia and flagella . br br Plant cells lack the Centrioles. x Chloroplasts They are egg shaped and contain two membranes. Chloroplast has chlorophyll which traps light energy to be used during photosynthesis. br br xi Vacuoles This are sacs filled with a fluid called cell sap. Animal cells contain small vacuoles while plant cells have large br br vacuoles. br br Sap vacuoles store sugars and salts. Food vacuole store and digest food while contractile vacuoles br br excrete unwanted materials from the cell. br br xii Cell wall br br 25 It is a rigid outer cover of the plant cells made of cellulose . It gives the plant cell a definite shape while providing br br mechanical support and protection . br br Cell wall also allows water, gases and other materials to pass br br through it. br br Study Question 3 NUTRITION IN PLANTS AND ANIMALS br br Nutrition br br This is the process by which organisms obtain and Assimilate br br nutrients. br br There are two modes of nutrition; Autotrophism and br br Heterotrophism. br br Autotrophism br br This is where living organism manufacture its own complex food substances from simple substances such as carbon iv oxide, water, light or chemical energy. br br Where sunlight is used as a source of energy, the process is br br referred to as photosynthesis . br br Photo means light while synthesis means to make. Some none green plants make their own food using energy obtained from certain chemicals through a process called chemosynthesis. br br Organisms that make their own food are referred to as br br autotrophs . Heterotrophism This is where organisms take in complex food materials such as carbohydrates, proteins and fats obtained from bodies of plants and animals. br br Organisms that feed on already manufactured foods are called br br Heterotrophs . br br Autotrophism External Structure of a Leaf A leaf is a flattened organ which is attached to the stem or a branch of a plant. Diagrams Parts of a leaf Lamina: This is the flat surface. It is green in colour and contain the photosynthetic tissue. Midrib: This is a thick structure running through the middle of the leaf Veins: They arise from the midrib to forming an extensive network of veins. Leaf Apex: This is the tip of the leaf and usually it is pointed. Petiole: It attaches the leaf to the stem or branch. br br In some monocotyledonous plants the leaves are attached to the stem by the leaf sheath. br br Practical Activity 1: To examine the External Features of a Dicotyledonous and Monocotyledonous leaf Study Question 1 Internal Structure of a Leaf br br Internal structure of the leaf is composed of the following parts. i. Cuticle. It is a thin waterproof and transparent layer that coats the upper br br and lower surfaces of the leaf. br br It reduces excess water loss and protects the inner tissue of the br br plant against mechanical injury. br br It also prevents entry of disease causing micro organisms. Since it is transparent, it allows penetration of light for br br It is a one cell thick tissue on both the upper and lower leaf br br surfaces. br br It secretes the cuticle and also protects the inner tissues from br br mechanical damage and prevents entry of pathogens. br br Epidermal cells have no chloroplast except the guard cells . Guard cells are special bean shaped cells. They have chloroplast and are able to carry out photosynthesis hence controlling the opening and closing of the stomata. br br Air moves into and out of the leaf through the stomata. iii. This is layer of cells located beneath the upper epidermis. It is made of cylindrical shaped cells closely packed together. They have numerous chloroplasts containing chlorophyll. br br Palisade layer. br br Their position and arrangement enables them to receive br br maximum light. br br iv. This is below the palisade layer. The cells are irregularly shaped and loosely packed creating large air spaces in between them. The air spaces allow gases to diffuse in between the cells. They contain fewer chloroplasts as compared to the palisade cells. br br Spongy Mesophyll Layer. br br v. Each vein is a vascular bundle consisting of xylem and phloem. Xylem conducts water and mineral salts from the roots to the br br Leaf Veins. br br leaves while the phloem translocates manufactured food from the leaves to the rest of the plant. br br br br 28 Study Question 2 Adaptations of Leaves to Photosynthesis. br br 1. Broad and flat lamina to increase surface area of Carbon IV br br oxide and sunlight absorption. br br 2. Thin transparent cuticle and upper epidermis; to allow easier br br penetration of light to photosynthetic cells; br br 3. Thin; for faster diffusion of gases; 4. Palisade cells placed next to the upper surface; to trap maximum br br light for photosynthesis; br br 5. Palisade cells with numerous chloroplasts; to trap maximum br br amount of light for photosynthesis; br br 6. Large/ intercellular air spaces in the spongy mesophyll layer; for br br storage of Carbon IV oxide for easier gaseous exchange; br br 7. Waxy water proof cuticle; to reduce water loss sand reflect excess br br light; br br 8. Leaf mosaic/ non-overlapping leaves; for maximum exposure to br br light; br br 9. Guard cells, modified cells to open and close stomata; to control amount of water loss from the leaf and allows gaseous exchange; 10. br br Leaves have leaf veins; xylem to conduct water to photosynthetic cells, Phloem to translocate products of photosynthesis to other parts of plant; br br The Chloroplast br br They are disc shaped organelles found in the cytoplasm of plant br br cells. br br Each chloroplast has a double membrane; the inner and outer br br membrane. br br Chloroplasts are made of layers of membranes called lamellae br br contained in a fluid matrix called stroma . br br Several lamellae come together to form the granum grana . Granum contains chlorophyll molecules and other photosynthetic br br pigments . The stroma contains enzymes that speed up the rate of br br photosynthesis. br br br br Practical Activity 2: To Observe Distribution of Stomata Study Question 3. The Process of Photosynthesis br br The raw materials for photosynthesis are; water and carbon IV oxide. The process however requires the presence of sunlight energy and chlorophyll pigment. br br The products of photosynthesis are glucose and oxygen. The br br process can be summarized using an equation as shown below. br br 6H2O 6CO2 ---------- C6H12O6 6O2 Water Carbon IV oxide Glucose Oxygen. The above chemical equation translates as: Six molecules of water plus six molecules of carbon IV Oxide produce one molecule of sugar plus six molecules of oxygen br br The process of photosynthesis is however more complex than br br shown in the above equation and can be divided into two stage; the light and dark stages. br br Light stage Light Dependent Stage - Occurs in the grana containing chlorophyll which traps / absorbs sun light energy . - and oxygen gas. - br br This Energy is used to split water molecules into hydrogen ion br br This process is called photolysis of water and is shown below. br br LIGHT ENERGY br br 2H2O br br 4H 30 br br O2 CHLOROPHYLL Water Hydrogen atom Oxygen br br - Hydrogen atoms produced here enter into the dark stage. - Oxygen gas removed through stomata or is used for respiration within the plant ; - br br Some Light energy is used in Adenosine Triphosphate ATP formation; ATP an energy rich compound. br br - ATP is later used in the dark stage. Dark stage. Light Independent Stage - glucose/simple carbohydrate. - br br Carbon IV oxide combines with hydrogen atoms to form br br This is called Carbon IV Oxide fixation. Carbon IV oxide Carbohydrate CO2 - present or not. - ATP Energy from light stage is used to provide the required energy in this reaction ; - br br Hydrogen Atom Simple br br 4H C6H12O6 br br This stage takes place in the stroma and proceeds whether light is br br Simple sugars formed are used for respiration to provide energy or are converted to storable forms e.g lipids, proteins, starch, cellulose, etc. Study Question 4 Practical Activity 3: To Investigate the Presence of Starch in a br br Leaf. br br Study Question 5 Factors Affecting the Rate of Photosynthesis br br i. Light Intensity. Increase in light intensity increase the rate of photosynthesis up to br br a certain level where it slows down and finally levels off. br br Very bright sunshine may damage the plant tissues due to high br br amount of ultra violet light. br br Light quality or light wavelength also affects the rate of br br photosynthesis. Light intensity br br ii. Increase in Carbon IV oxide concentration increases the rate of photosynthesis linearly up to a certain level after which it slows down and levels off. br br Carbon IV oxide concentration Carbon IV oxide concentration Temperature br br iii. Photosynthesis is an enzyme controlled process, therefore br br increase in temperature increase the rate of photosynthesis up to the optimum temperature. br br Increase in temperature beyond the optimum decreases the rate br br sharply as the enzymes become denatured. br br br br iv. Water Plants need water for photosynthesis. Hydrogen atoms required in the dark stage during Carbon IV oxide fixation are derived from water during photolysis. br br Study Question 6 Practical Activity 4: To Investigate Factors Necessary for Photosynthesis. a Light br br Study Question 7 br br b Carbon IV oxide. br br Study Question 8 c Chlorophyll. Study Question 9 Study Question 10 Practical Activity 5: To Investigate the Gas Produced During Photosynthesis. Study Question 11 br br 33 Chemical Compounds Which Constitute Living Organisms Cells, tissues and organs are made of chemicals which are br br referred to as chemicals of life . br br The study of chemical compounds found in living organisms and br br reactions in which they take part is called Biochemistry . Chemicals of life include carbohydrates, lipids and proteins. a Carbohydrates They are compounds of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen in the ratio br br of 1:2:1 respectively. br br Carbohydrates have a general formula of CH2O n where n represents the number of carbon atoms in a molecule of carbohydrate. br br Carbohydrates are divided into three groups; Monosaccharides, br br Disaccharides and Polysaccharides. br br i Monosaccharides They are the simplest carbohydrates and have a general chemical br br formula of CH2O n where n 6. br br Their chemical formular is therefore C6H12O6 . They include; br br glucose, fructose, galactose etc. br br Properties of Monosaccharides br br i They are soluble in water to form sweet tasting solutions. ii They are crystalissable. iii They have the reducing property where they reduce copper sulphate in Benedicts solution to red copper I oxide. Functions br br i They are oxidized to release energy during respiration. ii When condensed together, they form polysaccharides such as br br starch, cellulose or glycogen. br br ii Disaccharides They are formed by linking two Monosaccharide molecules br br through the process of condensation where a molecule of water is liberated. Monosaccharide Monosaccharide br br Disaccharide Water. C6H12O6 C6H12O6 C6H22O11 br br H2O Examples Glucose Water. Glucose Water Glucose Galactose Lactose br br Water. br br The type of disaccharide formed depends on the monosaccharide br br units that condense together. br br Properties of Disaccharides i Soluble in water to form sweet tasting solutions ii They are non reducing sugars . Some such as the maltose can reduce copper sulphate in Benedicts solution when heated together and are therefore referred to as complex reducing sugars . br br iii They are readily broken into their constituent br br monosaccharide molecules in a process known as Hydrolysis in the presence of water. br br Hydrolysis br br Disaccharide br br Water Monosaccharide Monosaccharide br br C6H22O11 br br H2O C6H12O6 C6H12O6 Water br br Hydrolysis br br Sucrose Hydrolysis br br Glucose Fructose br br Lactose br br Water Glucose Galactose br br Maltose Water br br Glucose Glucose. br br 35 Naturally disaccharides are hydrolyzed by enzymes. In the laboratory, hydrolysis is achieved by boiling them in dilute Hydrochloric acid. br br Functions They are hydrolyzed by enzymes into monosaccharides which br br are then oxidized to produce energy. br br iii Polysaccharides. They are made of many monosaccharide br br molecules hence are long and more complex. br br They have a general formula of C6H10O5 n; where the value of n br br is a very large number . Examples of polysaccharides br br i It is present as stored food in plant tissues e.g. maize, wheat, br br Starch br br potatoes, rice etc. br br ii Cellulose This is the component of the cell wall in plants. Cellulose gives br br the plant cells their definite shape. br br iii Glycogen This is the form in which carbohydrates are stored in animal br br tissues. Excess glucose is converted into glycogen for storage in the liver. br br Properties of Polysaccharides br br i All are insoluble in water. ii Do not have a sweet taste hence are referred to as non-sugars. Study Question 12 Practical Activity 6: To Carry out Food Tests for Carbohydrates Starch i ii Reducing sugars iii Non Reducing Sugars br br b Lipids These are the fats and oils. Fats are found in animals while oils br br are found in plants. br br Oils are liquid while the fats are solid at room temperature. br br They contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen just like the br br carbohydrates. However they contain fewer number of oxygen atoms than in carbohydrates. br br Lipids are made up of three fatty acid molecules and one br br molecule of Glycerol. br br The nature of a lipid formed, depends on the fatty acids it br br contains. Glycerol remains the same in all lipids. br br Diagram br br Complex lipids are formed through condensation of many lipid br br molecules just like in carbohydrates. br br Examples of complex lipids include; phospholipids, waxes, br br steroids and cholesterol. br br Presence of lipids in a food sample is detected using the grease br br spot test or emulsion test . br br Properties of Lipids br br 1. When fats are heated they change into liquid while oils solidify br br under low temperature. br br 2. Both fats and oils are insoluble in water. They however dissolve br br in organic solvents such as alcohol to form emulsions and suspensions. br br 3. Lipids are inert hence can be stored in the tissues of organisms. br br Functions of Lipids br br i They give almost twice as much energy as the Monosaccharides. ii Source of metabolic water When oxidized, lipids release more water than Monosaccharides. br br Source of energy Such water is referred to as metabolic water . br br iii Structural compounds Lipids are constituents of plasma membrane and protoplasm. iv Heat insulation Fats are deposited under the skin of animals forming the adipose br br tissue which acts as a heat insulator. br br Mammals in the temperate regions have thick adipose tissue to br br greatly reduced heat loss. Thick adipose tissue in aquatic animals helps them to be buoyant br br in water. v Protection Fat is deposited around the major organs such as kidney, heart etc br br where they act as shock absorber. br br Wax in plant cuticles reduces excessive water loss. br br Study Question 13 Practical Activity 7: testing for the Presence of Lipids i The Grease Spot ii The Emulsion Test br br c Proteins Like carbohydrates and lipids, proteins are compounds of carbon, br br hydrogen and oxygen. br br In addition they contain nitrogen and sometimes phosphorous br br and sulphur . br br Some proteins such as haemoglobin contain other elements such br br as iron. br br Proteins are made up of small units called amino acids. There are br br about 20 different types of amino acids. br br All amino acids contain the amino group -NH2 which consists br br of hydrogen and nitrogen. br br Two amino acids combine to form a dipeptide molecule through br br the process of condensation. br br The bond between two amino acids is called peptide Bond . Many amino acids join together to form a long protein chain called polypeptide chain . br br The type and sequence of amino acids contained in such a chain br br determine the uniqueness of the protein being formed. br br Properties of Proteins br br i. They dissolve in water to form colloidal suspensions not true br br solutions where particles remain suspended in water. br br They are denatured by temperatures above 40 0C. Heat alters the structure of the protein molecule. Chemicals such as detergents, acids, bases and organic solvents also denature proteins. br br ii. br br 38 iii. br br They are amphoteric whereby they have both acidic and basic properties. This property enables them to combine with non-protein compounds to form conjugated proteins such as mucus, and haemoglobin. In mucus the non protein compound is a carbohydrate while in haemoglobin, iron is a non protein. br br Functions of Proteins br br i. Structural Functions br br Proteins make the framework of living systems e.g. plasma membrane, connective tissues, muscle fibres, hair, nails, hooves, skeletal materials etc. br br ii. Metabolic Regulators br br These are divided into two a Enzymes Enzymes are organic catalysts which speed up the rate of metabolic reactions such as respiration, photosynthesis, digestion etc. b Hormones They are chemical messengers which regulate many body br br processes such as growth, reproduction, amount of sugars, salts and water in the blood etc. br br iii. Source of Energy br br Under extreme starvation, proteins are broken down to release br br energy. br br Study question 14 Practical Activity 8 To Test for Proteins Enzymes They are organic catalysts which are protein in nature. They speed up or slow down the rate of chemical reactions in the body without themselves being used up. br br They are divided into two; a Extracellular Enzymes Extracellular enzymes are produced within the cells but are used outside the cells which produce them e.g. the digestive enzymes. br br 39 Naming of the Enzyme br br There are two methods on naming enzymes; br br i Trivial Naming br br Enzymes are given names of persons who discovered them. The names end in -in such as pepsin, trypsin ptyalin etc. br br ii Use of suffix ase br br This is the modern method of naming. The suffix ase is added br br to the substrate type of food or the reaction the enzyme catalyzes. Example 1 Substrate Carbohydrate Starch e.g. amylose Amyl ase Sucr ase Sucrose Malt ase Maltose Prote ase Protein Lipid Lip ase Example 2 Reaction Enzyme Hydrolysis Hydrolase Oxidation Oxidase Reduction Reductase br br Enzyme Carbohydr ase br br Properties of Enzymes br br 1. They are protein in nature hence are affected by changes in br br temperature and pH. br br 2. They are substrate specific. 3. They are efficient in small amounts as they are not affected by the br br reactions they catalyze. They can be used again and again. Factors Affecting the Rate of Enzyme Controlled Reactions br br i. Temperature br br Enzymes are sensitive to changes in temperature and pH since br br they are protein in nature. br br Enzymes work best within a narrow range of temperature br br called the optimum temperature. br br Above the optimum temperature, reaction decreases sharply as br br the enzymes are denatured. br br Most enzymes have optimum temperature between 35-40oC. Very low temperature inactivates the enzymes hence decrease br br rate of reaction. br br Diagrams br br ii. pH br br Most enzymes have a pH of close to 7. Some however work best in acidic pH e.g. pepsin while others br br work best in alkaline conditions. br br As pH changes from the optimum, enzyme activity decreases. Extreme acidity or alkalinity denatures most enzymes. br br Diagrams iii. Specificity br br Enzymes are specific in nature where a particular enzyme acts br br on a particular specific substrate. br br For example, sucrose works on sucrose and not any other br br substrate. br br iv. br br Substrate Concentration and Enzyme Concentration. When substrate concentration increases, the rate of enzyme reaction also increases upto a certain level. br br Further increase does not increase the rate of reaction as all the br br active sites of an enzyme are occupied. br br When enzyme molecules are increased, the rate of reaction br br increases proportionally. br br Diagrams br br v. Enzyme Co-factors and Co-enzymes Co-factors are non protein substances which activates enzymes. They are required in small quantities and they include metallic ions such as those of iron, magnesium, zinc, copper etc. Some are vitamins. br br Co-enzymes are non protein molecules that work in association with particular enzymes. Most co-enzymes are derived from vitamins. br br vi. Enzyme Inhibitors br br Inhibitors compete with the normal substrate for the active sites and they take up the active site of the enzyme permanently. br br There are two types of inhibitors; a Competitive Inhibitors br br These are chemicals closely related to normal substrate and they compete for active sites with the normal substrate. They slow down the rate of reaction. b Non Competitive Inhibitors br br They do not compete with the substrate. They combine br br permanently with enzyme molecules thus blocking the active sites. They include poisons such as cyanides, mercury and silver- arsenic compounds. Importance of Enzymes Enzymes speed up the rate of cellular reactions and also control them. This way, they help prevent violent reactions in the cells. br br Study Question 15 Practical Activity 9 Study Question 16 Study Question 17 Practical Activity 10 FORM TWO BIOLOGY NOTES br br EXCRETION AND HOMEOSTASIS Excretion -Process by which living organisms separate and eliminate waste products formed during metabolic processes from the body. They include; carbon IV oxide, excess water and mineral salts, nitrogenous wastes etc. accumulation of these substances may become toxic to cells. br br Homeostasis -This is the maintenance of internal environment of cells under constant conditions E.g. temperature, osmotic pressure, blood sugar and chemical constituents. br br Egestion . - This is the removal of undigested and indigestible br br materials from the alimentary Canal of animals. br br Secretion . - This is the release of certain useful substances br br produced by cells e.g. hormones, Enzymes, sebum, saliva and mucus. Excretion in Plants br br Plants do not have complex organs for excretion because; br br i. There is very little accumulation of toxic wastes such as br br nitrogenous wastes. br br ii. Some waste products are re-used in the same plant such as Co2, br br oxygen and water. br br iii. Some of these gases are removed by simple diffusion through the br br stomata and lenticels. br br iv. Some plants store wastes in their tissues in non-toxic forms such as nicotine, caffeine, tannins, resins, quinine, morphine etc. br br Economic Importance of Plant Excretory Products br br i. Tannins They are deposited in dead tissues of wood and br br barks of trees e.g. in acacia and wattle tree. Tannin is used to treat leather. br br ii. Caffeine it is stored in coffee berries and tea leaves. It is used br br as a stimulant. br br iii. Quinine it is stored in the leaves of aloe and bark of cinchona br br tree. It is used in the treatment of malaria. br br 43 iv. Cocaine it is obtained from the leaves of coca plant and is br br used as an anesthetic. br br v. Cannabis found in the leaves and flowers of Cannabis sativa br br bhang . It is used to manufacture some drugs. br br vi. Nicotine found in leaves of tobacco plant and is used in the manufacture of insecticides and narcotic drugs. It also manufactures cigarettes. br br vii. Rubber it is made from latex of rubber plant. It is used in br br shoe industry and manufacture of chewing gum. br br viii. Colchicines it is used in plant breeding and treating of cancer. ix. Pappain - it is obtained from raw paw paw and it is used as a br br meat tenderizer. br br x. Khat/miraa its chewed and acts as a mild stimulant. br br Excretion and Homeostasis in Unicellular Organisms br br Most simple organisms such as the protozoa amoeba and br br paramecium live in aquatic environment. br br They depend mainly on diffusion as the means of excretion. Their bodies have a large surface area to volume ratio providing a large surface area for gaseous exchange and excretion to take place by simple diffusion. br br Waste products diffuse from the cytoplasm where they are highly concentrated across the cell membrane into the surrounding water where their concentration is low. br br The organisms also use the contractile vacuole to achieve br br excretion. br br Amoeba and paramecium live in an aquatic environment that is br br hypotonic to their body fluids. Water therefore tends to move into their cytoplasm by osmosis. br br The excess water and dissolved chemicals accumulate in the br br contractile vacuole which releases them to the surrounding water. br br Diagram Excretion in Mammals br br Mammals have an elaborate excretory system since their bodies br br are complex. The main excretory organs in mammals include; lungs, skin, br br kidneys and the liver. br br A Structure and Function of the Mammalian Skin br br Skin is the largest body organ covering the whole body surface. It has the following functions. i. Protection of the underlying tissues from entry of micro- br br organisms, physical damage and ultra violet rays from the sun. br br ii. Regulation of body temperature. iii. Excretion of salts, excess water and traces of urea. iv. Reception of stimuli such as heat, cold, pain, touch and br br pressure. br br v. Synthesis of vitamin D. vi. Storage of fats. br br Diagram br br The skin is made up of two layers; a Epidermis upper and outer layer b The dermis inner layer a Epidermis upper and outer layer It is made up of three other layers; br br i. Cornfield layer. ii. Granular layer. iii. Malphigian layer. i. Cornifield layer br br The Cornifield layer of the epidermis consist of dead cells which form a tough outer coat; that protects the skin against mechanical damage, bacterial infection and water loss; ii. Granular layer br br Its the middle layer of the epidermis and is made up of living br br cells that give rise to the Cornifield layer. br br iii. Malphigian layer br br Malphigian layer consists of actively dividing cells that contain br br fine granules of melanin; that prevents the skin against ultraviolet light rays from the sun; melanin gives the skin its colour. br br b The Dermis inner layer It is thicker than the epidermis and consists of the following br br structures; br br 1 Sebaceous glands produce an oily secretion sebum which give br br hair its water repelling property; that keeps the epidermis supple and prevents it from dying Sebum also prevents bacterial attack due to its antiseptic property; br br 2 Has blood vessels; that dilate and contract; br br In hot conditions, they dilate; increasing blood flow near the skin surface enhancing blood flow near the skin surface; minimizing heat loss; Blood vessels supply nutrients and oxygen to skin tissues and also remove waste products and carbon IV oxide. br br 3 Has Hair follicle ;hairs stand during cold weather thus trapping a layer of air which prevents heat loss; In hot weather they lie close to the skin surface; to enhance heat loss to the atmosphere. 4 Have many sensory neurons which detects environmental br br changes; increasing sensitivity of the skins. br br 5 Has subcutaneous layer ; contains fat which acts as a heat- br br insulating layer and a fuel storage. br br 6 Lymphatic vessels ; they drain excess tissue fluid. 7 Sweat glands ; are involved in temperature regulation through loss of excess heat by the evaporating water. Sweat also excretes excess water, mineral salts, urea and lactic acid. B The Lungs br br They are involved with the removal of carbon VI oxide which is br br released by cells during their metabolism. br br Carbon IV oxide would be toxic if it was left to accumulate in the br br tissues. br br C Structure and Function of the Kidney Diagram fig. 4.3; generalized urinary system of a mammal page 88 KLB br br Mammals have a pair of kidneys which are bean shaped and dark br br red in colour. br br 46 The kidneys are surrounded by a layer of fat which cushions them br br against mechanical injury. br br Above each kidney are the adrenal glands which secrete br br hormones. br br Renal artery supplies blood to the kidneys and the renal vein br br removes the blood. br br Ureter transports urine from the kidney to the bladder which br br temporarily stores the urine. br br The mammalian kidney has three distinct regions; cortex, medulla br br and pelvis. br br Diagram fig. 4.4 a and 4.4 b page 89 KLB Cortex br br It is the outermost region and is dark red in colour. br br Medulla br br It is red in colour and extends to form conical structures called br br pyramids. br br Pyramids open up into the pelvis. br br Pelvis br br Its white in colour and narrows down to form the Ureter. The human kidney contains urinary tubules called the nephrons. br br Nephron br br It is the basic functional unit of the kidney. Each nephron is made br br up two main parts; Renal tubule Glomerulus. br br Diagram fig. 4.6. The structure of the kidney nephron X br br br br B br br A br br D C C br br The renal tubule has 5 main parts. br br 1. Bowmans capsule 2. Proximal convoluted tubule 3. Loop of Henle 4. Distal convoluted tubule 5. Collecting tubule 1. Bowmans capsule br br It is a thin walled and cup shaped structure which contains the br br glomeruli. br br Glomerulus is a fine network of blood capillaries enclosed by br br the Bowmans capsule. br br It is made the afferent and efferent arterioles. Blood entering the kidney via the renal artery is rich in br br nitrogenous wastes such as urea. br br Also it has dissolved food substances, plasma proteins, mineral br br ions, hormones and oxygen. br br Afferent arteriole entering the Glomerulus is wider than the br br efferent arteriole leaving it. br br This creates extremely high pressure in the Glomerulus br br coupled with the fact that renal artery branches directly from the aorta where blood is at high pressure. br br Diagram: structure of the nephron 48 Due to the high pressure in the glomeruli, the liquid part of the br br blood and dissolved substances of low molecular sizes including urea, glucose, salts and amino acids are forced out of the Glomerulus into the cavity of the Bowmans capsule. The large sized molecules in the plasma such as proteins and br br blood cells are not filtered out. br br This is because the capillary walls of the Glomerulus and bow br br mans capsule have very small pores. br br This process is known as ultra-filtration and the filtrate formed br br is called glomerular filtrate. br br The filtrate then enters the proximal convoluted tubule. br br Diagram of ultra-filtration at the Glomerulus br br 2. Proximal convoluted tubule br br As the filtrate flows along the renal tubules, most of the filtered br br substances in the glomerular filtrate useful to the body are selectively reabsorbed back into the blood. br br The following substances are actively reabsorbed using energy in the proximal convoluted tubule; All glucose, Amino acids and Mineral salts. br br The proximal convoluted tubule is adapted in the following ways for efficient re-absorption of these substances. br br i Presence of mitochondria in the cells lining to provide with br br energy required br br ii Cells of the tubule have micro-cilli infoldings which br br increase surface area for re-absorption. br br iii Tubule is long and coiled to increase the surface area. iv Coiling of the tubule reduces the speed of flow of filtrate br br giving more time for efficient re-absorption. br br v Tubule is well supplied with blood capillaries. br br 3. Loop of Henle br br This is where particularly sodium chloride is actively br br reabsorbed into the blood. br br Loop of Henle has counter current flow between the flow of br br filtrate and the flow of blood i.e. the filtrate and blood flow in opposite directions. br br 49 The hormone Aldosterone secreted by the adrenal glands br br regulate the absorption of sodium salts. br br Low content of sodium salts in the blood stimulates adrenal br br glands to secret more Aldosterone hormone and therefore more salts are reabsorbed from the filtrate. br br 4. Distal convoluted tubule br br When the filtrate reaches here, some water is reabsorbed into br br the blood by osmosis. br br This is made possible by the following; br br - Active intake of sodium salt into the blood at the loop of br br Henle increases the osmotic potential of the blood. br br - The antidiuretic hormone ADH secreted by the pituitary gland. ADH increases the permeability of the tubule and blood capillaries to water br br When there is excess water in the body there is less production of ADH and less water is reabsorbed hence production of large amounts of dilute urine. br br If the body has lost a lot of water such as through sweating, this raises the osmotic pressure of blood. Pituitary gland releases more ADH which increases permeability of the kidney tubules to water. More water is reabsorbed hence production of little but concentrated urine. br br The distal convoluted tubule has large surface area, it is has a wall that is one cell thick and is surrounded by may blood capillaries. 5. Collecting tubule br br The filtrate in the collecting tubule becomes the urine and br br moves to the collecting duct. br br Urine flows into the pelvis via the pyramids and is finally br br emptied into the urinary bladder through the ureter. About 1-2 litres of urine are formed in a day. br br About 250ml of urine in the urinary bladder initiates the urge br br to urinate. The sphincter muscles relax and urine pass. br br Urine Composition br br Substance br br 50 Composition. 95 2 0.03 0.1 1.4 0.04 0 0 Water Urea Uric acid Creatine Salts Ammonia Proteins Glucose The quantity and concentration of the urine in animals is affected br br by i Physiological adaptations. ii Habitat of an organism e.g. terrestrial, desert or aquatic. iii Structural adaptations of the animals e.g. a desert rat has long kidney tubules to increase water reabsorption. br br Study Questions. . Comparison Between Aquatic and Desert Animals Desert Animals. Fresh Water Animals i Have many glomeruli to Few glomeruli to reduce ultrafiltration. increase ultrafiltration. ii Short loop oh Henle to reduce Long kidney tubules to increase water reabsorption. Produce small quantity of concentrated urine. br br water reabsorption. iii Produce large quantity of br br dilute urine. Comparison of Composition of urine with that of Glomerular Filtrate and Blood Plasma. br br Substance Composition of; br br Plasma Glomerular urine br br Filtrate. 0.03 0.005 0.001 0.1 Urea Uric acid Ammonia Glucose 0.03 0.005 0.001 0.1 2.0 0.03 0.004 0 br br 51 Amino acids 0.05 Mineral salts 0.70 8.00 Blood proteins.Functions of the kidney include:i Excretion. ii Osmoregulation. iii iv Ionic balance. Regulation of PH br br Kidney Diseases br br i Nephritis This is the inflammation of the glomerulus of the kidney. It is caused by bacteria or infections such as small pox and measles. Symptoms Headaches and vomiting Treatment Use of antibiotics ii Use of just adequate amounts of salts and proteins in diets br br Fever Passing coloured urine Presence of proteins in urine br br Kidney stones br br Causes Lack of vitamins such as vitamin A and inadequate intake of br br water br br Chemical salts in urine that crystallize to form hard stones. Symptoms br br Increased frequency in passing out urine Pain and soreness in the upper backside Difficulty in passing out urine Fever br br Control Treatment br br Seeking medical assistance br br Taking a balanced diet with adequate amount of water and br br vitamins br br Dialysis or artificial washing out of the wastes Use of laser beam to disintegrate the stones Kidney transplant br br iii Kidney failure br br This is the failure of the kidney to perform as a result of a br br drop in blood pressure due to heart failure, haemorrhage or shock. br br If failure is due to other causes, the condition can be br br corrected by; - Kidney dialysis - Kidney transplant iv Albiminuria Proteins in Urine . This is also called Proteinuria Capillaries of the glomerulus lose their ability to be selective and start allowing blood proteins to pass through into the kidney tubules. These proteins are released in urine. br br D The Liver and its Structure br br This is the second largest excretory organ after the skin. It receives blood from two blood vessels; the hepatic portal vein from the alimentary canal and hepatic artery from the aorta . br br br br Homeostatic Functions of the Liver br br 53 Regulation of blood sugar level Excess glucose is converted to glycogen ;and stored in the liver br br under the influence of the hormone insulin secreted by the pancreas. Another hormone called glucagon; stimulates the conversion of glycogen to glucose; when there is shortage of glucose in the body; Glucagon is also secreted by the pancreas br br 1. Deamination br br The liver breaks down excess amino acids; The amino group is br br removed as ammonia which is toxic; br br Ammonia is changed into urea which is less toxic in the br br ornithine cycle . br br Ornithine Cycle br br 2NH3 CO2 H20 Ammonia Water Toxic br br CO NH2 2 Enzyme arginase br br Carbon iv Urea br br Oxide less toxic The remaining carbon skeleton oxidized to carbon IV oxide br br and water; this process leads to release of energy. The carbon skeleton may be converted to glucose to be used during respiration; 2. Detoxification br br Toxic substances are made harmless in the liver e.g. Ammonia from the process of deamination is converted in the br br liver into urea; which is less toxic. br br Bacterial toxins are converted to less toxic substances by liver br br cells; br br Hydrogen peroxide produced by respiring cells is broken down br br into water and oxygen which are harmless by the enzyme catalase found in the liver. br br Enzyme br br Catalase Hydrogen Peroxide Water br br Oxygen br br 54 H2O2 br br 3. Regulation of plasma proteins br br The liver produces most of the proteins found in blood; br br fibrinogen and prothrombin which play a role in blood clotting. Albumin and globulins are also produced by the liver. Globulins act as antibodies;. Albumin contributes to the maintenance of osmotic pressure in the body; Non essential amino acids are synthesized by the liver; br br 4. Storage of vitamins A, B,D,E and K and mineral salts br br The liver store vitamins A, B, D, E and K. Iron released from the breakdownof erythrocytes is stored in the liver cells; in the form of a compound called ferritin. The liver therefore is a good source of these vitamins and iron; br br 5. Heat production Thermoregulation br br The various metabolic activities of the liver lead to release of heat energy; This energy is distributed by the blood to other parts of the body hence contributing to maintenance of constant body temperature; br br 6. Inactivation of hormones and drugs br br After performing their functions, hormones and drugs are br br chemically modified to inactive compounds; The by-products are eliminated through the kidneys and faeces and via bile; 7. Storage of blood br br The large size and high capacity for contraction and expansion of its veins enables the liver to hold a large volume of blood; It therefore regulates the volume of blood in the general circulation depending on the bodys requirements ; br br 8. Regulation of cholesterol and fat metabolism br br When carbohydrates are in short supply in the body, fats in br br different parts of the body are mobilized and taken to the liver; The fats are oxidized to carbon IV oxide and water with the production of energy or modified and sent to tissues for oxidation; br br 9. Manufacture of red blood cells in foetus. br br Liver Diseases and Disorders br br 55 1. Liver Cirrhosis br br This is the hardening of the liver tissues due to death of br br liver cells. br br This is caused by ingestion of toxic chemicals such as br br alcohol. br br Bacteria, viruses and parasites such as liver flukes can br br also cause the disease. br br Control br br Avoid excess alcohol. Avoid fatty diets. Low salt intake br br 2. Hepatitis br br This is a viral disease causing inflammation of the liver. It is transmitted through contaminated food, milk and br br water. br br There are two types of hepatitis; Hepatitis A and B . br br 3. Jaundice br br This is characterized by the yellowing of the skin due to br br the failure of the liver to excrete bile. br br Homeostasis br br This is the maintenance of internal environment of cells under constant Conditions E.g. temperature, osmotic pressure, blood sugar and chemical constituents. br br Principles of Homeostasis br br Various body systems such as circulatory, excretory, br br endocrine hormonal and nervous work in a coordinated way to bring about homeostasis. br br These systems work on a feedback mechanisms. There are two types of feedback mechanisms . br br a Negative Feedback Mechanism br br When a factor in the body such as temperature or blood sugar br br level falls below normal or rises above the normal, it is detected and corrected via the negative feedback mechanism. br br Such an action is through: br br 56 Temperature Osmoregulation water and salt balance Ionic content regulation Blood sugar regulation br br a Temperature Regulation. Thermoregulation Hypothalamus of the brain is the thermoregulatory center. It also br br controls other homeostatic processes such as Osmoregulation, and blood sugar level. Skin and Thermoregulation The skin is adapted in the following ways to effect thermoregulation; br br 1. It has Hair shaft; br br Connected to erector pili muscles ; In low Temperature Erector pili muscle contract raising hair br br shaft erect ; br br Hair traps air which insulates the body/poor conductor of heat.; In high temperature, the Erector pili muscle relax and extends ; Hair shaft lies on the skin ; Little or no air is trapped ; Skin loses heat through convection /conduction /radiation ; br br 1. Blood vessels br br In High temperature they vasodilate ; More blood flows near skin surface ; Heat is lost through conduction /convection/ radiation ; In Low temperature they Vasoconstrict ; Little blood flows near the skin ; Less heat or ho heat lost through conduction/convection/ radiation ; br br Diagrams 3 Sweat gland br br In High temperature , Sweating occurs and evaporates and br br Carries latent heat of vaporization; cooling the body ; br br 4 Has subcutaneous layer ; contains fat which acts as a heat- br br insulating layer. Organisms in cold areas have thick subcutaneous layer for heat insulation. br br 58 Homoiotherms and Poikilotherms Homoiotherms Endotherms br br They are the animals whose body temperature is maintained at a constant body temperature despite the wide fluctuations in the temperature of the external environment e.g. birds and mammals. br br Poikilotherms Ectotherms br br These are organisms with variable body temperature according to the temperature of the local atmosphere e.g. in organisms such as reptiles, amphibians, insects, and fish. br br Methods of Regulating Body Temperature in Animals . br br i Metabolic activities of the Body, such as shivering to raise br br body temperature. Insulatory mechanisms such as dilation or constriction of blood vessels, hair movement etc. br br ii br br iii Behavioral activities such as clustering together, burrowing, br br basking, hibernation, aestivation, putting on warm clothes etc. br br iv Presence of adaptive features such as hair/fur, subcutaneous br br tissue etc. br br Hibernation is where animals go into deep sleep for long period of time due to cold. Aestivation is where animals go into deep sleep due to dry and harsh conditions. Differences Between Homoiotherms and Poikilotherms. br br Poikilotherms i They are sluggish under Homoiotherms i They remain active even br br cold conditions. br br under cold conditions. ii Only the small animals hibernate because they have large surface area to volume ratio hence lose a lot of heat. iii They do not aestivate because they can maintain constant body br br ii They hibernate to avoid death by freezing under very cold conditions. br br iii They aestivate under very hot conditions. br br 59 iv They are easy prey to predators due to their hibernation and aestivation. v Require less food v Require more food br br because they get heat from the environment to warm their bodies. br br because they use it to generate heat for maintaining the temperature constant. br br b Osmoregulation Water and Salt Balance . br br The osmotic pressure of the body fluids must be kept at a br br constant so as to have a favourable environment for the normal functioning of cells. This is determined by the relative amounts of water and solutes salts in the body fluids. br br If the osmotic pressure of these fluids falls below that of the br br cells, the cells take in water by osmosis, swell and may burst. If the osmotic pressure of thee fluids was higher than that of br br the cells, the cells would lose water and shrink. br br The hypothalamus and the Pituitary gland are involved in br br Osmoregulation in the following ways; br br i When the osmotic pressure of the blood rises due to br br dehydration, the hypothalamus is stimulated and sends an impulse to the pituitary gland which secretes the Antidiuretic Hormone ADH or Vasopressin into the blood. ADH increases permeability of the kidney tubules to water. More water is reabsorbed, osmotic pressure of the blood falls hence production of little but concentrated urine. ii When osmotic pressure of the blood falls due to excess water in the body there is less production of ADH and less water is reabsorbed hence production of large amounts of dilute urine. br br Diabetes Insipidus br br This is a condition whereby large quantities of dilute urine are produced when the pituitary gland fails to produce ADH or produces it in inadequate amounts. This condition is also known as Diuresis. br br c Regulation of Ionic Content br br Important ions must be regulated within narrow ranges for br br efficient functioning of the cells. br br Ions are involved in processes such as respiration, protein br br synthesis, muscle contraction etc. br br The level of sodium ions is regulated by a hormone called br br Aldosterone produced by the adrenal glands. br br When the level of sodium ions is low in the blood, more Aldosterone is released which stimulates reabsorption of sodium ions into the blood. br br If sodium ions concentration in the blood rises above the br br optimum level, adrenal glands produce less Aldosterone into the blood and less amounts of sodium ions are reabsorbed. br br d Regulation of Blood Sugar Level . br br All sugars such as galactose, lactose and fructose are converted br br to glucose. br br Glucose is broken down to release energy and excess is br br converted into glycogen and stored in the liver or converted into fats as stored as adipose tissue. br br Some glucose flows in general circulation of blood and is br br maintained within a narrow range of 90-100mg per 100cm3 of blood. The pancreas produces two hormones Insulin and Glucagon br br that are responsible for blood sugar regulation. br br When there is excess sugar in the blood, insulin is produced br br and regulates the blood sugar level by the following; br br i Converts excess glucose into glycogen for storage. ii iii Converts glucose into fats. iv Increases breakdown of glucose to release energy. br br Inhibits conversion of glycogen to glucose. br br When the level of the blood sugar falls, glucagon is secreted br br and corrects the situation by the following; br br i Increases the breakdown of glycogen into glucose. br br 61 ii iii Inhibits the conversion of glucose into energy. NB/. The hormone adrenaline produced by the adrenal glands also has homeostatic effect on glucose. It is released during emergencies to avail glucose for fight or flight. Diabetes Mellitus Sugar Disease br br Increases the conversion of fats and proteins into glucose. br br This is due to a deficiency in insulin secretion from the br br pancreas. br br This leads to very high levels of sugar in the blood that cannot br br be utilised by cells hence eliminated by kidney in urine. br br Symptoms br br Presence of glucose in urine Loss of body weight due to breakdown of fats and proteins Chronic starvation Thirst sensation. br br Control br br Insulin injection into the blood stream Avoid foods rich in sugars. Avoid excessive intake of alcohol. br br Question br br Explain why insulin is not administered orally through the br br mouth Corrective mechanism, the liver; i br br Converts excess glucose into glycogen for storage. Inhibits conversion of glycogen to glucose. Converts glucose into fats. Increases breakdown of glucose to release energy. ii iii iv br br Fall br br Normal glucose level 90mg/100ml blood Rise br br Corrective mechanism, the liver; i br br Increases the breakdown of glycogen into glucose. Increases the conversion of fats and proteins into glucose. Inhibits the conversion of glucose into energy. br br ii br br iii Revision questions Gaseous Exchange br br This is the process by which respiratory gases oxygen and carbon IV oxide are passed across the respiratory surface. br br Gases are exchanged depending on their concentration gradient. In simple organisms such as amoeba, diffusion is enough to bring br br about gaseous exchange. br br CO2 diffuses out into the surrounding water while oxygen br br diffuses from the water across the plasma membrane into the amoeba. Importance of Gaseous Exchange br br 1. Promote oxygen intake for respiration. 2. Facilitate carbon IV oxide removal from the body as a metabolic br br waste product. br br Gaseous Exchange in Plants br br During the day, green plants take in carbon IV for photosynthesis. Oxygen is given out as a byproduct of photosynthesis and is br br released into the atmosphere. br br Examples of respiratory Surfaces in Plants br br Stomata in leaves Roots e.g. pneumatophores Lenticels in woody stems br br Structure and Function of the Stomata br br They are tiny openings on the leaf surfaces. They are made up of br br two guard cells. br br Guard cells are the only epidermal cells containing chloroplasts. br br They regulate the opening and closing of the stomata. br br Adaptations of Guard Cells br br i They are bean shaped/sausage shaped. ii Contain chloroplast hence can photosynthesize. iii Inner walls are thicker while outer wall is thin to facilitate br br the opening and closing of stomata. br br Diagram Mechanism of Opening and Closing of Stomata br br There are three theories that try to explain how the stomata open and close. br br i Photosynthetic theory ii Starch Sugar inter-conversion Theory. effect of changes in br br pH of guard cells br br iii i Photosynthetic theory br br Potassium Ion Theory. br br During the day, guard cells photosynthesize forming glucose. This glucose increases the osmotic pressure in the guard cells. Guard cells draw in water from the neighbouring epidermal cells br br and become turgid. br br 64 The stoma opens. During the night, there is no photosynthesis due to absence of br br light. br br Glucose is converted into starch lowering the osmotic pressure in br br the guard cells. br br Guard cells lose water and become flaccid closing the stomata. br br ii Starch Sugar inter-conversion Theory. effect of changes br br in pH of guard cells br br This is under the influence of pH in the guard cells. During the day CO2 is used up during photosynthesis raising the br br pH in the guard cells. br br In this high pH, enzymes convert more starch into glucose. Osmotic pressure of the guard cells increases and water enters into them, making them turgid hence opening the stomata. During the night, there is no photosynthesis. The level of CO2 br br increases lowering the pH. br br Enzymes become inactivated and starch is not converted into br br glucose. br br Osmotic pressure of guard cells falls making them to lose water br br by osmosis. br br Guard cells become flaccid and stoma closes. Mechanism of Gaseous Exchange in Plants Oxygen diffuses from the atmosphere where it is more concentrated into the plant. br br CO2 diffuses out as a metabolic waste product along a br br concentration gradient into the atmosphere. a Gaseous Exchange through the Stomata Stomata are modified in number of ways depending on the habitat br br of the plant. br br Xerophytes: These are plants adapted to life in dry areas. br br They have less number of stomata that are small in size. Stomata may be sunken, hairy and in some they open during the br br night and close during the day. br br Hydrophytes: These are the aquatic plants water Plants br br 65 They have many stomata that are large in size and mainly found br br on the upper leaf surface. br br Hydrophytes have the aerenchyma tissue with large air spaces to br br store air for gaseous exchange. br br Diagrams Mesophytes : They are plants growing in areas with adequate amounts of water. br br They have a fairly large number of stomata found on both leaf br br surfaces. br br b Gaseous Exchange through the Lenticels They are openings found on woody stems and they are made of br br loosely packed cells. br br They allow gaseous exchange between the inside of the plant and br br the outside by diffusion. br br Actual gaseous exchange occurs on some moist cells under the br br lenticels. br br Diagram c Gaseous Exchange through the Roots Plants like the mangroves growing in muddy salty waters have br br specialized aerial breathing roots called pneumatophores. br br Pneumatophores rise above the salty water to facilitate gaseous br br exchange. 1. Cell Membrane. Water 2. Gill Filaments Water 3. Tracheoles Air 4. Alveoli/Lungs Air br br 5. Skin br br Water Air Air 6. Buccal Cavity The respiratory surface is the basic unit of any breathing system br br upon which actual gaseous exchange occurs by diffusion. Respiratory surfaces have the following main characteristics. i Must have a large surface area. ii Must be moist to allow gases to diffuse in solution form. iii Have a dense network of blood capillaries for efficient br br gaseous exchange. br br iv Have a thin membrane to reduce the diffusion distance . br br Gaseous Exchange in Insects Insects have their gaseous exchange system made of many air tubes forming the tracheal system. br br Tracheal system is made up of spiracles and Tracheoles. Spiracles are external openings found on both sides of the br br abdomen and thorax. br br Spiracles have valves to control their opening and closing. They also have hairs to prevent excessive water loss from the body tissue. br br Spiracles open into tubes called trachea. Trachea is reinforced br br with spiral bands of chitin to keep them open. br br Trachea subdivides into finer air tubes called Tracheoles. br br Tracheoles are in direct contact with body tissues and organs and they supply individual cells with oxygen. Diagram Mechanism of Gaseous Exchange in the Tracheal System of an Insect br br Air is drawn into and out of the tracheal system by muscular br br movement of the abdominal wall. br br When spiracle valves are open, air is drawn into the tracheal br br system. The valves close and air is forced along the system by muscle movement. br br Oxygen diffuses into the tissue fluid and into the cells. CO2 diffuses out of the cells and into the tissue fluid then into the br br tracheal system. Gaseous Exchange in Fish The breathing system of the fish consists of the following; br br o Mouth buccal cavity. o Gills. o Opercular cavity. o Operculum. br br Gills are made of a long curved bone called the gill bar. Gill filaments arise from one side of the gill bar. They are many and suspend freely in water providing a large surface area for gaseous exchange. br br Gill rakers arise from the other side of the gill bar. They are teeth like and they prevent solids present in water from damaging the delicate gill filaments. br br Blood vessels enter the gill bar and branch into the gill filaments br br as blood capillaries. br br Operculum is found on either side of the body near the head and br br it also protects the delicate gills. br br Diagram Floor of the mouth cavity is lowered increasing the volume of the br br mouth cavity but lowering the pressure. br br Water flows into the mouth cavity and the operculum closes. Operculum on either side bulge outwards without opening. This br br increases volume in the gill cavity but the pressure drops. br br Water containing dissolved oxygen flows from the mouth cavity br br to the gill chamber over the gills. br br The mouth closes and the floor of the mouth cavity is raised. The remaining water in the mouth is forced to flow towards the br br gill chamber. br br Oxygen diffuses from the water into the blood through the thin walls of the gill filaments. It combines with haemoglobin for transportation to all body parts. br br CO2 diffuses from the blood into the flowing water. To ensure maximum gaseous exchange, the water flowing over the gills and the blood in the gills flows in opposite directions. This is called counter current flow system and it ensures that at all the points, concentration of oxygen is always higher in the water than in the blood. br br Diagram If the water and blood were flowing in the same direction, br br gaseous exchange will not be that effective. br br Where the oxygen is 50 in water, there is no concentration gradient because blood also has 50 oxygen concentration. br br Diagram Mechanism of Gaseous Exchange in Amphibians br br Amphibians live on both land and water and therefore exhibit the br br following methods of gaseous exchange. br br 1. Gaseous exchange through the lining of the buccal cavity 2. Gaseous exchange through the lungs 3. Gaseous exchange through the skin a Gaseous exchange through the mouth buccal cavity br br Air is taken in or expelled from the mouth cavity by raising and br br lowering of the floor mouth. br br Lining of the mouth cavity is moist to dissolves oxygen. There is a rich supply of blood capillaries under the lining of the mouth cavity. Oxygen diffuses into the blood and is carried by haemoglobin to all parts of the body. br br Carbon IV oxide from the tissues is brought by the blood to the br br mouth cavity where diffuses out. br br Gaseous exchange through the lungs The frog has two lungs which are connected to the buccal cavity. T he inner lining of the lungs is moist, thin and is richly supplied br br with blood capillaries. br br During inspiration, the floor of the mouth cavity is lowered and nostrils are open. Air rushes through the open nostrils into the mouth cavity. br br Nostrils close and the floor of the mouth cavity is raised. This br br reduces the volume and increase the pressure in the mouth cavity forcing air into the lungs. br br Carbon IV oxide from the tissues diffuse into the lung while the br br oxygen from the lungs diffuses into the tissues. b Gaseous exchange through the skin Frogs have a thinner and moist skin than the toads. There is large network of blood capillaries below the skin to carry br br the respiratory gases. br br Oxygen from the air and water diffuse through the skin into the br br blood stream. br br Carbon IV oxide diffuses out of the blood capillaries through the br br moist skin into the surrounding water and air. Mechanism of Gaseous Exchange in Mammals br br The following structures are involved in gaseous exchange in br br mammals; br br - Nose Nostrils - Larynx br br 70 - Trachea - Chest cavity ribs and intercostals muscles - Diaphragm . br br a Nose It has two openings called nostrils which let in air into the air br br passages. br br As air moves in the passages, it is warmed and moistened The lining of the nasal cavity has also the sense organs for smell. b Larynx It is located on top of the trachea It is called the voice box. It controls the pitch of the voice. c Trachea It is a tube made of rings of cartilage which prevents it from br br collapsing during breathing. br br Inside it is lined with ciliated epithelium. Cilia beat in waves and move mucus and foreign particles away from the lungs towards the pharynx. br br As the trachea enters the lungs, it divides into two branches called br br Bronchi Bronchus . br br d Lungs They are found in the chest cavity and they are enclosed by a br br double membrane called the pleural membrane. br br The space between the membranes is called the pleural cavity. Pleural cavity is filled with pleural fluid which reduces friction making the lungs to move freely in the chest cavity during breathing. Diagrams In the lungs each bronchus divides into small tubes called The mechanism of breathing br br Breathing is achieved by changes in the volume and air pressure br br of the thoracic cavity. br br Thoracic cavity is enclosed by ribs. Ribs are covered by intercostals muscles. The diaphragm is a muscular sheet of tissue below the chest br br cavity. It curves upwards in the form of a dome shape. br br Breathing mechanism involves two processes. a Inspiration Inhalation i.e. breathing in. b Expiration Exhalation i.e. breathing out. br br Inspiration Inhalation i.e. breathing br br This occurs when the volume of thoracic cavity increases and the br br pressure decreases. br br External intercostals muscles contract while the internal br br intercostals muscles relax. br br Ribs are pulled upwards and outwards. Diaphragm flattens increasing the volume of the thoracic cavity br br while decreasing the pressure inside it. br br Air rushes into the lungs through the nose and trachea inflating br br the lungs. Diagrams page 62 Expiration Exhalation i.e. breathing out br br Volume of thoracic cavity decreases while pressure increases. br br This is brought about by the following; External intercostals muscles relax while internal ones contract. Ribs move downwards and inwards. Diaphragm relaxes and regains its original dome shape. Volume of the thoracic cavity decrease and pressure increases. Air is forced out of the lungs through the air passages to the br br atmosphere. The wall of the alveolus is covered b a film of moisture which br br dissolves oxygen in the inhaled air. br br Oxygen diffuses through the epithelium of the alveolus, the br br capillary wall and through the cell membrane of the red blood cells. br br In the red blood cells it combines with haemoglobin. Carbon iv oxide is more concentrated in the blood capillaries br br than in the alveoli. br br It therefore diffuses from the capillaries into the alveoli. Water vapour also passes out of the blood by the same process. br br Diagram page 64 KLB br br br br M br br N br br Z Percentage composition of gases in inhaled and exhaled air Gas in inhaled air. in exhaled air Oxygen 20 0.03 Carbon iv oxide Nitrogen and other gases 79.97 16.9 4.0 79.97 br br Regulation of Breathing This is controlled by a part of the brain called Medulla oblongata . br br 73 Factors affecting the rate of breathing in humans br br 1. Exercise br br Breathing rate increases during vigorous activity. br br 2. Age br br Younger people have a faster breathing because their bodies have more energy demand. 3. Emotions br br Things like anxiety, fear and fright increases the breathing rate. br br 4. Temperature br br Relatively high temperatures increase the rate of breathing. However, very high temperatures reduce the breathing rate. br br 5. Health br br If there is fever high body temperature , the breathing rate increases. Some respiratory diseases however, make breathing difficult. Lung Volumes br br i br br Lung capacity This is the total amount of air the lungs can hold when completely filled. The lungs of an adult have a capacity of about 5,500cm3 br br ii Tidal volume br br This is the amount of air taken in and out of the lungs during normal breathing. Tidal volume is about 500cm3 br br iii Inspiratory reserve volume br br This is an additional volume attained after having a forced inhalation in addition to the tidal volume. It is about 2000cm3 Inspiratory capacity This is the tidal volume Inspiratory reserve volume. br br iv br br v Expiratory reserve volume br br This is air removed after a forced exhalation. It can be up to 1,300cm3 vi Vital capacity br br This is the deepest possible exhalation. This air can only be forcibly pushed out of the lungs. br br vii Residual volume Diseases of the Respiratory System br br i Asthma br br It is caused by: br br Allergens such as pollen grains, certain foods and drugs Infections of the lungs by bacteria and viruses br br Symptoms br br Difficulty in breathing Wheezing sound when breathing Treatment and Control br br Avoiding the causative agents Injection of drugs and oral application of pills Spraying directly into the bronchial tubes with a muscle br br relaxant ii Bronchitis br br There are two types; Acute and Chronic br br Symptoms br br Production of thick greenish or yellowish sputum Difficulty in breathing Difficulty in walking and sleeping br br Treatment br br Seeking early medical assistance iii Whooping cough It is caused by a bacterium called Bordetella pertussis. Symptoms Prolonged coughing and vomiting Conjuctival haemorrhage bleeding Convulsions and coma Severe pneumonia in the bronchioles Ulcers and heart complications br br 75 Emaciation due to repeated vomiting Treatment br br Use of antibiotics Use of a balanced diet on patients br br Control br br Children immunization at early age br br iv Pneumonia It is caused by a bacterial called Streptococcus pneumoniae Symptoms br br Coughing Fever Chest pains Deposits of fluids in the lungs br br Treatment br br Use of antibiotics such as penicillin and sulphonamides br br Control br br Avoid overcrowding. Good ventilation in living houses br br v Pulmonary Tuberculosis It is caused by a bacterium called Mycobacterium tuberculosis . Symptoms br br Weight loss Coughing with blood stained sputum. Fever Treatment br br Use of antibiotics such as streptomycin br br Control br br Pasteurization of milk Immunization using BCG Bacille Calmette Guerin Use of radiography X-Ray br br vi Lung cancer Cancer is uncontrolled cell growth in the body causing tumours. Some general causes br br Smoking br br 76 Inhalation of cancer causing substances such as asbestos Exposure to radiations such as X-rays, radioactive substances br br such as uranium and substances that alter the genetic composition of the cell such as mustard gas br br Treatment and control Surgery to remove the tumour Radiotherapy Chemotherapy Use of some drugs Not smoking Revision Questions RESPIRATION br br Process by which food substances are chemically broken down in living cells to release energy, carbon iv oxide, water or alcohol. br br Respiration takes place mainly in the mitochondria. It has two br br membranes, inner and outer. br br Inner membrane is folded into projections called cristae. Cristae provide a large surface area for respiratory enzymes. Respiratory enzymes are bound to the cristae. br br Diagram Practical Activity 1 To investigate the gas given off when food is burnt . Types of Respiration br br Aerobic Respiration Anaerobic Respiration. br br Aerobic Respiration br br Process by which food substances such as glucose are broken down in the presence of oxygen to release energy, water and carbon IV oxide. br br The energy is stored in the form of a chemical substance called br br Adenosine Triphosphate ATP . br br This energy is released in small quantities since a lot of heat br br energy would burn the body cells. Respiratory br br Enzymes 77 C6H12O6 6O2 6CO2 Energy ATP Respiration takes place in two phases with each phase consisting br br 6H2O br br of series of reactions. First Phase Glycolysis This takes place in the cell cytoplasm . Oxygen is not required in br br this stage. br br Glucose is broken down into a 3 carbon compound called Pyruvic br br acid through a process called glycolysis. br br In glycolysis one molecule of glucose gives 2 molecules of ATP . In absence of oxygen Pyruvic acid is broken down into lactic acid br br in animals and into alcohol ethanol in plants. br br lactic acid br br pyruvic acid br br glycolysis enzyme controlled reactions in cytoplasm glucose enzyme controlledd in animals br br carbon iv oxide glycolysis br br pyruvic acid glucose ethanol enzymecontrolled in plants br br Second phase Krebs Cycle This takes place in the matrix of the mitochondria and involves a br br series of enzyme controlled reactions that require oxygen . br br Pyruvic acid formed in the first phase is oxidized by oxygen in a br br series of enzymatic reactions Krebs cycle into energy, water and carbon IV oxide. br br In this phase one molecule of glucose gives 38 molecules of ATP . br br 78 The following conditions are required in this phase; i. Cells must be provided with glucose/food. ii. Oxygen must be present. iii. Respiratory enzymes must be present to catalyse the reaction. iv. Temperature must be favourable for efficient functioning of br br enzymes. br br v. End products of the reaction energy, water and carbon iv oxide must be constantly removed from the mitochondrion. br br Practical Activity 2 To investigate heat production in germinating seeds . Anaerobic Respiration in Plants and Animals br br This is the process by which food substances are broken down in br br the absence of oxygen to release energy. br br The glucose is not completely broken down hence less energy is br br given out. br br In plants glucose is broken down into energy, carbon iv oxide br br and ethanol alcohol . br br Glucose oxide C6H12O6 CO2 Anaerobic respiration in plants is also referred to as fermentation . br br Ethanol Energy. Carbon iv br br 2C2H5OH ATP In animals glucose is broken down into energy and lactic acid Glucose C6H12O6 Oxygen Debt br br Lactic acid Energy. br br 2C3H6O3 ATP br br This is oxygen required to get rid of the lactic acid that br br accumulates in the body tissues when the oxygen supply is less than required. br br Accumulation of lactic acid causes fatigue and muscle crumps. Oxygen debt is paid back by breathing more quickly and more br br deeply in order to increase oxygen supply such as during recovery period after a race when a person pants. br br When paying back the oxygen debt, lactic acid is oxidized to br br energy, water and carbon iv oxide or it is taken to the liver and converted into glycogen. br br Application of Anaerobic Respiration i. Baking industry ii. Beer brewing and distillery industry. iii. Dairy industry in the production of yoghurt and cheese. iv. Production of vinegar citric acid, oxalic acid, butyric acid and br br some drugs. br br v. Production of power alcohol which is used as a substitute for br br petrol. vi. Silage making. vii. Biogas production. viii. Making compost manure br br Practical Activity 3 To investigate gas produced during fermentation. Comparison between Aerobic and Anaerobic Respiration Aerobic Respiration i. Oxygen is required ii. High amount of energy is released as one molecule of glucose yields 38 ATP molecules 2880 KJ br br Anaerobic Respiration. Oxygen not required Low amount of energy is released as one molecule of glucose yields 2 ATP molecules 210 KJ There is incomplete breakdown iii. There is complete br br 80 breakdown of the substrate into carbon iv oxide and water. br br of substrate hence lactic acid or alcohols are produced. br br iv. End products are energy, water and carbon iv oxide br br End products are energy, alcohol in plants and lactic acid in animals. Water molecules are not produced. Over short period of time, energy is released faster. br br v. Water molecules are br br produced. br br vi. Over a short period of time, energy is not released faster br br vii. Occurs in the cytoplasm br br Occurs only in the cell cytoplasm. and in the mitochondrion. Respiratory Substrates br br These are energy rich foods which when oxidized release energy. br br They include; i. Carbohydrates br br They are the main source of energy mainly in the form of simple br br sugars such as glucose, fructose and galactose. br br They produce about 17KJ 2898/mole per gram when completely br br oxidized. br br ii. Fats br br They produce more energy than carbohydrates or proteins. One gram of fats yields about 38 KJ of energy when completely oxidized. br br They are however not the main substrate because they are not br br very soluble in water hence not easily transported to the sites of respiration. It also requires more oxygen to oxidize one gram of fats than one gram of glucose. br br iii. Proteins br br They are not normally used in respiration unless in cases of br br extreme starvation. br br One gram of proteins yields 22KJ of energy when completely br br oxidized. br br 81 Assignment br br Where do plants and animals get the following from; br br - Carbohydrates. - Fats - Proteins br br Respiratory Quotient RQ and its Significance br br RQ is the ratio showing the relationship between the amounts of carbon iv oxide used against the amount of oxygen used in respiration. br br RQ varies with the type of substrate being oxidized. For example carbohydrates have a RQ of 1.0 when fully oxidized, fats have 0.7 and proteins have 0.9. br br RQ RQ can therefore be used to indicate the type of substrate being oxidized and also whether aerobic respiration or anaerobic respiration is taking place. br br RQ is also affected by factors such as age, health of the organism br br and the temperature. br br Factors Affecting the Rate of Respiration i. Oxygen concentration. When the amount of oxygen increases, the respiration rate also increases. Decrease in oxygen concentration will lead to decreased respiration rate. br br ii. Substrate concentration. Increase in sugar concentration increases br br respiration and vice versa. br br iii. Hormones. Presence of some hormones such as adrenaline and br br thyroxine in the body increases the rate of respiration. br br iv. Surface area to volume ratio Body size . If the SA/volume ratio is high, the organism would lose more heat energy. As more heat is lost to the surrounding more is required to replace the lost energy hence more respiration. br br v. Age. Young people require more energy because their cells are actively dividing hence respiration rate is higher in them than in older people. vi. Occupation. People engaged in heavier tasks have higher rate of br br respiration. br br vii. Sex. Generally males have faster respiration rate than females br br due to presence of more muscles in their bodies. br br viii. Basal metabolic rate. This is the energy required to maintain normal body functions such breathing, heartbeat, blood circulation etc while at rest. br br Revision Questions FORM THREE BIOLOGY NOTES br br ECOLOGY br br Introduction Ecology is the study of the interrelationships of organisms to each other and to their environment biotic and Abiotic factors . Autecology ; study of single species within a community and how it relates with both the biotic and Abiotic factors. Synecology. This is the study of many different species of organisms interacting among themselves within an ecosystem. Ecology helps to address the following issues. br br Sustainable food production Pollution control Natural resources conservation Pest and disease control Population control Eco-tourism Prediction of adverse weather conditions br br Concepts of ecology br br Biosphere/ecosphere. This is the part of the earth and br br atmosphere inhabited by living organisms. br br Habitat. This is a specific locality with a particular set of br br conditions where an organism lives. Habitats can be terrestrial or aquatic. br br 83 Ecological niche. This is the position occupied by an organism in a habitat. It includes the physical space where an organism is found and its role in the habitat. br br Population. This refers to all members of a given species in br br particular habitat. br br Community. This refers to all organisms belonging to different species interacting in the same habitat. Many populations make up a community. br br Ecosystem. This is a natural unit made of biotic and Abiotic br br factors whose interactions lead to a self sustaining system. E.g. a tropical rain forest, a small pond etc. br br Biomass. This is the total dry weight of living organisms at a br br particular Trophic feeding level or per unit area. br br Carrying capacity. This is the maximum number of organisms br br an area can comfortably support without depletion of the available resources. E.g. the maximum number of cows a pasture land can comfortably hold without overgrazing. br br Study Question 1 br br Factors in an Ecosystem br br They are divided into two: br br 1. Abiotic factors or the non living factors 2. Biotic or the living factors Abiotic Factors br br Light. This is required by plants and photosynthetic bacteria to manufacture food. The sun is the source of light energy. Light intensity and quality wavelength affects the rate of photosynthesis, flowering and germination in plants, while in animals it affects migration, hibernation and reproduction. Light intensity is measured using a Photographic Light meter while a Seechi disc measures light penetration in water. br br Atmospheric pressure. Variation in atmospheric pressure affects br br the availability of oxygen and carbon IV dioxide in the atmosphere. These two gases in turn affect the distribution of living organisms. Low atmospheric pressure increases the rate of transpiration. Barometer is used to measure it. br br Humidity. This is the amount of water vapour in the atmosphere. It affects the rate of water loss from plants and animals surfaces through transpiration and sweating respectively. The higher the humidity the lower the rate of loss and vice versa. It is measured using the hygrometer. br br Salinity. This refers to the salt concentration of the water. This br br divides the aquatic environment into marine, estuarine and fresh water . Only organisms with adaptable osmoregulatory features can comfortably occupy such habitats. In estuaries, there are fluctuations of salt concentrations at different times. When the sea tide is low, the salt concentrations are low due to the greater diluting effect of the fresh water being discharged. High tide raises the salt level. Estuarine organisms must therefore be adapted to cope with such wide salt variations. br br Wind. This is moving air. It increases the rate of water loss from organisms affecting their distribution. It also influences rain formation. It helps in formation of sand dunes in deserts which become habitats for the growth of deserts plants. Its an agent of seed and fruit dispersal Temperature. This affects the distribution of organisms in any br br habitat. Very low temperature may inactivate enzymes while very high temperatures denature them. Temperature varies due to seasons, altitude, and latitude and diurnally in hot deserts. br br pH hydrogen ion concentration. This is the measure of acidity or alkalinity of water in aquatic habitats or soil solution. This influences the distribution of plants and animals in soil and aquatic habitats. Different organisms have different pH requirements. pH is determined using the pH meter. br br Study Question 2 Practical Activity 1 Study Question 3 Biotic Inter-Relationships Competition br br 85 Living organisms compete for resources such as nutrients, space, light and mates. There are two types of competition. br br i. Inter-specific competition. This is the competition between individuals of different species for the same resources. For example. An experiment6 was carried out on two closely related species of paramecia- Paramecium caudatum and Paramecium aurelia. It was observed that when each species is grown separately in controlled cultures with constant food supply, they show normal population growth. When they are grown together in the same culture, thre is competition and Paramecium caudatum is eliminated. See graphs. However, closely related species can live together without competition. For example, when Paramecium caudatum and Paramecium bursoria are grown in the same culture, there is no competition because each species occupies a different part of the culture. Similarly, browsers and grazers can occupy same habitat without competition because they feed at different levels of the same plants. For example, the zebras eat the softer shoots, followed by the 86 wild beasts, and the gazelles which eat the fibrous left over of the same grass. Study Question 4 ii. Intra-specific competition. This is the competition between br br members of the same species for the same resources. br br When there is competition the best adapted organisms survive while the less adapted ones may die or be forced to migrate. br br Predation br br This is the relationship where one organism kills another for food and feed on it either as a whole or a part of it. The predator is the one which kills while the prey is the one being killed for food. Predators have various adaptations to enable them to be efficient in capturing the prey. These include; br br Sharp eyesight as in eagles, kites and hawk Fast flight, Modified beaks Strong jaws with carnassials teeth as in leopards and lions. Large claws on strong forelimbs. Colour camouflage such as the spotted pattern of the leopard br br blends well with the background colour of the bushes and trees. br br Moving against the wind while stalking the prey. Preys also have structural and behavioural adaptations. These include: Swift movement e.g. the antelope and gazelle Camouflage e.g. in gazelles and stripes of the zebra. Large eyes on the sides of the head to giving them a wide field of NB/. When the number of the prey increases that of the predators also increases. An increase in the number of predators leads to a decrease in the population of the prey. This decrease in prey population leads to a fall in predator population which in turn gives space for the increase in the population of the prey. This is the basis of biological control. See the graph below. . br br n o i t a u p o p r o t a d e r p d n a y e r P br br Prey l br br Predator Time br br Parasitism This is the relationship where an organism parasite obtains nutrients from another live organism host without killing it. The parasite obtains food and shelter from the host causing some harmful effects. Parasites may weaken the host and also transmit diseases which may kill their host thus reducing their number an d distribution. There are two types of parasites; br br Ecto-parasites Endo-parasites Study Question 5 Symbiosis br br This is an association between two of different species in which both benefit. For example the association of colon bacteria with humans and other animals, especially plant-eating animals, the ox-pecker bird and the ox etc. The Rhizobium bacteria help the leguminous plants to fix nitrogen while the bacteria obtain shelter and carbohydrates from the plants. Diagram br br Saprophytism br br This is where organisms obtain nutrients from dead organisms causing decomposition hence releasing nutrients into the ecosystem. Saprophytes include the bacteria and fungi. The Nitrogen Cycle This refers to the cycling of nitrogen and its compounds in the natural environment. Although nitrogen is abundant in the atmosphere as nitrogen gas, it cannot be utilised by plants. It has to be converted into a form that can be absorbed by plants through a process called nitrogen fixation. br br Nitrogen fixation is done in two ways; Biological fixation . This can occur in two forms br br 1. Nitrogen fixation by symbiotic bacteria such as br br Rhizobium spp . They are found in the root nodules of legumes. They convert nitrogen gas into ammonia which is then converted into nitrates for plant utilisation. br br 2. Nitrogen fixation by free living bacteria e.g. Clostridium, Azotobacter, and some algae such as Anabaena, chlorella and Nostoc. br br Non-Biological nitrogen fixation . This is done by lightning. br br During thunderstorms, lightning energy combines atmospheric nitrogen gas with oxygen to form nitrous and nitric acid. These are then converted into nitrates. br br Plants absorb nitrates and convert them into plant proteins. br br Animals feed on these plants and obtain the proteins. They are then digested into amino acids and become assimilated into animal proteins. When living organisms die, saprophytic bacteria and fungi break br br down the proteins in their bodies into ammonia. Nitrifying bacteria convert this ammonia into nitrates thorough a process called nitrification. Nitrosomonas and Nitrococcus convert ammonia into nitrites and Nitrobacter convert nitrites into Nitrates. br br Some soil micro organisms such as Pseudomonas denitrificans Thiobacillus denitrificans utilise the oxygen in the nitrates reducing it to nitrites, ammonia and eventually into nitrogen gas. This is called de-nitrification. br br This reduces the amount of nitrogen available to plants but it frees the nitrogen so that it becomes available for the cycle to continue. br br Diagram br br 89 Practical activity 2 Study question 6 br br Energy Flow in an Ecosystem br br The sun is the natural source of energy. This energy is transferred to the following feeding levels; Producers Primary consumers Secondary consumers Tertiary consumers Quaternary consumers These feeding levels are called Trophic levels Decomposers They break down organic materials into simple substances which are made available for re-use by other organisms. Decomposers are mainly fungi and bacteria. Food Chains This is the representation of energy flow from a producer to other organisms linearly. Green plants are eaten by herbivores which are eaten by carnivores. Producers Primary consumers Secondary consumers Tertiary consumers Quaternary consumers Some energy is lost as it is moved from one trophic level to the next. This is through respiration, defecation, excretion and in form of heat. Fig. 2.7 Examples When the decomposers are included in a food chain, they are placed at the end. Study Question 7 Food Webs These are several interconnected food chains. Simple food chains br br rarely exist since in any ecosystem, many populations interact. Ecological Pyramids These give a simplified representation of feeding relationships and br br energy flow in an ecosystem. They are of three types. br br Pyramid of numbers Pyramid of biomass Pyramid of energy br br Pyramid of Numbers br br There is a progress decrease in the number of organisms as one move from the producers all the way to the quaternary consumers. Producers have the greatest number followed in a decreasing order by primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary consumers. Construction of Pyramid of Numbers br br i. Use data provided or collected. ii. From the data, identify and draw the most suitable food chain. iii. iv. Choose a suitable scale for the data. v. Using the chosen scale draw a horizontal rectangular bar to br br Indicate the numbers at each trophic level in the food chain. br br represent the number of the producers as the base of the pyramid. vi. Progressively draw horizontal bars of the other trophic levels in br br their ascending order. br br Ensure that the width of the bars is uniform. br br Study Question 9 Interpretation of Pyramid of Numbers Generally the body size of organisms increases at each trophic level from the base to the apex of the pyramid as their number decreases. br br At each trophic level much energy is lost through respiration, excretion, sweating, defecation etc. therefore less energy is transmitted to the succeeding trophic level. Fewer organisms can therefore be supported. br br Inverted pyramid of numbers also exist. For example where one mango tree supports several monkeys each being fed on by several fleas. Pyramid of Biomass Biomass of an organism is its constant dry weight. In an ecosystem, the producers have the highest biomass followed in decreasing order by primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary consumers. br br Mango tree br br 20 Consumer br br Primary Consumer br br Producer Study Question 11 Population Populations change in size, structure and organisation. Characteristics of a population. br br Density. This is the number of individuals per unit area. E.g. 50 br br gazelles per Km2. br br Dispersion. This is the distribution or spread of organisms in a br br habitat. br br Population growth. This refers to the rate of increase in br br numbers. br br Population Estimation Methods Usually a representative sample is used to estimate the population of organism in a big habitat. A sample is a small number of individuals taken from the habitat that is a representative of the whole population. The following methods are used when sampling. br br Quadrat method. Line transect. Belt transect. Capture-recapture method. br br Adaptations of plants to various Habitats An adaptation is a change to suit environment: the development of physical, physiological or behavioural characteristics that allow organisms to survive and reproduce in their habitats. There are four main groups of plants namely; br br Xerophytes. Mesophytes. Hydrophytes. Halophytes. Xerophytes These are plants adapted to survive in the dry habitats. These habitats have the following characteristics. i. Unpredictable and poorly distributed rainfall between 250- br br 350mm per year. br br ii. Very high day temperatures and very low night temperatures br br hence high diurnal temperature range. br br 93 iii. They are very windy. iv. Low humidity. Adaptations of Xerophytes i. Shedding of leaves during the dry season to reduce the surface br br exposed to transpiration. br br ii. Reduced leaves in size such as in pine or modified into spines as in cactus. This reduces the surface area over which transpiration occurs. br br iii. Leaves have a thick waxy cuticle to reduce the rate of br br transpiration. br br iv. Some store water in large parenchyma cells contained in br br succulent stems and leaves. br br v. Some have reversed stomatal rhythm. vi. Sunken stomata vii. Folded leaves reduced the surface area. viii. Reduced number of stomata br br ix. Some have deep roots to absorb water from deep in the soil. br br Others have superficial roots growing horizontally close to the surface to absorb water after a light br br Mesophytes These are plants growing in well watered areas. Such habitats have the following general characteristics. br br Adequate rainfall; 950-1800mm that is well distributed br br throughout the year. Relatively high humidity Thick clouds Moderate to high temperatures Shallow water table Less windy Adaptations of Mesophytes They show various adaptations depending on where they grow. Some of these adaptations are for reduction of water loss, others for increased water, loss and some are also adapted to light conditions. Forest Ecosystem i. Vegetation grows fast to compete for light. br br 94 ii. Trees grow very tall to compete for light. iii. Some develop buttress roots or prop roots for extra support such br br as the Ficus natalensis. br br iv. Climbers such as lianas support themselves on stems of tall trees br br to reach light. br br v. Epiphytes support themselves on the branches of tall trees. vi. Others are adapted to carry out photosynthesis under low light intensity by having many chloroplasts that are sensitive to low light intensity. br br vii. They show leaf mosaic pattern to minimise overlapping enhancing trapping of light for photosynthesis. br br Those in areas with a lot of water have broad leaves, thin cuticle and many stomata on both surfaces to encourage high rate of transpiration. br br Those in dry areas have waxy and shiny cuticle to reflect light. Others are deep rooted to obtain water from deep in the soil. Hydrophytes These are plants growing in fresh water either partially or wholly. Such habitats have the following general characteristics. br br Low concentration of dissolved gases such as oxygen Presence of waves and currents Inadequate light in water Adaptations of hydrophytes i. Broad leaves with maximum number of stomata on upper leaf br br surface providing a large surface are for transpiration. br br ii. They have a large air filled tissue called aerenchyma tissue. The air reduces the density hence creating buoyancy to the plants and also aids in gaseous exchange. br br iii. Submerged ones have dissected leaves to offer large surface area br br for light absorption required during photosynthesis. br br iv. They have chloroplasts sensitive to low light intensity. v. They have poorly developed leaves and lack the root hairs to br br reduce water absorption br br vi. Flowers are raised above the water to allow for pollination. br br 95 Diagrams Halophytes These are plants which are able to tolerate very salty conditions in soil and marine water. Such habitats have the following general characteristics. br br High concentration of mineral salts Low concentration of dissolved gases Low light intensity in marine water Presence of waves and currents in marine water br br Adaptations of Halophytes i. They root cells which concentrate a lot of salts to enable them to br br absorb water by osmosis. br br ii. Some have salt glands that secrete excess salts. iii. Many have water storage tissues. iv. Some like the mangroves have breathing roots called br br pneumatophores. These rise above the water surface to obtain oxygen from the atmosphere. br br v. Mangroves growing on mud flats have buttress roots for support. vi. Submerged halophytes are adapted to photosynthesise under low br br light intensity. br br vii. Their fruits are adapted for dispersal by having aerenchymatous br br tissue for air storage to make them buoyant. CLASSIFICATION II Classification, in biology is the identification, naming, and grouping of organisms into a formal system based on similarities such as internal and external anatomy, physiological functions, genetic makeup, or evolutionary history. Study Question 1 General Principles of Classification Organisms that have similar and common features are grouped together while those that have different features are grouped separately. Taxonomy is the study of grouping of organisms according to their relationship. There are seven major taxonomic units taxa . br br 96 Kingdom Phylum phyla or Division in plants Class Order Family Genus Species br br As you move from the kingdom to the species the differences decrease as the similarities increases. Species is a group of organisms that can freely interbreed to give rise to viable/fertile offsprings. Sometime members of different species may interbreed to give an offspring which is sterile . E.g. a donkey and a horse can interbreed to give rise to a mule which is infertile. Binomial Nomenclature This is the double naming system of organisms where organisms are assigned two names i.e. the generic name and the specific name. Examples In binomial nomenclature the following rules are observed. v. Generic name is written first followed by the specific name. vi. First letter in the generic name is in capital and the rest are in br br small letters. br br vii. Specific name is written in small letters. viii. The two names are underlined separately when handwritten or br br italicised when printed. br br Study Question 2 The Five Kingdoms of Classification Carolus Linnaeus initially introduced the two kingdom system of classification. However many new life forms have been discovered which are neither animals nor plants. This has led to a more accepted classification system that adopts five kingdoms. These are; Animalia. br br Fig. 1.2 1. Kingdom Monera The kingdom is made up of mainly the bacteria e.g. nitrobacter, azotobacter. Vibrio cholerae etc. General characteristics i. They are unicellular and microscopic. Some are single cells while br br others are in colonies. They have different body shapes. br br Fig. 1.4 br br ii. Most are heterotrophic, feeding either saprophytically or br br parasitically. Some are autotrophic. br br iii. They are prokaryotic i.e. their nuclear material is not enclosed by br br a nuclear membrane. br br iv. They have few organelles which are not membrane bound. They br br dont have mitochondria. br br v. They have a cell wall though not made of cellulose. vi. They reproduce asexually mainly through binary fission. vii. Most of them respire an-aerobically but some respire aerobically. viii. Most of them move by use of flagella. br br Diagrams Study question 3 2. Kingdom Protoctista Examples include paramecium, amoeba, plasmodium, chlamydomonas, euglena, spirogyra, and trypanosome. General characteristics i. They are eukaryotic whereby their nuclei is bound by a nuclear membrane. br br ii. Some are heterotrophic while others are autotrophic. iii. They have may organelles including mitochondria all of which br br are membrane bound. They have different body forms; some are unicellular or colonial while others are multicellular. br br iv. br br v. Reproduction is mainly asexual by fission, fragmentation or sporulation. Some reproduce sexually by conjugation. vi. They are mobile and move by means of cilia, flagella or br br pseudopodia. br br vii. Some may have specialised structures that perform specific br br functions such as contractile vacuole for osmoregulation. br br Diagrams br br Practical Activities 1 and 2 br br 3. Kingdom Fungi Examples Saprophytic ones include mushrooms, toadstools, bread moulds, penicilia, yeast etc. Parasitic ones cause plant diseases such as wheat rust, potato and tomato blight and animal diseases such as athletes foot and ringworm. br br Practical Activities 3 General characteristics i. They are eukaryotic. ii. Most have cell walls made of chitin but a few have cellulose cell br br walls. br br iii. They store food particles in their cytoplasm in the form of br br glycogen or oil droplets but not starch. br br iv. The basic unit is the hyphae . Hyphae are thin filaments and many br br of them make up structures called mycelium . br br v. Fungi have neither the chloroplasts nor the chlorophyll. They feed on already manufactured food. Hyphae act as the roots and are sent into the food material to obtain nutrients. In saprophytic fungi the hyphae are referred to as rhizoids and in parasitic ones as haustoria . br br vi. They reproduce sexually fusion of nuclei in hyphal branches br br and asexually spores and budding . 4. Kingdom Plantae Study question 5 General Characteristics i. They are eukaryotic and multicellular. ii. iii. They reproduce both sexually and asexually. iv. Their cells have cellulose cell walls v. They have photosynthetic pigment hence are autotrophic. vi. Majority have a transport system vii. They show alternation of generation. br br In most their body is differentiated into leaves, stem and roots. A. Division Bryophyta These are the mosses and the liverworts. General Characteristics i. The lack the vascular system ii. Contain chlorophyll and are therefore photosynthetic. iii. They have rhizoids for anchorage and water and mineral salts br br absorption. br br iv. They show alternation of generations. v. Fertilisation depends of availability of water. Male gametes are br br produced by the antheridia and female gametes by the archegonia. br br vi. They grow on damp substratum such as walls, rocks and marshes. vii. They are thalloid as in liverworts or differentiated into simple br br leaf like and stem like structures as in mosses. br br Diagrams . General Characteristics i. They have leaves, stems and roots but no flowers. ii. They are photosynthetic. iii. They have a clearly defined vascular system made of xylem and br br phloem. br br iv. They have compound leaves with leaflets called pinna. v. On the lower side of mature leaves are the spores bearing br br structures sporangia which occur in groups called sori sorus- singular . see diagram. br br vi. They show alternation of generations where the sporophyte fern plant is the dominant one while the gametophyte is a heart shaped structure called Prothallus . See diagram. br br vii. They have sexual reproduction which is dependent of water. br br Study Question 6 br br Practical Activity 4 br br Study Question 7 br br Practical Activity 5 C. Division Spermatophyta This comprises of all the seed bearing plants. General Characteristics i. They contain chloroplasts hence are photosynthetic. ii. The plant body is differentiated into roots, stems, leaves and seed br br bearing structures. br br iii. Vascular system is highly developed with xylem tissue consisting br br of both xylem vessels and tracheids. iv. Sexual reproduction is well defined. v. Seeds are produced after fertilisation. vi. They show alternation of generation. The division Spermatophyta is made up of two main subdivisions i.e. br br Gymnospermaphyta Angiospermaphyta br br Gymnospermaphyta General Characteristics br br 101 They bear male and female cones. After fertilisation seeds are borne on the female cones and they br br are naked i.e. they are not enclosed in a fruit wall. br br They show xerophytic characteristics such as needle like leaves, br br rolled leaves, thick waxy cuticle and sunken stomata. br br Phloem doesnt contain companion cells and xylem mainly br br consists of tracheids. This subdivision has three main classes. br br Coniferales Cycadales Ginkgoales i Class Coniferales br br These include all the common gymnosperms. They are found in areas of little water. They have small needle-shaped leaves with waxy cuticle. They have cones and most of them are ever green. Male cones are in form of clusters at the base of the terminal br br bud . br br Female cones are on lateral buds of young shoots and they br br contain naked seeds. br br Diagrams. ii Class Cycadales br br They resemble the palm trees by appearance. They have long compound leaves which are clustered at the apex br br of a thick short un-branched stem. br br They bear cones at the apex of the trunk. br br iii Class Ginkgoales br br Members here are very rare. They include the Ginkgo biloba of China. They are deciduous with fan like leaves. br br Angiospermaphyta General characteristics br br Are usually bisexual and flower bearing. br br 102 Seeds are enclosed in an ovary which develops into a fruit. Xylem has tracheids and vessels while the phloem has companion br br cells. br br They have double fertilisation. br br This subdivision is divided into two classes. br br Monocotyledonae. examples Dicotyledonae . examples Class Monocotyledonae Class Dicotyledonae. br br They have seeds with one Have two cotyledons. br br cotyledon. br br They have narrow-long leaves Broad leaves with reticulate br br with parallel venation. Most of their leaves have a modified petiole to form a leaf sheath. br br venation. br br Leaves have distinct petioles. br br Their stems have scattered br br Vascular bundles are arranged to form a concentric ring. vascular bundle. br br Pith is usually absent. Vascular cambium is usually absent hence no secondary growth. Pith is present. Vascular cambium is present hence there is secondary growth. br br They have a fibrous root They have a tap root system br br system br br Floral parts are in threes or in Floral parts are in fours, fives br br multiples of three. br br or their multiples. In roots, the xylem is br br In the root vascular bundles are arranged in a ring with phloem and xylem alternating. br br centrally placed and star shaped with the phloem alternating with the arms of the xylem. Practical activity 6 ix. Kingdom Animalia Study Question 9 General characteristics i. Most show locomotion but a few are sessile ii. Most reproduce sexually and a few asexually iii. They are eukaryotic and multicellular iv. All are heterotrophic v. Their cells have no cell walls Kingdom Animalia has nine phyla but only two will be discussed i.e. Arthropoda and chordata. Phylum Arthropoda Practical Activity 7 General Characteristics i. They are segmented. ii. They are bilaterally symmetrical. iii. They have open circulatory system where blood flows in open br br cavities called haemocoel. br br iv. Head is well developed with eyes, sensory structures and a fairly br br developed brain. br br v. Gaseous exchange is through the tracheal system which opens br br through the spiracles to the outside. Some aquatic ones use gills. br br vi. Reproduction is mostly sexual with internal fertilization. They br br have different sexes. br br vii. They have jointed appendages hence the name arthropoda. viii. They have a body covered with exoskeleton made of chitin. This provides a surface for muscle attachment. It is shed periodically to allow growth through a process called moulting . ix. Most have their body divided into head, thorax and abdomen. In some, the head and the thorax are fused to form Cephalothorax . The thorax and the abdomen are all segmented. The phylum arthropoda is divided into five classes. br br Crustacea Chilopoda Diplopoda br br 104 Arachnida. Insecta. br br Different members of the phylum are placed to their respective classes based on; br br Number of limbs Presence and number of antennae Number of body parts. br br 1. Class Crustacea Examples. Daphnia, crayfish. Crab and prawn. General Characteristics i. Head and thorax are fused to form cephalothorax. ii. They have two pairs of antennae. iii. They have between five and twenty pairs of limbs modified for different functions e.g. locomotion defence and feeding. br br iv. They have a pair of compound eyes. v. Gaseous exchange is through the gills. vi. They have three pairs of mouth parts made of one pair of mandibles lower and two pairs of maxillae upper . 2. Class Chilopoda These are the centipedes. Diagram General Characteristics i. Body is divided into two parts, the head and the trunk. ii. The body is dorsa-ventrally flattened. iii. Body is made up of 15 or more segments. iv. Head has a pair of simple eyes. v. Each segment has a pair of walking legs. vi. Head has a pair of antennae. vii. Have poison claws n the head and are therefore carnivorous. viii. Have a tracheal system for gaseous exchange. br br ix. Have separate sexes. br br 105 General Characteristics i. They have cylindrical body. ii. Have three body parts, head, and thorax and body trunk. iii. They have two clumps of many simple eyes. iv. They have no poison claws and are therefore herbivorous. v. Heads has a pair of short antennae and mandibles. vi. Each body segment has a pair of spiracles for breathing. vii. Body has between 9-100 segments. viii. Each segment has two pairs of walking legs except the first br br thoracic segment. br br 4. Class Arachnida These include the scorpions, spiders, ticks and mites. Diagrams General Characteristics i. Body has two parts, cephalothorax and abdomen. ii. Cephalothorax has two chelicerae which produce poison to br br paralyse the prey. br br iii. Cephalothorax has four pairs of walking legs each having seven br br joints. br br iv. At the end of each leg are two toothed claws. v. Cephalothorax has eight simple eyes. vi. Most have lung books for gaseous exchange, some use gill books br br or tracheal system. br br vii. They have no antennae but have a pair of pedipalps which are br br sensitive to touch. br br 5. Class Insecta They include grasshoppers, bees, houseflies, butterflies, termites, beetles etc. Insects form half the population of animals on earth. They occupy all habitats i.e. air, water, and land. Their food is varied such as plant tissues, animal fluids, dead animals and excretions of animals making them to be found almost everywhere on earth. General Characteristics i. Body is divided into three parts, head, thorax and abdomen. ii. Thorax is made up of three segments with three pairs of legs. br br Some have one or two pairs of wings on the thorax. br br iii. Head has one pair of antennae. iv. They undergo complete or incomplete metamorphosis. v. Excretion is through the malpighian tubules which remove uric br br acid. br br vi. Gaseous exchange is through the tracheal system but they breathe br br through the spiracles. br br vii. The head a pair of compound eyes and several simple eyes. viii. Abdomen is made up of 11 or fewer segments. The terminal br br segments are modified for reproduction. br br ix. Mouth parts consist of the mandibles, maxillae and labium. The Phylum Chordata Chordate, common name for animals of the phylum Chordata, which includes vertebrates as well as some invertebrates that possess, at least for some time in their lives, a stiff rod called a notochord lying above the gut. About 43,700 living species are known, making the chordates the third largest animal phylum. In animals such as the Amphioxus the notochord persists but in others it is replaced at later stages of development by the vertebral column. br br 107 Members in this phylum inhabit both aquatic marine and fresh water and terrestrial burrowers and arboreal environments. General Characteristics i. Members have a notochord at some stage of their development. ii. They are bilaterally symmetrical. iii. Heart is ventrally placed. Blood flows from the heart through the br br arteries and gets back to the heart through the veins. br br iv. They have a post anal tail although it is greatly reduced in some. v. They have an endoskeleton. vi. They have a closed circulatory system. vii. They have visceral clefts where in fish they become the gills in br br higher chordates they are only present in the embryo. br br viii. They have a tubular dorsal nerve cord. It develops anteriorly into br br brain and posteriorly as the spinal cord. Spinal cord is enclosed by the vertebral column. br br ix. They have segmented muscle blocks called myotomes on either br br side of the body. br br The main classes of the phylum chordata are; br br Pisces Amphibia Reptilia. Aves. Mammalia Pisces Diagram These are the fishes. They include those with a skeleton made of cartilage e.g. shark and those with a bony skeleton such as the tilapia, Nile perch, lung fish, dog fish, and cat fish etc. General Characteristics i. The move by fins ii. Bodies are covered with scales iii. Have gills for gaseous exchange in water. iv. They dont have a middle or inner ear. v. They have streamlined bodies. br br 108 vi. They have a lateral line for sensitivity. vii. Their heart has two main chambers i.e. the auricle and the br br ventricle. br br viii. They are poikilothermic/ectothermic. br br ix. Eyes are covered by a nictating membrane. br br Amphibia br br They include the toads, newts, salamanders and frogs. The toad is the most advanced amphibian. Its skin is less moist and therefore uses the lungs more for gaseous exchange. They therefore stay mostly on land and only return to the ponds during reproduction. Diagrams General Characteristics i. They have a double circulatory system. ii. They have a three chambered heart with two atria and one br br ventricle. br br iii. Fertilisation is external and they breed in water. iv. Gaseous exchange is through the skin, lungs and gills. v. They have two eyes and an eardrum behind the eyes. vi. They are ectothermic. vii. They have 4 well developed limbs. The hind limbs are more br br muscular than the forelimbs. br br Reptilia Examples include tortoise, turtles, snakes, crocodiles, lizards and chameleons. General Characteristics i. They are ectothermic. ii. They have a well developed lung for gaseous exchange. iii. They have double circulatory system with the heart having three br br chambers i.e. two atria and a partially divided ventricle. Crocodiles however have a four chambered heart. br br iv. The body is covered with a dry scaly skin reducing desiccation. v. Some have four limbs while others dont have any limbs such as br br the snakes. vi. Fertilisation is internal. They lay eggs with a leathery shell to avoid desiccation. Some species of chameleons give birth to young ones. br br Aves br br Examples include doves, chicken, hawks, eagles and turkeys. They are terrestrial and arboreal while some have been adapted for aquatic life. General Characteristics i. Bodies are covered with feathers for in insulation. ii. They have beaks. iii. They internal auditory canal/ meatus iv. Fertilisation is internal and they lay hard calcareous eggs. v. They have lungs for gaseous exchange. vi. They have air sacs which store air in them reducing their body br br density for flight. vii. They are endothermic. viii. They have hollow bones. br br ix. They have scales on their hind limbs. x. They have double circulatory system with a four chambered br br heart. br br xi. The sternum is enlarged to form keel for attachment of flight br br muscles. Mammalia Study Question 11 br br Some are arboreal such as the tree squirrels, and some monkeys. Some are terrestrial either on the surface of the earth or in tunnels. br br Some are aquatic such as the dolphins and whales. br br General Characteristics i. They have double circulatory system ii. They have mammary glands hence the name Mammalia. iii. Their body is usually covered with fur or hair. iv. They have two eternal ears pinna v. They have sweat glands. vi. They have lungs for gaseous exchange. br br 110 vii. They have four limbs. viii. They have a diaphragm which separates the body cavity into br br thoracic and abdominal cavities.. br br ix. The brain is highly developed. x. They have seven cervical vertebrae at their neck. xi. They are endothermic. xii. They have heterodont type of dentition where the teeth are br br differentiated into four types, incisors, canines, pre-molars and molars. The number varies in relation to feeding habits. br br Although most mammals give birth to live young ones, some br br are egg laying such as the duck billed platypus. After hatching, the young ones are fed on milk. br br Practical Activity 9 Practical Activity 10. The Dichotomous Key The word dichotomous means separating into two. I.e. Separation of different or contradictory things: a separation into two divisions that differ widely from or contradict each other. As you move down the key you progress from general characteristics to more specific characteristics. The last single choice reveals the identity of the unknown organism. Rules Used in Constructing a Dichotomous Key i. Use morphological features as far as possible. ii. Start with the major characteristics and proceed to lesser br br variations that separate the organisms into smaller groups. E.g. in leaves start with type of leaf i.e. simple or compound. br br iii. Select a single characteristic at a time and identify it by a number br br such as. br br Type of leaf Type of venation br br iv. Use identical forms of words for the two contrasting statements br br e.g. br br 1. br br a leaf simple. b Leaf compound br br 111 2. br br a Leaf net veined. b Leaf parallel veined. br br v. The statements should always be written in positive form. Where br br a negative statement cannot be avoided, the first statement must be in the positive form e.g. br br a Animal with wings b Animal without wings vi. Avoid overlapping statements or generalisations such as br br Short plants Tall plants br br Be very specific in your description such as br br Plant I metre tall and above. Plant 15cm to 60cm tall. br br Some common Features Used For Identification. br br In animals br br i. Locomotory structures legs, wings and fins ii. Antennae, presence and number iii. Presence and type of eyes iv. Number of body parts v. Body segmentation vi. Type of skeleton present vii. Feeding structures viii. Presence of hair, fur, scales or feathers on the body In plants br br Part of plant Leaf br br Some characteristics. br br Phylotaxy Leaf type Leaf venation Margin Lamina Colour Inflorescence Flower shape br br Flower Number of floral Type of stem woody, herbaceous or fleshy Shape rectangular or cylindrical Texture of the stem smooth or spiny/thorny Root system taproot or fibrous Storage roots. Summary of the Five Kingdoms. Practical Activities. Revision Questions. br br REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS AND ANIMALS br br This is the process by which mature individuals produce br br offsprings. br br There are two types of reproduction. br br 1 Sexual reproduction which involves male and female br br gametes br br Diagram 2 Asexual reproduction where no gametes are involved. Diagram br br Importance of Reproduction br br 1 Procreation br br This ensures that a species does not become extinct. br br 2 Quality improvement br br Reproduction allows for mixing of genetic materials bringing about variations. These variations are important tools in the refinement of quality of offsprings. br br 113 Cell Division br br Life in all living things start as a single cell as a spore or as a br br zygote. br br The cells have to divide further to give rise to make cells. Cell division starts with division of the nucleus chromosome br br and then the cytoplasm. br br Chromosomes br br These are microscopic thread like structure within cells that carries the molecule deoxyribonucleic acid DNA the hereditary material that influences the development and characteristics of each organism. br br Each chromosome is made up of two parallel strands called br br chromatids. br br Chromatids are joined together at one point by the centromere . br br Diagram br br Each cell has a fixed number of chromosomes e.g. each human br br body cell has 46 chromosomes. br br Chromosomes occur in pairs in the nucleus. A member of each br br pair is called homologous chromosomes. br br Homologous chromosomes are similar in appearance, size, and br br shape but their genetic constitution may be different. Genes are found along the length of the chromosomes. Genes are very tiny and made up of a chemical substance called br br DNA De oxy Ribonucleic Acid DNA determines the characteristics of the offspring. There are two types of cell division i Mitosis ii Meiosis br br Mitosis br br In this type of cell division, each cell divides into two daughter br br cells each having the same number of chromosomes as the parent cell. br br Mitosis occurs in series of stages i.e. br br i Interphase br br 114 ii Prophase iii Metaphase. iv Anaphase v Telophase . 1 Interphase During this stage the following activities take place within the cell in preparation of the division. br br Synthesis of new cell organelles such as ribosomes, centrioles, br br mitochondria and Golgi apparatus. br br Multiplication of genetic material so that each daughter cell will br br have same number of chromosomes as the parent cell. br br Build up of enough energy stores in form of ATP Adenosine br br Triphosphate during respiration. This energy is important to see the cell through the process of division. br br At this stage the chromosomes are not clearly visible. br br Diagrams br br 2 Prophase The following events take place in this stage. br br Centrioles separate and move to opposite poles of the cells. Spindle fibres begin to form Nuclear membrane begins to break down and nucleolus br br disappears. br br Chromosomes thicken and shorten and they can be stained easily br br hence become visible. Diagram br br 3 Metaphase br br Nuclear membrane disappears and chromosomes are free in the cytoplasm. br br Spindle fibres lengthen and attach to the centrioles at both poles. Chromosomes align themselves at the equator and are attached to br br the spindle fibres by their centromere. br br Diagram br br 3 Anaphase Chromatids separate at the centromere and migrate to opposite poles. This is brought about by the shortening of the spindle fibres. br br Spindle fibres begin to disappear. In animal cells, cell membrane begins to constrict towards the end br br of anaphase. br br Diagram br br 4 Telophase br br Chromatids collect together at the two opposite poles of the br br spindle. br br Nuclear membrane forms around each set of chromatids and are br br now referred to as chromosomes. br br Cytoplasm divides into two hence the formation of two daughter br br cells. br br Chromosomes become less distinct. br br In animal cells, division of cytoplasm is by constriction of cell membrane. In plant cells, a cell plate forms within the cytoplasm and grows to separate the cell into two. Diagrams Significance of Mitosis br br i br br Forms basis for asexual reproduction e.g. budding and spore formation. br br ii Causes cell growth when the cells formed increase in br br number and size. br br iii Ensures genetic constitution of the offspring is the same br br as the parents. br br iv Replaces damaged and dead cells in the body. Meiosis br br This involves two divisions of the parental cell resulting into four br br daughter cells. br br First meiotic cell division involves the separation of the br br homologous chromosomes. It is referred to as Reduction division because the numbers of chromosomes are reduced by half. In the second stage, the sister chromatids are separated and it is br br referred to as Equatorial division br br Each daughter cell has half the number of chromosomes haploid br br n as the parent cell. br br This takes place in the reproductive organs of animals testis and br br ovary and plants anthers and ovary . br br Meiosis is divided into same series of stages as in mitosis. The phases are given names as in mitosis but each is followed by br br I or II. br br First Meiotic Division Interphase I The cell prepares for division by the following. br br Replication of chromosomes. Synthesis of new cell organelles. Build up of energy. br br Prophase I br br Nucleolus disappears. Centrioles move to opposite poles. Chromosomes shorten and thicken becoming more visible. Homologous chromosomes lie side by side in the process of br br synapsis forming pairs called bivalents. br br Homologous chromosomes may become coiled around each other br br with their chromatids remaining in contact at points called chiasmata. br br NB/. During chiasma formation homologous chromosomes may exchange genetic material during crossing over. These genetic exchanges are important because they bring about variations in offsprings. Metaphase.I Nuclear membrane disappears. Homologous chromosomes as a bivalent move to the equator of br br the cell. br br Spindle fibres are fully formed and get attached to the br br chromosomes at the centromere. br br 117 Homologous chromosomes orientate towards different poles. Diagram Anaphase I Homologous chromosomes separate and migrate to the opposite br br poles with their centromeres leading. This is brought about by the shortening of the spindle fibres. br br Diagram Telophase I br br Cell divides across the middle when the chromosomes reach the br br poles. br br At the end of meiosis I homologous chromosomes are separated. br br Diagram Second Meiotic Division . In this stage the sister chromatids are separated from each other. Interphase II br br Cells go into a short interphase. br br Prophase II br br Chromosomes become shorter and thicker. New spindle fibres are formed. br br Metaphase.II br br Chromosomes align at the equator of the cell. Spindle fibres attach to their centromeres. Chromosomes orientate themselves towards the opposite poles. br br Anaphase II br br Sister chromatids separate from each other. Spindle fibres shorten pulling them to the opposite poles. br br Telophase II br br Spindle fibres disappears Nucleolus reappears and nuclear membrane forms around each set of chromatids. br br Chromatids uncoil and become threadlike. Cytoplasm divides. Four cells are formed tetrad . Each cell has haploid n number of chromosomes. br br 118 Significance of Meiosis br br 1. Gamete formation sperms and ova forming basis for sexual br br reproduction br br 2. Provides opportunities for genetic variations during crossing over br br Similarities between mitosis and meiosis 1. Both take place in plants and animals. 2. Both involve division multiplication of cells. br br Differences between meiosis and mitosis Mitosis. Meiosis No association of homologous chromosomes br br 1. Homologous br br chromosomes associate with each other. br br 2. Takes place in 2 nuclear br br Takes place in one nuclear division. 2 daughter cells are produced each diploid 2n Occurs in somatic body cells leading to growth. br br divisions. br br 3. 4 daughter cells are br br produced each haploid n br br 4. Occurs in reproductive br br organs leading to gamete formation. br br 5. Chiasma formation takes place leading to crossing over hence variation No chiasma formation therefore no crossing over hence no variation. Asexual Reproduction br br This is the production of offsprings from a single organism br br without fusion of gametes. br br This type of reproduction involves mitosis. br br Types of Asexual Reproduction br br 1. Binary fission in amoeba, plasmodium and bacteria 2. Sporulation in rhizopus 3. Budding in yeasts 1. Binary fission in amoeba When there is enough food and favourable temperature and pH, a br br mature amoeba divides into two. During binary division, in amoeba, internal reorganization of molecules necessary for structural construction takes place. br br Nucleus first divides mitotically Karyogamy into two followed br br by the division of the cytoplasm Cytogamy br br Diagrams br br 2. Sporulation in Rhizopus This is the formation of spores in substrates like the bread to form br br bread moulds br br A spore is a microscopic reproductive unit which contains a br br nucleus and a small amount of cytoplasm. br br Spores are produced by bacteria, most fungi, mosses and ferns. Rhizopus has a vegetative body called the mycelium. Mycelium is made up of many branched threads called hyphae . Horizontal hyphae are called stolons . Vertically growing ones are called sporangiophore . Tips of sporangiophore swell up to form the sporangia br br sporangium . br br Sporangia are the spore bearing structures. When fully mature, sporangium wall burst releasing the spores. If spores land on a suitable medium, they germinate and develop into other rhizopus. br br Rhizopus uses structures called rhizoids for anchorage and to br br obtain nutrients from the substrate. br br Diagrams Budding in Yeast Under favourable conditions such as plenty of sugar, moisture, oxygen and optimum temperature, the yeast cell reproduces asexually by budding. br br A projection of bud forms on the parent cell. Nucleus divides into two. One nuclei moves into the new bud. Bud grows in size and forms new cell organelles. Later the bud br br separates off. br br Diagrams Sexual Reproduction in Plants br br In flowering plants the flower is the reproductive organ. br br Structure and Function of a Flower br br A flower is made up of a flower stalk pedicel and a receptacle. Attached to the receptacle are four groups of floral structures i.e. i Calyx sepals ii Corolla/petals iii iv Androecium male parts Gynoecium female parts i Calyx sepals Made up of the sepals which are usually green. If sepals are fused they form gamosepalous calyx. If they are free, they form polysepalous calyx. Calyx protects the inner parts of the flower especially during bud br br development. br br Some flowers have sepal like structures below the calyx called br br the epicalyx . ii Corolla/petals Its made up of the petals which are brightly coloured, large and br br conspicuous especially in insect pollinated flowers. br br If fused gamopetalous. If free polypetalous iii Androecium male parts Made up of one or more stamens Satmen is made up of the filament and anthers. Another has four pollen sacs containing pollen grains. Pollen grains contain the male gametes. br br Diagrams br br iv It may contain one or more carpels A carpel consists of the ovary, the style and the stigma. Ovary contains the ovules. br br Gynoecium female parts br br 121 Ovaries are described as epigynous, hypogynous or perigynous br br depending on the place they occur in the flower. br br i Epigynous inferior ovary Ovary is located within the receptacle. All other floral parts occur above it such as in the apple flowers. Diagram ii Hypogynous superior ovary Ovary is above the receptacle and other floral parts such as in br br hibiscus. Diagram iii The receptacle surrounds the carpel. All other floral parts arise around the ovary such as in roses. Diagram The gynoecia can also be grouped into different types dependi.ng on the number of carpels present i.e. monocarpous or syncarpous. Monocarpous Gynoecium It has only one carpel e.g. in beans. Diagram Polycarpous Gynoecium It has two or more carpels. It is divided into two. br br Perigynous ovary br br a Apocarpous gynoecium br br The carpels are free e.g in roses and bryophyllum. Diagrams br br b Syncarpous gynoecium br br The carpels are fused together such as in hibiscus. br br Diagrams Terms Used in Describing a Flower br br i Complete flower has all the four floral parts; calyx, corolla, br br androecium and gynoecium. br br ii Incomplete flower has one or two floral parts missing. iii Unisexual flower a flower with only one of the reproductive parts either male or female flower. br br iv Staminate flower male flower. v Pistillate flower female flower. br br 122 vi Monoecious plant bears both male and female parts of the br br flower. br br vii Dioecious plants - the plant is either male or female e.g. in br br paw paw. br br viii Hermaphrodite or bisexual flower has both the male and br br female parts. br br ix Regular or actinomorphic flower a flower that can be br br divided into tow similar halves by any vertical section passing through the center i.e. radial symmetry such as in morning glory. br br x Irregular or zygomorphic flower can be divided into two similar halves on one particular plane only i.e. bilateral symmetry e.g. in clotalaria. br br xi Pedicillate flower- flower with a stalk. xii Solitary flower are flowers occurring singly. xiii Inflorescence flowers that grow in clusters. xiv Essential parts of the flower are the androecium and br br gynoecium. br br xv Non essential floral parts are the calyx and corolla. br br Pollination This is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma. Types of Pollination i br br Self pollination . Transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of the same flower. br br ii Cross Pollination transfer of pollen grains from the anther of one flower to the stigma of another flower but of the same species. Agents of Pollination br br Insect Wind br br Adaptations of Insect Pollinated Flowers Entomophilous br br i br br Flowers are large, conspicuous with brightly coloured petals and inflorescence to attract insects. br br ii Flowers are scented and produce nectar to attract insects. iii Pollen grains are relatively large, heavy, rough or sticky so as br br to stick on to the body of the sticks. br br iv They have small and firmly attached anthers to a firm filament. v Stigmas are small, sticky and contained within the flower. This ensures that pollen grains from the body of an insect stick onto it. br br vi Flowers have a tubular or funnel shaped corolla, landing br br platforms and honey guides. br br Adaptations of Wind Pollinated Flowers Anemophilous e.g. maize and other grasses br br i br br Small flowers with inconspicuous petals, bracts or inflorescence. br br ii Flower structure is simple and flowers have no particular br br shape. br br iii Stigmas are long, feathery and hang outside the flower to trap br br pollen grains. br br iv Pollen grains are small, smooth and light to be easily carried by br br the wind. br br v Flowers are not scented and lack nectar. vi Anthers are large and loosely attached to a flexible filament to br br be easily released when the wind blows. br br Diagram of a grass flower br br Stigma br br br br Anther Filament br br Features and Mechanisms Hindering Self Pollination and Self Fertilization br br i Heterostyly condition whre the stigma na d style have different arrangements e.g. coconut flowers have shorter br br 124 stamens than pistils hence pollen grains from the anthers cannot reach the stigma. br br Diagram ii Self sterility or incompatibility condition where pollen grains br br of a flower fail to germinate if they land on the stigma of the same flower. br br iii Protogyny and Protandry condition where either male parts br br of a flower mature before the female ones. Protandry stamen mature before the stigma e.g.in sunflower. Protogyny stigma matures before the anthers mature e.g. in maize. br br iv Dioecious plants and presence of features that promote cross pollination such as brightly coloured petals which attract insects hence cross pollination. br br Fertilization in Flowering Plants Fertilization in plants is the fusion of the male and female nuclei in the embryo sac. br br Male gamete is contained in the pollen grain produced in the br br anther. Diagram br br Female gamete egg cell is found in ovules contained in the embryo sac. br br br br 125 Process of Fertilization br br br br Style br br Integuments Ovary wall br br Antipodal cells br br Embryo sac Polar nuclei br br Egg cell br br Synegids br br funicle Micropyle br br Pedicel br br - Pollen grains land stick to the stigma and germinates to form br br pollen tube, which grows through the tissue of the style towards the ovary br br - The generative nucleus undergoes mitosis, forming 2 male br br nuclei br br - The pollen tube gets into the embryo sac through the micropyle; pollen tube nucleus disintegrates, creating a passage for the male nuclei. br br - The egg cell fuses with one of the two male nuclei to form a br br diploid zygote. The zygote undergoes mitosis to form an embryo - The two polar nuclei fuse with the second male nucleus to form br br a triploid nucleus. br br - The triploid nucleus forms the endosperm. The two con current fertilization incidents are collectively referred to as double fertilization br br Seed and Fruit Development br br - Some changes occur to the ovary, ovule and the entire flower br br after fertilization. br br - Calyx dries and falls off or may persist. - Petals and stamens wither and fall off. br br 126 Development of the Seed br br - Zygote undergoes mitotic division to become the embryo br br plumule and radicle and one or two cotyledons. br br - Primary endosperm nucleus develops into the endosperm. - Ovule forms the seeds. - Ovary develops into a fruit. - Integuments become the seed coat testa . - Testa has got a scar hilum which is the attachment point to the br br placenta. br br - A seed a tiny opening called the micropyle which allows water br br into the seed during germination. br br - Water is withdrawn from the seed from about 80 to 15 by br br mass making the seed dry and hard. br br Development of Fruits br br - A fruit is a fully grown fertilized ovary containing fully br br developed seeds. br br - This is brought about by the hormones gibberellins and occurs br br after fertilization. br br - As the ovules develop into seeds, the rest of the ovary develops br br into the fruit wall or the pericarp. br br - Pericarp has two scars indicating the points of attachment to the br br style and to the receptacle. br br - Pericarp has three layers; epicarp/exocarp outer most , br br - In some fruits such as pineapples and bananas fruit formation br br takes place without fertilization. This is called parthenocarpy . br br - False fruits are formed when other parts of the flower such as br br the receptacle enlarge and enclose the ovary e.g. in pineapples, apple, straw berry and cashew nut. br br Classification of Fruits br br berry e.g tomato orange br br succulent fruits br br drupe e.g mango and coconut br br schizocarp e.g castor br br fruits br br legume e.g. beans dehiscent br br capsule e.g. poppy br br dry fruits br br nuts e.g. macadamia br br caryopsis e.g maize indehiscent br br cypsela e.g black jack br br Succulent fruits They are divided into berry and drupe. br br 128 Berry has a succulent pericarp divided into epicarp, mesocarp and endocarp e.g. orange, tomato, passion fruit, melon, paw paw etc. Diagram Drupe they have a thin epicarp, fleshy or fibrous mesocarp and a very hard endocarp enclosing the seeds. In mango the fleshy edible part is the mesocarp while in coconut the mesocarp is a fibrous cover just before the hard endocarp. Diagram Dry Fruits br br - They are divided into dehiscent and indehiscent. br br Dry Dehiscent fruit They dehisce to release their seeds. They are divided into; br br 1. Legume e.g beans Diagram br br 3. Schizocarp e.g. castor. br br Diagram br br Dry indehiscent fruits br br - These do not dehisce. - They include; 1. Caryopsis - pericarp and seed coat are fused together to form a br br thin covering round the seed e.g. maize. br br Diagram 2. Cypsela - its a one seeded e.g. the blackjack. br br Diagram br br 3. Nut the pericarp becomes hard and woody and it is separate br br from the seed coat e.g. macadamia. Diagram br br Placentation br br - This is the arrangement of the ovules in an ovary. They include; br br 129 1. Marginal Placentation . - Ovules are attached to the placenta in a row e.g. peas in a pod. Diagram 2. Basal placentation - Placenta is formed at the base of the ovary. Ovules are attached br br to it sunflower and sweet pepper. br br Diagram 3. Axile Placentation - The edges of the carpels fuse together to form a central placenta br br in the axile. br br - Ovules are arranged on the placenta. - The ovary is divided into a number of loculi by the walls of the br br carpel e.g. in orange br br Diagram 4. Parietal Placentation - Edges of the carpels fuse together and dividing walls disappear br br leaving a loculus. br br - Placentas from each carpel appear as a ridge on the ovary wall br br and have numerous ovules on them e.g. in paw paw. br br Diagram 5. Free central placentation - Edges of carpels fuse together and the dividing walls disappear br br leaving one loculus. br br - Placenta appears at the center and have numerous ovules on it e.g. in primrose br br Diagram br br Adaptations of Fruits to Various Agents of Dispersal a Water dispersal br br - Such seeds and fruits enclose air in them to lower their br br density for buoyancy; br br - They are fibrous/ spongy to lower the density for br br buoyancy; br br - Have impermeable seed coat or epicarp to prevent water from entering during flotation so as to avoid rotting; br br - The seeds can remain viable while in water and only br br germinate while on a suitable medium; br br b Wind dispersal br br - They are light; and small; to be easily carried by wind br br currents due to lower density; br br - Have developed extension Parachute like structures and Wing like structures which create a larger surface area; so as to be kept afloat in wind currents e.g. sonchus and jacaranda br br - In some a Perforated capsule is usually loosely attached to a long stalk which is swayed away by wind scattering seeds; br br c Animal dispersal br br - Brightly colored to attract animals - Fleshy to attract animals; e.g. mangoes, passion fruits, br br oranges, tomatoes etc. br br - aromatic /scented to attract animals; - The seed coats are hard and resistant to digestive enzymes; the seeds are therefore dropped away in feaces/droppings e.g. passion fruit and tomatoes. br br - Some have hook like structures to attach on animals fur br br e.g. blackjack br br d Self dispersal br br - They have weak lines sutures on the fruit wall pod , along which they burst open to release seeds, which get scattered away from the parent plant e.g. in legumes such as peas and beans. SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN ANIMALS br br This involves gamete fusion. The male produces the male gamete sperms and the female br br produces the female gamete ovum/ova . br br The gametes are produced in special organs called gonads i.e. the br br testes and ovaries. The sperm fuses with the ovum to form a zygote through a br br process called fertilisation the gametes are haploid and the zygote is diploid. br br Fertilisation may be internal or external. br br External Fertilisation in Amphibians br br The female lays eggs and the male sheds sperms on them to br br fertilise them . This is only possible in water. br br Many eggs are released to increase the chances of survival since br br bacteria and other organisms can eat fertilised eggs. br br Eggs are also in long strands of slippery jelly like substance, br br which offer the eggs protection. br br This substance separates the eggs from each other allowing for br br good aeration. br br It also attaches the eggs to water plants and makes them buoyant. br br Internal Fertilisation br br This occurs in reptiles, birds and mammals where fertilisation br br occurs within the body of the female. br br Sperms are introduced into the females body. Few eggs are produced because there are high chances of br br fertilisation and the gametes/zygote receive further protection. br br In most mammals, some chameleons and some snakes the br br fertilised eggs develop into young ones within the body of the female. They give birth to young ones. Study Question 8 Reproduction in Mammals br br Mammals have internal fertilization where eggs are laid or br br develop within the females body in the uterus. br br The egg laying mammals monotremes they are said to be br br oviparous such as the platypus. br br Platypus The duck-billed platypus, Ornithorhynchus anatinus, found only in eastern Australia, belongs to an unusual group of egg-laying mammals called monotremes. It lives in streams, rivers, and occasionally lakes. The duck-billed platypus feeds on bottom- dwelling aquatic insect larvae, which it finds by probing the streambed with its pliable, sensitive bill. In marsupials such as the kangaroo the zygote does not develop fully within the uterus but completes development in the pouch. br br Mother Kangaroo and Baby br br Kangaroos are a type of mammal called a marsupial. Baby marsupials are unable to survive on their own when they are born, so they must live in a pouch on their mothers belly. A newborn kangaroo, called a joey, stays in its mothers pouch for about six months, where it feeds on her milk. br br The ability to give birth to young ones as in placental mammals is br br called viviparity. br br Mammals have mammary glands, which produce milk on which the young ones are fed. Parental care is highly developed in mammals. br br 133 Reproduction in Human beings Structure and Function of The male Reproductive System br br br br Male Reproductive System br br The organs of the male reproductive system enable a man to have sexual intercourse and to fertilize female sex cells eggs with sperm. The gonads, called testicles, produce sperm. Sperm pass through a long duct called the vas deferens to the seminal vesicles, a pair of sacs that lies behind the bladder. These sacs produce seminal fluid, which mixes with sperm to produce semen. Semen leaves the seminal vesicles and travels through the prostate gland, which produces additional secretions that are added to semen. During male orgasm the penis ejaculates semen. br br Testes are found outside the abdominal cavity in the scrotal sac. This position provides a cooler environment for sperm production since sperms develop best at lower temperature than that of the body. br br Testis is made up of highly coiled tubes called seminiferous tubules whose inner lining has actively dividing cells which give rise to sperms. br br Between the seminiferous tubules are interstitial cells, which br br produce the male hormones androgens . br br 134 br br Internal View of Male Reproductive System br br The reproductive anatomy of the male human is largely external. Beginning at puberty, sperm are produced within seminiferous tubules of the testicles, a pair of glands that reside in a pouch called the scrotum. The external location of the scrotum keeps the temperature of sperm slightly below body temperature, which is necessary for their healthy development and survival. From each testicle, sperm migrate to a long, coiled tube known as the epididymis, where they are stored for one to three weeks until they mature. Also located outside the body is the penis, the erectile organ responsible for the excretion of urine and the transfer of sperm to the vagina of the female. Just before ejaculation during sexual arousal, mature sperm travel from the epididymis, a coiled tube behind each testicle, through a long duct called the vas deferens. Sperm leave the body in semen, a fluid produced by the seminal vesicles. br br Seminiferous tubules unite to form the epididymis, which is br br about 6m long and highly coiled. It stores the sperms. br br Its connected to the sperm duct/vas deferens. Sperm duct br br connects the epididymis to the urethra, which is the ejaculatory duct. br br Seminal vesicles provide an alkaline fluid, which contains br br nutrients for the sperms. br br 135 Prostate gland secretes an alkaline substance to neutralise the br br vaginal fluids. It also activates the sperms. br br Cowpers glands secrete an alkaline fluid that neutralizes the br br acidity along the urethra. br br All these fluids combine with the spermatozoa to form the br br semen. br br Since the urethra serves both passage of urine and semen it is br br said to be urino-genital in function. br br The penis is erectile and made of spongy tissue, muscle and br br blood vessels. br br Once erect, the penis is able to penetrate the vagina in order to br br deposit sperms into the females reproductive tract. br br Study question 9 and Practical. Structure and Function of The Female Reproductive System . Diagram br br The internal sex organs of the female consist of the vagina, br br uterus, fallopian tubes or oviducts , and ovaries. br br The vagina is a flexible tube-shaped organ that is the passageway between the uterus and the opening in the vulva. Because during birth the baby travels from the uterus through the vagina, the vagina is also known as the birth canal. br br The woman's menstrual flow comes out of the uterus and through br br the vagina. br br When a man and a woman engage in vaginal intercourse, the br br penis is inserted into the vagina. br br The cervix is located at the bottom of the uterus and includes the opening between the vagina and the uterus. It secretes a plug of mucus, which prevents entry of pathogens into the uterus during pregnancy. br br The uterus is a muscular organ that has an inner lining br br endometrium richly supplied with blood vessels and glands. During pregnancy, the uterus holds and nourishes the developing foetus. br br Although the uterus is normally about the size of a fist, during pregnancy it is capable of stretching to accommodate a fully developed foetus, which is typically about 50 cm about 20 in long and weighs about 3.5 kg about 7.5 lbs . br br The uterine muscles also produce the strong contractions of br br labour. br br At the top of the uterus are the pair of fallopian tubes oviduct br br that lead to the ovaries. br br The two ovaries produce eggs, or ova the female sex cells that can become fertilized , and female sex hormones, primarily oestrogen and progesterone. br br The fallopian tubes have finger like projections at the ends near the ovaries that sweep the egg into the fallopian tube after it is released from the ovaries. br br Movement of ovum is also aided by the smooth muscles of the br br oviduct. br br If sperm are present in the fallopian tube, fertilization br br conception may occur and the fertilized egg will be swept into the uterus by cilia hair like projections inside the fallopian tube . Practical br br The Human Sperm br br Are formed in the seminiferous tubules of testes by meiosis. Final products of meiosis enter the sertoli cells where they are br br nourished and undergo maturation. br br Mature sperms leave for epididymis where they are stored. A mature sperm has an ovoid head, short neck, middle piece and br br a tail. br br Diagram br br Head has a large nucleus carrying the genetic material, which is br br haploid n . At the tip of the head there is the acrosome containing lytic br br enzymes. These enzymes digest the wall of ova. br br The short neck contains centrioles. Middle piece has a large number of mitochondria, which provide with the energy required for propulsion of the sperm to reach the ova. br br The tail propels the sperm forward by its side-to-side lashing br br action. br br Formation of The Ova br br In females egg formation begins in the ovary of the foetus before br br birth unlike in males where production of sperms starts at puberty. br br At birth there are about 70,000 potential egg cells in the ovaries br br of a baby girl. br br A layer of ovary cells called primary follicles , which provide br br them with nourishment, encloses them. br br Only about 500 of them develop into ova during puberty. During puberty the primary follicles grow to become Graafian follicle . At ovulation, the Graafian follicle bursts open to release a mature br br ovum surrounded by a layer of cells. br br Diagram br br A mature ovum is spherical in shape with a diameter of about 0.2 br br mm. br br It has a large haploid nucleus surrounded by a nuclear membrane. Nucleus is within the cytoplasm enclosed by the plasma membrane . Vitelline membrane surrounds the plasma membrane. Fertilisation br br Process where the nucleus of a male gamete fuses with the br br nucleus of a female gamete to form a zygote. br br This takes place in the upper part of he oviduct after copulation. Sperms are drawn up by suction through the cervix into the uterus. They swim up to the oviduct using their tails. br br Very many sperms are released but only one is required to br br fertilise the ovum. br br The ovum releases chemical substances, which are neutralised by br br those released by the acrosome. br br When the ovum comes into contact with the egg the acrosome br br bursts releasing lytic enzymes, which dissolve the egg membranes. br br The acrosome turns inside out forming a filament, which is used br br to penetrate the eggs. br br Diagrams br br The Vitelline membrane undergoes a change, which stops any br br other sperm from entering the ovum. br br Once inside the cytoplasm the head bursts to release the male nucleus, which then fuses with the female nucleus to form a diploid zygote. br br After ovulation the ovum can remain viable for 8-24 hours before br br it dies. br br The sperm can remain viable for 2-3 days in the female br br reproductive tract. After fertilisation, the zygote undergoes various mitotic divisions as it moves down the oviduct. Its movement is aided by cilia in the oviduct and by the contractions of the smooth muscles lining the oviduct. br br By the time it reaches the uterus it has formed a hollow structure br br of cells called blastocyst. br br Movement of the zygote from the oviduct to the time it is br br implanted takes about 7 days. br br Diagrams br br Sometime the zygote may fail to move down to the uterus and gets implanted into the walls of the oviduct. This condition is referred to as ectopic pregnancy . br br Formation of Placenta br br During implantation the blastocyst differentiates into three layers, br br chorion, amnion and allantois. br br Diagram br br Chorion is the outermost and it has finger like projections called chorionic villi . These villi grow into the endometrium. During the early stages of embryo development, villi form the sites for material exchange between the embryo and maternal blood vessels. br br Amnion surrounds the embryo forming an amniotic cavity. br br Amniotic cavity contains the amniotic fluid, which suspends the foetus providing it with support. It also acts as a shock absorber hence protecting it against mechanical injury. br br The chorionic villi, allantois and the endometrium form the br br placenta. br br The embryo is attached to the placenta by a tube called the br br umbilical cord . br br When the placenta is fully formed, the embryo becomes the br br foetus at about three months of pregnancy. br br 140 The Role of The Placenta br br This is a temporary organ found only in placental mammals. It is the only organ in animals composed of cells derived from two different organisms; the foetus and the mother. br br It facilitates the transfer of nutrients and metabolic waste products between the mother and the foetus. It selectively allows some materials to pass through and not others. br br Refer to the table below br br Drugs, alcohol and some chemicals from cigarette smoke pass br br through the placenta. Pregnant mothers should therefore not take alcohol or smoke excessively. br br There is no direct connection between the foetal blood system and br br that of the mother. br br If the two systems were directly connected, the delicate blood vessels of the foetus would burst due the higher pressure in the maternal circulatory system. br br Exchange of materials occurs across the sinus in the uterine wall and the capillary system of foetus across intercellular space by diffusion. br br Diagram br br Study question 13 br br During pregnancy, placenta takes over the role of producing br br hormones oestrogen and progesterone. br br Major functions of oestrogen and progesterone during pregnancy Oestrogen i. Growth of mammary Progesterone. i. Growth of mammary br br glands Inhibits FSH release. Inhibits prolactin release. br br glands. Inhibits FSH release Inhibits prolactin release. Inhibits contraction of ii. iii. iv. Prevent infection in ii. iii. iv. uterus Increase size of the uterine muscle cells. Increase ATP and creatine phosphate formation. Increases sensitivity of myometrium to oxytocin. br br myometrium. br br v. br br vi. br br What is allowed to pass through the placenta From the mother to the foetus. br br What is not allowed to pass through the placenta i. All blood cells. ii. Plasma proteins. iii. Most bacteria. br br i. Oxygen ii. Vitamins iii. Mineral salts iv. Hormones v. Water vi. Antibodies and antigens. vii. Glucose, amino acids, br br fatty acids and glycerol. br br From the foetus to the mother br br i. Carbon iv oxide. ii. Nitrogenous wastes. br br Gestation Period br br This is the period between conception and birth. This varies in br br different animals. E.g. mice 22 days Rabbits, 30 days Man, 9 months Elephants, 18 month When the human embryo is two weeks old, allantois, br br chorion and amnion have already formed. Embryo then differentiates into tissues and organs. br br By the end of the third month , the heart and blood vessels are fully developed. Spinal cord and the head region, which includes the eyes and the nose, are also well developed. Limbs show early signs of development. br br By the end of 6 months the alveoli and nose are well developed. Foetal movement can as well be felt. br br By the end of the nine months , the foetus head is directly br br above the cervix. br br By now all the organs and systems are fully developed. If birth occurs before completion of 6 months, this is called br br miscarriage and the baby cannot survive. br br If the foetal development is interfered with either br br physically or chemically such that the foetus is released, this is called abortion. br br If birth occurs after 7 months but before term, this is called premature birth . Such babies are raised in incubators and they do survive. br br Pregnant mothers must have a balanced diet. Calcium, br br proteins, phosphates and iron should be abundant in her diet. br br Calcium and phosphorous are needed for bone formation br br while iron is for haemoglobin formation. Pregnant mother should visit antenatal clinic. Birth/Parturition br br Maternal posterior pituitary gland releases hormone oxytocin. Progesterone level goes down. Oxytocin stimulates contraction of the myometrium. br br Oxytocin is released in waves during labour. This provides the force required to expel the foetus from the uterus. br br The cervix dilates, the amnion and chorion rupture br br releasing the amniotic fluid. br br The uterus starts contacting from the top downwards pushing the foetus downwards head first through the widened cervix and the birth canal. br br After birth, the umbilical cord is ligatured/cut to separate the baby from the placenta. Placenta is expelled later after birth. br br Then newborn baby takes in the first breath, lungs expand and become functional. The respiratory role of the placenta is taken over by the lungs. br br Diagrams br br Caesarean delivery br br This is the surgical incision of the abdominal and uterine br br walls for delivery to be achieved. This is done where there are complications ns such that the foetus cannot pass through the birth canal. br br Parental care br br The newborn baby is given food and protection. Placental mammals feed their young ones on milk. Milk is produced by the mammary glands under the influence of lactogenic hormones e.g. prolactin. br br Mothers milk is the best as it contains all the nutrients needed for the growth and development of the body. For the first 3 days, colostrum is produced which contain antibodies, which provide natural defence to the foetus against diseases. br br Milk is deficient of iron. The baby relies on iron stored in br br its liver during gestation. br br Milk let down is an example of a reflex action. The prevailing environment as shown below influences it br br either positively or negatively. br br Milk production in various environments br br Positive Environment Negative Environment br br Sucking at the breast, smell of the baby or crying of the baby trigger milk let down. br br Milk let down may be inhibited or blocked if the breastfeeding mother experiences embarrassment, fatigue or anxiety. br br Hypothalamus relays impulses to pituitary gland which releases hormone oxytocin Oxytocin reaches the breasts and causes alveoli to contract forcing milk into the ducts. br br Ducts conduct milk into the reservoirs behind the areola br br Baby sucks the milk from this reservoir. br br Assignment br br Child labour br br Role of Hormones in Human Reproduction br br Secondary sexual characteristics br br These are physiological, structural and mental changes associated with masculinity and femininity. They are controlled by oestrogen in females and androgens in males. They occur at puberty. br br Secondary sexual characteristics in males br br Hypothalamus stimulates pituitary gland to release br br gonadotrophic hormones i.e. FSH and LH. br br FSH stimulates sperm synthesis. LH is also known as Interstitial Cell Stimulating Hormone br br ICSH and it stimulates interstitial cells to release Androgens mostly Testosterone. It stimulates the onset of secondary sexual characteristics mostly at the age of 14. These include; br br i. Deepening of voice ii. Growth of hair in pubic parts and armpit region iii. Appearance of beards iv. Body becomes masculine v. Testes enlarge and begin to produce sperms br br Secondary sexual characteristics in females br br In females they start at early age 10-12 years. They include, br br i. Development of mammary glands ii. Growth of hair in pubic parts and armpit region iii. Enlargement of the pelvic girdle and widening of the br br hips br br iv. Body becomes feminine. v. Ovaries mature and start releasing eggs under the br br influence of FSH and LH hence ovulation and menses. Unlike in males, the production of gonadotrophic hormones br br is not continuous. It is produced periodically in cycles. br br Menstrual Cycle br br br br Menstruation An average menstrual cycle begins with three to five br br days of menstruation, the shedding of the uterine lining, during which hormone levels are low. br br At the end of menstruation, pituitary gland secrets FSH which has two functions. It stimulates new Graafian follicles to develop in the ovary and stimulates the ovary to secrete the hormone oestrogen. br br Oestrogen brings about repair and healing of the br br endometrium, which is destroyed during menstruation. br br Oestrogen accumulates to levels, which stimulate the release of LH. LH stimulates the maturity of Graafian follicle. The mature Graafian follicle releases the ovum into the fallopian tube. This is called Ovulation and occurs on the 14th day. br br The empty Graafian follicle forms the corpus luteum, an br br endocrine body that secretes progesterone. br br LH stimulates corpus luteum to secrete hormone br br progesterone. This hormone stimulates thickening and increased blood supply to the endometrium preparing the endometrium for implantation. br br If fertilization takes place, the level of progesterone increases and thus inhibits FSH from stimulating the maturation of another Graafian follicle. br br If fertilization does not take place, the corpus luteum dies br br and progesterone hormone levels fall. br br Without hormonal support, the uterine lining br br disintegrates and discharges, beginning a new menstrual period and cycle. br br This cycle lasts for 28 days in human beings. br br 146 Assignment Sanitary Health br br Menopause STI br br Advantages of Asexual reproduction i. Good qualities from the parents are retained since there br br is no variation. br br ii. There is faster maturation. iii. br br Its independent of processes such as pollination, fertilisation and fruit and seed dispersal br br iv. New offsprings are able to obtain nourishment from their parents and are therefore able to survive under unsuitable conditions. br br v. There is no wastage of a large number of offsprings . br br Disadvantages i. Reduction in strength and vigour in offsprings. ii. Undesired qualities are easily inherited. iii. Due to faster maturation there are chances of br br overcrowding and competition. br br iv. Offsprings may not withstand changing environmental br br conditions due to lack of variation. br br Advantages of sexual reproduction i. There is hybrid vigour due to mixing of genetic material. ii. There is high adaptability iii. Variation form basis for evolutionary changes. Disadvantages i. May produce individuals with undesirable qualities. ii. Method is dependent of union of gametes and therefore may not take place if the two organisms are isolated br br Revision Questions BIOLOGY FORM FOUR NOTES br br THE EYE The mammalian eye is spherical; fluid filled and has three layers; br br Outer layer or sclera Middle layer or choroid Inner layer or retina Adaptations of the eye br br Part Properties Functions 1. Sclera Protects delicate inner br br parts of the eye. br br Maintain shape of the br br eye. br br 2. Cornea Allow light into the br br eye. br br Refract light entering br br the eye br br 3. Conjunctiva Thin and Allow light into the br br transparent layer before the cornea. Have cells that have melanin, arteries veins br br eye. br br Protects the cornea. br br 4. Choroid Provide nourishment to br br the eye. br br Pigment prevents reflection of light within the eyeball. Produce the aqueous 5. Ciliary body Have thin rings br br of thickened tissue arising from choroids. br br humour br br br br 6. Ciliary muscle Have circular Muscles alter the br br and radial muscles which are antagonistic. fibrous br br tension of suspensory ligaments. br br 7. Suspensory ligaments. br br Alter the shape of the br br lens. br br 8. Pupil br br Hole at the center of iris. br br Regulates the amount of light entering the eye. br br 9. Iris br br Contain melanin, circular and radial muscles. br br Give the eye its colour. Regulates the amount br br of light entering the eye humor from vitreous humor. br br allow light pass / refract light, br br Hydrostatic pressure maintain shape of eyeball. br br Contains sugars / proteins / salts provide nutrients to eye. br br Rods are sensitive to br br low light intensity and detect black and white and more in nocturnal animals. Have photochemical pigment called rhodopsin. Cones are sensitive to high light intensity, detect colour and present in large numbers in diurnal animals. Have photochemical pigment called iodopsin . br br Its the most sensitive part of the retina. Image is formed here. Optic nerve leaves the br br retina. br br Blood vessels emerge br br here to nourish the eye. br br Transmits nerve br br impulses to the brain for interpretation. Tears moisten the br br cornea and washout foreign particles. Tears have antiseptic br br effect. br br Draw across the eye br br move eyeball within br br socket br br orbi t- protective eye lids -protect the eye br br by closing br br Eye lashes -prevent br br entry of small foreign particles. br br Eye brows -prevent dust sweat from entering eye. Image formation and interpretation br br Light from an object is refracted by cornea, aqueous br br humour, the lens, through the vitreous humour and focused on the yellow spot of the retina. br br Image formed is recorded as real, inverted and small. Photoreceptors are stimulated and generate a nerve impulse which is transmitted by the optic nerve to the cerebrum of the brain for interpretation. br br In the brain the image is interpreted as real, upright and br br normal. br br Images from the right eye are interpreted by the left br br hemisphere of cerebrum while those from the left eye by the right hemisphere. Diagram pages 100 KLB Binocular vision or Stereoscopic Vision br br This is the ability of both eyes to look straight ahead but br br see the same scene from a slightly different angle. br br The eyes' visual fields overlap in the center, and the brain merges these images to create a sense of depth important for judging distance. br br Humans and other mammals have stereoscopic vision. Birds, fish, and snakes have monocular vision in which each eye sees a separate image covering a wide area on each side of the head. br br 3. Damage to one eye is compensated by the other 4. Cancels the effect of blind spot br br Accommodation of The Eye br br This is the refraction of light in order to fall on the fovea centralis yellow spot for clear focus of image regardless of the distance of the object. Accommodation of a close object br br Ciliary muscles contract thereby relaxing the tension on br br suspensory ligaments. br br Curvature of the lens increases. The close objects are greatly refracted by the lens focusing br br them on the retina. br br Diagram Accommodation of a distant object br br Ciliary muscles relax increasing the tension on suspensory br br ligaments. br br The lens is stretched decreasing its curvature i.e. lens br br become thinner. br br Light rays from the object are less refracted and focused on br br the retina. br br Diagram Control of Light Entering the Eye br br 1. Bright Light Circular muscles of iris contract and the radial muscles br br relax. br br Diameter of pupil decrease and less light enters. This protects retina from damage by too much light. Diagram br br 2. Dim Light. Circular muscles relax and radial muscles contract. Diameter of pupil increase and more light enters the eye. This allows in enough light to stimulate photoreceptors on br br the retina. br br Diagram Defects of the Eye 1. Short sightedness Myopia br br This is the ability to view near objects clearly but distant br br objects are blurred. This is due to a long eyeball and image is formed before the br br retina. Correction br br Wearing concave Diverging lens br br Diagram 2. Long sightedness Hypermetropia br br This is the ability to view distant objects clearly but near br br objects are blurred. br br This is due to a short eyeball and image is formed behind br br the retina. br br Correction br br Wearing convex converging lens br br Diagram 3. Astigmatism br br The curvature of the cornea is uneven hence the image is br br formed on different planes. br br Its corrected by wearing cylindrical lens. br br 4. Squintedness br br Eyeballs face different directions due to defective muscles br br which move the eye left and right. br br Corrected surgically 5. Old sight Presbyopia 6. Cataracts 7. Colour blindness Diagram br br Adaptations of the ear to its Functions The ear is divided into: br br 1. Outer ear Pinna. - Pinna is funnel shaped to direct sound waves into br br auditory canal; br br - its large to offer large surface area for collection of br br sound waves; br br Auditory meatus/canal - Tube that directs sound waves to ear drum. - Lined with hairs to trap solid particles. - Lined with wax secreting cells to trap dust. 3. Inner ear. Its fluid filled br br Cochlea - Its responsible for hearing - Its filled with endolymph and perilymph - Highly coiled to occupy a small space ; and increase br br surface area ; for accommodation of many sensory cells br br - Vibrations from oval window are transmitted to br br perilymph which vibrates br br - Sensory cells are stimulated by these vibrations to br br generate nerve impulses which are transmitted to the brain for interpretation. Diagram Semi circular canals - Has semi circular canals which are at right angles to each br br other br br - Each canal has a swelling called ampulla at one end br br containing sensory cells. br br - Contains endolymph Terms used in genetics br br 1. Inheritance ; transmission of characteristics from the br br parents to the offsprings br br 2. Variation; possession of characteristics different from those br br of the parents and other offsprings. br br 3. DNA ; De-oxyribonucleic acid 4. RNA ; Ribonucleic acid 5. Monohybrid inheritance ; inheritance of one characteristic controlled by one pair of hereditary factors e.g. Tallness 6. Dihybrid inheritance ; inheritance of two characteristics at the same time e.g. colour and Texture/shape in the garden pea plant br br 7. Dominance; ability of a trait to only express itself 8. Recessiveness; a trait that only expresses itself when in br br homozygous state. br br 9. Heterozygosity ; presence of two dissimilar members of an br br allele e.g. Rr, Tt etc. br br 10. Homozygosity ; presence of two similar of an allele e.g. br br TT, RR, tt, rr etc. br br 11. Allele ; one pair of genes which occupy corresponding br br loci/positions in homologous chromosomes 12. Phenotype - the physical appearance of an individual br br or organism. Its influenced by the genotype and environment. br br 13. Genotype - the genetic constitution of an organism. Its br br purely genetical. br br 14. br br F1 generation first filial generation - are the offsprings that represent the first generation of organisms or individuals under study. br br 15. F2 generation second filial generation - these are br br offsprings obtained after self crossing the F1 gen. br br 16. Incomplete dominance/ co-dominance - a condition br br where no allele is dominant over the other. The phenotype of the offspring is intermediate between that of the parents. br br 17. Multiple allelism - are characteristics determined by br br more than two variant forms of a single gene e.g. inheritance of the Blood groups in man ABO br br 18. br br Test cross / back cross - its a crossing involving a homozygous recessive to determine the genotype of an organism. br br 19. Mutation- these are spontaneous changes in the br br individuals genetic makeup. br br Concepts of Variation Variation refers to observable differences among living organisms. Types of variation br br 1. Discontinuous variation in this type of variation, there are distinct and definite groups of individuals with no intermediate forms. E.g. br br sex either male or female, blood groups- one can only belong to one of the br br four blood groups A,B,AB,O br br ability to role the tongue Presence of long hair in the nose and on the ear br br pinna. br br Presence of a free or attached ear lobe. All these traits are controlled by one or two major genes. These traits are not influenced by the environment br br 2. Continuous variation this variation has a wide range of differences for the same characteristic from one extreme to the other e.g. Height Skin colour/pigmentation A normal distribution curve of heights This type of variation is brought about by the interaction of both the genetic environmental factors. E.g. a plant with genes for tallness may fail to grow tall due to climate and poor soils. br br Practical Activity 1 br br Tongue rolling Finger prints Height br br Causes of variation br br 1. Gamete formation during gamete formation two br br processes contribute to variation. These are br br Independent assortment - during metaphase I of meiotic division, homologous chromosomes come together in pairs and segregate into daughter cells independently of each other. This independent assortment produces a variety of different gametes. The total number of combinations is given by 2n where n is the haploid number of chromosomes. In man n 23 hence 2n 223 which is equal to 8,388,608. br br Crossing over during the prophase I of meiotic cell division. I.e. when homologous chromosomes break and rejoin at certain points called chiasmata. br br 2. Fertilization during fertilization parental genes ca br br come together in different combinations. Therefore desirable and undesirable qualities of parents can be combined in the offsprings. br br 3. Mutation - these are spontaneous changes in the genetic makeup of an organism. Mutation brings about changes in the living organisms. br br The Chromosome Each chromosome is made up of two parallel strands called chromatids. Each pair of chromatids is connected at a point by the centromere. Chromosomes contain the hereditary material called the genes. All cells including the sperms and ova have chromosomes. Chromosomes are present in the nucleus and are only visible under the microscope during cell division mitosis and meiosis. There is a definite number of chromosomes in each cell for every species of animal or plant. E.g. in man somatic cells body cells have 46 chromosomes while the sex cells/gametes have 23 chromosomes. During fertilization fusion of the sperm- 23 chromosomes and the ova - 23 chromosomes restores the 46 chromosomes to form a diploid zygote. br br Chromosomal numbers in different organisms br br Organism Number of chromosomes br br Somatic cells 2n 56 60 8 br br Gametes - n br br Sheep Ovis auries Cow Bos Taurus Fruit-fly Drosophila melanogaster Maize Zea mays Wheat Triticum vulgare Tobacco Nicotiana tabacum Man Homo sapiens br br 28 30 4 br br 20 14 12 br br 46 23 Practical Activity 2 br br Chromosomal behaviour during mitosis Chromosomal behaviour in meiosis br br GENES AND DNA Genes occupy specific positions on the chromosomes called the gene loci gene locus The gene is a chemical in nature. The genes are in the form of a nucleic acid molecule called De-oxyribonucleic acid DNA . In 1953 two Biologists Francis Crick and James Watson worked out the structure of the DNA. DNA was found to be composed of three different components; br br 1. A five carbon sugar-pentose 2. phosphate molecule 3. nitrogenous base br br There are four types of the nitrogenous base; br br Adenine N Guanine G Thymine- G Cytosine C br br A combination the pentose sugar, a phosphate molecule and a nitrogenous base forms a nucleotide. I.e. br br Phosphate br br Base Pentose sugar DNA structure contains several nucleotides fused together to form long chains called DNA strands. Two parallel strands twist on one another forming a double helix structure. Adenine always combines with Thymine and Cytosine with Guanine. br br Diagram br br Role of DNA br br Stores genetic information in a coded form Enables transfer of genetic information unchanged to br br daughter cells through replication br br Translates the genetic information into the br br characteristics of an organism through protein synthesis br br DNA REPLICATION br br During cell division both daughter cells arising from mitotic division have the same genetic constitution as the parent cell. DNA in the parent cell must therefore duplicate accurately before the cell divides. The process through which a DNA molecule forms an exact Replica is called DNA replication . br br The two strands forming the double helix separates br br like a zipper . Each parallel strand becomes a template that specifies the base sequence of a new complimentary strand. Through the action of replicating enzymes, free nucleotides take up positions along the template strands. br br The specificity of the base pairing ensures that only complimentary bases link together with those on the template strands. I.e. G-C and A-T. br br Covalent bonds are formed between the nucleotides resulting in the formation of a new DNA strand. The template and the new DNA strand the undergo coiling to form a double helix. In this way, two identical DNA molecules are formed from the original single molecule. br br Each of the new DNA molecules gets incorporated into one of the two nuclei formed just prior to the separation of the daughter cells. Diagram br br Role of the DNA in protein synthesis The sequence of bases along the DNA strand acts as the alphabet and determines the sequence of amino acids when they join to form a polypeptide chain. Protein synthesis takes place in ribosomes found in the cytoplasm. Since the DNA molecules are confined in the nucleus, there has to be a way of communicating the DNA information to the ribosomes where actual protein synthesis occurs. The cell therefore has a special molecule called the Ribonucleic acid RNA . Its role is to carry genetic information from the DNA to the site of protein synthesis in the cytoplasm. Its referred to as messenger RNA mRNA . RNA is formed from the DNA strands. During formation of the mRNA a section of the DNA strands acts as the template strand. The double helix of the DNA unzips and free nucleotides align themselves opposite the template. The base sequence of the template strand is copied onto a new strand. In RNA, Thymine is replaced by another base called Uracil U The transfer of DNA sequence on the mRNA strand is referred to as Transcription. triplets known as Codons which code for a particular amino acid of a protein molecule e.g. br br AAA-phenylalanine TTT-lysine CAA- valine CTA- aspartic acid br br Differences between DNA and RNA br br DNA 1. Has De-ox ribose sugar 2. Double stranded 3. Confined in the nucleus br br RNA br br Has ribose sugar Single stranded Found in nucleus and cytoplasm Has organic bases as cytosine, guanine, adenine and uracil br br cytosine, guanine, adenine and thymine. THE FIRST LAW OF HEREDITY MENDELS EXPERIMENTS An Austrian monk known as Mendel is considered to be the father of genetics. He carried out various breeding experiments and observed variations in different characteristics of the garden pea. The characteristics include: br br Height of the stems- tall or dwarf Texture of the seed coat- smooth or wrinkled Colour of the seeds- yellow or green Texture of the ponds Colour of the flowers- white or purple Position of the flower- axial or terminal br br He selected a group of dwarf plants and self pollinated them by dusting mature pollen grains onto the stigmas of the same plant. He collected the resulting seeds and planted them. He noted that these seeds grew into dwarf plants only. He repeated the experiment for several generations and obtained the same results. In another experiment, Mendel selected tall plants and self- pollinated them. He planted the resulting seeds and observed that they grew into a mixture of tall and dwarf plants. He took seeds from the tall offsprings only and repeated the experiment for many generations until he obtained only tall plants. This way he was able to obtain a pure line of tall garden peas and a pure line of dwarf garden peas. He then cross-pollinated pure bred tall garden pea s with the pure bred dwarf variety. He planted the resulting seeds and he observed that all the offsprings were tall plants. br br Diagram He further crossed two of these tall offsprings and planted the resulting seeds. Mendel observed that this second generation consisted of a mixture of tall and dwarf plants. After counting these plants he noted that the ratio of tall to dwarf plants was approximately 3:1 respectively. He observed that this ratio was always obtained when crosses were made between the non-pure breeds of tall plants. br br Diagrams Mendel concluded that the traits of an organism are determined by hereditary factors which occur in pairs. Only one of pair of such factors can be represented in a single gamete. This later became Mendels First Law, The Law of Segregation At this time Mendel had no idea of genes and so he called them factors. He postulated that these factors are found on the chromosomes and are passed from the parents to the offsprings via gametes. br br Reasons behind Mendels success br br 1. He used favourable materials i.e. the garden pea plant br br which is normally self pollinated. This made it easy for him to employ cross pollination at will. br br 2. the pea plant he used had several contrasting traits 3. His study was focused on particular traits while those br br before him had been attempting to determine wholesome heredity of each organism. br br 4. He kept accurate data on all his experiments and fro the analysis of this data he was able to formulate definite hypothesis. Mendel chose the garden pea plant because of the following reasons br br Plant had many contrasting traits e.g. flower colours, br br seed coat texture, length of the stems etc. br br Plant is normally self pollinated but cross pollination br br can be employed t will. Plant matures relatively fast Plant produces many seeds that can be planted to br br produce many offsprings Monohybrid Inheritance This is the inheritance of one trait like height in the garden pea plant that is controlled by a single pair of hereditary factors genes contributed by both parents. Genes occur in pairs on chromosomes and such gene pairs are known as alleles. The genetic constitution of an organism is called the Genotype while the physical appearance is known as the Phenotype. The genotype of an organism is represented using paired letter symbols. Capital letters represents the dominant gene while small letters represent the recessive gene. br br Genetic Cross br br Components of a genetic cross Parental phenotypes The parental genotype the crossing X should be br br shown here. br br The gametes and should be circled. The fusion process or fertilization. The filial generation genotypes br br NB. The conventional symbol for male is and that of female is br br Example 1 During gamete formation in the dwarf plat, each gene in the pair segregates into different gametes. When the female and male fuse during fertilization, the offspring produced contain the same number of genes as in each parent. The inheritance of dwarf ness in the pea plant can be illustrated diagrammatically by the following genetic cross Diagram Example 2 Similarly the pair of genes in the pure breed tall plants will segregate into different gametes during gametogenesis. When self fertilised the resulting seeds will have half the number of genes from each parent i.e. br br Diagram br br Example 3 When the purebred tall plant is crossed with dwarf plants, the resulting seeds grow into tall plants only. These offsprings represent the first generation F1 gen Diagram. In the genetic cross above, the male plant is tall and the female plant is dwarf. If the cross is reversed so that the female is tall and the male a dwarf, this is referred to as a reciprocal cross . The F1 results will be the same for either cross. br br Diagram br br Example 4 When the F1 offsprings are self pollinated, they produce offsprings which that grow into a mixture of tall and dwarf plants. These offsprings are known as the F2 gen. br br Diagram A Punnet Square can also be used to work out genetic crosses e.g. Parental phenotype tall tall Parental genotype Tt X Tt Gametes T t T t When the allelic genes are identical, as in TT and tt, the condition is known as homozygous . An individual with such a condition is known as a homozygote. When the allelic genes are not identical as in Tt, the condition is referred to as heterozygous . An individual with such a genotype is referred to as a heterozygote . An individual with genotype Tt, will be physically tall because the gene T i s dominant over t. The allele t is recessive . A dominant gene expresses itself in both the homozygous TT and heterozygous Tt states while a recessive gene only expresses itself I its homozygous state tt . TT is therefore referred to as homozygous dominant and tt is homozygous recessive. The ratio 3 tall: 1 dwarf, in the F2 gen is characteristic of monohybrid inheritance where one gene is completely dominant over the other. This is referred to as complete dominance. The monohybrid crosses are based on Mendels first law, The law of Segregation which states the characteristics of an organism are determined by internal factors which occurs in pairs. Only one of a pair of such factors can be represented in a single gamete. Diagram - the process of segregation br br Ratios and Probability The 3:1 ratio in monohybrid inheritance can be represented in the form of probability. When a large number of heterozygous garden pea plants are selfed, the probability of getting tall plants is or 75 and that of dwarf will be or 25 . br br Diagram NB. The inheritance of characteristics involves probability. The chance that a particular gamete will fuse with another is a random occurrence, in genetics this done by showing all possible fusions. br br Practical Activity 3 and 4 br br Tossing a coin To demonstrate random fusion of gametes in br br monohybrid inheritance. br br Similar monohybrid inheritance results as those of Mendel have been obtained by using the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster the insect has many observable characteristics that are contrasting such as, br br Wing length long wing dominant over vestigial wing Eye colour red eyes dominant over white eyes Size of the abdomen broad abdomen dominant over br br narrow abdomen br br Body colour grey body colour dominant over black br br body colour. Assignment br br Using appropriate letters work out the following crosses with respect to the fruit fly br br Cross between a purebred long winged and a vestigial br br winged br br Cross between two long winged heterozygotes Cross between a red eyed heterozygote and a white br br eyed fruit fly. br br The fruit fly is suitable for genetic study because of the following reasons. br br 1. The female lays very many eggs hence increasing the br br sample size for study. 2. Have many observable characteristics that are distinct br br and contrasting. br br 3. It is easily bred in the laboratory with minimum br br requirements. br br 4. It has a short generation time 10-14 days. Therefore many generations can be studied in a short period of time. br br 5. Offsprings can be crossed with their parents at will br br backcrossing br br 6. Flies are safe to handle because they do not transmit br br any known human diseases. br br Study Question 10 br br Practical Activity 5 br br Breeding fruit flies. br br Incomplete Dominance Co-dominance In Mendels experiments with garden pea p plants, the genes determining the various traits were clearly dominant or recessive. However in some species, alleles determining several contrasting traits do not have a clear cut dominant-recessive relationship. This implies that neither of the alleles is completely dominant over the other. Heterozygous individuals are phenotypically different from either of the parents. Mostly the phenotype of the heterozygous offspring is intermediate between that of the parents. This phenomenon is called Incomplete Dominance . Examples of incomplete dominance. br br 1. I nheritance of flower colour in the 4 oclock plant br br Mirabilis Jalapa . If a true breeding plant producing red flowers is crossed with a true breeding plant producing white flowers, all the F1 offsprings will have pink flowers. When the F1 plants are self pollinated, they yield red flowered, pink flowered and white flowered offspring at a ratio of 1:2:1 respectively. Diagrams br br 2. Incomplete dominance in short horn cattle . Mating red and white shorthorn cattle yields Roan light Red calves due to presence of both red and white hairs. A mating between two roan coloured shorthorns yields a mixture of red, roan and white coloured calves at a ratio of 1:2:1 respectively. Diagrams br br Study Question 12 Inheritance of the Blood groups Multiple allelism In all the kinds of inheritance discussed so far, each phenotypic characteristic is determined by 2 variant forms of a single gene located at a specific locus on the homologous chromosome. However some characteristics are determined by more than two variant forms of a single gene. This phenomenon is referred to as multiple allelism and the genes involved are called multiple alleles . E.g. in the ABO blood groups in humans, there are three genes involved and they are responsible for the presence of antigen types on the red blood cells. These are gene A responsible for the presence of antigen A , gene B for antigen B and gene O responsible for absence of antigens on the red blood cells. Genes A and B have equal degree of dominance i.e. are co- dominant . They both express themselves when present together as in the blood group AB. Genes A and B are dominant over gene O. Gene O is recessive and only expresses itself in the homozygous condition. The genotypes for the four blood groups in the ABO system are therefore, Blood group Phenotype A B AB O br br Genotype Antigens br br AA, AO BB,BO AB OO A B A and B O- Zero br br i.e. br br AA or AO-Blood group A BB or BO blood group B AB blood group AB OO blood group O br br A marriage between a man of blood group A and a woman of blood group B will produce children of all the four blood groups if both parents are heterozygous. br br Diagram Marriage between a man of genotype AA blood group A and Woman of genotype BB blood group B results in all the offsprings having blood AB. Diagram. br br Assignment br br Work out the following crosses br br Both parents with blood group O Heterozygous blood group A and blood group O br br Study Question 13 br br Inheritance of the Rhesus factor In man the possession of Rhesus antigens makes one Rh and this is dominant over Rhve. If blood from a Rhesus positive person is transfused into a rhesus negative person, this induces antibodies against the Rhesus factor of the donor. This causes agglutination of red blood cells of the recipient. If a Rh-ve woman is married to a Rhe ve, when she becomes pregnant, the child will be Rh ve. Rhesus antigens cross the placenta into the mothers blood stream. This stimulates the mothers immune system to produce Rhesus antibodies. When these antibodies get into the foetal circulation, an antigen- antibody reaction takes place and the red blood cells of the foetus are destroyed Haemolysed . During the second pregnancy, the amount of Rhesus antibodies are more and cause a lot of damage to the foetuss red blood cells resulting to death. This is called Haemolytic Disease of the Newborn or Erythroblastosis foetalis. Determining Unknown Genotypes This can be done in two ways. 1. Carrying out a Test Cross A test cross is a cross between an individual of unknown genotype with an individual of a recessive genotype. A test cross where an offspring is crossed with one of its parents is called a Back Cross. In garden pea plants the gene that determines red flowers is dominant over that which determines white flowers. A plant with red flowers may either be homozygous RR or heterozygous Rr for this characteristic. To establish its correct genotype it is crossed with a homozygous recessive plant i.e. a white flowered one rr If all their offsprings bear red flowers then this indicates that the red flowered plant is homozygous or its from a pure line. Diagram If the offsprings bear a mixture of red and white flowers in the ratio of 1:1, this indicates that the red flowered plant was heterozygous. Diagram Selfing Unknown genotypes can also be determined by carrying out selfing experiments. For example, a phenotypically tall plant is either homozygous TT or heterozygous Tt for this trait. If selfed and all its offsprings are tall, the parental genotype is TT that is homozygous dominant. br br Diagram But if after selfing both tall and dwarf offsprings are produced in the ratio 3:1 respectively, then the parental genotype is heterozygous Tt . Diagram Sex Determination The sex of an organism is a genetically determined characteristic. Cells of most organisms contain a pair of chromosomes called sex chromosomes in addition to the ordinary chromosomes. In man there are 46 chromosomes 23 pairs of homologous chromosomes in everybody cell . The genes determining whether a child becomes a female or a male are located on the specific pair of sex chromosomes called the X and the Y named after their shapes. The remaining 22 pairs of chromosomes are called Autosomes. Autosomes are responsible for other inheritable traits. A male human being carries the XY chromosome i.e. he is Heterogametic The female carries the XX chromosomes i.e. Homogametic . After meiosis in a male the spermatozoon can either carry the X or Y chromosome while the female ova contain only the X chromosome. The sex of a child is a matter of chance and depends only on whether a spermatozoon that fertilizes the ovum carries X or Y chromosome. There is therefore a 50 chance that fertilization can result in either XY Boy or XX Girl i.e. XY br br X br br Y br br I.e. 2 girls: 2 Boys In terms of probability, the chance that a boy or a girl is produced in a family is . br br NB/ in birds the female is XY heterogametic and the male is XX homogametic . br br In some insects, the female is XX and the male is XO with the Y chromosome absent. br br In the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster sex determination br br is as exactly as in man, i.e. male XY and Female XX. br br Linkage An organism has a large number of traits controlled by many different genes. Because the number of chromosomes is limited, each gene cannot be located on its own chromosome. Therefore chromosomes must accommodate many genes each controlling particular characteristics. Those genes located on the same chromosome are called linked Genes. All the linked genes constitute a linkage group. Linked gene are inherited together and do not segregate/separate during meiosis. They are therefore transmitted into the same gamete. br br Diagram If genes Q, R and T are linked, then all the three pairs of genes are accommodated on a homologous pair of chromosome. In Drosophila sp , it has been found that the genes for wing length, abdomen size and body colour are located on the same chromosome. Therefore these characteristics are usually inherited together. Sex-linked Genes All the genes located on the sex chromosomes are said to be sex- linked . They are therefore transmitted together with those that determine the sex. In Drosophila melanogaster , the gene, which determine eye colour, is located on the X chromosome. However the corresponding allele on the Y chromosome is absent. This is because most sex-lined genes are carried on the X chromosome whereas the Y chromosome carries very few genes and is almost empty. In humans there are few genes located on the Y chromosome, which control traits that are exclusively found in males. These are, Premature baldness and tufts of hair in the in the inner pinna and in the nose. Diagrams. The characteristics controlled by genes located on the X chromosome include Colour blindness and Haemophilia. These characteristics can arise in either male or females. br br Colour blindness br br This is the inability to distinguish Red and Green colours by some people. This trait is linked to the X chromosome. The gene that determines normal colour vision is dominant over that for colour blindness. A marriage between a colour-blind man and a woman homozygous for normal colour vision results in their daughters being carriers but with normal colour vision. The daughters are said to be carriers because they are heterozygous and colour blindness is suppressed/masked by the dominant gene for colour vision. All the sons are of the two parents are however normal. This is illustrated below. Let N represent the gene for normal colour vision and n represent gene for colour blindness. Since the gene is linked to X chromosome, its alleles are represented as XN and Xn. br br Colour blind male br br Xn Y br br XnY Normal Woman XNXN All the daughters are carriers- XNXn All the sons have normal colour vision-XNY br br If a carrier daughter from the above parents married a normal man, some of their sons will suffer from colour blindness while the daughters will either be carriers or homozygous for normal colour vision as shown below. Carrier female XN Xn XNY XnY Y br br Offsprings are; XNXN vision br br -Daughter with normal colour br br XNXn XNY XnY -Carrier Daughter -Son with normal colour vision -Colour blind son. br br The above examples show that the gene for colour blindness is passed from mother to sons. br br This is because the only X chromosome a man inherits is from the mother. If the X chromosome carries the gene for the trait, then this gene will be expressed since allele on the Y is absent. Therefore there are more male sufferers in a population compared to females. br br Females only suffer when in homozygous condition of the recessive gene. Inheritance of colour blindness through several generations can be clearly illustrated using a pedigree. A pedigree is a record in table form showing the distribution of one or more traits in different generations of related individuals. Fig. 1.24 br br Haemophilia br br This is another sex-linked trait where the blood of the sufferer takes abnormally long time to clot. There is prolonged breeding in the event of a cut hence the term Bleeders Disease . A recessive gene on the X chromosome causes haemophilia. br br If a normal man is married to a carrier woman for br br haemophilia, there is a probability of that if their child is a boy will be a haemophiliac and if a daughter, she will be a carrier. None of the daughters of the couple will be haemophiliacs. Let H represent the gene for normal blood clotting and h to represent gene for haemophilia i.e. br br Carrier woman XH Xh XHY XhY Y br br -XHXH -Normal daughter br br Their offsprings will be; XHXh -Carrier daughter XHY XhY -Normal son -Haemophiliac son. br br Study question 14 Apart from carrying the sex-linked traits, the X chromosome in the females and the Y in males bring about the development of both the primary and secondary sexual characteristics. At puberty, secondary sexual characteristics in females include breast enlargement, widening of the hips, and growth of pubic hair and onset of menstrual cycle. The X chromosome controls these. In males, they include growth of pubic hair and beard, deepening of the voice, widening of the shoulders etc. br br Effects of Crossing Over on Linked Genes br br Some of the linked genes separate and are transmitted on different chromosomes. This happens during crossing over prophase I of meiosis when sections of chromatids of a bivalent intertwine and may break off. Some of these sections get rejoined to different chromatids thus separating genes that were previously linked. The fusion of such gametes containing chromatids whose genes have changed places produces new combinations recombinants . Crossing over results in chromosomal mutations, which in turn cause variations. Diagrams Mutations Mutation is brought about by spontaneous changes in the individuals genetic makeup. Mutations are normally due to recessive genes most of which are transmitted in the usual Mendelian fashion. Therefore they are quite rare. Individuals with mutations are referred to as mutants . Mutation can be induced by certain factors. Such factors are called Mutagens. They include, br br Exposure to Gamma rays Ultra violet light br br Colchicine Mustard gas br br NB: Mutations occurring in gametes are more important than those in somatic cells. Mutational changes are the basis of discontinuous variation in population. br br Types of Mutations 1. Chromosomal mutation 2. Gene mutation br br Chromosomal Mutations This involves the change in the structure or the number of chromosomes. During crossing over in meiosis homologous chromosomes intertwine at points called chiasmata. These points are later broken creating various opportunities for changes on the chromatids. There are five types of chromosome mutations chromosome aberrations . Deletion Duplication Inversion Translocation Non-disjunction br br Deletion This occurs when some sections of chromatids break off and fail to recombine. They are therefore completely lost and the genetic material they contain is said to be deleted out. Most deletions are lethal since the offspring may lose genes responsible for the synthesis of some vital protein molecules. Diagrams br br Duplication In this case a section of chromatids replicates and adds an extra length to itself. Duplication can produce serious effects depending on the chromosome sections involved. Diagrams Inversion In this case a chromatid breaks at two points. When rejoining, the middle piece rotates and joins in an inverted position. This reverses the gene sequence along the chromatid. This might bring together genes whose combined effects are advantageous or dis-advantageous. Diagrams Translocation This occurs when a section of one chromatid breaks off and becomes attached to another chromatid but of a non-homologous pair. Translocation therefore involves the movement of genes from one non-homologous chromosome to another. Diagrams br br Non-disjunction This leads to addition or loss of one or more whole chromosomes. If it occurs at anaphase of the first meiotic division, two homologous chromosomes fail to segregate and they move into the same gamete cell. If it happens at anaphase of the second meiotic division, sister chromatids fail to segregate. This results in half the gametes containing two of the same chromosome while the others have none. br br Diagrams br br Non-Disjunction causes the following br br 1. Downss Syndrome : this is where there is an extra somatic br br chromosome number 21. such individuals have; br br Slit eye appearance Reduced resistance to infections Mentally deficient Thick tongue Cardiac malfunctions Short body with thick fingers NB/ these conditions are common among children born of br br mothers above 40 years old. 2. Klinefelters Syndrome: in this case individuals have an br br extra sex chromosome. Such individuals have a total of 47 chromosomes in their cells i.e. XXY male and XXX female . This occurs as a result of non-disjunction during spermatogenesis or oogenesis. The symptoms of Klinefelters syndrome are br br Infertility in males due to lack of sperm production Under developed testes Reduced facial hair in males Very tall with signs of obesity Diagrams br br 3. Turners syndrome: This is where an individual lacks one sex chromosome hence there are 45 chromosomes XO or YO . br br 4. Polyploidy: sometimes during meiosis chromosomes might undergo non-disjunction. This results in half the number of gametes having two of each type of chromosome i.e. diploid the rest having none. If the resulting diploid gamete fuses with a normal haploid gamete a triploid zygote is formed. If two diploid gametes fuse, a tetraploid individual is obtained. This is what is called polyploidy. br br Polyploidy is rare in animals but common in plants where br br its considered to be advantageous. Polyploidy increases yields, early maturity and resistance to pests and diseases. It can be artificially induced using a chemical called colchicine , which prevents spindle formation during mitosis leading to a cell with double the number of chromosomes 4n . br br Gene Mutation br br This involves a change in the structure of a gene. Gene mutations are also referred to as point mutations. A gene mutation arises as a result of a change in the chemical nature of the gene. The change may involve some alterations in the DNA molecule. A change in the DNA molecule is passed onto the m-RNA. This alters the sequence of amino acids during protein synthesis. This may result in unintended protein molecules being synthesised, which may be lethal. Types of gene mutations; br br Insertion Substitution Inversion Deletion Insertion This is the addition of an extra base onto the existing DNA strand. br br Diagram By this insertion no polypeptide chain is formed as it were intended. br br Deletion This is the removal of a gene portion. If the base Thymine is deleted from its position as indicated below, the base sequence becomes altered at this point. Diagrams br br Substitution This is the replacement of a portion of the gene with a new portion. If Adenine is substituted by Guanine on a DNA strand, the base sequence is altered at this particular portion. Diagrams br br Inversion If a portion of the DNA strand is rotated through 1800 that portion is said to be inverted as shown below. This alters the base sequence at this point. Diagrams Study Questions Disorders Due to Gene Mutations Such disorders include albinism, sickle cell anaemia, haemophilia, colour blindness and chondrodystrophic dwarfism. br br 1. Albinism This a condition where the synthesis of skin pigment called melanin fails. The victim has a light skin, white hair and pink eyes. Such a person is referred to as an Albino. Melanin is derived from two amino acids Phenylalanine and Tyrosine. Melanin is synthesised through a series of reactions controlled by a specific gene. br br Gene A is responsible for presence of melanin and a is responsible for its absence. Gene aa in homozygous state blocks in one or two places in the synthesis of melanin hence no melanin is formed. This occurs as a result of one enzyme Tyronase failing to be formed in the presence of the recessive gene. br br A person with genotype AA has normal skin pigmentation. One with genotype Aa is a carrier and has normal skin pigmentation. In a family an albino can be born under three conditions only. If both parents are albinos If one of the parents is an albino and the other a carrier If both parents are carriers br br Assignment br br Work out crosses in each case. What is the probability of getting an albino child in br br each case? 2. Sickle Cell Anaemia This is a gene mutation as a result of substitution. Normal haemoglobin Hb A consists of two polypeptide chains. In the sickle cell condition, one amino acid called glutamic acid is substituted by another amino acid called valine in each of the two-polypeptide chains of the haemoglobin molecule. The resulting haemoglobin is known as Haemoglobin S Hb S and is different from the Hb A in several ways. Comparison between Hb A and Hb S br br Normal haemoglobin Hb A 1. A position in each polypeptide chain is occupied by glutamic acid 2. Does not easily crystallise in low oxygen concentration 3. The haemoglobin is efficient in oxygen loading and transportation Red blood cells are sickle 4. The red blood cells are shaped crescent shape biconcave in shape Sickle cell anaemia is therefore the condition where the victim is homozygous for the defective gene that directs the synthesis of haemoglobin S. Most of the victims red blood cells are sickle shaped and the person frequently experiences oxygen shortage to the body tissues. Such a person cannot carry out strenuous physical exercises. Many sickle cell victims die young due to insufficient oxygen br br Defective Haemoglobin Hb S The same position is occupied by valine in each polypeptide chain Easily crystallises in low oxygen concentration br br Not efficient in oxygen loading and transportation br br supply to body tissues. br br In the heterozygous condition, less than half the number of the red blood cells is sickle shaped. The rest are normal and efficient in oxygen transport. This is referred to as sickle cell trait . An individual with the sickle cell trait experiences a mild case of anaemia but leads a normal life. Inheritance of Sickle Cell Anaemia br br If a man with sickle cell trait marries a normal woman, the probability that any of the offspring will carry the sickle cell trait is . br br If both parents are carriers the probability of getting an br br offspring with sickle cell anaemia is . 3. Haemophilia : This condition where the blood takes br br abnormally long time to clot. A haemophilic gene that prevents the production of the clotting factors causes the condition. br br 4. Colour blindness: There are different forms of colour br br blindness. The most common one is the red-green colour blindness. In this case an individual is unable to distinguish between red and green colours. br br NB. Most disadvantageous genes are recessive. Very few are br br dominant e.g. the gene for chondrodystrophic dwarfism br br Study Question 16 br br Effect of Environment on Heredity The genotype and the environment influence the development of an individual. In animals genetically identical individuals reared under different environments will appear different than those reared under very different conditions. Consider identical twins. Practical Applications of Genetics o Plants and animal breeding o Blood transfusion o Genetic counselling o Genetic engineering br br 1. Plants and Animal Breeding br br Man chooses those plants and animals with the desirable qualities. This is referred to as artificial selection. Inbreeding or crossbreeding does this . Inbreeding however increases the chances of undesirable genes whereas crossbreeding increases heterozygosity with the offsprings having better performance than both parents. This is referred to as hybrid vigour e.g. a cross between Boran and Hereford. Polyploidy has also been used in planting. The original wheat had a diploid number of 14 chromosomes but the commercial wheat has either 28 or 42 tetraploid-4n or hexaploid-6n . Examples of characteristics, which have been selected in agriculture. br br 1. Resistance to diseases e.g. cassava resistant to cassava br br mosaic, coffee variety resistant to CBD. br br 2. Early maturity in animals and plants. 3. Adaptations to various conditions e.g. rainfall, temperature br br etc. br br 4. Ease of harvesting e.g. in coffee and bananas where dwarf 2 Blood Transfusion br br Before blood is given to a recipient, blood typing is first done. This is done to ensure compatibility between the donor and the recipient. Blood typing also can be used to solve disputed parentage. However the most recent technique in establishing parentage is the DNA matching. br br 3 Genetic Counselling This is the provision of information and advice on genetically inherited disorders to individuals. The individual is given such advice to enable him or her make the best choice. br br Examples of disorders for which genetic counselling may be done include br br Sickle cell anaemia Haemophilia Albinism Erythroblastosis foetalis Colour blindness Klinefelters syndrome br br In order to confirm the disorder the doctors can do the following Physical examination e.g. Lack of breasts in Turners br br syndrome. br br Laboratory tests e.g. blood tests to confirm sickle cell br br anaemia br br Amniocentesis for chromosomal abnormalities in br br foetus br br Family history may be used to determine possible br br inheritance of the disorder e.g. haemophilia. Genetic screening of the defective gene in the br br population a Identify the nerve cell. br br 1mark br br b i Give a reason for your answer in a above br br 1mark ii Show by use of an arrow the direction of flow of br br the nerve impulses. 1mark 2. Below is a diagram showing parts of a synapse observe and other the questions that follow. br br a Name the parts labeled: A, B. br br 2mks br br b What is the role of part labeled C . br br 1mk br br 3. below. br br A student set up an experiment as shown in the diagram br br br br Light br br Box with black paint br br Seedlings br br The set up was left for 4 days. a What was the aim of the experiment. br br 1mk br br b i State the expected results after 4 days. 1mk ii Account for the results you have stated in b i above. br br 4mks br br c In another experiment, a student placed a seedling horizontally on moist cotton wool. Later the shoot grew upwards while the Radicle grew downwards. Explain why the radicle showed a downward curvature. br br 2mks br br 180 a Name the parts labelled. A, B br br 2mks br br b State three adaptations that enable the neurone to br br carry out its functions efficiently. 3mks br br c State two features that would distinguish sensory br br neurone from the above neurone. 2mks 6. The diagram below shows the structure of its human ear. br br C D G J H br br a State the functions of the ear. 2mks b Give the names of the structure labelled C,G and F. br br 3mks br br c i What is the function of the structure labeled H? br br 1mk br br ii Name the structure in the ear that detects sound waves. br br 1mk br br d In which structure of the ear is the velocity of the sound waves fastest? 1mk br br 7. The diagram below represents a nerve cell. Study it and answer the questions that follow. b Name the parts labelled N, P, Q and R. br br 4mks br br c State the functions of the parts labelled N and Q. br br 2mks br br 8. Use the diagram below to answer the questions that follow br br br br a i Name the eye defect represented above br br 1 mk br br ii What is the cause of this defect br br 1 mk br br iii How can the defect you have named a i be corrected? 1 mk br br 9 The diagram below shows three different types of neurones br br along a reflex arc br br a Identify the neuron labelled 1 ,2 and 3 br br 3 mks br br b Using arrows show the direction of impulse transmission on the diagram c Name the part of the spinal cord where the cell bodies of neurone 2 and 3 are located 1mk d Describe the transmission impulse across the part labelled P br br 1 mk br br 3 mks br br 10 A response exhibited by a certain plant tendril is illustrated below br br i Name the type of response br br 1mk br br ii Explain how the response named in i above br br occurs. 3mks br br iii What is the importance of tactic responses to br br microscopic plants? 1mk br br 11 Describe how the mammalian ear is adapted to perform its functions. 20mks br br 182 12. a Describe how the structure of the eye is adapted to its function. b rectified. br br 16mks br br Identify two defects of the eye and how they can be br br 4mks br br 13 Differentiate between nervous and endocrine br br communication in animals 3mks br br 14. The diagram below represents a section through the br br mammalian ear. Study it and answer the questions that follow. br br br br a Name the structures labeled H and J br br 2mks br br b State how the structures labeled H, M and N are adapted to their functions c State what would happen if the structure labeled K was completely damage 1mk d Name the fluid contained in structure N br br 3mks br br 1mk br br e Apart from hearing, state the other role performed by the human ear 1mk br br 15 The following experiment was set up in a chamber made from two connected Petri dishes. Housefly maggots were introduced at the centre of the chamber, so the maggots could move to either Petri dish A or B as shown below. br br a Name the type of response being investigated in the set up. 1mk br br b State the survival value of the response named in a above. 1mk br br 183 c Give the role of calcium chloride in the experiment above. 1mk br br 16 a What is accommodation? 1mk br br b Describe the sequence of events that occur in the eye br br for one to be able to see clearly br br i a distant object br br 4mks br br ii if one moved from a dim lit room to bright light. 3mks MARKING SCHEME STIMULUS AND RESPONSE REVISION QUESTIONS 1 a Motor neuron/Motor nerve cell; br br b i cell body is terminally situated/located at the end of the axon; br br ii Arrow should point away from the cell body br br 2. a A-Synaptic cleft B- Mitochondria br br b Contains the transmitter substance/ Acetylcholine. br br 3. seedling / plants; br br a Show the effect of unilateral light on growth of br br 1mk br br b source light; br br i Curvature of the tip of the shoot toward the br br Auxins / IAA/ Growth harmones; produced by the apical bud; move away from light / move to the dark side; causing faster elongation; hence curvature; br br ii br br c br br In the roots / radicle higher concentration of auxins / IAA inhibits growth; hence the upper side with less auxins grows faster than the lower side; hence curvature downwards br br 2mks br br 4. Phototropisms; for maximum photosynthesis; Allows for leaf mosaic; Chemotropism; -Growth curvature in response to contact/ hard surface; br br -enables plant shoots to grow and get light br br -Make plants with weak stems to get support on large br br plants /trees; this makes then to br br reach and get light for maximum photosynthesis; br br Geotropism; -Growth curvature in response to gravity; enables plant roots to grow deep into the soil to Maximum support/ anchorage; br br Hydrotropism; - Growth curvature in response to moisture / water; br br - Enable plant roots to grow and find water in br br the soil; water is then used as a raw material During photolysis stage; Chemotropism; -Growth curvature in response to chemical concentration gradient; br br - Enables pollen tubes to grow down the style and into the ovary for fertilization to occur in plants flowers; br br Thermo tropism; -Growth curvature in response to temperature changes; br br -Enables some plants to grow to where they can acquire optimum temperature for effective plant processes; e.g. Sunflower orientates towards the directions of the sun. br br 5 a A- B-Cell body br br Dendrites br br b br br - Has long axon to conduct impulses from CNs to effectors / muscles / glands; - Axon enclosed with myelin sheath with nodes of ranvies to enhance speed of impulse conduction. br br - Has dendrites which receive impulses from br br adjacent neurones. br br c S.N - Cell body has no dendrites -Cell body has dendrites - Cell body at a point along nerve fibre; -Cell body located at the top of nerve fiber; 6 a br br - Hearing / detection of sound; Body balance / posture; br br 2marks. b br br i C- Ear canal / External auditory meetas; ii G- Semi Circular canals; iii F- Auditory nerve; br br 3marks br br c i Equalise air pressure between middle ear br br and outer ear / prevent damage of ear drum; br br 1mark ii Cochlea/ E; br br 1mark d 1mark a 7. i br br Sensory neurons / afferent neurone ii Cell body located off the axon br br b N- Axon br br P- Cell body Q- Myelin Sheath Schwann cell R- c N- Transmission of impulse br br Q- Insulation / speed up impulse transmission. br br 8 a Long sightedness / Hypermetropia ; br br 1 mk br br b Short eye ball; br br Weak lens any one ;1 mks br br c Wearing of convex lens / conveying lenses; 1 mk br br rj if a i is wrong br br 9 a 1- Sensory neurone / Afferent neurone br br 2- Relay neurone 3- Motor neurone/ efferent neurone br br / intermediate neurone br br 3 mks br br b 3 from 2 and 1 : c Grey matter 1 mks Impulse reaching the dendrites end of relay / Neurone 2 causes the synaptic vesicles, releases acetylcholine / transmitter substances; into the synaptic cleft;the acetylcholine / transmitter chemical diffuses across the cleft; and causes the depolarization of the motor neuron/ neurone br br Check on the diagram arrows show points towards neurone br br 1 mk i Name the type of response 1mk br br 10 Thigmotropism/Haptotropism; br br ii Explain how the response named in i br br above occurs. 3mks br br Contact with support; causes migration of auxins to the outside; causing faster growth on the side away from contact surface; Causing dendrils to curl around the support ; br br NB a ii is tied to i iii What is the importance of tactic responses to br br microscopic plants? 1mk br br Escape injurious stimuli/seek favourable habitat br br Rej. Seek mate and obtain food br br 11. Describe how the mammalian ear is adapted to perform its functions. 20mks br br The pinna is flap made of skin and cartilage; for collection and concentration of sound waves; Auditory canal/meatus is a tube lined with hairs which trap solid particles like dust; It has wax secreting cells; that secrete wax for trapping solids and insects entering the ear; br br The eardrum/tympanic membrane is thin with double br br layer of epidermis; It vibrates translating sound waves into sound vibrations; Sound vibrations are transmitted to ear ossicles; br br Ear ossicles are malleus, incus and stapes; they br br amplify and transmit vibrations to the oral window; The oval window is a thin membrane which transmits br br sound vibrations to the fluid of the inner ear; perilymph and Endolymph; br br Eustachian tube connects middle ear with pharynx equalizing air pressure in the ear with atmospheric pressure; to prevent distortion of the eardrum; The cochlea is highly coiled tube with system of canals and sensory cells to occupy a small space/increase the surface area for accommodating many sensory cells to detect sounds vibrations; and generate impulses transmitted to the brain; br br Auditory nerve transmits nerve impulses to the brain br br for interpretation; br br Semicircular canals are tubular cavities containing br br fluid; br br The canals are arranged at right angles to each other in the three planes of spaces; to detect changes in position of the body; the canals have ampulla: utriculus and sacculus; to detect position of body in relation to gravity; br br Utriculus has otoliths attached to sensory cells which generate impulses which are then transmitted to the brain through the auditory nerve; br br The perilymph and endolymph fluid in the inner ear br br absorb mechanical shock/transmit sound vibrations/protect delicate parts; Total 25 max 20 marks a br br 12 enter eye br br i Conjunctiva transparent allow light to br br ii Cornea transparent / curved allow light / refracts light br br entering eye; br br iii Aqueous / vitreous humour clear / allow light pass / br br refract light, hydrostatic pressure br br Maintain shape of eyeball. Contains sugars / proteins / br br salts provide nutrients to eye. br br iv Iris contractile controls light intensity / amount of br br light entering eye; v Ciliary body glandular secretes humuor vi Ciliary muscle contractile controls curvature of lens; vii Suspensory ligament fibrous holds lens in position viii Lens transparent / Biconvex allow light go through to retina / refract light / focus light. br br ix Retina rods - rhodopsin for dim light vision; br br - Iodopsin for bright light vision br br x Fovea centralis high concentration of cones for accurate vision xi Choroid layer blood vessels pigmented nutrition br br for - reduce light reflection / absorb stray light br br xii Sclera fibrous protection / give eye shape; xiii Optical nerves sensory neurone transmit impulse from retina to brain. xiv External eye muscle contractile move eyeball within socket xv Blind spot cone and rods absent no image is perceived br br Correction br br b i Short sightedness; lens br br biconcave / diverging br br ii Long sightedness; iii Astigmatism; iv Squinting; converging lens / convex lens use of cylindrical lens any 2 surgery br br identify correction 4mks br br 13. communication br br Nervous communication Endocrine Response br br - High speed of transmission- Low speed of br br transmission; br br - Rapid response - Impulse transmitted through neurone - Hormones br br - Response delayed br br transmitted in blood br br - Responses specific and localized to one - br br Responses affects several parts of the br br Target organ body; br br Note: Comparison should come out clearly to award. br br 14. a H Eustachian tube; br br J Semi-circular canals; br br b H Tube open/ connection to the pharynx and to the br br middle ear/ opens during swallowing/ yawning and vomiting to equalize the air pressure in the middle ear with the atmospheric air pressure; br br M pinna curved/ funnel shaped to receive or br br collect and direct sound waves into the ear; br br N cochlea long/highly coiled/ spiral in form to br br increase surface area for sound Perception; br br - Has sensory hairs/ cells which convert sound br br vibrations to impulses/ generate impulses; br br - Has endolymph to transmit vibrations; br br Mark one for each structure. Rej. If the adaptation is not tied to function. br br c Total deafness; d Endolymph; e Balance; acc body balance/ posture. 15 a Tactic response; br br b Move away from a harsh environment/move to favorable environment; br br c To absorb any moisture from Petri dish A/OWTTE br br 16 . a A reflex mechanism/ability of the eye to adjust to bring an image from near or far object into sharp focus on the retina; b Circular muscles of the iris contract; while the radial muscles relax; Ciliary muscles relax; increasing tension on suspensory ligaments; lens become thinner increasing the focal length; image focused onto the retina; SUPPORT AND MOVEMENT IN PLANTS AND ANIMALS br br Support is the ability of organisms to bear their weight and maintain their body forms. It involves holding body parts in their position and allow for movement. br br Movement is the displacement of parts of the body of an organism e.g. growth movements in plants and limbs in animals. br br Locomotion is movement of the whole organisms. br br Support and Movement in Plants br br This can be at cell level e.g. gametes in bryophytes and Pteridophytes or at organ level in tropic and nastic responses. br br Importance of Movement in Plants i. Enable plants to obtain resources such as sunlight, water br br and nutrients due to tropic and nastic responses. ii. Enhances fertilization in bryophytes and Pteridophytes iii. Enhance fertilization in flowering plants by growth of br br pollen tube towards the embryo sac. br br iv. Helps plants to escape harmful stimuli such as high br br temperature br br Importance of Support in Plants i. Hold flowers in position for pollination to occur. ii. Help plants to withstand forces of the environment such as br br gravity and air currents. iii. Fruits are held in appropriate position for dispersal to br br occur. Increase the efficiency of photosynthesis as the leaves are firm and arranged in mosaic pattern for maximum absorption of light and carbon iv oxide. br br iv. br br Arrangement of Tissues in Plants Diagrams Parenchyma. The cells are spherical or elongated. They are br br unspecialized cells forming the packing tissues. When turgid, they help in providing support in herbaceous plants. br br Collenchyma. Its underneath the epidermis. They are similar in appearance to parenchyma and they contain living protoplasm. They have deposition of cellulose to provide mechanical support. They are mainly found in young leaves and stems. br br Sclerenchyma. They appear as long fibres in stems. Cells are dead and they have lignin. Mainly found in stems and midrib of leaves. The walls are pitted to allow exchange of substances between cells. br br Xylem vessels and Tracheids. Xylem vessels are long tube like structures with lignified walls used for transporting water and mineral salts and also give plant mechanical support. Tracheids are long cells with tapering ends whose walls are lignified to give the plant mechanical support. Both xylem vessels ant tracheids are made of dead cells manly present in woody stems. br br Tendrils and Climbing stems. Some herbaceous plants br br support themselves by use of tendrils e.g. pumpkins, garden peas etc. Others obtain support by twinning round other hard objects such as stem of passion fruit, morning glory etc. br br Spines and Thorns. Some plants use spines and thorns to br br attach to solid objects for support e.g. in rose. Practical Activity 3 br br To Observe Wilting in Plants Support and Movement in Animals br br Animals have a firm and rigid framework for support called br br the skeleton. br br Importance of Movement in Animals br br 1. Enable searching of food, mate and shelter. 2. Move to avoid predators. 3. To colonize new areas 4. Move from areas with unfavourable conditions such as fire, br br earthquakes, flood etc. Types and Function of Skeletons br br 1. Hydrostatic skeleton It is found in soft bodied animals such as the earthworm. 2. Exoskeleton It is made of the external covering found in arthropods. Its made of waterproof cuticle which contains the protein br br Chitin secreted by the epidermal cells. br br Functions of the Exoskeleton i. Reduces water loss ii. Protection against microbial infections and mechanical br br injury br br iii. Support body tissues and organs. iv. Provide point for attachment of muscles allowing br br locomotion to take place. br br v. Enhance flight in insects by means of wings which are the br br flattened parts of the exoskeleton. br br vi. Enhance walking in insects using jointed appendages. NB/. br br 1. Exoskeleton has a disadvantage as it limits growth. To overcome this limitation it is periodically shed through moulting ecdysis . 2. Insects that jump or hop have powerful hind limbs. The femur of the hind limb has powerful antagonistic muscles. br br Diagrams 3 Endoskeleton. It is found in all vertebrates. Muscles are external to the hard framework. It is made of living tissues either cartilage or bone which br br increase in size as the animal grows and therefore need not to be shed as in exoskeleton. br br Functions of the Endoskeleton i. Supports the animals body ii. Gives the body its shape iii. Protects inner delicate organs such as the lungs, heart, liver br br etc from mechanical injury e.g. ribs. br br iv. Provide surface for muscle attachment facilitating br br movement. br br v. Production of blood cells i.e. the long and short bones vi. Acts as a reservoir of calcium and phosphate ions in the br br body br br Locomotion in Finned Fish Tilapia Diagrams Practical Activity 5 Practical Activity 6 br br How a finned fish is adapted to locomotion in water 1. Streamlined body/ tapered anteriorly and posteriorly; to br br minimize water resistance; br br 2. Inflexible head; to maintain forward thrust; br br 3. Overlapping scales facing posterior end; to bring about less br br resistance; Overlapping of scales also prevents wetting of the skin; br br 4. Slimy/oily substance to moisten scales; hence reduce br br resistance between water and fish; br br 5. Swim bladder; air filled cavity which controls/ brings br br buoyancy; and depth at which it swims; br br 6. Flexible backbone /series of vertebrae with Myotomes/ br br muscles blocks; which contract and relax alternately bringing about thrust/force; which propels fish forwards; br br 7. Pectoral and pelvic fins paired fins ; which bring about br br balancing effect; braking; and changing direction; they also control pitching i.e. control upward and downward movement; br br 8. Dorsal fin, caudal fin and anal fin unpaired fins ; to increase vertical surface area; and therefore prevent rolling from side to side; and yawing; br br 9. Tail fins/caudal fins that are long and flexible; for steering/ br br more force/ thrust; br br 10. Lateral line has sensory cells; which enables to perceive vibrations; hence can locate objects so that it escapes / changes direction; Support and Movement in Mammals Diagram of a human and rabbit skeleton br br The skeleton is divided into: br br Axial skull, sternum, ribcage and vertebral column. Appendicular consists of girdles and the limbs attached to br br them Axial Skeleton 1. Skull Made up of many bones fused together to form the br br cranium. br br The bones are joined together forming immovable joins br br called Sutures . br br Cranium encloses and protects the brain, olfactory organs, br br the eyes, middle and inner ear. br br Facial skeleton has a fixed upper jaw called maxilla and a br br movable lower jaw known as the mandible. br br At the posterior end, there are two smooth rounded br br projections called occipital condyles. These articulate with the first bone of the vertebral column atlas forming a hinge joint. This joint permits nodding of the head. 2. Ribcage and sternum Ribcage encloses the thoracic cavity protecting delicate br br organs such as the lungs and heart. br br Cage is made up of ribs that articulate with vertebral br br column at the back and sternum to the front. br br In birds, the sternum is modified to form the keel which br br gives a large surface area for attachment of flight muscles. br br Ribcage and sternum help during breathing because they br br offer the surface for attachment of the intercostals muscles. br br 3. Vertebral column Consists of bones called vertebrae that are separated from br br each other by cartilage called inter-vertebral discs. br br The discs absorb shock and reduce friction. It also makes br br the vertebral column flexible. br br There are five types of vertebrae in the vertebral column; 1. Cervical vertebrae 2. Thoracic vertebra 3. Lumbar vertebrae 4. Sacral vertebrae 5. Caudal vertebrae br br All the vertebrae have a common basic plan. Structure of a Vertebra Each vertebra is made up of the following parts. i. Centrum body . It supports the weight of the vertebra and the weight of the entire vertebral column.. ii. Neural arch. It encloses the neural canal. iii. Neural spine. Provides surface for muscle and ligament br br attachment. br br iv. Neural canal. It protects the spinal cord which passes br br through it. br br v. Transverse processes. Provides surface for muscle and br br ligament attachment. br br vi. Zygapophysis facets . These are smooth patches for br br articulation with the other vertebrae. The one in front and the other one behind . The front facets are called Pre - Zygapophysis while the back pair facets are called Post- Zygapophysis br br Diagram br br 1 Cervical vertebrae a Atlas First cervical vertebra Distinctive features. i. No Centrum ii. Broad and flat transverse processes. iii. Has vertebraterial canal in each transverse process for br br vertebral arteries to pass through. br br iv. Front facets are large and grooved to articulate with condyles of the skull to allow nodding on the head. br br v. Neural spine is very small. Diagram br br Functions br br i. Protect the spinal cord. ii. Provide surface for muscle attachment. iii. Allows head to nod. b Axis second Distinctive features. br br i. Centrum prolonged to from the odontoid process. ii. Has vertebraterial canal in each transverse process for br br vertebral arteries to pass. br br iii. Small wing like transverse processes. iv. Wide neural canal. Functions br br i. Protects the spinal cord. ii. Allows the head to rotate. Odontoid process forms a peg br br which fits into the neural canal of the atlas. br br iii. Provide surface for muscle attachment Diagram c The other cervical vertebrae. Distinctive features i. Short neural spine ii. Transverse process divided and broad. iii. Has vertebraterial canal in each transverse process for vertebral arteries to pass through. br br iv. Wide centrum br br Diagram br br Functions br br i. Provide surface for attachment of neck muscle. ii. Protect the spinal cord. iii. Supports the weight of the head. 2 Thoracic vertebrae Distinctive features br br i. Long neural spine pointing backwards. ii. Large centrum. iii. Short transverse processes. iv. Tubercular facets on each transverse for articulation br br with tuberculum of the rib. v. Two pairs of capitular demi-facets for articulation with br br capitulum of the rib. br br Diagram Functions br br i. Helps to form the rib cage. ii. Provides articulation for one end of each rib. iii. Protects the spinal cord. iv. Provides surface for muscle attachment. 3 Lumbar vertebrae Distinctive features i. Large broad centrum to offer support. ii. Broad neural spine. iii. Broad and long transverse processes. iv. Have extra processes like metapophysis, anapophysis and br br hypapophysis . br br Functions i. Protects the spinal cord. ii. Provides surface for muscle attachment. iii. Protect and support the heavy organs in the abdominal br br cavity. br br iv. Supports the heavy weight of the upper part of the body. br br 4 Sacral vertebrae Distinctive features 1. All sacral vertebrae fused to form sacrum 2. Transverse processes of first sacral vertebra large and wing br br like for articulation with pelvic girdle 3. Pairs of holes on the lower surface for the spinal nerves to br br pass through. br br 4. Sacrum is broader on the front side and narrow towards the br br tail. br br Functions br br 1. Protects alimentary canal on dorsal side. 2. Provides attachment to hip girdle 3. Protects the spinal cord 4. Provides attachment for the muscles br br Diagram Diagram br br Biology Form 1-2 Work Revision 1. A student set up materials in an experiment as shown below. br br Sugar solution m br br Fresh potato br br Boiled br br potato br br Water b If the experiment set up was left over-night, state br br observation in the set up A and B. 2mks c Account for the observations in each set up. br br 3mks br br d If another experiment C was set such that nothing is placed in the potato cup, state and explain the results that would have 2mks been obtained. 2. An experiment was carried out to investigate, haemolysis br br of human cells. The red blood cells were placed in different concentration of sodium chloride solution. The percentage of haemolysed cells was determined. The results were shown in the table below. br br Salt conc. g/100cm3 Red blood cells haemolysed br br 0.33 0.36 0.38 0.39 0.42 0.44 0.48 br br 100 91 82 a i On the grid provided plot a graph of haemolysed red blood cells against salt concentration. 6mks ii At what concentration of salt solution was the proportion of haemolysed cells equal to non-haemolysed cells? 1mk iii State the percentage of red blood cells haemolysed at salt concentration of 0.45. 1mk b Account for the results obtained at: i 0.33 salt concentration br br 3mks br br ii 0.48 salt concentration br br 3mks br br c What would happen to the red blood cells if they were placed in 0.50 salt solution. d Explain what would happen to onion cells if they were placed in distilled water. 3mks 3. Explain how various environmental factors affect the rate of transpiration in plants. 4. br br 3mks br br 20mks br br a State the meaning of the following terms. i Digestion 2mks ii Ingestion 2mks b Describe the process through which a piece of ugali undergoes in man from the time of ingestion up to the time of absorption. 16mks br br 6. The diagram below represents a unit of gaseous exchange in man. Study it carefully and answer the questions that follow. br br br br B A br br G H G D br br br br E br br br br a Name the blood vessel that brings blood to the lungs and br br the vessel which takes blood away from the lungs. br br 2mks br br b Name the structure above. 1mk c Label A and E. br br 2mks br br 198 d In what form is carbon IV oxide transported in structure br br labeled E . 1mk br br e Name the gas G . 1mk br br 6. Gastrin is a hormone produced by mammals. a i Where is the hormone produced? br br 1mk br br ii What is the function of gastrin? br br 1mk br br b What stimulateds the production of gastrin. br br 1mk br br c The diagram below shows part of the human intestine. br br br br i and B br br Identify the parts labeled A br br 1mk br br ii To which circulatory system does the part labeled B br br belong. d State any two adaptations of the human large intestine to 2mks its function. 7. The diagram below represents part of a xylem tissue. br br 1mk br br a i Name the br br parts labeled P and Q 2mks br br ii Give the function of the part labeled P . br br 1mks br br b State the function of the phloem tissue. br br 1mk br br c i State how the functioning of the phloem tissue is affected if the companion cell is destroyed. 1mk br br ii Give a reason for your answer. br br 1mk br br d State any two structural differences between phloem and 2mks xylem tissues. br br 199 8. In an experiment to determine the effect of exercise on the br br concentration of lactic acid in blood, the following data was obtained. Study the data and use it to answer the questions that follow. The lactic acid concentration was measured before, during br br and after the exercise. Time minutes Lactic acid conc. arbituary units a Using a suitable scale, plot a graph of the concentration of lactic acid against time. 6mks b From the graph you have drawn determine i The period of exercise . Explain. br br 0 10 20 25 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 br br 0.5 0.5 5 13 12 8 6 4 3 2 1 0.9 br br 2mks br br ii The time when oxygen debt occurred Explain. br br 2mks br br iii The duration it took to pay back the oxygen debt.Explain 2msk br br c On the same set of axes plot a hypothetical curve for oxygen intake during the experiment period of 90 minutes. br br 2mks br br d Why does lactic acid level usually continue to rise in the br br blood after exercise ceases. 2mks br br e Suggest the two importance of anaerobic respiration to animals. 2mks br br d What is oxygen debt? br br 2mks br br 9. What is the role of the liver in the maintance of a constant level of materials in the body. 10.The diagram below represents a simple respiratory pathway in cells br br 20mks a Name the process marked X and Y. 2mks br br b State two differences between process X and Y. br br 2mks br br c State the name of substance B and condition under which it 2mks is formed. d Explain how body size affects the rate of respiration in 2mks animals. 11. The diagram below represent the structure of a nephron. Study it and answer the questions that follow. br br X C C br br a i State the physiological process by which solutes are selectively re-absorbed back into blood at the part labelled B. br br 1mk br br ii How is the part labeled B adapted to carry out the physiological process named in 3 a i above. br br 1mk br br b In which part of the kidney is the part labelled A abundantly found. c On the diagram above , indicate the direction of flow of blood using arrows at the part labelled C. 1mk e State the functions carried out by the following hormones in the functioning of the nephron. i Aldosterone. 1mk br br 1mk br br ii Anti diuretic hormone. br br 1mk br br 12. The data below shows the rate of photosynthesis at different temperature in attached leaves of three East African plants. Crotolaria, Gynandropsis and Amaranthus species respectively which were grown outside with the same illustration while water and carbon IV oxide are not limiting factors in this experiment. Rate of photosynthesis was expressed interms of carbon IV oxide uptake in mg/mm2/hr at various temperatures as tabulated below. br br Rate of photosynthesis mg/mm2/hr br br Temperature oC br br Gynandropsis sp - 22 50 60 80 85 80 73 66 2 Crotolaris sp 20 40 49 64 48 45 42 31 15 - Amaranthus sp - 10 27 42 55 54 50 45 40 11 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 a Represent the results graphically rate of photosynthesis against temperature b Using the graph in a above indicate optimum temperature for the Gynandropsis and Amaranthus species. br br 2mks br br Gynandropsis Amaranthus c Give a reason why Gynandaropsis and Amaranthus could not function photosynthetically at 5oC. 1mk d What are the possible ecological habitats for the following plants. 2mks i Amaranthus ii Crotolaria e At what temperature was the amount of carbon IV oxide around the leaf of Gynandropsis highest? br br 1mk br br f What raw material is required in the light stage of photosynthesis. g Name the parts of chloroplasts in which the following stages of photosynthesis take place. 2mks i Light stage ii Dark stage br br 1mk h State one structural similarity and difference between chloroplast and mitochondria. Similarity Difference i What is the compensation point of photosynthesis? br br 2mks br br 1mk br br 13 a Explain why plants lack elaborate excretory organs like those found in animals. b Name five methods of excretion in plants. br br 3mks br br 5mks br br c State any six excretory products in plants and give economic uses. 14. During a laboratory investigation, a scientist extracted gastric juice from the mammalian stomach. He used it to carry out tests on a food sample B which was suspected to contain proteins. He divided the food sample B into three portions and treated them as below. br br 12mks br br I. On the 1st portion of B, he added Gastric juice and mixed them thoroughly before adding sodium hydroxide followed with copper II sulphate drop by drop. br br II. On the 2nd portion of B, he added boiled gastric juice and mixed them thoroughly before adding sodium hydroxide followed with copper II sulphate drop by drop. III. On the 3rd portion of B, he added Gastric juice, sodium bi-carbonate and mixed them thoroughl before adding sodium hydroxide followed with copper II sulphate drop by drop. a State the observations he made in each set up. br br 3mks br br - 1st portion - 2nd portion - 3rd portion br br b Why was the experiment on the 1st portion included in the tests? c Name the property of the chemical being investigated in 1mk these tests. d Account for the observations made in 2 a above. br br 1mk br br 3mks br br 15. The diagram below illustrates circulation in certain organs of the mammalian body. br br br br Heart br br Small Intestines B br br A Liver C br br 203 a Identify the blood vessels represented by A, B and C. br br 3mks br br b Explain why blood from the small intestines goes to the liver before it goes to any other organ of the body. br br 2mks br br c Compare the blood in vessels B and C. br br 1mk br br d Outline how a glucose molecule in vessel A finally reaches the heart. 1 6. The table below shows how the internal temperature two animals X and Y varied with the external temperature. The temperature was measured regularly and recorded for 12 hours in a day. Study the table and answer the questions that follow. br br 2mks a Using the same grid, draw graphs of external temperature, and internal temperature of animals X and Y Y-axes against time X-axes . br br 7mks br br b Account for the variation of internal and external temperatures for the animals X and Y. 2mks c Identify the classification of organisms whose internal temperature varies as X and Y d Explain two ways used by organism Y to make its internal temperature vary as shown despite of changes in external temperature. 4mks 18 a Give the functions of the skin in organisms. 6mks br br 2mks br br b How is the mammalian skin modified to enable it perform its functions? 19. The diagram below shows how gaseous exchange occurs across the gills in fish. br br l4mks i Give the term used to describe this flow. br br 1 Mark br br ii Explain the advantage of the above flow named in a i above. br br 2 Marks b What difference would be observed if water and blood flows across the gills in the same direction? 2 Marks br br c In which structures in the gills does gaseous exchange take place? 1 Mark d Name two organs in man which display the flow system named in a i . 2 Marks br br 20. An experiment was carried out to investigate the effect of different concentrations of Sodium Chloride on human red blood cells. Equal volumes of blood were added to equal volumes of salt solutions of different concentrations. The results were as shown below:- Set up br br Sodium Chloride concentration br br Shape of red blood cells at the of end experiment Normal Swollen br br Number of red blood cells at the of end experiment No change in number Fewer number br br A B 0.9 0.3 br br in a If the experiment was repeated with 1.4 Sodium Chloride solution, state the results you would expect with reference to:- i Number of red blood cells. 1 Mark br br ii Appearance of red blood cells when viewed under the 1 Mark microscope. Account for the fewer number of red blood cells in 0.3 Sodium Chloride salt solution. c Give the biological term which can be used to describe 0.9 Sodium chloride solution. 1 Mark d Define plasmolysis. br br 3 Marks br br 1 Mark B- Remain the same; br br iii A Surrounding the cube is a region with high br br concentration of water molecules while in the crystals, there are very few water molecules; The sugar crystals exert on Osmosis pressure by Osmosis water molecules move across the potato tissue, which acts as a semi-permeable membrane. The level rises; br br sugar br br B- No change since boiling denatures the membrane br br structure of potato cells; br br iv C- No water moves into the potato cup/remains the br br same; since there is no concentration gradient; 2 a i Graph. br br ii 0.402 0.01 iii 11 1 . br br b i All cells have been haemolysed; cells contains one hypertonic to salt solution; water enters cells by osmosis; cells swell and eventually burst. br br ii No cells were haemolysed; cell contents were isotonic the cell was equal br br to salt solutions aments of water entering to that leaving the cell ; no net movement of water into cells; br br c The cells would become crenated; the cell contents would be hypotonic to salt solutions; water would leave cells by osmosis; membranes would shrink. d Contents of Onion epidermal cells would be hypertonic to water; water would enter cells by Osmosis; cells would become turgid; 3. transpiration; high temperature increases the atmosphere to hold water and moisture; also heat increase internal temperature of the leaf 4 accept converse br br - Temperature;- High temperature faster rate of br br capacity of - Atmospheric pressure; Low atmospheric pressure, high br br rate of transpiration 2 br br - Humidity; Low humidity higher rate of transpiration; low humidity increases the saturation defiant; hence water moves form leaves to drier atmosphere; 4 br br - Wind; When it is windy the rate of transpiration is higher; wind sweeps away vapour that has accumulated at the surface of leaf; increasing saturation deficit; hence faster rate of transpiration 5 br br - Light intensity; High light intensity faster rate of br br transpiration high light intensity increase hence stomata opens; 4 br br photosynthesis rate - Amount of water in soil; More water in the soil br br increases the rate of transpiration; it wets the xylem is wet throughout ; 3 Max 20 4. a Define digestion and ingestion. br br xylem ensure br br i Digestion- It is break down of complex insoluble; food substance into simple soluble food substance; ii Ingestion- is introduction of food through the mouth br br into the digestive system; br br b Describe the digestion of Ugali. - br br Digestion of ugali begins in the mouth; ugali is chewed by the teeth to increase large surface area for action of salivary amylase/ptyalin; The food mixes with saliva produced by salivary glands; br br - Saliva contains mucus and enzyme ptyalin. Mucus moistens, softens and lubricates the food; ptyalin speeds up the conversion of starch to maltose; ugali is made into bolus in the mouth; br br - The bolus moves along br br the oescophagus and prestalsis/by contraction and relaxation of circular and longitudinal muscles into the stomach; - The digestion continues until ugali become acidic contain since carbohydrase/carbohydrate digesting enzymes no digestion of ugali takes place here. br br the stomach br br - Ugali now moves into duodenum by peristalsis in form of acidic chime; where it mixes with the bile the juice from liver and pancreatic from pancreases; bile being alkaline neutralizes the stomach acid; and provides a suitable alkaline medium for the enzymes to act on carbohydrates; - Pancreatic juice contains three enzymes out of the which enzyme amylase speeds conversion of starch to maltose; br br - When food reaches the ileum; it mixes with intestinal juice which contains several enzymes. Maltase speeds up conversion of maltose to glucose; br br - Lactose which speeds up conversion of lactose to glucose and galactose; sucrase which speeds up conversion of sucrose into fructose and glucose; br br - Absorption glucose, br br the end product of all carbohydrates diffuses through the epithelium of villi and capillary walls and enters into blood stream and is carried to the liver via hepatic portal veins; br br - Assimilation- in the liver excess glucose is converted br br into glycogen and stored; br br - - The rest of the glucose is carried by the blood tissues where is oxidized during tissue respiration to release energy; 21 max 18 mks Total 20mks br br a - Pulmonary artery - Pulmonary vein b Alveolus c A - cavity of alveolus E Red blood cell d Hydrogen carbonate ions; Carbamino haemoglobin; a i Walls of stomach; ii Stimulates the secretion / production of gastric juice; br br b Presence of food in the stomach; B Lacteal; c A Blood capillaries; d - Produces plenty of mucus to lubricate br br coarse/indigestible material during peristalsis; br br - Wide human accommodates /store indigestible food - Elongate to increase surface are for absorption of br br water. br br - has muscles to facilitate peristalsis when they contract; a i P Tracheids Q pits ii P - water conducting elements of xylem b Function of phloem translocation/ transport of organic br br 7. br br substances from the leaves to the of the plant; br br c i Translocation of food will not occur acc. Slow br br translocation br br ii Reason it contains a lot of mitochondria which br br provide energy for translocation; br br d cytoplasmic strands 4 Lack lignin deposits br br 8. br br a Photocopy scale 1m Labeling axes 1 Plotting 2m Curves 2m curves must be labeled rej. Dotted br br line for curves br br A GRAPH OF LACTIC ACID CONCENTRATION AGAINST TIME br br br br b i 10-15 minutes ; period of rapid increase in lactic acid br br concentration 2mks br br ii 10-20 seconds : period when lactic acid level starts br br to increase; 2mks br br iii 75minutes i.e. from 25th minutes to the 100minutes, this is the time lactic cid took to decrease from the highest level to normal; 2mks br br c It would have the same basic shape; but would peak br br slightly ahead of the lactic acid curve in time; br br e Because it is still diffusing out of the muscles, where it br br was made a few minutes earlier; br br e Allows for energy production even cases of oxygen deficiency; thus enables animals to survive active exercise and to inhabit even in areas with limited oxygen supply; br br f Oxygen debt is the amount of oxygen to get rid of the lactic acid; that has accumulated due to anaerobic respiration; 2mks br br 209 9. Regulation of blood sugar level; under the influence of insulin; and glucagons hormones . When there is excess sugar; the hormone insulin stimulate/causes liver cell to convert it to glycogen; some converted to fats/lipids for storage; br br When the blood sugar level is below normal: the hormone glucagon causes liver cells to convert glycogen to glucose; Regulation of amino acids; excess amino acids; are deaminated; by the liver cells leading to formation of urea; which is transported by the blood to the kidney; for elimination; Production of heat: the liver is involved in the thermoregulation due to many metabolic, activities; taking place in the liver cells a lot of heat is generated which is distributed to the entire/whole body; Detoxication of toxic substances; such as drugs and br br hydroxide peroxide br br Elimination of haemoglobin; and formation of bile; breakdown worn out red blood cells; the bile salts sodium tyrochocolate and sodium glycocholate; in the bile eEMULSIFYfats in the duodenum Storage of blood in its veins; thus regulating the volume of blood circulating in the body br br Elimination of sex hormones after they have performed their function/work; storage of vitamin AD and B12 some mineral salts; thus regulating their levels in the blood TOTAL 23 MAX 20 br br 10. a X - glycolysis Y Krebs cycle br br b br br Process X - occurs in cytoplasm - independent of oxygen - produces less energy - raw material is glucose - End products are energy, Process Y - occurs in mitochondria - Is oxygen dependent - produces more energy - Raw material is pyruvate - End products are energy, br br CO2, lactic acid or ethanol CO2 and water c lactic acid; under anaerobic conditions d small body size leads to alarge surface area to volume br br ratio; hence more loss of heat to the environment; leading to increased rate of respiration to replace the lost heat; 11. a i Active transport/diffusion Tied ii Numerous Mitochondria in its wall to generate energy/microvilli/coiling increase surface area/thin epithelium for quick diffusion. b Cortex c on the diagram d plasma proteins; Blood cells; accept specific examples e.g. albumins, red blood cells; e i Regulate re-absorption of Sodium salts; br br ii Regulate re-absorption of water br br 12. a Allocation of marks on graph b Gynandropsis opt To 30oC Amaranthus opt. to 25oC c At 5oC, the enzymes that catalyse the process of br br photosynthesis are inactivated. br br d Amaranthus Terrestrial; Crotolaria terrestrial; e 50oC; f water; g i Granum; ii Stroma h Similarity: Both have double membrane; 1mk Both br br have fluid filled matrix; Difference : inner membrane of mitochondrion is folded to form cristae while inner membrane of chloroplast is smooth; br br - chloroplast is biconcave shaped while mitochondria is oval/sausage shaped any 1x1 1mk br br i Point at which the rate of photosynthesis equals to the br br rate of respiration. 13. a plants wastes accumulate slowly; - plants produce less toxic wastes; - some excretory products are recycled by plants e.g. br br CO2, SO2 br br - plant tissues are tolerant to toxic wastes; - plant wastes are stored in temporary structures br br which fall off e.g. leaves any 3x1 3mks b Diffusion; br br - Transpiration; - Exudation; - Deposition of wastes/ leaf fall/ flower fall/ storage in br br bark; br br - Recycling; - Guttation ; any 5x1 5mks br br c br br Excretory products br br Uses 1. Caffeine; 2. Popain; 3. Tannin; 4. Nicotine; 5. Latex; 6. Quinine; 7. Atropine; 8. Morphine; 9. Colchine; 10. Cocai br br Body stimulant; Meat tenderizer; Leather tanning; Stimulant; insecticide; Manufacture of tyre/rubber products; Anti-malarial drugs; Increase heart beat; dilate eye pupil; Cancer treatment; Used in genetics to induce polypoidy; Anesthesia/painkiller/stimul ant; Pain killer; Stimulant; Any 6x2 12mks br br ne; br br 11. Cann br br abis; br br 12. Khat/ br br miraa; 14. a 1st portion. - Blue; colour was observed 2nd portion Purple; colour was observed 3rd portion Purple; colour was observed br br b A control experiment; c Proteins are highly sensitive to temperature and pH changes; award if either temp of pH is stated singly d peptones; br br 1st portion Enzyme pepsin broke down proteins into br br 2nd portion Enzyme pepsin works in acidic medium; not br br in basic medium 15. a A Hepartic portal vein; B Hepartic vein; br br C Hepartic artery; b So that any toxic substances absorbed together with br br food nutrients from the ileum be detoxified; br br - So that food substances e.g. glucose, amino acids can be br br regulated. Only the required quantity of glucose is left in circulation as excess is either stored as glycogen, fat and excess may be respired. Excess amino acids are deaminated; br br c B Deoxygenated C - Oxygenated d From the small intestines, it is transported to the liver through Hepartic portal vein; It is then transported to the heart through the hepartic vein; 16. a graph b X Lacks internal mechanisms to regulate its internal br br temperature br br Y Has internal means to regulate its internal temperature. hence able to maintain it within narrow range br br c X Poikilotherm d Blood vessels vasodilate when temperature is higher br br Y Endotherm br br than norm to allow for heat loss from blood through radiation, evaporation, etc; when temperature is lower, blood vessels constrict radiation, evaporation etc; - When temperature is higher, lies flat to allow for heat loss from the body since insulation layer of air is removed; when temperature is lower, hair strands erect to hold air which insulates the body against heat loss through radiation, evaporation etc. br br to prevent loss of heat from blood through br br 17. a Higher temperature; increases the kinetic energy; of br br water molecules which makes water turn into vapour on the leaf surfaces faster and hence increase rate of transpiration br br Higher light intensity; influences maximum opening of stomata which increases the surface area; over which transpiration occurs maximumly br br Wind; carries away moisture around the plant and create a higher saturation deficit; which then increases the rate of water loss/transpiration in plants. br br Higher relative humidity; reduces saturation deficit; which br br causes lowering of water loss/transpiration in plants. Higher amount of water in the soil; makes the plant to br br absorb excess water which increases the need for the plant to get rid of it through transpiration faster; br br If the leaf is broader and has numerous larger open stomata; the surface area over which water loss occurs is increased; causing increase in the rate of transpiration. br br award max. 12mks br br 18. a It protects the underlying tissues against mechanical injury, UV-light rays and entry of pathogens; Rej. germs br br As an excretory organs , it enables organisms to eliminate br br excess water, ions and traces of urea; br br As a sensory organ, it enables the organisms to be aware of deviations in pressure, touch and temperature from the external environment; br br It is a thermoregulator such that it enables the body to lose excess heat to lower its temperature back to norm or may enable the organisms to store it s heat if the temperature is lower and hence raise it back to the norm; It takes part in osmoregulation by enabling the body fluids br br to get rid of excess water or excess ions; br br It takes part in the regulation of the pH of body fluids by enabling the body to get rid of either Hydrogen ions or bi- carbonate ions; br br b Presence of the cornified layer; which tough and has keratin to enable it protect the underlying tissues from mechanical injury; It alsos has sebum; which is antiseptic and enables it to prtect the ody against entry of pathogesn. Presence of melanin; enables it to protect the underlying tissues against damage by t UV-light radiations. It has sweat glands with secretory cells; which absorb br br excess water, excess ions and traces fo urea from blood and secrete them into the sweat duct; br br Has the sweat pores; which open son the skin surface to allow for elimination of sweat containing excess water, excess ions and traces of urea; br br It has nerve endings; which enables it to detect any deviations in temperature, pressure and contact/touch; It has hair follicles; which stand erect when temperature is lower than normal to reduce heat loss from the body or lie flat to enable to body lose excess heat and lower temperature back to the norm when the internal temperature is higher; br br Has blood vessels; which vasodilate when temperature is higher than norm to enable the organisms lose than the norm to reduce heat loss from the body; i Counter current system; br br 19. a ii Maintain a diffusion gradient so that there is maximum uptake of oxygen; continue diffusing into blood and Carbon iv oxide into water; b Parallel flow lower diffusion gradient; so that less oxygen br br diffuse into blood/low rate of gaseous exchange br br c Gill filaments d Placenta Kidney 20 a i Remain the same br br ii Crenated br br b The solution is hypotonic to red blood cells hence the cells br br grains water; by osmosis; swelling until they burst. br br c Isotonic solution d Plasmolysis the process by which plant cells loss water by br br Osmosis shrink and become flaccid. br br BIOLOGY DIAGRAMS br br br br 215 br br 218 br br 219 br br 220 br br 221 br br M br br V W br br N Z br br 222 br br 223 br br 224 br br 225 br br R P br br Companion Cell br br Q br br A br br B br br 226 TOPICAL QUESTIONS FOR BIOLOGY br br FORM I TOPICS br br 1. a Define biology br br -the study of life/living things b List the branches of biology - Zoology study of animals - Botany study of plants - Microbiology study of microorganisms c Explain the importance of biology - helps to solve environmental problems - Helps to learn scientific skills - For entry into other professions/careers - To apply knowledge to everyday life situations - To classify organisms into their right groups - understanding living organisms d State the characteristics of living organisms - feeding/nutrition - Growth and development - respiration to produce energy - sensitivity/irritation/response - excretion getting rid of metabolic waste material - movement/locomotion - reproduction e State the main differences between plants and animals Animals Plants No chlorophyll Give parental care to young Plants dont care for their br br Contain chlorophyll br br young br br 2. a i What is a hand lens? - Convex lens mounted on a frame and used to magnify br br small objects for viewing. ii How is a hand lens used? - place the lens a short distance from the eye - Bring the object to be viewed near the lens until an br br enlarged and clear image can be seen. br br ii When is a hand lens used? br br - For reasonably sized objects such as insect wing, leg, br br flower parts. br br - Cannot be used for small objects such as cells, stomata. br br iv Explain how to calculate drawing magnification - drawing magnification equals to length of drawing divided by length of object or image length divided by actual length i.e. length of drawing or image length br br Length of object actual length br br b i what is classification? - Orderly arrangement of living organisms into various groups according to their similarities ii List the external features used to classify plants br br - rhizoids e.g. mosses - frond e.g. ferns - roots e.g. taproot, fibrous roots, modified roots - flowers - leaves - buds - seeds iii List the external features used to classify animals br br - horns e.g. cattle, goat, sheep, deer, gazelle etc - hooves e.g. cattle, sheep, donkey - mammary glands e.g. cattle, dog, sheep, cat - hair e.g. human, cat - Shell e.g. snail, Tortoise - spines e.g. hedge hog, porcupine br br c Give the reasons why classification is important - Placing/grouping living organisms into correct groups called taxa - Identification - arrange information about living organisms into orderly and sequential manner i.e. it is easy to study organisms in groups -helps in understanding evolutionary relationships - monitoring disappearance and appearance of organisms i.e. predict characteristics of organisms d i Name the taxonomic units of classification in descending order - Kingdom largest unit - Phylum animals /division plants - Class - Order br br - Family - Genus - Species smallest unit br br ii What is a species? br br - all organisms which can interbreed and give rise to fertile br br viable offspring br br iii Name the major kingdoms used in classification -monera -protoctista/protista -fungi -plantae -animalia e i Define the term binomial nomenclature - a scientific system of naming organisms using the generic/genus and specific/species names - e.g. for humans, Homo sapiens ii State the principles followed during binomial nomenclature br br - the first generic name should begin with a capital letter br br while the rest are small letters br br - the two names are printed in italics and if handwritten br br should be underlined each separately br br iii Give the advantages of using binomial nomenclature - no confusion about which organism is referred to - names are internationally accepted regardless of language - shows evolutionary relationship hence easy to understand - useful in naming many species unlike use of common br br names br br iv Name the types of classification br br - traditional using common names - scientific using binomial nomenclature 3. a i Define the term cell - it is the basic unit of organization of an organism i.e. the br br basic functional and structural unit of an organism. ii What is cell biology? br br - study of structure and functioning of a cell - also called cytology b i What is a microscope? - an instrument used to magnify objects and make them appear bigger. ii Name the types of microscope br br - the light microscope - the electron microscope br br iii State the purpose of using a light microscope br br - it magnifies and reveals the structure details of tiny objects br br such as the cell, that cannot be seen by the human eye directly br br - br br iv Draw a labeled sketch of a light microscope br br br br v State the functions of the labeled parts a. Eyepiece used to look through and to magnify the object b. Course adjustment knob raises or lowers body tube and focuses object roughly c. Fine adjustment knob raises or lowers body tube by small distances to bring image into fine focus d. objective lens brings image into focus and also magnifies object/image br br stage is a platform where object or specimen on slide is br br placed br br mirror reflects light through condenser and directs it to br br objective lens br br clips hold glass slide in position body tube holds eyepiece and revolving nose piece which br br has objective lenses br br limb or base support whole instrument arm for holding when carrying instrument br br 230 revolving nose piece holds objective lens in place enabling br br change from one objective lens to another e i Explain the procedure followed when using a microscope - put the microscope on the bench with the stage facing away from you viewer - turn the lower power objective to click in line with the eyepiece - Ensure that the diaphragm/iris is fully open - Adjust the mirror until the stage is illuminated with enough light - Place the slide containing the specimen on the stage for magnification - Draw the image and indicate magnification of the drawing. ii State the precautions that are necessary when handling a microscope br br always use two hands when carrying it never place a microscope too close to the edge of the br br bench or table br br do not touch the mirror and lens with wet or dirty hands clean dirty lenses using a special lens cleaning cloth clean other parts using a soft cloth or tissue paper low power objective must click into position before and br br after use. br br Do not wet any part of the microscope Clean and store well after use br br d i What is magnification? - The power of making an image larger ii Give the formula used to calculate magnification in a light microscope iii Give the reasons for each of the following steps when preparing a cross-section of a stem or leaf for examination under the microscope cutting very thin sections br br thin sections allow light to pass through making it easy to br br observe the tissue br br Using a sharp razor blade during the cutting br br sharp blade does not damage, deform, destroy or distort the br br surface of cell or tissue br br it makes thin sections Placing sections in water br br to maintain turgidity hence maintain shape of cell it prevents drying of the section br br Staining the sections with iodine before observing br br To make chloroplasts, starch containing structures, granules br br or plastids distinct. br br e i List the parts of a cell that can be seen under a light microscope br br a cell membrane br br b cytoplasm c cell wall e nucleus d vacuole br br br br ii Draw the general structure of a plant and animal cell iii List the parts of a cell that can be seen under an electronic microscope and state the functions of each part. Cell wall br br found in plant cells in addition to cell membrane made of cellulose which makes the plant tough allows gases, water and other substances to pass through br br Cell membrane br br permeable/selective to control movement of materials in br br and out of cells br br bound/encloses the cell contents also called plasma membrane or plasmallema br br Cytoplasm br br fluid medium where chemical reactions occur also where cell organelles are suspended br br Nucleus br br controls cell activities br br Nucleolus br br synthesizes DNA br br Vacuole br br 232 sacs filled with fluid called cell sap large in plants but small in animals act as reservoirs for food and harmful wastes which would br br otherwise interfere with the metabolism in cytoplasm br br Lysosomes br br store hydrolytic enzymes destroy worn out cell organelles, cells, pathogens digestion of food in unicellular organisms autolysis Golgi apparatus br br processing/packaging of synthesized materials transporting/secretion of packaged materials/cell materials br br e.g. glycoproteins and mucus br br production of lysosomes br br Ribosomes br br where protein synthesis takes place br br Mitochondrion br br synthesis of ATP/energy br br Chloroplasts br br where photosynthesis takes place br br Endoplasmic reticulum br br transport of cell secretions can be rough or smooth br br iv State the functions of cell sap br br stores chemical substances, sugar, salts br br maintains shape of the cell/provides mechanical strength plays a role in osmoregulation by creating an osmotic br br gradient that brings about movement of water br br e Compare plant and animal cells br br plant cells have chloroplasts lacking in animals animal cells have many small vacuoles while plant cells have a large central vacuole br br plant cell have cellulose cell walls lacking in animal cells cytoplasm in plant cell is in the periphery but in animal cell br br it is centrally placed br br plants store starch, oil and protein while animals store gats br br and glycogen br br animal cells have centrioles which plant cells do not have br br f Explain the meaning of each of the following br br i Cell br br - Basic unit of organization in an organism - Specialized animal cells include sperm, ovum muscle Specialized plant cells include epidermal, guard cell and palisade cell ii Tissue br br these are cells of a particular type grouped together to br br perform a certain function br br animal tissues include epithelium, blood, nerves, muscle, br br skeletal and connective tissues br br plant tissues include epidermal, photosynthetic, vascular, br br strengthening tissues br br iii Organ br br tissues combine together to form organs an organ is a complex structure with a particular function animal examples include heart, liver, kidney, lungs, brain, br br blood vessels, muscles, skeleton br br Plant organs include leaves, roots, flowers, and stem. br br iv Organ system br br organs are grouped together to form systems also called br br organ systems br br animal systems include excretory, digestive, respiratory, br br nervous, circulatory, endocrine hormones/glands , skeletal systems br br plant systems include transport system br br g i Name the structures which are present in plant cells but absent in animal cells - Chloroplast - Cell wall ii Name the structures which are present in animal cells but absent in plant cells Lysosomes Centrioles Pinocytic vesicles h Explain how to estimate cell size i Materials br br cell sizes are measured in units known as micrometers my required is a transparent ruler marked in millimeters 1m 1 mm br br 1000 focus so that the millimeter marks can be seen as thick dark br br lines br br estimate the diameter of field of view by counting the one millimeter spaces between the first mark and the last one across the field of view as shown below br br br br the diameter of the field of view above is estimated as 3.2 br br mm br br convert the diameter of the field of view from millimeters br br to micrometers i.e. 3. br br Estimate the fraction of the field of view occupied by the cell. This is done by estimating the number of cells places end to end that would fill the diameter of the field of view as shown below br br in the figure above, it is estimated that approximately six br br cells will occupy the diameter of the field of view therefore, one cell will occupy of the field of view its diameter is calculated as times the diameter of the br br field of view br br i In a drawing of a giraffe, the height of the head from the ground was recorded as 10cm. the drawing also showed a magnification of 0.02. calculate the actual height of the giraffe br br Drawing height 10cm 500cm Magnification i br br 0.02 br br In a class experiment to estimate sizes of cells a student observed and obtained millimeter marks on the field of view of a microscope as shown in the diagram below . br br 235 Millimeter marks br br - If the student counted 40 cells on the diameter of the field of view, what was the approximate size of the each cell in micrometers? Diameter of field of view 3 x 1000 75 m Number of cells 40 br br ii Under which of the following light microscope br br magnifications would one see a larger part of the specimen? X40 or x400? Give a reason br br x40 Smaller magnification gives a wider field of view hence a br br larger part seen. br br e. the study of the functions of a cell in relation to their br br a i Define cell physiology br br structure br br ii State the functions of the cell exchange of materials between the cell and the external br br environment br br physiological reactions e.g. photosynthesis production of energy through mitochondria b i Describe the structure of cell membrane - made up of three layers - Lipid portion sandwiched between two protein layers - Lipid portion enhances penetration of oil soluble substances Pores present to facilitate inward and outward movement of water soluble substances br br iii Give the properties of cell membrane semi-permeable sensitive to changes in temperature and pH Possesses electric charges. c i What is diffusion? br br movement of substances/molecules/particles/ions from a br br region of high concentration to a region of low concentration until equilibrium is reached br br iii State the factors affecting diffusion diffusion gradient/concentration gradient surface area to volume ratio temperature size of molecules state of the diffusing substance thickness of membrane and tissues iii Explain the roles of diffusion in living organisms br br gaseous exchange absorption of digested food in intestines movement of salts in plants movement of materials between blood capillaries and br br tissues br br removal of waste materials from bodies of small organisms air movement in intercellular spaces in plants br br iv Suggest an experiment to demonstrate diffusion to a beaker of water, drop crystals of potassium br br permanganate or copper sulphate br br leave to stand in a place without disturbing observe the spreading of molecules liquid is coloured uniformly due to diffusion br br d i What is osmosis? br br Movement of water or solvent molecules from a br br dilute/hypotonic solution to a more concentrated/hypertonic solution across a semi-permeable membrane. br br OR br br movement of solvent molecules from a region of their br br higher concentration to a region of their lower concentration through a semi-permeable membrane br br ii State the factors affecting osmosis br br concentration of the solution concentration gradient temperature iv Explain the roles of osmosis in living organisms helps to draw water into roots of plants helps in the passage of water from one living cell to another br br in the plant br br helps to keep plant cells turgid increasing support Helps in opening and closing of stomata. Folding of leaves in Mimosa pudica when touched Feeding in insectivorous plants v A group of students set up an experiment to br br investigate a certain physiological process. The set up is as shown in the diagram below. br br 237 After some time they observed that the level of sugar had risen. What was the physiological process under investigation? br br Osmosis br br Why was there a rise in the level of sugar solution? br br sugar solution is more concentrated than cell sap osmosis those cells become more concentrated and therefore draw br br water from neighbouring cells br br this process continues until the cells in contact with the br br water in the container draw it up causing a rise in the level of the sugar solution br br Suggest the results that the students would obtain if they repeated the experiment using cooked potato The level of sugar solution will not rise. br br What is the reason for your suggestion? br br boiling kills/destroys cells making them osmotically br br inactive br br vi Explain the following terms br br Hypnotic br br a solution whose concentration is lower than that of the cell br br Isotonic br br a solution whose concentration is the same as that of the br br cell Hypertonic br br a solution whose concentration is higher than that of the br br cell br br Turgor pressure br br As a cell gains water, its vacuole enlarges and exerts an br br outward pressure called turgor pressure. br br br br 238 Plasmolysis br br if a plant is placed in a hypotonic solution if loses water the protoplasm shrinks to an extent that it pulls away from br br the cellulose cell wall br br br br Wilting br br when a plant is turgid it can stand upright however, if the cells lose a lot of water, turgidity is reduced the plant then droops because the cells are flaccid the plant is said to wilt br br Haemolysis br br if red blood cells are placed in distilled water, the cells take br br up water by osmosis, swell and burst br br this is because it does not have any mechanism like the br br cellulose cell wall to prevent overstretching nor any means of removing excess water this is called haemolysis br br e A form one student placed red blood cells in different salt concentrations and obtained the following results:- There was a gain no change 0 zero and a loss - in the volume of the cells as show below:- br br 239 Briefly explain the results of the experiment br br in the first solution , red blood cell absorbed water by br br osmosis, swell and burst haemolysis hence the solution is hypotonic br br in the second solution, there was no change in size or structure as it was isotonic hence no osmotic gradient in the third solution the red blood cell lost water to shrink hence became crenated as the solution was hypotonic to the cell cytoplasm. br br f i What is active transport? br br movement of molecules and ions against a concentration br br gradient br br the substances move from a lower to a higher concentration br br gradient by use of energy br br ii State the factors affecting active transport br br oxygen concentration temperature change in pH glucose concentration enzyme inhibitors iii Why is oxygen important in the process of active transport? - Oxygen is required for respiration, which produces energy necessary for the process to occur. 2.0 the factors that affect the rates of the following process in living organisms. br br a. DIFFUSION. br br - Diffusion gradient which refers to the difference in concentration of molecules between the region of high concentration and the region of low concentration. Increasing the concentration gradient causes an increase in rate of diffusion and vice versa. -Surface area to volume ratio . is the ratio of total surface area exposed by an organism compared to its body volume. Small sized living organisms have a large surface area to volume ratio. The larger the surface area to volume ratio ,the high the rate of diffusion and vice versa. Small organisms like amoeba and paramecium can hence rely on diffusion for transport of substances into and within its body and removal of waste products -thickness of membranes. Molecules take longer to diffuse across thick membranes than across thin membranes hence the thin the membrane the higher the rate of diffusion. -Temperature. Increasing temperature increases the kinetic energy of diffusing molecules making them to spread faster. Increasing temperature increases the rate of diffusion and vice versa -size of molecules/molecular weight. Small sized molecules/molecules of low molecular weight move/diffuse faster hence the rate of diffusion is high where the molecules involved are small or have low molecular weight and vice versa . B. OSMOSIS -Temperature. Increasing temperature increases the kinetic energy of water molecules making them to spread faster. Increasing temperature increases the rate of osmosis and vice versa -concentration gradient/diffusion pressure deficit. Refers to the difference in concentration on either side of a semi- permeable membrane. The higher the osmotic pressure difference the higher the rate of osmosis. C. ACTIVE TRANSPORT OXYGEN CONCENTRATION. It is required for respiration/to oxidize respiratory substrates to release energy required for active transport. an increase in oxygen concentration causes a simultaneous increase to the rate of active transport upto a certain level. PH Enzymes being protein in nature are PH specific. Extreme change in PH affect the rate of respiration which is controlled by enzymes and may denature the enzymes reducing the rate of active transport. - GLUCOSE CONCENTRATION. is the main respiratory substrate for energy production. An increase in glucose concentration in cells increase the rate of respiration and hence the rate of active transport is increased upto a certain optimum level beyond which any additional increase in glucose concentration has no effect. TEMPERATURE. The process of respiration by which energy for active transport is generated is controlled by enzymes. Enzymes work best at temperatures of between 350c- 400c,usually called optimum temperature ranges. At very low temperatures enzymes are inactive lowering the rate of respiration hence low rates of active transport . increase in temperature above optimum above 400c denatures enzymes slowing down respiration and ac tive transport until it finally stops. ENZYMES INHIBITORS. They are substances which slow down by competing with the enzyme for the active sites in the substrate or stop by blocking the active sites of the enzyme the activity/funtioning of enzymes .this slows down or stops respiration and so is active transport. CONCENTRATION OF CARRIER MOLECULES IN THE CELL MEMBRANE. They are substances that bind to the ions being transported actively and carrying them across the membrane . increase in concentration of carrier molecules increases the rate of active transport upto a certain level and vice versa. 4. Explain briefly the role of osmosis in living tissues. In plants: Osmosis facilitates the absorption of water from the soil by plant roots, water is required for the process of photosynthesis. Turgidity of cells contributes to support in herbaceous plants and helps plant to maintain shape. Helps in closing and opening of stomata regulating the process of gaseous exchange and transpiration. It facilitates feeding in insectivorous plants like venus fly trap. In animals: Enables reabsorption of water from the kidney tubules back to blood stream facilitating the process of osmoregulation. It enables organisms in fresh water bodies like amoeba to absorb water. it is applied in food preservation. 5. explain what happens when plant and animal cells are put in hypotonic and hypertonic solutions. br br a. i plant cells in hypotonic solution. br br The concentration of the plant cell sap is hypertonic to the solution/water medium. the cell draws in water by osmosis through the cell wall, cell membrane into the cell cytoplasm. Water enters the cell vacuole by osmosis; it enlarges and exerts an outward pressure on the cell wall called turgor pressure. Increased turgor pressure pushes the cell cytoplasm against the cell wall until the cell wall cannot stretch any further. The cell becomes firm or rigid and is said to be turgid. As the cell wall is being stretched outwards, it develops a resistant inwards pressure that is equal and opposite to the turgor pressure and this is called wall pressure. ii. Plant cells in hypertonic solution. The plant cell sap is hypotonic to the solution medium. Water molecules are drawn out of the plant cells by osmosis into the hypertonic solution through the semi-permiable membrane of the plant cells. As a result the plant cell will start to shrink/less rigid and become flabby. The cell membrane/plasma membrane is pulled away from the cell wall and the cell is said to be flaccid. this process by which a plant cell lose water, shrink and become flaccid is called plasmolysis. However the shape of the plant cell is maintained by the tough rigid cellulose cell wall which prevents crenation in plant cells. b.i Animal cells in hypotonic solution. The concentration of water in the cytoplasm of the plant cells is hypertonic to the solution medium in the test. Water molecules are then drawn into the animal cell cytoplasm from the surrounding medium by osmosis through the semipermiable membrane. the cell swells as water is drawn into them by osmosis .as water continues to enter into the cell,the weak animal cell membrane bursts a process called lysis. in red blood cells this process is called haemolysis. However in unicellular organisms like amoeba and paramecium,bursting of their cells does not take place because they have specialized organelles called contractile vacuoles for removal of exces water out of their bodies/cells. ii. Animal cells in hypertonic solution. The concentration of the animal cells cell cytoplasm is hypotonic to the solution medium in the test. the surrounding hypertonic solution will draw water out of the animal cells by osmosis through the semi-permeable membrane. Continued loss of water causes the cells to be smaller in size and their membranes become wrinkled. This process will continue until the concentration of the cell sap and the surrounding medium is equal i.e isotonic.the process by which animal cells lose water and shrink is called crenation. 6. Explain briefly the role of active transport in living organisms. It is involved in active reabsorption of glucose and mineral salts in kidney tubules during formation of urine. it enables the absorption of digested food from the alimentary canal/small intestines into the blood stream. Excretion of waste products from body cells for eventual removal. Involved in transmission of nerve impulses within the nerve cells through the sodium pump which maintains a balance between sodium and potassium ions. It facilitates accumulation of substances in the body cells to offset osmotic pressure of organisms in dry and marine environment allowing them to absorb water by osmosis and avoid desiccation. In plants it enables plant roots to absorb water from the soil against the concentration gradient. Its involved in translocation of manufactured food in the phloem tissue within the plant body. Its involved in the opening and closing of the stomata through the sodium-potassium pump mechanism. iv Outline the roles of active transport in living organisms br br mineral salt intake by plants selective reabsorption of glucose and some salts by kidney br br tubules br br absorption of digested good by small intestines excretion of waste products from body cells reabsorption of useful materials in the blood stream or at br br the tissue fluid br br sodium pump mechanism in the nerve cells/neurons f. a i Define nutrition the process by which living organisms obtain and br br assimilate nutrients br br ii State the importance of nutrition br br for respiration to get energy for growth for development to repair and replace worn out and damaged parts and tissues br br b Differentiate the various modes of feeding br br i Autotrophism manufacturing food from simple organic substances types are photosynthesis and chemosynthesis ii Heterotrophism obtaining food from autotrophes and other organic br br substances br br types are holozoic, saprophytic and parasitic g. the process by which green plants build up organic br br a i Define photosynthesis br br compounds from carbon IV oxide and water in the presence of sunlight br br ii. State the importance of photosynthesis formation of sugars/glucose which is a source of energy purification of air CO2 is used, O2 is released storage of energy to be used later in respiration stores energy in wood, coal, oil to be used later to run br br industries br br Structural adaptation of the leaf to its function br br br br The leaf has a broad and flattened lamina to provide a large surface area for trapping optimum light for photosynthesis and allow maximum gaseous exchange. The leaf epidermis is thin one cell thick to reduce the distance across which diffusion of carbon iv oxide gas to palisade cells and oxygen gas from palisade cells takes place. The leaf has numerous stomata that allows easy diffusion of gases into and out of the palisade tissue. The leaf cuticle and epidermis are transparent to allow easy penetration of light to the photosynthetic tissue. The palisade cells are numerous,elongated and contain numerous chloroplasts to trapping optimum light for photosynthesis. The palisade tissue is just beneath the upper epidermis exposing them to trap optimum light for photosynthesis. The leaf has numerous leaf veins consisting of a. xylem vessels and tracheids for transporting water and dissolved mineral salts from the soil to the photosynthetic tissue b. phloem tissue for translocation of of manufactured food from the leaf to storage organs and other parts of the plant . br br 245 Numerous and large air spaces in the spongy mesopyl layer for optimum gaseous exchange with the photosynthetic tissue. Phylotaxy which is regular arrangement of leaves on the stem minimizes overshadowing and overlapping exposing all leaves to light for photosynthesis. The prominent midrib and leaf veins reduces chances of rolling of leaves maintaining a large surface area for trapping optimum light for photosynthesis. br br br br C Describe the structure and function of chloroplast br br i Structure br br 246 ii Function structure in which photosynthesis takes place iii Adaptations has numerous/many grana to provide large surface area for br br packing many chlorophyll pigments br br have numerous chlorophyll pigments which trap br br sunlight/light for photosynthesis br br has stroma/third matrix which contain certain enzymes that br br catalyze photosynthetic reactions br br d i Give a word equation for photosynthesis Carbon iv Oxide water sunlight sugar oxygen NB 6CO2 6H2O C6H1206 6O2 . Describe briefly the process of photosynthesis in plants. The process of photosynthesis takes place in green plants allowing them to make their own food. The process is controlled by enzymes and involves a series of reactions that take place in chloroplasts. The raw materials required are water and carbon iv oxide.the process takes place in two consecutive stages i.e Light reaction stage Its also called the light dependent stage as it requires light energy . the reactions take place in the granna of the chloroplast. light energy from the sun is trapped by chlorophyll in the chloroplast and converted into chemical energy. This energy splits water molecules into hydrogen ions and oxygen atoms a process is called photolysis. The oxygen atoms are released as aby product or used up in the process of respiration. The hydrogen ions formed are used in the dark stage of photosynthesis. Water hydrogen ions oxygen atoms 2H2O 4H o2 g Some of the light enrgy is used to combine a molecule called adenosine diphosphate ADP with a phosphate group to form the rich energy molecules called adenosine Tri-Phosphate ATP ADP P ATP Dark reaction stage Its also called the light independent stage of photosynthesis since light is not required because it can take place both in presence and absence of light. the reactions are controlled by enzymes. the hydrogen atoms released in the light stage are combined with carbon iv oxide to form simple sugars mainly glucose. The process uses energy from ATP. This is reffered to as carbon iv oxide fixation. The reactions take place in the stroma of chloroplast. The excess glucose is converted into starch or lipids for storage. The general process of photosynthesis can be summarized by the following word and chemical equitions. Water carbon iv oxide light chlorophyll glucose oxygen 6H2o 6co2 C6H12O6 6O2 9. Factors that cause high rate of photosynthesis. High water availability in the soil. Water a raw material for photosynthesis is split in presence of light to provide the hydrogen ions required in carbon iv fixation. When water is readily available more hydrogen ions are produced hence high rate of photosynthesis. High light intensity. Light splits water molecules to hydrogen ions and oxygen atoms. Increasing light intensity increases the rate of photosynthesis up to a certain level beyond which other factors become limiting and rate of photosynthesis becomes constant. rate br br of photosynthesis Day length. Long day length especially at high latitudes temperate regions provides more light for photosynthesis causing an increase in the rate of photosynthesis. Light quality. The preferred wavelengths for photosynthesis range between 400nm-700nm. the rate of photosynthesis is higher in red and blue light and lower in all other types of light. Concentration of carbon iv oxide. Its a raw material required to combine with hydrogen ions to form simple carbohydrate molecules. Increasing the concentration of carbon iv oxide increases the rate of photosynthesis up to an optimum level beyond which other factors limit the rate of photosynthesis. f Give the differences between the light and dark reactions during photosynthesis Light reactions Dark reactions br br occurs in grana h. substances which make up cells, tissues and organs of the br br occurs in stroma br br a i What are chemicals of life? br br living system br br they combine to form organic compounds br br ii What are organic compounds? br br compounds that contain the element carbon iii List the organic compounds proteins carbohydrates lipids fats and oils vitamins enzymes nucleic acids DNA and RNA br br b i What are carbohydrates? - Compounds of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen - The elements are in the ratio of I carbon: 2 hydrogen: 1 oxygen ii Name the groups of carbohydrates br br monosaccharides simple carbohydrates e.g. glucose, br br fructose and galactose br br disaccharides formed when two monosaccharides br br combine e.g. maltose, sucrose, lactose br br polysaccharides composed of many monosaccharides and br br disaccharides e.g. starch, glycogen, cellulose br br iv State the general functions of carbohydrates production of chemical energy storage of starch plants and glycogen animals commercial uses e.g. manufacture of paper, textiles c i what are proteins? br br compounds of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen and in addition nitrogen, and sometimes sulphur and or phosphorus br br building blocks are called amino acids br br ii Name the types of amino acids br br essential amino acids which must be supplied in food since br br they body cannot synthesize them br br Non-essential amino acids which body can synthesize. iv State the classes of proteins first class proteins which supply all the essential amino br br acids br br second class proteins which lack at least one amino acid v Give the functions of proteins structural compounds e.g. muscles, hair, hooves, and br br feathers br br as enzymes e.g. pepsin, trypsin hormones e.g. insulin and glucagons antibodies part of haemoglobin molecule actin and myosin in muscles collagen in bones and cartilage pigments in rods and cones for coordination components of blood i.e. plasma proteins br br d i What are lipids - Fats and oils - They contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen - However, they contain a higher proportion of carbon and hydrogen but less oxygen that in carbohydrates ii Name the types of lipids oils liquid under room temperature fats solid under room temperature iii What are the building blocks of lipids? br br fatty acids and glycerol v State the functions of lipids production of energy source of metabolic water structural compound e i What are enzymes? br br a chemical compound, protein in nature, which acts as a br br biological catalyst br br ii State the properties of enzymes are highly specific in nature they are not used up during chemical reactions work within specific range of temperature work within specific range of pH enzyme controlled reactions are reversible iii State the factors that affect enzyme action br br temperature substrate concentration pH of the medium enzyme concentration presence of inhibitors and co-factors v Name the types of enzyme inhibitors competitive inhibitors non- competitive inhibitors vi What are the functions of enzymes? enable cellular reactions to take place at a reasonably faster br br rate br br Control cell reactions therefore no violent incidences occur br br in cells that might burn them. br br i. a Explain the various types of heterotrophic nutrition i Holozoic Mode of feeding by animals where solid complex food br br substances are ingested, digested and egested. br br ii Saprophytism feeding on dead organic matter iii Parasitism feeding from another organism but not killing it iv Symbiosis an association in which organisms of different species br br derive mutual benefit from one another br br b Differentiate between omnivorous, carnivorous and herbivorous modes of nutrition i Herbivorous herbivores feed exclusively on vegetation ii Omnivorous omnivores are animals which feed partially on plant br br materials and partially on flesh e.g pigs br br iii Carnivorous Carnivores feed on flesh alone e.g. lion br br c i What is dentition? br br Refers to the number, arrangement and kind of teeth in an br br animal ii Distinguish between the terms homodont and heterodont homodont have same kind , type, shape and size of teeth which perform similar function e.g. fish, reptiles and amphibians br br Heterodont have different kind, type, shape and size of br br teeth which perform different functions as those found in mammals. br br iv Name the types of teeth found in mammals Incisors Canines Pre-molars Molars br br d Describe the adaptations and functions of various types of mammalian teeth br br br br Incisors chisel shaped/wedge shaped found in the front of the br br buccal cavity used for cutting i Canines next to incisors very sharp and pointed located at the sides of jaws used for tearing food ii Premolars next to canines but before br br molars br br have cusps and ridges on br br their surface br br used for crushing and grinding iii Molars found at the back of the jaw have cusps and ridges on their surface absent in young mammals but appear later when permanent br br teeth grow br br used for grinding and crushing br br e i Draw a labeled diagram to represent internal structure of a mammalian tooth. br br 252 ii State the functions of the labeled structures labeled Dentine br br main constituent of teeth like bone in structure but contains no cells br br Enamel br br protects tooth from mechanical/physical injury the hard covering of the exposed part of teeth br br Crown br br portion of tooth above the gum covered with dentine br br Root br br part imbedded in the jaw below the gum covered by substances called cement cement is hard and bone-like br br Cement br br bone-like substance covering root and enamel of br br mammalian tooth br br Neck br br region at the same level with the gum forms a junction between the crown and root covered by enamel br br Pulp cavity br br at centre of tooth within dentine has blood vessels for transporting nutrients/food and gases has nerves for sensitivity f i What is dental formula? br br formula indicating the number of each kind of teeth for a br br given species of mammal only half the jaw is included the number in the upper jaw of one side is written above br br that in the lower jaw of one side br br the categories of teeth are given in the order incisors, br br herbivore e.g. sheep I 0 Omnivore e.g. human I . c1 br br /3, c 0 br br /1, pm , m3/3 30 /3 32 /1, pm2/2, m 3 br br iii How would one use dental formula to identify the following? Herbivores br br presence of diastema/gap between incisors and premolars free movement of tongue absence of incisors in upper jaw absence of canines presence of hard pad closely packed molars br br br br Carnivore br br presence of canines presence of carnassial teeth presence of incisors in upper jaw/absence of diastema/gap br br between incisor and premolar br br iv State the functions of the following structures in br br mammals br br Carnassials br br tearing flesh from bones br br Pad of gum br br provides grasping surface for lower incisors br br g Name the common dental diseases br br dental caries periodontal pyorrhea and gingivitis j. a i What is digestion? breakdown of complex food particles by enzymes to simple br br substances which can be absorbed br br ii Explain the types of digestion Intercellular br br 254 Digestion that takes place in food vacuoles inside cells. br br Extra cellular br br digestion that takes place outside cells e.g. in the digestive br br tract br br b i Draw human digestive system br br br br 255 br br ii Describe the process of digestion in the various parts of the human digestive system Mouth br br contains teeth for chewing has tongue for mixing food with saliva has salivary glands for chemical digestion, secretion of br br enzymes and mucus secretion br br starch is acted on by salivary amylase enzymes to produce br br maltose br br the tongue rolls food into a bolus which is carried into the br br stomach by peristalsis br br peristalsis is movement of food along the gut by waves of br br contraction br br it facilitates rapid digestion due to its mixing action br br Oesophagus br br also called gullet br br 256 forms a passage for food by peristalsis connects the mouth to the stomach br br Stomach br br has gastric glands which secrete gastric juices these juices contain hydrochloric acid HCL , mucus, and br br the enzymes pepsin, rennin and lipase br br HCL produces an acidic medium for enzyme action Proteins are acted upon by pepsin to produce peptides Caseinogen is acted upon by rennin to produce casein Fats are acted upon by lipase to produce fatty acids and br br glycerol br br Mucus lubricates the stomach and prevents autolysis of br br stomach mucus protects stomach br br Duodenum br br the first u-shaped part of the small intestine food in the stomach is now in a semi-liquid form called br br chime br br chime leaves the stomach by peristalsis into the duodenum there, the liver produces bile pigments, bile salts and br br sodium hydrogen carbonate br br the stomach is usually alkaline to neutralize chime which is br br acidic br br bile salts emulsify fats bile comes from the gall bladder through the bile duct sodium hydrogen carbonate provides the correct pH/alkaline br br pancreatic juices are released by pancreas into the br br duodenum br br the juices contain trypsin, chemotrypsin, amylase, lipase br br and protease br br proteins are acted upon by trypsin to form polypeptides and br br amino acids br br starch is broken down to maltose by amylase br br Ileum - produces intestinal juices - Intestinal juice contains maltase, sucrase, lactase, erepsin, lipase, and several other peptidases - Maltose is broken down to glucose and galactose by lactase - Sucrose is acted upon by sucrase to glucose Polypeptides are broken down into amino acids by erepsin - Mucus secretion is to protect the ileum wall from digestion/autolysis Colon - Commonly called the large intestine - Wider than the ileum - has several mucus-producing cells Highly folded for water absorption - Also prepares food for egestion - egestion is the process by which the insoluble parts of food are discharged from the body in form of faeces. Rectum - Muscular and enlarged - it produces mucus - used for storage and removal of faeces Anus - found at the exterior end of the rectum The rectum opens into the anus - The anus has anal sphincter to control egestion - Anus is used for egestion of faeces c Explain how mammalian intestines are adapted to perform their function - The mammalian intestines are relatively long and coiled. This allows food enough time and increases surface area for digestion and absorption of products of digestion - The intestinal lumen inner wall has projections called villi to increase surface area for absorption - The villi have projections called micro-villi which lead to further increase of surface area for absorption - The walls have glands which secrete enzymes for digestion e.g. maltase, sucrase, lactase, peptidase and enterokinase. - Goblet cells mucus secreting cells or glands produce mucus which protects the intestinal wall from being digested and reduces friction. - Intestines have openings of ducts which allow bile, a pancreatic juice into the lumen - The intestines have circular and longitudinal muscles whose contraction and relaxation peristalsis leads to mixing of food with enzymes juices helps push food along the gut. - The intestines are well supplied with blood vessels that supply oxygen and remove digested food. - Intestines have lacteal vessels for transport of lipids fats and oils - Intestines have thin epithelium to facilitate fast/rapid absorption/diffusion d What is the function of hydrochloric acid in digestion? - kills bacteria - activates trypsinogen to trypsin which digests proteins to peptones and peptones to soluble amino acids - provides acidic medium for gastric enzymes e i What is assimilation? - The process by which digested food is taken up by cells and used in the body for various purposes. ii State the uses of digested food in the bodies of animals - Protection - Repair - Growth - Energy production f Name the types of food substances in the food that do not undergo digestion in human digestive system br br mineral salts water roughage vitamins k. Explain the importance of the following food br br substances in human nutrition br br Vitamins are organic chemical compounds essential for a healthy br br body br br are obtained from fresh fruits and vegetables some are synthesized in the body e.g. vitamin K they are destroyed by overcooking food they protect the body against diseases, play regulatory br br mechanisms in the body and act as co-enzymes br br insufficient amounts lead to deficiency diseases e.g. rickets, br br scurvy, beriberi a Mineral salts are important in organic compounds containing elements br br which are essential for normal body metabolism br br those required in large quantities are called macro-nutrients while those required in small quantities are called micro- nutrients or trace elements br br They are used in bone and teeth formation. In osmotic br br balance and neurotransmission br br insufficient amounts lead to anaemia, rickets, goiter Excess amounts lead to high blood pressure, and dental br br disorders. b Roughage composed of cellulose and plant fibers digested by cellulose contained by gut microorganisms provides grip essential for peristalsis lack of roughage leads to slow movement of food leading br br to constipation br br roughage adds bulk to food for peristalsis to take place c Water used in transport in the body, universal solvent, hydrolysis insufficient leads to dehydration l. Explain the factors that determine energy requirements br br in humans br br a Basal Metabolic Rate BMR this is the energy required when the body is completely at br br rest br br used to carry out breathing, heartbeat, circulation of blood br br and other basic reactions br br also used in maintaining body temperature at constant all movements or physical work e.g. walking, eating br br required more energy. br br b Occupation means activity occurring everyday everyday activity determines energy requirement People doing heavy work like digging require more energy br br than office workers. br br c Age children carry out many activities and also have more cell br br division than adults br br their BMR is therefore higher than for adults as they grow older, they become less active and their energy requirements decrease br br d Body size small bodied people have a large surface area to volume br br ratio br br their bodies lose more heat energy to the surrounding they therefore require more energy-giving foods this is the opposite for big bodied people e Sex most males are more muscular than females they also do heavier work than females hence require more br br energy br br females do lighter work hence require less energy f Climate Observation Conclusion - colour changes to blue black/dark blue - colour changes to Green to yellow to orange to brown to red - colour changes to Green to yellow to orange to brown to red -- colour changes to purple/violet DCPIP decolorized - translucent mark - white emulsions br br Present br br Present br br Present FORM TWO TOPICS br br 1. a i Define transport br br movement of substances from one part of the body to br br another br br ii Explain the necessity of transport in plants and animals make nutrients move from one point to another movement of respiratory gases i.e. oxygen and carbon IV br br oxide br br elimination of metabolic wastes br br movement of hormones movement of water movement of salts movement of enzymes br br b i Describe the structure and function of root hair br br root hairs are found near the root tip they are cells with elongated finger-like projections which br br are in contact with soil particles br br they are permeable to water and mineral salts hence are br br used to absorb water and mineral salts br br There large number offers a large surface area for br br absorption of water and mineral salts. br br ii State ways in which the root hairs are adapted to their functions br br the root hair is long/narrow/numerous to increase surface br br area for absorption of water and mineral salts br br many mitochondria in cytoplasm to supply energy for br br active transport of mineral salts br br are thin walled to speed up rate of absorption of water and br br mineral salts br br c i Compare the internal structure of a dicotyledonous root and a monocotyledonous root Dicot root br br br br Monocot root br br ii State the similarities and differences between a dicotyledonous and monocotyledonous root Similarities br br 262 both used for anchorage and absorption of water and br br mineral salts br br both have root hairs, epidermis, pericycle, cortex, br br endodermis and vascular bundles xylem and phloem br br both may be used to store food/storage organs br br Differences Monocotyledonous Dicotyledonous br br phloem and xylem are arranged in ring form alternately pith present br br phloem lies between radial rays of central xylem star shaped br br pith absent br br i ii Compare the internal structure of a monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous stem Monocotyledonous Dicotyledonous br br br br v Give the similarities and differences between a monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous stem br br Similarities br br both are used for protection both conduct water, salts and food both have epidermis, cortex, pericycle and vascular bundles br br Differences Monocotyledonous Dicotyledonous br br vascular bundles are many and scattered some have hollow pith br br vascular bundles are few and arranged in a concentric ring near the epidermis br br or pith is absent no cambium layer therefore cannot undergo secondary growth br br pith large and well br br developed br br presence of cambium therefore undergoes secondary growth cortex has several layers of cells br br very little cortex br br 263 has root hairs no cuticle xylem and phloem no root hairs cuticle present xylem and phloem br br arranged alternately in xylem, the small arranged on the same radii br br in xylem, the smallest vessels are towards the inside br br vessels are towards the outside br br cortex is the widest br br pith is the widest tissue c i Name the transport structures of a flowering plant br br tissue br br xylem vessels and tracheids transport water and mineral br br salts from the soil br br Phloem vessels translocate manufactured food from leaves br br to other parts of the body. br br ii State the ways in which xylem vessels are adapted to their function br br lignified/thickened to prevent collapsing narrow to facilitate capillary no cross walls for continuous flow/column of water have bordered pits for lateral movement of water d i Why do flowering plants need water? photosynthesis transport turgidity which helps in plant support solvent i.e. medium for chemical reactions cooling effect during transpiration seed germination br br ii Describe the movement of water from the soil to the leaves of a tall plant Soil br br water exists as a thin film in the soil, between soil particles the concentration of cell sap of root hair is greater than that of the surrounding solution in the soil, thus drawing the water molecules across the cell wall and cell membrane into the root hair by osmosis br br water drawn into the root hair cell dilutes the cell sap br br making it less concentrated than that in the adjacent cortex cells of the root due to osmotic gradient water moves from the root hair cells into the cortex by osmosis, from cell to cell by osmosis, across the endodermis by active transport into xylem vessels of the root that conduct water into xylem vessels of the stem into xylem vessels of the leaves br br Stem br br Once in the stem water moves up the plant aided by the br br narrowness of the xylem vessels capillary , root pressure, attraction of water molecules to each other cohesion . Attraction of water molecules to the walls adhesion br br from the stem water enters the xylem of leaves water moves in the xylem vessels of the stem in a br br continuous uninterrupted water column up to the tree leaves br br Leaves br br once in the leaves water moves into the mesophyll cells by br br osmosis br br as water vaporizes from the spongy mesophyll cells their sap becomes more concentrated than the adjacent cells br br as the result water flows into the cell from other br br surrounding cells which in turn takes in water from xylem vessels within the leaf veins this creates a pull suction force called transpiration pull br br that pulls a stream of water from xylem vessels in the stem and roots br br The transpiration pull maintains a continuous column of br br water from the roots to the leaves. br br iii Name the process by which mineral salts enter into a plant br br active transport diffusion vi Explain the forces that make water and mineral salts br br move through a plant br br mineral salts are taken up due to diffusion because of the br br concentration gradient between the mineral ions in sap and those in soil solution br br active transport involves energy in form of ATP due to respiration which forces mineral salts through a plant against a concentration gradient br br water moves by osmosis through a semi-permeable membrane of root hairs and between cells of stem br br in stem water moves by cohesion attraction of water br br molecules to each other br br it also moves by adhesion attraction of water molecules to br br walls br br capillarity is due to narrowness of xylem vessels transpiration pull occurs when water vapour evaporates br br from sub-stomatal chambers into the air br br root pressure is a force that pushes water up the stem from br br the roots and causes guttation /exudation br br vii Explain the uptake of mineral salts by plants plants require mineral salts for metabolism and proper br br functioning of their bodies br br mineral salts are taken up from the soil into the root hairs in form of solution by active transport which requires energy active transport involves substances called carriers taken up together with water and are then carried to the stems and leaves br br the main process involved in uptake and movement of br br mineral salts is active transport br br e i What is transpiration? loss of water from plant to the atmosphere br br ii Name the sites through which transpiration takes place in a plant br br stomata stomatal transpiration lenticels lenticular transpiration cuticle cuticular transpiration iii State the importance of transpiration to plants br br cooling the plant transport of water transport of mineral salts excretion of excess water from plants excess transpiration causes wilting v Explain the structural factors that affect the rate of br br transpiration in plants br br number of stomata i.e. the more the stomata the higher the br br rate and vice versa br br turgidity of the guard cells which control the opening and closing of stomata when they are open transpiration rate is high br br size of leaves where the larger the surface area the higher br br the rate of transpiration leaf fall leads to lower rate of transpiration and also drying br br of leaves reduces rate of transpiration br br Thin cuticle reduces distance through which water br br vaporizes hence increase transpiration rate. Absence of cuticle also increase rate of transpiration br br vi explain the environmental factors that affect rate of br br transpiration in plants br br high temperature increases rate of transpiration and low br br temperature reduces the rate br br humidity when high increases rate and when low reduces br br the rate br br transpiration rate is higher in moving air wind than in still br br air br br high light intensity increases internal temperature hence br br higher rate of evaporation leading to higher rate of transpiration br br availability of water in the soil leads to more absorption br br hence more loss to the atmosphere br br atmospheric pressure when high leads to more evaporation br br and when low leads to low rate evaporation of water br br vii State the structural differences between xylem vessels br br and sieve tubes br br sieve tubes have cross wall while xylem vessels have none xylem vessels are lignified while sieve tubes are not Sieve tubes have cytoplasm elements while xylem vessels br br have none. br br viii State the adaptations of plants which enable them to reduce water loss br br thick waxy cuticle reduced leaf size/thorns/spines shedding of leaves Sunken stomata. Water vapour accumulates in the depression of stomata lowering the water vapour concentration gradient leading to lower rate of evaporation br br rolling of leaves ix State the factors that cause increase in the rate of br br transpiration from leaves br br increased light intensity low relative humidity temperature x Explain how drooping of leaves on a hot sunny day is br br advantageous to a plant reduces surface area exposed to sun reducing cuticular br br transpiration br br f Explain how aquatic and terrestrial plants are adapted br br to deal with problems of transpiration br br a. Mesophytes br br they grow in soils with enough water water loss is perfectly balanced by absorption of more from br br the soil br br no special adaptations b. Xerophytes br br they grow in dry conditions root grow very deep to absorb water succulent/fleshy leaves to store water few stomata which are sunken thickened waxy cuticle leaves are hairy and often folding some leaves are needle-like/spines or scales leaf surfaces are reduced i.e. small leaves all these adaptations are to reduce water loss br br c. Hydrophytes br br plants that grow in water presence of sclereids leaves are broad leaves have many stomata on upper side only none on the br br lower surface br br some leaves float on water absence or reduced leaf cuticle large air spaces some leaves are submerged poorly developed or reduced vascular bundles g i What is translocation transfer of manufactured food substances to the parts where they are required br br ii Name the tissue which is responsible for translocation of manufactured food in flowering plants br br phloem tissue br br iii Name the processes that bring about the translocation of manufactured food -active transport Diffusion Mass flow Cytoplasmic streaming iv Draw a labeled diagram to represent phloem tissue br br br br vi State the functions of the labeled structures br br cytoplasmic strands br br translocation Companion cell br br supply nutrients to sieve tube element supply energy for translocation regulates activities of tube cells/elements br br Sieve tubes element br br conduct food down the stem vii name the compounds that are translocated in phloem sugars amino acids hormones e.g auxins oils/lipids resins vitamins Describe an experiment you would carry out in order to demon-strate that phloem transports manufactured food substances in a plant a. Ringing experiment cut a ring in the bark including the phloem from the stem of br br a woody plant br br phloem is found next to or just beneath the bark observe daily for some time more than three weeks a swelling of the bark appears above the ring this is due to accumulation of food from leaves br br 269 the bark of a second similar plant is removed carefully br br leaving the phloem intact a swelling does not appear ii Use the radioactive tracers br br plant is exposed to carbon containing radio-active carbon br br C14 br br C14 is found in the end products of photosynthesis It is finally detected in phloem C14 is found to move in both directions iii Collecting exudate from stylets of aphids br br aphids feed on certain plant phloem using their stylets aphid mouthparts are dissected using a sharp razor exudates from the mouthparts are collected and then br br analyzed br br sucrose is found to be a major component of the exudates this proves that phloem translocates manufactured food br br substances br br h Describe an experiment you would carry out to br br demonstrate that xylem transports water br br i. Either cut a stem of a young plant or twig of a tree under water or else uproot a young herbaceous plant and wash the soil br br gently br br put some water in a beaker and add a dye i.e. eosin or red ink and place the cut stem or young plant in a beaker leave for time e.g. between 20 minutes and one hour cut a thin section of stem or leaf mount it on a slide and examine under a microscope observe and note the distribution of the dye or ink the dye appears only in the xylem vessels ii. OR use radio-active tracers, C14 in form of carbon ring a plant then put it in a container containing radio- active phosphorous solution br br The radio-active phosphorus is later detected in the leaves. 2. a i List the components of animal transport br br systems br br system of blood vessels in which materials are circulated br br round the body br br blood, a fluid medium which contains dissolved substances br br and cells the heart, a pumping mechanism which keeps blood in br br circulation br br ii Distinguish between closed and open circulatory systems closed system has blood vessels through which blood br br moves eg vertebrates br br open system has no blood vessels hence blood is in direct br br contact with tissues e.g arthropoda br br iii What are the advantages of the closed circulatory system over open circulatory system? Closed system has continuous vessels hence able to br br generate high pressure br br Circulates blood over longer distance Circulates blood at a faster rate Efficient transport of nutrients and waste products Animals are more active br br iv Distinguish between single circulatory system and double circulatory system Single circulatory br br blood passes through the heart once in a complete circuit of br br the body Double circulation -blood enters the heart twice in a complete circulation - Pulmonary circulation from the heart to lungs and back - Systemic circulation from the heart to body systems and back b i describe the general layout of the transport system in mammals br br blood which is a fluid tissue of the body carrying food br br substances, oxygen, carbon IV oxide and metabolic wastes arteries which are elastic tubes carrying blood from the br br heart to cells br br veins which are blood vessels carrying blood away from br br the cells to the heart br br capillaries which are extremely numerous and are microscopic channels connecting arteries to veins ii Describe the structure and function of the mammalian heart br br the heart is a four-chambered hollow muscle located in the br br thoracic cavity br br it consists of two small receiving chambers, the br br atria auricles and two larger pumping chambers, the auricles br br 272 br br the left ventricles is the most powerful and has the thickest br br walls br br this is because it is the chamber which pumps blood br br throughout the body br br each time it contracts, blood is forced out into the elastic br br arteries aorta br br blood moves on to the capillaries from capillaries blood moves to veins and back to the heart br br through the vena cava br br 273 from vena cava it enters into right auricle which contracts br br and pumps blood into the right ventricle br br right ventricle pumps blood into the lungs through the br br pulmonary artery br br blood releases carbon IV oxide to lungs and picks oxygen br br then returns to left auricle br br left auricle pumps blood into left ventricle left ventricle then pumps blood into the aorta and into br br arteries, starting the process all over again br br both auricles contract simultaneously while both iii Explain how the mammalian heart is adapted to performing its functions br br the heart is made of muscles that contract and relax br br synchronously without requiring nervous stimulation br br nerve supply however, determine contraction strength and br br frequency br br the heart is divided into four chambers The right atrium is connected to the right auricle. It br br receives blood from the whole body. br br The blood is pumped from the left atrium to the right br br ventricle br br To avoid flow back into the right atrium, a valve is present br br between the two chambers the tricuspid valve br br The right ventricle pumps blood to the lungs This is facilitated by the presence of pulmonary artery A valve is also present to avoid blood flowing back from the pulmonary artery to the right ventricle br br Blood from the lungs enters the heart through the br br pulmonary vein into the left atrium. br br When the left atrium contracts, blood flows into the left br br ventricle br br Blood will not flow back into the left atrium because of the br br presence of bicuspid valve mitral br br The left ventricle is connected with the aorta and when it br br contracts, blood flows into the aorta for distribution into the whole body br br The heart muscle surrounding the left ventricle is thicker than that surrounding the right ventricle to be able to generate enough pressure to push blood to the whole body A pace-maker is present in the heart muscle to initiate and br br synchronise contractions. For the heart muscle to be well nourished and be provided with enough oxygen and carbon IV oxide removal, it is supplied with blood by the coronary arteries and drained by the coronary veins br br iv Explain why blood leaving the lungs may not be fully oxygenated br br under ventilation of the lungs blockage of alveoli air sacs high cardiac frequency i.e. high rate of pumping of blood in br br the heart br br e Describe the structure and functions of the blood vessels br br i. Arteries carry away blood from the heart carry oxygenated blood except pulmonary artery which br br takes blood from the heart to lungs for oxygen br br have thick, muscular walls are elastic have narrow lumen all these adaptations are required to withstand high pressure br br caused by heartbeat br br ii. Capillaries link arterioles and venules to arteries and veins small in diameter to increase pressure resistance for br br materials to filter out br br thin walled as they consist of a single layer of cells to allow br br diffusion of substances e.g leucocytes to tissues thin walled to allow presence of intercellular spaces large number i.e. numerous to provide a large surface area for exchange of materials br br have sphincter muscles at the junction of the arterioles and br br capillaries to control movement of blood into them lie close to the body for easy exchange of materials iii. Veins carry blood back to the heart all carry deoxygenated blood except pulmonary vein that br br carries blood from the heart to lungs br br have thinner walls than arteries have valves to prevent backflow of blood have wide lumen g i State the ways in which the composition of blood in br br the pulmonary arterioles differs from that in the pulmonary venules Pulmonary arterioles deoxygenated high carbon IV oxide low oxygen more nutrients br br ii Give the reasons why pressure of blood is greater in the arterioles than I the veins of mammals br br blood is pumped to the arteries by the heart at high pressure blood pressure in veins is reduced by capillary resistance arteries have narrow lumen which maintains high br br pressure/veins have wide lumen which reduces pressure arteries have more/thicker muscular walls which generate pressure/veins have less/thinner muscular walls which reduce pressure br br iii Name the common heart diseases in humans br br thrombosis antheroma arteriosclerosis varicose veins cerebral vascular thrombosis h i State the functions of mammalian blood transport of substances defense against diseases clotting temperature regulation br br ii Describe how mammalian blood components carry out their functions Plasma br br transport dissolved food substances like glucose, amino br br acids, fatty acids and glycerol from small intestines to liver and other body tissues br br transports hormones, enzymes from secretory glands to tissues when required br br transports carbon IV oxide to lungs and urea from tissues to br br the kidneys distributes heat bathes the tissues allowing for exchange of materials contains protein fibrinogen and pro-thrombin which take br br part in blood clotting Red blood cells Erythrocytes br br transports oxygen from the lungs to body tissues in form of br br haemoglobin transport carbon IV oxide from body tissues to the lungs in br br form of bicarbonates White blood cells leucocytes br br engulf foreign bodies produce antibodies for defense against disease produce antitoxins which neutralize bacterial toxins br br Blood platelets thrombocytes br br produce an enzyme called thrombokinase/thromboplastin br br necessary for blood clotting br br prevents loss of blood, water and mineral salts br br iii State the ways in which the red blood cells are adapted to their functions br br many per unit volume hence carry more oxygen and carbon br br IV oxide br br biconcave in shape to provide large surface area for br br absorption of oxygen and carbon IV oxide br br absence of nucleolus hence more haemoglobin to carry br br sufficient oxygen and carbon IV oxide br br alter shape to be able to pass through the narrow lumen of capillaries to deliver or supply oxygen and carry away carbon IV oxide br br have haemoglobin with high affinity for uptake of oxygen br br and carbon IV oxide br br iv State the structural differences between a red blood cell and a white blood cell. Red blood cells white blood cells Explain how oxygen and carbon Iv oxide are transported in the blood Oxygen br br oxygen concentration is higher in lungs alveoli that in br br blood br br oxygen in the alveoli dissolves in the film of moisture and diffuses through thin epithelial and capillary walls into plasma and red blood cells br br the oxygen combines with haemoglobin to form br br oxyhaemoglobin br br blood then becomes oxygenated blood from lungs then travels to all body tissues where the br br oxyhaemoglobin breaks down to form oxygen and haemoglobin br br haemoglobin is transported back to the lungs to collect br br more oxygen while the oxygen in capillaries diffuses into body cells for respiration br br respiration produces carbon IV oxide br br Carbon IV oxide br br carbon IV oxide produced during respiration diffuses out of br br cells into blood plasma and red blood cells due to concentration gradient br br carbon IV oxide and water form carbonic acid carbamino br br compounds with haemoglobin br br in the presence of carboxyl anhydrase enzyme, hydrogen br br carbonate is carried in blood to the lungs br br in the lungs the hydrogen carbonate dissociates to liberate carbon IV oxide which diffuses into alveolar cavity due to concentration gradient br br from alveolar space carbon IV oxide is expelled during br br expiration br br Most carbon IV oxide is transported from tissues to lungs within the red blood cells and not in the blood plasma. Give the advantages of this mode of transport. br br - PH of blood is not altered/homeostasis is maintained - Within the red blood cell is an enzyme, carbonic anhyrase which helps in fast loading combining and offloading of carbon Iv oxide i i what is blood clotting? process in which blood components clump together to br br prevent loss of blood from an injured/cut vessel ii Name a protein, vitamin, an enzyme and a mineral element involved in blood clotting Protein fibrinogen/prothrombin Vitamin - k/quinine Enzyme thrombokinase/thromboplatin/thrombin Mineral element calcium iii Describe the blood clotting process br br enzyme thromboplastin produced in the platelets of br br damaged tissues converts plasma protein prothrombin into thrombin in the presence of calcium ions br br thrombin converts another plasma protein fibrogen into br br fibrin in the presence of vitamin K br br fibrin is insoluble fibrin forms fibres which form a meshwork that forms a br br clot br br prothrombin thromboplastin thrombin br br calcium ion br br Fibrinogen thrombin fibrin clot br br vitamin K br br iv State the role of blood clotting on wounds prevents blood/body fluids from being lost conserves water and salts prevents entry of microorganisms/pathogens regulates body temperature enables wound to heal faster br br v Explain why blood flowing in blood vessels does not normally clot - Presence of anticoagulant in blood j i. list the major types of human blood groups O, with neither B nor A antigen AB, with both A and B antigens A, with type A antigen B, with type B antigen iii. explain the meaning of : Universal donor a person who can donate blood to any other blood group br br without agglutination/clumping br br this is usually blood group O however this person cannot receive blood from other blood br br groups except group O br br Universal recipient can receive blood from all blood groups without br br agglutination br br this is usually blood group AB however, can only donate blood to group AB br br iii What is the difference between rhesus positive and Rhesus negative blood samples? br br rhesus positive blood has the Rhesus Rh antigen rhesus negative lacks the Rhesus antigen br br vi What is blood transfusion? - Introduction of blood from one person to another v Under what conditions would blood transfusion be necessary in people? during accidents during surgery in hospitals bleeding mothers when giving birth vi How can low blood volume be brought back to normal? transfusion taking fluids eating iron rich food/taking iron tablets How may excessive bleeding result in death? Anaemia/low blood volume/loss of iron/low red blood cells br br count/low haemoglobin leading to low oxygen, loss of nutrients and dehydration. br br State the precautions that must be taken before blood transfusion blood must be disease free sterilized equipment must be used blood of the recipient and that of the donor must b compatible to both ABO and rhesus factor br br Fresh blood must be used. br br j i What is immunity? - Resistance to disease by organisms ii Distinguish between natural and acquired immunity br br natural immunity is inherited/transmitted from parent to br br offspring/inborn/innate br br Acquired immunity is developed after suffering from a br br disease or through vaccination. br br iii What are allergic reactions? br br Excessive sensitivity and reaction of an individual to certain substances in environment e.g. dust, pollen, perfumes, smoke etc. vi How does an allergic reaction occur? the substances act as antigens an antigen-antibody reaction occurs on surface of cells the cells release a substance called histamine the histamine causes irritation, itching and may stimulate br br nasal discharge br br vii State the role of vaccination against certain diseases br br protect body against infectious diseases prevent spread/transmission of certain diseases diseases for which vaccination is given include br br tuberculosis, poliomylitis,measles, whooping cough, diphtheria br br 3. a i What is gaseous exchange? br br The continous exchange of oxygen and carbon Iv oxide br br between the organism and environment. br br ii Why is gaseous exchange important to organisms? to supply oxygen necessary for energy production to remove carbon IV oxide produced during respiration To remove water vapour. br br b i name the structure used for gaseous exchange by plants br br stomatal pores/stomata lenticels cuticle pneumatophores ii Briefly describe the structure of stomata are minute pores found in leaf epidermis each consists of a slit-like opening Each is bordered by two large, bean-shaped guard cells. Guard cells contain chloroplasts, unlike the other epidermal br br cells which enable photosynthesis to occur br br Inner walls of guard cells are thicker than the outer cells br br iii State the factors which affect stomatal opening br br water which when low stomata close and when high br br stomata keeps open br br light as stomata open in bright light and close in darkness temperature br br iv Name the theories suggesting the mechanism of opening and closing of stomata br br interconversion of starch and sugar pH theory mineral ion concentration v Describe the mechanism of opening and closing of stomata br br stomata close at night and open during daytime This comes about due to changes in turgidity as a result of br br pH changes in guard cells. br br In the dark carbon Iv oxide accumulates in the intercellular br br spaces br br This raises concentration of carbonic acid The pH drops pH lowered Enzymes convert sugar into starch in guard cells Osmotic pressure in guard cells is lowered Water moves out of guard cells by osmosis making cells br br lose turgidity hence become flaccid br br The stomata close During day time there is photosynthesis hence the br br production of sugar, carbon IV oxide concentration is lowered, pH increases, guard cells become turgid causing stomata to open. br br During the day potassium ions concentrate in guard cells, raising their osmotic pressure and causes then to open In the night the concentration of potassium ions decreases increasing osmotic pressure in guard cells therefore causes stomata to open. br br vii What is the advantage of having stomata open br br during daytime and having them closed at night? opening in the daytime allows diffusion of carbon IV into br br the leaf for photosynthesis to take place and allows diffusion of oxygen out of the leaf br br transpiration also takes place, thus cooling the leaf and br br facilitating uptake of water and mineral slats br br Closing in the night is to conserve water in the plant br br especially when there is not enough water available in the soil. c i State the ways in which leaves of plants are adapted to gaseous exchange br br presence of stomata for faster gaseous exchange intercellular spaces/air spaces in the leaf for br br movement/circulation of air br br film of moisture around the surface of cells for easy br br diffusion br br broad/flattened shape to increase surface area thin lamina to reduce distance of diffusion br br exposed to air for easy diffusion br br ii Describe how gaseous exchange takes place in terrestrial plants br br Gaseous exchange takes place in spongy mesophyll During the day air diffuses into large air spaces of spongy br br mesophyll through stomata br br The carbon iv oxide in the air diffuses into the br br photosynthesis oxygen is produced br br Some of the oxygen diffuses out of the leaf through stomata During the night air diffuses out of air spaces of spongy br br mesophyll br br The air dissolves into film of moisture The oxygen in the air diffuses into cells and is used in respiration during which carbon iv oxide is produced br br The carbon iv oxide diffuses out of the leaf through stomata br br due to diffusion/concentration gradient br br At night carbon iv oxide accumulates in the leaf since br br photosynthesis does not take place br br Some gaseous exchange also takes place through cuticle Gaseous exchange occurs through epidermis of young br br leaves and stems br br The cork cells at lenticels are loosely packed Gaseous exchange takes place between cork and br br atmosphere within the loosely packed cells iii State the ways in which floating leaves of aquatic br br plants are adapted to gaseous exchange br br stomata found only on upper dermis to allow efficient br br gaseous exchange br br presence to aerenchyma tissues/large air spaces to enable it br br float/buoyancy/storage of air br br absence of cuticle to enhance gaseous exchange iv How is aerenchyma tissue adapted to its function? has large airspaces which store gases/for gaseous br br exchange/buoyancy br br v Explain stomatal distribution in plants of different br br habitats br br land plants have their stomata mainly on the lower side to reduce water loss but if on both sides then upper side has very few br br water plants, floaters, have stomata on upper side to br br enhance water loss in dry areas, plants have leaves with sunken stomata to br br reduce water loss by transpiration br br Plants in wet areas have stomata equally distributed on both br br sides. br br d i List the types of respiratory surfaces of animals br br cell membrane in unicellular organisms e.g. amoeba gills in fish tracheal system skin, buccal cavity and lungs in amphibians lings in mammals br br ii State the characteristics of respiratory surfaces in animals br br moist thin walled/thin membrane/thin surface Highly/richly vascularised/numerous blood vessels/well br br supplied with blood vessels. br br Large surface area br br iii Describe gaseous exchange in protozoa br br example is amoeba small and have large surface area oxygen diffuses into the organism and carbon IV oxide br br diffuses out into water br br simple diffusion of gases is enough to meet its respiratory br br requirements br br e i Make a labeled drawing of a fish gill br br br br ii How is a fish gill adapted to its function? large surface area due to many filaments extensive vascularisation due to capillaries, for gaseous br br exchange br br thin filaments to facilitate diffusion of gases presence of rakers to filter solid particles gill bar is bony, hard and firm to support the filaments and br br rakers and for attachment of filaments and rakers br br iii Discuss gaseous exchange in bony fish br br example is tilapia br br 284 the mouth opens and the floor of the mouth is lowered so that the volume in the mouth is increased and pressure is lowered br br water then enters into the mouth cavity the mouth is closed and the floor of the mouth raised so that br br the volume is reduced br br this raises the pressure, forcing water over gills and out br br through the operculum br br As water passes over the gills oxygen diffuses due to br br concentration gradient partial pressure into the blood stream. br br In the body tissues, carbon IV oxide diffuses into the blood due to concentration gradient, and is transported to the gills and diffuses out into the water. br br iv What is counter-flow system? br br Where water in which the fish lives flows in opposite br br direction across the gill. br br vi What is the advantage of counter-flow system? maintains a diffusion gradient so that there is maximum br br uptake of oxygen br br oxygen continues diffusing into blood and carbon iv oxide br br into water br br f i Describe the mechanism of gaseous exchange in terrestrial insects br br example is cockroach air in the atmosphere contains oxygen air is drawn into the body of the insect through the spiracles due to movement of abdominal muscles br br these movements cause the opening of spiracles air moves through the trachea to tracheoles oxygen moves from the tracheoles into body cells by br br diffusion due to concentration gradient br br carbon iv oxide in the tissues diffuses into tracheoles due to br br concentration gradient br br From tracheoles carbon IV oxide moves into trachea and br br out through the spiracles into the air. br br ii State how traceholes are adapted to gaseous exchange br br thin walls of tracheoles moist surface large surface area due to numerous tracheoles br br g i What is breathing? Any process which speeds up the rate of gaseous exchange br br between an animal and its surrounding. br br ii Name the structures in humans that are used in gaseous exchange nose larynx epiglottis trachea lungs pleural membrane pleural cavity diaphragm muscles br br iii Describe the mechanism of gaseous exchange in a mammal Breathing in br br external intercostals muscles contract while internal br br intercostals muscles relax, raising the ribcage upwards and outwards br br muscles of the diaphragm contract hence it flattens the volume of the thoracic cavity increases while pressure br br decreases br br higher air pressure in the atmosphere forces air into lungs br br through the nose br br Breathing out br br external intercostals muscles relax while internal intercostals muscles contract, moving the ribcage downwards and inwards br br muscles of the diaphragm relax hence the diaphragm br br assumes dome shape br br the volume of the thoracic cavity decreases while pressure br br increases br br the higher pressure forces air out of the lungs through the br br nose iv Explain how mammalian lungs are adapted to gaseous exchange br br large number of alveoli that increase surface area moist inner surface of alveoli for dissolving oxygen/gases br br to facilitate exchange of gases through alveolar cavities and blood br br thin walls of alveoli to allow efficient/faster diffusion of br br gases rich capillary/blood supply on alveolar surface to transport oxygen away from the lungs and carbon IV oxide to the lungs br br v Name the features of alveoli that adapt them to their function br br have large surface area/spherical shaped numerous/many to increase surface area one cell thick moist surface for air to diffuse highly vascularised/numerous capillaries vii How is the trachea of a mammal suited to its br br function? br br has a ring of cartilage which keeps it open at all times cilia that move mucus/particles to the top of the trachea i.e. br br into larynx for removal br br mucus to trap dust, solid particles and microorganisms hollow for passage of air viii State the advantages of breathing through the nose br br rather than through the mouth br br nose has hairs to filter solid particles it has mucus lining to trap dust particles the nose has cells sensitive to smell for survival it warms the air before it reaches the lungs ix Give the conditions under which the carbon iv oxide br br level rises above normal in mammalian blood vigorous exercise emotions/stress disease infection x Explain the physiological changes that occur in the body to lower the carbon iv oxide level back to normal when it rises br br heartbeat/cardiac frequency increases to pump blood faster carbon iv oxide from the tissues and supply more oxygen ventilation rate/rate and depth of breathing increases to take more oxygen and remove carbon iv oxide from the lungs br br arterioles to take in more oxygen and remove carbon iv br br oxide from the lungs br br arterioles dilate leading to faster flow of blood to and from br br body tissues br br h i Describe the factors which control the rate of breathing in humans breathing movements usually occur unconsciously it is controlled by the medulla oblongata part of the brain br br situated at the breathing centre medullar oblongata is in the brain respiratory centre transmits impulses to the diaphragm br br through phrenic nerves br br carbon iv oxide concentration in the blood determines the br br breathing rate br br if carbon iv oxide is less, the brain is triggered to decrease br br breathing rate br br cardiac frequency decreases and the arterioles constrict therefore carbon iv oxide level is raised this brings back to normal level of breathing and carbon iv br br oxide level increases/is more the brain is triggered to increase breathing rate br br cardiac frequency is increased there is vasodilation of arterioles carbon iv oxide level falls therefore the normal level is attained and carbon iv oxide is br br removed faster br br ii Name the respirator diseases br br asthma bronchitis whooping cough pneumonia tuberculosis br br 4. a i Define respiration br br the oxidation/breakdown of food within cells to release br br energy br br ii Explain the significance of respiration in living organisms br br it yields energy ATP this energy enables organisms to move, grow, excrete and br br reproduce br br iii Where does respiration take place? br br in the mitochondria br br b i Draw and label a mitochondrion br br 288 br br ii State the most important function of mitochondria br br to produce Adenosine triphosphate ATP which is the br br energy source of the whole cell br br iii Give the functions of the labeled parts Outer membrane br br controls what enters and what leaves mitochondrion br br Cristae br br also called inner membrane increase surface are for attachment of enzymes this is where cellular oxidation reactions occur br br Matrix br br enzymes are located here other reactions occur here br br c Explain the roles of enzymes in respiration br br they catalyse reactions i.e. speed up respiration br br d i What is aerobic respiration br br respiration in the presence of oxygen br br ii Give a word equation for aerobic respiration br br glucose oxygen - water carbon iv oxide energy br br iii What are the end products of aerobic respiration? br br energy carbon iv oxide water br br e i What is anaerobic respiration occurs in the absence of oxygen br br 289 e.g. yeast and certain bacteria release energy in the absence br br of oxygen br br ii What are obligate anaerobes? br br are completely independent of oxygen br br iii What are facultative anaerobes? br br can survive both in the presence and absence of oxygen also called partial anaerobes br br iv State the word equation representing anaerobic respiration in plants - Glucose ethanol carbon iv oxide energy v Name the end products of anaerobic respiration in plants br br alcohol/ethanol carbon iv oxide energy br br g i Give a word equation of anaerobic respiration in animals - Glucose lactic acid energy ii Name the end products of respiration in animals when there is insufficient oxygen supply br br lactic acid energy br br iii Why is there a high rate of lactic acid production during exercise? br br the demand for oxygen is more than supply leading to br br anaerobic respiration br br iv Why does lactic acid level reduce after exercise? br br lactic acid is oxidized to form carbon iv oxide and water some is converted to glucose some is converted into glycogen v State why accumulation of lactic acid during vigorous exercise lead to an increase in heartbeat br br lactic acid is poisonous to tissues and must be removed to increase supply of oxygen to tissues State the economic importance of anaerobic respiration brewing of alcohol biogas production compost manure formation silage formation baking bread production of dairy products fermentation of milk sewage treatment h i What is respiratory quotient RQ ? br br ration of carbon IV oxide produced to oxygen consumed br br RQ volume of CO2 produced br br Volume of oxygen consumed br br ii Why are respiratory quotient important br br their calculation assists in identifying the kind of substrate br br being used in respiration br br iii Name the respiratory substrates br br carbohydrates fats proteins br br iv Why does anaerobic respiration of a given substrate yield a smaller amount of energy than aerobic respiration? - Some energy locked up in intermediate products like ethanol in plants and lactic acid in animals br br substrate is completely oxidized in aerobic respiration br br iv Explain the disadvantages of anaerobic respiration br br Less energy produced in anaerobic respiration since food is br br partially oxidized while in aerobic respiration food is completely oxidized. br br Some metabolic wastes accumulate in cells affecting br br cellular functions br br Ethanol produced in plants poisons the tissues while lactic acid produced in animals causes muscle fatigue/muscle cramp and may stop muscle contraction br br Such intermediate wastes are not produced in aerobic br br respiration br br v Mention the types of experiments carried out for respiration germinating seeds which yield energy in form of heat animals produced heat when they respire yeast cells respire to produce heat br br 5. a i Define the following terms Excretion br br the process by which organisms get rid of waste products which result from chemical process which occur in living cells Secretion br br the process by which organisms produce substances which br br are useful to the body, by glands br br Egestion br br removal of indigestive materials from the body br br Homeostasis br br maintenance of constant internal environment br br ii Explain why excretion is necessary in plants and animals -products of excretion are usually harmful while some are toxic - if allowed to accumulate in the cells they would destroy tissues and interfere with normal metabolism - They are therefore removed through excretion b i Describe how excretion takes place in green plants carbon IV oxide, oxygen and water diffuse through the br br stomata, lenticels and hydathodes br br some toxic wastes are converted into non-toxic substances these are deposited in certain tissues of the plant or stored br br in aging structures br br resins and tannins are exuded through the bark of stem or br br lost during leaf fall br br ii Why do plants lack complex excretory structures like those of animals? br br plants have lower rates of metabolism plants excrete non-poisonous products derived from br br carbohydrate metabolism unlike animals which produce toxic wastes derived from protein metabolism br br plants re-use some of their wastes like nitrogenous wastes br br used in protein synthesis br br plants store waste products in roots, fruits and leaves ii State the excretory products of plants and some of their uses to humans br br caffeine from tea and coffee is used in medicine and as a br br stimulant which is harmful to humans br br quinine used for treating malaria cocaine derived from leaves of cocoa plant used as a br br stimulant by addicts or as a local anesthesia, also causes damage to the brain, may cause addiction if not well used and is an illegal drug Nicotine got from leaves of tobacco plant stimulates the central nervous, may cause addiction if much is used or consumed. It is used to make cigarettes, cigars and is poisonous. It is a precursor of lung cancer Cannabis sative bhang is used to make drugs Gum derived from glues is used for sticking substances br br and making certain jellies br br Rubber , a product of latex, got from rubber plant is sued to br br make tyres and synthetic fibres br br Morphine from opium poppy plant is a narcotic and illegal br br drug as it causes addiction br br Khat and miraa are used as stimulants Colchicines used in inducing polyploidy, cancer therapy, br br treatment of gouts in small quantities br br Papain used as meat tenderizer br br c i Describe excretion in unicellular organisms -examples are amoeba and paramecium -They have to remove waste products such as carbon IV oxide and nitrogenous substances e.g urea and ammonia - These diffuse from the body surface into the surrounding water - Diffusion is due to large surface area ii List excretory organs and products of mammals br br kidney excretes urea, water and salts skin excretes water, slats and urea lungs excrete carbon IV oxide and water liver excretes bile salts d i Draw and label a mammalian skin br br br br ii Explain how the mammalian skin is adapted to its functions br br the skin is made up of dermis and epidermis br br Epidermis br br it is made up of three layers the outermost layer, cornified layer is made up of dead cells that prevent entry of microorganisms, prevent physical damage and dessication br br granular layer made of living cells gives rise to cornified br br layer br br malpighian layer is made up of actively dividing cells that give rise to new epidermal cells/granular layer it contains melanin that protects the body against ultra violet rays radiations br br Dermis br br has several components Has sweat gland which produce sweat through sweat pores on the skin and the sweat evaporates cooling the body by lowering body temperature. When it is cold, no sweat is produced, conserving water br br sweat contains water, sodium chloride, uric acid and urea br br hence the skin acts as an excretory organ br br Has hair. The hair stands erect to trap air when temperature is low to reduce loss/insulation. It lies flat to allow heat loss when temperature is high. br br 294 Has nerve endings which are sensitive to stimuli such as br br heat, cold, pain, pressure and touch br br Has subcutaneous fat/adipose fat that insulates the body br br against heat loss br br Has arteries and capillaries blood vessels that supply food br br and oxygen and remove excretory products. Arterioles vasodilate when temperatures are high to lose heat by radiation, and convention. Arterioles constrict when temperatures are low to conserve heat i.e. reduce heat loss Has sebaceous glands which secrete sebum, and antiseptic and water repellant that prevents drying and cracking the skin by making the skin supple e What is the role of lungs in excretion? br br during respiration oxygen is used up in the body cells to br br produce energy br br carbon IV oxide is produced as a by-product the carbon IV oxide must be eliminated from the body elimination is through the lungs also, water vapour is formed and must be removed this removal is through the lungs the lung is therefore considered as an excretory organ as it removes carbon IV oxide and water vapour which are by- products of respiration f State the functions of the liver i. Excretion br br in this function the liver is aided by the kidney deamination i.e. excess amino acids converted into urea and br br uric acid which is transported to skin and kidney for removal br br detoxification where harmful substances are converted into harmless ones in the liver and transported to kidneys for removal br br breakdown of worn out blood cells and haemoglobin and the residue excreted through the kidney to give urine a yellow tinge br br Breakdown of sex hormones after they have performed their function and the wasted are released through the kidney and bile. br br ii Homeostasis br br regulation of blood glucose the normal amount of glucose in blood is about 90mg/100 br br increase in blood sugar is detected by cells of the pancreas br br which secrete insulin br br insulin stimulates the liver to convert excess glucose to br br glycogen br br further excess glucose is converted to fats until the normal br br blood sugar level is attained br br Excess glucose is oxidized to carbon IV oxide, water and br br energy. Excess glucose is also used in respiration decrease in blood sugar level below normal level is br br detected by the pancreas, which secretes glucagon which stimulates the liver to convert glycogen to glucose until the normal sugar level is attained br br fats, amino acids are converted to glucose it also leads to reduced oxidation of glucose br br Deamination br br excess amino acids are deaminated by the removal of br br amino group br br the amino group is converted to ammonia ammonia combines with carbon IV oxide to form urea urea is excreted in urine through the kidney br br Detoxification br br poisonous substances are converted to less harmful br br compounds Thermal regulation br br maintenance of body temperature heat is generated in the liver by chemical activities the heat is distributed br br g i Draw a labeled diagram of mammalian nephrone br br br br 296 br br ii Describe how the human kidney functions br br the afferent arterioles, which is a branch of the renal artery, br br supplies blood to the glomerulus br br the afferent arteriole has a wider diameter than the efferent br br arteriole br br this difference in diameter of afferent and efferent vessels br br causes high pressure leading to ultra filtration br br the walls of the blood capillaries are one cell thick hence br br glucose, amino acids, vitamins, hormones, salts, cratinine, urea and water filter into Bowmans capsule to form glomerular filtrate br br white blood cells, red blood cells, plasma proteins such as globulin and platelets are too large to pass through the capillary walls hence remain in blood capillary br br the filtrate flows into proximal convoluted tubule where amino acids, vitamins and all glucose are selectively reabsorbed back into the blood stream br br many mitochondria provide energy for reabsorption of br br these substances against a concentration gradient by active transport br br the glomerular filtrate flows into the loop of Henle br br 297 water in the descending loop moves by osmosis into the br br blood capillaries br br sodium chloride is actively pumped from the ascending arm br br of the loop of Henle into the blood capillaries br br the glomerular filatrate flows into the distal convoluted br br tubule br br water and salts are reabsorbed from distal convoluted br br tubule into blood capillaries br br the glomerular filtrate flows into collecting tubule duct from where more water is reabsorbed into blood stream br br antiduretic hormone influences the amount of water reabsorbed depending on osmotic pressure of blood br br the glomerular filtrate from collecting duct, now referred to as urine, is emptied into pelvis and ureter into bladder and out of body through urethra br br urine consists of excess water, slats and nitrogenous wastes iii State the adaptations of proximal convoluted tubule to its function br br folded to increase surface area for absorption thin epithelium to reduce distance of diffusion micro-villi on inner lining to increase surface area for br br absorption br br folded to reduce speed of flow for efficient absorption numerous mitochondira to provide energy for reabsorption dense capillary network to transport reabsorbed products iv Name the common kidney diseases br br nephritis kidney stones renal calculi cystitis oedema kidney failure br br 6. a i Why is homeostatic control necessary? br br this provides a constant internal environment so that the cells of the body have the optimum best condition for their survival br br ii What is internal environment? br br immediate surrounding of body cells refers to tissue fluid within an organism br br b i Why is constant body temperature maintained by mammals? br br most enzymes in the body function within a narrow range br br of temperature high temperature denatures enzymes low temperature inactivates and inhibits enzymes br br i i Explain the advantage gained by possessing a constant body temperature br br animals remain active despite fluctuations in environmental br br temperature br br higher chances of survival in various environments ie they br br colonize various environments br br chemical processes in their body continues at an optimum br br rate br br iii How do mammals regulate body temperature? br br the body temperature of a mammal is kept constant to maintain this temperature the mammal must be able to br br balance its heat loss against the heat gain br br body temperature is controlled by the hypothalamus, a br br specialized part of the brain br br changes in the temperature within the body and the surrounding are detected by the hypothalamus br br it transmits impulses to the skin and the blood stream in br br response to temperature changes br br hypothalamus acts as a thermostat for the body a mammal loses heat by breathing out, urine, feaces, skin br br by radiation and by evaporation of sweat. br br A mammal generates heat by the activity of its muscles, by general metabolism in respiration, or chemical activities In hot conditions the hypothalamus stimulates responses that increase heat loss from the body hence lowering the body temperature br br Such responses include sweating, vasodilation, keeping its hair flat on the surface of skin and reduction of metabolic rate br br In cold conditions the hypothalamus stimulates responses that generate heat gain in the body and reduce heat loss to the environment br br Such responses include shivering, vasoconstriction, raising its hair to trap a layer of air around the skin because still air is a good insulator of heat and by generation of heat by increasing metabolic rate. br br iv Why does body temperature of a healthy person rise up to 37oC on a hot humid day? sweat evaporation is reduced hence cooling is less therefore more heat is retained in the body causing temperature to rise br br v Name the structures in the human body that detect external temperature changes br br temperature receptors end bulb corpuscles e.g. bulb of br br Krause warmth and organ of Ruffinni cold br br heat thermal receptors br br vi State the advantages that organisms with small surface area to volume ratio experience over those with larger br br heat loss slow hence their body temperature can increase to br br intolerable levels br br Heat gain from surrounding slower hence may remain br br inactive for a long time. br br Need specialized and complex transport system and also br br gaseous exchange system br br Explain why individuals with smaller sizes require more energy per unit body weight than those with larger sizes. surface area to volume ratio is higher in smaller individuals than larger ones, therefore smaller heat is lost faster by smaller ones than larger ones br br they therefore require more energy per unit body weight to br br maintain body temperature c i What is the meaning of osmoregulation? br br mechanism which regulates osmotic pressure of internal br br environment of an organism br br the regulation/maintenance of salt/solute-water balance of br br an internal environment br br ii State the importance of osmoregulation - Maintenance of constant level of water and slats osmotic pressure for optimum/suitable conditions for metabolism suitable for cellular functions iii State the ways by which desert mammals conserve water br br fewer glomeruli longer loop of Henle excretion of dry feaces or concentrated urine hump for fat to be metabolized to give metabolic water for br br use br br nocturnal, burrowing, aestivate or hibernate sweat glands few or absent more ADH vasopressin iv Explain why some desert animals excrete uric acid rather than water br br uric acid is less toxic than ammonia, hence elimination of uric acid requires less water than ammonia therefore more water conserved br br uric acid being less toxic is safer to excrete where there is br br less water/desert br br v Explain why eating a meal with too much salt leads to production of a small volume of concentrated urine br br the concentration of salts in the blood rises leading to production of more ADH hence higher rate of water reabsorption by kidney tubules br br vi Explain how marine fish regulate their osmotic pressure swallow plenty of sea water to increase amount of water in br br the body br br have chloride excretory cells in their gills to remove excess br br salts br br eliminate nitrogenous wastes in form of trimethalamine br br oxide which requires little water for elimination br br few/small glomeruli thus slow filtration rate in the kidneys retain nitrogenous wastes in form of urea to raise osmotic br br pressure of body fluids br br d i What is the biological significance of maintaining a relatively constant sugar level in a human body? br br body cells are surrounded by tissue fluids that are isotonic/same osmotic pressure as cytoplasm br br if sugar level is high/hypertonic, cell will lose water by br br osmosis to the surrounding, thus increasing the concentration of the contents br br this changes the physiology of the cell if the blood sugar is lower than the normal, the cytoplasm gains water by osmosis, diluting the cell contents, thus altering the physiology of the cell ii Discuss the role of the following hormones in blood sugar control Insulin br br insulin is produced when there is increase in blood sugar br br concentration br br it converts glucose to glycogen which is in the liver or br br muscle thus lowering sugar level br br Glucagon when glucose level decreases glucagon is produced, which causes the breakdown of glycogen to glucose thus raising blood sugar level br br e Explain the part played by antidiuretic hormone in homeostasis br br Produced when there is less water high osmotic pressure above normal level of salt concentration in the blood. It acts on kidney tubules nephron thus increasing water br br reabsorption from tubules to the blood stream, thus restoring osmotic pressure br br When there is more water lower osmotic pressure or br br decreased salt concentration in blood, little or no ADH is produced, less water reabsorbed hence water loss in urine more dilute urine hence raising the osmotic pressure in body fluids/blood br br f What is the role of blood clotting in homeostasis? br br when a blood vessel is cut, there is exposure of blood br br platelets to the air br br this triggers fibrinogen to be converted to fibrin the fibrin forms a clot that prevents body fluids e.g. blood br br from being lost br br therefore the clot conserves water and salts in the body g Describe the role of the following hormones in homeostasis br br i. Aldosterone br br concerned with regulation of ionic balance secreted by the cortex of adrenal glands it increases sodium ion uptake by the gut and promotes the reabsorption of sodium ions and therefore water in the kidneys br br this is accompanied by elimination of potassium ions this raises the overall level of sodium and lowers the br br overall level of potassium in the blood br br as sodium ions are absorbed in the blood, chlorine ions follow so as to neutralize the effect of sodium ions br br the production of aldosterone is regulated by the br br concentration of sodium ions which has an inhibiting effect, and a fall in sodium ions has a stimulating effect on the adrenal cortex br br the flow of aldosterone is stimulated by the adreno-cortic- tropic hormone ACTH produced in the anterior of the pituitary gland br br however, the main method of control is dependent on the fact that adrenal cortex itself is somehow sensitive to the relative concentration of potassium and sodium in the blood br br ii. Adrenaline br br produced by adrenal glands in high concentrations, it increases hydrolysis of glycogen br br and increases blood sugar br br it is usually released in emergency cases to increase br br glucose level for respiration br br this releases energy for the emergency br br h i Distinuish between diabetes mellitus and diabetes insipidus br br diabetes mellitus is a condition resulting from insufficient br br production of insulin causing hyperglucaemia and presence of glucose in urine br br diabetes insipidus is a condition whereby less or no br br antidiuretic hormone is secreted hence a high volume of water is passed out in urine in a condition called diuresis ii How can high blood sugar level in a person be controlled? br br administer insulin br br iii Why does glucose not normally appear in urine even though it is filtered in the mammalian Bowmans capsule? glucose molecules are actively reabsorbed in the proximal br br convoluted tubules br br iv When is glycogen which is stored in the liver converted into glucose and released into the blood? after activity/when blood sugar glucose falls below br br normal br br when glucagon stimulates the liver/when glucagon is produced after strenuous/vigorous activity during starvation br br v How would one find out from a sample of urine whether a person is suffering from diabetes mellitus? test or react urine in Benedicts solution positive result i.e. orange or red precipitate Positive result is an indication of diabetes mellitus. FORM III TOPICS br br 1. a i What is meant by the term binomial br br nomenclature? br br scientific system of naming organisms using the generic genus and specific species names br br ii State briefly the general principles of classification of living organisms br br scientific names must be in Latin or should be latinised family names are formed by adding the suffix idea to the stem of the genus e.g. the genus Rana become Ranaidea br br generic names should be a single unique name br br b State the main characteristics of the five kingdoms of organisms br br i. Monera e.g. bacteria unicellular single celled prokaryotic genetic material not surrounded by membrane cell wall without cellulose lack most organelles small in size microscopic br br ii. Protista protoctista br br single celled unicellular eukaryotic most cell organelles present when cell walls are present have no cellulose e.g. protozoa and algae usually microscopic iii. Fungi br br have hyphae which form mycelia absence of chlorophyll have rhizoids lack roots, leaves, stem have spore forming structures sporangia e.g. mucor, rhizopus iv. Plantae most are green/contain chlorophyll autotrophic/feed by photosynthesis cells have cellulose cell walls respond slowly to stimuli tropism lack locomotion are stationary indefinite growth at meristems lack specialized excretory structures v. Animalia cells do not have cell walls most carry out locomotion heterotrophic fast response to stimuli tactic have specialized excretory structures c Describe the economic importance of: br br i. Fungi some cause decay to our food some cause diseases to humans and animals e.g. ringworms may be used as food e.g. mushrooms, yeast some are used in production of antibiotics e.g. penicillin, br br chloromycin, streptomycin br br yeast is used in brewing industry, baking and source of br br vitamin B br br many cause diseases to our crops e.g. late blight important in recycling nutrients in soil since they cause br br decay of organic matter br br mycorrhizal association in forest development may help in br br water intake/absorption help in nitrogen fixation Bacteria are useful in the manufacture of antibiotics silage formation, fermentation of cheese, butter, milk yoghurt curing of tea, tobacco and retting flax formation of vitamin B12 and K enzymes such as amylase and invertase hormones such as insulin vinegar, acetic acid, lactic acid, citric acid in septic tanks and modern sewage works make use of bacteria br br biogas production saprophytic bacteria are used in compost decomposition or br br cause decay br br symbiotic bacteria are used in compost decomposition or br br cause decay br br symbiotic bacteria in herbivores/ruminants help in br br digestion br br some diseases in animals/humans and plants are caused by br br bacteria br br many bacteria cause food spoilage/decay br br nitrifying and nitrogen fixing bacteria increase soil br br fertility/make nitrates available br br denitrifying bacteria reduce soil fertility/convert nitrates br br into nitrogen/reduce nitrates br br d State the main characteristics of the following division of kingdom plantae i. Bryophyte e.g. mosses and liverworts presence of rhizoids lack of vascular tissues lack phloem and xylem body parts not differentiated into root, stem, leaves capsule or seta gametophyte generation dominant. ii. Pteridophyta e.g. ferns has true roots, stems and leaves fond with sori on under-surface vascular tissues present sporophyte generation is dominant iii. Spermatophyte photosynthetic well differentiated into roots, stems and leaves well developed vascular system seed bearing plants br br e Name sub-divisions of spermatophyte and state the characteristics of each class br br i. Gymnospermae cornifers naked seeds exposed are all woody trees reproduce by means of cones show xerophytic characteristics xylem have tracheids but lack vessels phloem lacks companion cells single fertilization pollen lands directly on ovules ii. Angiospermae flowering plants reproduce by flowers seeds enclosed in fruits flowers bisexual hence double fertilization herbaceous pollen grains land on stigma of pistil xylem contains vessels phloem contains companion cells ovules contained in ovary iii. Name the classes and state characteristics of br br angiospermae br br Dicotyledonae br br two seed leaves network venation of leaves regularly arranged vascular bundles tap root system broad leaves secondary growth occurs br br Monocotyledonae one seed leaf parallel venation of leaves irregularly arranged vascular bundles fibrous root system narrow leaves sheath like leaf stalk petiole no secondary growth br br iv State the importance of plants br br balancing carbon IV oxide and oxygen in the atmosphere br br during photosynthesis and respiration br br influence water cycle reduce soil erosion by bind soil particles together useful products e.g. food, medicine, timber, paper and br br clothing br br habitat e.g. forests and grassland for animals which may br br also be tourist attraction br br earn money from sales of products aesthetic value/beauty e.g. flowers, shade/shelter, live br br fences, windbreaks br br Some are harmful e.g. poisons, weeds, injurious stinging nettles, thorns , water hyacinth. br br f i Give the general characteristics of phylum arthropoda br br jointed appendages presence of exoskeleton triploblastic and coelomate segmented body bilateral symmetry similar halves ii. State the characteristics of the following classes of br br arthropoda Diplopoda br br the millipedes two pairs of legs per segment many segments terrestrial habitat body cylindrical and long herbivorous one pair of antennae br br Chilopoda br br the centipedes one pair of legs per segment many segments terrestrial habitat body long and ventro-dorsally flattened carnivorous last pair of legs pointing backwards with poison claws br br called maxillipedes one pair of antennae br br Insecta br br three body parts i.e. head thorax, abdomen six legs/three pairs of legs a pair of compound eyes presence of wings a pair of antennae br br Crustacean br br two body parts segmented body have pincers modified legs to catch prey have hard exoskeleton a pair of compound eyes br br Arachnida br br body divided into two parts abdomen and cephalothorax simple eyes eight legs four pairs of legs br br iii State the economic importance of insects Beneficial effects food supply important in food chains pollinators biological control of pests and other organisms aesthetic value contribute to decomposition e.g. litter feeders like beetles br br Harmful effects br br pests vectors dirt and disease carriers injurious e.g. stings and bites br br g i State the general characteristics of chordate br br notochord dorsal slits pharyngeal cleft during development bilateral symmetry triploblastic three layer body-ectoderm, mesoderm and br br endoderm br br clear cut head formation multilayered epidermis post anal tail closed circulatory system segmented muscle blocks myotomes single pair of gonads br br Give the characteristics of the following classes of chordate Pisces br br presence of fins for locomotion two chambered heart presence of overlapping scales presence of gills or operculum for gaseous exchange presence of lateral line for protection streamlined body poikilothermic body temperature varies with that of br br environment br br Amphibian br br partially live in fresh water and partially on land poikilothermic pentadactylous with two pairs of limbs webbed feet for locomotion in water body streamlined heart is three chambered moist skin for gaseous exchange br br skin is dry oviparous lay eggs no pinna external ear three chambered heart 9crocodile has four chambers skin not glandular no mammary glands br br Aves br br the birds homoeothermic constant body temperature four chambered heart streamlined body for locomotion in air skin dry and covered by feathers scales on legs hollow bones oviparous lay eggs mouths modified into beaks br br Mammalian br br hair on the body homoeothermic viviparous give birth to live young except a few have mammary glands glandular skin e.g. sweat glands, sebaceous glands four chambered heart pinna external ear two pairs of pentadactyl limbs presence of diaphragm have salivary glands i i What is a dichotomous key? A biological device tool which enables one to identify an organism by progressively opting between two alternative observable characteristics br br ii. State the necessity of using a dichotomous key used to identify organisms quickly and accurately by following the statements in the key we are able to identify each organism on the basis of a characteristic which is not to be found in other specimens br br iii. List the rules followed in constructing a br br dichotomous key use observable characteristics only start with major characteristics, placing organisms into two br br groups at each stage use a single characteristics at a time use contrasting characteristics at each stage e.g 1 a short, br br 1 b tall br br avoid repeating the same characteristics br br iv Describe the procedure of using a dichotomous key. Make a list of major features of the characteristics to be identified br br look at the features of similarities look at the features of differences between the organisms we can then be able to identify the organisms by br br distinguishing one from another br br the key uses a method of elimination by following statements that are correct only for the organism iv You are provided with a specimen kale leaf. Use the dichotomous key below to identify the taxonomic group to which the specimen belongs. Show the steps number and letter in the key that you followed to arrive at the identify of the specimen 1 a leaf broad b leaf narrow go to 2 Araicaria 2 a leaf parallel veined b leaf net-veined 3 a leaf with one lobe simple b leaf with many lobes compound Grevellea Kalanchoa 4 a leaf fleshy go to 5 b leaf not fleshy 5 a leaf petiole modified to form sheath b leaf petiole not modified to form sheath Brassica 6 a leaf purple b leaf green steps 1a, 2b, 3a, 4b, 5b Identify Brassica v You have been provided with four animals labeled K mature adult housefly , L mature adult grasshopper, M maize flour beetle and N worker termite use the dichotomous key below to identify the specimens. Write down in the correct order, the steps number and letter in the key that you followed to arrive at your answer. Dichotomous key 1 a animal with wings b animal without wings 2 a with two pairs of wings br br Cynodon br br go to 3 go to 4 br br go to 6 br br go to 2 br br go to 7 go to 3 b with one pair of wings 3 a with membranous wings b hind pair of membranous wings 4 a with long abdomen b medium sized abdomen 5 a wings with coloured scales b wings without scales 6 a forewings hard and shell-like b forewings hard but not shell-like 7 a body horizontally flattened b body laterally flattened Identify the orders o the various specimens as per the table below Specimen K-housefly L- grasshopper M- beetle M-termite br br Diptera go to 4 br br go to 6 br br Odontata br br go to 5 Lepidoptera hymenoptera coleopteran br br Orthoptera br br Isoptera Symphonoptera br br Order Diptera Orthoptera Coleoptera Isoptera Steps followed 1a,2b 1a, 2a, 3b, 6b 1a, 2a, 3b, 6a 1b, 7a 2 a Define the following ecological terms br br i. Ecology br br study of the interrelationships between organisms and their br br environment br br ii. Environment br br surrounding of the organism i.e. biotic or a biotic factors br br iii. Habitat br br A specific locality home of a living organism with a set of br br factors conditions in which an organism lives. br br iv. Ecological niche br br Role of an organism in its habitat e.g. feeding relationship br br v. Population br br Number group of organisms of a species occupying a br br given habitat br br vi. Community br br Refers to different species of plants and animals organisms in a given habitat area co-existing or interacting living with each other and the environment in which they live br br vii. Ecosystem br br A community of organisms interacting with one another br br and the environment in which they live br br viii. Biosphere The earth and its atmosphere where living organisms are br br found br br ix. Autecology br br Study of a single individual species of plants or animals within a community, ecosystem, habitat or environment. br br x. Synecology br br Study of natural communities plants and animals or br br populations interacting within an ecosystem. br br xi. Carrying capacity br br maximum number of organisms an area can support br br without being depleted br br xii. Biome br br geographical area with particular climatic conditions and br br flora and fauna br br it constitutes many ecosystems br br xiii. Biomass br br dry weight mass of a living organism in a given area units of measurement are kg/m2/year br br b i What are abiotic factors? br br non-living components of the ecosystem br br ii Explain how abiotic factors affect living organisms Wind br br this influences rate of water evaporation from organisms therefore it affects distribution of organisms e.g. wind increases rate of transpiration and evaporation of water from the soil br br wind is an agent of soil erosion, may break and uproot trees may aid in the formation of sand dunes which can form habitats for some desert plants wind disperses fruits, seeds, spores wind forms waves in lakes and oceans which enhances br br aeration of water which replenishes oxygen concentration necessary for life br br wind is an agent of pollination br br Temperature br br influences rate of enzyme action in photosynthesis and br br other metabolic reactions in plants and animals br br organisms function within a narrow range of temperature it affects distribution of organisms changes in temperature affect rate of photosynthesis and br br biochemical reactions e.g. metabolism and enzyme reaction br br temperature increases rate of transpiration Light br br needed by green plants and photosynthetic bacteria which br br are primary producers br br animals depend on plants directly or indirectly for food main source of light is the sun light is necessary for synthesis of vitamin D in certain br br animals br br some plants need light for flowering seeds like lettuce need light for germination br br Humidity br br amount of water vapour held by the air affects the rate at which water is lost from organisms body br br by evaporation and stomatal transpiration br br when humidity is low the rate of transpiration increases humidity influences distribution of organisms br br PH br br each plant requires a specific PH in which to grow acidic, br br neutral or alkalinic br br pH affects enzyme reaction in metabolism br br Salinity br br some ions are needed for plant and animal nutrition osmoregulation implants and animals is affected by salinity br br Topography br br altitude affects light, atmospheric pressure and light Slope influences surface runoff, wind erosion, etc. mountains affect distribution of organisms which differs in br br leeward side and windward side br br mountains affect distribution of organisms which differ on br br lowlands and on highlands br br mountains also form physical barriers to migration of organism and may cause isolation of species br br background may offer camouflage to some organisms br br hence protection from enemies br br Rainfall water or precipitation br br amount and distribution of rainfall affect vegetation type this consequently affects distribution of animals e.g. polar region water frozen hence only well adapted organisms survive br br fewer organisms found in deserts where rainfall is less Water is required for seed germination, raw material for br br photosynthesis, solvent for mineral salts. Provides turgidity for plant support, medium for transport, disperses fruits, seeds and spores br br Pressure br br the weight atmosphere exerts upon the earth varies with altitude 9the higher the altitude the less the br br pressure br br this variation implies change in density which directly br br means less oxygen for respiration and less carbon iv oxide for photosynthesis and this affects distribution of organisms br br Mineral salts trace elements br br these affect distribution of plants in the soil plants thrive best where elements are available Plants living in soil deficient in a particular element must br br have special methods of obtaining it. br br They harbor nitrogen fixing bacteria and others have br br carnivorous habit br br Plant distribution influences animal distribution br br c i What are biotic factors? br br refers to living organisms in an area biotic environment of an organism constitutes all organisms around it, which it relates or interacts with in various ways br br ii Give examples of biotic factors affecting ecosystems br br feeding relationships predation competition diseases and pests human activities br br d Discuss how the various biotic factors affect living organisms br br i. Competition organisms compete with one another for food, light, water, mates and shelter br br organisms must live together for competition for available br br resources br br those which cannot cope either structurally or behaviorally br br will migrate or die br br those remaining, due to better adaptations will increase in br br population br br competition between members of the same species is called br br intra-specific competition e.g. for mates br br Competition between members of different species is inter br br specific competition e.g. for food and space. ii. Predation this is predator-prey relationship predator feeds on prey hence both control the others br br population br br Distribution of predator and prey is important as predator br br cannot survive without prey br br It there is no predator the prey will increase in population beyond carrying capacity hence die due to environment depletion iii. Parasitism an association where an organism lives in or on another br br living organism obtaining food and other benefits from it, causing harm to it without necessary killing it br br parasites may kill host they deprive host of food make host weak by introducing diseases make reproductive ability of host low hence host becomes br br susceptible to predation iv. Diseases and parasites make organisms weak and susceptible to predation kill organisms and reduce their population v. Symbiotic and association of organisms of different species where br br both benefit from the association i.e. there is mutual benefit br br vi. Human activities these are human factors which have an influence on the br br biosphere br br examples are road construction, industrialization, br br deforestation, agriculture, pollution, poaching, fishing conservation, population control affect ecosystem and balance of nature Saprophytism saprophytes are organisms which obtain organic matter in solution from dead and decaying tissues of plants and animals br br they include saprophytic bacteria and fungi they make available carbon, nitrogen and other elements br br form dead to living organisms br br they are useful in recycling nutrients in nature br br e i What is nitrogen cycle? br br The process by which nitrogen in the air is made available br br plants and animals and eventually returns to the air. ii Draw a simplified diagram representing the nitrogen cycle br br br br iii Describe the nitrogen cycle br br during thunderstorms/lightning nitrogen gas combines with br br oxygen to form nitrogen oxides br br nitrogen oxides dissolve in water to form nitric acid acid is deposited in the soil by rain nitric acid combines with chemical substances to form br br nitrates or nitric acid dissociates to form nitrates which are absorbed by plants br br symbiotic bacteria Rhizobium which are found in root nodules of leguminous plants fix free nitrogen to nitrates br br free living bacteria clostridium and Azotobacter fix br br nitrogen to nitrates br br nostoc algae Anabaema chlorella fix nitrogen to nitrates plants use nitrates to form plant proteins animals feed on plants and convert plant proteins into br br animal proteins br br plants and animals die and are decomposed by putrefying br br bacteria, fungi saprophytes br br decomposing plants, animals and nitrogenous wastes release ammonia which is converted to nitrites by Nitrosomonas and nitrococcus bacteria br br nitrites are converted to nitrates by nitrobacter bacteria nitrates in the soil can be converted to free nitrogen denitrification by some fungi, pseudomonas and theobaccilus bacteria generally called denitrifying bacteria br br iii. Nitrogen in the atmosphere cannot be directly utilized by plants. State two ways by which this nitrogen is made available for plant use br br fixation by microorganisms Rhixobium, Axotobacter fixation by electrical discharge in atmosphere i.e. br br conversion by thunderstorm or lightning br br 317 f i Describe how energy flows from the sun through the various trophic levels in an ecosystem br br energy from the sun is trapped by green plants during photosynthesis, producing chemical energy9food or carbohydrates br br green plants are producers and occupy the first trophic level green plants are eaten by herbivores called primary producers as they occupy the second trophic level br br herbivores are eaten by carnivores, secondary consumers, br br which occupy the third trophic level br br when organisms 9plant and animals die, fungi and bacteria which are saprophytic organisms feed on them thus causing them to decompose into simple substances e.g. mineral salts br br these organisms are called decomposers and detrivores decomposer feed on dead organic matter hence cause decomposition and decay which releases nutrients for plants, linking biotic and a biotic components at all levels energy is lost through respiration br br Give the reasons for loss of energy from one trophic level to another in a food chain br br insufficient utilization of food resources wastage e.g by br br defalcation br br through respiration through excretion e.g. urination and sweating br br Why are green plants referred to as primary producers in an ecosystem? - They utilize the energy from the sun to manufacture food for themselves and for subsequent trophic level consumers and other organisms vi . Explain the following terms giving suitable examples Food chain br br a nutritional sequence between producers and consumers through which energy flows in a straight line i.e. linear representation of feeding relationship between different organisms in an ecosystem br br if one consumer or the producer is removed the food chain br br is broken br br arrow points to the direction of energy flow e.g. green plant br br herbivore carnivore decomposer br br br br Food web br br 318 complex feeding relationship where a consumer feeds on more than one type of food while several herbivores feed on one type of plant br br it is an interrelationship of many food chains consumers are usually fewer than producers to ensure br br survival of both br br br br Pyramid of numbers br br this is a diagrammatic representation of numbers of organisms at each trophic level in a food chain usually there are more producers than consumers hence producers herbivores carnivore the reason for the pyramid is because herbivores feed on many plants producers as carnivores feed on many herbivores br br sometimes this may not be true e.g. when many caterpillars br br feed on one tree or parasites on a herbivore this gives an inverted pyramid of numbers br br Pyramid of biomass br br refers to diagrammatic representation total dry weight of organisms at different trophic levels in a food chain br br producers have greater biomass than any level of br br consumers progressively br br size of organisms in successive e trophic levels increases amount of individuals decreases in successive levels br br Account for the decrease of biomass in the successive trophic levels br br 319 fixed energy which supports living matter decreases at each successive trophic level since energy is lost by respiration and indigested unconverted materials hence less biomass supported at each level br br h i Describe the three characteristics of a population growth br br increase in numbers decrease in numbers/growth rate change in numbers br br Dispersion br br spread or distribution of organisms in a habitat br br Density br br the number of individuals per unit area br br ii Explain how the following methods are used to estimate population of organisms quadrat method br br identify the study area throw or mark out the quadrat in the area of study at br br random br br identify or label the various species of plants in the quadrat count plants of each species record the numbers repeat the process work out the average per quadrat for each species calculate the total number of different species in the area or br br calculate the population for the total area of habitat br br Line transect br br a string is stretched along an identified area all plants touching the string are counted br br Belt transect br br preliminary study of the study area to estimate size or make a sketch map br br two parallel lines strings or ropes running for a br br determined distance and width br br count the number of organisms in the transect calculate the area covered by the transect calculate the number of organisms being investigated per br br unit area br br repeat this process at least three times in other parts of the br br study area br br find the mean number of organisms per unit area from all br br the belt transects from this figure calculate the total population of the desired br br organisms in the study area. br br Capture-recapture method e.g. grasshoppers or fish capture the grasshoppers count and mark using permanent ink record release and allow time recapture and count the marked and unmarked total population is equal to the number of marked and br br unmarked grasshoppers in the second sample multiplied by the number of marked grasshoppers in the first sample divided by number of grasshoppers marked in the second sample that were recaptured br br 2. a Describe the adaptations of plants to various br br habitats br br i. Xerophytes grow in areas with scarcity of water roots grow deeply and extensively widely spread to br br ensure access to water br br thick succulent stems, roots and leaves for water storage photosynthetic stems take place of leaves which would lose br br a lot of water br br Leaves are needle-like reduced to spines , scaly, have br br sunken stomata. Some have curled rolled leaves. Some have thick waxy cuticle, reduced number of stomata to reduce water loss by transpiration some shed leaves during dry season to reduce water loss presence of thorns for protection short life cycle to ensure survival reversed stomatal rhythm ii. Hyrophytes br br grow in places with plenty of water waterlogged aerenchyma a tissue airspaces and large intercellular spaces and long fibrous roots for buoyancy floating in water br br poorly developed support tissues sclerenchyma because br br water provides the necessary support br br upper epidermis of leaves have more stomata than lower epidermis for gaseous exchange or for increased rate of transpiration br br poorly developed conducting tissues xylem and phloem br br because plants obtain water by diffusion br br iii. Mesophytes br br grow in well watered soils common plants no special adaptations, but depending on particular habitat, br br may have some adaptations br br in forests they grow fast, tall to capture light. Have br br climbers while some are adapted to carry out photosynthesis in low light intensities those that form undergrowth br br in places with adequate water they form broad leaves, thin br br cuticle and many stomata on both leaf surfaces in direr regions they possess more stomata on the lower leaf br br surface and are deep rooted roots for support drip off rain water br br some are shallow rooted and develop buttress and prop br br iv. Halophytes br br plants that grow in very salty soil where the salt concentration is higher than that in the plant br br have root cells which concentrate a lot of salts in them and br br enable then to take in water by osmosis br br succulent roots to store water have pneumatophores breathing roots to take in oxygen some have buttress roots for support secrete excess salt by use of salt glands have large airspaces in leaves and stems for buoyancy and to store air br br capable of photosynthesis at low light intensities e.g. mangrove br br b i What is pollution? br br any process which leads to adverse or harmful changes in br br the environment br br ii Explain the various human activities that have caused pollution Causes and effects of air pollution br br sulphur iv oxide, hydrogen sulphide, chlorine, oxides of nitrogen produced by industries, sewage, decomposing organic matter and fumes affect gaseous exchange, makes acid rain and damage plant leaves br br aerosols, herbicides, insecticides agrochemicals , paint spays, acaricides and CFCs sprayed to control diseases, pests and weeds affect respiratory organs of animals. The chemicals are residual and persistent not easily broken down and bring depletion of the ozone layer br br smoke and fumes produced in areas with heavy industries, motor vehicles, fires which burn fuel, oil, wood and coal cause carbon ii oxide, poisoning affect respiratory systems and affect visibility br br particles in smoke and fumes settle on leaves and stop br br photosynthesis br br carbon iv oxide causes green house effect which causes br br temperature inversion as a result of heating the lower layers of atmosphere br br sound and noise produced incessantly by machines, br br aeroplanes and heavy vehicles affect hearing in animals dust from cement factories, quarries, dust roads settles on br br leaves limiting photosynthesis br br removal of vegetation interferes with carbon cycle radio-active emissions from nuclear reactors, mines and br br bombs cause cancer, mutations and death. Control of air pollution br br use of lead free petrol in motor vehicles, air craft, br br aeroplanes and petroleum engines uses of smokeless fuels and electricity filtration, dissolution and use of chemicals to remove br br harmful gases br br factories should be erected far away from residential areas use of tall chimneys reduce volume or intensity of sound e.g. by use of ear br br muffs br br concords should fly at higher altitudes and aeroplanes to br br fly high up br br State the causes, effects and methods of controlling and prop roots for support water pollution Causes and effects br br agrochemicals e.g. fertilizers cause eutrophication leading br br to increase in animal population br br Silting makes water surfaces shallow and silt clogs stomata br br and gills of fish reducing rates of photosynthesis and gaseous exchange. It also leads to reduction of algae which causes reduction of consumers i.e. animal population industrial and domestic wastes contain toxic materials which kill producers and other organism while oily substances in wastes may clog gills of fish and may change pH of water oxygen solubility is also reduced by oily surfaces br br Untreated sewage and effluents where decomposition or organic matter in sewage reduces oxygen supply and sewage provides food for bacteria increasing their population and demand for oxygen thus depriving fish of oxygen. br br Human feaces causes eutrophication, carbon IV oxide br br produced by decomposition of faecal matter changes pH of water interferes with photosynthesis and may clog fish gills or block light penetration which interferes with producers thereby decreasing productivity. br br Dumping of chemicals from industries with toxic pollutants br br which kill organisms br br Spillage of oil and chemicals block oxygen and kill br br organisms br br Discharge of water from industries into water body where high temperatures reduce amount of oxygen in the water causing organism to suffocate and die br br Untreated sewage may lead to outbreak of epidemics br br Control of water pollution -pollution caused by domestic effluents may be controlled by treating domestic waste, using biotechnology, banning the use of phosphate-based detergents, using plastic pipes instead of those made from lead, recycling gabbage, using biodegradable detergents. Pollution caused by industrial waste may be controlled by treating/cooling industrial waste, carrying out environmental impact assessment before establishing industries Oil spillage may be controlled by cleaning spilled oil biotechnology and penalizing the industry individual or companies which cause oil spills/water pollution Pollution caused by agrochemicals may be controlled by using mechanical control of weeds, biological control of weeds and pests, biodegradable organic fertilizer herbicides, insecticides pesticides, organic farming educate farmers on the use of correct amount of agrochemicals silting may be controlled by appropriate farming practices, contour farming, reafforestation, building gabions and terracing br br iv State the causes /effects and control methods of soil pollution Causes and effects br br Air pollutants e.g. sulphur IV oxide fumes from sulphuric acid with rain water. The acid rain alters soil pH therefore affecting plants that cannot tolerate acidic soil most aerosols sprayed to control pests and diseases br br precipitate in the soil and are taken up by plants which make its concentration many times higher, increasing the toxicity in the plants which absorb them br br petroleum products due to spillage by oil tankers making it impossible for plant roots to obtain oxygen in oil saturated soils, therefore plants are killed br br agrochemicals and inorganic fertilizers contain heavy br br metals that are not used up by plants and eventually soil microorganisms cannot inhabit the soils br br organic matter slows down, life ceases and soil becomes br br exhausted br br community, household wastes and industrial wastes disposal is a major problem in big towns and cities. commodities packaged in metal tins, rubber, plastic containers, scrap metal, glass bottles, different types of paper are nuisance to the environment, rendering it useless for agricultural purposes Control of soil pollution br br use of organic farming techniques biological control of pests, diseases, parasites recycling of non-degradable containers or burying them br br safely after use br br controlled burning of garbage treatment of human and industrial waste for safe disposal avoid spilling chemicals and oil when used br br v Define biological control give suitable examples br br using a living organism to regulate, control or reduce the br br population of another organism e.g beetles to feed on water hyacinth, fish to feed on mosquito larvae. br br vi What is eutrophication? br br enrichment of water bodies with nutrients due to discharge br br of sewage leading to rapid growth of surface plants viii What are the effects of eutrophication? enrichment of water bodies with nutrients due to discharge br br of sewage leading to rapid growth of surface plants br br vii What are the effects of eutrophication? - The plants block light from reaching plants underneath hence no photosynthesis The plants die and decompose leading to lack of oxygen hence animals also die c Describe the symptoms, mode of transmission and control of cholera, typhoid malaria and amoebic dysentery in humans Disease Causative br br Transmissio n Contaminate d food or water Spread by flies form faeces Symptom s Intestinal pain Diarrhea Vomiting Dehydrati on br br Control br br agent Cholera Vibrio br br Proper hygiene e.g. boiling drinking water Vaccination proper sanitati on vaccina tion br br cholerae bac terium br br Typhoid Salmonella br br contami nated food or water spread by flies from faeces br br typhi bacterium fever rashe s diarr hea bloo d from bowe ls - fever Joint pains Vomiting Headache Anaemia br br killing mosqui to killing the mosqui to larvae drainin br br g stagnan t water clearin g bushes treatme nt sleep under mosqui to net sanitati on person al hygien e cook food well treatme nt using drugs br br Amoebi c dysenter y amoebi asis br br Entamoeba hystolytica bacterium br br - contaminated food or water due to improper disposal of faeces - intestinal pain Diarrhea Vomiting Dehydrati on br br d Discuss Ascaris lumbricoides under the following sub- headings br br i. Mode of transmission through ingestion of contaminated food live in intestines ii. Effects of parasite on the host inflammation of lungs pneumonia produce toxic substances intestinal obstruction iii. Adaptations thick cuticle which protects it against digestion lays many eggs to ensure survival mouthparts for sucking partly digested food lack of elaborate alimentary canal tolerant to low oxygen concentration two hosts to ensure survival eggs have protective cover to ensure survival in adverse br br environments br br iv. Control and prevention proper sanitation wash hand after defaecation and before eating br br e Discuss schistosoma under the following sub-headings br br i. Mode of transmission through contaminated water in swamps, etc ii. Effects on host bleeding in lungs blood stained urine unthriftiness iii. Adaptations has two hosts to increase chances of survival eggs have a hook like structure which raptures the walls of br br intestine or bladder br br lay large number of eggs to ensure survival larvae have a sucker for attachment on human skin which it br br digests br br larva has a tail which it swims with in search of host in br br water br br prolonged association between male and female to ensure br br that fertilization takes place br br adults can tolerate low oxygen concentration in the animal br br tissues br br adult worm secretes chemicals against antibodies larvae and eggs have glands that secrete lytic enzymes to br br soften the tissues that ease penetration br br larvae are encysted so as to survive adverse conditions iv Control and prevention br br proper use of toilet facilities boiling water before use avoid bathing/washing in infected water Use of molluscicides chemicals that kill snails/biological br br control/clearing water weeds on which snails feed. br br Drainage of stagnant water br br 3. Wearing gum/rubber boots br br a i What is reproduction? br br process by which living organisms give rise to new br br members of their own species which resemble the parents br br ii Why is reproduction important? br br for continuity of species/ to ensure survival of species maintaining life of species replace dead individuals br br iii Name the types of reproduction sexual which involves fusion of male and female gametes asexual in which no gametes are involved but parts of a br br mature organism develops into new individuals br br b i What is cell division? br br process by which cells are formed from pre-existing cells br br ii What are chromosomes? br br Threadlike structures found in nucleus of a cell. The units called genes Genes are factors that cause inheritance or determine br br characteristics of offspring br br c i What is mitosis? br br A type of cell division that occurs during growth leading to br br increase in number of cells br br all cells maintain the same chromosome constitution i.e. the br br diploid state br br ii Describe the five stages of mitosis Interphase br br br br replication of organelles duplication of DNA production of energy ATP for cell division br br Prophase br br stage of dehydration chromosomes shorten and thicken chromosome replicates into two chromatids chromatids joined at centromere formation of spindle fibers br br Metaphase br br chromosomes move to equator early metaphase chromosomes line up at the equator homologous chromosomes do not associate br br 329 br br Anaphase br br chromatids separate move to opposite ends poles of the cell br br Telophase br br chromatids reach the poles formation of two daughter cells occurs i.e. cytoplasmic br br division br br ii State the significance of mitosis br br ensures each daughter cell has same number and kinds of br br chromosomes as daughter cells br br gives rise to new cells responsible for growth br br d i What is meiosis? br br division of diploid cells to form gametes which are haploid br br ii State the significance of meiosis br br gives rise to gametes source of variation br br iii Give a summary of the stages of meiosis First meiotic division Interphase br br cell is in non-dividing condition br br 330 chromosomes appear threadlike br br br br Prophase I br br chromatic material shorten and thicken double stranded chromosomes appear bivalent double stranded chromosomes pair and twist round each br br other synapsis br br point of contact of chromosomes is called chiasma br br Metaphase I br br paired homologous chromosomes line up at the equator br br Anaphase I br br paired homologous chromosomes move to the poles br br Telophase I br br paired homologous chromosomes reach the poles two new nuclei are formed br br Second meiotic division Prophase II br br chromosomes shorten, thicken and become visible, stage of dehydration br br Metaphase II br br movement of chromosomes to equator br br 331 br br Anaphase II -chromatids of each chromosome separate to the poles br br Telophase II br br reach the poles four haploid daughter cells are formed br br iv Give the similarities between mitosis and meiosis br br both take part in cells both involve division cell multiplication br br v What are the differences between mitosis and meiosis? Mitosis Meiosis br br maintenance of reduction/halving of br br chromosome number diploid br br chromosomes haploid occurs in reproductive cells/gonads/produces gametes br br takes place in somatic br br cells/growth br br no crossing over/no crossing over takes br br variations br br place/variation occurs results into 4 daughter results into 2 daughter br br cells br br cells there is no pairing/no br br synapsis/no bivalent formed paring/synapsis/bivalen t br br a one division process br br a two division process of four stages each of four stages br br d i What is asexual reproduction br br formation of new individuals as a result of the fusion of br br two gametes br br fusion is called fertilization br br 332 ii What is the significance of sexual reproduction in living organisms? br br leads to genetic variation e.g. cross breeding which gives br br rise to hybrids br br iii State the advantages of sexual reproduction br br genetic variation greater adaptability to environment by offspring few bad or good traits inherited/retained greater amount of dispersal is possible may result in stronger offspring br br iv Give the disadvantages of sexual reproduction br br less certainty in egg and sperm meeting low rate of survival sex-linked diseases easily transmitted br br e i What is asexual reproduction? br br formation of new organisms without fusion of gametes occurs with only one parent parts of organism develop into new individual ii State the advantages of asexual reproduction retention of useful characteristics/genes/traits offspring establish faster/shorter life cycle better chances of survival because of suitable environment br br iii Give the disadvantages of asexual reproduction br br lack of genetic variation lowered resistance to disease loss of hybrid vigor competition for resources due to overcrowding iv Explain how reproduction occurs by the following methods of asexual reproduction Sporulation br br formation of spores spores are small haploid cells produced by plants spores give rise to new haploid organisms includes moulds, ferns, bryophytes, pteridophytes br br Budding br br where an outgrowth arises from a parent and drops off to br br develop into a new organisms br br hereditary material in the daughter cell and parent are br br exactly the same br br occurs in organisms such as hydra, jelly fish, sea anemones, br br yeast and some fungi br br Binary fission a cell splits into two new cells of equal size each daughter cell grows into anew organism Occurs in organisms such as amoeba, euglena, br br paramecium, some fungi and bacteria. br br f i What is a flower? br br this is the reproductive structure which bears the br br reproductive parts of a plant it produces seeds and fruits br br ii Draw a longitudinal section of a labeled diagram of a flower br br br br iii Give the functions of the parts of a flower Receptacle br br expanded end of stalk which bears floral parts br br Calyx br br consists of sepals usually green protect flower in bud br br Corolla br br consist of petals often colored or scented to attract insects br br Androecium br br male part of flower consist of stamens each stamen consists of an anther containing pollen sacs another produces pollen grains which contain male gametes br br Gynaecium br br female part of flower consists of one or more carpels each carpel contains one or more ovules in an ovary style bearing a stigma extends from ovary ovary contains female gametes which when fertilized br br become seeds br br iv What is inflorescence? br br a group of flowers borne on the same branch main stalk br br v Explain the meaning of the following terms which describe flowers Hermaphrodite br br 334 one with both stamen and carpel most flowers are hermaphrodite/bisexual br br Unisexual br br have only one of carpel or stamen i.e. either male or female br br Carpelate br br also called pistilate contains only carpels hence a female flower br br Staminate br br also called male flower contains only stamens br br Dioecious plants br br have pistilate and staminate flowers on different plants e.g. br br pawpaw Monoecius plants br br have pistilate and staminate on one plant however, pistilate and staminate occur at different plants br br e.g. maize br br Complete flower br br Has all four parts i.e. Calyx, corolla, androecium and br br gynoecium Incomplete flower br br does not have all four parts at least one is missing br br vi Explain the meaning of the following types of ovary Superior br br ovary occurs above other floral parts on the receptacle br br Inferior epigynous br br other floral parts arise above ovary on the receptacle br br g i What is pollination? br br transfer of pollen grains from anther of a stamen to stigma br br of a flower br br ii Explain the types of pollination br br self pollination takes place when mature pollen grains of a br br flower fall on the stigma of the same flower br br cross pollination takes place when pollen grains of a flower fall on the stigma of another flower of the same species br br iii State the advantages of pollination br br healthy offspring leads to variation greater chances of dispersal iv List the agents of pollination br br wind water insects br br v How are flowers adapted to wind and insect pollination? Insect pollinated flowers entomophilus br br are scented to attract insects have stick stigma for pollen grains to stick on are brightly coloured to attract insects presence of nectar to attract insects have nectar guides to guide insects to the nectarines have nectarines to secrete nectar stigma/ anthers located inside the flower/tubal/funnel br br shaped corolla to increase chances of contact by insects sticky/spiny/spiky pollen grains which stick on the body of br br insects and on stigma br br large/conspicuous flowers easily seen by/attract insects anthers firmly attached to the filament for insects to brush br br against them br br landing platform to ensure contact with anthers and stigma mimicry to attract male insects Wind pollinated flower anemophilus br br anthers/stigma hang outside the flower to increase chances br br of pollination br br the style/filament is long to expose stigma/anthers stigma is hairy/feathery/branched to increase surface area br br over which pollen grains land/to trap pollen grains br br pollen grains are smooth/dry/light/small to be easily carried br br by wind br br large amount of pollen grains to increase chances of br br pollination br br anthers loosely attached to filaments to enable them to br br sway to release pollen grains br br pollen grains may have structures which contain air to br br increase buoyancy br br flowers have long stalks holding them out in the wind vi State the ways in which plants prevent self-pollination br br protandry anthers/stamens mature first protagyny pistils mature first monoecism where male and female parts are on same plant br br but different parts dioecism where male and female parts are on different br br plants br br incompatibility self sterility heterostyly styles at different heights br br vii Give the characteristics that ensure cross pollination takes place in flowering plants br br presence of special structures that attract agents of br br pollination br br protandry/dichogamy protagyny/dichogamy monoecism self sterility heterostyly viii State the advantages of cross pollination hybrid vigour less prone to diseases promotes genetic variation greater evolutionary potential br br h i What is fertilization? - Fusion of male and female gametes to form a zygote ii Describe how fertilization takes place in a flower br br this follows pollination pollen grain is deposited on the stigma pollen grain sticks to the surface of the stigma the surface of the stigma produces a chemical substance which stimulates the pollen grain to produce a pollen tube/to germinate br br the pollen tube grows through the style tissues on which it br br feeds until it enters the ovary br br the generative nucleus divides into two giving two male nuclei br br embryo sac contains eight nuclei i.e. two synergids, egg br br cell, two polar nuclei and three antipodal cells the pollen tube enters the embryo sac through the br br micropyle and one of the male nucleus fuses with the egg cell/ovum to form a zygote br br the other male nucleus fuses with the two polar nuclei to form the triploid nuclei/endosperm food storage used by developing embryo br br the pollen tube nucleus in the pollen tube disintergrates br br soon afterwards br br this process is referred to as double fertilization br br zygote grows into an embryo containing plumule, radicle br br and cotyledons br br br br iii What is double fertilization? br br there are two male nuclei entering embryo sac one fuses with the ovum to form a zygote, while the other br br fuses with the polar nuclei to form a triploid primary endosperm nucleus br br therefore there are two fusions at fertilization iv Name the changes that Occur in a flower after fertilization br br petals, stamen, calyx and style wither ovary wall changes into pericarp intergument changes into seed coat/testa zygote changes into embryo by mitosis primary endosperm nucleus changes into endosperm whole ovule changes into seed ovary develops and grows into fruit under the influence of br br gibberrellic hormone br br j i Distinguish between a fruit and a seed a fruit is a fertilized ovary and has two scars a seed is a fertilized ovule and has one scar br br ii How is a seed formed? br br after fertilization, zygote grows into an embryo, primary br br endosperm nucleus developed into endosperm, interguments harden to form testa, hence the whole ovule becomes the seed br br the seed loses water to become drier the seed has plumule, radicle, seed leaves called br br cotyledons, a microphyle and a scar br br iii Draw a labeled diagram of a seed br br 338 iv Describe the main parts of a seed Testa br br also called seed coat a tough outer covering which protects the seed from br br insects, bacteria etc br br segment is the membrane inside the testa br br Hilum br br a scar spot where the seed was attached to the fruit or pod br br Micropyle br br small hole through which water and air enter the seed br br Radicle br br embryonic root grows into the shoot system br br Cotyledons br br embryonic leaves store food for the germinating seed i.e. for plumule and br br radicle br br when plumule and radicle grow, they use food stored in the br br cotyledon br br in some seeds food is stored in the endosperm br br v Draw a labeled diagram of a fruit br br br br vi How is a fruit formed? br br one of the organs that remains on the plant after pollination br br and fertilization is the ovary br br within the ovary, the developing embryo produces special br br chemical substances that stimulate the young ovary br br these substances also signal the start of the formation of the br br fruit, which is a mature ovary br br the fruit may contain one or more seeds during fruit formation the ovary increases in size while br br ripening or maturing br br a true fruit is formed from the ovary of a flower after br br fertilization br br 339 it has two scars style scar and stalk scar and contains seeds some seeds are not formed from the ovary of a flower some other parts of a flower develop to form a fruit such fruits are called false fruits br br vii Explain the importance of fruits in the survival of plants protect the seed against dessication, predators and adverse br br conditions br br aid in seed dispersal by attracting agents of dispersal stores food for the plant vii. Distinguish between parthenogenesis and br br parthenocarpy br br parthenogenesis is development of new animals from br br unfertilized eggs br br parthenocarpy is development of a fruit without br br fertilization br br iv State the differences between a seed and fruit Seed Fruit br br fertilized ovule attached to placenta through funicle fertilized ovary attached to branch through a stalk br br one scar called hilum has seed coat/testa seed wall br br two scars style scar br br and stalk scar br br has fruit wall/pericarp fruit wall is undifferentiated br br differentiated br br j. i What is placentation? br br arrangement of ovules within the plant ovary br br ii Explain the following types of placentation Marginal br br br br placenta appears as one ridge on ovary wall ovules are attached to placenta in rows e.g. peas in a pod br br Basal br br placenta formed at the base of the ovary with numerous br br ovules attached to it br br 340 Parietal br br br br edges of carpels fuse together dividing walls disappear, leaving one loculus have numerous seeds e.g. passion fruit placenta of each carpel appears as ridges on ovary wall br br Axile br br edges of carpels fuse br br together to form a single central placenta br br numerous ovules arranged on placenta ovary divided into a number of loculi by walls of the carpel br br e.g. br br Free central placentation br br edges of carpels fuse together dividing was disappears leaving one loculus placenta appears at base of ovary has numerous ovules k i How are fruits grouped? Simple fruits formed from a single flower or one ovary e.g. mango br br Aggregate fruits br br consists a group of ovaries that appear on a common br br receptacle e.g. strawberry br br Multiple compound fruits br br formed from several flowers whose ovaries fuse together br br after fertilization br br 341 form a bunch e.g. pineapple, figs are always false fruits ii What are succulent fruits? also called fleshy fruits all or part of pericarp fruit wall becomes juicy br br iii Give types of juicy fruits -Berry br br br br has many seeds whole pericarp is succulent e.g. orange, tomato, pawpaw br br Drupe br br only one seed pericarp divided into three layers i.e. epicarp, br br mesocarp juicy and endocarp hard br br e.g. mango and coconut br br Pome br br juicy part is swollen receptacle is usually a false fruit example is a pear iv What are dry fruits? br br have a pericarp that is dry, hard and woody either dehiscent or indehiscent called dry because they are not succulent br br v What are dehiscent fruits? br br split open when ripe to release seeds contain many seeds br br vi Give types of dehiscent fruits Legumes br br split along two edges are usually pods e.g. beans, peas, crotolaria br br Follicle br br split on one side only e.g. Sodom apple br br 342 Capsule br br has several lines of weakness/sutures open in many places e.g. castor oil, cotton br br vii What are indehiscent fruits? br br non-splitting fruits usually one seeded only ix Give main types of indehiscent fruits br br Nut br br pericarp woody, hard and thick e.g. cashew br br Achene br br has thin, tough pericarp e.g. sunflower l i What is seed and fruit dispersal? spreading of seeds and fruits away from parents so as to settle where conditions are suitable for their germination br br ii Why is dispersal of seeds and fruits necessary? br br prevent overcrowding reduces competition for space, nutrients and light colonization of new areas is made possible to increase chances of survival to prevent inbreeding to avoid extinction due to over competition for the br br necessities br br iii Explain how seeds and fruits are adapted to various methods of dispersal Adaptations for wind dispersal br br they have wings, feathers or hair-like structures to increase br br surface area for wind to carry them easily/buoyancy seeds/fruits are loosely attached on the stalks so that they br br can easily be released and carried away by wing br br seeds/fruits are generally light and small sized to be easily br br carried by wind br br some seeds/fruits have parachute-like structures to be easily br br carried b wind br br some have censor mechanism where seeds and fruits are br br borne on long stalks that are loosely attached which allows swaying so that movements of capsule by wind releases the seeds br br Water dispersal seeds br br seed/ mesocarp has air spaces thus light/buoyant to float br br hence carried by water br br they have waterproof cover and tough pericarp protects br br seeds from getting soaked fibrous and spongy mesocarp to easily float br br Animal dispersal seeds br br presence of hooks for attachment to animals thus carried to br br other parts br br fruits are brightly coloured, succulent and scented to attract br br animals br br seed coats are hard and resistant to digestive enzymes hence seeds are dropped away from mother plant large in size or borne on clusters to be easily seen br br Self dispersal/explosive self opening seeds they have lines of weakness called sutures for violent opening thus scattering seeds away from parent plant br br 5. a i Distinguish between external and internal br br fertilization in animals br br in external fertilization fusion of the male and female br br gametes takes place outside the body of the female e.g. amphibians and fish br br in internal fertilization union of gametes occurs inside the br br body of the female br br ii State the advantages and disadvantages of external fertilization Advantages br br large numbers produced therefore many offspring per br br breeding season br br female does not suffer gestation stress mother does not need to care for the young except in a few br br species br br the surviving individuals are highly selected for better survival br br Disadvantages br br many predators surround the eggs before and after br br fertilization br br fewer chances of fertilization/a lot of gametes wasted embryo development at mercy of environment large numbers of female gametes are required therefore br br female gets much exhausted br br iii State the advantages and disadvantages of internal fertilization Disadvantages br br number of gametes fewer hence less number of offspring less adapted for sudden change of environment after birth br br in mammals females suffer gestation stress br br Advantages br br more chances of fertilization fewer predators of oval/fertilized egg protected in females br br body br br stable internal environment fewer gametes required br br iii Give a reason why it is necessary for frogs to lay many eggs br br to increase chances of survival/fertilization iv Compare external and internal fertilization External Internal br br occurs in water outside the bodies of animals br br occurs inside the body of the female animal fewer eggs released br br many eggs are laid usually less contact between male and female br br from ovary br br very close contact in form of copulation between male and female both fertilized eggs exposed to danger br br Fertilized eggs are br br enclosed hence highly protected inside females body. br br b i Draw and label the human male reproductive system br br br br 345 br br ii Describe how the mammalian male reproductive system is adapted to perform its functions Penis br br is highly vascularised/spongy has a sensitive glands becomes erect to allow entry into the vagina br br Scrotum br br contains the testes outside the body on whose walls the br br process of spermatogenesis takes place br br the process is favored by lower temperature it contains sertoli cells which nourish sperms until they are br br mature Epididymis br br long and coiled for the purpose of sperm storage br br Vas deferens muscular upon contraction pushes sperms out and allows ejaculation br br Gametes br br 346 produced in large numbers to increase chances of br br fertilization br br the sperms have a tail for swimming/large number of br br mitochondria to provide energy/allow swimming to reach the egg Accessory glands br br are seminal vesicle, Cowpers gland and prostate gland they produce seminal fluid to provide a medium/ nutrients br br for sperms to swim br br iii How is the sperm adapted to perform its function? acrosomes contain enzymes to digest egg membrane nucleus contains genetic material mitochondria produce energy to move the tail back and br br forth br br the lashing movement of the tail enables the sperm to move/propulsion in fluid medium towards the egg br br it is streamlined for faster/easier movement/swimming to br br meet the egg br br c i Draw and label the human female reproductive system br br br br 347 br br 348 br br 349 ii Describe how the various structures of the human female reproductive system are adapted to their function Ovaries br br have several graafian follicles that develop and burst open br br to release/produce mature ova br br secretes sex hormones oestrogen which initiate/control br br development of secondary sexual characteristics br br produce hormones oestrogen and progesterone which prepare the uterus for implantation and subsequent nourishment of the embryo br br Oviducts fallopian tube br br are thin narrow and tubular to increase flowing speed of br br semen containing sperms br br are funnel shaped on the end next to ovary which enables br br them to receive the ovum br br their lining contains cilia which propel the ovum towards br br the uterus br br has peristaltic muscles that enable movement of zygote/ovum to the uterus for implantation br br is fairly long to increase surface area for fertilization br br Uterus br br is muscular for protection of developing embryo has elastic wall that allows growth and development of br br foetus/embryo br br has a highly vascularised endometrium that provides nutrients/gaseous exchange to developing embryo br br Cervix has valves that close the lower end of the uterus to ensure br br continued pregnancy during gestation period br br is capable of dilating has narrow entrance/neck-like entrance to uterus that br br enables quick swimming of sperms to uterus br br has suction mechanism that draws up/pulls sperms into br br uterus br br has a W shape that fits well with the glands of the penis br br to ensure sperms are deposited at the right point br br Vagina br br is elastic and muscular to enable good accommodation or penetration of the penis thus proper deposition of sperms and for easy parturition allows menstrual flow br br has sensitive labial walls which secrete/produce lubricating br br substances that ensure/enable/facilitate good coition capable of considerable enlargement, due to elastic muscles, to accommodate baby during parturition br br Clitoris br br has sensitive cells for orgasm br br iii Explain how the ovum is adapted to its function br br nucleus contains genetic material ventelline membrane encloses plasma membrane which br br encloses yolky cytoplasm br br yolky cytoplasm provides nourishment jelly coat protects ovum against dehydration br br iv Explain the differences between sperm and ovum Sperm Ovum br br long with a tail and br br spherical large stationary a lot of food stored in yolky cytoplasm lacks acrosome a lot of cytoplasm br br head small locomotory stores little food has acrosome tip with br br lytic enzymes br br nucleus prominent but cytoplasm negligible br br d i Explain the process of fertilization br br a process whereby the egg and sperm are brought together br br and fuse to form a zygote occurs in the fallopian tube after copulation sperm head penetrates the outer coat of the ovum while the br br tail remains outside br br penetration is due to reaction of acrosome acrosome digests the vitelline membrane thereafter a zygote is formed zygote which is diploid undergoes rapid cell division to br br form a mass of cells called blastocyst br br after fertilization a membrane forms around the ovum to br br prevent further entry of sperms br br blastocyst eventually develops into an embryo br br 352 br br i Explain the process of implantation br br this is the embedding and attaching of the embryo in the br br uterine wall/endometrium br br implantation marks the beginning of pregnancy sometimes implantation occurs in the oviduct wall which is abnormal and results in ectopic pregnancy which is fatal br br the outer wall of the blastocyst develops fingerlike projections which project into the uterine wall for attachment br br the projections are called villi br br 353 the villi and endometrium develop into an organ that is br br called the placenta br br the embryo is attached to the placenta through a cord called br br the umbilical cord br br br br iii br br 354 br br State the functions of umbilical cord br br it contains blood vessels umbilical artery, iliac arteries and br br umbilical veins br br it joins the placenta to the embryo passage for nutrients from the mother passage of excretory substances from foetus to mother for br br final discharge gaseous exchange passage of antibodies from mother to foetus, for protection br br of foetus against diseases iv State the role of placenta br br exchange of gases between mother and foetus exchange of nutrients and nitrogenous wastes anchorage/attachment of foetus produces hormones oestrogen and progesterone br br e i What is gestation period? br br time taken from fertilization to birth/pregnancy br br ii Explain the functions of the membranes associated with placenta Chorion br br surrounds the embryo has fingerlike projections that attach embryo to the uterus br br Amnion br br contains amniotic fluid fluid surrounds embryo br br 355 protects embryo from mechanical injury by acting as shock br br absorbers br br fluid also protects embryo from dehydration distributes pressure equally over embryo br br Yolk sac br br surround the yolk produces blood cells for embryo until its own liver is able br br to perform the task br br Allantois br br present only for a short time removes and store waste material it eventually becomes the umbilical cord br br iii Explain the events that take place to facilitate parturition br br near birth the placenta produces less progesterone oxytocin hormone is produced by posterior lobe of pituitary br br gland br br because progesterone level has decreased the uterus br br becomes sensitive to oxytocin br br oxytocin causes the contraction of the uterus myometrium these contractions are called labour pains just before parturition the head turns downwards the contractions eventually push the baby through the br br vagina br br amnion breaks and amniotic fluid is released oxytocin dilates the cervix foetus is expelled through cervix with head coming out first finally the whole infant comes out the umbilical cord is cut and the placenta is expelled as afterbirth br br iv State the reasons why later in pregnancy the ovary will b e removed without disturbing the pregnancy br br corpus luteum in the ovary secretes progesterone which maintains pregnancy and development of foetus after conception br br after four months pregnancy is maintained by progesterone br br from the placenta br br f i What are secondary sexual characteristics - Characteristics physiological and anatomical that start developing at puberty due to the influence of male and female hormones ii State the main secondary changes in Boys br br deepening of the voice br br growth of hair on face, pubic part, chest, legs penis and testes become bigger muscular development sperm production begins at puberty and may continue br br throughout life br br Girls br br growth of hair on pubic part and armpits widening/enlargement of hips development of breasts menstrual cycle starts as ovaries mature body acquires extra fat br br iii Describe the role of hormones in secondary sexual characteristics inBoys Follicle stimulation hormone FSH br br from pituitary stimulates production of androgens male hormones mainly br br testosterone by testis br br Testosterone br br secondary sexual characteristics br br Girls FHS br br from pituitary development of follicles stimulates oestrogen production by ovary br br LH br br from pituitary ovulation stimulates release of progesterone by ovary br br Oestrogen br br stimulates release of LH secondary sexual characteristics br br Progesterone br br also from placenta sustains pregnancy as it inhibits prolactin and oxytocin br br during pregnancy br br Prolactin ii Describe the role of hormones in the human menstrual cycle br br it is controlled by sex hormones which are responsible for br br the onset of secondary sexual characteristics and also control of the menstrual cycle br br the onset is signaled by discharge of blood/menses 14 days br br following the start of menstruation br br anterior lobe of pituitary gland secretes follicle stimulating br br hormone FSH br br Follicle stimulating hormone causes graafian follicle to develop in the ovary. It also stimulates tissues of the ovary/wall theca to secrete oestrogen br br oestrogen causes repair/healing of uterine wall oestrogen stimulates anterior lobe of pituitary to produce br br luteinising hormonge LH br br LH causes ovulation. It also causes graafian follicle to br br change into corpus luteum. LH stimulates corpus luteum to secrete progesterone br br Progesterone causes proliferation/thickening of uterine wall Oesterogen/progesterone inhibits the production of FSH by anterior lobe of pituitary, thus no more follicles develop and oestrogen production reduces br br In the next two weeks progesterone level rises and inhibits br br production of LH from anterior lobe of pituitary br br The corpus lutetium stops secreting progesterone and br br menstruation occurs when the level of progesterone drops br br Anterior lobe of pituitary starts secreting FSH again. br br iii What is menopause? br br end of ovulation in women occurs after age of 45 years does not occur in males br br h Explain the symptoms, methods of transmitting and prevention control of the following sexually transmitted diseases i Gonorrhea - caused by a bacterium called Neisseria gonorrhea - transmitted through sexual intercourse, - infects urethra and vaginal tract epithelia - Symptoms include pain, discharge of mucus and bad smell females - Effects include sterility, heart diseases, blindness of foetus and arthritis - Treatment by antibiotics - Control and prevention by proper sexual conduct ii Herpes br br notably Herpes simplex and H. genitalis caused by virus which attacks genitalia symptoms are painful sores in genitalia, skin lesions transmitted in saliva, sexual intercourse and injection by br br drug addicts no treatment br br iii Syphilis br br caused by bacterium called Treponema palladium symptoms are painless wounds in genitalia attack genitalia, nervous system, lips treated by antibiotics br br iv Trichomoniasis br br caused by plasmodium called Trichomonas attacks reproductive tract symptoms are itching and discharge of pus from the br br genitals br br treated by antibiotics br br v Hepatitis - Viral disease Affects the liver Transmitted through sexual intercourse No known treatment vi Candidiasis br br caused by fungus called Candida albicans transmitted through sexual intercourse symptoms include itching urethra, and vaginal discharge br br odourless br br controlled by personal hygiene, early treatment and br br responsible sexual behavior br br vii HIV/AIDS br br caused by HIV virus transmitted by sexual intercourse, blood transfusion, sharing piercing instruments from infected mother to foetus, infant and baby br br symptoms include fever, swollen lymph nodes, night sweating, cough, weight loss, fatigue, loss of appetite, diarrhea, headache, a opportunistic infections and tumors br br Control by responsible sexual behaviour, education, br br screening blood for transfusion and using sterile piercing instruments. br br 6. a Define the terms br br i Growth an irreversible change in size of a cell, organ or whole br br organism br br growth is due to synthesis of protoplasm or extracellular br br substances br br ii Development refers to a series of changes which an organism goes br br through in its lie cycle br br during development both qualitative and quantitative br br changes take place involves differentiation br br iii Differentiation refers to changes in which the cells of the body undergo and become specialised to perform specific functions br br b i Differentiate growth in plants and animals Plants Animals br br confined to shoots/root br br occurs all over the body intercalary different parts grow at br br tips apical br br have definite growth regions meristems br br different rates allometric maximum growth on maturity definite br br often br br indefinite/continuous br br growth results in br br no branching affected by nutrients br br branching br br affected by light, br br auxins, hormones and temperature ii List the processes involved in growth br br assimilation cell enlargement cell division by mitosis iv List the parameters used to measure growth height/length dry weight number of individuals volume leaf area of plant br br iv Name the patterns of growth in organisms br br - allometric and isometric br br - limited and unlimited - discontinuous growth br br c i Name the different types of growth curves br br - sigmoid curve normal growth curve - intermittent growth curve br br ii Draw a sigmoid growth curve and explain its different phases/stages br br br br A-lag phase - Slow growth rate at first Organism adapting to the environment B-exponential phase br br - organisms already adapted - first growth due to birth rate that is higher than death rate br br C- Stationery phase plateau - Birth rate equals death rate equilibrium Lack of nutrients, accumulation of toxic waste products D-phase of decline br br - due to depletion of nutrients, accumulation of toxic wastes, br br lack of space br br - some individuals old hence not reproducing - death rate higher than birth rate br br iii Draw an intermittent curve and explain the various stages br br A-growth B-no growth C- moulting/ecdysis br br - seen in arthropods - growth in in arthropods is intermittent takes place during some time only because their hard cuticles exoskeleton does not expand to cause growth br br - the cuticle must be shed off first to allow further growth - the shedding is called ecdysis or moulting br br 361 - when moulting has taken place animal grows but growth br br stops when the exoskeleton hardens again br br d i What is seed dormancy? br br - A state where a viable seed is incapable of germinating br br when all conditions are favourable. br br ii State the biological importance of seed dormancy br br - gives embryo time to reach maturity - gives time for dispersal - allows plant to survive adverse conditions iii State the factors which cause seed dormancy Internal factors br br - presence of abscisic acid/ABA/ presence of germination br br inhibitors br br - embryo not fully developed - absence of hormones/enzymes/inactivity of hormones/enzymes/gibberellins/cytokinins br br - impermeability of seed coat br br External factors br br - unsuitable temperature - absence of light - lack of oxygen - lack of oxygen - lack of water br br iv Give the conditions necessary to break seed dormancy - scarification/scratching to make seed coat impermeable - vernalisation/cold treatment in some seeds like wheat - burning/nicking/expose to heat e.g. wattle seeds - destruction of germination inhibitors e i What is seed germination? br br - process by which a seed develops in a seedling br br ii What is viability br br - ability of a seed to germinate br br iii Discuss the various conditions necessary for the germination of seeds Water br br - medium for enzymatic activity - hydrolysis of food into simpler substances - medium of transport - softens the seed - acts as a solvent br br Air br br - in form of oxygen br br - oxygen is used for respiration/oxidation of food to release br br energy br br Suitable optimum temperature br br - activates enzymes involved in mobilization of food br br reserves br br Enzymes br br - breakdown and subsequent oxidation of food - conservation of hydrolyzed food products into new plant br br tissues br br Viability br br - only viable seed are able to germinate and grow br br iv Name and describe the types of germination Epigeal br br br br cotyledons are brought above the ground level during germination due to elongation of hypocotyls br br Hypogeal br br - the cotyledons remain below the surface during br br germination due to elongation of epicotyl e.g. maize v Name the part of the bean seed that elongates to bring about epigeal germination hypocotyl vi Account for the loss in dry weight of cotyledons in a germinating bean seed br br - food stored is mobilized/used up for respiration and growth br br vii Describe the physiological changes that occur in a seed during germination br br - in presence of oxygen, optimum temperature and water, food reserves in the seed are hydrolysed or broken down into soluble diffusible form by enzymes - soluble food diffuses to the growing embryo - oils and carbohydrates provide energy - simple sugars converted to cellulose to form cell wall br br 363 - amino acids make protoplasm - seed develops plumule and radicle hence germinates viii Explain the biological significance of cotyledons being brought above the ground in epigeal germination br br - cotyledons have inadequate food - they are brought above the ground to acquire chloroplasts to carry out photosynthesis before the formation of foliage leaves to supplement food supply required for growth during germination br br f i Distinguish between primary and secondary growth Primary growth br br - occurs at the apical shoot and tip apices regions where br br meristematic cells occur br br - causes plant elongation since cells divide by mitosis br br Secondary growth -occurs at the cambium meristems Increases width girth of the stem ii What are meristems br br - dividing cells - meristem means they are dividing br br iii State the characteristics of meristematic cells br br - dense cytoplasm - thin cell walls - absence of vacuoles/cell sap br br iv State the location and function of the following meristematic tissues Apical meristem br br - located at tips of roots and shoots - increase length of stem and roots/primary growth Intercalary meristem br br - found at bases of internodes - responsible for elongation of internodes and increase in leaf br br sheath in grasses br br Lateral meristems br br - found near the periphery of stem and root - responsible for secondary growth/growth in girth of stem br br and root/lateral growth br br - called cambium and constitute vascular and cork cambium br br v Describe primary growth br br - occurs at tips of shoots and roots in the meristematic tissues br br of apical meristem br br - at the apex there is a zone of cell division/mitosis - cells elongate at elongation zone br br - the elongated cells differentiate at the region of differentiation resulting in increase in size br br - in the stems meristems give rise to leaf premodia which br br envelop the apex to form a bud br br - the bud protects the delicate inner cells - in roots the meristem is protected by root cap - after cells differentiate the form permanent tissues br br vi Describe secondary growth in plants - also called secondary thickening - only occurs in dicotyledonous plants that have cambium - monocotyledonous plants do not undergo secondary growth br br because they lack intervascular cambium br br - cambium cells divide to produce more cells on either side br br of the cambium br br - cells produced to the inside become secondary cambium - cells produced to the outside become secondary phloem - division of cambium cells occurs yearly producing new br br rings of secondary phloem and secondary xylem each year br br - intervascular cambium cambium between vascular br br bundles divide to form secondary parenchyma, thereby increasing growth of medullary rays br br - much more xylem is formed than phloem, thus pushing br br phloem and cambium ring outward br br - the rate of secondary growth is depended on seasons rains resulting in annual rings br br - cork cambium is located beneath epidermis ad is br br responsible for secondary thickening of the bark of perennial plants br br - cork cambium divides to form new cork bark tissues to br br accommodate increased growth on outside and secondary cortex on the inside br br - Cork cells cells of the bark are loosely parked at some br br points to form lenticels for gaseous exchange. vii State the significance of secondary growth br br - increase girth or circumference of trees - annual rings which show seasonal growth can be used to br br tell the age of trees br br g i Describe one method which can be used to measure the average growth rate of a single leaf of a plant EITHER br br - chose/identify a young leaf just unfolded - use the same leaf throughout - measure total length of whole leaf br br - record - repeat at regular intervals until no more change br br occurs/constant length br br - average rate of growth is equal to total increase in length br br divided by the period taken to achieve full length br br Average rate of growth total increase in length br br period taken to achieve full length br br OR br br - choose/identify a young leaf just unfolded - use the same leaf throughout - trace the outline on a graph paper and work out the area - record - repeat at regular intervals until regular area - average rate of growth equals to total increase in area divided by the period of time taken to achieve full area br br Average rate of growth total increase in area br br period of time taken to achieve final area br br i Describe how the growth of a root can be determined Materials br br - fine thread, marking ink, germinating bean seedlings, br br blotting paper, ruler marked in millimeters, pins, cork, a boiling tube and moist cotton wool br br Procedure br br - dry seedlings using blotting paper - place inside against the ruler marked in mm - dip the fine thread in waterproof ink - mark the radicle at equal intervals - pin the seedling to the cork - suspend the seedling into the boiling tube containing moist cotton wool br br - allow the seedling to grow for two days/some time observe the intervals with the marks - record your observations the widest intervals are found in the region just behind the tip indicating/showing region of greatest growth br br iii A boy hammered a nail in the bark of a tree at a height of 1.5metres above the ground. Four years later, the nail was found at the same height although the tree had grown 3 meters taller. Explain the above observation The nail was hammered at a point where vertical growth had stopped/further growth was confined to increase in width/diameter. Vertical growth is confined to tips/apex/vertical apical meristem h i Describe the role of hormones in growth and development of plants indole acetic acid/IAA/ auxins Cell division/increase in cell division Tropic responses Cell elongation/increases in ell elongation Development of abscision layer Growth of ovaries into fruits/parthenocarpy/initiates flowers Inhibits growth of lateral buds/produces apical dominance Stimulates adventitious/lateral roots Gibberellins Gibberellic acid/GA3 Promote cell elongation/rapid cell division/increase in length of the internodes Promote fruit formation without fertilization/parthenocarpy Reduces root growth Breaks seed dormancy/promotes germination Cytokinnins Kinnins/Kinnetin/Zeatin br br - breaks dormancy - promotes flowering - promotes cell division - stabilizes protein and chlorophyll - promotes root formation on a shoot - low concentration encourages leaf senses - normal concentration increases cell enlargement in leaves - stimulates lateral bud development br br Ethylene ethynelC2H4 - accelerates ripening in fruits - encourages fruit fall/leaf fall - induces thickening in stern/inhibits stem elongation - promotes flowering in pineapples - promotes germination in certain seeds br br Abscisic acid ABA abscisin hormone/dormin br br - causes bud dormancy - encourages fruit/leaf fall - high concentration causes closing of stomata - causes seed dormancy - inhibits cell elongation br br Traumatin br br - heals wounds by callous formation br br Florigen br br - promotes flowering br br ii State the applications of plant hormones in agriculture - induce root growth in stem cuttings - selective weed killers - encourage sprouting of lateral buds - breaking seed dormancy - induce parthenocarpy - accelerate ripening of fruits - promote flowering - cause dormancy br br iii Explain apical dominance br br - a phenomenon whereby production of auxins by a growing br br apical bud of a shoot inhibits growth of lateral buds - this inhibition is due to high concentration of auxins br br indoleacetic acid/IAA in apical bud br br - removal of terminal/apical bud causes development and br br sprouting of several buds which later develop into branches br br - applied in pruning coffee, tea and hedges - this leads to more yield br br iv Describe the role of hormones in the growth and development of animal somatotrophin growth hormones br br - from anterior pituitary - promotes cell division - overproduction causes gigantism - underproduction causes dwarfism br br Thyroxine br br - promotes growth and metamorphosis - underproduction leads to a child becoming a cretin br br mentally retarted br br Androgens br br - in males - growth of male reproductive organs Oestrogen br br - in females - growth of female reproductive organs br br Ecdysone br br - in arthropods - moulting ecdysis br br t i What is metamorphosis? br br - change in form during which there are changes in structure br br and function in body of organism br br - prepares organism for life in a different habitat radical changes in the body during the life cycle of an organism called holometabolous development br br example is egg larva pupa adult imago occurs in animals such as butterfly and bee br br br br iii What is the significance of each of the four stages in complete metamorphosis? Larval stage br br - feeding takes place - larva is quite different from adult - larva sheds its cuticle exoskeleton several times to emerge br br as pupa br br - dispersal stage avoids overcrowding br br Pupa br br - enclosed in a case called puparium cocoon - no feeding - organ formation takes place br br Adult br br - emerges from puparium - reproductive stage of the life cycle iv Describe incomplete metamorphosis - called hemimetabolous development - changes are gradual - eggs develop into nymphs which develop into adults - nymph resembles adult but are sexually immature - a nymph moults several times as some parts develop before br br it becomes an adult br br - stage of development between one moult and another is br br called instar br br - occurs in insects such as locust and cockroach br br v Name the hormones that control metamorphosis in insects br br - brain hormone responsible for moulting because it br br simulates production of ecdyson moulting hormone br br - ecdysone moulting hormone causes moulting - juvenile hormone causes moulting in larvae br br 369 vi State the advantages of metamorphosis in the life of insects br br - the adult and larvae exploit different niches - do not compete for food - pupa cam survive adverse pupa can survive adverse br br conditions eg-feeding stage br br - dispersal prevents overcrowding FORM IV TOPICS br br 1. a i Define the term genetics the study of heredity inheritance and variation or study of mechanisms by which characteristics are passed from parents to offspring br br iii List some characteristics which are inherited br br size height/length colour/type shape yield br br iii State the importance of genetics br br helps to explain differences between organisms of the same br br species br br helps to explain the transmission of characters from br br generation to generation improvement in livestock improvement in crops can be used to treat some difficult diseases b i Explain the meaning of the following terms Heredity br br the resemblance among individuals related by descent transmission of traits from parents to offspring br br Trait br br also called character A character of the organism e.g. type of ear, colour of eyes, br br height, yield etc. br br Gene br br unit of inheritance it is the heredity factor which transmits traits from parents br br to offspring br br genes are located at fixed points on chromosomes each point is called a locus loci Allele br br genes can exist in a series of alternative forms at a br br particular locus br br allele refers to alternative forms of genes controlling a br br particular characteristic br br Chromosomes br br threadlike structures found in nuclei of all plants and br br animals br br they carry genes which are hereditary materials they consist of substances called DNA and proteins called br br histosones br br DNA br br deoxyribonucleic acid substances that make up chromosomes double helix strand molecule that contains genes DNA consists of nucleotides A nucleotide consists of an inorganic phosphate, ribose br br sugar and a base br br There are four bases in a DNA molecule i.e. Adenine A , br br guanine G , thymine T and cystosine C br br Ribose sugar has four bases attached to it i.e. adenine, br br cystosine, guanine and thymine br br Adenine pairs with thymine while guanine pairs with br br cystosine br br Nucleotide initiates and controls protein synthesis br br ii List the types of chromosomes br br somatic body chromosomes also called autosomes sex chromosomes related to reproduction c i What is variation? br br sequence of differences occurring among individuals of the br br same species br br ii State the causes of variation in organisms br br random assortment of genes during meiosis crossing over fertilization doubling of chromosome numbers mutation environmental conditions iii Name the types of variation br br Continuous variation differences not clear cut e.g. height, br br length, weight, skin colour, intelligence etc. They are quantitative and show intermediates discontinuous variation differences are clear cut e.g. br br ability to roll tongue, ABO blood grouping system, RH factor, patterns of fingerprints, and ability to taste PTC. They are qualitative and have no intermediates br br iv Explain the following terms Acquired characteristics br br they are as a result of adaptations due to the environment br br and are not inherited Inherited characteristics br br are passed down to offspring during sexual reproduction br br Genotype br br genetic constitution of an individual/genetic makeup br br Phenotype br br characteristics of an individual observed or discernible by br br other means i.e. observable character br br Dominant gene character br br expressed in the phenotype when homozygous or br br heterozygous br br Recessive gene br br only expressed in homozygous state br br Homozygous br br when two alleles are identical e.g. LL,ll br br Heterozygous br br when two alleles are different at a particular locus e.g. Ll br br F1 and F2 br br F1 means first filial generation i.e. the first generation br br produced when two varieties can be crossed br br F2 means second generation i.e. product of offspring or from F1 generation br br d i Explain Mendels first law of inheritance br br also called law of segregation it states that genes are responsible for the development of br br individual characters br br these characters are transmitted individually without any br br alterations br br Only one character from a contrasting pair can be carried in br br a gamete, hence only one character can be inherited. br br ii Give an example of this law br br In an experiment, Drosophila fruit fly with long wings br br were crossed with those having short wings. Assume letter L denotes gene for wing size. The gene for long wings is dominant to that for short wings the genes for dominant are LL and for recessive ll. State the expected results for the first cross br br iii What is monohybrid inheritance? br br when inheritance of one character is studied one at a time br br e.g. wing size only br br the F2 generation when selfed always gives a phenotypic ratio of 3:1 and a genotypic ratio of 1:2:1 in a complete dominance br br v What is complete dominance? refers to where only one dominant character is expressed br br while the other character which is recessive is not expressed in the heterozygous state e.g. the case of wing size above br br e i What is meant by co dominance? br br When genes produce independent effects when br br heterozygous/none of the genes is dominant over the other/where two or more alleles does not show complete dominance/recessiveness due to the failure of any allele to be dominate in a heterozygous condition. br br ii Give an example of co dominance In a certain plant species, some individual plants may have only white, red or pink flowers. In an experiment a plant with white flowers was crossed with a parent with red flowers. Show results of F1 generation. Use letter R for red gene and W for white gene. If the plants form F1 were selfed, work out the phenotype ratio for the F2 generation Phenotypic ratio 1red:2pink:1white Genotypic ratio 1:2:1 f i What is a test cross? - A cross between an individual showing a character for a dominant gene that is homozygous or heterozygous with a homozygous recessive individual OR a cross between individual organism of unknown genotype br br with a homozygous recessive individual ii State the importance of a test cross in genetics br br helps in determining the genetic constitution/genotype of br br an organism br br iii What are multiple alleles? br br a set of more than two alleles that may determine a br br character example is blood group which can be determined by any br br two of three alleles i.e. A,B and O br br iv Explain the inheritance of ABO blood groups br br in humans blood groups are determined by three alleles i.e. br br A,B and O br br it is only possible to have two genes at a time genes A and B are co-dominant while gene O is recessive br br to genes A and B br br Give a worked example using parents with heterozygous blood groups AO and BO br br vi Explain the inheritance of Rhesus factor Rh in br br human beings br br in humans blood is either Rh positive or Rh negative people who have Rh antigen are Rh ve while those br br without Rh antigen in their blood are Rh -ve br br Rh ve is due to a dominant gene while the recessive gene br br causes lack of Rh factor. When a person who is homozygous dominant marries a person who is homozygous recessive the result is as shown below Let the gene for dominant Rh factor be R while gene for recessive be r br br vii How is sex determined in human beings? there are two sex chromosomes in humans, x and y males are xy and females are xx in females all ova have x chromosome in males 50 of sperms contain x chromosomes while 50 of sperms contain y chromosome br br when a sperm containing x chromosome fuses with an br br ovum this results into a girl br br when a sperm containing y chromosome fuses with an br br ovum the result is a boy an example is given below br br g i What does the term linkage mean? - These are genes which occur together on a chromosome and are passed to offspring without being separated ii Define the term sex-linked genes br br genes carried in the sex chromosome that are transmitted br br along with genes that determine sex iii What is meant by the term sex linkage? genes are located on the sex chromosome they are transmitted along with those that determine sex br br iv Name the sex-linked traits in humans colour blindness haemophilia Hairy ears. pinna, nose Baldness Duchene muscular dystrophy DMD muscular wasting br br v Give an example of a sex linked trait in humans on: Y Chromosome br br tuft of hair sprouting from pinna/baldness br br X Chromosome br br colour blindness/haemophilia br br vi In humans red-green colour blindness is caused by a recessive gene C, which is sex-linked. A normal man married to a carrier woman transmits the trait to his children. Show the possible genotypes of the children. Let C represent the gene for normal colour vision dominant Let c represent the gene for colour blindness Parental phenotype Norman man x carrier woman br br viii State the importance of sex linkage possible to determine sex of day old chicks ix Haemophilia is due to a recessive gene. The gene is br br sex-linked and located on the x chromosome. The figure below shows sworn offspring from phenotypically normal parents br br What are the parental genotypes? br br XY and XhX br br Work out the genotypes of the offspring h i What is mutation? sudden change in the structure of DNA at a particular br br locus/chromosome/gen ii Describe how mutations arise br br mutations arise due to alterations in normal number of br br chromosomes br br change in a portion of a chromosome affecting one or more br br genes br br by chromosomal aberration e.g. br br dleltion/duplication/substitution/inversion/translocation/cro ssing over br br caused by mutagenic agents e.g. radiation x-rays, ultra violet light, gamma rays and chemicals e.g. mustard gas/colchicines br br iii State the factors that may cause mutation br br these are chemicals and radiations Radiations X-rays Ultra violet rays Chemicals - colchicines Cyclamate Mustard gas Nitrous acid behaves like guanine Acridone orange DNA Formaldehyde iv State the characteristics of mutations arise suddenly are unpredictable random generally rare may breed true some are desirable while others are lethal br br Effects br br gene/chromosome alteration br br structural distortion of DNA br br Effect br br prevents spindle formation chromosome aberrations br br chromosomes aberrations adenine in DNA is deaminated so br br addition and removal of bases of br br v Explain chromosomal mutation - Change in nature, structure or number of chromosomes vi Explain how the following types of chromosomal mutations occur Duplication br br a section of a chromosome is repeated/replicates therefore genes are repeated br br Inversion br br occurs when chromatids break at 2 places and when br br rejoining the middle piece rotates and joins in an inverted position br br Deletion br br portion of a chromosome is left out after it breaks off alters number and sequence of genes br br Translocation br br occurs when a section of a chromatid breaks off and becomes attached to another chromatid of another chromosome br br increased yields/hybrid vigour//heterosis resistance to pests early maturity resistance to drought resistance to diseases br br vii What are gene mutations ? br br an alteration in the structure of a gene vii Explain how the following occur during gene br br mutation br br Deletio n br br some bases/nucleotides of a gene are removed br br Inversion br br the order of some bases/nucleotides of a gene is reversed br br Insertion br br addition of a base between two existing bases br br Substitution br br a portion of a gene is replaced by a new portion viii Name the disorders in humans caused by gene br br mutation br br albinism sickle cell anaemia achondroplasia/chondordystorphic dwarfism haemophilia colour blindness phenylketonuria I. State the practical applications of genetics i. Breeding programmes research br br high yielding/hybrid vigour/heterosis resistance to diseases resistance to drought/salinity early maturing br br ii. Genetic engineering br br genetic manipulation to produce desired characteristics iii. Law br br - legal questions of paternity knowledge of blood groups or blood transfusion iv Genetic counseling br br aimed at reducing harmful traits e.g. albinism, congenital br br idiots, colour blindness e.t.c br br v Others - Pre-sex determination Understanding human evolution and origin of other species. 2. a i Explain the meaning of evolution a gradual change in living organisms from simple life br br forms to more complex forms over a long period of time. ii Differentiate organic evolution from chemical evolution as theories of origin of life br br organic evolution refers to the emergence of present forms of organisms gradually from pre-existing forms some of which no longer exist br br chemical evolution explains the origin of life as having br br occurred when simple chemical compounds reacted to form the simplest life forms iii What is special creation? br br maintains that the whole universe and all living organisms came into being due to the act of a supernatural being br br b Discuss the various kinds of evidence for evolution br br i Fossils fossils are remains of organisms preserved in naturally br br occurring materials for many years br br they give evidence of types of plants/animals that existed at br br certain geological age/long ago/millions of years ago gives evidence of morphological/anatomical/structural br br changes that have taken place over a long period of time e.g. human skull, leg of horse ii Comparative anatomy gives evidence of relationship among organisms/gives br br evidence of a common ancestry of a group of organisms organisms have similar structures/organs performing the br br same function e.g. digestive system/ urinary system/nervous system/vestigial structures and vertebrate heart br br Divergence where the basic structural form is modified to serve different functions e.g. vertebrate forelimb/beak structure in birds/birds feet/parts of a flower. These are called homologous structures br br homologous structures have a common embryonic origin but are modified to perform different functions e.g. the pentadactyl limb br br adaptive radiation is a situation where organism have a homologous structure with common embryonic origin which is modified to perform different functions to adapt organisms to different ecological niches/habitats e.g. beaks of Darwinian finches birds Convergence is where different structures are modified to br br perform a similar function e.g. wings of birds and insects/eyes of humans and octopuses. These are called analogous structures br br Vestigial structures are greatly reduced in size and have ceased to function e.g. human appendix/caecium/coccix in humans, wings of kiwi flightless bird , presence of hind limb pad in python, halters in insects, human hair nictitating membrane in human eye, human ear muscle, pelvic girdle in whale and third digit of wing of bird. br br iii Comparative embryology some embryos of different animals appear very similar thus showing relationship and possibility of a common ancestry br br e.g. different classes of vertebrates larvae of annelida and br br mollusca are similar tocophere br br iv Comparative serology/physiology these show biochemical and immunological comparisons of br br blood groups/components to show immunological similarities of tissues therefore showing relatedness of different organisms br br e.g. antigen antibody reactions, human blood groups/Rh br br factor reveal some phylogenic relationship among organisms/common ancestry v Geographical distribution organisms differ in various geographical regions present continents are thought to have been a large land mass joined together/pangea/Eurasia/Gondwanaland present continents drifted apart from one land br br mass/continental drift br br as a result of continental drift isolation of organisms occurred bring about different patterns of evolution br br organisms in each continent evolved along different lines hence emergence of new species/divergence/convergence br br Examples br br marsupials in Australia illama, jaguar, panther in S. America lion, camel in Africa tiger in Asia vi Cell biology cytology structures and functioning of cells are similar occurrence of organelles e.g. mitochondria in all cells/both br br plant and animal cells these point at a common ancestry br br c i State the evolutionary characteristics that adopt human beings to the environment - Brain - Eyes - Upright posture/bipedal locomotion - prehensible arm/hand - Speech ii State the ways in which Homo sapiens differs from Homo habilis br br standing upright/erect posture intellectual capacity/higher thinking capacity/bigger br br brain/higher brain capacity br br communication through language/speech d i Explain Larmarcks theory of evolution br br - Inheritance of acquired characteristics/environment induces br br production of a favorable trait which is then inherited br br ii Explain why Lamarcks theory of evolution is not accepted by biologists today br br - evidence does not support Lamarcks theory - acquired characteristics are not inherited/inherited characteristics are found in reproductive cells only br br iii Explain Darwins theory of evolution br br - inheritance of genetically acquired characteristics - a character happens to appear spontaneously which gives br br advantage to an organism therefore adapted then inherited through natural selection e i What is natural selection? - Organisms with certain characteristics are favoured by the environment Such organisms tend to survive and produce viable offspring Others not favored are eliminated from subsequent generations ii With examples, explain how natural selection takes place - organism with certain characteristics are favored by their environment br br - such organisms tend to survive and produce viable br br offspring br br - others not favored are eliminated from subsequent br br generations br br - as the environmental conditions change the survival value of a character may alter with time so that characteristics which were favored may no longer have advantage and other characters may then become favorable br br - if a favorable character is inherited, then offspring produce br br generations which are better adapted to survive in a population br br - more offspring are produced than can survive which results br br in struggle for survival br br - the fittest survive br br iii State the advantages of natural selection to organisms br br - assist to eliminate disadvantageous br br characteristics/perpetuates advantageous characteristics - allows better adapted organisms to survive adverse changes in the environment/less adapted organisms are eliminated br br iv State the ways in which sexual reproduction is important in the evolution of plants and animals br br - brings about useful variations/desirable characters - variations make offspring better adapted for survival/more br br resistant to diseases br br - may lead to origin of new species br br v Explain the significance of mutation in evolution - Mutation bring about variation which can be inherited - Some of these variations are advantageous to the organism - Others are disadvantageous - The advantageous variations favour the organism to compete better in the struggle for survival - This results into a more adapted organism to its environment or new species/varieties - Those with disadvantageous characters will be discriminated against therefore eliminated from the population/death/perish vi Plain why it is only mutations in genes of gametes that influence evolution - gametes form the new offspring br br vii How would you prove that evolution is still taking place? - resistance of organism to antibiotics, pesticides and drugs - new varieties of bacteria are resistant to certain antibiotics br br such as penicillin br br - houseflies and mosquitoes are resistant to DDT vii Explain why some bacteria develop resistance to a br br drug after they have bee subjected to it for some time br br - bacteria mutates/develops a new strain/chemical composition is altered hence is able to produce enzymes/chemicals which degrade the drug rendering it non-susceptible to the drug br br - the new strain is favoured by selection pressure/ natural br br selection f How has industrial melaninism i.e. peppered moth contributed towards the mechanism of evolution - This is an example of natural selection - The peppered moth exists in two distinct forms, the speckled white form normal form and a melanic form the black/dark - They usually rest on leaves and barks of trees that offer camouflage for protection - Originally the speckled white form predominated the unpolluted area of England - This colouration offered protection against predatory birds - Due to industrial pollution tree barks have blackened with soot - The white form underwent mutation - A black variety/mutant emerged suddenly by mutation - It had selective advantage over the white forms that were predated upon in the industrial areas - The speckled white form is abundant in areas without soot/smoke 3. a i Define irritability, stimulus and response irritability -also called sensitivity - Responsiveness to change in environment Stimulus A change in the environment of organism which causes change in organisms activity Response br br - change in activity of an organism caused by a stimulus ii State importance of irritability to living organisms br br - Adjusting to environmental conditions. br br Sensitive/defect/responding br br iii List the examples of external stimuli to organisms - air/oxygen aero - light photo - osmotic pressure osmo - current Rheo - chemical concentration chemo - water/moisture hydro - Touch/contact hapto/thigmo - Gravity/soil geo - Temperature thermo br br b i What are tactic responses? br br - response in which whole organism or its motile parts move br br e.g. gamete br br ii What causes tactic responses? br br - caused by unidirectional stimulus br br - usually doesnt involve growth - response is either positive or negative - named according to source of stimulus - e.g phototaxis, aerotaxis, chemotaxis br br iii State the importance of tactic response to: Members of kingdom protista br br - move towards favorable environment/move away from br br unfavorable environment - move towards their prey/food br br Microscopic plants - escape injurious stimuli/seek favorable habitats br br iv Name the type of response exhibited by: Euglena when they swim towards the source of light br br - phototaxis - sperms when they swim towards the ovum - chemotaxis v State the advantages of tactic responses to organisms - to avoid unfavorable environment/injurious stimuli - escape from predators - to seek favorable environment - to seek for food/prey c i Define the term tropism br br - growth movement of plants in response to external br br unilateral/unidirectional stimuli br br ii Explain the various types of tropism in plants Phototropism br br - growth movements of plant shoots in response to unilateral br br sources of light br br - the tip of the shoots produce auxins down the shoot - light causes auxins to migrate to outer side/darker side causing growth on the side away from light hence growth curvature towards source of light roots are negatively phototrophic br br Geotropism br br - response of roots/parts of a plant to the direction of force of br br gravity br br - auxins grow towards the direction of force of gravity br br causing positive geotropism in roots while shoot grows away from force of gravity negatively geotrophic br br Thimotropism/Haptotropism br br - growth response of plant when in contact with an object br br - contact with support causes migration of auxins to outer side causing faster growth on the side away from contact surface br br - this causes tendrils/stem to twin around a support br br Hydrotropism br br - growth movement of roots in response to unilateral source br br of water/moisture br br - the root grows towards the source of water/ positively hydrotropic while leaves are negatively hydrotropic br br chemotropism br br - growth movement of parts of plant to unilateral source of br br chemicals br br - the chemicals form a gradient between two regions e.g. pollen tube growing towards the ovary through the style iii State the ways in which tropisms are important to plants - expose leaves/shoots in positions for maximum absorption br br of sunlight for photosynthesis br br - enables roots of plants to seek/look/search for water - enables plant stems/tendrils to obtain mechanical support br br especially those that lack woody stems br br - enables roots to grow deep into the soil for anchorage - enables pollen tube grow to embryo sac to facilitate br br fertilization br br iv Explain the differences between tropic and tactic responses Tropisms Taxes br br - growth curvature in br br - locomotory response - fast - external influence br br response br br - slow - influenced by hormones br br d The diagram below represents growing seedlings which were subjected to unilateral light at the beginning of an experiment br br br br R br br i - P will bend/grow towards light br br State the results of P, Q and R after 5 days br br 384 - Q will remain straight/have little or no growth - R will remain/grow straight/grow upwards ii Account for your results in i above br br P- Growth substance/growth hormone/IAA/auxin are produced by the stem tip br br - they move downwards and get distributed to the side br br away from light where they cause rapid/more growth/cell division/elongation that results in bending br br Q- Source of auxin has been removed R- The auxins cannot be affected by light because the tip has been covered br br iii If the tin foil were removed from the tip of seedling R, br br what results would be observed after two days br br - it will bend/grow towards light iv State the expected results after 3 day is if the box br br were removed br br - all seedlings will grow straight/upwards br br e In an experiment to investigate a certain aspect of plant response, a seedling was placed horizontally as shown in diagram I below. After seven days the appearance of the seedling was as shown in diagram 2 Account for the curvature of the shoot and root after the seven days br br Shoot i - auxins accumulate on the lower side of the seedling due to br br gravity br br - high concentration of auxins in shoot stimulates faster br br growth causing more elongation on the lower side than the upper side hence curvature occurs upwards br br ii Root - the high concentration of auxins inhibits growth hence the upper side with less auxins grows faster than the lower side therefore the curvature occurs downwards f What is etiolation? br br - phenomenon exhibited by plants when grown in darkness - such plants are pale yellow due to absence of chlorophyll, br br have small leaves, long stems/hypocotyle and slender stems br br - plants exhibit etiolation to reach light/obtain light - this is a survival response 3. a i What is coordination in animals ii Name the main systems for coordination in animals - Nervous system/sensory system - Endocrine hormonal system iii List the components of the mammalian sensory system - Central nervous system CNS , brain spinal cord - Peripheral nervous system PNS cranial and spinal nerves - Sense organs - Autonomic nervous system ANS nerve fibers and ganglia iv .Explain the terms receptors, conductors and effectors - Receptors are structures that detect stimuli i.e. sense organs - Conductors transmit impulses from receptors to effectors e.g. neurons - Effectors are the responding parts e.g. muscles, glands v What are the functions of the central nervous system? - provides a fast means of communication between receptors and effectors - coordinates the activities of the body vi State the differences between somatic and autonomic systems of peripheral nervous system - Somatic is concerned with controlling the conscious or voluntary actions of the body i.e. skin, bones, joints and skeletal muscles - the autonomic automatic nervous system controls involuntary actions of internal organs, digestive system, blood vessels, cardiac muscles and glandular products. b i What is a neurone? br br ii Name the parts of a typical neurone and state the functions of each part br br cell body/centron contains nucleus and cytoplasm axon transmits impulses away from cell body dendrites relays impulses across adjacent neurons myelin sheath insulates axon and speeds up transmission of br br impulses br br schwan cells forms myelin sheath and aid in nutrition and br br regeneration of axon br br node of ranvier occur between schwan cells, where axon is br br not covered, speeds up impulse transmission br br nissils granules contain mitochondria that provide cell body br br with energy for metabolic process br br i Describe the structure and function of a motor br br neurone br br motor neurone relays impulses from CNS brain/spinal br br cord to effectors muscles/glands br br ii Describe the structure and function of sensory br br neurone br br sensory neurone relays impulses from receptors sense br br organs to CNS br br 387 br br iii State structural differences between motor and br br sensory neurons br br Cell body in motor neurone is terminal at the end and br br inside central nervous system. br br Cell body in sensory neurone is terminal but has axon at br br both ends bipolar br br iv Describe the structure and function of a relay br br neurone br br also called br br intermediate/internuncial/associate/connector/interneurone br br locate inside central nervous system and spinal cord usually lack myelin sheath br br c State the functions of the major parts of the human brain br br 388 br br i Cerebrum br br called forebrain occupies most of the brain consists of four lobes each with specific function temporal lobe controls taste smell hearing learning and br br memory br br partial lobe controls sensory output and touch occipital lobe controls vision, motor output and speech frontal lobe controls personality, learning thought and br br speech br br also has parts called thalamus and hypothalamus thalamus helps to sort sensory information hypothalamus controls hunger, heartbeat body temperature br br and aggression br br ii Mid brain br br quite small in humans relay centre for audio and visual information also involves in some sight, hearing and orientation br br responses i Hind brain consists of cellebral and medulla oblongata cerebellum is responsible for coordinating impulses, br br posture and balance, motor coordination and muscle tone br br 389 medulla oblongata controls heartbeat, blood pressure br br breathing rate, coughing and sneezing br br a i What is reflex action? an automatic response to an external stimulus e.g. sneezing br br or withdrawing hand from a hot object br br ii Describe a reflex action that will lead to the withdrawal of a hand from a hot object br br Receptors in the skin respond to stimuli. Are stimulated an impulse is transmitted through the sensory neurone, across a synapse to the central nervous system white matter , through the relay neurone into grey matter, then to the motor neurone and finally to the effect muscle which contracts br br the hand is then withdrawn br br br br iii Explain how an impulse is transmitted across the synapse gap br br impulse initiates release of transmitter substance acetylcholine at the end of the sensory neurone br br acetylcholine diffuses across the synapse and generates an br br impulse in the next neurone br br ii Briefly describe the transmission of a nervous impulse across a neuro-muscular junction impulse arrives at synoptic knob and causes vesicle to br br move to the pre-synaptic membrane br br vesicle discharges transmitter substance into synaptic cleft transmitter substance/acetylcholine diffuses across the cleft br br and attaches to post-synaptic membrane br br the membrane is depolarized, generating the action br br potential br br iii What are the functions of a synapse? allows transmission of nerve impulses from neurone to br br neurone br br ensures nerve impulses travel in only one direction br br 390 in the brain they store information/memory b i What is a conditioned reflex? A response caused by a unilateral stimulus associated br br stimulus which substitutes the normal stimulus br br ii Explain a conditioned reflex br br it is automatic it involves the spinal cord it is usually learned e.g. writing, cycling, dancing it involves the interaction of highly specialized centers of the brain with a large number of neurone necessary to bring about conditioning br br example is experiments carried out by Pavlov using dogs iii Compare a simple reflex action with a conditioned reflex Simple reflex br br Conditioned reflex dependent on experience independent of experience br br one stimulus to evoke both substitute and br br response br br original reflex evoke response some sensory and br br sensory component replaced but motor remains unchanged br br motor neurons used br br reflex is simple br br reflex is modified br br c i What are endocrine glands? ductless glands that produce hormones in animals hormones are chemical substances which help to coordinate br br the functions of the body br br ii State the functions of hormones in animals br br regulate growth and development control behavior during breeding proper functioning of cells regulate metabolic activities iii Name the main endocrine glands, their secretions and functions in the human body Gland Thyroid Hormone Thyroxine br br Functions Increases rate of metabolism Regulates calcium and phosphate levels Regulate growth of br br Parathyroid Parathyroid hormone br br Pituitary Hormone growth body br br Gonadotrophic hormone Stimulates the br br development of male and female sex organs Stimulates secretion of milk after child birth - proper functioning of thyroid gland/thyroxine production - stimulates release of adrenal cortex hormone br br Lactogenic hormone prolactin br br Thyrotropic hormone TSH br br Oxytocin regulates br br blood pressure br br stimulates smooth muscles stimulates br br contraction of uterus during childbirth aids in flow of milk from mammary glands causes br br Follicle stimulating hormone FSH br br maturation of egg in females br br stimulates sperm production in males - regulates water balance by kidneys for emergency prepares body to cope up with stress - maintains balance Aldosterone br br supplements br br sex hormones produced by gonads promotes br br development of sexual characteristics regulates level of sugar in blood br br enables liver to store sugar regulates level of sugar in blood br br causes sexual secondary characteristics in females br br prepares uterus for pregnancy growth of br br mucus lining of uterus maintains br br uterus during pregnancy br br Testes causes br br secondary sexual characteristics in males stimulates release of gastric juice br br Stomach cells br br stimulate release of pancreatic juice br br iv Give the differences between nervous and endocrine hormonal communication br br Nervous Response confined to effector organs localized targets Response less rapid Speed of response is rapid Hormones transferred Nervous impulse thro ugh nerves/nerve cell/neurons through blood Duration of response is short Persist for long Speed of transmission is rapid Transmission is electrical br br Hormonal endocrine Response more widespread various targets br br Speed of transmission is slower Transmission is chemical v State the effects of over secretion and under secretion of adrenaline and thyroxine in humans br br Hormone Adrenaline br br Over secretion Under secretion br br thin toneless muscles high blood pressure weak bones obesity early onset of br br low blood pressure inability to br br withstand stress br br fatigue muscular weakness muscle wasting increased dark br br sexual development br br pigmentation of skin br br Thyroxine increased cretinism retarded g i Define the following terms Drug a substance that causes a change in body function br br Drug abuse br br indiscriminate use of drugs without minding their side br br effects br br misuse or wrong use of drugs br br ii State the types of drugs, examples and side effects Sedatives br br also called depressant a drug that decreases the action of the central nervous br br system br br reduce anxiety, and tension, induce sleep and act as muscle br br relaxants br br when abused they cause withdrawal effects such as anxiety, br br delirium and death br br includes barbiturates, other sedatives, tranquilizers and br br alcohol Pain-killers br br suppress centers of pain in the brain br br Hallucinogens br br given to people with hallucination or mentally ill patients to br br calm then down br br when abused they lead to a feeling of confusion, agitation, depression and violent behavior that can lead to murder or suicide br br examples include valium, LSD, bhang, narcotics and br br cannabis Stimulants br br drugs that temporarily increase the action of the central br br nervous system br br they create a feeling of alertness, wakefulness, a sense of br br self confidence and well being br br used to decrease fatigue and mild depression when abused they cause feelings of persecution, br br hallucination and addiction br br include amphetamines, cocaine, caffeine, miraa and br br nicotine br br iii State the general effects of drug abuse on human health br br damage to body organs e.g. liver cirrhosis drug addiction impaired judgment resulting in clumsiness socio-economic problems e.g. crime, loss of jobs, divorce, br br prostitution, HIV/AIDS br br may cause poor health br br h i List the special sense organs in mammals and the major function of each - Eye for sight - Ear for hearing and balance - Nose for smell - Skin for touch, temperature detection, pain detection br br iii How is the human eye adapted to its function? br br br br conjunctiva is thin/transparent/tough to allow light to pass br br through/to protect the eye br br 396 Sclerotic layer is made up of collagen fibers/fibrous. It br br maintains shape of the eyeball/protects the eye br br cornea is transparent/curved thus refracts light rays/allows br br light to pass through br br Choroid is a layer of tissue with black pigment/dark pigment. Prevents internal reflection of light in the eye/contains blood vessels that supply oxygen/nutrients/remove metabolic wastes from the eye br br retina has cones/rods for bright colour vision/low light br br vision br br yellow spot has a high concentration of cones for accurate br br vision/visual acuity br br Blind spot has no cones and rods. Place where optic nerve br br leaves/enters the eye br br optic nerve has sensory nerve fibers for transmission of br br impulses to the brain for interpretation br br Lens is biconvex/made up of elastic material/transparent. Adjust focus on far or near objects allow light to pass through/for refraction of light rays br br ciliary body is made up of muscle fibers/glandular which br br contract/relax to change shape br br suspensory ligaments are inelastic to hold lens in position/attach it to ciliary body br br iris is the coloured part of the eye it has radial and circular br br muscles which control size of pupil br br pupil is the small hole at the centre of iris through which br br light passes into the eye br br aqueous humor is a fluid through which oxygen/nutrients br br pass to the cornea/lens/maintains shape of the eyeball/refracts light rays br br vitreous humor is a fluid which maintains shape of br br eye/refracts light rays br br iii What is accommodation of the eye? br br ability of the eye to adjust to bring an image from a near or br br far object into sharp focus on the retina br br iv Explain how an eye viewing a near object adjusts to viewing a far object br br ciliary muscles relax suspensory ligaments become taut/tight lens decreases curvature/becomes thinner radial muscles relax circular muscles contract br br size of pupil decreases to reduce amount of light v What changes occur in the eye if it changes from observing an object at a distance to one at a closer range? - ciliary muscles contract - Tension in suspensory ligaments reduces/relax/ slackens - Lens bulges/thickens/increases curvature - Radial muscles contract - Circular muscles relax - Size of pupil becomes large to allow in more light. br br viii State the changes which would take place in the eye if a person in a dark room had lights switched on br br circular muscles contract and radial muscles relax pupil becomes small to allow less light into the eye ix Explain how the eye forms an image the mammalian eye works like a camera light rays enter the cornea pass through the pupil, aqueous br br humor, lens and vireous humor br br light rays are refracted by the aqueous and humor and br br lenses br br finally light falls on the retina to form an image the image is real and inverted and smaller than object, back br br to front/reversed br br Retina forms a fine image when light rays reach it. x Name the defects of the eye and state how they can be corrected br br Short sight Myopia br br eye cannot focus on far objects image is formed in front of the retina because light rays br br converge in front of retina br br the lens is too thick, curve and eyeball too long corrected by wearing concave/biconcave/lenses these lenses diverge light rays onto retina br br Long sight Hypermetropia br br eye lenses are unable to focus because they are flat, thin and weak hence unable to focus image on the retina they are unable to accommodate/change the focal length near image is formed behind the retina but a distant one is br br correctly focused on the retina br br corrected by wearing convex/biconvex/converging lenses br br Presbyopia br br occurs in old age hence called old sight caused due to loss of elasticity of lenses, weakness of br br ciliary muscles hence lack of focus of light rays br br 399 this causes long sight corrected by wearing biconvex/convex/converging lenses br br Squinting br br eyeballs are uncoordinated/do not turn at the same time eye muscles move in different directions this makes accommodation and focusing difficult corrected through surgery br br Astigmatism br br surface of cornea is uneven leads to weak focus of light raise on retina corrected by using cylindrical lenses/lenses with combined br br curvature br br xi State the advantages of having two eyes in human br br beings br br stereoscopic vision gives a wider angle of binocular vision if one is damaged human is not blinded I i What are the functions of the human ear? br br hearing balancing iv How are the structures of the human ear suited to br br perform the function of hearing? br br br br 400 shape of the external ear/pinna allows collection of sound br br waves and channels them down the auditory canal/auditory mateus br br auditory canal is a tube that concentrates and directs sound br br waves to tympanic membrane/ tympanum/eardrum br br Eardrum is thin and tight. It sets into br br vibration/vibrates/converts sound waves into vibrations the vibrations are transmitted to the ear ossicles/malleus, br br incus and stapes that amplify the sound vibrations the vibrations are then transmitted to the fennestra br br ovalis/oval window br br Oval window is a membrane which amplifies/transmits br br vibrations to the fluids perilymph and endolymph then to cochlea. br br The cochlea is coiled to occupy a small space and accommodate a large number of sensory cells The sensory cells/hairs in the cochlea are set into br br vibrations/stimulated producing nerve impulses in the auditory nerve br br Impulses in the auditory nerve are transmitted to the brain br br for interpretation for hearing br br Eustachian tube connects the inner ear to the throat. It br br equalizes air pressure in the middle ear with the atmospheric air pressure in outer ear Fennestra rotundus/round window br br dissipates/discharges/discards vibrations from inner ear to middle ear br br iii Explain how the structure of the human ear performs the function of balancing br br there are three semi-circular br br canals/utriculus/succulus/vestibular apparatus arranged in planes at right angles to each other br br at the end of each canal is a swelling called ampulla which br br contains receptors br br the movement of the head causes movement of the br br fluid/endolymph in at least one canal br br the fluid movement causes stimulation of the br br receptors/sensory hairs br br sensory impulses are generated the auditory nerve transmits the impulses to the brain for interpretation for the position of body/posture/balance iv State what would happen if the auditory nerve was completely damaged br br deafness loss of body balance impulse not transmitted to the brain 7. a i What is support? br br to support is to carry part of the weight/mass of an br br organism br br ii What is locomotion? br br progressive change in the position of an organism iii State the importance of support systems in living organisms br br they provide a framework for the body of organisms and br br help to determine their shape br br provide land animals with means for support to their br br weights against gravity br br organs are attached to the skeleton for support and stability br br to avoid entanglement and crushing each other br br they protect very important and delicate organs whether br br inside or outside the body e.g. eyes, heart br br in large plants the rigid trunks of trees support the greater br br mass of leaves and fruits br br iv State the importance of locomotion in animals br br in search of food search for mates escaping predators br br b i Name the tissues in higher plants that provide mechanical support sclerenchyma collenchyma not lignified xylem/tracheids and vessels ii State the importance of support in plants br br exposing the surface area of leaf to sunlight for br br photosynthesis br br ensure flowers are exposed to pollination agents expose fruits and seeds to agents of dispersal to resist breakages due to their own weight and that of other br br organisms br br for proper transport and translocation of materials br br iii Name the types of plant stems br br herbaceous e.g. shrubs woody e.g. trees br br weak stems in creepers, twining plants and plants bearing br br tendrils br br iv Name the tissues in plants that are strengthened with lignin br br sclerenchyma xylem vessels/tracheids/xylem br br v What makes young herbaceous plants remain upright? br br turgidity presence of collenchyma br br vi State the ways by which plants compensate for lack of ability to move from one place to another br br ability to pollinate response to nastic and tropic movement ability to exploit localized nutrients ability to disperse seed or fruit propagation br br c i Explain the ways in which erect posture is maintained in a weak herbaceous stem - This is the function of turgidity and presence of collencyma Cells take in water and become turgid ii Explain how support in plants is achieved br br Turgor pressure due to absorption of water keeps cells firm br br hence hold herbaceous plants upright br br collenchyma and clerenchyma tissues are closely packed in br br stem and roots to provide support br br inelastic cuticle on epidermis is covered by a waxy layer hence keeping shape of plant and setting inward pressure against turgid cells and this causes a force to hold plant upright br br xylem vessels and tracheids are lignified to provide support br br to stems, roots and leaves br br climbing plants obtain mechanical support from other br br plants and objects br br they have climbing structures like tendrils which hold on to br br other objects br br d i Give the reasons why support is necessary in animals br br for attachment of muscles For attachment of other body organs to protect delicate body organs to maintain body shape/form to enable movement/locomotion br br ii Why is movement necessary in animals? br br enables animals to search for food br br enables animals to search for shelter enables animals to escape predators/harmful conditions enables animals to search for water enables animals to search for mates enables animals to search for breeding sites e i Name the organ used for support by animals - Skeleton ii Name the different types of skeletons in animals, giving an example of an animal for each type of skeleton named br br exoskeleton e.g. arthropoda crab, insect endoskeleton e.g. chordata cat, fish br br iii State the difference between exoskeleton and endoskeleton br br endoskeleton is a rigid framework covered by body tissues br br of an animal br br exoskeleton is a rigid framework found on the surface of an br br animal br br iv State the advantages of having an exoskeleton br br supports/protects delicate inner parts water proof/prevents drying up of body provided surface for muscle attachment br br v Explain the importance of having an endoskeleton br br support the body give body its shape protect delicate organs e.g. skull, brain, ribs used in locomotion e.g. bones serve as levers red blood cells are formed in bone marrow minerals are stored in bones e.g. calcium and phosphorus f i Explain how a fish is adapted to living in water streamlined body for easy movement in water swim bladder controls depth of swimming fins for movement, balance, direction and stability gills for gaseous exchange in water presence of lateral line to sense vibrations scales provide protection colour which offers camouflage against predators ii Explain how a finned fish is adapted to locomotion in water br br streamlined body to reduce resistance/friction to swim br br smoothly br br the vertebral column consists of a series of vertebrae held br br together loosely so that it is flexible myotomes/muscles associated with vertebral column br br produce movement br br the sideways and backwards thrust of the tail and body br br against water results in resistance of water pushing the fish sideways and forwards in a direction opposed to thrust br br heat not flexible so as to maintain forward thrust presence of fins help in propulsion/balance/paired fins br br pectoral and pelvic for controlling pitch and slow down movement/unpaired fins dorsal, ventral, anal for yawing and rolling caudal for swimming/propulsion and steering/change of direction br br presence of swim bladder to make fish buoyant scales tip towards the back to provide smooth surface body covered with mucus to reduce friction flattened surface for easy floating br br g i Name the main parts of the vertebral column giving the types of bones found in each part Axial skeleton br br forms the main axis of the body formed by the skull, sternum, ribs and vertebrae br br Appendicular skeleton br br composed of limbs and girdles the forelimbs are connected to the trunk by the pectoral br br girdles shoulder bones hind limbs are connected to the pelvic girdle hips bones are scapular, clavicle, humerus, ulna, femur, tibia, br br fibula, metacarpals, carpals, tarsals, metatarsals, phalanges, ilium, ischium and pubis ii What are the vertebrae? br br bones of the vertebral column br br iii State the functions of the vertebral column br br gives flexibility absorbs shock protects spinal cord supports weight of body provide surface for muscle attachment between the vertebrae are soft discs which offer cushioning br br called interverterbral discs br br iv State the general characteristics of vertebrae br br have solid structure called centrum to support weight of br br body has transverse process lateral to centrum for muscle br br attachment br br neural spine is dorsal to centrum and provides surface area br br for muscle attachment br br neural canal a passage for spinal cord and offers protection br br to it br br has facets for articulation with other vertebrae neural arch encloses neural canal br br br br 406 br br v Name the bones of the vertebral column - Cervical vertebra - Thoracic vertebra - Lumbar vertebra - Sacral vertebra - Caudal vertebra br br 407 br br vi Describe how the various vertebrae are adapted to their functions Bone Skull br br Structure Function br br cranium and jaw bones attachmen t of jaws br br made of several bones joined together large box called cranium and smaller paired boxes for eyes, ears, nose, jaws has large br br protect br br brain and other delicate parts br br hole called foramen magnum for the passage of spinal br br 408 cord br br ring shaped no Centrum broad, flat transverse processes vertebrateria l canal for passage of vertebral artery facet for br br articulation of condyles of skull br br adontoid peg br br projects from Centrum br br large br br flattened neural spine vertebrasteri al canal br br small br br transverse process short neural br br spine branched transverse process for neck muscles vertebrateria l canals wide neural br br canal long br br backward pointing neural spine transverse br br process that points sideways facets for br br articulation of ribs notch for br br spinal nerves to pass through short neural br br spine long br br transverse process pointing towards abdomen br br large br br Centrum br br extra br br processes e.g. prezygapoph ysis, hypapophysi s, anapophysis, metapophysi s br br fused bones to form sacrum br br well br br developed transverse process of first vertebra vertebrateria l canals short neural br br spine vii Describe the bones that form the appendicular skeleton Structure Bone Pectoral girdle scapular shoulder bone br br Function Support Muscle attachment Articulates with humerus br br Broad i.e. br br Flattened blade glenoid cavity to articulate with humerus br br metacromion/acro mion for muscle attachment hard to provide br br support socket with br br cartilage/smooth surface to reduce friction br br Humerus long shaft for moveme br br muscle attachment nt br br round head to articulate with glenoid cavity muscle attachm ent br br trochlea for br br articulation with ulna br br olecranon fosa to br br prevent arm bending the other way Ulna and radius br br ulna longer and on side of little finger has sigmoid notch and olecranon process to form hinge joint with humerus br br moveme br br nt br br muscle attachm ents br br radius is smaller and lies along thumb side and does not join ulna allows articulation with wrist bones br br Pelvic girdle hip bone composed of three moveme br br fused bones ilium, ischium, pubis br br nt br br muscle attachm ent support absorbs pressure exerted by ground when animal moves br br upper end fused to br br sacrum br br lower end has acetabalum for articulation with femur br br has abturator foramen for passage of nerves and blood vessels br br 412 rounded head to fit in acetabulum of pelvis br br projections called trochanter for attachment of thigh muscles condyles at lower br br end for articulation with tibi br br patella that covers knee and prevents leg from bending backwards br br Tibia and fibula tibia is longer than moveme br br fibula nt br br tibia is outer bone and fibula is inner bone muscle attachm ent br br tibia lies on side of large toe br br fibula is fused to tibia on outer side br br 8. a What is a joint? the point where bones meet ii State the functions of joints br br provide a point of articulation between bones br br iii Name the main types of joints br br immovable joints e.g. skull, pelvic girdles and sacrum slightly movable joints e.g. between vertebrae Freely movable joints e.g. knee, elbow br br iv Give the features of movable joints br br ends of bones covered with articular cartilage ends bound by capsules of ligaments have joint cavity filled with lubricating fluid called synovial fluid secreted by synovial membrane br br they are called synovial joints br br b Describe the synovial joints br br iv Ball and socket allow movement in all planes /directions i.e. 360o rounded end of bone fits into a rounded cavity in another br br bone br br e.g. shoulder joint and hip joint br br br br v Hinge joint convex surface of one bone fits into the concave surface of br br another bone br br this allows movement in only one plane/direction 180o e.g. elbow joint and knee joint br br vi Pivot joint allows rotation e.g. where atlas pivots on olecranon process br br of axis br br c i What is synovial fluid? br br lubricating fluid produced by synovial membrane at br br movable joints br br ii State the functions of synovial fluid br br absorbs shock reduces friction/gives lubrication nourishment distributes pressure d Explain the following terms v Ligament connective tissue joining one bone to another vi Cartilage supporting soft tissue found at joints they cushion the bones and absorb shock vii Tendon tissue that connects muscle to bones br br 9. Muscles br br 414 e i What is a muscle? fleshy part of body composed of long cells enclosed in a sheath specialized cells capable of contracting br br ii State the functions of muscles br br cover the skeleton provide shape contract and relax to enable body to move f Describe the structure and function of various types of br br muscles br br i also called voluntary/striated/stripped muscles they are attached to skeleton they consist of striated, multinucleated, ling fibers and are br br skeletal muscles br br cylindrical shaped br br found on legs, arms, eyes, neck where they cause br br movement br br ii also called smooth/visceral/unstriated/unstripped their movement is not controlled by the will they are unstriated, nucleated, short fibred and spindle br br Involuntary muscles br br shaped br br are found in alimentary canal, blood vessels, secretory glands, other tubular visceral organs, bladder, uterus, urinary tract, reproductive system, respiratory tract, ciliary body, iris br br iii Cardiac muscles also called myocardium found in the walls of the heart are not under control of the will composed of long cylindrical cells with special junctions myogenic i.e. generate their own contraction they are not fatigued their function is contraction of the heart to pump blood g Explain how muscles cause movement of the human arm br br the muscles which bring about these movements are called br br biceps and triceps br br biceps are attached to scapula and radius for bending triceps are attached to scapula, humerus and ulna for br br stretching when the biceps contracts, it pulls the radius forearm and br br the hand bends br br the triceps relaxes at the same time when the triceps contracts and biceps relaxes extends the br br arm is stretched br br biceps flexes the arm flexor and triceps extend extensor br br muscle the arm br br h i State the structural differences between skeletal br br muscles e.g. biceps and smooth muscles e.g. gut muscle br br Skeletal biceps br br Smooth gut muscle uninucleated unstriated short muscle fibers spindle shaped multinucleated striated/stripped long muscle fibers block/cylindrical br br ii Name the cartilage found between the bones of the vertebral column br br intervertebral disc iv What are the functions of the cartilage named in d br br ii above br br acts as a cushion/absorbs shock reduces friction flexibility of vertebral column"}
{"text": "BIOLOGY FORM ONE NOTES INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOGY What is Biology? Biology is the branch of science that deals with the study of living things. In Greek, Bios means life while Logos means knowledge. Branches of biology There are two main branches: 1. Botany: Study of plants 2. Zoology: Study of animals The others include: 1. Ecology: Study of living things in their surroundings. 2. Genetics: The study of inheritance and variation. 3. Entomology : Study of insects 4. Parasitology: Study of parasites 5. Taxonomy: Study of classification of organisms 6. Microbiology: Study of microscopic organisms 7. Anatomy: S tudy of structure of cells 8. Cytology: Study of cells 9. Biochemistry: Study of chemical changes inside living organisms Name at least six other smaller branches of biology 6 marks . Importance of Biology 1. Solving environmental problems e.g. Food shortage, poor health services, pollution, misuse of environmental resources etc. 2. Choice of careers e.g. Medicine, Agriculture, public health, Veterinary, Animal husbandry, Horticulture, Dentistry etc. 3. Acquiring scientific skills e.g. observing, identifying, recording, classification, measuring, analyzing, evaluating etc. 4. International co-operation e.g. Development of HIV AIDS vaccine, fight against severe Acute respiratory Syndrome SARS , fight to save ozone layer from depletion, management of resources through international depletion. 1 ----- Others Help on study of other subjects Learn what living things are made up of and their bodies work Acquire knowledge about plant and animal diseases and their treatment. Know the effects of our bodies on drug and substance abuse and can kill. Learn about HIV AIDS diseases and other viral diseases e.g. its treatmentbalanced diets, proper hygiene, spreading, sexual behavior, cultural practices etc. List five professional occupations that require the study of biology. 5 marks Characteristics of living things; 1. Nutrition: Process by which living things acquire and utilize nutrients: plants photosynthesize; animals feed on already manufactured foods. 2. Respiration: energy-producing process occurring in all the cells of living things. 3. Gaseous Exchange: where living things take in air oxygen and give out air carbon iv oxide across respiratory surfaces. 4. Excretion: Process by which waste or harmful materials resulting from chemical reactions within cells of living things are eliminated. Excess of such materials poison living things. 5. Growth and Development: Growth is the irreversible increase in size and Mass.Essential for body function . Development Irreversible change in complexity of the structure of living things. 6. Reproduction: Process by which living things give rise to new individuals of the same kind. 7. Irritability: Is the ability of living things to perceive changes in their surroundings and respond to them appropriately. E.g. reaction to changes in temperature, humidity, light, pressure and to the presence of certain chemicals. 8. Movement: Change in position by either a part or the whole living thing. Locomotion Progressive change in position by the 2 ----- whole living thing. In animals, movement include; swimming, walking, running, flying. In plants, closing of leaves, folding of leaves, closing of flowers, growing of shoots towards light etc. Question 1. List four uses of energy obtained from the process of respiration. 4 marks . 2. List six characteristics of living things 6 marks . Collection of specimens Apparatus used 1. Sweep net: for catching flying insects. 2. Fish net: For trapping small fish and other small water animals. 3. Pooter: For sucking small animals from rock surfaces and tree barks. 4. Bait trap: For attracting and trapping small animals e.g. rats. 5. Pit fall trap: For catching crawling animals. 6. Pair of forceps: picking up small crawling animals e.g. stinging insects. 7. Specimen bottles: keeping collected specimen. Larger specimens require large bottles. 8. The magnifying lens: Instrument used to enlarge objects. Lenses are found in microscope and the hand lens magnifier . Its frame is marked e.g. x8 or x10indicating how much larger will be the image compared to object. Precautions during Collection and Observation of specimens Collect only the number of specimen you need. Do not harm the specimens during the capture or collection exercise. Handle dangerous or injurious specimens with care e.g. stinging plants or insects i.e. use forceps or hand gloves. The teacher will immobilize highly mobile animals. diethyl ether, formalin, chloroform Do not destroy the natural habitat of the specimens. Practical activity 2 3 ----- Practical activity 3 Co mparison between plants and animals Plants Animals --- --- 1. Green in colour have chlorophyll 1. Lack chlorophyll thus feed on readymade food. 2. Their cells have cellulose cell walls. 2. Cells lack cellulose cell walls. 3. Respond slowly to changes in the environment. 3. Respond quickly. 4. Lack specialized excretory organs. 4. Have complex excretory organs. 5. Do not move about. 5. Move about in search of food and water. 6. Growth occurs in shoot and root tips. apical growth 6.Growth occurs in all body parts9intercalary growth . Revision questions CLASSIFICATION I INTRODUCTION Living things are also known as living organisms. Organisms forms of life have distinguishing characteristics and therefore are grouped. The Magnifying lens -Is used for enlarging small objects. Diagram Procedure of its use Place the object on the bench. Move the hand lens from the object to the eye. An enlarged image is seen. Drawing magnification Length of the drawing/ drawing Length Length of the object/Actual Length 4 ----- Diagram External features of plants and animals External features of plants i Rhizoids as in moss plant. ii Fronds in ferns. iii Roots, stems, leave, flowers, seeds, fruits, and cones in higher plants. External features of animals i Tentacles in hydra ii Feathers in birds iii Shells in snails iv Wings in birds v Fur and hair in mammals vi Scales and fins in fish vii Proglotids in tapeworms viii Mammary glands in mammals ix Locomotory Structures e.g. limbs in insects x Body pigmentation Practical activity 1 To collect and observe animal specimens To collect and observe plant specimens What is classification? -I s an area of biology that deals with the grouping of living organisms according to their structure. Organisms with similar structures are put under one group referred to as a taxontaxa plural . The groupings also consider evolutionary relationships phylogeny since all living organisms had a common origin at one time. TaxonomyScience of classification. TaxonomistBiologist who studies taxonomy. Need for classification. Reasons 5 ----- 1. To identify living organisms into their correct groups for reference and study 2. To bring together living organisms with similar characteristics but separate those with different features. 3. To arrange information of living organisms in an orderly manner. This avoids chaos and confusion. 4. To understand the evolutionary relationship between different organisms Taxonomic Units Are groups taxa into which organisms are placed as a matter of convenience. Groups are based on observable characteristics common in the group. In a classification scheme taxonomic units or groups, a hierarchy of groups are recognized starting with the first largest and highest group; the Kingdom to the smallest and lowest unit; the species . There are 7 ma jor taxonomic units. SPECIES The Kingdom There are five Kingdoms of living organisms, namely: 1. Kingdom Monera : bacteria 2. Kingdom protoctista : algae, protozoa, amoeba, paramecium 3. Kingdom Fungi : Moulds, Yeast, Mushrooms 4. Kingdom Plantae : Moss plants, ferns, maize, garden pea, pine, meru oak, bean etc. 5. Kingdom Animalia : hydra, tapeworms, bees, human beings etc. 6 ----- A kingdom is divided into Phyla in animals or divisions in plants and sorts out organisms based on body plan and form. Plan is the adaptation to a special way of life. The Class is further divided into small groups; Orders using structural features. Orders are divided into families using structural features, then Families into Genera singular genus based on recent common ancestral features that are less adaptive. Genus is divided into species i.e. kind of plant, or animal. Down the hierarchy, the number of organisms in each group decreases but their similarities increases. The Species group members naturally interbreed to produce fertile off springs. Minor differences are exhibited in the species groups e.g. on colour of the skin in human beings and varieties of plants. The groups of the species are termed to as varieties, races or strains. Classification o of A human bein ng and a maize plant apers --- --- --- --- Taxonomic unit Human being maize bean Pa Past and s, kingdom Animalia plantae plantae Exam, Phylum or division Chordata Angiospermaphyta Angiospermae Notes KCSE e class Mammalia monocotyledonae Dicotyledonae fre For order Primates Graminales Rosales family Hominidae Graminaceae Leguminosae genus homo zea Phaseolus species sapiens mays Vulgaris Scientific name Homo sapiens Zea mays phaseolus vulgaris Scientific Naming Of Living Organisms P resent naming was developed by carolus Linnaeus 18 th c, where organisms were given 2 names in Latin language. Living organisms have their scientific names and common names i.e. local or vernacular names. 7 ----- . Scientific naming uses the double naming system Binomial system In binomial system, an organism is given both the genus and species name. Binomial nomenclature Double naming system -Is the assigning of scientific names to living organisms governed by a definite set of rules recognized internationally. Principles of binomial nomenclature a The first, genus name, should begin with a capital letter and the second name, species, should begin or written in small letters e.g. Lion---- Panthera leo Leopard ----- Panthera pardus Domestic dog ----- Canis farmiliaris Human being--- Homo sapiens Maize plant--- Zea mays Lion and Leopard are closely related ---Same genus but distantly relateddifferent species. b The scientific names must be printed in italics in textbooks and where hand written to be underlined e.g. Panthera leo. c The specific name species is frequently written with the name of the scientist who first adequately described and named the organism e.g. Phaseolus vulgaris i.e. Vulgaris is the scientist who described and named the bean plant. d Biologists should give a Latinized name for a newly described animal or plant species where Latin name is missing e.g. Meladogyne kikuyuensis Is a scientific name of a nematode from kikuyu. Aloe kilifiensis --- A member of Aloeceae family from Kilifi discovery. Garinsoga parviflora waweruensis --- a member of Macdonald eye family discovered by Waweru. Study Question 1 Co mplete the table below Taxon Lion Domestic dog Garden pea Napier grass --- --- --- --- --- kingdom 8 ----- Phylum/division Col2 Col3 Col4 Col5 --- --- --- --- --- class order family genus species Scientific name --------------------- ------------------------ -- --------------------- ------------------------ Revision Questions: CLASSIFICATION 1 Review of the magnification lens Calculating Magnification External characteristics of plants and animals Diversity of Living Organisms Organisms with similar characteristics are placed under one group called taxon taxa . The science of classification is known as taxonomy . Biologists who study taxonomy are called taxonomists . Need For Classification 1. Help in identifying living organisms into their correct groups for reference. 2. It brings together organisms with similar characteristics and separates those with different features. 3. Help to organize information about living organisms in an orderly manner avoiding any confusion. 4. Help to understand the evolutionary relationship between different living organisms. Historical Background of Classification Long time ago classification was artificial where living things were classified as either plants or animals. Plants were classified as herbs, shrubs and trees. Animals were further divided into carnivores, herbivores and omnivores. 9 ----- Today modern classification uses evolutionary relationships between living organisms. Taxonomic Units of Classification This refers to the groups into which living organisms are placed in classification. These units start from the first largest and highest group kingdom to the smallest and lowest unit species . There are seven taxonomic units as shown below. 1. Kingdom Carolus Linnaeus 1707-1778 initially introduced the two kingdom system of classification. However many new life forms have been discovered which are neither animals nor plants. This has led to a more accepted classification system that adopts five kingdoms. These are; i. Monera .eg bacteria ii. Protoctista e.g algae and protozoa iii. Fungi e.g. mushrooms, moulds and yeast. iv. Plantae e.g. maize, ferns and all types of trees. v. Animalia e.g. man, cow tapeworm, flies etc. Kingdom is further divided into several phyla in animals or divisions in plants. 2. Phylum phyla or Division in plants. It is the second largest and further divided into classes. 3. Class Each class is divided into several orders . 4. Order 10 ----- . Orders are divided into smaller groups called families 5. Family Family is divided into several Genera. 6. Genus Here members are closely related. It is further divided into the species. 7. Species This is the smallest unit of classification. Species is defined as a group of organisms whose members naturally interbreed . to produce fertile offsprings Members of a given species have small differences such as skin colour, height etc. Classification of Man and Maize plant. Table 2.1 KLB Bk 1 Scientific Naming of Living Organisms. Today organisms are given two names in Latin language. This was developed by Carolus Linnaeus. Latin language was used because it was widely spoken during his time. and the In scientific naming, an organism is given the genus . species name This double naming system is known as Binomia l system two name System Binomial Nomenclature. This is the double naming system of organisms where organisms are name and the name. assigned two names i.e. the generic specific In binomial nomenclature the following rules are observed. i. Generic name is written first followed by the specific name. First letter in the generic name is in capital and the rest are in small letters. Specific name is written in small letters. ii. The two names are underlined separately when handwritten or italicised when printed. iii. Newly discovered species must be given Latinized names. iv. Specific name is frequently written with the name of the scientist who first adequately described and named the organism. 11 ----- Examples Revision Questions CELL PHYSIOLOGY This is the study of the functions of cell structures. Membrane Structure and Properties A membrane is a surface structure which encloses the cell and organelles. Membranes regulate the flow of materials into out of the cell or organelle. Examples of membranes: cell membrane, tonoplast membrane surrounding the vacuole , nuclear membrane, mitochondrial membrane, chloroplast membrane etc. The Cell Membrane It has three layers, two protein layers and a phos-pholipid layer sandwiched in between the two. Diagram Properties of Cell Membrane 1. Semi-permeability. It has small pores allowing for the passage of molecules of small size into and out of the cell. Cell Wall however allows all materials to pass through it hence it is referred to as being Permeable . 2. Sensitivity to Changes in Temperature and pH Extreme temperature and pH affects the cell membrane since it has some protein layers. Such changes alter the structure of the membrane affecting its normal functioning. 3. Possession of Electric Charges it has both the negative and positive charges helping the cell to detect changes in the environment. These charges also affect the manner in which substances move in and out of the cell Physiological Processes The ability of the cell to control the movement of substances in and out of the cell is achieved through physiological processes such as . Diffusion, Osmosis and Active Transport 12 ----- Diffusion This is a process by which particles move from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration . Practical Activity 1 To demonstrate diffusion using potassium permanganate VII The difference in concentration of particles between the region of high concentration and the region of low concentration is known as the diffusion gradient. Role of Diffusion in Living Organisms 1. Absorption of Materials Mineral salts in the soil enter the root by diffusion since their concentration in the soil is greater than in the root hair cells. Digested food glucose and amino acids diffuse across the wall of the ileum into the blood for transport to rest of the body. 2. Gaseous Exchange in Plants and Animals In both plants and animals, respiratory gases oxygen and Carbon IV oxide are exchanged through simple diffusion depending on their concentration gradient. 3. Excretion of Nitrogenous Wastes 4. Transport of Manufactured Food form Leaves to other Plant Parts. 5. Factors Affecting Diffusion a Diffusion Gradient A greater diffusion gradient between two points increases the rate of diffusion. b Surface Area to Volume Ratio The higher the ratio the greater the rate of diffusion and the lower the ratio the lower the rate. This means that small organisms expose a large surface area to the surrounding compared to large organisms. Small organisms therefore depend on diffusion as a means of transport of foods, respiratory gases and waste products. Diagrams 13 ----- c Thickness of Membranes and Tissues The thicker the membrane the lower the rate of diffusion because the distance covered by the diffusing molecules is greater. The thinner the membrane, the faster the rate. Size of the Molecules Small and light molecules diffuse faster than large and heavy molecules. d Temperature Increase in temperature increases the energy content in molecules causing them to move faster. Osmosis This is the process where solvent molecules water move from a lowly concentrated solution dilute to a highly concentrated solution across a . semi-permeable membrane Diagram fig 4.6 The highly concentrated solution is known as Hypertonic Solution . . The lowly concentrated solution is called Hypotonic solution Solution of the same concentration are said to be Isotonic . Osmosis is a special type of diffusion because it involves the movement of solvent water molecules from their region of high concentration to region of low concentration across a semi permeable membrane. Practical activity 2 Practical activity 3 Osmotic Pressure This is the pressure which needs to be applied to a solution to prevent the inward flow of water across a semi permeable membrane. This is the pressure needed to nullify osmosis. Osmotic pressure is measured using the osmometer. Osmotic Potential This is the measure of the pressure a solution would develop to withdraw water molecules from pure water when separated by a semi permeable membrane. 14 ----- Water Relations in Animals Cell membrane of the animal cell is semi permeable just like the dialysis/visking tubing. Cytoplasm contains dissolved sugars and salts in solution form. If an animal cell e.g. a red blood cell is placed in distilled water hypotonic solution , water flows in by osmosis. The cell would swell up and eventually burst because the cell membrane is weak. The bursting of the red blood cell when . placed in hypotonic solution is called Haemolysis If a similar red blood cell is placed in a hypertonic solution, water is drawn out of the cell by osmosis. The cell will shrink by a process called Crenation . Body fluids surrounding the cells must therefore have same concentration as to that which is found inside the cell. Diagrams Water Relations in Plants When a plant cell is placed in a hypotonic solution it gains water by osmosis and distends outwards. As the cell gains more water, its vacuole enlarges and exerts an outward pressure called turgor pressure. As more water is drawn . in, the cell becomes firm and rigid and is said to be turgid The cell wall in plant cell is rigid and prevents the cell from bursting unlike the case in animal cells. The cell wall develops a resistant pressure that pushes towards the inside. This pressure is equal and opposite the turgor pressure and is called wall pressure. Diagrams When a plant cell is placed in hypertonic solution, water molecules move out of the cell into the solution by osmosis. The cell shrinks and becomes flaccid . If the cell continues to lose more water, plasma membrane pulls away from the cell wall towards the center. 15 ----- The process through which plant cells lose water, shrink and become flaccid is called plasmolysis. Plasmolysis can be reversed by placing a flaccid cell in distilled water and this process is called deplasmolysis. Study Question 5 Practical Activity 4 Wilting When plants lose water through evaporation and transpiration, cells lose turgidity, shrink and the plant droops . This is called wilting. If water supply from the soil is inadequate, plants do not recover hence permanent wilting. Study Question 6 Role of Osmosis in Organisms 1. Absorption of water from the soil Root hair cells of plants absorb water from the soil by osmosis. 2. Support Cells of herbaceous plants, which are less woody, absorb water, become turgid hence support. 3. Opening and closing of the stomata During the day, guard cells synthesize glucose, draw in water, become turgid hence open the stomata. During the night, they lose turgidity since there is no photosynthesis. As a result, they shrink thus closing the stomata. 4. Feeding in insectivorous plants These plants are able to change their turgor pressure on the leaves which close trapping insects which are digested to provide the plant with nitrogen. 5. Osmoregulation In the kidney tubules, water is reabsorbed back to the body by osmosis. 16 ----- Factors Affecting Osmosis i. Concentration of Solutions and Concentration Gradient. The greater the concentration gradient between two points, the faster the rate of osmosis. ii. Optimum Temperature as long as it does not destroy the semi-permeability of the membrane. Active Transport This is the process that moves substances across cell membranes against a concentration gradient. This process requires energy to move these substances across cell membranes and involves carriers. Substances such as amino acids, sugar and many ions are taken in by living organisms through active transport. Role of Active Transport i. Re-absorption of sugars and useful substances by the kidney ii. Absorption of some mineral salts by plant roots iii. Absorption of digested food from the alimentary canal into the blood stream iv. Accumulation of substances in the body to offset osmotic imbalance in arid and saline environment v. Excretion of waste products from body cells Factors Affecting Active Transport. i. Oxygen concentration. ii. Change in pH. iii. Glucose concentration. iv. Temperature. v. Enzyme inhibitors. NB/ Any factor affecting energy production affect the rate of active transport. Revision Questions. Cell Specialization, Tissues, Organs and Organ Systems 1. Cell specialization This is where cells are modified to perform specific functions. Such cells are said to be specialized. 17 ----- Examples include the sperm cell which has tail for swimming and the root hair cell which is extended creating large surface area for water absorption. 2. Tissues. These are cells of a particular type that are grouped together to perform the same function. Animal tissues include; - Epithelial tissue which is a thin continuous layer of cells for lining and protection of internal and external surfaces. - Skeletal it is a bundle of elongated cells with fibres that can contract. Its contraction and relaxation brings about movement. - Blood tissue this is a fluid containing red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets. It transports many substances and protects the body against infections. 18 ----- - Connective tissue made up of strong fibres that connect other tissues and organs holding them together. Plant tissues include: - Epidermal tissue of a plant this is a single layer of cells protecting the inner tissues of the plant. - Palisade tissue this is a group of cells rich in chloroplasts containing chlorophyll. They absorb light energy during photosynthesis. - Parenchyma tissue it is made thin walled irregularly shaped cells. They store water and food. - Vascular bundle consists of the xylem and phloem. Xylem conducts water and mineral salts while phloem conducts food substances. 19 ----- 3. Organs Many tissues become specialized and grouped together to . perform a functional unit called the organ Examples of organs in plants include; roots, leaves, flowers and stem. In animals they include heart, lungs, kidney, brain, stomach and the liver. 4. Organ systems. This is made of several organs whose functions are coordinated and synchronized to realize an effective action is called an organ system . Examples include; digestive, circulatory, . excretory, respiratory, reproductive and nervous system Revision Questions MICROSCOPE Microscope Parts Function Parts of the Microscope Col2 Col3 --- --- --- 1. Eyepiece Contains a magnifying lens that focuses the image from the objective into your eye. 2. Course Adjust For focusing under low magnification 3. Fine Adjust For focusing under high magnification or low 4. Low Power Objective For large specimens or overview 20 ----- Col1 5. High Power Objective For detailed viewing or small specimens --- --- --- 6. Specimen on glass slide What you want to look at 7. Stage Supports specimen in correct location to lens 8. Condenser Focuses the light on specimen 9. Diaphragm iris or disc Regulates amount of light and contrast 10. Light Source Illuminates the specimen for viewing Handling and Care of the Microscope The following rule should be observed: 1. Use both hand when carrying the microscope. One hand should hold the base and the other holds the limb. 2. Never place the microscope too close to the edge of the bench. 3. Do not touch the mirror and the lenses with the fingers. 4. Clean dirty lenses using soft tissue. 5. Clean other parts using a soft cloth. 6. Do not wet any part of the microscope. 21 ----- 7. Make sure the low power clicks into position in line with the eye piece before and after use. 8. Always store the microscope in a safe place free from dust and moisture. Using the Microscope 1. Place microscope on the bench with the stage facing away from you. 2. Turn the low power objective lens until it clicks into position. 3. Ensure the diaphragm is fully open. 4. Look through the eyepiece with one eye. Adjust the mirror to ensure maximum light can pass through. 5. Place the slide containing the specimen on the stage and clip it into position. Make sure the slide is at the centre of the field of view. 6. Again look through the eyepiece while adjusting the mirror to ensure maximum light reach the specimen. 7. Use the coarse adjustment knob to bring the low power objective lens to the lowest point. While viewing through the eyepiece, turn the coarse adjustment knob gently until the specimen comes into focus. 8. Use the fine adjustment knob to bring the image into sharp focus. 9. Make a drawing of what you see. 10. For higher magnification, turn the medium power into position and adjust the focus using the coarse knob. Use the fine adjustment knob for sharper focus. 11. For even large magnifications, turn the high power objective lens into position. In this case use only the fine adjustment knob to bring details into sharper focus. Magnification Magnification of the object viewed under the microscope is calculated by; Magnification Eye Piece Lens Magnification X Objective Lens Magnification. 22 ----- If the eyepiece lens has the magnification of x5 and the low power objective lens has a magnification of x10, the total magnification is 5x10 50. Study Question 1 Fill the table below. Eye piece lens maginification Objective lens magnification Total magnification --- --- --- X5 X4 X10 X5 X10 X100 X40 X600 X10 X100 Practical Activity 1 Cell Structures as Seen Under the Light Microscope The following cell organelles can be seen under the light microscope. - Cell wall. - Cell membrane - Cytoplasm - Nucleus - Vacuole. - Chloroplasts. Diagrams- plant and animal cells The Electron Microscope. It is more powerful than the light microscope. It can magnify up to 500,000 times and has high resolving power. The high resolving power of the electron microscope enables it to separate objects which lie close to one another. Electron microscope uses a beam of electrons instead of light to illuminate the object. Study Question 2 Practical Activity 2 Cell Structures as Seen Under the Electron Microscope 23 ----- Diagrams Plant and Animal Cells The Cell Organelles i Cell membrane Plasma Membrane . It has three layers i.e. one layer of phospho-lipid layer sandwiched between two protein layers. It is flexible with pores and ahs the following main functions. a Encloses all the cell contents. b It allows selective movement of substances into and out of the cell since it is semi-permeable. Diagram ii Cytoplasm It is s fluid medium in which chemical reactions take place. It has some movement called cytoplasmic streaming. It contains organelles, starch, glycogen, fat droplets and other dissolved substances. iii Nucleus It has double membrane called the nuclear membrane. The membrane has pores allowing passage of materials into and out of the cell. Nucleus has a fluid called nucleoplasm in which the nucleolus and chromatin are suspended. Nucleolus manufactures ribosomes while chromatin contains the hereditary material. iv Mitochondria Mitochondrion . They are sausage shaped and are the respiratory sites Mitochondrion has two membranes. Inner membrane is greatly folded into cristae to increase the surface area for respiration. Cells that require a lot of energy have large number of mitochondria e.g. muscle cell, sperm cell, kidney cell etc. Diagram v Endoplasmic Reticulum ER 24 ----- Some endoplasmic reticulums have granules called Ribosomes on their surfaces hence referred to as rough endoplasmic reticulum. Others do not contain ribosomes hence the name smooth . endoplasmic reticulum Rough endoplasmic reticulum transport proteins while the smooth endoplasmic reticulum transports lipids. Diagrams vi Ribosomes They are spherical in shape and form the site for protein . synthesis vii Lysosomes They contain lytic enzymes which break down large molecules, destroy worn out organelles or even the entire cell. viii Golgi Bodies Golgi apparatus Their function is to package and transport glyco-proteins. They are also associated with secretion of synthesized proteins and . carbohydrates Diagram ix Centrioles They are rod shaped structures that are used in cell division and in the formation of . cilia and flagella Plant cells lack the Centrioles. x Chloroplasts They are egg shaped and contain two membranes. Chloroplast has chlorophyll which traps light energy to be used during photosynthesis. xi Vacuoles This are sacs filled with a fluid called cell sap. Animal cells contain small vacuoles while plant cells have large vacuoles. Sap vacuoles store sugars and salts. Food vacuole store and digest food while contractile vacuoles excrete unwanted materials from the cell. xii Cell wall 25 ----- It is a rigid outer cover of the plant cells made of cellulose . It gives the plant cell a definite shape while providing and . mechanical support protection Cell wall also allows water, gases and other materials to pass through it. Study Question 3 Differences between Plant and Animal Cells Preparation of Temporary Slides Practical Activity 3 Estimation of Cell Sizes. NUTRITION IN PLANTS AND ANIMALS Nutrition This is the process by which organisms obtain and Assimilate nutrients. There are two modes of nutrition; Autotrophism and Heterotrophism. Autotrophism This is where living organism manufacture its own complex food substances from simple substances such as carbon iv oxide, water, light or chemical energy. Where sunlight is used as a source of energy, the process is referred to as . photosynthesis Photo means light while synthesis means to make. Some none green plants make their own food using energy obtained from certain chemicals through a process called chemosynthesis. Organisms that make their own food are referred to as . autotrophs Heterotrophism 26 ----- This is where organisms take in complex food materials such as carbohydrates, proteins and fats obtained from bodies of plants and animals. Organisms that feed on already manufactured foods are called . Heterotrophs Autotrophism External Structure of a Leaf A leaf is a flattened organ which is attached to the stem or a branch of a plant. Diagrams Parts of a leaf Lamina: This is the flat surface. It is green in colour and contain the photosynthetic tissue. Midrib: This is a thick structure running through the middle of the leaf Veins: They arise from the midrib to forming an extensive network of veins. Leaf Apex: This is the tip of the leaf and usually it is pointed. Petiole: It attaches the leaf to the stem or branch. In some monocotyledonous plants the leaves are attached to the stem by the leaf sheath. Practical Activity 1: To examine the External Features of a Dicotyledonous and Monocotyledonous leaf Study Question 1 Internal Structure of a Leaf Internal structure of the leaf is composed of the following parts. i. Cuticle. It is a thin waterproof and transparent layer that coats the upper and lower surfaces of the leaf. It reduces excess water loss and protects the inner tissue of the plant against mechanical injury. It also prevents entry of disease causing micro organisms. Since it is transparent, it allows penetration of light for photosynthesis. ii. Epidermis. 27 ----- It is a one cell thick tissue on both the upper and lower leaf surfaces. It secretes the cuticle and also protects the inner tissues from mechanical damage and prevents entry of pathogens. . Epidermal cells have no chloroplast except the guard cells Guard cells are special bean shaped cells. They have chloroplast and are able to carry out photosynthesis hence controlling the opening and closing of the stomata. Air moves into and out of the leaf through the stomata. iii. Palisade layer. This is layer of cells located beneath the upper epidermis. It is made of cylindrical shaped cells closely packed together. They have numerous chloroplasts containing chlorophyll. Their position and arrangement enables them to receive maximum light. iv. Spongy Mesophyll Layer. This is below the palisade layer. The cells are irregularly shaped and loosely packed creating large air spaces in between them. The air spaces allow gases to diffuse in between the cells. They contain fewer chloroplasts as compared to the palisade cells. v. Leaf Veins. Each vein is a vascular bundle consisting of xylem and phloem. Xylem conducts water and mineral salts from the roots to the leaves while the phloem translocates manufactured food from the leaves to the rest of the plant. ----- Study Question 2 Adaptations of Leaves to Photosynthesis. 1. Broad and flat lamina to increase surface area of Carbon IV oxide and sunlight absorption. 2. Thin transparent cuticle and upper epidermis; to allow easier penetration of light to photosynthetic cells; 3. Thin; for faster diffusion of gases; 4. Palisade cells placed next to the upper surface; to trap maximum light for photosynthesis; 5. Palisade cells with numerous chloroplasts; to trap maximum amount of light for photosynthesis; 6. Large/ intercellular air spaces in the spongy mesophyll layer; for storage of Carbon IV oxide for easier gaseous exchange; 7. Waxy water proof cuticle; to reduce water loss sand reflect excess light; 8. Leaf mosaic/ non-overlapping leaves; for maximum exposure to light; 9. Guard cells, modified cells to open and close stomata; to control amount of water loss from the leaf and allows gaseous exchange; 10. Leaves have leaf veins; xylem to conduct water to photosynthetic cells, Phloem to translocate products of photosynthesis to other parts of plant; The Chloroplast They are disc shaped organelles found in the cytoplasm of plant cells. Each chloroplast has a double membrane; the inner and outer membrane. Chloroplasts are made of layers of membranes called lamellae contained in a fluid matrix called stroma . Several lamellae come together to form the granum grana . Granum contains chlorophyll molecules and other photosynthetic . pigments 29 ----- The stroma contains enzymes that speed up the rate of photosynthesis. Practical Activity 2: To Observe Distribution of Stomata Study Question 3. The Process of Photosynthesis The raw materials for photosynthesis are; water and carbon IV oxide. The process however requires the presence of sunlight energy and chlorophyll pigment. The products of photosynthesis are glucose and oxygen. The process can be summarized using an equation as shown below. 6H 2 O 6CO 2 ---------- C 6 H 12 O 6 6O 2 Water Carbon IV oxide Glucose Oxygen. The above chemical equation translates as: Six molecules of water plus six molecules of carbon IV Oxide produce one molecule of sugar plus six molecules of oxygen The process of photosynthesis is however more complex than shown in the above equation and can be divided into two stage; the light and dark stages. Light stage Light Dependent Stage - Occurs in the grana containing chlorophyll which traps / absorbs . sun light energy - This Energy is used to split water molecules into hydrogen ion and oxygen gas. - This process is called photolysis of water and is shown below. 30 LIGHT ENERGY Col2 Col3 --- --- --- CHLOROPHYLL ----- Water Hydrogen atom Oxygen - Hydrogen atoms produced here enter into the dark stage. - Oxygen gas removed through stomata or is used for respiration within the plant ; - Some Light energy is used in Adenosine Triphosphate ATP formation; ATP an energy rich compound. - ATP is later used in the dark stage. Dark stage. Light Independent Stage - Carbon IV oxide combines with hydrogen atoms to form glucose/simple carbohydrate. - This is called Carbon IV Oxide fixation. Carbon IV oxide Hydrogen Atom Simple Carbohydrate CO 2 4H C 6 H 12 O 6 - This stage takes place in the stroma and proceeds whether light is present or not. - ATP Energy from light stage is used to provide the required energy in this reaction ; - Simple sugars formed are used for respiration to provide energy or are converted to storable forms e.g lipids, proteins, starch, cellulose, etc. Study Question 4 Practical Activity 3: To Investigate the Presence of Starch in a Leaf. Study Question 5 Factors Affecting the Rate of Photosynthesis i. Light Intensity. Increase in light intensity increase the rate of photosynthesis up to a certain level where it slows down and finally levels off. Very bright sunshine may damage the plant tissues due to high amount of ultra violet light. Light quality or light wavelength also affects the rate of photosynthesis. 31 ----- Red and blue wavelengths of light are required by most plants for photosynthesis. Rate of Photosynthesis Range of optimum light intensity Light intensity ii. Carbon IV oxide concentration Increase in Carbon IV oxide concentration increases the rate of photosynthesis linearly up to a certain level after which it slows down and levels off. Rate of Photosynthesis Range of optimum CO 2 concentration 32 ----- Carbon IV oxide concentration iii. Temperature Photosynthesis is an enzyme controlled process, therefore increase in temperature increase the rate of photosynthesis up to the optimum temperature. Increase in temperature beyond the optimum decreases the rate sharply as the enzymes become denatured. iv. Water Plants need water for photosynthesis. Hydrogen atoms required in the dark stage during Carbon IV oxide fixation are derived from water during photolysis. Study Question 6 Practical Activity 4: To Investigate Factors Necessary for Photosynthesis. a Light Study Question 7 b Carbon IV oxide. Study Question 8 c Chlorophyll. Study Question 9 Study Question 10 Practical Activity 5: To Investigate the Gas Produced During Photosynthesis. Study Question 11 33 ----- Chemical Compounds Which Constitute Living Organisms Cells, tissues and organs are made of chemicals which are referred to as . chemicals of life The study of chemical compounds found in living organisms and . reactions in which they take part is called Biochemistry Chemicals of life include carbohydrates, lipids and proteins. a Carbohydrates They are compounds of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen in the ratio of 1:2:1 respectively. Carbohydrates have a general formula of CH 2 O n where n represents the number of carbon atoms in a molecule of carbohydrate. Carbohydrates are divided into three groups; Monosaccharides, Disaccharides and Polysaccharides. i Monosaccharides They are the simplest carbohydrates and have a general chemical formula of CH 2 O n where n 6. Their chemical formular is therefore C 6 H 12 O 6 . They include; glucose, fructose, galactose etc. Properties of Monosaccharides i They are soluble in water to form sweet tasting solutions. ii They are crystalissable. iii They have the reducing property where they reduce copper sulphate in Benedicts solution to red copper I oxide. Functions i They are oxidized to release energy during respiration. ii When condensed together, they form polysaccharides such as starch, cellulose or glycogen. ii Disaccharides They are formed by linking two Monosaccharide molecules through the process of condensation where a molecule of water is liberated. Condensation 34 ----- Monosaccharide Monosaccharide Disaccharide Water. C 6 H 12 O 6 C 6 H 12 O 6 C 6 H 22 O 11 H 2 O Examples Glucose Glucose Maltose Water. Glucose Fructose Sucrose Water Glucose Galactose Lactose Water. The type of disaccharide formed depends on the monosaccharide units that condense together. Properties of Disaccharides i Soluble in water to form sweet tasting solutions ii They are non reducing sugars . Some such as the maltose can reduce copper sulphate in Benedicts solution when heated together and are therefore referred to as complex reducing . sugars iii They are readily broken into their constituent monosaccharide molecules in a process known as Hydrolysis in the presence of water. Hydrolysis Disaccharide Water Monosaccharide Monosaccharide C 6 H 22 O 11 H 2 O Hydrolysis C 6 H 12 O 6 C 6 H 12 O 6 Sucrose Water Hydrolysis Glucose Fructose Lactose Water Hydrolysis Glucose Galactose Maltose Water Hydrolysis. Glucose Glucose. 35 ----- Naturally disaccharides are hydrolyzed by enzymes. In the laboratory, hydrolysis is achieved by boiling them in dilute Hydrochloric acid. Functions They are hydrolyzed by enzymes into monosaccharides which are then oxidized to produce energy. iii Polysaccharides. They are made of many monosaccharide molecules hence are long and more complex. They have a general formula of C 6 H 10 O 5 n ; where the value of n . is a very large number Examples of polysaccharides i Starch It is present as stored food in plant tissues e.g. maize, wheat, potatoes, rice etc. ii Cellulose This is the component of the cell wall in plants. Cellulose gives the plant cells their definite shape. iii Glycogen This is the form in which carbohydrates are stored in animal tissues. Excess glucose is converted into glycogen for storage in the liver. Properties of Polysaccharides i All are insoluble in water. ii Do not have a sweet taste hence are referred to as non-sugars. Study Question 12 Practical Activity 6: To Carry out Food Tests for Carbohydrates i Starch ii Reducing sugars iii Non Reducing Sugars b Lipids These are the fats and oils. Fats are found in animals while oils are found in plants. Oils are liquid while the fats are solid at room temperature. 36 ----- They contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen just like the carbohydrates. However they contain fewer number of oxygen atoms than in carbohydrates. Lipids are made up of three fatty acid molecules and one molecule of Glycerol. The nature of a lipid formed, depends on the fatty acids it contains. Glycerol remains the same in all lipids. Diagram Complex lipids are formed through condensation of many lipid molecules just like in carbohydrates. Examples of complex lipids include; phospholipids, waxes, steroids and cholesterol. Presence of lipids in a food sample is detected using the grease . spot test or emulsion test Properties of Lipids 1. When fats are heated they change into liquid while oils solidify under low temperature. 2. Both fats and oils are insoluble in water. They however dissolve in organic solvents such as alcohol to form emulsions and suspensions. 3. Lipids are inert hence can be stored in the tissues of organisms. Functions of Lipids i Source of energy They give almost twice as much energy as the Monosaccharides. ii Source of metabolic water When oxidized, lipids release more water than Monosaccharides. Such water is referred to as metabolic water . iii Structural compounds Lipids are constituents of plasma membrane and protoplasm. iv Heat insulation Fats are deposited under the skin of animals forming the adipose tissue which acts as a heat insulator. Mammals in the temperate regions have thick adipose tissue to greatly reduced heat loss. 37 ----- Thick adipose tissue in aquatic animals helps them to be buoyant in water. v Protection Fat is deposited around the major organs such as kidney, heart etc where they act as shock absorber. Wax in plant cuticles reduces excessive water loss. Study Question 13 Practical Activity 7: testing for the Presence of Lipids i The Grease Spot ii The Emulsion Test c Proteins Like carbohydrates and lipids, proteins are compounds of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. In addition they contain nitrogen and sometimes phosphorous . and sulphur Some proteins such as haemoglobin contain other elements such as iron. Proteins are made up of small units called amino acids. There are about 20 different types of amino acids. All amino acids contain the amino group -NH 2 which consists of hydrogen and nitrogen. Two amino acids combine to form a dipeptide molecule through the process of condensation. The bond between two amino acids is called peptide Bond . Many amino acids join together to form a long protein chain called . polypeptide chain The type and sequence of amino acids contained in such a chain determine the uniqueness of the protein being formed. Properties of Proteins i. They dissolve in water to form colloidal suspensions not true solutions where particles remain suspended in water. ii. They are denatured by temperatures above 40 0 C. Heat alters the structure of the protein molecule. Chemicals such as detergents, acids, bases and organic solvents also denature proteins. 38 ----- iii. They are amphoteric whereby they have both acidic and basic properties. This property enables them to combine with non-protein compounds to form conjugated proteins such as mucus, and haemoglobin. In mucus the non protein compound is a carbohydrate while in haemoglobin, iron is a non protein. Functions of Proteins i. Structural Functions Proteins make the framework of living systems e.g. plasma membrane, connective tissues, muscle fibres, hair, nails, hooves, skeletal materials etc. ii. Metabolic Regulators These are divided into two a Enzymes Enzymes are organic catalysts which speed up the rate of metabolic reactions such as respiration, photosynthesis, digestion etc. b Hormones They are chemical messengers which regulate many body processes such as growth, reproduction, amount of sugars, salts and water in the blood etc. iii. Source of Energy Under extreme starvation, proteins are broken down to release energy. Study question 14 Practical Activity 8 To Test for Proteins Enzymes They are organic catalysts which are protein in nature. They speed up or slow down the rate of chemical reactions in the body without themselves being used up. They are divided into two; a Extracellular Enzymes Extracellular enzymes are produced within the cells but are used outside the cells which produce them e.g. the digestive enzymes. 39 ----- b Intracellular Enzymes They are secreted and used within the cells which produce them e.g. the respiratory enzymes. Naming of the Enzyme There are two methods on naming enzymes; i Trivial Naming Enzymes are given names of persons who discovered them. The names end in -in such as pepsin, trypsin ptyalin etc. ii Use of suffix ase This is the modern method of naming. The suffix ase is added to the substrate type of food or the reaction the enzyme catalyzes. Example 1 Col2 --- --- Substrate Enzyme Carbohydrate Carbohydrase Starch e.g. amylose Amylase Sucrose Sucrase Maltose Maltase Protein Protease Lipid Lipase Example 2 Col2 --- --- Reaction Enzyme Hydrolysis Hydrolase Oxidation Oxidase Reduction Reductase Properties of Enzymes 1. They are protein in nature hence are affected by changes in temperature and pH. 2. They are substrate specific. 3. They are efficient in small amounts as they are not affected by the reactions they catalyze. They can be used again and again. 4. They are catalysts that speed up the rate cellular reactions and are not used up in the reactions they catalyses. 5. Most of the enzyme controlled reactions are reversible. 40 ----- Factors Affecting the Rate of Enzyme Controlled Reactions i. Temperature Enzymes are sensitive to changes in temperature and pH since they are protein in nature. Enzymes work best within a narrow range of temperature called the optimum temperature. Above the optimum temperature, reaction decreases sharply as the enzymes are denatured. Most enzymes have optimum temperature between 35-40 o C. Very low temperature inactivates the enzymes hence decrease rate of reaction. Diagrams ii. pH Most enzymes have a pH of close to 7. Some however work best in acidic pH e.g. pepsin while others work best in alkaline conditions. As pH changes from the optimum, enzyme activity decreases. Extreme acidity or alkalinity denatures most enzymes. Diagrams iii. Specificity Enzymes are specific in nature where a particular enzyme acts on a particular specific substrate. For example, sucrose works on sucrose and not any other substrate. iv. Substrate Concentration and Enzyme Concentration. When substrate concentration increases, the rate of enzyme reaction also increases upto a certain level. Further increase does not increase the rate of reaction as all the active sites of an enzyme are occupied. When enzyme molecules are increased, the rate of reaction increases proportionally. Diagrams v. Enzyme Co-factors and Co-enzymes 41 ----- Co-factors are non protein substances which activates enzymes. They are required in small quantities and they include metallic ions such as those of iron, magnesium, zinc, copper etc. Some are vitamins. Co-enzymes are non protein molecules that work in association with particular enzymes. Most co-enzymes are derived from vitamins. vi. Enzyme Inhibitors Inhibitors compete with the normal substrate for the active sites and they take up the active site of the enzyme permanently. There are two types of inhibitors; a Competitive Inhibitors These are chemicals closely related to normal substrate and they compete for active sites with the normal substrate. They slow down the rate of reaction. b Non Competitive Inhibitors They do not compete with the substrate. They combine permanently with enzyme molecules thus blocking the active sites. They include poisons such as cyanides, mercury and silver- arsenic compounds. Importance of Enzymes Enzymes speed up the rate of cellular reactions and also control them. This way, they help prevent violent reactions in the cells. Study Question 15 Practical Activity 9 Study Question 16 Study Question 17 Practical Activity 10 42 ----- FORM TWO BIOLOGY NOTES EXCRETION AND HOMEOSTASIS Excretion -Process by which living organisms separate and eliminate waste products formed during metabolic processes from the body. They include; carbon IV oxide, excess water and mineral salts, nitrogenous wastes etc. accumulation of these substances may become toxic to cells. Homeostasis -This is the maintenance of internal environment of cells under constant conditions E.g. temperature, osmotic pressure, blood sugar and chemical constituents. . - Egestion This is the removal of undigested and indigestible materials from the alimentary Canal of animals. Secretion . - This is the release of certain useful substances produced by cells e.g. hormones, Enzymes, sebum, saliva and mucus. Excretion in Plants Plants do not have complex organs for excretion because; i. There is very little accumulation of toxic wastes such as nitrogenous wastes. ii. Some waste products are re-used in the same plant such as Co 2, oxygen and water. iii. Some of these gases are removed by simple diffusion through the stomata and lenticels. iv. Some plants store wastes in their tissues in non-toxic forms such as nicotine, caffeine, tannins, resins, quinine, morphine etc. Economic Importance of Plant Excretory Products i. Tannins They are deposited in dead tissues of wood and barks of trees e.g. in acacia and wattle tree. Tannin is used to treat leather. ii. Caffeine it is stored in coffee berries and tea leaves. It is used as a stimulant. iii. Quinine it is stored in the leaves of aloe and bark of cinchona tree. It is used in the treatment of malaria. 43 ----- iv. Cocaine it is obtained from the leaves of coca plant and is used as an anesthetic. v. Cannabis found in the leaves and flowers of Cannabis sativa bhang . It is used to manufacture some drugs. vi. Nicotine found in leaves of tobacco plant and is used in the manufacture of insecticides and narcotic drugs. It also manufactures cigarettes. vii. Rubber it is made from latex of rubber plant. It is used in shoe industry and manufacture of chewing gum. viii. Colchicines it is used in plant breeding and treating of cancer. ix. Pappain - it is obtained from raw paw paw and it is used as a meat tenderizer. x. Khat/miraa its chewed and acts as a mild stimulant. Excretion and Homeostasis in Unicellular Organisms Most simple organisms such as the protozoa amoeba and paramecium live in aquatic environment. They depend mainly on diffusion as the means of excretion. Their bodies have a large surface area to volume ratio providing a large surface area for gaseous exchange and excretion to take place by simple diffusion. Waste products diffuse from the cytoplasm where they are highly concentrated across the cell membrane into the surrounding water where their concentration is low. The organisms also use the contractile vacuole to achieve excretion. Amoeba and paramecium live in an aquatic environment that is hypotonic to their body fluids. Water therefore tends to move into their cytoplasm by osmosis. The excess water and dissolved chemicals accumulate in the contractile vacuole which releases them to the surrounding water. Diagram Excretion in Mammals Mammals have an elaborate excretory system since their bodies are complex. 44 ----- The main excretory organs in mammals include; lungs, skin, kidneys and the liver. A Structure and Function of the Mammalian Skin Skin is the largest body organ covering the whole body surface. It has the following functions. i. Protection of the underlying tissues from entry of micro- organisms, physical damage and ultra violet rays from the sun. ii. Regulation of body temperature. iii. Excretion of salts, excess water and traces of urea. iv. Reception of stimuli such as heat, cold, pain, touch and pressure. v. Synthesis of vitamin D. vi. Storage of fats. Diagram The skin is made up of two layers; a Epidermis upper and outer layer b The dermis inner layer a Epidermis upper and outer layer It is made up of three other layers; i. Cornfield layer. ii. Granular layer. iii. Malphigian layer. i. Cornifield layer The Cornifield layer of the epidermis consist of dead cells which form a tough outer coat; that protects the skin against mechanical damage, bacterial infection and water loss; ii. Granular layer Its the middle layer of the epidermis and is made up of living cells that give rise to the Cornifield layer. iii. Malphigian layer Malphigian layer consists of actively dividing cells that contain fine granules of melanin; that prevents the skin against ultraviolet light rays from the sun; melanin gives the skin its colour. b The Dermis inner layer 45 ----- It is thicker than the epidermis and consists of the following structures; 1 Sebaceous glands produce an oily secretion sebum which give hair its water repelling property; that keeps the epidermis supple and prevents it from dying Sebum also prevents bacterial attack due to its antiseptic property; 2 Has blood vessels; that dilate and contract; In hot conditions, they dilate; increasing blood flow near the skin surface enhancing blood flow near the skin surface; minimizing heat loss; Blood vessels supply nutrients and oxygen to skin tissues and also remove waste products and carbon IV oxide. 3 Has Hair follicle ;hairs stand during cold weather thus trapping a layer of air which prevents heat loss; In hot weather they lie close to the skin surface; to enhance heat loss to the atmosphere. 4 Have many sensory neurons which detects environmental changes; increasing sensitivity of the skins. 5 Has subcutaneous layer ; contains fat which acts as a heat- insulating layer and a fuel storage. 6 Lymphatic vessels ; they drain excess tissue fluid. 7 Sweat glands ; are involved in temperature regulation through loss of excess heat by the evaporating water. Sweat also excretes excess water, mineral salts, urea and lactic acid. B The Lungs They are involved with the removal of carbon VI oxide which is released by cells during their metabolism. Carbon IV oxide would be toxic if it was left to accumulate in the tissues. C Structure and Function of the Kidney Diagram fig. 4.3; generalized urinary system of a mammal page 88 KLB Mammals have a pair of kidneys which are bean shaped and dark red in colour. 46 ----- The kidneys are surrounded by a layer of fat which cushions them against mechanical injury. Above each kidney are the adrenal glands which secrete hormones. Renal artery supplies blood to the kidneys and the renal vein removes the blood. Ureter transports urine from the kidney to the bladder which temporarily stores the urine. The mammalian kidney has three distinct regions; cortex, medulla and pelvis. Diagram fig. 4.4 a and 4.4 b page 89 KLB Cortex It is the outermost region and is dark red in colour. Medulla It is red in colour and extends to form conical structures called pyramids. Pyramids open up into the pelvis. Pelvis Its white in colour and narrows down to form the Ureter. The human kidney contains urinary tubules called the nephrons. Nephron It is the basic functional unit of the kidney. Each nephron is made up two main parts; Renal tubule Glomerulus. Diagram fig. 4.6. The structure of the kidney nephron 47 ----- X The renal tubule has 5 main parts. 1. Bowmans capsule 2. Proximal convoluted tubule 3. Loop of Henle 4. Distal convoluted tubule 5. Collecting tubule 1. Bowmans capsule It is a thin walled and cup shaped structure which contains the glomeruli. Glomerulus is a fine network of blood capillaries enclosed by the Bowmans capsule. It is made the afferent and efferent arterioles. Blood entering the kidney via the renal artery is rich in nitrogenous wastes such as urea. Also it has dissolved food substances, plasma proteins, mineral ions, hormones and oxygen. Afferent arteriole entering the Glomerulus is wider than the efferent arteriole leaving it. This creates extremely high pressure in the Glomerulus coupled with the fact that renal artery branches directly from the aorta where blood is at high pressure. Diagram: structure of the nephron 48 ----- Due to the high pressure in the glomeruli, the liquid part of the blood and dissolved substances of low molecular sizes including urea, glucose, salts and amino acids are forced out of the Glomerulus into the cavity of the Bowmans capsule. The large sized molecules in the plasma such as proteins and blood cells are not filtered out. This is because the capillary walls of the Glomerulus and bow mans capsule have very small pores. This process is known as ultra-filtration and the filtrate formed is called glomerular filtrate. The filtrate then enters the proximal convoluted tubule. Diagram of ultra-filtration at the Glomerulus 2. Proximal convoluted tubule As the filtrate flows along the renal tubules, most of the filtered substances in the glomerular filtrate useful to the body are selectively reabsorbed back into the blood. The following substances are actively reabsorbed using energy in the proximal convoluted tubule; All glucose, Amino acids and Mineral salts. The proximal convoluted tubule is adapted in the following ways for efficient re-absorption of these substances. i Presence of mitochondria in the cells lining to provide with energy required ii Cells of the tubule have micro-cilli infoldings which increase surface area for re-absorption. iii Tubule is long and coiled to increase the surface area. iv Coiling of the tubule reduces the speed of flow of filtrate giving more time for efficient re-absorption. v Tubule is well supplied with blood capillaries. 3. Loop of Henle This is where particularly sodium chloride is actively reabsorbed into the blood. Loop of Henle has counter current flow between the flow of filtrate and the flow of blood i.e. the filtrate and blood flow in opposite directions. 49 ----- The hormone Aldosterone secreted by the adrenal glands regulate the absorption of sodium salts. Low content of sodium salts in the blood stimulates adrenal glands to secret more Aldosterone hormone and therefore more salts are reabsorbed from the filtrate. 4. Distal convoluted tubule When the filtrate reaches here, some water is reabsorbed into the blood by osmosis. This is made possible by the following; - Active intake of sodium salt into the blood at the loop of Henle increases the osmotic potential of the blood. - The antidiuretic hormone ADH secreted by the pituitary gland. ADH increases the permeability of the tubule and blood capillaries to water When there is excess water in the body there is less production of ADH and less water is reabsorbed hence production of large amounts of dilute urine. If the body has lost a lot of water such as through sweating, this raises the osmotic pressure of blood. Pituitary gland releases more ADH which increases permeability of the kidney tubules to water. More water is reabsorbed hence production of little but concentrated urine. The distal convoluted tubule has large surface area, it is has a wall that is one cell thick and is surrounded by may blood capillaries. 5. Collecting tubule The filtrate in the collecting tubule becomes the urine and moves to the collecting duct. Urine flows into the pelvis via the pyramids and is finally emptied into the urinary bladder through the ureter. About 1-2 litres of urine are formed in a day. About 250ml of urine in the urinary bladder initiates the urge to urinate. The sphincter muscles relax and urine pass. Urine Co mposition 50 ----- Col1 Composition. --- --- Water 95 Urea 2 Uric acid 0.03 Creatine 0.1 Salts 1.4 Ammonia 0.04 Proteins 0 Glucose 0 The quantity and concentration of the urine in animals is affected by i Physiological adaptations. ii Habitat of an organism e.g. terrestrial, desert or aquatic. iii Structural adaptations of the animals e.g. a desert rat has long kidney tubules to increase water reabsorption. Study Questions. . Comparison Between Aquatic and d Desert Animals nd Past --- --- Fresh Water Animals Desert Animals. an ms, i Have many glomeruli to increase ultrafiltration. Few glomeruli to reduce Exa Notes, ultrafiltration. SE ii Short loop oh Henle to reduce water reabsorption. Long kidney tubules to increase KC free water reabsorption. For iii Produce large quantity of dilute urine. Produce small quantity of concentrated urine. Comparison of Composition of urine with that of Glomerular Filt rate and Blood Plasma. Substance Composition of; Col3 Col4 --- --- --- --- Plasma Glomerular Filtrate. urine Urea 0.03 0.03 2.0 Uric acid 0.005 0.005 0.03 Ammonia 0.001 0.001 0.004 Glucose 0.1 0.1 0 51 ----- Amino acids 0.05 0.05 0 --- --- --- --- Mineral salts 0.70 0.70 1.4 Blood proteins. 8.00 0 0 Functions of the kidney include: i Excretion. ii Osmoregulation. iii Ionic balance. iv Regulation of PH Kidney Diseases i Nephritis This is the inflammation of the glomerulus of the kidney. It is caused by bacteria or infections such as small pox and measles. Symptoms Headaches and vomiting Fever Passing coloured urine Presence of proteins in urine Treatment Use of antibiotics ii Use of just adequate amounts of salts and proteins in diets Kidney stones Causes Lack of vitamins such as vitamin A and inadequate intake of water Chemical salts in urine that crystallize to form hard stones. Symptoms Increased frequency in passing out urine Pain and soreness in the upper backside Difficulty in passing out urine Fever Control Treatment Seeking medical assistance 52 ----- Taking a balanced diet with adequate amount of water and vitamins Dialysis or artificial washing out of the wastes Use of laser beam to disintegrate the stones Kidney transplant iii Kidney failure This is the failure of the kidney to perform as a result of a drop in blood pressure due to heart failure, haemorrhage or shock. If failure is due to other causes, the condition can be corrected by; - Kidney dialysis - Kidney transplant iv Albiminuria Proteins in Urine . This is also called Proteinuria Capillaries of the glomerulus lose their ability to be selective and start allowing blood proteins to pass through into the kidney tubules. These proteins are released in urine. D The Liver and its Structure This is the second largest excretory organ after the skin. It receives blood from two blood vessels; the hepatic portal vein from the alimentary canal and hepatic artery from the aorta . Homeostatic Functions of the Liver 53 ----- Regulation of blood sugar level Excess glucose is converted to glycogen ;and stored in the liver under the influence of the hormone insulin secreted by the pancreas. Another hormone called glucagon; stimulates the conversion of glycogen to glucose; when there is shortage of glucose in the body; Glucagon is also secreted by the pancreas 1. Deamination The liver breaks down excess amino acids; The amino group is removed as ammonia which is toxic; Ammonia is changed into urea which is less toxic in the . ornithine cycle H 2 0 Ammonia Carbon iv Urea Water Toxic Oxide less toxic The remaining carbon skeleton oxidized to carbon IV oxide and water; this process leads to release of energy. The carbon skeleton may be converted to glucose to be used during respiration; 2. Detoxification Toxic substances are made harmless in the liver e.g. Ammonia from the process of deamination is converted in the liver into urea; which is less toxic. Bacterial toxins are converted to less toxic substances by liver cells; Hydrogen peroxide produced by respiring cells is broken down into water and oxygen which are harmless by the enzyme catalase found in the liver. Oxygen 54 ----- H 2 O 2 H 2 O O 2 3. Regulation of plasma proteins The liver produces most of the proteins found in blood; fibrinogen and prothrombin which play a role in blood clotting. Albumin and globulins are also produced by the liver. Globulins act as antibodies;. Albumin contributes to the maintenance of osmotic pressure in the body; Non essential amino acids are synthesized by the liver; 4. Storage of vitamins A, B,D,E and K and mineral salts The liver store vitamins A, B, D, E and K. Iron released from the breakdownof erythrocytes is stored in the liver cells; in the form of a compound called ferritin. The liver therefore is a good source of these vitamins and iron; 5. Heat production Thermoregulation The various metabolic activities of the liver lead to release of heat energy; This energy is distributed by the blood to other parts of the body hence contributing to maintenance of constant body temperature; 6. Inactivation of hormones and drugs After performing their functions, hormones and drugs are chemically modified to inactive compounds; The by-products are eliminated through the kidneys and faeces and via bile; 7. Storage of blood The large size and high capacity for contraction and expansion of its veins enables the liver to hold a large volume of blood; It therefore regulates the volume of blood in the general circulation depending on the bodys requirements ; 8. Regulation of cholesterol and fat metabolism When carbohydrates are in short supply in the body, fats in different parts of the body are mobilized and taken to the liver; The fats are oxidized to carbon IV oxide and water with the production of energy or modified and sent to tissues for oxidation; 9. Manufacture of red blood cells in foetus. Liver Diseases and Disorders 55 ----- 1. Liver Cirrhosis This is the hardening of the liver tissues due to death of liver cells. This is caused by ingestion of toxic chemicals such as alcohol. Bacteria, viruses and parasites such as liver flukes can also cause the disease. Control Avoid excess alcohol. Avoid fatty diets. Low salt intake 2. Hepatitis This is a viral disease causing inflammation of the liver. It is transmitted through contaminated food, milk and water. . There are two types of hepatitis; Hepatitis A and B 3. Jaundice This is characterized by the yellowing of the skin due to the failure of the liver to excrete bile. Homeostasis This is the maintenance of internal environment of cells under constant Conditions E.g. temperature, osmotic pressure, blood sugar and chemical constituents. Principles of Homeostasis Various body systems such as circulatory, excretory, endocrine hormonal and nervous work in a coordinated way to bring about homeostasis. These systems work on a feedback mechanisms. There are . two types of feedback mechanisms a Negative Feedback Mechanism When a factor in the body such as temperature or blood sugar level falls below normal or rises above the normal, it is detected and corrected via the negative feedback mechanism. Such an action is through: 56 ----- i An increase in the level if it is dropping ii A decrease in the level if it is increasing This restores the condition to the normal. Further Excess Positive feed back Normal Set Point Negative Feedback Normal Set Point Negative feedback Corrective Mechanism Deficiency Corrective Mechanism --- --- Deficiency Positive feedback Further deficiency b Positive Feedback Mechanism In positive feedback mechanism, a change below or above the normal is not corrected. The following are some of the factors regulated through homeostasis. 57 ----- Temperature Osmoregulation water and salt balance Ionic content regulation Blood sugar regulation a Temperature Regulation. Thermoregulation Hypothalamus of the brain is the thermoregulatory center. It also controls other homeostatic processes such as Osmoregulation, and blood sugar level. Skin and Thermoregulation The skin is adapted in the following ways to effect thermoregulation; 1. It has Hair shaft; Connected to erector pili muscles ; In low Temperature Erector pili muscle contract raising hair shaft erect ; Hair traps air which insulates the body/poor conductor of heat.; In high temperature, the Erector pili muscle relax and extends ; Hair shaft lies on the skin ; Little or no air is trapped ; Skin loses heat through convection /conduction /radiation ; 1. Blood vessels In High temperature they vasodilate ; More blood flows near skin surface ; Heat is lost through conduction /convection/ radiation ; In Low temperature they Vasoconstrict ; Little blood flows near the skin ; Less heat or ho heat lost through conduction/convection/ radiation ; Diagrams 3 Sweat gland and In High temperature, Sweating occurs and evaporates Carries latent heat of vaporization; cooling the body ; 4 Has subcutaneous layer ; contains fat which acts as a heat- insulating layer. Organisms in cold areas have thick subcutaneous layer for heat insulation. 58 ----- Homoiotherms and Poikilotherms Homoiotherms Endotherms They are the animals whose body temperature is maintained at a constant body temperature despite the wide fluctuations in the temperature of the external environment e.g. birds and mammals. Poikilotherms Ectotherms These are organisms with variable body temperature according to the temperature of the local atmosphere e.g. in organisms such as reptiles, amphibians, insects, and fish. . Methods of Regulating Body Temperature in Animals i Metabolic activities of the Body, such as shivering to raise body temperature. ii Insulatory mechanisms such as dilation or constriction of blood vessels, hair movement etc. iii Behavioral activities such as clustering together, burrowing, basking, hibernation, aestivation, putting on warm clothes etc. iv Presence of adaptive features such as hair/fur, subcutaneous tissue etc. Hibernation is where animals go into deep sleep for long period of time due to cold. Aestivation is where animals go into deep sleep due to dry and harsh conditions. Differen c es Between Homoiotherms and Poikilotherms. Poikilotherms Homoiotherms --- --- i They are sluggish under cold conditions. i They remain active even under cold conditions. ii They hibernate to avoid death by freezing under very cold conditions. ii Only the small animals hibernate because they have large surface area to volume ratio hence lose a lot of heat. iii They aestivate under very hot conditions. iii They do not aestivate because they can maintain constant body 59 ----- Col1 temperature. --- --- iv They are easy prey to predators due to their hibernation and aestivation. iv Not easy to prey because they active always. v Require less food because they get heat from the environment to warm their bodies. v Require more food because they use it to generate heat for maintaining the temperature constant. b Osmoregulation Water and Salt Balance . The osmotic pressure of the body fluids must be kept at a constant so as to have a favourable environment for the normal functioning of cells. This is determined by the relative amounts of water and solutes salts in the body fluids. If the osmotic pressure of these fluids falls below that of the cells, the cells take in water by osmosis, swell and may burst. If the osmotic pressure of thee fluids was higher than that of the cells, the cells would lose water and shrink. The hypothalamus and the Pituitary gland are involved in Osmoregulation in the following ways; i When the osmotic pressure of the blood rises due to dehydration, the hypothalamus is stimulated and sends an impulse to the pituitary gland which secretes the Antidiuretic Hormone ADH or Vasopressin into the blood. ADH increases permeability of the kidney tubules to water. More water is reabsorbed, osmotic pressure of the blood falls hence production of little but concentrated urine. ii When osmotic pressure of the blood falls due to excess water in the body there is less production of ADH and less water is reabsorbed hence production of large amounts of dilute urine. Diabetes Insipidus This is a condition whereby large quantities of dilute urine are produced when the pituitary gland fails to produce ADH or 60 ----- produces it in inadequate amounts. This condition is also known as Diuresis. c Regulation of Ionic Content Important ions must be regulated within narrow ranges for efficient functioning of the cells. Ions are involved in processes such as respiration, protein synthesis, muscle contraction etc. The level of sodium ions is regulated by a hormone called Aldosterone produced by the adrenal glands. When the level of sodium ions is low in the blood, more Aldosterone is released which stimulates reabsorption of sodium ions into the blood. If sodium ions concentration in the blood rises above the optimum level, adrenal glands produce less Aldosterone into the blood and less amounts of sodium ions are reabsorbed. d Regulation of Blood Sugar Level . All sugars such as galactose, lactose and fructose are converted to glucose. Glucose is broken down to release energy and excess is converted into glycogen and stored in the liver or converted into fats as stored as adipose tissue. Some glucose flows in general circulation of blood and is maintained within a narrow range of 90-100mg per 100cm 3 of blood. The pancreas produces two hormones Insulin and Glucagon that are responsible for blood sugar regulation. When there is excess sugar in the blood, insulin is produced and regulates the blood sugar level by the following; i Converts excess glucose into glycogen for storage. ii Inhibits conversion of glycogen to glucose. iii Converts glucose into fats. iv Increases breakdown of glucose to release energy. When the level of the blood sugar falls, glucagon is secreted and corrects the situation by the following; i Increases the breakdown of glycogen into glucose. 61 ----- ii Increases the conversion of fats and proteins into glucose. iii Inhibits the conversion of glucose into energy. NB/. The hormone adrenaline produced by the adrenal glands also has homeostatic effect on glucose. It is released during emergencies to avail glucose for fight or flight. Diabetes Mellitus Sugar Disease This is due to a deficiency in insulin secretion from the pancreas. This leads to very high levels of sugar in the blood that cannot be utilised by cells hence eliminated by kidney in urine. Symptoms Presence of glucose in urine Loss of body weight due to breakdown of fats and proteins Chronic starvation Thirst sensation. Control Insulin injection into the blood stream Avoid foods rich in sugars. Avoid excessive intake of alcohol. Question Explain why insulin is not administered orally through the mouth 62 ----- Corrective mechanism, the liver; i Converts excess glucose into glycogen for storage. ii Inhibits conversion of glycogen to glucose. iii Converts glucose into fats. iv Increases breakdown of glucose to release Rise energy. Fall Normal glucose Level. 90mg/100ml blood Normal glucose level 90mg/100ml blood Fall Corrective mechanism, the liver; Rise i Increases the breakdown of glycogen into glucose. ii Increases the conversion of fats and proteins into glucose. iii Inhibits the conversion of glucose into energy. Revision questions Gaseous Exchange This is the process by which respiratory gases oxygen and carbon IV oxide are passed across the respiratory surface. Gases are exchanged depending on their concentration gradient. In simple organisms such as amoeba, diffusion is enough to bring about gaseous exchange. CO 2 diffuses out into the surrounding water while oxygen diffuses from the water across the plasma membrane into the amoeba. Diagram 63 ----- Importance of Gaseous Exchange 1. Promote oxygen intake for respiration. 2. Facilitate carbon IV oxide removal from the body as a metabolic waste product. Gaseous Exchange in Plants During the day, green plants take in carbon IV for photosynthesis. Oxygen is given out as a byproduct of photosynthesis and is released into the atmosphere. Examples of respiratory Surfaces in Plants Stomata in leaves Roots e.g. pneumatophores Lenticels in woody stems Structure and Function of the Stomata They are tiny openings on the leaf surfaces. They are made up of two guard cells. Guard cells are the only epidermal cells containing chloroplasts. They regulate the opening and closing of the stomata. Adaptations of Guard Cells i They are bean shaped/sausage shaped. ii Contain chloroplast hence can photosynthesize. iii Inner walls are thicker while outer wall is thin to facilitate the opening and closing of stomata. Diagram Mechanism of Opening and Closing of Stomata There are three theories that try to explain how the stomata open and close. i Photosynthetic theory ii Starch Sugar inter-conversion Theory. effect of changes in pH of guard cells iii Potassium Ion Theory. i Photosynthetic theory During the day, guard cells photosynthesize forming glucose. This glucose increases the osmotic pressure in the guard cells. Guard cells draw in water from the neighbouring epidermal cells and become turgid. 64 ----- The stoma opens. During the night, there is no photosynthesis due to absence of light. Glucose is converted into starch lowering the osmotic pressure in the guard cells. Guard cells lose water and become flaccid closing the stomata. ii Starch Sugar inter-conversion Theory. effect of changes in pH of guard cells This is under the influence of pH in the guard cells. During the day CO 2 is used up during photosynthesis raising the pH in the guard cells. In this high pH, enzymes convert more starch into glucose. Osmotic pressure of the guard cells increases and water enters into them, making them turgid hence opening the stomata. During the night, there is no photosynthesis. The level of CO 2 increases lowering the pH. Enzymes become inactivated and starch is not converted into glucose. Osmotic pressure of guard cells falls making them to lose water by osmosis. Guard cells become flaccid and stoma closes. Mechanism of Gaseous Exchange in Plants Oxygen diffuses from the atmosphere where it is more concentrated into the plant. CO 2 diffuses out as a metabolic waste product along a concentration gradient into the atmosphere. a Gaseous Exchange through the Stomata Stomata are modified in number of ways depending on the habitat of the plant. Xerophytes: These are plants adapted to life in dry areas. They have less number of stomata that are small in size. Stomata may be sunken, hairy and in some they open during the night and close during the day. Hydrophytes: These are the aquatic plants water Plants 65 ----- They have many stomata that are large in size and mainly found on the upper leaf surface. Hydrophytes have the aerenchyma tissue with large air spaces to store air for gaseous exchange. Diagrams Mesophytes : They are plants growing in areas with adequate amounts of water. They have a fairly large number of stomata found on both leaf surfaces. b Gaseous Exchange through the Lenticels They are openings found on woody stems and they are made of loosely packed cells. They allow gaseous exchange between the inside of the plant and the outside by diffusion. Actual gaseous exchange occurs on some moist cells under the lenticels. Diagram c Gaseous Exchange through the Roots Plants like the mangroves growing in muddy salty waters have specialized aerial breathing roots called pneumatophores. Pneumatophores rise above the salty water to facilitate gaseous exchange. Gaseous Exchange in Animals Types and Characteristics of Respiratory Surface Different animals have different respiratory surfaces depending on the animals size, activity and the environment in which it operates as shown below. 66 ----- 1. Cell Membrane. Water Amoeba --- --- --- 2. Gill Filaments Water Fish 3. Tracheoles Air Insects 4. Alveoli/Lungs Air Mammals Birds Frogs Reptiles 5. Skin Water Frog Air Earthworm 6. Buccal Cavity Air Frog The respiratory surface is the basic unit of any breathing system upon which actual gaseous exchange occurs by diffusion. Respiratory surfaces have the following main characteristics. i Must have a large surface area. ii Must be moist to allow gases to diffuse in solution form. iii Have a dense network of blood capillaries for efficient gaseous exchange. iv Have a thin membrane to reduce the diffusion distance . Gaseous Exchange in Insects Insects have their gaseous exchange system made of many air tubes forming the tracheal system. Tracheal system is made up of spiracles and Tracheoles. Spiracles are external openings found on both sides of the abdomen and thorax. Spiracles have valves to control their opening and closing. They also have hairs to prevent excessive water loss from the body tissue. Spiracles open into tubes called trachea. Trachea is reinforced with spiral bands of chitin to keep them open. Trachea subdivides into finer air tubes called Tracheoles. Tracheoles are in direct contact with body tissues and organs and they supply individual cells with oxygen. 67 ----- Tracheoles do not have bands of chitin and therefore they allow gaseous exchange across their thin moist walls. Diagram Mechanism of Gaseous Exchange in the Tracheal System of an Insect Air is drawn into and out of the tracheal system by muscular movement of the abdominal wall. When spiracle valves are open, air is drawn into the tracheal system. The valves close and air is forced along the system by muscle movement. Oxygen diffuses into the tissue fluid and into the cells. CO2 diffuses out of the cells and into the tissue fluid then into the tracheal system. Gaseous Exchange in Fish The breathing system of the fish consists of the following; o Mouth buccal cavity. o Gills. o Opercular cavity. o Operculum. Gills are made of a long curved bone called the gill bar. Gill filaments arise from one side of the gill bar. They are many and suspend freely in water providing a large surface area for gaseous exchange. Gill rakers arise from the other side of the gill bar. They are teeth like and they prevent solids present in water from damaging the delicate gill filaments. Blood vessels enter the gill bar and branch into the gill filaments as blood capillaries. Operculum is found on either side of the body near the head and it also protects the delicate gills. Diagram Mechanism of Gaseous Exchange in the Gills of a Bony Fish 68 ----- Floor of the mouth cavity is lowered increasing the volume of the mouth cavity but lowering the pressure. Water flows into the mouth cavity and the operculum closes. Operculum on either side bulge outwards without opening. This increases volume in the gill cavity but the pressure drops. Water containing dissolved oxygen flows from the mouth cavity to the gill chamber over the gills. The mouth closes and the floor of the mouth cavity is raised. The remaining water in the mouth is forced to flow towards the gill chamber. Oxygen diffuses from the water into the blood through the thin walls of the gill filaments. It combines with haemoglobin for transportation to all body parts. CO 2 diffuses from the blood into the flowing water. To ensure maximum gaseous exchange, the water flowing over the gills and the blood in the gills flows in opposite directions. This is called counter current flow system and it ensures that at all the points, concentration of oxygen is always higher in the water than in the blood. Diagram If the water and blood were flowing in the same direction, gaseous exchange will not be that effective. Where the oxygen is 50 in water, there is no concentration gradient because blood also has 50 oxygen concentration. Diagram Mechanism of Gaseous Exchange in Amphibians Amphibians live on both land and water and therefore exhibit the following methods of gaseous exchange. 1. Gaseous exchange through the lining of the buccal cavity 2. Gaseous exchange through the lungs 3. Gaseous exchange through the skin a Gaseous exchange through the mouth buccal cavity 69 ----- Air is taken in or expelled from the mouth cavity by raising and lowering of the floor mouth. Lining of the mouth cavity is moist to dissolves oxygen. There is a rich supply of blood capillaries under the lining of the mouth cavity. Oxygen diffuses into the blood and is carried by haemoglobin to all parts of the body. Carbon IV oxide from the tissues is brought by the blood to the mouth cavity where diffuses out. Gaseous exchange through the lungs The frog has two lungs which are connected to the buccal cavity. T he inner lining of the lungs is moist, thin and is richly supplied with blood capillaries. During inspiration, the floor of the mouth cavity is lowered and nostrils are open. Air rushes through the open nostrils into the mouth cavity. Nostrils close and the floor of the mouth cavity is raised. This reduces the volume and increase the pressure in the mouth cavity forcing air into the lungs. Carbon IV oxide from the tissues diffuse into the lung while the oxygen from the lungs diffuses into the tissues. b Gaseous exchange through the skin Frogs have a thinner and moist skin than the toads. There is large network of blood capillaries below the skin to carry the respiratory gases. Oxygen from the air and water diffuse through the skin into the blood stream. Carbon IV oxide diffuses out of the blood capillaries through the moist skin into the surrounding water and air. Mechanism of Gaseous Exchange in Mammals The following structures are involved in gaseous exchange in mammals; - Nose Nostrils - Larynx 70 ----- - Trachea - Chest cavity ribs and intercostals muscles - . Diaphragm a Nose It has two openings called nostrils which let in air into the air passages. As air moves in the passages, it is warmed and moistened The lining of the nasal cavity has also the sense organs for smell. b Larynx It is located on top of the trachea It is called the voice box. It controls the pitch of the voice. c Trachea It is a tube made of rings of cartilage which prevents it from collapsing during breathing. Inside it is lined with ciliated epithelium. Cilia beat in waves and move mucus and foreign particles away from the lungs towards the pharynx. As the trachea enters the lungs, it divides into two branches called Bronchi Bronchus . d Lungs They are found in the chest cavity and they are enclosed by a double membrane called the pleural membrane. The space between the membranes is called the pleural cavity. Pleural cavity is filled with pleural fluid which reduces friction making the lungs to move freely in the chest cavity during breathing. Diagrams In the lungs each bronchus divides into small tubes called bronchioles. Bronchioles branch further to form air sacs called alveoli alveolus Alveolus is covered by a fine network of blood capillaries. 71 ----- The mechanism of breathing Breathing is achieved by changes in the volume and air pressure of the thoracic cavity. Thoracic cavity is enclosed by ribs. Ribs are covered by intercostals muscles. The diaphragm is a muscular sheet of tissue below the chest cavity. It curves upwards in the form of a dome shape. Breathing mechanism involves two processes. a Inspiration Inhalation i.e. breathing in. b Expiration Exhalation i.e. breathing out. Inspiration Inhalation i.e. breathing This occurs when the volume of thoracic cavity increases and the pressure decreases. External intercostals muscles contract while the internal intercostals muscles relax. Ribs are pulled upwards and outwards. Diaphragm flattens increasing the volume of the thoracic cavity while decreasing the pressure inside it. Air rushes into the lungs through the nose and trachea inflating the lungs. Diagrams page 62 Expiration Exhalation i.e. breathing out Volume of thoracic cavity decreases while pressure increases. This is brought about by the following; External intercostals muscles relax while internal ones contract. Ribs move downwards and inwards. Diaphragm relaxes and regains its original dome shape. Volume of the thoracic cavity decrease and pressure increases. Air is forced out of the lungs through the air passages to the atmosphere. Gaseous exchange in the alveolus Alveoli and blood capillaries are made of very thin walls. 72 ----- The wall of the alveolus is covered b a film of moisture which dissolves oxygen in the inhaled air. Oxygen diffuses through the epithelium of the alveolus, the capillary wall and through the cell membrane of the red blood cells. In the red blood cells it combines with haemoglobin. Carbon iv oxide is more concentrated in the blood capillaries than in the alveoli. It therefore diffuses from the capillaries into the alveoli. Water vapour also passes out of the blood by the same process. Diagram page 64 KLB Percent a ge composition of gases in inhaled and exhaled air Gas in inhaled air. in exhaled air --- --- --- Oxygen 20 16.9 Carbon iv oxide 0.03 4.0 Nitrogen and other gases 79.97 79.97 Regulation of Breathing . This is controlled by a part of the brain called Medulla oblongata 73 ----- Factors affecting the rate of breathing in humans 1. Exercise Breathing rate increases during vigorous activity. 2. Age Younger people have a faster breathing because their bodies have more energy demand. 3. Emotions Things like anxiety, fear and fright increases the breathing rate. 4. Temperature Relatively high temperatures increase the rate of breathing. However, very high temperatures reduce the breathing rate. 5. Health If there is fever high body temperature , the breathing rate increases. Some respiratory diseases however, make breathing difficult. Lung Volumes i Lung capacity This is the total amount of air the lungs can hold when completely filled. The lungs of an adult have a capacity of about 5,500cm 3 ii Tidal volume This is the amount of air taken in and out of the lungs during normal breathing. Tidal volume is about 500cm 3 iii Inspiratory reserve volume This is an additional volume attained after having a forced inhalation in addition to the tidal volume. It is about 2000cm 3 iv Inspiratory capacity This is the tidal volume Inspiratory reserve volume. v Expiratory reserve volume This is air removed after a forced exhalation. It can be up to 1,300cm3 vi Vital capacity This is the deepest possible exhalation. This air can only be forcibly pushed out of the lungs. vii Residual volume 74 ----- This is the air that normally remains in the lungs after the deepest exhalation. It is normally about 1,500cm 3 Diagram Diseases of the Respiratory System i Asthma It is caused by: Allergens such as pollen grains, certain foods and drugs Infections of the lungs by bacteria and viruses Symptoms Difficulty in breathing Wheezing sound when breathing Treatment and Control Avoiding the causative agents Injection of drugs and oral application of pills Spraying directly into the bronchial tubes with a muscle relaxant ii Bronchitis There are two types; Acute and Chronic Symptoms Production of thick greenish or yellowish sputum Difficulty in breathing Difficulty in walking and sleeping Treatment Seeking early medical assistance iii Whooping cough It is caused by a bacterium called Bordetella pertussis. Symptoms Prolonged coughing and vomiting Conjuctival haemorrhage bleeding Convulsions and coma Severe pneumonia in the bronchioles Ulcers and heart complications 75 ----- Emaciation due to repeated vomiting Treatment Use of antibiotics Use of a balanced diet on patients Control Children immunization at early age iv Pneumonia It is caused by a bacterial called Streptococcus pneumoniae Symptoms Coughing Fever Chest pains Deposits of fluids in the lungs Treatment Use of antibiotics such as penicillin and sulphonamides Control Avoid overcrowding. Good ventilation in living houses v Pulmonary Tuberculosis . It is caused by a bacterium called Mycobacterium tuberculosis Symptoms Weight loss Coughing with blood stained sputum. Fever Treatment Use of antibiotics such as streptomycin Control Pasteurization of milk Immunization using BCG Bacille Calmette Guerin Use of radiography X-Ray vi Lung cancer Cancer is uncontrolled cell growth in the body causing tumours. Some general causes Smoking 76 ----- Inhalation of cancer causing substances such as asbestos Exposure to radiations such as X-rays, radioactive substances such as uranium and substances that alter the genetic composition of the cell such as mustard gas Treatment and control Surgery to remove the tumour Radiotherapy Chemotherapy Use of some drugs Not smoking Revision Questions RESPIRATION Process by which food substances are chemically broken down in living cells to release energy, carbon iv oxide, water or alcohol. Respiration takes place mainly in the mitochondria. It has two membranes, inner and outer. Inner membrane is folded into projections called cristae. Cristae provide a large surface area for respiratory enzymes. Respiratory enzymes are bound to the cristae. Diagram Practical Activity 1 . To investigate the gas given off when food is burnt Types of Respiration Aerobic Respiration Anaerobic Respiration. Aerobic Respiration Process by which food substances such as glucose are broken down in the presence of oxygen to release energy, water and carbon IV oxide. The energy is stored in the form of a chemical substance called Adenosine Triphosphate ATP . This energy is released in small quantities since a lot of heat energy would burn the body cells. Respiratory Enzymes 77 ----- C 6 H 12 O 6 6O 2 6CO 2 6H 2 O Energy ATP Respiration takes place in two phases with each phase consisting of series of reactions. First Phase Glycolysis . in This takes place in the cell cytoplasm Oxygen is not required this stage. Glucose is broken down into a 3 carbon compound called Pyruvic acid through a process called glycolysis. . In glycolysis one molecule of glucose gives 2 molecules of ATP In absence of oxygen Pyruvic acid is broken down into lactic acid in animals and into alcohol ethanol in plants. ethanol ethanol Second phase Krebs Cycle This takes place in the matrix of the mitochondria and involves a . series of enzyme controlled reactions that require oxygen Pyruvic acid formed in the first phase is oxidized by oxygen in a series of enzymatic reactions Krebs cycle into energy, water and carbon IV oxide. . In this phase one molecule of glucose gives 38 molecules of ATP 78 ----- glucoseglucose CH3C0COOH CH3C0COOH pyruvic acidpyruvic acid pyruvic acidpyruvic acid C C 66 HH 1212 OO 66 enzyme controlled reactions in cytoplasm OxygenOxygen 6O 6O 22 enzyme controlled enzyme controlled reactions in reactions in mitochondriamitochondria Carbon iv oxideCarbon iv oxide 6CO 6CO 22 energyenergy water water ATP ATP H H 22 O O water water ATP ATP The following conditions are required in this phase; i. Cells must be provided with glucose/food. ii. Oxygen must be present. iii. Respiratory enzymes must be present to catalyse the reaction. iv. Temperature must be favourable for efficient functioning of enzymes. v. End products of the reaction energy, water and carbon iv oxide must be constantly removed from the mitochondrion. Practical Activity 2 . To investigate heat production in germinating seeds Anaerobic Respiration in Plants and Animals This is the process by which food substances are broken down in the absence of oxygen to release energy. The glucose is not completely broken down hence less energy is given out. In plants glucose is broken down into energy, carbon iv oxide and ethanol alcohol . Glucose Ethanol Energy. Carbon iv oxide C 6 H 12 O 6 2C 2 H 5 OH ATP CO 2 . Anaerobic respiration in plants is also referred to as fermentation 79 ----- In animals glucose is broken down into energy and lactic acid Glucose Lactic acid Energy. C 6 H 12 O 6 2C 3 H 6 O 3 ATP Oxygen Debt This is oxygen required to get rid of the lactic acid that accumulates in the body tissues when the oxygen supply is less than required. Accumulation of lactic acid causes fatigue and muscle crumps. Oxygen debt is paid back by breathing more quickly and more deeply in order to increase oxygen supply such as during recovery period after a race when a person pants. When paying back the oxygen debt, lactic acid is oxidized to energy, water and carbon iv oxide or it is taken to the liver and converted into glycogen. Application of Anaerobic Respiration i. Baking industry ii. Beer brewing and distillery industry. iii. Dairy industry in the production of yoghurt and cheese. iv. Production of vinegar citric acid, oxalic acid, butyric acid and some drugs. v. Production of power alcohol which is used as a substitute for petrol. vi. Silage making. vii. Biogas production. viii. Making compost manure Practical Activity 3 To investigate gas produced during fermentation. Comparison between Aerobic and Anaerobic Respiration Aerobic Respiration Anaerobic Respiration. --- --- i. Oxygen is required Oxygen not required ii. High amount of energy is released as one molecule of glucose yields 38 ATP molecules 2880 KJ Low amount of energy is released as one molecule of glucose yields 2 ATP molecules 210 KJ iii. There is complete There is incomplete breakdown 80 ----- breakdown of the substrate into carbon iv oxide and water. of substrate hence lactic acid or alcohols are produced. --- --- iv. End products are energy, water and carbon iv oxide End products are energy, alcohol in plants and lactic acid in animals. v. Water molecules are produced. Water molecules are not produced. vi. Over a short period of time, energy is not released faster Over short period of time, energy is released faster. vii. Occurs in the cytoplasm and in the mitochondrion. Occurs only in the cell cytoplasm. Respiratory Substrates These are energy rich foods which when oxidized release energy. They include; i. Carbohydrates They are the main source of energy mainly in the form of simple sugars such as glucose, fructose and galactose. They produce about 17KJ 2898/mole per gram when completely oxidized. ii. Fats They produce more energy than carbohydrates or proteins. One gram of fats yields about 38 KJ of energy when completely oxidized. They are however not the main substrate because they are not very soluble in water hence not easily transported to the sites of respiration. It also requires more oxygen to oxidize one gram of fats than one gram of glucose. iii. Proteins They are not normally used in respiration unless in cases of extreme starvation. One gram of proteins yields 22KJ of energy when completely oxidized. 81 ----- Assignment Where do plants and animals get the following from; - Carbohydrates. - Fats - Proteins Respiratory Quotient RQ and its Significance RQ is the ratio showing the relationship between the amounts of carbon iv oxide used against the amount of oxygen used in respiration. RQ RQ varies with the type of substrate being oxidized. For example carbohydrates have a RQ of 1.0 when fully oxidized, fats have 0.7 and proteins have 0.9. RQ can therefore be used to indicate the type of substrate being oxidized and also whether aerobic respiration or anaerobic respiration is taking place. RQ is also affected by factors such as age, health of the organism and the temperature. Factors Affecting the Rate of Respiration i. Oxygen concentration. When the amount of oxygen increases, the respiration rate also increases. Decrease in oxygen concentration will lead to decreased respiration rate. ii. Substrate concentration. Increase in sugar concentration increases respiration and vice versa. iii. Hormones. Presence of some hormones such as adrenaline and thyroxine in the body increases the rate of respiration. iv. Surface area to volume ratio Body size . If the SA/volume ratio is high, the organism would lose more heat energy. As more heat is lost to the surrounding more is required to replace the lost energy hence more respiration. v. Age. Young people require more energy because their cells are actively dividing hence respiration rate is higher in them than in older people. 82 ----- vi. Occupation. People engaged in heavier tasks have higher rate of respiration. vii. Sex. Generally males have faster respiration rate than females due to presence of more muscles in their bodies. viii. Basal metabolic rate. This is the energy required to maintain normal body functions such breathing, heartbeat, blood circulation etc while at rest. Revision Questions FORM THREE BIOLOGY NOTES ECOLOGYECOLOGY Introduction Ecology is the study of the interrelationships of organisms to each other and to their environment biotic and Abiotic factors . Autecology ; study of single species within a community and how it relates with both the biotic and Abiotic factors. Synecology. This is the study of many different species of organisms interacting among themselves within an ecosystem. Ecology helps to address the following issues. Sustainable food production Pollution control Natural resources conservation Pest and disease control Population control Eco-tourism Prediction of adverse weather conditions Concepts of ecology Biosphere/ecosphere. This is the part of the earth and atmosphere inhabited by living organisms. Habitat. This is a specific locality with a particular set of conditions where an organism lives. Habitats can be terrestrial or aquatic. 83 ----- Ecological niche. This is the position occupied by an organism in a habitat. It includes the physical space where an organism is found and its role in the habitat. Population. This refers to all members of a given species in particular habitat. Community. This refers to all organisms belonging to different species interacting in the same habitat. Many populations make up a community. Ecosystem. This is a natural unit made of biotic and Abiotic factors whose interactions lead to a self sustaining system. E.g. a tropical rain forest, a small pond etc. Biomass. This is the total dry weight of living organisms at a particular Trophic feeding level or per unit area. Carrying capacity. This is the maximum number of organisms an area can comfortably support without depletion of the available resources. E.g. the maximum number of cows a pasture land can comfortably hold without overgrazing. Study Question 1 Factors in an Ecosystem They are divided into two: 1. Abiotic factors or the non living factors 2. Biotic or the living factors Abiotic Factors Light. This is required by plants and photosynthetic bacteria to manufacture food. The sun is the source of light energy. Light intensity and quality wavelength affects the rate of photosynthesis, flowering and germination in plants, while in animals it affects migration, hibernation and reproduction. Light intensity is measured using a Photographic Light meter while a Seechi disc measures light penetration in water. Atmospheric pressure. Variation in atmospheric pressure affects the availability of oxygen and carbon IV dioxide in the atmosphere. These two gases in turn affect the distribution of 84 ----- living organisms. Low atmospheric pressure increases the rate of transpiration. Barometer is used to measure it. Humidity. This is the amount of water vapour in the atmosphere. It affects the rate of water loss from plants and animals surfaces through transpiration and sweating respectively. The higher the humidity the lower the rate of loss and vice versa. It is measured using the hygrometer. Salinity. This refers to the salt concentration of the water. This divides the aquatic environment into marine, estuarine and fresh water . Only organisms with adaptable osmoregulatory features can comfortably occupy such habitats. In estuaries, there are fluctuations of salt concentrations at different times. When the sea tide is low, the salt concentrations are low due to the greater diluting effect of the fresh water being discharged. High tide raises the salt level. Estuarine organisms must therefore be adapted to cope with such wide salt variations. Wind. This is moving air. It increases the rate of water loss from organisms affecting their distribution. It also influences rain formation. It helps in formation of sand dunes in deserts which become habitats for the growth of deserts plants. Its an agent of seed and fruit dispersal Temperature. This affects the distribution of organisms in any habitat. Very low temperature may inactivate enzymes while very high temperatures denature them. Temperature varies due to seasons, altitude, and latitude and diurnally in hot deserts. pH hydrogen ion concentration. This is the measure of acidity or alkalinity of water in aquatic habitats or soil solution. This influences the distribution of plants and animals in soil and aquatic habitats. Different organisms have different pH requirements. pH is determined using the pH meter. Study Question 2 Practical Activity 1 Study Question 3 Biotic Inter-Relationships Competition 85 ----- Living organisms compete for resources such as nutrients, space, light and mates. There are two types of competition. i. Inter-specific competition. This is the competition between individuals of different species for the same resources. For example. An experiment6 was carried out on two closely related species of paramecia- Paramecium caudatum and Paramecium aurelia. It was observed that when each species is grown separately in controlled cultures with constant food supply, they show normal population growth. When they are grown together in the same culture, thre is competition and Paramecium caudatum is eliminated. See graphs. Paramecium aurelia Paramecium caudatum. However, closely related species can live together without competition. For example, when Paramecium caudatum and Paramecium bursoria are grown in the same culture, there is no competition because each species occupies a different part of the culture. Similarly, browsers and grazers can occupy same habitat without competition because they feed at different levels of the same plants. For example, the zebras eat the softer shoots, followed by the 86 ----- wild beasts, and the gazelles which eat the fibrous left over of the same grass. Study Question 4 ii. Intra-specific competition. This is the competition between members of the same species for the same resources. When there is competition the best adapted organisms survive while the less adapted ones may die or be forced to migrate. Predation This is the relationship where one organism kills another for food and feed on it either as a whole or a part of it. The predator is the one which kills while the prey is the one being killed for food. Predators have various adaptations to enable them to be efficient in capturing the prey. These include; Sharp eyesight as in eagles, kites and hawk Fast flight, Modified beaks Strong jaws with carnassials teeth as in leopards and lions. Large claws on strong forelimbs. Colour camouflage such as the spotted pattern of the leopard blends well with the background colour of the bushes and trees. Moving against the wind while stalking the prey. Preys also have structural and behavioural adaptations. These include: Swift movement e.g. the antelope and gazelle Camouflage e.g. in gazelles and stripes of the zebra. Large eyes on the sides of the head to giving them a wide field of view Confrontational display in porcupine NB/. When the number of the prey increases that of the predators also increases. An increase in the number of predators leads to a decrease in the population of the prey. This decrease in prey population leads to a fall in predator population which in turn gives space for the increase in the population of the prey. This is the basis of biological control. See the graph below. 87 ----- Time Parasitism This is the relationship where an organism parasite obtains nutrients from another live organism host without killing it. The parasite obtains food and shelter from the host causing some harmful effects. Parasites may weaken the host and also transmit diseases which may kill their host thus reducing their number an d distribution. There are two types of parasites; Ecto-parasites Endo-parasites Study Question 5 Symbiosis This is an association between two of different species in which both benefit. For example the association of colon bacteria with humans and other animals, especially plant-eating animals, the ox-pecker bird and the ox etc. The Rhizobium bacteria help the leguminous plants to fix nitrogen while the bacteria obtain shelter and carbohydrates from the plants. Diagram Saprophytism This is where organisms obtain nutrients from dead organisms causing decomposition hence releasing nutrients into the ecosystem. Saprophytes include the bacteria and fungi. The Nitrogen Cycle This refers to the cycling of nitrogen and its compounds in the natural environment. 88 ----- Although nitrogen is abundant in the atmosphere as nitrogen gas, it cannot be utilised by plants. It has to be converted into a form that can be absorbed by plants through a process called nitrogen fixation. Nitrogen fixation is done in two ways; Biological fixation . This can occur in two forms 1. Nitrogen fixation by symbiotic bacteria such as . Rhizobium spp They are found in the root nodules of legumes. They convert nitrogen gas into ammonia which is then converted into nitrates for plant utilisation. 2. Nitrogen fixation by free living bacteria e.g. Clostridium, Azotobacter, and some algae such as Anabaena, chlorella and Nostoc. Non-Biological nitrogen fixation . This is done by lightning. During thunderstorms, lightning energy combines atmospheric nitrogen gas with oxygen to form nitrous and nitric acid. These are then converted into nitrates. Plants absorb nitrates and convert them into plant proteins. Animals feed on these plants and obtain the proteins. They are then digested into amino acids and become assimilated into animal proteins. When living organisms die, saprophytic bacteria and fungi break . Rhizobium spp They are found in the root nodules of legumes. They convert nitrogen gas into ammonia which is then converted into nitrates for plant utilisation. 2. Nitrogen fixation by free living bacteria e.g. Clostridium, During thunderstorms, lightning energy combines atmospheric nitrogen gas with oxygen to form nitrous and nitric acid. These are then converted into nitrates. Plants absorb nitrates and convert them into plant proteins. down the proteins in their bodies into ammonia. Nitrifying bacteria convert this ammonia into nitrates thorough a process called nitrification. Nitrosomonas and Nitrococcus convert ammonia into nitrites and Nitrobacter convert nitrites into Nitrates. Some soil micro organisms such as Pseudomonas denitrificans Thiobacillus denitrificans utilise the oxygen in the nitrates reducing it to nitrites, ammonia and eventually into nitrogen gas. This is called de-nitrification. This reduces the amount of nitrogen available to plants but it frees the nitrogen so that it becomes available for the cycle to continue. Diagram 89 ----- Practical activity 2 Study question 6 Energy Flow in an Ecosystem The sun is the natural source of energy. This energy is transferred to the following feeding levels; Producers Primary consumers Secondary consumers Tertiary consumers Quaternary consumers These feeding levels are called Trophic levels Decomposers They break down organic materials into simple substances which are made available for re-use by other organisms. Decomposers are mainly fungi and bacteria. Food Chains This is the representation of energy flow from a producer to other organisms linearly. Green plants are eaten by herbivores which are eaten by carnivores. Producers Primary consumers Secondary consumers Tertiary consumers Quaternary consumers Some energy is lost as it is moved from one trophic level to the next. This is through respiration, defecation, excretion and in form of heat. Fig. 2.7 Examples When the decomposers are included in a food chain, they are placed at the end. Study Question 7 Food Webs These are several interconnected food chains. Simple food chains rarely exist since in any ecosystem, many populations interact. Examples Study Question 8 90 ----- Ecological Pyramids These give a simplified representation of feeding relationships and energy flow in an ecosystem. They are of three types. Pyramid of numbers Pyramid of biomass Pyramid of energy Pyramid of Numbers There is a progress decrease in the number of organisms as one move from the producers all the way to the quaternary consumers. Producers have the greatest number followed in a decreasing order by primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary consumers. Construction of Pyramid of Numbers i. Use data provided or collected. ii. From the data, identify and draw the most suitable food chain. iii. Indicate the numbers at each trophic level in the food chain. iv. Choose a suitable scale for the data. v. Using the chosen scale draw a horizontal rectangular bar to represent the number of the producers as the base of the pyramid. 91 ----- vi. Progressively draw horizontal bars of the other trophic levels in their ascending order. Ensure that the width of the bars is uniform. Study Question 9 Interpretation of Pyramid of Numbers Generally the body size of organisms increases at each trophic level from the base to the apex of the pyramid as their number decreases. At each trophic level much energy is lost through respiration, excretion, sweating, defecation etc. therefore less energy is transmitted to the succeeding trophic level. Fewer organisms can therefore be supported. Inverted pyramid of numbers also exist. For example where one mango tree supports several monkeys each being fed on by several fleas. Fleas Monkeys Pyramid of Biomass Biomass of an organism is its constant dry weight. In an ecosystem, the producers have the highest biomass followed in decreasing order by primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary consumers. 2 0 Consumer Primary Consumer Producer Study Question 10 Practical activity 3 92 ----- Study Question 11 Population Populations change in size, structure and organisation. Characteristics of a population. Density. This is the number of individuals per unit area. E.g. 50 . gazelles per Km 2 Dispersion. This is the distribution or spread of organisms in a habitat. Population growth. This refers to the rate of increase in numbers. Population Estimation Methods Usually a representative sample is used to estimate the population of organism in a big habitat. A sample is a small number of individuals taken from the habitat that is a representative of the whole population. The following methods are used when sampling. Quadrat method. Line transect. Belt transect. Capture-recapture method. Adaptations of plants to various Habitats An adaptation is a change to suit environment: the development of physical, physiological or behavioural characteristics that allow organisms to survive and reproduce in their habitats. There are four main groups of plants namely; Xerophytes. Mesophytes. Hydrophytes. Halophytes. Xerophytes These are plants adapted to survive in the dry habitats. These habitats have the following characteristics. i. Unpredictable and poorly distributed rainfall between 250- 350mm per year. ii. Very high day temperatures and very low night temperatures hence high diurnal temperature range. 93 ----- iii. They are very windy. iv. Low humidity. Adaptations of Xerophytes i. Shedding of leaves during the dry season to reduce the surface exposed to transpiration. ii. Reduced leaves in size such as in pine or modified into spines as in cactus. This reduces the surface area over which transpiration occurs. iii. Leaves have a thick waxy cuticle to reduce the rate of transpiration. iv. Some store water in large parenchyma cells contained in succulent stems and leaves. v. Some have reversed stomatal rhythm. vi. Sunken stomata vii. Folded leaves reduced the surface area. viii. Reduced number of stomata ix. Some have deep roots to absorb water from deep in the soil. Others have superficial roots growing horizontally close to the surface to absorb water after a light Mesophytes These are plants growing in well watered areas. Such habitats have the following general characteristics. Adequate rainfall; 950-1800mm that is well distributed throughout the year. Relatively high humidity Thick clouds Moderate to high temperatures Shallow water table Less windy Adaptations of Mesophytes They show various adaptations depending on where they grow. Some of these adaptations are for reduction of water loss, others for increased water, loss and some are also adapted to light conditions. Forest Ecosystem i. Vegetation grows fast to compete for light. 94 ----- ii. Trees grow very tall to compete for light. iii. Some develop buttress roots or prop roots for extra support such as the Ficus natalensis. iv. Climbers such as lianas support themselves on stems of tall trees to reach light. v. Epiphytes support themselves on the branches of tall trees. vi. Others are adapted to carry out photosynthesis under low light intensity by having many chloroplasts that are sensitive to low light intensity. vii. They show leaf mosaic pattern to minimise overlapping enhancing trapping of light for photosynthesis. Those in areas with a lot of water have broad leaves, thin cuticle and many stomata on both surfaces to encourage high rate of transpiration. Those in dry areas have waxy and shiny cuticle to reflect light. Others are deep rooted to obtain water from deep in the soil. Hydrophytes These are plants growing in fresh water either partially or wholly. Such habitats have the following general characteristics. Low concentration of dissolved gases such as oxygen Presence of waves and currents Inadequate light in water Adaptations of hydrophytes i. Broad leaves with maximum number of stomata on upper leaf surface providing a large surface are for transpiration. ii. They have a large air filled tissue called aerenchyma tissue. The air reduces the density hence creating buoyancy to the plants and also aids in gaseous exchange. iii. Submerged ones have dissected leaves to offer large surface area for light absorption required during photosynthesis. iv. They have chloroplasts sensitive to low light intensity. v. They have poorly developed leaves and lack the root hairs to reduce water absorption vi. Flowers are raised above the water to allow for pollination. 95 ----- Diagrams Halophytes These are plants which are able to tolerate very salty conditions in soil and marine water. Such habitats have the following general characteristics. High concentration of mineral salts Low concentration of dissolved gases Low light intensity in marine water Presence of waves and currents in marine water Adaptations of Halophytes i. They root cells which concentrate a lot of salts to enable them to absorb water by osmosis. ii. Some have salt glands that secrete excess salts. iii. Many have water storage tissues. iv. Some like the mangroves have breathing roots called pneumatophores. These rise above the water surface to obtain oxygen from the atmosphere. v. Mangroves growing on mud flats have buttress roots for support. vi. Submerged halophytes are adapted to photosynthesise under low light intensity. vii. Their fruits are adapted for dispersal by having aerenchymatous tissue for air storage to make them buoyant. CLASSIFICATION II Classification, in biology is the identification, naming, and grouping of organisms into a formal system based on similarities such as internal and external anatomy, physiological functions, genetic makeup, or evolutionary history. Study Question 1 General Principles of Classification Organisms that have similar and common features are grouped together while those that have different features are grouped separately. Taxonomy is the study of grouping of organisms according to their relationship. There are seven major taxonomic units taxa . 96 ----- Kingdom Phylum phyla or Division in plants Class Order Family Genus Species As you move from the kingdom to the species the differences decrease as the similarities increases. Species is a group of organisms that can freely interbreed to give rise to viable/fertile offsprings. Sometime members of different species may interbreed to give an offspring which is sterile . E.g. a donkey and a horse can interbreed to give rise to a mule which is infertile. Binomial Nomenclature This is the double naming system of organisms where organisms are name and the name. assigned two names i.e. the generic specific Examples In binomial nomenclature the following rules are observed. v. Generic name is written first followed by the specific name. vi. First letter in the generic name is in capital and the rest are in small letters. vii. Specific name is written in small letters. viii. The two names are underlined separately when handwritten or italicised when printed. Study Question 2 The Five Kingdoms of Classification Carolus Linnaeus initially introduced the two kingdom system of classification. However many new life forms have been discovered which are neither animals nor plants. This has led to a more accepted classification system that adopts five kingdoms. These are; Monera Protoctista Fungi Plantae 97 ----- Animalia. Fig. 1.2 1. Kingdom Monera The kingdom is made up of mainly the bacteria e.g. nitrobacter, azotobacter. Vibrio cholerae etc. General characteristics i. They are unicellular and microscopic. Some are single cells while others are in colonies. They have different body shapes. Fig. 1.4 ii. Most are heterotrophic, feeding either saprophytically or parasitically. Some are autotrophic. iii. They are prokaryotic i.e. their nuclear material is not enclosed by a nuclear membrane. iv. They have few organelles which are not membrane bound. They dont have mitochondria. v. They have a cell wall though not made of cellulose. vi. They reproduce asexually mainly through binary fission. vii. Most of them respire an-aerobically but some respire aerobically. viii. Most of them move by use of flagella. Diagrams Study question 3 2. Kingdom Protoctista Examples include paramecium, amoeba, plasmodium, chlamydomonas, euglena, spirogyra, and trypanosome. General characteristics i. They are eukaryotic whereby their nuclei is bound by a nuclear membrane. ii. Some are heterotrophic while others are autotrophic. iii. They have may organelles including mitochondria all of which are membrane bound. iv. They have different body forms; some are unicellular or colonial while others are multicellular. v. Reproduction is mainly asexual by fission, fragmentation or sporulation. Some reproduce sexually by conjugation. 98 ----- vi. They are mobile and move by means of cilia, flagella or pseudopodia. vii. Some may have specialised structures that perform specific functions such as contractile vacuole for osmoregulation. Diagrams Diagrams Practical Activities 1 and 2Practical Activities 1 and 2 3. Kingdom Fungi Examples Saprophytic ones include mushrooms, toadstools, bread moulds, penicilia, yeast etc. Parasitic ones cause plant diseases such as wheat rust, potato and tomato blight and animal diseases such as athletes foot and ringworm. Practical ActivitPractical Activities 3ies 3 General characteristics i. They are eukaryotic. ii. Most have cell walls made of chitin but a few have cellulose cell walls. iii. They store food particles in their cytoplasm in the form of glycogen or oil droplets but not starch. iv. The basic unit is the hyphae . Hyphae are thin filaments and many . of them make up structures called mycelium v. Fungi have neither the chloroplasts nor the chlorophyll. They feed on already manufactured food. Hyphae act as the roots and are sent into the food material to obtain nutrients. In saprophytic fungi the hyphae are referred to as rhizoids and in parasitic ones as haustoria . vi. They reproduce sexually fusion of nuclei in hyphal branches and asexually spores and budding . Examples Examples Study Question 4Study Question 4 99 ----- 4. Kingdom Plantae4. Kingdom Plantae Study question 5 General Characteristics i. They are eukaryotic and multicellular. ii. In most their body is differentiated into leaves, stem and roots. iii. They reproduce both sexually and asexually. iv. Their cells have cellulose cell walls v. They have photosynthetic pigment hence are autotrophic. vi. Majority have a transport system vii. They show alternation of generation. The kingdom Plantae is divided into three main divisions. Bryophyta. Pteridophyta. Spermatophyta. A. Division Bryophyta These are the mosses and the liverworts. General Characteristics i. The lack the vascular system ii. Contain chlorophyll and are therefore photosynthetic. iii. They have rhizoids for anchorage and water and mineral salts absorption. iv. They show alternation of generations. v. Fertilisation depends of availability of water. Male gametes are produced by the antheridia and female gametes by the archegonia. vi. They grow on damp substratum such as walls, rocks and marshes. vii. They are thalloid as in liverworts or differentiated into simple leaf like and stem like structures as in mosses. . Diagrams B. Division Pteridophyta This includes ferns and horsetails. They are more advanced compared to the bryophytes. 100 ----- General Characteristics i. They have leaves, stems and roots but no flowers. ii. They are photosynthetic. iii. They have a clearly defined vascular system made of xylem and phloem. iv. They have compound leaves with leaflets called pinna. v. On the lower side of mature leaves are the spores bearing structures sporangia which occur in groups called sori sorus- singular . see diagram. vi. They show alternation of generations where the sporophyte fern plant is the dominant one while the gametophyte is a heart shaped structure called Prothallus . See diagram. vii. They have sexual reproduction which is dependent of water. Study Question 6 Study Question 6 Practical Activity 4 Practical Activity 4 Study Question 7 Study Question 7 Practical Activity 5Practical Activity 5 C. Division Spermatophyta This comprises of all the seed bearing plants. General Characteristics i. They contain chloroplasts hence are photosynthetic. ii. The plant body is differentiated into roots, stems, leaves and seed bearing structures. iii. Vascular system is highly developed with xylem tissue consisting of both xylem vessels and tracheids. iv. Sexual reproduction is well defined. v. Seeds are produced after fertilisation. vi. They show alternation of generation. The division Spermatophyta is made up of two main subdivisions i.e. Gymnospermaphyta Angiospermaphyta Gymnospermaphyta General Characteristics 101 ----- They bear male and female cones. After fertilisation seeds are borne on the female cones and they are naked i.e. they are not enclosed in a fruit wall. They show xerophytic characteristics such as needle like leaves, rolled leaves, thick waxy cuticle and sunken stomata. Phloem doesnt contain companion cells and xylem mainly consists of tracheids. This subdivision has three main classes. Coniferales Cycadales Ginkgoales i Class Coniferales These include all the common gymnosperms. They are found in areas of little water. They have small needle-shaped leaves with waxy cuticle. They have cones and most of them are ever green. Male cones are in form of clusters at the base of the terminal bud . Female cones are on lateral buds of young shoots and they contain naked seeds. Diagrams. ii Class Cycadales They resemble the palm trees by appearance. They have long compound leaves which are clustered at the apex of a thick short un-branched stem. They bear cones at the apex of the trunk. iii Class Ginkgoales Members here are very rare. They include the Ginkgo biloba of China. They are deciduous with fan like leaves. Angiospermaphyta General characteristics Are usually bisexual and flower bearing. 102 ----- Seeds are enclosed in an ovary which develops into a fruit. Xylem has tracheids and vessels while the phloem has companion cells. They have double fertilisation. This subdivision is divided into two classes. Monocotyledonae. examples Dicotyledonae. examples Col2 --- --- Class Monocotyledonae Class Dicotyledonae. They have seeds with one cotyledon. Have two cotyledons. They have narrow-long leaves with parallel venation. Broad leaves with reticulate Teacher.co.ke/ venation. Most of their leaves have a modified petiole to form a leaf sheath. Leaves have distinct petioles. https:// Visit Papers st Their stems have scattered vascular bundle. Vascular bundles are arranged Pa and to form a concentric ring. xams, Pith is usually absent. Pith is present. Notes, E Vascular cambium is usually absent hence no secondary growth. Vascular cambium is present KCSE hence there is secondary free For growth. They have a fibrous root system They have a tap root system Floral parts are in threes or in multiples of three. Floral parts are in fours, fives or their multiples. In the root vascular bundles are arranged in a ring with phloem and xylem alternating. In roots, the xylem is centrally placed and star shaped with the phloem alternating with the arms of the xylem. Study question 8 103 ----- Practical activity 6 ix. Kingdom Animalia Study Question 9 General characteristics i. Most show locomotion but a few are sessile ii. Most reproduce sexually and a few asexually iii. They are eukaryotic and multicellular iv. All are heterotrophic v. Their cells have no cell walls Kingdom Animalia has nine phyla but only two will be discussed i.e. Arthropoda and chordata. Phylum Arthropoda Practical Activity 7 General Characteristics i. They are segmented. ii. They are bilaterally symmetrical. iii. They have open circulatory system where blood flows in open cavities called haemocoel. iv. Head is well developed with eyes, sensory structures and a fairly developed brain. v. Gaseous exchange is through the tracheal system which opens through the spiracles to the outside. Some aquatic ones use gills. vi. Reproduction is mostly sexual with internal fertilization. They have different sexes. vii. They have jointed appendages hence the name arthropoda. viii. They have a body covered with exoskeleton made of chitin. This provides a surface for muscle attachment. It is shed periodically . to allow growth through a process called moulting ix. Most have their body divided into head, thorax and abdomen. In some, the head and the thorax are fused to form Cephalothorax . The thorax and the abdomen are all segmented. The phylum arthropoda is divided into five classes. Crustacea Chilopoda Diplopoda 104 ----- Arachnida. Insecta. Different members of the phylum are placed to their respective classes based on; Number of limbs Presence and number of antennae Number of body parts. 1. Class Crustacea Examples. Daphnia, crayfish. Crab and prawn. General Characteristics i. Head and thorax are fused to form cephalothorax. ii. They have two pairs of antennae. iii. They have between five and twenty pairs of limbs modified for different functions e.g. locomotion defence and feeding. iv. They have a pair of compound eyes. v. Gaseous exchange is through the gills. vi. They have three pairs of mouth parts made of one pair of mandibles lower and two pairs of maxillae upper . 2. Class Chilopoda These are the centipedes. Diagram General Characteristics i. Body is divided into two parts, the head and the trunk. ii. The body is dorsa-ventrally flattened. iii. Body is made up of 15 or more segments. iv. Head has a pair of simple eyes. v. Each segment has a pair of walking legs. vi. Head has a pair of antennae. vii. Have poison claws n the head and are therefore carnivorous. viii. Have a tracheal system for gaseous exchange. ix. Have separate sexes. 105 ----- 3. Class Diplopoda These are the millipedes. Diagram General Characteristics i. They have cylindrical body. ii. Have three body parts, head, and thorax and body trunk. iii. They have two clumps of many simple eyes. iv. They have no poison claws and are therefore herbivorous. v. Heads has a pair of short antennae and mandibles. vi. Each body segment has a pair of spiracles for breathing. vii. Body has between 9-100 segments. viii. Each segment has two pairs of walking legs except the first thoracic segment. 4. Class Arachnida These include the scorpions, spiders, ticks and mites. Diagrams General Characteristics i. Body has two parts, cephalothorax and abdomen. ii. Cephalothorax has two chelicerae which produce poison to paralyse the prey. iii. Cephalothorax has four pairs of walking legs each having seven joints. iv. At the end of each leg are two toothed claws. v. Cephalothorax has eight simple eyes. vi. Most have lung books for gaseous exchange, some use gill books or tracheal system. vii. They have no antennae but have a pair of pedipalps which are sensitive to touch. 5. Class Insecta 106 ----- They include grasshoppers, bees, houseflies, butterflies, termites, beetles etc. Insects form half the population of animals on earth. They occupy all habitats i.e. air, water, and land. Their food is varied such as plant tissues, animal fluids, dead animals and excretions of animals making them to be found almost everywhere on earth. General Characteristics i. Body is divided into three parts, head, thorax and abdomen. ii. Thorax is made up of three segments with three pairs of legs. Some have one or two pairs of wings on the thorax. iii. Head has one pair of antennae. iv. They undergo complete or incomplete metamorphosis. v. Excretion is through the malpighian tubules which remove uric acid. vi. Gaseous exchange is through the tracheal system but they breathe through the spiracles. vii. The head a pair of compound eyes and several simple eyes. viii. Abdomen is made up of 11 or fewer segments. The terminal segments are modified for reproduction. ix. Mouth parts consist of the mandibles, maxillae and labium. The mouth parts are modified according to their feeding habits such as sucking, biting, chewing etc. Assignment . Discuss the economic importance of arthropods Study Question 10 Practical Activity Phylum Chordata Chordate, common name for animals of the phylum Chordata, which includes vertebrates as well as some invertebrates that possess, at least for some time in their lives, a stiff rod called a notochord lying above the gut. About 43,700 living species are known, making the chordates the third largest animal phylum. In animals such as the Amphioxus the notochord persists but in others it is replaced at later stages of development by the vertebral column. 107 ----- Members in this phylum inhabit both aquatic marine and fresh water and terrestrial burrowers and arboreal environments. General Characteristics i. Members have a notochord at some stage of their development. ii. They are bilaterally symmetrical. iii. Heart is ventrally placed. Blood flows from the heart through the arteries and gets back to the heart through the veins. iv. They have a post anal tail although it is greatly reduced in some. v. They have an endoskeleton. vi. They have a closed circulatory system. vii. They have visceral clefts where in fish they become the gills in higher chordates they are only present in the embryo. viii. They have a tubular dorsal nerve cord. It develops anteriorly into brain and posteriorly as the spinal cord. Spinal cord is enclosed by the vertebral column. ix. They have segmented muscle blocks called myotomes on either side of the body. The main classes of the phylum chordata are; Pisces Amphibia Reptilia. Aves. Mammalia Pisces Diagram These are the fishes. They include those with a skeleton made of cartilage e.g. shark and those with a bony skeleton such as the tilapia, Nile perch, lung fish, dog fish, and cat fish etc. General Characteristics i. The move by fins ii. Bodies are covered with scales iii. Have gills for gaseous exchange in water. iv. They dont have a middle or inner ear. v. They have streamlined bodies. 108 ----- vi. They have a lateral line for sensitivity. vii. Their heart has two main chambers i.e. the auricle and the ventricle. viii. They are poikilothermic/ectothermic. ix. Eyes are covered by a nictating membrane. Amphibia They include the toads, newts, salamanders and frogs. The toad is the most advanced amphibian. Its skin is less moist and therefore uses the lungs more for gaseous exchange. They therefore stay mostly on land and only return to the ponds during reproduction. Diagrams General Characteristics i. They have a double circulatory system. ii. They have a three chambered heart with two atria and one ventricle. iii. Fertilisation is external and they breed in water. iv. Gaseous exchange is through the skin, lungs and gills. v. They have two eyes and an eardrum behind the eyes. vi. They are ectothermic. vii. They have 4 well developed limbs. The hind limbs are more muscular than the forelimbs. Reptilia Examples include tortoise, turtles, snakes, crocodiles, lizards and chameleons. General Characteristics i. They are ectothermic. ii. They have a well developed lung for gaseous exchange. iii. They have double circulatory system with the heart having three chambers i.e. two atria and a partially divided ventricle. Crocodiles however have a four chambered heart. iv. The body is covered with a dry scaly skin reducing desiccation. v. Some have four limbs while others dont have any limbs such as the snakes. 109 ----- vi. Fertilisation is internal. They lay eggs with a leathery shell to avoid desiccation. Some species of chameleons give birth to young ones. Aves Examples include doves, chicken, hawks, eagles and turkeys. They are terrestrial and arboreal while some have been adapted for aquatic life. General Characteristics i. Bodies are covered with feathers for in insulation. ii. They have beaks. iii. They internal auditory canal/ meatus iv. Fertilisation is internal and they lay hard calcareous eggs. v. They have lungs for gaseous exchange. vi. They have air sacs which store air in them reducing their body density for flight. vii. They are endothermic. viii. They have hollow bones. ix. They have scales on their hind limbs. x. They have double circulatory system with a four chambered heart. xi. The sternum is enlarged to form keel for attachment of flight muscles. Mammalia Study Question 11 Some are arboreal such as the tree squirrels, and some monkeys. Some are terrestrial either on the surface of the earth or in tunnels. Some are aquatic such as the dolphins and whales. General Characteristics i. They have double circulatory system ii. They have mammary glands hence the name Mammalia. iii. Their body is usually covered with fur or hair. iv. They have two eternal ears pinna v. They have sweat glands. vi. They have lungs for gaseous exchange. 110 ----- vii. They have four limbs. viii. They have a diaphragm which separates the body cavity into thoracic and abdominal cavities.. ix. The brain is highly developed. x. They have seven cervical vertebrae at their neck. xi. They are endothermic. xii. They have heterodont type of dentition where the teeth are differentiated into four types, incisors, canines, pre-molars and molars. The number varies in relation to feeding habits. Although most mammals give birth to live young ones, some are egg laying such as the duck billed platypus. After hatching, the young ones are fed on milk. Practical Activity 9 Practical Activity 10. The Dichotomous Key The word dichotomous means separating into two. I.e. Separation of different or contradictory things: a separation into two divisions that differ widely from or contradict each other. As you move down the key you progress from general characteristics to more specific characteristics. The last single choice reveals the identity of the unknown organism. Rules Used in Constructing a Dichotomous Key i. Use morphological features as far as possible. ii. Start with the major characteristics and proceed to lesser variations that separate the organisms into smaller groups. E.g. in leaves start with type of leaf i.e. simple or compound. iii. Select a single characteristic at a time and identify it by a number such as. Type of leaf Type of venation iv. Use identical forms of words for the two contrasting statements e.g. 1. a leaf simple. b Leaf compound 111 ----- 2. a Leaf net veined. b Leaf parallel veined. v. The statements should always be written in positive form. Where a negative statement cannot be avoided, the first statement must be in the positive form e.g. a Animal with wings b Animal without wings vi. Avoid overlapping statements or generalisations such as Short plants Tall plants Be very specific in your description such as Plant I metre tall and above. Plant 15cm to 60cm tall. Some common Features Used For Identification. In animals i. Locomotory structures legs, wings and fins ii. Antennae, presence and number iii. Presence and type of eyes iv. Number of body parts v. Body segmentation vi. Type of skeleton present vii. Feeding structures viii. Presence of hair, fur, scales or feathers on the body In plants Part of plant Some characteristics. --- --- Leaf Phylotaxy Leaf type Leaf venation Margin Lamina Colour Flower Inflorescence Flower shape 112 ----- Col1 Number of floral --- --- Stem Type of stem woody, herbaceous or fleshy Shape rectangular or cylindrical Texture of the stem smooth or spiny/thorny Roots Root system taproot or fibrous Storage roots. r.co.ke/ Summary of the Five Kingdoms. Practical Activities. Revision Questions. REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS AND ANIMALS This is the process by which mature individuals produce offsprings. There are two types of reproduction. 1 Sexual reproduction which involves male and female gametes Diagram 2 Asexual reproduction where no gametes are involved. Diagram Importance of Reproduction 1 Procreation This ensures that a species does not become extinct. 2 Quality improvement Reproduction allows for mixing of genetic materials bringing about variations. These variations are important tools in the refinement of quality of offsprings. 113 ----- Cell Division Life in all living things start as a single cell as a spore or as a zygote. The cells have to divide further to give rise to make cells. Cell division starts with division of the nucleus chromosome and then the cytoplasm. Chromosomes These are microscopic thread like structure within cells that carries the molecule deoxyribonucleic acid DNA the hereditary material that influences the development and characteristics of each organism. Each chromosome is made up of two parallel strands called chromatids. Chromatids are joined together at one point by the centromere . Diagram Each cell has a fixed number of chromosomes e.g. each human body cell has 46 chromosomes. Chromosomes occur in pairs in the nucleus. A member of each pair is called homologous chromosomes. Homologous chromosomes are similar in appearance, size, and shape but their genetic constitution may be different. Genes are found along the length of the chromosomes. Genes are very tiny and made up of a chemical substance called DNA De oxy Ribonucleic Acid DNA determines the characteristics of the offspring. There are two types of cell division i Mitosis ii Meiosis Mitosis In this type of cell division, each cell divides into two daughter cells each having the same number of chromosomes as the parent cell. Mitosis occurs in series of stages i.e. i Interphase 114 ----- ii Prophase iii Metaphase. iv Anaphase v Telophase . 1 Interphase During this stage the following activities take place within the cell in preparation of the division. Synthesis of new cell organelles such as ribosomes, centrioles, mitochondria and Golgi apparatus. Multiplication of genetic material so that each daughter cell will have same number of chromosomes as the parent cell. Build up of enough energy stores in form of ATP Adenosine Triphosphate during respiration. This energy is important to see the cell through the process of division. At this stage the chromosomes are not clearly visible. Diagrams 2 Prophase The following events take place in this stage. Centrioles separate and move to opposite poles of the cells. Spindle fibres begin to form Nuclear membrane begins to break down and nucleolus disappears. Chromosomes thicken and shorten and they can be stained easily hence become visible. Diagram 3 Metaphase Nuclear membrane disappears and chromosomes are free in the cytoplasm. Spindle fibres lengthen and attach to the centrioles at both poles. Chromosomes align themselves at the equator and are attached to the spindle fibres by their centromere. Diagram 3 Anaphase 115 ----- Chromatids separate at the centromere and migrate to opposite poles. This is brought about by the shortening of the spindle fibres. Spindle fibres begin to disappear. In animal cells, cell membrane begins to constrict towards the end of anaphase. Diagram 4 Telophase Chromatids collect together at the two opposite poles of the spindle. Nuclear membrane forms around each set of chromatids and are now referred to as chromosomes. Cytoplasm divides into two hence the formation of two daughter cells. Chromosomes become less distinct. In animal cells, division of cytoplasm is by constriction of cell membrane. In plant cells, a cell plate forms within the cytoplasm and grows to separate the cell into two. Diagrams Significance of Mitosis i Forms basis for asexual reproduction e.g. budding and spore formation. ii Causes cell growth when the cells formed increase in number and size. iii Ensures genetic constitution of the offspring is the same as the parents. iv Replaces damaged and dead cells in the body. Meiosis This involves two divisions of the parental cell resulting into four daughter cells. First meiotic cell division involves the separation of the homologous chromosomes. It is referred to as Reduction division because the numbers of chromosomes are reduced by half. 116 ----- In the second stage, the sister chromatids are separated and it is referred to as Equatorial division Each daughter cell has half the number of chromosomes haploid n as the parent cell. This takes place in the reproductive organs of animals testis and ovary and plants anthers and ovary . Meiosis is divided into same series of stages as in mitosis. The phases are given names as in mitosis but each is followed by I or II. First Meiotic Division Interphase I The cell prepares for division by the following. Replication of chromosomes. Synthesis of new cell organelles. Build up of energy. Prophase I Nucleolus disappears. Centrioles move to opposite poles. Chromosomes shorten and thicken becoming more visible. Homologous chromosomes lie side by side in the process of synapsis forming pairs called bivalents. Homologous chromosomes may become coiled around each other with their chromatids remaining in contact at points called chiasmata. NB/. During chiasma formation homologous chromosomes may exchange genetic material during crossing over. These genetic exchanges are important because they bring about variations in offsprings. Metaphase.I Nuclear membrane disappears. Homologous chromosomes as a bivalent move to the equator of the cell. Spindle fibres are fully formed and get attached to the chromosomes at the centromere. 117 ----- Homologous chromosomes orientate towards different poles. Diagram Anaphase I Homologous chromosomes separate and migrate to the opposite poles with their centromeres leading. This is brought about by the shortening of the spindle fibres. Diagram Telophase I Cell divides across the middle when the chromosomes reach the poles. At the end of meiosis I homologous chromosomes are separated. Diagram Second Meiotic Division . In this stage the sister chromatids are separated from each other. Interphase II Cells go into a short interphase. Prophase II Chromosomes become shorter and thicker. New spindle fibres are formed. Metaphase.II Chromosomes align at the equator of the cell. Spindle fibres attach to their centromeres. Chromosomes orientate themselves towards the opposite poles. Anaphase II Sister chromatids separate from each other. Spindle fibres shorten pulling them to the opposite poles. Telophase II Spindle fibres disappears Nucleolus reappears and nuclear membrane forms around each set of chromatids. Chromatids uncoil and become threadlike. Cytoplasm divides. Four cells are formed tetrad . Each cell has haploid n number of chromosomes. 118 ----- Significance of Meiosis 1. Gamete formation sperms and ova forming basis for sexual reproduction 2. Provides opportunities for genetic variations during crossing over Similarities between mitosis and meiosis 1. Both take place in plants and animals. 2. Both involve division multiplication of cells. Differen c es between meiosis and mitosis Meiosis Mitosis. --- --- 1. Homologous chromosomes associate with each other. No association of homologous chromosomes 2. Takes place in 2 nuclear divisions. Takes place in one nuclear division. 3. 4 daughter cells are produced each haploid n 2 daughter cells are produced each diploid 2n 4. Occurs in reproductive organs leading to gamete formation. Occurs in somatic body cells leading to growth. 5. Chiasma formation takes place leading to crossing over hence variation No chiasma formation therefore no crossing over hence no variation. Asexual Reproduction This is the production of offsprings from a single organism without fusion of gametes. This type of reproduction involves mitosis. Types of Asexual Reproduction 1. Binary fission in amoeba, plasmodium and bacteria 2. Sporulation in rhizopus 3. Budding in yeasts 1. Binary fission in amoeba When there is enough food and favourable temperature and pH, a mature amoeba divides into two. 119 ----- During binary division, in amoeba, internal reorganization of molecules necessary for structural construction takes place. Nucleus first divides mitotically Karyogamy into two followed by the division of the cytoplasm Cytogamy Diagrams 2. Sporulation in Rhizopus This is the formation of spores in substrates like the bread to form bread moulds A spore is a microscopic reproductive unit which contains a nucleus and a small amount of cytoplasm. Spores are produced by bacteria, most fungi, mosses and ferns. Rhizopus has a vegetative body called the mycelium. . Mycelium is made up of many branched threads called hyphae Horizontal hyphae are called stolons . . Vertically growing ones are called sporangiophore Tips of sporangiophore swell up to form the sporangia . sporangium Sporangia are the spore bearing structures. When fully mature, sporangium wall burst releasing the spores. If spores land on a suitable medium, they germinate and develop into other rhizopus. Rhizopus uses structures called rhizoids for anchorage and to obtain nutrients from the substrate. Diagrams Budding in Yeast Under favourable conditions such as plenty of sugar, moisture, oxygen and optimum temperature, the yeast cell reproduces asexually by budding. A projection of bud forms on the parent cell. Nucleus divides into two. One nuclei moves into the new bud. Bud grows in size and forms new cell organelles. Later the bud separates off. Diagrams 120 ----- Sexual Reproduction in Plants In flowering plants the flower is the reproductive organ. Structure and Function of a Flower A flower is made up of a flower stalk pedicel and a receptacle. Attached to the receptacle are four groups of floral structures i.e. i Calyx sepals ii Corolla/petals iii Androecium male parts iv Gynoecium female parts i Calyx sepals Made up of the sepals which are usually green. If sepals are fused they form gamosepalous calyx. If they are free, they form polysepalous calyx. Calyx protects the inner parts of the flower especially during bud development. Some flowers have sepal like structures below the calyx called the . epicalyx ii Corolla/petals Its made up of the petals which are brightly coloured, large and conspicuous especially in insect pollinated flowers. If fused gamopetalous. If free polypetalous iii Androecium male parts Made up of one or more stamens Satmen is made up of the filament and anthers. Another has four pollen sacs containing pollen grains. Pollen grains contain the male gametes. Diagrams iv Gynoecium female parts It may contain one or more carpels A carpel consists of the ovary, the style and the stigma. Ovary contains the ovules. 121 ----- Ovaries are described as epigynous, hypogynous or perigynous depending on the place they occur in the flower. i Epigynous inferior ovary Ovary is located within the receptacle. All other floral parts occur above it such as in the apple flowers. Diagram ii Hypogynous superior ovary Ovary is above the receptacle and other floral parts such as in hibiscus. Diagram iii Perigynous ovary The receptacle surrounds the carpel. All other floral parts arise around the ovary such as in roses. Diagram The gynoecia can also be grouped into different types dependi.ng on the number of carpels present i.e. monocarpous or syncarpous. Monocarpous Gynoecium It has only one carpel e.g. in beans. Diagram Polycarpous Gynoecium It has two or more carpels. It is divided into two. a Apocarpous gynoecium The carpels are free e.g in roses and bryophyllum. Diagrams b Syncarpous gynoecium The carpels are fused together such as in hibiscus. Diagrams Terms Used in Describing a Flower i Complete flower has all the four floral parts; calyx, corolla, androecium and gynoecium. ii Incomplete flower has one or two floral parts missing. iii Unisexual flower a flower with only one of the reproductive parts either male or female flower. iv Staminate flower male flower. v Pistillate flower female flower. 122 ----- vi Monoecious plant bears both male and female parts of the flower. vii Dioecious plants - the plant is either male or female e.g. in paw paw. viii Hermaphrodite or bisexual flower has both the male and female parts. ix Regular or actinomorphic flower a flower that can be divided into tow similar halves by any vertical section passing through the center i.e. radial symmetry such as in morning glory. x Irregular or zygomorphic flower can be divided into two similar halves on one particular plane only i.e. bilateral symmetry e.g. in clotalaria. xi Pedicillate flower- flower with a stalk. xii Solitary flower are flowers occurring singly. xiii Inflorescence flowers that grow in clusters. xiv Essential parts of the flower are the androecium and gynoecium. xv Non essential floral parts are the calyx and corolla. Pollination This is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma. Types of Pollination i Self pollination . Transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of the same flower. ii Cross Pollination transfer of pollen grains from the anther of one flower to the stigma of another flower but of the same species. Agents of Pollination Insect Wind Adaptations of Insect Pollinated Flowers Entomophilous i Flowers are large, conspicuous with brightly coloured petals and inflorescence to attract insects. ii Flowers are scented and produce nectar to attract insects. 123 ----- iii Pollen grains are relatively large, heavy, rough or sticky so as to stick on to the body of the sticks. iv They have small and firmly attached anthers to a firm filament. v Stigmas are small, sticky and contained within the flower. This ensures that pollen grains from the body of an insect stick onto it. vi Flowers have a tubular or funnel shaped corolla, landing platforms and honey guides. Adaptations of Wind Pollinated Flowers Anemophilous e.g. maize and other grasses i Small flowers with inconspicuous petals, bracts or inflorescence. ii Flower structure is simple and flowers have no particular shape. iii Stigmas are long, feathery and hang outside the flower to trap pollen grains. iv Pollen grains are small, smooth and light to be easily carried by the wind. v Flowers are not scented and lack nectar. vi Anthers are large and loosely attached to a flexible filament to be easily released when the wind blows. Diagram of a grass flower Stigma Col1 Anther --- --- Filament Features and Mechanisms Hindering Self Pollination and Self Fertilization Stigma i Heterostyly condition whre the stigma na d style have different arrangements e.g. coconut flowers have shorter 124 ----- stamens than pistils hence pollen grains from the anthers cannot reach the stigma. Diagram ii Self sterility or incompatibility condition where pollen grains of a flower fail to germinate if they land on the stigma of the same flower. iii Protogyny and Protandry condition where either male parts of a flower mature before the female ones. Protandry stamen mature before the stigma e.g.in sunflower. Protogyny stigma matures before the anthers mature e.g. in maize. iv Dioecious plants and presence of features that promote cross pollination such as brightly coloured petals which attract insects hence cross pollination. Fertilization in Flowering Plants Fertilization in plants is the fusion of the male and female nuclei in the embryo sac. Male gamete is contained in the pollen grain produced in the anther. Diagram Female gamete egg cell is found in ovules contained in the embryo sac. 125 ----- Process of Fertilization Integuments funicle Pedicel Egg cell Synegids Embryo sac - Pollen grains land stick to the stigma and germinates to form pollen tube, which grows through the tissue of the style towards the ovary - The generative nucleus undergoes mitosis, forming 2 male nuclei - The pollen tube gets into the embryo sac through the micropyle; pollen tube nucleus disintegrates, creating a passage for the male nuclei. - The egg cell fuses with one of the two male nuclei to form a diploid zygote. The zygote undergoes mitosis to form an embryo - The two polar nuclei fuse with the second male nucleus to form a triploid nucleus. - The triploid nucleus forms the endosperm. The two con current fertilization incidents are collectively referred to as double fertilization Seed and Fruit Development - Some changes occur to the ovary, ovule and the entire flower after fertilization. - Calyx dries and falls off or may persist. - Petals and stamens wither and fall off. 126 ----- Development of the Seed - Zygote undergoes mitotic division to become the embryo plumule and radicle and one or two cotyledons. - Primary endosperm nucleus develops into the endosperm. - Ovule forms the seeds. - Ovary develops into a fruit. - Integuments become the seed coat testa . - Testa has got a scar hilum which is the attachment point to the placenta. - A seed a tiny opening called the micropyle which allows water into the seed during germination. - Water is withdrawn from the seed from about 80 to 15 by mass making the seed dry and hard. Development of Fruits - A fruit is a fully grown fertilized ovary containing fully developed seeds. - This is brought about by the hormones gibberellins and occurs after fertilization. - As the ovules develop into seeds, the rest of the ovary develops into the fruit wall or the pericarp. - Pericarp has two scars indicating the points of attachment to the style and to the receptacle. - Pericarp has three layers; epicarp/exocarp outer most , mesocarp middle and the endocarp innermost . 127 ----- - In some fruits such as pineapples and bananas fruit formation . takes place without fertilization. This is called parthenocarpy - False fruits are formed when other parts of the flower such as the receptacle enlarge and enclose the ovary e.g. in pineapples, apple, straw berry and cashew nut. Classification of Fruits berry e.g tomato berry e.g tomato orange orange succulent fruitssucculent fruits drupe e.g mango drupe e.g mango and coconut and coconut schizocarp e.g schizocarp e.g castorcastor fruits fruits dehiscent dehiscent dry fruitsdry fruits indehiscent indehiscent Succulent fruits They are divided into berry and drupe. 128 legume e.g. legume e.g. beansbeans capsule e.g. capsule e.g. poppypoppy nuts e.g. nuts e.g. macadamiamacadamia caryopsis e.g caryopsis e.g maizemaize cypsela e.g black cypsela e.g black jackjack ----- Berry has a succulent pericarp divided into epicarp, mesocarp and endocarp e.g. orange, tomato, passion fruit, melon, paw paw etc. Diagram Drupe they have a thin epicarp, fleshy or fibrous mesocarp and a very hard endocarp enclosing the seeds. In mango the fleshy edible part is the mesocarp while in coconut the mesocarp is a fibrous cover just before the hard endocarp. Diagram Dry Fruits - They are divided into dehiscent and indehiscent. Dry Dehiscent fruit They dehisce to release their seeds. They are divided into; 1. Legume e.g beans Diagram 2. Capsule e.g poppy Diagram 3. Schizocarp e.g. castor. Diagram Dry indehiscent fruits - These do not dehisce. - They include; 1. Caryopsis - pericarp and seed coat are fused together to form a thin covering round the seed e.g. maize. Diagram 2. Cypsela - its a one seeded e.g. the blackjack. Diagram 3. Nut the pericarp becomes hard and woody and it is separate from the seed coat e.g. macadamia. Diagram Placentation - This is the arrangement of the ovules in an ovary. They include; 129 ----- 1. . Marginal Placentation - Ovules are attached to the placenta in a row e.g. peas in a pod. Diagram 2. Basal placentation - Placenta is formed at the base of the ovary. Ovules are attached to it sunflower and sweet pepper. Diagram 3. Axile Placentation - The edges of the carpels fuse together to form a central placenta in the axile. - Ovules are arranged on the placenta. - The ovary is divided into a number of loculi by the walls of the carpel e.g. in orange Diagram 4. Parietal Placentation - Edges of the carpels fuse together and dividing walls disappear leaving a loculus. - Placentas from each carpel appear as a ridge on the ovary wall and have numerous ovules on them e.g. in paw paw. Diagram 5. Free central placentation - Edges of carpels fuse together and the dividing walls disappear leaving one loculus. - Placenta appears at the center and have numerous ovules on it e.g. in primrose Diagram Adaptations of Fruits to Various Agents of Dispersal a Water dispersal - Such seeds and fruits enclose air in them to lower their density for buoyancy; - They are fibrous/ spongy to lower the density for buoyancy; - Have impermeable seed coat or epicarp to prevent water from entering during flotation so as to avoid rotting; 130 ----- - The seeds can remain viable while in water and only germinate while on a suitable medium; b Wind dispersal - They are light; and small; to be easily carried by wind currents due to lower density; - Have developed extension Parachute like structures and Wing like structures which create a larger surface area; so as to be kept afloat in wind currents e.g. sonchus and jacaranda - In some a Perforated capsule is usually loosely attached to a long stalk which is swayed away by wind scattering seeds; c Animal dispersal - Brightly colored to attract animals - Fleshy to attract animals; e.g. mangoes, passion fruits, oranges, tomatoes etc. - aromatic /scented to attract animals; - The seed coats are hard and resistant to digestive enzymes; the seeds are therefore dropped away in feaces/droppings e.g. passion fruit and tomatoes. - Some have hook like structures to attach on animals fur e.g. blackjack d Self dispersal - They have weak lines sutures on the fruit wall pod , along which they burst open to release seeds, which get scattered away from the parent plant e.g. in legumes such as peas and beans. SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN ANIMALS This involves gamete fusion. The male produces the male gamete sperms and the female produces the female gamete ovum/ova . The gametes are produced in special organs called gonads i.e. the testes and ovaries. 131 ----- The sperm fuses with the ovum to form a zygote through a process called fertilisation the gametes are haploid and the zygote is diploid. Fertilisation may be internal or external. External Fertilisation in Amphibians The female lays eggs and the male sheds sperms on them to fertilise them . This is only possible in water. Many eggs are released to increase the chances of survival since bacteria and other organisms can eat fertilised eggs. Eggs are also in long strands of slippery jelly like substance, which offer the eggs protection. This substance separates the eggs from each other allowing for good aeration. It also attaches the eggs to water plants and makes them buoyant. Internal Fertilisation This occurs in reptiles, birds and mammals where fertilisation occurs within the body of the female. Sperms are introduced into the females body. Few eggs are produced because there are high chances of fertilisation and the gametes/zygote receive further protection. In most mammals, some chameleons and some snakes the fertilised eggs develop into young ones within the body of the female. They give birth to young ones. Study Question 8 Reproduction in Mammals Mammals have internal fertilization where eggs are laid or develop within the females body in the uterus. The egg laying mammals monotremes they are said to be oviparous such as the platypus. 132 ----- Platypus The duck-billed platypus, Ornithorhynchus anatinus, found only in eastern Australia, belongs to an unusual group of egg-laying mammals called monotremes. It lives in streams, rivers, and occasionally lakes. The duck-billed platypus feeds on bottom- dwelling aquatic insect larvae, which it finds by probing the streambed with its pliable, sensitive bill. In marsupials such as the kangaroo the zygote does not develop fully within the uterus but completes development in the pouch. Mother Kangaroo and Baby Kangaroos are a type of mammal called a marsupial. Baby marsupials are unable to survive on their own when they are born, so they must live in a pouch on their mothers belly. A newborn kangaroo, called a joey, stays in its mothers pouch for about six months, where it feeds on her milk. The ability to give birth to young ones as in placental mammals is called viviparity. Mammals have mammary glands, which produce milk on which the young ones are fed. Parental care is highly developed in mammals. 133 ----- Reproduction in Human beings Structure and Function of The male Reproductive System Male Reproductive System The organs of the male reproductive system enable a man to have sexual intercourse and to fertilize female sex cells eggs with sperm. The gonads, called testicles, produce sperm. Sperm pass through a long duct called the vas deferens to the seminal vesicles, a pair of sacs that lies behind the bladder. These sacs produce seminal fluid, which mixes with sperm to produce semen. Semen leaves the seminal vesicles and travels through the prostate gland, which produces additional secretions that are added to semen. During male orgasm the penis ejaculates semen. Testes are found outside the abdominal cavity in the scrotal sac. This position provides a cooler environment for sperm production since sperms develop best at lower temperature than that of the body. Testis is made up of highly coiled tubes called seminiferous tubules whose inner lining has actively dividing cells which give rise to sperms. Between the seminiferous tubules are interstitial cells, which produce the male hormones androgens . 134 ----- Internal View of Male Reproductive System The reproductive anatomy of the male human is largely external. Beginning at puberty, sperm are produced within seminiferous tubules of the testicles, a pair of glands that reside in a pouch called the scrotum. The external location of the scrotum keeps the temperature of sperm slightly below body temperature, which is necessary for their healthy development and survival. From each testicle, sperm migrate to a long, coiled tube known as the epididymis, where they are stored for one to three weeks until they mature. Also located outside the body is the penis, the erectile organ responsible for the excretion of urine and the transfer of sperm to the vagina of the female. Just before ejaculation during sexual arousal, mature sperm travel from the epididymis, a coiled tube behind each testicle, through a long duct called the vas deferens. Sperm leave the body in semen, a fluid produced by the seminal vesicles. Seminiferous tubules unite to form the epididymis, which is about 6m long and highly coiled. It stores the sperms. Its connected to the sperm duct/vas deferens. Sperm duct connects the epididymis to the urethra, which is the ejaculatory duct. Seminal vesicles provide an alkaline fluid, which contains nutrients for the sperms. 135 ----- Prostate gland secretes an alkaline substance to neutralise the vaginal fluids. It also activates the sperms. Cowpers glands secrete an alkaline fluid that neutralizes the acidity along the urethra. All these fluids combine with the spermatozoa to form the semen. Since the urethra serves both passage of urine and semen it is said to be urino-genital in function. The penis is erectile and made of spongy tissue, muscle and blood vessels. Once erect, the penis is able to penetrate the vagina in order to deposit sperms into the females reproductive tract. Study question 9 and Practical.Study question 9 and Practical. . Structure and Function of The Female Reproductive System Diagram The internal sex organs of the female consist of the vagina, uterus, fallopian tubes or oviducts , and ovaries. The vagina is a flexible tube-shaped organ that is the passageway between the uterus and the opening in the vulva. Because during birth the baby travels from the uterus through the vagina, the vagina is also known as the birth canal. The woman's menstrual flow comes out of the uterus and through the vagina. When a man and a woman engage in vaginal intercourse, the penis is inserted into the vagina. The cervix is located at the bottom of the uterus and includes the opening between the vagina and the uterus. It secretes a plug of mucus, which prevents entry of pathogens into the uterus during pregnancy. The uterus is a muscular organ that has an inner lining endometrium richly supplied with blood vessels and glands. During pregnancy, the uterus holds and nourishes the developing foetus. 136 ----- Although the uterus is normally about the size of a fist, during pregnancy it is capable of stretching to accommodate a fully developed foetus, which is typically about 50 cm about 20 in long and weighs about 3.5 kg about 7.5 lbs . The uterine muscles also produce the strong contractions of labour. At the top of the uterus are the pair of fallopian tubes oviduct that lead to the ovaries. The two ovaries produce eggs, or ova the female sex cells that can become fertilized , and female sex hormones, primarily oestrogen and progesterone. The fallopian tubes have finger like projections at the ends near the ovaries that sweep the egg into the fallopian tube after it is released from the ovaries. Movement of ovum is also aided by the smooth muscles of the oviduct. If sperm are present in the fallopian tube, fertilization conception may occur and the fertilized egg will be swept into the uterus by cilia hair like projections inside the fallopian tube . Practical The Human Sperm Are formed in the seminiferous tubules of testes by meiosis. Final products of meiosis enter the sertoli cells where they are nourished and undergo maturation. Mature sperms leave for epididymis where they are stored. A mature sperm has an ovoid head, short neck, middle piece and a tail. Diagram Head has a large nucleus carrying the genetic material, which is haploid n . 137 ----- At the tip of the head there is the acrosome containing lytic enzymes. These enzymes digest the wall of ova. The short neck contains centrioles. Middle piece has a large number of mitochondria, which provide with the energy required for propulsion of the sperm to reach the ova. The tail propels the sperm forward by its side-to-side lashing action. Formation of The Ova In females egg formation begins in the ovary of the foetus before birth unlike in males where production of sperms starts at puberty. At birth there are about 70,000 potential egg cells in the ovaries of a baby girl. A layer of ovary cells called primary follicles, which provide them with nourishment, encloses them. Only about 500 of them develop into ova during puberty. During puberty the primary follicles grow to become Graafian follicle . At ovulation, the Graafian follicle bursts open to release a mature ovum surrounded by a layer of cells. Diagram A mature ovum is spherical in shape with a diameter of about 0.2 mm. It has a large haploid nucleus surrounded by a nuclear membrane. Nucleus is within the cytoplasm enclosed by the plasma membrane . Vitelline membrane surrounds the plasma membrane. Study Question 11 138 ----- Fertilisation Process where the nucleus of a male gamete fuses with the nucleus of a female gamete to form a zygote. This takes place in the upper part of he oviduct after copulation. Sperms are drawn up by suction through the cervix into the uterus. They swim up to the oviduct using their tails. Very many sperms are released but only one is required to fertilise the ovum. The ovum releases chemical substances, which are neutralised by those released by the acrosome. When the ovum comes into contact with the egg the acrosome bursts releasing lytic enzymes, which dissolve the egg membranes. The acrosome turns inside out forming a filament, which is used to penetrate the eggs. Diagrams The Vitelline membrane undergoes a change, which stops any other sperm from entering the ovum. Once inside the cytoplasm the head bursts to release the male nucleus, which then fuses with the female nucleus to form a diploid zygote. After ovulation the ovum can remain viable for 8-24 hours before it dies. The sperm can remain viable for 2-3 days in the female reproductive tract. Study Question 12 Implantation This is the attachment of the blastocyst to the walls of the uterus by the villi. 139 ----- After fertilisation, the zygote undergoes various mitotic divisions as it moves down the oviduct. Its movement is aided by cilia in the oviduct and by the contractions of the smooth muscles lining the oviduct. By the time it reaches the uterus it has formed a hollow structure of cells called blastocyst. Movement of the zygote from the oviduct to the time it is implanted takes about 7 days. Diagrams Sometime the zygote may fail to move down to the uterus and gets implanted into the walls of the oviduct. This condition is referred to as . ectopic pregnancy Formation of Placenta During implantation the blastocyst differentiates into three layers, chorion, amnion and allantois. Diagram Chorion is the outermost and it has finger like projections called chorionic villi . These villi grow into the endometrium. During the early stages of embryo development, villi form the sites for material exchange between the embryo and maternal blood vessels. Amnion surrounds the embryo forming an amniotic cavity. Amniotic cavity contains the amniotic fluid, which suspends the foetus providing it with support. It also acts as a shock absorber hence protecting it against mechanical injury. The chorionic villi, allantois and the endometrium form the placenta. The embryo is attached to the placenta by a tube called the umbilical cord . When the placenta is fully formed, the embryo becomes the foetus at about three months of pregnancy. 140 ----- The Role of The Placenta This is a temporary organ found only in placental mammals. It is the only organ in animals composed of cells derived from two different organisms; the foetus and the mother. It facilitates the transfer of nutrients and metabolic waste products between the mother and the foetus. It selectively allows some materials to pass through and not others. Refer to the table below Drugs, alcohol and some chemicals from cigarette smoke pass through the placenta. Pregnant mothers should therefore not take alcohol or smoke excessively. There is no direct connection between the foetal blood system and that of the mother. If the two systems were directly connected, the delicate blood vessels of the foetus would burst due the higher pressure in the maternal circulatory system. Exchange of materials occurs across the sinus in the uterine wall and the capillary system of foetus across intercellular space by diffusion. Diagram Study question 13 During pregnancy, placenta takes over the role of producing hormones oestrogen and progesterone. Major functions of oestrogen and progesterone during pregnan cy Oestrogen Progesterone. --- --- i. Growth of mammary glands ii. Inhibits FSH release. iii. Inhibits prolactin release. iv. Prevent infection in i. Growth of mammary glands. ii. Inhibits FSH release iii. Inhibits prolactin release. iv. Inhibits contraction of 141 ----- v uterus v. Increase size of the uterine muscle cells. vi. Increase ATP and creatine phosphate formation. ii. Increases sensitivity of myometrium to oxytocin. Col3 myometrium. Col5 --- --- --- --- --- What is allowed to pass through the placenta What is not allowed to pass through the placenta From the mother to the foetus. i. Oxygen ii. Vitamins iii. Mineral salts iv. Hormones v. Water vi. Antibodies and antigens. ii. Glucose, amino acids, fatty acids and glycerol. From the foetus to the mother i. Carbon iv oxide. ii. Nitrogenous wastes. i. All blood cells. ii. Plasma proteins. iii. Most bacteria. Gestation Period This is the period between conception and birth. This varies in different animals. E.g. mice 22 days Rabbits, 30 days Man, 9 months Elephants, 18 month 142 ----- When the human embryo is two weeks old, allantois, chorion and amnion have already formed. Embryo then differentiates into tissues and organs. By the end of the third month, the heart and blood vessels are fully developed. Spinal cord and the head region, which includes the eyes and the nose, are also well developed. Limbs show early signs of development. By the end of 6 months the alveoli and nose are well developed. Foetal movement can as well be felt. By the end of the nine months, the foetus head is directly above the cervix. By now all the organs and systems are fully developed. If birth occurs before completion of 6 months, this is called miscarriage and the baby cannot survive. If the foetal development is interfered with either physically or chemically such that the foetus is released, this is called abortion. If birth occurs after 7 months but before term, this is called premature birth . Such babies are raised in incubators and they do survive. Pregnant mothers must have a balanced diet. Calcium, proteins, phosphates and iron should be abundant in her diet. Calcium and phosphorous are needed for bone formation while iron is for haemoglobin formation. Pregnant mother should visit antenatal clinic. Birth/Parturition Maternal posterior pituitary gland releases hormone oxytocin. Progesterone level goes down. Oxytocin stimulates contraction of the myometrium. Oxytocin is released in waves during labour. This provides the force required to expel the foetus from the uterus. The cervix dilates, the amnion and chorion rupture releasing the amniotic fluid. The uterus starts contacting from the top downwards pushing the foetus downwards head first through the widened cervix and the birth canal. After birth, the umbilical cord is ligatured/cut to separate the baby from the placenta. Placenta is expelled later after birth. 143 ----- Then newborn baby takes in the first breath, lungs expand and become functional. The respiratory role of the placenta is taken over by the lungs. Diagrams Caesarean delivery This is the surgical incision of the abdominal and uterine walls for delivery to be achieved. This is done where there are complications ns such that the foetus cannot pass through the birth canal. Parental care The newborn baby is given food and protection. Placental mammals feed their young ones on milk. Milk is produced by the mammary glands under the influence of lactogenic hormones e.g. prolactin. Mothers milk is the best as it contains all the nutrients needed for the growth and development of the body. For the first 3 days, colostrum is produced which contain antibodies, which provide natural defence to the foetus against diseases. Milk is deficient of iron. The baby relies on iron stored in its liver during gestation. Milk let down is an example of a reflex action. The prevailing environment as shown below influences it either positively or negatively. Milk production in various environments Positive Environment Negative Environment --- --- Sucking at the breast, smell of the baby or crying of the baby trigger milk let down. Hypothalamus relays impulses to pituitary gland which releases hormone oxytocin Oxytocin reaches the breasts and causes alveoli to contract forcing milk into the ducts. Milk let down may be inhibited or blocked if the breastfeeding mother experiences embarrassment, fatigue or anxiety. 144 ----- Assignment Child labour Role of Hormones in Human Reproduction Secondary sexual characteristics These are physiological, structural and mental changes associated with masculinity and femininity. They are controlled by oestrogen in females and androgens in males. They occur at puberty. Secondary sexual characteristics in males Hypothalamus stimulates pituitary gland to release gonadotrophic hormones i.e. FSH and LH. FSH stimulates sperm synthesis. LH is also known as Interstitial Cell Stimulating Hormone ICSH and it stimulates interstitial cells to release Androgens mostly Testosterone. It stimulates the onset of secondary sexual characteristics mostly at the age of 14. These include; i. Deepening of voice ii. Growth of hair in pubic parts and armpit region iii. Appearance of beards iv. Body becomes masculine v. Testes enlarge and begin to produce sperms Secondary sexual characteristics in females In females they start at early age 10-12 years. They include, i. Development of mammary glands ii. Growth of hair in pubic parts and armpit region iii. Enlargement of the pelvic girdle and widening of the hips iv. Body becomes feminine. v. Ovaries mature and start releasing eggs under the influence of FSH and LH hence ovulation and menses. 145 ----- Unlike in males, the production of gonadotrophic hormones is not continuous. It is produced periodically in cycles. Menstrual Cycle Menstruation An average menstrual cycle begins with three to five days of menstruation, the shedding of the uterine lining, during which hormone levels are low. At the end of menstruation, pituitary gland secrets FSH which has two functions. It stimulates new Graafian follicles to develop in the ovary and stimulates the ovary to secrete the hormone oestrogen. Oestrogen brings about repair and healing of the endometrium, which is destroyed during menstruation. Oestrogen accumulates to levels, which stimulate the release of LH. LH stimulates the maturity of Graafian follicle. The mature Graafian follicle releases the ovum into the fallopian tube. This is called Ovulation and occurs on the 14 th day. The empty Graafian follicle forms the corpus luteum, an endocrine body that secretes progesterone. LH stimulates corpus luteum to secrete hormone progesterone. This hormone stimulates thickening and increased blood supply to the endometrium preparing the endometrium for implantation. If fertilization takes place, the level of progesterone increases and thus inhibits FSH from stimulating the maturation of another Graafian follicle. If fertilization does not take place, the corpus luteum dies and progesterone hormone levels fall. Without hormonal support, the uterine lining disintegrates and discharges, beginning a new menstrual period and cycle. This cycle lasts for 28 days in human beings. 146 ----- Assignment Sanitary Health Menopause STI Advantages of Asexual reproduction i. Good qualities from the parents are retained since there is no variation. ii. There is faster maturation. iii. Its independent of processes such as pollination, fertilisation and fruit and seed dispersal iv. New offsprings are able to obtain nourishment from their parents and are therefore able to survive under unsuitable conditions. v. There is no wastage of a large number of offsprings . Disadvantages i. Reduction in strength and vigour in offsprings. ii. Undesired qualities are easily inherited. iii. Due to faster maturation there are chances of overcrowding and competition. iv. Offsprings may not withstand changing environmental conditions due to lack of variation. Advantages of sexual reproduction i. There is hybrid vigour due to mixing of genetic material. ii. There is high adaptability iii. Variation form basis for evolutionary changes. Disadvantages i. May produce individuals with undesirable qualities. ii. Method is dependent of union of gametes and therefore may not take place if the two organisms are isolated Revision Questions BIOLOGY FORM FOUR NOTES THE EYE The mammalian eye is spherical; fluid filled and has three layers; Outer layer or sclera Middle layer or choroid Inner layer or retina Adaptations of the eye Part Properties Functions 147 ----- 1. Sclera Tough, white opaque layer. Protects delicate inner parts of the eye. Maintain shape of the eye. --- --- --- 2. Cornea Transparent and front layer of the sclera. Allow light into the eye. Refract light entering the eye 3. Conjunctiva Thin and transparent layer before the cornea. Allow light into the eye. Protects the cornea. 4. Choroid Have cells that have melanin, arteries veins Provide nourishment to the eye. Pigment prevents reflection of light within the eyeball. 5. Ciliary body Have thin rings of thickened tissue arising from choroids. Produce the aqueous https://Teacher.co.ke/ humour Visit 6. Ciliary muscle Have circular and radial muscles which are antagonistic. Muscles alter the Papers tension of suspensory Past and ligaments. Exams, Notes, E 7. Suspensory ligaments. fibrous Alter the shape of the KCS free lens. For 8. Pupil Hole at the center of iris. Regulates the amount of light entering the eye. 9. Iris Contain melanin, circular and radial muscles. Give the eye its colour. Regulates the amount of light entering the eye 10. Lens Transparent, biconvex and elastic structure. Found behind pupil. Refracts light onto retina. Involved in accommodation of the eye. Separates the aqueous 148 ----- Col1 Col2 humor from vitreous humor. --- --- --- 11. Aqueous/ Vitreous humor Transparent fluids allow light pass / refract light, Hydrostatic pressure maintain shape of eyeball. Contains sugars / proteins / salts provide nutrients to eye. 12. Retina Contains photoreceptors Cones Rods and blood vessels. Rods are sensitive to low light intensity and detect black and white and more in nocturnal animals. Have photochemical pigment called rhodopsin. https://Teacher.co.ke/ Cones are sensitive to high light intensity, detect colour and Visit present in large Papers numbers in diurnal Past animals. Have and Exams, photochemical pigment Notes, called iodopsin. E 13. Fovea centralis Contain mainly the cones. Its the most sensitive KCS free part of the retina. For Image is formed here. 14. Blind- spot Has no photoreceptors Optic nerve leaves the retina. Blood vessels emerge here to nourish the eye. 15. Optic nerve Made of nerve fibres Transmits nerve impulses to the brain for interpretation. 16. Lachrym al gland Secrete tears Tears moisten the cornea and washout foreign particles. Tears have antiseptic effect. 17. Nictitatin Transparent Draw across the eye 149 ----- g membrane membrane in birds, reptiles and fish. cleaning and protecting it. --- --- --- 18. External eye muscles Contractile move eyeball within socket 19. others - externally- orbit- protective eye lids-protect the eye by closing Eye lashes-prevent entry of small foreign particles. Eye brows-prevent dust sweat from entering eye. Image formation and interpretation Light from an object is refracted by cornea, aqueous humour, the lens, through the vitreous humour and focused on the yellow spot of the retina. Image formed is recorded as real, inverted and small. Photoreceptors are stimulated and generate a nerve impulse which is transmitted by the optic nerve to the cerebrum of the brain for interpretation. In the brain the image is interpreted as real, upright and normal. Images from the right eye are interpreted by the left hemisphere of cerebrum while those from the left eye by the right hemisphere. Diagram pages 100 KLB Binocular vision or Stereoscopic Vision This is the ability of both eyes to look straight ahead but see the same scene from a slightly different angle. The eyes' visual fields overlap in the center, and the brain merges these images to create a sense of depth important for judging distance. Humans and other mammals have stereoscopic vision. Birds, fish, and snakes have monocular vision in which each eye sees a separate image covering a wide area on each side of the head. s Advantage 1. Larger field of view 2. Provide much accurate assessment of distance, height or depth of objects. 150 ----- 3. Damage to one eye is compensated by the other 4. Cancels the effect of blind spot Accommodation of The Eye This is the refraction of light in order to fall on the fovea centralis yellow spot for clear focus of image regardless of the distance of the object. Accommodation of a close object Ciliary muscles contract thereby relaxing the tension on suspensory ligaments. Curvature of the lens increases. The close objects are greatly refracted by the lens focusing them on the retina. Diagram Accommodation of a distant object Ciliary muscles relax increasing the tension on suspensory ligaments. The lens is stretched decreasing its curvature i.e. lens become thinner. Light rays from the object are less refracted and focused on the retina. Diagram Control of Light Entering the Eye 1. Bright Light Circular muscles of iris contract and the radial muscles relax. Diameter of pupil decrease and less light enters. This protects retina from damage by too much light. Diagram 2. Dim Light. Circular muscles relax and radial muscles contract. Diameter of pupil increase and more light enters the eye. This allows in enough light to stimulate photoreceptors on the retina. Diagram Defects of the Eye 1. Short sightedness Myopia This is the ability to view near objects clearly but distant objects are blurred. 151 ----- This is due to a long eyeball and image is formed before the retina. Correction Wearing concave Diverging lens Diagram 2. Long sightedness Hypermetropia This is the ability to view distant objects clearly but near objects are blurred. This is due to a short eyeball and image is formed behind the retina. Correction Wearing convex converging lens Diagram 3. Astigmatism The curvature of the cornea is uneven hence the image is formed on different planes. Its corrected by wearing cylindrical lens. 4. Squintedness Eyeballs face different directions due to defective muscles which move the eye left and right. Corrected surgically 5. Old sight Presbyopia 6. Cataracts 7. Colour blindness THE EAR Functions of the ear 1. Hearing 2. Maintaining body balance and posture Diagram Adaptations of the ear to its Functions The ear is divided into: 1. Outer ear Pinna. - Pinna is funnel shaped to direct sound waves into auditory canal; - its large to offer large surface area for collection of sound waves; Auditory meatus/canal - Tube that directs sound waves to ear drum. - Lined with hairs to trap solid particles. - Lined with wax secreting cells to trap dust. 152 ----- - Wax also maintains flexibility of the eardrum. 2. Middle ear. Its air filled Tympanic membrane/ear drum. - Its a thin tough membrane. - It transforms sound waves into vibrations. Ossicles - . They are three bones; malleus, incus and stapes - They receive vibrations from tympanic membrane and amplify them then transmit them to the oval window. Eustachian tube - Connects middle ear and pharynx. - Equalizes pressure between the middle ear and outer ear preventing distortion of the ear drum. Oval window - Picks vibrations from the ossicles and transmit them to inner ear. Round window - Bring back vibrations from the inner into the middle ear. 3. Inner ear. Its fluid filled Cochlea - Its responsible for hearing - Its filled with endolymph and perilymph - Highly coiled to occupy a small space ; and increase surface area ; for accommodation of many sensory cells - Vibrations from oval window are transmitted to perilymph which vibrates - Sensory cells are stimulated by these vibrations to generate nerve impulses which are transmitted to the brain for interpretation. Diagram Semi circular canals - Has semi circular canals which are at right angles to each other - Each canal has a swelling called ampulla at one end containing sensory cells. - Contains endolymph 153 ----- - Movement of endolymph in canal helps to detect changes in position of the body and maintain body balance posture in relation to head movement. Diagram Vestibule - Has utriculus and sacculus that have sensory cells. - It maintains body balance posture in relation to gravity. NB/ Auditory nerve transmits nerve impulses to the brain for interpretations. Deffects of the Ear Deafness Vertigo Tinnitus GENETICSGENETICS This is the study of inheritance and variation. Terms used in genetics 1. Inheritance ; transmission of characteristics from the parents to the offsprings 2. Variation; possession of characteristics different from those of the parents and other offsprings. 3. DNA ; De-oxyribonucleic acid 4. RNA ; Ribonucleic acid 5. Monohybrid inheritance ; inheritance of one characteristic controlled by one pair of hereditary factors e.g. Tallness 6. Dihybrid inheritance ; inheritance of two characteristics at the same time e.g. colour and Texture/shape in the garden pea plant 7. Dominance; ability of a trait to only express itself 8. Recessiveness; a trait that only expresses itself when in homozygous state. 9. Heterozygosity ; presence of two dissimilar members of an allele e.g. Rr, Tt etc. 10. Homozygosity ; presence of two similar of an allele e.g. TT, RR, tt, rr etc. 11. Allele ; one pair of genes which occupy corresponding loci/positions in homologous chromosomes 154 ----- 12. Phenotype - the physical appearance of an individual or organism. Its influenced by the genotype and environment. 13. Genotype - the genetic constitution of an organism. Its purely genetical. 14. F1 generation first filial generation - are the offsprings that represent the first generation of organisms or individuals under study. 15. F2 generation second filial generation - these are offsprings obtained after self crossing the F1 gen. 16. Incomplete dominance/ co-dominance - a condition where no allele is dominant over the other. The phenotype of the offspring is intermediate between that of the parents. 17. Multiple allelism - are characteristics determined by more than two variant forms of a single gene e.g. inheritance of the Blood groups in man ABO 18. Test cross / back cross - its a crossing involving a homozygous recessive to determine the genotype of an organism. 19. Mutation- these are spontaneous changes in the individuals genetic makeup. Concepts of Variation Variation refers to observable differences among living organisms. Types of variation 1. Discontinuous variation in this type of variation, there are distinct and definite groups of individuals with no intermediate forms. E.g. sex either male or female, blood groups- one can only belong to one of the four blood groups A,B,AB,O ability to role the tongue Presence of long hair in the nose and on the ear pinna. Presence of a free or attached ear lobe. All these traits are controlled by one or two major genes. These traits are not influenced by the environment 2. Continuous variation this variation has a wide range of differences for the same characteristic from one extreme to the other e.g. Height Skin colour/pigmentation 155 ----- Weight Length of internodes Number of leaves, fruits on a tree etc Finger prints When these traits are plotted on a graph a normal distribution curve is obtained. Number of individuals Height in cm A normal distribution curve of heights This type of variation is brought about by the interaction of both the genetic environmental factors. E.g. a plant with genes for tallness may fail to grow tall due to climate and poor soils. Practical Activity 1 Tongue rolling Finger prints Height Causes of variation 1. Gamete formation during gamete formation two processes contribute to variation. These are Independent assortment - during metaphase I of meiotic division, homologous chromosomes come together in pairs and segregate into daughter cells independently of each other. This independent assortment produces a variety of different gametes. The total number of combinations is given by 2 n where n is the haploid number of chromosomes. In man n 23 hence 2 n 2 23 which is equal to 8,388,608. Crossing over during the prophase I of meiotic cell division. I.e. when homologous chromosomes break and rejoin at certain points called chiasmata. 2. Fertilization during fertilization parental genes ca come together in different combinations. Therefore desirable 156 ----- and undesirable qualities of parents can be combined in the offsprings. 3. Mutation - these are spontaneous changes in the genetic makeup of an organism. Mutation brings about changes in the living organisms. The Chromosome Each chromosome is made up of two parallel strands called chromatids. Each pair of chromatids is connected at a point by the centromere. Chromosomes contain the hereditary material called the genes. All cells including the sperms and ova have chromosomes. Chromosomes are present in the nucleus and are only visible under the microscope during cell division mitosis and meiosis. There is a definite number of chromosomes in each cell for every species of animal or plant. E.g. in man somatic cells body cells have 46 chromosomes while the sex cells/gametes have 23 chromosomes. During fertilization fusion of the sperm- 23 chromosomes and the ova - 23 chromosomes restores the 46 chromosomes to form a diploid zygote. Chromosomal num ber s i n different organisms Organism Number of chromosomes Col3 --- --- --- Somatic cells 2n Gametes - n Sheep Ovis auries 56 28 Cow Bos Taurus 60 30 Fruit-fly Drosophila melanogaster 8 4 Maize Zea mays 20 10 Wheat Triticum vulgare 14 7 Tobacco Nicotiana tabacum 12 6 Man Homo sapiens 46 23 Practical Activity 2 Chromosomal behaviour during mitosis Chromosomal behaviour in meiosis GENES AND DNAGENES AND DNA Genes occupy specific positions on the chromosomes called the gene loci gene locus The gene is a chemical in nature. The genes are in the form of a nucleic acid molecule called De-oxyribonucleic acid DNA . In 157 ----- 1953 two Biologists Francis Crick and James Watson worked out the structure of the DNA. DNA was found to be composed of three different components; 1. A five carbon sugar-pentose 2. phosphate molecule 3. nitrogenous base There are four types of the nitrogenous base; Adenine N Guanine G Thymine- G Cytosine C A combination the pentose sugar, a phosphate molecule and a nitrogenous base forms a nucleotide. I.e. Phosphate Pentose Base sugar DNA structure contains several nucleotides fused together to form long chains called DNA strands. Two parallel strands twist on one another forming a double helix structure. Adenine always combines with Thymine and Cytosine with Guanine. Phosphate Pentose sugar Base Diagram Role of DNA Stores genetic information in a coded form Enables transfer of genetic information unchanged to daughter cells through replication Translates the genetic information into the characteristics of an organism through protein synthesis DNA REPLICATIONDNA REPLICATION During cell division both daughter cells arising from mitotic division have the same genetic constitution as the parent cell. DNA in the parent cell must therefore duplicate accurately before the cell divides. The process through which a DNA molecule forms an exact is called . Replica DNA replication The two strands forming the double helix separates like a zipper . Each parallel strand becomes a template that specifies the base sequence of a new complimentary strand. Through the action of 158 ----- replicating enzymes, free nucleotides take up positions along the template strands. The specificity of the base pairing ensures that only complimentary bases link together with those on the template strands. I.e. G-C and A-T. Covalent bonds are formed between the nucleotides resulting in the formation of a new DNA strand. The template and the new DNA strand the undergo coiling to form a double helix. In this way, two identical DNA molecules are formed from the original single molecule. Each of the new DNA molecules gets incorporated into one of the two nuclei formed just prior to the separation of the daughter cells. Diagram Role of the DNA in protein synthesis The sequence of bases along the DNA strand acts as the alphabet and determines the sequence of amino acids when they join to form a polypeptide chain. Protein synthesis takes place in ribosomes found in the cytoplasm. Since the DNA molecules are confined in the nucleus, there has to be a way of communicating the DNA information to the ribosomes where actual protein synthesis occurs. The cell therefore has a special molecule called the Ribonucleic acid RNA . Its role is to carry genetic information from the DNA to the site of protein synthesis in the cytoplasm. Its referred to as messenger RNA mRNA . RNA is formed from the DNA strands. During formation of the mRNA a section of the DNA strands acts as the template strand. The double helix of the DNA unzips and free nucleotides align themselves opposite the template. The base sequence of the template strand is copied onto a new strand. In RNA, Thymine is replaced by another base called Uracil U The transfer of DNA sequence on the mRNA strand is referred to as Transcription. Diagram After its formation the mRNA leaves the nucleus with instructions from the DNA about the kind of protein to be synthesised by the cell. This information is in the form of base 159 ----- triplets known as Codons which code for a particular amino acid of a protein molecule e.g. AAA-phenylalanine TTT-lysine CAA- valine CTA- aspartic acid Differences between DNA and RNA DNA RNA --- --- 1. Has De-ox ribose sugar Has ribose sugar 2. Double stranded Single stranded 3. Confined in the nucleus Found in nucleus and cytoplasm 4. Have organic bases as cytosine, guanine, adenine and thymine. Has organic bases as cytosine, guanine, adenine and uracil THE FIRST LAW OF HEREDITYTHE FIRST LAW OF HEREDITY MENDELS EXPERIMENTS An Austrian monk known as Mendel is considered to be the father of genetics. He carried out various breeding experiments and observed variations in different characteristics of the garden pea. The characteristics include: Height of the stems- tall or dwarf Texture of the seed coat- smooth or wrinkled Colour of the seeds- yellow or green Texture of the ponds Colour of the flowers- white or purple Position of the flower- axial or terminal He selected a group of dwarf plants and self pollinated them by dusting mature pollen grains onto the stigmas of the same plant. He collected the resulting seeds and planted them. He noted that these seeds grew into dwarf plants only. He repeated the experiment for several generations and obtained the same results. In another experiment, Mendel selected tall plants and self- pollinated them. He planted the resulting seeds and observed that they grew into a mixture of tall and dwarf plants. He took seeds from the tall offsprings only and repeated the experiment for many generations until he obtained only tall plants. This way he was able to obtain a pure line of tall garden peas and a pure line of dwarf garden peas. 160 ----- He then cross-pollinated pure bred tall garden pea s with the pure bred dwarf variety. He planted the resulting seeds and he observed that all the offsprings were tall plants. Diagram He further crossed two of these tall offsprings and planted the resulting seeds. Mendel observed that this second generation consisted of a mixture of tall and dwarf plants. After counting these plants he noted that the ratio of tall to dwarf plants was approximately 3:1 respectively. He observed that this ratio was always obtained when crosses were made between the non-pure breeds of tall plants. Diagrams Mendel concluded that the traits of an organism are determined by hereditary factors which occur in pairs. Only one of pair of such factors can be represented in a single gamete. This later became Mendels First Law, The Law of Segregation At this time Mendel had no idea of genes and so he called them factors. He postulated that these factors are found on the chromosomes and are passed from the parents to the offsprings via gametes. Reasons behind Mendels success 1. He used favourable materials i.e. the garden pea plant which is normally self pollinated. This made it easy for him to employ cross pollination at will. 2. the pea plant he used had several contrasting traits 3. His study was focused on particular traits while those before him had been attempting to determine wholesome heredity of each organism. 4. He kept accurate data on all his experiments and fro the analysis of this data he was able to formulate definite hypothesis. Mendel chose the garden pea plant because of the following reasons Plant had many contrasting traits e.g. flower colours, seed coat texture, length of the stems etc. Plant is normally self pollinated but cross pollination can be employed t will. Plant matures relatively fast Plant produces many seeds that can be planted to produce many offsprings 161 ----- Monohybrid Inheritance This is the inheritance of one trait like height in the garden pea plant that is controlled by a single pair of hereditary factors genes contributed by both parents. Genes occur in pairs on chromosomes and such gene pairs are known as alleles. The genetic constitution of an organism is called the Genotype while the physical appearance is known as the Phenotype. The genotype of an organism is represented using paired letter symbols. Capital letters represents the dominant gene while small letters represent the recessive gene. Genetic Cross Components of a genetic cross Parental phenotypes The parental genotype the crossing X should be shown here. The gametes and should be circled. The fusion process or fertilization. The filial generation genotypes NB. The conventional symbol for male is and that of female is Example 1 During gamete formation in the dwarf plat, each gene in the pair segregates into different gametes. When the female and male fuse during fertilization, the offspring produced contain the same number of genes as in each parent. The inheritance of dwarf ness in the pea plant can be illustrated diagrammatically by the following genetic cross Diagram Example 2 Similarly the pair of genes in the pure breed tall plants will segregate into different gametes during gametogenesis. When self fertilised the resulting seeds will have half the number of genes from each parent i.e. Diagram Example 3 When the purebred tall plant is crossed with dwarf plants, the resulting seeds grow into tall plants only. These offsprings represent the first generation F1 gen 162 ----- Diagram. In the genetic cross above, the male plant is tall and the female plant is dwarf. If the cross is reversed so that the female is tall and the male a dwarf, this is referred to as a reciprocal cross . The F1 results will be the same for either cross. Diagram Example 4 When the F1 offsprings are self pollinated, they produce offsprings which that grow into a mixture of tall and dwarf plants. These offsprings are known as the F2 gen. Diagram A Punnet Square can also be used to work out genetic crosses e.g. Parental phenotype tall tall Parental genotype Tt X Tt Gametes T t T t T t --- --- --- T t TT Tt Tt Tt When the allelic genes are identical, as in TT and tt, the condition is known as homozygous . An individual with such a condition is known as a homozygote. When the allelic genes are not identical as in Tt, the condition is referred to as heterozygous . An individual with such a genotype is referred to as a heterozygote . An individual with genotype Tt, T i s dominant over t. will be physically tall because the gene The allele t is recessive . A dominant gene expresses itself in both the homozygous TT and heterozygous Tt states while a recessive gene only expresses itself I its homozygous state tt . TT is therefore referred to as homozygous dominant and tt is homozygous recessive. The ratio 3 tall: 1 dwarf, in the F2 gen is characteristic of monohybrid inheritance where one gene is completely dominant over the other. This is referred to as complete dominance. The monohybrid crosses are based on Mendels first law, The law of Segregation which states the characteristics of an organism are determined by internal factors which occurs in 163 ----- pairs. Only one of a pair of such factors can be represented in a single gamete. Diagram - the process of segregation Ratios and Probability The 3:1 ratio in monohybrid inheritance can be represented in the form of probability. When a large number of heterozygous garden pea plants are selfed, the probability of getting tall plants is or 75 and that of dwarf will be or 25 . Diagram NB. The inheritance of characteristics involves probability. The chance that a particular gamete will fuse with another is a random occurrence, in genetics this done by showing all possible fusions. Practical Activity 3 and 4 Tossing a coin To demonstrate random fusion of gametes in monohybrid inheritance. Similar monohybrid inheritance results as those of Mendel have been obtained by using the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster the insect has many observable characteristics that are contrasting such as, Wing length long wing dominant over vestigial wing Eye colour red eyes dominant over white eyes Size of the abdomen broad abdomen dominant over narrow abdomen Body colour grey body colour dominant over black body colour. Assignment Using appropriate letters work out the following crosses with respect to the fruit fly Cross between a purebred long winged and a vestigial winged Cross between two long winged heterozygotes Cross between a red eyed heterozygote and a white eyed fruit fly. The fruit fly is suitable for genetic study because of the following reasons. 1. The female lays very many eggs hence increasing the sample size for study. 164 ----- 2. Have many observable characteristics that are distinct and contrasting. 3. It is easily bred in the laboratory with minimum requirements. 4. It has a short generation time 10-14 days. Therefore many generations can be studied in a short period of time. 5. Offsprings can be crossed with their parents at will backcrossing 6. Flies are safe to handle because they do not transmit any known human diseases. Study Question 10 Practical Activity 5 Breeding fruit flies. Incomplete Dominance Co-dominance In Mendels experiments with garden pea p plants, the genes determining the various traits were clearly dominant or recessive. However in some species, alleles determining several contrasting traits do not have a clear cut dominant-recessive relationship. This implies that neither of the alleles is completely dominant over the other. Heterozygous individuals are phenotypically different from either of the parents. Mostly the phenotype of the heterozygous offspring is intermediate between that of the parents. This . phenomenon is called Incomplete Dominance Examples of incomplete dominance. 1. I nheritance of flower colour in the 4 oclock plant Mirabilis Jalapa . If a true breeding plant producing red flowers is crossed with a true breeding plant producing white flowers, all the F1 offsprings will have pink flowers. When the F1 plants are self pollinated, they yield red flowered, pink flowered and white flowered offspring at a ratio of 1:2:1 respectively. Diagrams 2. Incomplete dominance in short horn cattle . Mating red and white shorthorn cattle yields Roan light Red calves due to presence of both red and white hairs. A mating between two roan coloured shorthorns yields a mixture of red, roan and white coloured calves at a ratio of 1:2:1 respectively. 165 ----- Diagrams Study Question 12 Inheritance of the Blood groups Multiple allelism In all the kinds of inheritance discussed so far, each phenotypic characteristic is determined by 2 variant forms of a single gene located at a specific locus on the homologous chromosome. However some characteristics are determined by more than two variant forms of a single gene. This phenomenon is referred to as multiple allelism and the genes involved are called multiple alleles . E.g. in the ABO blood groups in humans, there are three genes involved and they are responsible for the presence of antigen types on the red blood cells. These are gene A responsible for the presence of antigen A, gene B for antigen B and gene O responsible for absence of antigens on the red blood cells. co- Genes A and B have equal degree of dominance i.e. are dominant . They both express themselves when present together as in the blood group AB. Genes A and B are dominant over gene O. Gene O is recessive and only expresses itself in the homozygous condition. The genotypes for the four blood groups in the ABO system are therefore, i.e. Blood group Phenotype Genotype Antigens --- --- --- A AA, AO A B BB,BO B AB AB A and B O OO O- Zero AA or AO-Blood group A BB or BO blood group B AB blood group AB OO blood group O A marriage between a man of blood group A and a woman of blood group B will produce children of all the four blood groups if both parents are heterozygous. Diagram Marriage between a man of genotype AA blood group A and Woman of genotype BB blood group B results in all the offsprings having blood AB. 166 ----- Diagram. Assignment Work out the following crosses Both parents with blood group O Heterozygous blood group A and blood group O Study Question 13 Inheritance of the Rhesus factor In man the possession of Rhesus antigens makes one Rh and this is dominant over Rhve. If blood from a Rhesus positive person is transfused into a rhesus negative person, this induces antibodies against the Rhesus factor of the donor. This causes agglutination of red blood cells of the recipient. If a Rh-ve woman is married to a Rhe ve, when she becomes pregnant, the child will be Rh ve. Rhesus antigens cross the placenta into the mothers blood stream. This stimulates the mothers immune system to produce Rhesus antibodies. When these antibodies get into the foetal circulation, an antigen- antibody reaction takes place and the red blood cells of the foetus are destroyed Haemolysed . During the second pregnancy, the amount of Rhesus antibodies are more and cause a lot of damage to the foetuss red blood cells resulting to death. This is called Haemolytic Disease of the Newborn or Erythroblastosis foetalis. Determining Unknown Genotypes This can be done in two ways. 1. Carrying out a Test Cross A test cross is a cross between an individual of unknown genotype with an individual of a recessive genotype. A test cross where an offspring is crossed with one of its parents is called a Back Cross. In garden pea plants the gene that determines red flowers is dominant over that which determines white flowers. A plant with red flowers may either be homozygous RR or heterozygous Rr for this characteristic. To establish its correct genotype it is crossed with a homozygous recessive plant i.e. a white flowered one rr If all their offsprings bear red flowers then this indicates that the red flowered plant is homozygous or its from a pure line. 167 ----- Diagram If the offsprings bear a mixture of red and white flowers in the ratio of 1:1, this indicates that the red flowered plant was heterozygous. Diagram Selfing Unknown genotypes can also be determined by carrying out selfing experiments. For example, a phenotypically tall plant is either homozygous TT or heterozygous Tt for this trait. If selfed and all its offsprings are tall, the parental genotype is TT that is homozygous dominant. Diagram But if after selfing both tall and dwarf offsprings are produced in the ratio 3:1 respectively, then the parental genotype is heterozygous Tt . Diagram Sex Determination The sex of an organism is a genetically determined characteristic. Cells of most organisms contain a pair of chromosomes called sex chromosomes in addition to the ordinary chromosomes. In man there are 46 chromosomes 23 pairs of homologous chromosomes in everybody cell . The genes determining whether a child becomes a female or a male are located on the specific pair of sex chromosomes called the X and the Y named after their shapes. The remaining 22 pairs of chromosomes are called Autosomes. Autosomes are responsible for other inheritable traits. A male human being carries the XY chromosome i.e. he is Heterogametic The female carries the XX chromosomes i.e. . Homogametic After meiosis in a male the spermatozoon can either carry the X or Y chromosome while the female ova contain only the X chromosome. The sex of a child is a matter of chance and depends only on whether a spermatozoon that fertilizes the ovum carries X or Y chromosome. There is therefore a 50 chance that fertilization can result in either XY B oy o r XX G irl i .e. 168 ----- XY Col2 Col3 --- --- --- X Y XX XY XX XY I.e. 2 girls: 2 Boys In terms of probability, the chance that a boy or a girl is produced in a family is . NB/ in birds the female is XY heterogametic and the male is XX . homogametic In some insects, the female is XX and the male is XO with the Y chromosome absent. In the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster sex determination is as exactly as in man, i.e. male XY and Female XX. Linkage An organism has a large number of traits controlled by many different genes. Because the number of chromosomes is limited, each gene cannot be located on its own chromosome. Therefore chromosomes must accommodate many genes each controlling particular characteristics. Those genes located on the same chromosome are called linked Genes. All the linked genes constitute a linkage group. Linked gene are inherited together and do not segregate/separate during meiosis. They are therefore transmitted into the same gamete. Diagram If genes Q, R and T are linked, then all the three pairs of genes are accommodated on a homologous pair of chromosome. In Drosophila sp, it has been found that the genes for wing length, abdomen size and body colour are located on the same chromosome. Therefore these characteristics are usually inherited together. Sex-linked Genes sex- All the genes located on the sex chromosomes are said to be linked . They are therefore transmitted together with those that determine the sex. In Drosophila melanogaster, the gene, which determine eye colour, is located on the X chromosome. However the corresponding allele on the Y chromosome is absent. This is because most sex-lined genes are carried on the X chromosome whereas the Y chromosome carries very few genes and is almost empty. In humans there are few genes located on the Y chromosome, which control traits that are exclusively found in males. These 169 ----- are, Premature baldness and tufts of hair in the in the inner pinna and in the nose. Diagrams. The characteristics controlled by genes located on the X chromosome include Colour blindness and Haemophilia. These characteristics can arise in either male or females. Colour blindness This is the inability to distinguish Red and Green colours by some people. This trait is linked to the X chromosome. The gene that determines normal colour vision is dominant over that for colour blindness. A marriage between a colour-blind man and a woman homozygous for normal colour vision results in their daughters being carriers but with normal colour vision. The daughters are said to be carriers because they are heterozygous and colour blindness is suppressed/masked by the dominant gene for colour vision. All the sons are of the two parents are however normal. This is illustrated below. Let N represent the gene for normal colour vision and n represent gene for colour blindness. Since the gene is linked to X chromosome, its alleles are represented as X N and X n . Colour blind male XnY Normal Woman XNXN Xn Y --- --- --- XN XNXn XNY XN XNXn XNY All the daughters are carriers- X N X n All the sons have normal colour vision-X N Y If a carrier daughter from the above parents married a normal man, some of their sons will suffer from colour blindness while the daughters will either be carriers or homozygous for normal colour v i s i o n as s h ow n be l ow. 170 ----- XNXn Normal male XNY Col2 Col3 --- --- --- XN Y XNXN XNY XNXn XnY Offsprings are; X N X N -Daughter with normal colour vision X N X n -Carrier Daughter X N Y -Son with normal colour vision X n Y -Colour blind son. The above examples show that the gene for colour blindness is passed from mother to sons. This is because the only X chromosome a man inherits is from the mother. If the X chromosome carries the gene for the trait, then this gene will be expressed since allele on the Y is absent. Therefore there are more male sufferers in a population compared to females. Females only suffer when in homozygous condition of the recessive gene. Inheritance of colour blindness through several generations can be clearly illustrated using a pedigree. A pedigree is a record in table form showing the distribution of one or more traits in different generations of related individuals. Fig. 1.24 Haemophilia This is another sex-linked trait where the blood of the sufferer takes abnormally long time to clot. There is prolonged breeding in the event of a cut hence the term Bleeders Disease . A recessive gene on the X chromosome causes haemophilia. If a normal man is married to a carrier woman for haemophilia, there is a probability of that if their child is a boy will be a haemophiliac and if a daughter, she will be a carrier. None of the daughters of the couple will be haemophiliacs. Let H represent the gene for normal blood clotting and h to represen t ge n e f o r h ae m op hili a i .e. 171 ----- XHY Col2 Col3 --- --- --- XH Y XHXH XHY XHXh XhY Their offsprings will be; -X H X H -Normal daughter X H X h -Carrier daughter X H Y -Normal son X h Y -Haemophiliac son. Study question 14 Apart from carrying the sex-linked traits, the X chromosome in the females and the Y in males bring about the development of both the primary and secondary sexual characteristics. At puberty, secondary sexual characteristics in females include breast enlargement, widening of the hips, and growth of pubic hair and onset of menstrual cycle. The X chromosome controls these. In males, they include growth of pubic hair and beard, deepening of the voice, widening of the shoulders etc. Effects of Crossing Over on Linked Genes Some of the linked genes separate and are transmitted on different chromosomes. This happens during crossing over prophase I of meiosis when sections of chromatids of a bivalent intertwine and may break off. Some of these sections get rejoined to different chromatids thus separating genes that were previously linked. The fusion of such gametes containing chromatids whose genes have changed places produces new combinations recombinants . Crossing over results in chromosomal mutations, which in turn cause variations. Diagrams Mutations Mutation is brought about by spontaneous changes in the individuals genetic makeup. Mutations are normally due to recessive genes most of which are transmitted in the usual Mendelian fashion. Therefore they are quite rare. Individuals with mutations are referred to as mutants . Mutation can be induced by certain factors. Such factors are called Mutagens. They include, Exposure to Gamma rays Ultra violet light 172 ----- Colchicine Mustard gas NB: Mutations occurring in gametes are more important than those in somatic cells. Mutational changes are the basis of discontinuous variation in population. Types of Mutations 1. Chromosomal mutation 2. Gene mutation Chromosomal Mutations This involves the change in the structure or the number of chromosomes. During crossing over in meiosis homologous chromosomes intertwine at points called chiasmata. These points are later broken creating various opportunities for changes on the chromatids. There are five types of chromosome mutations chromosome aberrations . Deletion Duplication Inversion Translocation Non-disjunction Deletion This occurs when some sections of chromatids break off and fail to recombine. They are therefore completely lost and the genetic material they contain is said to be deleted out. Most deletions are lethal since the offspring may lose genes responsible for the synthesis of some vital protein molecules. Diagrams Duplication In this case a section of chromatids replicates and adds an extra length to itself. Duplication can produce serious effects depending on the chromosome sections involved. Diagrams Inversion In this case a chromatid breaks at two points. When rejoining, the middle piece rotates and joins in an inverted position. This reverses the gene sequence along the chromatid. This might bring together genes whose combined effects are advantageous or dis-advantageous. Diagrams 173 ----- Translocation This occurs when a section of one chromatid breaks off and becomes attached to another chromatid but of a non-homologous pair. Translocation therefore involves the movement of genes from one non-homologous chromosome to another. Diagrams Non-disjunction This leads to addition or loss of one or more whole chromosomes. If it occurs at anaphase of the first meiotic division, two homologous chromosomes fail to segregate and they move into the same gamete cell. If it happens at anaphase of the second meiotic division, sister chromatids fail to segregate. This results in half the gametes containing two of the same chromosome while the others have none. Diagrams Non-Disjunction causes the following 1. Downss Syndrome : this is where there is an extra somatic chromosome number 21. such individuals have; Slit eye appearance Reduced resistance to infections Mentally deficient Thick tongue Cardiac malfunctions Short body with thick fingers NB/ these conditions are common among children born of mothers above 40 years old. 2. Klinefelters Syndrome: in this case individuals have an extra sex chromosome. Such individuals have a total of 47 chromosomes in their cells i.e. XXY male and XXX female . This occurs as a result of non-disjunction during spermatogenesis or oogenesis. The symptoms of Klinefelters syndrome are Infertility in males due to lack of sperm production Under developed testes Reduced facial hair in males Very tall with signs of obesity 174 ----- Diagrams 3. Turners syndrome: This is where an individual lacks one sex chromosome hence there are 45 chromosomes XO or YO . 4. Polyploidy: sometimes during meiosis chromosomes might undergo non-disjunction. This results in half the number of gametes having two of each type of chromosome i.e. diploid the rest having none. If the resulting diploid gamete fuses with a normal haploid gamete a triploid zygote is formed. If two diploid gametes fuse, a tetraploid individual is obtained. This is what is called polyploidy. Polyploidy is rare in animals but common in plants where its considered to be advantageous. Polyploidy increases yields, early maturity and resistance to pests and diseases. It can be artificially induced using a chemical called colchicine, which prevents spindle formation during mitosis leading to a cell with double the number of chromosomes 4n . Gene Mutation This involves a change in the structure of a gene. Gene mutations are also referred to as point mutations. A gene mutation arises as a result of a change in the chemical nature of the gene. The change may involve some alterations in the DNA molecule. A change in the DNA molecule is passed onto the m-RNA. This alters the sequence of amino acids during protein synthesis. This may result in unintended protein molecules being synthesised, which may be lethal. Types of gene mutations; Insertion Substitution Inversion Deletion Insertion This is the addition of an extra base onto the existing DNA strand. Diagram By this insertion no polypeptide chain is formed as it were intended. Deletion This is the removal of a gene portion. If the base Thymine is deleted from its position as indicated below, the base sequence becomes altered at this point. 175 ----- This results in the wrong proteins being synthesised. Diagrams Substitution This is the replacement of a portion of the gene with a new portion. If Adenine is substituted by Guanine on a DNA strand, the base sequence is altered at this particular portion. Diagrams Inversion If a portion of the DNA strand is rotated through 180 0 that portion is said to be inverted as shown below. This alters the base sequence at this point. Diagrams Study Questions Disorders Due to Gene Mutations Such disorders include albinism, sickle cell anaemia, haemophilia, colour blindness and chondrodystrophic dwarfism. 1. Albinism This a condition where the synthesis of skin pigment called melanin fails. The victim has a light skin, white hair and pink eyes. Such a person is referred to as an Albino. Melanin is derived from two amino acids Phenylalanine and Tyrosine. Melanin is synthesised through a series of reactions controlled by a specific gene. Gene A is responsible for presence of melanin and a is aa responsible for its absence. Gene in homozygous state blocks in one or two places in the synthesis of melanin hence no melanin is formed. This occurs as a result of one enzyme Tyronase failing to be formed in the presence of the recessive gene. A person with genotype AA has normal skin pigmentation. One with genotype Aa is a carrier and has normal skin pigmentation. In a family an albino can be born under three conditions only. If both parents are albinos If one of the parents is an albino and the other a carrier If both parents are carriers Assignment Work out crosses in each case. What is the probability of getting an albino child in each case? 176 ----- 2. Sickle Cell Anaemia This is a gene mutation as a result of substitution. Normal haemoglobin Hb A consists of two polypeptide chains. In the sickle cell condition, one amino acid called glutamic acid is substituted by another amino acid called valine in each of the two-polypeptide chains of the haemoglobin molecule. The resulting haemoglobin is known as Haemoglobin S Hb S and is different from the Hb A in several ways. Comparison between Hb A and Hb S --- --- Normal haemoglobin Hb A Defective Haemoglobin Hb S 1. A position in each polypeptide chain is occupied by glutamic acid The same position is occupied by valine in each polypeptide chain 2. Does not easily crystallise in low oxygen concentration Easily crystallises in low oxygen concentration 3. The haemoglobin is efficient in oxygen loading and transportation Not efficient in oxygen loading and transportation 4. The red blood cells are biconcave in shape Red blood cells are sickle shaped crescent shape Sickle cell anaemia is therefore the condition where the victim is homozygous for the defective gene that directs the synthesis of haemoglobin S. Most of the victims red blood cells are sickle shaped and the person frequently experiences oxygen shortage to the body tissues. Such a person cannot carry out strenuous physical exercises. Many sickle cell victims die young due to insufficient oxygen supply to body tissues. In the heterozygous condition, less than half the number of the red blood cells is sickle shaped. The rest are normal and efficient in oxygen transport. This is referred to as sickle cell trait . An individual with the sickle cell trait experiences a mild case of anaemia but leads a normal life. Inheritance of Sickle Cell Anaemia If a man with sickle cell trait marries a normal woman, the probability that any of the offspring will carry the sickle cell trait is . If both parents are carriers the probability of getting an offspring with sickle cell anaemia is . 177 ----- 3. Haemophilia : This condition where the blood takes abnormally long time to clot. A haemophilic gene that prevents the production of the clotting factors causes the condition. 4. Colour blindness: There are different forms of colour blindness. The most common one is the red-green colour blindness. In this case an individual is unable to distinguish between red and green colours. NB. Most disadvantageous genes are recessive. Very few are dominant e.g. the gene for chondrodystrophic dwarfism Study Question 16 Effect of Environment on Heredity The genotype and the environment influence the development of an individual. In animals genetically identical individuals reared under different environments will appear different than those reared under very different conditions. Consider identical twins. Practical Applications of Genetics o Plants and animal breeding o Blood transfusion o Genetic counselling o Genetic engineering 1. Plants and Animal Breeding Man chooses those plants and animals with the desirable qualities. This is referred to as artificial selection. Inbreeding or . crossbreeding does this Inbreeding however increases the chances of undesirable genes whereas crossbreeding increases heterozygosity with the offsprings having better performance than both parents. This is referred to as hybrid vigour e.g. a cross between Boran and Hereford. Polyploidy has also been used in planting. The original wheat had a diploid number of 14 chromosomes but the commercial wheat has either 28 or 42 tetraploid-4n or hexaploid-6n . Examples of characteristics, which have been selected in agriculture. 1. Resistance to diseases e.g. cassava resistant to cassava mosaic, coffee variety resistant to CBD. 2. Early maturity in animals and plants. 3. Adaptations to various conditions e.g. rainfall, temperature etc. 4. Ease of harvesting e.g. in coffee and bananas where dwarf varieties have been developed 5. Increased productive season e.g. in chicken 178 ----- 6. Higher productivity 7. Production of flowers such as roses for their colour and aroma. 2 Blood Transfusion Before blood is given to a recipient, blood typing is first done. This is done to ensure compatibility between the donor and the recipient. Blood typing also can be used to solve disputed parentage. However the most recent technique in establishing parentage is the DNA matching. 3 Genetic Counselling This is the provision of information and advice on genetically inherited disorders to individuals. The individual is given such advice to enable him or her make the best choice. Examples of disorders for which genetic counselling may be done include Sickle cell anaemia Haemophilia Albinism Erythroblastosis foetalis Colour blindness Klinefelters syndrome In order to confirm the disorder the doctors can do the following Physical examination e.g. Lack of breasts in Turners syndrome. Laboratory tests e.g. blood tests to confirm sickle cell anaemia Amniocentesis for chromosomal abnormalities in foetus Family history may be used to determine possible inheritance of the disorder e.g. haemophilia. Genetic screening of the defective gene in the population 4 Genetic Engineering This deals with identification of a desirable gene, altering, isolating and transferring it from one living organism to another. STIMULUS AND RESPONSE REVISION QUESTI-ONS 1. The diagrams below repents a nerve cell 179 ----- a Identify the nerve cell. 1mark b i Give a reason for your answer in a above 1mark ii Show by use of an arrow the direction of flow of the nerve impulses. 1mark 2. Below is a diagram showing parts of a synapse observe and other the questions that follow. a Name the parts labeled: A, B. 2mks b What is the role of part labeled C . 1mk 3. A student set up an experiment as shown in the diagram below. Light Box with black paint The set up was left for 4 days. a What was the aim of the experiment. 1mk b i State the expected results after 4 days. 1mk ii Account for the results you have stated in b i above. 4mks c In another experiment, a student placed a seedling horizontally on moist cotton wool. Later the shoot grew upwards while the Radicle grew downwards. Explain why the radicle showed a downward curvature. 2mks 180 ----- 4. Describe how different types of tropisms adapt plants for survival in their habitats. 20mks 5. Diagram below shows the structure of motor neuron. 2mks b State three adaptations that enable the neurone to carry out its functions efficiently. 3mks c State two features that would distinguish sensory neurone from the above neurone. 2mks 6. The diagram below shows the structure of its human ear. F a State the functions of the ear. 2mks b Give the names of the structure labelled C,G and F. 3mks c i What is the function of the structure labeled H? 1mk ii Name the structure in the ear that detects sound waves. 1mk d In which structure of the ear is the velocity of the sound waves fastest? 1mk 7. nerv The diagram below represents a P e cell. Study it and answer the questions that follow. a i Identify the cell 1mk ii Give a reason for your answer in a i above 1mk 181 ----- b Name the parts labelled N, P, Q and R. 4mks c State the functions of the parts labelled N and Q. 2mks 8. Use the diagram below to answer the questions that follow a i Name the eye defect represented above 1 mk ii What is the cause of this defect 1 mk iii How can the defect you have named a i be corrected? 1 mk 9 The diagram below shows three different types of neurones along a reflex arc a Identify the neuron labelled 1,2 and 3 3 mks b Using arrows show the direction of impulse transmission on the diagram 1 mk c Name the part of the spinal cord where the cell bodies of neurone 2 and 3 are located 1mk d Describe the transmission impulse across the part labelled P 3 mks 10 A response exhibited by a certain plant tendril is illustrated below i Name the type of response 1mk ii Explain how the response named in i above occurs. 3mks iii What is the importance of tactic responses to microscopic plants? 1mk 11 Describe how the mammalian ear is adapted to perform its functions. 20mks 182 ----- 12. a Describe how the structure of the eye is adapted to its function. 16mks b Identify two defects of the eye and how they can be rectified. 4mks 13 Differentiate between nervous and endocrine communication in animals 3mks 14. The diagram below represents a section through the mammalian ear. Study it and answer the questions that follow. a Name the structures labeled H and J 2mks b State how the structures labeled H, M and N are adapted to their functions 3mks c State what would happen if the structure labeled K was completely damage 1mk d Name the fluid contained in structure N 1mk e Apart from hearing, state the other role performed by the human ear 1mk 15 The following experiment was set up in a chamber made from two connected Petri dishes. Housefly maggots were introduced at the centre of the chamber, so the maggots could move to either Petri dish A or B as shown below. a Name the type of response being investigated in the set up. 1mk b State the survival value of the response named in a above. 1mk 183 ----- c Give the role of calcium chloride in the experiment above. 1mk 16 a What is accommodation? 1mk b Describe the sequence of events that occur in the eye for one to be able to see clearly i a distant object 4mks ii if one moved from a dim lit room to bright light. 3mks MARKING SCHEME STIMULUS AND RESPONSE REVISION QUESTIONS 1 a Motor neuron/Motor nerve cell; b i cell body is terminally situated/located at the end of the axon; ii Arrow should point away from the cell body 2. a A-Synaptic cleft B- Mitochondria b Contains the transmitter substance/ Acetylcholine. 3. a Show the effect of unilateral light on growth of seedling / plants; 1mk b i Curvature of the tip of the shoot toward the source light; ii Auxins / IAA/ Growth harmones; produced by the apical bud; move away from light / move to the dark side; causing faster elongation; hence curvature; c In the roots / radicle higher concentration of auxins / IAA inhibits growth; hence the upper side with less auxins grows faster than the lower side; hence curvature downwards 2mks 4. Phototropisms; -enables plant shoots to grow and get light for maximum photosynthesis; Allows for leaf mosaic; Chemotropism; -Growth curvature in response to contact/ hard surface; -Make plants with weak stems to get support on large plants /trees; this makes then to reach and get light for maximum photosynthesis; Geotropism; -Growth curvature in response to gravity; enables plant roots to grow deep into the soil 184 ----- to Maximum support/ anchorage; Hydrotropism; - Growth curvature in response to moisture / water; - Enable plant roots to grow and find water in the soil; water is then used as a raw material During photolysis stage; Chemotropism; -Growth curvature in response to chemical concentration gradient; - Enables pollen tubes to grow down the style and into the ovary for fertilization to occur in plants flowers; Thermo tropism; -Growth curvature in response to temperature changes; -Enables some plants to grow to where they can acquire optimum temperature for effective plant processes; e.g. Sunflower orientates towards the directions of the sun. 5 a A- Dendrites B-Cell body b - Has long axon to conduct impulses from CNs to effectors / muscles / glands; - Axon enclosed with myelin sheath with nodes of ranvies to enhance speed of impulse conduction. - Has dendrites which receive impulses from adjacent neurones. c Col2 --- --- S.N M.N - Cell body has no dendrites -Cell body has dendrites - Cell body at a point along nerve fibre; -Cell body located at the top of nerve fiber; 6 a - Hearing / detection of sound; Body balance / posture; 2marks. b i C- Ear canal / External auditory meetas; ii G- Semi Circular canals; iii F- Auditory nerve; 3marks c i Equalise air pressure between middle ear and outer ear / prevent damage of ear drum; 1mark 185 ----- ii Cochlea/ E; 1mark d - Ear ossicles / D; 1mark 7. a i Sensory neurons / afferent neurone ii Cell body located off the axon b N- Axon P- Cell body Q- Myelin Sheath R- Schwann cell c N- Transmission of impulse Q- Insulation / speed up impulse transmission. 8 a Long sightedness / Hypermetropia ; 1 mk b Short eye ball; Weak lens any one ;1 mks c Wearing of convex lens / conveying lenses; 1 mk rj if a i is wrong 9 a 1- Sensory neurone / Afferent neurone 2- Relay neurone / intermediate neurone 3- Motor neurone/ efferent neurone 3 mks b Check on the diagram arrows show points towards neurone 3 from 2 and 1 : 1 mk c Grey matter 1 mks d Impulse reaching the dendrites end of relay / Neurone 2 causes the synaptic vesicles, releases acetylcholine / transmitter substances ; into the synaptic cleft ;the acetylcholine / transmitter chemical diffuses across the cleft ; and causes the depolarization of the motor neuron/ neurone i Name the type of response 1mk 10 Thigmotropism/Haptotropism; ii Explain how the response named in i above occurs. 3mks Contact with support; causes migration of auxins to the outside; causing faster growth on the side away from contact surface; Causing dendrils to curl around the support ; NB a ii is tied to i 186 ----- iii What is the importance of tactic responses to microscopic plants? 1mk Escape injurious stimuli/seek favourable habitat Rej. Seek mate and obtain food 11. Describe how the mammalian ear is adapted to perform its functions. 20mks The pinna is flap made of skin and cartilage; for collection and concentration of sound waves; Auditory canal/meatus is a tube lined with hairs which trap solid particles like dust; It has wax secreting cells; that secrete wax for trapping solids and insects entering the ear; The eardrum/tympanic membrane is thin with double layer of epidermis; It vibrates translating sound waves into sound vibrations; Sound vibrations are transmitted to ear ossicles; Ear ossicles are malleus, incus and stapes; they amplify and transmit vibrations to the oral window; The oval window is a thin membrane which transmits sound vibrations to the fluid of the inner ear; perilymph and Endolymph; Eustachian tube connects middle ear with pharynx equalizing air pressure in the ear with atmospheric pressure; to prevent distortion of the eardrum; The cochlea is highly coiled tube with system of canals and sensory cells to occupy a small space/increase the surface area for accommodating many sensory cells to detect sounds vibrations; and generate impulses transmitted to the brain; Auditory nerve transmits nerve impulses to the brain for interpretation; Semicircular canals are tubular cavities containing fluid; The canals are arranged at right angles to each other in the three planes of spaces; to detect changes in position of the body; the canals have ampulla: utriculus and sacculus; to detect position of body in relation to gravity; Utriculus has otoliths attached to sensory cells which generate impulses which are then transmitted to the brain through the auditory nerve; 187 ----- The perilymph and endolymph fluid in the inner ear absorb mechanical shock/transmit sound vibrations/protect delicate parts; Total 25 max 20 marks 12 a i Conjunctiva transparent allow light to enter eye ii Cornea transparent / curved allow light / refracts light entering eye; iii Aqueous / vitreous humour clear / allow light pass / refract light, hydrostatic pressure Maintain shape of eyeball. Contains sugars / proteins / salts provide nutrients to eye. iv Iris contractile controls light intensity / amount of light entering eye; v Ciliary body glandular secretes humuor vi Ciliary muscle contractile controls curvature of lens; vii Suspensory ligament fibrous holds lens in position viii Lens transparent / Biconvex allow light go through to retina / refract light / focus light. ix Retina rods - rhodopsin for dim light vision; - Iodopsin for bright light vision x Fovea centralis high concentration of cones for accurate vision xi Choroid layer blood vessels pigmented for nutrition - reduce light reflection / absorb stray light xii Sclera fibrous protection / give eye shape; xiii Optical nerves sensory neurone transmit impulse from retina to brain. xiv External eye muscle contractile move eyeball within socket xv Blind spot cone and rods absent no image is perceived Correction b i Short sightedness; biconcave / diverging lens ii Long sightedness; converging lens / convex lens iii Astigmatism; use of cylindrical lens iv Squinting; surgery any 2 identify correction 4mks 13. Nervous communication Endocrine communication 188 ----- - Nerve impulse to evoke a response - Chemical substance/ hormone to evoke Response - High speed of transmission- Low speed of transmission; - Rapid response - Response delayed - Impulse transmitted through neurone - Hormones transmitted in blood - - Responses specific and localized to one Responses affects several parts of the Target organ body; Note: Comparison should come out clearly to award. 14. a H Eustachian tube; J Semi-circular canals; b H Tube open/ connection to the pharynx and to the middle ear/ opens during swallowing/ yawning and vomiting to equalize the air pressure in the middle ear with the atmospheric air pressure; M pinna curved/ funnel shaped to receive or collect and direct sound waves into the ear; N cochlea long/highly coiled/ spiral in form to increase surface area for sound Perception; - Has sensory hairs/ cells which convert sound vibrations to impulses/ generate impulses; - Has endolymph to transmit vibrations; Mark one for each structure. Rej. If the adaptation is not tied to function. c Total deafness; d Endolymph; e Balance; acc body balance/ posture. 15 a Tactic response; b Move away from a harsh environment/move to favorable environment; c To absorb any moisture from Petri dish A/OWTTE 16 . a A reflex mechanism/ability of the eye to adjust to bring an image from near or far object into sharp focus on the retina; b Circular muscles of the iris contract; while the radial muscles relax; Ciliary muscles relax; increasing tension on suspensory ligaments; lens become thinner increasing the focal length; image focused onto the retina; 189 ----- ii Circular muscles of the iris contract; pupil constrict/become smaller; and allows enough light for sharp image to be focused onto the retina; SUPPORT AND MOVEMENT IN PLANTS AND ANIMALS Support is the ability of organisms to bear their weight and maintain their body forms. It involves holding body parts in their position and allow for movement. Movement is the displacement of parts of the body of an organism e.g. growth movements in plants and limbs in animals. Locomotion is movement of the whole organisms. Support and Movement in Plants This can be at cell level e.g. gametes in bryophytes and Pteridophytes or at organ level in tropic and nastic responses. Importance of Movement in Plants i. Enable plants to obtain resources such as sunlight, water and nutrients due to tropic and nastic responses. ii. Enhances fertilization in bryophytes and Pteridophytes iii. Enhance fertilization in flowering plants by growth of pollen tube towards the embryo sac. iv. Helps plants to escape harmful stimuli such as high temperature Importance of Support in Plants i. Hold flowers in position for pollination to occur. ii. Help plants to withstand forces of the environment such as gravity and air currents. iii. Fruits are held in appropriate position for dispersal to occur. iv. Increase the efficiency of photosynthesis as the leaves are firm and arranged in mosaic pattern for maximum absorption of light and carbon iv oxide. Arrangement of Tissues in Plants Diagrams Parenchyma. The cells are spherical or elongated. They are unspecialized cells forming the packing tissues. When turgid, they help in providing support in herbaceous plants. Collenchyma. Its underneath the epidermis. They are similar in appearance to parenchyma and they contain 190 ----- living protoplasm. They have deposition of cellulose to provide mechanical support. They are mainly found in young leaves and stems. Sclerenchyma. They appear as long fibres in stems. Cells are dead and they have lignin. Mainly found in stems and midrib of leaves. The walls are pitted to allow exchange of substances between cells. Xylem vessels and Tracheids. Xylem vessels are long tube like structures with lignified walls used for transporting water and mineral salts and also give plant mechanical support. Tracheids are long cells with tapering ends whose walls are lignified to give the plant mechanical support. Both xylem vessels ant tracheids are made of dead cells manly present in woody stems. Tendrils and Climbing stems. Some herbaceous plants support themselves by use of tendrils e.g. pumpkins, garden peas etc. Others obtain support by twinning round other hard objects such as stem of passion fruit, morning glory etc. Spines and Thorns. Some plants use spines and thorns to attach to solid objects for support e.g. in rose. Practical Activity 3 To Observe Wilting in Plants Support and Movement in Animals Animals have a firm and rigid framework for support called the skeleton. Importance of Movement in Animals 1. Enable searching of food, mate and shelter. 2. Move to avoid predators. 3. To colonize new areas 4. Move from areas with unfavourable conditions such as fire, earthquakes, flood etc. Types and Function of Skeletons 1. Hydrostatic skeleton It is found in soft bodied animals such as the earthworm. 2. Exoskeleton It is made of the external covering found in arthropods. Its made of waterproof cuticle which contains the protein Chitin secreted by the epidermal cells. Functions of the Exoskeleton i. Reduces water loss 191 ----- ii. Protection against microbial infections and mechanical injury iii. Support body tissues and organs. iv. Provide point for attachment of muscles allowing locomotion to take place. v. Enhance flight in insects by means of wings which are the flattened parts of the exoskeleton. vi. Enhance walking in insects using jointed appendages. NB/. 1. Exoskeleton has a disadvantage as it limits growth. To overcome this limitation it is periodically shed through moulting ecdysis . 2. Insects that jump or hop have powerful hind limbs. The femur of the hind limb has powerful antagonistic muscles. Diagrams 3 Endoskeleton. It is found in all vertebrates. Muscles are external to the hard framework. It is made of living tissues either cartilage or bone which increase in size as the animal grows and therefore need not to be shed as in exoskeleton. Functions of the Endoskeleton i. Supports the animals body ii. Gives the body its shape iii. Protects inner delicate organs such as the lungs, heart, liver etc from mechanical injury e.g. ribs. iv. Provide surface for muscle attachment facilitating movement. v. Production of blood cells i.e. the long and short bones vi. Acts as a reservoir of calcium and phosphate ions in the body Locomotion in Finned Fish Tilapia Diagrams Practical Activity 5 Practical Activity 6 How a finned fish is adapted to locomotion in water 1. Streamlined body/ tapered anteriorly and posteriorly; to minimize water resistance; 2. Inflexible head; to maintain forward thrust; 192 ----- 3. Overlapping scales facing posterior end; to bring about less resistance; Overlapping of scales also prevents wetting of the skin; 4. Slimy/oily substance to moisten scales; hence reduce resistance between water and fish; 5. Swim bladder; air filled cavity which controls/ brings buoyancy; and depth at which it swims; 6. Flexible backbone /series of vertebrae with Myotomes/ muscles blocks; which contract and relax alternately bringing about thrust/force; which propels fish forwards; 7. Pectoral and pelvic fins paired fins ; which bring about balancing effect; braking; and changing direction; they also control pitching i.e. control upward and downward movement; 8. Dorsal fin, caudal fin and anal fin unpaired fins ; to increase vertical surface area; and therefore prevent rolling from side to side; and yawing; 9. Tail fins/caudal fins that are long and flexible; for steering/ more force/ thrust; 10. Lateral line has sensory cells; which enables to perceive vibrations; hence can locate objects so that it escapes / changes direction; Support and Movement in Mammals Diagram of a human and rabbit skeleton The skeleton is divided into: Axial skull, sternum, ribcage and vertebral column. Appendicular consists of girdles and the limbs attached to them Axial Skeleton 1. Skull Made up of many bones fused together to form the cranium. The bones are joined together forming immovable joins called Sutures . Cranium encloses and protects the brain, olfactory organs, the eyes, middle and inner ear. Facial skeleton has a fixed upper jaw called maxilla and a movable lower jaw known as the mandible. At the posterior end, there are two smooth rounded projections called occipital condyles. These articulate with the first bone of the vertebral column atlas forming a hinge joint. 193 ----- This joint permits nodding of the head. 2. Ribcage and sternum Ribcage encloses the thoracic cavity protecting delicate organs such as the lungs and heart. Cage is made up of ribs that articulate with vertebral column at the back and sternum to the front. In birds, the sternum is modified to form the keel which gives a large surface area for attachment of flight muscles. Ribcage and sternum help during breathing because they offer the surface for attachment of the intercostals muscles. 3. Vertebral column Consists of bones called vertebrae that are separated from each other by cartilage called inter-vertebral discs. The discs absorb shock and reduce friction. It also makes the vertebral column flexible. There are five types of vertebrae in the vertebral column; 1. Cervical vertebrae 2. Thoracic vertebra 3. Lumbar vertebrae 4. Sacral vertebrae 5. Caudal vertebrae All the vertebrae have a common basic plan. Structure of a Vertebra Each vertebra is made up of the following parts. i. Centrum body . It supports the weight of the vertebra and the weight of the entire vertebral column.. ii. Neural arch. It encloses the neural canal. iii. Neural spine. Provides surface for muscle and ligament attachment. iv. Neural canal. It protects the spinal cord which passes through it. v. Transverse processes. Provides surface for muscle and ligament attachment. vi. Zygapophysis facets . These are smooth patches for articulation with the other vertebrae. The one in front and - the other one behind . The front facets are called Pre Zygapophysis while the back pair facets are called Post- Zygapophysis Diagram 1 Cervical vertebrae a Atlas First cervical vertebra Distinctive features. i. No Centrum 194 ----- ii. Broad and flat transverse processes. iii. Has vertebraterial canal in each transverse process for vertebral arteries to pass through. iv. Front facets are large and grooved to articulate with condyles of the skull to allow nodding on the head. v. Neural spine is very small. Diagram Functions i. Protect the spinal cord. ii. Provide surface for muscle attachment. iii. Allows head to nod. b Axis second Distinctive features. i. Centrum prolonged to from the odontoid process. ii. Has vertebraterial canal in each transverse process for vertebral arteries to pass. iii. Small wing like transverse processes. iv. Wide neural canal. Functions i. Protects the spinal cord. ii. Allows the head to rotate. Odontoid process forms a peg which fits into the neural canal of the atlas. iii. Provide surface for muscle attachment Diagram c The other cervical vertebrae. Distinctive features i. Short neural spine ii. Transverse process divided and broad. iii. Has vertebraterial canal in each transverse process for vertebral arteries to pass through. iv. Wide centrum Diagram Functions i. Provide surface for attachment of neck muscle. ii. Protect the spinal cord. iii. Supports the weight of the head. 2 Thoracic vertebrae Distinctive features i. Long neural spine pointing backwards. ii. Large centrum. iii. Short transverse processes. iv. Tubercular facets on each transverse for articulation with tuberculum of the rib. 195 ----- v. Two pairs of capitular demi-facets for articulation with capitulum of the rib. Diagram Functions i. Helps to form the rib cage. ii. Provides articulation for one end of each rib. iii. Protects the spinal cord. iv. Provides surface for muscle attachment. 3 Lumbar vertebrae Distinctive features i. Large broad centrum to offer support. ii. Broad neural spine. iii. Broad and long transverse processes. iv. Have extra processes like metapophysis, anapophysis and . hypapophysis Functions i. Protects the spinal cord. ii. Provides surface for muscle attachment. iii. Protect and support the heavy organs in the abdominal cavity. iv. Supports the heavy weight of the upper part of the body. 4 Sacral vertebraeSacral vertebrae Distinctive features 1. All sacral vertebrae fused to form sacrum 2. Transverse processes of first sacral vertebra large and wing like for articulation with pelvic girdle 3. Pairs of holes on the lower surface for the spinal nerves to pass through. 4. Sacrum is broader on the front side and narrow towards the tail. Functions 1. Protects alimentary canal on dorsal side. 2. Provides attachment to hip girdle 3. Protects the spinal cord 4. Provides attachment for the muscles Diagram 5. Caudal vertebrae Distinctive features 1. Very small in size 2. No neural canal 196 ----- Functions 1. Provides attachment for tail muscles 2. Helps in the movement of the tail Diagram Biology Form 1-2 Work Revision 1. A student set up materials in an experiment as shown Sugar below. solution Boiled a State the physiological process being investigated. 1mk b If the experiment set up was left over-night, state observation in the set up A and B. 2mks c Account for the observations in each set up. 3mks d If another experiment C was set such that nothing is placed in the potato cup, state and explain the results that would have been obtained. 2mks 2. An experiment was carried out to investigate, haemolysis of human cells. The red blood cells were placed in different concentration of sodium chloride solution. The percentage of haemolysed cells was determined. The results were s hown in the table below. Salt conc. g/100cm3 0.33 0.36 0.38 0.39 0.42 0.44 0.48 --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- Red blood cells haemolysed 100 91 82 69 30 15 0 a i On the grid provided plot a graph of haemolysed red blood cells against salt concentration. 6mks ii At what concentration of salt solution was the proportion of haemolysed cells equal to non-haemolysed cells? 1mk iii State the percentage of red blood cells haemolysed at salt concentration of 0.45. 1mk b Account for the results obtained at: 197 ----- i 0.33 salt concentration 3mks ii 0.48 salt concentration 3mks c What would happen to the red blood cells if they were placed in 0.50 salt solution. 3mks d Explain what would happen to onion cells if they were placed in distilled water. 3mks 3. Explain how various environmental factors affect the rate of transpiration in plants. 20mks 4. a State the meaning of the following terms. i Digestion 2mks ii Ingestion 2mks b Describe the process through which a piece of ugali undergoes in man from the time of ingestion up to the time of absorption. 16mks 6. The diagram below represents a unit of gaseous exchange in man. Study it carefully and answer the questions that follow. B E a Name the blood vessel that brings blood to the lungs and the vessel which takes blood away from the lungs. 2mks b Name the structure above. 1mk c Label A and E. 2mks 198 ----- d In what form is carbon IV oxide transported in structure labeled E . 1mk e Name the gas G . 1mk 6. Gastrin is a hormone produced by mammals. a i Where is the hormone produced? 1mk ii What is the function of gastrin? 1mk b What stimulateds the production of gastrin. 1mk c The diagram below shows part of the human intestine. and B 1mk ii To which circulatory system does the part labeled B belong. 1mk d State any two adaptations of the human large intestine to its function. 2mks 7. The diagram below represents part of a xylem tissue. 2mks P . ii Give the function of the part labeled 1mks b State the function of the phloem tissue. 1mk c i State how the functioning of the phloem tissue is affected if the companion cell is destroyed. 1mk ii Give a reason for your answer. 1mk d State any two structural differences between phloem and xylem tissues. 2mks 199 ----- 8. In an experiment to determine the effect of exercise on the concentration of lactic acid in blood, the following data was obtained. Study the data and use it to answer the questions that follow. The lactic acid concentration was measured before, during and after the exercise. Time minutes 0 10 20 25 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- Lactic acid conc. arbituary units 0.5 0.5 5 13 12 8 6 4 3 2 1 0.9 a Using a suitable scale, plot a graph of the concentration of lactic acid against time. 6mks b From the graph you have drawn determine i The period of exercise . Explain. 2mks ii The time when oxygen debt occurred Explain. 2mks iii The duration it took to pay back the oxygen debt.Explain 2msk c On the same set of axes plot a hypothetical curve for oxygen intake during the experiment period of 90 minutes. 2mks d Why does lactic acid level usually continue to rise in the blood after exercise ceases. 2mks e Suggest the two importance of anaerobic respiration to animals. 2mks d What is oxygen debt? 2mks 9. What is the role of the liver in the maintance of a constant level of materials in the body. 20mks 10.The diagram below represents a simple respiratory pathway in cells Glucose Plants Ethanol CO 2 210kJ Process X Substance A Substance B 150kJ K, L, and M 200 ----- a Name the process marked X and Y. 2mks b State two differences between process X and Y. 2mks c State the name of substance B and condition under which it is formed. 2mks d Explain how body size affects the rate of respiration in animals. 2mks 11. The diagram below represent the structure of a nephron. Study it and answer the questions that follow. X B A D C C a i State the physiological process by which solutes are selectively re-absorbed back into blood at the part labelled B. 1mk ii How is the part labeled B adapted to carry out the physiological process named in 3 a i above. 1mk b In which part of the kidney is the part labelled A abundantly found. 1mk c On the diagram above, indicate the direction of flow of blood using arrows at the part labelled C. 1mk e State the functions carried out by the following hormones in the functioning of the nephron. i Aldosterone. 1mk ii Anti diuretic hormone. 1mk 12. The data below shows the rate of photosynthesis at different temperature in attached leaves of three East African plants. Crotolaria, Gynandropsis and Amaranthus species respectively which were grown outside with the same illustration while water and carbon IV oxide are not limiting factors in this experiment. X B A D C C 201 ----- Rate of photosynthesis was expressed interms of carbon IV oxide uptake in mg/mm 2 /hr at various temperatures as tabulated belo w. Temperature oC Rate of photosynthesis mg/mm2/hr Col3 Col4 --- --- --- --- Gynandropsis sp Crotolaris sp Amaranthus sp 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 - 22 50 60 80 85 80 73 66 2 20 40 49 64 48 45 42 31 15 - - 10 27 42 55 54 50 45 40 11 a Represent the results graphically rate of photosynthesis against temperature b Using the graph in a above indicate optimum temperature for the Gynandropsis and Amaranthus species. 2mks Gynandropsis Amaranthus c Give a reason why Gynandaropsis and Amaranthus could not function photosynthetically at 5 o C. 1mk d What are the possible ecological habitats for the following plants. 2mks i Amaranthus ii Crotolaria e At what temperature was the amount of carbon IV oxide around the leaf of Gynandropsis highest? 1mk f What raw material is required in the light stage of photosynthesis. 1mk g Name the parts of chloroplasts in which the following stages of photosynthesis take place. 2mks i Light stage ii Dark stage 202 ----- h State one structural similarity and difference between chloroplast and mitochondria. 2mks Similarity Difference i What is the compensation point of photosynthesis? 1mk 13 a Explain why plants lack elaborate excretory organs like those found in animals. 3mks b Name five methods of excretion in plants. 5mks c State any six excretory products in plants and give economic uses. 12mks 14. During a laboratory investigation, a scientist extracted gastric juice from the mammalian stomach. He used it to carry out tests on a food sample B which was suspected to contain proteins. He divided the food sample B into three portions and treated them as below. I. On the 1 st portion of B, he added Gastric juice and mixed them thoroughly before adding sodium hydroxide followed with copper II sulphate drop by drop. II. On the 2 nd portion of B, he added boiled gastric juice and mixed them thoroughly before adding sodium hydroxide followed with copper II sulphate drop by drop. III. On the 3 rd portion of B, he added Gastric juice, sodium bi-carbonate and mixed them thoroughl before adding sodium hydroxide followed with copper II sulphate drop by drop. a State the observations he made in each set up. 3mks - 1 st portion - 2 nd portion - 3 rd portion b Why was the experiment on the 1 st portion included in the tests? 1mk c Name the property of the chemical being investigated in these tests. 1mk d Account for the observations made in 2 a above. 3mks 15. The diagram below illustrates circulation in certain organs of the mammalian body. 203 ----- a Identify the blood vessels represented by A, B and C. 3mks b Explain why blood from the small intestines goes to the liver before it goes to any other organ of the body. 2mks c Compare the blood in vessels B and C. 1mk d Outline how a glucose molecule in vessel A finally reaches the heart. 2mks 1 6. The table below shows how the internal temperature two animals X and Y varied with the external temperature. The temperature was measured regularly and recorded for 12 hours in a day. Study the table and answer the questions that follow. a Using the same grid, draw graphs of external temperature, and internal temperature of animals X and Y Y-axes against time X-axes . 7mks b Account for the variation of internal and external temperatures for the animals X and Y. 2mks c Identify the classification of organisms whose internal temperature varies as X and Y 2mks d Explain two ways used by organism Y to make its internal temperature vary as shown despite of changes in external temperature. 4mks 18 a Give the functions of the skin in organisms. 6mks b How is the mammalian skin modified to enable it perform its functions? l4mks 19. The diagram below shows how gaseous exchange occurs across the gills in fish. Water a According to the diagram water and blood flow in opposite direction across the gills. Blood Cells Water 204 ----- i Give the term used to describe this flow. 1 Mark ii Explain the advantage of the above flow named in a i above. 2 Marks b What difference would be observed if water and blood flows across the gills in the same direction? 2 Marks c In which structures in the gills does gaseous exchange take place? 1 Mark d Name two organs in man which display the flow system named in a i . 2 Marks 20. An experiment was carried out to investigate the effect of different concentrations of Sodium Chloride on human red blood cells. Equal volumes of blood were added to equal volumes of salt solutions of different concentrations. The results were as - s hown below: Set up Sodium Chloride concentration Shape of red blood cells at the end of experiment Number of red blood cells at the end of experiment --- --- --- --- A B 0.9 0.3 Normal Swollen No change in number Fewer in number a If the experiment was repeated with 1.4 Sodium Chloride solution, state the results you would expect with reference to:- i Number of red blood cells. 1 Mark ii Appearance of red blood cells when viewed under the microscope. 1 Mark Account for the fewer number of red blood cells in 0.3 Sodium Chloride salt solution. 3 Marks c Give the biological term which can be used to describe 0.9 Sodium chloride solution. 1 Mark d Define plasmolysis. 1 Mark Marking Scheme 1. i Osmosis. ii A solution in potato cup increases. Level of water in the beaker decrease; 205 ----- B- Remain the same; iii A Surrounding the cube is a region with high concentration of water molecules while in the sugar crystals, there are very few water molecules; The sugar crystals exert on Osmosis pressure by Osmosis water molecules move across the potato tissue, which acts as a semi-permeable membrane. The level rises; B- No change since boiling denatures the membrane structure of potato cells; iv C- No water moves into the potato cup/remains the same; since there is no concentration gradient; 2 a i Graph. ii 0.402 0.01 iii 11 1 . b i All cells have been haemolysed; cells contains one hypertonic to salt solution; water enters cells by osmosis; cells swell and eventually burst. ii No cells were haemolysed; cell contents were isotonic to salt solutions aments of water entering the cell was equal to that leaving the cell ; no net movement of water into cells; c The cells would become crenated; the cell contents would be hypotonic to salt solutions; water would leave cells by osmosis; membranes would shrink. d Contents of Onion epidermal cells would be hypertonic to water; water would enter cells by Osmosis; cells would become turgid; 3. - Temperature;- High temperature faster rate of transpiration; high temperature increases the capacity of atmosphere to hold water and moisture; also heat increase internal temperature of the leaf hence water evaporation; 4 accept converse - Atmospheric pressure; Low atmospheric pressure, high rate of transpiration 2 - Humidity; Low humidity higher rate of transpiration; low humidity increases the saturation defiant; hence water moves form leaves to drier atmosphere; 4 - Wind; When it is windy the rate of transpiration is higher; wind sweeps away vapour that has accumulated at the surface of leaf; increasing saturation deficit; hence faster rate of transpiration 5 - Light intensity; High light intensity faster rate of transpiration high light intensity increase photosynthesis rate hence stomata opens; 4 206 ----- - Amount of water in soil; More water in the soil increases the rate of transpiration; it wets the xylem ensure xylem is wet throughout ; 3 Max 20 4. a Define digestion and ingestion. i Digestion- It is break down of complex insoluble; food substance into simple soluble food substance; ii Ingestion- is introduction of food through the mouth into the digestive system; b Describe the digestion of Ugali. - Digestion of ugali begins in the mouth; ugali is chewed by the teeth to increase large surface area for action of salivary amylase/ptyalin; The food mixes with saliva produced by salivary glands; - Saliva contains mucus and enzyme ptyalin. Mucus moistens, softens and lubricates the food; ptyalin speeds up the conversion of starch to maltose; ugali is made into bolus in the mouth; - The bolus moves along the oescophagus and prestalsis/by contraction and relaxation of circular and longitudinal muscles into the stomach; - The digestion continues until ugali become acidic since the stomach does not contain carbohydrase/carbohydrate digesting enzymes no digestion of ugali takes place here. - Ugali now moves into duodenum by peristalsis in form of acidic chime; where it mixes with the bile from the liver and pancreatic juice from the pancreases; bile being alkaline neutralizes the stomach acid; and provides a suitable alkaline medium for the enzymes to act on carbohydrates; - Pancreatic juice contains three enzymes out of the which enzyme amylase speeds conversion of starch to maltose; - When food reaches the ileum; it mixes with intestinal juice which contains several enzymes. Maltase speeds up conversion of maltose to glucose; - Lactose which speeds up conversion of lactose to glucose and galactose; sucrase which speeds up conversion of sucrose into fructose and glucose; - Absorption glucose, the end product of all carbohydrates diffuses through the epithelium of villi 207 ----- and capillary walls and enters into blood stream and is carried to the liver via hepatic portal veins; - Assimilation- in the liver excess glucose is converted into glycogen and stored; - - The rest of the glucose is carried by the blood tissues where is oxidized during tissue respiration to 21 max 18 release energy; mks Total 20mks 5. a - Pulmonary artery - Pulmonary vein b Alveolus c A - cavity of alveolus E Red blood cell d Hydrogen carbonate ions; Carbamino haemoglobin; 6. a i Walls of stomach; ii Stimulates the secretion / production of gastric juice; b Presence of food in the stomach; c A Blood capillaries; B Lacteal; d - Produces plenty of mucus to lubricate coarse/indigestible material during peristalsis; - Wide human accommodates /store indigestible food - Elongate to increase surface are for absorption of water. - has muscles to facilitate peristalsis when they contract; 7. a i P Tracheids Q pits ii P - water conducting elements of xylem b Function of phloem translocation/ transport of organic substances from the leaves to the of the plant; c i Translocation of food will not occur acc. Slow translocation ii Reason it contains a lot of mitochondria which provide energy for translocation; d Phloem Xylem --- --- 1 Made of living cells 2 Have companion cells 3 Have - made of dead cells - lack companion cells - lack cytoplasmic strands - have lignin deposits; any 2x1 2mks 208 ----- 8. a Photocopy scale 1m Labeling axes 1 Plotting 2m Curves 2m curves must be labeled rej. Dotted line for curves A GRAPH OF LACTIC ACID CONCENTRATION AGAINST TIME b i 10-15 minutes ; period of rapid increase in lactic acid concentration 2mks ii 10-20 seconds : period when lactic acid level starts to increase; 2mks iii 75minutes i.e. from 25 th minutes to the 100minutes, this is the time lactic cid took to decrease from the highest level to normal; 2mks c It would have the same basic shape; but would peak slightly ahead of the lactic acid curve in time; e Because it is still diffusing out of the muscles, where it was made a few minutes earlier; e Allows for energy production even cases of oxygen deficiency; thus enables animals to survive active exercise and to inhabit even in areas with limited oxygen supply; f Oxygen debt is the amount of oxygen to get rid of the lactic acid; that has accumulated due to anaerobic respiration; 2mks 209 ----- 9. Regulation of blood sugar level; under the influence of insulin; and glucagons hormones . When there is excess sugar; the hormone insulin stimulate/causes liver cell to convert it to glycogen; some converted to fats/lipids for storage; When the blood sugar level is below normal: the hormone glucagon causes liver cells to convert glycogen to glucose; Regulation of amino acids; excess amino acids; are deaminated; by the liver cells leading to formation of urea; which is transported by the blood to the kidney; for elimination; Production of heat: the liver is involved in the thermoregulation due to many metabolic, activities; taking place in the liver cells a lot of heat is generated which is distributed to the entire/whole body; Detoxication of toxic substances; such as drugs and hydroxide peroxide Elimination of haemoglobin; and formation of bile; breakdown worn out red blood cells; the bile salts sodium tyrochocolate and sodium glycocholate; in the bile eEMULSIFYfats in the duodenum Storage of blood in its veins; thus regulating the volume of blood circulating in the body Elimination of sex hormones after they have performed their function/work; storage of vitamin AD and B 12 some mineral salts; thus regulating their levels in the blood TOTAL 23 MAX 20 10. a X - glycolysis Y Krebs cycle b Process X Process Y --- --- - occurs in cytoplasm - independent of oxygen - produces less energy - raw material is glucose - End products are energy, CO, lactic acid or ethanol 2 - occurs in mitochondria - Is oxygen dependent - produces more energy - Raw material is pyruvate - End products are energy, CO and water 2 c lactic acid; under anaerobic conditions d small body size leads to alarge surface area to volume ratio; hence more loss of heat to the environment; leading to increased rate of respiration to replace the lost heat; 11. a i Active transport/diffusion 210 ----- Tied ii Numerous Mitochondria in its wall to generate energy/microvilli/coiling increase surface area/thin epithelium for quick diffusion. b Cortex c on the diagram d plasma proteins; Blood cells; accept specific examples e.g. albumins, red blood cells; e i Regulate re-absorption of Sodium salts; ii Regulate re-absorption of water 12. a Allocation of marks on graph b Gynandropsis opt To 30 o C Amaranthus opt. to 25 o C c At 5 o C, the enzymes that catalyse the process of photosynthesis are inactivated. d Amaranthus Terrestrial; Crotolaria terrestrial; e 50 o C; f water; g i Granum; ii Stroma h Similarity: Both have double membrane; 1mk Both have fluid filled matrix; Difference : inner membrane of mitochondrion is folded to form cristae while inner membrane of chloroplast is smooth; - chloroplast is biconcave shaped while mitochondria is oval/sausage shaped any 1x1 1mk i Point at which the rate of photosynthesis equals to the rate of respiration. 13. a plants wastes accumulate slowly; - plants produce less toxic wastes; - some excretory products are recycled by plants e.g. CO 2, SO 2 - plant tissues are tolerant to toxic wastes; - plant wastes are stored in temporary structures which fall off e.g. leaves any 3x1 3mks b Diffusion; - Transpiration; - Exudation; - Deposition of wastes/ leaf fall/ flower fall/ storage in bark; - Recycling; - Guttation ; any 5x1 5mks c 211 ----- 14. a 1 st portion. - Blue; colour was observed 2 nd portion Purple; colour was observed 3 rd portion Purple; colour was observed b A control experiment; c Proteins are highly sensitive to temperature and pH changes; award if either temp of pH is stated singly d 1 st portion Enzyme pepsin broke down proteins into peptones; 2 nd portion Enzyme pepsin works in acidic medium; not in basic medium 15. a A Hepartic portal vein; B Hepartic vein; C Hepartic artery; b So that any toxic substances absorbed together with food nutrients from the ileum be detoxified; - So that food substances e.g. glucose, amino acids can be regulated. Only the required quantity of glucose is left in circulation as excess is either stored as glycogen, fat and excess may be respired. Excess amino acids are deaminated; c B Deoxygenated C - Oxygenated d From the small intestines, it is transported to the liver through Hepartic portal vein; It is then transported to the heart through the hepartic vein; 16. a graph 212 ----- b X Lacks internal mechanisms to regulate its internal temperature Y Has internal means to regulate its internal temperature. hence able to maintain it within narrow range c X Poikilotherm Y Endotherm d Blood vessels vasodilate when temperature is higher than norm to allow for heat loss from blood through radiation, evaporation, etc; when temperature is lower, blood vessels constrict to prevent loss of heat from blood through radiation, evaporation etc; - When temperature is higher, lies flat to allow for heat loss from the body since insulation layer of air is removed; when temperature is lower, hair strands erect to hold air which insulates the body against heat loss through radiation, evaporation etc. 17. a Higher temperature; increases the kinetic energy; of water molecules which makes water turn into vapour on the leaf surfaces faster and hence increase rate of transpiration Higher light intensity; influences maximum opening of stomata which increases the surface area; over which transpiration occurs maximumly Wind; carries away moisture around the plant and create a higher saturation deficit; which then increases the rate of water loss/transpiration in plants. Higher relative humidity; reduces saturation deficit; which causes lowering of water loss/transpiration in plants. Higher amount of water in the soil; makes the plant to absorb excess water which increases the need for the plant to get rid of it through transpiration faster; If the leaf is broader and has numerous larger open stomata; the surface area over which water loss occurs is increased; causing increase in the rate of transpiration. award max. 12mks 18. a It protects the underlying tissues against mechanical injury, UV-light rays and entry of pathogens; Rej. germs As an excretory organs, it enables organisms to eliminate excess water, ions and traces of urea; As a sensory organ, it enables the organisms to be aware of deviations in pressure, touch and temperature from the external environment; It is a thermoregulator such that it enables the body to lose excess heat to lower its temperature back to norm or 213 ----- may enable the organisms to store it s heat if the temperature is lower and hence raise it back to the norm; It takes part in osmoregulation by enabling the body fluids to get rid of excess water or excess ions; It takes part in the regulation of the pH of body fluids by enabling the body to get rid of either Hydrogen ions or bi- carbonate ions; b Presence of the cornified layer; which tough and has keratin to enable it protect the underlying tissues from mechanical injury; It alsos has sebum; which is antiseptic and enables it to prtect the ody against entry of pathogesn. Presence of melanin; enables it to protect the underlying tissues against damage by t UV-light radiations. It has sweat glands with secretory cells; which absorb excess water, excess ions and traces fo urea from blood and secrete them into the sweat duct; Has the sweat pores; which open son the skin surface to allow for elimination of sweat containing excess water, excess ions and traces of urea; It has nerve endings; which enables it to detect any deviations in temperature, pressure and contact/touch; It has hair follicles; which stand erect when temperature is lower than normal to reduce heat loss from the body or lie flat to enable to body lose excess heat and lower temperature back to the norm when the internal temperature is higher; Has blood vessels; which vasodilate when temperature is higher than norm to enable the organisms lose than the norm to reduce heat loss from the body; 19. a i Counter current system; ii Maintain a diffusion gradient so that there is maximum uptake of oxygen; continue diffusing into blood and Carbon iv oxide into water; b Parallel flow lower diffusion gradient; so that less oxygen diffuse into blood/low rate of gaseous exchange c Gill filaments d Placenta Kidney 20 a i Remain the same ii Crenated b The solution is hypotonic to red blood cells hence the cells grains water; by osmosis; swelling until they burst. c Isotonic solution 214 ----- d Plasmolysis the process by which plant cells loss water by Osmosis shrink and become flaccid. BIOLOGY DIAGRAMS 215 ----- Distilled water Starch and glucose solution Visking tubing Boiling tube 216 ----- 217 ----- 218 ----- 219 ----- 220 ----- 221 ----- 222 ----- 223 ----- 224 ----- 225 ----- Companion Cell R B 226 ----- TOPICAL QUESTIONS FOR BIOLOGY FORM I TOPICS 1. a Define biology -the study of life/living things b List the branches of biology - Zoology study of animals - Botany study of plants - Microbiology study of microorganisms c Explain the importance of biology - helps to solve environmental problems - Helps to learn scientific skills - For entry into other professions/careers - To apply knowledge to everyday life situations - To classify organisms into their right groups - understanding living organisms d State the characteristics of living organisms - feeding/nutrition - Growth and development - respiration to produce energy - sensitivity/irritation/response - excretion getting rid of metabolic waste material - movement/locomotion - reproduction e State the main differences between plants and animals Animals Plants --- --- Specialized excretory organs No specialized excretory organs Respond to stimulus quickly Slow respond to stimulus All body parts grow equally intercalary Grow at shoot tip and root tip only Move around to look for food Stationery Heterotrophic Autotrophic Cells have no cell walls Cells have cell wall made of cellulose 227 ----- No chlorophyll Contain chlorophyll --- --- Give parental care to young Plants dont care for their young 2. a i What is a hand lens? - Convex lens mounted on a frame and used to magnify small objects for viewing. ii How is a hand lens used? - place the lens a short distance from the eye - Bring the object to be viewed near the lens until an enlarged and clear image can be seen. ii When is a hand lens used? - For reasonably sized objects such as insect wing, leg, flower parts. - Cannot be used for small objects such as cells, stomata. iv Explain how to calculate drawing magnification - drawing magnification equals to length of drawing divided by length of object or image length divided by actual length i.e. length of drawing or image length Length of object actual length b i what is classification? - Orderly arrangement of living organisms into various groups according to their similarities ii List the external features used to classify plants - rhizoids e.g. mosses - frond e.g. ferns - roots e.g. taproot, fibrous roots, modified roots - flowers - leaves - buds - seeds iii List the external features used to classify animals - horns e.g. cattle, goat, sheep, deer, gazelle etc - hooves e.g. cattle, sheep, donkey - mammary glands e.g. cattle, dog, sheep, cat - hair e.g. human, cat - Shell e.g. snail, Tortoise - spines e.g. hedge hog, porcupine c Give the reasons why classification is important - Placing/grouping living organisms into correct groups called taxa - Identification - arrange information about living organisms into orderly and sequential manner i.e. it is easy to study organisms in groups 228 ----- -helps in understanding evolutionary relationships - monitoring disappearance and appearance of organisms i.e. predict characteristics of organisms d i Name the taxonomic units of classification in descending order - Kingdom largest unit - Phylum animals /division plants - Class - Order - Family - Genus - Species smallest unit ii What is a species? - all organisms which can interbreed and give rise to fertile viable offspring iii Name the major kingdoms used in classification -monera -protoctista/protista -fungi -plantae -animalia e i Define the term binomial nomenclature - a scientific system of naming organisms using the generic/genus and specific/species names - e.g. for humans, Homo sapiens ii State the principles followed during binomial nomenclature - the first generic name should begin with a capital letter while the rest are small letters - the two names are printed in italics and if handwritten should be underlined each separately iii Give the advantages of using binomial nomenclature - no confusion about which organism is referred to - names are internationally accepted regardless of language - shows evolutionary relationship hence easy to understand - useful in naming many species unlike use of common names iv Name the types of classification - traditional using common names - scientific using binomial nomenclature 3. a i Define the term cell - it is the basic unit of organization of an organism i.e. the basic functional and structural unit of an organism. 229 ----- ii What is cell biology? - study of structure and functioning of a cell - also called cytology b i What is a microscope? - an instrument used to magnify objects and make them appear bigger. ii Name the types of microscope - the light microscope - the electron microscope iii State the purpose of using a light microscope - it magnifies and reveals the structure details of tiny objects such as the cell, that cannot be seen by the human eye directly - iv Draw a labeled sketch of a light microscope v State the functions of the labeled parts a. Eyepiece used to look through and to magnify the object b. Course adjustment knob raises or lowers body tube and focuses object roughly c. Fine adjustment knob raises or lowers body tube by small distances to bring image into fine focus d. objective lens brings image into focus and also magnifies object/image stage is a platform where object or specimen on slide is placed mirror reflects light through condenser and directs it to objective lens clips hold glass slide in position body tube holds eyepiece and revolving nose piece which has objective lenses limb or base support whole instrument arm for holding when carrying instrument 230 ----- revolving nose piece holds objective lens in place enabling change from one objective lens to another e i Explain the procedure followed when using a microscope - put the microscope on the bench with the stage facing away from you viewer - turn the lower power objective to click in line with the eyepiece - Ensure that the diaphragm/iris is fully open - Adjust the mirror until the stage is illuminated with enough light - Place the slide containing the specimen on the stage for magnification - Draw the image and indicate magnification of the drawing. ii State the precautions that are necessary when handling a microscope always use two hands when carrying it never place a microscope too close to the edge of the bench or table do not touch the mirror and lens with wet or dirty hands clean dirty lenses using a special lens cleaning cloth clean other parts using a soft cloth or tissue paper low power objective must click into position before and after use. Do not wet any part of the microscope Clean and store well after use d i What is magnification? - The power of making an image larger ii Give the formula used to calculate magnification in a light microscope eyepiece lens magnification x objective lens magnification iii Give the reasons for each of the following steps when preparing a cross-section of a stem or leaf for examination under the microscope cutting very thin sections thin sections allow light to pass through making it easy to observe the tissue Using a sharp razor blade during the cutting sharp blade does not damage, deform, destroy or distort the surface of cell or tissue it makes thin sections 231 ----- Placing sections in water to maintain turgidity hence maintain shape of cell it prevents drying of the section Staining the sections with iodine before observing To make chloroplasts, starch containing structures, granules or plastids distinct. e i List the parts of a cell that can be seen under a light microscope a cell membrane b cytoplasm c cell wall e nucleus d vacuole ii Draw the general structure of a plant and animal cell iii List the parts of a cell that can be seen under an electronic microscope and state the functions of each part. Cell wall found in plant cells in addition to cell membrane made of cellulose which makes the plant tough allows gases, water and other substances to pass through Cell membrane permeable/selective to control movement of materials in and out of cells bound/encloses the cell contents also called plasma membrane or plasmallema Cytoplasm fluid medium where chemical reactions occur also where cell organelles are suspended Nucleus controls cell activities Nucleolus synthesizes DNA Vacuole 232 ----- sacs filled with fluid called cell sap large in plants but small in animals act as reservoirs for food and harmful wastes which would otherwise interfere with the metabolism in cytoplasm Lysosomes store hydrolytic enzymes destroy worn out cell organelles, cells, pathogens digestion of food in unicellular organisms autolysis Golgi apparatus processing/packaging of synthesized materials transporting/secretion of packaged materials/cell materials e.g. glycoproteins and mucus production of lysosomes Ribosomes where protein synthesis takes place Mitochondrion synthesis of ATP/energy Chloroplasts where photosynthesis takes place Endoplasmic reticulum transport of cell secretions can be rough or smooth iv State the functions of cell sap stores chemical substances, sugar, salts maintains shape of the cell/provides mechanical strength plays a role in osmoregulation by creating an osmotic gradient that brings about movement of water e Compare plant and animal cells plant cells have chloroplasts lacking in animals animal cells have many small vacuoles while plant cells have a large central vacuole plant cell have cellulose cell walls lacking in animal cells cytoplasm in plant cell is in the periphery but in animal cell it is centrally placed plants store starch, oil and protein while animals store gats and glycogen animal cells have centrioles which plant cells do not have f Explain the meaning of each of the following i Cell - Basic unit of organization in an organism - Specialized animal cells include sperm, ovum muscle 233 ----- Specialized plant cells include epidermal, guard cell and palisade cell ii Tissue these are cells of a particular type grouped together to perform a certain function animal tissues include epithelium, blood, nerves, muscle, skeletal and connective tissues plant tissues include epidermal, photosynthetic, vascular, strengthening tissues iii Organ tissues combine together to form organs an organ is a complex structure with a particular function animal examples include heart, liver, kidney, lungs, brain, blood vessels, muscles, skeleton Plant organs include leaves, roots, flowers, and stem. iv Organ system organs are grouped together to form systems also called organ systems animal systems include excretory, digestive, respiratory, nervous, circulatory, endocrine hormones/glands , skeletal systems plant systems include transport system g i Name the structures which are present in plant cells but absent in animal cells - Chloroplast - Cell wall ii Name the structures which are present in animal cells but absent in plant cells Lysosomes Centrioles Pinocytic vesicles h Explain how to estimate cell size i Materials cell sizes are measured in units known as micrometers my required is a transparent ruler marked in millimeters 1m 1 mm 1000 ii Procedure - Click to low power place transparent ruler with its millimeter marks on the stage 234 ----- focus so that the millimeter marks can be seen as thick dark lines estimate the diameter of field of view by counting the one millimeter spaces between the first mark and the last one across the field of view as shown below the diameter of the field of view above is estimated as 3.2 mm convert the diameter of the field of view from millimeters to micrometers i.e. 3. Estimate the fraction of the field of view occupied by the cell. This is done by estimating the number of cells places end to end that would fill the diameter of the field of view as shown below in the figure above, it is estimated that approximately six cells will occupy the diameter of the field of view therefore, one cell will occupy of the field of view its diameter is calculated as times the diameter of the field of view i In a drawing of a giraffe, the height of the head from the ground was recorded as 10cm. the drawing also showed a magnification of 0.02. calculate the actual height of the giraffe Drawing height 10cm 500cm Magnification 0.02 i In a class experiment to estimate sizes of cells a student observed and obtained millimeter marks on the field of view of a microscope as shown in the . diagram below 235 ----- Millimeter marks - If the student counted 40 cells on the diameter of the field of view, what was the approximate size of the each cell in micrometers? Diameter of field of view 3 x 1000 75 m Number of cells 40 ii Under which of the following light microscope magnifications would one see a larger part of the specimen? X40 or x400? Give a reason x40 Smaller magnification gives a wider field of view hence a larger part seen. e. a i Define cell physiology the study of the functions of a cell in relation to their structure ii State the functions of the cell exchange of materials between the cell and the external environment physiological reactions e.g. photosynthesis production of energy through mitochondria b i Describe the structure of cell membrane - made up of three layers - Lipid portion sandwiched between two protein layers - Lipid portion enhances penetration of oil soluble substances Pores present to facilitate inward and outward movement of water soluble substances iii Give the properties of cell membrane semi-permeable sensitive to changes in temperature and pH Possesses electric charges. c i What is diffusion? movement of substances/molecules/particles/ions from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration until equilibrium is reached iii State the factors affecting diffusion diffusion gradient/concentration gradient surface area to volume ratio temperature size of molecules state of the diffusing substance thickness of membrane and tissues 236 ----- iii Explain the roles of diffusion in living organisms gaseous exchange absorption of digested food in intestines movement of salts in plants movement of materials between blood capillaries and tissues removal of waste materials from bodies of small organisms air movement in intercellular spaces in plants iv Suggest an experiment to demonstrate diffusion to a beaker of water, drop crystals of potassium permanganate or copper sulphate leave to stand in a place without disturbing observe the spreading of molecules liquid is coloured uniformly due to diffusion d i What is osmosis? Movement of water or solvent molecules from a dilute/hypotonic solution to a more concentrated/hypertonic solution across a semi-permeable membrane. OR movement of solvent molecules from a region of their higher concentration to a region of their lower concentration through a semi-permeable membrane ii State the factors affecting osmosis concentration of the solution concentration gradient temperature iv Explain the roles of osmosis in living organisms helps to draw water into roots of plants helps in the passage of water from one living cell to another in the plant helps to keep plant cells turgid increasing support Helps in opening and closing of stomata. Folding of leaves in Mimosa pudica when touched Feeding in insectivorous plants v A group of students set up an experiment to investigate a certain physiological process. The set up is as shown in the diagram below. ----- After some time they observed that the level of sugar had risen. What was the physiological process under investigation? Osmosis Why was there a rise in the level of sugar solution? sugar solution is more concentrated than cell sap osmosis those cells become more concentrated and therefore draw water from neighbouring cells this process continues until the cells in contact with the water in the container draw it up causing a rise in the level of the sugar solution Suggest the results that the students would obtain if they repeated the experiment using cooked potato The level of sugar solution will not rise. What is the reason for your suggestion? boiling kills/destroys cells making them osmotically inactive vi Explain the following terms Hypnotic a solution whose concentration is lower than that of the cell Isotonic a solution whose concentration is the same as that of the cell Hypertonic a solution whose concentration is higher than that of the cell Turgor pressure As a cell gains water, its vacuole enlarges and exerts an outward pressure called turgor pressure. 238 ----- Plasmolysis if a plant is placed in a hypotonic solution if loses water the protoplasm shrinks to an extent that it pulls away from the cellulose cell wall Wilting when a plant is turgid it can stand upright however, if the cells lose a lot of water, turgidity is reduced the plant then droops because the cells are flaccid the plant is said to wilt Haemolysis if red blood cells are placed in distilled water, the cells take up water by osmosis, swell and burst this is because it does not have any mechanism like the cellulose cell wall to prevent overstretching nor any means of removing excess water this is called haemolysis e A form one student placed red blood cells in different salt concentrations and obtained the following results:- There was a gain no change 0 zero and a loss - in the volume of the cells as show below: 239 ----- Briefly explain the results of the experiment in the first solution, red blood cell absorbed water by osmosis, swell and burst haemolysis hence the solution is hypotonic in the second solution, there was no change in size or structure as it was isotonic hence no osmotic gradient in the third solution the red blood cell lost water to shrink hence became crenated as the solution was hypotonic to the cell cytoplasm. f i What is active transport? movement of molecules and ions against a concentration gradient the substances move from a lower to a higher concentration gradient by use of energy ii State the factors affecting active transport oxygen concentration temperature change in pH glucose concentration enzyme inhibitors iii Why is oxygen important in the process of active transport? - Oxygen is required for respiration, which produces energy necessary for the process to occur. 2.0 the factors that affect the rates of the following process in living organisms. a. DIFFUSION. - Diffusion gradient which refers to the difference in concentration of molecules between the region of high concentration and the region of low concentration. Increasing the concentration gradient causes an increase in rate of diffusion and vice versa. -Surface area to volume ratio . is the ratio of total surface area exposed by an organism compared to its body volume. Small sized living organisms have a large surface area to volume ratio. The larger the surface area to volume ratio,the high the rate of diffusion and vice versa. Small organisms like amoeba and paramecium can hence rely on diffusion for transport of substances into and within its body and removal of waste products 240 ----- -thickness of membranes. Molecules take longer to diffuse across thick membranes than across thin membranes hence the thin the membrane the higher the rate of diffusion. -Temperature. Increasing temperature increases the kinetic energy of diffusing molecules making them to spread faster. Increasing temperature increases the rate of diffusion and vice versa -size of molecules/molecular weight. Small sized molecules/molecules of low molecular weight move/diffuse faster hence the rate of diffusion is high where the molecules . involved are small or have low molecular weight and vice versa B. OSMOSIS -Temperature. Increasing temperature increases the kinetic energy of water molecules making them to spread faster. Increasing temperature increases the rate of osmosis and vice versa -concentration gradient/diffusion pressure deficit. Refers to the difference in concentration on either side of a semi- permeable membrane. The higher the osmotic pressure difference the higher the rate of osmosis. C. ACTIVE TRANSPORT OXYGEN CONCENTRATION. It is required for respiration/to oxidize respiratory substrates to release energy required for active transport. an increase in oxygen concentration causes a simultaneous increase to the rate of active transport upto a certain level. P H Enzymes being protein in nature are P H specific. Extreme change in P H affect the rate of respiration which is controlled by enzymes and may denature the enzymes reducing the rate of active transport. - GLUCOSE CONCENTRATION. is the main respiratory substrate for energy production. An increase in glucose concentration in cells increase the rate of respiration and hence the rate of active transport is increased upto a certain optimum level beyond which any additional increase in glucose concentration has no effect. TEMPERATURE. The process of respiration by which energy for active transport is generated is controlled by enzymes. c- Enzymes work best at temperatures of between 35 0 40 0 c,usually called optimum temperature ranges. At very low temperatures enzymes are inactive lowering the rate of respiration hence low rates of active transport . increase in temperature above optimum above 40 0 c denatures enzymes 241 ----- slowing down respiration and ac tive transport until it finally stops. ENZYMES INHIBITORS. They are substances which slow down by competing with the enzyme for the active sites in the substrate or stop by blocking the active sites of the enzyme the activity/funtioning of enzymes .this slows down or stops respiration and so is active transport. CONCENTRATION OF CARRIER MOLECULES IN THE CELL MEMBRANE. They are substances that bind to the ions being transported actively and carrying them across the membrane . increase in concentration of carrier molecules increases the rate of active transport upto a certain level and vice versa. 4. Explain briefly the role of osmosis in living tissues. In plants: Osmosis facilitates the absorption of water from the soil by plant roots, water is required for the process of photosynthesis. Turgidity of cells contributes to support in herbaceous plants and helps plant to maintain shape. Helps in closing and opening of stomata regulating the process of gaseous exchange and transpiration. It facilitates feeding in insectivorous plants like venus fly trap. In animals: Enables reabsorption of water from the kidney tubules back to blood stream facilitating the process of osmoregulation. It enables organisms in fresh water bodies like amoeba to absorb water. it is applied in food preservation. 5. explain what happens when plant and animal cells are put in hypotonic and hypertonic solutions. a. i plant cells in hypotonic solution. The concentration of the plant cell sap is hypertonic to the solution/water medium. the cell draws in water by osmosis through the cell wall, cell membrane into the cell cytoplasm. Water enters the cell vacuole by osmosis; it enlarges and exerts an outward pressure on the cell wall called turgor pressure. Increased turgor pressure pushes the cell cytoplasm against the cell wall until the cell wall cannot stretch any further. The cell becomes firm or rigid and is said to be turgid. As the cell wall is being stretched outwards, it develops a resistant inwards pressure that is equal and opposite to the turgor pressure and this is called wall pressure. 242 ----- ii. Plant cells in hypertonic solution. The plant cell sap is hypotonic to the solution medium. Water molecules are drawn out of the plant cells by osmosis into the hypertonic solution through the semi-permiable membrane of the plant cells. As a result the plant cell will start to shrink/less rigid and become flabby. The cell membrane/plasma membrane is pulled away from the cell wall and the cell is said to be flaccid. this process by which a plant cell lose water, shrink and become flaccid is called plasmolysis. However the shape of the plant cell is maintained by the tough rigid cellulose cell wall which prevents crenation in plant cells. b.i Animal cells in hypotonic solution. The concentration of water in the cytoplasm of the plant cells is hypertonic to the solution medium in the test. Water molecules are then drawn into the animal cell cytoplasm from the surrounding medium by osmosis through the semipermiable membrane. the cell swells as water is drawn into them by osmosis .as water continues to enter into the cell,the weak animal cell membrane bursts a process called lysis. in red blood cells this process is called haemolysis. However in unicellular organisms like amoeba and paramecium,bursting of their cells does not take place because they have specialized organelles called contractile vacuoles for removal of exces water out of their bodies/cells. ii. Animal cells in hypertonic solution. The concentration of the animal cells cell cytoplasm is hypotonic to the solution medium in the test. the surrounding hypertonic solution will draw water out of the animal cells by osmosis through the semi-permeable membrane. Continued loss of water causes the cells to be smaller in size and their membranes become wrinkled. This process will continue until the concentration of the cell sap and the surrounding medium is equal i.e isotonic.the process by which animal cells lose water and shrink is called crenation. 6. Explain briefly the role of active transport in living organisms. It is involved in active reabsorption of glucose and mineral salts in kidney tubules during formation of urine. it enables the absorption of digested food from the alimentary canal/small intestines into the blood stream. Excretion of waste products from body cells for eventual removal. Involved in transmission 243 ----- of nerve impulses within the nerve cells through the sodium pump which maintains a balance between sodium and potassium ions. It facilitates accumulation of substances in the body cells to offset osmotic pressure of organisms in dry and marine environment allowing them to absorb water by osmosis and avoid desiccation. In plants it enables plant roots to absorb water from the soil against the concentration gradient. Its involved in translocation of manufactured food in the phloem tissue within the plant body. Its involved in the opening and closing of the stomata through the sodium-potassium pump mechanism. iv Outline the roles of active transport in living organisms mineral salt intake by plants selective reabsorption of glucose and some salts by kidney tubules absorption of digested good by small intestines excretion of waste products from body cells reabsorption of useful materials in the blood stream or at the tissue fluid sodium pump mechanism in the nerve cells/neurons f. a i Define nutrition the process by which living organisms obtain and assimilate nutrients ii State the importance of nutrition for respiration to get energy for growth for development to repair and replace worn out and damaged parts and tissues b Differentiate the various modes of feeding i Autotrophism manufacturing food from simple organic substances types are photosynthesis and chemosynthesis ii Heterotrophism obtaining food from autotrophes and other organic substances types are holozoic, saprophytic and parasitic g. a i Define photosynthesis the process by which green plants build up organic compounds from carbon IV oxide and water in the presence of sunlight ii. State the importance of photosynthesis formation of sugars/glucose which is a source of energy 244 ----- purification of air CO2 is used, O2 is released storage of energy to be used later in respiration stores energy in wood, coal, oil to be used later to run industries Structural adaptation of the leaf to its function The leaf has a broad and flattened lamina to provide a large surface area for trapping optimum light for photosynthesis and allow maximum gaseous exchange. The leaf epidermis is thin one cell thick to reduce the distance across which diffusion of carbon iv oxide gas to palisade cells and oxygen gas from palisade cells takes place. The leaf has numerous stomata that allows easy diffusion of gases into and out of the palisade tissue. The leaf cuticle and epidermis are transparent to allow easy penetration of light to the photosynthetic tissue. The palisade cells are numerous,elongated and contain numerous chloroplasts to trapping optimum light for photosynthesis. The palisade tissue is just beneath the upper epidermis exposing them to trap optimum light for photosynthesis. The leaf has numerous leaf veins consisting of a. xylem vessels and tracheids for transporting water and dissolved mineral salts from the soil to the photosynthetic tissue b. phloem tissue for translocation of of manufactured food from the leaf to storage organs and other parts of the plant . 245 ----- Numerous and large air spaces in the spongy mesopyl layer for optimum gaseous exchange with the photosynthetic tissue. Phylotaxy which is regular arrangement of leaves on the stem minimizes overshadowing and overlapping exposing all leaves to light for photosynthesis. The prominent midrib and leaf veins reduces chances of rolling of leaves maintaining a large surface area for trapping optimum light for photosynthesis. C Describe the structure and function of chloroplast i Structure ----- ii Function structure in which photosynthesis takes place iii Adaptations has numerous/many grana to provide large surface area for packing many chlorophyll pigments have numerous chlorophyll pigments which trap sunlight/light for photosynthesis has stroma/third matrix which contain certain enzymes that catalyze photosynthetic reactions d i Give a word equation for photosynthesis Carbon iv Oxide water sunlight sugar oxygen Chlorophyll NB 6CO 2 6H 2 O C 6 H 12 0 6 6O 2 . Describe briefly the process of photosynthesis in plants. The process of photosynthesis takes place in green plants allowing them to make their own food. The process is controlled by enzymes and involves a series of reactions that take place in chloroplasts. The raw materials required are water and carbon iv oxide.the process takes place in two consecutive stages i.e Light reaction stage Its also called the light dependent stage as it requires light energy . the reactions take place in the granna of the chloroplast. light energy from the sun is trapped by chlorophyll in the chloroplast and converted into chemical energy. This energy splits water molecules into hydrogen ions and oxygen atoms a process is called photolysis. The oxygen atoms are released as aby product or used up in the process of respiration. The hydrogen ions formed are used in the dark stage of photosynthesis. Water hydrogen ions oxygen atoms 2H 2 O 4H o 2 g Some of the light enrgy is used to combine a molecule called adenosine diphosphate ADP with a phosphate group to form the rich energy molecules called adenosine Tri-Phosphate ATP ADP P ATP Dark reaction stage Its also called the light independent stage of photosynthesis since light is not required because it can take place both in presence and absence of light. the reactions are controlled by enzymes. the hydrogen atoms released in the light stage are 247 ----- combined with carbon iv oxide to form simple sugars mainly glucose. The process uses energy from ATP. This is reffered to as carbon iv oxide fixation. The reactions take place in the stroma of chloroplast. The excess glucose is converted into starch or lipids for storage. The general process of photosynthesis can be summarized by the following word and chemical equitions. Water carbon iv oxide light chlorophyll glucose oxygen 6H 2 o 6co 2 C 6 H 12 O 6 6O 2 9. Factors that cause high rate of photosynthesis. High water availability in the soil. Water a raw material for photosynthesis is split in presence of light to provide the hydrogen ions required in carbon iv fixation. When water is readily available more hydrogen ions are produced hence high rate of photosynthesis. High light intensity. Light splits water molecules to hydrogen ions and oxygen atoms. Increasing light intensity increases the rate of photosynthesis up to a certain level beyond which other factors become limiting and rate of photosynthesis becomes constant. rate of photosynthesis Increasing light intensity Day length. Long day length especially at high latitudes temperate regions provides more light for photosynthesis causing an increase in the rate of photosynthesis. Light quality. The preferred wavelengths for photosynthesis range between 400nm-700nm. the rate of photosynthesis is higher in red and blue light and lower in all other types of light. Concentration of carbon iv oxide. Its a raw material required to combine with hydrogen ions to form simple carbohydrate molecules. Increasing the concentration of carbon iv oxide increases the rate of photosynthesis up to an optimum level beyond which other factors limit the rate of photosynthesis. 248 ----- rate of photosynthesis concentration of co 2 f Give the differences between the light and dark reactions during photosynthesis Col2 --- --- Light reactions Dark reactions occurs in grana occurs in stroma h. a i What are chemicals of life? substances which make up cells, tissues and organs of the living system they combine to form organic compounds ii What are organic compounds? compounds that contain the element carbon iii List the organic compounds proteins carbohydrates lipids fats and oils vitamins enzymes nucleic acids DNA and RNA b i What are carbohydrates? - Compounds of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen - The elements are in the ratio of I carbon: 2 hydrogen: 1 oxygen ii Name the groups of carbohydrates monosaccharides simple carbohydrates e.g. glucose, fructose and galactose disaccharides formed when two monosaccharides combine e.g. maltose, sucrose, lactose polysaccharides composed of many monosaccharides and disaccharides e.g. starch, glycogen, cellulose iv State the general functions of carbohydrates production of chemical energy storage of starch plants and glycogen animals commercial uses e.g. manufacture of paper, textiles 249 ----- c i what are proteins? compounds of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen and in addition nitrogen, and sometimes sulphur and or phosphorus building blocks are called amino acids ii Name the types of amino acids essential amino acids which must be supplied in food since they body cannot synthesize them Non-essential amino acids which body can synthesize. iv State the classes of proteins first class proteins which supply all the essential amino acids second class proteins which lack at least one amino acid v Give the functions of proteins structural compounds e.g. muscles, hair, hooves, and feathers as enzymes e.g. pepsin, trypsin hormones e.g. insulin and glucagons antibodies part of haemoglobin molecule actin and myosin in muscles collagen in bones and cartilage pigments in rods and cones for coordination components of blood i.e. plasma proteins d i What are lipids - Fats and oils - They contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen - However, they contain a higher proportion of carbon and hydrogen but less oxygen that in carbohydrates ii Name the types of lipids oils liquid under room temperature fats solid under room temperature iii What are the building blocks of lipids? fatty acids and glycerol v State the functions of lipids production of energy source of metabolic water structural compound e i What are enzymes? a chemical compound, protein in nature, which acts as a biological catalyst ii State the properties of enzymes 250 ----- are highly specific in nature they are not used up during chemical reactions work within specific range of temperature work within specific range of pH enzyme controlled reactions are reversible iii State the factors that affect enzyme action temperature substrate concentration pH of the medium enzyme concentration presence of inhibitors and co-factors v Name the types of enzyme inhibitors competitive inhibitors non- competitive inhibitors vi What are the functions of enzymes? enable cellular reactions to take place at a reasonably faster rate Control cell reactions therefore no violent incidences occur in cells that might burn them. i. a Explain the various types of heterotrophic nutrition i Holozoic Mode of feeding by animals where solid complex food substances are ingested, digested and egested. ii Saprophytism feeding on dead organic matter iii Parasitism feeding from another organism but not killing it iv Symbiosis an association in which organisms of different species derive mutual benefit from one another b Differentiate between omnivorous, carnivorous and herbivorous modes of nutrition i Herbivorous herbivores feed exclusively on vegetation ii Omnivorous omnivores are animals which feed partially on plant materials and partially on flesh e.g pigs iii Carnivorous Carnivores feed on flesh alone e.g. lion c i What is dentition? Refers to the number, arrangement and kind of teeth in an animal 251 ----- ii Distinguish between the terms homodont and heterodont homodont have same kind, type, shape and size of teeth which perform similar function e.g. fish, reptiles and amphibians Heterodont have different kind, type, shape and size of teeth which perform different functions as those found in mammals. iv Name the types of teeth found in mammals Incisors Canines Pre-molars Molars d Describe the adaptations and functions of various types of mammalian teeth Incisors chisel shaped/wedge shaped found in the front of the buccal cavity used for cutting i Canines next to incisors very sharp and pointed located at the sides of jaws used for tearing food ii Premolars next to canines but before molars have cusps and ridges on their surface used for crushing and grinding iii Molars found at the back of the jaw have cusps and ridges on their surface absent in young mammals but appear later when permanent teeth grow used for grinding and crushing e i Draw a labeled diagram to represent internal structure of a mammalian tooth. 252 ----- ii State the functions of the labeled structures labeled Dentine main constituent of teeth like bone in structure but contains no cells Enamel protects tooth from mechanical/physical injury the hard covering of the exposed part of teeth Crown portion of tooth above the gum covered with dentine Root part imbedded in the jaw below the gum covered by substances called cement cement is hard and bone-like Cement bone-like substance covering root and enamel of mammalian tooth Neck region at the same level with the gum forms a junction between the crown and root covered by enamel Pulp cavity at centre of tooth within dentine has blood vessels for transporting nutrients/food and gases has nerves for sensitivity f i What is dental formula? formula indicating the number of each kind of teeth for a given species of mammal only half the jaw is included the number in the upper jaw of one side is written above that in the lower jaw of one side the categories of teeth are given in the order incisors, canines, pre-molars, molars ii Give examples of dentition in named mammals carnivore e.g. dog i 2 / 3, c 1 / 1, pm 2 / 3, m 2 / 3 42 253 ----- herbivore e.g. sheep I 0 /3, c 0 /1, pm 2 / 3, m 3 / 3 30 Omnivore e.g. human I 2 / 2 . c 1 /1, pm 2 / 2, m 3 /3 32 iii How would one use dental formula to identify the following? Herbivores presence of diastema/gap between incisors and premolars free movement of tongue absence of incisors in upper jaw absence of canines presence of hard pad closely packed molars Carnivore presence of canines presence of carnassial teeth presence of incisors in upper jaw/absence of diastema/gap between incisor and premolar iv State the functions of the following structures in mammals Carnassials tearing flesh from bones Pad of gum provides grasping surface for lower incisors g Name the common dental diseases dental caries periodontal pyorrhea and gingivitis j. a i What is digestion? breakdown of complex food particles by enzymes to simple substances which can be absorbed ii Explain the types of digestion Intercellular 254 ----- Digestion that takes place in food vacuoles inside cells. Extra cellular digestion that takes place outside cells e.g. in the digestive tract b i Draw human digestive system 255 ----- ii Describe the process of digestion in the various parts of the human digestive system Mouth contains teeth for chewing has tongue for mixing food with saliva has salivary glands for chemical digestion, secretion of enzymes and mucus secretion starch is acted on by salivary amylase enzymes to produce maltose the tongue rolls food into a bolus which is carried into the stomach by peristalsis peristalsis is movement of food along the gut by waves of contraction it facilitates rapid digestion due to its mixing action Oesophagus also called gullet 256 ----- forms a passage for food by peristalsis connects the mouth to the stomach Stomach has gastric glands which secrete gastric juices these juices contain hydrochloric acid HCL , mucus, and the enzymes pepsin, rennin and lipase HCL produces an acidic medium for enzyme action Proteins are acted upon by pepsin to produce peptides Caseinogen is acted upon by rennin to produce casein Fats are acted upon by lipase to produce fatty acids and glycerol Mucus lubricates the stomach and prevents autolysis of stomach mucus protects stomach Duodenum the first u-shaped part of the small intestine food in the stomach is now in a semi-liquid form called chime chime leaves the stomach by peristalsis into the duodenum there, the liver produces bile pigments, bile salts and sodium hydrogen carbonate the stomach is usually alkaline to neutralize chime which is acidic bile salts emulsify fats bile comes from the gall bladder through the bile duct sodium hydrogen carbonate provides the correct pH/alkaline pancreatic juices are released by pancreas into the duodenum the juices contain trypsin, chemotrypsin, amylase, lipase and protease proteins are acted upon by trypsin to form polypeptides and amino acids starch is broken down to maltose by amylase Ileum - produces intestinal juices - Intestinal juice contains maltase, sucrase, lactase, erepsin, lipase, and several other peptidases - Maltose is broken down to glucose and galactose by lactase - Sucrose is acted upon by sucrase to glucose Polypeptides are broken down into amino acids by erepsin - Mucus secretion is to protect the ileum wall from digestion/autolysis 257 ----- Colon - Commonly called the large intestine - Wider than the ileum - has several mucus-producing cells Highly folded for water absorption - Also prepares food for egestion - egestion is the process by which the insoluble parts of food are discharged from the body in form of faeces. Rectum - Muscular and enlarged - it produces mucus - used for storage and removal of faeces Anus - found at the exterior end of the rectum The rectum opens into the anus - The anus has anal sphincter to control egestion - Anus is used for egestion of faeces c Explain how mammalian intestines are adapted to perform their function - The mammalian intestines are relatively long and coiled. This allows food enough time and increases surface area for digestion and absorption of products of digestion - The intestinal lumen inner wall has projections called villi to increase surface area for absorption - The villi have projections called micro-villi which lead to further increase of surface area for absorption - The walls have glands which secrete enzymes for digestion e.g. maltase, sucrase, lactase, peptidase and enterokinase. - Goblet cells mucus secreting cells or glands produce mucus which protects the intestinal wall from being digested and reduces friction. - Intestines have openings of ducts which allow bile, a pancreatic juice into the lumen - The intestines have circular and longitudinal muscles whose contraction and relaxation peristalsis leads to mixing of food with enzymes juices helps push food along the gut. - The intestines are well supplied with blood vessels that supply oxygen and remove digested food. - Intestines have lacteal vessels for transport of lipids fats and oils - Intestines have thin epithelium to facilitate fast/rapid absorption/diffusion d What is the function of hydrochloric acid in digestion? 258 ----- - kills bacteria - activates trypsinogen to trypsin which digests proteins to peptones and peptones to soluble amino acids - provides acidic medium for gastric enzymes e i What is assimilation? - The process by which digested food is taken up by cells and used in the body for various purposes. ii State the uses of digested food in the bodies of animals - Protection - Repair - Growth - Energy production f Name the types of food substances in the food that do not undergo digestion in human digestive system mineral salts water roughage vitamins k. Explain the importance of the following food substances in human nutrition Vitamins are organic chemical compounds essential for a healthy body are obtained from fresh fruits and vegetables some are synthesized in the body e.g. vitamin K they are destroyed by overcooking food they protect the body against diseases, play regulatory mechanisms in the body and act as co-enzymes insufficient amounts lead to deficiency diseases e.g. rickets, scurvy, beriberi a Mineral salts are important in organic compounds containing elements which are essential for normal body metabolism those required in large quantities are called macro-nutrients while those required in small quantities are called micro- nutrients or trace elements They are used in bone and teeth formation. In osmotic balance and neurotransmission insufficient amounts lead to anaemia, rickets, goiter Excess amounts lead to high blood pressure, and dental disorders. b Roughage 259 ----- composed of cellulose and plant fibers digested by cellulose contained by gut microorganisms provides grip essential for peristalsis lack of roughage leads to slow movement of food leading to constipation roughage adds bulk to food for peristalsis to take place c Water used in transport in the body, universal solvent, hydrolysis insufficient leads to dehydration l. Explain the factors that determine energy requirements in humans a Basal Metabolic Rate BMR this is the energy required when the body is completely at rest used to carry out breathing, heartbeat, circulation of blood and other basic reactions also used in maintaining body temperature at constant all movements or physical work e.g. walking, eating required more energy. b Occupation means activity occurring everyday everyday activity determines energy requirement People doing heavy work like digging require more energy than office workers. c Age children carry out many activities and also have more cell division than adults their BMR is therefore higher than for adults as they grow older, they become less active and their energy requirements decrease d Body size small bodied people have a large surface area to volume ratio their bodies lose more heat energy to the surrounding they therefore require more energy-giving foods this is the opposite for big bodied people e Sex most males are more muscular than females they also do heavier work than females hence require more energy females do lighter work hence require less energy f Climate 260 ----- in warm climate the body requires less energy in low temperatures the body requires more energy to maintain body temperature m. Explain various tests carried out on food Test Procedure Observation Conclusion --- --- --- --- Starch - add iodine solution - colour changes to blue black/dark blue Present Reducing sugar Benedicts solution heat/boil/warm in hot water bath - colour changes to Green to yellow to orange to brown to red Present Non- reducing sugar Dilute HCL, NaHCO, 3 heat/boil, warm in hot water bath - colour changes to Green to yellow to orange to brown to red Present Proteins 1 CuSO, 4 5 NaOH -- colour changes to purple/violet Present Ascorbic acid Vitamin C DCPIP drop wise DCPIP decolorized Present Fats/oils lipids - rub on filter paper - ethanol - translucent mark - white emulsions present FORM TWO TOPICS 1. a i Define transport movement of substances from one part of the body to another ii Explain the necessity of transport in plants and animals make nutrients move from one point to another movement of respiratory gases i.e. oxygen and carbon IV oxide elimination of metabolic wastes 261 ----- movement of hormones movement of water movement of salts movement of enzymes b i Describe the structure and function of root hair root hairs are found near the root tip they are cells with elongated finger-like projections which are in contact with soil particles they are permeable to water and mineral salts hence are used to absorb water and mineral salts There large number offers a large surface area for absorption of water and mineral salts. ii State ways in which the root hairs are adapted to their functions the root hair is long/narrow/numerous to increase surface area for absorption of water and mineral salts many mitochondria in cytoplasm to supply energy for active transport of mineral salts are thin walled to speed up rate of absorption of water and mineral salts c i Compare the internal structure of a dicotyledonous root and a monocotyledonous root Dicot root Monocot root ii State the similarities and differences between a dicotyledonous and monocotyledonous root Similarities 262 ----- both used for anchorage and absorption of water and mineral salts both have root hairs, epidermis, pericycle, cortex, endodermis and vascular bundles xylem and phloem both may be used to store food/storage organs Differences Col2 --- --- Monocotyledonous Dicotyledonous phloem and xylem are arranged in ring form alternately pith present phloem lies between radial rays of central xylem star shaped pith absent i ii Compare the internal structure of a monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous stem Monocotyledonous Dicotyledonous v Give the similarities and differences between a monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous stem Similarities both are used for protection both conduct water, salts and food both have epidermis, cortex, pericycle and vascular bundles Differences Col2 --- --- Monocotyledonous Dicotyledonous vascular bundles are many and scattered some have hollow pith or pith is absent no cambium layer therefore cannot undergo secondary growth very little cortex vascular bundles are few and arranged in a concentric ring near the epidermis pith large and well developed presence of cambium therefore undergoes secondary growth cortex has several layers of cells 263 ----- v State the differences between the internal structure of a root and a stem. Col2 --- --- Root Stem has root hairs no cuticle xylem and phloem arranged alternately in xylem, the small vessels are towards the outside cortex is the widest tissue no root hairs cuticle present xylem and phloem arranged on the same radii in xylem, the smallest vessels are towards the inside pith is the widest tissue c i Name the transport structures of a flowering plant xylem vessels and tracheids transport water and mineral salts from the soil Phloem vessels translocate manufactured food from leaves to other parts of the body. ii State the ways in which xylem vessels are adapted to their function lignified/thickened to prevent collapsing narrow to facilitate capillary no cross walls for continuous flow/column of water have bordered pits for lateral movement of water d i Why do flowering plants need water? photosynthesis transport turgidity which helps in plant support solvent i.e. medium for chemical reactions cooling effect during transpiration seed germination ii Describe the movement of water from the soil to the leaves of a tall plant Soil water exists as a thin film in the soil, between soil particles the concentration of cell sap of root hair is greater than that of the surrounding solution in the soil, thus drawing the water molecules across the cell wall and cell membrane into the root hair by osmosis water drawn into the root hair cell dilutes the cell sap making it less concentrated than that in the adjacent cortex cells of the root 264 ----- due to osmotic gradient water moves from the root hair cells into the cortex by osmosis, from cell to cell by osmosis, across the endodermis by active transport into xylem vessels of the root that conduct water into xylem vessels of the stem into xylem vessels of the leaves Stem Once in the stem water moves up the plant aided by the narrowness of the xylem vessels capillary , root pressure, attraction of water molecules to each other cohesion . Attraction of water molecules to the walls adhesion from the stem water enters the xylem of leaves water moves in the xylem vessels of the stem in a continuous uninterrupted water column up to the tree leaves Leaves once in the leaves water moves into the mesophyll cells by osmosis as water vaporizes from the spongy mesophyll cells their sap becomes more concentrated than the adjacent cells as the result water flows into the cell from other surrounding cells which in turn takes in water from xylem vessels within the leaf veins this creates a pull suction force called transpiration pull that pulls a stream of water from xylem vessels in the stem and roots The transpiration pull maintains a continuous column of water from the roots to the leaves. iii Name the process by which mineral salts enter into a plant active transport diffusion vi Explain the forces that make water and mineral salts move through a plant mineral salts are taken up due to diffusion because of the concentration gradient between the mineral ions in sap and those in soil solution active transport involves energy in form of ATP due to respiration which forces mineral salts through a plant against a concentration gradient water moves by osmosis through a semi-permeable membrane of root hairs and between cells of stem 265 ----- in stem water moves by cohesion attraction of water molecules to each other it also moves by adhesion attraction of water molecules to walls capillarity is due to narrowness of xylem vessels transpiration pull occurs when water vapour evaporates from sub-stomatal chambers into the air root pressure is a force that pushes water up the stem from the roots and causes guttation /exudation vii Explain the uptake of mineral salts by plants plants require mineral salts for metabolism and proper functioning of their bodies mineral salts are taken up from the soil into the root hairs in form of solution by active transport which requires energy active transport involves substances called carriers taken up together with water and are then carried to the stems and leaves the main process involved in uptake and movement of mineral salts is active transport e i What is transpiration? loss of water from plant to the atmosphere ii Name the sites through which transpiration takes place in a plant stomata stomatal transpiration lenticels lenticular transpiration cuticle cuticular transpiration iii State the importance of transpiration to plants cooling the plant transport of water transport of mineral salts excretion of excess water from plants excess transpiration causes wilting v Explain the structural factors that affect the rate of transpiration in plants number of stomata i.e. the more the stomata the higher the rate and vice versa turgidity of the guard cells which control the opening and closing of stomata when they are open transpiration rate is high size of leaves where the larger the surface area the higher the rate of transpiration 266 ----- leaf fall leads to lower rate of transpiration and also drying of leaves reduces rate of transpiration Thin cuticle reduces distance through which water vaporizes hence increase transpiration rate. Absence of cuticle also increase rate of transpiration vi explain the environmental factors that affect rate of transpiration in plants high temperature increases rate of transpiration and low temperature reduces the rate humidity when high increases rate and when low reduces the rate transpiration rate is higher in moving air wind than in still air high light intensity increases internal temperature hence higher rate of evaporation leading to higher rate of transpiration availability of water in the soil leads to more absorption hence more loss to the atmosphere atmospheric pressure when high leads to more evaporation and when low leads to low rate evaporation of water vii State the structural differences between xylem vessels and sieve tubes sieve tubes have cross wall while xylem vessels have none xylem vessels are lignified while sieve tubes are not Sieve tubes have cytoplasm elements while xylem vessels have none. viii State the adaptations of plants which enable them to reduce water loss thick waxy cuticle reduced leaf size/thorns/spines shedding of leaves Sunken stomata. Water vapour accumulates in the depression of stomata lowering the water vapour concentration gradient leading to lower rate of evaporation rolling of leaves ix State the factors that cause increase in the rate of transpiration from leaves increased light intensity low relative humidity temperature x Explain how drooping of leaves on a hot sunny day is advantageous to a plant 267 ----- reduces surface area exposed to sun reducing cuticular transpiration f Explain how aquatic and terrestrial plants are adapted to deal with problems of transpiration a. Mesophytes they grow in soils with enough water water loss is perfectly balanced by absorption of more from the soil no special adaptations b. Xerophytes they grow in dry conditions root grow very deep to absorb water succulent/fleshy leaves to store water few stomata which are sunken thickened waxy cuticle leaves are hairy and often folding some leaves are needle-like/spines or scales leaf surfaces are reduced i.e. small leaves all these adaptations are to reduce water loss c. Hydrophytes plants that grow in water presence of sclereids leaves are broad leaves have many stomata on upper side only none on the lower surface some leaves float on water absence or reduced leaf cuticle large air spaces some leaves are submerged poorly developed or reduced vascular bundles g i What is translocation transfer of manufactured food substances to the parts where they are required ii Name the tissue which is responsible for translocation of manufactured food in flowering plants phloem tissue iii Name the processes that bring about the translocation of manufactured food -active transport Diffusion Mass flow Cytoplasmic streaming 268 ----- iv Draw a labeled diagram to represent phloem tissue vi State the functions of the labeled structures cytoplasmic strands translocation Companion cell supply nutrients to sieve tube element supply energy for translocation regulates activities of tube cells/elements Sieve tubes element conduct food down the stem vii name the compounds that are translocated in phloem sugars amino acids hormones e.g auxins oils/lipids resins vitamins Describe an experiment you would carry out in order to demon-strate that phloem transports manufactured food substances in a plant a. Ringing experiment cut a ring in the bark including the phloem from the stem of a woody plant phloem is found next to or just beneath the bark observe daily for some time more than three weeks a swelling of the bark appears above the ring this is due to accumulation of food from leaves 269 ----- the bark of a second similar plant is removed carefully leaving the phloem intact a swelling does not appear ii Use the radioactive tracers plant is exposed to carbon containing radio-active carbon C14 C14 is found in the end products of photosynthesis It is finally detected in phloem C14 is found to move in both directions iii Collecting exudate from stylets of aphids aphids feed on certain plant phloem using their stylets aphid mouthparts are dissected using a sharp razor exudates from the mouthparts are collected and then analyzed sucrose is found to be a major component of the exudates this proves that phloem translocates manufactured food substances h Describe an experiment you would carry out to demonstrate that xylem transports water i. Either cut a stem of a young plant or twig of a tree under water or else uproot a young herbaceous plant and wash the soil gently put some water in a beaker and add a dye i.e. eosin or red ink and place the cut stem or young plant in a beaker leave for time e.g. between 20 minutes and one hour cut a thin section of stem or leaf mount it on a slide and examine under a microscope observe and note the distribution of the dye or ink the dye appears only in the xylem vessels ii. OR use radio-active tracers, C14 in form of carbon ring a plant then put it in a container containing radio- active phosphorous solution The radio-active phosphorus is later detected in the leaves. 2. a i List the components of animal transport systems system of blood vessels in which materials are circulated round the body blood, a fluid medium which contains dissolved substances and cells 270 ----- the heart, a pumping mechanism which keeps blood in circulation ii Distinguish between closed and open circulatory systems closed system has blood vessels through which blood moves eg vertebrates open system has no blood vessels hence blood is in direct contact with tissues e.g arthropoda iii What are the advantages of the closed circulatory system over open circulatory system? Closed system has continuous vessels hence able to generate high pressure Circulates blood over longer distance Circulates blood at a faster rate Efficient transport of nutrients and waste products Animals are more active iv Distinguish between single circulatory system and double circulatory system Single circulatory blood passes through the heart once in a complete circuit of the body Double circulation -blood enters the heart twice in a complete circulation - Pulmonary circulation from the heart to lungs and back - Systemic circulation from the heart to body systems and back b i describe the general layout of the transport system in mammals blood which is a fluid tissue of the body carrying food substances, oxygen, carbon IV oxide and metabolic wastes arteries which are elastic tubes carrying blood from the heart to cells veins which are blood vessels carrying blood away from the cells to the heart capillaries which are extremely numerous and are microscopic channels connecting arteries to veins ii Describe the structure and function of the mammalian heart the heart is a four-chambered hollow muscle located in the thoracic cavity it consists of two small receiving chambers, the atria auricles and two larger pumping chambers, the auricles 271 ----- 272 ----- the left ventricles is the most powerful and has the thickest walls this is because it is the chamber which pumps blood throughout the body each time it contracts, blood is forced out into the elastic arteries aorta blood moves on to the capillaries from capillaries blood moves to veins and back to the heart through the vena cava 273 ----- from vena cava it enters into right auricle which contracts and pumps blood into the right ventricle right ventricle pumps blood into the lungs through the pulmonary artery blood releases carbon IV oxide to lungs and picks oxygen then returns to left auricle left auricle pumps blood into left ventricle left ventricle then pumps blood into the aorta and into arteries, starting the process all over again both auricles contract simultaneously while both iii Explain how the mammalian heart is adapted to performing its functions the heart is made of muscles that contract and relax synchronously without requiring nervous stimulation nerve supply however, determine contraction strength and frequency the heart is divided into four chambers The right atrium is connected to the right auricle. It receives blood from the whole body. The blood is pumped from the left atrium to the right ventricle To avoid flow back into the right atrium, a valve is present between the two chambers the tricuspid valve The right ventricle pumps blood to the lungs This is facilitated by the presence of pulmonary artery A valve is also present to avoid blood flowing back from the pulmonary artery to the right ventricle Blood from the lungs enters the heart through the pulmonary vein into the left atrium. When the left atrium contracts, blood flows into the left ventricle Blood will not flow back into the left atrium because of the presence of bicuspid valve mitral The left ventricle is connected with the aorta and when it contracts, blood flows into the aorta for distribution into the whole body The heart muscle surrounding the left ventricle is thicker than that surrounding the right ventricle to be able to generate enough pressure to push blood to the whole body A pace-maker is present in the heart muscle to initiate and synchronise contractions. 274 ----- For the heart muscle to be well nourished and be provided with enough oxygen and carbon IV oxide removal, it is supplied with blood by the coronary arteries and drained by the coronary veins iv Explain why blood leaving the lungs may not be fully oxygenated under ventilation of the lungs blockage of alveoli air sacs high cardiac frequency i.e. high rate of pumping of blood in the heart e Describe the structure and functions of the blood vessels i. Arteries carry away blood from the heart carry oxygenated blood except pulmonary artery which takes blood from the heart to lungs for oxygen have thick, muscular walls are elastic have narrow lumen all these adaptations are required to withstand high pressure caused by heartbeat ii. Capillaries link arterioles and venules to arteries and veins small in diameter to increase pressure resistance for materials to filter out thin walled as they consist of a single layer of cells to allow diffusion of substances e.g leucocytes to tissues thin walled to allow presence of intercellular spaces large number i.e. numerous to provide a large surface area for exchange of materials have sphincter muscles at the junction of the arterioles and capillaries to control movement of blood into them lie close to the body for easy exchange of materials iii. Veins carry blood back to the heart all carry deoxygenated blood except pulmonary vein that carries blood from the heart to lungs have thinner walls than arteries have valves to prevent backflow of blood have wide lumen g i State the ways in which the composition of blood in the pulmonary arterioles differs from that in the pulmonary venules 275 ----- Pulmonary arterioles Pulmonary venules --- --- deoxygenated high carbon IV oxide low oxygen more nutrients oxygenated low carbon IV oxide high oxygen less nutrients ii Give the reasons why pressure of blood is greater in the arterioles than I the veins of mammals blood is pumped to the arteries by the heart at high pressure blood pressure in veins is reduced by capillary resistance arteries have narrow lumen which maintains high pressure/veins have wide lumen which reduces pressure arteries have more/thicker muscular walls which generate pressure/veins have less/thinner muscular walls which reduce pressure iii Name the common heart diseases in humans thrombosis antheroma arteriosclerosis varicose veins cerebral vascular thrombosis h i State the functions of mammalian blood transport of substances defense against diseases clotting temperature regulation ii Describe how mammalian blood components carry out their functions Plasma transport dissolved food substances like glucose, amino acids, fatty acids and glycerol from small intestines to liver and other body tissues transports hormones, enzymes from secretory glands to tissues when required transports carbon IV oxide to lungs and urea from tissues to the kidneys distributes heat bathes the tissues allowing for exchange of materials contains protein fibrinogen and pro-thrombin which take part in blood clotting Red blood cells Erythrocytes transports oxygen from the lungs to body tissues in form of haemoglobin 276 ----- transport carbon IV oxide from body tissues to the lungs in form of bicarbonates White blood cells leucocytes engulf foreign bodies produce antibodies for defense against disease produce antitoxins which neutralize bacterial toxins Blood platelets thrombocytes produce an enzyme called thrombokinase/thromboplastin necessary for blood clotting prevents loss of blood, water and mineral salts iii State the ways in which the red blood cells are adapted to their functions many per unit volume hence carry more oxygen and carbon IV oxide biconcave in shape to provide large surface area for absorption of oxygen and carbon IV oxide absence of nucleolus hence more haemoglobin to carry sufficient oxygen and carbon IV oxide alter shape to be able to pass through the narrow lumen of capillaries to deliver or supply oxygen and carry away carbon IV oxide have haemoglobin with high affinity for uptake of oxygen and carbon IV oxide iv State the structural differences between a red blood cell and a white blood cell. smaller size - larger size lacks nucleus - nucleated v State the functional differences between a red blood cell and a white blood cell against harmful pathogens vi How does the heart increase blood flow to some parts of the body during exercise stronger contractions faster contractions/heartbeat 277 ----- Explain how oxygen and carbon Iv oxide are transported in the blood Oxygen oxygen concentration is higher in lungs alveoli that in blood oxygen in the alveoli dissolves in the film of moisture and diffuses through thin epithelial and capillary walls into plasma and red blood cells the oxygen combines with haemoglobin to form oxyhaemoglobin blood then becomes oxygenated blood from lungs then travels to all body tissues where the oxyhaemoglobin breaks down to form oxygen and haemoglobin haemoglobin is transported back to the lungs to collect more oxygen while the oxygen in capillaries diffuses into body cells for respiration respiration produces carbon IV oxide Carbon IV oxide carbon IV oxide produced during respiration diffuses out of cells into blood plasma and red blood cells due to concentration gradient carbon IV oxide and water form carbonic acid carbamino compounds with haemoglobin in the presence of carboxyl anhydrase enzyme, hydrogen carbonate is carried in blood to the lungs in the lungs the hydrogen carbonate dissociates to liberate carbon IV oxide which diffuses into alveolar cavity due to concentration gradient from alveolar space carbon IV oxide is expelled during expiration Most carbon IV oxide is transported from tissues to lungs within the red blood cells and not in the blood plasma. Give the advantages of this mode of transport. - PH of blood is not altered/homeostasis is maintained - Within the red blood cell is an enzyme, carbonic anhyrase which helps in fast loading combining and offloading of carbon Iv oxide i i what is blood clotting? process in which blood components clump together to prevent loss of blood from an injured/cut vessel 278 ----- ii Name a protein, vitamin, an enzyme and a mineral element involved in blood clotting Protein fibrinogen/prothrombin Vitamin - k/quinine Enzyme thrombokinase/thromboplatin/thrombin Mineral element calcium iii Describe the blood clotting process enzyme thromboplastin produced in the platelets of damaged tissues converts plasma protein prothrombin into thrombin in the presence of calcium ions thrombin converts another plasma protein fibrogen into fibrin in the presence of vitamin K fibrin is insoluble fibrin forms fibres which form a meshwork that forms a clot prothrombin thromboplastin thrombin calcium ion Fibrinogen thrombin fibrin clot vitamin K iv State the role of blood clotting on wounds prevents blood/body fluids from being lost conserves water and salts prevents entry of microorganisms/pathogens regulates body temperature enables wound to heal faster v Explain why blood flowing in blood vessels does not normally clot - Presence of anticoagulant in blood j i. list the major types of human blood groups O, with neither B nor A antigen AB, with both A and B antigens A, with type A antigen B, with type B antigen iii. explain the meaning of : Universal donor a person who can donate blood to any other blood group without agglutination/clumping this is usually blood group O however this person cannot receive blood from other blood groups except group O Universal recipient 279 ----- can receive blood from all blood groups without agglutination this is usually blood group AB however, can only donate blood to group AB iii What is the difference between rhesus positive and Rhesus negative blood samples? rhesus positive blood has the Rhesus Rh antigen rhesus negative lacks the Rhesus antigen vi What is blood transfusion? - Introduction of blood from one person to another v Under what conditions would blood transfusion be necessary in people? during accidents during surgery in hospitals bleeding mothers when giving birth vi How can low blood volume be brought back to normal? transfusion taking fluids eating iron rich food/taking iron tablets How may excessive bleeding result in death? Anaemia/low blood volume/loss of iron/low red blood cells count/low haemoglobin leading to low oxygen, loss of nutrients and dehydration. State the precautions that must be taken before blood transfusion blood must be disease free sterilized equipment must be used blood of the recipient and that of the donor must b compatible to both ABO and rhesus factor Fresh blood must be used. j i What is immunity? - Resistance to disease by organisms ii Distinguish between natural and acquired immunity natural immunity is inherited/transmitted from parent to offspring/inborn/innate Acquired immunity is developed after suffering from a disease or through vaccination. iii What are allergic reactions? Excessive sensitivity and reaction of an individual to certain substances in environment e.g. dust, pollen, perfumes, smoke etc. 280 ----- vi How does an allergic reaction occur? the substances act as antigens an antigen-antibody reaction occurs on surface of cells the cells release a substance called histamine the histamine causes irritation, itching and may stimulate nasal discharge vii State the role of vaccination against certain diseases protect body against infectious diseases prevent spread/transmission of certain diseases diseases for which vaccination is given include tuberculosis, poliomylitis,measles, whooping cough, diphtheria 3. a i What is gaseous exchange? The continous exchange of oxygen and carbon Iv oxide between the organism and environment. ii Why is gaseous exchange important to organisms? to supply oxygen necessary for energy production to remove carbon IV oxide produced during respiration To remove water vapour. b i name the structure used for gaseous exchange by plants stomatal pores/stomata lenticels cuticle pneumatophores ii Briefly describe the structure of stomata are minute pores found in leaf epidermis each consists of a slit-like opening Each is bordered by two large, bean-shaped guard cells. Guard cells contain chloroplasts, unlike the other epidermal cells which enable photosynthesis to occur Inner walls of guard cells are thicker than the outer cells iii State the factors which affect stomatal opening water which when low stomata close and when high stomata keeps open light as stomata open in bright light and close in darkness temperature iv Name the theories suggesting the mechanism of opening and closing of stomata interconversion of starch and sugar pH theory mineral ion concentration 281 ----- v Describe the mechanism of opening and closing of stomata stomata close at night and open during daytime This comes about due to changes in turgidity as a result of pH changes in guard cells. In the dark carbon Iv oxide accumulates in the intercellular spaces This raises concentration of carbonic acid The pH drops pH lowered Enzymes convert sugar into starch in guard cells Osmotic pressure in guard cells is lowered Water moves out of guard cells by osmosis making cells lose turgidity hence become flaccid The stomata close During day time there is photosynthesis hence the production of sugar, carbon IV oxide concentration is lowered, pH increases, guard cells become turgid causing stomata to open. During the day potassium ions concentrate in guard cells, raising their osmotic pressure and causes then to open In the night the concentration of potassium ions decreases increasing osmotic pressure in guard cells therefore causes stomata to open. vii What is the advantage of having stomata open during daytime and having them closed at night? opening in the daytime allows diffusion of carbon IV into the leaf for photosynthesis to take place and allows diffusion of oxygen out of the leaf transpiration also takes place, thus cooling the leaf and facilitating uptake of water and mineral slats Closing in the night is to conserve water in the plant especially when there is not enough water available in the soil. c i State the ways in which leaves of plants are adapted to gaseous exchange presence of stomata for faster gaseous exchange intercellular spaces/air spaces in the leaf for movement/circulation of air film of moisture around the surface of cells for easy diffusion broad/flattened shape to increase surface area thin lamina to reduce distance of diffusion 282 ----- exposed to air for easy diffusion ii Describe how gaseous exchange takes place in terrestrial plants Gaseous exchange takes place in spongy mesophyll During the day air diffuses into large air spaces of spongy mesophyll through stomata The carbon iv oxide in the air diffuses into the photosynthesis oxygen is produced Some of the oxygen diffuses out of the leaf through stomata During the night air diffuses out of air spaces of spongy mesophyll The air dissolves into film of moisture The oxygen in the air diffuses into cells and is used in respiration during which carbon iv oxide is produced The carbon iv oxide diffuses out of the leaf through stomata due to diffusion/concentration gradient At night carbon iv oxide accumulates in the leaf since photosynthesis does not take place Some gaseous exchange also takes place through cuticle Gaseous exchange occurs through epidermis of young leaves and stems The cork cells at lenticels are loosely packed Gaseous exchange takes place between cork and atmosphere within the loosely packed cells iii State the ways in which floating leaves of aquatic plants are adapted to gaseous exchange stomata found only on upper dermis to allow efficient gaseous exchange presence to aerenchyma tissues/large air spaces to enable it float/buoyancy/storage of air absence of cuticle to enhance gaseous exchange iv How is aerenchyma tissue adapted to its function? has large airspaces which store gases/for gaseous exchange/buoyancy v Explain stomatal distribution in plants of different habitats land plants have their stomata mainly on the lower side to reduce water loss but if on both sides then upper side has very few water plants, floaters, have stomata on upper side to enhance water loss 283 ----- in dry areas, plants have leaves with sunken stomata to reduce water loss by transpiration Plants in wet areas have stomata equally distributed on both sides. d i List the types of respiratory surfaces of animals cell membrane in unicellular organisms e.g. amoeba gills in fish tracheal system skin, buccal cavity and lungs in amphibians lings in mammals ii State the characteristics of respiratory surfaces in animals moist thin walled/thin membrane/thin surface Highly/richly vascularised/numerous blood vessels/well supplied with blood vessels. Large surface area iii Describe gaseous exchange in protozoa example is amoeba small and have large surface area oxygen diffuses into the organism and carbon IV oxide diffuses out into water simple diffusion of gases is enough to meet its respiratory requirements e i Make a labeled drawing of a fish gill ii How is a fish gill adapted to its function? large surface area due to many filaments extensive vascularisation due to capillaries, for gaseous exchange thin filaments to facilitate diffusion of gases presence of rakers to filter solid particles gill bar is bony, hard and firm to support the filaments and rakers and for attachment of filaments and rakers iii Discuss gaseous exchange in bony fish example is tilapia 284 ----- the mouth opens and the floor of the mouth is lowered so that the volume in the mouth is increased and pressure is lowered water then enters into the mouth cavity the mouth is closed and the floor of the mouth raised so that the volume is reduced this raises the pressure, forcing water over gills and out through the operculum As water passes over the gills oxygen diffuses due to concentration gradient partial pressure into the blood stream. In the body tissues, carbon IV oxide diffuses into the blood due to concentration gradient, and is transported to the gills and diffuses out into the water. iv What is counter-flow system? Where water in which the fish lives flows in opposite direction across the gill. vi What is the advantage of counter-flow system? maintains a diffusion gradient so that there is maximum uptake of oxygen oxygen continues diffusing into blood and carbon iv oxide into water f i Describe the mechanism of gaseous exchange in terrestrial insects example is cockroach air in the atmosphere contains oxygen air is drawn into the body of the insect through the spiracles due to movement of abdominal muscles these movements cause the opening of spiracles air moves through the trachea to tracheoles oxygen moves from the tracheoles into body cells by diffusion due to concentration gradient carbon iv oxide in the tissues diffuses into tracheoles due to concentration gradient From tracheoles carbon IV oxide moves into trachea and out through the spiracles into the air. ii State how traceholes are adapted to gaseous exchange thin walls of tracheoles moist surface large surface area due to numerous tracheoles g i What is breathing? 285 ----- Any process which speeds up the rate of gaseous exchange between an animal and its surrounding. ii Name the structures in humans that are used in gaseous exchange nose larynx epiglottis trachea lungs pleural membrane pleural cavity diaphragm muscles iii Describe the mechanism of gaseous exchange in a mammal Breathing in external intercostals muscles contract while internal intercostals muscles relax, raising the ribcage upwards and outwards muscles of the diaphragm contract hence it flattens the volume of the thoracic cavity increases while pressure decreases higher air pressure in the atmosphere forces air into lungs through the nose Breathing out external intercostals muscles relax while internal intercostals muscles contract, moving the ribcage downwards and inwards muscles of the diaphragm relax hence the diaphragm assumes dome shape the volume of the thoracic cavity decreases while pressure increases the higher pressure forces air out of the lungs through the nose iv Explain how mammalian lungs are adapted to gaseous exchange large number of alveoli that increase surface area moist inner surface of alveoli for dissolving oxygen/gases to facilitate exchange of gases through alveolar cavities and blood thin walls of alveoli to allow efficient/faster diffusion of gases 286 ----- rich capillary/blood supply on alveolar surface to transport oxygen away from the lungs and carbon IV oxide to the lungs v Name the features of alveoli that adapt them to their function have large surface area/spherical shaped numerous/many to increase surface area one cell thick moist surface for air to diffuse highly vascularised/numerous capillaries vii How is the trachea of a mammal suited to its function? has a ring of cartilage which keeps it open at all times cilia that move mucus/particles to the top of the trachea i.e. into larynx for removal mucus to trap dust, solid particles and microorganisms hollow for passage of air viii State the advantages of breathing through the nose rather than through the mouth nose has hairs to filter solid particles it has mucus lining to trap dust particles the nose has cells sensitive to smell for survival it warms the air before it reaches the lungs ix Give the conditions under which the carbon iv oxide level rises above normal in mammalian blood vigorous exercise emotions/stress disease infection x Explain the physiological changes that occur in the body to lower the carbon iv oxide level back to normal when it rises heartbeat/cardiac frequency increases to pump blood faster carbon iv oxide from the tissues and supply more oxygen ventilation rate/rate and depth of breathing increases to take more oxygen and remove carbon iv oxide from the lungs arterioles to take in more oxygen and remove carbon iv oxide from the lungs arterioles dilate leading to faster flow of blood to and from body tissues h i Describe the factors which control the rate of breathing in humans 287 ----- breathing movements usually occur unconsciously it is controlled by the medulla oblongata part of the brain situated at the breathing centre medullar oblongata is in the brain respiratory centre transmits impulses to the diaphragm through phrenic nerves carbon iv oxide concentration in the blood determines the breathing rate if carbon iv oxide is less, the brain is triggered to decrease breathing rate cardiac frequency decreases and the arterioles constrict therefore carbon iv oxide level is raised this brings back to normal level of breathing and carbon iv oxide level increases/is more the brain is triggered to increase breathing rate cardiac frequency is increased there is vasodilation of arterioles carbon iv oxide level falls therefore the normal level is attained and carbon iv oxide is removed faster ii Name the respirator diseases asthma bronchitis whooping cough pneumonia tuberculosis 4. a i Define respiration the oxidation/breakdown of food within cells to release energy ii Explain the significance of respiration in living organisms it yields energy ATP this energy enables organisms to move, grow, excrete and reproduce iii Where does respiration take place? in the mitochondria b i Draw and label a mitochondrion ----- ii State the most important function of mitochondria to produce Adenosine triphosphate ATP which is the energy source of the whole cell iii Give the functions of the labeled parts Outer membrane controls what enters and what leaves mitochondrion Cristae also called inner membrane increase surface are for attachment of enzymes this is where cellular oxidation reactions occur Matrix enzymes are located here other reactions occur here c Explain the roles of enzymes in respiration they catalyse reactions i.e. speed up respiration d i What is aerobic respiration respiration in the presence of oxygen ii Give a word equation for aerobic respiration glucose oxygen - water carbon iv oxide energy iii What are the end products of aerobic respiration? energy carbon iv oxide water e i What is anaerobic respiration occurs in the absence of oxygen 289 ----- e.g. yeast and certain bacteria release energy in the absence of oxygen ii What are obligate anaerobes? are completely independent of oxygen iii What are facultative anaerobes? can survive both in the presence and absence of oxygen also called partial anaerobes iv State the word equation representing anaerobic respiration in plants - Glucose ethanol carbon iv oxide energy v Name the end products of anaerobic respiration in plants alcohol/ethanol carbon iv oxide energy g i Give a word equation of anaerobic respiration in animals - Glucose lactic acid energy ii Name the end products of respiration in animals when there is insufficient oxygen supply lactic acid energy iii Why is there a high rate of lactic acid production during exercise? the demand for oxygen is more than supply leading to anaerobic respiration iv Why does lactic acid level reduce after exercise? lactic acid is oxidized to form carbon iv oxide and water some is converted to glucose some is converted into glycogen v State why accumulation of lactic acid during vigorous exercise lead to an increase in heartbeat lactic acid is poisonous to tissues and must be removed to increase supply of oxygen to tissues State the economic importance of anaerobic respiration brewing of alcohol biogas production compost manure formation silage formation baking bread production of dairy products fermentation of milk sewage treatment 290 ----- Fermentation of tea in industries What is oxygen debt? amount of oxygen required to convert accumulated lactic acid to water, carbon IV oxide and energy h i What is respiratory quotient RQ ? ration of carbon IV oxide produced to oxygen consumed RQ volume of CO 2 produced Volume of oxygen consumed ii Why are respiratory quotient important their calculation assists in identifying the kind of substrate being used in respiration iii Name the respiratory substrates carbohydrates fats proteins iv Why does anaerobic respiration of a given substrate yield a smaller amount of energy than aerobic respiration? - Some energy locked up in intermediate products like ethanol in plants and lactic acid in animals substrate is completely oxidized in aerobic respiration iv Explain the disadvantages of anaerobic respiration Less energy produced in anaerobic respiration since food is partially oxidized while in aerobic respiration food is completely oxidized. Some metabolic wastes accumulate in cells affecting cellular functions Ethanol produced in plants poisons the tissues while lactic acid produced in animals causes muscle fatigue/muscle cramp and may stop muscle contraction Such intermediate wastes are not produced in aerobic respiration v Mention the types of experiments carried out for respiration germinating seeds which yield energy in form of heat animals produced heat when they respire yeast cells respire to produce heat 5. a i Define the following terms Excretion the process by which organisms get rid of waste products which result from chemical process which occur in living cells 291 ----- Secretion the process by which organisms produce substances which are useful to the body, by glands Egestion removal of indigestive materials from the body Homeostasis maintenance of constant internal environment ii Explain why excretion is necessary in plants and animals -products of excretion are usually harmful while some are toxic - if allowed to accumulate in the cells they would destroy tissues and interfere with normal metabolism - They are therefore removed through excretion b i Describe how excretion takes place in green plants carbon IV oxide, oxygen and water diffuse through the stomata, lenticels and hydathodes some toxic wastes are converted into non-toxic substances these are deposited in certain tissues of the plant or stored in aging structures resins and tannins are exuded through the bark of stem or lost during leaf fall ii Why do plants lack complex excretory structures like those of animals? plants have lower rates of metabolism plants excrete non-poisonous products derived from carbohydrate metabolism unlike animals which produce toxic wastes derived from protein metabolism plants re-use some of their wastes like nitrogenous wastes used in protein synthesis plants store waste products in roots, fruits and leaves ii State the excretory products of plants and some of their uses to humans caffeine from tea and coffee is used in medicine and as a stimulant which is harmful to humans quinine used for treating malaria cocaine derived from leaves of cocoa plant used as a stimulant by addicts or as a local anesthesia, also causes damage to the brain, may cause addiction if not well used and is an illegal drug Tannins derived from barks of acacia wattle bark trees are used to make ink and tanning softening of leather. 292 ----- Nicotine got from leaves of tobacco plant stimulates the central nervous, may cause addiction if much is used or consumed. It is used to make cigarettes, cigars and is poisonous. It is a precursor of lung cancer Cannabis sative bhang is used to make drugs Gum derived from glues is used for sticking substances and making certain jellies Rubber, a product of latex, got from rubber plant is sued to make tyres and synthetic fibres Morphine from opium poppy plant is a narcotic and illegal drug as it causes addiction Khat and miraa are used as stimulants Colchicines used in inducing polyploidy, cancer therapy, treatment of gouts in small quantities Papain used as meat tenderizer c i Describe excretion in unicellular organisms -examples are amoeba and paramecium -They have to remove waste products such as carbon IV oxide and nitrogenous substances e.g urea and ammonia - These diffuse from the body surface into the surrounding water - Diffusion is due to large surface area ii List excretory organs and products of mammals kidney excretes urea, water and salts skin excretes water, slats and urea lungs excrete carbon IV oxide and water liver excretes bile salts 293 ----- d i Draw and label a mammalian skin ii Explain how the mammalian skin is adapted to its functions the skin is made up of dermis and epidermis Epidermis it is made up of three layers the outermost layer, cornified layer is made up of dead cells that prevent entry of microorganisms, prevent physical damage and dessication granular layer made of living cells gives rise to cornified layer malpighian layer is made up of actively dividing cells that give rise to new epidermal cells/granular layer it contains melanin that protects the body against ultra violet rays radiations Dermis has several components Has sweat gland which produce sweat through sweat pores on the skin and the sweat evaporates cooling the body by lowering body temperature. When it is cold, no sweat is produced, conserving water sweat contains water, sodium chloride, uric acid and urea hence the skin acts as an excretory organ Has hair. The hair stands erect to trap air when temperature is low to reduce loss/insulation. It lies flat to allow heat loss when temperature is high. 294 ----- Has nerve endings which are sensitive to stimuli such as heat, cold, pain, pressure and touch Has subcutaneous fat/adipose fat that insulates the body against heat loss Has arteries and capillaries blood vessels that supply food and oxygen and remove excretory products. Arterioles vasodilate when temperatures are high to lose heat by radiation, and convention. Arterioles constrict when temperatures are low to conserve heat i.e. reduce heat loss Has sebaceous glands which secrete sebum, and antiseptic and water repellant that prevents drying and cracking the skin by making the skin supple e What is the role of lungs in excretion? during respiration oxygen is used up in the body cells to produce energy carbon IV oxide is produced as a by-product the carbon IV oxide must be eliminated from the body elimination is through the lungs also, water vapour is formed and must be removed this removal is through the lungs the lung is therefore considered as an excretory organ as it removes carbon IV oxide and water vapour which are by- products of respiration f State the functions of the liver i. Excretion in this function the liver is aided by the kidney deamination i.e. excess amino acids converted into urea and uric acid which is transported to skin and kidney for removal detoxification where harmful substances are converted into harmless ones in the liver and transported to kidneys for removal breakdown of worn out blood cells and haemoglobin and the residue excreted through the kidney to give urine a yellow tinge Breakdown of sex hormones after they have performed their function and the wasted are released through the kidney and bile. ii Homeostasis regulation of blood glucose the normal amount of glucose in blood is about 90mg/100 295 ----- increase in blood sugar is detected by cells of the pancreas which secrete insulin insulin stimulates the liver to convert excess glucose to glycogen further excess glucose is converted to fats until the normal blood sugar level is attained Excess glucose is oxidized to carbon IV oxide, water and energy. Excess glucose is also used in respiration decrease in blood sugar level below normal level is detected by the pancreas, which secretes glucagon which stimulates the liver to convert glycogen to glucose until the normal sugar level is attained fats, amino acids are converted to glucose it also leads to reduced oxidation of glucose Deamination excess amino acids are deaminated by the removal of amino group the amino group is converted to ammonia ammonia combines with carbon IV oxide to form urea urea is excreted in urine through the kidney Detoxification poisonous substances are converted to less harmful compounds Thermal regulation maintenance of body temperature heat is generated in the liver by chemical activities the heat is distributed g i Draw a labeled diagram of mammalian nephrone 296 ----- ii Describe how the human kidney functions the afferent arterioles, which is a branch of the renal artery, supplies blood to the glomerulus the afferent arteriole has a wider diameter than the efferent arteriole this difference in diameter of afferent and efferent vessels causes high pressure leading to ultra filtration the walls of the blood capillaries are one cell thick hence glucose, amino acids, vitamins, hormones, salts, cratinine, urea and water filter into Bowmans capsule to form glomerular filtrate white blood cells, red blood cells, plasma proteins such as globulin and platelets are too large to pass through the capillary walls hence remain in blood capillary the filtrate flows into proximal convoluted tubule where amino acids, vitamins and all glucose are selectively reabsorbed back into the blood stream many mitochondria provide energy for reabsorption of these substances against a concentration gradient by active transport the glomerular filtrate flows into the loop of Henle 297 ----- water in the descending loop moves by osmosis into the blood capillaries sodium chloride is actively pumped from the ascending arm of the loop of Henle into the blood capillaries the glomerular filatrate flows into the distal convoluted tubule water and salts are reabsorbed from distal convoluted tubule into blood capillaries the glomerular filtrate flows into collecting tubule duct from where more water is reabsorbed into blood stream antiduretic hormone influences the amount of water reabsorbed depending on osmotic pressure of blood the glomerular filtrate from collecting duct, now referred to as urine, is emptied into pelvis and ureter into bladder and out of body through urethra urine consists of excess water, slats and nitrogenous wastes iii State the adaptations of proximal convoluted tubule to its function folded to increase surface area for absorption thin epithelium to reduce distance of diffusion micro-villi on inner lining to increase surface area for absorption folded to reduce speed of flow for efficient absorption numerous mitochondira to provide energy for reabsorption dense capillary network to transport reabsorbed products iv Name the common kidney diseases nephritis kidney stones renal calculi cystitis oedema kidney failure 6. a i Why is homeostatic control necessary? this provides a constant internal environment so that the cells of the body have the optimum best condition for their survival ii What is internal environment? immediate surrounding of body cells refers to tissue fluid within an organism b i Why is constant body temperature maintained by mammals? most enzymes in the body function within a narrow range of temperature 298 ----- high temperature denatures enzymes low temperature inactivates and inhibits enzymes i i Explain the advantage gained by possessing a constant body temperature animals remain active despite fluctuations in environmental temperature higher chances of survival in various environments ie they colonize various environments chemical processes in their body continues at an optimum rate iii How do mammals regulate body temperature? the body temperature of a mammal is kept constant to maintain this temperature the mammal must be able to balance its heat loss against the heat gain body temperature is controlled by the hypothalamus, a specialized part of the brain changes in the temperature within the body and the surrounding are detected by the hypothalamus it transmits impulses to the skin and the blood stream in response to temperature changes hypothalamus acts as a thermostat for the body a mammal loses heat by breathing out, urine, feaces, skin by radiation and by evaporation of sweat. A mammal generates heat by the activity of its muscles, by general metabolism in respiration, or chemical activities In hot conditions the hypothalamus stimulates responses that increase heat loss from the body hence lowering the body temperature Such responses include sweating, vasodilation, keeping its hair flat on the surface of skin and reduction of metabolic rate In cold conditions the hypothalamus stimulates responses that generate heat gain in the body and reduce heat loss to the environment Such responses include shivering, vasoconstriction, raising its hair to trap a layer of air around the skin because still air is a good insulator of heat and by generation of heat by increasing metabolic rate. iv Why does body temperature of a healthy person rise up to 37 o C on a hot humid day? 299 ----- sweat evaporation is reduced hence cooling is less therefore more heat is retained in the body causing temperature to rise v Name the structures in the human body that detect external temperature changes temperature receptors end bulb corpuscles e.g. bulb of Krause warmth and organ of Ruffinni cold heat thermal receptors vi State the advantages that organisms with small surface area to volume ratio experience over those with larger heat loss slow hence their body temperature can increase to intolerable levels Heat gain from surrounding slower hence may remain inactive for a long time. Need specialized and complex transport system and also gaseous exchange system Explain why individuals with smaller sizes require more energy per unit body weight than those with larger sizes. surface area to volume ratio is higher in smaller individuals than larger ones, therefore smaller heat is lost faster by smaller ones than larger ones they therefore require more energy per unit body weight to maintain body temperature c i What is the meaning of osmoregulation? mechanism which regulates osmotic pressure of internal environment of an organism the regulation/maintenance of salt/solute-water balance of an internal environment ii State the importance of osmoregulation - Maintenance of constant level of water and slats osmotic pressure for optimum/suitable conditions for metabolism suitable for cellular functions iii State the ways by which desert mammals conserve water fewer glomeruli longer loop of Henle excretion of dry feaces or concentrated urine hump for fat to be metabolized to give metabolic water for use nocturnal, burrowing, aestivate or hibernate sweat glands few or absent more ADH vasopressin 300 ----- iv Explain why some desert animals excrete uric acid rather than water uric acid is less toxic than ammonia, hence elimination of uric acid requires less water than ammonia therefore more water conserved uric acid being less toxic is safer to excrete where there is less water/desert v Explain why eating a meal with too much salt leads to production of a small volume of concentrated urine the concentration of salts in the blood rises leading to production of more ADH hence higher rate of water reabsorption by kidney tubules vi Explain how marine fish regulate their osmotic pressure swallow plenty of sea water to increase amount of water in the body have chloride excretory cells in their gills to remove excess salts eliminate nitrogenous wastes in form of trimethalamine oxide which requires little water for elimination few/small glomeruli thus slow filtration rate in the kidneys retain nitrogenous wastes in form of urea to raise osmotic pressure of body fluids d i What is the biological significance of maintaining a relatively constant sugar level in a human body? body cells are surrounded by tissue fluids that are isotonic/same osmotic pressure as cytoplasm if sugar level is high/hypertonic, cell will lose water by osmosis to the surrounding, thus increasing the concentration of the contents this changes the physiology of the cell if the blood sugar is lower than the normal, the cytoplasm gains water by osmosis, diluting the cell contents, thus altering the physiology of the cell ii Discuss the role of the following hormones in blood sugar control Insulin insulin is produced when there is increase in blood sugar concentration it converts glucose to glycogen which is in the liver or muscle thus lowering sugar level Glucagon 301 ----- when glucose level decreases glucagon is produced, which causes the breakdown of glycogen to glucose thus raising blood sugar level e Explain the part played by antidiuretic hormone in homeostasis Produced when there is less water high osmotic pressure above normal level of salt concentration in the blood. It acts on kidney tubules nephron thus increasing water reabsorption from tubules to the blood stream, thus restoring osmotic pressure When there is more water lower osmotic pressure or decreased salt concentration in blood, little or no ADH is produced, less water reabsorbed hence water loss in urine more dilute urine hence raising the osmotic pressure in body fluids/blood f What is the role of blood clotting in homeostasis? when a blood vessel is cut, there is exposure of blood platelets to the air this triggers fibrinogen to be converted to fibrin the fibrin forms a clot that prevents body fluids e.g. blood from being lost therefore the clot conserves water and salts in the body g Describe the role of the following hormones in homeostasis i. Aldosterone concerned with regulation of ionic balance secreted by the cortex of adrenal glands it increases sodium ion uptake by the gut and promotes the reabsorption of sodium ions and therefore water in the kidneys this is accompanied by elimination of potassium ions this raises the overall level of sodium and lowers the overall level of potassium in the blood as sodium ions are absorbed in the blood, chlorine ions follow so as to neutralize the effect of sodium ions the production of aldosterone is regulated by the concentration of sodium ions which has an inhibiting effect, and a fall in sodium ions has a stimulating effect on the adrenal cortex the flow of aldosterone is stimulated by the adreno-cortic- tropic hormone ACTH produced in the anterior of the pituitary gland 302 ----- however, the main method of control is dependent on the fact that adrenal cortex itself is somehow sensitive to the relative concentration of potassium and sodium in the blood ii. Adrenaline produced by adrenal glands in high concentrations, it increases hydrolysis of glycogen and increases blood sugar it is usually released in emergency cases to increase glucose level for respiration this releases energy for the emergency h i Distinuish between diabetes mellitus and diabetes insipidus diabetes mellitus is a condition resulting from insufficient production of insulin causing hyperglucaemia and presence of glucose in urine diabetes insipidus is a condition whereby less or no antidiuretic hormone is secreted hence a high volume of water is passed out in urine in a condition called diuresis ii How can high blood sugar level in a person be controlled? administer insulin iii Why does glucose not normally appear in urine even though it is filtered in the mammalian Bowmans capsule? glucose molecules are actively reabsorbed in the proximal convoluted tubules iv When is glycogen which is stored in the liver converted into glucose and released into the blood? after activity/when blood sugar glucose falls below normal when glucagon stimulates the liver/when glucagon is produced after strenuous/vigorous activity during starvation v How would one find out from a sample of urine whether a person is suffering from diabetes mellitus? test or react urine in Benedicts solution positive result i.e. orange or red precipitate Positive result is an indication of diabetes mellitus. 303 ----- FORM III TOPICS 1. a i What is meant by the term binomial nomenclature? scientific system of naming organisms using the generic genus and specific species names ii State briefly the general principles of classification of living organisms scientific names must be in Latin or should be latinised family names are formed by adding the suffix idea to the stem of the genus e.g. the genus Rana become Ranaidea generic names should be a single unique name b State the main characteristics of the five kingdoms of organisms i. Monera e.g. bacteria unicellular single celled prokaryotic genetic material not surrounded by membrane cell wall without cellulose lack most organelles small in size microscopic ii. Protista protoctista single celled unicellular eukaryotic most cell organelles present when cell walls are present have no cellulose e.g. protozoa and algae usually microscopic iii. Fungi have hyphae which form mycelia absence of chlorophyll have rhizoids lack roots, leaves, stem have spore forming structures sporangia e.g. mucor, rhizopus iv. Plantae most are green/contain chlorophyll autotrophic/feed by photosynthesis cells have cellulose cell walls respond slowly to stimuli tropism lack locomotion are stationary indefinite growth at meristems lack specialized excretory structures v. Animalia 304 ----- cells do not have cell walls most carry out locomotion heterotrophic fast response to stimuli tactic have specialized excretory structures c Describe the economic importance of: i. Fungi some cause decay to our food some cause diseases to humans and animals e.g. ringworms may be used as food e.g. mushrooms, yeast some are used in production of antibiotics e.g. penicillin, chloromycin, streptomycin yeast is used in brewing industry, baking and source of vitamin B many cause diseases to our crops e.g. late blight important in recycling nutrients in soil since they cause decay of organic matter mycorrhizal association in forest development may help in water intake/absorption help in nitrogen fixation Bacteria are useful in the manufacture of antibiotics silage formation, fermentation of cheese, butter, milk yoghurt curing of tea, tobacco and retting flax formation of vitamin B12 and K enzymes such as amylase and invertase hormones such as insulin vinegar, acetic acid, lactic acid, citric acid in septic tanks and modern sewage works make use of bacteria biogas production saprophytic bacteria are used in compost decomposition or cause decay symbiotic bacteria are used in compost decomposition or cause decay symbiotic bacteria in herbivores/ruminants help in digestion some diseases in animals/humans and plants are caused by bacteria many bacteria cause food spoilage/decay 305 ----- nitrifying and nitrogen fixing bacteria increase soil fertility/make nitrates available denitrifying bacteria reduce soil fertility/convert nitrates into nitrogen/reduce nitrates d State the main characteristics of the following division of kingdom plantae i. Bryophyte e.g. mosses and liverworts presence of rhizoids lack of vascular tissues lack phloem and xylem body parts not differentiated into root, stem, leaves capsule or seta gametophyte generation dominant. ii. Pteridophyta e.g. ferns has true roots, stems and leaves fond with sori on under-surface vascular tissues present sporophyte generation is dominant iii. Spermatophyte photosynthetic well differentiated into roots, stems and leaves well developed vascular system seed bearing plants e Name sub-divisions of spermatophyte and state the characteristics of each class i. Gymnospermae cornifers naked seeds exposed are all woody trees reproduce by means of cones show xerophytic characteristics xylem have tracheids but lack vessels phloem lacks companion cells single fertilization pollen lands directly on ovules ii. Angiospermae flowering plants reproduce by flowers seeds enclosed in fruits flowers bisexual hence double fertilization herbaceous pollen grains land on stigma of pistil 306 ----- xylem contains vessels phloem contains companion cells ovules contained in ovary iii. Name the classes and state characteristics of angiospermae Dicotyledonae two seed leaves network venation of leaves regularly arranged vascular bundles tap root system broad leaves secondary growth occurs Monocotyledonae one seed leaf parallel venation of leaves irregularly arranged vascular bundles fibrous root system narrow leaves sheath like leaf stalk petiole no secondary growth iv State the importance of plants balancing carbon IV oxide and oxygen in the atmosphere during photosynthesis and respiration influence water cycle reduce soil erosion by bind soil particles together useful products e.g. food, medicine, timber, paper and clothing habitat e.g. forests and grassland for animals which may also be tourist attraction earn money from sales of products aesthetic value/beauty e.g. flowers, shade/shelter, live fences, windbreaks Some are harmful e.g. poisons, weeds, injurious stinging nettles, thorns , water hyacinth. f i Give the general characteristics of phylum arthropoda jointed appendages presence of exoskeleton triploblastic and coelomate segmented body bilateral symmetry similar halves ii. State the characteristics of the following classes of arthropoda 307 ----- Diplopoda the millipedes two pairs of legs per segment many segments terrestrial habitat body cylindrical and long herbivorous one pair of antennae Chilopoda the centipedes one pair of legs per segment many segments terrestrial habitat body long and ventro-dorsally flattened carnivorous last pair of legs pointing backwards with poison claws called maxillipedes one pair of antennae Insecta three body parts i.e. head thorax, abdomen six legs/three pairs of legs a pair of compound eyes presence of wings a pair of antennae Crustacean two body parts segmented body have pincers modified legs to catch prey have hard exoskeleton a pair of compound eyes Arachnida body divided into two parts abdomen and cephalothorax simple eyes eight legs four pairs of legs iii State the economic importance of insects Beneficial effects food supply important in food chains pollinators biological control of pests and other organisms aesthetic value 308 ----- contribute to decomposition e.g. litter feeders like beetles Harmful effects pests vectors dirt and disease carriers injurious e.g. stings and bites g i State the general characteristics of chordate notochord dorsal slits pharyngeal cleft during development bilateral symmetry triploblastic three layer body-ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm clear cut head formation multilayered epidermis post anal tail closed circulatory system segmented muscle blocks myotomes single pair of gonads Give the characteristics of the following classes of chordate Pisces presence of fins for locomotion two chambered heart presence of overlapping scales presence of gills or operculum for gaseous exchange presence of lateral line for protection streamlined body poikilothermic body temperature varies with that of environment Amphibian partially live in fresh water and partially on land poikilothermic pentadactylous with two pairs of limbs webbed feet for locomotion in water body streamlined heart is three chambered moist skin for gaseous exchange Reptilia scales on body poikilothermic homodont teeth except tortoise and turtle all have limbs except snakes 309 ----- skin is dry oviparous lay eggs no pinna external ear three chambered heart 9crocodile has four chambers skin not glandular no mammary glands Aves the birds homoeothermic constant body temperature four chambered heart streamlined body for locomotion in air skin dry and covered by feathers scales on legs hollow bones oviparous lay eggs mouths modified into beaks Mammalian hair on the body homoeothermic viviparous give birth to live young except a few have mammary glands glandular skin e.g. sweat glands, sebaceous glands four chambered heart pinna external ear two pairs of pentadactyl limbs presence of diaphragm have salivary glands i i What is a dichotomous key? A biological device tool which enables one to identify an organism by progressively opting between two alternative observable characteristics ii. State the necessity of using a dichotomous key used to identify organisms quickly and accurately by following the statements in the key we are able to identify each organism on the basis of a characteristic which is not to be found in other specimens iii. List the rules followed in constructing a dichotomous key use observable characteristics only start with major characteristics, placing organisms into two groups at each stage 310 ----- use a single characteristics at a time use contrasting characteristics at each stage e.g 1 a short, 1 b tall avoid repeating the same characteristics iv Describe the procedure of using a dichotomous key. Make a list of major features of the characteristics to be identified look at the features of similarities look at the features of differences between the organisms we can then be able to identify the organisms by distinguishing one from another the key uses a method of elimination by following statements that are correct only for the organism iv You are provided with a specimen kale leaf. Use the dichotomous key below to identify the taxonomic group to which the specimen belongs. Show the steps number and letter in the key that you followed to arrive at the identify of the specimen 1 a leaf broad go to 2 b leaf narrow Araicaria 2 a leaf parallel veined Cynodon b leaf net-veined go to 3 3 a leaf with one lobe simple go to 4 b leaf with many lobes compound Grevellea 4 a leaf fleshy Kalanchoa b leaf not fleshy go to 5 5 a leaf petiole modified to form sheath go to 6 b leaf petiole not modified to form sheath Brassica 6 a leaf purple Tradescantia b leaf green Commelina steps 1a, 2b, 3a, 4b, 5b Identify Brassica v You have been provided with four animals labeled K mature adult housefly , L mature adult grasshopper, M maize flour beetle and N worker termite use the dichotomous key below to identify the specimens. Write down in the correct order, the steps number and letter in the key that you followed to arrive at your answer. Dichotomous key 1 a animal with wings go to 2 b animal without wings go to 7 2 a with two pairs of wings go to 3 311 ----- b with one pair of wings Diptera 3 a with membranous wings go to 4 b hind pair of membranous wings go to 6 4 a with long abdomen Odontata b medium sized abdomen go to 5 5 a wings with coloured scales Lepidoptera b wings without scales hymenoptera 6 a forewings hard and shell-like coleopteran b forewings hard but not shell-like Orthoptera 7 a body horizontally flattened Isoptera b body laterally flattened Symphonoptera Identify the orders o the various specimens as per the table below Col2 Col3 --- --- --- Specimen Order Steps followed K-housefly L- grasshopper M- beetle M-termite Diptera Orthoptera Coleoptera Isoptera 1a,2b 1a, 2a, 3b, 6b 1a, 2a, 3b, 6a 1b, 7a 2 a Define the following ecological terms i. Ecology study of the interrelationships between organisms and their environment ii. Environment surrounding of the organism i.e. biotic or a biotic factors iii. Habitat A specific locality home of a living organism with a set of factors conditions in which an organism lives. iv. Ecological niche Role of an organism in its habitat e.g. feeding relationship v. Population Number group of organisms of a species occupying a given habitat vi. Community Refers to different species of plants and animals organisms in a given habitat area co-existing or interacting living with each other and the environment in which they live vii. Ecosystem A community of organisms interacting with one another and the environment in which they live viii. Biosphere 312 ----- The earth and its atmosphere where living organisms are found ix. Autecology Study of a single individual species of plants or animals within a community, ecosystem, habitat or environment. x. Synecology Study of natural communities plants and animals or populations interacting within an ecosystem. xi. Carrying capacity maximum number of organisms an area can support without being depleted xii. Biome geographical area with particular climatic conditions and flora and fauna it constitutes many ecosystems xiii. Biomass dry weight mass of a living organism in a given area units of measurement are kg/m2/year b i What are abiotic factors? non-living components of the ecosystem ii Explain how abiotic factors affect living organisms Wind this influences rate of water evaporation from organisms therefore it affects distribution of organisms e.g. wind increases rate of transpiration and evaporation of water from the soil wind is an agent of soil erosion, may break and uproot trees may aid in the formation of sand dunes which can form habitats for some desert plants wind disperses fruits, seeds, spores wind forms waves in lakes and oceans which enhances aeration of water which replenishes oxygen concentration necessary for life wind is an agent of pollination Temperature influences rate of enzyme action in photosynthesis and other metabolic reactions in plants and animals organisms function within a narrow range of temperature it affects distribution of organisms changes in temperature affect rate of photosynthesis and biochemical reactions e.g. metabolism and enzyme reaction temperature increases rate of transpiration 313 ----- Light needed by green plants and photosynthetic bacteria which are primary producers animals depend on plants directly or indirectly for food main source of light is the sun light is necessary for synthesis of vitamin D in certain animals some plants need light for flowering seeds like lettuce need light for germination Humidity amount of water vapour held by the air affects the rate at which water is lost from organisms body by evaporation and stomatal transpiration when humidity is low the rate of transpiration increases humidity influences distribution of organisms PH each plant requires a specific PH in which to grow acidic, neutral or alkalinic pH affects enzyme reaction in metabolism Salinity some ions are needed for plant and animal nutrition osmoregulation implants and animals is affected by salinity Topography altitude affects light, atmospheric pressure and light Slope influences surface runoff, wind erosion, etc. mountains affect distribution of organisms which differs in leeward side and windward side mountains affect distribution of organisms which differ on lowlands and on highlands mountains also form physical barriers to migration of organism and may cause isolation of species background may offer camouflage to some organisms hence protection from enemies Rainfall water or precipitation amount and distribution of rainfall affect vegetation type this consequently affects distribution of animals e.g. polar region water frozen hence only well adapted organisms survive fewer organisms found in deserts where rainfall is less Water is required for seed germination, raw material for photosynthesis, solvent for mineral salts. Provides turgidity 314 ----- for plant support, medium for transport, disperses fruits, seeds and spores Pressure the weight atmosphere exerts upon the earth varies with altitude 9the higher the altitude the less the pressure this variation implies change in density which directly means less oxygen for respiration and less carbon iv oxide for photosynthesis and this affects distribution of organisms Mineral salts trace elements these affect distribution of plants in the soil plants thrive best where elements are available Plants living in soil deficient in a particular element must have special methods of obtaining it. They harbor nitrogen fixing bacteria and others have carnivorous habit Plant distribution influences animal distribution c i What are biotic factors? refers to living organisms in an area biotic environment of an organism constitutes all organisms around it, which it relates or interacts with in various ways ii Give examples of biotic factors affecting ecosystems feeding relationships predation competition diseases and pests human activities d Discuss how the various biotic factors affect living organisms i. Competition organisms compete with one another for food, light, water, mates and shelter organisms must live together for competition for available resources those which cannot cope either structurally or behaviorally will migrate or die those remaining, due to better adaptations will increase in population competition between members of the same species is called intra-specific competition e.g. for mates Competition between members of different species is inter specific competition e.g. for food and space. 315 ----- ii. Predation this is predator-prey relationship predator feeds on prey hence both control the others population Distribution of predator and prey is important as predator cannot survive without prey It there is no predator the prey will increase in population beyond carrying capacity hence die due to environment depletion iii. Parasitism an association where an organism lives in or on another living organism obtaining food and other benefits from it, causing harm to it without necessary killing it parasites may kill host they deprive host of food make host weak by introducing diseases make reproductive ability of host low hence host becomes susceptible to predation iv. Diseases and parasites make organisms weak and susceptible to predation kill organisms and reduce their population v. Symbiotic and association of organisms of different species where both benefit from the association i.e. there is mutual benefit vi. Human activities these are human factors which have an influence on the biosphere examples are road construction, industrialization, deforestation, agriculture, pollution, poaching, fishing conservation, population control affect ecosystem and balance of nature Saprophytism saprophytes are organisms which obtain organic matter in solution from dead and decaying tissues of plants and animals they include saprophytic bacteria and fungi they make available carbon, nitrogen and other elements form dead to living organisms they are useful in recycling nutrients in nature e i What is nitrogen cycle? The process by which nitrogen in the air is made available plants and animals and eventually returns to the air. 316 ----- ii Draw a simplified diagram representing the nitrogen cycle iii Describe the nitrogen cycle during thunderstorms/lightning nitrogen gas combines with oxygen to form nitrogen oxides nitrogen oxides dissolve in water to form nitric acid acid is deposited in the soil by rain nitric acid combines with chemical substances to form nitrates or nitric acid dissociates to form nitrates which are absorbed by plants symbiotic bacteria Rhizobium which are found in root nodules of leguminous plants fix free nitrogen to nitrates free living bacteria clostridium and Azotobacter fix nitrogen to nitrates nostoc algae Anabaema chlorella fix nitrogen to nitrates plants use nitrates to form plant proteins animals feed on plants and convert plant proteins into animal proteins plants and animals die and are decomposed by putrefying bacteria, fungi saprophytes decomposing plants, animals and nitrogenous wastes release ammonia which is converted to nitrites by Nitrosomonas and nitrococcus bacteria nitrites are converted to nitrates by nitrobacter bacteria nitrates in the soil can be converted to free nitrogen denitrification by some fungi, pseudomonas and theobaccilus bacteria generally called denitrifying bacteria iii. Nitrogen in the atmosphere cannot be directly utilized by plants. State two ways by which this nitrogen is made available for plant use fixation by microorganisms Rhixobium, Axotobacter fixation by electrical discharge in atmosphere i.e. conversion by thunderstorm or lightning 317 ----- f i Describe how energy flows from the sun through the various trophic levels in an ecosystem energy from the sun is trapped by green plants during photosynthesis, producing chemical energy9food or carbohydrates green plants are producers and occupy the first trophic level green plants are eaten by herbivores called primary producers as they occupy the second trophic level herbivores are eaten by carnivores, secondary consumers, which occupy the third trophic level when organisms 9plant and animals die, fungi and bacteria which are saprophytic organisms feed on them thus causing them to decompose into simple substances e.g. mineral salts these organisms are called decomposers and detrivores decomposer feed on dead organic matter hence cause decomposition and decay which releases nutrients for plants, linking biotic and a biotic components at all levels energy is lost through respiration Give the reasons for loss of energy from one trophic level to another in a food chain insufficient utilization of food resources wastage e.g by defalcation through respiration through excretion e.g. urination and sweating Why are green plants referred to as primary producers in an ecosystem? - They utilize the energy from the sun to manufacture food for themselves and for subsequent trophic level consumers and other organisms vi . Explain the following terms giving suitable examples Food chain a nutritional sequence between producers and consumers through which energy flows in a straight line i.e. linear representation of feeding relationship between different organisms in an ecosystem if one consumer or the producer is removed the food chain is broken arrow points to the direction of energy flow e.g. green plant herbivore carnivore decomposer Food web 318 ----- complex feeding relationship where a consumer feeds on more than one type of food while several herbivores feed on one type of plant it is an interrelationship of many food chains consumers are usually fewer than producers to ensure survival of both Pyramid of numbers this is a diagrammatic representation of numbers of organisms at each trophic level in a food chain usually there are more producers than consumers hence producers herbivores carnivore the reason for the pyramid is because herbivores feed on many plants producers as carnivores feed on many herbivores sometimes this may not be true e.g. when many caterpillars feed on one tree or parasites on a herbivore this gives an inverted pyramid of numbers Pyramid of biomass refers to diagrammatic representation total dry weight of organisms at different trophic levels in a food chain producers have greater biomass than any level of consumers progressively size of organisms in successive e trophic levels increases amount of individuals decreases in successive levels Account for the decrease of biomass in the successive trophic levels 319 ----- fixed energy which supports living matter decreases at each successive trophic level since energy is lost by respiration and indigested unconverted materials hence less biomass supported at each level h i Describe the three characteristics of a population growth increase in numbers decrease in numbers/growth rate change in numbers Dispersion spread or distribution of organisms in a habitat Density the number of individuals per unit area ii Explain how the following methods are used to estimate population of organisms quadrat method identify the study area throw or mark out the quadrat in the area of study at random identify or label the various species of plants in the quadrat count plants of each species record the numbers repeat the process work out the average per quadrat for each species calculate the total number of different species in the area or calculate the population for the total area of habitat Line transect a string is stretched along an identified area all plants touching the string are counted Belt transect preliminary study of the study area to estimate size or make a sketch map two parallel lines strings or ropes running for a determined distance and width count the number of organisms in the transect calculate the area covered by the transect calculate the number of organisms being investigated per unit area repeat this process at least three times in other parts of the study area find the mean number of organisms per unit area from all the belt transects 320 ----- from this figure calculate the total population of the desired organisms in the study area. Capture-recapture method e.g. grasshoppers or fish capture the grasshoppers count and mark using permanent ink record release and allow time recapture and count the marked and unmarked total population is equal to the number of marked and unmarked grasshoppers in the second sample multiplied by the number of marked grasshoppers in the first sample divided by number of grasshoppers marked in the second sample that were recaptured 2. a Describe the adaptations of plants to various habitats i. Xerophytes grow in areas with scarcity of water roots grow deeply and extensively widely spread to ensure access to water thick succulent stems, roots and leaves for water storage photosynthetic stems take place of leaves which would lose a lot of water Leaves are needle-like reduced to spines , scaly, have sunken stomata. Some have curled rolled leaves. Some have thick waxy cuticle, reduced number of stomata to reduce water loss by transpiration some shed leaves during dry season to reduce water loss presence of thorns for protection short life cycle to ensure survival reversed stomatal rhythm ii. Hyrophytes grow in places with plenty of water waterlogged aerenchyma a tissue airspaces and large intercellular spaces and long fibrous roots for buoyancy floating in water poorly developed support tissues sclerenchyma because water provides the necessary support upper epidermis of leaves have more stomata than lower epidermis for gaseous exchange or for increased rate of transpiration 321 ----- poorly developed conducting tissues xylem and phloem because plants obtain water by diffusion iii. Mesophytes grow in well watered soils common plants no special adaptations, but depending on particular habitat, may have some adaptations in forests they grow fast, tall to capture light. Have climbers while some are adapted to carry out photosynthesis in low light intensities those that form undergrowth in places with adequate water they form broad leaves, thin cuticle and many stomata on both leaf surfaces in direr regions they possess more stomata on the lower leaf surface and are deep rooted some are shallow rooted and develop buttress and prop roots for support some have waxy or glossy surface to reflect sun rays and drip off rain water iv. Halophytes plants that grow in very salty soil where the salt concentration is higher than that in the plant have root cells which concentrate a lot of salts in them and enable then to take in water by osmosis succulent roots to store water have pneumatophores breathing roots to take in oxygen some have buttress roots for support secrete excess salt by use of salt glands have large airspaces in leaves and stems for buoyancy and to store air capable of photosynthesis at low light intensities e.g. mangrove b i What is pollution? any process which leads to adverse or harmful changes in the environment ii Explain the various human activities that have caused pollution Causes and effects of air pollution sulphur iv oxide, hydrogen sulphide, chlorine, oxides of nitrogen produced by industries, sewage, decomposing organic matter and fumes affect gaseous exchange, makes acid rain and damage plant leaves 322 ----- aerosols, herbicides, insecticides agrochemicals , paint spays, acaricides and CFCs sprayed to control diseases, pests and weeds affect respiratory organs of animals. The chemicals are residual and persistent not easily broken down and bring depletion of the ozone layer smoke and fumes produced in areas with heavy industries, motor vehicles, fires which burn fuel, oil, wood and coal cause carbon ii oxide, poisoning affect respiratory systems and affect visibility particles in smoke and fumes settle on leaves and stop photosynthesis carbon iv oxide causes green house effect which causes temperature inversion as a result of heating the lower layers of atmosphere sound and noise produced incessantly by machines, aeroplanes and heavy vehicles affect hearing in animals dust from cement factories, quarries, dust roads settles on leaves limiting photosynthesis removal of vegetation interferes with carbon cycle radio-active emissions from nuclear reactors, mines and bombs cause cancer, mutations and death. Control of air pollution use of lead free petrol in motor vehicles, air craft, aeroplanes and petroleum engines uses of smokeless fuels and electricity filtration, dissolution and use of chemicals to remove harmful gases factories should be erected far away from residential areas use of tall chimneys reduce volume or intensity of sound e.g. by use of ear muffs concords should fly at higher altitudes and aeroplanes to fly high up State the causes, effects and methods of controlling and prop roots for support water pollution Causes and effects agrochemicals e.g. fertilizers cause eutrophication leading to increase in animal population Silting makes water surfaces shallow and silt clogs stomata and gills of fish reducing rates of photosynthesis and 323 ----- gaseous exchange. It also leads to reduction of algae which causes reduction of consumers i.e. animal population industrial and domestic wastes contain toxic materials which kill producers and other organism while oily substances in wastes may clog gills of fish and may change pH of water oxygen solubility is also reduced by oily surfaces Untreated sewage and effluents where decomposition or organic matter in sewage reduces oxygen supply and sewage provides food for bacteria increasing their population and demand for oxygen thus depriving fish of oxygen. Human feaces causes eutrophication, carbon IV oxide produced by decomposition of faecal matter changes pH of water interferes with photosynthesis and may clog fish gills or block light penetration which interferes with producers thereby decreasing productivity. Dumping of chemicals from industries with toxic pollutants which kill organisms Spillage of oil and chemicals block oxygen and kill organisms Discharge of water from industries into water body where high temperatures reduce amount of oxygen in the water causing organism to suffocate and die Untreated sewage may lead to outbreak of epidemics Control of water pollution -pollution caused by domestic effluents may be controlled by treating domestic waste, using biotechnology, banning the use of phosphate-based detergents, using plastic pipes instead of those made from lead, recycling gabbage, using biodegradable detergents. Pollution caused by industrial waste may be controlled by treating/cooling industrial waste, carrying out environmental impact assessment before establishing industries Oil spillage may be controlled by cleaning spilled oil biotechnology and penalizing the industry individual or companies which cause oil spills/water pollution Pollution caused by agrochemicals may be controlled by using mechanical control of weeds, biological control of weeds and pests, biodegradable organic fertilizer herbicides, insecticides pesticides, organic farming educate farmers on the use of correct amount of agrochemicals 324 ----- silting may be controlled by appropriate farming practices, contour farming, reafforestation, building gabions and terracing iv State the causes /effects and control methods of soil pollution Causes and effects Air pollutants e.g. sulphur IV oxide fumes from sulphuric acid with rain water. The acid rain alters soil pH therefore affecting plants that cannot tolerate acidic soil most aerosols sprayed to control pests and diseases precipitate in the soil and are taken up by plants which make its concentration many times higher, increasing the toxicity in the plants which absorb them petroleum products due to spillage by oil tankers making it impossible for plant roots to obtain oxygen in oil saturated soils, therefore plants are killed agrochemicals and inorganic fertilizers contain heavy metals that are not used up by plants and eventually soil microorganisms cannot inhabit the soils organic matter slows down, life ceases and soil becomes exhausted community, household wastes and industrial wastes disposal is a major problem in big towns and cities. commodities packaged in metal tins, rubber, plastic containers, scrap metal, glass bottles, different types of paper are nuisance to the environment, rendering it useless for agricultural purposes Control of soil pollution use of organic farming techniques biological control of pests, diseases, parasites recycling of non-degradable containers or burying them safely after use controlled burning of garbage treatment of human and industrial waste for safe disposal avoid spilling chemicals and oil when used v Define biological control give suitable examples using a living organism to regulate, control or reduce the population of another organism e.g beetles to feed on water hyacinth, fish to feed on mosquito larvae. vi What is eutrophication? enrichment of water bodies with nutrients due to discharge of sewage leading to rapid growth of surface plants 325 ----- viii What are the effects of eutrophication? enrichment of water bodies with nutrients due to discharge of sewage leading to rapid growth of surface plants vii What are the effects of eutrophication? - The plants block light from reaching plants underneath hence no photosynthesis The plants die and decompose leading to lack of oxygen hence animals also die c Describe the symptoms, mode of transmission and control of cholera, typhoid malaria and amoebic dysentery in humans Col2 Col3 Col4 Col5 --- --- --- --- --- Disease Causative agent Transmissio n Symptom s Control Cholera Vibrio cholerae bac terium Contaminate d food or water Spread by flies form faeces Intestinal pain Diarrhea Vomiting Dehydrati on Proper hygiene e.g. boiling drinking water Vaccination Typhoid Salmonella typhi bacterium contami nated food or water spread by flies from faeces fever rashe s diarr hea bloo d from bowe ls proper sanitati on vaccina tion Malaria Plasmodium protozoa - bite by infected female anopheles mosquito - fever Joint pains Vomiting Headache Anaemia killing mosqui to killing the mosqui to larvae drainin g stagnan t water clearin 326 ----- Col1 Col2 Col3 Col4 g bushes treatme nt sleep under mosqui to net --- --- --- --- --- Amoebi c dysenter y amoebi asis Entamoeba hystolytica bacterium - contaminated food or water due to improper disposal of faeces - intestinal pain Diarrhea Vomiting Dehydrati on sanitati on person al hygien e cook food well treatme nt using drugs d Discuss Ascaris lumbricoides under the following sub- headings i. Mode of transmission through ingestion of contaminated food live in intestines ii. Effects of parasite on the host inflammation of lungs pneumonia produce toxic substances intestinal obstruction iii. Adaptations thick cuticle which protects it against digestion lays many eggs to ensure survival mouthparts for sucking partly digested food lack of elaborate alimentary canal tolerant to low oxygen concentration two hosts to ensure survival eggs have protective cover to ensure survival in adverse environments iv. Control and prevention proper sanitation 327 ----- wash hand after defaecation and before eating e Discuss schistosoma under the following sub-headings i. Mode of transmission through contaminated water in swamps, etc ii. Effects on host bleeding in lungs blood stained urine unthriftiness iii. Adaptations has two hosts to increase chances of survival eggs have a hook like structure which raptures the walls of intestine or bladder lay large number of eggs to ensure survival larvae have a sucker for attachment on human skin which it digests larva has a tail which it swims with in search of host in water prolonged association between male and female to ensure that fertilization takes place adults can tolerate low oxygen concentration in the animal tissues adult worm secretes chemicals against antibodies larvae and eggs have glands that secrete lytic enzymes to soften the tissues that ease penetration larvae are encysted so as to survive adverse conditions iv Control and prevention proper use of toilet facilities boiling water before use avoid bathing/washing in infected water Use of molluscicides chemicals that kill snails/biological control/clearing water weeds on which snails feed. Drainage of stagnant water 3. Wearing gum/rubber boots a i What is reproduction? process by which living organisms give rise to new members of their own species which resemble the parents ii Why is reproduction important? for continuity of species/ to ensure survival of species maintaining life of species replace dead individuals iii Name the types of reproduction 328 ----- sexual which involves fusion of male and female gametes asexual in which no gametes are involved but parts of a mature organism develops into new individuals b i What is cell division? process by which cells are formed from pre-existing cells ii What are chromosomes? Threadlike structures found in nucleus of a cell. The units called genes Genes are factors that cause inheritance or determine characteristics of offspring c i What is mitosis? A type of cell division that occurs during growth leading to increase in number of cells all cells maintain the same chromosome constitution i.e. the diploid state ii Describe the five stages of mitosis Interphase replication of organelles duplication of DNA production of energy ATP for cell division Prophase stage of dehydration chromosomes shorten and thicken chromosome replicates into two chromatids chromatids joined at centromere formation of spindle fibers Metaphase chromosomes move to equator early metaphase chromosomes line up at the equator homologous chromosomes do not associate 329 ----- Anaphase chromatids separate move to opposite ends poles of the cell Telophase chromatids reach the poles formation of two daughter cells occurs i.e. cytoplasmic division ii State the significance of mitosis ensures each daughter cell has same number and kinds of chromosomes as daughter cells gives rise to new cells responsible for growth d i What is meiosis? division of diploid cells to form gametes which are haploid ii State the significance of meiosis gives rise to gametes source of variation iii Give a summary of the stages of meiosis First meiotic division Interphase cell is in non-dividing condition 330 ----- chromosomes appear threadlike Prophase I chromatic material shorten and thicken double stranded chromosomes appear bivalent double stranded chromosomes pair and twist round each other synapsis point of contact of chromosomes is called chiasma Metaphase I paired homologous chromosomes line up at the equator Anaphase I paired homologous chromosomes move to the poles Telophase I paired homologous chromosomes reach the poles two new nuclei are formed Second meiotic division Prophase II chromosomes shorten, thicken and become visible, stage of dehydration Metaphase II movement of chromosomes to equator 331 ----- Anaphase II -chromatids of each chromosome separate to the poles Telophase II reach the poles four haploid daughter cells are formed iv Give the similarities between mitosis and meiosis both take part in cells both involve division cell multiplication v What are the differences between mitosis and meiosis? Mitosis Meiosis --- --- maintenance of chromosome number diploid takes place in somatic cells/growth no crossing over/no variations results into 2 daughter cells no pairing/no synapsis/no bivalent formed a one division process of four stages reduction/halving of chromosomes haploid occurs in reproductive cells/gonads/produces gametes crossing over takes place/variation occurs results into 4 daughter cells there is paring/synapsis/bivalen t a two division process of four stages each d i What is asexual reproduction formation of new individuals as a result of the fusion of two gametes fusion is called fertilization 332 ----- ii What is the significance of sexual reproduction in living organisms? leads to genetic variation e.g. cross breeding which gives rise to hybrids iii State the advantages of sexual reproduction genetic variation greater adaptability to environment by offspring few bad or good traits inherited/retained greater amount of dispersal is possible may result in stronger offspring iv Give the disadvantages of sexual reproduction less certainty in egg and sperm meeting low rate of survival sex-linked diseases easily transmitted e i What is asexual reproduction? formation of new organisms without fusion of gametes occurs with only one parent parts of organism develop into new individual ii State the advantages of asexual reproduction retention of useful characteristics/genes/traits offspring establish faster/shorter life cycle better chances of survival because of suitable environment iii Give the disadvantages of asexual reproduction lack of genetic variation lowered resistance to disease loss of hybrid vigor competition for resources due to overcrowding iv Explain how reproduction occurs by the following methods of asexual reproduction Sporulation formation of spores spores are small haploid cells produced by plants spores give rise to new haploid organisms includes moulds, ferns, bryophytes, pteridophytes Budding where an outgrowth arises from a parent and drops off to develop into a new organisms hereditary material in the daughter cell and parent are exactly the same occurs in organisms such as hydra, jelly fish, sea anemones, yeast and some fungi Binary fission 333 ----- a cell splits into two new cells of equal size each daughter cell grows into anew organism Occurs in organisms such as amoeba, euglena, paramecium, some fungi and bacteria. f i What is a flower? this is the reproductive structure which bears the reproductive parts of a plant it produces seeds and fruits ii Draw a longitudinal section of a labeled diagram of a flower iii Give the functions of the parts of a flower Receptacle expanded end of stalk which bears floral parts Calyx consists of sepals usually green protect flower in bud Corolla consist of petals often colored or scented to attract insects Androecium male part of flower consist of stamens each stamen consists of an anther containing pollen sacs another produces pollen grains which contain male gametes Gynaecium female part of flower consists of one or more carpels each carpel contains one or more ovules in an ovary style bearing a stigma extends from ovary ovary contains female gametes which when fertilized become seeds iv What is inflorescence? a group of flowers borne on the same branch main stalk v Explain the meaning of the following terms which describe flowers Hermaphrodite 334 ----- one with both stamen and carpel most flowers are hermaphrodite/bisexual Unisexual have only one of carpel or stamen i.e. either male or female Carpelate also called pistilate contains only carpels hence a female flower Staminate also called male flower contains only stamens Dioecious plants have pistilate and staminate flowers on different plants e.g. pawpaw Monoecius plants have pistilate and staminate on one plant however, pistilate and staminate occur at different plants e.g. maize Complete flower Has all four parts i.e. Calyx, corolla, androecium and gynoecium Incomplete flower does not have all four parts at least one is missing vi Explain the meaning of the following types of ovary Superior ovary occurs above other floral parts on the receptacle Inferior epigynous other floral parts arise above ovary on the receptacle g i What is pollination? transfer of pollen grains from anther of a stamen to stigma of a flower ii Explain the types of pollination self pollination takes place when mature pollen grains of a flower fall on the stigma of the same flower cross pollination takes place when pollen grains of a flower fall on the stigma of another flower of the same species iii State the advantages of pollination healthy offspring leads to variation greater chances of dispersal iv List the agents of pollination 335 ----- wind water insects v How are flowers adapted to wind and insect pollination? Insect pollinated flowers entomophilus are scented to attract insects have stick stigma for pollen grains to stick on are brightly coloured to attract insects presence of nectar to attract insects have nectar guides to guide insects to the nectarines have nectarines to secrete nectar stigma/ anthers located inside the flower/tubal/funnel shaped corolla to increase chances of contact by insects sticky/spiny/spiky pollen grains which stick on the body of insects and on stigma large/conspicuous flowers easily seen by/attract insects anthers firmly attached to the filament for insects to brush against them landing platform to ensure contact with anthers and stigma mimicry to attract male insects Wind pollinated flower anemophilus anthers/stigma hang outside the flower to increase chances of pollination the style/filament is long to expose stigma/anthers stigma is hairy/feathery/branched to increase surface area over which pollen grains land/to trap pollen grains pollen grains are smooth/dry/light/small to be easily carried by wind large amount of pollen grains to increase chances of pollination anthers loosely attached to filaments to enable them to sway to release pollen grains pollen grains may have structures which contain air to increase buoyancy flowers have long stalks holding them out in the wind vi State the ways in which plants prevent self-pollination protandry anthers/stamens mature first protagyny pistils mature first monoecism where male and female parts are on same plant but different parts 336 ----- dioecism where male and female parts are on different plants incompatibility self sterility heterostyly styles at different heights vii Give the characteristics that ensure cross pollination takes place in flowering plants presence of special structures that attract agents of pollination protandry/dichogamy protagyny/dichogamy monoecism self sterility heterostyly viii State the advantages of cross pollination hybrid vigour less prone to diseases promotes genetic variation greater evolutionary potential h i What is fertilization? - Fusion of male and female gametes to form a zygote ii Describe how fertilization takes place in a flower this follows pollination pollen grain is deposited on the stigma pollen grain sticks to the surface of the stigma the surface of the stigma produces a chemical substance which stimulates the pollen grain to produce a pollen tube/to germinate the pollen tube grows through the style tissues on which it feeds until it enters the ovary the generative nucleus divides into two giving two male nuclei embryo sac contains eight nuclei i.e. two synergids, egg cell, two polar nuclei and three antipodal cells the pollen tube enters the embryo sac through the micropyle and one of the male nucleus fuses with the egg cell/ovum to form a zygote the other male nucleus fuses with the two polar nuclei to form the triploid nuclei/endosperm food storage used by developing embryo the pollen tube nucleus in the pollen tube disintergrates soon afterwards this process is referred to as double fertilization 337 ----- zygote grows into an embryo containing plumule, radicle and cotyledons iii What is double fertilization? there are two male nuclei entering embryo sac one fuses with the ovum to form a zygote, while the other fuses with the polar nuclei to form a triploid primary endosperm nucleus therefore there are two fusions at fertilization iv Name the changes that Occur in a flower after fertilization petals, stamen, calyx and style wither ovary wall changes into pericarp intergument changes into seed coat/testa zygote changes into embryo by mitosis primary endosperm nucleus changes into endosperm whole ovule changes into seed ovary develops and grows into fruit under the influence of gibberrellic hormone j i Distinguish between a fruit and a seed a fruit is a fertilized ovary and has two scars a seed is a fertilized ovule and has one scar ii How is a seed formed? after fertilization, zygote grows into an embryo, primary endosperm nucleus developed into endosperm, interguments harden to form testa, hence the whole ovule becomes the seed the seed loses water to become drier the seed has plumule, radicle, seed leaves called cotyledons, a microphyle and a scar iii Draw a labeled diagram of a seed 338 ----- iv Describe the main parts of a seed Testa also called seed coat a tough outer covering which protects the seed from insects, bacteria etc segment is the membrane inside the testa Hilum a scar spot where the seed was attached to the fruit or pod Micropyle small hole through which water and air enter the seed Radicle embryonic root grows into the shoot system Cotyledons embryonic leaves store food for the germinating seed i.e. for plumule and radicle when plumule and radicle grow, they use food stored in the cotyledon in some seeds food is stored in the endosperm v Draw a labeled diagram of a fruit vi How is a fruit formed? one of the organs that remains on the plant after pollination and fertilization is the ovary within the ovary, the developing embryo produces special chemical substances that stimulate the young ovary these substances also signal the start of the formation of the fruit, which is a mature ovary the fruit may contain one or more seeds during fruit formation the ovary increases in size while ripening or maturing a true fruit is formed from the ovary of a flower after fertilization 339 ----- it has two scars style scar and stalk scar and contains seeds some seeds are not formed from the ovary of a flower some other parts of a flower develop to form a fruit such fruits are called false fruits vii Explain the importance of fruits in the survival of plants protect the seed against dessication, predators and adverse conditions aid in seed dispersal by attracting agents of dispersal stores food for the plant vii. Distinguish between parthenogenesis and parthenocarpy parthenogenesis is development of new animals from unfertilized eggs parthenocarpy is development of a fruit without fertilization iv State the differences between a seed and fruit Seed Fruit --- --- fertilized ovule attached to placenta through funicle one scar called hilum has seed coat/testa seed wall undifferentiated fertilized ovary attached to branch through a stalk two scars style scar and stalk scar has fruit wall/pericarp fruit wall is differentiated j. i What is placentation? arrangement of ovules within the plant ovary ii Explain the following types of placentation Marginal placenta appears as one ridge on ovary wall ovules are attached to placenta in rows e.g. peas in a pod Basal placenta formed at the base of the ovary with numerous ovules attached to it 340 ----- Parietal edges of carpels fuse together dividing walls disappear, leaving one loculus have numerous seeds e.g. passion fruit placenta of each carpel appears as ridges on ovary wall Axile edges of carpels fuse together to form a single central placenta numerous ovules arranged on placenta ovary divided into a number of loculi by walls of the carpel e.g. Free central placentation edges of carpels fuse together dividing was disappears leaving one loculus placenta appears at base of ovary has numerous ovules k i How are fruits grouped? Simple fruits formed from a single flower or one ovary e.g. mango Aggregate fruits consists a group of ovaries that appear on a common receptacle e.g. strawberry Multiple compound fruits formed from several flowers whose ovaries fuse together after fertilization 341 ----- form a bunch e.g. pineapple, figs are always false fruits ii What are succulent fruits? also called fleshy fruits all or part of pericarp fruit wall becomes juicy iii Give types of juicy fruits -Berry has many seeds whole pericarp is succulent e.g. orange, tomato, pawpaw Drupe only one seed pericarp divided into three layers i.e. epicarp, mesocarp juicy and endocarp hard e.g. mango and coconut Pome juicy part is swollen receptacle is usually a false fruit example is a pear iv What are dry fruits? have a pericarp that is dry, hard and woody either dehiscent or indehiscent called dry because they are not succulent v What are dehiscent fruits? split open when ripe to release seeds contain many seeds vi Give types of dehiscent fruits Legumes split along two edges are usually pods e.g. beans, peas, crotolaria Follicle split on one side only e.g. Sodom apple 342 ----- Capsule has several lines of weakness/sutures open in many places e.g. castor oil, cotton vii What are indehiscent fruits? non-splitting fruits usually one seeded only ix Give main types of indehiscent fruits Nut pericarp woody, hard and thick e.g. cashew Achene has thin, tough pericarp e.g. sunflower l i What is seed and fruit dispersal? spreading of seeds and fruits away from parents so as to settle where conditions are suitable for their germination ii Why is dispersal of seeds and fruits necessary? prevent overcrowding reduces competition for space, nutrients and light colonization of new areas is made possible to increase chances of survival to prevent inbreeding to avoid extinction due to over competition for the necessities iii Explain how seeds and fruits are adapted to various methods of dispersal Adaptations for wind dispersal they have wings, feathers or hair-like structures to increase surface area for wind to carry them easily/buoyancy seeds/fruits are loosely attached on the stalks so that they can easily be released and carried away by wing seeds/fruits are generally light and small sized to be easily carried by wind some seeds/fruits have parachute-like structures to be easily carried b wind some have censor mechanism where seeds and fruits are borne on long stalks that are loosely attached which allows swaying so that movements of capsule by wind releases the seeds Water dispersal seeds seed/ mesocarp has air spaces thus light/buoyant to float hence carried by water they have waterproof cover and tough pericarp protects seeds from getting soaked 343 ----- fibrous and spongy mesocarp to easily float Animal dispersal seeds presence of hooks for attachment to animals thus carried to other parts fruits are brightly coloured, succulent and scented to attract animals seed coats are hard and resistant to digestive enzymes hence seeds are dropped away from mother plant large in size or borne on clusters to be easily seen Self dispersal/explosive self opening seeds they have lines of weakness called sutures for violent opening thus scattering seeds away from parent plant 5. a i Distinguish between external and internal fertilization in animals in external fertilization fusion of the male and female gametes takes place outside the body of the female e.g. amphibians and fish in internal fertilization union of gametes occurs inside the body of the female ii State the advantages and disadvantages of external fertilization Advantages large numbers produced therefore many offspring per breeding season female does not suffer gestation stress mother does not need to care for the young except in a few species the surviving individuals are highly selected for better survival Disadvantages many predators surround the eggs before and after fertilization fewer chances of fertilization/a lot of gametes wasted embryo development at mercy of environment large numbers of female gametes are required therefore female gets much exhausted iii State the advantages and disadvantages of internal fertilization Disadvantages number of gametes fewer hence less number of offspring less adapted for sudden change of environment after birth 344 ----- in mammals females suffer gestation stress Advantages more chances of fertilization fewer predators of oval/fertilized egg protected in females body stable internal environment fewer gametes required iii Give a reason why it is necessary for frogs to lay many eggs to increase chances of survival/fertilization iv Compare external and internal fertilization External Internal --- --- occurs in water outside the bodies of animals many eggs are laid usually less contact between male and female both fertilized eggs exposed to danger occurs inside the body of the female animal fewer eggs released from ovary very close contact in form of copulation between male and female Fertilized eggs are enclosed hence highly protected inside females body. b i Draw and label the human male reproductive system 345 ----- ii Describe how the mammalian male reproductive system is adapted to perform its functions Penis is highly vascularised/spongy has a sensitive glands becomes erect to allow entry into the vagina Scrotum contains the testes outside the body on whose walls the process of spermatogenesis takes place the process is favored by lower temperature it contains sertoli cells which nourish sperms until they are mature Epididymis long and coiled for the purpose of sperm storage Vas deferens muscular upon contraction pushes sperms out and allows ejaculation Gametes 346 ----- produced in large numbers to increase chances of fertilization the sperms have a tail for swimming/large number of mitochondria to provide energy/allow swimming to reach the egg Accessory glands are seminal vesicle, Cowpers gland and prostate gland they produce seminal fluid to provide a medium/ nutrients for sperms to swim iii How is the sperm adapted to perform its function? acrosomes contain enzymes to digest egg membrane nucleus contains genetic material mitochondria produce energy to move the tail back and forth the lashing movement of the tail enables the sperm to move/propulsion in fluid medium towards the egg it is streamlined for faster/easier movement/swimming to meet the egg c i Draw and label the human female reproductive system 347 ----- 348 ----- 349 ----- ii Describe how the various structures of the human female reproductive system are adapted to their function Ovaries have several graafian follicles that develop and burst open to release/produce mature ova secretes sex hormones oestrogen which initiate/control development of secondary sexual characteristics produce hormones oestrogen and progesterone which prepare the uterus for implantation and subsequent nourishment of the embryo Oviducts fallopian tube are thin narrow and tubular to increase flowing speed of semen containing sperms are funnel shaped on the end next to ovary which enables them to receive the ovum their lining contains cilia which propel the ovum towards the uterus has peristaltic muscles that enable movement of zygote/ovum to the uterus for implantation is fairly long to increase surface area for fertilization Uterus is muscular for protection of developing embryo has elastic wall that allows growth and development of foetus/embryo has a highly vascularised endometrium that provides nutrients/gaseous exchange to developing embryo Cervix has valves that close the lower end of the uterus to ensure continued pregnancy during gestation period is capable of dilating has narrow entrance/neck-like entrance to uterus that enables quick swimming of sperms to uterus has suction mechanism that draws up/pulls sperms into uterus has a W shape that fits well with the glands of the penis to ensure sperms are deposited at the right point Vagina is elastic and muscular to enable good accommodation or penetration of the penis thus proper deposition of sperms and for easy parturition allows menstrual flow 350 ----- has sensitive labial walls which secrete/produce lubricating substances that ensure/enable/facilitate good coition capable of considerable enlargement, due to elastic muscles, to accommodate baby during parturition Clitoris has sensitive cells for orgasm iii Explain how the ovum is adapted to its function nucleus contains genetic material ventelline membrane encloses plasma membrane which encloses yolky cytoplasm yolky cytoplasm provides nourishment jelly coat protects ovum against dehydration iv Explain the differences between sperm and ovum Sperm Ovum --- --- long with a tail and head small locomotory stores little food has acrosome tip with lytic enzymes nucleus prominent but cytoplasm negligible spherical large stationary a lot of food stored in yolky cytoplasm lacks acrosome a lot of cytoplasm d i Explain the process of fertilization a process whereby the egg and sperm are brought together and fuse to form a zygote occurs in the fallopian tube after copulation sperm head penetrates the outer coat of the ovum while the tail remains outside penetration is due to reaction of acrosome acrosome digests the vitelline membrane thereafter a zygote is formed zygote which is diploid undergoes rapid cell division to form a mass of cells called blastocyst after fertilization a membrane forms around the ovum to prevent further entry of sperms blastocyst eventually develops into an embryo 351 ----- 352 ----- i Explain the process of implantation this is the embedding and attaching of the embryo in the uterine wall/endometrium implantation marks the beginning of pregnancy sometimes implantation occurs in the oviduct wall which is abnormal and results in ectopic pregnancy which is fatal the outer wall of the blastocyst develops fingerlike projections which project into the uterine wall for attachment the projections are called villi 353 ----- the villi and endometrium develop into an organ that is called the placenta the embryo is attached to the placenta through a cord called the umbilical cord iii 354 ----- State the functions of umbilical cord it contains blood vessels umbilical artery, iliac arteries and umbilical veins it joins the placenta to the embryo passage for nutrients from the mother passage of excretory substances from foetus to mother for final discharge gaseous exchange passage of antibodies from mother to foetus, for protection of foetus against diseases iv State the role of placenta exchange of gases between mother and foetus exchange of nutrients and nitrogenous wastes anchorage/attachment of foetus produces hormones oestrogen and progesterone e i What is gestation period? time taken from fertilization to birth/pregnancy ii Explain the functions of the membranes associated with placenta Chorion surrounds the embryo has fingerlike projections that attach embryo to the uterus Amnion contains amniotic fluid fluid surrounds embryo 355 ----- protects embryo from mechanical injury by acting as shock absorbers fluid also protects embryo from dehydration distributes pressure equally over embryo Yolk sac surround the yolk produces blood cells for embryo until its own liver is able to perform the task Allantois present only for a short time removes and store waste material it eventually becomes the umbilical cord iii Explain the events that take place to facilitate parturition near birth the placenta produces less progesterone oxytocin hormone is produced by posterior lobe of pituitary gland because progesterone level has decreased the uterus becomes sensitive to oxytocin oxytocin causes the contraction of the uterus myometrium these contractions are called labour pains just before parturition the head turns downwards the contractions eventually push the baby through the vagina amnion breaks and amniotic fluid is released oxytocin dilates the cervix foetus is expelled through cervix with head coming out first finally the whole infant comes out the umbilical cord is cut and the placenta is expelled as afterbirth iv State the reasons why later in pregnancy the ovary will b e removed without disturbing the pregnancy corpus luteum in the ovary secretes progesterone which maintains pregnancy and development of foetus after conception after four months pregnancy is maintained by progesterone from the placenta f i What are secondary sexual characteristics - Characteristics physiological and anatomical that start developing at puberty due to the influence of male and female hormones ii State the main secondary changes in Boys deepening of the voice 356 ----- growth of hair on face, pubic part, chest, legs penis and testes become bigger muscular development sperm production begins at puberty and may continue throughout life Girls growth of hair on pubic part and armpits widening/enlargement of hips development of breasts menstrual cycle starts as ovaries mature body acquires extra fat iii Describe the role of hormones in secondary sexual characteristics inBoys Follicle stimulation hormone FSH from pituitary stimulates production of androgens male hormones mainly testosterone by testis Testosterone secondary sexual characteristics Girls FHS from pituitary development of follicles stimulates oestrogen production by ovary LH from pituitary ovulation stimulates release of progesterone by ovary Oestrogen stimulates release of LH secondary sexual characteristics Progesterone also from placenta sustains pregnancy as it inhibits prolactin and oxytocin during pregnancy Prolactin milk formation Oxytocin parturition milk ejection g i What is menstruation? - vaginal discharge due to disintegration of endometrium 357 ----- ii Describe the role of hormones in the human menstrual cycle it is controlled by sex hormones which are responsible for the onset of secondary sexual characteristics and also control of the menstrual cycle the onset is signaled by discharge of blood/menses 14 days following the start of menstruation anterior lobe of pituitary gland secretes follicle stimulating hormone FSH Follicle stimulating hormone causes graafian follicle to develop in the ovary. It also stimulates tissues of the ovary/wall theca to secrete oestrogen oestrogen causes repair/healing of uterine wall oestrogen stimulates anterior lobe of pituitary to produce luteinising hormonge LH LH causes ovulation. It also causes graafian follicle to change into corpus luteum. LH stimulates corpus luteum to secrete progesterone Progesterone causes proliferation/thickening of uterine wall Oesterogen/progesterone inhibits the production of FSH by anterior lobe of pituitary, thus no more follicles develop and oestrogen production reduces In the next two weeks progesterone level rises and inhibits production of LH from anterior lobe of pituitary The corpus lutetium stops secreting progesterone and menstruation occurs when the level of progesterone drops Anterior lobe of pituitary starts secreting FSH again. iii What is menopause? end of ovulation in women occurs after age of 45 years does not occur in males h Explain the symptoms, methods of transmitting and prevention control of the following sexually transmitted diseases i Gonorrhea - caused by a bacterium called Neisseria gonorrhea - transmitted through sexual intercourse, - infects urethra and vaginal tract epithelia - Symptoms include pain, discharge of mucus and bad smell females - Effects include sterility, heart diseases, blindness of foetus and arthritis 358 ----- - Treatment by antibiotics - Control and prevention by proper sexual conduct ii Herpes notably Herpes simplex and H. genitalis caused by virus which attacks genitalia symptoms are painful sores in genitalia, skin lesions transmitted in saliva, sexual intercourse and injection by drug addicts no treatment iii Syphilis caused by bacterium called Treponema palladium symptoms are painless wounds in genitalia attack genitalia, nervous system, lips treated by antibiotics iv Trichomoniasis caused by plasmodium called Trichomonas attacks reproductive tract symptoms are itching and discharge of pus from the genitals treated by antibiotics v Hepatitis - Viral disease Affects the liver Transmitted through sexual intercourse No known treatment vi Candidiasis caused by fungus called Candida albicans transmitted through sexual intercourse symptoms include itching urethra, and vaginal discharge odourless controlled by personal hygiene, early treatment and responsible sexual behavior vii HIV/AIDS caused by HIV virus transmitted by sexual intercourse, blood transfusion, sharing piercing instruments from infected mother to foetus, infant and baby symptoms include fever, swollen lymph nodes, night sweating, cough, weight loss, fatigue, loss of appetite, diarrhea, headache, a opportunistic infections and tumors 359 ----- Control by responsible sexual behaviour, education, screening blood for transfusion and using sterile piercing instruments. 6. a Define the terms i Growth an irreversible change in size of a cell, organ or whole organism growth is due to synthesis of protoplasm or extracellular substances ii Development refers to a series of changes which an organism goes through in its lie cycle during development both qualitative and quantitative changes take place involves differentiation iii Differentiation refers to changes in which the cells of the body undergo and become specialised to perform specific functions b i Differentiate growth in plants and animals --- --- Plants Animals confined to shoots/root tips apical have definite growth regions meristems often indefinite/continuous growth results in branching affected by light, auxins, hormones and temperature occurs all over the body intercalary different parts grow at different rates allometric maximum growth on maturity definite no branching affected by nutrients ii List the processes involved in growth assimilation cell enlargement cell division by mitosis iv List the parameters used to measure growth height/length dry weight number of individuals volume leaf area of plant iv Name the patterns of growth in organisms - allometric and isometric 360 ----- - limited and unlimited - discontinuous growth c i Name the different types of growth curves - sigmoid curve normal growth curve - intermittent growth curve ii Draw a sigmoid growth curve and explain its different phases/stages A-lag phase - Slow growth rate at first Organism adapting to the environment B-exponential phase - organisms already adapted - first growth due to birth rate that is higher than death rate C- Stationery phase plateau - Birth rate equals death rate equilibrium Lack of nutrients, accumulation of toxic waste products D-phase of decline - due to depletion of nutrients, accumulation of toxic wastes, lack of space - some individuals old hence not reproducing - death rate higher than birth rate iii Draw an intermittent curve and explain the various stages A-growth B-no growth C- moulting/ecdysis - seen in arthropods - growth in in arthropods is intermittent takes place during some time only because their hard cuticles exoskeleton does not expand to cause growth - the cuticle must be shed off first to allow further growth - the shedding is called ecdysis or moulting 361 ----- - when moulting has taken place animal grows but growth stops when the exoskeleton hardens again d i What is seed dormancy? - A state where a viable seed is incapable of germinating when all conditions are favourable. ii State the biological importance of seed dormancy - gives embryo time to reach maturity - gives time for dispersal - allows plant to survive adverse conditions iii State the factors which cause seed dormancy Internal factors - presence of abscisic acid/ABA/ presence of germination inhibitors - embryo not fully developed - absence of hormones/enzymes/inactivity of hormones/enzymes/gibberellins/cytokinins - impermeability of seed coat External factors - unsuitable temperature - absence of light - lack of oxygen - lack of oxygen - lack of water iv Give the conditions necessary to break seed dormancy - scarification/scratching to make seed coat impermeable - vernalisation/cold treatment in some seeds like wheat - burning/nicking/expose to heat e.g. wattle seeds - destruction of germination inhibitors e i What is seed germination? - process by which a seed develops in a seedling ii What is viability - ability of a seed to germinate iii Discuss the various conditions necessary for the germination of seeds Water - medium for enzymatic activity - hydrolysis of food into simpler substances - medium of transport - softens the seed - acts as a solvent Air - in form of oxygen 362 ----- - oxygen is used for respiration/oxidation of food to release energy Suitable optimum temperature - activates enzymes involved in mobilization of food reserves Enzymes - breakdown and subsequent oxidation of food - conservation of hydrolyzed food products into new plant tissues Viability - only viable seed are able to germinate and grow iv Name and describe the types of germination Epigeal cotyledons are brought above the ground level during germination due to elongation of hypocotyls Hypogeal - the cotyledons remain below the surface during germination due to elongation of epicotyl e.g. maize v Name the part of the bean seed that elongates to bring about epigeal germination hypocotyl vi Account for the loss in dry weight of cotyledons in a germinating bean seed - food stored is mobilized/used up for respiration and growth vii Describe the physiological changes that occur in a seed during germination - in presence of oxygen, optimum temperature and water, food reserves in the seed are hydrolysed or broken down into soluble diffusible form by enzymes - soluble food diffuses to the growing embryo - oils and carbohydrates provide energy - simple sugars converted to cellulose to form cell wall 363 ----- - amino acids make protoplasm - seed develops plumule and radicle hence germinates viii Explain the biological significance of cotyledons being brought above the ground in epigeal germination - cotyledons have inadequate food - they are brought above the ground to acquire chloroplasts to carry out photosynthesis before the formation of foliage leaves to supplement food supply required for growth during germination f i Distinguish between primary and secondary growth Primary growth - occurs at the apical shoot and tip apices regions where meristematic cells occur - causes plant elongation since cells divide by mitosis Secondary growth -occurs at the cambium meristems Increases width girth of the stem ii What are meristems - dividing cells - meristem means they are dividing iii State the characteristics of meristematic cells - dense cytoplasm - thin cell walls - absence of vacuoles/cell sap iv State the location and function of the following meristematic tissues Apical meristem - located at tips of roots and shoots - increase length of stem and roots/primary growth Intercalary meristem - found at bases of internodes - responsible for elongation of internodes and increase in leaf sheath in grasses Lateral meristems - found near the periphery of stem and root - responsible for secondary growth/growth in girth of stem and root/lateral growth - called cambium and constitute vascular and cork cambium v Describe primary growth - occurs at tips of shoots and roots in the meristematic tissues of apical meristem - at the apex there is a zone of cell division/mitosis - cells elongate at elongation zone 364 ----- - the elongated cells differentiate at the region of differentiation resulting in increase in size - in the stems meristems give rise to leaf premodia which envelop the apex to form a bud - the bud protects the delicate inner cells - in roots the meristem is protected by root cap - after cells differentiate the form permanent tissues vi Describe secondary growth in plants - also called secondary thickening - only occurs in dicotyledonous plants that have cambium - monocotyledonous plants do not undergo secondary growth because they lack intervascular cambium - cambium cells divide to produce more cells on either side of the cambium - cells produced to the inside become secondary cambium - cells produced to the outside become secondary phloem - division of cambium cells occurs yearly producing new rings of secondary phloem and secondary xylem each year - intervascular cambium cambium between vascular bundles divide to form secondary parenchyma, thereby increasing growth of medullary rays - much more xylem is formed than phloem, thus pushing phloem and cambium ring outward - the rate of secondary growth is depended on seasons rains resulting in annual rings - cork cambium is located beneath epidermis ad is responsible for secondary thickening of the bark of perennial plants - cork cambium divides to form new cork bark tissues to accommodate increased growth on outside and secondary cortex on the inside - Cork cells cells of the bark are loosely parked at some points to form lenticels for gaseous exchange. vii State the significance of secondary growth - increase girth or circumference of trees - annual rings which show seasonal growth can be used to tell the age of trees g i Describe one method which can be used to measure the average growth rate of a single leaf of a plant EITHER - chose/identify a young leaf just unfolded - use the same leaf throughout - measure total length of whole leaf 365 ----- - record - repeat at regular intervals until no more change occurs/constant length - average rate of growth is equal to total increase in length divided by the period taken to achieve full length Average rate of growth total increase in length period taken to achieve full length OR - choose/identify a young leaf just unfolded - use the same leaf throughout - trace the outline on a graph paper and work out the area - record - repeat at regular intervals until regular area - average rate of growth equals to total increase in area divided by the period of time taken to achieve full area Average rate of growth total increase in area period of time taken to achieve final area i Describe how the growth of a root can be determined Materials - fine thread, marking ink, germinating bean seedlings, blotting paper, ruler marked in millimeters, pins, cork, a boiling tube and moist cotton wool Procedure - dry seedlings using blotting paper - place inside against the ruler marked in mm - dip the fine thread in waterproof ink - mark the radicle at equal intervals - pin the seedling to the cork - suspend the seedling into the boiling tube containing moist cotton wool - allow the seedling to grow for two days/some time observe the intervals with the marks - record your observations the widest intervals are found in the region just behind the tip indicating/showing region of greatest growth iii A boy hammered a nail in the bark of a tree at a height of 1.5metres above the ground. Four years later, the nail was found at the same height although the tree had grown 3 meters taller. Explain the above observation The nail was hammered at a point where vertical growth had stopped/further growth was confined to increase in width/diameter. 366 ----- Vertical growth is confined to tips/apex/vertical apical meristem h i Describe the role of hormones in growth and development of plants indole acetic acid/IAA/ auxins Cell division/increase in cell division Tropic responses Cell elongation/increases in ell elongation Development of abscision layer Growth of ovaries into fruits/parthenocarpy/initiates flowers Inhibits growth of lateral buds/produces apical dominance Stimulates adventitious/lateral roots Gibberellins Gibberellic acid/GA3 Promote cell elongation/rapid cell division/increase in length of the internodes Promote fruit formation without fertilization/parthenocarpy Reduces root growth Breaks seed dormancy/promotes germination Cytokinnins Kinnins/Kinnetin/Zeatin - breaks dormancy - promotes flowering - promotes cell division - stabilizes protein and chlorophyll - promotes root formation on a shoot - low concentration encourages leaf senses - normal concentration increases cell enlargement in leaves - stimulates lateral bud development Ethylene ethynelC 2 H 4 - accelerates ripening in fruits - encourages fruit fall/leaf fall - induces thickening in stern/inhibits stem elongation - promotes flowering in pineapples - promotes germination in certain seeds Abscisic acid ABA abscisin hormone/dormin - causes bud dormancy - encourages fruit/leaf fall - high concentration causes closing of stomata - causes seed dormancy - inhibits cell elongation Traumatin - heals wounds by callous formation Florigen - promotes flowering ii State the applications of plant hormones in agriculture 367 ----- - induce root growth in stem cuttings - selective weed killers - encourage sprouting of lateral buds - breaking seed dormancy - induce parthenocarpy - accelerate ripening of fruits - promote flowering - cause dormancy iii Explain apical dominance - a phenomenon whereby production of auxins by a growing apical bud of a shoot inhibits growth of lateral buds - this inhibition is due to high concentration of auxins indoleacetic acid/IAA in apical bud - removal of terminal/apical bud causes development and sprouting of several buds which later develop into branches - applied in pruning coffee, tea and hedges - this leads to more yield iv Describe the role of hormones in the growth and development of animal somatotrophin growth hormones - from anterior pituitary - promotes cell division - overproduction causes gigantism - underproduction causes dwarfism Thyroxine - promotes growth and metamorphosis - underproduction leads to a child becoming a cretin mentally retarted Androgens - in males - growth of male reproductive organs Oestrogen - in females - growth of female reproductive organs Ecdysone - in arthropods - moulting ecdysis t i What is metamorphosis? - change in form during which there are changes in structure and function in body of organism - prepares organism for life in a different habitat ii Explain complete metamorphosis 368 ----- radical changes in the body during the life cycle of an organism called holometabolous development example is egg larva pupa adult imago occurs in animals such as butterfly and bee iii What is the significance of each of the four stages in complete metamorphosis? Larval stage - feeding takes place - larva is quite different from adult - larva sheds its cuticle exoskeleton several times to emerge as pupa - dispersal stage avoids overcrowding Pupa - enclosed in a case called puparium cocoon - no feeding - organ formation takes place Adult - emerges from puparium - reproductive stage of the life cycle iv Describe incomplete metamorphosis - called hemimetabolous development - changes are gradual - eggs develop into nymphs which develop into adults - nymph resembles adult but are sexually immature - a nymph moults several times as some parts develop before it becomes an adult - stage of development between one moult and another is called instar - occurs in insects such as locust and cockroach v Name the hormones that control metamorphosis in insects - brain hormone responsible for moulting because it simulates production of ecdyson moulting hormone - ecdysone moulting hormone causes moulting - juvenile hormone causes moulting in larvae 369 ----- vi State the advantages of metamorphosis in the life of insects - the adult and larvae exploit different niches - do not compete for food - pupa cam survive adverse pupa can survive adverse conditions eg-feeding stage - dispersal prevents overcrowding FORM IV TOPICS 1. a i Define the term genetics the study of heredity inheritance and variation or study of mechanisms by which characteristics are passed from parents to offspring iii List some characteristics which are inherited size height/length colour/type shape yield iii State the importance of genetics helps to explain differences between organisms of the same species helps to explain the transmission of characters from generation to generation improvement in livestock improvement in crops can be used to treat some difficult diseases b i Explain the meaning of the following terms Heredity the resemblance among individuals related by descent transmission of traits from parents to offspring Trait also called character A character of the organism e.g. type of ear, colour of eyes, height, yield etc. Gene unit of inheritance it is the heredity factor which transmits traits from parents to offspring genes are located at fixed points on chromosomes each point is called a locus loci 370 ----- Allele genes can exist in a series of alternative forms at a particular locus allele refers to alternative forms of genes controlling a particular characteristic Chromosomes threadlike structures found in nuclei of all plants and animals they carry genes which are hereditary materials they consist of substances called DNA and proteins called histosones DNA deoxyribonucleic acid substances that make up chromosomes double helix strand molecule that contains genes DNA consists of nucleotides A nucleotide consists of an inorganic phosphate, ribose sugar and a base There are four bases in a DNA molecule i.e. Adenine A , guanine G , thymine T and cystosine C Ribose sugar has four bases attached to it i.e. adenine, cystosine, guanine and thymine Adenine pairs with thymine while guanine pairs with cystosine Nucleotide initiates and controls protein synthesis ii List the types of chromosomes somatic body chromosomes also called autosomes sex chromosomes related to reproduction c i What is variation? sequence of differences occurring among individuals of the same species ii State the causes of variation in organisms random assortment of genes during meiosis crossing over fertilization doubling of chromosome numbers mutation environmental conditions iii Name the types of variation Continuous variation differences not clear cut e.g. height, length, weight, skin colour, intelligence etc. They are quantitative and show intermediates 371 ----- discontinuous variation differences are clear cut e.g. ability to roll tongue, ABO blood grouping system, RH factor, patterns of fingerprints, and ability to taste PTC. They are qualitative and have no intermediates iv Explain the following terms Acquired characteristics they are as a result of adaptations due to the environment and are not inherited Inherited characteristics are passed down to offspring during sexual reproduction Genotype genetic constitution of an individual/genetic makeup Phenotype characteristics of an individual observed or discernible by other means i.e. observable character Dominant gene character expressed in the phenotype when homozygous or heterozygous Recessive gene only expressed in homozygous state Homozygous when two alleles are identical e.g. LL,ll Heterozygous when two alleles are different at a particular locus e.g. Ll F1 and F2 F1 means first filial generation i.e. the first generation produced when two varieties can be crossed F2 means second generation i.e. product of offspring or from F1 generation d i Explain Mendels first law of inheritance also called law of segregation it states that genes are responsible for the development of individual characters these characters are transmitted individually without any alterations Only one character from a contrasting pair can be carried in a gamete, hence only one character can be inherited. ii Give an example of this law In an experiment, Drosophila fruit fly with long wings were crossed with those having short wings. Assume letter L denotes gene for wing size. The gene for long wings is dominant to that for short wings 372 ----- the genes for dominant are LL and for recessive ll. State the expected results for the first cross iii What is monohybrid inheritance? when inheritance of one character is studied one at a time e.g. wing size only the F2 generation when selfed always gives a phenotypic ratio of 3:1 and a genotypic ratio of 1:2:1 in a complete dominance v What is complete dominance? refers to where only one dominant character is expressed while the other character which is recessive is not expressed in the heterozygous state e.g. the case of wing size above e i What is meant by co dominance? When genes produce independent effects when heterozygous/none of the genes is dominant over the other/where two or more alleles does not show complete dominance/recessiveness due to the failure of any allele to be dominate in a heterozygous condition. ii Give an example of co dominance In a certain plant species, some individual plants may have only white, red or pink flowers. In an experiment a plant with white flowers was crossed with a parent with red flowers. Show results of F1 generation. Use letter R for red gene and W for white gene. If the plants form F1 were selfed, work out the phenotype ratio for the F2 generation Phenotypic ratio 1red:2pink:1white Genotypic ratio 1:2:1 f i What is a test cross? - A cross between an individual showing a character for a dominant gene that is homozygous or heterozygous with a homozygous recessive individual OR a cross between individual organism of unknown genotype with a homozygous recessive individual ii State the importance of a test cross in genetics helps in determining the genetic constitution/genotype of an organism iii What are multiple alleles? a set of more than two alleles that may determine a character 373 ----- example is blood group which can be determined by any two of three alleles i.e. A,B and O iv Explain the inheritance of ABO blood groups in humans blood groups are determined by three alleles i.e. A,B and O it is only possible to have two genes at a time genes A and B are co-dominant while gene O is recessive to genes A and B Give a worked example using parents with heterozygous blood groups AO and BO vi Explain the inheritance of Rhesus factor Rh in human beings in humans blood is either Rh positive or Rh negative people who have Rh antigen are Rh ve while those without Rh antigen in their blood are Rh -ve Rh ve is due to a dominant gene while the recessive gene causes lack of Rh factor. When a person who is homozygous dominant marries a person who is homozygous recessive the result is as shown below Let the gene for dominant Rh factor be R while gene for recessive be r vii How is sex determined in human beings? there are two sex chromosomes in humans, x and y males are xy and females are xx in females all ova have x chromosome in males 50 of sperms contain x chromosomes while 50 of sperms contain y chromosome when a sperm containing x chromosome fuses with an ovum this results into a girl when a sperm containing y chromosome fuses with an ovum the result is a boy an example is given below g i What does the term linkage mean? - These are genes which occur together on a chromosome and are passed to offspring without being separated ii Define the term sex-linked genes genes carried in the sex chromosome that are transmitted along with genes that determine sex iii What is meant by the term sex linkage? genes are located on the sex chromosome they are transmitted along with those that determine sex iv Name the sex-linked traits in humans 374 ----- colour blindness haemophilia Hairy ears. pinna, nose Baldness Duchene muscular dystrophy DMD muscular wasting v Give an example of a sex linked trait in humans on: Y Chromosome tuft of hair spros external beauty, financial status and social status. As a result, there is a high rate of marriage, separation, and divorce. At times young people fail to be married in church. There is no formalization of marriages. These marriages are called Come-we-stay arrangements. Gender issues in marriage. The wife is subordinate to the husband but had rights. Marriage did not end with death of the husband. The wife was inherited by one of her husbands brother. This is widow inheritance / Levirate marriage. She could also refuse to be inherited but remained married to that man even in death. The wife could not marry outside the family because of dowry. There was dowry payment to parents. If a wife died, the man would marry the sister of his dead wife. This is surrogate marriage. Those who did not marry were considered lesser humans. Young people were prepared for marriage during initiation, which was witnessed in a public ceremony. During marriage, couple makes vows to each other. The ancestors are invoked to bless the marriage. Factors that lead to a stable, healthy and successful marriage People are different and they understand their roles differently. Here am giving you a few suggestions. Discuss with your study companions and come up with other suggestions. One important factor is mutual responsibility by the couple. This occurs if there is mutual consultation with each other in decision-making. Two is forgiveness of each other. Three is good treatment of each other especially with equal respect. Four is sharing scriptures together. Five is giving love and respecting each other. Six is having a faithful sexual relationship and lastly being open and honest. Seven is African traditional qualities of a good wife who is described as: hardworking, fertile, morally upright, generous, kind, obedient, humble, clean, beautiful, polite, warm hearted and hospitable. Eight are the qualities of a good husband, which are described as: being able to provide good leadership in the family. Other qualities are being aggressive, wise, brave, courageous, responsible and good property manager. b. Christian Teaching about Marriage. Christians teach that marriage is sacred and that it is a divine institution, which is ordained God. God started it when he created Adam and Eve. Marriage should therefore be monogamous and permanent as God protects marriages. The woman should submit to the husband who is told to love the wife as Christ loved the church. Church teaches respect of each other. Marriage is complete even without children as it is between a male and a female. Marriage is not obligatory and it ends when one partner dies. Christians preparation and approach to marriage Christians organise youth seminars, and rallies to teach the youth how to choose marriage partners and how to treat wife / husbands; care for the children; behave towards in laws; acquire wealth men ; and head a family. Youth are taught to avoid sexual intimacy before marriage. Those intending to marry are encouraged to go for pre marital counselling. During counselling, they are informed that love is the most important bond of unity in marriage. Church encourages partners to go for HIV /AIDs test before marriage. Marriage ceremony is conducted in church Choice of a marriage partner There are many ways of identifying a marriage partner. One is arrangement by parents. If not one can make an individual decision and choose a wife or husband. Two is through an intermediary or third party. In African traditional polygamous marriages, the first wife identified a wife for her husband. Girls would be given out to a chief as a gift c. Courtship in African Traditional society A.T.S . Courtship varied from community to community. Courtship is the period between engagement and wedding ceremony. During courtship premarital sex is forbidden. Girls and boys dressed with bracelets and rings. Courtship was important in A.T.S. This was because the man and woman who were girls and boys got to know each other better before marriage. It was a period when girls/boys were instructed in family life education. It was also a period for linking the two marrying families. The couple had time to learn about one anothers character, and know their families. It is a symbol sign of the girls presence in her home maternal home . She continues to live with her own people. The families and clan had an opportunity to check if the marrying couple was related and if their clans were acceptable to the parents. Courtship gives time to the two families to negotiate and pay the bride wealth or dowry. Bridal Wealth, dowry, bride price are all expressions of partnership. The family of the man pays dowry to the family of the woman. Some churches disregard bride wealth, while others encourage it. Dowry is paid in different forms. The girls family decides what it wants. Will it be livestock poultry, pigs, camels, cows, goats, sheep , beer, grain, jewellery and clothes among others. Importance of dowry. It acts as a compensation for the girls labour and seals the marriage covenant. It is a public expression of appreciation for the coming of a new wife/mother into the mans family. It promotes friendship and cements relationship between families. It shows commitment and seriousness of the future husband. After dowry payment, the woman belongs to her husband. A ceremony is carried out depending on the community. Bride price payment is accompanied by marriage ceremonies. Lastly dowry helps in maintaining peace Traditional African approaches to marriage preparation. Polygamy is one husband, married to many wives. Polygamy is allowed by the African traditional religion because it occurs if the first wife is barren; ensures that all women have husbands; prevents infertility; provides extra labour in farms. A polygamous man has a higher status because many wives symbolize wealth. Children are important in a marriage because they promote social status of their parents. They cement a bond of unity between husband / wife. They are a source of labour, and wealth. They are heirs to the family wealth They provide security to the family. Divorce is legal dissolution of marriage. Christians allow divorce because of specific grounds. Divorce was rare in African traditional societies. Divorce is granted under circumstances of: adultery, witchcraft, laziness, cruelty and disrespect of wife. In the contemporary society, divorce is sought after or allowed because of: unfaithfulness in marriage or adultery; domestic violence; misuse of family resources; childlessness; in- law interference and alcohol abuse. Legal reasons for divorce According to the laws of Kenya, divorce is allowed under the following reasons; adultery; if a man deserts his wife for more than 3 years; if a partner becomes insane; and domestic violence for example, physical, and psychological torture. Christian teaching about divorce. Christians discourage divorce because marriage is a permanent status. There is no room for divorce. Church discourages divorce because of its adverse effects. Some denominations allow divorce if there is adultery. God hates divorce. Married couples should remain faithful to each other Effects of divorce are strained relationships, children suffering psychologically, and experiences of rejection. A divorcee faces social stigma, rejection, and isolation. If parents separate, they create single parent families. These families suffer from economic hardships and feelings of failure and inadequacy. e. Celibacy as an alternative to marriage. Celibacy is a Latin word Coelebes meaning bachelor. Why do some people fail to marry? There are many reasons. Some of these are to pursue education leading to delayed marriage; and career demands workaholic . Other people are discouraged by examples of failed marriages. Other reasons maybe economic independence, poor health, HIV /AIDS, mental illness; parental interference and disappointment from past failed relationships. This happens if parents do not approve a partner. Revision questions 1. Explain the traditional African understanding of marriage 2, what is the importance of children in traditional African society? 3.what is the Christian teaching about marriage? 4. What is the importance of courtship period in T.As 5. Why are many people opting for celibacy? LESSON FOUR: THE FAMILY Introduction. As society grows and changes, the family grows and changes. As a result, there are several types and practices of the family. In this lesson, we shall discuss the traditional family as it is practiced in the Bible, the traditional African societies and some Christian families. Learning Outcomes. By the end of the topic, the learner should be able to a Explain types of families in society b Analyse traditional African family values and practices c Explain Christians family values and practices d Discuss problems related to family life today e Compare approaches to family by Christians and traditional African society f. Discuss responsible parenthood The family. What is a family? Family is the basic social unit of human society. This basic unit is extended to include relatives bound together by blood, marriage, friendship, and adoption. They are all members of the family. In Kenya, there are many types of families. a. Types of families i. Nuclear family is parents and their children. .It is father, mother, and children. There is an increase of monogamous families or nuclear because of urbanization as rural youth come to towns in search of white-collar jobs. Migration to cities by people of different tribes has led to pluralism. Education, high cost of living have led to the death of the African culture, which required men and women to marry many partners to produce many children to defend their tribe. Advantages of nuclear families are many. One, the man is able to give undivided attention to one wife and children. Two, there is sharing of mutual love, and peace in the home. Three it is economical to manage one family. Four there is little competition for attention, less strife, quarrels and stress. Five, it is easier to monitor the behaviour of a few children. ii. Polygamous family Father, mothers, children. These type of family have disadvantages in modern Kenya. Modern society is a cash economy. Thus if a man has many wives and children, they may lack basic necessities like food, shelter, education and clothes. iii. Single parent family one parent, and children. Single parent families are created by several circumstances. One is by parents separating. Separation of parents is due to several reasons. These are for example, one partner going to another country and failing to return to his or her country and family. Two, a single family is created by divorce. Divorced parents may decide not to marry again. Three is when one parent refuses to marry. This happens when a girl gets pregnant and the boy does not marry her. Four is because of death of a spouse. The remaining parent may decide not to remarry. Five is when some mothers decide to have children without marriage. This may not be correct as there is no research to suggest it. Six is imprisonment of one partner for a long time. One parent is left looking after children because one is in jail. iv. Extended family father, mother, children, uncles, aunts, and cousins. This is the common family type in traditional African communities. v. Children led family. This happens when parents die and the 1st born takes care of brothers and sisters including cousins. vi. Grandparent headed family. The HIV/AIDs epidemic has introduced this type of family where grandparents take care of their grandchildren due to the death of both parents especially the mother due to HIV / AIDS disease. This scourge has made many children orphans. In other cases parents go for further studies abroad and leave their children with their parents. b. Traditional African family values and practices. In African societies creation of a family is through marriage, and subsequent procreation. Family is viewed as a sacred institution in African society. The African traditional family includes the dead ancestors , the unborn children and the living. An African traditional family has obligations and duties. These were 1 offering sacrifices to ancestors, 2 pouring libations; and 3 giving the dead decent burials 4 providing basic needs to their children 5 bringing up children to be morally upright individuals. Further to this, the African traditional family is responsible for the upbringing, caring, and protection of its children. This is demonstrated by the nuclear family, which provides necessities required to meet and satisfy the economic needs of its members. The African traditional family is expected to participate in communal activities. Work in the family was divided according to age, gender and social status. Each family member worked for its basic needs as well as the welfare of the community. The African family had well-stated and practiced values There were 1 respect for family members 2 providing responsible parenthood, which is the process of bringing up children to become all round or self reliant persons 3 educating children in all aspects of life. Parents and the extended family members helped their children to develop intellectually and cognitively. The family taught children physical skills. It also gave children confidence to appreciate their physical strength. Children were taken through a rigorous physical curriculum of games such as wrestling, swimming and running to develop their physical strength. Childrens bodies were nourished thoroughly. They were served good and nutritious food, which improved their muscle strength. Children were taught social skills. They learnt how to behave towards adults, peers and grandparents. They developed social skills since parents allowed them to socialize and interact with other children, grandparents and the community. This made them grow socially, emotionally and psychologically. They had a curriculum for teaching and training in traditional African religious values, family matters, moral and social values. This teaching of children started from an early age. The teaching method used was observation and practice. Parents taught by being good role models. They were expected to model desired values and family practices. Children were taught how to relate with one another as brothers and sisters. Parents were to show tolerance to children. These values show that African parents understood their parental roles and responsibilities. These values were sometimes; exploited by the irresponsible family members or specific individuals. This exploitation encouraged dependency, leading to conflicts, competition, hatred, and jealousy. Christian parents are expected to train their children to know God; be self -disciplined, and follow the Christian way of living. Another duty is to provide basic needs to their children. Christian understanding of the family Among Christians, family is sacred and instituted by God. Read again about the Christian teachings about marriage. Role of children in the Christian family A Christian child is expected to obey parents, honor them, and respect parents. This is one of the Ten Commandments given to Moses by God. Parenting styles a Dictatorship /authoritative / autocratic the parents is the final authority, imposes decisions b Permissive or liberal style also referred to as Laissez faire the children do as they want c Democratic style parents discuss with their children on family issues. This is the best style. br br Problems related to family life today br br Families are faced with numerous problems such as a Children abuse sex assault, beating b Domestic violence abusive language, frequent fights, emotional abuse c Diseases e.g. HIV / AIDS epilepsy , autism. d Children with special needs, blindness, deafness or those with mental challenges, motor co ordination Autism e Separation, divorce f Childlessness g Single parent families economic hardships h Misuse of family resources, economic crisis i Affluence a lot of wealth j Unemployment, underemployment k Retrenchment laying off of some employees in order to reduce the workforce l Mismanagement of family finances m Alcohol and drug abuse n The generation gap o Poor relations with in-laws p Cultural and religious differences Traditional African approaches to problems related to family life today 1 Individuals were prepared for challenges of family life right from childhood 2 Adolescents, initiates were given family life education 3 People entered marriage knowing that its a life long union 4 Rules were clear to govern marriage relations 5 Polygamy helped reduce unfaithfulness 6 There were no single parent families. Members lived together reducing loneliness 7 Widows / widowers were encouraged to marry again Traditional brew was taken in moderation Christians approaches to problems related to family life today 1 Christian families are obliged to live according to Christian principles and values such as mutual respect, self discipline, understanding, honesty, faithfulness, love and forgiveness 2 Premarital counseling is carried out 3 Church holds regular seminars and conferences on family life matters. Love and respect for each other. Christian wife to submit to husband who is head of the family. They are taught to take each other as complementary and equal partners. 4 Women are encouraged to form participate in church organizations e.g. mothers union, womens guild where they learn roles of being a wife, mother, and a woman. 5 Some churches offer advice to families on management of their families. They are encouraged to have investments. 6 Breadwinner is encouraged to write a written will 7 To improve the parent child relationship churches offer guidance and counseling to the youth Christian parents are advised to set positive role models to their children 9 Parents are encouraged to be open and promote effective communication with their children 10 Churches in case of serious family conflicts such as child abuse, domestic violence, advise legal action. 11 Churches organize youth seminars where they talk about drug abuse, premarital sex, negative peer pressure and media influence etc. 12 Relevant information is passed through books, pamphlets, magazines, media FM, TV etc. 13 Some churches welcome unwed mothers 14 Churches provide health services, guidance on HIV / AIDS 15 Some churches care for widows, orphans widowers and the needy Revision questions 1. State the different types of families TOPIC THREE: CHRISTIAN APPROACHES TO WORK Learning Outcomes By the end of the topic you should be able to a Define the term work and vocation b Explain and appreciated the traditional African attitude towards work c Explain the role of professional ethos, ethics and code in society d Explain virtues related to work e Discuss the moral duties and responsibilities of employers and employees f Discuss Christian approaches to issues related to employment LESSON ONE: DEFINITION OF TERMS Learning outcomes. By the end of this lesson, you should be able to: a. Explain the meaning of work. Vocation, profession, trade, craft, and job b. Give general reasons why people work Work Use of energy, physical or mental, for the purpose of improving human life. It is any activity that requires expenditure of energy or application of skills e.g. studying, teaching, cooking, farming etc. Vocation Work can be described as a vocation, profession, trade, craft, career or a job. Vocation is from a Latin word Vocare which means call Christians believe that every individual has been called of God to various duties. Vocation is work that requires special skills, special training or a unique call or a special mission in society. Profession Work that is characterized by a code of ethics, lengthy specialized training, advance knowledge and self disciple. Professionals have their own set standards. The professionals determine entry requirements for new members and usually have machinery for dealing with errant members. E.g. Law, medicine, architecture etc. A trade Refers to an occupation, a way of making a living. Some trades require specialized training examples hairdressing A craft An occupation which requires manipulative skills or use of the hands e.g. woodcarving, pottery, weaving. A craft may be a trade depending on the nature of occupation. A career An occupation that one chooses to pursue in his/her life. Its the general way of earning a living. Job Refers to tasks performed, services rendered in return for payment of wages. Most jobs are temporary others casual and others permanent and pension able. What determines ones career, vocation? 1. Available opportunities for future development in a particular job 2. The need to serve others especially the church and the needy 3. Interests, strengths, talents, abilities 4. Inclination or attraction to a certain kind of work 5. Pressure from parents, peers etc General reasons why people work a Its an essential element of life b God ordained work. Humans work for their food c Work contributes to the development of the community d Work is personal. It defines a person e People work to earn a living f People work for enjoyment, leisure g To assist and give to the needy h To get luxuries i People work to raise their standards of living j For self satisfaction and fulfillment k For personal development l To keep a person occupied and not idle m To acquire wealth and status in the society n To socialize with other members of the society o To attain independence and not depend on someone else LESSON TWO: TRADITIONAL AFRICAN ATTITUDE TO WORK Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson, you should be able to: a. Explain importance of work 1. Work is essential to the well being of the individual and survival of the community 2. Work ensured basic needs such as food, shelters etc were provided. 3. In traditional African society work was divided according to the age, gender, and status e.g. chief, elder of the individual. 4. Everyone was a worker. Boys assisted in herding, fishing, girls assisted in cooking fetching firewood. Women cooked, took care of babies constructed houses maasai etc. 5. Works among the traditional African societies included pastoralist, farmers, livestock keeping, fishing, bee keeping etc 6. Work was a communal affair; people would work together and assist each other 7. Work was not for a wage Money . The rewards of work-included food, communal unity, acquisition of moral values etc. 8. Hard work was emphasized, laziness was condemned 9. There were some specific works for specialization e.g. herbal medicine men, divination, prophecy, rain making, pottery etc. 10. Work involved giving prayers, offerings, and sacrifices to God 11. Through work, the basic needs of the individual, community were fulfilled 12. Through work potentials; talents and skills were explored, acquired and utilized. 13. Work had a religious dimension as well as a social dimension. It brought people together improving their relations 14. SAE 1. Find out how different communities in Kenya lived in the past and how they live today 2. How did the lifestyle of the communities influence daily activities LESSON THREE: CHRISTIAN TEACHING ON WORK Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - 1. Describe the christens teachings about work The Christian teaching on work is based mainly on the interpretation of the bible, the teachings of Jesus and the teachings of the apostles. Some of the teachings are: - 1. God himself instituted work. He created the heavens and the earth and all in it. Since God worked man should work. Gen. 2:1 2. Gods work of creation is good Gen. 1:31 Christians should endeavor to produce good works 3. Work is a duty, an obligation, a command Christians are responsible for Gods creation Gen.2: 15 . They are to protect it animals, birds, plants, marine life are all under the care of man. 4. Human beings should work to acquire their basic needs Genesis. 1:29 30, 3:19 God blesses the work of our hands 5. Human beings are co creators with God Gen.1: 28 God continue to create through human beings. Human beings glorify God through their work. 6. God reveals himself through his work of creation. God had a purpose for his creation. He is orderly, source of life, Almighty etc. 7. Work is a co operative undertaking. Eve was created to be Adams helper Gen. 2:20 Christians should co operate in their undertakings 8. Hard work is praised and laziness is looked down upon. Proverbs 31:27 . Christians should work for their daily needs and not become a burden to others. 9. Work should be accompanied with rest Gen.2: 2 God rested on the 7th day from all his work. God commanded the Israelites to rest on the 7th day. 10. People should enjoy what they have worked for Ecc.3: 22 11. Work should be done for the glory of God and for the good of the society. 12. People should work honestly not steal but work to earn an honest living Eph.4: 28 13. Those who do not work should not eat They should always work since God is always at a work John 15:17 LESSON FOUR: ROLES OF PROFESSIONAL ETHOS, ETHICS AND CODES IN THE SOCIETY Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson, you should be able to: - 1. Define the following terms, professional ethics, professional codes and professional ethos 2. Describe the role of ethics Definitions Professional ethics : principles of behaviour / conduct that guide members of a particular profession. What workers are allowed to do and not to do. Professional ethos The group identity of members of a profession, their unique custom or character e.g. what identifies doctors, lawyers etc. Profession codes or code of ethics Collection of laws arranged systematically according to major concerns and core functions of the profession. Roles - To regulate the behaviour of professional workers - Enables professionals to understand their role - Ensures professionals provide quality of services to their clients - To encourage respect among professionals - Give guidance on how professionals should relate to one another - They safe guard professionals against being compromised / misused - They determine expected level of performance - They serve as a measure of competence - Act as a measure of quality service - They protect the professionals - They provide a reference point for disciplining used to discipline the errant professional - They inspire respect and high esteem for professionals - Through professional codes, ethics, ethos, professional earn public trust LESSON FIVE: VIRTUES RELATED TO WORK Learning outcome. By the end of the lesson the learner should be able to: -es 1. Define the term virtue 2. Give examples of virtues related to work Definition A virtue is a good human habit. Its a moral principle, moral quality or goodness of character and behaviour. Examples of virtues elated to work i Diligence hardworking ii Honesty, integrity ability to be relied upon Integrity Honest is being truthful. iii Faithfulness being trustworthy and loyal iv Responsibility ability to make decisions and take action independently. Being mindful of other peoples welfare v Tolerance ability to bear with others or with difficult situations LESSON SIX: MORAL DUTIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF EMPLOYERS AND EMPLOYEES Learning outcomes: by the end of the lesson, you should be able to: - 1. State and explain the duties and responsibilities of employers towards employees 2. List the rights of employers 3. Outline the moral duties of employees 4. List the rights of employees Employers: government, non governmental organization, private sector individuals, company, selfemployment. Employers have several duties and responsibilities towards their employees. They are: - To organize and conduct business efficiently for the benefit of the institution, employer, community - To respect the employee, treat them with dignity - Pay a fair wage to the employee - Ensure good healthy and safe working conditions - Provide social welfare for the employees e.g. time off, leave days, time for recreation - Grant leave as required by law or the terms of contract - Take care of the welfare of the employees give medical cover, pension scheme etc - To motivate their employees - To reward employees - Compensate employees made redundant Rights of the employer Employers have a right to / are entitled to a Get profits from their businesses b Carry out their businesses without unfair taxation c Form association with other employers d Obtain and conduct business e Hire, dismiss employees in accordance with the requirements of their firms and contract f Demand a fair days work g Conduct business without subjection to unfair conditions and competitions Moral duties of the employees 1. Carry out their duties to the best of their ability without supervision 2. Respect and protect the property of the employer 3. Encourage peaceful solutions to any problems encountered in their work place 4. To work diligently for self fulfillment and development 5. To respect their employer and fellow employees 6. Observe terms of contract with employer 7. Be loyal, honest, respect to the employer Rights of the employees To receive fair wages To have a reasonable work load Have reasonable hours of work Have safety and protection at work Right to join a labour union Right to further individual training and development education Rights to retirement, terminal benefits Rights to a fair opportunity for provision A right to time for rest Right to Favourable working conditions LESSON SEVEN: CHRISTIANS APPROACHES TO ISSUES RELATED TO EMPLOYMENT Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to; - 1. Define the following terms, wages and industrial action 2. State the Christian teachings on wages 3. List the reasons for industrial action 4. State the results of workers strike/ industrial action 5. Explain the Christian approaches towards strikes Wages and industrial action Strikes A wage is payments for work done. Payment is in modern times done according to hours, weeks or days that one works. Christian teachings on wages - Human beings have the right to work for a decent living Matt.20:1 16 They should be paid for their work. - Workers should be paid wages to the amount and value of their work 1 Timothy 5:18 - Wages should be paid as agreed upon Mathew 20:13 - Employers should not take advantage of the poverty of the employee Deuteronomy 24: 14 15 - Human beings should not be enslaved to work Ex.5:22 23 - Employers who degrade their workers in wages are condemned Deut.24:14 15, Jer.22:13 - Oppression is condemned Amos 5:18, 8;4 - Workers wages should never be withheld James 5:4 Industrial action Also commonly called Strike this is an effort by workers to stop work in protest by boycott go-slow sit ins or refuse to work. There has been increase of industrial action in the recent past in most countries of the world. Reasons for industrial actions 1 Due to increased awareness of workers rights 2 Exposure to global trends through the media 3 Formation of trade unions that fight for the rights of workers 4 Due to poor working conditions 5 Underpaying workers 6 Threatening workers with unjustified dismissals 7 Suspending the workers / interdiction unjustly 8 A hostile working environment Results of workers strikes industrial / action a Pay cuts b Demotions c Loss of jobs d Employers suffer losses e Inflation f Injuries even death when confronted by police g Victimization of some individuals h Bitterness among the workers and employers Christian approaches towards strikes a Christians recommend a peaceful co existence between workers and employers b There should be fairness, justice, love among workers, employees c There should be an open communication channel across the ranks from top to bottom d Employees should not destroy property e Working conditions should be better and improved f Employees to be human when dealing with employees LESSON EIGHT: CHILD LABOUR Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - 1. Define the term child labour 2. State the reasons why children are employed 3. State the disadvantages of child labour 4. List down the causes of child labour 5. Describe the position of the church in dealing with child labour A child is a person below 18 years. A child does not have an identity card, does not vote in Kenya . According to International Labour Organization the minimum employment age is 14 years. Child labour It is engaging a person below the age of 14 years in wage / paid employment. Reasons why children are employed - To provide cheap labour - They cannot fight for proper terms - They are easily hired and fired Disadvantages of child labour Children are not yet mentally and physically prepared to do adult jobs. This leads to a Exploitation of children b Children paid less, taken advantage of c It inhibits the growth of a child and denies them a chance to enjoy their childhood d It deprives them of their right to basic education e It exposes children to hazards dangers from machines, chemicals f Heavy workload deprives children of social educational, moral, psychological, physical rights Places where children are employed - Plantations coffee, tea - Domestic services homes - Tourism sector - Industries - Children are trafficked and employed as commercial sex workers Causes of child labour reasons why children work 1 Lack of money / poverty 2 Death of parents 3 Dropping out of school due to pregnancy, indiscipline, truancy , poor academic performance or lack of school fees. 4 Those who never went or taken to school 5 Lack of good role models e.g. coast province Mombasa, Malindi has several of the financially stable people being school dropouts, engaged in drug trafficking, commercial sex etc. 6 Influence of cultural values e.g. circumcision of boys in some communities is done later in life and one is declared an adult e.g. the kikuyu circumcising at 13 years, or 12 years 7 Children being lured by employers 8 Greed for material benefits 9 Being homeless ending up as a street child Position of church in dealing with child labour - The church condemns it - It has put up homes for poor children orphanages - It provides guidance, counseling to both parents and children - Children are blessing from God hence should be loved and cared for - Parents have the responsibilities to protect their children from harm. LESSON NINE: UNEMPLOYMENT AND SELF EMPLOYMENT Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - br br 1. Define the term unemployment and self employment 2. State the causes of unemployment 3. Describe the response of Christians to issues of unemployment 4. List the problems faced by self employed people Unemployment When people are capable and willing to work but are unable to find a viable income or occupation it is referred to as unemployment. Causes of unemployment 1 Preference for prestigious white collar jobs Office jobs, non manual jobs 2 Corruption tribalism, nepotism, bribery denying jobs to the qualified in preference for the unqualified. 3 Unequal distribution of wealth some regions are more resourceful than others. Industries, good infrastructure concentrated in some areas. 4 Inadequate resources for self employment lack of capital, skills 5 Limited job opportunities probably due to high population growth 6 Few international investors in Kenya, probably due to high crime rate, insecurity Identify ways of creating job opportunities Response of Christians to issues of unemployment a They encourage self employment in cases of unemployment b They have set up vocational training, polytechnics to train people towards jobs that are for self employment c Christians condemn idleness Self-employment Self-employment is an economic activity initiated, controlled by an individual. It is an occupation in which a person initiates a personal enterprise and manages it with the help of others. Examples Small businesses enterprises, Jua kali sector, music industry, entertainment e.g. comedians , community work, agriculture etc Problems / challenges - Some lack sufficient capital to start a business and keep it running - Lack of necessary skills to run the business - High taxation leading to some business closing down - Small scale traders face undue competition from larger firms Revision questions 1. What is work? 2. List any six reasons why people work 3. Explain T.As attitude towards work 4. List some of the factors that have changed the attitude towards work in the modern society 5. What are the rights of employers? 6. State the duties of employees 7. Why has child labour become common in Kenya? 8. What are the causes of unemployment in Kenya? 9. What can the government do to reduce unemployment in Kenya? TOPIC FOUR: CHRISTIANS APPROACHES TO LEISURE Learning Outcomes By the end of the topic, you should be able to a Explain the meaning of leisure b Discuss the traditional African understanding of leisure c Discuss Christian teaching on leisure d Discuss the importance of leisure e Outline various forms and uses of leisure f Explain how leisure is misused in the society today g Discuss the abuse of alcohol and other drugs and their effects h Explain Christian criteria for evaluating the use of leisure br br Christian criteria for evaluating the use of leisure br br LESSON ONE: MEANING OF LEISURE Work is an obligation however people cannot work 24 hours. They need to rest. God rested on the 7th day after work. Work and rest are complementary elements of human life. Definition of leisure This is the time when one is free from work or other duties. Time at ones own disposal, which can be utilized in a productive manner depending on ones interests and abilities. Leisure provides mental, physical relaxation, spiritual, emotional relaxation and enrichment Forms of leisure 1. Passive 2. Active leisure Passive involves use of mental energy Active leisure there is use of physical energy Examples of activities of passive leisure are - Watching television - Reading story books - Playing video games - Chatting with friends Examples of activities of active leisure are - Jogging - Mountain climbing - Gardening - Dancing - Tree planting - Playing football Leisure is used for - Enjoyment - Entertainment song, dance, watching movies etc - Relaxation exercises - Socialization sharing, education - Religious engagement wedding ceremonies, visiting the sick, worship In passive leisure others entertain while in active leisure the person is active, whole body is involved. Active leisure enables a person to 1. Develop his/her body 2. Build stamina 3. Strengthen relationships etc Some leisure activities are dangerous e.g. boxing, motor racing; while others are expensive e.g. golf. Other leisure activities are addictive while others are unproductive. - Leisure activities should be planned for - Leisure activities can also be economic, income generating activities. LESSON TWO: TRADITIONAL AFRICAN UNDERSTANDING OF LEISURE Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson, you should be able to: - 1.Define leisure according to the traditional African understanding 2. State the various forms of communal leisure activities In traditional African society leisure permeates all aspects of life. Leisure activities accompany work. Leisure and work were entertainment. Work was accompanied by singing, reciting stories sharing past events. Examples of leisure activities in traditional African society include - Wrestling - Running - Playing ajua - Mock fighting - Swimming - Spear throwing - Poetry - Music and dance etc Leisure activities that were communal include Bull fighting Tongue twisters Poetry recitation Telling of myths legends Dancing Brain teasers Riddles etc o Work in African society included fishing, tilling the land, herding, hunting, harvesting o Most leisure activities in traditional African society were active form of leisure, communal, not individualistic and not for monetary gains o All forms of leisure had an educational value. Folk stories had a moral value. People were taught not to be selfish, greedy jealousy etc Myths and legends tell of the origin of the community and its history of important people as well as history of the community. o In African traditional society, leisure led to acquisition of values or virtues such as co operation, sharing, solidarity, love, bravery, empathy, endurance, tolerance etc. o Most activities were linked to the worship of God and, veneration of the ancestors o Leisure activates were organized along gender and age group season E.g. harvest dancing, singing ; wet rainy seasons boat swimming o Rites of passage e.g. initiation, marriage, birth and naming provided leisure activities o Leisure activities were planned for LESSON THREE: CHRISTIAN TEACHING ON LEISURE Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - 1. Describe the Christian teachings on work 2. State the various ways that Christians use their leisure Christian teach that a Work and leisure are of divine origin. God rested on the 7th day after working b Leisure is a gift from God leisure should be put to good use. Its not be wasted c Leisure provides us with the opportunity to worship God. Leisure should be used to serve God. d Christians associate leisure with personal growth and fellowship e Jesus recognized the need for rest by withdrawing his disciples from their active ministry. Its good to have time alone for reflection, rest, visit friend etc. f Leisure should be used to seek God and help others e.g. Jesus prayed, helped the needy restored peoples health. Ways Christian use their leisure time activities LESSON FOUR: IMPORTANT USE AND MISUSE OF LEISURE Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - 1. State the importance of leisure 2. List the ways that leisure can be used properly 3. Describe how leisure is misused today Importance of leisure Leisure is necessary. Its important in various ways 1 It is a good time to assess the work we have done Reflection time 2 It brings people together leading to self growth and fulfilment Social function of leisure 3 Leisure helps individuals to discover their hidden talents 4 Leisure relaxes the mind a change of activity, relieves the mind 5 Leisure refreshes the body restores lost energy 6 Leisure enables Christians to offer charity to those in need 7 Leisure provides time for worship and spiritual renewal Leisure gives one time to rest 9 Its time for recreation 10 Give one time to attend social occasions 11 Allows people to travel and visit friends and relatives 12 Leisure can be used to enhance and acquire new skills and knowledge 13 Its a time to develop and discover ones talents Uses of leisure proper of leisure Leisure can be used for a. Religious experience b. A time for rest c. Leisure is used to provide us with time to help others d. Leisure can be used to spread the word of God e. Development of talents f. Its an opportunity for individual growth g. Leisure strengthens social relationships h. Leisure can be used for reflection on ones decision; actions etc leisure activities reveal who we are. i. Leisure can be used for educative and economic purposes Proper use of leisure is when leisure time is spent doing activities that add value to us. Misuse of leisure today Leisure time can be misused through various activities e.g. 1 Spending too much time in passive activities e.g. pornography watching, watching films that are violent 2 Spending leisure time in idle talk gossip-leading to conflicts 3 Spending time in gambling, casinos making bets on horses playing Ajua games etc 4 Alcohol and drug taking when a person over drinks alcohol, spends time drinking at the expense of family, abusing drugs is misuse of leisure time. 5 Leisure can also be misused by engaging in dangerous activities. Night dancing, disco dancing has become a common form of leisure worldwide. What are the advantages and disadvantages? LESSON FIVE: DRUG ABUSE AND ITS EFFECTS- ALCOHOL, SOFT AND HARD DRUGS Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson, you should be able to: - 1. Define the terms drug, drug use, drug abuse 2. State the different ways that drugs are administered 3. List the various categories of drugs 4. List the different types of drugs 5. Describe the various effects of different drugs A drug is any substance which when taken may alter or cause changes in the normal functioning of the body. Drug abuse Improper use of drugs. Using a drug for another purpose than what it is intended for Drug use Proper use of drugs Drugs are taken in various forms namely 1 Liquids 2 Lotions 3 Ointment 4 Powder 5 Cake form, Drugs are classified as legal and illegal Ways of administering drugs Drugs are taken /administered in various ways - Infecting - Inhaling / smoking - Chewing - Swallowing - Drinking - Sniffing / snuffing Categories of drugs a Medicinal b Soft drugs c Hard / narcotic drugs Types of drugs 1 Preventive drugs e.g. drugs to prevent polio, cholera, yellow fever 2 Curative drugs drugs that cure diseases 3 Sedatives, palliatives drugs that alleviate pain, put patients to sleep e.g. drugs for diabetes, heart diseases, asthma, painkillers 4 Tranquillizers drugs that relieve tension induce sleep e.g. piriton, valium 5 Stimulants drugs used to increase physiological activity of a particular organ. They arouse the activity of the central nervous system / senses. 6 Volatile drugs these drugs intoxicate the user, they are derived from petroleum products paint thinners dry cleaning fluids glue etc. stimulants and volatile drugs classified as soft drugs. 7 Hard drugs or narcotic drugs These are highly addictive drugs. The body forms dependence on these drugs. These drugs affect the mind causing drowsiness; sleep, stupor and they are the most commonly abused drugs. Examples are br br Cocaine br br - From coca leaves - Its highly addictive - Causes mental problems - Can lead to death on overdose - A very expensive drug Other side effects are confusion, Convulsions, circulatory collapse and rapid heart beat br br Bhang / Marijuana - A plant of Indian hemp - Also called marijuana, Hashish, Cannabis, Sativa depending on which part of the plant is taken i.e. leaves, stem, or roots. - Users become aggressive excited or high - Bhang changes perception of space, time and reality - It causes drowsiness and irresponsible behaviour - Its side effects causes people to be engaged in criminal activities e.g. robbery with violence as it gives changes in perception br br Morphine br br Its used to suppress pain clinically - Its addictive - Its derived from cocaine - Used as local aesthetic br br Heroine br br - Its pain relieving - Highly addictive - Powder heated in foil paper, vapour forms hence smoked referred to as chasing the dragon - Also called brown sugar - Its injected and inhaled - An overdose can lead to death - its expensive - It causes respiratory problems - Its depressive br br - Withdrawal symptoms when heroine is not available are nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea and severe anxiety br br Soft drugs br br - Cigarette - Alcohol - Miraa / khat Cigarette - Made from tobacco - Cigarettes contain a Nicotine a highly addictive substance. b Carbon monoxide, which damages arteries heart and lungs c Tar black substance which promotes cancer of the throat, heart and lungs Cigarettes are legal drugs in Kenya. Pregnant women may miscarry or terminate the pregnancy if they smoke. Leads to chest respiratory diseases poor blood circulation Leads to destructive fires due to carelessness Miraa / khat 1 Plants / legally in Kenyan, and other parts of the world 2 They are chewed 3 Causes temporary excitement 4 Makes one loose appetite for food and sex 5 The juice in miraa causes temporary excitement in the user when ingested 6 Miraa makes the user to be irritable Alcohol - Alcohol is a drug made through fermentation - Its a drink used in social ceremonial occasions - Its in form of beer wines, traditional brew e.g. busaa, muratina, mnazi and spirits e.g. whisks, brandy, gin, changaa - Alcohol is prepared by fermentation or distillation heating to a certain degree. - In African traditional society, alcohol was fermented and used for 1. Medicinal value 2. Entertainment 3. Marriage celebrations 4. Beer parties given to visitors - Excessive drinking was discouraged - Drunk people were scorned or scolded - Young people were not allowed to drink alcohol - When alcohol is taken excessively it is abused Alcohol abuse - Alcohol can lead to body dependence or addiction - Consequences of abusing alcohol are such as i Squandering family resources ii Health deterioration iii Lack of concentration leading to poor quality of work iv Family break-ups due to frustrations A man experiences a desire for sex but lacks the ability to perform leading to break ups v Deformed foetus if a mother abuses alcohol when pregnant vi Alcohol destroys brain cells vii It leads to unruly behaviour such as fights, violence viii One is vulnerable to risky behaviour a drunk person is unable to make proper decisions hence vulnerable to sexual infections such as HIV / AIDS ix Can make a person cause accidents if driving under the influence of alcohol or staggering on the road. LESSON SIX: CAUSES OF ALCOHOL AND DRUG ABUSE REASONS WHY PEOPLE ABUSE ALCOHOL AND DRUGS Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - 1. State and explain the effects of drugs 2. State and explain the causes of drug use and abuse i Frustration due to unemployment, inability to perform well and meet set standards or other personal frustrations. ii Idleness when idle some turn to alcohol and drug use iii Addiction iv Boredom v Bad examples from adults vi Availability of drugs in the Kenyan market vii Negative peer pressure viii Experimentation then addiction ix Media influence x Societal permissiveness xi Urbanization xii Pressure of work xiii Financial stress xiv Globalization foreign world influences Effects of drug abuse Drug abuse poses danger to the health of a person, affects family, society in general. Effects of drug abuse are br br A. Psychological problems drugs are addictive. The body becomes dependant on them. It cannot perform without the drugs. It leads to depression, irritability, aggressiveness, paranoia, one becoming afraid to face reality etc. B. Crime robbery, theft, people abusing drugs will rob, steal so as to get money to buy the drugs. Drugs have led to students setting schools on fire, killing their fellow students C. Illusion users do not face reality D. Health problems one is prone to diseases because of frequent use of drugs. Drugs weakens the bodys system e.g. alcohol leads to liver Cirrhosis, stomach ulcers. One is susceptible / prone to HIV / AIDS infection STIs lung cancer, still birth etc E. Economic problems Drugs are expensive. Abuse leads to depletion of family resources leading to poverty F. Loss of job and income G. Social problems Abuse of drugs leads to family conflicts, leading to separation, divorce, family quarrels fights and even murder domestic violence H. Accidents I. Frustrations J. Poor performance in school work K. Death People die out of drug abuse. An over dose of heroine, cocaine kills. Alcohol can lead to a blackout, this affects the brain LESSON SEVEN: REMEDIES TO DRUG ABUSE Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to:- 1. List down the various remedies to drug use and abuse Drug abuse has become a global problem. Remedies or solutions include a Law enforcement through bodies such as UNDCP United Nations International Drug Control Programme Anti Narcotics Police Units, NACADA National Agency for the Campaign Against Drug Abuse so as to control abuse of Narcotics and other drugs. b Education People to be educated on the effects of drugs. The curriculum from primary to secondary to include topics on drug abuse. Guidance and counselling Religious teachings all religious condemn the abuse of drugs Family values to be promoted. Parents should set good examples to their children Every individual to cultivate individual values. Respect their body and take care of their bodies Rehabilitation of drug users / abusers LESSON EIGHT: CHRISTIAN CRITERIA FOR EVALUATING THE USE OF LEISURE Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - 1. Describe the Christians criteria for evaluating the use of leisure Criteria criterion a principle or standard for judging something. How does a Christian determine whether a certain leisure activity is lawful, acceptable before God criteria for evaluating the use of leisure 1 Christians, should engage in leisure activities which promote their respect and dignity they should socialize with people who are morally upright bad company corrupts good morals 2 God ordains leisure hence it should serve Gods purpose. 3 Leisure should come after work 4 Leisure should be used for the good of others. The activities that are harmful to others should be avoided 5 Activities chosen should enrich their knowledge of God 6 Activities should provide service to others 7 Leisure doesnt mean laziness A Christian should not engage in a harmful activity to self but those that promote respect and dignity 9 Christians to avoid activities that lead to sin or to addiction 10 They should perform an activity which develop their physical emotional social and spiritual well being 11 Leisure should be enjoyed with moderation 12 Activities for leisure should be moral, within the laws of God and pleasing to good. Revision questions 1. Identify five 5 reasons why the taking of alcohol as a way of spending leisure is condemned 2. Write down five ways in which modern Christians use their leisure time 3. Give five ways in which drug use and abuse could affect a Christian 4.identify ways in which Christians can overcome temptations to drug use and abuse 5 a . Why is leisure important in the life of a Christian? 5 b . What factors have contributed to the misuse of leisure in Kenya? 6.state the factors that have led to the misuse of drugs in Kenya TOPIC FIVE: CHRISTIANS APPROACHES TO WEALTH, MONEY AND POVERTY Learning Outcomes By the end of this topic, you should be able to: - a. Define the concepts wealth, money and poverty b. Explain and appreciate the traditional African understanding of wealth and poverty c. Describe the impact of the introduction of money economy in the traditional African society. d. Explain Christian teachings on money, wealth and poverty e. Discuss Christians approached to some issues related to wealth money and poverty f. Uphold the Christian principles in acquiring and using wealth LESSON ONE: DEFINITION OF THE CONCEPTS WEALTH, MONEY AND POVERTY a Wealth: accumulation Accumulation of materials owned by an individual, family or a group of people. Wealth is property that has economic value e.g. land, animals, money, valuable possessions such as jewellery, commercial and residential buildings etc. Ways of acquiring wealth br br Inheritance Business Commercial farming Salaried Jobs Investment of money in financial institution Provision of commercial services br br b Money Its the medium of exchange that functions as a legal tender. It is something that is generally accepted as a medium of exchange, a means of payment. It is usually in form of coins or notes. Good monetary media money has certain qualities. Qualities of money It should be acceptable It should be fairly stable Easy to divide into small units Easy to carry Should be relatively scarce It should be durable Its value should be maintained through proper control of its circulations Money is a measure of wealth. What it can purchase is the value. Money is used to buy services, goods, pay debts etc. Examples of currencies in the world are Ksh. Kenya , Rand South Africa US Dollar, Pound Britain Euro Europe , Yen Japan Etc c Poverty State of being without adequate basic necessities of life e.g. food, shelter, clothing Its a state of helplessness. It is characterized by poor health, hunger, and lack of education facilities, uncared for environment. Causes of poverty a. Adverse climatic conditions Geographical factors b. Poor family background historical and social factors c. Political stability leading to civil wars d. Poor governance e. Regional imbalance of natural resources f. Low level of technology g. Laziness h. Over dependence on foreign aid LESSON TWO: THE TRADITIONAL AFRICAN UNDERSTANDING OF WEALTH AND POVERTY Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - 1. Define the terms wealth and poverty according to the traditional African understanding 2. State the various ways in which wealth was acquired in traditional African communities 3. List the causes of poverty in tradition African communities Wealth In African traditional societies wealth was measured in terms of the amount of land, livestock, grains, wives, children possessed by an individual or the community. Wealth was acquired in various ways. i As a gift from God Most Africans believe that wealth is a blessing from God. ii Inheritance In cases where the head of the family is dead, the eldest son becomes the custodian of the estate. The clan and community elders give direction on how the wealth is to be shared out. iii Bride wealth iv Farming v Exploitation of natural resources honey, wood for carving, building materials etc vi Trade African communities were involved in barter trade where they exchanged good and services br br vii Raids wealth was also acquired by raiding other communities goats, sheep, Cattle. - People were encouraged to work hard to acquire wealthy honesty - Wealthy people were highly regarded and were considered for leadership position - Wealth was incomplete without a family Poverty Poverty was viewed as punishment or curse for wrongdoing. Other causes of poverty according to African Traditional Society were: - Laziness Lack of inheritance Raids by other communities Famine Natural calamities Sickness rendering the individual weak to acquire wealth - In acquiring wealth, principles such as value for human life, mutual responsibility, and sharing, communal ownership were emphasized. - Places that were communal include grazing land, rivers, and watering places - Laziness was ridiculed through songs, riddles and proverbs. LESSON THREE: IMPACTS OF THE INTRODUCTION OF MONEY ECONOMY IN TRADITIONAL AFRICAN SOCIETY Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - 1. Define economy, development and money economy 2. Explain the reasons for the introduction of money 3. Explain the impact of money economy in traditional African society Introduction - Money was introduced to Africa by the Europeans - Before colonial period, Africans practiced barter trade actual goods exchanged with other goods e.g. animals would be exchanged with food grains, millet, sorghum, cowpeas, children exchanged for food during famine. - Trade merchants from Asia had introduced into Africa forms of currency such as the cowrie shells, gold and the Indian rupees. Europeans introduced currency still used today Economy: careful management of resources, finances, income and expenditure of a family, a business enterprise, community or a country. The economy of a country is to be well managed if it has the ability to meet the social economic needs of her members. Development Its measured by the healthy of its economy in the provision of health, education, housing, sanitation, employment, longevity of life, decrease of material and child mortality. Money economy: Use of money as a means of exchange in economic activities e.g. banking, investment, insurance, payment of goods and services. Reasons for money introduction 1 Colonization brought a lot of changes such as unoccupied land declared Crown land for colonialists. 2 Tax introduction Africans were supposed to pay taxes to the government. Taxes were paid in form of money. 3 Introduction of formal education School fees was introduced. Fees were paid in form of money. 4 Introduction of modern medical services People paid medical services using money. 5 Emergence of new lifestyles Converts to Christianity were emphasized on to have materials, hence had to work to improve their living standards. They built houses, took their children to schools practiced modern family techniques hence had to use money. Impact of the introduction of money economy in traditional African society 1 Introduction of wage labour 2 Break up of family ties as people migrated from rural to urban areas in search of employment 3 African land taken by the colonialists, reducing people to squatters hence need to work 4 There was creation of a gap between people the rich and the poor 5 Emergence of vices e.g. corruption, bribery, prostitution, robbery 6 Deterioration of cherished African values e.g. bride wealth has become commercialized, customs lost etc. 7 Loss of African human dignity. Africans had to pay taxes to the colonial government. They were forced to work in European farms so as to get money. They worked under dehumanizing conditions Production of traditional food crops declined replaced by cash crops. 9 Individual ownership of land was emphasized. Land could be sold at will 10 There was increase of rural urban migration leaving the rural people less educated. 11 Exploitation of the poor by the rich poor wages, overcharging prices on foods. 12 Destruction of the natural environment to create room for building projects, urban centres 13 The cost of living increased. Almost everything is acquired by money. LESSON FOUR: THE CHRISTIAN TEACHING ON WEALTH, MONEY, POVERTY Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - 1. Explain the Christian teachings on wealth 2. Explain the Christian teachings on poverty Teaching on wealth 1 Wealth is a blessing from God 2 Those who obey Gods laws, teachings of the prophets are promised blessings by God Deut28: 1 4 3 Wealth has duties associated with it e.g. 10 tithe, alms to the poor, and an aspect of stewardship. 4 Wealth should be used wisely. People are not owners of their property but are stewards. Should share with the poor, needy. 5 Wealth is not permanent e.g. parable of the rich fool. When people die, they take nothing with them. Naked into the world, naked out of the world. Job. 1:21 6 Wealth can create a false sense of independence feeling of self reliance no need for God 7 Wealth should be obtained justly no happiness for a person who gets riches in the wrong way. Wrong attitude to wealth can lead to idolatry and other dangers. Matt.19: 23 24 danger of materialism making riches their God, the love of money is the root of all evil 1 timothy 6:10 9 It is wrong to discriminate against others on the basis of material possessions. Jesus associated with the rich, the poor, the sick etc. 10 Seek spiritual wealth, which is permanent and more fulfilling than material wealth, which is transitory temporal. Matt 6:19 20 11 Acknowledge God as the source of ones riches 12 Use wealth to help the needy 13 Wealth is an instrument to enable us live decently. 14 Obsession with money and wealth leads to sin 15 Church leaders should avoid greed for wealth 1 Timothy 3:3 16 God will judge rich exploiters. Christian teaching on poverty 1 Christian teachings discourage irresponsible behaviour and habits e.g. laziness, idleness and negligence. Some people became poor because of such. 2 Some people become poor because of misfortunes 3 Others are poor because of judgment due to disobedience to God 4 God cares for the poor 5 Those with more should share with the poor 6 People should work to alleviate poverty in the society 7 Jesus helped the poor so should we The poor in spirit will be blessed LESSON FIVE: CHRISTIAN APPROACHES / RESPONSE TO ISSUES RELATED TO WEALTH AND MONEY. Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - 1. Describe the Christians response towards wealth and poverty 2. State the factors causing poverty 3. Describe how wealth/ resources can be distributed fairly Christian can respond by A. Insistence on fair distribution of wealth B. Fighting against bribery and corruption C. Using life skills D. Practicing Christian values Introduction - Affluence having a lot of material possessions and a luxurious standard of living. Poverty is a state of lack of the basic necessities. - Illegal means of acquiring wealth include fraud, grabbing public land, selling narcotic drugs etc Factors that have contributed to poverty 1. Political instability 2. Lack of formal education 3. Laziness 4. Negative attitude towards work choosing jobs 5. Historical factors colonization lack of land 6. Exporting unprocessed agricultural products cheaply then sold back expensively. A. Fair distribution of wealth / resources a Christians to promote the value of justice, fairness, social responsibility. How? By having anti corruption crusades, be role models, teach or import skills, advocate for cancellation of foreign debts, taxation to all etc. b Fair salaries c Promotion of affordable and decent housing d Favourable terms of loans e Encourage Jua Kali artisans f Christians to demand transformation of society through implementation of just economic policies that can ensure fair distribution of wealth. g Encourage foreign investors through good infrastructure, incentives e.g. shorter process to register business, security. h Christian to encourage investments by churches and inculcate in people the values of hard work, proper time management free education free health care for the poor or needy. Fair distribution of wealth / resources refers to jobs, infrastructure, hospitals, water, agricultural products etc. LESSON SIX: BRIBERY AND CORRUPTION Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - 1. Define the following terms bribery and corruption 2. Explain the factors that contribute to bribery and corruption 3. Explain the consequences of bribery and corruption Fighting against bribery and corruption Bribery and corruption are related terms. Corruption: practice of giving a bribe in the form of money, goods or privileges in return for a service. Bribery: act of giving money, material goods or services to someone to influence the recipient to give underserved favour. It is aimed at influencing a decision to favour. Bribery is a form of corruption. - Corruption is some kind of moral degeneration. A practice whereby someone uses his/her influence in an activity that is not morally acceptable. - Example of corruption include promotion by a senior for a favour, colluding to miss work, use of government vehicles to attend to personal matters. In Kenya, Kenya Anticorruption commission KACC is a national body formed to fight corruption. Factors leading to bribery and corruption 1. Un-employment one will bribe to secure employment 2. Greed for money caused by peer pressure, poor moral values, wrong ethical foundation about money etc. 3. Fear fear of being imprisoned 4. Ignorance giving bribes in form of gifts 5. Disintegration of traditional African values 6. Lack of moral integrity no Christian values, one having no spiritual basis 7. Frustration in the place of work 8. A perverted conscience Consequences of corruption and bribery 1. Leads to injustice 2. Leads to incompetent supplies of goods or services being awarded hefty contracts leads to poor services e.g. road construction 3. Poor infrastructure, poor public service delivery 4. Leads to undermining moral fabric of society leading to social hopelessness and despair 5. Has led to lack of trust in public servants, and the government 6. Discontentment among people. 7. Degrades the personality of an individual 8. Can lead to imprisonment and lose of job LESSON SEVEN: CHRISTIAN ATTITUDE TOWARDS BRIBERY AND CORRUPTION Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - 1. Describe the Christian attitude towards bribery and corruption 2. Define the following terms life skills, decision making, critical thinking, creative thinking, self esteem and assertiveness 3. List the steps involved in decision making 1. It is condemned as an evil practice a social evil Ex. 23:8 2. Bribes cause injustice proverbs 17:23 3. Seen as morally wrong as they negatively affect ones family 4. Jesus drove out merchants from the temple. They had started exploitation of the poor. 5. Condemned because it degrades the personality of an individual 6. Amos condemned taking and giving of bribes 7. Bribes blinds the eyes In the parable of John the Baptist condemned soldiers from taking bribes Corrupt judge and the widow, corruption is condemned 8. Christians are to live righteously and not give bribes or receive. They are the light of the world. 9. Money gained from corruption is not acceptable before God. C Using life skills Life skills are abilities, which enable a person to face the challenges of life in an effective way they are br br Decision making Critical thinking Creative thinking Self esteem Assertiveness a. Decision making Process of identifying the best alternative to overcome a challenge encountered. Often decisions we make do not only affect us but those around us. Steps to decision making 1. Identify the challenge problem whats the problem? What is bothering you? 2. Understand the challenge / problem: What is really bothering you? 3. Find out possible solutions 4. Find out the possible options and alternatives 5. Consider the possible consequences for each option 6. Select the best option 7. Implement 8. Evaluate the outcome of the action b. Critical thinking g. Ability to examine and assess a given situation impartially or objectively. It involves reasoning carefully. Getting detailed information, consider the option before making a decision. Critical thinking makes a person responsible for their actions. c. Creative thinking This is the act or practice of using ideas imaginatively to solve a problem d. Self-esteem - This is the regard one has about himself or herself. Self-esteem can be low or high, positive or negative. A positive or high self-esteem person has confidence, is outgoing, social, appreciates self, realistic and independent. - A person with low, negative self-esteem is nave, withdrawn, shy, feels inadequate, and no selfconfidence. e. Assertiveness Ability to express ones feelings and wishes without hurting others. Assertive people are confident; direct in dealing with others assertive people have a high self-esteem. LESSON EIGHT: CHRISTIAN VALUES RELATED TO WEALTH, MONEY, AND POVERTY. Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - 1. Define the terms, values, love. Honesty, reliability, fairness, justice, respect, humility, faithfulness, persistence and chastity 2. State the values related to work Values Beliefs, which guide people on what is right and wrong. There are - Social values - Cultural values - Moral values Values related to wealth are: - - Love - Honesty - Reliability - Fairness - Justice - Respect - Faithfulness - Humility - Persistence - Chastity Love intense emotion of attachment, affection, warmth, fondness, regard for a person or something How should love guide a Christian in relation to wealth creation? Honesty quality of being truthful, fair trustworthy, sincere, genuine. The opposite of honesty is dishonesty. Reliability being dependable, faithful, predictable, unfailing. The ability of being relied upon and keeping promises. Fairness condition of being unbiased, free from discrimination. Justice fair dealings with the people, as they deserve according to the law. Being fair, giving people whats due to them. Opposite of justice is injustice. Respect Quality of having high regard for somebody or something. Politeness. Its important to respect other peoples property. Humility quality of not thinking that you are better than others. Being humble. Opposite of humility is pride, being proud. Those who humble themselves shall be exalted. Faithfulness quality of remaining loyal or true to someone. Christians should be faithful at their places of work and in allocating their wealth to Gods work. Those who are entrusted with public resources to manage on behalf of the people should show a high degree of faithfulness. Persistence quality to persevere. Quality to continue steadfastly, unrelentingly despite opposition e.g. the unjust judge and widow, job , Jeremiah are people who persisted. Chastity a state of being pure, holy, innocent modest. It is abstinence from actions that may make one impure before God. -Christians should strive hard not to defile their bodies in search of wealth -Christians should strive to live holy lives, avoid prostitution, drug abuse; corruption -people use sexual favour to get jobs or promotion. Christians should thus avoid such. Revision questions 1. Explain the biblical teaching on wealth 2. Discuss the biblical teaching on acquisition and use of wealth 3. Explain ways in which people misuse wealth in Kenya today 4. Show how misuse of wealth leads to family instability 5. Give ways in which the Kenyan government is alleviating the high levels of poverty 6. State the factors that have contributed to high levels of poverty in Kenya today TOPIC SIX: APPROACHES TO LAW, ORDER AND JUSTICE Learning Outcomes By the end of the topic you should be able to: a Define the terms law order and justice b Describe the traditional African practices that promote law, order and justice. c Explain the Biblical teaching on law, order and justice. d Identify and evaluate the need for law, order and justice in the society. e Explain the rights and duties of citizens f Explain the causes and remedies of social disorder. g Evaluate the role of Christians in the transformation of the society h Discuss church-state relationship LESSON ONE: DEFINITION OF TERMS Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - 1. Define the following terms law, order and justice 2. State the types of law 3. State the types of statutory laws Introduction - Law, order, justice are essential for the survival of any society br br - Following laws leads to order and justice lack of following leads to disorder and injustice laws of Kenya are laid down in the constitution. A. Law Established rules by an authority to regulate human behaviour in the community Schools laws, religious laws, factory laws, hospital laws etc. laws differ from society to society. Laws are dynamic. Laws cover all aspects of life. B. Order Condition brought about by obedience to set rules or laws. Order leads to peaceful co existence in the society. Where there is order, things are done systematically. The opposite of order is disorder. Types of laws 1. Non legal laws no court action e.g. school rules 2. Customary traditional laws based on culture, social traditions. They have to agree with state laws. They are respected by state. 3. Statutory laws / legal laws laws made by local council or national government and citizens are expected to obey them. Types of statutory laws a Civil laws made by parliament on issues such as taxes, labour, divorce etc b Criminal law on crime / punishment c Constitutional law matters of state and governance d Company law e Religious laws e.g. Islamic law sharia C. Justice treating others the way they deserve in relation to the law. Its administration of rightful dealings in a fair manner according to their actions. A just society follows rules and administers legal action to those who offend others or disobey rules. Justice means treating people the same way without discrimination. LESSON TWO: IMPORTANCE OF LAW, ORDER AND JUSTICE Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - 1. State the importance of law, order and justice a They are essential to preserve harmony and protect people b Laws guide people and ensure peoples rights are protected. c They protect peoples property and enable people to live in harmony d They protect the consumer from exploitation e They safeguard religious freedom f Laws control power of those in authority and promote political stability g Provides stability, encouraging economic growth h Helps to control discontentment among people i Helps implementation of taxes effectively j Provides / help in maintenance of security k Ensures human rights are upheld l Enables the government to protect its citizens from internal or external threats. m International law regulates relations between countries. LESSON THREE: RIGHTS AND DUTIES OF CITIZENS Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able: - 1. Define the terms citizen, rights and duty 2. List the rights of citizens 3. State te duties/ responsibilities of citizens Citizen person who is a member of a state, kingdom, empire. A person who has full rights as a member of a country by birth, decent, registration, naturalization. Rights legal claims that one is entitled to from the government Duty ones responsibility to the government. Rights 1 Right to life to live securely 2 Right to education 3 Right to liberty / freedom e.g. one should not be imprisoned, detained, without trial. One is innocent until proven guilty 4 Right to protection of property 5 Right to own a family right to marry and raise a family 6 Right to health 7 Freedom of movement Right to freedom of association 9 Right to freedom of assembly 10 Freedom of religion 11 Right to own property 12 Right to equality non discrimination 13 Protection of freedom of expression and speech own opinions, ideas Children have rights e.g. Right to life, education, parental care, health, protection from exploitation, right to identity etc. Duties of citizens responsibilities 1 Pay taxes to the government 2 Respect the flag and national anthem 3 Respect those in authority 4 Respect the laws of the land 5 Register as a voter and voter in national elections 6 Be responsible at work 7 Participate in national development Promote peace and harmony in the society 9 Report errant members of the society to law enforcement agents 10 Protect the environmental clean, plant trees, avoid poaching etc LESSON FOUR: TRADITIONAL AFRICAN PRACTICES THAT PROMOTE LAW, ORDER, JUSTICE Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - 1. State and explain the traditional African practices that promoted law, order and justice Some of the practices that promote law, order and justice are a Punishment of offenders People who committed offences such as stealing, murder, witchcraft were punished through death, curses, paying heavy fines etc. this promoted law, order, justice b Installation of rules, kings, chiefs, elders They were installed to maintain law, order and to execute justice in their areas of jurisdiction c Administration of oaths - Administered by specialists and are used as a method of establishing and maintaining law and order d Making of covenants - Covenants were made if there was a conflict between two communities. They would promise to live in peace and harmony. e Observing of taboos and customary law Taboos were prohibitions. Those who went against taboos were severely punished f The kinship system defined how people related one to another g Rites of passage ensured customs, laws were adhered to h Religious practices- such as praying, singing, sacrificing and giving of offerings had the effect of maintaining order. LESSON FIVE: BIBLICAL TEACHING ON LAW, ORDER AND JUSTICE Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - 1. Describe the biblical teachings on law, order and justice God initiated Law, order, and justice. 1. Gods creation is orderly. God desires order 2. Man was created with a conscience to know right from wrong sin has consequences or punishment. God does punish disobedience i.e. justice 3. God instituted the laws as part of his plan for salvation e.g. law of circumcision, Torah 10 commandments , circumcision of the heart, laws on what to eat etc. 4. Gods law governed kingship in Israel. National prosperity depended on a kings ruler ship. Kings were to ensure law and order 5. In the New Testament John the Baptist urged people to observe the law social justice . 6. Jesus taught that the kingdom of God is based on law, order and justice. There should be fair treatment for all people 7. Jesus said that the law of Moses was given to guide people 8. Christians should obey the law of the land and respect those in authority 9. The apostolic teachings stress the need for law, order, justice 1 Cro.14: 33 10. Christians should be orderly. 11. The birth of Jesus was orderly. His ministry was also orderly hence should Christians. LESSON SIX: CAUSES OF SOCIAL DISORDER AND THEIR REMEDIES Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - 1. State and explain the causes of social disorders 2. State the causes of discrimination 3. Explain the causes of crime 4. List the forms of punishment Social disorder is a state of confusion or lack of order in the society Causes 1 Discrimination 2 Inequitable distribution of wealth, resources 3 Crime 4 Racism 5 Tribalism 6 Sexism Discrimination Discrimination is unfair treatment. Discrimination is on basis of - Race - Tribe - Sex / gender People or a particular person is singled out and treated with disfavor or distaste. It is showing bias or prejudice. Causes of discrimination a. Culture b. Prejudice bias original from opinions that have no known basis or supporting facts stereotypes c. Ignorance e.g. on HIV /AIDS d. Social status ones position in a society Inequitable distribution of wealth and resources - This is when riches of family, community, and nation are not fairly shared out due to Selfishness or poor planning. Some areas are marginalized. Racism unfair treatment of people because of their race Tribalism discrimination on basis of ethnic group Crime an offence against state, normally settled in court. Its antisocial behaviour causing disorder. Causes of crime Why people commit crime 1. Poverty 2. Public mistrust for law enforces 3. Lack of parental guidance 4. Wide gap between the rich and the poor 5. Greed for power, money 6. Materialism 7. Drug and substance abuse Sexism - Discrimination against people because of gender - Women are discriminated in areas such as jobs, no promotion for women, oppression of women at home, cultural values demeaning the status of women, wife beating / men beating, female genital mutilation FGM early children marriages etc. Remedies to social disorder 1 Rehabilitation for drugs users / abusers 2 Punishment for offenders of crime Forms of punishment - Imprisonment - Payment of fines br br - Corporal punishment - Probation - Being assigned community work - Being placed under house arrest - Learning in approved schools, Juvenile homes 3 Equitable distribution of national resources - Develop marginalized areas - Create jobs 4 Campaign against drug abuse 5 The public to use hot lines to report crime to police 6 Preach against racism, tribalism, and preach equality, freedom and interaction with all people 7 People to be sensitized to appreciate and respect different ethnics groups Promote national unity through education /cultural programmes 9 Creation of more national schools so as to have students from all backgrounds 10 Encourage domestic tourism 11 Enlighten women on their rights 12 Employment on merit 13 Rich countries to share wealth with the poor LESSON SEVEN: ROLE OF CHRISTIANS IN TRANSFORMING THE SOCIAL, ECONOMIC, POLITICAL LIFE OF THE SOCIETY Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - 1. Define the term transformation 2. Describe Christians participation in social life 3. Describe Christians participation in political life 4. Describe Christians participation in economic life Transformation is to completely change the attitude, character, and well being of the society a Christian participation in the social life - Christians are involved in the preaching of the gospel in many places in the country. They use print and electronic media to spread the gospel. - Christians have shown concern for the destitute and victims of violence in the society by building homes for them and providing them with food and clothing. - Christians run schools, vocational institutions, universities providing educational services - Christians offer medical services to the society - They speak openly against sexual immorality, murder, bribery, corruption, abortion etc. - They show compassion to those in need the poor, HIV / AIDS orphans, widows, widowers, aged etc. - They offer guidance and counselling to dysfunctional families the pastors, those trained to do counselling almost all pastors get a training in guidance and counselling b Christians participation in the political life - Christians participate in the political life by advocating for fair distribution of wealth - They offer prayers for government, political leaders - They exercise their right by voting - They also participating in the political life by standing up for elections Vying for elections c Christian participation in economic life - Christians participate in economic life by paying taxes to the government - By contributing in collection of funds for construction of churches, schools, hospitals - They invest in business that promotes their own development as well as the development of the country. - They provide financial resources in order to assist others to start economic activities or self employment - They discourage business practices such as using faulty scales, hiking of prices cheating in business etc and encourage proper acquisition of wealth d THE CHURCH STATE RELATIONSHIP The government and the church interact at various levels and in different areas a Religious leaders give advice to the state b The church speaks against corruption, robbery, rape, abortion, vices which the government is fighting c The church is the conscience of the state d Both educate the citizens on the constitution and their rights e The church preaches peace, love, unity, order f The state needs support of the church in mobilizing citizens to adopt government policies g Both are involved in rehabilitation of prisoners h The church builds schools and other institutions that supplement government institutions. i The church is involved in formulation of educational curriculum. However the church differs with government on various issues such as a Use of condoms Some churches opposed to this b Use of live bullets by the law enforces when curbing riots c Fight on corruption a thorn to the church since state leaders are involved d Issue of death penalty church been fighting against death penalty to convicts NB. The government lifted the death penalty as a form of punishment in the year 2009. Revision questions 1.state ways in which Christians can promote peace/unity in the society 2. Why should Christians take part in voting? TOPIC SEVEN: CHRISTIAN APPROACHES TO SELECTED ISSUES RELATED TO MODERN SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT Learning Outcomes By the end of the topic, you should b able to: 1. Explain the Christian view on some issues related to modern science and technology 2. Explain the Christian view on the effects of modern science and technology on the environment LESSON ONE: DEFINITIONS Science subject field that deals with a systematic study of our surroundings and behaviour of materials in the universe It is based on observation, experimentation and measurement. Technology application of science to achieve desired objectives. Environment our surroundings both natural and human made i.e. mountains, lakes, land, forests, animals, buildings, flowers etc LESSON TWO: POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - 1. State the various ways that science and technology has improved our lives 2. State the negative effects of science and technology Ways science and technology has improved human lives 1 Improvement of crop production a quality seeds, fertilizers leading to improved yields 2 Better nutrition, health care, medical services 3 Improvement of livestock production through artificial insemination, quality medicine leading to more milk production. 4 It has led to development of efficient means of transport land, air, seas 5 Work has been made easier and enjoyable. There is use of machines, automation, use of computers. 6 Peoples lives have been spared, saved e.g. through life saving machines ICU , incubators 7 Business transactions are being done through the internet Communication has been made easy fax, email, short text messages on mobile phones etc 9 Research is ongoing for incurable diseases i.e. HIV / AIDS, cancer 10 There is better management of environment 11 Technology has made the world a global village 12 Through family planning methods, its easier to control population growth 13 Theres a better security system through use of scanners, alarms, electrified fences etc. 14 Improvement of learning through elearning 15 Theres easier movement from one country to another Negative effects of science and technology 1. People use medicine to commit suicide 2. Increase of crime, fraud and death through modern means of communication 3. Destruction of family relationships 4. Breakdown of community names, values morals, breakdown of families 5. Terrorism 6. Greed for money / materialism 7. Unemployment replacement of personnel by machines 8. Health hazards such as accidents in factories 9. Pollution, air poisoning LESSON THREE: CHRISTIAN VIEW ON ISSUES RELATED TO SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY. Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - 1. Define the following terms euthanasia, blood transfusion, organ transplant, genetic engineering and plastic surgery 2. Describe Christians view on euthanasia, blood transfusion, organ transplant, human cloning, genetic engineering and plastic surgery 3. State the reasons for and against euthanasia, blood transfusion, organ transplant, human cloning, genetic engineering and plastic surgery a. Euthanasia b. Blood transfusion c. Organ transplant d. Genetic engineering e. Plastic surgery Euthanasia Its a Greek word, which means an easy and painless death. It is mercy killing ending a persons life so a Injecting an overdose of sleeping pills to the sick person b Switching off life support machine c Exposing the person with chronic pneumonia to very cold air. Christians view on Euthanasia Christians are opposed to euthanasia for several reasons such as a Life is sacred, a gift from God and only God can take away human life b Suffering is part of human life c Euthanasia is against medical ethos, which demands that doctors and nurses work for the sustenance of human life and alleviation of suffering but not to terminate it. d Jesus has power over sickness and through his name all sickness are healed e Accepting euthanasia discourages medical research on vaccines that may cure various diseases. f Euthanasia discourages patients and makes them to lose hope in life. They may feel unwanted and rejected. Blood transfusion - Its the process of injecting a persons blood into another person through his/her veins. The giver is a donor the receiver is a recipient. Reasons for blood transfusion 1. When a person is suffering from acute anemia little blood in the body low blood level. 2. To restore blood lost during fatal accidents, wars, or childbirth 3. To maintain blood levels for patients undergoing major operations 4. To correct the low haemoglobin level of some patients 5 Blood has to be screened for any diseases, and then kept in blood bank after determining the blood group. The transfusion should be in a hygienic way. The equipment used should be sterilized 6. Donors should not be below 16 years or above 65 years Alternatives to blood transfusion a Volume expanders increase fluid levels in the body b Growth factors intra operative / post operative c Blood salvage same blood when on surgery is saved then transfused back to the patient Christian view on blood transfusion a Some Christians believe it is wrong to take blood from a healthy person and transfuse it to another person. b Blood is life and life cannot be taken from one person to another c Blood transfusion is essential as it saves life d Blood transfusion can transmit dangerous diseases like HIV / AIDS and Hepatitis B e God has given Christians the intelligence and capability to make the right decision and choice Organ transplant - This is the removal of a defective organ and replacing it with a healthy one. Body organs transplanted are kidneys, heart and eyes small intestines, pan crease. - The purpose is to replace the damaged organ of a recipient br br - Common transplants are the heart, kidney, eyes from living and the dead heart within a span of hours. Eyes can be transplanted from animals. Christian view on organ transplant a It saves life hence acceptable to some b Its transferring human life from one person to another c Its wrong to transplant from animals view by some Christians d Some support organ transplant by referring to the story of creation of Eve from parts of Adam e It is part of human beings continuing with the creation work of God. f It is an expression of love and concern for those suffering as taught by Jesus Christ. Genetic engineering - Its a scientific technique used by scientists to change the biological characteristics of living organisms by deliberately altering the structure of individual genes. - There are genetically modified foods, genetically engineered seeds, test tube babies, human clones, and genes of human insulin. Human cloning This is a form of genetic engineering. Its a creation of genetically identical copy of a human being, human cell. br br Twins are a form of natural cloning Theres therapeutic cloning and reproductive cloning human cloning Therapeutic cloning is when cells from an adult are used in creating Human cloning is illegal worldwide Genetic cells are used to treat Alzheimer, heart attack, cancer Test tube babies are different from human cloning. Test tube babies are br br where the egg and sperm is fused together outside the body. br br In cloning, a needle like device is used to draw out the cells from an br br embryo, then preserved using chemicals, then put in a womb/uterus to grow. Some do not need a sperm cell, they use other body cells for fertilization. Reasons for advocating human cloning br br Can clone people whose genetic composition is of a genius, people with br br special abilities or talents br br Can be able to bring, revive back great extinct characteristics. Those who support it believes it can reduce immorality br br Reasons against human cloning 1. God is the sole creator. Cloning takes the place of God. 2. It de humanizes human beings purpose of human reproduction 3. It destroys uniqueness of each individual Cloning is an exact copy 4. It can be abused and used to create antisocial people rapists, thieves 5. May create deformed people 6. Its un-ethical, immoral experiment. Its destruction of the embryo hence abortion 7. 95 of clones have failed animal most animals died 8. Its illegal 9. Closed animals died of cancer, had arthritis, deformities and an early death 10. Cloning may bring a destructive copy of humans Advantages of genetic engineering 1. Implanting genes that are diseases free in people, plant and animals could prevent diseases. 2. Genetic crops yield more 3. Helps to determine the biological parent in case of dispute on babies DNA 4. Helps to increase disease resistance in crops and altering animal traits in plants and animals 5. Assists in classifying blood during screening before its transfused to another person. Christian view of genetic engineering 1. Christians support genetic engineering that is beneficial to human beings e.g. Cure of genetic diseases, production of drugs, plant and animals 2. Human beings are made in Gods image and are loved by God with or without defects. 3. The dignity of the human being is eroded or disregarded and should be upheld. 4. Christians oppose cloning and test tube babies 5. Its against Gods will or teaching Plastic surgery - Its to change or mould the shape of something, to enhance or restore an area of the body - Its repairing or improving of damaged, diseased or unsatisfactory shaped parts of the body with pieces of skin or bone taken from other parts of the body. - Skin grafting is the most common type of plastic surgery - Plastic surgery is done on cleft lips i.e. cosmetic surgery, breast surgery reduction or enlargement, surgery done to look younger. Reasons for plastic surgery br br - It can help restore ones confidence or self esteem - It enhances beauty, attractiveness or youthfulness - It enhances a persons life and can be a life changing procedure - It may help a person to get a new job Disadvantages - Its expensive - Can lead to transmission of diseases Christian views on plastic surgery - Some support it, as it has some benefits - Some Christian oppose plastic surgery in order to look younger - Some argue that some people do it because of a lack of self acceptance, low self esteem hence should work on such issues first. LESSON FOUR: THE CHRISTIAN VIEW ON THE EFFECTS OF MODERN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY ON THE ENVIRONMENT POLLUTION, DESERTIFICATION Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - 1. State the various ways of caring for the environment In Genesis 1, man was given the responsibility of taking care of the environment Ways of taking care of the environment 1. Cleaning up the environment, clean up rivers 2. Educating people on the importance of conservation 3. Dispose industrial wastes properly 4. Enforce use of environment friendly fuel unleaded fuel 5. Factory owners to supply protective wear to factory workers 6. Planting of trees and flowers 7. Establishing airports, industries, and disco clubs away from residential areas. br br 8. Advocate for laws to be passed to minimize noise from vehicles, aircrafts, entertainment centres. 9. Waste to be managed through br br Reuse e.g. bottles Recycle plastic bottles to be recycled to plastic bins, old newspapers br br to be recycled to tissue papers. br br Recover burning waste products to produce electricity br br Waste can be managed to reduce use of Throw away goods e.g. batteries to use of electricity. LESSON FIVE: POLLUTION AND ITS EFFECTS. Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - 1. Define the terms pollutant and pollution 2. Give examples of pollutants 3. State and explain the types of pollution 4. State the effects of the various types of pollution. Its introduction into the environment of substances or energy that is liable to cause hazards to human health, harm to living resources and ecological systems In simple terms pollution is the contamination of the environment. Substances that cause pollution are called pollutants. Some of the pollutants include; br br Industrial affluent Pesticides Insecticides Fertilizers Ultra violent rays from nuclear plants Dust Smoke Noise Waste heat Exhaust gases from automobiles br br Types of pollution a Water pollution p Air pollution q Land pollution r Radiation pollution s Sound pollution noise Water pollution This is the increase of substances in water in excess of its rightful chemical components thus making it unsuitable for human, animal or plant use. - Disposing domestic and industrial waste into rivers, lakes, seas etc pollutes water. - Disposing agricultural chemicals pesticides into water bodies. - Oil spilling into waters - Poor sanitation bathing or washing clothes in rivers or dams Effects of water pollution a. Causes diseases, which are communicable such as cholera, typhoid, and dysentery. b. Leads to death of marine life birds Flamingo fish by oil spills c. Mercury metal leads, silver is poisonous. They kill organisms. d. Water becomes unfit for human consumption Air pollution - Presence of contaminants in the atmosphere caused by a. Smoke b. Fumes c. Dust from mines, quarries - When there is an increased level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere thats pollution - Other major atmospheric pollutants include gases such as chlorofluorocarbons CFC , and sulphur dioxide SO2 - Nitrogen Oxide NO i.e. fumes from vehicles, aircrafts, industries Effects i Leads to diseases such as bronchitis, asthma ii Leads to depletion of the Ozone layer leading to ultra violent rays of the sun penetrating to the earth causing skin cancer, cataracts eye problems , low plant yields. iii Causes rusting of roofs iv Causes acid rains v Carbon dioxide 02 in the atmosphere has led to global warming. vi Formation of smog thick fog , which can lead to accidents. vii Colored rain due to large amounts of dust in the atmosphere viii Eyesight loss due to gas leakages from industrial plants. Land pollution Land pollution is any physical or chemical alteration to land, which causes change in its use and renders it incapable of beneficial use without treatment. - Improper or excessive use of insecticides, pesticides makes land acidic - Land is also polluted by improper disposal of waste / garbage, broken glasses. Effects i Waste is an eye sore spoiling the beauty of the environment ii Broken glass can lead to injuries iii Open mining leaves pits, which are a danger to people and animals. Noise pollution - Experienced especially in urban centres, near roads, running water, mining areas, airports, music from bars, nightclubs etc. br br - An instrument called sound meter measures noise. The lowest unit is O Decitel, which is okay. More than 80 decibels is harmful to the ear. Noise over 80 decibels can cause effects - Deafness, hearing problems - Psychological disorders frustrations, irritation - Insomnia - Shock due to sudden noise - Cracking of walls Noise can be minimized by br br Construction of sound proof buildings Location of residential areas away from industries, airports, bars, main br br roads br br Banning of unnecessary hooting, playing of loud music in public br br vehicles br br Installing silencers in generators Education people on the effects of noise pollution br br Pollution caused by radiation br br Mainly in developed countries br br Atomic explosions e.g. Hiroshima / Nagasaki in Japan in 1945. The side effects of mutations of born children. Some children born with deformities. The radiation caused chromosome mutations. Some mutations on the cells of the parent / grandparents. br br Nuclear power stations also a danger Medical equipment e.g. X ray machines when one is over exposed to br br these radiations x rays it can lead to development of cancer. LESSON SIX: DESERTIFICATION Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - 1. Define the term desertification 2. Describe the causes of desertification This is slow encroachment of desert like a condition to land that was previously productive making it desolate, uncultivatable and uninhabitable. Human activity accelerates creation of deserts. Causes of deserts 1. Natural a Persistent rains in a semi arid area b Exposure of an area to very high, very cold temperatures c Inadequate rainfall for a long period of time 2. Human Human activities that lead to desertification are i Cutting down of trees deforestation for land use such as building, industries, and not replacing them. ii Use of water from wells to irrigate land. Its harmful especially salty water salt on soil salination is toxic to soils. iii Incorrect use of pesticides and fertilizers destroy soil nutrients. iv Industrialization industries emit carbon dioxide CO2 leading to formation of acid rain, which leads to unproductive land hence desertification v Overgrazing especially among the pastoralist communities vi Poor farming methods like cultivation on riverbanks and slopes, which causes soil erosion, leading to desertification. LESSON SEVEN: SOLUTIONS TO DESERTIFICATION Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - 1.state the solutions to desertification Land can be restored through the following ways; i Removal of people, livestock from certain areas e.g. forests ii Installation of good drainage systems iii Reduction of water logging / salination iv Use of alternative sources of fuel such as wind, solar, biogas instead of cutting down trees to use as fuel charcoal v Advocate for penalties to those who pollute the environment factories vi Replace trees that are cut down vii Build water storage facilities to store rain water then use it for irrigation viii Educate people on the importance of the environment ix Use of manure instead of harmful fertilizers Emulate Prof. Wangari Maathai implanting trees 8th October 2004 she was awarded the Nobel peace prize, an international award, for her efforts in preserving the environment. Revision questions. 1. How can modern Christians evaluate scientific and technological discoveries 2. Why is the church in Kenya opposed to plastic surgery? 3. How has science and technology improved human life? 4. What are the consequences of science and technology in our society? C.R.E. QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS TOPIC ONE CHRISTIAN ETHICS Q1. What is the meaning of Christian Ethics? It is about how Christians make choices in their daily lives guided by br br Christian principles and value. Q2. What is the basis or sources or foundation of Christian Ethics? br br The Bible/Biblical scripture holy The natural law Human experience and reason The Christian community preachers Situation Ethics Secular/Civil Law br br Q3. List the basic life skills that one needs to be able to lead a better life a Critical thinking b Creative thinking c Decision making d Self-esteem e Assertiveness TOPIC TWO MALE/FEMALE RELATIONSHIPS Q1. Explain seven Christian teachings on male/female relationships br br Male/female were created as equal human beings: created in the image br br and likeness of God. br br Male/female created for companionship, help/ partners/ compliment br br each other. br br Both are co-creator with God done through procreation. Union between both is consummated in marriage. Relationship is based on love and respect/chastity. Man/husband is the head of the family. Each man to have his own wife and wife own husband. Husband and wife should not deny each other conjugal rights. Youth should abstain from sex until marriage. Male/female body is temple of the Lord. Short periods of abstinence are allowed among married people but with br br consent from each other. br br Christians appreciate different roles of men and women in the church br br e.g. leadership in choir for women and men. TOPIC THREE. HUMAN SEXUALITY Q1. Explain the Traditional African understanding of human sexuality Human sexuality is regarded as sacred and secret in many African br br communities. br br The sacredness of sex is related to the power to transmit life br br procreation. br br It is taboo to discuss sex matters freely especially in the presence of br br children. br br Grandparents who are free from any tying job teach sex education. Young people are prepared for adult life in the context of age group e.g. br br games of sexual nature take place within an age group. The age group has control of each other and there is no sex whatsoever. br br During initiation ceremonies, vigorous sex education is provided to the br br initiates. br br They are taught about sex, its secrets and the mystery of manhood and br br womanhood. br br Girls are expected to remain virgins Rape offenders are severely punished. Boys and girls are not allowed to mix. Division of labour is on the basis of sex. Roles of boys and girls are taught from childhood e.g. by copying their Man and woman are equal before God. It is for procreation. Man and woman are complimentary. Both were created in the image of God. They became one in marriage. Sex is only allowed in marriage. Virginity is valued. Human beings have the ability to control sexual desires. Chastity is a virtue. All forms of irresponsible sexual behavior are condemned. br br Q3. In what ways is sex abused in Kenya? br br By practicing fornication/sex before marriage. Adultery sex outside marriage Through prostitution By practicing bestiality Through homosexuality/lesbianism/gayism Incest Rape/defilement of minors Masturbation Pornographic literature using of technological devices in sex br br Q4. Why do you think minors are defiled or sexually abused in Kenya daily? br br Lack of self-control among some men. Drugs and drug abuse. Permissiveness in society. Influence from the mass media. Mental illness mad people. Erosion of the African culture/moral values Devil worship/strange cults/false religion. Breakdown of religion values. Irresponsible parenthood. Indecent dressing. Leniency of the Law/no punishment for criminal. Idleness Poverty br br Responsible Sexual Behaviour Q 5. What is the Christian teaching on responsible sexual behavior? br br Responsible sex is between male and female. Sexual intercourse is allowed between married people. Faithfulness is a virtue in this: Both partners must avoid adultery. Responsible sexual behavior means exercising self-control. It entails obedience to Gods commands hence a Christian has to shun br br forbidden sexual behavior e.g. fornication. br br Body temple of the Lord. Our sexual relationships should uphold human br br dignity and respect for our bodies. br br The Bible teaches that whatever we do with our bodies should be for the br br glory of God 1 Cor. 7:19-20 . Q6. List the difference types of irresponsible sexual behavior Homosexuality lesbianism, sodomy Bestiality Masturbation Rape Incest Prostitution Fornication Abortion Q7. Explain the Christian teaching on responsible sexual behavior br br It defiles the body, which is the temple of God. It is wickedness. It is unholy and dirty before God. It is spiritually unclean. Those involved break the commandment of God. It involves coveting a sin. Polygamy is condemned and considered irresponsible. br br Q8. State the effects of irresponsible sexual behavior It can lead to sexually transmitted diseases AIDS . Can lead to pregnancy and then abortion. If married people are involved adultery divorce may occur. Separation Children suffer lack of parental care due to divorce as a result of br br adultery. br br It may lead to street children. It discourages young people from marrying. It can lead to fights, quarrels, misunderstanding and friction. Young people can chop out of school due to pregnancy/AIDS. Can lead to single parenthood. Withdrawing from family and society. Self-pity and loneliness. Psychological problems e.g. depression Stress Suicide and death. Unwanted/unexpected pregnancies. Aggressiveness and violence. LESSON THREE: THE FAMILY Q5. State the different types of families br br Nuclear family Single parent family Polygamous Extended br br LESSON TWO: MARRIAGE Q1. Explain the Traditional African understanding of marriage br br Marriage is viewed as the focus of existence, i.e. the point where the br br three members of the community meet i.e. living, departed and the unborn . br br A rhythm of life through which everybody must participate. Marriage is a duty/a must/compulsory Failure to marry means the person has rejected society and the society br br rejects him in turn. br br Those who do not marry are considered as sub-human or lawbreakers. Marriage is God ordained. Young boys and girls are prepared for this sacred institution during br br initiation. br br They are taught everything pertaining to marriage e.g. sex. Children cement the marriage. br br Q2. What is the importance of children in Traditional African Society br br They help their parents at old age. Cement a marriage: One without children is considered incomplete. Children boys provide security at home and the community. They help in the perpetuation of the family and community name. The departed are reborn through naming of children. Provide labour. It is through children that new members meet and get to know each br br other. Young children are introduced to their relatives e.g. during initiation, marriage etc. Marriage is for procreation. Marriage is for companionship. It is for fulfillment of mutual love. Marriage is a remedy against sin fornication. It should be monogamous. Marriage should be permanent no divorce. Without or with children marriage is complete. Sex outside marriage is forbidden. br br Q4. What is the importance of courtship period in Traditional African Societies? br br It helped in identifying a suitable marriage partner. The two families involved established a firm relationship. The boy and the girl had a chance to learn each others character. It gives an opportunity to know whether the boy and girl are related. Allows time for exchange of gifts between the two families, thus a firm br br relationship is established. br br Time to negotiate the bride-wealth. Boy and girl are instructed about their duties and responsibilities. br br Q5. Why are many people opting for celibacy instead of marriage today? br br Celibacy is used to refer to the unmarried. Many remain single today because of Christianity to serve God. Some are born Eunuchs cannot father children. Education one may want to pursue education Career demands too demanding to allow one get time for a family. Lack of guidance and counseling on marriage and family. Discouragement from failing marriages. Economic reasons one may not have money for a big house, wedding Economic independence whereby young people feel satisfied when br br they have enough money. br br Parental interference or whom their son should marry. Disappointing relationships. br br CHAPTER SIX CHRISTIAN APPROACHES TO WORK Q1. What is work? Answer br br Work means any human activity, be it manual, intellectual or both. br br Q2. List any six reasons why people work br br People work for self-satisfaction and fulfillment. For personal development. In order to acquire basic needs of life. To give life meaning, direction and dignity. To provide service for the community. To acquire wealth and status in the community. In order to socialize and grow as a member of a community. To attain independence and stop depending on others. In order to help others e.g. beggars. br br Q3. Explain the Traditional African attitude towards work br br Work was understood as a fundamental dimension of human existence br br here on earth. br br It is through work that human beings were able to change, reorganize br br and restructure their society. br br It was regarded as a recreational activity as through it, people built their br br houses, places of worship, produced art like sculpture and carving. br br Work was highly valued and the dignity of work was taught early in Each member had his own role to play e.g. men went out to hunt, herd br br etc accompanied with boys while mother did house work with the help of daughters. br br Grandparents taught the youth how to behave and baby seated. They believed work was Gods will and so they invoked Gods name br br through prayer, sacrifice to bless their work. br br They had freedom over their work. No supervision. They decided when br br to work, when to rest but rest came after work. br br Work was related to leisure, for people sang, danced and told stories as br br they worked. br br Through work, many people exploited talents or learned e.g. building br br houses, song etc. br br All were workers work was compulsory. Work brought people together solidarity. This is because they shared br br work communal work . Q3. List some of the factors that have changed the attitude towards work in the modern society br br Level of education determine the type of work. Availability of job opportunities. Stiff competition Work is personal unlike in Traditional African Communities where it br br was social. br br Negative attitude to work. This is where some people hate manual work. People work for personal gain and gratification. Work is a commodity to be sold to the highest bidder. Have association with other employers. Expect loyalty form their employees. Receive from their employees work input as agreed upon on the br br employment contract. br br Operate without being black mailed by trade unions. Open business ventures without Government restrictions. br br Q5. State the duties of employees br br To carry out their duties to the best of their ability without supervision br br e.g. be punctual, present etc. br br To respect and protect the property of the employer. To resort to peaceful means of solving problems, and not destructive br br ways e.g. strike. br br To work diligently for self fulfillment and development. To respect the employer and fellow employees. br br Q6. Why has child labour become common in Kenya? Definition: This is the employment of children on a full time basis. Reasons: br br Their labour is cheap. They are not unionisable and can therefore not fight for proper terms br br and conditions of service. br br They can easily be lured and fired. They do no have qualifications in any skill so as to negotiate for their br br terms. br br They are looked at as a source of income by their parents or guardians. br br Q7. What are the causes of unemployment in Kenya? br br High population There are too few job opportunities as compared to Bribery and corruption In the job market whereby the rich are able to br br give while the poor though with good qualifications cannot secure a job. br br Lack of skills and capital to start self-employment. Bad governance and poor economic policies from the government. SAPS Structural Adjustment of Programmes i.e. Policy not giving br br funds has led to poverty. br br International policies of globalization that have affected the agric sector br br that has been the greatest employer in Kenya. br br Retrenchment of workers in the Civil Service and Private Sectors. Increase in crime that has aggravated insecurity in the country. This has br br discouraged local and international investors. Q8. What can the Government do to reduce unemployment in Kenya? br br By creating more job opportunities. By starting more industries. Increase of workers by 10 after every 10 years. Encouraging self-employment whereby loans and space are given. Starting of a school curriculum 8.4.4. starting that gears students br br into blue-collar jobs. br br Starting the District Funds for Rural Development C.D.F. Stopping rural urban migration. By Africanisation of jobs sending away foreign workers. br br CHAPTER SEVEN CHRISTIAN APPROACHES TO LEISURE: AND THE USE AND ABUSE OF DRUGS Q1. Identify five 5 reasons why the taking of alcohol as a way of spending leisure is condemned Misuse of family resources. May lead to addiction. Leads to irresponsible sexual behaviours e.g. prostitution, adultery, and br br fornication. br br Could lead to loss of income. May lead to irresponsibility, which leads to accidents such as motor br br accidents. Q2. Write down 5 ways in which modern Christian use their leisure time br br Organize/attend religious seminars. Participate in church choir/concerts. Offers services to the aged. Read religious literature e.g. Bible. Keep the church and its environment clean. Have fellowship with other Christians. Initiate self-help projects to assist the needy. Provide guidance and counseling to the community. Preach the word of God. Visit relatives and friends. Be with family members. Listen to Christian preaching/songs on radio. br br Q3. Give 5 ways in which drug abuse could affect a Christian family br br Drains family resources. Fights in families may occur. Leads to diseases. Leads to family break-ups/separation/divorce. It reduces ones capacity to be productive in the family. Results in making wrong decisions/judgement. Leads to denial of conjugal rights. Leads to loss of religious values. Leads to poor role models for children. Leads to crime/imprisonment. br br Q4. Identify ways in which Christians can overcome temptations to drug abuse br br Practicing self-control. Praying against being tempted. Seeking guidance and counseling. Avoiding the company of those who misuse drugs. Reading literature on the correct use of drugs. Participating in activities that promote proper use of drugs/healthy br br activities. Q5. Why is leisure important in the life of Christians? br br Gives one time to visit the sick/needy. For dedicating oneself to God/worshiping God. Provide an opportunity to fellowship with others. It allows one to develop the different talents given by God. It gives one an opportunity to meet new friends/family. One is able to read the word of God. Provides an opportunity for one to preach/evangelize. Provides an opportunity to take care of the environment. Provides an opportunity to guide and counsel others and be guided. Provides time to rest to gain lost energy. br br Q6. What factors have contributed to the misuse or leisure in Kenya today? br br Too much money/wealth/availability of drugs/contraceptives. Inadequate facilities. Lack of proper guidance/education on how to use leisure. Poverty Inability to make right decisions. Bad company/peer pressure Watching/reading phonographic materials/negative media. Misunderstanding in families/frustrations. Inability to balance between different activities. Permissiveness Lack of role models Idleness/boredom/unemployment br br Q7. State the factors that have led to the misuse of drugs in Kenya today br br Poor role models. Stress/depression/rebellion. Peer pressure/curiosity. Irresponsible parenthood. Influence of mass media. Availability of drugs/wealth. Lack of guidance and counseling. Corruption/greed. Poverty Moral decay/permissiveness in the society. Lack of knowledge/ignorance on use of drugs. Idleness Urbanization/west culture. br br CHAPTER EIGHT CHRISTIAN RESPONSE TO ISSUES RELATED TO WEALTH, MONEY AND POVERTY Q1. Explain the biblical teaching on wealth br br It is a blessing from God. When wealth come with responsibility. Wealth can create a sense of false independence. It should be acquired in just and honest way. Wrong attitude to wealth leads to idolatry. One should seek spiritual wealth, which is permanent and more br br fulfilling. It is wrong to discriminate others on basis of material possessions. Christians should share whatever wealth they have. Wealth is not supreme good. Wealth gives people independence so that they do not beg. Wealth may bring suffering and insecurity. God is the owner of wealth and people should realize that they are only br br stewards. Q2. Discuss the biblical teaching on acquisition and use of wealth Riches acquired through just and fair means are not condemned. Even if wealth is acquired through just means it should not be idolized. Failing to use wealth to glorify God. God is the source of all riches. Wealth is acquired through obedience to Gods laws. People ought to take care of their wealth not misuse. Wealth should be equally distributed and not concentrated in the hands br br of a few. br br Wealth should be used to develop the nations infrastructure. Q3. Explain ways in which people misuse wealth in Kenya today br br Indulge in alcohol and drugs. Engaging in immoral practices e.g. prostitution. Gambling which might lead to loss of wealth. Being luxurious/extravagant Unfair class competition among the wealthy. Using wealth to undermine others e.g. assassination Using wealth to promote crime. Engaging in risky/dangerous sports or projects e.g. motor racing, Q4. Show how misuse of wealth leads to family instability br br One may indulge in alcohol/drug abuse at the expense of family needs. Engage in immorality/extra-marital sexual relations/prostitution. Leads to misunderstanding on how to use wealth/invest. One uses wealth to engage in gambling. Spoils children/encourages laziness. Arrogance/pride/showing off One becomes obsessed with wealth and fails to care for the family love br br has no time for the family. br br Inheritance squabbles in case of death. One fails to meet the basic needs for the family. br br Q5. Give ways in which Kenyan Government is alleviating levels of poverty br br Offering free education. Provision of C.D.F. Allocation of bursary to the needy. Creating and enabling environmental employment in formal and br br informal sectors easy access to loans . br br Providing market for agricultural products e.g. K.C.C, Cereal Board. Provision of low cost health services. Improving infrastructure e.g. roads, electricity. Providing youth fund through the Ministry of Youth Affairs. br br Q6. State the factors that have contributed to high levels of poverty in Kenya today Low level of technology. Unemployment Laziness Over dependence on foreign aid Abuse of alcohol and other drugs Lack of formal education hence no employment. br br CHAPTER NINE CHRISTIAN APPROACHES TO LAW, ORDER AND JUSTICE Q1. State ways in which Christians can promote unity/peach in the society br br By reporting criminals to the police. By being good example to others as peacekeepers. Praying for criminals. Building and counseling criminals. Teaching the society the importance of keeping peace. Condemning evil and evildoers. br br Q2. Why should Christians take part in voting? br br They belong to the society and leadership affects them. It is a God-given duty. In order to choose righteous leaders who will encourage values/virtues. In order to help reduce bribery and corruption and other vices in the br br society. CHAPTER 10 CHRISTIAN APPROACHES TO SELECTED ISSUES RELATED TO MODERN SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND THE ENVIRONMENT Q1. How can modern Christians evaluate scientific and technological discoveries? br br They should keep in mind that God gave them high-level power of br br thinking. br br Discoveries must be used intelligently to solve mans problems. They should not be used as an insult to God who created all things e.g. br br in things like plastic surgery, test tube babies etc. br br Discoveries must be used intelligently to solve mans problems. Discoveries should not erode Christian values by increasing mans trust br br in scientific and technological production. br br Acknowledge God as the source of all truth including science. Should help man make moral decision and judgments e.g. effect of br br alcohol, smoking, etc. br br Man should not be a slave to scientific discoveries instead he should br br control it. Q2. Why is the church in Kenya opposed to plastic surgery? br br It is against Gods plan of old age and death. It is a sign of lack of appreciation to Gods work of creation. It can lead to death if the operation fails. It interferes with Gods image given at birth. May be very expensive. Emphasis on beauty and pleasing which are seen as idolatry. Certain diseases can be transmitted especially where tissues may be br br detached from a donor with an infectious disease. br br Can bring about other operations like diseases. Scientists use it to compete with Gods creation. Leads to vices such as pride. It may lead to criminal activities by the victim due to different Modern methods of transport and communication have improved social br br interaction and faster movements. br br It has improved efficiency at work where machines are used. Has improved agricultural development hence increasing food br br production. br br Irrigation and wealth forecasting have too increased in food production. It has brought better health care through modern medical technology. Human beings are now better placed in terms of security matters by use br br of radar, alarms and electrical fencing. br br It has led to the creation of job opportunities through industrial br br development. br br Formal education and training has equipped human beings with new br br skills for survival. br br Trade has been promoted through the use of computers and the Internet. br br Q4. What are the consequences of science and technology in our society today? br br Unemployment is acute in our society today because computers have br br taken over. br br There is exploitation of workers by the employers because they want br br maximum profits. br br It has caused pollution and air poisoning. It has caused health hazards and accidents in factories, roads etc. Machines have replaced human labour. Families are separated due to employment whereby a mother lives in the br br rural with children while the father goes to town to work. br br It has destroyed family relationships and replaced it with individualis"}
{"text": "1 FORM ONE INTRODUCTION TO CHRISTIAN RELIGIOUS EDUCATION THE IMPORTANCE OF LEARNING CRE Definition of Christian Religious Education CRE Christian Religious Education is the study of Gods revelation to human beings through scriptures, the persons of Jesus Christ and the Holy Spirit. Why do schools study CRE? There are many reasons why schools study CRE. Some of the reasons are to: a Enable you to develop a personal relationship with God. a Help you to acquire basic principles of Christian living. b Help you to develop a sense of self-respect and respect for others. c Help you to develop positive attitudes and values, which help you to cope with challenges of life. d Contribute to the moral and spiritual development of students. e Help you to contribute positively to the transformation of an individual and the society as whole. f Help you to identify answers to situations of life, including death and Eternal life. g Help learners to identify answers to lifes questions. h Promotes international consciousness. i Help you to understand yourself. j Promote cultural integration. k Enable you to acquire a better understanding of God. l Unite people. m Guide you in choosing a career n Help you to appreciate African religious heritage and other religions. ----- 2 o Promote living values such as honesty concern for others, kindness, love and unity. THE BIBLE The Bible is the sacred book containing Gods revelation to people. It is the inspired word of God. It is the book through which God communi- cates with His people. The Bible as the word of God The Bible is the word of God because: a The written scripture contain Gods word. b Through the Bible God communicates his will to humans. c It contains word written by inspired authors such as the prophets who were sent by God. d God himself took part in the writing of the Bible. E.g. God is believed to have written the Ten Commandments e It contains the history of salvation realized through Jesus Christ. f The Word gives revelation to mysteries. g The Bible contains a message of hope and reconciliation. h It reveals that God controlled what was being written and what He inte- nded the writers to pass to the people. The Bible as a library The Bible is referred to as a library since it is a collection of inspired scri- ptures or books. The Bible contains 66 books. The Bible is divided into the Old Testament and the New Testament. The Old Testament contains 39 books while the New Testament contains 27 books. However, the Ro- man Catholic Church accepts 7 additional books referred to as Apocrypha or Deutero or canonical books. The word Apocrypha means hidden or secret. They are Esdras 1, 2 , Tobit, Judith, Ecclesiaticus, Baarch and Maccabees. ----- 3 Why the Bible is a library Several studies show that: a The Bible contains 66 book just like a library has many books. The Bible is a collection of books arranged in series. b The Bible is a reference book for Christians. The authors of the Bible had a special spiritual guidance; hence each book was written for a pur- pose. c The books were written at different times in history. d The Bible has literary works. e The Books written contain different topics. f The Bible has different books written by different authors. g The books of the Bible were written under different situations and cir- cumstances. THE BIBLE: MAJOR DIVISIONS AND ITS BOOKS Major divisions of the Bible The bible is divided into two major divisions. These are the Old Testame- nt with 39 Books and the New Testament with 27 Books . The word Testament means covenant or agreement with God. The Old Testament books are divided into: a. Books of the law or the Pentateuch or Torah. b. Historical books. c. Poetic Books d. Prophetic books. Law books or the Pentateuch or Torah The books of law are i Genesis ii Exodus iii Leviticus iv Numbers v Deuteronomy. Moses wrote these books. They contain the law of God as it was given to the people of Israel through Moses. They also contain the history of the ----- 4 Israelites from creation to the time they entered the Promised Land. The author Moses is regarded as a lawgiver, teacher and prophet. Historical books There are the 12 consecutive books from i Joshua ii Judges iii Ruth iv 1, 2 Samuel v 1, 2 Kings vi 1, 2 Chronicles vii Ezra viii Nehemiah ix Esther. These 12 books record the history of the Israelites. They also contain information about the life and achievements of some prophets, for example, the life history of Elisha and Elijah. Exercise 1 Go through the 12 books and check page by page the names of other prophets. Poetic Books The books are poetic in nature. The poetic books contain wise sayings, songs, and prayers. The poetic books are 1 Psalms which was written by David ii Proverbs iii Ecclesiastes iv Song of Solomon written by Solomon and v Job. Prophetic books These are divided into major and minor prophets. A prophet is a messe- nger of God, or Gods spokesperson. A prophet is a mouthpiece of God. Prophets pass information and messages from God to the people. They are messengers from God. Their messages from God concern the future. Five Major Prophetic Books I. The major prophetic books are by i Isaiah ii Jeremiah iii Lamentations iv Ezekiel and v Daniel. The books are named after the prophets who prophesied and probably wrote them. Jeremiah wrote lamentations. These prophets are called Major Prophets because they cover a longer period of time. Their prophe- cies are long, and they prophesied over a long period of time. II. Minor Prophets. There are 12 books of 1 Hosea 2 Joel 3 Amos 4 Obadiah 5 Jonah 6 Micah 7 Nahum 8 Habakkuk 9 Zephaniah 10 Haggai 11 Zechariah and 12 Malachi. These ----- 5 books are by Minor Prophets who are said to have prophesied over a shorter period of time if you compare them with the Major Prophets. New Testament books are: a. Biographical books or Gospels. b. Historical books Acts of the Apostles . c. The Epistles. d. Apocalyptic or Prophetic book a Biographical book or Gospels Gospel means Good News . The disciples of Jesus wrote the biographical books. They contain information about the birth, life, ministry, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ. The biographical books are four. i Mathew Written by Mathew ii Mark Written by Mark iii Luke Written by Luke, the doctor and iv John written by John the beloved disciple of Jesus Christ b Historical books There is one historical book, which is the Acts of the Apostles. Luke, the writer of the St. Lukes Gospel, wrote it. The book of Acts tells us the history of the early church. c The Epistles There are two Epistles: Pauline Epistles and General Epistles. Pauline Epistles are letters written by Paul. They are 13 letters that Paul wrote to 1 Romans 2,3 1, 2 Corinthians 4 Galatians 5 Ephesians 6 Philip- pines 7 Colossians 8, 9 1, 2 Thessalonians 10, 11 1, 2 Timothy 12 Titus and 13 Philemon. General Epistles are letters written to the church by other people. The letters are 8 in number. They 1 Hebrews 2 James 3,4 1, 2 Peter 5,6,7 1, 2, 3, John and 8 Jude ----- 6 d Apocalyptic or Prophetic book This is the book of Revelation. It is the last book in the New Testament. It is different from other books. This is because it is prophetic of things to come. It is about the future. It was written by John the beloved disciple of Jesus Christ. MAJOR BIBLE TRANSLATIONS FROM THE ORIGINAL LAN- GUAGES TO LOCAL LANGUAGES These books of the Bible are accepted as the Canon of the Bible. The term Canon means Standard or guidance or rule. Translation means expression of books by words and pictures, poems and songs from one language to another. The Old Testament was originally written in Hebrew, the langua- ge of the Israelites. Then between 250 100 BC, it was translated to the Greek language. The Greek translation of the Bible was known as Septua- gint. This term refers to 70 translators. The Jews in dispersion or Diaspora used this translation. These were the Jews living outside Palestine. Between 386 420 A.D. Jerome, a great Christian Scholar, translated the entire bible from Greek into Latin, the language of the Romans. This tran- slation was called Vulgate. Christians used the Latin translation of the Bible up to the 16th century. During the reformation in the 16th Century, Christians were encouraged to use their own native languages in worship. From that time, the Bible was translated into English and German. As Christianity spread to different parts of the world, there was the need for translations of the Holy Bible into various languages. In 1804, the British formed the Foreign Bible Society, which translated the Bible into many languages. Johann Ludwig Krapf translated the New Testament into Kiswahili. This was the first Bible translation in East Africa. Since that time, the Bible Society of Kenya has translated the Bible into other languages such ----- 7 as Kikuyu in 1951, Kikamba in 1956, Kimeru in 1964, Kalenjin in 1968, and Luhya in 1974. By 1980 the Bible had been translated into 29 Kenyan languages. To date 2010 the Bible has been translated into 42 languages of Kenya. Translation and versions used in Kenya today Besides bible translation into several languages, there are many English translation versions, which are commonly used in Kenya. These are i King James Version ii Jerusalem Bible iii New International version iv English Bible v The Authorized Version vi Good News vii Revised Standard Version viii New King James Version ix Amplified Bible x The living Bible xi The African Bible xii Common Bible xiii Todays English Bible xiv American version among others. Writing of the Bible By 2010, the Bible Society of Kenya had translated the Bible into 42 Kenyan languages. The need to read the Bible led to writing of Bible reading materials to teach literacy in local languages. Those who wrote the Bible used different styles, and figures of speech to make their message vivid and clear. Several literary forms were used in the writing of the Bible. These are: a. Poetry in Psalms Activity a Read Psalms and notice the poetry used by David when he wrote psalms b Read Job. Notice the rhythm of the words c Turn to your English textbook the Integrated English. Read topic 4 on sound and pattern in poetry. d Read any Psalm and any verse from Job. What do you notice? Other literary forms that are used in the Bible are: ----- 8 i Prose in Leviticus, which is a Legislative text ii Wise sayings in Proverbs iii Prophetic speeches by Jeremiah iv Prayers by Nehemiah v Love Songs, for example, the Songs of Solomon vi Letters. Here see Pauline Epistles Romans vii Gospels, for example, Marks Gospel viii Religious events, for example, Exodus ix Narratives, for example, Genesis x Philosophical essays, for example, the book of Job. Here note the use of metaphors and similes in philosophical essays. The effects of Bible translations on African languages Bible translations: i Increased and deepened African faith in God. ii Led to increased literacy. After Africans acquired literacy skills, they read the Bible and improved their literacy skills. Christian missionaries established schools in order to teach literacy that helped African to read the Bible. ii Made it easy for missionaries to spread the gospel to the African communities. iii Increased the demand for the Bible. This led to writing of Books and setting up of printing presses in African countries. iv Made it easy for the expansion of the church i.e. more people became Christians. v Led to the emergence of independent churches and schools. vi The missionaries and colonialists learnt the African languages. vii The African converts realized that the missionaries were unfair to them. There was for example a different treatment of African by White missionaries. This was inequality of races, which was and is even now against Christian teachings. ----- 9 viii Helped Africans to re-discover their cultural identity. For example the use of African instruments, dressings, and practice of polygamy, which David and other kings in the Old Testament did. ix Led to the writings and spread of African languages. The missionaries learnt local languages. x Improved communications between missionaries and the local people because they could understand each other. xi Increased printing of reading materials The effects of Bible translations on Africans communities After the first Bible translations, there were immediate effects or influences on some communities. For example, some community leaders did not agree with the Christian teachings. Some wanted to retain aspects of their African religion. As a result, some communities who disagreed with Bible translations established their own Christian denominations in order to preach the Bible, as they understood it. This was the emergence of independent churches. Some African communities built independent schools where their children could learn how to read and write without being forced to practice all the Christian teachings. Review questions 1 What is the importance of reading the Bible? 2 How is the Bible used in society today? 3 How does the Kenya Government use the Bible today? 4 Name the major divisions of the Bible in both the New Testament and the Old Testament 5 What are the effects of Bible translation on African languages? 6 Why is the Bible referred to as a a Library and b the Word of God 7 What is the meaning of the term inspiration? Study activities 1. Read the Bible quotations given above. 2. Carry out role plays e.g. the sacrifice of Isaac by Abraham. ----- 10 3. Visit old people in your community and ask them about African religious traditional practices. CREATION AND THE FALL OF MAN GENESIS 1-3, 6-9, 11 INTRODUCTION In this topic, you shall learn about creation and the fall of man. This information is in Genesis. BIBLICAL ACCOUNTS OF CREATION AND THEIR MEANINGS The book of Genesis begins with two creation stories. The first creation story is in Genesis chapter one. The second creation story is in Genesis chapter two. The two creation stories The first creation story is in Genesis chapter one. The second creation story is in Genesis chapter two. This story is like a song or poem. Its written, Let there be and God saw that it was good to separate, and there was evening and morning on Each creation is taken as a day. The creation took place in the following order. It is orderly: 1st day God created day and night Light and darkness 2nd day The Heavens sky 3rd day The Earth, Water / Sea, Vegetation Plants, trees, grass 4th day Sun, Moon and Stars 5thday Birds, Sea Creatures 6th day Animals, Livestock, Man was the last creation human beings 7th day God rested and blessed the 7th day and made it holy. In this creation story, we see God creating things in an orderly manner, day after day until the 6th day. It was last in the first account. God created man from dust and breathed into his nostrils before anything else is mentioned. God then put man in the Garden of Eden, which He had made for him so that man could till and keep it. The garden was planted eastward in Eden. Out of the ground, God made every tree to grow. In the ----- 11 middle of the garden, there was the tree of knowledge of good and evil. Man was given the responsibility of tilling and conserving the garden. Man was commanded to eat of every tree in the garden except the tree of knowledge of good and evil. A river flowed from the garden and then it separated into four tributaries. God saw that man should not be alone hence He made him a helper/mate; a woman from one of the mans ribs. Man was also given the responsibility of naming all the animals in the garden. There is mention of God resting after work ----- 12 Differences between the two creation stories FIRST ACCOUNT SECOND ACCOUNT --- --- Mentions what was created on which day. Each creation takes a day. -This story is like a song or a poem. Its written, Let there be and God saw that it was good to separate, and there was evening and morning -It is orderly. -Mentions what was created on which day. -Rivers and garden are not me- ntioned. -Man and woman were created together. -No mention of the knowledge. -Marriage is for procreation. -Sun, moon, stars, sky are mentioned -God rested on the seventh day hence the Sabbath day -doesnt mention the daily activities of GOD -The story is in prose. For example and God said and it was evening... -Not orderly was last in the first account -Doesnt mention what was created on which day -Mentions rivers, and garden for tilling -Woman was created from ribs of man -Mention of the knowledge -Marriage is for companionship -Sun, moon, stars, sky are not mentioned -Mention of resting after work but Sabbath day is not mentioned Similarities between the two accounts of creation In both creation accounts: a Men and women are created by God and are given special references. Man and woman are special to God. ----- 13 b God rested after creation. c God provided the source of food. d God is portrayed as the sole creator of the universe and everything in it. e Man is given the responsibility of controlling animals, birds and plants that God created Activity Find out the differences between the two creation stories and write them down. Now compare them with my answer. ATTRIBUTES OF GOD FROM THE BIBLICAL CREATION ACCOUNTS The creation stories tell us that God is: i The sole creator and the only source of life ii Immortal and Eternal iii He is self existent iv God of order v Source of goodness and true happiness vi Holy, merciful and just vii Provider and sustainer of the universe and all that is in it viii All knowing Omniscient ix All powerful Omnipotent x Everywhere Omnipresent xi A personal God. xii He has a mind and a will xiii Moral God. He is interested in the behaviour of man and woman. He commands her/him to do the right things. ----- 14 TRADITIONAL AFRICAN UNDERSTANDING OF CREATION Traditional African view of creation is brought out through traditional stories of creation Myths . The Agikuyu, Akamba, Gusii and other Kenyan communities have stories explaining their origin. These stories give each community a sense of belonging, and identity. The stories explain the mysteries of life. These stories have common characteristics or teachings. Thus all African communities believe that God: - i Is the chief architect of the world ii Existed from the very beginning of time. iii Created everything out of nothing. iv Provides for the needs of human beings. v Was disobeyed by human beings who had lived in eternal bliss. This bliss came to an end when human beings disobeyed God. vi The African communities had different names to describe God. God was not known as God but as the Creator of everything that existed on earth and skies. He was Mumbi and Mungai to Gikuyu. He was master of the universe. The Kamba called Him Ngai wa Matu. They believed that God continues to create through human beings. Examples of African creation stories 1. The Kamba believed that God created man and woman then tossed them to the earth. 2. The Bukusu say that God the creator Were Khakaba created the world alone. a. First God created heaven then created two assistants, Mukhaba and Murumwa. Were the God made the sun, moon, stars, a big red cock which crows whenever it thunders, the rains, the rainbow, mountains, rivers, lakes, streams and all the other things on earth. b. Created a woman for the man. c. Created plants, animals, birds and other creatures. ----- 15 d. Creation work took six days. On the seventh day Were rested. Activity Ask your parents about your community creation story. THE TEACHINGS FROM THE BIBLICAL CREATION ACCOUNTS I. God is responsible for all creation. He is the sole creator. Gods creation was good. Everything He created God said it was good. It was without flaws and mistakes. God is the provider. God created everything that man needs. He also created food for all animals and other creatures. God is orderly. II. Man has a special place in Gods creation. Man was made as the keeper of God creation. Man is a co-creator and keeper of Gods creation since he was made in the image and likeness of God. Man was comma- nded to work. III. A woman was made from the mans flesh. She joins man in marriage and they become one flesh. God ordains marriage. Human beings were created to socialize. IV. Sin is a result of man and woman disobedience of God. Responsibilities given to human beings by God in the Genesis stories of creation After creating man and then woman, God asked man to: a. Reproduce and multiply. b. Rule over the rest of His creations. c. Be in charge of the fish, birds, and all the animals. d. Cultivate the garden and guard it. e. Eat from the fruits of the garden except from the tree of knowledge of good and evil. f. Name the animals. g. Subdue the earth ----- 16 h. Transform the creation that God has provided human beings with i. Use creation forests, rivers, mountains with responsibility and respect. j. Be a steward of Gods creation k. Engineer Gods creation by creating things from the creation l. Dominate the earth Group work Work in twos or threes and answer these questions. i. How does man fulfill the command to subdue and fill the earth? ii. How is man a co creator with God? BIBLICAL TEACHING: THE FALL OF MAN, ORIGIN OF SIN AND THE CONSEQUENCES Introduction Man and woman fell from the Garden of Eden. This experience is expla- ined in genesis chapter 3 verse 4; chapter 6 verse 9 and chapter 11. In these verses, the Bible is teaching about sin, which made Adam and Eve fall. Sin is defined as iniquity, and guilt. It is to miss a mark, to transgress. Sin is a rebellion or an offence against God. Sin originated with the disobedience of Adam and Eve. They had been commanded not to eat of the fruits of the tree of knowledge of good and evil the tree in the middle of the Garden of Eden. But Adam and Eve ate the fruit after being deceived by the serpent. Man had the power to resist temptation but instead he yielded. Genesis Chapter 3 verse 6 states that man wanted to be wise and thought how wonderful it would be to become wise hence sin arises from the lack of knowledge of God, from the denial of trust of God. The consequences of sin After sinning, we the human race and sinners: 1 Replaced friendship with God with fear of God. ----- 17 2 Lost innocence. What had been innocent and good became shameful. Adam and Eve became ashamed of their nakedness, something they had never felt before they sinned against God. 3 Lost good relationship with God. The good relationship between God and man was betrayed. Human beings were alienated from God. The Lord God sent him out of the Garden of Eden 4 Damaged the perfect relationship between man and woman. The Lord said to the woman You will have desire for your husband, yet you will be subject to him. 5 Pain became part of human experience. I will greatly multiply your pain in child bearing. 6 Man began toiling and struggling to meet his needs You will have to work hard and sweat to make the soil produce anything 7 The home of man, and the earth itself was placed under a curse. Cursed is the ground because of you. Enmity between man and wild animals emerged. 9 Man began to die. Death sentence is passed upon all men. You will return to the ground you are dust 10 Man began to hate. Man developed murderous feelings in his heart, for example Cain killed Abel, his younger brother. 11 Man changed and became prone to sin. 12 Life span of man was reduced see Gen. 6:3 I will not allow people to live forever, they will live no longer than 120 years 13 Mans language was confused by God after the flood read Gen.11: 7 14 Sin led to embarrassment, mistrust, suffering, pain, pride, arrogance and death. Summary Disobedience of God by Adam and Eve brought serious sin consequences to human beings. Sin brings sadness and suffering to man even today. ----- 18 Activity In groups of two or three, discuss the origin and consequences of sin. CONCEPT OF EVIL Introduction In this lesson, we shall discuss the concept of evil as told by the traditi- onal African religion and the biblical writings. We shall study similarities and differences of evil from the two religions. What is evil? In the traditional African society, evil was an offence against God, spirits and ancestors. It was also viewed as an offence against another person or community. Evil was also a misfortune that can befall an individual or a community. What are the causes of evil? Many of the traditional African societies do not associate God with evil. God is not the creator of evil. Some communities believe that evil is an external power that exists on its own. Thus in the traditional African society, evil was understood or explained as something mysterious that was caused by several people and things. These were: a Evil spirits b Ancestral spirits due to disobedience to them c Some animals like the chameleon are sources of evil. The Akamba believed that chameleons brought evil. Other communities believed that if an owl cries near ones homestead, it is a sign of evil. d People with mystical powers for example magic, sorcery, and witchcraft are evils e If a member of a community breaks a taboo by disobedience, this action may bring evil spirits. f The spirits of the dead; cause evil; if they are not remembered or respected. Evil spirits cause harm and violence. ----- 19 Consequences of evil in traditional African society These were many and ranged from a Barrenness b Drought c Epidemics d Madness e Sickness f Death g Drowning h Burning in a house i War j Physically and mentally handicapped children l Rebellious children GODS PLAN OF SALVATION After the fall of man, God took steps to heal the damaged situation and relationship between Him and Adam and Eve. GOD: 1. Provided clothing of skin to Adam and Eve. 2. Looked for Adam and Eve since they were hiding from His presence. 3. Provided Adam and Eve with the knowledge to find different foods. 4. Declared enmity between man and the snake. 5. Hinted at the ultimate victory of man when He said that the seed of the woman would crush the snake or serpents head. The serpent would attack the heel of man and woman. All through the Old Testament, and the New Testament, we see Gods plan of salvation being manifested. For instance, GOD chose and separated Abraham from other communities. The children of Israel led by Moses were delivered from Egypt,. God sent prophets to teach and warn the Israelites of the dangers of sin. Finally God sent his only son Jesus Christ to die on the cross to save human kind. SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES BETWEEN TRADITIONAL AFRICAN VIEW OF EVIL AND BIBLICAL CONCEPT OF SIN Similarities Both the Biblical and traditional African view or agree that 1 God is supreme. God is neither the creator nor author of evil ----- 20 2 Sin comes from the disobedience of God by human beings 3 Evil and misfortune are Gods curse to man Biblical while the traditional African society sees evil as curses by ancestors, and elders. Both curses lead to misfortunes. 4 The result of sin and evil is human sufferings 5 Sin and evil lead to man being separated from God 6 God is the guardian of law and order 7 Human beings have the ability to overcome evil Differences 1 Biblical account emphasizes personal nature of sin while in the African concept; sin is more social and communal 2 Biblical account attributes evil to disobedience while African concept attributes evil not only to disobediences but other external forces. 3 Biblical accounts offer a message of hope to overcome evil while African concept doesnt offer a solution to sin and evil. 4 Traditional African concept all forms of suffering as a result of sin while in the Bible suffering is not always a result of sin. Review questions 1 Explain the differences between the two creation stories 2 State the traditional African view of creation 3 Explain how human beings continue with the work of creation 4 What is the origin of sin and evil according to traditional African society? 5 Give three consequences of sin as stated in Genesis 6 State the consequences of evil according to African traditional societies 7 Trace Gods plan of salvation of human kind Compare biblical and traditional African understanding of evil and sin. 9 What does the command Subdue the earth in Genesis 1 verse 28 mean? ----- 21 FAITH AND GOD PROMISES TO ABRAHAM BACKGROUND TO THE CALL OF ABRAHAM Genesis 11:24-32, 12 Introduction The background to the call of Abraham is found in the first book of the bible. This is Genesis which is a Greek word meaning Beginning. The relationship between Adam and God was good but after Adam disobeyed GOD, their relationship changed because of sin by Eve and Adam. After sometime, God repaired this relationship by calling Abraham and offering salvation. Background -Abraham lived with his father Terah at a place called Ur. Abrahams father lived among people who worshiped many gods. One of the gods whom people of Ur worshipped was the moon. This worship of many gods is referred to as polytheism. -The family of Terah moved from Ur to Haran. While at Haran, God called Abraham at 75 years old. He was told to. Leave your country, your relatives and your fathers home and go to a land that I am going to show you. Abraham obeyed Gods call. He left Haran for a land that was unknown to him. He took his property his wife Sarah and his nephew lot. At the time of the call of Abraham, he was known as Abram and his wife Sarai. God changed their names to Abraham and Sarah. Abraham means Father of many nations while Sarah means mother of nations. -On arrival in Canaan, he travelled and came to a place called Schechem. God appeared to him once more. Abraham built an altar for the lord at this place. Altars are places of worship. They were regarded as holy and were manifestations of Gods presence. An altar was made of stones. -After sometime, he separated with his nephew Lot due to their servants having strife over water for their livestock. Abraham left Canaan due to feminine. He went to Egypt. ----- 22 Activity 1. Where did Lot settle? 2. Read GENESIS, chapter 11 24 32 and chapter 12 1 9 FAITH AND GODS PROMISES TO ABRAHAM HEBREWS 11: 1 6 a. THE MEANING OF FAITH -Faith is a strong belief, a complete trust or confidence in someone or something. It is also a firm belief, which is not based on any scientific or logical proof. Faith in God is an attitude of complete trust in God. It is not based on concrete or tangible objects. Faith is manifested in the ways of life of a believer. -Abraham is an example of someone who had faith in God. He showed his faith in action in several ways. b. HOW ABRAHAM DEMONSTRATED HIS FAITH IN GOD 1. Although Abraham was old, he left Haran to go to a strange unknown land of Canaan. 2. After he settled in Canaan, Abraham was assured by God of his protection and was given other promises such as he will get a son, and Abraham believed God. Sarah gave birth to a son when she was 90 years old and Abraham was around 120 years old. This was as the lord had promised Abraham. 3. The son was named Isaac that means laughter because Sarah had laughed when she was told that she would have a child in her old age. The child Isaac was circumcised when he was eight 8 days old. 4. Abraham was told by God to circumcise all males in his household including himself. He obeyed. 5. When Abraham was asked to sacrifice his son Isaac to God, he was ready to do so. ----- 23 6. Abraham believed that God would fulfill all the promises he had given to him 7. Abraham demonstrated his faith by building altars c. GODS PROMISES TO ABRAHAM GENESIS 12:2-3, 15:1-21, 21, 17:1-8, 17:15-18 A promise is giving an assurance of something to someone. The promises God gave to Abraham were that: 1. God told him he would give him a land. His descendants would be given the land of Canaan to dwell in 2. His name would be made famous 3. His descendants will be many. Abraham would be made a great nation. 4. God would protect him 5. He was promised a son of their own 6. God would bless him 7. God would bless those who bless him and curse those who curse him 8. Abraham was promised that he would die in peace and in an old age 9. His descendants would be strangers in a foreign land but afterwards would come out with great possessions. d. THE RELEVANCE OF THE PROMISES MADE BY GOD TO ABRAHAM TO CHRISTIANS TODAY Gen. 12: 2 3, 15: 1 21, 21:1 7, 17: 15 18 God called Abraham from idol worship in the same way God continues to call people to serve him. 1 Through Abraham, God had a plan to restore the relationship between man and God 2 Christians receive the promises of blessings from God through Abraham Gods promises to Abraham fulfilled through Christians 3 As Abraham left his own people, Christians should leave their sinful lives and put their whole trust in God. ----- 24 4 Abraham is seen as the descendant not only of the Israelites but also of Christians 5 Christians have faith that God fulfils promises to them as he did to Abraham 6 Christians are assured of Gods protection 7 Through Gods dealing with Abraham, God shows that he values a personal relationship with human kind. Through Jesus Christ Christians enter into an everlasting covenant with God. Just like Abraham entered into a covenant with God. 9 The promise to Abraham of Canaan Promised Land is to Christians the hope for new land heaven 10 God continues to make promises to those who believe him 11 Abraham is the ancestor Father of all believers e. DEFINE THE TERM COVENANT i. Definition. A covenant is a solemn agreement between two persons or two groups of people. An agreement is between two separated parties. Its a pact, a treaty. When it is a covenant, it conveys a union or partnership. ii. Characteristics / components of a covenant There are components or features that must be in a covenant. A covenant must have a ceremony, sign, witnesses, promises/vows/oaths, obligations / consequences, and participants. A covenant establishes a sacrificial bond between the parties involved. There are obligations or rules by which the parties must abide by, adhere to and observe in order to keep the covenant. A covenant is an agreement and if it is broken, there are consequences for breaking it. In the Bible, there are many covenants. iii. Examples of covenants in the Bible 1. Adamic covenant Agreement between God and Adam 2. Noahlic Covenant Gods covenant with Noah where God promised to preserve life of man and not to destroy it with water. The sign of the ----- 25 covenant is the rainbow. In Gen 9 verse 3, GOD told Noah, Everything that lives and moves will be food for youJust as I gave you the green plants, I now give you everything. Verse 4 says, But you must not eat meat that has its lifeblood still in it 3. Abrahamic covenant Gods covenant with Abraham. He promised to fulfill promises He gave to Abraham. These promises were: 1 Increase numbers of descendant of Abraham. He will be father of many nations, 2 Be GOD of his descendants 3 Abraham will have a son an heir, 4 Given land of Canaan and other lands from the river of Egypt to River Euphrates, and all for heirs of Abraham Gen. 15: 17 18 5 Circum- cision of all males at 8 days after birth even none Israelites living in their land 6 Covenant with Isaac 4. Mosaic Covenant is a covenant between the Israelites and GOD. Moses led Israel to Mt. Sinai. God promised to be their God. Israelites were given the law written by GOD in tablets of stone, with law and commands I have written for. instruction. Read exodus 23 . 5. Davidic Covenant covenant between David and God God promised him that his dynasty would rule forever. 6. Messianic Covenant new covenant between Christians and God through Jesus Christ. iv. Gods covenant with Abraham and its importance Genesis 15:1- 19 The covenant was established after God appeared to Abraham in a vision. During the visitation of God, Abraham was 100 years old and Sarah 90 years. He was promised a son. Abraham wanted assurance from God. God told him to bring him the following items for sacrifice. v. Items for sacrifice Three 3 years olds: heifer, goat, ram and a dove and a pigeon. Abraham then cut these animals into two halves and placed them opposite each other. ----- 26 The birds were not split. After it was dark, smoking fire and a flaming torch suddenly appeared and passed between the pieces of animals. Towards evening, Abraham fell into a deep sleep. While he slept the Lord appeared to him and told him that: His descendants will be strangers in a foreign land and be slaves for 400 years. But they will come out of this land with a lot of wealth and God will punish the nation that will enslave Israelites. He, Abraham will live up to a ripe age, and die in peace. Then the Lord made a covenant with Abraham and promised to give him and his descendants the land of Canaan. God himself passed through the sacrifi- ces and bound himself to keep the promises. f IMPORTANCE OF THE COVENANT BETWEEN GOD AND ABRAHAM GEN. 15: 1- 19 God bound himself in a personal relationship with a human being As God passed through the meat, he showed Abraham he would always protect him. This passed on to the descendants of Abraham This covenant between God and Abraham begins a lasting relationship between God and all the nations of the earth. Throughout this covenant God was initiating his plan of salvation for human kind The promises made to Abraham were fulfilled in New Testament blood of the lamb death of Jesus Christ It emphasized the importance of faith followed by obedience that Abraham shared. g COVENANTS IN MODERN LIFE AND THEIR IMPORTANCE Modern covenants are a Marriage b Baptism c Oath of loyalty and d Ordination of clergy Marriage ceremony: In marriage, the bride, bridegroom and their fami- lies come together. When the two families come together a relationship is ----- 27 developed. They make an agreement and both sides are seriously involved in the ceremony, whether the marriage is civil or religious. During the marriage ceremony the couple makes vows/promises to each other, before a priest/ pastor and the congregation. Two officials witness these agree- ments. Rings are exchanged as a sign of a lasting relationship. A certifi- cate is given in some cases as a testimony sign of this agreement. There is eating and drinking. Baptism: In a Christian baptism, a covenant is entered into between the believer and God. The believer makes vows before God. The priest and the whole congregation witness this agreement. In some churches, a card is issued to the person who has been baptized as a sign of Christian mem- bership. The baptized can now take the Holy Communion, which is a Christian Ceremony. But when an infant is baptized, parents take the vows on behalf of the child. Loyalty /oath : Leaders in public service for example the president, ministers, Members of Parliament, and chief officers are sworn in before they take over their new responsibilities. They swear take an oath and promise to carry out their duties firmly and without fear or favour. Ordination of the clergy : Church leaders, nuns and priests take oaths and make vows to God and to the congregation in a ceremony attended by worshippers. The importance of modern day covenants They bind different groups They act as a security They strengthen relationships They unite people together They create loyalty They create peace, harmony and bring a sense of permanence h THE TESTING OF ABRAHAMS FAITH GEN. 22: 1 18 ----- 28 God tested Abrahams faith by asking him to go and sacrifice his only son Isaac. This was the son he loved so much. He was to travel to Mount Moniah. On reaching Mt. Moriah, he built an altar, and arranged wood on it. He tied up his son Isaac and placed him on the altar on top of the wood. He lifted a knife to kill him. But the Angel of the Lord called out to him from heaven. Abraham! Abraham! Do not lay a hand on the boyDo not do anything to him. Now I know you that you fear God, because you have not withheld from me your son, your only son v 11-12 . Abraham had obedient reverence for God became he did not keep back his only son from God. God provided a ram for sacrifice. He named the mountain the Lord provided God was pleased with Abraham and promised him blessings, many descendants victory, and protection. Activity Read Genesis 12:1 9, 15:1 6, 17:23 24, 21:1 7, 22:1-19 IMPORTANCE OF FAITH IN CHRISTIAN LIFE TODAY 1. A Christian today is acceptable to God through his faith in God through Jesus Christ. Without faith it is impossible to please God. 2. A Christian can only serve God if he has faith in him. Faith enables a Christian to serve God 3. Faith enables a Christian to accomplish what appears to be impossible 4. Through faith, Christians are able to trust God to fulfill his promises to them 5. Faith is the foundation of the Christians salvation 6. Faith in God gives a Christian the power to overcome all temptations. 8. Christians should expect to have their faith tested just like Abraham was. 9. Faith enables Christians to patiently wait on Gods promises 10. Christians through faith in God help the poor, make right decisions and are able to understand and know God better. ----- 29 JEWISH AND AFRICAN PRACTICES OF CIRCUMCISION a. IMPORTANCE OF CIRCUMCISION TO ABRAHAM AND HIS DESCENDANTS GEN. 17: 1 16 The rite of circumcision was started by Abraham and has been practiced by the Jews up to the present times. In the Old Testament, it was important because: i Through circumcision: God assured Abraham that he would fulfill His promises to him. ii Circumcision was a sign that Abraham and his descendants had entered into a covenant with God. It was an outward sign of inner faith. iii Circumcision was a mark of identity for the Jews iv It was a sign of obedience to God v It was an acceptance of God as the only true God and their willingness to remain faithful to him In the New Testament vi Circumcision doesnt qualify one to be a child of God. One is accepted as a Christian without circumcision as long as they have faith in God. vii A true descendant of Abraham is the Christian who truly believes in God and lives according to His will regardless of colour, race or creed. b. CIRCUMCISION IN AFRICAN COMMUNITIES Circumcision is one of the rites of passage among the African people. It marks the transition from one stage to another. Many ethnic communities in Kenya still practice the rite of circumcision. During circumcision ceremonies, prayers are offered to God for the well being of the initiates those who are being circumcised and the prosperity of the whole community. Initiates learn secrets of their community and society. They are taught myths, origin, religious beliefs, and sex education. In some communities, initiates are given new names or ornaments to signify their new status. ----- 30 c. JEWISH AND AFRICAN PRACTICES OF CIRCUMCISION Similarities In both Jewish and African communities, circumcision: a is a mark of identity b provided a sense of belonging c was observed as a religious experience d was compulsory e was a tradition passed from one generation to another f is a time for shedding blood g was a time for offering prayers to God for the well being of the initiates h was a time for giving gifts i was a ceremony for initiation j was a time for giving the initiates names k took place in sacred places. Differences In Jewish community, i. Circumcision was a rite for boys while in African society it was for both boys and girls. But it was for boys in a few communities. ii. Boys were circumcised when aged 8 days while in the African society; it was between 15 to 25 years old. iii. Circumcision was for boys organ while in African societies several forms of initiation were done, for example, removal of teeth, and body piercing among others. iv. Circumcision was a command from God while for the African communities it was in obedience to customary law where ancestors were invoked to protect the initiates. Among the African societies v. Circumcision was a rite of passage from childhood to adulthood while for the Jews it was not. vi. The initiates were given specialized education while the Jews were not. vii. The initiates were grouped into age groups, and were secluded from the community while among the Jews it was not so. viii. The rite of circumcision according to seasons while the Jews once a child is born, they are circumcised on the 8th day. ----- 31 ix. After circumcision, the initiates were allowed to marry, enter a warrior group, own property but for the Jews the initiate was still a child. Revision questions 1.Explain why Abraham is referred to as the father of faith 2. Give five actions from the life of Abraham that shows his faith to God 3. List some of the promises God gave to Abraham 4. Compare and contrast the Jewish and traditional African practice of circumcision 5. What is the importance of faith to Christians? 6. State the elements of a covenant 7. Give examples of covenants in the bible and the modern society 8. Discuss the circumstances that led God to enter into a covenant relationship with Abraham. SINAI COVENANT THE CALL OF MOSES One day, Moses was looking after or tending the flock of Jethro his father-in-law. Jethro was a priest of Midian. When Moses came to mount Horeb, the mountain of God, the angel of the Lord appeared to him in flames of fire from within a bush. Moses saw that although the bush was on fire, it was not burning. Moses went over to the burning bush to look. God called him out within the bush Moses! Moses! He replied, Here I am. God then told Moses not to come closer and to take off his sandals for the place where he was standing was a holy ground. God introduced himself as the God of his father, the God of Abraham, the God of Isaac and the God of Jacob. God then said he had seen the misery and sufferings of the Israelites in Egypt. He had heard their cry. God had come down to rescue Israelites from the hand of Egyptians. God was to ----- 32 take them to their home, the land of the Canaanites, a land flowing with milk and honey. God told Moses that He was sending him to go to Pharaoh and bring out the Israelites, the people of God, from Egypt. Moses resisted the call. He asked God Who am I, that is should go to Pharaoh and bring the Israe- lites out of Egypt? God promised to be with him. God said to Moses Say to the Israelites the Lord. The God of their fathers, God of Abraham, God of Isaac and God of Jacob has sent me to you. Moses was told to assemble the elders of Israel and inform them that God was going to deliver them from Egypt. Moses was then to go to the king of Egypt with the elders. He was to tell the king the Lord, the God of the Hebrews has met with us. EXODUS 3:1 22 Gods sign to Moses Moses was given several signs by God In case the people of Israel did not believe in him. a First sign was his staff turning into a snake when he threw it down. When he touched the snakes tail it turned into his staff b Second sign was God asked Moses to put his hand inside his cloak and it was as white as a snow leprous. He was asked to put it back into his cloak and it was restored. c Moses further complained that he was a stammerer. God then appoi- nted Aaron, his brother, as his spokesman. Reasons Moses gave against the call 1. He felt unworthy of the call. 2. He wondered who he was to tell the Israelites that God had sent him 3. Moses said that he was a stammerer so he let God choose a spokesperson. Moses however heeded to the call and went back to Egypt together with his family. God promised to be with him and perform signs before Phara- oh. ----- 33 What does the name Moses mean? It means drawn out of water. What did Moses learn about God from his Calling? Moses learnt that: 1. God is caring, merciful and concerned about the welfare of his people Israelites. 2. God is transcendent he is beyond human understanding. He cannot be limited to time and space. 3. God chooses whomever he wills to carry out his plans. He chose Abraham an old man, a moon worshipper and now Moses, a murderer, a fugitive and a stammerer. 4. God expects total obedience and faith from those that He chooses 5. God is powerful, eternal and omnipresent 6. God is holy. 7. God is a God of history, which means He is concerned with His peoples welfare. 8. God is mysterious He manifested Himself in the burning bush that was not being consumed. How did God prepare Moses to be the future leader of Israelites? 1. His life was spared when he was rescued by Pharaohs daughter 2. He was nursed by his own mother who taught him about Yahweh and his own true identity 3. Life in the wilderness hardened him to be bold and to persevere hardships 4. He learnt to be patient, keen, and responsible as a shepherd 5. He acquired leadership skills while living at pharaohs palace 6. He learnt literacy and numeracy skills Educational skills at the palace. 7. He was not a stranger to Pharaoh hence he could approach him freely. ----- 34 THE TEN PLAGUES EXODUS 7:14-11:10 During the call of Moses at Mount Sinai, God gave Moses a rod with which he could perform mighty signs before the Israelites and before Pharaoh. Aaron was to be his spokesman. Moses and Aaron gathered the Israelite elders and leaders to tell them what God had said to them. After Moses had performed the miracles that God had showed him; the Israelite leaders believed him. They then approached Pharaoh so that he may release the Israelites. However instead of releasing the Israelites, Pharaoh became crueler. He gave Israelites harder work. When Pharaoh refused to release Israelites, God instructed Moses to bring ten plagues upon Egypt. These plagues brought; great trouble and suffering to Israelites. Ten plagues 1 The plague of blood Exodus 7: 14 25 Moses and Aaron used the rod. They struck the waters of the river as God instructed them. All the water in the rivers, canals, and pools in Egypt turned into blood. All the fish died and there was no water to drink. This situation lasted for seven days. However Pharaohs heart was hardened. He did not release the Israelites. 2 The plague of frogs Exodus 8:1 15 God then sent Moses to tell Pharaoh that if he refused to release the Israelites the whole land would be covered with frogs. At the command of Moses, Aaron held out the rod of Moses and frogs covered the whole land. On seeing this, Pharaoh pleaded with Moses and Aaron to pray to the Lord to get rid of the frogs and he would release them. They prayed and all the frogs died. Pharaoh, however, changed his mind and refused to release the Israelites. ----- 35 3 Plague of gnats Exodus 8:16 19 The lord instructed Moses to tell Aaron to strike the ground and Aaron did so and all the dust in Egypt turned into gnats or small flies that bites. The magicians of Egypt could perform the first two plagues. They could not bring the plague of gnats. Egyptians acknowledged that the presence of gnats or small flies that bites was Gods work. But even with this information, Pharaoh still refused to release the Israelites. 4 Plague of flies Exodus 8:20 32 The Lord warned Pharaoh through Moses once more. He was told that God would send swarms of flies to the Egyptian houses. The Israelites houses would be spared. Even after bringing the plague of flies, Pharaohs heart hardened even more 5 Death of cattle Exodus 8:1 7 A plague of disease befell the Egyptian cattle. Not a single Israelites animal died. Pharaoh was not moved; and he refused to let Jews go home. 6 Plague of boils Exodus 9:8 12 Moses threw ashes into the air as God had instructed. This produced boils, which became open sores on the skin of the Egyptians. Unmoved by the suffering of his people, Pharaoh still refused to let the Israelites leave. 7 Plague of hail Exodus 9:13 35 Moses raised his rod and there was a hailstorm with lighting and thunder. The people, animals and plants that were struck by the lightning died. Pharaoh then promised to let the Israelites go but as soon as Moses prayed for the hailstorm to stop, pharaoh hardened his heart and refused to let the Israelites leave. 8 Plague of Locusts Exodus 19:1 20 Locusts covered the whole land and ate all the crops in the fields. The locusts ate all that had not been destroyed by the hailstorm. When Moses prayed to God, for locusts to leave; Pharaoh hardened his heart and refu- sed to let the Israelites leave. ----- 36 9 Plague of darkness Exodus 10: 21 29 God then instructed Moses to stretch out his hand to heaven. There was total darkness in Egypt for three days. But there was light where the Israe- lites they were living. Pharaoh remained unmoved and would not release the Israelites out of Egypt. 10 Death of Egyptian first-born males Exodus 11: 1 31 . After the plague of darkness, God sent Moses once more to Pharaoh. He was told that this time even his family would be affected. The Lord would kill all the first-born Egyptian sons and first-born male animals at mid- night. This plague occurred during the night of Passover. Pharaoh was moved and allowed Israelites to leave Egypt. What do the plagues tell us about Gods attributes? GOD: 1. Empowers His people to perform miracles and to do His work 2. Is Almighty and more powerful than the Egyptian gods. 3. Is determined to fulfil His plans. 4. Is a God of justice. He protects the oppressed. 5. Gives everyone a chance to repent. Notice that each time Pharaoh promised to release the Israelites; God relieved the Egyptians from the plagues. 6. Fulfils His promises He had promised Abraham to deliver his descen- dants from foreign lands. 7. Expects total obedience and faith. 8. Communicates His will through natural events. 9. Is caring and loving. PASSOVER EXODUS 12:1-30, 19, 20, 34 The tenth plague is called the Passover. It happened on the fourteenth day of the month. The Israelites were to offer one-year-old lamb per family. If a family was too small, they were to share the lamb with their neighbours. ----- 37 If a lamb was not available, a one-year-old goat could also be used. They were told to: 1. Slaughter the lamb/goat; smear some of the blood on the sides and tops of the door- frames of their houses. 2. Roast the meat and eat it with bitter herbs and unleavened bread bread without yeast . If there were any leftovers they were to burn them with fire. 3. Eat in a hurry while fully dressed and having packed their belongings. They were told to borrow silver, clothings, jewellery, and gold from the Egyptians. 4. That on the same night, the angel of death would kill every first born both males and animals in the houses without blood. 5. The angel of death would pass over the houses with blood sparing them. The blood was a sign to indicate this is a house of Israelites. When the Lord sees the blood, He will pass over that house V.13 6. The Israelites were told to celebrate / commemorate from generation to generation the Passover as a festival to the Lord. 7. The Israelites were not allowed to come out of their houses on the night of Passover. 8. At midnight, the Lord struck down all firstborn in Egypt from Phara- ohs household to the firstborn of the prisoners and firstborn of livestock. 9. There was loud wailing over Egypt. Every house had someone dead. Significance of items used during the Passover 1 Roasted Meat this is the easiest method of preparing food since the Israelites were to leave in a short time. 2 Bitter herbs was a reminder of the suffering and hardships and slavery experienced in Egypt. 3 Eating while standing. Deliverance was near, hence the need to leave in a hurry. ----- 38 4 Eating while fully dressed with their stuff at hand. This signified a quick deliverance; hence Israelites should be ready to leave Egypt at once. 5 Eating unleavened bread the bread was to be eaten and none left over hence there was no need to add yeast for preservation. 6 Collecting Jewellery God had promised Abraham that after slavery for four hundred and thirty years, his descendants shall be freed with great possessions. 7 Remaining indoors for security from death. Anyone outside was killed. Blood on doorposts a sign for deliverance. The angel of death would pass over doors with blood. THE EXODUS Introduction Exodus means movement of a large number of people. Crossing the Red Sea During the night of the Passover, Pharaoh summoned Moses and Aaron and told them to leave, to go and worship their Lord. All the Israelites, their flocks and herds were urged to leave in a hurry. Pharaoh took his chariot army and followed the Israelites and found them camped by the Red Sea. God led the Israelites over the desert towards the Red Sea. Moses took the body bones of Joseph, as Joseph had requested the Israelites to do. When God rescues you, you must carry my body with you from this place Ex 13 vs. 19 During the day the Lord went in front of them in a pillar of cloud angel of God to show them the way, and during the night the lord went in front in a pillar of fire to give them light, so that they could travel night and day. This pillar of cloud led the Israelites by day and night. ----- 39 The Egyptian army followed Israelites and caught up with them by the Red Sea where they had camped. Moses asked the scared Israelites to move near the sea. God told Moses to lift up his stick, and hold it over the sea. The waters of the Red Sea divided and the Israelites crossed the sea on dry ground with walls of water on both sides. The angel of God, and the pillar of cloud who had been in front of the army of Israel moved behind the Israelites and provided light to them as they cross. The Egyptians army pursued Israelites. The pillar of cloud made it dark for Egyptians who could not see where they were going. Just before daylight, the Lord looked at the Egyptians from the pillar of cloud and fire and God threw the army of the Egyptians into confusion. Moses was asked by the Lord to stretch out his hand. He did so and waters returned to its normal level drowning Egyptian army and their horses. God protected the Israelites during the Exodus by: 1 Making them cross the red sea on dry ground. 2 Providing water in the wilderness. 3 Providing manna and quails. 4 Defeating Amalekites their enemies. 5 Protecting them from snakes and diseases in the wilderness. Provision of water in the wilderness Israelites travelled in the desert for three days without water. The water, which they found at Marah was bitter and could not be drunk. They called the place Marah meaning bitter. This made them complain. Moses prayed to the Lord. The Lord showed Moses a piece of wood. Moses threw it into the water and it became fit to drink. God continued providing Israelites with water. Again the Israelites lacked water and complained bitterly Ex.17:1 9 . God instructed Moses to strike a rock and water came out of it. Moses called that place Massah which means testing and Meribah ----- 40 meaning rebellion. This was because the Israelites quarreled and tested God. Provision of manna and quails EX 16:1 35 As the Israelites were travelling through the desert, they ran out of food. They were hungry and complained to Moses. Their complaints displeased the Lord for they often told Moses they wished he had let them die in Egypt instead of dying in the wilderness. This showed that the Israelites did not trust God to provide for them. In the morning, they were given Manna, which is a Hebrew word for the type of bread given to Israelites by God. The bread looked like wafers or flakes and tasted like coriander seed. In the evening, GOD provided Israelites with quails meat. The provision of manna and quails meat lasted for 40 years. On the 6th day of each week, God gave them food for two days one for the 6th day and the other for the 7th day Sabbath . DEFEAT OF THE AMALEKITES Exodus 17: 8 16 Challenges faced by the Israelites during the Exodus During the Exodus, the Israelites faced the challenge of the Amalekites. These were desert Nomads who attacked the Israelites in the wilderness. When the Amalekite army came against Israelites, Moses ordered Joshua to gather men and fight. God promised to destroy the Amalekites forever. During the battle, Moses held up his rod. And each time he raised his hands with the rod, the Amalekites were defeated. When he brought his hands down, the Israe- lites were defeated. Because of this, Aaron and Hur supported Moses hands until the Amalekites were defeated. In the wilderness God protected the Israelites form snakebites. He also used a cloud to protect the Israelites from the scorching heat during the ----- 41 day. At night, the pillar of fire provided warmth to protect them from the harsh cold of the wilderness. The importance of the exodus in the history of the Israelites The exodus showed Israelites that: 1 God loves and tolerates His people. 2 God did not abandon the Israelites despite their lack of faith. 3 God gave the Israelites encouragement through his servant Moses. 4 It was the end of the oppression of Israelites in Egypt. 5 Moses was Gods chosen leader. MAKING THE SINAI COVENANT EXODUS 19: 24 1 The Sinai covenant God and Israelites . God had specific instructions on how the Israelites were to prepare to make the new covenant. Before making the covenant, God brought Israelites to the foot of Mt. Sinai and asked Moses to ask them if they were willing to make the covenant with HIM. GOD asked them to enter into a personal relationship as a community with HIM. The Israelites agreed to make a covenant. They agreed to obey all Gods com- m.ands. God then promised to make them; i His people ii. A kingdom of priests iii. A holy nation God and Moses . God wanted to confirm that Moses was His true pro- phet. He therefore told Moses that He would come in a thick cloud to meet Israelites. In preparation for Gods coming on Mt. Sinai the Israelites were to: I. Make themselves holy by washing their clothes garments II. Mark the boundaries on the foot of the mountain to prevent any person or animal from climbing the mountain. III. To abstain from sexual relations ----- 42 At Mt Sinai, God manifested His presence in the form of thunder, lightening, earthquake and a thick cloud of smoke that covered the whole mountain. In addition, there was a loud trumpet blast that made the people tremble. Moses climbed the mountain. God gave Moses the Ten Comma- ndments after sealing the covenant. Sealing of the covenant . The Lord told Moses Come up the mountain to me, you and Aaron, Nadab, Abibu and 70 of Israel leaders. At a distance bow down in worship, and come alone to me. A ceremony was then prepared to seal the covenant. This is how it was sealed: a. Moses built an altar at the foot of the mountain. b. He set up twelve stones, which represented the twelve tribes of Israel. c. He then sent young men to burn sacrifices to the Lord and sacrificed some cattle as fellowship offering and peace offerings to God EX 24 vs. 5 . d. Moses took half the blood of animals and poured it in bowls; and the other half he threw against the altar vs. 6 . He then took the book of the covenant, and read it aloud to the Israelites who responded by saying all that the Lord has spoken we will do; and we shall be obedient e. Moses then took the blood in the bowls and sprinkled it over the people; saying This is the blood that seals the covenant which the Lord made with you when he gave all these commands. Theophany. Gods presence manifested itself in several ways such as: The burning bush during the call of Moses Pillar of fire and a pillar of cloud Exodus story The mighty wind, earthquake, still small voice story of Elijah Thunder, lighting, smoking mountain Exodus of Israelites from the wilderness These were physical manifestations of Gods presence. ----- 43 BREAKING THE SINAI COVENANT Exodus 32:1 35; 34:6 8 Israelites dishonored their pledge to obey God upon sealing the covenant; Moses went back to talk to God in the mountain. He left Aaron in charge of Israelites affairs. He stayed in the mountain for forty days. The lord revealed His glory to Moses at Mt. Sinai and declared His character. The Lord the compassionate and glorious God, slow to anger and forgiving wickedness, rebellion and sin Ex 34:6 The Israelites urged Aaron to make them gods that they could see. Aaron agreed. He melted the rings of gold and moulded a bull calf god. Israelites were happy and said this is our god who took us out of Egypt. They offered burnt offerings and peace offerings to it and indulged themselves in eating, drinking and sex. By accepting a bull calf as their god, the Israelites expected bull calf of gold to give them the same strength and fertility like the Egyptian gods. Through this act, they broke their covenant with God. When Moses came down from the mountain, he found Israelites worshipping the gold bull calf. He got annoyed. He threw down the stone tablets he was holding; on which the 10 commandments were written. Moses then took the golden calf, and burnt it into powder and mixed it with water. He then made those worshipping the calf to drink the mixture. Moses ordered those who had sinned to be killed. LESSON EIGHT: RENEWAL OF THE COVENANT Exodus 34:1 14 . Learning outcomes. After studying this lesson, describe conditions for the renewal of the covenant The renewal of the covenant came after Moses pleaded with God not to destroy the Israelites after they ----- 44 broke the covenant. God spared the Israelites. God agreed to renew the covenant with the Israelites. He gave them several conditions for its renewal. Conditions for the renewal of the covenant The Israelites were: a To obey Gods commandments b Not to make any treaty with those who lived in the land where they were going. c To break down their altar, smash their sacred stones and cut down their Asherah Idols . Not to worship any other god and not to make idols for worship. d To keep the feast of unleavened bread Passover . e Not to marry people form other tribes. f To rest on the Sabbath day. g To sacrifice and offer their best produce and animals to God. God in turn promised to a Bless them. Protect and preserve the Israelites. b Make them prosper so much that the surrounding nations would enquire about their source of wealth and success. With these conditions, the covenant between God and the Israelites was renewed. From the making and renewal of the covenant, it is clear that: i God expected the Israelites to obey and have faith in Him ii God wanted a personal relationship with Israelites. iii God is the only one to be worshipped. iv God is powerful. LESSON NINE: WORSHIPING GOD IN THE WILDERNESS Learning outcomes. After reading this lesson a. Explain Gods purpose in delivering the Israelites from Egypt ----- 45 b. Describe features of worship a. Gods purpose in delivering the Israelites from Egypt was to worship and offer sacrifices to Him in the wilderness. He also intended to fulfil his promises to Abraham. b. Features of worshipping God in the wilderness. i The Israelites: Worshipped God through intermediaries. These were the priests who came from the tribe of Levi. ii The Israelites: Were guided in their worship and in daily living by the Ten Commandments and other ordinances iii The Ark of the Covenant was made in the wilderness. It was Gods dwelling place. It was a special box put into the tabernacle. A tabernacle was a portable tent. The ark symbolized the presence of God and the Israelites carried it wherever they went. iv Offerings of farm products or agricultural produce were given to God. These included among other farm products; vegetables, flour. Oil and fruits. v Other offerings to God were drinks, and incense. The offerings could be burnt, baked, boiled or roasted. vi There were several Sacrifices. They included: Burnt offerings Holocaust burning a whole animal completely Sin offering /atonement sacrifice offered when one had sinned and wanted to have his sins forgiven. Peace offering part of an animal was offered, while the people ate part of the meat. ----- 46 Gift offering the best animal was given to God. It was offered as a thanksgiving Animals such as sheep, goats, bulls and birds were sacrificed to God. vii Festivals and feasts. Israelites observed several festivals and feasts. These included: Feast of Passover and unleavened bread. Harvest festival feast of weeks or Pentecost. It marked the celebration of the harvest of wheat. Feast of gathering / shelters. It was celebrated during the season when the Israelites gathered the fruits from the Orchards. Feast of tabernacles that was celebrated to remember when the Israelites dwelt in tents. The Israelites kept the Sabbath day. They worshipped God through singing, worship and dancing. LESSON TEN: THE TEN COMMANDMENTS Exodus. 20: 1 17 Learning outcomes. After reading this lesson, a. Recite the ten commandments b. Apply the ten commandments in your life c. Describe Israelites new understanding of the nature of God d. Explain to yourself and others the nature of God a. The Ten Commandments While on Mount Sinai, God gave Moses Ten Commandments written on a stone tablet. The first four commandments deal with relationship between man and God. God said: 1. You shall have no other gods but me. 2. You shall not make yourself a graven image. 3. You shall not mention Gods name in vain. 4. Remember the Sabbath day and keep it holy. ----- 47 The last six commandments give mans relationship with fellow human beings. God said: 5. Honor you father and mother that your days may be long on earth. 6. You shall not kill. 7. You shall not commit adultery. 8. You shall not steal. 9. You shall not bear false witness against your neighbour. 10. You shall not covet your neighbors property. These are my thoughts. 1 Worshipping God 2 Being faithful to God 3 Resting 4 respecting parental authority 5 love humanity 6 Be faithful to your wife or husband 7 respect other peoples property 8 be truthful always 9 be satisfied with what God has given you. b. Israelites understand the nature of god The Israelites had a new and wider revelation about God. Besides GOD being a caring, loving, and a provider, they learnt that: a. God is a jealous God. He does not allow the worship of others gods. He alone should be worshipped. b. God does not condone evil. He punishes those who cause/engage in it. c. God values a personal relationship with his people. d. God wants people to live in harmony among them. e. God forgives those who repent. He is loving, merciful and compassionate f. God is a healer he healed Israelites in the wilderness when a snake attacked them g. God is a God of victory. He defeated the Amalekites, perizzites, and Hittites etc. h. God is faithful and can be depended upon. i. God is holy, slow to anger, powerful and just. ----- 48 j. God demands obedience to His commands. Revision questions a. What are the qualities of Moses as a leader? b i . Describe the call of Moses exodus 3:1-22 ii . Why was Moses hesitant to Gods call? c i . What is the significance of the items used for the Passover feast similar to what is the meaning of the Passover meal ii . Compare the lords supper to the Passover feast d. Describe how the Sinai covenant was made e. Describe the circumstances that lead to the breaking of the Sinai covenant f. How was the broken covenant renewed? g. Describe how the Israelites worshipped God in the wilderness h. What is the relevance of the ten commandments? i. What did the Israelites learn about god in the wilderness? TOPIC FIVE: LEADERSHIP IN ISRAEL: DAVID AND SOLOMON Learning outcomes. By the end of this topic, you should be able to: a. Explain the reasons for and against kingship in Israel b. State king Sauls achievements, failures and lessons learnt from Saul. c. Explain the importance of David as King of Israel and ancestor of Jesus Christ. d. Describe the qualities of a good leader drawn from King Davids leadership e. State King Solomons achievements and failures f. Explain the importance of the temple in Israel. LESSON ONE: REASONS FOR AND AGAINST KINGSHIP IN ISRAEL Introduction Yahweh remained the God of Israel and the sovereign ruler of his people. ----- 49 Learning outcomes. By the end of this lesson, you should a. Define leadership b. Name Israel judges in Canaan Leadership refers to the manner in which a communitys way of life is ruled or controlled. When Israelites settled in Canaan, Judges ruled them for the first 200 years. Some of the judges were i Othniel, ii Ehud iii Samson iv Deborah v Gideon vi Shamgar vii . Samuel viii . Barak Duties of judges a. Leading Israelites to war against their enemies b. Settling disputes among the people c. Acting as religious leaders and leading Israelites in worship d. Offering sacrifices on behalf of the people. e. Some of the judges acted as Gods prophets f. They anointed kings, for example Samuel anointed King David. Demands for a King in Israel After Israelites settled in Canaan, the Promised Land, they started demanding for an earthly king to rule over them. These demands for a king ruler were brought about by: i Samuels sons Joel and Abijah were corrupt and took bribes. The sons of Samuel, who were judges, lacked his good leadership qualities. ii The Israelites wanted a warrior king who could lead them to war against their enemies. iii The Israelites wanted to be like the other nations around them who had kings. iv The Israelites wanted a human leader whom they could see, approach, and talk to him face to face. ----- 50 v The Israelites wanted security, which could be provided by a stable political government ruled by law and order. vi They wanted a government that had a regular army, vii They also wanted an established law court system. Reasons against Kingship in Israel Samuel 8:10 20 By demanding for a king, the Israelites were seen as rejecting Yahweh their unseen ruler. Two, there would be danger of hereditary kingship which would lead to oppression / dictatorship. God told Samuel to give Israelites strict warnings against Kingship by explaining how the king would treat them. A king would: - a Recruit Israelites sons forcefully into the army. b Grab peoples land. c Force people to pay taxes to the government d Turn people into slaves. e Introduce forced labour. f Force their daughters to work for his wives, sons, and for the royal house in general. The people of Israel were distinct from other nations. Asking for a king meant rejecting God as their unseen king. Further to this, Israel could become like other nations, which did not worship Yahweh. Then the covenant with God and the people of Israel would cease. LESSON TWO: ACHIEVEMENTS AND FAILURES OF KING SAUL Israel 13:8 14; 15:7 25 Learning outcomes. After reading about King Saul, you should a. State his achievements b. Identify his failures ----- 51 c. Suggest lesson we can learn from his failures Samuel was directed by God to choose and anoint Saul as the king of Israel. Saul was from the tribe of Benjamin. He became the first human king of the nation of Israel. He accomplished several things. Successes of King Saul 1 He was anointed by God; as king to rule the Israelites 2 He was chosen even though it was not Gods idea for a king over his people. 3 He was a great warrior. He led the Israelites to war and defeated their enemies Failures of King Saul 1 God told Saul through Samuel to destroy the Amalekites completely. Saul however disobeyed God. He spared the king and the fat livestock. He claimed to have spared the fat animals for sacrifice to God. Because of this disobedience, God rejected Saul as king. 2 The Israelites were faced with many enemies. The worst were the Philistines. It was a custom for the king of Israel to enquire from God whether to go to the battle or not. The priest/prophet gave permission to the king to go to war. When Saul was faced with the dilemma whether to fight or not, Samuel enquired from God. Saul did not wait for permission to go to war from Samuel the priest. He decided to bypass Samuel by offering a sacrifice to God before going to war. This action displeased God because it was not his work to offer sacrifice to God. It was the work of priests. ----- 52 3 After God rejected Saul as the king of Israel, Samuel was guided by God to go to Bethlehem. He was asked to go to the home of Jesse who had eight 8 sons. In that home, God was to show Samuel the next king of Israel. Samuel would then anoint the chosen son of Jesse. Seven of Jesses sons were brought before Samuel one by one. God told Samuel that he had not chosen any of them. When David, a shepherd, was brought before Samuel God said to him this is the one anoint him! 1 Samuel 16:12 . David was anointed poured oil on as the next king of Israel. However he had to wait until Saul died before he could take over kingship. 4 After Samuel anointed David to become the next king of Israel, Saul was jealous and plotted many times to kill him. David was employed to serve Saul. He played the harp, lyre wherever an evil spirit possessed Saul. 5 When Samuel died; the Philistines gathered to fight Israel. Saul was filled with terror. Saul enquired from God whether he should go to war, but did not get an answer. Saul disobeyed God by asking a medium witch to consult the dead for him. This act led to the death of Saul together with his son Jonathan in battle. 6 Saul was concerned with what people thought of him than pleasing God. He wanted to please people and not God. He was disobedient with God 1 Samuel 15:24 Lessons, which Christians can learn from King Sauls failures 1 Value of being patient. ----- 53 2 Christian should obey God, follow His commands and not be afraid of people. 3 Christian should obey religious leaders placed over them by God. 4 Christian leaders should be humble 5 It is against the teachings of God, against the will of God to consult the spirits of the dead through mediums. 7 Without faith, it is impossible to please God. God desires sincere worship. 9 Political leaders should consult and listen to religious leaders. 10 Christians should not turn against their enemies or rivals. They should not plot to have them destroyed and killed. LESSON THREE: IMPORTANCE OF DAVID 1 Samuel 16: 1 23, 2 Samuel 6:1 15 Learning outcomes. After reading about King David, you should a. State his importance to God and the Israelites b. Analyse achievements and failures of King David c. Trace David lineage up to Jesus Christ d. Narrate fulfillment of the promises to David in the New Testament e. Give reasons why God rejected Davids offer to build him a temple David took over kingship of Israel though some people resisted his rule. At first he ruled the house of Judah. Later on the other tribes rallied behind him. Importance of King David David became king after the death of Saul. He ruled for over 40 years as king of Judah and Israel. Achievements of David 1 He was a brilliant military commander ----- 54 2 He captured the old fortress of Jerusalem from the Jebusites and made it his capital city. 3 He removed the ark of covenant from the house of Abinadab in Shiloh and brought it to Jerusalem. 4 He expressed great faith in God. Through his faith in God, he was able to kill Goliath, the great Philistine warrior. 5 He was a skilled musician and composed marry psalms that were used and are still being used in temple and church worship. 6 David respected the prophets of God and always consulted them whenever he wanted to do anything. 7 He expanded the geographical boundaries of Israel through conquests. He was a great diplomat and established good political relations with the neighboring kings. 9 He was a shrewd administrator who chose wise elders and counselors to advice him. 10 God promised to establish an everlasting kingdom for David 11 David ruled over Israel, administering law and justice to all people. 12 He took a census of the Israelites and used the information to a recruit young men into military service and 2 decide on the policy of taxation. 13 David had remarkable leadership qualities. He was kind. He spared mephibosheth, Sauls grandson. 14 David was humble. He was ready to accept sins he had committed and repent e.g. he repented after committing adultery with Bathsheba. David as an ancestor of Jesus Christ 2 Samuel 1 29, LK 1:26 33 ----- 55 David intended to build a splendid temple for God in Jerusalem. He felt it was not fair for the Ark of the Covenant to continue dwelling in a tent while he himself lived in a magnificent palace. To achieve this goal, David consulted Nathan, the prophet on whether to build the temple. The prophet approved the idea. But that night, Nathan received a revelation form God that stated that David was not to build a house temple for God. Davids son would build the temple of God 2 Samuel 7:5 6 . Prophet Nathan gave David Gods message to David. The message was that a His son will build the temple b God would give Davids descendants a place to settle c God promised to raise up an heir from the house of David to sit on the throne d God promised to make Davids name great or famous among all other leaders of the earth. Reasons why God rejected Davids offer to build him a temple Here are some of the reasons: a. David had been involved in a lot of wars with the Israelites enemies and had thus shed a lot of blood. b. God was a God of the people and could not be confined to a house. c. It was the will of God to establish the house of David build David a house rather than David builds a house for him God . The human body is the temple of God. God dwells in the hearts of people. d. David had grown old. God wanted him to rest. e. God had planned that Davids son would build a house for him a place to house the Ark of the ----- 56 Covenant. King Solomon, Davids son built the temple and fulfilled Gods promises to David. Solomons rule was peaceful and prosperous. The New Testament is a fulfillment of Gods promises to David 1 The gospel writers tell us that Jesus was born in the family of David Luke 1:26 27 2 The angel of God during the annunciation of the birth of Jesus said that He will be like his ancestor David Luke 1:32 33 3 Jesus was born in Bethlehem which was also the birthplace of David Luke 2:4 4 Bartimaeus the blind man of Jericho hailed Jesus as the son of David 5 During his triumphal entry to Jerusalem, Jesus was hailed by the crowd as the messiah descended from David. 6 In his genealogy, saint Mathew says that Jesus was a descendant of David Matt.1: 1 Failures of King David. Although David had many virtues: 1 He ordered Uriah to be placed at the battle forefront so that he can be killed. 2 Uriah was the husband of Bathsheba. David had committed adultery with her. 3 He took Bathsheba as his wife LESSON FOUR: LEADERSHIP OF KING DAVID Lesson outcomes. By the end of this lesson, you should assess leadership qualities demonstrated by king David David showed ----- 57 1 Courage and bravery. David was courageous and brave. Modern leaders should be ready to die with and for their subjects. 2 Gratitude thankful and grateful. David always thanked God for any success or favors he received. Good leaders should be thankful and grateful to God as well as to their fellow human beings. 3 Loyalty. David was loyal to God and to the Israelites. A good leader should be loyal, and never betray his people. 4 Justice. David administered justice to all his subjects without favoring anyone. No tribalism or nepotism. A leader should be fair to all 2 Samuel 8:15 . 5 God fearing, having faith. David was God fearing. He expressed his total trust in God. Modern leaders need to emulate this quality. 6 Humility. A leader should be a humble person. Though David had been appointed as the king, he continued to serve Saul until Saul died. He accepted his failures and asked for forgiveness 7 Kind. David was a kind leader. Leaders should be kind. David spared the life of Saul twice yet Saul wanted to kill him. Wisdom. David was careful when choosing legal advisors to assist him in his rule. He was also wise. He reduced tribal jealousies by choosing Jerusalem; a neutral spot for administrative purposes. 9 Delegation a shrewd administrator. A good elder should be able to delegate duties. David delegated duties. He involved others in advising, and administering ----- 58 LESSON FIVE: ACHIEVEMENTS AND FAILURES OF KING SOLOMON 1 KING 3 12 Learning outcomes. By the end of this lesson, you should: a. Analyse achievements of king Solomon b. State failures of king Solomon After David died, his son Solomon became the next king. Kingship in Israel was hereditary. Solomon was chosen by David to be his successor. He took over from David at a time of peace and security established by David. Achievements 1 He made Israel rich by establishing trade with other countries 2 He was a good trader and a successful merchant. He traded in copper, horses, timber, silver and gold. He established international trade with the neighboring countries. For example, he traded with Tyre in cedar and pine logs. 3 He established a well equipped large army for Israel 4 He was a builder. He built a magnificent temple for God in line with Gods promise to David. He also constructed other cities Megiddo and a palace for himself. 5 He is remembered for his amazing administrative skills. He had 550 officials in charge of labour force. 6 He was a diplomatic ruler. He established friendly ties with his neighbours. This ensured continued peace. For instance he married the daughters of the kings of Egypt, Moab, Eden and Sidon so as to establish strong ties with those nations. 7 He had great wisdom. He judged a difficult case between two women who were claiming ownership ----- 59 of the same child. He composed many wise sayings known as the proverbs of Solomon. He also composed songs like Song of Solomon and Song of Songs and poems in Ecclesiastes. 9 He dedicated the temple of God with great rejoicing. 10 He brought the Ark of the Covenant to the temple of Jerusalem. Failures of King Solomon 1 He married women from many foreign countries. These actions made Solomon break the Torah as Israelites were not supposed to marry foreigners. Through these marriages, idol worship started in Israel. This was because he allowed his wives to worship their gods, build temples and altars for them. This led to introduction of idolatry in Israel. 2 Solomon constructed his palace for 13 years. He then built Gods temple for 7 years. This showed that he probably loved himself more than God. 3 He killed his own half brother Adonija on suspicion that he could be a rival to the throne. 4 Solomon lived lavishly, and expensively. He thus burdened the Israelites with high taxes. 5 He used forced labour. This was the same as enslaving the Israelites. 6 He worshipped idols. Solomons heart was turned to such other gods as Ashtoreth / ashitarte goddess of Sidon and Molech the god of the Ammonites. This was breaking Gods commandments 7 He sold part of Israelite territory to the king of Tyre He used pagan skills when designing, decorating, and furnishing the temple. ----- 60 9 He made treaties with other nations inspite of the fact that God had forbidden Israel from making treaties 10 He was extravagant. He used a lot of state wealth to entertain and please his many wives and concubines. Activity. Many husbands in Kenya practice polygamy. I want you to find out from your neighbours what are the advantages and disadvantages of polygamy. Then write a paper arguing either for polygamy or monogamy. LESSON SIX: IMPORTANCE OF THE TEMPLE IN ISRAEL Learning outcomes. By the end of this lesson, you should a Define a temple b State the importance of the temple to Israelites. Definition of a temple This is a building dedicated to the worship of God. Solomon built the temple as a fulfillment of the promises that God gave to David, that his son would build a house for him. Importance and uses of a temple 1 It was a centre of worship. Prayers and sacrifices were offered to God from the temple. 2 It symbolized the presence of God among the Israelites. 3 The Ark of the Covenant was kept in the temple as a symbol of Gods presence among his people. 4 The temple acted as a symbol of unity in Israel. Every year all the Israelites had to go to Jerusalem to celebrate such feasts as the Passover, feast of tabernacles day of atonement. This led to the unity of the ----- 61 Israelites. 5 Dedication of children and purification were done in the temple. 6 It was a residence for the priest. 7 It was a business centre where people bought and sold animals needed for sacrifice. The temple acted as a school to the scribes, rabbis and others who studied and interpreted the Mosaic Law. 9 The temple also acted as the judicial court of Israel. Judges worked from the temple 10 It is where religious ceremonies like naming and circumcision of baby boys took place. 11 It was a house of prayer. Revision questions a. Explain the reasons against kingship in Israel 1 Sam 8: 10-20 b. Explain the importance of David as king of Israel c. How did Jesus fulfil the prophecies of prophet Nathan as a descendant of David? i.e. areas where Jesus is mentioned as coming from David d. What are the failures of king Solomon? e. Which leadership qualities can modern leaders learn from David? TOPIC SIX: LOYALTY TO GOD ELIJAH LESSON ONE: EFFECTS OF IDOLATRY IN ISRAEL Introduction After the death of Solomon, the kingdom of Israel split into two countries. the southern kingdom called Judah ruled by King Rehoboam and the Northern kingdom called Israel led by King Jeroboam. Other kings who ruled these two nations were King Abijah, King Asa of Judah, and king Nadab, Baasha, Elah, ----- 62 Zimri, Omri, and Ahab of Israel. During the time of Elijah king Ahab ruled Israel. Learning outcomes. After studying this lesson on idolatry, you should a. State factors that led to spread of idolatry in Israel b. Analyse religious schism between Judah and Israel c. Describe King Ahabs marriage to the Phoenician princess Tyre d. Explain the failure to completely destroy temples, and places of worship e. State effects of idolatry in Israel a. Factors that led to spread of idolatry in Israel When Israelites intermarried with other communities, they worshipped their gods. The Bible makes it clear that i There was a lot of influence by Canaanite religion ii There was division /schism of Israel into 2 kingdoms iii Ahabs married the Phoenician princess iv Israelites did not destroy all gods after settling in Canaan. Influence of the local Canaanite religion Idolatry is the worship of idols. An idol is an image representing a god made using precious materials such as gold, bronze, stone, and hardwood images kept in the places of worship. God had forbidden Israelites from bowing down to images and worshipping idols, intermarrying with non-Israelites, and making treaties. When Israelites settled in Canaan, they forgot Gods commandments. They intermarried and were greatly influenced by the local religion. Israelites changed from being pastoralist to farmers. They therefore worshipped Baal the god of rain, ----- 63 agricultural fertility, and storms. Israelites worshipped Baal, for rain for their crops. The Israelites were also attracted to the visible gods of Canaan as opposed to the invisible Yahweh. This is how idolatry spread in Israel. However some Israelites maintained worship of Yahweh only monotheistic while others worshipped Yahweh and Baal syncretism . Characteristics of the Canaanite religion. Canaanite religion was: 1. Polytheistic. They worshipped many gods. The Israelites religion was monotheistic. They worshipped Yahweh and no other God. They abandoned their religion and worshipped many gods like Canaanite. This influenced the Israelites. 2. A nature religion. The gods were related with the forces of nature such as rain, sun, storms, drought, famine, wind, water and death. 3. Ensured continued fertility of land, people, animals 4. Based on many families of gods. There was a. EL Chief god who was their father, king, creator b. Asherah wife of El the goddess of motherhood and fertility c. Baal also referred to as Baal Hadad, son of El and Asherah the god of rain, agricultural fertility, storms d. Astarte wife of Baal -the goddess of war e. Anat sister of Baal the goddess of war and love f. Maat the goddess of love g. Mot most feared. The god of drought, famine and death 5. Free and temple of prostitution. Israelites turned to temple prostitution. Women who wanted to ----- 64 increase vitality of their husbands had sexual relations with the male priests in the Baal temples. 6. Had many places of worship. One could pray in the temple, under sacred trees, and on top of the hills among others. 7. Based on offerings and sacrifices of human beings. Exercise. State differences between Israel and Canaanite religion b. Religious schism between Judah and Israel Schism occurred among the Israelites because there were sharp differences within them. These differences were religious, political and social. After the death of Solomon, the nation of Israel was split. Rehoboam ruled one group while the other was ruled by Jeroboam. Because of this split, Jeroboam could not go to Jerusalem to worship in the temple. He thus set up other places of worship one at Bethel, and another at Dan. Jeroboam also set up images to represent Yahweh. Though he had no intention of Idol worship, it turned out to be so because he made his subjects to offer sacrifices to these golden calves, which he had designed as images representing Yahweh. He also built places of worship on hilltops like the Canaanites. He chose priests from other families in addition to the Levite Family. Furthermore, he organised religious festivals and feasts in the month of his choice. As it were, they coincided with the Canaanites calendars. He then burnt incense at the altar of idols. Jeroboam therefore started idol worship and gave room for idolatry. Kings who succeeded him followed this idol worship. ----- 65 c. King Ahabs marriage to the Phoenician/Tyre princess Ahab married Jezebel, the daughter of the King Ethbaal of Sidon Tyre to strengthen ties with Tyre/Phoenicia. Queen Jezebel was ambitious, and a strong follower of Baal religion. Ahab allowed her to bring her gods to Israel. She forced Israelites to worship Baal and not Yahweh. She imported 450 prophets of Baal and supported them using public treasury. Ahab built a temple to Baal In Samaria. He also put up an image of goddess Asherah. d. When Israelites settled in Canaan, they did not destroy temples, places of worship, idols, images that they found there. As a result Canaanites religious practices influenced Israelites worship of Yahweh leading to idolatry. The effects of idolatry harmed Israelites as: 1 Syncretism developed. This was a process of mixing beliefs and practices from different religions. Israelites worshipped Yahweh and the gods of Canaan. 2 Former places of worship for the Canaanite gods were used as places of worship for Yahweh 3 The Canaanite agricultural calendar was adopted by Israelites 4 Names of the Canaanite gods were used for Yahweh. For example, EL was referred to as Yahweh 5 Parents began naming their children after Baal. 6 Feasts and celebrations were changed to correspond with those of Canaanites when they celebrated their feasts. 7 King Ahab declared worship of Baal as the state religion Queen Jezebel ordered the destruction of the altars of Yahweh ----- 66 9 Prophets of Yahweh were killed. Elijah went into hiding. 10 The 450 prophets of Baal were made the officials of the royal court in order to promote and protect Baal religion 11 Israel started to experience long droughts because Yahweh withdrew his blessings. This made Israel worshippers of El LESSON TWO: ELIJAHS FIGHT AGAINST CORRUPTION AND FALSE RELIGION IN ISRAEL Learning outcomes. After studying Elijah, you should a. Describe the contest at Mount Carmel b. Explain how Elijah fought against corruption c. Explain the relationship between Ahab and Naboth d. Describe Gods sentence to Ahab. e. Relate Elijahs encounter with Yahweh at Mt. Horeb f. Identify forms of corruption a The contest at Mount Carmel 1 King 18:17 46 . Carmel refers to the vineyard of the Lord. King Ahab brought trouble to Israel because of worshipping the idols of Baal. Elijah told Ahab that the problems Israel was facing were due to worship of Baal, The decision. Elijah requested king Ahab to call a meeting at Mt Carmel. In attendance would be all Israelites, 450 prophets of Baal, and 400 prophets of the goddess Asherah who were supported by Queen Jezebel and Elijah Elijah told Israelites it was decision time. They had to choose their God. Would it be Yahweh, the God of Israel or Baal the god of Jezebel of Phoenician/Tyre. If it was to be Baal, then they were told to follow ----- 67 him, if they select Yahweh as their God then they were to follow him 1 kings 18 vs. 21 . The choice. Elijah proposed a contest between him and Baal prophets. He asked for two bulls one for him, the other for 450 prophets of Baal. The contest was who can light fire? Yahweh or Baal? He proposed that Baal prophets and himself be given each a bullock. Both shall cut the bull into pieces and put them on wood without lighting fire. The Baal prophets shall pray to their god and Elijah shall pray to the Lord. The one who sends fire to consume the sacrifices .. he is God. The people of Israel accepted Elijahs proposal. Actions. The prophets of Baal prayed first because they were many. They took the bull, prepared it and prayed to Baal until noon vs. 26 . They prayed louder, and cut themselves with knives and daggers; but there were no answer. The prophets of Baal kept on ranting and raving until evening but there was no answer vs. 29 . Elijah asked people to gather near him. He prepared the altar of the Lord to repair work. He took 12 stones representing the 12 tribes of Israel who were named after the 12 sons of Jacob or Israel and used them to rebuild the altar. He then dug a trench around the altar. This trench could hold 14 litres of water. He placed the wood on the altar; cut the bull into pieces and laid them on the wood. He asked for four barrels of water and poured it on the offering and wood. He poured water on the altar three times ----- 68 until the water overflowed, run around the altar and filled the trenches. Elijah then called on the Lord O Lord, the God of Abraham, prove now that you are the God of Israel and that am your servant and have done all this at your command vs. 29 . The Lord sent fire down and it burnt up the sacrifice, wood, stones, and dust and licked up the water that was in the trench. When people saw this, they proclaimed The Lord, is God; the Lord alone is God. Elijah asked people to arrest the prophets of Baal, led them down to the river Kishon and killed them. And after this there was rain in Israel vs.40 . Lessons learnt from Mt. Carmel. Israelites acknowledged that Yahweh is: i Is their only God and that Baal was not God ii Is powerful iii Is a merciful God iv Is a jealous God as He will have no other gods but him v Is a God of justice who punishes idolaters and sinners vi Answers prayer vii Is a forgiving true God viii Protects his servants b Elijahs fight against corruption 1 Kings 21: 1 29 Corruption is defined as dishonesty. Its a form of injustice when dealing with either an individual or the community for selfish gain and benefit. In a corrupt society people in leadership or with wealth take advantage of the weak, and the poor. The powerful exploit the poor and the powerless by denying them their rights. An example of corruption in Israel is the story of the Naboths Vineyard. ----- 69 Naboths vineyard. Ahab wanted Naboth to either sell to him his vineyard or exchange it with another vineyard. Naboth refused to sell his inheritance. Jezebel, on seeing that Ahab was sorrowful told him that she will get him Naboths vineyard. Jezebel sent out letters in Ahabs name to the elders of the city. She found two witnesses who could bear witness that Naboth had blasphemed God and king Ahab. Witnesses testified that Naboth had blasphemed God. He was stoned to death. God then sent Elijah to meet with Ahab as he went to possess the vineyard of Naboth. Gods sentence to Ahab. God pronounced to Ahab through Elijah that 1 dogs shall lick his own blood from the place where dogs licked the blood of Naboth 2 His sons shall be killed 3 Dogs shall eat Jezebel by the wall of Jezreel 4 Evil shall be brought upon Ahabs house. This was because Ahab had broken these commandments: The 6th commandment which forbids murder The 9th commandment which forbids bearing of false witness. Ahab allowed his wife to bear false witness against Naboth 10th Commandments you shall not covet your neighbors property. Elijahs encounter with Yahweh at Mt. Horeb Mr. Sinai 1 Kings 19 After killing the prophets of Baal, Elijah was threatened by Jezebel. She vowed to kill him. Elijah ran away to the wilderness. The angel of God fed him with a loaf of bread and a jar of water. After eating and drinking Elijah walked to Mt. Sinai the holy mountain of God. He stayed there for 40 days and 40 ----- 70 nights. In the mountain God appeared to him. There was a strong wind, an earthquake, a fire but the Lord was not in them. Then the lord spoke to Elijah in a still small voice. God told Elijah return and anoint Hazael as king of Syria, Jehu as king of Israel, and anoint Elisha as a prophet and your successor. Self-assessment question. How can Christians help reduce corruption in Kenya? Answer First is to recognize the various forms of corruption like: tribalism, bribery, cheating in business, stealing, misuse of public funds, grabbing public land, robbery with violence and dishonesty Self-assessment question. How can Christians fight corruption? Christians can fight corruption by: a . Employing life skills a Applying their critical thinking. This is the ability to make appropriate decisions; by weighing in the consequences of actions before taking decisions. b Creative thinking and being imaginative. This is the ability to explore new ways of handling issues, c Decision making which is the ability to make the right choices d Assertiveness. This is the ability to express ones opinion with confidence e Praying for the corrupt to change their behaviour f Setting a good example by acting as a good role model g Educating people on the evils of corruption h Reporting those who are engaged in corrupt dealings / practices to the relevant authorities. i Obeying the laws of the society /country ----- 71 Voting for morally upright leaders. LESSON THREE: REASONS WHY ELIJAH FACED DANGER AND HOSTILITY AS A PROPHET OF GOD Learning outcomes. By the end of this lesson, you shall a. Explain why Elijah, faced hostility b. Show relevance of Elijahs prophetic mission to Christianity today Its not easy for a person to oppose the government and its policies. The person normally faces danger and hatred. Elijah faced hostility from King Ahab, his wife Jezebel and the 450 prophets of Baal. Elijah faced hostility because a. He pronounced a three years drought in Israel, which brought sufferings. b. He put to death 450 prophets of Baal c. He boldly condemned king Ahab for taking away Naboths vineyard d. He preached at a time when there was idolatry, and Baal was the official religion in Israel e. He identified himself with Yahweh in the midst of prosecution of Gods prophets by Jezebel. Relevance of Elijahs prophetic mission to Christians today Lessons Christians learn from the life of Elijah 1 Elijah was courageous. Church leaders should remain courageous and condemn any form of social injustice 2 Modern Christians learn to remain faithful to God through word and deed even if it would cost them their lives 3 As God helped Elijah in difficult times he will also help the Christians hence they should not despair. 4 Elijah was a man of prayer Christians should pray to God always. ----- 72 5 Christians should advocate for the rights of the poor and speak out against any form of oppression. 6 Christians should not give false evidence against their neighbours 7 Christians should be persistent like Elijah was in their struggle against injustice God communicated with Elijah in a still small voice indicating his intimacy with the prophet. This means that God is able to establish an intimate relationship with his faithful. Review questions a Describe the qualities of Elijah that led to his achievements b What is schism and syncretism c What are some of the characteristics of Elijah that a modern Christian should strive to emulate? d What are the effects of idolatry in Israel today? e Describe Elijahs fight against false religion in Israel f Describe Elijahs fight against corruption 1 kings 21 g What can Christians learn from the teachings of Elijah? TOPIC SEVEN: SELECTED ASPECTS OF AFRICAN RELIGIOUS HERITAGE. Introduction All Traditional African Communities believe in a Supreme Being who is the origin and sustainer of all things: He is the creator of the university and all that it contains. All Africans agree that nobody has ever seen God. Therefore, nobody can really describe Him, yet through their religious insights, Africans have formulated ideal about the nature of God. These ideas concern His real being and His activities. Traditional religion refers to African culture that existed in the sub Saharan Africa. African traditional ----- 73 culture had no scriptures or texts because most of it was oral. It was preserved and handed down from generation to generation-through oral traditions; ceremonies; rituals, and leading personalities. Learning outcomes. By the end of this topic, you should be able to a Explain and appreciate the African concept of God spirits and ancestors b Identify attributes of God c Explain the African understanding of the hierarchy of beings d Describe the role of God, spirits and ancestors e Explain the responsibilities of the living towards God, spirits and ancestors f Describe the traditional African way of worshipping God, venerating and communicating with the ancestors and spirits. LESSON ONE: AFRICAN CONCEPT OF GOD, SPIRITS AND ANCESTORS Learning outcomes. By the end of this lesson, you should a. Describe the African concept of his/her religion b. State attributes of God c. Draw a diagram showing hierarchy of beings Africans believed in existence of a supreme being who lived in mountains, clouds and the sky. God was the creator of the universe. In African traditions, religion was integrated in every aspect of life and daily activities. For example, farming activities involved God, spirits and ancestors. People would pray to God, spirits ancestors so as to ask for blessings in order to have a good harvest. Livestock keepers believed that fertility of their animals is a result of the blessings of God. If God was appeased, animals would ----- 74 increase. Natural phenomena such as thunder, lightning, rain; good harvest, and birth were linked to the Supreme Being and the invisible world. If there were calamities such as drought, disease, famine, and death, it was an indication that God, spirits and ancestors were displeased with humankind. Many communities have invocations uttered through out the day Nature or Attributes of god God is described with many names, which are Gods attributes. These are among others: a God is Good Nearly all-African communities describe God as being good to all people and things. He gives rain, sunshine and life among many other gifts. b God is merciful. The Akamba refer to God as God of pity, the merciful one. God shows mercy in times of danger, illness, difficulty or anxiety. c God is holy. He is pure, holy and does not make mistakes. Yoruba call him God who is pure, without blemish. The Kikuyu say God is Possessor of whiteness and the Bukusu master whitewash. African traditions all approach God with reverence, fear, respect and honor. For example when offering sacrifices, they would offer a one-colour animal either white, black, or brown and not a spotted animal. d God is powerful i.e. Omnipotent. God is described as almighty. His power is expressed in natural occurrences like thunder, lighting, earthquakes, rains, and floods. e God is all knowing Omniscient . God knew all things; nothing can be hidden from him. He discerns ----- 75 hearts. f God is all present Omnipresent .He is present everywhere in the universe g God is limitless. God has no limit. He is both very far and very near, beyond and within. h God is transcendent .God cannot be exhausted by human imagination. He is unexplainable, beyond human experience and understanding. i God is all understanding j God is self existent .He made all things but he himself is not made. He exists on his own. Zulu explain that God is he who is of himself. k God is a spirit He is invisible, and everlasting.. Shilluk of Sudan refer to him as great spirit the formless spirit. l God is everlasting. God is eternal, never changes, and never dies. The Yoruba call him the mighty immovable rock that never dies. m God is God created the creator .The world Kikuyu call him Mumbi n God is just. Kikuyu refer to God as Mugai meaning divider. One who shares out. God judges fairly, punishes those who do wrong and rewards the good with blessings. o God is the provider. All communities acknowledge that God provides them with everything they have. Africans built representation of the power of God. They identified sites, places and things that represented the presence and power of God. For example things like big trees, thick forest, high mountains, unique rock formations and large rivers and animals. In these places they built sites, and ----- 76 shrines. Shrines were regarded as holy and people approached them with reverence Spirits. They were believed to exist between God and human beings in the universe. Spirits were diverse and created by God. Some spirits were dead human beings. Spirits were divided into nature, sky, earth and human spirits that were either long dead ghosts or recently dead ancestors . There were different types of spirits. These were: a. Divinities. These are spirits created by God. They are close to God and act as his agents. They are in charge of natural phenomena like the sun, moon and stars. They are intermediaries between God and ancestral spirits, human beings and other creatures. They reveal Gods plans through diviners and mediums b. Human spirits / common spirits. These are inferior to divinities but higher than human kind. They are remains of human beings after their death. These spirits monitor human activities. Human spirits have lost their names and are not longer remembered by the living. They are believed to live in the under world, undergrounds, in thick bushes, forests, rivers, mountains, lakes, skies, and caves among other places. These spirits can bring harm to the living if disrespected. They appear to people in dreams or in form of shadows. They can also enter or possess a person and cause abnormalities. 3. Ancestors / living dead ----- 77 These are spirits of the recently dead. They are remembered by the living when children are named after them. They are actively involved in the lives and activities of the living. Their offerings food or drink are poured on the ground for them to receive. Ancestors are in a period of transition between the living and the higher categories. They are believed to know the problems of the living and therefore consulted constantly. They are also associated with evil such as revenge for burying them without honor, or not following the instructions they gave before they died or failing to pour them libations. When they are happy with the living, they are a source of blessings. Ancestors who did evil things or committed suicide are forgotten and ignored. Hierarchy of beings. Hierarchy means the order or ranking from the highest to the lowest of created beings. At the top is Divinities Ancestors Human Beings Animals and Plants Non-living Things LESSON TWO: THE ROLE OF GOD, SPIRITS AND ANCESTORS Learning outcomes. By the end of this lesson: - a. Write a description of God from an African perspective ----- 78 God is the creator. The Akamba community believed that God whom they called Mulungu created man and woman. He then tossed them to the earth. The Luhya claim God created them from the black topsoil hence their skin complexion. God is the source of life and giver of life. Barren women pray to God to ask for children. Human beings depend on God for life, rain, air, and sunshine. God is the provider. He gave domestic animals to human beings for their use. Domestic animals have many uses such as repayment of dowry, food, and sacrifices to God, payment of a fine by an offender. Many wild animals are used in folk songs and tales to discourage cowardice, and laziness God is a protector of human beings from evil. God is the giver of moral laws and a judge of people God offers solutions to mans problems through mediums, and prophets God gives power to the specialists such as medicine men, women and priests. God punishes people for wrongdoing Wild animals such as hyena are used in folk stories to discourage cowardice. Stories of tortoise illustrate the importance of being slow but sure. Snakes in some communities such as the Luhya were not killed. The community believed snakes were immortal ancestors coming to visit the living. Plants were used as food for people and animals. Trees were used for fuel and building materials. Some trees were used as sacred places of worship. ----- 79 Non-living things such as the rain, rocks, and rivers had a religious importance. Rain is seen as a blessing from God. When rain fails, diviner/rain maker was consulted. Rocks, and mountains were believed to be dwelling places for the living, the dead and the spirits. The spirits were viewed as neither good nor evil. Human beings feared them. Their roles were many. They; i Appeared in dreams especially to diviners, priests, medicine men and women, and rain makers to relay information ii Were consulted by religious specialists to find the cause of a problem in a given situation. iii Were bad naughty spirits, which disturbed people. African communities believed that bad sprits could call out ones name but on turning theres no one. iv Were manipulated by some human beings to cause harm to others v Relayed Gods messages to human beings. vi Sometimes possessed a person causing the person to be sent away from the village to the forest, or a way from home. vii Acted as intermediaries between humans, divinities and God. Role of ancestors is to: - 1 Appear to families in dreams, and visions. 2 Give family instructions i.e. what should be done. 3 Rebuke those who fail to honor them and warn them of impending punishment 4 Act as mediators between the living and God. 5 Enquire about family affairs as they considered as members of the family ----- 80 6 Request for sacrifice of an animal which is slaughtered for them 7 Cause illness or mental disturbance to members of a family if they are disregarded or disobeyed. Preserve the culture of a community 9 Welcome those who die to the spirit world. LESSON THREE: RESPONSIBILITY OF THE LIVING TOWARDS GOD, SPIRITS, AND ANCESTORS Learning outcome. After studying this lesson, you should a. State responsibilities of the living to God, spirits, and ancestors b. Explain the various forms of worship Responsibilities of living include Human beings are expected to worship God, spirits and ancestors and show i reverence and respect or veneration to God. They are also expected to i pray ii sing and iii dance. Worship. This is our major responsibility as God expects us to meet and communicate with the spiritual world and God. There are several ways of worshipping God. These include among others: a Sacrifices and offerings. Sacrifices include shedding of blood of animals and birds. Offerings are in the form of foodstuffs, milk, water and honey. God was worshipped because He is recognized as the absolute owner of life and property. We also worship God in order to i invoke Him for special blessings ii thank Him iii express our personal fellowship and communion with God iv avert or prevent evil. Evils bring about epidemics, famine, floods, and drought. b Singing and dancing. Africans worshipped God through singing, dancing, clapping of hands, ----- 81 drumming, and use of musical instruments. c Prayers, invocations and blessings. Prayers were accompanied with sacrifices or offerings. Community leaders prayed to God, spirits and ancestors. d Invocations are shortened form of prayers e.g. Help me oh God Oh great God. These are prayers at the spur of the moment. They are few words full of meaning and calling for help form God. e Formal blessings. An elder or older person gave blessings. It is believed that the person blessing the other one is doing so on behalf of God. f Venerations. Africans treated their ancestors with great respect and honor. They for example worshiped ancestors daily. Worshipping included placing food or pouring libation of beer, milk, water and honey for the spirits. As this act was done, they uttered words to accompany the offerings. Libations were done daily by some communities. g . Ancestors were honored by: Mentioning their names at prayers was offered to God. Naming children after them. Inviting them to participate in family ceremonies and rituals. For example during birth, and initiation. Maintaining their graves well. Giving the dead a decent burial Communication with spirits Diviners and mediums talk with spirits. To do so, they sit quietly in a place; singing, dancing and ----- 82 clapping their hands. As they dance, sit and sing, diviners lose their senses and get possessed by the spirit. The spirits speak give them messages for individuals and communities. Spirits communicate on issues such as i lost property ii revealing by name the enemy in the society iii making demands on the living iv giving advice v giving warnings on impending danger and vi making promises to bless a family or clan. Spirits that possess mediums are not harmful. There are bad evil spirits harmful to people whom they possess. Some evil spirits cut themselves; others throw themselves into a fire, river, and lake. Revision questions a Explain African beliefs about god or qualities b Describe the African understanding of the hierarchy of being c Describe the role of the ancestors to the living d What was the responsibility of the living towards God? e Describe the T.A. ways of worshipping God. TOPIC EIGHT: AFRICAN MORAL AND CULTURAL VALUES Learning Outcomes By the end of the topic, you should be able to a Explain the meaning of life and its wholeness in the traditional African society b Explain the African concept of community and kingship system c Outline the factors contributing to harmony and mutual responsibility in the African communities d Describe rites of passage and their role inculcating moral values in the traditional African society e Explain the role of religious specialist and their relevance in modern society ----- 83 f Explain the African moral values g Discuss and evaluate continuity and change in the African understanding of leisure, dress, old age, widows, orphans, dowry, community, land, medicine, worship and property. LESSON ONE: MEANING OF LIFE AND ITS WHOLENESS IN THE TRADITIONAL AFRICAN SOCIETY Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to:- 1. Describe the meaning and wholeness of life in the traditional African society 2. Describe the African understanding of a community Life originates from God and it progress from one stage to another with a certain rhythm each person has to follow. Each stage of life is marked by rites of passage. Life is continuous and unending. Each person is expected to value life and to be responsible. Life involves sharing. It is immoral to be greedy and self centred. People are to be hospitable, warm and caring toward other people. Unity and harmony are to be upheld. Life is viewed as whole only if a person went through all the stages or rites of passage Life was propagated through bearing children. Life cannot be divided into religious and secular. Every element of life has a religious meaning. Life is communal. Life was celebrated at every stage. Everyone depends on others. Labour was divided. There were duties for men, children and women. In African traditional society, human life is precious. Murder was condemned harshly. Suicide was ----- 84 considered the worst thing anyone could do. It was seen as a curse on the family. If one died at childhood, it was regarded as abortion. Death did not mark the end of life. Death is referred to as saying goodbye to food, sleeping, going home, being called by the ancestors. African concept of a community A community is a group of people who share a common language, religion, and culture and may live in the same geographical location. This group of people or an ethnic group shares common interests and characteristics. For example, African communities: Share common features, and interests Have the same origin and are likely to be related by blood. Share a common language. Live together and inhabit the same geographical location. Are divided into smaller units called clans A clan is made up of people who have the same forefather. A clan is composed of families. A family is made up of members living or dead who are related by blood and marriage. Family members therefore include the ancestors and the unborn. LESSON TWO: KINSHIP SYSTEM IN AFRICAN COMMUNITIES Learning outcomes. After studying African kinship system in African communities, you should be able to: a. Explain the importance of kinship system b. Give factors that contribute to harmony and mutual responsibility Kinship refers to the relationships between people. These can be by blood, marriage or adoption. People that belong to the same kinship system are referred to as kin. ----- 85 Importance of kinship system and ties Kinship relationships were and still are important among African communities. This is because these ties: i Provided company. This ensured that people were not lonely. ii Provided a sense of belonging which one of the human needs. We all want to belong iii Controlled social relationships between people related by blood or marriage. iv Promoted mutual responsibility and help v Enhanced a sense of security which is a human need vi Regulated marital customs, rules and regulations. vii Enabled people to live peacefully and in harmony. viii Bind the community together enhancing social cohesion and loyalty to each other ix Facilitated care for the disadvantaged members of community. x Ensured that all members of the community are have knowledge of community beliefs and practices xi Provided a peaceful way of settling disputes. xii Provided mechanisms for proper inheritance of property for example land. Factors contributing to harmony and mutual responsibility in African communities. These are many. Some of them are i rites of passage 2 good morals 3 participation in communal activities such as ceremonies, work, leisure activities and worship 4 sharing of property and ideas 5 division of labour. Tasks were distributed according to ones age, gender and status. 6 rules/social norms regulated how ----- 86 people grew up; knowing what is wrong and right. Good morals help people to live in peace and harmony LESSON THREE: RITES OF PASSAGE Learning outcomes. I expect you to read this lesson and a. Name the main stages of human life b. Explain the rite of circumcision in your community c. Narrate initiation rituals d. Discuss the importance of marriage in your community with peers e. State the importance of funeral and burial rites. In traditional African society, there were four main stages of life. These were i birth and naming ii initiation iii marriage and iv old age and death Birth and naming When a woman conceived, and pregnancy was visible, she was treated specially. She wore charms to keep away evil eyes. She ate special food and avoided sexual relations. The family and husband did not expect her to perform heavy task. When she was ready to deliver, mid wives helped in delivery. After delivery, the placenta was seen as a sign of fertility hence it was buried in the fertile land such as a banana plantation. Some communities preserved placenta while others threw it into a running stream. Birth The arrival of a baby and its sex was announced through ululations or shouts. The placenta was disposed off ceremoniously. The mother was purified and baby protection rites were conducted. Once purified, a ----- 87 mother could wear charms to protect herself and the baby from malicious spirits, sorcery, witchcraft, and evil eyes. Thanksgiving ceremonies were performed to show gratitude to God. The hair of the mother and child was shaved as a sign of purification and newness of life. Naming Naming of babies was carefully chosen. A baby could be named after either a season, weather, ancestors, place or time of delivery, occasion, experience of mother during delivery, significance events such as war, and drought, personality of the child, and names of heroes and gods. A good example is the name Were amongst the Luhya. Twins had special names. Initiation the second rite of passage. There were different types of initiations such as circumcision for boys and clitorisdectomy for girls, excision of teeth and body marks. Initiation rites were important and every individual was expected to go through them or be rendered an outcast. Initiation practices were seen as tests for courage and bravery. They helped the communities when identifying future leaders and warriors. Initiation was very important in communities where it was practiced. Initiation marked a transition from childhood to adulthood. In this transition, the initiate acquired new rights, new status in life, and privileges. For example the new initiates were allowed to marry, own property, and inherit the fathers ----- 88 property. In addition the initiates received specialized education. They were taught how to behave as adults, warriors, future husbands and parents. The education brought families, relatives and friends together. This act strengthened kinship ties. It also prepared the initiates to face the difficulties and challenges of adult life. In addition, initiation helped to structure the community. Initiation was programmed to fit an age set; and it marked passage of specific time. Thus each initiation ceremony was held regularly, normally between 16 21 years of age. If you calculate, you can see that 16 to 21 years introduced a new age set or group of young people. The age set held power for 16 to 21 years and handed over to the new generation. Initiation was therefore a mark of identity. It gave the initiate a sense of belonging. It bonded the initiates together with the ancestors. Initiation rituals are not popular today as they were in the past. This is because many communities have undergone social and cultural changes because of modern education. As a result some families take their sons to hospitals to be circumcised to prevent HIV/AIDs and to avoid infections because of unhygienic traditional initiation practices. Other reasons are i urbanization and migration, ii individualization iii Christians religious values. These have made some communities abandon some rites e.g. clitorisdectomy and iv some countries ----- 89 have made girls circumcision illegal and an issue of human and health rights. Attitude to birth and naming There has been a change in attitude to birth and naming. This is because initiation is no longer a community but a family affair. In addition, pregnant women attend antenatal clinics. Majority of pregnant women give birth in hospitals and health centres. Thus a doctor and not a midwife announce the sex of the baby. In modern society, the mother and child are no longer secluded. Lastly most parents prefer western names for their babies. Marriage was a requirement for all members of the community. It was a source of status in the community. Since a leader had to be married. Young men and women married after initiation. Marriage was a happy occasion and a source of wealth. The father gave young initiates some animals for dowry. Fathers of girls received dowry payments, as bride price was mandatory. It was given to the parents of the girl in form of a Cows b Goats c Camels d Jewellery e Poultry. The young men inherited the fathers property. Importance of dowry. Dowry unified the community. When young women were married, their parents lost their labour. Dowry payments compensated for this loss. Men paid dowry as a sign of commitment to their wife and parents. Importance of marriage ----- 90 Marriage was sacred. It was and ordained by God. Marriage created new social relationships and expanded web of kinships. During the marriage ceremonies the whole community rejoiced, and feasted together. The newly married couple learnt new knowledge and skills. The community and society respected the newly married couple. Children born from this union propagated and ensured continuity of family, and the community. Modern community and marriage. There has been a change in attitude towards marriage. As a result: marriage is no longer seen as sacred and divorce is common. In addition, dowry has been commercialized, as it is no longer seen as important. Some young men do not pay dowry. In fact marriage is no longer seen as a sign of status Children were important in marriage. Barren women were frowned upon. Polygamy solved issues of childlessness. Couples without children can now adopt them from the Child Welfare society. Divorce. This was very rare. It happened only if the girl i was not a virgin ii practiced witchcraft iii and did not show respect towards her husband. Old age and death. This is the age of wisdom. Old people were respected. Grey hair was a sign of respect and wisdom. In all culture, the elders were the custodians of the law, norms and regulations. Social and religious specialists were seers, rainmakers, priests, diviners, and medicine men among others ----- 91 Death. Old age is followed by death. It was seen as a transition into the spiritual life. Besides old age, many cultures believed that death was due to either breaking of the traditional customs and taboos, curses, evil spirits, witchcraft, war, diseases and epidemics. Burial rites were performed in many African communities. Disposing of the dead body. Several methods were used to dispose the body. These were burials, leaving bodies in the forest, and throwing body to animals or placing the body in an abandoned house. African communities believed that animals carried the spirit of the dead person to the next life. Burial rites were performed by the bereaved. They buried the body with ones person belongings and tools. Thus if a person was a great warrior, he was buried with a war coat. Celebrations accompanied funeral rites. Funeral songs dirges were performed. There was drinking and eating. Importance of funeral and burial rites Burial rites created a good relationship between the dead and the living. They were therefore given to appease the world of spirits, express unity in the society, cleanse the remaining relatives and obey the customs of the community. Rituals that were performed depended on the community. Some of the rituals for the dead included. a Shaving of heads. Some mourners shaved their hair completely, while others shaved in a specific pattern. b Dancing and singing, and giving gifts to the bereaved family ----- 92 c Mourning d Drum beating e Horn blowing 9f Grave side fires Here are some questions to make you think about marriages 1. In your opinion, what has brought changes in modern marriages? 2. Explain why divorce is rising in Kenya and Africa. 3. What changes do we see in contemporary marriages? 4. What has brought about these changes? 5. What are the major causes of death in Kenya today? LESSON FOUR: RELIGIOUS SPECIALISTS AND THEIR RELEVANCE IN MODERN SOCIETY Learning outcome. After studying this lesson, 1. Identify religious specialists 2. State the role of medicine men, priests, mediums, prophets, diviners, and seers 3. Describe roles of herbalists, elders, and rainmakers 4. Explain the role of religious specialists in your culture Religious specialists include Medicine men / healers, Herbalists, Diviners, Mediums, Prophets / Seers, Rainmakers, Priests and Elders. Religious specialists were given power by their parents who taught them religious duties. Others received divine call through dreams and visions. A few learnt from experts via apprenticeship. This is learning by observing and practicing what one sees the master teacher doing. Roles of the medicine women/men in the Community. Medicine women/men are healers who were and are respected by the community. This is because they were and are able to: 1 Treat and heal the sick 2 Solve serious and complicated chronic illnesses ----- 93 3 Give medicine in form of powder, herbs, minerals or liquid form and observed patients swallowing, drinking, sniffing, and applying on the skin. 4 Offer prayers and sacrifices to God 5 Give charms to protect individual persons from evil spirits. 6 Perform specialized medical roles in some communities in spite of the fact that we have modern hospitals, counselors and psychologists. Elders were and still are community leaders. They were not religious specialists but the community gave elders duties, which made them close to religious leaders. Herbalists and their relevance. Herbalists were synonymous with witch doctors. They cured people through herbs just like the medicine women/men. Communities belief: that herbalists are witchdoctors and possess magical powers. Herbalists continue to be consulted as witch doctors or waganga. Today herbalists do religious tasks that were traditionally done by diviners. Diviners were able to find hidden secrets and knowledge; reveal witches and thieves. They communicated with spirits and enhanced the work of healers and medicine people. They worked as medicine people and were healers of people. They used magic powers and predicted future occurrences. They used items such as pebbles, water, bones or gourds in divination. They also warned of future calamities. They were mediators between God, ancestors and the people. To be a diviner, one had to be trained. There was a specialized curriculum prepared by diviners. ----- 94 Relevance of diviners in modern society. Diviners witchdoctor mganga are not popular today and are hardly consulted. But the unfortunate Kenyans consult them who: need a job, promotion, and children. This consultation is secret. Mediums were channels of communication between the living and the spirits of peoples ancestors. The ancestor spirits possessed mediums and through them ancestors gave information and messages to their relatives. Priests were religious leaders and functionaries. They were intermediaries between people, ancestors, spirits and God. Their work was to make sacrifices and give offerings on behalf of the people. They officiated during planting and harvesting rituals. They offered prayers and blessed the needy. They cared for the shrines and poured libations to the ancestors. They led the community in public worship. They were political heads and judges. Today, traditional priests are not relevant since most Kenyans follow several religious practices like Christianity, Hindus, Islam and many others. But there are however, a few traditional priests who take care of community shrines. Prophets / Seers predicted the future. They foretold events such as invasions, wars, drought, and epidemics. They gave advice. They also performed religious duties. They could bless and curse. Religious prophets are common today but traditional prophets are not common. Rainmakers were responsible for bringing or withholding rain to a community. They interpreted weather ----- 95 conditions. They performed certain rituals like asking God for rains. They were highly respected in the society. Modern science has replaced rainmakers Meteorological departments have made the rainmakers redundant. Elders were custodians of community values and secrets. They acted as educators. They gave punishment to offenders of social norms/rules. They acted as counselors and guided the youth on matters of sex and marriage. They helped in maintaining roles for important religious functions, such as rites of passage. They were political leaders in the community. They were negotiators and solved conflicts since they settled family disputes especially agreements concerning land. They were custodians of the traditional values, customs and history of the people. Relevance. Elders are relevant in modern society. They are referred to as village elders and are recognized by the government of Kenya. LESSON FIVE: AFRICAN MORAL VALUES Introduction. African communities were regulated by a strict code of laws and moral values. In this lesson we shall study moral values, which regulated individual members of society as well as the community itself. Learning outcomes. After reading this lesson, you should 1. Give examples of cultural values 2. Define moral values 3. Identify forms of misconduct 3. State a punishment for each misconduct ----- 96 What is a cultural value? These are community practices and beliefs. Each community has cultural values that it accepts and upholds. These cultural values are laws, customs, and forms of behaviour, regulations, rules, observances and taboos. The cultural values form a moral code, which regulates the community. For example, if the culture, values private property, it will have laws that forbid theft of property. These laws are cultural values. Cultural values influence the social order and peace. God gives peace and harmony. God is seen as the giver and guardian of the law. Disobedience was and still is regarded as evil, wrong and was and still is punishable by law. What is a moral value? Moral values are standards of behaviour towards others. They are based on what is valued by the community. Moral values are also positive attitudes. Each community decided what is important to it and what is desirable for its members to practice and uphold. The moral values that communities observed were many. They included amongst others: 1. Hospitality and Love for self and others. This is the habit of welcoming all people, treating oneself and others well. Members of the community were taught how to be hospitable to visitors, strangers and how to assist the needy. 2. Honesty. This is developing good habits like telling the truth, Loyalty, Respect, Co operation with all. 3. Obedience to parents, elders, community leaders and elders. Cultural regulations were followed and ----- 97 adhered to leading 4. Caring for others. This is being responsible to members of the community 5. Developing social moral behaviour like Humility, Sharing, Responsibility, Chastity, Integrity, Tolerance, Perseverance, and Courtesy 6. Working Hard. Do chores. These were according to sex, age and social- economic status. 7. Cooperation. Members cooperated and worked together with others. Moral values were learnt in the process of socialization. Leisure activities helped in acquisition of moral values. Learning moral values was a lifelong process. The most valued behaviour was obedience. Children were to obey their parents; wives obey their husbands; community obeys their leaders, and elders. Learning to obey was a life long process. An obedient person was respected and rewarded. Misconducts. There were taboos that the community observed. Failure to obey community laws resulted in punishments. The community did not allow stealing of livestock. Domestic animals were the most valued private property. Individuals owned livestock while land ownership was communal. There were many forms of punishment for stealing livestock and committing other crimes. For example a. Payment of heavy fines to replace stolen livestock b. Being beaten in a sack c. Thrown down a hill ----- 98 d. Cast out of community. Thieves and murders built their homes at the outskirts of the community. They were not allowed to interact anymore with the members of the community. e. Being covered with dry banana leaves and then set on fire. LESSON SIX: CONTINUITY AND CHANGE Introduction Learning outcome. From this lesson, you should be able to: 1. Compare traditional and modern way of life 2. Trace property ownership in traditional and modern communities 3. Explain how money economy has affected the traditional way of life 4. State how communities can look after orphans, widows, and old people Community. Formal education introduced the western way of life. Employment and trade forced Africans to leave their villages to look for employment and markets in towns. These actions led to urbanization and pluralism. As a result different communities came to towns and lived together. 1. Paid employment. Workers were paid by money. The concept of money changed community life. Individualism ownership of money replaced communalism 2. Land used to be communal. There was plenty of land for everyone. But changes were brought by modern life. For example, health improved and people lived longer. There were fewer deaths and population increased. With money, there was an expansion of trade. Individuals started buying land with money instead of clearing forests. Modern life changed the concept of land. Individual started owning land. The colonial governments ----- 99 introduced policies about land ownership in different African countries. In communities where education was accepted and money economy took over from livestock economy, communal land disappeared. Parents did not have land for inheritance. As a result, people moved and bought land away from their ancestral birthplaces. This resulted in both migrations and immigrations. 3. Property. Traditionally property included land, cattle Livestock , women/ wives, and children. In African traditional culture, this property belonged to men or the first-born son in paternal societies. In maternal communities, it belonged to wives and daughters. Today property or wealth is in different forms such as money, buildings, vehicles, land, shares, stock, jewels, insurance, and others. Women, men and children own property. Because of this, the status of a person is measured by property. Dowry Bride price / bride wealth In African societies, bride price was very important. It was given in various forms. For example cows, animals skin, and camels. Today dowry is commercialized. Its mainly in form of cash money. This has made marriage costly for the poor. Some young people are staying together without a formal wedding in church or in the community. Others do not want to pay dowry. Young couples are living together in what is called come we stay arrangements. 4. Health Medicine ----- 100 In traditional society, Illness was caused by witchcraft, sorcery, bad omen, or curses. Diviners, herbalists, and healers treated the sick people. Today bacterial, viruses, or environmental factors, cause illnesses. These are treated by nurses, and doctors; in hospitals and health centres. There is however a craze for herbalists. The communities are consulting herbalists and are taking herbal tea, and medicine 5. Dress Mode of dressing varied between countries. It was dependent on the type of climate. African communities were clothes made from skins or hides, leaves of bananas and trees. Women wore beads, and necklaces for decoration. Modern mode of dressing is a mixture of African, Asian and European wear. There are clothes for men, women, and unisex. African and western ornaments are worn for beauty and style. 6. Worship. Worship is an important activity in African communities. There are different forms of worship, which are done in various places. Those who were converted to Islam worship in Mosques. Those converted to Hinduism worship in temples. Christians worship in churches. The few traditional African communities continue to worship their ancestors in shrines. These are very few. But a few groups are turning back to traditional worship and reviving worship of ancestors and spirits, and their traditional God. For example Mungiki a cult in Kenya, made up of young people, worship the ----- 101 traditional Ngai and practice traditional culture. Traditional religions have many offerings such as foodstuffs and sacrifices such as goats, cows, sheep and chicken. Human sacrifice has been discarded. It is illegal, and it is murder. In the news, we have heard of cases of body parts being stolen from a dead body in mortuary probably for religious rituals. This is illegal and a criminal offence. Modern offerings in most religious institutions consist of money. 7. Death changes immediately the status of families. Mothers and fathers become widows and widowers. Children become orphans. Many parents, wives and husbands have died because of HIV / AIDS, road accidents, diseases and other modern calamities. They have left orphans, widows and widowers. Orphans used to be looked after by grandmothers, brothers and uncles. Today government, churches, charities, NGOs, well-wishers, and guardians, the elder sibling looks after orphans. Some orphan sisters and brothers drop out of school to look after the rest. Some orphans have ended up in the streets because there is no one to look after them Widows. Traditionally brothers inherited widows. However, widow inheritance is being discouraged to prevent HIV / AIDS. But on the other hand, widows are encouraged to remarry as society has become individualistic and no longer assists community members as an obligation. ----- 102 Widowers are not inherited and many of them remarry soon after the death of their wives. 8. Old age. In traditional African communities, old people were respected. But now old age is not respected. The aged are seen as a burden to their children. This is because the need medical care, food, and other forms of care to meet their needs. Most of them are neglected and mistreated. In traditional communities, children took care of their aged parents. Today some children care for their parents. Fortunately, churches have set up homes for the aged. An example is Nyumba za wazee. A few old people can look after themselves since they have pension schemes, life insurance policies, income generating projects, investments and bank deposits. They can care for themselves. Revision questions a What is the significance of the kingship system b Outline and explain factors contributing to harmony and mutual responsibility in the traditional African society c What was the purpose of the bride wealth in the traditional African society? d Explain the role of medicine men in the African communities and their relevance today. STUDY ACTIVITIES Read the Bible quotations given Carry out role-plays e.g. the sacrifice of Isaac by Abraham Consult the aged to assist in the understanding of African traditional practices ----- 103 Form one answers Topic: one 1.What is the importance of reading the Bible? Strengthens peoples faith. Helps in spreading the gospel. Helps in composition of songs and hymns. Acts as a reference when we write its translations and other books. Promotes good relationship between God and man. 2. In society, people in schools, crusades, churches, lodgings, homes, and hospitals read the Bible. 3.In the government, the Bible is used for swearing in the Courts, Parliament and Cabinet when members of parliament are nominated to become ministers of the government. 4.The major divisions of the Bible are the old and the new testaments. Read 1.3.4. Above for more information 2. What are the effects of Bible translation on African languages? The Effects of Bible translation into African languages The translations increased and deepened peoples faith in God. They also led to the establishment of schools. The Gospel spread to local communities and many of them became Christians. The missionaries and colonialists learnt African Languages. This led to the promotion of African languages. This helped the African converts to judge when the missionaries were unfair or when they practiced inequality of races. 8. Why is the Bible referred to as a a Library and b the Word of God a The Bible is referred to as a Library because its: 1. Books are arranged in a series and in order. 2. A reference book ----- 104 3. Is a book of literary works 4. Books were written under different situations and circumstances 5. Books are many 1. Inspiration is a process through which God took the initiative to prompt and enlighten the writers of the Bible its Godly influence. TOPIC TWO: CREATION AND THE FALL OF MAN 1. Find answers on the differences between the two creation stories in lesson four 2. Traditional African view of creation is in lesson four. Africans view was that: God is the architect of the world God existed from the very beginning of time God created everything from nothing God provides for the needs of human beings, animals, and all creation God continues to create through human beings 3. Human beings continue with the work of creation in lesson four 4. The origin of sin and evil read again lesson five 5. Consequences of sin in lesson five When Adam and Eve sinned Mans friendship with God changed to fear of GOD What had been innocent and good became shameful Relationship between GOD and man was damaged and became spoilt Man began to toil for food, safety and other basic needs Pain became part of human experience Death sentence was passed 6. Consequences of evil are in lesson six Africans understand evil as barrenness, war, drought, epidemics, madness, sickness, death, burning in a house and others ----- 105 7. Gods plan of salvation is lesson seven. The lesson tells us that GOD saved human kind by providing: Clothing for Adam and Eve Means to find food A decree to defeat serpent through the seed of the woman A solution in which he choose Abraham and separated him from others A delivery of Israelites from Egypt Prophets with messages for Israelites The Messiah to die on the Cross to save humankind 8. Compare the biblical concept of sin and the African concept of evil. Similarities: Both agree that God is good and did not create evil. In both, sin is a result of disobedience, greed and selfishness of humankind. In both cases, sin leads to human suffering. Both hold the view that sin/evil befalls humankind in the form of a curse. Sin brings separation between God and man. In both, there is reconciliation and forgiveness between God and man. Thus sin does not end a relationship. Differences In the bible, the serpent is seen as the cause of sin whereas in many Traditional African communities, the spirits of the dead causes evil. In the bible, there is external punishment hell for sinners while the African communities believe that punishment is here on earth. Biblically, human beings are born sinners because they are descendants of Adam 1st parents sin . In ----- 106 Traditional African Community, a child is born free of evil. Biblically had taken the initiative to end sin but in Traditional African Community, man does through sacrifice to the ancestral spirits. 9. Subdue the earth in genesis 1 verse 28 TOPIC THREE: FAITH AND GODS PROMISES TO ABRAHAM. Qn 1. Explain why Abraham is referred to as the Father of Faith Faith is complete trust in somebody or something. This is because he demonstrated faith in his lifes actions. Accepting to move from his homeland to an unknown land. By accepting circumcision at an old age and change of name. Being ready to sacrifice his only son Isaac. He made altars for the worship of God at Bethel etc. He believed in a God he did not know/see. By accepting to enter into a covenant relationship with God where he gave his best animals as a sacrifice. Qn 2. Give five 5 actions from the life of Abraham that shows his faith in God Abraham obeyed Gods call and left his homeland Haran to go to an unknown land. He believed in the promises God gave him. Build altars for the worship of God, one at Schecher and the other at Bethel. Covenant accepted to make a covenant with God where he sacrificed the best of his animals. Circumcision accepting the command to circumcise himself and all male children in his household. ----- 107 Sacrifice of son willing to offer his only son Isaac as a burnt offering to God. Qn 3. List some of the promises God gave to Abraham. Abraham and his wife Sarah would have a son. Abraham would be famous. He would become the father of a great nation. God would curse those who cursed him and bless those who blessed him. God assured Abraham of a personal protection. Many descendants like stars on the sky. The descendants would be slaves in a foreign land but God would deliver them. He would live to a ripe old age and die in peace. God would establish an everlasting covenant with him and his descendants. Some of his descendants would be kings. God would give him and his descendants land. Qn 4. Compare and contrast Jewish and Traditional African practice of circumcision A. Similarities In both communities, circumcision is taken as a physical sign of membership to the community. It involves the cutting of the foreskin. Members who refuse to be circumcised are treated as outcasts in the community. The shedding of blood is symbolic as it binds the people with God and ancestors. It has a religious significance. Special people in both do circumcision. ----- 108 The occasions are accompanied by a ceremony which being kinsmen together. The rite is compulsory for males. The practice is handed down from one generation to the next. Names are given during the occasion. In both cases, it is done in special or religious places e.g. temple/under mugumo tree/ shrine etc. It is a command from God/ancestors. Differences For African, initiation leads to adult responsibilities such as marriage, becoming a warrior, decision- making and property ownership. In Jewish community, the boys are too young to take up responsibility. In the Jewish community, only males are circumcised while in the Traditional African Community, both boys and girls are. For Jews, one remains a child while in the Traditional African Community, they move from childhood to adulthood. Jewish community circumcise at the age of eight days while in the Traditional African Community, it is at puberty. Among the Jews, it is a sign that they have become Gods people, but in Traditional African Community, one is bound to the ancestors. The Jewish circumcision is a command from God as a sign of their covenant with him while Traditional African Communities do it in obedience to the customs and traditions of their duty. ----- 109 The rite, taken place on the 8th day of both in Jewish community while in the Traditional African Communities, it occurs after every four six years. Done to individuals in Jewish community while it is done to a group of age mates in the Traditional African Communities. No seclusion period among Jews as is the case in most African communities. In African communities, the ceremony enables them to choose future leaders, which is not the case with the Jews. Helps one endure suffering pain in future in the African communities unlike in the Jewish communities. Only one form of initiation cutting of foreskin is done. Various forms are practiced in the Traditional African communities. These include: Cutting of foreskin Lib/ear piercing Removal of lower teeth Scarification putting marks on face/body Qn 5. What is the importance of faith to Christians? Faith is the foundation of Christian life today. It makes Christians part of the great nation of God. Through faith in Jesus, Christians became the chosen people of God. Faith enables Christians make correct choices in life e.g. When choosing a career, marriage partners etc. Faiths help them to face temptations and challenges in their lives and are able to overcome them. ----- 110 It gives them perseverance in prayer as they wait for Gods answer. It gives them the courage to commit their lives to God totally. It is through faith that Christians obey God. They are able to achieve impossible things through faith. They are able to believe what they have not seen through faith. They are able to serve the world, help the needy because of their faith in Christ. Qn 6. State the elements of a covenant Partners two or more partners are involved. A physical reminder a certificate/sign. Promises: given by both partners. Ceremony whose blood seals it or an oath taken. Witnesses must be present It requires faithfulness, obedience and loyalty to the regulations It spells out serious consequences for those who break it. Qn 7. Give examples of covenant in the bible and the modern society The Bible Gods covenant with Noah: where he promised never to destroy the earth with flood rainbow is the sign of the covenant Gen 9 . Gods covenant with Abraham: God promised to fulfil the promises he made to Abraham. The sign was circumcision Gen 15 17 . The covenant between God and the Israelites on Mt Sinai sign was the Law 10 commandments Exd 24 . The covenant between God and King David promise to Davids kingdom would last forever 2 Sam:7 . ----- 111 Jeremiahs covenant: The new covenant with Gods people Jr 31: 31 34 . Modern Society Baptism Marriage Oath of allegiance/loyalty Ordination The National Anthem binds all The loyalty pledge Employment contract Qn 9. Discuss the circumstances that led God to enter into a covenant relationship with Abraham To seal the promises given unto Abraham e.g. a great nation, son, many descendants. It was an assurance of the fulfillment of Gods promises to Abraham. It was to unite God and the Israelites. It was to be a source of blessings to all. A starting point for the salvation of mankind, whereby he would renew the relationship between himself and man after the separation by the 1st parents. TOPIC FOUR: SINAI COVENANT. Qn a. What are the qualities of Moses as a leader? Education: he received education while in the pharaohs palace where he grew up. Jewish religion knowledge: his own mother who was his maid taught him the history of Israel. He learned leadership skills from the King as he grew up. Shepherd: herding the father-in-laws herds made him gain experience of shepherding people. ----- 112 Life in the wilderness where he lived after killing an Egyptian gave him experience in desert life through where he would lead the Israelites. Father/parent: his marriage to Zipporah helped him learn family leadership. Later he applied this to his work. Prophet: Enabled him to foresee the future and inform the community. Miracle-maker: helped him solve problem facing his people in the wilderness e.g. lack of food, water. Lawgiver: gave laws that were used to govern the community of Israel i.e. the Ten Commandments. Hard work: worked for his father-in-law serving the family e.g. fetching water. Later he was able to serve the Jews. Qn b i Describe the call of Moses: Exodus 3: 1 22 God called Moses as he herded his father-in-laws flock at Mt Sinai. Moses saw a burning bush, which was not consumed. He drew nearer to get a better look. God called Moses by name from the middle of the burning bush and told him to remove his shoes because he was standing on holy ground. God told Moses that he had seen the suffering of his people in Egypt and heard their cry. He told Moses that he had chosen him to go to Pharaoh and release them from bondage. Moses objected to the task because he felt inadequate. God promised to be with Moses and to protect him. Moses asked for the name of God so that he would have a point of reference when asked who sent him. ----- 113 God revealed himself to Moses saying, IAM WHO I AM God gave Moses power to perform miracles that he would use as proof of his work. Moses protested further saying he was a stammerer. God commissioned Aaron, Moses brother as his spokesman. Moses then told God he was afraid to go to Egypt. God assured him that the man he was afraid of was already dead. Qn b ii Why was Moses hesitant to Gods call? It is because he was already a criminal and wanted in Egypt after having killed and Egyptian and ran away. He was not a good speaker stammerer . He did not know the name of God who was sending him. Qn c i what is the significance of the items used for the Passover feast similar to what is the meaning of the Passover meal ? The Lamb: reminded the Israelite of the sacrificial lamb whose blood saved their 1st born from the angel of death. The unleavened bread signified purity. It too signified the hurry they had to leave Egypt, as unleavened bread is easy to bake. Roasting the meat was the easiest method of cooking. Not breaking bones and spilt blood signified forgiveness. Bitter herbs symbolized the bitterness of slavery in Egypt. Other Meanings: Eating while standing symbolized the haste with which the Israelites were to leave Egypt. They were not to leave any meal to avoid profanation in the form of flies. Burning was the simplest ----- 114 way of disposal sacred. Qn c ii Compare the Lords Supper to the Passover feast Similarities: Both are acts of salvation from suffering. Passover saved Israelites from slavery while the Lords Supper saved people from bondage of sin. Both are celebrated in memory of a past event suffering. Lambs offered in both Hebrews the Passover lamb in the Lords Supper Jesus is the paschal lamb. In both a symbolic meal was taken. In both cases each group is saved through a mediator Moses and Jesus respectfully. Gods covenant is remembered in both cases i.e. Old testament and new covenant respectfully. In both the religious significance of the feasts is taught and emphasized. Differences: In the Passover feast, animal sacrifice is offered while in the Lords Supper, Jesus was the last sacrifice and instead bread and wine are offered to represent his blood and body. Whereas the Jewish Passover was compulsory for every few, the Lords Supper is not compulsory in all Christian churches. The blood shed in the Jewish Passover is for the salvation of the Jews only while the blood of Jesus shed on the cross is for the salvation of the whole human race. Passover lamb offered in Hebrew while Jesus was the lamb offered in the Lords Supper. Qn d. Describe how the Sinai covenant was made The Israelites arrived at Mt Sinai through Gods saving power. ----- 115 Moses was instructed by God to tell the elders to do the following in preparation for the making of the covenant. All Israelites were to cleanse themselves and wash their garments. Mark the boundaries of the mountain and avoid going near or crossing the border. Avoid sexual relations between married couple. Note: All these happened after Moses had gone up the mountain and God had promised to make the Israelites the following if they obeyed him. i. His people ii. A kingdom of priests iii. A holy nation On the third day after cleansing, Moses took the Israelites to meet their God. God manifested himself in the following forms: thunder, lightening, earthquake and a thick cloud that filled the mountain and a loud trumpet blast. Moses came down and told people about the laws which was to guide them as a covenant people. The people agreed to obey all the words the Lord had spoken Ex 24: 3 4 Thus the covenant was made. Qn e. Describe the circumstances that led to the breaking of the Sinai covenant Moses went up the mountain to receive the stone tablets on which the Ten Commandments where written. He delayed 40 days thus forgetting God. The Israelites became impatient. They forgot the saving power of God that had delivered them from ----- 116 Egypt. Aaron was a weak leader who failed to lead the people to uphold the covenant. He yielded to their demands to make and worship idols. Availability of gold jewellery: used to make the calf image. Idolatry was a practice done while in Egypt so they copied/continued with it. They were used to Gods idols . They could see while in Egypt unlike the Yahweh who was invisible. Qn f. How was the broken covenant renewed? Moses pleaded to God not to destroy the Israelites. God spared them. God commanded the Israelites to cut two stone tablets where he would rewrite the commandments. God gave conditions to be fulfilled by the Israelites in the renewal of the covenant. These were: a To obey Gods command. b Not to make treaties with other nations. c To tear down the altars of the gods of other nations and temples. d Not to worship idols. e Not to make images to represent God. f Not to marry foreign wives. g To keep and celebrate the three festivals namely, Passover, feast of weeks and the feast of in gathering. h To keep the Sabbath day holy. i Dedicate to God 1st born male children and animals. God promised that if they obeyed Him, He would: a Protect and preserve them ----- 117 b Bless them c Make them prosper After this Moses was ordered by God to write a new set of Laws on the stone tablets. Thus the covenant was renewed. Qn g. Describe how the Israelites worshipped God in the wilderness Worship is the practice of showing respect and love for God. The Israelites showed their respect and love for God in the wilderness in the following ways: - 1 The Ark and the Tabernacle: The Ark was a wooden box where the Ten Commandments were kept. They signified the presence of God. The tabernacle was a portable tent for meeting between God and the Israelites. 2 The Sabbath: They observed the Sabbath as a sacred day for resting and worshipping God. 3 Festivals: Celebrated many festivals as one way of worshipping God. E.g. Passover. 4 Altars built them when there was need to worship God meeting place between God and the people and sacrifice to God. 5 Observance of the Ten Commandments. These guided them on how to live with God and man. 6 Religious leaders: God chose priest from the tribe of Levi to organize worship. Qn h. What is the relevance of the Ten Commandments to Christian today? Christians learn that God is a jealous God. They avoid holding other things in their lives strong in the place of God. ----- 118 Christians learn that God is unique and cannot be represented by visible man-made objects or described in human terms. They are reminded to observe the Sabbath by worshipping God. They strive to have a good relationship with God. They are taught to respect other people and their property. They learn that long life is a result of honoring and respecting their parents. They strive to live upright and moral lives. They learn that lust for money and other property is sinful. Qn i. What did the Israelites learn about God in the wilderness? They learned that God is faithful. He keeps promises. A provider provided manna, water etc. God is the controller of natural forces e.g. Red sea, a pillar of cloud fire, earthquakes etc. A jealous God no worship of other gods. Just forgave those who broke the covenant and punished those who refused to repent. Merciful and compassionate. Give them a 2nd chance after breaking the covenant. A God of victory helped them defeat Amalekites. God valued a personal relationship commandments given. TOPIC FIVE: LEADERSHIP IN ISRAEL Qn a. Explain the reasons against Kingship in Israel 1 Sam 8:10 20 The King would force the sons of the Israelites to serve him as soldiers in the army. The King would create forced labour and enslavement by making the young men work in his farms and in making weapons. Daughters would work in his house. He would also grab their land and give it to his loyal servants. ----- 119 He would overtax them in order to maintain his administration. It would be seen as a rejection of Yahweh as their King. Israel would be like other nations who did not know Yahweh. Yahweh would reject them when they cried to him. Qn b. Explain the importance of David as King of Israel David was important because he was chosen by God and publicly anointed by elders in a religion ceremony. He too became ancestor of many communities. David was a great musician and wrote many songs for promising God. He killed Goliath the philistine soldier. He conquered the enemies of Israel such as Amalekites, Ammonites etc. He expanded Israel through his military conquests and marked the boundaries of the nation. He captured Jerusalem from the Jebusites and made it a capital city. He too made it a religious centre by placing the Ark of the Covenant there, which had been housed Abidjabs. He had good diplomatic relationship with other nations. He encouraged trade with other nations thus making Israel prosperous. He was a shrewd administrator who chose wise elders to advise him. He was filled with the Holy Spirit. He established the largest and most enduring dynasty that lasted 400 years. He composed the books of Psalms used to praise God. Whenever he wronged God, he genuinely repented and humbled himself before God. He was a just ruler. He respected the prophets of God and consulted them before making decisions. He was prayerful and consulted God in his undertakings. ----- 120 He united the twelve 12 tribes of Israel. He set a good example of faithfulness to Yahweh that he wanted all the Israelites to emulate. Qn c. How did Jesus fulfil the prophecies of prophet Nathan as a descendant of David? i.e. Areas where Jesus is mentioned as coming from David Angel Gabriel announced the birth of Jesus to Mary who was engaged to Joseph, a descendant of David. The Angel referred to Jesus as the King whose wisdom would last forever Lk 1:26-33 . Jesus was born in Bethlehem the birth place of David Lk 2: 4 5 Abraham and David are mentioned as the ancestors of Jesus. During the triumphant entry into Jerusalem, the crowds who met him sang with joy and shouted Hosanna to the son of David. On the days of Pentecost when Peter addressed the crowd, he referred to Jesus as a descendant of David Acts:2 29-35 . Zechariah in his Benedictus, says that God has promised a savior descended from the house of David Lk 1:69 The blind man at Jericho referred to Jesus as the son of David Lk 18:38 . Qn d. What was the failure of King Solomon? Solomon was the 2nd King of Israel, succeeding his father King David. He failed to live according to the covenant way of life in the following ways. He married foreign wives thus breaking the Toral that clearly stated that the Israelites should not marry foreigners because they can come with their gods idols. ----- 121 He allowed the wives to worship their gods idols thus leading to spread of idolatry in Israel. He not only worshipped the gods of his wives but also built temple for their worship. He, by worshipping the gods became a bad example to Israel, as King. They copied him. Although he built Gods temple, he erred in many ways: i. He built his palace for 13 years but took only 7 years to build Gods temple. Shows he loved himself more the God. ii. He used foreign designs and materials in the construction of the temple, ignoring Gods specifications on how to build it. iii. He liaised pagan craftsmen from Tyre to design, decorate and furnish the temple. He broke the sixth commandment by killing his half brother, Adonijah. He suspected that Adonijah would become his rival to the throne. He spent a lot of Israels money on his lavish lifestyle. He had a large army and servants. He overtaxed the people to meet the amount. He used forced labour in his development projects. He enslaved young men and women who went to work in the palace as servants for the wives. He practiced nepotism. He exempted them from forced labour. He sold part of Israel sold 20 towns of Galilee to King of Tyre as payment of a debt he could not pay contrary to Gods command. He made treaties with other nations that were against the condition set during the renewal of the ----- 122 Sinai covenant. In the above ways, he oppressed the people of God. Qn e. Which leadership qualities can modern leaders learn from David? Justice: A good leader is one who does not favour some people like David I Sam 24: 1 12 . Courage: David showed this while fighting Goliath. Leaders need to be brave and courageous in their work I Sam 17:41 54 . Fear of God and Faith: David consulted God before any undertaking. Leaders should do the same. Gratitude: David was thankful to blessings he received. Leaders should be happy and grateful to God. Loyalty: Modern leaders should remain loyal to their office. David was loyal to God and his people 2 Sam 2:7 Kindness: Good leaders should show mercy to their people like David did e.g. he forgave Saul twice 2 Sam 19: 9 39 . Humility: Leaders should not hesitate to ask for forgiveness from God and people. David was humble and asked for forgiveness any time he went wrong. Willingness to delegate: Learn to delegate future as David did 2 Sam 20: 23 26 Wisdom: Be wise in choosing legal advisers as David did. Respect: Leaders should show respect to God and preaches those they serve as David did to the prophets and his people. TOPIC SIX: LOYALTY TO GOD- ELIJAH. Qn a. Qualities of Elijah that led to his achievements ----- 123 Elijah was fearless and courageous. His courage helped him to face king Ahab and queen Jezebel and condemn them for their wickedness such as corruption and idolatry He was faithful to God. Yahweh guided him in his dealings with Baal prophets and king Ahab. He lived a simple life. For example, he wore simple clothing made of carmels skin. He stood for the covenant at a time when the religion of Yahweh was in danger He had the power of God in him and was able to control rain. He confirmed that Yahweh had authority over land and over the people. b Schism is sharp religious, social, political differences within a group or organization Syncretism is the process of mixing religious beliefs and practices c Some characteristics of Elijah that a modern Christian should strive to emulate 1 Courage 2 Faithfulness 3 Zealousness for God 4 Concern for the needy / poor 5 Provision of social justice 6 Patience Qn d. What were the effects of idolatry in Israel? Syncretism developed where the Israelites worshipped Yahweh alongside the gods of Canaan. The Israelites started calling Yahweh by the names used for Canaanites gods e.g. El. The Israelites started naming their children after Canaanite gods like Baal. ----- 124 They changed their religion calendar and celebration to correspond with their Canaanite celebrations and feasts. They converted the high places used for worshipping Baal to Yahwehs shrines without removing the graven images of idols. The unity that existed between the two tribes of Israel was destroyed. They no longer treated one another as brothers. The Kings of Israel behaved like the Canaanites leaders by oppressing the weak and grabbing other peoples property. The people neglected Yahwehs holy places. Gods prophets were mistreated, persecuted and even killed. God withdrew his blessings from the Israelites because they angered Him by worshipping other gods. They broke Gods commandments, which forbade worship of other god a part from Yahweh. The Israelites practiced temple prostitution and other Canaanites rituals and sacrifices. Qn e. Describe Elijahs fight against false religion in Israel Elijah rose to challenge false religion at a time when Baalism had become the official religion. He prophesied a three and a half years drought because the people had turned away from Yahweh. After the drought God appeared to Elijah and told him to go to King Ahab and tell him that the drought was as a result of idolatry in Israel. Elijah requested the King to order all the people to meet at Mt Carmel to hold a contest. ----- 125 Elijah asked the King to invite the 400 prophets of Asherah and Baals 450, saw that they could prove who the true God is. Elijah would sacrifice a bull and the false prophets would too sacrifice their own to call on their Gods to send fire. The one who could send is the true God. The prophets of Baal were the 1st to pray to their god but he never sent fire. The prophets cut themselves with knives to please their god but he never sent it. Elijah then prepared the altar with 12 pillars representing the 12 tribes of Israel. He dug a trench around the altar, placed wood and put the cut bull on top of the wood. He ordered for water to be poured around the trenches until it flooded. Then in the evening Elijah prayed and called upon the God of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob to send fire. Fire came and consumed the whole sacrifice, including the water in the trenches. As a result, the Israelites bowed down and declared that Yahweh was the true God. Then Elijah ordered the killing of all the prophets of Baal and the prophetesses of Asherah. Elijah went to the top of the Mt Carmel and prayed for rain. Yahweh sent His servant to watch for the sign of rain from the sea. The servant looked towards the sea seven times after, which he saw a small cloud forming. Then heavy rain fell, signaling end of drought. Qn f. Describe Elijahs fight against corruption 1 Kings 21 ----- 126 Corruption: Can be defined as dishonesty or misuse of power for personal gain. In a corrupt society, the rich and powerful people tend to take advantage of the weak/poor by exploiting them and denying them their rights. King Ahab of Israel desired a fruitful vineyard owned by a man named Naboth. King Ahab approached Naboth to sell him the vineyard or exchange with another one. Naboth declined the offer because in Israel, selling ancestral land was against the covenant law. The land belonged to God. Jezebel, Ahabs wife, soon learned, Naboths refusal and she arranged Naboths murder through false accusations. After Naboth was killed, Ahab possessed the vineyard. God commanded Elijah to go and declare His judgement on Ahab for committing such an evil act in Israel. Elijah declared the following judgement on Ahab: i. Dogs would lick Ahabs blood at the same place where they had licked Naboths. ii. Ahabs dynasty would fall kike those of the Kings before him who had disobeyed God. iii. All family members of Ahab would face violent deaths. On hearing this, Ahab humbled himself before God and repented. God postponed Ahabs punishment to the days of his son. Qn g. What can Christian learn from the teachings of Elijah? ----- 127 From the Mt Carmel incident, they learn that Yahweh controls the forces of nature can bring rain or stop it. Yahweh is the only true and living God Mt Carmel. Yahweh is forgiving pardoned those who repented on Mt Carmel. Yahweh is a jealous God. He will not share honor with any God killed the 450 prophets worshipping Baal. A prosecutor protected Elijah. A provider provided Elijah with food. Yahweh answers prayers. He is faithful. They also learn that church leaders should condemn evil like Elijah did in the case of Ahab and Naboth. Christians should work to protect the poor from exploitation. They should be prayerful so that God can help them overcome difficulties like Elijah. They should strive to lead lives free from corruption. They should remain faithful even if it means costing their lives to Naboth. Leaders should realize authority comes from God and are accountable to Him. They should avoid idolatry, which Elijah condemned. Perform tasks given by God however had they may be as Elijah did facing Ahab, killing the 450 false prophets etc. Finally, they should invite sinners to repeat and bring them back to God. TOPIC SEVEN: SELECTED ASPECTS OF AFRICAN RELIGIOUS HERITAGE Question a: Explain African beliefs about God or qualities ----- 128 African beliefs about their God are found in their proverbs, myths, songs, prayers, narratives and religious ceremonies. God was believed to be a supreme being who was beyond human understanding. The African communities believed that God was all-powerful omnipotent. They believed that Gods power is expressed in natural occurrences such as thunder, earthquake floods and volcanic eruptions. God is believed to be all-knowing omniscient. He is limitless and knows hears and sees everything. He is also omnipresent meaning he is everywhere at all times. Transcendent beyond human understanding. Because of the transcendent nature, Africans found it impossible to represent him using physical representations. They viewed him as being far yet too near them. He was seen as the provider and sustainer of creation. They believed that God is everlasting. He has no beginning or end. God is merciful. They believed he is incorruptible. African communities associated God with justice. Physical features were often seen as a representation of awesome power of God. This is why large mountains, thick forest, unique rock formation were used as shrines. African viewed God to be mysterious. Qb. Describe the African understanding of the Hierarchy of Beings Hierarchy of Beings Divinities ----- 129 Ancestors Human Beings Animals and Plants Non-living Things God as the creator occupies the highest rank in the hierarchy of being creator. The Divinities: Came next and control natural forces in the universe, created by God. The Common Spirits: Comprise spirits of people who died long time ago. Ancestors: living dead : Spirits of those who died recently and are still remembered by the living. Human Beings: Consist of the living and the unborn. Animals and Plants: Come next for mans use as food and sacrifice to God. Last 7th are Non-living things: Such as mountains, rocks, rivers, caves, dwelling places of God and Spirits. Qc. Describe the Role of the ancestors to the living The ancestors acted as intermediaries between God and human beings. They communicated the problems and wishes of human beings to God. God and the spirits used the ancestors to express their wishes concerning human beings. The ancestors welcomed those who died to the spirit world. They helped to preserve the culture and standards of a community. ----- 130 The ancestors blessed the living and corrected them through punishment. Qd. What was the responsibility of the living towards God? To show gratitude to God and give thanks to him as an acknowledgement that He is the giver of life. To honor, worship and adore God by praying to Him for their needs. To pray to Him during or before a war, before planting, etc. To obey and trust Him. To take care of Gods creation To teach children about God. Appease him through sacrifice. Qe. Describe the Traditional African ways of worshipping God Sacrifice: They were used to ask Gods favour, thanksgiving, to avert evil and ask for forgiveness, before planting and after harvest, epidemics, birth, naming, invitation, weddings, funerals etc for different reasons. Offerings: Foodstuffs e.g. grain, honey, beer, milk was offered in recognition of God as owner of property and provider. Prayers and invocations: Commonest act of worship. A continuation activity done anytime as the need arises. Song and dance: People were involved both physically and spiritually. This brought the city together. Blessings and Salutations: Expressed in greetings and farewells e.g. Go with God, God be with you. Qf. What were the African ways of venerating and communicating with the spirits and ancestors? Venerating means showing respect to somebody. ----- 131 Spirits and ancestors were venerated because they were believed to be senior to human beings and closer to God. Sacrifices were offered to them as the ways of venerating them. Pouring libation was done. The living invited them during ceremonies such as birth, invitation, marriage and burial. They consulted diviners, mediums and medicine men to keep in contact. The living named after them thus they became immortal and members in the physical world again. Their names were mentioned during prayer. By maintaining their graves. Giving them proper burial ceremonies. TOPIC EIGHT: AFRICAN MORAL AND CULTURAL VALUES. Qa. What is the significance of the kinship system? Kinship means being related either by blood or marriages. The kinship system was important in the traditional African society because of the following factors. The kinship system regulated peoples behavior towards each other. This promoted peaceful and harmonious relationships. It promoted co-operation among community members especially in times of difficulty. It helped to ensure that the disadvantaged members of the community were taken care of. The living dead and the ancestors were part of the African kinship system. This showed concern or the families or relatives they left behind. The kinship system led to the preservation of cultural identity. ----- 132 It provided a peaceful way of settling disputes with the elders acting as arbitrators. It ensured fairness and transparency in sharing out inheritance. The kinship system united the members of a family and clan by giving them a sense of belonging. It helped people to establish new relationship, especially through marriage. Kinship ties regulated marital customs rules and regulations. People who were related in any way could not be allowed to marry. Qb. Outline and explain factors contributing to harmony and mutual responsibility in the Traditional African Society Good morals: Every member of the community was expected to do the right thing according to the norms of the community. Participation in communal activities: Means of the community were expected to participate in communal activities e.g. wrestling, dances and communal work. Sharing: People shared ideas and even property, which created harmony among the people. Division of labour: Tasks were distributed according to ones age; gender to avoid conflicts in roles. Rules: In Traditional African Communities, elders, men youth, and women had their respective roles to play that enhanced harmony in the community. Virtues: Virtues like generosity, obedience, kindness and honesty were encouraged since they contributed towards harmonious living. ----- 133 Religious beliefs and practices: A common belief in God, the spirits and ancestors created a sense of togetherness. Qc. What was the purpose of bride wealth in the Traditional African Society? It was a way of thanking the brides family for taking good care of her. It was a form of compensation to the brides parents because the woman would now belong to another family. It was a sign of contract that the man would marry the girl and they would live together until death. It represented evidence of the grooms ability to take care of a wife and a family. It was a sign of generosity on the side of the man. It initiated a long-lasting friendship between the families of the groom and the bride. It cemented a marriage. It was a symbol of the marriage covenant between the bride and the groom. Bride wealth served as an outward seal of the marriage contract. Qd. Explain the role of medicine-men in the African Communities and their relevant today 1 Medicine men They are also referred to as healers, herbalists or traditional doctors. They identified illness and their causes. They identified appropriate treatment and prevention measures for the illness. They averted the effects of a curse. They offered sacrifices and prayers to God and the ancestors. They prepared charms for protection against witchcraft and evil spirits. ----- 134 They gave medicine to increase fertility in both people and animals. They acted as counselors, guiding people on all issues of life. 2 Relevance of Modern Society Modern medicine has not fully displaced herbalists. Medical doctors and scientific researchers today work side by side with traditional healers since herbs are used to make modern medicine. Some people still believe that there are some illnesses that cannot be treated in hospitals hence; they turn to herbalists. Some people also believe that medicine people who practice magic have the power to change their fate. FORM TWO GOD MEETS US IN JESUS CHRIST ST. LUKES GOSPEL INTRODUCTION Matthew, Mark, Luke and John record the life of Jesus Christ and his ministry in the four Gospel books. We shall trace the life, and ministry of Jesus Christ as written by St Luke to Theophilus. St Luke was a medical doctor. TOPIC ONE: OLD TESTAMENT PROPHESIES ABOUT THE MESSIAH Introduction: Read 2 Samuel 7:13, Isaiah 7:10-16 Messiah Meaning: The word Messiah is from a Hebrew word meshiach, which means the anointed: thus a Messiah is one called, anointed and appointed by God to serve Him. Prophecy: ----- 135 A prophecy refers to a prediction of what will happen in future. Messianic Prophecies: These are those predictions that were made by the prophets to describe the coming of a righteous King who will rule Israel according to Gods will. The origin of the Messianic prophecies in the Bible starts with prophet Nathans prophecy to King David. NOTE: The Roman ruled the Israelites before the birth of Jesus. They hated the Roman leadership and longed for somebody of their own to lead them into victory over the Roman rule. The prophet of Israel the Old Testament communicated a message that God would send a messiah to bring all people into a lasting relationship with Him. The prophets who were sent had different ideas about the Messiah. Their ideas about the Messiah were different from the Jewish expectations whereby they hoped for political King to lead them into victory over the Roman rule. But the prophets were talking about a religious one to free them from sin. Topic Outcomes. By the end of this topic, you should be able to: a Explain the Old Testament prophecies about the coming of the Messiah. b Relate the concept of the Messiah in the Old and New testaments. c Explain the link between the Old and the New Testament d Discuss the role of John the Baptist. LESSON ONE. OLD TESTAMENT PROPHESIES ABOUT THE COMING OF THE MESSIAH. Learning Outcomes. By the end of this lesson, you should be able to describe prophesies of Nathan, ----- 136 Isaiah, Jeremiah, Psalmist prophecy David and Micah concerning the Messiah i NATHANS PROPHECY 2 Samuel 7:3 17 and Psalms 89: 20 38 . David proposed to build God a house. Nathan, the prophet was given a message an oracle for David. In this prophecy, God told Nathan to tell King David that: God would ensure that the Kingdom of David would last forever. An heir from Davids lineage would rule Davids heir shall build a house for Gods name. God would establish the throne of his Kingdom forever. David heir shall be Gods son and God shall be his father. David house and Kingdom shall be established forever. David died. But Gods mercy shall not depart from the heir of David. Hence the promise that the Kingdom of David, shall last forever referred to the messiah who was to come. David is an ancestor of Christ. ii ISAIAHS PROPHECY Isaiah 7: 10 16; 9: 1- 7; 61:1 2; and 63. In these readings, Isaiah prophesied that the Messiah would be: Born of a virgin A boy, born of a virgin and called Emmanuel that is God with us A Wonderful, Counselor, Mighty God, The everlasting Father, and the Prince of Peace. The Spirit of God inside him Anointed of God Sent to preach the good news to the poor, to bring liberty to the captives, proclaim the year of favour from God. ----- 137 Isaiah also prophesied that the Messiah would be the suffering servant Isaiah 53 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SUFFERING SERVANT ISAIAH 53 He would bear the sins of human kind He was oppressed, afflicted, despised, rejected of men He bore suffering and disgrace submissively He was mocked and spat on and wounded He was innocent of sin and yet treated as a criminal. He was pierced and wounded in the sides He was crucified with thieves and made intercession for the sinners He was buried in a rich mans tomb. iii. JEREMIAHS PROPHECY- JEREMIAH 23: 5 6. God promised to rise up a branch who shall: Choose as King, a righteous descendant of David Prosper Rule wisely, do what is right, and just in the world Execute justice on the earth Ensure that Judah and Israel are safe and live in peace. Be called the God our righteousness The Lord our salvation What does the term a righteous branch means? iv. MICAHS PROPHESY, MICAH 5: 1 5 . Micah prophesied that: The Messianic King shall come from Bethlehem He shall lead with authority He will bring peace v. THE PSALMIST PROPHECY Psalm 41:9 and 110:1 2 . David spoke of Betrayal by a close friend Messiah is referred to as the Lord The messiah shall rule/reign in the midst of enemies. ----- 138 Summary Nathan, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Psalmist prophecy David and Micah prophesied of a Messiah to come. The Jews expected a Messiah who would be a political leader, a victorious ruler and a King. They expected a Messiah: Who would lead his people into a time of great national power and prosperity; In whose reign, there shall be no illness, no sorrow, no injustice, In whose reign, there shall be no fear In whose reign, land shall be filled with joy and peace Who shall rule forever. Revision questions 1 Describe the prophecy of Jeremiah concerning the Messiah 2 What does the term Messiah mean? 3 Highlight the Jewish expectations of the Messiah in the Old Testament? 4 Did Jesus Christ fulfill the O.T. prophecies concerning the Messiah? How? 5 Which prophets in the Old Testament prophesied about the expected Messiah? LESSON TWO. THE CONCEPT OF THE MESSIAH IN THE NEW TESTAMENT Learning Outcomes. By the end of this lesson, you should be able to explain the concept of the Messiah in the New Testament The concept of messiah is found in Luke 1:26 38; 2:1-23; 23:1 35; 24:50 51. The writer of Lukes Gospel makes it clear that Jesus fulfilled the Old Testament prophecies concerning the coming of the ----- 139 Messiah. How did He do this? Well Jesus fulfilled the Old Testament prophecies because; Jesus was born from the lineage of David Mathew 1 Angle Gabriel said the child to be born shall rule forever Luke 1:32 Nathans prophecy Jesus was born of Mary a Virgin, as pre told by Isaiah 7:14 Messiah is called Emmanuel, Isaiahs prophecy. Mathew 1:18 25 Jesus was born in Bethlehem Micahs prophecy The Messiah would be a Son of David Nathan, and Jeremiah prophesies. Jesus was referred to as a Son of David Luke 18:38 Jesus would bring salvation said by Simeon during dedication of Jesus. Luke 2:29 32. This was a fulfillment of Isaiahs prophecy. Jesus referred to himself as the Messiah by reading the scroll. Isaiah 61:1 2. and Luke 4: 18 19 Isaiah prophesied that the Messiah would perform miracles. Jesus performed many miracles. The prophecy of the suffering servant Isaiah 53 was fulfilled through the passion, death and crucifixion of Jesus Christ. We see Jesus betrayed by one of his disciples friend, fulfilling the Psalmist prophecy. Note that the Jews in the New Testament expected a messiah who would deliver them from the rule of the Romans. Jews expected Jesus to be a political leader or king. However, Peter called him the Christ of God Luke 9:20 . Matthew called him King of the Jews in chapter 2 verse 2 . Hence, Jesus came as a Spiritual Leader and King, and not as a political Leader / King. ----- 140 Self-Assessment Questions 1. What does the name Emmanuel mean? 2. Explain the concept of the Messiah in the New Testament? LESSON THREE. ANNUNCIATION OF THE BIRTH OF JOHN THE BAPTIST Introduction The parents of John the Baptist were Zechariah and his wife Elizabeth. Zechariahs name meant God has remembered. Elizabeths name meant God has sworn. Learning outcome. By the end of this lesson, you should be able to describe the annunciation of the birth of John the Baptist and Jesus. John the Baptist 1. The Annunciation Read Luke 1:5 25. Zechariah was a priest. He and his wife Elizabeth were old, good and righteous people of God. But they did not have a child. They were barren. But God gave them a child, John the Baptist. His birth was announced to his father, Zechariah, when he was in the temple offering incense. An Angel appeared to Zechariah and told him that his prayers had been heard. His wife Elizabeth will bear a son. The angel said the child would be called John, which means that God is gracious. The child Will be set aside to serve God. Will be filled with the Holy Spirit As an adult, John Will be a Nazarite. He should neither cut his hair nor drink wine. Shall turn many hearts of people to the Lord their God. Shall also turn the hearts of the fathers to their children ----- 141 Zachariah expressed unbelief to these words. Angel Gabriel told him that he shall be dumb until the fulfillment of the Gods words. The Birth, Circumcision and Naming Of John the Baptist Elizabeth brought forth a son. This brought great joy to her and Zachariah. The cousins, and neighbours of Elizabeth wanted the Child to be named Zechariah after the father. But Elizabeth insisted on the name John. When Zechariah was asked to name the child, he wrote down the name John. On the 8th day, the child was named John as the angel had said. John was circumcised on the 8th day according to the Jewish traditions. After naming his Child John, the mouth of Zechariah opened immediately and he started to speak. He sung a song referred to as Benedictus in Luke 1:67 79. As he sung the Benedictus, Zechariah prophesied that God has: Raised up a horn of salvation on the house of David Remembered his covenant with Abraham Zechariah said this about his Child John: He shall be the prophet of the most high The child/John shall prepare the way of the lord by i Calling men to forgiveness ii Showing men the light of salvation iii Guiding people into peace. LESSON FOUR. THE ROLE OF JOHN THE BAPTIST The role of John the Baptist is found in Isaiah 40: 3 5, Malachi 3:1, 4:5 6, and Luke 7: 20 35. ----- 142 Learning Outcomes. By the end of this lesson, you should be able to describe the role of John the Baptist in the Gospel. John the Baptist had an important role to play according to the Angel who announced his coming birth. His role was to: . Be a Prophet with qualities of Elijah see Malachi 3:1, 4:5 Announce the good news to come just like Elijah did. Be the link between the Old Testament and New Testament Prepare the way for the Lord. Announce the coming of Gods reign that was near. Preach a baptism of repentance Baptize with water Introduce people, and his disciples to the Messiah Jesus Christ. Fulfil the Prophecy of Elijah that a messenger was sent before the coming of the Messiah. John the Baptist was likened to Elijah. Topic review questions 1. Outline the qualities of John as described by angel Gabriel to Zechariah 2. Why was John referred to as the second Elijah? 3. What lessons do Christians learn from annunciation of the birth of John the Baptist? 4.describe the birth of John the Baptist TOPIC TWO: THE INFANCY AND EARLY LIFE OF JESUS LUKE 1:26 38 Learning Outcomes. By the end of this lesson, you should: a. Explain events leading to the birth of Jesus b. Describe the meeting between Mary and Elizabeth c. Describe the birth of Jesus d. Explain the dedication of JESUS ----- 143 e. Describe Jesus at the Temple a. Angel Gabriel announces the birth of Jesus. Angel Gabriel said that Mary would conceive and bear a child. Angel Gabriel called Mary the highly favoured one. Mary was an ordinary virgin girl in Galilee engaged to marry Joseph, a descendant of David. The Angel said that Mary will bear i A Son ii called Jesus which means God serves. iii The child shall be great iv He shall be called the son of the highest. v He shall be given the throne of his father David vi He shall reign forever vii His kingdom will never end. Read again and explain what angel Gabriel said concerning the child to be born to Mary? b. Mary visits Elizabeth. Luke 1:39-56 Angel Gabriel had told Mary that her cousin Elizabeth was also going to have a child. Mary went to visit her. The child in Elizabeths womb leaped when Mary greeted Elizabeth. The Holy Spirit revealed to Elizabeth that Mary is the mother of her Lord, the Messiah. Mary answered Elizabeth by singing the hymn The Protector in Psalm 121:3, The Love of God. Psalm 103:17, 98:3. The Magnificent. In this hymn Mary says: Her soul magnifies the Lord. The Lord has regarded the poor and those of low estate. Gods mercy is on them that fear him from generation to generation. God humbles the proud and mighty, and exalts those of low estate the lowly God has filled the hungry and sent the rich away empty ----- 144 Through the magnificent, Mary, expresses her joy, gratitude and favour given to her and the world. c. The birth of Jesus Christ. Luke.2: 1 20 The birth of Jesus took place in Bethlehem, in Judea, during the reign of Augustus Caesar, a Roman Emperor. During that time, Rome was conducting a census of the people / citizens for the purpose of collecting taxes. The census was ordered by the emperor to determine payment of taxes. The method that Rome was using was counting. Joseph, of the house of David went to his hometown, called Bethlehem; for the census. Jesus was born during this time. He was wrapped in swaddling clothes and laid in a manger because there was no accommodation in Bethlehem. The first people to receive the news that a Savior was born were the shepherds. An angel announced the birth of the Savior, Christ the lord, to the shepherds. The shepherds went to Bethlehem and saw the child Jesus. They spread the word concerning what had been told them about the child. How was the annunciation of the birth of Jesus extraordinary? d. The dedication of JESUS LUKE.2: 22 38 Like John the Baptist, Jesus was circumcised, and named on the 8th day. He was named Jesus which means the savior or Yahweh or saves. Mary and Joseph observed the Jewish customs according to the Law of Moses. For her purification and dedication of the child Jesus, Mary brought a pair of turtledoves as an offering. The fist born males were dedicated to God as Holy. Simeon took the child up in his arms ----- 145 for dedication and said that: The child is set for the fall and rising of many in Israel. A Sword will pierce Marys soul on account of the child. Prophet Anna also came to the temple and prophesied that the child shall bring deliverance. e. Jesus at the Temple Luke 2:42 52 The parents of Jesus Mary and Joseph, went to Jerusalem every year for the feast of the Passover. When Jesus was 12, he accompanied them to Jerusalem. After the feast the parents went home without realizing that their child, Jesus was not with them. But while on the way, they realized he was not amongst them. They returned to Jerusalem, and looked for him for 3 days. They found him sitting in the temple; listening and asking teachers questions. All those who were in the temple were astonished by his wisdom and intelligence. It is in the temple that Jesus is revealed, first as a true son of his people and also as light and salvation for all people. On being questioned by Mary and Joseph, Jesus answered thus: Didnt you know I had to be in my Fathers house, about my Fathers business? This was an echo of Malachi 3:1 the Lord whom you seek will suddenly come to his temple. Answer these questions 1 Trace occasions when angels appeared to people in the new testament 2 How did Jesus follow the customs and traditions of the Jewish people? Answers 1. Occasions when angels appeared to people in the New Testament a Angel appeared to Zechariah to announce birth of John the Baptist ----- 146 b Angel appeared to Mary to announce the birth of Jesus Christ c Angels appeared to the shepherds on the night Jesus was born d Angel appeared to Joseph in a dream warning him to flee to Egypt with the child and Mary 2. How Jesus followed the customs and traditions of the Jewish people i He was named on the 8th day ii He was circumcised on the 8th day iii His parents took him to the temple for the annual cerebrations of the. Passover iv He went to the synagogue v In his dedication as a first male, his parents offered the sacrifices expected from them. Topic Review Questions 1. Explain events leading to the birth of Jesus b. Describe the meeting between Mary and Elizabeth c. Describe the birth of Jesus d. Explain the dedication of JESUS e. Describe Jesus at the Temple TOPIC THREE. THE GALILEAN MINISTRY LUKE 3-8 John the Baptist and Jesus Christ Learning Outcomes. By the end of this topic, you should: a Explain the teachings of John the Baptist b Describe the baptism and temptation of Jesus and its relevance to Christians today. c Give reasons as to why Jesus was rejected at Nazareth d Describe the first miracles of Jesus at Capernaum LESSON ONE. THE PREACHING OF JOHN THE BAPTIST Luke3: 1 20 John the Baptist preached about ----- 147 a. Baptism of repentance for the forgiveness of sins. Baptism means to dip in water. Repentance means change of heart/mind, turning around. Baptism was a symbol of repentance, which means a total change heart/mind, a confession of sins . Baptism of water was a preparation of the baptism of fire and Holy Spirit by Jesus. b. He warned people of Gods coming Judgment. The religious leaders stressed outward observance of the law rather than inner righteousness. John the Baptist told them to bear fruits worthy of repentance. He told them to live righteous lives and not as hypocrites brood of vipers . Religious leaders also assumed that since they were descendants of Abraham, God would not punish them. He warned them that God could raise descendants of Abraham from stones. c He announced the coming of the Messiah as Judge. John the Baptist became famous that some thought he is the promised messiah. He however pointed to a messiah who will not baptize with water but with the Holy Ghost and fire Jesus Christ . d He preached on social justice. He taught, emphasized, advised: That those who have should share with those who do not have The need for fairness and honesty for example tax collectors not to collect more than what was required. That soldiers should not to abuse their power by accusing others falsely, robbing. They were told to be content with their wages. ----- 148 e . He condemned King Herods immoral behaviour. King Herod had married Herodians his own brothers wife. Herod imprisoned John the Baptist and this led to his death Luke 3 v.22 What does the term social justice mean? Find the answer in d . Summary of the teachings of John the Baptist He taught on repentance and forgiveness of sins. He warned people of Gods coming judgment. He announced the coming of the messiah who would be judge. He preached on social justice. Those who have should share with the poor. He emphasized the need for fairness and honesty. He warned against abuse of power by those in power and authority. He condemned taking of bribes, corruption and over taxation. He condemned sexual immorality adultery . Relevance of the teachings of John the Baptist to Christians today The teachings challenge Christians to be fair, honest, and just in their dealings with other people. Christians should avoid being hypocritical to one another. Christians need to know that God will judge them for their wrongdoing. Hence Christian should repent their sins sincerely and seek forgiveness. Christians should warn non-believers of the coming judgment. They should preach against evils without fear; and avoid corruption, and sexual immorality. Christians should live together in harmony. Baptism was important to Christians. Group Activity. Read Luke and find out how John the Baptist was killed, why and by whom ----- 149 LESSON TWO. THE BAPTISM OF JESUS AND ITS RELEVANCE TODAY Learning Outcomes. By the end of this lesson, you should be able to: a. Describe the baptism of Jesus Christ b. Give reasons why Jesus was baptized c. State relevance or the importance of the baptism of Jesus to Christians a. The baptism of Jesus Christ Luke 3: 21 22 When Jesus was around 30 years of age, He went to be baptized by John the Baptist. Jesus was the last to be baptized. Although he did not need to repent as He did not sin ; He nevertheless was baptized even though He was without sin. When he was baptized, the heaven opened and the Holy Ghost descended on Him in the form of a dove. At the same time, a voice from heaven said, This is my beloved son, in whom I am well pleased. b. Reasons why Jesus was baptized. He was baptized because: a. Jesus wanted to show his approval of Johns Ministry of baptism b. Jesus accepted the work of redemption of human kind to be completed through suffering and death c. Jesus identified himself with the sinful humankind who needed redemption through baptism d. Jesus carried all the sins of humankind baptized last e. He wanted to carry sins of people/humankind upon himself in order to bring about reconciliation between people and God. f. God can confirm to the people that Jesus Christ was the messiah Ps 2:7 g. It was an act of preparing those who were ready to receive the Messiah. h. Baptism was a way of fulfilling the Old Testament prophecy. ----- 150 c. Relevance or the Importance of the baptism of Jesus to Christians 1 Christians practice baptism. They follow example of Jesus baptism. There are many forms of baptism such as full immersion in water, sprinkling of water on the forehead, partial immersion head only and passing under a flag. 2 Christians teach importance of baptism. It qualifies a new convert to become a member of Christian fellowship. 3 Through baptism, Christians receive the power of the Holy Ghost. 4 Through baptism, Christians identify themselves with Jesus Christ and all that he stands for. 5 Baptism unites Christians in the body of Christ. 6 Baptism is a symbol of death and resurrection. In some denominations, the baptized are given new names of other Christians and Jews. 7 Baptism signifies the forgiveness of sins Through baptism one is considered a child of God. 9 Baptism is a form of preparation for the kingdom of God. 10 Baptism is a sign of Christs forgiveness of sins. Lesson Revision questions a. What is the relevance of john the Baptist teaching to Christians today? b. Give reasons why Jesus accepted to be baptized c. Describe the baptism of Jesus d. What is the significance of the baptism of Jesus to Christians today LESSON THREE. TEMPTATIONS OF JESUS: RELEVANCE TO CHRISTIANS TODAY Learning Outcomes. By the end of the lesson, you should a. Narrate temptations of Jesus b. State relevance of the temptations of Jesus to modern Christians ----- 151 c. State lessons that Christians can learn from temptations of Jesus a. The temptations of Jesus Luke 4:1 13 . Jesus, full of the Holy Spirit returned from Jordan into the desert. Like Elijah, Moses, He ate and drunk nothing for 40 days and nights. He was hungry after 40 days. It is at this time of weakness when the devil tempted Him. First temptation. The devil told Jesus to proof that He was the Son of God by turning the stones to become bread. Jesus however replied that it is written man does not live on bread alone to sustain him but on everything that the Lord says Deut 8:3 . Satan was telling Jesus to use his Messianic power and Spirit to obtain material security for himself and his followers for selfish, materialistic purposes. What can we learn from this temptation? Jesus was not seeking to establish a material paradise on earth. Second temptation. The devil led Jesus up to a high place High Mountain and showed Him in an instant all the Kingdoms of the world. He told Him that he would give Him all their authority and splendor, if He bows and worships Satan. Jesus replied it is written worship the Lord your God and serve him only. Do not worship other gods Deut.6: 13-14 . Satan wanted Jesus to use Godly power and influence. This was idolatry i.e. worshipping other gods. What can we learn from this temptation? Jesus did not come to seek a worldwide political military reign as many Jews expected Him to do. ----- 152 Third Temptation. The Devil led Jesus to Jerusalem and had Him stand on the highest point of the temple. He told Jesus to throw Himself down if He was the Son of God for it is written that the Lord will command angels to guard him Psalm 91:11 12 . Jesus replied and said it is written, do not put the Lord your God to the test. Satan wanted Jesus to presume on Gods good care by jumping from the roof of the temple. What can we learn from this temptation? Jesus will not force belief in His Messiah ship through a spectacular sign. Notice that the temptations came after Jesus Baptism, where he had solemnly accepted the opening of his public ministry and God confirmed it. Therefore the temptations were a testing of his loyalty to Gods chosen way of life. b. Relevance of Jesus temptations to Christians Jesus, though without sin was tempted. His followers must expect to be tested in their faith. Christians learn that it is not sinful to be tempted. Since Jesus was tempted, he understands Christians difficulties when they are tempted. Jesus is always ready to help Christians to cope with temptations. Why do you think Christians are tempted? Through temptations and trials, Christians faith in God is strengthened. Christians learn to refer to the Bible for guidance when tempted. Jesus said that it is written in reference to scripture. Christians ----- 153 should seek the Holy Spirit to give them strength to fight any form of trials and temptations. Jesus, full of the Holy Spirit went to the wilderness and was tempted by the devil In temptation, God does provide a way out. Thus followers of Jesus Christ Christians should not be seekers of spectacular signs. LESSON FOUR. REJECTION OF JESUS AT NAZARETH Learning Outcomes. By the end of the lesson, you should a. Describe rejection of Jesus at Nazareth b. Suggest possible reasons for rejection a. Rejection of Jesus at Nazareth Luke 4:14 30 . After the temptation, Jesus went to Galilee, His home district to begin his ministry. As a faithful Israelite, Jesus attended service in the synagogue every Sabbath day. During that time, it was customary for visiting Rabbis Teachers of the law to be given the honor of reading from the law or to address the congregation. When Jesus was given this opportunity, He opened the scroll and read from Isaiah 61: 1 3 The Sovereign Lord has filled me with his spirit. He has chosen me and sent me. Luke writes in 4 v 18 The Spirit of the Lord is upon me, because he has chosen me to bring good news to the poor. On completion of the reading, Jesus told them that today this scripture has been fulfilled in their hearing. From this reading Jesus referred to himself as the Messiah. The people of Nazareth in indignation wanted to kill Jesus by throwing him over a cliff. ----- 154 b. Possible Reasons for Rejection. Jews of Nazareth rejected Jesus because one, they knew him as the son of Mary and Joseph. They did not know Him as the Son of God. Two, Jesus did not fit into the idea of a political King that the Jews were expecting. They were waiting for a King with an army and horses. Three, Jesus preaching was seen as being against that of Pharisees, Scribes and Sadducees: the religious leaders at that time. Four, Jesus pointed out evils of religious leaders. Five, a leader is never accepted at home especially in a superior or senior position. Six, Jesus did not follow the general rules of the Mosaic Law. These were fasting, healing and working on the Sabbath day. Worse still Jesus associated Himself with Jewish outcasts such as sinners, and the sick. Discussion question 1. What are the possible reasons for rejection of Jesus at Nazareth? Answers i He was known by people as son of Mary and Joseph ii He did not fit in the idea of a political king that Jews were expecting iii Often times one is not accepted at home and at a senior position iv He did not follow the general rules of the law of Moses v He associated with sinners, and outcasts LESSON FIVE. HEALING AT CAPERNAUM Learning Outcomes. By the end of this lesson: a. Describe Jesus healing at Capernaum b. Explain healing of a man possessed with an evil spirit c. Describe Jesus healing of Simons mother in law a. Jesus healing at Capernaum LK. 4:31 44 ----- 155 After his rejection in Nazareth and an attempt to throw him down a hill, Jesus went on to Capernaum. Here he cast out demons Luke 4: 40 41 . He was teaching people. He performed many miracles of healing. For example: i. Healing a man possessed by an evil spirit. A man was possessed by an unclean demon/spirit. He was in the synagogue. When he saw Jesus, the evil spirit shouted, Ah! What do you want with us, Jesus of Nazareth? Have you come to destroy us? I know who you are, the Holy one of God Luke 4:34 . Jesus replied, Be silent and come out of him. The Demon threw the man down and came out without doing any harm. The man was made whole. ii. Jesus heals Simons mother in law. After Jesus left the synagogue, he went to the house of Simon Peters mother in law. She had a fever, Jesus commanded the fever to leave and she was made whole immediately. Which lessons do Christians learn from the healings at Capernaum There are many lessons. These are that 1 Jesus is the son of God 2 Jesus came to establish the Kingdom of God and destroy the kingdom of Satan. 3 Jesus has power over evil spirits / demons. 4 Jesus came to save human beings from the slavery of sin 5 God cares for his people. LESSON SIX. THE CALLING OF THE FIRST DISCIPLES Luke 5: 1 11 ----- 156 Introduction: A disciple is a learner, a student or a follower. Learners followed a master so as to learn about religious matters. Disciples were followers of Christ. Learning Outcomes. By the end of the lesson, you should be able to describe the call of the first disciples. Rabbis. These were teachers of law. They had special schools where they taught law. In these schools, learning was by memorization and repetition what students heard from the rabbis. The disciples of Jesus did not memorize. They learnt by observation. They were witnesses and they spoke what they heard and described or explained what they saw. Call of the first disciples Jesus entered into Simons ship and started to teach people who were there. Later, He told Simon to push off a little from the shore. Jesus sat in the boat and taught the crowd. After speaking, he told Simon, and his partners James and John; Push the boat out further to the deep waterand let down your nets for a catch of fish. Simon told Jesus that they had toiled all night, and caught nothing. But if you say so, I will let down the nets. Simon obeyed. They let down the nets and caught a multitude of fish. They called for assistance from other fishermen. When Simon Peter saw this, he told Jesus Go away from me, Lord! I am a sinful man! Jesus said to Simon Dont be afraid, from now on you will be catching people. On getting to the shore, Peter and his friends James and John sons of Zebedee forsook ----- 157 all and followed Jesus Thus the first disciples of Jesus were Simon Peter; James and John. Lessons from the call of the first disciples 1 God can choose anybody to serve him regardless of his or her social status. 2 God still calls people to serve him in various capacities as evangelists, pastors and others. 3 Those called should repent their sins as Peter did 4 Christians should trust in God Simon Peter trusted Jesus and cast his nets even though they had caught no fish from the same spot. 5 God can intervene in peoples lives through miracles miraculous catch of fish 6 Christians should work together as a team. Fishermen worked together. 7 There is hope for those who follow Jesus. He told them follow me and I will make you fishers of men God reveals himself to people in everyday activities as Jesus revealed himself to Simon Peter, and his friends James and John through fishing. 9 Christians vocation may require renunciation of family ties and occupations or a change of life. 10 Those called to serve God are expected to be humble LESSON SEVEN. OPPOSITION IN GALILEE Learning Outcomes. By the end of the lesson, you should a. Describe the Pharisees? Scribes? Sadducees. b. Identify the differences between the Pharisees and the Sadducees. c. Explain why Jesus faced opposition from Pharisees, Sadducees, and Scribes Jesus ministry consisted of teaching, healing and doing many miracles. Because of this work, Jesus faced ----- 158 opposition from the Pharisees, Sadducees and Scribes. These were Jewish religious leaders. a. Opposition by Pharisees and Sadducees. Luke 5:12- 6:11 Why did Jewish religious leaders; the Pharisees? Scribes? Sadducees oppose Jesus? There were many reasons for Jewish opposition to Jesus. These were: 1 Jesus was becoming more famous than the religious leaders 2 His claim to forgive sins. This was reserved only for God. 3 His association with tax collectors / publicans and sinners. For example, Jesus ate with Levi. 4 His failure to observe the law of fasting. Jesus disciples did not fast like the disciples of the Pharisees and John the Baptist. 5 Doing what religious leaders regarded as unlawful things on the Sabbath day. For example, a. Eating on Sabbath with unwashed hands disciples , b. Plucking corn on the Sabbath day c. Working. Jesus healed on the Sabbath day. This was considered as work, which was unlawful. Jesus healed a man with a paralyzed hand on the Sabbath day. d. Touching the unclean. Jesus reached out his hand and touched a leper and healed him. Religious leaders were not allowed to touch the unclean lepers. e. Associating with tax collectors who were regarded as sinners because they were corrupt. They collected more tax than the required amount. Jesus was supposed not to associate with them or support them in any way. Who were the Pharisees? These were Referred to as the separated ones ----- 159 Religious leaders who expected people to respect and honour them. Pious leaders and wanted everybody to recognize them. Rich Jews and looked at their riches as blessings from God. Called ones and thought of themselves as the righteous ones. Popular to the poor who respected them. Characteristics of Pharisees a. They believed in the Law of Moses and accepted the first five books of the Bible as God inspired. They insisted on strict observance of the law. b. They upheld and insisted on the observance of the oral traditions of the elders. c. They followed strictly 632 distinct rules and regulations broken down from the ten commandments d. They believed in the teachings of the prophets and other writings of the Old Testament. e. They passed religious traditions of the Jews from generation to generation and regarded this as a duty or obligation. f. They believed in the existence of angels and regarded them as intermediaries between God and human beings. g. They believed in the existence of demons and Satan h. They believed in and waited for the Messiah of God to come i. The believed in the resurrection of the dead j. The believed in the judgment of God at the end of time for all human kind k. They were strong nationalists and political leaders who resisted all foreign influences and power. Who were the Scribes? ----- 160 The word Scribe means a writer. The work of a scribe was to rewrite by hand new manuscripts of the Jewish scriptures. The copied the word exactly as it was. The scribes were either Pharisees or Sadducees. At the time of Jesus, majority of the Scribes were associated with the Pharisees. A scribe was also a Rabbi teacher. Some scribes managed schools called Rabbinical Schools. In these schools, Jewish male youth learnt the Mosaic Law from the age of 13 years. Scribes were represented in the Jewish religious council called the Sanhedrin. Sanhedrin was the Jewish Court of Justice, which tried those who committed religious sins. Who were the Sadducees? Sadducees were the wealthy people. They were an influential group. These were the majority in the Sanhedrin, the Jewish Court of Justice. The poor hated them. They were also members of the Jerusalem priesthood. The chief priests were mainly drawn from the Sadducees. They believed in the divine authority of the Law of Moses and the Pentateuchs first five Books of the bible. They believed that Moses wrote the first 5 books of the Bible. They regarded all the other books in the Old Testament as not divinely inspired. Hence they rejected them. They rejected and did not believe in a The resurrection of the dead b Last judgment c Coming of the Messiah d Angels and demons and e the oral traditions of the Pharisees. They were enemies of the Pharisees particularly because of religious ----- 161 matters. However, they joined with the Pharisees and Scribes to oppose Jesus Christ. LESSON EIGHT. THE SERMON ON THE PLAIN Luke. 6:1216, 27 49 Review In the previous section, we learnt that Jesus chose His apostles. He came down the hill and stood on a level place. He gave a sermon to those present. This address is referred to as the sermon on the plain in Lukes Gospel. The people had come to hear Jesus word to receive healing and for Jesus to exercise unclean spirits from them. In the sermon, Jesus talked of the characteristics of the new community. All those who would listen to His word would be the New Israel. Learning Outcomes. By the end of the lesson, you should be able to a Name the12 disciples b Summarize the teachings of Jesus on true discipleship Analyse the teachings of Jesus on the plain sermon on the plain Selection of 12 disciples Luke. 6:12 16 Jesus went into a mountain to pray. In the morning, he called his disciples. From them, he selected 12 disciples, whom he also called apostles. Apostle means one who is sent, a missionary. The 12 disciples were: 1 Simon Peter 2 Andrew 3 James 4 John 5 Phillip 6 Bartholomew 7 Mathew Levi 8 Thomas 9 James son of Alphaeus 10 Simon who was called the Patriot 11 Judas son of James and 12 Judas Iscariot who became the traitor Luke vs. 14-16 Jesus teachings on true discipleship ----- 162 Jesus taught that a follower or disciple of Christ should: a Have unshakeable faith b Be obedient to Gods word c Be self-critical/analytical/self-searching d Be kind, loyal, objective, fair, and generous e Accept others without discrimination. f Be a disciple and show concern for others. The Sermon on the plain Luke 6: 17 49 The Sermon on the plain is a lecture or lesson that Jesus gave to a large number of his disciples and a large crowd of people who had come from Judea, Jerusalem, tyre, and Sidon. They came to listen to the sermon of Jesus and to be healed of diseases, evil sprits. The purpose of the sermon was to teach the crowd the meaning of following Christ. Jesus covered 6 beatitudes or topics in his sermon. These are. 1 Blessings and woes beatitudes 2 Love for enemies 3 Judging others 4 Giving to the needy 5 A tree and its fruits 6 Wise and foolish builders hearing and doing the words of Jesus. We shall now discuss each of these beatitudes in detail. 1. Blessings and woes. Jesus taught that: i Blessed are the poor for theirs is the Kingdom of God. ii Blessed are the hungry for they shall be filled iii Blessed are those who weep now for they shall laugh iv Blessed are those who men shall hate, reject, reproach for the sake of Christs for their great reward is kept in heaven. v Woe to those who are rich, for they have already received their reward. ----- 163 vi Woe to those who are full for they shall go hungry vii Woe to those who laugh now for they shall mourn and weep viii Woe to those whom people speak well, for ancestors said the same about the false prophets. Those who accept to be followers of Christ are promised blessings while those who reject Christ are to suffer in future. 2. Love your enemies. Luke. 6: 27 36. Love is often defined as a warm feeling / affection towards somebody or something. Jesus taught his followers to love their enemies and do well to those who hate you. Bless those who curse you. Pray for those who mistreat you. Do unto men as you expect them to do unto you. Lend also to your enemies. Love your enemies and do good to them. Lend and expect nothing back. Be merciful. From these teachings: true discipleship of Jesus Christ: a Entails unconditional love even for enemies b Doing good without expecting any returns c Praying for those who mistreat us d Showing love to our enemies by exhibiting Gods love in us. e Is love; because those who love are children of the most high who is kind and merciful to the sinners. 3 Judging others Luke. 6: 37 42 Jesus taught his followers not to judge others lest they are also judged. They should not condemn others lest they are also condemned. He asked disciples to forgive others and they shall also be forgiven. True discipleship requires acknowledging ones shortcomings and avoiding criticism of others. ----- 164 4 Giving to the needy. A true disciple should share what they have with the needy. Those who share shall be rewarded. He also said that the blind couldnt lead the blind. There is a master and a follower. The disciple is not above his master. 5 A tree and its fruits. A healthy tree bears good fruits. A poor tree bears poor fruit. Neither does a corrupt tree bring forth good fruits. A tree is known by its fruits. Followers of Christ are evident to others by their actions. They are not hypocritical or fault finding. 6 Wise and foolish builders. A wise builder digs a deep foundation on a rock. When floods come, the house is able to stand. A foolish builder builds his house upon the sand. Without a foundation, when floods come, the house falls and is ruined. Wise builders are those who hear the word of God and do what is required. Those who do not adhere to the teachings are the unwise builders. True discipleship entails obedience to the teachings of Jesus Christ. Relevance of the lessons of the Sermon on the Plain to Christian Life Christians are urged to love even those that hate them. The challenges that followers of Christ encountered in the New Testament are not different from those that Christians experience today. Christians should forgive others, share with the needy, avoid judging others, and follow the teachings of Christ. ----- 165 Lesson Revision questions 1. Give the main teaching of Jesus on the sermon on the plain 2. What is the relevance of the beatitudes sermon on the plain to Christians today? LESSON NINE. JESUS WORKS OF COMPASSION In this lesson, Jesus works of compassion is discussed. These include the works of mercy for those in distress and pity for the suffering. Jesus mission lays its foundation in these works of compassion, because He came to establish the kingdom of God by conquering all forms of suffering caused by Satan. Compassion is a feeling of empathy for other peoples sufferings. Its being merciful, showing concern and affection for others. Learning Outcomes. By the end of this lesson, you should be able to: a Give examples of Jesus works of compassion b Narrate Jesus works of compassion c Give reasons why Jesus used parables d Identify categories of the miracles of Jesus e Give lessons learnt from each example in each category a. Examples of Jesus works of compassion. There are many examples of compassion i Healing of the centurions servant Luke 7:1 10 Centurion is an officer in charge of 100 men. Jesus healed the servant of a Roman soldier and a Gentile. The Centurion showed love and concern for his servant. The centurion sent Jewish elders to Jesus with a request to heal his servant. The leaders said this man deserves to have you do this, because he loves ----- 166 our nation and has built our synagogue Luke 7:5 . Jesus agreed and went with the elders. But before Jesus reached the centurions house, the centurion sent his friends to stop him from coming to his house. He said that he was not worthy to have Jesus under his roof. He said that he was a man of authority. Hence Jesus could give an order and the servant would be healed. On hearing this, Jesus declared to the crowd I tell you, I have not found such great faith even in Israel. When the men returned, they found the servant well. Lessons Christians can learn from the healing of the centurion servant. 1. Faith in God is important for healing to occur 2. We should confess our faith in Jesus. The centurion declared his faith in Jesus by saying he believed that Jesus could heal his servant by his word. 3. Christians should have compassion like Jesus. He took compassion on the servant and was ready to go and heal him. 4. Salvation was not for Jews alone, but for all who believed in Jesus. Centurion was not a Jew but a gentile officer in the Roman army. But he had faith in Jesus healing. 5. Christians should love each other regardless of their background or social status the centurion loved his servant dearly. 6. Christians should learn to relate well with all around them the centurion related well with the Jewish elders and others. 7. Jesus has power to heal any form of sickness. ----- 167 ii The raising of the widows son Luke 7:11 17. A widow is a woman whose husband is dead. The widow was of the city of Nain. When Jesus neared the gates of the city, he saw the funeral procession of the widows son, the only son of his mother. Jesus had compassion on the widow and told her weep not. Jesus then touched the casket and said young man I say unto you, arise. The dead sat up and began to speak. All the people were filled with fear and glorified God, saying God has visited his people. Lessons Christians learn from the raising of the widows son 1 Jesus has power over death 2 Jesus empathizes with the suffering 3 Acts of love should not be hindered by traditions Jesus touched the casket even though Jewish traditions forbid it. 4 The Widow of Nain was a gentile. This is a sign that salvation was universal. 5 The crowd acknowledged Jesus lordship; Christians should acknowledge the lordship of Jesus. What are the practices pertaining to the disposal of the dead in your culture? and community? iii Assurance to John the Baptist Luke 7:20 30 . A question arose whether Jesus Christ was the Messiah. John the Baptist wanted to assure his disciples that Christ; was the expected messiah: and not him John the Baptist . He sent his disciples to Jesus to ask if you are the one he said was going to come, or if we should expect someone else? Vs. 20 . Jesus ----- 168 told the disciples of John to go back and tell John of the miracles works they saw and heard. Jesus then gave a testimony of John the Baptist as a prophet, whose life and missions is beyond that of ordinary prophets. Jesus testified that John the Baptist; was the forerunner or messenger of Jesus Christ: as the prophets in the Old Testament had written. The Pharisees and the publicans teaches of the law however rejected the testimony about John the Baptist. They had refused to be baptized by John. Those baptized by John the Baptist, the tax collectors acknowledged the testimony of Jesus. Jesus rebuked the Pharisees and teachers of law for their hypocrisy. In what ways were the Pharisees and teaches of law hypocritical? iv The forgiveness of the sinful woman Luke 7: 36 50 Jesus was invited by one of the Pharisees called Simon to his house to dine with him. In that city, there was a sinful woman. She went to the house of Simon when she learnt that Jesus was in the Pharisees house. She brought with her an alabaster jar full of perfume. She stood behind Jesus. She was weeping and washing his feet with her fears. She then wiped the tears from the feet of Jesus with her hair, kissed his feet, and anointed them with oil an alabaster box of ointment . When Simon, the host saw this he said within himself, if this man was a prophet, he would know who this woman is who is touching him a sinful woman. Jesus told Simon a parable of a man who forgave two people that owed him money ----- 169 one 500, the other 50. Jesus asked which of the two debtors would love him most. Simon said the one that was forgiven much, Jesus then told Simon that when he came to his house, Simon did not give him water for his feet; neither did he welcome Jesus with a kiss; nor provide him with olive oil. But the woman washed his feet with her tears, and wiped them with her hair. She also kissed his feet. Jesus told the people that her sins, being many are forgiven for she loved much. Jesus turned to the woman and told her thy sins are forgiven. Thy faith has saved thee, go in peace. The people who were eating with Jesus murmured. Who was Jesus? He forgives sins. Lessons from the forgiveness of the sinful woman 1. The Jews believed that by associating with sinners, one becomes virtually defiled. Jesus however allowed the sinful woman to touch him. 2. By her actions, the woman acknowledged that she was a sinner, and repented. This was in contrast to the Pharisees who were self-righteous and therefore did not repent. 3. The Womans great love for Jesus led to her being forgiven of her sins. 4. Christians need to accept their sinful nature and seek forgiveness from God. 5. Faith in Jesus is necessary. Summary. Jesus is accepted women to be his followers unlike the Jewish customs which viewed women as lesser than men. Other women that played a key role in the ministry of Jesus include Mary Magdalene, Joann Joanna and Susanna among many others. Lesson Revision questions ----- 170 1. What role do women play in the church ministry? 2. Narrate the story of the forgiveness of the sinful woman Lk 7: 36, 8:3 3. What lessons do you learn from the above story? 4. Describe the story of the raising of the widows son at Nain Lk 7: 11- 17 Answers Women play many roles in the church ministry. Some of these are: i Carrying out duties of pastors, bishops, and deacons ii Management. Some are heads of the women groups iii Leading in church service iv Participating as church ushers, choir singers, and youth leaders v Attending church. Women are part of the congregations LESSON TEN. JESUS TEACHING IN PARABLES LK. 8: 4- 21 Introduction Jesus used parables to teach. A parable is a Greek word. It means comparing or putting side by side in order to understand. A parable is defined as a short story or description, which teaches something or answers some questions. It is an allegory an earthly story with a hidden or heavenly meaning. a. Use of parables. Jesus used parables in his teachings in order to explain unfamiliar messages in a language that his hearers could understand. Other reasons were because Jesus wanted to: 1 Provoke critical thinking 2 Make the audience understand issues from a different point of view 3 Explain the nature of the kingdom of God by giving real life examples. 4 Explain the nature of God. The parables brought out the attributes of an invisible God. For example, the parable of the prodigal son who had been lost. ----- 171 5 Attract the attention of his audiences so that they could listen and understand. 6 Make people understand how they should relate to one another. Read the parable of the good Samaritan 7 Teach Gods love to mankind. The parable of the lost sheep, lost coin. Separate / identify those who were sincere in seeking the kingdom of God from the onlookers. 9 Challenge the imagination of his hearers since entry to Gods kingdom was a personal decision. 10 Make an indirect attack on his opponents like the Pharisees, the scribes and the Sadducees. 11 Teach his disciples that they should be persistent and never be discouraged. 12 Make his teachings interesting and easy to understand. 1. The parable of the sower Lk 8:4 15 Jesus told this parable to the crowd that followed him. He said that a farmer went out to sow corn. He scattered seeds in the field. As he did so, some of them fell on the path, and they were trampled on and eaten by birds. Other seeds fell on the rock ground. When they germinated, they withered because they lacked moisture. Some seed fell among thorns bushes. They grew with bushes, which choked them as they grew. Some other seeds fell on fertile soil. They grew up in fertile soil and their yield was100 seed for each seed sown. Meaning or interpretation of the parable Jesus gave the meaning of the parable to his disciples. He said that the seed is the word of God. ----- 172 i. Seed that fell on the path represents people who hear the word of God, and then the devil comes and takes away the word from their hearts so that they do not believe. Such listeners are like the seeds that fell on the path. They hear the word but soon after the devil takes away the message to stop them from believing and being saved. ii. Seed that fell on the rocky ground are people who receive the word with joy but it does not stay with them. They believe for a while but when faced with trials and temptations they stop believing and fall away. iii. Seed that fell on the thorny bushes stands for people who receive the word. However, they fail to follow their beliefs because of interference by lifes worries, riches and pressures of the world. They fail to mature as believers. iv. Seed that fell on the good soil are those people with a noble and good heart. They hear the word, and retain it in their hearts. Such people persevere and produce good harvest. v. Interpretation. The different types of soil in this parable refer to different kinds of Hearts of people. The farmer is Jesus, God or Preacher. We learn that: One should not despair and Its important to receive the word of God, practice it and persevere so as to bear fruits. 2. The parable of a lamp under a bowl Lk.8: 16 18 . Jesus taught that no one lights a lamp, then covers it with a bowl or hide it under a bed. When one lights a lamp, they put it on the lamp stand so as to ----- 173 illuminate a room and for people to see the light. For whatever is hidden or covered up shall be revealed. In this parable Jesus is the light. The disciples had a duty to pass on to others messages they had learnt from Jesus. They should not keep messages to themselves. Interpretation. From this parable of a lamp under a bowl, we learn that: i A Christian has a duty to share the knowledge of God with others ii One cannot be a Christian if this knowledge is hidden iii Those who do not share may loose their beliefs. 3. Jesus mother and brothers. Luke 8:19 21 The mother of Jesus and brothers came to see him. Someone told Jesus that they were there. He told the crowd. My mother and brothers are those who hear the word of God and obey . Accepters and believers are the members of the family of Jesus. Lesson Revision Questions 1. Give reasons why Jesus used parables 2. Identify various methods used by Christians in spreading the gospel today 3. Discuss the reasons why Jesus faced opposition fro the Jewish leaders. LESSON ELEVEN: MIGHTY WORKS OF JESUS Learning outcomes. By the end of this lesson a. Organise in categories miracles performed by Jesus b. Narrate each miracle c. Discuss the significance of the miracle and lessons to learn Jesus continued to do miracles; and teach. His work is referred to as the mighty works of Jesus in various books. Miracles can be defined as acts of power whose purpose is to establish the kingdom of God. ----- 174 Miracles can also mean extraordinary events that go against the laws of nature. a. Categories / types of miracles Jesus performed four types of miracles. These were: 1 Nature miracles miracles that dealt with nature e.g. calming of the storm 2 Raising of the dead e.g. Jairus daughter 3 Healing miracles healing Simons mother in law of fever, healing of the woman with the flow of blood. 4 Exorcism miracles casting out of evil spirits e.g. the Gerasene demonic i The calming of the storm One day, Jesus entered a boat with his disciples to go across Lake Galilee. As they sailed Jesus was asleep in the ship. Suddenly, there was a strong wind and the boat began to sink. The disciples woke him up saying, Master, we are about to die. Jesus woke up and gave an order to the winds and the raging waters. They obeyed and there was calm. He then said to his disciples where is your faith? Disciples were afraid and amazed and wondered, Who is this man? Winds and waves obey him. This miracle teaches Christians to have faith and to depend on Jesus when they face raging temptations and persecutions. Jesus has power over nature. ii Jesus Heals a Man with demons Lk8: 26 39 Jesus and his disciples sailed to Gerasa town across Lake Galilee. On arrival a man who had demons in ----- 175 him for a long time met Jesus. He lived naked in tombs, and wilderness. On seeing Jesus, he cried out, threw himself down at the feet of Jesus and shouted; Jesus son of the Most High God! What do you want with me? I beseech thee, torment me not. Jesus had ordered the demons to go out of him. Jesus asked him what is your name? He replied Legion or Mob. This was because the man had been possessed by many demons. The demons begged Jesus not to send them into the deep but to let them go into some pigs swine that were feeding by. Jesus allowed them and the devils went out of the man, into the pigs. The herd ran down the cliff into the lake and drowned. The herders run to the city and spread the news. The multitude found the man sitting at the feet of Jesus clothed, and in his right mind. The multitude asked Jesus to leave their country region. The healed man wanted to follow Jesus but Jesus declined and told him to go and tell others of the great things that God had done for him. The man went to town and told all what Jesus had done for him. This miracle teaches Christians that: 1. The mission of Jesus was universal. 2. Jesus mission is to teach all the people irrespective of their race, tribe or geographical location. The demon man was healed in a Gentile area. 3. Jesus has power over evil 4. Powers of evil demons are real 5. Human life is more valuable than mans material things 6. The demons evil spirits identified Jesus as the Son of the most High ----- 176 7. Christians need to fight the power of evil SAQ. What were the causes of mental illness and spirit possession in traditional African society and in modern society? iii Jairus daughter is raised. Lk.8: 40 42, 49 56 Jairus was an official in the local synagogue. He begged Jesus to come to his house and heal his only daughter who was 12 was dying. iv Woman with the flow of blood is Healed Lk. 8:43 48 When Jesus was on route to Jairus house, great crowds followed him and pressed him on either side. Amongst them was a woman who had suffered from severe bleeding for 12 years. She consulted doctors and spent all her savings on physicians. But she was not cured. The society considered the woman unclean. It blamed her for her illness. She herself was embarrassed by her condition. This woman walked behind Jesus and she touched the hem of the garment of Jesus. Her bleeding stopped at once. Jesus asked, who touched me? Everyone denied it. Peter replied the multitude was around Jesus and it was difficult to know who had touched him. Jesus persisted someone touched him. The woman who had touched Jesus the woman came forward, and fell at his feet and confessed to all her sickness and explained why she touched Jesus and how she was healed at once. Jesus said to her My daughter, your faith has made you well. Go in peace. Jairus daughter is raised. Lk.8: 40 42, 49 56 ----- 177 As Jesus was talking to her, Jairus was told that his little girl was dead. Dont bother the teacher anymore. Jesus told Jairus not to fear but to believe and she will be well. When he got to the house he went into the room with Peter, John and James and the parents of the girl. People around were weeping and wailing. But Jesus told them not to weep. She is not dead but asleep. They scorned and laughed at him for saying that she is asleep because they knew she was dead. Jesus took the girl by hand and called out Get up, my child little girl arise. She immediately got up and Jesus ordered the parent to give her food. He commanded them not to tell what had happened. Teachings from these two miracles The miracle of raising Jairus daughter teaches Christians that Jesus is compassionate and the author of life. He has power over death, resurrection and life. In the miracle of healing the Woman with the flow of blood: a. Jesus made her healing public. This was probably because He wanted to acknowledge the womans faith in the public. Jesus made it clear that her faith made her whole. b. Jesus wanted to challenge the cultural practices that kept women in bandage and could not participate in public life. c. Jesus made her healing public so that the community can receive her back and shall not isolate her again. From this miracle of healing this woman, Christians learn that one; Jesus is the healer. He has power ----- 178 over all sicknesses even those without cure. Two, Christians should have faith in Jesus Christ. Lesson Revision Questions 1. Narrate the healing of the Gerasene demoniac Lk 8: 26-39 2. What lessons can Christians learn fro the healing of the demoniac man above? 3. What do the miracles of Jesus teach us about him? 4. Compare the raising of Jairus daughter and the healing of the woman with the flow of blood Answers. A comparison of the raising of Jairus daughter and the healing of the woman with flow of blood i Jairus daughter was 12 years old and the woman sick with the flow of blood had suffered for 12 years. ii Jesus referred to both of them as daughter iii Their situation death and flow of blood did not have a cure iv The public witnessed the miracle of the woman with the flow of blood. v Jesus commanded Jairus to keep secret raising of his daughter LESSON TWELVE. COMMISSIONING OF THE TWELVE DISCIPLES Lk 9:1 10 Introduction. Commission means to officially ask someone to do something. Learning Outcomes: By the end of the lesson, you should be able to: a Describe the commissioning of the twelve disciples. b Explain the story of the feeding of the 5000 c Describe the transfiguration of Jesus d Explain the teachings of Jesus on faith and humility. a. The commissioning of the twelve disciples ----- 179 The twelve disciples or followers accompanied Jesus wherever he went. They were regarded as apostles. An apostle comes from a Greek word Apostols which means send out one who is sent or a missionary. The commissioning of the 12 disciples meant that they were given four main duties, power and authority to: a Exorcise or cast out demons b Cure diseases c Heal the sick d Preach the Kingdom of God and proclaim the arrival of Gods Instructions. They were told to: i Take nothing for the journey ii Initiate attack on the forces of evil iii Depend entirely on God to take care of them iv Take no stick, no beggars bag, no food, no money and not even an extra shirt for their journey v Whatever house they entered they were to stay there until they leave the town. vi If they were not welcomed, they were to leave that town and shake the dust off their feet as a warning to that city or town. With these instructions, the disciples left and travelled to all villages preaching the Good News and healing people everywhere. King Herod was perplexed by the work of the disciples and he desired to see Jesus. b. Feeding of the five thousand. Please open your Bible and read Luke chapter 9. Verses 11-17 ----- 180 After reading these verses, about feeding of the five thousand 5000 people we learn that 1. Jesus is concerned about peoples physical needs 2. Jesus demonstrated that he is the bread of life 3. Jesus has divine power 4. The Church has the duty of continuing to feed its followers both spiritually and physically. 5. The feeding of the 5000 people points to the Messianic banquet 6. Christians must learn to share whatever they have with one another 7. From this miracle, Jesus expected his disciples to appreciate their responsibility. Their work was not only to preach and heal but also feed the hungry. Feeding was both physical and spiritual. The personality of Jesus and his identity Lk. 9:18 27 When Jesus was alone with his disciples, he asked them who people say he is. The disciples told him that some say he is John the Baptist, others say he is Elijah and others say he is one of the old prophets who have risen again. Jesus asked them who they, disciples say he is. Peter replied that he is Christ of God. Jesus then told them not to tell people who he is for he Son of man has first to suffer many things be rejected by the elders chief, priests and scribes, be killed and be raised the third day. Jesus announced to the disciples of his passion great sufferings Jesus is the Christ anointed of God Messiah as well as the son of man. A divine nature and a human nature. Jesus went on ahead to tell his disciples that they should deny themselves self denial take up their cross daily and be ready to lose their lives for Jesus. ----- 181 However, great is the reward for the faithful. LESSON THRTEEN: THE TRANSFIGURATION LK.9: 28 36 Instructions. Read. Luke chapter 9, verse 28 to 36. Then answer revision questions that follow. A brief summary from the Bible Transfiguration is change or transformation of form or appearance. Jesus was transformed in appearance when he took Peter, John and James to the mountain to pray. During the transfiguration, Moses and Elijah came down from heaven to talk with Jesus about his coming death in Jerusalem. Moses, Elijah and Jesus were in heavenly glory and glorious splendor. Peter, John and James were asleep. When they woke up, they saw Jesus glory. They also saw Elijah and Moses with Jesus. Peter suggested to Jesus that they build three tents for Jesus, Elijah and Moses. As he spoke a cloud overshadowed them. A voice from the cloud said this is my son, whom I have chosen listen to him. The cloud left and the disciples found themselves with Jesus. They kept what they saw and heard to themselves. Significance and importance of transfiguration a. The voice from heaven confirmed that Jesus is the Christ of God, or the Messiah b. Moses represented the Old Testament law. Jesus came to fulfil the Law of Moses. It showed that Jesus was not against the Law of Moses. c. Elijah represented the Old Testament Prophets. This meant that Jesus had fulfilled the Old Testament ----- 182 prophecies. He is above the prophets. d. Jesus is above or greater than the law and the prophets. e. Transfiguration was a way of preparing the disciples for the death and resurrection of Jesus. Death is not the end of life Moses and Elijah appeared to confirm this f. The transfiguration prepared and gave strength to Jesus for what lay ahead of him g. Dazzling appearance showed the glory of Jesus h. The transfiguration also shows the importance of encouraging each other. 5.0 Revision questions a. Explain the teachings of John the Baptist b. Describe the baptism and temptation of Jesus and its relevance to Christians today. c. Give reasons as to why Jesus was rejected at Nazareth d. Describe the first miracles of Jesus at Capernaum e. Narrate and dramatize the temptations of Jesus from the gospel according to St Luke, f. Identify five occasions when Jesus was tempted g. Explain ways in which Christians can be tempted today h. Outline ways in which Christians can overcome temptations in the contemporary world i. Identify lessons that Christians can learn from the temptations of Jesus? j. What is the role of the clergy in Kenya? k. How does the church participate in the upkeep of the clergy? l. Define and describe the transfiguration of Jesus TOPIC FOUR: THE JOURNEY TO JERUSALEM LUKE ch. 9-18 Introduction As Jesus travelled to Jerusalem, He prepared His disciples for the life they were to lead after He leaves ----- 183 them. Learning Outcomes. By the end of the topic, you should be able to a Identify duties and privileges and cost of a disciple. b Describe the teachings of Jesus on prayer, hypocrisy, wealth and watchfulness. c Describe parables Jesus used to teach about prayer, hypocrisy, wealth and watchfulness. LESSON ONE. DUTIES, PRIVILEGES AND COST OF DISCIPLESHIP Lesson Outcomes. When you read this lesson, you should: 1. Explain discipleship 2. List duties given to disciples by Jesus Christ 3. Explain relevance of Christian discipleship to modern Church Jesus teaching on faith and humility A brief summary from the Bible. Read Luke 9: 37 50 for details. After the transfiguration, Jesus used two incidents to teach his disciples about faith and humility. One incident was the healing of a boy possessed by an evil spirit Luke 9: 37 43 . Jesus rebuked the unclean spirit out of the boy and the boy was healed. Jesus told His disciples that their lack of faith was the reason why they did not cure the boy. Jesus informed his disciples that faith in him was important when carrying out his work. Jesus teaching on His Work The next question was .. who is to work for Jesus? All Christians can work for Jesus even believers who are gentiles. Read Luke 9 vs. 49 50 . Jesus told his disciples not to forbid others from carrying out his ----- 184 work for whoever is not against Him is for Him. This means that whoever had faith; even the Gentiles could carry out Jesus work. Jesus teaching on His followers Jesus was determined to go to Jerusalem. As He travelled, men volunteered to follow him wherever he was going. Jesus replied that foxes have holes, birds of the air have nests but the Son of Man has nowhere to lay his head. Jesus had no earthly home. His mission on earth was only for a time. A man requested to follow Jesus but asked permission to bury his father. Jesus told him to let the dead bury their dead. Disciples of Jesus have to leave their families in order to do His Work. Mission of the 72 men. Read Luke 10:1 24 On the way to Jerusalem, Jesus sent out 72 disciples on a mission to promote the Gospel of the Kingdom of God through preaching and service. The 72 disciples were sent in 2s in order to encourage or help each other. The 72 were given instructions. Jesus told them that He has given them power over demons, serpents, scorpion. They have power over all the powers of Satan. When disciples returned, they reported that demons obeyed them. In Luke 10 verse 20, Jesus asked the 72 to rejoice not because demons flee but because their names are written in heaven. Out of the many followers, Jesus chose 12 apostles who learnt from Jesus and became His witnesses. Jesus teaching on the greatest disciple ----- 185 Read Luke 9: 46- 48 . The disciples asked themselves who is the greatest amongst disciples amongst the 12 disciples? In response Jesus took a child by His side and said to the disciples. Whoever welcomes this child in my name, welcomes me, as well as the one who sent me. For the one who is least amongst you shall be the greatest in Heaven. Lessons from this example. Jesus explained that His disciples needed values of humility and simplicity. These virtues were needed to carry out the work of discipleship. Teaching about Discipleship 1. True followers of Jesus Christ must a. Be ready to detach themselves from families and material possessions. b. Be ready to face rejections because not all people will accept them or their message. c. Be ready to serve. d. Be ready to cater for peoples physical needs. e. Be self less. f. Not be hypocrites and should accept hospitality whenever it is given. g. Be able to exercise self-evaluation. 2. Duties of a disciple were: a To preach the good news of salvation to other people and be ready to suffer for the sake of Christ. b Obey Gods commandments and follow teachings of Jesus. c To help the needy spiritually and with material needs. d To teach others about the Kingdom of God. e To heal the sick. f To cast out demons. g Be prepared to suffer for the sake of the gospel. ----- 186 h Being loyal to Jesus and faithful to the gospel. i Commitment and loyalty 3. Privileges of a disciple a One becomes a member of the Kingdom of God. b They get an assurance of eternal life. c They receive joy of winning other people to follow Jesus. d They receive peace, and blessings of God. How are these teachings relevant to modern church leaders and members? Modern church leaders have a duty to continue preaching Gods word to all people. They should serve God in several ministries such as visiting the sick, caring for orphans, the destitute, widows, widowers, and the aged. They should also be ready to suffer and even face rejection for the sake of the Christ. Exercise 1. What are the characteristics of a true follower of Christ? 2. State the privileges of being a disciple of Jesus Christ 3. Why did Jesus choose the 12 disciples? LESSON TWO: A COMMITTED FOLLOWER OF CHRIST Read Luke 10: 25-37, and Luke 11: 1-13 a. The parable of the Good Samaritan A teacher of law asked Jesus questions in order to tempt him. One was what must I do to receive eternal life? Read Luke 10: 25 to 28 . Jesus replied with a question. What do the scriptures say? He replied and Jesus told him to do as the scripture say. . He asked another question. Who is my neighbour? Luke 10 v 29 . Jesus answered with the parable of the Good Samaritan. In this parable, the righteous ----- 187 people among the Jews, Levites and priests, did not help the injured man. A Samaritan whom Jews considered unclean and sinners helped him. After narrating this parable Jesus asked the lawyer, who of the 3 travelers was a good neighbour? The lawyer said the Samaritan. Lessons learnt from the parable of the Good Samaritan In the above parable, Jesus stressed that a follower of Jesus should be: 1 Committed 2 Show love of God by loving people in need and their neighbours. A neighbour is anybody who requires assistance or help regardless of race, ethnicity, creed, colour or gender. Jesus wants his followers to show love and concern to all people regardless of their background. A neighbour uses his/her resources selflessly to help the needy. A neighbour is also compassionate, kind, and generous to the needy. Jesus Visit to Martha and Mary Read Luke 10: 38 42 Martha welcomed Jesus in her home where she lived with her sister Mary. While Martha prepared food, Mary sat at Jesus feet listening to his teaching. Martha complained. She was doing all the work while Mary sat listening to Jesus teaching. Jesus told Martha that Mary had made the right choice to listen to His teaching. Lessons we can learn from Jesus Visit to Martha and Mary 1. A committed follower of Jesus is one who creates time to study and listen to Gods word. 2. A follower of Christ should ensure that their commitment to God is not overshadowed by daily duties, ----- 188 worries and responsibilities. 3. Jesus visit to Mary and Martha was also to teach disciples on the characteristics of a true disciple. Revision exercise 1. From the teachings of Jesus, on the parable of the good Samaritan; who do you think is a committed follower of Jesus? LESSON THREE. JESUS TEACHING ON PRAYER Read Luke 11:1 13 Prayer is communication with God. It is talking with God. People pray to God all the time. For example, people pray to God when: 1. They are in problems and in happiness; 2. Seeking healing and wealth, 3. Giving thanks to God, 4. Identifying the needs to be met, and asking for favors from God 5. Repenting and confessing their sins 6. Thanking God There are many forms or types of prayers. These are: 1. Intercessory prayer Praying for the needs of others. 2. Prayer for repentance for forgiveness of sins. 3. Thanksgiving prayer giving thanks to God for what he has done. 4. Worship prayer prayers to worship God. 5. Praise prayers to praise God, Honor God. 6. Supplication and petition prayer whereby an individual makes their needs known to God and asks for divine intervention. Jesus prayed often during his lifes Ministry. The disciples asked him to show them how to pray. Jesus responded by teaching them the Lords Prayer. ----- 189 Our Father who art in Heaven Hallowed be thy name Thy Kingdom come Thy will be done on earth as It is in heaven Give us this day our daily bread Forgive us our trespasses As we forgive those who trespass against us Lead us not into temptation But deliver us from evil a Our Father who art in heaven The disciples were told to address God as Our father. God is to be seen and addressed as a Father. b Hallowed be thy name The name of God should be respected and revered. c Thy Kingdom come In Prayer, Christians/disciples are to pray that the rulership of God reign amongst them. d Thy will be done on earth as it is in heaven Christians to obey the will of God. e Give us this day our daily bread Christians to pray for their needs. f. Forgive us our trespasses we ask for forgiveness of our sins and those of others. g. Jesus taught that one should be persistent in prayer. If a man goes to his friend at midnight and asks for bread to give to his visitor, the friend will open the door and give his friend all that he needs. This is because his friend was persistent in knocking on the door. In conclusion, if prayers are to be effective, one must have faith and be persistent. Believe that God shall ----- 190 answer prayers. A committed follower of Jesus should pray at all times. In prayer, one should acknowledge that God is the Father and that all prayers should be addressed to him. Two, one should have faith that God answers prayers. Therefore we should be persistent in prayer. Reasons why Christians should pray To honor God To request for favors To offer thanksgiving To confess their sins and seek for forgiveness of sins To seek Gods protection To intercede on behalf of others To strengthen their relationship with God Revision exercise 1. What did Jesus teach about prayer? 2. What is the importance of prayer? LESSON FOUR: USE OF GODS POWER TO OVERCOME EVIL. Read Luke 11:14 28 Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson, you should be able to: 1. Narrate Jesus teaching about demons 2. Explain why the sign of Jonah was important 3. Describe how Gods power overcomes evil a. Jesus and Beelzebub. Read Luke 11: 14 to 28 Jesus drove out a mute demon. The possessed man began to talk. The crowd said that Jesus was casting out demons using the power of Beelzebub the price of demons . Beelzebul was an evil spirit. However Jesus replied Any country that divides itself into groups which fight each other will not last very long, ----- 191 and a family divided against itself will fall. Jesus said it is by the power of God that drives out demons. Lessons learnt i. Satan cannot fight against himself therefore Jesus cannot be an agent of Beelzebub / Satan. ii. Gods Kingdom and that of Satan were two separate Kingdoms and could not co exist. iii. The destruction of Satans power meant that the Kingdom of God was in Israel and it was powerful. Gods power destroyed Satans kingdom. It is impossible to be neutral in the battle between Christ and Satan. One has to belong to either Christ or Satan. iv. Jesus has power to drive out demons. v. Demons occupy people. They bring disabilities and diseases. What makes people to be insane? Mentally sick b. The sign of Jonah. Read Luke 11: 29 32 After Jesus drove out the dumb spirit, Jews demanded performance of greater miracles. They wanted Jesus to prove that he was their expected messiah. Jesus said that Jonah was a great miracle. But Jesus was greater miracle than that of Jonah, and King Solomon. King Solomon was full of wisdom. He was so great that Queen of Sheba came to listen to his wisdom. Jesus like Jonah had brought a message of judgment. Jesus is greater than Jonah or Solomon. If Jews refuse to receive and listen to Jesus, the Gentiles like Queen of Sheba, will bear testimony against the Jews and receive Gods salvation. c. The light of the body. Read Luke: 11: 33 36 ----- 192 Jesus taught that no one lights a lamp and hides it under a bowl. A lamp is placed where all can see its light. He said that the human eye is the lamp or the light of the body. Jesus asked the listeners to make sure that the light in you is not darkness vs. 35 . What is the main message in this story? LESSON FIVE: JESUS TEACHING ON HYPOCRISY, WEALTH, WATCHFULNESS AND READINESS Introduction Hypocrisy is being dishonest and insincere or pretending to someone else or people. What did Jesus teach about hypocrisy? Learning outcomes. After reading these verses in Luke: 1. State what Jesus taught on hypocrisy 2. Explain value of wealth 3. Discuss how modern Christians can be watchful and ready for the coming of Jesus Christ a. Hypocrisy. Read Luke 12: 1- 12 A Pharisee invited Jesus to his house for a meal. When Jesus did not wash before eating the meal, the Pharisee was surprised. Jesus told him .. you Pharisees clean the outside of your cup and plate, but inside you are full violence and evil, greed and wickedness vs. 39 . Jesus condemned the Pharisees for their hypocrisy. They were concerned with outward appearances and traditions such as ceremonial washing of cups, hands, and dishes but not the souls of people. They loved the outward show and public recognition. Pharisees tithed, but neglected justice and love of God vs. 42 . They imposed rules and ----- 193 regulations for people to follow, yet they themselves did not practice what they preached. They refused to confess their sins but pointed out sins in others. They hinder others from entering the kingdom of God. They had failed to make people understand the true interpretation of the law. They were like unmarked graves dead to people yet the people trusted them. After this teaching, the Pharisees and the teachers of the law began to oppose Jesus fiercely. What do we learn from Jesus teachings? Followers of Jesus should be 1. Sincere and upright honest ; 2 obey Gods commands; 3 , live to please God but not other people; 4 confess publicly their loyalty to God and 5 love God without fear and 6 be dependent on the Holy Spirit b. The Parable of the Rich Fool. Read Luke 12:13 to 21 . Someone wanted justice. His brother had refused to share with him his fathers wealth. He wanted Jesus to order his brother to divide their fathers inheritance between him. In response, Jesus answered him with the parable of the rich fool. A rich man expected a good harvest of his crops. He thought he did not have storage for the crop he expected to harvest. The man said to himself. i will demolish my granaries and stores, then build bigger ones to store all my corn, and other goods. He expected to have enough food to last him a lifetime. Then he can enjoy his wealth; eating, drinking and making merry. But God told him that his life would be ----- 194 demanded from him that same night. What will happen to his wealth, as he was not rich in Gods sight? Lessons to learn i Followers of Jesus should not put their trust in material wealth but in God ii Life consists of food, other material wealth and trust in God iii Whoever seeks Gods kingdom, will receive material blessings from God iv Jesus did not condemn material possessions but rather the attitude towards material possessions. v Jesus condemned attachment to material wealth instead of trust in God who controls our lives. c. Watchfulness, Readiness, and Instructions. Read Luke 12: 35 59 Jesus told his disciples to be: i Watchful and ready for the return of the Son of Man i.e. Jesus. ii Faithful servants so that when Jesus returns, he will find them ready and acting responsibly iii Watchful of possible divisions in families iv Royal to Christ v Ready for the coming of the Son of Man. He will come at unexpected time; like a thief who comes when the owner of the house is not aware. vi Observing things of the kingdom of God, which were present in the person of Jesus. vii Like good servants, and watch over the affairs of the master. viii Be decision makers and follow the teachings of Jesus without being watched. Review questions 1. In what ways were the Pharisees hypocritical? LESSON SIX: THE KINGDOM OF GOD ----- 195 Learning Outcomes. By the end of this topic, you should be able to 1. Explain the teachings of Jesus about the kingdom of God 4. Narrate the parables of a. The unfaithful fig tree b. The mustard seed c. Parable of the feast d. Parable of the great feast e. Parable of the lost sheep and the lost son The Kingdom of God Kingdom of God refers to rule of God, or Gods authority on peoples lives and the world He created. The kingdom of God was present in Jesus. It is now and in the future reality. The teachings, and miracles of Jesus were a manifestation of the Kingdom of God. For anyone to enter Gods kingdom, one has to repent and ask for forgiveness. The Kingdom of God continues to grow and spread through the work of the Church. Those who accept the teachings of Jesus Christ about Gods Kingdom are members of the Kingdom of God. Now to enter the Kingdom of God, one has to repent and not judge others. Read Luke 13:1-5. Luke has explained the kingdom of God and outlined who will enter it. The Kingdom of God has unfruitful fig tree Read Luke, 13: 6 9 . A farmer had a fig tree that was unproductive for 3 years. He ordered the gardener to cut it down. The gardener requested for the fig tree to be given another chance. He promised to dig around the fig tree and add fertilizer. If it bears ----- 196 fruits well, it can survive, if it doesnt bear fruit, then it should be cut down. Lessons learnt from the parable The unproductive fig tree represents followers of Jesus who are unproductive because they do not follow the teachings of Jesus Christ. God gives people chances to repent just like the fig tree was given a second chance to bear fruit. Jesus is the gardener who pleads for people before God. The followers of Jesus are expected to be fruitful. What are the figs used for? a. Parable of the mustard seed. Read Luke, 13:18 19 Jesus likened the kingdom of God to a mustard seed, which is very small. When a mustard seed is planted, it grows fast to become a big tree. It is difficult to control its growth. When mature, the fig tree attracts many birds, which feed on its seeds. Lesson learnt from the parable. The Kingdom of God Begins as a small seed and grows quietly and humbly Then it grows and spreads to all corners of the earth And It attracts many people b. Parable of the Yeast. Read Luke, 13: 20 21 The Kingdom of God is like yeast. Yeast makes dough rise and the bread big. The Kingdom of God grows secretly and slowly just like the dough rises without being noticed. It is only God who knows how a kingdom grows. The Kingdom of God grows as a small unit that eventually grows, spreads and reaches out to many people in many nations. ----- 197 c. The narrow door. Read Luke, 13: 22 30 As Jesus was teaching in towns and villages, a person asked him whether a few people would be saved. Jesus replied that his followers should make every effort to go through the narrow door as it leads to the Kingdom of God. The narrow door will not remain open forever. Lesson learnt from the parable Those who wish to follow Jesus must repent immediately Entrance to Gods Kingdom is through repentance Everybody is invited to enter into the Kingdom of God. d. Jesus heals a crippled woman on the Sabbath. Luke, 13:10 12 Jesus was teaching in the synagogue on Sabbath. Jesus healed a woman who had an evil spirit, which had bent her back Hunch back for 18 years. Jesus saw her and told her woman, you are free from your illness! She was made straight and immediately glorified God. The official of the synagogue was annoyed that Jesus was healing on a Sabbath. He and others were hostile to Jesus for healing/working on the Sabbath. Jesus told him, you hypocrite. You feed and look after your animals on the Sabbath day. Jesus emphasized that human life is more important than animal life or even observing the Sabbath. Lessons learnt from the parable Jesus came to set people free from the bondage of sickness and Satan. Jesus work of liberation is continuous. It has to be performed even on a Sabbath day because human life is more important than animal life or even observing the Sabbath. e. Jesus Love for Jerusalem. Read Luke13: 31 35 ----- 198 As Jesus continued with his teachings, he reached Jerusalem. Pharisees informed him that Herod wanted to kill him. His response was go and tell that fox I will continue healing the sick and casting out demons. Jesus however, lamented over Jerusalem for rejecting Gods messengers. God would abandon Jerusalem for rejecting Jesus. Jerusalem was the site of Jesus death. It would eventually acknowledge Jesus as the Messiah who brings salvation to Israel and to the rest of the world. f. Man with dropsy healed Read Luke 14:1 6 . Jesus was invited to the house of the leading Pharisees for a meal on a Sabbath. A man with dropsy swollen legs and arms came to Jesus for healing. The Pharisees watched Jesus closely to see what he would do. Jesus asked the Pharisees does our Law allow healing on the Sabbath or not? They kept quiet. Jesus healed the man who then left. Jesus asked the Pharisees, would they save their son or an ox if it fell in a well on a Sabbath. They kept quiet. g. Humility and Hospitality. Read Luke 14: 7 14 Jesus was in the house of a leading Pharisees and observed that some of the invited guests were choosing the best places to sit at the table. He taught the disciples how to be humble. He said, when invited for a meal, let the owner give you a seat of honor that is reserved for important and honorable guests. Read verse 11. Jesus advised his host to invite the poor, cripples, and the blind who cannot invite you, as they have ----- 199 nothing to give back for generosity. Lessons learnt from the parable Jesus is teaching about humility and hospitality. Those who are humble shall be elevated. Those who elevate themselves shall be humbled. Followers of Jesus should extend invitations to the poor and the underprivileged in the society. The Kingdom of God belongs to the humble people. c. The parable of the Great Feast. Read Luke, 14: 15 24. A man said to Jesus, How happy are those who will sit down at the feast in the Kingdom of God verse 15 . In response Jesus told him that a man made a great feast and invited many friends and colleagues to the feast. The invited guests failed to come and a servant was sent to inform them that the feast was ready. All the invited guests gave personal excuses explaining why they could not come. The master was angry and asked the servant to invite the poor, crippled, lame, the blind and anyone willing to come to the feast. Lessons learnt from the parable God has invited all people to the great feast of the Kingdom of God. Those who honor his invitation will be blessed. Those who reject the invitation will be excluded from the feast. Jesus explained that the Kingdom of God is like a great feast open to all Jews and Gentiles. To enter the Kingdom of God, one has to make a personal decision because following Jesus means sacrificing activities that we consider important to us. d. The Cost of Being a Disciple ----- 200 Read Luke 14: 25 33 True discipleship means loving Jesus more than ones family. This is a great sacrifice to detach oneself from the family. A disciple must be ready to suffer for the sake of following Jesus. Following Jesus requires skills of careful thinking, planning and detailed preparations. Jesus compared true discipleship to the planning required when building a tower or engaging in a military operation. Lessons / teachings learnt from the parable True discipleship means making great sacrifices, none of you can be my disciple unless you give up everything you have verse 33 . Jesus disciples are expected to do careful planning before deciding to follow him because they are required to love God more than anyone else even their relatives and friends. e. The parable of the Lost Sheep Read Luke, 15:1 7 Pharisees and teachers of law complained to Jesus because Jesus was teaching ordinary people such as tax collectors, and outcasts considered sinners by them. Jesus told the Pharisees and teachers of law the parable of the lost sheep. He told them that if a shepherd with 100 sheep lost one of them, what action would he take? Wouldnt he leave the 99 sheep and go out to look for the lost sheep? And on finding it, wouldnt the shepherd celebrate with friends and neighbours? Jesus said that God celebrates if over one sinner who repents than over 99 ----- 201 respectable people who do not need to repent. Lessons / teachings learnt from the parable iii God is a shepherd and takes care of all his people. iv He does not want any of his people to be lost. v God searches for those lost in sin until he finds them. vi When one sinner repents, God is overjoyed and rejoices. vii God is the good shepherd who has come to seek and save the lost. f. Parable of the Lost Coin. Read Luke, 15: 8 10 If a woman losses one of her ten silver coins, she searches until she finds it. And if it is found, she invites her friends and neighbours to celebrate. Lessons learnt from the parable God and the angels in heaven search make every effort to seek the lost sinner until they find them. Jesus lights the world, looking for sinners who are lost because they are precious in Gods sight. g. Parable of the Lost Son prodigal son Read Luke 15:11 32 Jesus then told the story of a father who had two sons. The younger was given his share of inheritance he had requested. He went to foreign lands and wasted his inheritance. He became poor and decided to return home and ask his father to forgive him and employ him as a servant. His father kissed him and celebrated his return. The father announced to his guests that the son who was lost is now found. - The one who was dead is now live. The elder son was angry and unhappy because his father had never held a celebration for him, inspite of ----- 202 his hard work and obedience. His father told him my son you are always here with me, and everything I have is yours. We are just celebrating the return of the lost son. Lessons learnt from the parable a. A person dies spiritually if they sin b. God loves all people including sinners c. God is ready to forgive every sinner who repents d. There is no sin that God cannot give e. Jesus taught that both the righteous and unrighteous require Gods forgiveness f. There is joy and happiness in heaven when one sinner repents. g. Christians should confess their sins and acknowledge that Jesus saves repentant sinners h. God accepts unconditionally any sinner who comes back to him in repentance i. Confession of sins is a condition for entering the Kingdom of God. A GREAT FEAST FOR ALL WHO ARE PREPARED Luke 14: 1 35 SAQ. What are the qualities of those who belong to the kingdom of God? Answer. Qualities of people who belong to the Kingdom of God Those who belong to the Kingdom of God: i. Obey Gods commandments ii. Accept Gods rule in their lives iii Show Gods love to others iv Are ready to make sacrifices so as to be followers of Jesus v Read Gods word and preach to others vi Confess their sins and seek forgiveness of their sins through repentance. Review questions 1. Give an explanation of the term Kingdom of God ----- 203 2. What did Jesus teach about the kingdom of God? 3. What lessons do Christians learn from the parables of the lost son? Answer 1. The term Kingdom of God means the role of God or Gods authority in peoples lives and the world. LESSON SEVEN: TEACHINGS ON WEALTH AND POVERTY. LK 16:1 32 Learning Outcomes. By the end of the topic, you should be able to: a Explain the teachings of Jesus on wealth, and poverty b Narrate the teachings of Jesus on repentance Introduction While wealth is possession of material things such as money or occupation of a high social economic status, poverty is the opposite. It is lack of basic needs such as water, education, food, shelter, clothing, and health. When teaching about wealth, Jesus taught using two parables. These were: 1 parable of the shrewd manager 2 parable of the rich man and Lazarus Parable of the shrewd manager Read Luke, 16: 1 18 When the shrewd manager realized that his master was going to sack him due to his dishonesty, he asked the debtors to change the amounts they owed their master to smaller amounts. He did this to make friends with a few people who would give him a place to stay after he was sacked. The master praised the shrewd manager and did not sack him. The shrewd manager is praised not because of his ----- 204 dishonesty but because he acted promptly and with great presence of mind in a moment of crisis. Jesus is encouraging his disciples and followers to make prompt quick, appropriate, timely decisions. They should use wealth to serve God. It should not be allowed to take the place of God. Followers of Jesus should be honest in small and big things. The Rich Man and Lazarus. Read Luke, 16: 19 31. A rich man lived in luxury. At his gates was a poor man, called Lazarus whose body was covered by sores. The rich man did not feed Lazarus. He ate food remains together with the rich mans dogs. When rich man died, he went to hell. When Lazarus died, he went to heaven and sat at Abraham/s bosom. When in hell, the rich man was tormented while Lazarus was at peace. Lessons to learn from this parable. The rich isnt condemned for being rich but because of his altitude towards Lazarus. He used his wealth for self-gratification and not for service to the needy. The wealthy should realize that it is God who gives wealth and he should be given honor. Riches can hinder the wealthy from inheriting eternal life, especially if they put their trust in riches instead of God who is the source of all wealth and blessings. Revision exercise 1. From the parable of the rich fool what can Christians learn about the use of wealth? 2. Narrate the parable of the shrewd manager LESSON EIGHT. JESUS TEACHING ON FORGIVENESS ----- 205 Read Luke 17: 1 4 Learning outcomes. By the end of this lesson, you shall explain the power of Christian faith. Sin. Read Luke 17: 1-4. Jesus taught his disciples to forgive offenders who repent. Those who sin should seek forgiveness. If they offend 7 times in a day, forgive them 7 times. Followers of Jesus need faith to forgive others. The power of faith. Read Luke, 17: 5 11. Faith is defined as complete trust or confidence in God. It is absolute truthfulness and trust in everything that comes from God. The apostles asked Jesus to increase their faith. Followers of Jesus should have faith. Faith has no measure. Faith as big as a mustard seed can empower Christians to perform miracles that serve God. Faith is necessary. With faith, Christians can forgive others and be servants of God. Disciples should have faith. Christians understand that they owe everything to God. Jesus heals ten lepers. Read Luke, 17:11- 19 Jesus was on his way to Jerusalem when he met ten lepers. They requested Jesus to heal them. Jesus told them to go and show themselves to the priests. On the way, they were healed. One of them, a Samaritan, returned to thank Jesus for healing him. The Samaritans and the Jews did not associate. Jesus told the Samaritan that his faith has made him whole. Faith is necessary for healing any disease. Leprosy is a disease that leads to loss of fingers, toes and other parts of the body. It was a dreadful skin ----- 206 disease, which Jews feared. Lepers were isolated from other people. They lived dejected lives The coming of the kingdom. Read Luke 17: 20 37 The Pharisee demanded to know when the kingdom of God would come. Jesus replied that the kingdom of God was within those who had accepted Jesus and his teachings. Those who wanted had received the kingdom. Faith is necessary to discover the power of Gods kingdom. The coming of the son of man, i.e. Jesus will bring the kingdom to reality. The coming of the son of man is also referred to as the day of the Lord, Day of Judgment. Read Luke, 21: 27- 28. Those who obey Jesus will be saved but those who reject him will be punished. Lessons to learn. God expects Christians to have faith in him. Christians should have faith in Jesus so that they can inherit eternal life. Faith is needed to strengthen Christians. Faith is important in the life of a Christian until Jesus returns, i.e. the second coming. Revision exercise 1. What did Jesus teach on forgiveness LESSON NINE. PERSISTENCE IN PRAYER, Read Luke, 18:1 14 Learning outcomes. By the end of this lesson, discuss the values of persistence in prayer To teach about persistence in prayer, Jesus used two parables. These were the parables of: the widow and a corrupt judge and examples of prayer by a Pharisee and a tax collector. a. The widow and the unjust judge. Read Luke, 18: 1 9 Jesus had already taught the disciples how to pray. He now tells them that they ought to pray and not ----- 207 faint. He gives a parable to explain his point. A widow went to a corrupt judge to have her adversaries judged. The judge was corrupt and ignored her. He however gave in to her demands since she was persistent and wearing him down. The judge helped her because of her persistence and courage. Lessons learnt from the parable Followers of Jesus should pray with courage and be persistent in prayer. God hears and answers prayers. Christians should pray without ceasing and with faith and trust that their prayers will be answered. b. Parable of the Pharisee, and tax collector, Read Luke, 18:9 14 A Pharisee and tax collector went to the temple to pray. The Pharisee offered a long prayer focusing on his achievements. The tax collector publican did not have much to say except asking for mercy, as he was a sinner. Followers of Jesus should acknowledge they are sinners and seek forgiveness. They should approach God in humility and avoid spiritual pride, and self- righteousness. Revision exercise 1. State the parable of the widow and the unjust judge LESSON TEN. THE WAY TO SALVATION, Read Luke, 18: 15 19: 1 27. Introduction: The word salvation refers to the act of saving or being saved from sin. Those who have received salvation area assured of eternal life. To receive salvation a person must acknowledge that he is a sinner and repent their sins. In this way, they receive forgiveness and are reconciled to God. ----- 208 Learning outcomes. By the end of this lesson, you should a. State the meaning of salvation b. Discuss characteristics of salvation c. Give examples of those who will enter the Kingdom of God. d. Explain how Jesus predicted his death Introduction Salvation means being saved from a life-threatening situation. In Christianity, salvation refers to the process of being delivered from sin and its consequences. Those who are saved are assured of eternal life. Jesus taught about salvation using children to illustrate his message. This is what happened. Some people brought their children to Jesus so that he could bless them. The disciples scolded them. Jesus asked the children to come to him and he blessed them. Jesus taught his disciples that they must be humble like children in order to enter the kingdom of God. The road to salvation is by being simple, humble, and trusting like little children. The kingdom of God belongs to those who humble themselves like the little children. The rich man. Read Luke, 18:18 30 The entry into the kingdom of God was further explained through the story of the rich man. The rich man came to Jesus wanting to know how he could inherit eternal life and be saved. Jesus reminded him of the importance of keeping the commandments. The young man responded that he had observed the commandments since he was young. Jesus told him there is one thing remaining to do; sell everything ----- 209 he has, and give it to the poor, and then follow Jesus. The rich man was very sorrowful for he was very wealthy. Wealth can hinder the rich from receiving salvation. Jesus acknowledged the sacrifice made by his disciples. He emphasized that disciples shall receive salvation in the present and in life to come. Salvation is a gift from God. Salvation is received; by those who accept to follow Jesus. Trusting in wealth can be a hindrance to salvation. The rich may find it difficult to inherit eternal life. Jesus predicts his death, a 3rd time. Read Luke, 18: 31 34. Jesus predicted his death a three times. First was after asking his disciples who they say he was. The second time was after transfiguration when his face was set towards Jerusalem. The third prediction shall be in Jerusalem Luke 18:31-34 . Jesus told the disciples that previous prophecies would be fulfilled in Jerusalem. His death was going to take place in Jerusalem according to the writings of the prophets. It was going to be a painful death. He shall be beaten, mocked, spit upon and put to death. But on the third day, he shall rise again. The disciples did not understand what Jesus was telling them. Jesus had to die so that those who believed in him may receive eternal life. The death and resurrection of Jesus gives Christians hope of eternal life. Jesus heals a blood beggar. Read Luke, 18: 35 43 As Jesus neared Jericho, a blind man sat by the roadside begging. When he heard the multitude pass by, ----- 210 he inquired what was going on and he was told that Jesus of Nazareth was passing by. He then cried out Jesus, Son of David, have mercy on me The crowds rebuked him but he cried out louder to Jesus to have mercy on him. Jesus asked him what he wanted. He said he wanted to see. Jesus told him to receive his sight for his faith had made him whole. The beggar was joyful and he followed Jesus rejoicing. Lessons learnt. Christians should have faith in Jesus. They should also be persistent and make specific requests. LESSON THIRTEEN: JESUS AND ZACCHAEUS LK 19:1 9 Learning outcomes. By the end of this lesson, a. Narrate events leading to salvation of Zacchaeus b. Explain meanings of the story of the man who gave gold coins to his servants Zacchaeus was short. His profession was a tax collector. He was rich. He wanted to be saved. When Jesus was passing by Jericho, he wanted to see Jesus. He couldnt because he was short. He ran and climbed a sycamore tree to see Jesus. When Jesus came to the place where Zacchaeus was, he looked up and said Hurry down, Zacchaeus, because I must stay in your house today verse 5 . Jesus then went with Zacchaeus to his house. When people saw this they grumbled, and murmured. They said that Jesus was going to a house of a sinner. Jesus told them that salvation has come to the house of Zacchaeus, a son of Abraham the Son of man ----- 211 came to seek and save the lost. There is no sin that God cannot forgive, even that of a tax collector. Zacchaeus told Jesus that he was going to give to the poor half of his wealth and whatever he took from any man and woman wrongfully, he will restore four times. From this salvation, we learn that the rich should share their wealth with the needy. The Parable of the Gold Coins: Luke, 19: 11 27. A certain nobleman went to a far country. Before he left he called his ten servants and gave each a gold coin ten pounds in total . He told them to trade with the coins until he returns. When he returned, he called the servants to report profits they had made. The first servant said that one-pound coin had made profit of 10 pounds gold coins . He made the manager of ten cities. The second servant had traded and gained 5 pounds. He was made the manager of 5 cities. The third one had hidden the pound. He did not trade. He accused the master of being mean, and cruel. He returned the pound, which was given to the servant with 10 pounds. Lessons to learn. This parable was about the kingdom of God. God expects us to use opportunities he has given to us for his work. Each one of us shall account for the use of the abilities and skills that God gave to us students, workers, and other professionals. To receive eternal life, Christians should repent and be obedient to Gods instructions. Revision questions ----- 212 1. What did Jesus teach by using the example of little children? 5. Give an account of how Jesus healed the blind beggar 6. Explain the relevance of Jesus teachings on salvation to Christians TOPIC FIVE: THE JERUSALEM MINISTRY. Luke, 19: 28 21: 38 Lesson Outcomes. By the end of this topic, you should: a. Describe the triumphant entry of Jesus into Jerusalem b. Narrate events in the cleansing of the temple c. Discuss Jesus teachings about eschatology LESSON ONE: THE TRIUMPHANT ENTRY OF JESUS TO JERUSALEM LK. 19:28 40 Learning outcomes. By the end of this lesson, you should a. Explain why Jesus rode on a young colt into Jerusalem b. Discuss why Jesus wept over Jerusalem b. Describe what Jesus did when he went to the temple a. The triumphant approach to Jerusalem. Luke 19: 28- 40. Jesus death had to happen in Jerusalem. Hence Jesus went to Jerusalem. He sent two disciples to a place where there was a colt young donkey that no person had ever ridden. They took it to Jesus. They threw their garments on the colt, and Jesus sat on it. As Jesus rode, people spread their clothes on the road. As Jesus neared Jerusalem, a large crowd of his disciples began to praise God vs37 . The crowd said blessed be the king who comes in the name of the lord. The Pharisees told Jesus to rebuke the disciples. Jesus told them if the disciples kept quiet the stones would start shouting. Jesus made his entry into Jerusalem in a royal kingly procession. He was Israels humble king who came ----- 213 with peace and not a political leader. He rode on a donkey a symbol of peace. This was unlike the political kings who rode on the horses during that time. b. Jesus weeps over Jerusalem. Read, Luke 41- 44. When Jesus was near Jerusalem he wept. He then foretold the coming destruction of Jerusalem due to its rejection of the messiah. The rejoicing of his triumphant entry to Jerusalem turned to mourning as he foretold the destruction of Jerusalem by Romans in 70 A.D. c. Jesus goes to the temple. Read Luke 19:45 48. Jesus went to Jerusalem temple and evicted traders. He told them that the house of God is a house of prayer not a den of thieves. Jeremiah spoke these same words during his temple sermon. The chief priests and scribes began planning how to kill Jesus. LESSON TWO. PHARISEES, SCRIBES QUESTION JESUS. LUKE 20 1-47 Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - 1. Describe the question about the authority of Jesus 2. Describe the parable of the tenants in the vineyard 3. Describe the question about paying taxes 4. Describe the question about resurrection 5. Describe Jesus teachings against the teachers of law 6. Describe the parable of the widows offering a. The question about Jesus authority. Read Luke, 20:1 8. The Jewish leaders wanted to know from Jesus by whose authority he was doing all the things he was doing. In response Jesus asked them did Johns right to baptize come from God or from human ----- 214 beings? Vs4 . They discussed among themselves and decided not answer. Jesus told them neither will I tell you. In response to his authority being questioned he told a parable. b. The parable of the Tenants in the Vineyard. Read the parable in Luke, 20: 9 18. The tenants refused to pay the owner of the vineyard his share of the harvest. They threw out the servants he sent to collect his share of the harvest. When he sent his son, they killed him so that they can own the vineyard. Jesus asked the people What will the owner of the vineyard do to the tenants? c. The Question about paying taxes. Read Luke 20:19-28 Pharisees, and scribes teachers of the law and chief priests planned to arrest Jesus but they were afraid of the people. They sent spies to trick Jesus by asking this question - is it against our law for us to pay taxes to the Roman Empire, or not? Jesus used the currency and told them pay the Emperor Caesar what belongs to him and pay God what belongs to God. Verse 25 This was a tricky question. Jesus here teachers people to obey the rules of the land and to obey Gods rules. d. The Question about Resurrection The Sadducees who did not believe in resurrection tempted Jesus with another question. They wanted to know this. When resurrection comes, who shall be the husband to a woman who was married to the first brother and inherited as a widow by the other six brothers? ----- 215 Jesus told them the men and women who shall be worthy of resurrection shall not marry. They shall be like angels and cannot die verse 34 to 38 e. Jesus warns against the Teachers of the law Jesus warned his disciples. Be careful and guard yourselves against teachers of the law, the scribes. They were hypocritical. They wore long robes, said long prayers, looked for positions of honor and exploited the widows. f. The Widows Offering. Luke, 21: 1- 4 When people were giving offerings in the temple, a widow gave two little copper coins. Jesus said the poor widow had given all she had. Likewise Christians should give to God not to be seen but from their hearts. It is not the quantity of the gift that matters but the attitude of the giver. LESSON THREE: THE TEACHINGS OF JESUS ABOUT ESCHATOLOGY LK. 21: 5 38 Eschatology is from two Greek words, eschatus and logos. Eschatus means end, Logos means study. Eschatology means the study of the end times or in CRE the last days of Jesus. For biblical information, read Luke 21:5-38 and Mathew 24: 1 36 and Mark 13:1-31. Learning outcomes. After this lesson, you should: a. Identify signs of end times b. State uses of the temple during the time of Jesus c. Discuss ways in which Christians can apply the parable of the fig tree d. State relevance of Jesus teachings on eschatology a. Signs of the end times. Jesus gave many signs that will inform Christians that end of the time has ----- 216 come. These were to happen at different times. The signs were: a Destruction of the temple of Jerusalem by invading armies which shall surrounded it b Hatred of disciples and Christians because they were followers of Christ c Rejection of disciples by families because they were followers of Christ d Betrayal of the followers of Christ e Prosecution and imprisonment of Christians. f Many false messiahs. People would come claiming to be the Messiah, the Son God g Wars as nation rise against nations h Eruption of natural calamities such as plagues, earthquakes, famines, great fear among people. i Disruption in the sky and seas. Fall of strange heavenly beings from the sky and rise of seas. j Natural calamities such as earthquakes, plagues, famines bringing despair and distress in all nations k The times shall be announced by signs in the stars, moon, sun and sea l Appear of the Son of man in power and glory at the end of times. b. Uses of the temple during the time of Jesus During the time of Jesus, the temple was used for a Child dedication b Circumcision c Purification d Trading and business centre e Worshiping and prayer f a place for celebrating festivals such as the Passover and other major feasts g a learning centre or school for religious purposes. For example disciples of the scribes learnt law in the temple. The destruction of the temple symbolized the birth of Christianity. From that time Christians became the new temple of God. ----- 217 c. The parable of the fig tree Lk.21: 29 33 Jesus used the parable of the fig tree to explain more about the end times. Appearance of leaves in the fig tree and other trees inform us that summer will soon come. When Christians see signs of the end times, they should know that the kingdom of God is about to come. Jesus told disciples to be watchful, alert, and praying for strength to endure the coming tribulations. See the previous teachings on watchfulness and readiness. Christians are to watch out and be ready for the end times. d. Relevance of Jesus teachings on eschatology These teachings assure and continue to tell Christians these messages from Jesus: a There is life after death b Christ will return to receive the faithful c Christians are to be watchful, prayerful, and hopeful despite trials and tribulations d Christians are assured of Gods protection from evil. e Christians should prepare for the coming of Christ by leading a righteous life f Do not lose hope g Do not be pre occupied with the cares of this would for they never end h Preach and spread the word of God i Obey Gods commandment j Help the needy Revision questions a. Describe Jesus triumphant entry into Jerusalem according to Luke chapter 19:29- 30 ----- 218 b. What does the manner of Jesus entry into Jerusalem reveal about the nature of his kingdom? c. What lessons can Christians learn from Jesus triumphant entry into Jerusalem d. State and explain why Jesus wept over Jerusalem e. Explain the cleansing of the temple f. Give reasons why Jesus cleansed the temple of Jerusalem g. What lessons can Christians learn from the cleansing of the temple? h. Explain Jesus conflict with the Jewish leaders i. Describe the parable of the tenants in the vineyard j. Explain the relevance of the parable of the of tenants in the vineyard k. Explain the question about paying taxes l. Explain the question about the resurrection m. What is eschatology? n. What will happen at the end of the world eschatology according to Jesus teaching in Lukes gospel 21; 5-38 o. How do Christians prepare for the second coming of Christ? TOPIC SIX: THE PASSION, DEATH AND RESURRECTION OF JESUS LK. 22 24 Passion is a strong feeling of love, hate or anger. Passion of Jesus is the great sufferings of Jesus, which was a deep emotional anguish. Learning outcomes By the end of this topic, you should be able to: a Discuss the events of the Lords supper b State relevance of the Lords supper to Christians today c Describe the events that took place at mount Olives ----- 219 d Describe the events that took place between the arrest and burial of Jesus e Relate the relevance of the sufferings and death of Jesus to Christians today f Explain the importance of resurrection of Jesus to Christians g Describe the resurrection of Jesus the evidence of his resurrection h Narrate the ascension of Jesus The plot against Jesus The Jewish religious leaders were determined to ensure that Jesus was either arrested or killed Lk.22: 1 6 They were helped by Satan who entered into Judas Iscariot one of the twelve disciples of Jesus. Judas decided to betray Jesus. He communed with the Jewish leaders who agreed to pay him money to betray Jesus. He searched for a way to betray Jesus without knowledge of Jesus. He forgot who was Jesus. Judas agreed to betray Jesus probably because: a. He belonged to the party of Zealots who wanted political changes b. He was probably frustrated by Jesus approach to the Kingdom of God which was establishing a peaceful spiritual kingdom c. He expected Jesus to establish a political kingdom d. He was greedy for money e. Satan entered him LESSON ONE: THE LORDS SUPPERS/ THE LAST SUPPER. LK 22: 7 13 The last supper was the lost Passover meal that Jesus took before his arrest. Passover is celebrated in ----- 220 obedience to Gods command to Moses. It is a remembrance of Israels deliverance by God from slavery in Egypt. a. The Passover meal Preparations for the Passover, Read Luke 22: 7 23. Peter and John were sent by Jesus to go and prepare the Passover meal. They were to do so in a house in the city. They were taken to the house by, a man who was carrying a vessel of water. They were given a big furnished upper room upstairs. They prepared the Passover meal as instructed by Jesus. Passover meal During the meal with the 12 disciples / apostles Jesus told them that this was going to be his last meal with them before his death. He took a cup of wine gave thanks to God and said Take this and share it among yourselves. I tell you that from now on I will not drink this wine until the Kingdom of God comes. The cup of wine was his blood that he was going to shed for them. Wine therefore symbolized the blood of Jesus, shed for the purification of humankind and forgiveness of sins. This blood is the New Testament and covenant with Christians. After drinking of wine, He took a piece of bread, gave thanks to God and shared it and told them that the piece of bread represented his body which is given for them. He presented his death as a sacrifice whose blood sealed the new covenant. His death replaced the sacrifices of the Old law, those of animals, which sealed the Sinai covenant. The new covenant will be for ----- 221 all people including Gentiles. This is to fulfil Gods promise of salvation for all people. Jesus and disciples ate Passover together so that henceforth Christians would eat the meal together in remembrance of Jesus. Passover was initially taken to remind them of the deliverance from Egypt. But during the last supper, Jesus gave the Passover a new meaning. As they ate, Jesus foretold of his betrayal by one of his disciple. SAQ. i. Which items were used to celebrate the Passover in the Old Testament? ii. What items do modern Christians use to celebrate the Lords Supper? Comparisons of the Lords Supper and the Passover a The Passover commemorates the divine act of redemption of the Jews from their bondage in Egypt while the Last Supper commemorates the deliverance of human kind from sin. b The Passover feast reminded the Israelites that they were free, redeemed people while the Lords Suppers is to remind Christians of their forgiveness of sins. The death of Jesus set Christians free from sins. c Passover was followed by the Old covenant of Mount Sinai. The Lords suppers is a new covenant based on the death of Jesus for sins of humankind d Passover Old testament was sealed by the blood of Lambs while New Covenant Lords suppers is sealed by the blood of Jesus on the cross. e Items for celebrating in Passover old testament are different from the cup of wine and pieces of bread used by Jesus to celebrate his last supper with the disciples. ----- 222 Relevance of the Lords Supper today Christians celebrate the Lords supper. This celebration is called the Eucharist, the Lords suppers, or Lords meal. Christians celebrate it as an act of repentance; through which they receive assurance of forgiveness of their sins. The presence of Jesus becomes a reality when Christians share bread and wine. Bread and wine are symbols of heavenly feast, which Christians will partake in Gods kingdom. The Lords supper is also a sacrifice of praise and thanksgiving to God. It is a time for rededication to Christ and self-renewal. Through the celebration of the Lords supper, Christians anticipate the second coming of Jesus and the establishment of Gods Kingdom. It is also a time to remember the death and resurrection of Jesus and reflect on Gods love for humankind. b. The Argument about Greatness. Read Luke, 22: 24 30 A question arose among the disciples. They wanted to know who among them was the greatest? Jesus told them that they do not belong to the world system of authority given on the basis of wealth and fame. The authority among the disciples will be determined on the basis of their service to others. The greatest is the servant. Jesus likened himself to a servant hence disciples are called to serve. By sharing in trials and sufferings of Jesus, the disciples will share in his ruling power over the new Israel. Leadership in church should be understood in terms of service being a servant of people. In the ----- 223 community of Christians, all people who are followers of Jesus are all equal. SAQ. In your opinion, which are the signs of greatness in the world? c. Jesus Predicts Peters Denial. Read Luke, 22: 31 38 Jesus told peter that Satan had received permission to test or tempt all the disciples but Jesus had prayed for Peters faith not to fail. Jesus told Peter that he shall deny Jesus three times before the cock crows. Jesus was telling his disciples that they will encounter hostility in their evangelism hence they should be prepared for suffering and opposition because of Him as Isaiah 53:12 says he shared the fate of evil men. Jesus death was imminent inevitable. The disciples were expected to be strong LESSON TWO: PRAYER, ARREST OF JESUS AND DENIAL BY PETER Learning Outcomes. By the end of this lesson, you shall: a. Narrate the events that took place at Mount of Olives b. Describe the arrest of Jesus c. Discuss Peters denial of Jesus d. Describe the arrest of Jesus a. Prayer on the Mount of Olives. Read Luke. 22: 39 46 After celebrating the last supper, Jesus went to the Mount of Olives with his disciples to pray to resist temptation. Jesus went ahead of his disciples, knelt down and prayed. Jesus left them to pray by himself. He said Father if you will, take this cup of suffering away from me. ----- 224 Not my will, however, but your will to be done 42 . An angel came to strengthen him. He prayed earnestly, in agony and turmoil great than the physical pain. He sweated great drops of blood. After praying, Jesus found his disciples asleep worn out by their grief vs. 45 . Jesus asked them to wake up and pray to avoid temptation. Significance The disciples fell asleep. This was a sign of moral and physical exhaustion. Jesus expressed inner struggle about the fulfillment of his messianic mission. He prayed for Gods help. Christians should always pray to avoid temptation and seek Gods help. b. Betrayal and arrest of Jesus. Read Luke, 22: 47 53 Jesus was arrested by: the chief priest, elders, officers of the temple guard, and a crowd of people as he talked to his disciples. He was taken to the house of the high priest. Judas had identified Jesus with a kiss. Jesus asked Judas him Judas, is it with a kiss that you betray the Son of man? Jewish religious leaders had come to arrest Jesus as they arrested other criminals. Jesus told his disciples not to resist his arrest. He rejected armed resistance refusing the role of a political messiah. Peter followed him from a distance. c. Peters Denies Jesus. Read Luke, 22: 54 65 After Jesus was arrested he was taken to the house of the High Priest. As Peter sat warming himself with others, a maid identified Peter. She said, This man too was with Jesus. Peter denied knowing Jesus ----- 225 three times. After the third denial, the cock crowed just as Jesus predicted. Jesus turned and looked at Peter who remembered the words of Jesus. Peter went out and wept bitterly Vs. 62 . Weeping was a sign of repentance LESSON THREE: THE TRIALS AND CRUCIFIXION OF JESUS Lesson Outcomes. By the end of this lesson. You should a. Describe trials of Jesus by the various authorities b. Explain the importance of the judgement by Pilate c. Narrate events leading to crucifixion of Jesus a. Trials of Jesus by the various authorities i. Trial by the Sanhedrin Lk.22: 66 71 After being taken to the house of the High Priest, the next morning Jesus was taken to the Jewish religious council or court; called the Sanhedrin. They all asked him if he was the messiah. Jesus told they wouldnt believe whatever he says. But the Son of Man will be seated on the right hand of Almighty God. Vs. 69 . Jesus told them he was the Son of God. The Sanhedrin accused Jesus of blasphemy, a sin punishable by death. ii. Trial before Pilate. Read Luke 23: 1 5 The second court was the Roman court. The judge was Pilate, the Roman Governor. In this court the Sanhedrin accused Jesus of: Inciting people to revolt, and rebelling against Roman authority Forbidding people to pay taxes to the Emperor Claiming to be the king, a Messiah, They could not accuse him of blasphemy before Pilate since this offence was not acceptable under the ----- 226 Roman law. Pilate asked Jesus if he was the king, Jesus replied, So you say. vs.3 . Pilate found no fault with Jesus so he sent him to Herod. iii. Trial by Herod. Read Luke, 23: 6 12 Herod was in Jerusalem. When Jesus was brought before him, he expected Jesus to perform miracles to impress him. He asked Jesus many questions and Jesus kept quiet. Herod and his soldiers mocked Jesus, and ridiculed him. They put on him royal clothes; then sent Jesus back to Pilate. iv. Jesus is sentenced to Death. Read Luke 23: 13 25 Jesus was brought back to Pilate a second time. Pilate repeated that Jesus was not guilty innocent of any crime. Pilate offered to have Jesus beaten and then released. The crowds, leaders and chief priests gave their judgement. Kill him! and release Barabbas, who was a rioter and a murderer. Pilate did not find Jesus guilty. But he did what they wanted. He released Barabbas and handed Jesus over for them to do as they wished vs. 25 . v. The crucifixion of Jesus. Read Luke 22: 26-43 Jesus was led away to be crucified. Solders forced Simon of Cyrene to carry the cross for Jesus. Women followed Jesus and weeping. Jesus told them not to weep for Him but for themselves and their children. Jesus was then crucified at a place called Golgotha place of skull or Calvary together with two male criminal; one on His right and the other on His Left. Jesus asked God to forgive them persecutors for they did not know what they were doing. ----- 227 The Jewish leaders, said He saved others; let him save himself if he is the Messiah whom God has chosen vs. 35 ; Solders mocked Jesus and said Save yourself if you are the king of Jews and one criminal hanged with Jesus mocked Jesus and told Him Arent you the Messiah? Save yourself and me. The other thief rebuked him saying they deserved the punishment for their deeds but Jesus had done nothing. This thief repented and told Jesus, Remember me, Jesus, when you come as King. Jesus told him that he would be in paradise with Jesus on that day vs. 42 43 . On top of the cross, Jews wrote, This is the King of the Jews vs. 38 . LESSON FOUR: DEATH OF JESUS. Read Luke. 23: 44 50 Learning outcomes. By the end of this lesson, a. Describe the death of Jesus b. Narrate the burial of Jesus c. State relevance of the suffering and death of Jesus to Christian life today a. The death of Jesus. There was darkness from 12 oclock until thee oclock. The veil/curtain of the temple tore into two. Jesus cried out with a loud voice Father, into they hands I commit my spirit. At this shout Jesus died. The Roman centurion saw and praised God. He declared, Certainly this was an innocent man. The multitude that watched the crucifixion and death went home beating their breasts, a sign of repentance. The women, who knew Jesus from Galilee, stood at a distance watching all these things. b. The burial of Jesus. Read Luke 23: 50 56. ----- 228 Joseph from Arimathea, a town in Judea sought permission from Pilate to bury the body of Jesus. He was waiting for the coming of the Kingdom of God, a likely secret disciple of Jesus. He was a good and honorable man. The body of Jesus was laid in a sepulchre Tomb where nobody had ever been laid. Jesus burial in Josephs tomb fulfilled Isaiahs prophecy that the suffering servant of Yahweh was buried in a rich mans tomb Isaiah 53:9 The Galilean women and Joseph saw where the body of Jesus was laid. They went home, and prepared spices to use to wash Jesus body. They rested on the Sabbath. c. Relevance of the suffering and death of Jesus Christ to Christian life today Christians today should practice or do the following activities. i. Pray in times of sorrow, pain, trials and temptations. iii They should not give up when rejected. iv They should be aware of hypocrites and traitors amongst them. v They should be willing to suffer for the sake of the Kingdom of God. vi They should be ready to fight for a just cause vii They should never condemn the innocent. viii They should go through their suffering bravely. ix They should know and accept suffering as a part of the Christian calling x They should not be afraid of rejection by people l xi They should be encouraged that Jesus suffered for them. d. In which ways can Christians prepare for their death? Death is inevitable. Hence, Christians should at all times: live a holy life, repent sins, forgive those who ----- 229 have wronged them, make a will, accept death as inevitable, and read the word of God LESSON FIVE: THE RESURRECTION OF JESUS. Read Luke 24: 1 53 a. The Resurrection. Resurrection refers to the event of Jesus rising from the dead After the Sabbath day, on Sunday morning; Mary Magdalene, Mary the mother of James, Salome Joanna and other women, went to the tomb with the spices they has prepared. They found the entrance open. The stone covering the tomb was rolled away. The tomb was empty. The body of Jesus was not in the tomb. Suddenly, two men, who were angels, appeared dresses in dazzling and shining clothes. They said Why are you looking among the dead for one who is alive? He is not here; he has been raised. The women went and told the 11 disciples, who did not believe them. Peter ran to the tomb and found it empty. Women were the first to witness the resurrection of Jesus Christ. This is significant as they women were empowered to become witnesses of Christ as evangelists beyond the Jewish culture. b. Witnesses of the resurrection of Jesus The disciples en route to Emmaus Two disciples were traveling to Emmaus, which was 11 km from Jerusalem discussing Jesus suffering, death and the empty tomb. Jesus met them but their eyes were blinded and they did not recognize him. ----- 230 The disciples explained to Jesus the events that had taken place and how they had hoped that Jesus would liberate Israel from the Roman rule. Jesus explained to them the scriptures concerning the messiah. When they got to Emmaus, they invited him to dine with them for it was evening. When Jesus, took the bread and said the blessings; then he broke the bread and gave it to them, the disciples recognized Jesus but he vanished out of their sight vs. 30-31 . They returned to Jerusalem and told the 11 disciples that Jesus has risen. c. Jesus appears to his Disciples. Read Luke 24: 36 49. As the two disciples explained the event that happened on the journey to Emmaus, Jesus came and said to them Peace be with you vs. 36 . Disciples were terrified and frightened. He asked them to look and touch his hands, and feet. He was not a ghost. He has flesh and bones unlike ghosts, which do not have. He explained to the apostles his mission, which was prophesied by prophets, and written in the Law of Moses, and Psalms v.44 . He commissioned the disciples to preach repentance and remission of sins and be his witnesses. He also promised to send them the promise of the father Holy Spirit SAQ. What was the nature of the resurrected body of Jesus? d. The ascension of Jesus, Luke, 24: 50 53 From Jerusalem, Jesus took his disciples to Bethany, a town outside Jerusalem. He lifted his hands and blessed them. As he blessed them, he was lifted up and carried to heaven. ----- 231 The disciples worshipped him and returned to Jerusalem with great joy. They continued to go to the temple to praise and give thanks to God. The disciples were now confident about their mission and who Jesus was e. The importance of the resurrection of Jesus to Christian Resurrection is the foundation of Christian faith. Christianity is based on the fact that Jesus resurrected and was taken up to heaven. Further to this: 1. Resurrection proved that Jesus is the Son of God. 2. Through resurrection, Christians have hope of eternal life 3. Through resurrections, Christians are assured of a new life in Christ 4. Sin and death were conquered by resurrection, giving hope of victory to Christians over death and sin. 5. Resurrection is a fulfillment of the writings of the prophets. It fulfilled Old Testament prophesies by Moses, Elijah, Elisha and others. 6. It is a proof that there is life after death. 7. Through resurrection, man was reconciled to God. 8. Jesus has power over death, over Satan and his Kingdom of darkness 9. It led to the coming of the Holy Spirit. Revision questions a. Give the different names used in reference to the lords supper by Christians in different churches b. Describe the institution of the lords supper c, State the Christian teaching about the lords supper d. What is the meaning of the lords supper to Christians? e. Compare the Passover feast with the practice of the lords supper f. Describe the prayer on mount olives g. Describe the betrayal and arrest of Jesus h. State the reasons that made Judas Iscariot to betray Jesus ----- 232 i. Describe the trial of Jesus under the following headings:- the council of Sanhedrin, the trial before Pilate, the trial before Herod and Pilates judgement. j. Why do you think Pilate agreed to have Jesus crucified? k. Identify and explain the lessons that Christians learn from the actions of Pilate during the trial of Jesus l. Actions taken by the Jewish leaders to ensure that Jesus was put to death m. Explain the crucifixion of Jesus n. Describe the death of Jesus o. The burial of Jesus p. Define the term resurrection q. Describe the four witnesses of the risen Christ r. Describe Jesus appearance to the disciples s. Describe the ascension of Jesus t. Give five evidences from the bible to show that Jesus rose from the dead u. Explain the significance of passion, death and the resurrection of Christ v. What is the significance of Jesus resurrection to Christians today w. Explain five importance of eulogy of death of the society. Revision question and answers OLD TESTAMENT PROPHESIES ABOUT THE COMING OF THE MESSIAH Lesson one: 1. The prophecy of Jeremiah about the Messiah a He shall be a descendant of David b He shall be a king c He shall prosper d He shall execute judgment and justice e He shall ensure Judah/Israel is safe and lives in peace ----- 233 f He shall be called the lord our righteousness 2. Meaning of Messiah mean? Messiah is a Hebrew word Meshiach which means the anointed one. It is equivalent to Christ, a Greek word, which also means the Anointed one. A Messiah is therefore someone called, anointed and appointed by God to serve Him in a special way. In the Old Testament, the Priests and Kings were the only people who were anointed. When a person is anointed oil is poured on them. The anointed person was set aside from the rest of the people in order to serve God and His people. Examples of anointed people are Aaron Priest and King David. In addition, God himself anointed Prophets: for example, Samuel, Elijah, Jeremiah, and Nathan among others. 3. Jewish expectations of the Messiah in the Old Testament The messiah shall be a political leader, a victorious ruler, a king to lead people to a time of great power and prosperity, a king in whose reign there shall be no sorrow or injustice nor fear, a king to rule forever 4. How Jesus Christ fulfilled the Old Testament prophetic of the messiah a He was born from the lineage of David b He was born of Mary, a virgin as foretold by Isaiah c The messiah was called Immanuel Jesus Isaiah prophecy d He was born in Bethlehem Micahs prophecy e He was referred to as son of David Nathan/Jeremiah/s prophesies f He suffered suffering servant prophecy by Isaiah 5. Prophets in the Old Testament who prophesied about the expected Messiah Isaiah, Nathan, Jeremiah, Micah and psalmist prophecy. ----- 234 Answers. Qn 1. The qualities of john as described by angel Gabriel a. He would be a prophet of god b. He would prepare the way for the messiah c. He would bring joy to Zachariah and others d. He would be a nazarite e. He would call people to repentance Qn 2. Why john was referred to as the second Elijah Like Elijah john had also lived in the wilderness John was also filled with the holy spirit and proclaimed gods message to the people He also met opposition from the king just like Elijah He was beheaded and Elijah was threatened with death by jezebel He stood firmly for the covenant way of life He was a great prophet of his time He led a simple life and faced many problems like hunger just like Elijah Qn 3. What lessons do Christians learn from annunciation of the birth of john the Baptist? God answers prayers however long it may take Christians should not doubt Gods messages We should be persistent, faithful and patient in prayers Christians should be devoted to God in prayer Children are a gift from God and a source of joy to their parents God has a purpose for every childs life Qn 4. Describe the birth of john the Baptist Elizabeth was very happy and so was Zachariah John was circumcised after eight days in accordance with the Jewish customs Elizabeth named the child john ----- 235 Zachariah affirmed the name of their son in writing They were surprised at the name because it was not in Zechariahs lineage Zechariah was now able to talk He broke into a hymn called the Benedictus Zechariah expressed his feelings of joy, gratitude and praise Zechariah told of the mission of his son. TOPIC TWO: INFANCY AND EARLY LIFE OF JESUS Qn 1. What lessons can Christians learn from the annunciation of the birth of Jesus Christ? God exalts the humble and rejects the proud Christians should humbly accept gods plan for their lives God has a purpose for the life of every one Nothing is impossible with god God wanted Jesus Christ to be part of the human family for him to identify with the human race Qn2. describe Marys visit to Elizabeth Mary went to visit Elizabeth after angel Gabriel told her that Elizabeth was expecting a baby Mary greeted Elizabeth and the baby in the Elizabeths womb leapt with joy The spirit also revealed that Mary was the most blessed of all women Mary sang a song known as the magnificent Qn3. identify the main ideas in the magnificent Mary thanks god for Being good to her His goodness and love for all human beings Fulfilling his promises to the people Delivering the oppressed from the oppressors Qn 4. Describe the dedication ceremony during the infancy of Jesus ----- 236 The parents of Jesus offered the purification sacrifices according to the law of Moses Simon was moved by the holy spirit and took Jesus into his arm and praised God Simon prophesied about the mission of Jesus Prophetess Ann thanked God for sending Jesus who would bring redemption The things Simon and Anne said about their child amazed the parents of Jesus. TOPIC TWO: THE GALILEAN MINISTRY Qn a. What is the relevance of John the Baptist teachings to Christians today? Christians should not fear to condemn the evils in the society Christians should commit their lives wholly to the work of God Christians should accept their role with humility and preach the gospel Christians should be ready to proclaim the gospel even harsh environment for the people to know God Christians should share their resources with the less fortunate Christians should be contended with their pay and thus not accept bribes Christians should learn to be truthful in their work environment Christians should pronounce the consequences of judgement to those willing to repent Qn b. Give reasons why Jesus accepted to be baptized To be identified as the messiah To identify himself with the sinful human kind To receive the Holy Spirit For God to manifest the trinity It was a cleansing ritual To acknowledge the work of John the Baptist ----- 237 He saw it as a way of fulfilling the old testament prophesies about the Messiah It was his final acceptance of the work of salvation Qn c. describe the baptism of Jesus When all the people were baptized Jesus was also baptized He was baptized by John the Baptist in river Jordan at a place called Bethbora Jesus was praying when the heavens opened The holy spirit descended from heaven upon him inform of a dove A voice came from heaven saying thou art my beloved son with thee I am well pleased Qn d. what is the significance of the baptism of Jesus to Christians today? Christians get new names that symbolizes new life in Christ Christians receive the Holy Spirit who gives them guidance in their lives Christians identify themselves with Jesus and the church Water is symbolically used as a cleanser as it wipes away ones sins and gives a new life Christians are brought together as members of the church of Christ During baptism Christians receive the Holy Spirit who guides them in their lives The old self dies and becomes a new person as a Christian It is the first step of being accepted into the Christian brotherhood LESSON THREE: TEMPTATIONS Qn a. describe the temptations of Jesus Satan told Jesus to turn stones into bread Jesus answered that man does not live on bread alone Satan then took Jesus to a high place and showed him all the kingdoms of the world. Satan promised to give Jesus everything if Jesus worshipped him Jesus answered that one should worship God and serve him alone ----- 238 Hastily, satin took Jesus to the pinnacle of the temple. He asked Jesus to throw himself down since God would send his angles to ensure that he did not get hurt. Jesus answered that no one should tempt God Qn b. from the gospel of St. Luke, identify five occasions when Jesus was tempted In the wilderness When he healed a dumb man the commanded a sign Jesus was tempted to arbitrate between two brothers When the rich young ruler called Jesus a good teacher When he was asked whether it was right to pay taxes to Caesar In the garden of Gethsemane, he was tempted to escape the cup of suffering During his trial he was asked whether he was the Messiah During crucifixion he was spat on but did not fight back On the cross one of the thieves wanted him to deliver them He was questioned by the Sadducees about resurrection Qn c. Outline ways in which Christians can overcome temptations in the contemporary world They should depend on Jesus They should be well versed with the scripture so that they can refer to the bible They should seek guidance and counseling They should attend bible classes for the right interpretation of the bible They should have faith or believe in God to help them during trials They should avoid bad company The should take part in active leisure They should avoid circumstances that can lead them to sin They should resist Satan ----- 239 Qn d. Explain ways in which Christians can be tempted To give a bribe in order to get a job To engage in irresponsible sexual behaviour due to peer pressure To steal money entrusted to them To cheat in examinations To take drugs/alcohol To exploit those who serve under them in their places of work To keep excess change from a shopkeeper or tout To show off Qn e. What lessons can Christians learn fro the temptations of Jesus? Since Jesus was tempted, he fully understands our difficulties God does not tempt us beyond our strength Through temptations we will also be tempted Through temptations and trials our faith is strengthened When we are tempted we should turn to the bible for guidance We should seek the holy spirit who enabled Jesus to conquer evil LESSON EIGHT: THESERMON ON THE PLAIN: 1. Give the main teachings of Jesus on the sermon on the plain The sermon on the plain consisted of five main parts namely: Blessings Lk 6: 20 26 and woes These are also referred to as the beatitudes. Here, Jesus had a message for the poor, the rich, those who hunger and those who are full, those who weep and those who laugh. His concern is to show the social differences and mystery of Christian suffering. Persecution seems to be a common phenomenon for followers of Christ. The poor are those who cannot meet their basic needs and Luke depicts them as hungry and weeping. ----- 240 The disciples are included in the poor because they have given up everything. But Jesus gives hope. Jesus warns the rich against using their economic points to oppress the poor. They have an opportunity, however to belong to the Kingdom by using their riches to help the needy. Love of Enemies: 6:27-37 Followers of Jesus are supposed to Love your enemies, do good to those who hate, bless those who curse you, and pray for those who abuse you. Judging Others 6:37-43 Disciples are expected to acknowledge their own shortcomings before they can condemn the faults in others. Failure to recognize ones fault is a hindrance to becoming a member of the Kingdom of God. Evidence to Good Discipleship The proof of a persons goodness is seen in his deeds. The true nature of a person cannot be hidden because what they do and say will reveal their nature. Hearing and Doing 6: 47-49 It is not enough for His followers to proclaim Christ as Lord. They must also do what He tells them. Q2. What is the relevance of the beatitudes sermon on the plain to Christians today? The teachings on blessings and woes tell us that the goal of a person should be to inherit the Kingdom of God. Christians should love their enemies as Jesus loved them sinful as they were. Human beings are self-centered. It is easier to see other peoples mistakes than our own Christian ----- 241 should examine them before passing judgement on others. By so doing we appreciate that we are all sinners who should seek forgiveness from God and we should always appreciate others however sinful they may be. Be steadfast in faith and do good all the time. LESSION 9: JESUS WORKS OF COMPASSION Q2 Narrate the story of the forgiveness of the sinful woman Lk 7:36-8:3 On one occasion, Jesus was invited by Simon the Pharisee to his house to eat with him. While this is a sinful woman walked into the house weeping. She began to wet Jesus feet with her tears and wiped them with her hair. She kissed his feet and anointed them with an ointment. When Simon saw this, he questioned Jesus power. If he were a prophet, He would have noticed that the woman was a sinner. And Jesus answered him the telling him about a certain creditor who has two debtors, one owed him hundred denarii and the other fifty. When asked Simon which of the two debtors would love the creditors more. Simon said the one who was forgiven more. Jesus said you have judged rightly. Then he had not given Him even water to wash His feet. But the woman used her tears to wet Jesus feet and wiped them using her hair and oiled them. Therefore her sins, which are many, are forgiven for she loved much, one with little love receives little more. ----- 242 Jesus told Simon he gave him no kiss but the woman had not stopped kissing Him. Those at table began to ask who Jesus was who ever forgiven sins? And He said to the woman, Your faith has saved you, go in peace. Q3. What lessons do Christians learn from the above story? Christians should accept their sins and seek for forgiveness as the sinful woman did. Faith is important for one to be forgiven. Jesus told the woman Your faith has save you. A repentant sinner is greater than a righteous man the Jewish religious leaders . It is not the magnitude of sin that matters but the attitude of a person towards his sins. Shows the importance of women in the ministry of Jesus. Q4. Describe the story of the raising of the widows son at Nain Lk 7:11- 17 After His preaching in Capernaum, Jesus went to the city of Nain. He found a man being carried out near the gate. He was the only son of a widow. When the Lord saw her, He had compassionate on her and said to her, Do not weep. Then He came and touched the open coffin. And those who carried him stood still. Jesus said, Young man, arise. And he who was dead sat up and began to speak. Jesus presented him to his mother. Then fear came among all and they glorified God. They said a great prophet has come among us. God has visited His people. ----- 243 LESSON 10: JESUS TEACHING WHAT IS THE IMPORTANCE OF PARABLES? 1. Give reasons why Jesus used parables To attract the attention of his listeners To help his listeners understand better To separate the serious people from the onlookers To enrich his teachings To avoid direct confrontation with his enemies It was a common way of teaching those days To teach about Gods mercy to sinners To make people think critically out issues concerning Gods kingdom To relate patent issues with those of the future kingdom positively Qn 2. Identify various methods used by Christians in spreading the gospel today Preaching Teaching Being role models Holding crusades Organizing seminars and conferences Electronic mechanisms e.g. sms and emails Print media e.g. posters and magazines Door to door evangelism Through demonstration and role play Through the mass media e.g. radios and TVs Through Christian music e.g. cassettes and C.Ds Qn 3. Discuss the reasons why Jesus faced opposition from the Jewish leaders His popularity His interpretation of the Sabbath His failure to observe the law of fasting ----- 244 He associated with tax collectors He claimed to be the messiah He out rightly condemned them Teaching with authority His claims to forgive sins. . LESSON 11: MIGHTY WORKS OF JESUS Q1 Narrate the healing of the Gerasene demoniac Lk 8:26-39. After crossing the Sea of Galilee, Jesus came across a demon possessed man in a gentile town called Gerasa. The man had been living in the caves used for burial of the dead. He wore no clothes. When the man saw Jesus, he asked Him not to torment him. When Jesus asked him what his name was, he responded that he was called Legion which stands for 2000 6000 soldiers. This meant that this man possessed by many demons. Jesus had sympathy and ordered the unclean spirits to leave him. Jesus let the evil spirits to go to the pigs, which were grazing nearby. They then fell into the lake and drowned. Q2. What lesson can Christian learn from the healing of the demoniac man above? Jesus valued human life. That is why He led the evil/spirits into the pigs, which drowned into the lake and saved the man. It shows Jesus came for all regardless of tribe. This man was a gentile. Jesus heals the whole person physically and spiritually. That Jesus has power over evil spirits. Shows that Jesus came to destroy the power of evil. ----- 245 It teaches that Christians have to fight the power of evil constantly. But with Jesus help they will overcome it. God will never allow them to be defeated. He will come to their aid, however, much. They should give out their material possession to save those in need. This man needed help. They should tell their people about God as this man went to in his village etc. Q3. What do the miracle of Jesus teach us about Him? They show that Jesus is the Son of God. That Jesus gets power from God. That Jesus shares his power with His disciples. The miracles show Jesus compassion to suffering people e.g. the raising of the widows son. They also show that Jesus is Lord. He is the life and the resurrection. That affirms that Jesus came to save man from sin. They show that Jesus is a universal savior e.g. the Gesarone demoniac who was a gentile. They were part of His teaching they helped Him teach. Through them He showed the concern for human life, physically, spiritually and mentally. LESSON 12: COMMISSIONING OF THE TWELVE DISCIPLES LK 1:1-10 Q1. What is the role of the clergy in Kenya? To preach the word of God. To advise the leaders. To warn evildoers against their sins. To condemn evil. Pray for the needy. ----- 246 Help the needy e.g. give them food, shelter etc. Hold seminars/workshops where they lead people into forgiveness. Being a good example for emulation. Q2. How does the church participate in the upkeep of the clergy? By giving sadaka. By giving of their income. They pay for their training. Fundraisings for building theological institutions. Building their residential houses in the church compound. Giving matega foodstuffs as part of sadaka during service. LESSON 13: THE TRANSFIGURATION Q2. Describe the transfiguration of Jesus Luke 9:28-37 Jesus needed encouragement and reassurance that what He was about to do was the will of His Father. Therefore He took with Him Peter, James and John and went to Mount Hermon to pray. As He prayed, His appearance was changed and His face became dazzling white. Two men, Elijah Moses appeared and talked of His departure death , which He was to accomplish in Jerusalem. The disciples were asleep as this happened. When they woke up, they saw glory and the two men who stood with Him. And as the men were parting form Him, Peter said to Jesus, Master, it is well that we are here, Let us make booths, one for you, one for Elijah and one for Moses. As he said this, a cloud cursed the whole area and they were afraid. ----- 247 A voice came out of the cloud saying, this is my only son, my chosen, Listen to Him. Q3. What is the significance of the transfiguration of Jesus Lk 9:28-37 ? A voice from heaven confirmed that Jesus was the Son of God. It strengthened the faith of the disciples so that they would continue with His work after death. It showed that Jesus had fulfilled the Old Testament prophecies and God. This is seen with the appearance of Elijah and Moses. The cloud was a symbol of Gods presence. It was a sign that Jesus mission was no longer a secret. It marked the onset of His passion, which would lead to His death. It confirmed to Jesus that He was doing the right thing and God was in support of His suffering. It shows that faith in prayer can lead us to Gods presence. TOPIC FOUR: THE JOURNEY TO JERUSALEM LESSON 1: DUTIES, PRIVILEGES AND COST OF DISCIPLESHIP Q1. What are the characteristics of a true follower of Jesus? Following Jesus means accepting homelessness and enduring hardship because Jesus did not have a permanent home. Being a disciple of Jesus means self-denial and suffering. Being ready to give e.g. to the needy. To spread Christianity and make Jesus known. Following Jesus means being loyal to Him. Q2. State the privileges of being a disciple of Jesus One becomes a member of the Kingdom of God. One is assured of eternal life. ----- 248 He has the joy of winning others to the Kingdom of God through preaching. Q3 Why did Jesus choose the 12 disciples? In order to help Him in the work of spreading the good news. So as to belong to the Kingdom of God and get eternal life. To witness to his work. To share with them the power of God e.g. in performing miracles. For company as He worked. A COMMITED FOLLOWER OF JESUS Lk 10:25 11:1-13 Note: Not the parable of the Samaritans Q1. From the teaching of Jesus on the parable of the Good Samaritan, who do you think is a committed follower of Jesus? One who understands the law and obeys it. One who understands that a neighbor is anybody who requires help regardless of their social status One who uses his resources selflessly to help the needy One who is not restricted by cultural and religious practices in responding to a needy situation One who is compassionate, kind and generous One who shows solidarity with the suffering. This includes identifying with the needy and being ready to experience their suffering. LESSON 3: JESUS TEACHING ON PRAYER Q1. What did Jesus teach about prayer? Jesus taught that prayer must be persistent, use the parable of Friend at Midnight. Prayer should be done in a private place. It should be genuine. ----- 249 One should not be proud when praying e.g. the parable of the tax collector and the Pharisee. One should have faith during prayer. One should pray always/continuously. There is no formula in prayer. One should address God as a father. Honestly confess sin as they pray. Qs 1 2 are out of topic. LESSON 5: JESUS TEACHINGS ON HYPOCRISY, WEALTH, WATCHFULNESS AND READINESS Q1. Hypocrisy In what areas were the Pharisees hypocritical? In the washing of hands, cups and dishes which were done ceremoniously. The Pharisees were too strict on this, which was not important. He told them to pay attention to issues of charity than external appearance. Tithing habits They paid this well for the support of priests but neglected justice and love for God. He criticized them for recognition in the synagogues by taking reserved seats and their desire to be noticed at market places by wearing long white robes. He accused them of being like their ancestors who persecuted the prophets of God. LESSON 6: Lesson 6 will come later AKUKA FIND THEY ARE IN THE TEXT LESSON 7: JESUS TEACHINGS ON WEALTH AND POVERTY Read Lk: 11:13-34 : Parable of the rich fool Q1. From the parable of the rich fool, what can Christians learn about the use of wealth? Material wealth should come second after God. We should try to help the poor. ----- 250 It teaches that wealth comes from God. Wealth should not be misused e.g. in drinking, etc. We should thank God for wealth received. It can make Christians to forget God. Q2. Narrate the parable of the shrewd manager Jesus taught the following parable about a rich man and his servant. A rich man wanted to sack his manager. He called the manager and asked him for a full account of how the property was being managed. The manager knew he was going to be sacked. He made friends with some of his masters debtors so that they would take care of him if he got sacked. One debtor who owed 100 barrels of olive oil was asked to pay 50 barrels and one who owed 1000 was asked to pay 800 barrels. The master praised him for being wise and acting property in his moment of crisis. LESSION 8: TEACHING ON FORGIVENESS What were the teachings of Jesus on forgiveness? Jesus taught that one should forgive and forget All sins are equal before the eyes of God. One ought to ask for forgiveness after he has wronged. One should forgive as many times as he is offended. One should have faith when asking for forgiveness. PERSISTENT IN PRAYER Q1. State the parable of the widow and the unjust judge 18: 1-8 Jesus told the Pharisees a parable to the effect that they ought always to pray and not lose heart. In a certain city there was a judge who neither feared God nor regarded man. ----- 251 And there was a widow in that city which kept coming to him and wanted her right given. For a while he refused, but afterwards he said to himself, though I neither fear God nor regard man, yet because this widow bothers me, I will allow her set her right or she will wear me out by her continual coming. And the Lord said, Hear what the unrighteous judge says, and will he not vindicate His elect who cry to Him day and night? Will he delay long over them, I, you, He will vindicate them speedily. LESSON 10: THE WAY TO SALVATION Lk 18: 15 19 Q1: What did Jesus teach by using the example of little children? Jesus said, Let little children come to me because the kingdom of God belongs to such as them. He went on to tell them that for one to enter Gods kingdom, he must humble himself like children. This is because children are powerless, innocent and open. Jesus taught that the kingdom of God is for those who are simple, humble, innocent and trusting like children. Q2. Give an account of how Jesus healed the blind beggar 18:35-43 A blind man recognized Jesus as the messiah. The blind man asked Jesus to heal him. He received his sight because of his faith. He followed Jesus, giving thanks to God. To receive salvation one needs to be bold and determined. We should seek Christ to heal our physical and spiritual blindness. Q3. Explain the relevance of Jesus teaching on salvation to Christians ----- 252 Christians learn that they need to repent their sins and seek forgiveness in order to receive salvation and eternal life. They need to humble themselves like children in order to earn salvation. They learn to obey the commandments of God so as to receive salvation. Use their abilities to glorify God e.g. the rich mans parable. They too learn that wealth can be a hindrance to salvation. They learn that salvation is given to all by God. TOPIC FIVE: THE JERUSALEM MINISTRY Qn a. describe Jesus triumphant entry into Jerusalem according to Luke chapter 19: 29-30 After his journey from Galilee ended, Jesus approached Jerusalem passing through Bethaphage, Bethany and the mount olives He sent two of his disciples to a village to get him a donkey on which nobody had ridden He gave the disciples instructions that if the owner of the donkey demanded to know why they were untying it, they were to respond, The lord has need for it When they got the donkey, they threw their garments on it and helped Jesus to sit on it As Jesus rode along, they spread their garments on the road The crowds following him rejoiced and praised God for all the wonderful work Jesus had done this included: teaching, healing and feeding the hungry The crowds sang, Blessed is the king who comes in the name of the lord. Peace in heaven and glory in the highest. By singing, the crowds acclaimed Jesus as king. ----- 253 The Pharisees objected to the crowds singing and asked Jesus to silence them Jesus responded that if his followers were silent, the very stones would cry out. Insensitive than stones not to know what was happening, that is, the Messiah has come Qn b. what does the manner of Jesus entry into Jerusalem reveal about the nature of the kingdom of God? Jesus was a descendant of David, prophesied Messiah and son of God Jesus is a triumphant, victorious yet a humble king. A donkey is a symbol of humility and peace. So he came to establish a peaceful kingdom Jesus wanted to proclaim the coming of his kingdom but not as an earthly/ military leader, thus leading them to lay their garments for him to step on. In doing this, they were acknowledging Jesus as Jerusalems promised king Jesus was greeted as a king the same way the kings of Israel were greeted with acclamation and joy By riding on a donkey, Jesus fulfilled the prophesy of Zechariah which says, the king is coming riding on a donkey triumphant, humble and victorious Christianity is not propagated through violent means but peace Qn c. what lessons can Christians learn fro Jesus triumphant entry into Jerusalem? Christians learn that they should be prepared to receive Jesus into their lives like the crowd which escorted him to Jerusalem Christians also learn that they should emulate Jesus and be channels of peace in their communities ----- 254 They also learn that they should expect opposition and resistance as they witness to Christ. They should not give up hope Christians learn that they should be humble like Jesus in their service to others Christians should thank and praise God for his intervention in their lives by sending Jesus They should be bold in their witnessing to Christ like the crowds that followed Jesus to Jerusalem and declared him king Qn d. state and explain why Jesus wept over Jerusalem. When Jesus came close to the city of Jerusalem he wept over it saying, If you only knew what is needed for peace! But now you cannot see it! The time will come when your enemies will surround you with barricades block you and close in on you from every side. They will completely destroy you and the people within your walls, not a single stone will they leave in its place because you did not recognize the time when God came to save you. According to Luke, all song and rejoicing stopped suddenly when Jesus was deeply distressed at the sight of Jerusalem Jesus knew that Jerusalem the city of peace would reject his final appeal and by so doing would bring judgement down on itself. The destruction of the city is viewed as the consequence of its rejection of Jesus. They cannot see when the true peace comes in the person of Jesus. The coming destruction is a ----- 255 symbol of Gods judgement on lack of trust. The tears of Jerusalem are the tears of tragedy. The heart of the tragedy is that Jerusalem did not recognize the time when God came to save them Now Jesus says that Jerusalem was not ready to receive him as their savior and this would lead to her ruin Just like the Babylonians were Gods instrument of destruction of Jerusalem during the time of Jeremiah, so will the Romans be instruments of destruction of Jerusalem Jerusalem was completely destroyed by the Roman armies in the year A.D 70 Qn e. Explain the cleansing of the temple. While in Jerusalem, Jesus entered the temple where he found people buying and selling He drove them out and overturned their tables saying that they had turned his fathers house into a den of robbers Here Luke uses this incidence to show how Jerusalem was still unprepared for the day of Gods visit Jesus carried out a symbolic act by driving out those who were buying and selling in the temple Jesus used the words of Jeremiah who too attacked the in his time for turning the temple into a hideout for thieves According to Jesus the temple will no longer give them the sense of security because it will be destroyed Although the temple will be destroyed, a new one will be built. This is the Christian community, which ----- 256 will be a house o prayer for all nations. The new temple will not be limited to Jesus alone but to all people In short Jesus is the Messiah. He exposed the unrighteousness of public life in Jerusalem by attacking the merchants in the temple Qn f. Give reasons why Jesus cleansed the temple of Jerusalem The temple authorities had allowed a market in the court of the gentiles where the everyday money issued by the Roman government could be exchanged for the special temple coins which had to be used for paying the temple tax In the same place they could also buy the animals needed for sacrifice. This animals had to be certified as acceptable But both the changing of money and the certifying of animals gave ample opportunity for making exorbitant profits Jesus made his protest because all this trading was hiding for the real purpose of the temple and prevented Israel from being a light to the gentiles. For this reason, the temple would be destroyed because it was no longer serving as a house of prayer. Qn g. what lessons can Christians learn from the cleansing of the temple? Christians learn that they should respect the house of God and use it appropriately Christian leaders should avoid exploiting members through asking for excessive contributions Christians should pay more attention to inward righteousness than external observance of rituals ----- 257 Christians should have more courage like Jesus to condemn evil practices by leaders in the church and society Christians should be exemplary with their life styles so as to win others to the kingdom Finally the cleansing of the temple by Jesus provides valuable lesson to Christians who are called upon to be Christs ambassadors. There are many incidents where churches have been subjected to disrespect and dishonor and this discourages many people from knowing God. Christians should also avoid leadership wrangles, corruption, sexual abuse, gossip and many others that have caused churches to split Qn h. explain Jesus conflict with the Jewish leaders In a series of conflicts in and around the temple between Jesus and the official leaders of the Jewish nation, the public ministry of Jesus came to its close After the cleansing the temple, he daily dominated the temple area teaching large crowds. His popularity grew steadily and the leaders felt the threat against their own position. They could not allow this to go on but they were afraid to arrest Jesus. In the end they tried to trap him into making statements which would either get him into trouble with the Roman authorities or discredit him before the people First Jesus was challenged about his authority. The Jewish religious leaders wondered whose authority ----- 258 Jesus used. They wanted to know which Rabii taught him or to which Jewish religious groups he belonged to i.e. the Pharisees or the Sadducees If Jesus proclaimed himself as the Messiah he could be accused before the Roman authorities for rebellion If he refused to make his claim the crowds would soon leave him alone But Jesus skillfully defeated his adversaries. He invited them to answer their own question. Tell me, did Johns right to baptize come from God or human beings? Whatever answer they gave to Jesus question about John the Baptist would apply in even stronger measures to their own question about Jesus But they had never supported John and they could no now admit that his right to baptize came from God If they did they would also have to accept Jesus whom John had announced. Neither could they say John was a prophet for that would bring trouble from the people who held John in high self-esteem Qn i. Describe the parable of the tenants in the vineyard After the question of Jesus authority, Jesus challenged the Jewish leaders by telling them the parable of the wicked tenants. He said that there was once a man who planted a vineyard, let it to the tenants and then left home for a long time When the time came to gather the grapes, he sent a slave to the tenants to receive from them his share of the harvest but the tenants beat the slaves and sent him back without a thing. The same ----- 259 treatment was given to the second and the third slave The owner decided to send his own son whom they killed. He therefore decided to come by himself, killed the tenants and handed over the vineyard to other men When the people heard this they said, surely not but Jesus explained to them the stone which the builders rejected as worthless turned out to be the most important of all. And every one who falls on the stone will be cut to pieces and if that stone falls on someone, it will crush him to dust In this parable, the vineyard represents Gods kingdom, Israel. The servants are the prophets sent to Israel and they are rejected. The son here represents Jesus and the owner is God who will bring judgement on Israel The stone that the builders rejected has become the cornerstone this shows that Jesus saw himself as the rejected but most important. He makes a new foundation of Israel for both Jews and Gentiles. On hearing this, the Pharisees wanted to seize Jesus but were afraid of the people Qn j. what is the relevance of the parable of the tenants? Over the centuries the situation has not changed. Jesus is still rejected by nations and by men What happened to Jesus happened as he foretold those who follow him Church history reveals many examples of men rejected by political and religious leaders and by the people their time and who have later been seen as the key man in the revelation of Gods purpose ----- 260 As Christians we should also pray for strength and guidance from God to be able to deal with rejection As Christians we should not fear rejection but stand firm for the truth Christians should also seek pastoral counseling fro the church leaders and other Christians. When we endure persecution we may be finally proved right Qn k. the question about paying taxes The teachers of law and the chief priest, after falling to arrest Jesus bribed some spies to ask whether it was right for the to pay taxes to Caesar or not The Israelites were compelled to pay taxes to the Romans who controlled them Many resented this because according to them payment of taxes using coins which had some emperors image was a violation of the Jewish law which forbade the use of images If Jesus would tell them to pay, the people would be against him for supporting Roman rule over them Many resented this because according to them people would be against him for supporting Roman rule over them If he told them not to pay, they would accuse him to the Roman authorities Jesus knew their trick and wanted his questioners to make their own decision about the issue According to him it was right for the Roman government to exert the tax payments without demeaning Gods authority In other words, by having the silver coin in their possession, the Jews accepted Roman authority ----- 261 They had a duty to pay tax to the emperor because they enjoyed the benefit of the Roman rule At the same time they had a duty to be loyal to God. A persons loyalty should not be owed to the state or Caesar Qn l. explain the question about resurrection The Sadducees raised the question concerning marriage an resurrection or life after death They asked Jesus whose wife a woman would be in the resurrection when she married seven brothers who had died without bearing children The question was meant or designed to make Jesus look foolish thus to shame him. This would undermine the popular support that we had prevented action against Jesus In his response, Jesus made the following observations He does not accept the assumption that marriage continues after resurrection Quoting from exodus a book that the Sadducees accepted, Jesus confirms that there is life after death The resurrection life is different from earthly life It is a new existence where those who resurrect, live with God as his children in eternity Qn m. what is eschatology? The term eschatology is derived from two Greek words Eschatus and Lagos, which means end and study respectively Eschatology therefore is the study of the last things such as death, judgement, life after death and th end of the world ----- 262 Jesus talked about the end of the world to his disciples just before he was arrested Qn n. what will happen at the end of the world eschatology according to Jesus teaching in Lukes gospel 21: 5-38? Jesus taught hi disciples about the end times in the temple of Jerusalem In his speech, he talked about what will happen to the city of Jerusalem and the world at the end of time Jerusalem was going to be destroyed because of her refusal to recognize and accept the Messiah Jesus told the disciples of the signs that would accompany the end of the world People come claiming to be Jesus the Messiah, the son of God There will be wars between nations Natural calamities like earthquakes, famines and plagues will occur Strange heavenly beings will come from the sky There will be disruption in the sky and in the sea All nations will be in despair People will faint from fear as they witness these signs At the end of all these, the son of man will appear in power and glory Jesus teaching of the end times was meant to provide encouragement to the disciples in difficult times They were expected to have hope Qn o. how do Christians prepare for the second coming of Christ? Christians should prepare for the second coming of Christ by not losing hope in the face of trials and tribulations because the kingdom of God with its promises of a new life will definitely come ----- 263 They prepare for his second coming by leading a righteous life. They are to avoid too much feasting and drinking They should prepare by being watchful through prayers so that God will give them courage and strength to stand firm in their faith They should prepare by preaching the word of God to those who have not heard it They should prepare by being obedient to Gods commandments They should prepare by helping the needy They should prepare by preaching and evangelizing and converting others TOPIC SIX: THE PASSION, DEATH AND RESURRECTION OF JESUS CHRIST THE LORDS SUPPER Qn a. give the different names used in reference to the Lords Supper by Christians in different churches The holy Eucharist The mass The lords table or the table of the lord The Holy Communion The Last Supper The breaking of bread The sacrament Qn b. describe the institution of the Lords Supper Jesus was at the last supper with his disciples the night he was betrayed In the room which had been arranged by Jesus. He told his disciples how much he had longed to eat the Passover meal with them before he suffered death ----- 264 He took a piece of bread and gave thanks to God and broke it. He gave it to them saying, this is my body which is given for you. So do this in memory of me He took a cup of wine and gave thanks to God and said take this and share it among yourselves He also gave them a cup of wine after supper saying this cup is Gods new covenant sealed with my blood which is poured out for you Qn c. state the Christian teachings about the Lords Supper The Last Supper was inaugurated by Jesus Its celebration of the crucified and rise Christ The Lords Supper is a gift from God It is a sacrifice of praise and thanks giving It is the churchs effective proclamation of Gods mighty works acts and promises It is a sign of the unity of the church or the believers It is a new paschal meal of the church. The meal, which by visible signs communicates Gods love in Jesus Christ. It is the sacrament of Christs real presence The bread is a symbol of the body of Christ which was crucified The wine or cup is a symbol of his blood, which was shed. It is the blood of the new covenant It is a fore state of Christs passion and of the final kingdom. It is symbolic of the heavenly banquet It is central to Christian worship. Eucharist Qn d. what is the meaning of the Lords Supper to Christians? The sacramental meal communicates Gods love in Christ The washing of the disciples feet by Jesus signifies humble service to and love for one another They proclaim the lords death until his second coming ----- 265 They share in the body of Christ The unity of Christians is evidenced The bread symbolizes the body of Jesus which was crucified on the cross for the sins of human kind and for the healing of their diseases The wine symbolizes the blood of Jesus which was shed for forgiveness of sins The wine also symbolizes the sealing of a new covenant The partaking of the Lords Supper strengthens the faith of believers in that, Christs presence is felt and in this way they constantly keep in touch with him The lords supper enhances a personal relationship between the individual believer ad Christ It is thanksgiving to God for everything accomplished in creation, redemption and sanctification Through the Holy Communion, Christians offer themselves as a holy and living sacrifice. They rededicate and renew themselves. Those who share in the sacred meal declare their loyalty to Christ The Lords Supper is an act of repentance. The partakers receive re- assurance of the forgiveness of sins and are assured of salvation The bread and the wine which represents the body and blood of Jesus become the final sacrifice replacing all O.T sacrifices that were offered for the salvation of the human race Qn f. Prayer on mount olives After celebrating the last supper, Jesus and his disciples went to mount olives He knelt down and prayed and asked his disciples to join him ----- 266 In response, God sent an angel from heaven to encourage him Jesus prayed in agony until his sweat was like drops of blood This sweat which was like blood was an indication of the struggle and agony he went through to accept the will of his father Though Jesus suffered agony and turmoil, he approached it with great courage and composure His suffering was even greater for it involved more than physical pain. It meant bearing the sin of the world So he prayed to God, his father to give him strength for his coming mission When he went back to his disciples, he found them asleep a sign of moral and physical exhaustion or maybe it was an indication that they were in sorrow because Jesus had told them he was about to be crucified In conclusion, we can say that Jesus expressed an inner struggle about the fulfillment of his Messianic mission. So he prayed to God to help him bear the suffering. Prayer was very important in Jesus ministry Qn g. describe the betrayal and arrest of Jesus When Jesus came down from Mt. Olives he met a multitude of people Judas Iscariot appeared accompanied by a large crowd, the chief priest, elders and the temple guards who had ordered to arrest Jesus Judas Iscariot came forth and kissed Jesus. This was a sign identifying Jesus as the man they were looking for. That kiss was the betrayal ----- 267 When the disciples noticed what was happening one of them used his sword to cut off the ear of a high priests slave In other words Jesus stopped his disciples from resisting his arrest By rejecting armed assistance, Jesus was refusing the role of a political Messiah Jesus was arrested and taken to the house of the chief priest Annas Qn h. state the reasons that made Judas Iscariot to betray Jesus He lacked moral courage to stand by Jesus during his moment He could have been an informer of the Jewish religious leaders He was overcome by the power of evil He was disappointed by Jesus teaching on spiritual kingdom rather than fulfilling the Jewish expectation of a political Messiah who could liberate them from the Roman rule He was a mercenary motivated by greed for money He had little faith in Jesus or lost his trust in Jesus Christ He was not loyal to the master He was a northerner who felt foreign and thus was jealous against other disciples He was a zealot who believed in war rather than peace Qn i. Describe the trial of Jesus under the following The council of Sanhedrin Jesus was brought to the Sanhedrin council early in the morning following his arrest The council of elders asked him if he was the Messiah Jesus responded by speaking of the son of the man coming in triumph The Sanhedrin accused him of the sin of blasphemy for allegedly claiming to be the son of God He was condemned to die for alleged blasphemy ----- 268 In the Jewish law, blasphemy was punishable by death The trial before Pilate Since the Sanhedrin could not carry out the death sentence, they took Jesus to the Roman governor Pilate They accused Jesus of inciting the people to revolt, forbidding payment of taxes and claiming to be a king in rebellion to Roman authority They could not accuse Jesus of blasphemy. This charge would not be accepted under Roman law However, by taking Jesus to Pilate, the Jewish religious leaders wanted the Roman authority to take responsibility for Jesus death The trial before Herod Jesus ministry works had mesmerized Herod. So when Pilate learned that Jesus was from Galilee, he handed him over to Herod who was the district officer of Galilee and happened to be in Jerusalem at that time The trial of Jesus before Herod only mentioned in St. Lukes gospel is not really a trial because king Herod only wanted to satisfy his curiosity about Jesus He joined the soldiers in mocking Jesus Jesus refused to answer Herods questions and he consequently sent Jesus back to Pilate Interestingly the mockery by Herod and his soldiers as another step in the public ridicule of Jesus. It will continue as he hangs on the cross Pilates judgement Jesus was brought to Pilate a second time ----- 269 Pilate reiterated that he found Jesus not guilty of any crime The chief priests prevailed upon Pilate who passed a sentence of death on Jesus to die by crucifixion. This was the punishment of high treason according to the Roman law The Jewish leaders asked that Barnabas a criminal be released instead of Jesus It was customary for a convicted person to be released during the Passover So the Jewish leaders and not the Jewish people or Pilate were responsible for Jesus death Jesus was killed because of the blind hatred of the Jewish leaders Qn j. why do you think Pilate agreed to have Jesus crucified? He was afraid of a Jew revolt. It was his duty to maintain peace in his territory in accordance with the expectations of the Roman emperor. If he had released Jesus, the Jew would have caused a disturbance He did not want to be disloyal to the Roman emperor after learning that Jesus had been accused of treason. Disloyalty could have resulted in losing favor with the emperor and consequently his job He washed his hands. This means that he was absolving himself of the guilt of having Jesus crucified. This is because he had learnt from the Jewish leaders that Jesus was the Son of God. His wife had also cautioned him about Jesus innocence. Pilate himself had found no evidence to convict Jesus Qn k. identify and explain the lessons that Christians learn from the actions of Pilate during the trial of Jesus Jesus is the king of the Jews ----- 270 Jesus is without sin. Pilate found no guilt in Jesus and he sent him to Herod Pilate gave in to their demands on the grounds of treason- Christians should refrain from giving false witness Pilate was afraid of a revolt. It was his duty to maintain peace as a Roman officer. Christians learn that they should not be compromised by worldly standards Christians should stand firm for the truth because the truth will always prevail Christians should strive not to loose favour with God. They should desire to please God rather than man Pilate washed his hands he learnt that Jesus is truly the son of God innocent Great evil can happen when the truth is at the mercy of political pressure Christians should take time before making decisions Resisting the truth leaves a person without purpose or direction Qn l. actions taken by the Jewish leaders to ensure that Jesus was put to death They paid Judas Iscariot to betray him They bought false witnesses to accuse him of blasphemy before Sanhedrin/ blasphemy was punishable by stoning to death They hurriedly tried Jesus at night before people knew what was happening They framed treason charge against Jesus when he appeared before Pilate/ treason carried a death sentence ----- 271 They employed armed temple guards and armored soldiers to deal with those who would fight for Jesus They blackmailed Pilate to have Jesus crucified They organized a mob to shout for the death of Jesus and release of Barnabas They crucified him dead when they got permission from Pilate Qn m. explain the crucifixion of Jesus Jesus was given the cross beam to carry to his crucifixion site Simon of Cyrene helped him carry it A group of women followed Jesus and wept over his plight Jesus asked them to weep over themselves and their children He talked about the impending destruction coming over Jerusalem Jesus eventually arrived at Golgotha and was nailed on the cross Two criminals were crucified on either of his sides After his crucifixion, the soldiers cast lots to divide his garments. This action fulfilled psalms 22: 18, Jesus is the righteous Messiah who suffers unjustly and is mocked by people as he cries to God The soldiers, Jewish leaders and one of the thieves mocked Jesus for claiming to be the royal Messiah Jesus is mocked with the challenge to save himself One of the criminals crucified with Jesus usually referred to as the repentant thief acknowledged Jesus as the Messiah and admitted the justness of his own condemnation Above Jesus it was written, this is the king of Jews Jesus forgave his killers and all those who had accused him falsely. He promised one of the thieves hanging on the cross a place in paradise Qn n. describe the death of Jesus ----- 272 The death of Jesus was preceded by extra ordinary happenings Darkness covered the land for three hours The curtain in the temple tore into two Jesus died after crying father into thy hands I commit my spirit On seeing Jesus die, the Roman centurion who was present testified to Jesus innocence. As he recognized Jesus lordship In his death, Jesus showed total commitment to Gods will Qn o. the burial of Jesus Joseph of Arimathea, a rich and righteous member of the Sanhedrin asked Pilate to allow him bury Jesus Joseph could have been a secret disciple of Jesus Jesus burial in Josephs grave fulfilled Isaiahs prophesy concerning the suffering servant of Yahweh who was buried in a rich mans tomb A group of women followed Joseph and saw where he buried Jesus They went back home to prepare spices with which to wash Jesus body after the Sabbath Jesus was indeed a king judged by the way he was buried THE RESURRECTION: Qn p. define the term resurrection The term resurrection refers to the event of Jesus rising from the dead. This event took place on the third day i.e. the Sunday morning after Jesus was crucified on Friday afternoon Qn q. the witnesses of the risen Christ The testimony of the repentant thief He rebuked his unrepentant companion He recognized his own sinful condition ----- 273 He declared Jesus to be sinless He professed in Jesus true Messiah-ship and Lordship He recognized that Jesus would live and exercise his saving power after he died The testimony of Joseph of Arimathea Joseph of Arimathea was a secret disciple of Christ He witnessed to the lordship of Jesus Christ after his death by his actions He did this by seeking permission from Pilate to bury the body of Jesus By giving Jesus this royal burial he was witnessing to the truth that Jesus was king Testimony of the holy woman On the day after the Sabbath, Mary Magdalene and Mary the mother of Jesus went to the tomb planning to prepare Jesus body for a proper burial On arrival, they found the stone covering the tomb had been rolled away The tomb was also empty Two men in dazzling clothes confirmed that Jesus had risen as he had prophesied. The two men were angles When the women learnt of Jesus resurrection, they broke the news to the apostils and all the others. The apostles rejected the womens testimony The testimony of disciples on their way to Emmaus Jesus appeared to the disciples who were on their way to Emmaus They were discussing Jesus suffering, death and the empty tomb They regarded Jesus death as a tragedy, for they had hoped he would liberate the Jews from the Roman rule Jesus explained to the scriptures, which say the messiah would suffer to reach his glory. ----- 274 They invited Jesus to dine with them Jesus shared the Holy Eucharist with them before they recognized whom he was at the breaking of the bread The disciples at Emmaus thus became the second witnesses to the risen Christ. The effect of this testimony is that the disciples went and told the eleven apostles about their encounter with the risen Christ Qn r. the appearance of Jesus to the disciples As the disciples narrated their encounter with Jesus to the eleven apostles, Jesus appeared to them Jesus asked them to confirm that he had risen by touching his body He explained to the apostles his mission through telling them the prophesies about him in the law of Moses, prophets and psalms Jesus brought his disciples to be witnesses by proclaiming repentance and forgiveness of sins He tested some cooked fish He promised that he was going to be with them through the power of the Holy Spirit THE ASCENSION OF JESUS Qn s. Describe the ascension of Jesus From Jerusalem Jesus led his disciples to Bethany He raised his hands blessed the disciples and lifted to heaven The disciples returned and witnessed Jesus ascension with joy They continued to go to the temple to pray to God waiting for the holy spirit that Jesus had promised them ----- 275 From this incidence where Jesus blessed the disciples, we learn that the disciples became confident about their mission. This earlier disbelief and blindness to who Jesus was now overcome Qn t. Give five evidences from the bible that show that Jesus Christ rose from the dead The tomb was empty Assurance of the angle to the women that Jesus had risen Thomas witnessed the resurrection by feeling the scars on Jesus hands The women who had gone to the tomb had found it empty The disciples witnessed his resurrection when he appeared to the two disciples at Emmaus Jesus shared a meal with his disciples after his resurrection in Jerusalem Jesus walked with the disciples up to Bethany prior to his ascension Qn t. explain the significance of passion, death and the resurrection of Jesus to Christian life The passion deed and resurrection refers to seven incidences namely, Jesus last supper, suffering in the garden, suffering before Sanhedrin, Pilate and Herod; mocking by the soldiers, death on the cross, resurrection and ascension Those events are of great significance to the modern Christians. First they proof that Jesus was indeed the son of God and the Messiah The passion, death and resurrection of Jesus Christ was a fulfillment of the old testament prophesies and Psalms The resurrection resulted in the rapid spread of the church. The spread of the church is as a result of the risen Christ and the influence of the Holy Spirit ----- 276 The resurrection is thus the basis/ the central idea or foundation in the Christian faith and missionary activity; if Christ has not been raised, then our preaching is useless and you believing it is useless The passion, death and resurrection reveal the power of God to those who believe in him. They also prove that Jesus who was Gods triumphant envoy is alive and Christians are assured living again after the physical death The raising of Jesus from the dead proved that Jesus was not only man but lord over human life so that Christians share in his life on earth by believing in him and living according to the fruits of the holy spirit The resurrection of Jesus is a source of inspiration and confidence in Christians. It also points to the fact that Jesus was a man of his word i.e. he fore told the resurrection and it came to pass. His resurrection was a real fact because he showed his disciples the crucifixion marks All that happened during the passion, death and resurrection of Christ was just a completion of Gods revelation through Christ They also point to the power and glory of God in which those who believe share in the hope of their own resurrection in the second coming of Jesus Qn v. the significance of Jesus resurrection to Christians today It is the foundation of the Christian faith and hope which their belief would be useless Christian faith would be in vain futile if Jesus had not resurrected ----- 277 Through resurrection Christians have confidence and hope in God because the one they believe in has been exalted and sits at the right hand of God almighty Through the resurrection, Christians are given hope of eternal life The resurrection of Jesus led to the coming of the holy spirit which helps Christians to live according to the teachings of Christ, preach the gospel and speak boldly against the evils in the society The resurrection give meaning to baptism in that one dies in sin and is raised with Christ to new life The resurrection confirms the divinity of Jesus as the true son of God The resurrection gives Christians courage to face death because they have hope of resurrecting at his second return It is remembered by Christians during the Eucharist Qn w. explain five importance of Eulogy of death in the society today It enables mourners to know the cause or nature of death It enables the mourners to forgive the dead person incase of any grudge between them and the dead person It enables the mourners to ask for forgiveness from the dead person It enables the mourners know the wish or last words of the deceased before he/ she died Mourners have an opportunity to declare what they owe or are owed by the dead It enables mourners to know the contribution of work of the dead to the society It provides the mourners with an opportunity to know the nature or character of the dead and his/her social life ----- 278 It enables mourners to know the background or life history of the deceased e.g. education. FORM THREE SELECTED TEACHINGS FROM THE NEW AND THE OLD TESTAMENTS TOPIC ONE: GIFTS OF THE HOLY SPIRIT Learning Outcomes. By the end of this topic, you should be able to: - a Discuss what Jesus taught about the role and gifts of the Holy Spirit. b Describe the manifestations of the Holy Spirit in Christianity today. c Identify the fruits of the Holy Spirit d Interpret the message of Peter on the day of Pentecost. LESSON ONE: TEACHINGS OF JESUS ON THE ROLE OF THE HOLY SPIRIT. Read JOHN 14:15-26, 16: 5-15, and ACTS 1: 7- 8 Introduction The Holy Spirit is the third person in the trinity. There is the power of Christ, the power of God, and the Holy Spirit who gives gifts such as prophecy and healing. The Holy Spirit is mentioned several times in the Bible; 1 during creation in Genesis, 2 at the annunciation of the birth of Jesus, 3 at the beginning of the ministry of Jesus, 4 during baptism, 5 revelation of Jesus in the temple 6 Jesus spoke of the Holy Spirit during his mission or ministry, after resurrection and before ascension Learning outcomes. By the end of this lesson: a. State the role of Holy Spirit in the church and in Christian lives today b. Enumerate the gifts of the Holy Spirit c. Analyse the Manifestation of the Holy Spirit in the church and Christians today ----- 279 d. Give the role of love in church and in Christian lives today a. The role of Holy Spirit in Church and in Christian lives today. Read JOHN 14:15-26 and JOHN 16: 5-15, ACTS 1: 7- 8 The Holy Spirit has many roles in the church and in Christian lives today. These roles are to: Teach Christians on a daily basis messages of Jesus Live in the hearts of believers of Christ Be an advocate, a counselor, helper and a comforter to those who love Jesus Christ and obey Gods commandments. He would remind the disciples the words said by Jesus Christ and introduce them to their deeper meanings. Interpret the deeper meaning of the messages of Jesus Christ. Reveal the truth and mysteries of and about God. Affirm the right of Jesus as the Son of God. Reveal the glory of Jesus death. Reveal what is right and wrong Give the disciples of Jesus power to become witnesses of Christ. Give courage to the disciples of Jesus and modern Christians to face prosecution on the account of following Jesus. Enable the disciples to expose the secret lives and heart of sinful people. Guide Christians; help believers to cast away evils spirits, to heal, to preach the word of God, to encourage, and to condemn evil in the society. b. Paul teaching about the Gifts of the Holy Spirit. Read 1 Corinthians chapters 12, 13, and 14. Spiritual gifts are extra-ordinary favors, talents, abilities, and dispositions given to Christians by God for ----- 280 the benefit of all believers. The gifts are used for the service of others and not for self-glorification and gratification. The message of Peter on the day of the Pentecost Peter told the disciple that what was happening was the fulfillment of Jesus prophecy. - He said that Jesus of Nazareth was the Son of God. - He said that the suffering and death of Jesus was according to Gods plans. Death was the fulfillment of the Old Testament prophecy. Gifts of the Holy Spirit 1. Gift of wisdom: having deep understanding of issues- seeing far, being perceptive. 2. Gift of knowledge: ability to understand the basic facts about Jesus, His mission and knowledge about spiritual issues. 3. The gift of faith: refers to the confidence in Gods help. It is deep trust in God. 4. The Gift of healing: ability, and power to heal all forms of sickness by calling upon the name of Jesus Christ. 5. The gift of performing miracles: gift of healing miracles, creative miracles for example, dead legs becoming alive. 6. The gift of preaching 7. The gift of prophecy: the ability to interpret Gods word. The ability to foresee what will happen in the future as revealed by God. 8. The gift of distinguishing spirits or discernment: the ability to know whether a spiritual gift is from ----- 281 God, the Holy Spirit or from the evil spirit 9. The gift of speaking in tongues. The ability to utter, speak in a tongue, language unknown to the believer. Tongues are used when addressing God for self-edifications. It is personal growth. 10. The gift of interpretation of tongues: the ability to understand and interpret the messages of those speaking in tongues. 11. The gift of love. Read 1 Corinthians 13 Paul stressed that all the gifts of the Holy Spirit are to be demonstrated with love. He stressed that love, a fruit of the Holy Spirit is supreme over other spiritual gifts possessed by Christians. Its the greatest of all. Speaking in tongues, preaching, and martyrdom without love is useless. Components of Love Love is patient, kind, not jealous or boastful, not arrogant or rude, is not ill mannered or selfish, and does not insist on its own way. It is not disrespectful. It is not irritable or resentful. It does not rejoice at wrong but rejoices in truth. It bears all things. Love believes all things, hopes all things, and endures all things. Love is eternal. Love never fails. The other gifts are temporary but love, faith and hope are eternal. c. Manifestation of the Holy Spirit in the church and Christians today Gifts of the Holy Spirit have been manifested in churches today. We see this manifestation through people possessing the gifts of the Holy Spirit. For example, leaders in church have displayed the gift of ----- 282 wisdom. Preachers, and Christians ministers have been casting out demons and performing healing. There are reported cases of interpretation of tongues and gift of prophecy in churches today. When Christians display the gifts of the Holy Spirit such as speaking in tongues the Holy Spirit is manifested. Other manifestations of the Holy Spirit are: Through healing, prophecy, gifts of discernment, boldness in preaching, and casting out demons among others Christians helping the poor by giving generosity and in kindness. Through singing, dancing, shouting fruit of joy Through unity of believes and fellowships. Through praying, Christians persecutions/temptations. d. Criteria for Discerning the Gifts of the Holy Spirit. Christians who have the Holy Spirit and are guided by Jesus have certain characteristics. These are: They will confess that Jesus is Lord They cannot say a curse. They speak the truth. They worship God and behave in accordance with Jesus teaching. They led by the Holy Spirit and are known by the fruits of the Holy Spirit. These fruits are love, joy, peace, and patience. Such persons serve all Christians without discrimination and strife. They do not do sinful acts such as sexual immorality. They do not practice idolatry, and sorcery. They do not have in their hearts and minds hatred, and jealously or any other negative feelings and actions. ----- 283 e. The fruits of the HOLY SPIRIT GALATIANS 5:16-26 Paul taught that the fruit of the spirit are: Love, Joy, Patience, Long suffering, Goodness or Generosity, Faith and faithfulness, Peace, Meekness and kindness, gentleness, self- control and temperance. Answer these questions after reading JOHN 14:15-26 and JOHN 16: 5- 15, ACTS 1: 7- 8 and 1 Corinthians chapters 12, 13, and 14. 1. What is the role of the Holy Spirit among Christians? Read a 2. Discuss the gifts of the Holy Spirit 3. Write a talk about the Holy Spirit 4. Define love? 5. Describe the different types of love 6. Why do Christians need the Holy Spirit today? 7. State the role of love in church and in Christian lives today. 8. How has the gift of the Holy Spirit been manifested in Christian lives? 9. Which activities show that the Holy Spirit is working among Christian in Kenya. 10. How have the gifts of the Holy Spirit been misused in the church today? Answers are also in the text. Read sections with answers 1. The role of the holy spirit An advocate, a counsellor and a comforter. He would remind and introduce the disciples to the deeper meaning of the word of Jesus Christ. To reveal the myth and mysteries of God. He would affirm the right of Jesus as the Son of God. He would reveal the glory of Jesus death. He would enable the disciples to discern and expose the secret heart of sinful men. ----- 284 2. The gift of the Holy Spirit has been misused today by pride and public manifestation of the gift as a way of show off. Some Christians have misused the gift of Holy Sprit of prophecy by prophesying for money. LESSON TWO. PETERS MESSAGE ON THE DAY OF PENTECOST. Read ACTS 2: 14-41 Introduction Jews commemorate Pentecost day. This is the day that God gave Moses his laws on mount Sinai. It is also referred to as the festival of weeks. Pentecost day was celebrated 50 days after the Passover. It was compulsory for all Jews. On this day, Jews brought offering, the first fruits of harvest, to the temple in Jerusalem. Learning outcomes. By the end of this lesson You should be able: - 1. Describe Pentecost day 2. Narrate Peters Message. 3. Explain the relevance of the Pentecostal Experience a. Pentecost a day On the Pentecostal day, the disciples were gathered in Jerusalem awaiting the promise of the Holy Spirit. And as promised, the Holy Spirit came in the form of a strong wind, and tongues of fire. The Holy Spirit rested on the head of each disciple. The disciples received the gift of the Holy Spirit. They spoke in new tongues. Some of the observers mistook this experience. They thought that the disciples were drunk with wine. ----- 285 Peter stood up to explain what was happening and defend the disciples. He told those who saw the experience that the disciples were not drunk. It was in the morning. b. Peters Message. Read Joel 2: 28 32 Peter told the onlookers that; what was happening is fulfillment of Joels prophesies about the outpouring of Gods spirit. He said that Jesus of Nazareth was the Son of God. This was proved by the miracles that Jesus performed. He emphasized that the suffering and death of Jesus was according to Gods plans. Jesus is a descendant of David. Death and the resurrection of Jesus fulfilled prophesies in the Old Testament. God raised Jesus from the dead. He taught that Jesus had both the nature of God and Man. The apostles are the living witnesses of the resurrection of Jesus. Jesus has been exalted and sits on the right hand of God where He is Lord and Judge. They holy Spirit is a gift from Jesus Peter then invited the listeners to repentance so that they could be forgiven and receive the gift of the Holy Spirit. Three thousand souls accepted salvation message and were added to the fellowship of the disciples. c. After the Holy Spirit infilling. The disciples sold their possessions and goods and assisted the needy. They did many wonders and signs. They continued to live in unity, worshiping God, fellowshipping together, and breaking the bread. d. Lessons Christians learn from Leadership of Peter. Christians should be: ----- 286 1. Courageous and stand up for Jesus Christ all the times. 2. Ready to spread the Gospel of Christ. 3. Win new converts to Jesus by inviting them to repentance. 4. Have faith in the risen Christ. 5. Pray to be filled with the Holy Spirit like Peter and those in church leadership should take their roles seriously. e. Relevance of the Pentecostal Experience Speaking in diverse tongues signified that Christianity is a universal religion. It pointed out the importance of all languages when communicating to God. There were no specific languages for speaking with God, as it was when Latin was the language of literacy and Christianity. Christians should be bold in their preaching. They should not be afraid as they have the counsel and helper, the Holy Spirit. Christians should understand that God chooses anyone as a leader, preacher, and witness of Christ. Pentecostal experience signifies that Christians need to receive and be filled with the Holy Spirit Revision questions a Explain the meaning of the Pentecost b Describe the manifestations of the holy spirit on the day of the Pentecost Acts 2: 1-40 or narrate the events that took place on the day of the Pentecost c Write down five teachings about Jesus from Peters speech on the day of the Pentecost d What were the qualities of peter that made him a successful leader of the apostolic church? ----- 287 e What lessons can Christians learn from the events of the day of the Pentecost? f State the teachings of Jesus on the holy spirit John 14:14-26 acts 1:7- 8 g What is the role of the holy spirit according to Jesus? h What is the role of the holy spirit in the believers or the church or Christians? i Outline the fruits of the holy spirit j State the criteria for discerning the spiritual gifts k List down the gifts of the holy spirit l Explain why Paul taught that love is the greatest of all spiritual gifts m Explain how the Holy spirit is manifested in the church today n State ways in which the gifts of the holy spirit are being abused in the church today TOPIC TWO: THE UNITY OF BELIEVERS Learning outcomes. By the end of this topic, you should be able to: a Explain teaching in selected New Testament texts of the unity of believers. b Identify the metaphors used to describe unity of believers. c Identify the causes of disunity in the early and modern church LESSON ONE: TEACHINGS OF THE UNITY OF BELIEVERS IN SELECTED NEW TESTAMENT TEXTS Unity of believers refers to oneness of those who have faith in Jesus Christ. Learning outcomes. By the end of this lesson you should be able to: - i. Describe activities of early Christians ii. Describe characteristics of the people of God iii. Explain the meanings of these symbolic expressions - The body of Christ - The Vine and the Branches ----- 288 - The Church / Assembly of God - The Bride a. Early Christians The early Christians in Jerusalem demonstrated their unity by. Holding joint prayer sessions Sharing the Lords supper, that is Eucharist. Sharing their possessions with the poor. The showed oneness and unity as believers. They expressed their oneness using various terms, images, metaphors and symbols. They regarded themselves as the people of God, the church and an Assembly of God. When they celebrated the last supper, eating of bread was a symbol of the body of Christ. They saw themselves as belonging to one tree with the vine and branches. As followers of Christ, the early Church saw itself as the Bride of Christ. b. Discussion of Symbolic Expressions i. The people of God Read 1 PETER 2: 9-10. Peter has outlined the characteristics of the people of God. He says that the people of God are Believers in God: through faith in Jesus Christ. The Chosen race, a royal priesthood, a holy nation a chosen people Those who stand out from the rest because they live a holy and righteous life. Form a Holy nation chosen to proclaim the works of God. Not just the descendants of Abraham but people who follow Jesus Christ and His teachings. ii. The body of Christ Read 1 Corinthians 12:12-27, and Ephesians 4:1-12. ----- 289 The Holy Spirit is the one who brings Christians together as one body of Christ to serve the church. Christians are given gifts for the purpose of sharing the body of Christ. Jesus Christ is the head of the church. And just as the body has many parts, playing different roles, so has the Church. Every member of the church plays a vital role because different members have different spiritual gifts and callings. Some are Apostles, Teachers, Prophets, Evangelists, Pastors and Miracle performers, Administrators and those who show mercy to others and encourage exhort others. All church activities should be directed to the welfare of the church, just as the function of each part of the body is necessary for the well being of the whole body. To have a united body, members should be meek, and patient in order to bear the fruit of the Holy Spirit. For a church to be united, or to be considered as one body, Christians should have faith in God the father, one Lord Jesus Christ, one Holy Spirit and have faith in God through Jesus Christ. iii. The Vine and the Branches Read John 15:1-10 The vine represents Jesus. Vine tree was a tree that bore grapes. The vine tree was a symbol of prosperity and peace. Jesus is the vine and the Father is the vinedresser. Christians/ believers are the branches. They are expected to produce good fruits by remaining faithful and united in Christ. Faithful branches bear fruit like good Christians while unfruitful branches are like unfruitful Christians. ----- 290 Christians should remain united to Christ who is the vine so as to bear fruits. The teachings of Jesus purify the Christians. The dead branches of the Vine trees are cut off and the livings ones are trimmed or pruned. This is done so that the vines may produce high yields. Likewise unfaithful Christians, believers are rebuked and corrected so as to bear high yields. iv. The Church or Assembly of God. Read Ephesians 5: 21 32 Church is a Greek word ekklesia, which means people. People who belong to the Lord. Assembly of God is the coming together of people of diverse social and cultural backgrounds who recognize lordship of Jesus. The church is likened to the relationship between a husband and a wife. Christians the church are expected to be united with Christ just as a husband and wife are united in marriage. Just as husbands and wives are expected to love one another, so too, are Christians called upon to express love to one another and to love God. A husband is the head of a family; Jesus is also the head of the church. v. The Bride. Read 2 Corinthian 11: 2, and Revelations 21: 1 12 In the Old Testament, God calls Israel a bride. In the New Testament, Christians are referred to as a bride in the New Jerusalem. God or Jesus Christ is the bridegroom. Christians are reminded that the life on earth is a temporary home. Their real home is in heaven, the Holy city of God. Just as a bride is expected to be faithful to her husband, so are Christians expected to be faithful to God by observing the ----- 291 covenant way of life. Deviation from the covenant was portrayed as adultery. John, who wrote the book of revelations, sees a vision of a new heaven and a new earth in which faithful Christians will be rewarded. Christ will come to take His bride to eternity to live there forever. The relationship between Christians and Jesus/ God is like a marriage. It is a covenant. It is a relationship where the church bride is expected to submit to God. Jesus died for the church, a show of His or Gods love. Likewise Christians should be committed in their relationship to God. SAQ. 1. Discuss in twos who is a bride and what takes place in a wedding. 2. Discuss the significance of the symbols used to express the unity of the believers. These are The people of God, The body of Christ, The vine and the branches The church or assembly of God and The bride. LESSON TWO: CAUSES OF DISUNITY IN THE EARLY CHURCH The early church experienced some challenges, which led to divisions among the early disciples and Christians. Learning Outcomes. After reading this lesson, i Identify causes of disunity in the early church ii State causes of disunity in the modern church iii Compare the causes of disunity in the early and modern church iv Suggest possible solutions to disunity in modern church a. Causes of Disunity in the Early Church ----- 292 After Jesus ascended to his Father and left the Holy Spirit to look after his followers, the disciples established congregations or communities to spread the Word of God. As believers of Christ met and prayed together, there were disagreements and divisions brought about by several factors and issues. These were: Disputes, among early Christians; concerning leadership of the Church. Christians wanted different leaders: Paul, Apollos, Cephas or Christ. Paul told them that Christ couldnt be divided 1 Corinthians 1:10 -21 . Sexual immorality was another cause of disunity in the early church. Some Christians were doing or having irresponsible sexual behaviours. These were incest, fornication, and prostitution. Paul condemned such behaviours and told Christians to stop sinning and honor God with their bodies. The body of a Christian is the temple of the Holy Ghost 1 Corinthian 5: 1-13, 6:12 20 . Christians settling disputes in civil courts. Paul advised they ought to talk over issues among themselves and agree to solve problems on their own 1 Corinthians 6 . Dispute over marriage and divorce. Some Christians were opposed to marriage. Others were encouraging divorce. Paul addressed these issues in 1 Corinthian, chapter 71-16. Paul advised Christians that it was okay to marry or not to marry. But marriage was needed to stop immorality. ----- 293 Eating of meat offered to idols. Some Christians were eating meat offered to idols while others were against it. Paul advised Christians not to eat anything that will cause their faith to weaken or fail. 1 Corinthians 8 and10: 14 20. There were disputes about dressing during worship. Should women cover their head during worship? Should women shave hair? Should men wear long hair? 1 Corinthian 11:1-16 . Some Christians were overeating and over drinking during the Holy Communion misuse of the Lords Supper, 1 Corinthians 11:17 33 . Misuses of spiritual gift especially the gift of speaking in tongues. Paul taught that all gifts are equal 1 Corinthians 12 . There was a misunderstanding about the resurrection of the body and the dead. Some were saying there is no resurrection. Paul preached that if there is no resurrection then their preaching was in vain as they were witnesses to the resurrection of Jesus Christ 1 Corinthians 15 . b. Causes of disunity among believers and church in Kenya today Leadership differences. Some Christians are struggling for power. This has led to formation of splinter groups, divisions and enmity between these groups. Cultural differences. Christians are divided by their African cultural beliefs from their backgrounds. This culture is merged with Christianity and Western cultural practices forming a unique mixture of beliefs. ----- 294 Some Christians are permissive, while others are conservative. This has led to disunity, for example in the areas of dressing. Discrimination. There is inequality within the church between the rich and the poor, the whites and blacks. Some Christians are viewed as more spiritual than others, on basis of the tribe, gender, wealth and social status among others. Misuse of freedom of worship. Christians are starting sprinter churches, probably because they want to control church finances without supervision by the wider church. To justify their departure, they spread propaganda against the mother church, and other churches in order to attract followers. The more followers a church has the more tithe it collects. Misuse of church funds. Some church leaders and followers misuse church funds Differences in the practice of baptism Arrogance and pride by some Christians. Sins: sexual immorality in the church, divorce and marriage issues. Some Christian denominations reject the human nature of the person of Jesus Christ; that Christ had both a human and divine nature e.g. Nomiya church. SAQ. Can you think of factors that led to disunity among Christians in the early church that you have noted in the Kenyan church? c. Reasons why Christians should work in Unity. Christians face many problems and they therefore need to work together in unity to: Promote oneness of Christians in Jesus Christ. ----- 295 Promote the teachings of Jesus Christ. Achieve effective evangelism or ministry. Adopt a common attitude to the integration of African culture in worship. Prevent the formation of sprinter groups and cults. Reduce the internal wrangling. Have a common stand in dealing with issues affecting the society. d. Possible Solutions to disunity The church should settle issues that divide its members by Christians: Learning to appreciate and respect the practices and belief of other Christians denominations. Having or forming a common goal Striving to be guided by the principle of love in solving problems facing them. Observing the teachings of disciples, prophets, apostles, God, laws of Moses, Jesus and the Bible. Avoiding doing anything to their fellow Christians that would cause suffering and disharmony. Activities that the early church did in order to remain united were that they: Ate bread together. Held fellowships together. Shared with the needy. Prayed together for each other In the current worldwide Church, there is disunity amongst believers or Christians. The most common ones are due. Leadership differences and wrangles for power. Cultural differences amongst Christians. Some Christians are permissive while others are conservative. Differences in the interpretation of the Bible. ----- 296 Misuse of church funds Pride and arrogance. Revision questions a. Write down terms used in the new testament to refer to believers in Christ b. Identify five causes of disunity in the church today c. Identify factors which cause disunity among the Christians today d. Discuss reasons why members of Christian families in Kenya find it difficult to harmoniously live together e. Explain how the church strengthens family relationships today TOPIC THREE. TEACHINGS FROM SELECTED OLD TESTAMENT PROPHETS INTRODUCTION This chapter introduces one to the work of prophets in the Old Testament. In Form One, some prophets were taught e.g. Moses, Elijah, Nathan and Samuel. Traditional African prophets were also taught. In Form Three, we compare true and false prophets and the Traditional African prophets. Learning outcomes. By the end of the topic, you should be able to: a. Define a prophet, and prophecy b. Identify categories of prophets c. Explain the importance of prophets in Israel. d. Describe the characteristics of prophets. e. Explain how prophetic messages were written. f. Compare the relationship between prophesies in the Old Testament and the New Testament LESSON ONE: PROPHETS Learning outcomes. After reading this lesson, you should be able to: - ----- 297 1. Give a correct definition of a prophet, and prophecy 2. List prophets in categories a. Definitions of a prophet, and prophecy The word prophet comes from a Hebrew word Rabii meaning one who is called or one who announces Gods message. A prophet is also referred to as a seer. A prophet is a person sent by God to teach and give people messages about things to come in future from God. Prophets received divine messages from God and communicated them to the people. A prophet is therefore a person who foretells events as revealed to him or her by God. Examples of prophets include Samuel, Elijah, Jeremiah and prophetesses female prophet Deborah, and Huidah. Prophecy is a statement, a message of something that is going to happen in the future. The action of giving future messages is called prophecy. b. Categories of prophets There were many categories of prophets. These were: a Major Prophets. These were Prophets whose messages covered a long period of time. Their messages were long and detailed. For example Prophet Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and Daniel. b Minor prophets. There are 12 books of the Minor Prophets examples They are called minor because their messages are short, brief and do not contain detailed information. The Minor Prophets are Amos, and Hosea, Joel, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi. ----- 298 c Canonical prophets the term canon means law. Canonical prophets are law prophets. The individual utterances of these prophets are laws. Both minor and major prophets are canonical prophets, d The early prophets are Moses, Nathan Elijah, and Elisha. These prophets belonged to guilds schools. Their prophecies are not recorded under their names. Their prophecies are written in books, which do not bear their names. e Cultic prophets like Hannah N.T. served in the places of worship. They assisted the priest officiating worship f Professional / court prophets like Samuel, Micah, and Gad lived together in the temple and in groups. They earned their living through their work. They did not work elsewhere g False prophets are pretenders to speak in the name of Yahweh but God did not call them. They spoke lies in accordance with the messages people wanted to hear. c. Characteristics of true prophets There were two 2 major categories of prophets in the Old Testament, 1 true prophets and 2 false prophets. True prophets are those whose prophecies occurred and were fulfilled. Prophesies of false prophets did not occur. True prophets distinguished themselves from false prophets and ordinary people. They experienced God dramatically when He called them and in their ministry. They were Gods spokesmen and women. They responded in faith to their call. ----- 299 God gave them specific tasks in their commission and Gods assurance and support in their ministry. They urged people to repent and turn back to God. In their messages, they taught that God demands sincere worship and not elaborate rituals. They understood God and taught about God righteousness, goodness, mercifulness, and loving care. They condemned evil in the society and proclaimed Gods judgment and punishment to those who failed to keep the covenant. They spoke with authority and acted with courage. They upheld God as a universal God for all nations. They talked of a remnant that shall remain after punishment or those that have continued to worship God sincerely. Their utterances were true because they were fulfilled They spent a lot of their time in prayers. They prayed regularly. At such times they withdrew from people in order to have a quiet time to seek God. All the true prophets received opposition from their audiences and they were ready to suffer for telling Gods word. d. The Characteristics of false prophets. Some of the prophecy of false prophets contradicted prophesies of the true prophets. False prophets followed their own imaginations, and gave false hopes. They told people what they wanted to hear. They had no personal knowledge of God. Hence, their prophecies were not in line with the divine revelations. ----- 300 They used evil forces such as magic, and divinations to call upon the spirits of the dead. They were paid for prophesy and benefits materially from their clients. They served Baal and were mainly immoral. They committed crime. Review questions How can we know true and false prophets today? LESSON TWO: IMPORTANCE OF PROPHETS IN ISRAEL Introduction Learning outcomes. After reading this lesson, you should: 1. Describe the work of prophets in Israel 2. Explain how God communicated with prophets and Israelites 3. Analyse the content of the Prophetic messages 1. Work of prophets in Israel Prophets kept Israelites in communication with God. They communicated Gods will to the people of Israel. They foretold Gods judgments and punishment for sinners. They condemned the behaviour of the rich towards the poor. Through their messages, people reformed their lives since they condemned all forms of social evils and ritual sins. They contributed to the writing of their messages leading to the compilation of the Bible. Prophets guided and gave people hope. They taught people the laws of God. They warned people of dangers to come. They condemned idolatry and stressed the worship of one true God, Yahweh. They anointed the Kings in Israel. Kings consulted the prophets before any major undertaking such as war among others. ----- 301 They acted as conscience of kings. They advised them and challenged Kings when they went wrong. 2. Gods communication with prophets and Israelites God communicated to Prophets through visions, voices that were audible and clear, events, prayers, dreams, signs, ordinary things, and words which came to their minds with great power. Writing messages of the prophets The canonical prophets as mentioned earlier had their works and prophecies recorded under their names. Canonical prophets are referred to as writing prophets. Its possible that some prophets wrote down their own prophecies. They wrote what God spoke to them as He dictated. An example is Jeremiah who wrote what he was told Get a scroll and write on it everything that I have told you about Israel, Judah and all nations. Jeremiah 36:2, Isaiah 30:8 . Two, the prophets message were probably written by other people. These were their assistant, secretary, scribe, and disciples or followers as the prophet prophesied. Thirdly some of the prophetic messages could have been preserved as oral traditions and later written as books. A good example is 2 Kings. e. Content of the Prophetic messages Prophetic messages contained lessons from God to Israel. For example, the: i. Prophetic sayings were and still are oracles or poetic passages spoken by God himself through prophets. The prophecies were addressed to different nations. They carried specific teachings to the ----- 302 people, for example predicting future occurrences ii. Narratives in the first person give an account of the prophets testimony. They spoke of their experiences with God, and responses to the call of God. They tell us about prophets impelling compulsion to speak Gods word. The narratives are written in the first person. They have a format The Lord said to me The year that King Uzziah died, I was the Lord iii. Narratives in the third 3rd person have messages written by a third party, i.e. not the prophet but another person. For example, Isaiah said to them, Thus you shall say to your master, thus says the Lord: Do not be afraid of the words. Isaiah 37:6 . The message recounts the prophets personal life, and political background. LESSON THREE: PROPHESIES IN THE OLD TESTAMENT, NEW TESTAMENT AND AFRICAN TRADITIONAL SOCIETY Introduction The Israelites and the African traditional societies as well as other world communities had prophets who foretold the future. Among the Israelites, there were prophets chosen by God and false prophets who told messages which communities wanted to hear. Among the African traditional communities, there were wise men and women who prophesied about the future. In this lesson, we shall compare these prophecies and learn what was similar and different about these them. The Old Testament prophecies are compared with those from the African traditional society and ----- 303 the New Testament Learning outcomes. After studying this lesson, you should be able to: a. State relationships between Prophesies in the Old Testament New Testament and the African Traditional Society b. Discuss the similarities between prophets in the African traditional society and the Old Testament c. Identify differences between prophets in the African traditional society and the Old Testament a. Relationships between Prophesies Several Old Testament O.T. prophecies were and are fulfilled in both the old and New Testament N.T in the life and ministry of Jesus Christ. The Law of Moses is used in both the Old Testament and the New Testament. However Jesus gave the law a deeper meaning. The teachings and prophecies of the prophets provided the foundation for the message in the New Testament. The prophecies of Prophet Nathan to King David that God would raise up an offspring from the lineage of David was fulfilled in Jesus Christ, the expected messiah. Jesus disciples in the New Testament referred a lot to messages in the Old Testament. The teachings of Jesus in the New Testament are based in the Old Testament prophecies. They are therefore similar to each other because New Testament is a continuation of the Old Testament. The New Testament is the new covenant spoken of by Prophet Jeremiah and other Prophets like Isaiah, Micah, and Nathan. Their prophecies about Messiah are fulfilled in the New Testament. ----- 304 b. Similarities between prophets in the African traditional society and the Old Testament. In both traditions, prophets: Were endowed with divine powers and they dealt with religious matters. Acted as intermediaries between God and people Warned people of impending dangers and disasters due to disobedience Had supernatural experiences Encouraged morality and discouraged evil ways In some cases, could heal Withstood oppression and opposition by the political rulers Encouraged people to fight injustices in society Foretold future disasters such as drought and wars. They explained why they were going to occur. Were consulted when things were not well in the society. Received revelations through dreams, visions and thoughts Were gender sensitive male prophets and female prophetesses. c. Differences O.T. between prophets in the African traditional society and the Old Testament. The Old Testament prophets had a personal relationship with God. They communicated Gods messages to Israelites. The prophets in the African traditional society communicated and received messages from the ancestor spirits Old Testament prophets were Gods mouthpieces. They began their prophesy with thus saith the lord. While the prophets in the African traditional society predicted what would happen to individuals, and communities. ----- 305 The authority of prophets in the Old Testament came from God while the authority of prophets in the African traditional society came from their ancestors spirits. In the Old Testament prophets were called directly by God while in some African traditional communities the prophetic office was hereditary. The African traditional prophets dealt with family and local community issues while Old Testament prophets dealt with national issues, and crises. African traditional prophets were diviners while Old Testament prophets consulted God. d. Relevance of Old Testament prophets to Christians today Christian should be ready to be messengers of God. The call to be a Christian has a prophetic role. Some Christians are called to the office of a prophet and should prophecy for the glory of God and for the common good of the people. As Gods spokes person one should always stand for the truth. Christian should proclaim Gods will even if the message is not pleasant to the people. Once appointed as a prophet, one should pass the messages to who ever they are sent to without fear or favour. Gods messengers should always condemn the social political economic evils in the society. As Gods messengers Christians should live exemplary lives. They should stand for what they preach and should expect persecutions because of their works as Gods messengers. They should be ready to suffer for the sake of the gospel. ----- 306 Christians should pray to God to give them guidance, wisdom, and inspiration to be able to handle hardships in their lives. They should provide hope for the people in times of suffering. Christians should realize that God calls both men and women to His service. They should be ready to obey Gods prophetic call and not run away e.g. Jonah. They should be concerned and take care of the welfare of the poor community members. Revision questions 1. Define the terms prophet and prophecy 2. List five categories of true prophets 3. State the difference between true and false prophets 4. In what ways were Gods prophets called? 5. Outline the similarities and differences between the old testament prophets and the traditional African ones. 6. What is the relevance of prophets to Christians today? TOPIC FOUR: PROPHET AMOS Introduction Amos is one of the prophets God sent to Israel to warn the people because of their evil life. Politically, the Nation of Israel had become rich. There grew classer, the rich and the poor. The rich started oppressing the poor. Socially, there was still the rich poor gap. The rich exploited the poor. Merchants sold bad food, expensive and used false measurer. Religiously, the Israelites had turned away from God and were worshiping false gods. Syncretism was ----- 307 practiced. Priests were paid and Gods prophets were rejected. It is in this situation that Amos was called. He is called through visions. Amos is one of the canonical or writing prophets. The book of Amos is a temptation of oracles spoken by the prophet on different occasions. Note that after the death of King Solomon, the kingdom of Israel was split into two and rules by Rehoboam and Jeroboam. The northern Kingdom; called Judah was ruled by Rehoboam and was inhabited by two tribes. The southern kingdom called Israel was ruled by Jeroboam and was inhabited by 10 tribes. Amos came from Judah and prophesied in Israel. Topic Learning Outcomes. By the end of this topic, you should be able to: a Analyse Prophet Amos work in Israel b Describe the call of Amos c Explain the teaching of Amos d Relate relevance of Amos teaching to Christianity today LESSON ONE: Prophet Amos work in Israel Read Amos 1:1 Learning outcomes. After reading this lesson, you should: 1. Describe the call of Amos 2. Describe the socio, political and economic situation in Israel during the time of Prophet Amos 3. Explain religious situation in Israel 1. The call of Amos AMOS 1:1,3:8,7:10 15 Prophet Amos was born in a village called Tekoa in Judah, the southern kingdom. Before his call, Amos was a shepherd and a dresser of sycamore trees. He was not a professional prophet. But God called him ----- 308 to be a prophet. He received his call in form of a vision around 758 BC. Amos responded to Gods call with obedience. He felt a deep compulsion to prophesy Amos 3:8 . God directed him to give his message to the people of Israel, the northern kingdom Amos 7:15 . He was asked to speak the will of Yahweh. He was also to fore tell punishment if Israelites did not repent their sins. His message was opposed, and challenged by Amaziah the priest of Bethel. 3. Religion. Israelites worshipped Yahweh and other gods. Idolatry was also present. This form of worship is called Syncretism . There was religious hypocrisy. Like today, there was an emphasis on external observances of religious practices and less concern for internal observances. The priests were paid for religious work. Those who couldnt pay did not have religious ceremonies. They were offered at the expense of the poor. The prophets of God were rejected. 4. Social economic political situation. When Amos prophesied, King Jeroboam ruled Israel, the northern kingdom while King Uzziah ruled Judah. Amos was sent to prophesy to the people of Israel in the northern kingdom. He concentrated his work mainly in Bethel and Samaria the capital city of Israel and the main centres of worship. When Amos started his prophesy, there was peace and prosper in Israel and Judah. Both kingdoms were wealthy. However, the wealth did not reach the poor. This was because the wealth and power were in ----- 309 the hands of the king, his family, his officials, and wealthy merchants. As a result, Israel citizens were divided into two classes; the rich and the poor. Unfortunately, the rich people owned big luxurious houses. They drunk wine, and used the most expensive perfumes. They acquired their wealth at the expense of the poor. They oppressed and exploited the poor. The merchants of trade for example, were dishonest in their trade businesses. They sold bad wheat to unsuspecting customers and overcharged customers by measuring with false scales. Because of the inflated prices, the poor borrowed money from the rich at high interest rates to buy basic things like food. Hence, there was massive bribery and corruption in society and law courts. As a result the poor lacked basic necessities or needs like food, shelter, and clothing. It was at this time when God sent Amos to give prophesy to Israel. SAQ. How did the rich oppress the poor in Israel? LESSON TWO: VISIONS OF AMOS Read AMOS 7: 1 9, 8:1 3. 9:1 4 Vision is a picture we have in our mind. It is a future to come. Amos was shown many visions by God. Lesson outcomes. After reading these verses in Amos you should be able to: - 1. Analyse all the visions and 2. State the message of each vision 3. Summaries things that God condemned through Amos 1. The vision of the locusts Amos 7:1 3 ----- 310 Amos saw a swarm of locusts being sent by God to destroy all plants and food crops in the land. The locusts were, a sign of disaster, which God was going to send to Israel as a punishment for their disobedience. Amos cried to God to forgive the people. God heard and changed his mind. 2. The vision of a great fire Amos 7:4 6 Amos saw a vision of a supernatural fire that burnt up the land. He asked God to forgive the people and God listened. The punishment was stopped. 3. The vision of a crooked wall/ the plumb line Amos 7:7 9 Amos saw the Lord standing beside the wall checked it with a plumb line. The wall represented the Israelites. They stopped observing the laws of their covenant with God. God found Israelites disobeying the covenant. God promised to destroy holy places of Israel.. 4. The vision of a basket of ripe fruits Amos 8:1 3 In this vision, Amos saw a basket of ripe fruits. Fruits are harvested at the end of the summer. This meant that Israel was ripe for punishment for her refusal to turn to God. Amos did not pray for forgiveness. God would no longer withhold His judgment. Time for repentance was over. 5. The vision of the destruction of the altar. Read Amos 9:1 4. Amos saw the Lord standing by the altar. The Lord ordered the destruction of the temple. The shrines of Dan and Bethel were destroyed because they were the centres of idolatry. No one would escape punishment no matter where they hide. Summary of issues that God pointed out to Israel through Prophet Amos ----- 311 a. Lack of social justice There was lack of social justice and responsibility by the king of Israel. Social justice means dealing with other people fairly. It implies showing concern for the needs of others. b. Lack of responsibility. This refers to the rulers and people of Israel being accountable for their actions. In modern life, it is doing ones duty and fulfilling ones obligation to God and others. c. Practice of hypocritical religion in Israel. The Israelites were insincere in their worship. They made empty sacrifices. They worshipped idols as well as God. They profaned the name of God Yahweh . They made idols of Baal and offered sacrifices to them. They worshipped other gods. This is syncretism and God does not allow worship of any other God but himself. d. Gods judgment against Israel and other nations. God promised to destroy Israel and leave a remnant of them for restoration. e. Oppressions of the poor by the rich God condemned King Jeroboam rule of Israel because of the oppression of the poor, government corruption and bribery of kings officials. These officials sold the righteous for silver and the needy for a pair of sandals shoes i.e. its like practising slavery. The rich trampled on the poor, despised them and placed no value on the poor. The poor gave their garments as security for loan. This was contrary to Gods commandments. The garment was supposed to be returned back to the owner before sunset. The ----- 312 Samaritan women were fat like the well fed cows of Bashan led luxurious lives and were very unkind to the poor. The rich took an excessive share of the harvest from the farmers. Rulers loved luxury and were arrogant. They loved material things and showed pride in material possessions. They used expensive perfumes. f. Corruption and bribery. The judges were corrupt. They accepted bribes. There was a conspiracy between the rich and the judges against the poor g. Pride in materials possessions The capital city of Israel was Samaria. It was built on a mountain called Bethel, which was also a place of worship. There was prosperity in the land. The Israelites prided themselves in their riches and materials possessions. Amos told them God would destroy their wealth. h. Dishonesty. This is telling lies, cheating or using unjust means to get certain things. The wealthy merchants waited impatiently for the end of the holy days so that they could engage in lucrative businesses. They cheated the poor by using false scales. They sold bad wheat to the poor. They mixed good and bad grains and sold them to unsuspecting people. i. Sexual immorality Sexual immorality was prevalent or common in Israel. For example a father and son would have sex with the same girl. There was temple cultic prostitution. There was dishonesty; sexual immorality. This sexual behaviour made the temple unholy. j. Drunkenness ----- 313 They Israelites spent time drinking when the poor lacked the basic needs. They engaged in excessive drinking of wine. They even forced the Nazarites to drink wine. They accepted drunkenness. k. Profaning the name of the God Israelites did not respect the name of God. They committed sin. They forced Nazirites to drink wine; forcing it down their throats yet they knew that Nazirites were people set aside and chosen by God to serve God. This act showed contempt of Gods commands. Nazirites were not supposed to drink wine or cut their hair. Israelites did this to show their contempt of the Lord, l. Hypocritical Religion and Idolatry in Israel Hypocrisy is pretending to be something different from the person one is. It is also saying one thing, and doing another thing. For example, Israelites did a lot of religious rites according to the laws of Moses and yet majority of them were unjust, corrupt and oppressed the poor. They observed the external religious activities while their hearts were corrupt and insincere. Amos condemned Israelites for this hypocrisy, characterized by insincere worship, and mixture of religious beliefs leading to diverse practices of religion i.e. syncretism. This is a combination or mixture of Israelites monotheism Yahwehism and worship of idols and other gods especially Baal, the gods of their neighbours. m. Empty sacrifices The Israelites made elaborative offerings and sacrifices. Yet God was interested only in sincere worship ----- 314 and free will offerings and not mere sacrifices, and tithes. Take away from me the noise of your songs Amos 5:21 23 . LESSON THREE. GODS JUDGMENT AGAINST ISRAEL AND OTHER NATIONS Read Amos chapter 1 and 2 Learning outcomes. After studying this lesson, you should be able to: a. State the sins committed by Israel and other nations b. Identify how God punished Israel and other nations i Israel. She committed several crimes, which were condemned by Prophet Amos. Read lesson two again before you go on and list down crimes that were pointed out by Amos. Okay, you have seen that Israel committed crimes of injustice, disobedience to God, breaking their covenant with God, idolatry, hypocrisy among other sins mentioned above. Israel was punished for these crimes. Punishments were severe. Israelites would be exiled forcibly and painfully. Earthquakes, famines, fires, oppression from foreign kings, epidemics and divine silence, would destroy their kingdom and holy places. ii Syria. Its capital was Damascus. Syria committed war crimes. The soldiers were excessively cruel in times of war. They murdered their prisoners brutally. For this cruelty, their punishment was to be severe. Their palaces would be destroyed by fire and the people would be exiled in Kir. iii Gaza and philistines. Their crime was capturing other people and selling them into slavery. For this ----- 315 sin, Gods punishment was destruction of their city by divine fire. It would burn down the wall of Gaza city and destroy it. God would have no more association with them. iv Tyre. Their Crime was violation of a treaty of friendship they had made. They broke it by capturing a whole nation into exile in the land of Edom. The punishment was God would send fire to destroy city of Tyre and its fortress Amos 1:9-10 . v. Edom. Her people were descendants of Esau. Yet Edom was ruthless to the Israelite to whom they were closely related. For this crime of ruthlessness, the punishment was God would destroy them by fire vi Ammon committed crime of brutal killings. The people of Ammon attacked and killed their neighbours. They ripped open pregnant woman in Gilead vs. 13 . Gods punishment was destruction of the fortress and wall of the city of Rabbah by fire. Their king and his officers will go into exile: vs. 15 . vii Moab. The people of Moab; their crime was mishandling the body of the king of Edom. They burned his bones to ashes. Gods punishment was destruction of the city of Kerioth by divine fire. The people, their rulers and leaders would be killed in battle. viii Judah. Their crimes were 1 failure to obey Gods commands and 2 despising gods teaching. ix Samaria, Egypt and Ashdod. Their crime was dishonesty and filling their mansions with things taken ----- 316 by crime and violence Amos 3:10 . Women of Samaria committed the crime of drunkenness, oppressing the weak and poor. The punishment for all these countries is destruction of their land, mansions and army. But a remnant will not go to captivity, and shall not be destroyed. Amos said the remnants are like 2 legs, or a piece of an ear of a sheep rescued from the mouth of a lion Amos 3:12 x Amaziah the priest of Bethel. He strongly opposed Amos and told him to go back and prophesy in Judah. Amos told Amaziah God sent him to Israel. His punishment for opposing Gods messenger was.. Amaziahs wife would be a harlot, his children will die in the war, his land will be given to others, and Amaziah will die in a foreign land Amos 7: 14-17 . Lessons to learn from Gods judgment of Israel and other nations The Assyrians attacked Israel, occupied their land and exiled others. God is a universal, b God hates sin c God is concerned about the welfare of his people d God is merciful and spares a remnant xi. Israels election Amos 2:9 11, 3:1 2, 9:7 Election: is an act of choosing a person or group of people for a purpose or action. Israels election refers to Gods choice of the Israelites out of the entire human kind to be his people. God chose them to serve him, be a Holy nation and to be the light of the world. God made a covenant with the Israelites. In the covenant they agreed to live a holy life. In return, God looked after them. He led them out of Egypt to ----- 317 the wilderness and finally to Canaan. God chose His prophets from the Israelites and raised Nazirites. Despite Gods favour, the Israelites rebelled and sinned against God. And although Israelites were reminded that God cared for other nations equally and are to be punished if they disobeyed God; and that they were neither superior, nor better than other nations, they disobeyed God several times. xii. The day of the lord Amos taught that the day of the lord would be a day of severe judgment for sins. . It is not a time of happiness, joy or victory. It is a day of darkness, terror, disaster, gloom, wailing, flooding, mourning, defeat, punishment, famine for food and Gods word. xiii. The Remnant and Restoration. Remnant means a small number of survivors. These are the Israelites who will remain after the entire nation is punished. They are also those who returned to Jerusalem after the exile. Restoration is an act of reinstating things / persons to their former state or position. Amos informed the Israelites that God was still looking after them, and waiting for their repentance. The nation of Israel would not be destroyed completely. God would preserve the few righteous ones. He would raise the fallen dynasty of David. People would be restored back to their land to rebuild their cities. There was to be a great harvest and grapes shall overflow. xiv. Duty of Christians. Christians are the selected people of God. As the chosen ones, they should one, ----- 318 live holy lives and two, use their position to serve God and others. Three, Christians have a moral responsibility to spread Gods word, four, care for the needy and five, be the light of the world. xv. The Day of the lord. Read Amos 5:18-20, 6:3-5, 8:7-13. in the Old Testament, the day of the Lord is the day that Yahweh would make Israel victorious against other nations. On this day the Israelite believed that God would establish his rule over and with Israel. The day of the Lord was also believed to be the day when Israel would be prosperous, would have favour with God, and the just would triumph over the wicked. In the New Testament, the day of the lord is also the Day of Judgment Parousia . It is the day of the second coming of Christ. On that day, everyone will be judged. Christians believe that it is the day that Christ will come for His bride the church . Those who had obeyed the laws of God shall be received by Christ and given the reward of the eternal life. On that day, Gods kingdom shall be established and Christ will reign forever. xvi. Relevance of Amos teachings to Christians today. The messages of the prophecy of Amos are relevant to Christians today. This is because God is universal. He chose Israel but still punished her for her disobedience, and sins just as He punished other nations like Syria and Gaza. The message that God hates hypocrisy is very clear. Thus Christians should truthful and practice what ----- 319 they preach. They must worship God in sincerity. Other messages are: Justice. Christians should be just / fair in dealing with others. Self Indulgence. Christians should not pursue luxury and self- indulgence when others lack the basic needs. Bribery. Christians should condemn bribery and corruption, and uphold justice. Punishment. Christians should bear in mind that God will punish every evil. Wealth. When Israel became wealthy, they departed from the covenant with God. Christians should share their wealth with the needy and acquire their wealth justly Hypocritical religion. Amos taught about hypocrisy in religion. This was for example offering empty sacrifices. Christians have to learn to be sincere, to be concerned about their internal well being and soul more than outward observances of religion. Drunkenness. Christians should not engage in activities that can divert their faith from God. If that happens, they should learn to be Repentant. Revision exercise 1. List the visions that Amos saw 2. Explain the evils that Amos condemned in his teachings 3. Give reasons why prophet Amos condemned idol worship in Israel 4. List evils in the society today that Amos would condemn TOPIC FIVE. PROPHET JEREMIAH Introduction. Israel had not taken heed to Amos prophecies. This was especially on idolatry. So, God sent another ----- 320 prophet to continue with the same work. Jeremiah was therefore appointed as a prophet. Jeremiah is one of the Old Testament Major Prophets. He was called to a prophet at around 627 B.C. He was called as a young man, probably 20 years old. He prophesied in the southern kingdom- Judah, for a period of 40 years. His prophetic ministry took place before and during the exile of Judah. Learning Outcomes. By the end of this topic, you should be able to: - a Describe the political, Social, and religious background of prophet Jeremiah. b Describe the personal life and call of Jeremiah. c Explain the evils condemned by Jeremiah. d Explain the contents of the temple sermon. e Highlight the relevance of Jeremiahs teaching on evils, false prophets and Christians today. LESSON ONE: THE CALL JEREMIAH Learning outcomes. After reading this lesson, you should be able to: - i. Describe the situation of the people of Judah ii. Identify religious, political and socio classes of Judah iii. Describe the call of Jeremiah iv. Explain lessons that modern Christians can learn from the call of Jeremiah a. The Kingdom of Judah Social background The people of Judah were divided into three social classes. At the top were the i Aristocrats. These were the ruling class, which consisted of the king, his family, royal officials, princesses, priests, and professional prophets. This class of the rich oppressed the poor. ----- 321 Below them was the class ii of technical professional such as stonecutters, carpenters, builders, masons, blacksmiths, masons, and others craftsmen 2 Kings 12:12 . Below them was class iii made up of poor people such as slaves, widows, orphans, and foreigners. All these poor people were mistreated. In terms of ethics, there was moral degradation. They committed adultery, prostitution, murder, false witness, and corruption. Religions background. The Kings and people of Judah worshipped idols. They practiced human sacrifice, divination and magic, and listened to false prophecies. They abandoned their covenant with God and their way of life and practiced syncretism, which is worshipping God and other false gods like Baal. King Josiah tried to restore true worship by carrying out several reforms. Prophetess Huldah prophesied that Judah would be punished after Josiahs death since he humbled before Yahweh. Political Background. Prophet Jeremiah lived in the 7th century BC and prophesied when Judah was ruled by King Josiah, and later his sons Jehoiakim, and Zedekiah; and king Jehoiachin. Judah was conquered and ruled by Assyrians who were conquered by Egyptians who ruled Judah up to 605 BC. Egyptians; were conquered by Babylonians under King Nebuchadnezzar. This was according to the prophecies of Jeremiah. b. The Call of Jeremiah. Read Jer 1: 19. ----- 322 Jeremiahs father was a priest called Hilkiah. He was born in the territory of Benjamin; at a place called Anathoth, He was well educated. Jeremiah was called to be a prophet in 627 B.C during the reign of King Josiah. He received his call in form of a dialogue with Yahweh. God told him that he had appointed him to be his messenger; even before he was formed in his mothers womb, God had selected him to be a prophet. Jeremiah said he was too young and did not know how to speak. Jeremiah was forewarned of the hostility he would encounter in his prophetic career. God told him that He would protect him and not to fear. God touched Jeremiahs mouth. This symbolized that God is the one who shall put words in his mouth. Jeremiah responded to Gods call in faith and obedience. He was given a message that God was going to bring judgment upon the Kingdom of Judah. God promised to make him a fortified city, an iron pillar and bronze wall for protection. He was commanded by God not to marry, neither have children and not to attend social gatherings, weddings, and funerals. His mission made him isolated and lonely. As a result, his own family and relatives rejected him and plotted to kill him. But he had few friends like Ebed- melech, Ahikam who helped him to get out of a pit. Jeremiah was persecuted by; the kings of Judah. Priests including priest Pashhur opposed him, and false prophets like Hannaniah. He prophesied that God shall punish wicked Kings, priests, and ordinary ----- 323 people. He suffered spiritually and emotionally. At the fall of Jerusalem in 587 B.C, the army officers of Nebuchadnezzar released him from prison. He went to Egypt where he died at an old age and as a faithful servant of God. His life was symbolic to the people of Judah. During his call, Jeremiah saw two visions. Vision one was the vision of a branch of an almond tree. The tree seemed dead, bare, yet life was in it. This vision was telling Judah that although God seemed to be sleeping, He was watching over them if they obey Him. Vision two was a pot boiling in the north, and it is about to tip over this way 1:13 . The boiling pot tilted away from the north signified that the destroyers of Judah would come from the north. The pot was ready to boil over and spill its contents. This meant that Judah was soon going to have trouble. Babylon would pour horrifying disasters on Judah. Lessons from the call of Jeremiah God has a purpose for each person and He can call anybody to do His work. He calls the unborn, the young, old, rich, and poor. God prepares people for His work, through specific experiences at family level, in school, and church. A person who is called to serve God should be ready to meet opposition. God protects His servants and promises to be with them. Jeremiah felt inadequate to speak. Christians should not let their human weakness hinder them from performing their tasks. Christians should respond to Gods call in obedience. ----- 324 LESSON TWO. EVILS ADDRESSED BY JEREMIAH. Read Jeremiah 2, 3, 4, 5,7, 9, 10, 23, and 28. Learning outcomes. After reading this lesson, 1. Name the evil practices that Jeremiah condemned 2. Explain why Jeremiah condemned these evil practices There were many evils in Judah and Israel. We have mentioned some of them. These were: necromancy, dishonesty, deception, false prophecy, human sacrifice, and idolatry i. Necromancy. Words related to necromancy are divinations, magic, sorcery, and playing tricks on peoples minds. Necromancy is the art of seeking hidden knowledge from the mysterious world of spirits: using magic, and divination, which is invoking the dead. Divination was condemned in the Hebrew language. Diviners, magicians, sooth sayers and fortunetellers used necromancy. Prophet Jeremiah condemned necromancy. Reasons why Jeremiah condemned necromancy Necromancy was a deception and therefore an evil practice. The diviners gave false information from their own imagination. This practice polluted the true worship of Yahweh and indicated Israelites lack of faith in the one true God. Two, by trusting in divination, and magic, the Israelites showed their lack of knowledge of the one true God. Three, by consulting the mediums, the Israelites disobeyed God Jer 27:8-10 . ii Deception and Dishonesty Dishonesty is lack of moral integrity or moral uprightness. Deception is cheating, and telling lies ----- 325 intentionally. It is also giving false and misleading information. The Israelites were dishonest because they worshiped God and at the same time committed social injustices against their brothers and sisters. Their repentance was insincere. There was treachery, and greed. They laid traps for each other. People pretended to be friendly and at the same time conspired to kill. Jeremiah challenged the Israelites people to circumcise their hearts which were deceitful. Their tongues were deadly arrows and they listened to false prophesies like that of Hannaniah Jeremiah condemned deception. This was because it led to syncretism, and hypocrisy in worship; and breaking down of the covenant way of life. Jeremiah warned the Israelites and asked them to repent iii. False prophesy by Hannaniah. Jer 28 During the reign of king Zedekiah, Hannaniah broke the yoke that Jeremiah was wearing. Hannaniah spoke in the name of Yahweh. He lied to the people as he spoke from his imagination and dreams. Jeremiah denounced Hannaniah. He predicted and prophesied the death of Hannaniah in the same year. And it came to pass. Jeremiah had also prophesied that the captivity of Judah should be long contrary to Hannaniah who said Judah will be exiled for 2 years. Reasons for condemning false prophets Prophets of Baal were still in existence. False prophets like Hannaniah had filled the people of Israel with unrealistic hopes of peace yet Judah was to be destroyed. Recall the characteristics of true and false ----- 326 prophets. False prophets did not condemn sin. They prophesied for money and in the process misled people away from Yahweh. False prophets prophesied from their dreams, imaginations and not from God. They gave people false hopes. They intended to make themselves popular, with the King and the people. iv Human sacrifice. The people offered human sacrifice to idols and oppressed each other. Human sacrifice is the act of killing human beings for a religious or spiritual purpose. The Israelites copied this activity from the Canaanites. Children were believed to be the best sacrifice since people believed they would get great favors from the deities. Some kings such as Ahaz and Manasseh sacrificed their sons to idols. Jeremiah condemned human sacrifice. Reasons for condemning human sacrifice Human sacrifice was an act of idolatry. It indicated infidelity of the Israelites to the one true God. It demonstrated Israels disrespect for the sacred gift of life. It showed their lack of knowledge of the true nature of Yahweh. Human sacrifice defiled the land for life is in the blood. Blood speaks hence the land was crying at this vengeance. God did not ask for human sacrifices. Human sacrifice was a sign of lack of love of God and love for one another. It is a demonstration of disregard for human life. Only God has the right to take away life. In our country people kill each other every day especially on the road. Why do we do this? ----- 327 v. Idolatry Idolatry is the worship of many gods. Idols are images made by people for worship. The Israelites practiced syncretism, which we said was the worship of Yahweh and idols. The people of Israel were worshipping Baal the Queen of heaven, sun, moon, stars, and also Yahweh Jer 8:2 . Idols were placed even in Yahwehs sacred places. The temple was defiled by idols. This the temple unclean. Jeremiah condemned it. He told the people of Israel that they have forsaken the fountain of living waters GOD and hewn out for themselves broken cisterns IDOLs that can hold no water Jer 2: 11-13 . Why did Jeremiah condemn idolatry? Read Jer 2: 20, 2:1- 3, 5: 7- 8. Idolatry is like adultery and prostitution. It defiled people and was a sign of lack of faith in Yahweh. It defiled the land. Idolatry led to divine judgment and punishment. People of Judah abandoned Yahweh the Husband and chased lovers the idols and deities The Israelites Northern kingdom had been punished before and yet Judah did not learn from them. By worshipping idols Judah broke the covenant and their relationship with God. And unless the people of Judah repented, they would be punished; as there is only one true living God to be worshipped and obeyed. Is there idolatry among Christians todays vi. Other evils condemned by Jeremiah People of Judah trusted that the temple was secure, holy and cannot be destroyed. Jeremiah denounced ----- 328 this false belief about the temple. He warned them that God would destroy the temple because of the many evils committed in it. The temple of God had become a den of robbers and human sacrifices. People of Judah committed other evils such as hypocrisy Jer 7; 9-10 ; social injustice adultery, murder , stubbornness, and rebellion. vi. The temple Temple is a place of worship. The temple of Israelites was in Jerusalem. It signified the presence of God among his people. The Israelites believed God could never destroy or allow destruction of the temple. Jeremiah stood at the gates of the temple court during Jehuiakims reign, and Judah that God would destroy the temple and send them to exile. He urged them to repent and turn back to God. King Josiah heard the message of Jeremiah and he reformed religious practices in Judah. vii. Religions reforms carried out by King Josiah This topic is not clearly spelt out in the syllabus. It is based on the book of Deuteronomy. The scroll was discovered in the temple during repairs. Josiah ordered the repair of the temple of God. He led a national ceremony to review the covenant. He destroyed idols and altars associated with the worship of foreign deities throughout Judah. He eliminated all the priests associated with the worship of false deities. He celebrated Passover in Jerusalem. The successors of King Josiah did not follow his example. They became corrupt. They ----- 329 persecuted the prophets of God. They listened to false prophets. They promoted idolatry and child sacrifice. viii. The Relevance of Jeremiahs teachings to Christians today. Christians should denounce hypocrisy in the society today. They should not result to witchcraft, divination and sorcery. They should be upright, and worship God in sincerity. They are to proclaim divine judgment upon those who refuse to obey Gods will, just like Jeremiah declared Gods judgment upon Judah due to the sins of the people. Like Jeremiah, Christians should speak out against modern idols like love of money, power, obsession with sports, sex, and drugs among other evils. Christians should condemn destruction of human life, violence; murder, abortion, parents killing their own children, genocide and exploitation of the poor. Christians should be aware of the existence of false teachings and prophecies. They should pray for Gods guidance and wisdom to be able to distinguish truth from false teaching. Christians have a responsibility to correct one another and call on sinners to repent. Christians are to be trustworthy, upright, and merciful to the poor and condemn dishonesty. They should practice justice in their relationship with others; preach against disobedience, stubbornness and pray to God to help them overcome these vices. Read these review questions and answer before reading answers 1. Why was Jeremiah reluctant to accept the call? 2. Which evils / sins did Jeremiah Condemn?. ----- 330 3. Give examples of idol worship in Kenya. 4. Describe Jeremiahs temple sermon SAQ answer. 1. Jeremiah felt inadequate because he was too young to work for God. He argued that he did not know how to speak. He was afraid. He knew he would face stiff opposition from the people of Judah. The message of Gods judgments is difficult to deliver. 2. Read text again and look for evils and sins that Jeremiah condemned. 3. Examples of idol worship in Kenya are many. Some people including Christians practice witchcraft, sorcery, personality cults and hero worship of religions and political leaders. Other people, worship money, materialism, media, and sports obsession with power / status Sexual immorality devil worship 4. Jeremiahs temple sermon. Read text again. LESSON THREE. JEREMIAHS TEACHINGS ON JUDGMENT AND PUNISHMENT Read Jeremiah 5:12-18, 6;1-30, 7:30, 8:1-17, 10: 17-25, 15;1-9, 17:1-13, 25: 1-38 Learning Outcomes. By the end of this topic, you should be able to: - a Summarize in two paragraphs Jeremiah key teachings. b Explain the significance of symbolic acts related to judgement and punishment. c Describe suffering and lamentations of Jeremiah d Explain the teachings of Jeremiah on the new covenant. a. Jeremiah teachings. Sin was internalise in the hearts of the people of Judah. God punished them. God punishes people because of their unfaithfulness. Punishment is a penalty, for an offence or a crime ----- 331 committed. But in punishing people, God is a just judge. He does not punish people without a reason irrespective of their status. God judges people by looking into their hearts. Divine judgment is for a group. For example, the people of Judah were punished as a group. However God searches each persons heart and judges accordingly. God executes His judgment by means of political and historical events. Divine punishments are in forms of natural disasters like drought, famine, and epidemics. Gods punishment is unavoidable, and inescapable. Judah took the best option by surrendering to the Babylonians. The purpose for Gods judgement is to correct the sinner. God gave his people a chance to repent before he punished them. Gods judgment is universal. It is not limited to one nation. God punished the neighbours of Judah who at that time were Egypt, Moab, Ammon, and Babylon. Gods punishment is severe compared to that of venomous snakes that bite the people of Judah. Gods judgement is not necessarily a punishment from God for ones sins. It is symbolic. The sufferings of Jeremiah were symbolic of the life of the people of Judah. What can we learn about Gods punishments? Are modern disasters such as cyclones, floods, earthquakes, landslides, epidemics, bomb blasts, civil wars, forest fires, rebellions in schools a sign of Gods judgment and punishment? What do you think? ----- 332 b. Symbolic acts related to judgement and punishment People use several methods to convey messages to each other. We use songs, advertisements, dramas, and stories by the fireside, in novels, the Internet, and magazines to communicate messages about children, adults, society, political leaders, poverty and many others. The prophets used: 1 . Oracles; Thus says the Lord; 2 Allegories 3 Parables 4 Songs 5 Symbolic Visions 6 Symbolic actions and 7 dramatized messages Symbolic acts of Jeremiah i The linen waist cloth Jer.13 ii Jeremiahs personal life Jer.16 iii Jeremiahs visit to a potter Jer.18 iv The broken earthen flask Jer.19 v The symbolic vision of 2 baskets of figs Jer.24 vi The wearing of the yoke i. The Linen Waist Cloth. Read Jer.13 Jeremiah was instructed by God to buy a linen waistcloth and wear it around his waist without dipping it in water. He was told to hide the cloth in a hole near river Euphrates. Afterwards he was told to take the cloth. He found it spoilt for wearing. Significance. The liner material was for priestly garments in Israel. It symbolized Israels holiness. The unwashed cloth represented Judahs sinful pride. Israel used to cling close to God but now Israel / Judah were spoilt, rebellious, arrogant and pursued foreign gods. God was going to destroy them if they did ----- 333 not repent. The spoilt linen waistcloth was a symbol for future Gods action. ii. Jeremiahs personal Life. Read Jer 16. His life was a symbolic act. He was told not to marry, have children, and nor attend funerals, social gatherings, feasts and wedding parties. Significance. The personal life of Jeremiah was one of suffering. This signified the suffering that the people of Judah would be subjected to. Judah was punished because of their wickedness and rebellion. Jeremiahs loneliness signified the perishing of families through the sword, famine and disease. It would be a time of terror for the families of Judah. Their normal social life of feasting, merry making would come to an end. There would be no weddings and no one to bury the dead. Hence Jeremiah was forbidden from mourning for the dead. iii. Jeremiahs at the potters house Jer.18 Jeremiah was told to go to a potters house. He found the potter making a clay vessel. Whenever a piece of pottery turned out imperfect, he would take the clay and make it into something else 18: 4 . The potter made a better pot, more perfect vessel than the spoilt one. Significance. God is the potter. People of Judah are the clay. As the potter destroyed to vessel, God intended to destroy Judah because of their wickedness and mould those who repented into better people. God was going to shape them into faithful people. Gods judgement was to be a corrective punishment. ----- 334 iv. The broken clay Jar. Read Jer.19. God told Jeremiah to buy a clay flask He then took some elders and priests to the valley of Valley of Hinnon. He delivered a sermon condemning the people of Judah for their idolatry and other evils. Jeremiah then broke the clay jar in their presence and announced to them that Yahweh would destroy Jerusalem and Judah as Jeremiah had destroyed the jar. Significance. The kings, priests and prophets of Judah would be shattered like the clay flask because of their sins. Sine, they brutally sacrificed their children; they are to suffer horrifying experiences at the hand of their enemies. They shall suffer starvation and turn into cannibals; eating their own children and neighbours v.9 . Broken pieces of a clay pot cannot be moulded. No one was to escape judgment. However there is hope after punishment. v. Two Baskets of Figs Jer.24 . Jeremiah received the visions, after the deportation and exile of leading citizens of Judah and Israel to Babylon. Two baskets of figs were placed in front of the temple. One basket had very good figs, which had ripened. The other basket had bad figs unfit for human consumption. Significance. The basket of good figs signified the first exile. God would renew their hearts; use them to fulfil his promises to the Israelites. He would recreate them to a new people. The basket of the bad figs ----- 335 represented people living in Jerusalem and Egypt. Since they were not exiled they had a self-righteous attitude. They thought that God spared them because they were truthful but it was not so. They shall also be destroyed through famine, and diseases. This vision signifies hope and restoration of the Israelites. vi. Jeremiah Wears an Ox Yoke. Read Jer. 27. When Zedekiah son of Josiah became the ruler of Judah, Jeremiah was instructed by God to make for himself a yoke out of leather straps and wooden crossbars and to wear it around his neck 27: 2 . Jeremiah moved around in the yoke for quite sometime in public. He was also given a message for ambassadors of kings of Edom, Moab, Ammon, Tyre, and Sidon, who were coming to see King Zedekiah in Jerusalem. They were to give Gods message to their kings. The message was to submit to King Nebuchadnezzar of Babylonia; his son, and his grandson. Any nation that accepted this message shall not suffer; but if any nation ..will no submit to King Nebuchadnezzar of Babylonia rule, God will punish that nation by war, starvation and disease Read Jer 27:6-8. The message for king Zedekiah was to surrender to the Babylonian rule and live, if he resists he would perish. The message for priests and people of Judah was not to be misled by the false prophets. The temple would be destroyed. Its treasures looted by the Babylonians. ----- 336 Significance. The yoke represented the Babylonians rule. Nebuchadnezzar was used by God to bring judgment to all nations. Yahweh is a universal God and his judgment is universal. Sinners are punished regardless of their origin or nation. Those who repent are spared. Reflection questions Why did God inspire Jeremiah to use symbolic acts to convey his message? Answer Israelites were stubborn. Jeremiah acts were reminders to Judah to turn to God and stop idolatry and all the sins they were committing. They had drifted too far from God. False prophets were prophesying lies to them. The people of Judah were expected to meditate on these acts and understand Gods will for them and see the seriousness of the matter. This was also to imprint a lasting impression in their minds. SAQ. Which methods do pastors / priests use to communicate Gods message to Christians today? c. The sufferings and lamentations of Jeremiah Read Jer 11, 12, 17:14 18, 18:18- 23, 20: 1 6, 27, 37, and 38. Jeremiah sufferings were experiences that were painful; physically and emotionally. In suffering there is loss and grief. Lamentations are strong emotional expressions of pain and grief. Jeremiah suffered in the following ways I. Rejection by his own family and relatives. They plotted to kill him. This grieved Jeremiah. II. Anathoth planned to kill him but God protected Jeremiah. He pronounced Gods judgment upon them ----- 337 III. Jeremiah suffered when he was accused falsely. He was accused of blasphemy after the temple sermon. He foretold the destruction of the temple, just like Jesus Christ in the New Testament did. IV. He was accused of treachery. That he was planning to leave Jerusalem and join the Babylonians. This led to Jeremiah being arrested and put in an underground jail. V. Jeremiah received death threats because of speaking for God. King Jehoiakim plotted to kill prophet Uriah. The prophet escaped to Egypt but he was followed to Egypt, arrested and killed by king Jehoiakim. The king had planned to accuse Jeremiah of Uriah death. Ahikam and other elders defended Jeremiah. Jeremiah 26 VI. Jeremiah suffered loneliness and solitude. He felt emotional anguish and complained to God of his orders not to marry, neither attend social gathering and celebrations. This made Jeremiah lonely since he did not participate in the family life, political life, community activities and religious life. VII. Jeremiah experienced inner personal struggle due to his love for his own people He did not want to see them suffer but the people were stubborn Read Jer. 12:1 6, 15:10 21, and 27. VIII. Jeremiahs prophesying judgment caused him emotional pain and agony. His messages were mainly of severe judgment and punishment. IX. He went through a spiritual struggle in his relationship with God. He felt frustrations, doubts, self-pity ----- 338 and despair. He wondered why God made him suffer. Why do the wicked prosper? He also wondered why God was taking too long to fulfil his prophecies. God assured him that Judah would be punished and promised to give Jeremiah victory against his enemies. X. Jeremiah suffered physical assault, imprisonment and an attempt on his life. Pashhur, the chief temple priest ordered beating and chaining of Jeremiah to the temple gate. Jeremiah prophesied that Pashshurs name would change to terror everywhere. XI. King Zedekiah released Jeremiah from the cell to his court. Jeremiah continued to prophecy and was thrown in a muddy cistern. Here he was rescued by Ebed- melech an Ethiopian Eunuch. The court officials had accused him of not being patriotic. Jeremiah remained in jail until the Babylonians overthrew Jerusalem. He did not change his prophecies. Read Jer. 10:1 6, 27, 37, and 38. Is there relevance of the sufferings and lamentations of Jeremiah to Christians today? From his suffering Christians learn to be ready to face opposition and rejection from their own family members and relatives for the sake of the gospel. Christians should be prepared to suffer persecution for the Lord. Christians should be ready to make sacrifices for the sake of God. Be ready to lead humble lives. Jeremiahs open confessions to God encourage Christians to be open to God. Christians should let God avenge for them just like Jeremiah prayed to God to revenge his enemies. Christians should not lose ----- 339 hope in times of difficulty. Christians learn that tribulations strengthen their faith. Christians should learn to deal with negative emotions such as self pity, grief and trust God. Jeremiah was told by God to repent of his negative utterances. Christians should do the same as they are assured of divine security and protection against their persecutors. LESSON FOUR. JEREMIAHS TEACHING ABOUT THE NEW COVENANT A covenant is an agreement. Another word for covenant is testament. Jeremiah taught that there would be a new covenant between God and Israel. This new covenant would be different from the Old Sinai covenant. The new covenant would renew the broken relationship between God and his people. Lesson outcomes. After reading Jeremiahs teaching: a. State the terms of the new covenant. b. Identify the differences between the old covenant and the new covenant c. Summarize the similarities between the old covenant and the new covenant a. The New Covenant. In the new covenant, the law would be written in the hearts of the people unlike the old covenant where the law was written on stone tablets. Every individual would know God personally and not through prophets as it was during times of Jeremiah and previous one. Each person would be responsible for his/her sins. God would forgive sins and remember them no more. The new covenant would be established after Gods punishment of Israel and establishing a new Israel, a new ----- 340 people of God. The new covenant would establish a new beginning. People would forget the first Exodus. The second Exodus would be deliverance and restoration from Babylon. God would initiate the new covenant as he did with the first. It would be a new covenant of peace, unity, prosperity, Joy and gladness. In the new covenant a righteous branch would be established. The new covenant would be everlasting. It would not be broken again. b. Differences between the old covenant and the new covenant Old Covenant New Covenant 1. Based on law Based on faith 2. Word written on stone tablets Word written in peoples hearts 3. God known personally by a few priests prophets and prophets Each to person to know God personally 4. Covenant broken when people sinned Everlasting covenant 5. Sins punished collectively Sins punished individually 6. 1st Exodus from Egypt 2nd Exodus from Babylon 7. Sealed by animal sacrifice Sealed by Jesus sacrifice blood What are the similarities between the old and the new covenant? Jesus fulfilled the new covenant. Jesus is the righteous branch from the lineage of David. In the last supper, before his death, Jesus said this cup which is poured out for you is the new covenant in my blood. Read Luke, 22:20. The death and resurrection of Jesus marks the new covenant. Jesus spoke of forgiveness of sins of humanity Jesus forgave peoples sins, for example, the sinful woman in Simons house Luke7: 36 50 . In the new ----- 341 covenant the law would be written in peoples hearts. Jesus summarized the Mosaic Law into love God with all your heart, mind, strength and love your neighbour as you love yourself. Jesus established the kingdom of God as a new community of Gods people based on faith the Christians . Jesus fulfilled the new covenant prophecies The teachings of Jeremiah new covenant of hope and restoration is fulfilled in Jesus Christ and the new testament church Christians Heb.8:7 12. LESSON FIVE. JEREMIAHS TEACHINGS ON HOPE AND RESTORATION Learning Outcomes a Explain the symbolic acts related to hope and restoration b Describe the fall of Jerusalem and the exile of the Israelites c Relate the relationship of the teachings of Jeremiah to the New Testament and Christian life today. A. Symbolic acts related to hope and restoration. The symbolic acts were one hope and restore. Hope is to expect something that is desired; while to restore is to bring back as nearly as possible the former or original state or condition. The symbolic acts were 5 in number. The first symbolic act was a vision of 2 baskets of figs. We have discussed it. Refer to the symbolic act related to judgment. The second symbolic act was Jeremiah buying a field. God instructed Jeremiah to buy a field from his cousin Hanamel of Anathoth. Jeremiah bought the field for 17 cents of silver. He then handed the title ----- 342 deed and open copy to Baruch. Baruch was told to keep the title deed and the copy in an earthen vessel for preservation for a long time. Jeremiah prophesied the restoration of the exiles to their homeland. The significance of this symbolic act is the assurance of restoration of Judah and Israel after suffering. People will be restored to their homeland. After 70 years people of Judah would reconstruct their homes, cultivate their land, and own property Jer 32; 1 -15 . The third symbolic act was Jeremiah letter to the Jews in Babylonia. Jeremiah wrote to the people of Judah a letter of encouragement while in exile. They were to settle down, build houses, marry and have children, live in peace with the Babylonians. They were to pray for the welfare of their masters and to ignore false prophets who lied to them about the safety of Jerusalem and a quick return. God would restore them back to their land after 70 years of exile were over. The exiles were to trust in God and not give up Jer.29 . The four symbolic act was a wooden ox yoke. The yoke represented captivity and suffering of Jews in exile. It was also a sign of hope if the people of Judah were willing to submit to the Babylonian rule. God would restore them back to their land. Their yoke would be broken and they would be set free. The fifth symbolic act was the visit to the porters house b. The fall of Jerusalem and the exile of the Israelites Jer.39 Jeremiahs prophecy came to pass. Jerusalem fell to the Babylonians in the ninth year of king Zedekiah ----- 343 in 587BC. The Babylonians conquered Jerusalem and seized it. King Zedekiah fled but; he was captured by the Babylonians army. He witnessed the execution of his sons. His eyes were gauged out. He was then taken in chains to captivity in Babylon. Solomons temple was looted and destroyed. Villages, Jerusalem and the palace were destroyed and burnt down. The priests, court officials, army officials, people in the upper class, craftsmen were executed. City people were taken to Babylon as captives. The poor, aged and a few people were left behind and given vineyards to farm. Nebuchadnezzars army was brutal to the Israelites. Many were killed. A few like Ebed Melech were spared as prophesied by Jeremiah he had rescued him from the well . Nebuchadnezzar ordered the release of Jeremiah. He was treated well Judah became a province of Babylon. Gedaliah was appointed governor of Judah. He stayed at Mizpah, the headquarters of Judah. Ishmael killed Gedaliah. Later Jeremiah was forced to go to Egypt by the Israelites. Jeremiah died in Egypt, an old man, and still faithful to his call. LESSON SIX. RELATING THE TEACHINGS OF JEREMIAH TO THE NEW TESTAMENT AND CHRISTIAN LIFE TODAY Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - 1.Describe the teachings of Jeremiah in relation to Christian life today 2. Describe the teachings of Jeremiah in relation to the new testament Jeremiah was rejected by his; relatives, friends and the Israelites. In the New Testament, Jesus was ----- 344 rejected in his hometown of Nazareth: and by the religious leaders of Israel. Jeremiah compared himself to a lamb being led to the slaughter. Jesus in the New Testament is referred to as a lamb led to the slaughter. Jeremiahs suffering symbolizes divine judgment over Judah. However Jesus sufferings was to bring salvation to all mankind. Both Jeremiah and Jesus experienced spiritual agony. Jeremiah experience agony and felt left alone by God. Jesus too felt agony when praying in the garden of Gethsemane and when on the cross. Jeremiah taught that God is universal and a just judge. The gospel of Jesus is universal and everybody is judged according to his or her faith in God. Jeremiah and Jesus accused the Israelites of turning the temple into a den of robbers. Jeremiah and Jesus were both accused of blasphemy. Both challenged false beliefs about the temple. Both Jeremiah and Jesus spoke of the coming judgment of God. The new covenant was fulfilled in the life and ministry of Jesus Christ Jeremiah spoke of hope and restoration. Jesus gives hope of eternal life in the New Testament. ii. Relationship of Jeremiahs teaching to Christian today. Christians are to preach the gospel of Jesus Christ. They are empowered by the Holy Spirit to endure suffering and to grow spiritually. Christians like Jeremiah face false prophets who speak in Jesus name. Christians are to be watchful and obey Yahweh Like Jeremiah Christians should call people to repentance. The new covenant is fulfilled in Christians ----- 345 individual relationship with God. Christians are the new people, the new Israel as prophesied by Jeremiah. His teachings reveal that God is universal. Christians are from all corners of the earth. Christians should prepare for divine judgment by practicing love, righteousness, self-denial, and faith in God. Revision exercise 1. List the evils that Jeremiah condemned 2.What are some of the evils that church leaders condemn today? 3. Explain the symbolism used during the call of prophet Jeremiah 4. What did Jeremiah teach about the new covenant? 5. Why did prophet Jeremiah condemn the way the Israelites worshipped? 6. Explain Jeremiahs temple sermon as recorded in jeremiah7: 1-15 7. What forms of punishment did Jeremiah prophesy that God would use on Judah? 8. Outline the content of Jeremiahs letter to exiles in Babylon 9. Explain four symbolic acts related to judgement and punishment as demonstrated by prophet Jeremiah 10. Identify the relevance of Jeremiahs teaching to Christians today 11. In what ways is the prophetic mission of Jeremiah similar to that of Jesus? TOPIC SIX. NEHEMIAH Introduction The book of Nehemiah is a historical writing. Nehemiah is a record of his deep dependence on God and his frequent prayer to God. Nehemiah means Yahweh has comforted. Nehemiah was the son of ----- 346 Hacaliah of Judah. He was not a prophet. He was exiled to Babylon. Persians captured Babylon and improved the living condition of the Israelites. They were allowed religious freedom but had to pay tributes. Learning outcomes. By the end of this topic you should be able to; a. Describe the historical, religious and social background to Nehemiah b. Identify occasions when Nehemiah prayed c. Explain the importance of prayer in Christian life D .Describe leadership qualities of Nehemiah and relevance to Christians today. LESSON ONE. BACKGROUND TO NEHEMIAH Learning outcomes. After reading this lesson, i. Describe how the people of Judah lived and worshipped. ii. Explain the conquest of Israel and Judah by foreign forces iii. Give reasons why God allowed Judah and Israel to be conquered and exiled. a. Political and historical background. From 587 BC to 538 BC, Israelites were in exile. In 538 B.C., the first group of Israelites was set free and returned to Judah. Cyrus the Great, of Persia ruled his subjects through governors. They were led out of Babylon by Joshua the high priest and Zerubbabel who became the first governor of Judah. Some Jews remained in Babylon. They were referred to as Jews in Diaspora or dispersion. Other Jews remained in other lands including Egypt, and Mediterranean lands Nehemiah. He was a cupbearer in the palace of the Persian king Artaxerxes I. He later became a ----- 347 governor of Judah. Even after the rebuilding of the wall of Jerusalem, Israelites remained subjects of the Persian king. The Wall of Jerusalem was important to Israel and Judah. The Wall represented a sense of pride, ownership, privacy, independence and Security. The Greeks conquered the Persians; who were later conquered by Romans. b. Social background The Jews in foreign lands retained their Jewish way of life. The land of Israel was partly occupied by foreigners. The foreign cultures of neighboring rulers influenced Israelites who returned. They for example, intermarried with foreigners, a custom that God did not allow. Israelites were not to intermarry with other people according to the Mosaic Law. In spite of this however, Jews maintained their separated identity. Some of the foreigners despised Jews. The wealthy Jews oppressed the poor Jews. In Jerusalem there was starvation. Nehemiah condemned oppression of the poor. c. Religious background Jews returned to rebuild the temple of Jerusalem and the altar of God for sacrifices. While in exile, Jews were allowed by the Babylonian king to practice their religion. They worshipped Yahweh, practiced circumcision, obeyed dietary laws and observed the Sabbath. The exiles could not however observe all the religious practices for example offering animal sacrifices. ----- 348 Nehemiah returned to Jerusalem to rebuild its the wall. The temple of Jerusalem was rebuilt, cleared and dedicated to God. LESSON TWO. Prayers by Nehemiah and modern Christians Learning outcomes. After reading this lesson the learner should be able to: a. Outline occasions when Nehemiah prayed to the Lord. b. Discuss the importance of prayer Nehemiah prayed, mourned, and fasted. He prayed often and for all actions, keeping Gods law, forgiveness, punishments, human relations, Jerusalem, good works, contributions and offerings, observance of Sabbath day, and preparing duty allocations for priests and Levites. . i. When he learnt about the suffering of Jews who remained in Judah and the ruined state of Jerusalem; He prayed for forgiveness on behalf of his people Neh.4: 1 11 . ii. Making a request to King Artaxerxes to be permitted to return to Judah Neh.2: 4 iii. When his enemies ridiculed the Jews and planned to discourage them from rebuilding the wall of Jerusalem. Tobiah in particular said that the wall was poorly constructed and it could be brought down by; a fox jumping on it. Nehemiah requested God to punish the enemies who were mocking temple builders Neh.4: 4 5 . iv. When he learnt that his enemies were conspiring to attack Jerusalem to stop the construction work, he prayed and organised people to provide a 24-hour guard of the wall Neh.4: 7 9 . ----- 349 .v. For his good work, he prayed for his works Neh 5:19 . vi. When his enemies plotted to destroy him, he prayed God for strength and courage to overcome his enemies Neh 6: 19 . vii. When Shemaih attempted to frighten him to hide in the temple claiming that there was a plot to kill him, Nehemiah prayed and asked God to punish his enemies Neh 6:14 . viii. When he organized contributions for Levites and musicians; and people to distribute them. He asked God to remember his work for the house of God Neh 13:14 . ix. He stopped trade on the Sabbath day, and organised rest on the Sabbath day. He warned traders against violating the Sabbath law. He asked Lord to remember him for these actions Neh.13: 22 . x. Nehemiah prayed for punishment of the son of Joiada. The son of Joiada had brought disgrace to the priest hood by marrying a foreigner, the daughter of Sanballat from the town of Beth Horon, Neh 13:29 . After cleansing the Israelites of foreign influence, he forbade mixed marriages xi. He prepared duty regulations for priests and Levites. He allocated them duties. He then organised Jews to bring offerings for maintaining priests and Levites. He prayed God to remember his work for the temple, priests and Levites Neh 13:31 . b. Importance of prayer in Christian life Through prayers, Christians express their faith in God and praise God for his greatness, goodness, holiness, and majesty. Prayer brings Christians closer to God; it strengthens their relationship with God. ----- 350 Through prayer Christians request for their needs, blessings, success, good health, and protection among other requests. Prayers help Christians to listen to God and to seek his will. Prayer is a source of strength. It gives Christians courage to face and overcome lifes challenges. Christians seek guidance, comfort and support in times of trials. In prayer, Christians intercede for the sick, poor, hungry, prisoners, friends, family and community. The communal / public prayers unite Christians together. Through prayers, Christians ask for forgiveness and the ability to forgive others. In prayers, Christians trust that God listens and answers their prayers. LESSON THREE: LEADERSHIP QUALITIES OF NEHEMIAH Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - 1. State the leadership qualities of Nehemiah 2. Explain the relevance of Nehemiahs leadership qualities to Christians today Introduction. A leader is someone charged with the responsibility of guiding, controlling, directing and leading others. Nehemiah had many leadership qualities. These were: - 1 God fearing man. Nehemiah feared God, relied and depended on God. 2 Prayerfulness he prayed constantly before and after making decisions. 3 Courageous He displayed courage even when his life was in danger 4 Hard work and commitment. He was dedicated to the rebuilding of the wall of the temple and Jerusalem. 5 Team spirit he was a team leader, motivating people to work. ----- 351 6 He had planning and organizational skills 7 He was visionary He had compassion for the needy especially the poor, Levites and priests 9 He was patriotic loved his country 10 Wisdom. He made wise decisions at the right time. 11 He led by example, a role model 12 He was honest and sincere in his prayers 13 He was shrewd and impartial 14 His trusted God absolutely. 15 He was decisive. He told God about decisions he had made and asked for their recognition. 16 He was humble. He asked to be allowed to return to Jerusalem and oversee the repair of its wall and temple. 16 He believed in law and punishment of wrong doers. He asked God to punish lawbreakers especially Jews who married foreigners. b. Relevance of Nehemiahs leadership to Christians today Christians should copy all the leadership qualities of Nehemiah. They should trust in God and seek his guidance in all their activities and needs. 1. Christians should live a life of prayer 2. Christians should be courageous, be ready to defend the gospel of Jesus Christ. 3. Christians should be dedicated to their work. Work diligently and honestly 4. Christians should set realistic goals and organize their activities. 5. Christians should seek wisdom from God to be able to choose appropriate activities to attain their visions. ----- 352 6. Christians should care for the needy and be compassionate to all 7. Christians should be patriotic and ready to defend their country against internal / external threats. 8. Christians should need to fight for the rights of the helpless children, widows, orphans, and aged. 9. Christians should seek God first, view themselves as servants of God and be good role models. LESSON FOUR. BUILDING THE WALL OF JERUSALEM The wall of Jerusalem was destroyed when Babylonians conquered Judah. After finishing the wall, he dedicated it to the Lord. Dedication is to devote something in honor of a person held dear or to set aside something for some special purpose. Learning Outcomes. After reading this lesson, you should be able to: - a. Describe the problems that Nehemiah faced when building the wall of Jerusalem b. Describe the dedication of the wall of Jerusalem c. Identify lessons, which Christians can learn from Nehemiah. a. Nehemiah rebuilt the wall of Jerusalem. The rebuilt wall had several gates with different names. The gates were the entrances to Jerusalem. Their names were Dung gate, Potsherd gate, Fountain gate, Water gate, Horse gate, East gate, Sheep gate, Fish gate, Watch gate and Ephraim gate. Knowing the names of the gates may not be necessary but its good information. b. Problems faced by Nehemiah. When Nehemiah was building the wall of Jerusalem, he faced many challenges. There was lack of cooperation by the nobles of Tekoa. They did not want to do manual work ----- 353 at first but they later repented. Nehemiah faced opposition from enemies such as. Sanballat, and Tobiah, the Arab who tried to thwart the progress of Nehemiahs work. As he built Jerusalem, the rich oppressed the poor. This was worsened by famine The priests misused the temple and the offerings. For example, temple duties had been abandoned. The Levites were not getting their share of the offerings and the Sabbath was violated. There was laxity in observance of the Sabbath. This was a challenge to Nehemiah because Sabbath day should be kept holy. There was a lot of foreign influence because of the conquests by several foreign armies, intermarriages and interactions between Jews, neighboring people and foreigners. Marriages in particular threatened the identity of the Israelites as a nation. Worse still Priests married to foreign women defiled the priesthood according to Nehemiah. Because of these assimilations of Jews through marriages, Nehemiah knew that Israel and Judah would eventually be lost as Gods nation. Because of his opposition to these interactions, Nehemiah received death threats. c. Dedication of the wall of Jerusalem NEH. 12:27 47 The rebuilt wall was dedicated to God. The wall restored security and prestige of Gods people. The wall of Jerusalem was set-aside for God in a solemn ceremony. There was a dedication ceremony in which people sung with symbols, harps, lyres, trumpets and other instruments. The priests, and Levites purified themselves. ----- 354 The people led by Ezra, Nehemiah, the priests and other leaders of Judah walked around the wall. They divided themselves into two groups. One group walked from the right side and the other group from the left side and converged at the temple. Sacrifices were offered and people rejoiced. Some men were appointed to be in charge of the storehouses; where tithes, and first fruits of harvest were kept. d. Relevance of Nehemiahs experience to Christians today Christians should expect opposition, as did Nehemiah. They should not be afraid of being ridiculed, mocked and despised. If it happens, Christians should persevere in Gods work. They should put their trust in God like Nehemiah did. They should also fight for the welfare of the disadvantaged groups and not exploit them. They have a moral obligation to condemn injustice and take practical steps to help solve problems that afflict individuals, groups, nations, and society. They should be in the forefront fighting HIV/ AIDS and drug abuse. Christians should be on the look out for external influence that may corrupt morals of the society and the church. They should learn that leadership involves suffering, persecution, and sacrifices. This is foregoing personal interests for the sake of the kingdom of God. LESSON FIVE: RENEWAL OF THE COVENANT Learning outcomes. After reading this lesson, you should be able to: - i. List the stages followed to renew the covenant. ii. Identify issues that Ezra mentioned in his prayer ----- 355 iii. List the vows that were made by the Israelites during renewal of the covenant i. Stages of the renewal of the covenant. Israelites were the chosen people of God. They had suffered many hardships. There was therefore a need for the renewal of the covenant between God and Israelites. The ceremony to renewal the covenant was held in Jerusalem and was led by Ezra, the Levites and other religious leaders. The renewal of the covenant can be discussed in 3 main stages: Stage 1. A great public assembly was held in the square of Jerusalem inside the water gate. Gods law was read and expounded to the people. The people of Israel praised and worshipped God. They cried and grieved. They were sad because they realized that they had failed to observe the Mosaic Law. They were instructed to go and celebrate, as it was a holy day of God and an occasion for joy not sorrows. State 2. The feast of booths/tabernacle was celebrated for 7 days. It was a reminder of the days in the wilderness when the Israelites dwelt in tents. The Law of Moses was read each day during the celebrations. Stage 3. There was a public confession of sin. People fasted, prayed and praised God. The public confession was followed by the renewal of the covenant vows and a promise to keep Gods law in future. Ezras prayer closed the celebrations. In his prayer, he recalled Gods acts of creation. He then recounted ----- 356 the history of the Israelites. He mentioned the previous acts of God; where the Lord had demonstrated His love and mercy for the Israelites. He then confessed the sins of their ancestors and the present Israelites. These were the sins of rebellion and disobedience. ii. Promises and vows made by Israelites during the renewal of the covenant. Israelites promised God that they would Live according to Gods law, by obeying all his commands and requirements. Stop intermarrying with foreigners living in their land. Cancel debts every 7th year Contribute annually towards the temple expenses to ensure that the house of God was not neglected. Provide sacrifices and offerings for the temple and arrange for provision of wood for burnt sacrifices according to the law. Offer first fruits of their harvest and dedicate the first born and flocks as required by the law. Pay for their tithes as required by the law. Which lessons can we learn from the renewal of the covenant? God is good, loving, merciful, and faithful to his promises. God forgives all people and we are all sinners. We fail in our moral obligation to God and to one another. Since we are sinners, we should repent our sins and strive to live according to Gods law. Christians are to encourage one another as well as others to repent as it brings about reconciliation with God and with one another. ----- 357 Christians should be forgiving and avoid situations that lead them to sin SAQ. Check from form 1 work, this information. 1. Outline Nehemiahs final reforms 2. What is a covenant? 3. What are the components of a covenant? 4. Discuss how the covenant was renewed 5. List examples of covenants in the Old Testament and modern life. 6. Explain what Christians can learn from the experiences of Nehemiah 7. Compare or relate the teachings from Nehemiahs exemplary life to the teaching of St. Lukes Gospel and Christian life today. LESSON SIX: FINAL REFORMS OF NEHEMIAH Introduction. Changes for improvement are known as reforms, which are either political, economical, social, religious or a combination of any of them. Examples of reformers are King David, Prophet Elijah, and Martin Luther King among others. Nehemiah. After building the wall, Nehemiah went back to King Artaxerxes II who if you remember had given permission to go to Jerusalem and build its destroyed perimeter wall. Later he returned to Jerusalem and carried out these reforms. Lesson outcomes. After reading this lesson, you should be able to: a. List reforms of Nehemiah b. Suggest what we can learn from the teachings of Nehemiah and that of St. Lukes Gospel a. Reforms by Nehemiah. We have discussed reforms, which Nehemiah carried out during his stay in Judah, where he was the governor Neh 5:14 . The major reforms were i Rebuilding the wall of Jerusalem as well as its gates. ----- 358 ii Cleansing of the temple: Nehemiah threw him out Tobiah a foreigner who was living in the temple quarters. iii Reinstatement of the Levites and other temple workers. Levites, and musicians had left the temple duties to work in their farms to earn a livelihood. They were supposed to work in the temple and be supported by member contributions. Nehemiah organised Jews to make offerings and tithes to support temple workers. With these contributions, Nehemiah reinstated and redeployed Levites, priests, musicians and other temple workers. iv Reform of the Sabbath observance. The Israelites were told by the Lord to work for 6 days and rest on the Sabbath day. The Jews started working on the Sabbath day. The merchants camped outside waiting for the reopening of the gates of the temple to do business. When Nehemiah started rebuilding Jerusalem, he ordered closure of the gates of Jerusalem from the eve of Sabbath to the end of the Sabbath. v Separations from foreigners Neh.13: 23 30 . It was against Gods law to marry foreigners. Nehemiah cursed the men who had married foreign wives. He beat Jews, pulled their hair and forced them to take oaths that neither they, nor their sons nor daughters shall intermarry. vi Purification of priesthood and the office of the Levites. Nehemiah cleansed the priesthood. He sent away Eliashib, a grandson of the High Priest Joshua, because he had given Tobiah a foreigner, a room in ----- 359 the temple. b. Comparing teachings of Nehemiah and St. Lukes Gospel i Nehemiah lived a prayerful life while St. Lukes gospel emphasizes importance of prayer. Jesus taught the role of prayer in Christianity. ii Nehemiah fasted, St. Lukes gospel records that Jesus fasted. iii Nehemiah prayed for forgiveness of sinful Jews. We see Jesus in St. Lukes gospel being a leader who prayed for the forgiveness of his enemies. iv Nehemiah cared for the needy. Jesus showed compassion to the needy and taught his followers to follow His example. v Nehemiah condemned evil so did Jesus vi Nehemiah is seen as a reformer of the Mosaic Law. In St Luke Gospel, Jesus was also a reformer. He insisted on inner holiness. vii Nehemiah cleansed the temple of traders so did Jesus. viii Nehemiah was very strict on the Sabbath observance. St. Lukes gospel teaches that Jesus is lord over Sabbath. He healed and Worked on Sabbath. ix Nehemiah was opposed to racial intermarriages, St. Luke Gospel was dedicated to Theophilus, a gentile convert x Christianity kingdom of God in St. Lukes gospel is for all, not just the Jews. xi. Nehemiah had good leadership skills and wisdom. These are demonstrated in St Luke Gospel. c. Relating Nehemiahs teachings to Christian life today i Prayers and fasting are fundamental to Christians just like they were to Nehemiah who led a prayerful ----- 360 life. ii Nehemiahs example teaches Christians to face all forms of opposition with courage, wisdom, and firmness iii The good leadership qualities of Nehemiah are relevant to Christians and they are to be emulated. iv Nehemiah cared for the needy. Christians should learn to give spiritual food, physical food and clothing to the needy, orphans, widows. v As Nehemiah renewed the covenant, Christians should seek spiritual renewal publicly and privately. They should seek for communal as well as individual forgiveness. vi Nehemiah cleansing the temple and organised an inventory for temple contributions, offerings and tithes. He also appointed key people to look after temple contributions and pay Levites and priests. Christians should learn to use the church buildings and contributions rightly vii Nehemiah was guided by the Law of Moses and land just like Christians are guided by the scriptures Bible and the law of the nation. The Bible is the source and basis of Christian principles. Revision questions 1. Describe the political background of Nehemiah 2. Describe the social background to the vocation of Nehemiah 3. Describe the religious background to the vocation of Nehemiah 4. Describe occasions when Nehemiah prayed 5. State occasions when Christians pray 6. What is the importance of prayer in Christian life? 7. Identify the leadership of Nehemiahs patriotism ----- 361 8. Explain the relevance of Nehemiahs leadership to a Christian today 9. Explain the relevance of Nehemiahs experience to Christians today 10. explain the problems that Nehemiah encountered in his vocation 11. Explain the steps taken by Nehemiah to renew the covenant 12. State the promises the Israelites made during the renewal of the covenant Study activities. Visit a church or your church and observe the display of the gifts of the Holy Spirit by the members. Study the books of Amos, Jeremiah and Nehemiah before hand. Form three answers. TOPIC ONE: THE GIFTS OF THE HOLY SPIRIT. Qn a. Explain the meaning of the Pentecost. Pentecost means fifty days after the harvest. It was one of the religious festivals celebrated by Israelites annually. In the Old Testament, the day of the Pentecost was celebrated during the wheat harvest in order to thank god for the blessing of the harvest. Israelites came from all over the world and gathered in Jerusalem for this celebration. In the New Testament, the meaning of the festival changed. It was celebrated to commemorate the coming of the Holy Spirit upon Gods people as they gathered in the upper room. Qn b. Describe the manifestations of the Holy Spirit on the day of Pentecost. Acts 2: 1-40 OR narrate the events that took place on the day of Pentecost . Disciples gathered in a room. Sounds came from heaven like a rush of mighty wind and filled the house. There appeared tongues of fire. ----- 362 The tongues of fire were distributed on each one of them. They were filled with the Holy Spirit. They were speaking in foreign languages and tongues. Those who were observing them were amazed, as they could not understand what they were saying. They accused them of being drunk Peter stood up and explained that they were not drunk as it was too early in the day to get drunk. He explained how they were filled with the Holy Spirit as prophesied by prophet Joel. He told them that it was Jesus whom they had rejected and crucified who had sent them the Holy Spirit. The people asked peter what they could do. Peter told them to repent and be baptized. On that day about 3000 people were added to the church. Qn c. write down five teachings we learn about Jesus from Peters speech on the day of Pentecost. Jesus was from Nazareth He had a divine nature or was son of God He had a human nature He was attested by God to work miracles and wonders through Jesus. Jesus death/ crucifixion was according to Gods plan God raised Jesus from the dead Jesus conquered death The death and resurrection of Jesus fulfils the prophecy of David Jesus was a descendant of David The Holy Spirit was from Jesus Christ as he had promised. God has made Jesus Christ both lord and Christ/ messiah Jesus ascended into heaven. He is exalted at the right hand of God ----- 363 The risen Christ is a source if hope or salvation to many sinners/crippled/the dead Qn d. What were the qualities of peter that made him a successful leader for the apostolic church? He was a man of great faith He was a good orator He dedicated his life to Jesus He was filled with the holy spirit He could perform miracles or wonders He was an eye- witness of the ministry of Jesus Christ. He was full of wisdom and knowledge i.e. Ananias and Saphiras case Qn e. what lessons can Christians learn fro the events of the day of Pentecost They learn that Jesus always honors and keeps his promises e.g. he promised to send the Holy spirit and did it Baptism in the holy spirit is very important for every believer That obedience yields immediate results i.e. the disciples obeyed Jesus by testifying in Jerusalem and they received the Holy Spirit. It is important for believers to meet for fellowship. The disciples did this and they received the Holy Spirit That the Holy Spirit enables Christians to declare the gospel with boldness It was the plan of God that Jesus was crucified Jesus indeed rose from the dead as peter witnessed Jesus was the son of God Qn f. state the teachings of Jesus on the Holy Spirit The Holy Spirit comes from the father ----- 364 The Holy Spirit will comfort disciples The Holy Spirit will abide with believers forever. He was to teach the world and reveal the truth about God The Holy Spirit would guide them into all truth and make them understand or know more about Jesus The percolate i.e. comforter/make strong/counselor who give advice He was to help them attain eternal life. If it was necessary for him to die and return to the father so that Holy Spirit will be sent to them. It was to replace Jesus as a counselor and an advocate He was to give the disciples authority to forgive or not to forgive The spirit would remind them all that Jesus had taught them The holy spirit will reprove the world of sin, righteousness and judgement He would glorify Jesus amongst the believers He will enable believers to be witnesses of Jesus in the whole world He was to strengthen disciples as a wonderful counselor He was to continue with the work of Jesus as a witness Qn g. what is the role if the holy spirit according to Jesus? He comforts believers He teaches believers all things He bring into remembrance all that Jesus taught his disciples The holy spirit would convict the world of their sins and lead them to righteousness He will guide the believers in all the truth He will glorify Christ and teach about him He will tell of the things to come in the future He would not speak on his own authority but would speak only what he hears from the father ----- 365 He will enable believers to be witnesses of Jesus in the world He will counsel believers because he knows the mind of God He will enable believers know the perfect will of God Qn h. what is the role of the Holy Spirit in the believers or Christians or the church He enables believers to preach with power He comforts believers He guides believers in all truth He gives believers boldness to witness about Jesus He enables Christians to produce the fruit of the spirit He washes sacrifices and justifies the believer in the name of Jesus He teaches believers all things He enables Christians to access God the father and son in prayer He enables Christians talk in tongues in worship He enables Christians to perform miracles in the name of Jesus He enables Christians to declare sins and transgressions of others Qn i. Outline the fruits of the Holy Spirit Galatians 5:6-26 Love showing compassion to one another Joy deep happiness when one has a good relationship with God Peace being at peace with all people Patience being to wait in difficulties Kindness being caring and helpful towards others Goodness seeking to do best in their lives Faithfulness having confidence in God Gentleness being calm and avoiding violence Self-control have strong control over their emotions Qn j. state the criteria for discerning of the spiritual gifts The gift must glorify Jesus so that one who is under the influence of th Holy Spirit will be able to recognize Jesus as lord and savior ----- 366 The gifts must not call Jesus accursed The test of love. The gift must be accompanied with a good or true frit. To discover whether or not the person who has the holy spirit must bear the fruits of the spirit One who is user the influence if the Holy Spirit is known by his or her way of life. He/she will act and behave in accordance with the teachings of Jesus. Doctrinal test for example, prophecy should always in agreement with the scripture because the Holy Spirit cannot contradict what is written Loyalty or conformity to Jesus. The gift doesnt envy other believers The gift must be subject to the word of God The true gift will be guided by principles of sincerity and honesty The true gift will humbly submit to God The gift should encourage the growth of the church and edify her Qn k. List down the gifts of the Holy Spirit. The gift of wisdom a deep understanding of who God is an his purpose for human life The gift of knowledge that is the basic understanding of the truth about Jesus Christ The gift of faith that refers to the confidence or truth in Gods inspiration and help in undertaking difficult tasks The gift of healing: the power to heal all types of sicknesses The gift to perform all types of miracles including healing The gift of prophecy: that is the ability to expound on the scriptures and foretell its future implications The gift of distinguishing gifts: the ability to tell the difference between gifts that come from the spirit ----- 367 and those that are not The gift of speaking in tongues: the ability to understand and interpret tongues Lastly the gift of love, which is the greatest of all the spiritual gifts. Qn l. Explain why Paul taught that love is the greatest of all spiritual gifts. Paul taught that love is the greatest of all spiritual gifts. He said that love is patient and kind Its not jealous or boastful. It is not arrogant or rude or conceited. It does not hold grudges or ill mannered or selfish It does not insist on its own way. It is not irritable or resentful It does not rejoice at wrong doings but rejoices in the truth Love bears, believes, hopes and endures all things It is ready to deep firm its faith, hope and its patience Love does not succumb to pressure but always perseveres He justified that love is the greatest gift of the spiritual gifts because in prayer, the gift of tongues becomes nothing but meaningful when accompanied by love charity On faith, Paul says that even if one has faith that can move mountains but has no love, he is nothing Charity or generosity including sacrificing own life is nothing without love Qn m. Explain how the Holy Spirit is manifested in the church today Through dynamic, power, bold and vigorous teaching of the gospel Through speaking in tongues in many evangelical churches Through the gift of healing many people are healed as they are prayed for Through the gift of love, Christians show mercy to all members of the society regardless of their race, sex or age helping the poor in the society ----- 368 Through the gift of prophecy some believers give proper guidance to the church Through the gift of discernment of spirits believers are able to tell the type of spirit that is in operation Through the gift of faith, believers have been able to accomplish tasks that seem rather impossible Some Christians through the holy spirit are able to withstand a persecution to the point of death The holy spirit convicts sinners and makes them confess their sins Through the holy spirit many Christians see heavenly visions and dreams The fear of the lord is upon many evangelical groups through the Holy Spirit In some evangelical gatherings, there are many supernatural things during worship e.g. shaking and swaying It is also manifested through prayer at individual or congregational levels Through decision making in church i.e. solving problems and issues in church Through singing and dancing or music Through offertory and alms or sadaka Holding fellowship meetings, bible study and reading the bible Celebration of sacraments e.g. Eucharist and lords supper Bringing new converts to the church Pastoral cave and counseling It is manifested in Ecumenism: working together of the churches Writing Christian literature e. g. books, pamphlets and magazines Enabling Christians to confess their sins and reconciliation meetings ----- 369 Education and giving instructions Qn n: State ways in which the gifts of the Holy Spirit have been abused in the church today. Cheating that one has a certain gift of the Holy Spirit Commercialization of the gifts. People are asked to pay money before being prayed for or being healed False interpretation of the bible, prophecy or predicting the future Unscrupulous Christians may impart demoniac powers or innocent faithful Some Christians who possess the gifts of the Holy Spirit develop pride or selfishness or superiority complex Wrong use of the gifts of the Holy Spirit where faithful get into ecstasy or trance which may lead to injuries Distinguishing oneself as a person with a special call e.g. preacher with intention of exploiting others or situations TOPIC TWO: UNITY OF BELIEVERS Qn a. Write down the terms used in the New Testament to refer to believers in Christ The people of God The body of Christ The bride of Christ The vine and the branches The assembly of God Christians The people of the way followers of the way other terms Followers of Christ ----- 370 New Israel Church The sheep The royal church Brethren Royal race Royal priest hood Holy nation The children of light Saints Brothers and sisters in Christ Qn b. identify five causes of disunity in the early church The question on the inclusion of the gentiles in the church. Some Jewish Christians were not ready to accept gentile Christians in the church unless they underwent circumcision There was negligence of the widows in the distribution of food Disagreement between and among leaders e.g. Paul and Barnabas, Peter and Paul Groupings in the church where some Christians owed loyalty to individuals. They said that they belonged to individuals like Apollo others Peter and others Paul Question of immorality, where some Christians did not live according to the teachings of Christ The problem of the gifts of the Holy Spirit. Some Christians became arrogant because they were more gifted than others Different interpretations of the doctrines e.g. resurrection, sin, salvation, Christology, Holy Spirit, dressing ----- 371 Behaviour during the lords supper Christians took others to a pagan rule of law Question of the resurrection of the body Question of celibacy Question of incest sexual immorality Different approaches to common life between Christians communities in Jerusalem and Antioch Qn c. identify factors, which cause disunity among Christians today Selfishness or greed for money by some Christians Rivalry or competition for leadership positions or greed for power Misinterpretation by some Christians of the work of the holy spirit Arrogance or pride by some Christians Corruption in the church Failure by some Christians to live according to the law of God or their failure to live exemplary Lack of concern by some Christians about the plight of others Misinterpretation of the bible or doctrinal differences Misuse of church funds or power by some leaders Lack of transparency and accountability in running church affairs The emergence of charismatic movements in the church creates a situation where some Christians think that they are more spiritual or holier l than others Political interference where Christians find themselves in different political camps Sexism where women are not involved in decision-making. Women are under represented Discrimination against the youth or churches ignoring the youth in running the church Tribalism where Christians are divided along tribal lines International differences ----- 372 Qn d. Discuss reasons why members of Christian families in Kenya find it difficult to harmoniously live together Unfaithfulness or promiscuity Misuse of family resources or lack of resources Child abuse e.g. beating, raping, incest or favourism Alcoholism or drug use and abuse Separation of family members e.g. due to wage labour or education Denial of conjugal rights Sickness e.g. HIV/AIDs, impotence, barrenness or cancer Child delinquency Lack of tolerance or forgiveness or presence of cruelty Greed for wealth or self esteemed prestige or professionalism Religious fanaticism or denominational differences Traditional or cultural inhabitation or western cultural influences or permissive Generation gap Qn e. explain how the church strengthen family relationships today Through guidance and counseling and mediation Hold seminars, conferences for couples, children the youth through publications on Christian living e.g. magazines, books or pamphlets Use of mass media e.g. televisions. Radios or videos Through offering pastoral care in homes or house to house visits Giving financial support to the needy families Praying for families Through preaching, teaching and condemning vices Offering employment to the jobless Providing vocational training skills SELECTED OLD PROPHETS AND THEIR TEACHINGS. ----- 373 Q1. Define the terms prophet and prophecy Prophet: Refers to one who speaks Gods message. He is Gods spokesman. His message includes predictions of the future. Prophecy: Is the message spoken by a prophet. Oracles spoken by prophets. Q2. List the five categories of true prophets i Major prophets These include Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel and Daniel. They are called Major Prophets because the books are long and contain clearly written messages. They bear the names of the writers. ii Minor prophets These refer to 12 books that are short and contain less important than those in major books e.g. Amos, Hosea, Joel, Obadiah through to Malachi. iii Canonical prophets Both the major and minor prophets are together referred to as canonical prophets. iv The early prophets They belonged to guilds or schools. They lived together in communities under a chief prophet. Elijah and Elisha are examples. These are those who served in places of worship e.g. at Dan, Bethuel They were called cultic prophets because they were associated with religious activities in shrines. They traveled around together delivering oracles. v Cultic prophets They worked side by side with priests and said prayers especially peoples petition to Yahweh. ----- 374 Q3. State the difference between true and false prophets True prophets False prophets They were called by God to be His spokesmen Not called by God. Were obedient to God. Not obedient to Him. Believed in one God. Could worship other gods and led people into immorality. They were prayerful. Not. Spoke and acted with authority from God. No authority from God. They led holy lives. Were immoral e.g. believed in false gods. Spoke Gods word. Spoke their opinion. Suffered physically and psychologically because of speaking the truth. Run away suffering. Spoke the truth. False Did not ask for pay. Asked for pay. Spoke form a common tradition based on the Mosaic Law. Did not have any reference. Q4. In what ways were Gods prophets called? Some were called through visions or dreams e.g. Amos and Samuel. Others were called through other prophets e.g. Elisha. Words or message came into their minds. Through prophetic symbolic actions e.g. Jeremiah Through common objects an object becoming a significant sign of Gods power and activities Jer. 1:11-13. Through prayers. Q5. Outline the similarities and differences between the Old Testament prophets and the Traditional African Ones a Similarities: Both possessed spiritual powers. ----- 375 Both were mediators between people and a Supreme Being. Both performed the role of healing people physically and spiritually miracle . They received calls mainly through visions/dreams, which were considered supernatural. Were both expected to be people of integrity and obedient to religious codes. Gave warnings and solutions to their people in case they offended the Supreme Being. Foretold the future. b Differences: Old Testament Tradition African Received their message from God Received their message from spirits and ancestors. Appointed by God. Inherited Rejected by people Respected and feared in society Prophecy went to other nations Confined in tribal community Prophecies preserved in writing Passed on orally Believe and worship of one God Believe in god spirits Performed miracles Did not Q6. What is the relevant of prophets to Christians today? Through reading their prophecies, Christians get to know the will of God. Jesus who is the cornerstone of Christianity is stressed throughout prophecy since Abraham. Prophecy has helped many to be preachers i.e. prophecy preaching . Christians learn to be faithful to Yahweh just like the Old Testament prophets. They too learn to be holy and prayerful like them e.g. Jeremiah. Prophets encouraged justice e.g. Elijah, Christians should do the same. ----- 376 As prophets, Christians should provide hope to the people in times of suffering. They learn that they can face suffering just like the prophets did e.g. Jeremiah e.g. persecution, rejection etc. They should condemn sin like the prophets. The writings of the prophets strengthen their faith when they need them. PROPHET AMOS Q1. List the visions that Amos saw He saw a swarm of locusts. Amos 7:1-3 He saw a great fire. Amos 7:4-6 The plumb line/crooked wall. Amos 7:7-8 Basket of ripe fruits. Amos 8:1-3 The destruction of the temple. Amos 9:1-4 Q2. Explain the evils that Amos condemned in his teachings Sexual immorality Amos 2:17 Amos condemned temple prostitution 23:17. Father and son were going to the same woman. They copied these from the Canaanite pagans, which was wrong and unfaithful to Yahweh. Slavery: Amos 2:6 The righteous, the rich made the poor slaves. This is because they borrowed from the rich and could not repay so they made them work like slaves and treated them harshly. Some sold them for a paid of sandals. This was breaking Gods laws, which guided them on how to treat their poor fellow Israelites. Idolatry: Amos 5:26 Amos accused them for breaking Gods covenant by worshipping other gods. ----- 377 Cheating in Business: He condemned the following: Merchants used false measures They overcharged the poor Sold goods of low quality They sold poor people for not paying debts They too charged high interest rates Bribery and Corruption Ex. 23:8 He condemned elders who were unjust and corrupt. They took bribes and grew rich from heavy levies from innocent people in law courts. Greed and excessive luxury He condemned women of Samaria who drink and lived in luxury when there were poor needy people. Breaking Gods law on garments secured for pledges God gave Israelites items that were to be given out to the creditors as a guarantees for the goods borrowed e.g. Millstones for grinding, were to be taken and returned in the evening because they were used daily. Robbery and Violence Poor were being oppressed and violated. Self Indulgence and false sense of security Leaders thought God could not punish them because they were a chosen race. But Amos told them they would be attacked. Q3. Give reasons why Prophet Amos condemned idol worship in Israel It broke the covenant way of life. It was against the 10 commandments, which directed the Israelites to worship one God. It was a sign of disobedience to God. ----- 378 It promoted immorality e.g. temple prostitution. The worship of God belittled and degraded God. It promoted falsehood in the society. Religion became commercialized. Led to false prophecy. People got concerned with external behavior and not internal. Q4. List evils in society today that Amos would condemn Tribalism Bribery and corruption Robbery with violence Dishonesty in business Grabbing of public land and property Stealing Oppression of the poor e.g. underpayment Immorality e.g. prostitution PROPHET JEREMIAH Q1. List evils that Jeremiah condemned Human sacrifice Hypocrisy in worship Dishonesty in business Defilement of the temple temple prostitution Social injustice Idolatry False prophecy Necromancy Exploitation of the poor Q2. What are some of the evils that the church leaders condemn today? Hypocrisy/pretence in worship Murder/suicide/abortion/genocide Exploitation of the poor/robbery ----- 379 Dishonesty False prophets Human sacrifices among devil worshippers Sexual immorality e.g. adultery Q3. Explain the symbolisms used during the call of Prophet Jeremiah God touched Jeremiahs mouth. This was to symbolize that God was the source of the message. Jeremiah was to deliver. A branch of an almond tree that was base God was watching to see the fulfillment of the message he gave to Jeremiah. A pot of boiling facing away from the North and about to tilt toward Judah. God would use a nation from the North to bring judgement on the people of Judah because of their wickedness. A fortified city. A bronze wall and an iron pillar. God was going to protect him even though he was going to meet opposition. To uproot and pull down, to destroy and overthrow. God would pass judgement on the nation of Judah and other nations. To build and to plant. There was still hope of the restoration of people of Judah after exile. Q4. What did Jeremiah teach about t the New Covenant? The new covenant was to be written in peoples hearts. The covenant was to be made between God and the remnant community after exile. The people were to have a personal knowledge of God in the new covenant. God was to forgive their sin and remember them no more. ----- 380 Each individual was responsible for his won sins. The new covenant was to be initiated by God. The new covenant was to last forever. It was as a result in the emergence of a new people of God or new Israel. Q5. Why did Prophet Jeremiah condemn the way the Israelites worshipped? They broke Gods commands e.g. the 1st and do not worship other gods they worshipped idols. They practiced hypocrisy i.e. they were concerned with external religious observance while their hearts were far from God. They forgot the saving history of God and worshipped other gods e.g. Asherah. They practiced syncretism i.e. they worshipped both Yahweh and foreign Gods. They listened to false prophets and rejected Gods prophets e.g. Jeremiah. They even killed some. They dishonored the sanctity of human life by offering human sacrifice. They neglected the disadvantaged widows orphans . They were dishonest in business and deceitful to one another. They narrowed themselves in necromancy, divination and magic. They rebelled against God by breaking the covenant relationship. Q6. Explain Jeremiahs temple sermon as recorded in Jeremiah 7:1-15 God commanded prophet Jeremiah to speak in the temple. It was a response to the people of Israel to stop understanding religion through the practice of syncretism and immorality. At the gate to the temple, Jeremiah proclaimed that the people of Judah had to change their way of ----- 381 life and stick to the covenant they made with God. They had to stop defiling the temple of placing idols in it. They had to stop committing social injustices and as murderer/exploitation of the weak, orphans widows and foreigners. The practice of human sacrifice was murder and displeasing to God. Hypocrisy was bad. The Israelites believed that the temple was secure from destruction because of its holiness was not true. God would destroy Israelites/Jerusalem through invasion of a foreign nation. If the people stopped their evil ways, God would not bring judgement upon them. God would destroy the temple of Jerusalem and send the people to exile. Q7. What forms of punishment did Jeremiah prophesy that God would use on Judah? The punishment would be in form of a foreign body that God use to conquer Judah. They would be attacked and their city destroyed. People would suffer and die due to their sins. The punishment would in form of drought. This would affect people and animals. Gods punishment would come through death, diseases and sword. Their punishment would be a defeat inflicted to them by Babylonian. The punishment would be the loss of their land to a foreign nation and their enslavement. God would allow the enemy to destroy Jerusalem and take survivors to captivity. ----- 382 Q8. Outline the content of Jeremiahs letter to exiles in Babylon Jer. 29 He encouraged the Israelites in Babylon to build houses and live in them. Plant gardens and eat their produce. Marry and increase. Pray for their rulers. Not to worship false gods. Not to be cheated by false prophets. To obey their masters. Worship one God. Q9. Explain four symbolic acts related to judgement and punishment as demonstrated by Prophet Jeremiah Linen waist cloth the rotten/useless linen cloth that had been hidden in the caves and lift to rot stood for Israels state of being useless before the eyes of God. A sign that they had soiled their priesthood. Jeremiah was asked not to marry the solitary life symbolized solitude in exile. Two baskets of fig fruits the bad fruits signified that the bad people would be punished. Wooden yoke he was asked to carry a wooden yoke and work around with it signifying suffering in Babylon exile. Breaking an earthly flask destruction of the temple. Visit to a potter whereby the potter destroyed a pot due to poor shape and remolded it. God would remold Israel to a shape befitting them. ----- 383 Not to comfort anybody these would be sorrow and suffering, no help while in exile. Q10. Identify the relevance of Jeremiahs teaching to Christians life today Christians are called to preach Gods gospel as Jeremiah did. Christians should accept suffering like Jeremiah did. They should learn to distinguish between false and true prophets. Like Jeremiah, they should condemn evil in society. They have a duty to call people to repentance as Jeremiah did. Christians should be good examples to the people by living, holy and upright lives as Jeremiah did. People should be able to know the nature of God through the lives of Christians. They should believe they are the new community as prophesied by Jeremiah in the new covenant. Q11. In what ways is the prophetic mission of Jeremiah similar to that of Jesus? Both were rejected by their own relatives and communities. Both experienced opposition from political and religious authorities. Both prophesied the destruction of the temple. Both lamented over the stubbornness of the people of Jerusalem. Both predicted divine judgement and punishment in Israel. Jeremiah predicted the new covenant that is fulfilled by Jesus. Prophet Nehemiah Qn 1. Describe the political background of Nehemiah He worked during the Babylonian exile which lasted between 589- 538 BC During his vacation, Israelites were oppressed politically The Israelites hoped that God would soon liberate them fro this bondage In 538 BC the Babylonians were conquered by Cyrus the great king of Persia ----- 384 In 538 BC king Cyrus allowed Israelites to return to Judah King Cyrus gave the Israelites a decree to rebuild the temple of Jerusalem In 538BC the first exile under Zebu Babel Joshua the priest departed from Babylon and started to rebuild alters of God Under the guidance of prophets Haggai and Zachariah the temple was rebuilt and dedicated The second exile arrived under prophet Ezra; after king Artaxerxes authorized Ezra to re establish Israelites religious and moral expectations of the Mosaic Law. Nehemiah was a servant the king Artaxerxes palace. The king authorized him to go and rebuild the walls of Jerusalem Amidst all opposition from Samaritan, Nehemiah accomplished the reconstruction of the walls of Jerusalem in 52 days. He then dedicated the walls to God. This restored the sense of political pride in Israel. However the Israelites remained subjected to the Persians and continued to pay tribute. The Persians were later overthrown by Romans who ruled the entire region until the time of the birth of Jesus Qn 2. Describe the social background to the vacation of Nehemiah Israelites men married foreign women Children spoke different languages from their mothers Hebrew language almost became extinct Nehemiah condemned mixed marriages and even banned them Exiles who returned home were humiliated by foreigners who partially occupied their land ----- 385 The Samaritans threatened Nehemiahs life as the rebuilt walls of Jerusalem Rich Jews oppressed the poor e.g. they would confiscate their property for failure to repay debts Qn 3. Describe the religious background to the vocation of Nehemiah While in exile the Babylonians allowed the Jews to continue with their religious lives The exiles became the period of purification They returned with a new zeal to worship God; they rebuilt the altar under Zerubbabel for offering burnt offerings to God The returnees built the temple of Jerusalem under Haggai and Zachariah and dedicated to god by Ezra Nehemiah embarked on rebuilding the walls of Jerusalem amidst opposition in 52 days the wall was complete. Consequently, Jerusalem once more became the centre of worship for Israel. Idolatry was not allowed again in Israel after the exile. The temple of Jerusalem was dedicated to Yahweh. The Israelites renewed their covenant with God under prophet and priest Ezra. Nehemiah carried out various religious reforms Qn 4. Describe occasions when Nehemiah prayed When he heard about the suffering of his fellow Jews back in Judah When he learned about the state of ruin of Jerusalem and king Atarterxes to request him to allow him go back to Judah When his enemies e.g. Tobiah and Samballat ridiculed him as he reconstructed the walls of Jerusalem When he learned of his enemies conspiracy to attack Jerusalem ----- 386 When his enemies conspired to destroy his life/ kill him When Shemiah attempted to frighten him to hide in the temple as hi life was in danger When he cleansed and arranged the temple as a house of God When he warned the people of Judah against violating the Sabbath law After chasing away the son in law of Samballat from the temple After cleansing the Israelites of foreign influence Qn 5. State occasions when Christians pray When they are faced with diverse persecutions. They ask God to protect them When they dont understand certain scriptures. They ask God to give them revelation When they are faced with certain difficulties of life. They ask God to help them When the nation is facing political crisis. They pray for peace When they feel inadequate and sinful. They ask God to perform certain miracles for them e.g. healing Qn 6. What is the importance of prayer in Christian life? Prayer helps Christians to praise God, give thanks to him and to repent It helps Christians to pour out their hearts to God It helps Christians to rely to God for emotional and mental stability. It helps put our problems to God It strengthens Christians. It gives them determination and character to remain steadfast in their responsibilities despite the challenges Through prayer a Christian can request to stand against personal attacks and temptations Prayer is the source of courage and strength in times of tribulations It brings one closer to God, we use it to praise God, use it to ask for Gods supply of their needs, used ----- 387 to ask for forgiveness and promotes important virtues e.g. persistence and patience and promotes unity among different communities Qn 6. Identify the leadership of Nehemiahs patriotism He was a tune patriot i.e. after talking to the Jews and getting the news of distribution of Jerusalem, he was forced to go back home. Reliance to God. He totally relied on God and to his call i.e. in most cases he prayed before carrying out an activity Devoted/ talented. As a cupbearer to the emperor he was an educated, talented and trustworthy young man Visionary. He had a vision and he shared it with enthusiasm to inspire Jerusalem leaders to rebuild the wall Initiative. He took the initiative to persuade the emperor to put things right Exceller organizer. He carefully organized the rebuilding process. He organized how the wall of Jerusalem was to be built in steps Careful planner. He carefully examined and inspected the wall before starting the work Peoples representative. He was a proper representative of his people in Israel. he had a sense of responsibility to his community Shrewd. He avoided the meetings organized by his opposer and overlooked the abuses placed on him Impartial. He appointed men of integrity and God fearing to keep guard over Jerusalem ----- 388 Selfless and kind. He had the skill of solving problems. He hence cancelled all debts that people had Homogenous. He employed different strategies to counteract his opposer Qn7. explain the relevance of Nehemiahs leadership to a Christian today A Christian should use his/her present position to serve God Christians should acknowledge God as their source of power and giver of gifts A leader should appoint people who are trustworthy and honest to help him/ her in ruling the country God answers our prayers as a result of asking others for help A Christian leader should keep his /her plans a secret until it matures to make an announcement Christians should share their visions with others the way Nehemiah did Leaders should take care of the needy in the society As a Christian one could be lured to temptations; the way Nehemiah was opposed we should be ready to resist temptations Christians should be ready to help in solving problems in the society Christians should act as role models by carrying out spiritual activities with the truth and helping in work after starting projects. Qn 8. Explain the relevance of Nehemiahs experience to Christians They should not exploit the needy and disadvantaged They should defend the rights of the weak and use their work place, family and friends They should ask God to protect them from the mischief of their enemies That they should pray to God to give them guidance in their endeavors That they should persevere in all difficulties as Nehemiah did ----- 389 The should condemn the injustices in the society They should know that leadership involves challenges and difficulties They should be practically involved in problem solving e.g. HIV/AIDs scourge Qn 9. Explain the problems that Nehemiah encountered in his vocation Oppression of the poor Jews by the rich Jews e.g. demanded high interests on borrowed money Great opposition from the enemies they tried to frustrate his/her efforts to build the walls of Jerusalem Threat to his own life. His adversaries wanted to kill him Lack of co-operation and support from the Jews. They refused to work with him on the wall project Excessive foreign influence in Israel. Intermarriage brought about foreign influence which threatened to extinct the Jew culture and language Violation of the Sabbath laws. Israelites went on to do their daily chores on the Sabbath day Abuse of the temple. Eliaship housed Tobias the heathen and Gods enemies Misuse of offerings. The levies were denied their share of sacrificial offerings as required by the law Qn 10. Describe the steps taken by Nehemiah to renew the covenant Ezra the priest read the book of the covenant and explained the meaning of the Law of Moses. The Israelites listened carefully and their lives changed. They responded Amen, amen Celebration of the feast of shelters. After reading the scriptures, they realized that they had not been ----- 390 celebrating the feast of shelters. This was to remember their deliverance from Egypt. They were also to think about Gods protection and guidance The Israelites confessed of their sins as they learnt that they had not been following Gods commandments. Nehemiah was devoted to confession of national sin and prayers to Gods grace Recital of Gods dealings with Israel. They recital of Gods mighty acts is done in this. They remembered their history and this renewed Gods grace and power in them A renewed covenant sealed. The covenant was renewed in writing and the leaders put seals The binding agreement that people and God was done by the Israelites joining hands Qn 11. State the promises that Israelites made during the renewal of the covenant That every seventh year, they would cancel debts according to the Mosaic Laws That they should observe Gods commandments and live according to his laws That they would offer the first of their harvests as required by Torah That they would dedicate their first-born sons to God That they will not intermarry with foreigners at all That they will not buy corn or anything else on the Sabbath day That they will remit their arrival temple expenses to ensure that Gods house was okay That they will provide sacrifices and offerings at the temple That they will pay their tithes according to the law Group study activities ----- 391 1. Read and study the book of Luke by 2. Dividing up the chapters in the book of Luke among the members of the class and let every group present a summary of the chapters allocated to them. 3. Check out movies about the life, death and resurrection of Jesus Christ but note that your study according to the syllabus is based on St. Lukes gospel. FORM FOUR CONTEMPORARY CHRISTIAN LIVING Form four work deals with social issues in society. We shall compare the issues in the following communities The Traditional African Society Christian community and the contemporary one. By the end of it the student should be able to understand the meaning of life and live to its fullest. TOPIC ONE. INTRODUCTION TO CHRISTIAN ETHICS Instructions. Form four work covers contemporary issues in a Christians life. You are advised to read newspapers, listen to radio news, watch television news and current affairs and any other relevant news source. Work in twos. Give yourself topics to study and then give a presentation to your partner or colearner. Learning outcomes. After reading and discussing Christian ethics, you should be able to: a. Explain the meaning of Christians ethics b. Explore the basics of Christians ethics a. Christian ethics. The word ethics comes from a Greek term Ethikos which means custom, or conduct. Ethics are moral principles, which influence a persons behaviour. Ethics are defined as the systematic ----- 392 study of human actions and behaviour. We use ethics to judge, determine and assess the right and wrong of human behaviour. Morals refer to human character, which is the inclination to behave in oneway or another. Ethics is the study of morals and they determine and influence personal and societal behaviour. Christian ethics is the study of human conduct or behaviour from a Christian point of view. b. Basis of Christian ethics. Sources of Christians ethics: - 1. The bible, teachings of Jesus Christ 2. Human reason and experience 3. Natural law 4. The Christian community the church 5. Situation ethics 6. Authoritative Christian literature based on the bible 7. Gods revelation through prophets i. Human reason. These are internal thoughts that guide us when we are making decisions and taking actions. We use our minds and thoughts when confronted by situations. They also rely on internal thoughts in their life experiences. Internal guiding thoughts have many parts. One is our Conscience. This is our inner self that tells us and lets us know what is right and wrong. There are four types of consciences; doubtful conscience, sensitive conscience, certain conscience and perplexed conscience. For a Christian, rights and wrongs are in the Bible. God gave the Law of Moses to Israelites. Jesus came and explained the Old Testament and taught new scriptures in the New Testament. These teachings, ----- 393 which we have covered from Form one to three, explain very clearly what is right and wrong. When doubtful of the morality of an action, Christian consults the Bible to know if a decision is right or wrong. ii. Human Experiences: these are internal and external guides When confronted by situations, Christians use their minds i.e. human reason and their life experiences in making decisions. They rely on internal guides, Human reason and experience external guides Internal guides i Conscience: Mind, aspect of knowing right or wrong. When right, theres approval when wrong it registers guilt. When doubtful of the morality of an action we should not do it If conscience is perplexed then make us decision. A decision should be based on a certain conscience. Types of conscience - Doubtful conscience - Sensitive conscience - Certain conscience - Perplexed conscience 2. One can also make decisions based on knowledge and free will To make a decision one should have - Facts about the act, its aims, circumstances. - One should be free to perform A decision ought to be thoughtful 3. Intuition: inner feeling, insight Its an internal moral sense to do good or avoid evil. Intuition is important in situations that require ----- 394 quick and immediate that requires quick and immediate action. 4. Feelings Feelings are subjective e.g. it feels good to do so this, hence will do it can be dangerous to make decisions purely based on feelings especially in marriage friendship etc. Eternal guides Experience Guides here include authoritative persons such as parents, teachers, police, civil leaders philosophers, and religious leaders. Rules from secular, religions, and African traditional culture are part of external guides. The bible The bible, quoted in the text but now out of text guides Christian behaviour. God communicates to his people through the Bible. The Bible offers answers to questions in relation to the life of a Christian. Today, there are ethical issues not found in the bible e.g. HIV / AIDS, sexual and reproductive health rights, contraceptives, abortion, globalization, cloning, environmental degradation, genetically modified foods, terrorism, international trade etc. this gives reason and other sources / factors are basis of Christian ethics in addition to the bible. Moral principles in the bible - They are mostly found in the teachings of Jesus and the ten commandments, sermon on the mountain - Christians are also encouraged to have Faith ----- 395 - The virtues encouraged include generosity, love, kindness, faithfulness, patience, humility, peace, mercy, loyalty etc. Christian community church Church leadership can make decisions, which touch on their followers. They guide people on ethical issues e.g. politics, land, justice, abortion, contraception etc. Church organizations give rules on those conduct of their members. Natural law - The awareness that one has to choose good and avoid evil - If one studies human nature and reflects upon it he/she will discover natural laws of human behaviour - Natural law, natural rights such as right to education, life own property many etc. are incorporated into the constitution of any nation. - The constitution then guides the behaviour of list citizens; Christians being citizens of a country are guided in their behaviour by the constitution. Situation ethics One should reason out the rightness or wrongness of an act. The rightness or wrongness of an act depends on its uniqueness, the circumstances - Christians are warned against making decisions based on circumstances or the situation e.g. a pregnant student seeking abortion as the option so as to continue with education. Gods revelation God reveals himself to people through prophets, natural events, the law, dreams and visions. Through such ways God guides Christian on how they should approach certain issues. Gods revelation does not ----- 396 contradict with the bible. Revision questions 1. What is the meaning of Christian ethics? 2. What is the basis or source or foundation of Christian ethics? 3. List the basic life skills that one needs to be able to lead a better life TOPIC TWO: CHRISTIAN APPROACHES TO HUMAN SEXUALITY, MARRIAGE AND FAMILY INTRODUCTION Christian approaches refer to how Christians view and handle issues of human sexuality, marriage and the family in accordance with Christians ethics. Through marriage, the family is formed. LESSON ONE: HUMAN SEXUALITY Learning Outcomes. By the end of this lesson, you should be able to: a Define human sexuality, marriage, and family b Explain the Christian teaching of human sexuality c Assess the traditional African understanding of human sexuality d Determine gender roles in traditional African home e Explain Christians teachings about male and female relationships f Explain and appreciate Christian teaching on responsible sexual behaviour g Explain Christian teaching on irresponsible sexual behaviour and their consequences a. Human sexuality. This is a sacred gift from God. It was given to Adam and Eve. Human sexuality is that which makes us male or female. It is our biological or physiological differences associated with the state of being male or female. It is part of our biological make up. Males and female have different body ----- 397 structures, features, appearances and biological characteristics. In terms of physical strength more men are stronger than females. Besides the biological make up, we have an emotional side, which includes our attitudes, and feelings. Females are said to be more emotional, and talkative than males. Human sexuality is also in our brain and mind and it is what makes us human beings. If you look at animals they also have different physiological features based on sexual differences. b. Christian teaching on human sexuality. Males and females are Gods creation. Men and women were created for many reasons. These are 1 to be fruitful and to multiply; and 2 for companionship. In Genesis we learn that men and women share the image of God because God intended man and woman to play complementary roles and both are equal before God. Sex in marriage is a sign of love and it is sacred. In marriage man / and woman become one flesh. Both of them have the ability to control their sexual desires. Christian teaching forbids: sex before marriage, adultery or unfaithfulness, and other unnatural sexual behaviours like lesbianism, homosexuality or being gay, and incest. God created human body and it is to be kept holy. Chastity is encouraged while unfaithfulness in marriage is discouraged. Husbands / wives are to respect one another and give to each other in mutual love. c. Traditional African understanding of human sexuality. Human sexuality is highly valued in traditional ----- 398 African communities. It is understood in terms of marriage and parenthood. Procreation was the sole purpose of sex. Sex was to be practiced in marriage and it was regarded as another sacred duty. Adultery was discouraged and offenders punished. Irresponsible sexual relationships were forbidden. Virginity before marriage was highly valued. If a girl lost her virginity before marriage, she was treated with scorn and punishment. If a boy impregnating a girl, he was fined. In traditional African society it was a taboo to discuss openly sex matters. Grandparents taught sex education to their grandchildren. Sex education was taught during initiation stages. Free mixing of girls and boys was not allowed except under supervision. Girls were married off immediately after initiation to avoid temptation of engaging in pre-marital sex. To reinforce self discipline in relationships between the opposite sexes the African traditional society instilled the fear of supernatural curses through myths, taboos and rules. Marital status. Husbands and wives were expected to relate to each other, their parents, and in laws according to the community customs. Conflicts between a husband and a wife were resolved through intervention of relatives. d. Gender roles. There are specific chores and duties for either male or female in African traditional societies. Roles were therefore according to gender. Boys went hunting, herding, while girls fetched ----- 399 firewood, and helped in cooking. At an early age, girls and boys would mix freely as they played together. Mature boys and girls however, were restricted from mixing freely without supervision by elders. But there was gender identification. The boys identified with their fathers and other male adults, while girls identified themselves with their mother and other female adults. Education. Children belonged to the community and not just to their biological parents. At the adolescent stage; 13 18 years education was given to the adolescents and intensified at initiation stage. Boys and girls were taught traditional rules, and secrets of the society during initiation. Learning was informal. Knowledge was communicated through songs, stories and riddles among other forms of presentations. All adults acted as parents to the young ones. Socialisation. Men were socialized to be superior, while women were socialized to accept their subordinate position and role. Everyone knew and accepted what he/she was culturally supposed to do. Division of labour was based on sex. In the African communities, despite their differences, there were many common customary roles, rules, regulations, taboos and beliefs that governed the practices related to male female relationships from early childhood to old age. These traditional African practices relating to male female relationships existed at various levels. In all of them, man held superior positions when compared to those of women. ----- 400 Age. Old women and men were accorded respect. They were consulted for advice and counsel. Kinship system was emphasized. e. Christian teaching on male- female relationships. We learn that the husband is the head of the house and should love his wife like Christ loved the church. Once a wife is loved, she should submit to her husband. We also learn that both male and female are equal and co creators with God. Adam and Eve were created to complement each other. Likewise men and women should love each other. Jesus taught that each man should have one wife and vice versa. Once married, the husbands body belongs to the wife and hers belong to him. If that is the case, wife and husband should avoid immorality. Males and females are to relate freely. But the youth are to avoid the passions of youth. These are sexual sins. There are no specific chores or duties for either male or female. Relationship between sexes should be governed by love, chastity, respect, self-control, and self- discipline. Parents are to love their children, while children are to obey and honor their parents. Parents are asked to bring up their children in a Godly way. LESSON TWO. CHRISTIAN TEACHING ABOUT HUMAN SEXUALITY Lesson Outcomes. By the end of this lesson, you should a. Outline Christian teaching on responsible sexual behaviour b. Analyse Christian teaching on irresponsible sexual behaviour c. Discuss effects and consequences of irresponsible sexual behaviour ----- 401 d. Give examples of the effects of irresponsible sexual behaviour Sexual behaviour is part of human behaviour. The Bible gives principles of sexual behaviour in the Ten Commandments. a. Christian teaching on responsible human sexuality. Christianity teaches us about responsible sexual behaviour. Being responsible means that one is exercising self control or self-discipline in matters of sexual behaviour. Self-discipline is necessary when we have a relationship with the opposite sex Read, 1 Cor.7: 9 1 Peter 5:8 . It is called responsible sexual behaviour, which is obedience to Gods commands. Christians promote healthy social relationship between boys and girls, men and women, and husbands and wives. Responsible sex is between male and female. Sexual intercourse is allowed only between married couples 1 Cor.7: 3 5 . Married couples are obliged to be sexually faithful to one another Heb.13: 4 adultery is condemned exodus 25:14 . Relationship between a husband / wife should be one of respect faithfulness, love, care, mercy, submission, tolerance, and forgiveness b. Christian teaching on irresponsible sexual behaviour. There are many irresponsible sexual behaviours. They include among others all acts and forms of: perversion, misuse, and abuse of sex, incest, rape, fornication, adultery, homosexuality, lesbianism or gay, prostitution, concubine, masturbation, bestiality and child marriages among others. These irresponsible sexual behaviours are against Gods will for ----- 402 humanity. Christians are to shun irresponsible sexual behaviour. This is because their bodies are the temples of the Holy Spirit. Thus whatever Christians do with their bodies, it should be for the glory of God. Let us now discuss in brief some of the irresponsible sexual behaviour; beginning with i Incest, which is a sexual relationship between people who are closely related by blood. For example, sex between a brother/sister, father / daughter. Incest is condemned in the Bible. It was punishable by death in the Old Testament. Read Leviticus 18:6 8. ii Rape. Rape cannot be justified and it is condemned in The Bible. Rape is an act of forcing another person to have sexual intercourse without his or her consent. It is sexual violence and a crime against humanity. It is also a denial, and a violation of human rights of the victims who are sexually assaulted. Victims of rape include boys, men, girls, women, and babies especially girls. Rape is an expression of hatred toward the opposite sex. In traditional African society rape was abhorred and culprits were punished by death. In Kenya rape is punishable by 20 years imprisonment. Indecent assaults or sexual abuses such as touching a person of the opposite sex without their permission or use of vulgar language are both punishable by up to 5 years imprisonment. iii. Fornication. This is consensual sexual intercourse between unmarried people. It is condemned by ----- 403 both African and Christian teachings and punishment in African traditional society was by either payment of fines, stoning, and ritual cleansing. In the Old Testament, men were forced to marry the girl. Jesus said that fornication was due to peoples evil thoughts. Abstinence for the youth is encouraged and preached. Why do the youth engage in pre marital sex? There are several reasons. Some of them are: sexual curiosity, proving manhood, human weakness, lack of self control, testing fertility, fear of being jilted / rejected; commercial sex for money; copying acts in the print and electronic media. Others reasons are frustrations, drug abuse, bribe to get a job, and permissiveness in the society. iv. Adultery is committed by adults who have extra marital affairs; between married partner and another party. Adultery is having sex outside marriage with a person with whom one is not married to. Adultery is caused by lack of self control, sexual dissatisfaction, long periods of wife and husband separation, sexual dysfunction and vengeance by an initially faithful spouse who wants to be even with the unfaithful spouse. v. Prostitution. This is the practice of giving sexual pleasure for money or other material benefits. A prostitute can either be male or female. Prostitutes are referred to as commercial sex workers. Why is there prostitution? There are factors leading to prostitution. These are economic reasons such as ----- 404 unemployment, poverty, rejection of a girl at home, drug abuse, stress, anger, anxiety, frustrations in the family and pornography. The church condemns prostitution because it defiles the body, which is a temple of the Holy Spirit. Its sexual immorality. Read Gal 5: 19 21. vi. Homosexuality/ Gay/ Lesbianism. This is sex between people of the same sex for example; man and man homosexuality , woman and woman lesbianism . Homosexuality is a common practice in modern world. It is also a church problem. The Anglican Church in USA, and Canada have accepted homosexuality. The Anglican Church has gay bishops. African Anglican churches are opposing this practice. What makes people prefer sex with the same sex? The Christian view is that homosexuality is a sign of a lack of Christian moral values. It may also be due to confinement in a prison and permissiveness in society. If it is allowed to continue, it shall disintegrate traditional African values. Because of its threat to Gods people, the Church condemns homosexuality. Other reasons for condemning it is because 1 God created a male and a female. Read, Genesis 1:28. Two, sex is sacred. Homosexuality is an unnatural relationship, which lowers human dignity. It does not provide sexual fulfillment as traditionally . Homosexuality is illegal in Kenya. vii. Sexually transmitted Diseases STDs . There are many diseases passed from one person to the other ----- 405 through sex. These are gonorrhea, syphilis, herpes genitalis is, hepatitis B, clamydia, trichonomiasis, HIV/AIDS. Lets discuss them one by one. HIV / AIDS. This is human immune deficiency virus HIV that causes acquired immune deficiency syndrome AIDS condition. Syndrome refers to many symptoms. HIV is transmitted largely through sex with an infected partner; through blood transfusion; sharing sharp objects with infected persons; and from an infected mother to the unborn child. The HIV virus destroys the white blood cells, and weakens the body s immune system. When the body is weak, it is not able to fight, and defend itself against infections. Persons with the virus are vulnerable and susceptible to opportunistic infections. The signs / symptoms of AIDS are manifestations of symptoms of the opportunistic infections. Some symptoms include persistent coughs, loss of weight, oral thrush, loss of appetite, and diarrhoea. Churches encourage Christians to be compassionate to HIV/AIDS affected people, and to support the infected and the affected individuals like the orphans, widows, and widowers. It also teaches against sexual immorality and against all forms of discrimination. Gonorrhea is caused by a bacterium called Neisseria gonorrhea. Its symptoms appear a4 days after infection. Its symptoms are burning sensation when passing urine; pain or discomfort in the genitals; sticky discharge or pus in the vagina or through the urethra. The good news is that Gonorrhea is curable ----- 406 if treated early. Syphilis. Primary syphilis may show up in the form of a sore or a wound in the genitals a few days after infection. The wound heals by itself without treatment after some time. Syphilis infection may take several years about 7 years before its symptoms re appear. The symptoms of syphilis are a painless sore or pimple on the mans penis or womans vulva; and swelling of the glands in the groin. Other symptoms, which may appear later, are skin rashes, and sores either in the face armpits, under breasts, mouth or throat. Herpes genital is a sexual disease caused by a virus. It creates wounds in the genitals. A pregnant woman can transmit the infection to her newborn baby during delivery. This disease can be controlled although there is not an effective treatment. Hepatitis B virus causes Hepatitis B. It is transmitted through sex, injections by unsterilized needles and contact with contaminated blood. The infection does not show on the genitals. The signs and symptoms of Hepatitis B include yellowness of the eyes jaundice due to liver damage and pain around the upper abdomen. c. The effects of irresponsible sexual behaviour. There are many effects of irresponsible sexual behaviour. They include among others HIV / AIDS, sexually transmitted infections STI , abortion; family separations and divorces, deaths, unplanned ----- 407 pregnancies; children living in the streets; school drop outs and psychological problems. i. Effects of incest. These are many. One, incest undermines the healthy relationships between members of a family as it brings shame and guilt among the parties involved. Two, incest destroys relationships within the family and can lead to breaking up of a marriage. Three, incest destroys self-esteem, self respect, and dignity of the victim. We find that abused boys and girls end up having problems when trying to establish healthy relationship with members of the opposite sex. Four, incest can lead to pregnancy, and abortion. And as you have read in the newspapers, it can lead to infections with sexually transmitted diseases S.T.I.s and HIV / AIDS. As I write, a father was jailed for life for raping his daughter and infecting her with HIV/AIDS virus. ii. Effects of Rape. This crime has very serious consequences and harmful effects on the victim. Rape may result in pregnancy and can led to physical, psychological, social, and spiritual side effects. The victim may suffer 1 serious physical injuries and 2 may contract both the STIs, and HIV / AIDs. The victim is traumatized, and ashamed of self. The victim suffers from guilt, loneliness, humiliation, posttraumatic stress disorders, and depression among others psychological manifestations. Young rape victims in particular may loose trust in the opposite sex. All these sufferings can lead to suicide and death. ----- 408 iii. Effects of Fornication. Some of these are having children out of wedlock; feelings of distrust, guilt, and hurt; contracting STIs and HIV/AIDS; loss of self-respect; early and forced marriage and abortion. iv. Effects of Adultery. Christians teach against adultery because it is against Gods commandments and can lead to divorce, abortion, STI, HIV/AIDS, domestic violence, murder death and psychological problems. v. Effects of Prostitution are many. It can lead to break up of marriage, and family. It lowers a persons dignity and can lead to unplanned pregnancies, school dropouts; infections such as STIs and HIV /AIDS and improper use of family resources. vi. Effects of homosexuality. It is a threat to procreation. It promotes loose short-term informal relationships and therefore promotes HIV / AIDS. Homosexual couples are prone to HIV/AIDS infections because of having many partners; although this is changing in USA where homosexual couples are being married in churches. vii. Effects of Sexually transmitted diseases HIV / AIDS effects are numerous. They include recurrent illness due to opportunistic infections. There is also stigmatization. Some individuals have feelings of guilt, anger, denial and depression. The sick persons have to look for extra finances to care for their health. They have the burden for medications, and special diet. HIV/AIDs has no cure and leads to death like many other diseases. Parents die and ----- 409 leave their children as orphans. Gonorrhea effects are many. The disease damages a womans fallopian tubes leading to infertility; and a mans epidydymis leading to sterility. An infected expectant mother can infect her newborn baby with gonorrhea. The disease may affect the eyes of the unborn child causing blindness. Gonorrhea can also cause inflammation of joints, the heart and liver. Effects of Syphilis are damage to the heart, brain and the nervous system. This disease can lead to madness and death of the victim. If a child is infected while in the womb, or during birth, the brain maybe damaged. The child may have either physical deformities or the infected mother may give stillbirths. Effects Herpes genitals. Infection can cause severe brain damage; cancer of the neck of the womb. If a woman is pregnant, the disease can cause death of the baby. The wounds and sores exposes the sick person to HIV /AIDS infections. Effects of Hepatitis B. This disease damages the liver and may lead to death of the infected person. It has a vaccine, but not treatment. viii. Other consequences of irresponsible sexual behaviours These are death, unplanned pregnancies, children living in the streets, school dropouts and psychological problems related to irresponsible sexual behaviour. These include among others: stress, depression, self pity, withdrawal, aggressiveness, and violence. ----- 410 Stress is the response of the body and mind to any situation that exerts pressure or makes demands on a person. The intensity or pressure experienced determines the level of stress. Some of the signs of stress are: anxiety, worry, drop in performance, chest pains, mood swings, rebellion, ulcers, heart palpitations, fatigue and guilt feelings. Solutions. To avoid stress, it is suggested that individuals should accept that one is stressed; identify sources of stress, rest, exercise, listening to therapeutic music and talk to a counselor. Depression. This is an acute mental disorder. It is also a state of hopelessness and low spirits. Depression can be mild or severe. It has physical, emotional and behavioural signs and symptoms. Let me caution you that it is only a medical doctor who can know if one has a depression or not. We are told by doctors that signs of a depression are: persistent headaches and chest pains; loss of appetite; too much appetite; loss of memory; insomnia i.e. lack of sleep; weight loss or gain; nervousness and mood swings; low self-confidence; suicidal tendencies and self-pity. Other signs and symptoms are loss of libido sexual desire ; poor performance in school and in work places; hopelessness; loss of interest in ones activities; hypertension and high blood pressure d. Irresponsible social and human behaviour. There are social and human behaviours that are contrary to Christian life. These unacceptable behaviours are abortion, and divorce. ----- 411 Abortion is termination of pregnancy before the foetus is capable of independent life. There are two types of abortions. One is spontaneous abortion or miscarriage. The other is induced abortion, which is deliberate and illegal in Kenya. Induced abortion has been debated in Kenya. The main question is should abortion be legalized or not. This is because abortion is legal in some European countries. Why do mothers seeking abortion? There are many reasons, which are known only to mothers. These are one, pregnancy due to rape and incest. Two, if the mother believes that the unborn child will be a burden. This may be because the baby is conceived outside wedlock and the mother lacks economic resources to take care of the baby. Another reason maybe that the mother is in school, and she cannot look after the baby and continue with her education. Three, medical personnel may abort a deformed foetus or in order to save the life of the mother if it is in danger. Christians view of abortion as murder Exodus20: 13 . This is because abortion interferes with the mothers body, and destroys the baby. Christian view is that the body is the temple of the Holy Spirit. God is the giver of life and He alone has the right to take it away. Abortion carries with it stigma and the effects mentioned above make Christians condemn abortion. e. Effects of irresponsible social and human behaviour. Effects of abortion are infertility, ectopic pregnancy, destruction of a womans body parts; fetal ----- 412 malformation; risk of the mother bleeding to death and destruction of uterus. Other effects are that the mother may experience in future still births, miscarriages, risk of barrenness; failed abortions leading to deformed babies and psychological problems that we have discussed. These are stress and depression. Revision questions. 1. Explain the T.A. understanding of human sexuality 2. Explain Christian attitudes towards human sexuality 3. In what ways is sex abused in Kenya? 4. Why do you think minors are defiled or sexually abused in Kenya? 5. Explain the Christian teaching on male/female relationships 6. What is the Christian teaching on responsible sexual behaviour? 7. List the different types of irresponsible sexual behaviour 8. Explain the Christian teaching on irresponsible sexual behaviour 9. State the effects of irresponsible sexual behaviour LESSON THREE: MARRIAGE Learning Outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to; a. Explain in brief the meaning of marriage b. Explain Christian teachings about marriage c. Describe courtship in African Traditional society d. Discuss the traditional African and Christian approaches to marriage preparation e. Explain celibacy as an alternative to marriage a. Definition of marriage. Marriage is a binding legal union between a man and a woman who agree to have a lasting relationship as husband / wife. Marriage partners choose each other. In some cases, senior member of the family and church influence the choice of a marriage partner. When marrying ----- 413 partners agree to marry, they are joined in church and they become husband and wife. Marriage is thus a covenant in which the partners give themselves to one another. Marriage involves other members of the community hence it is a social and community affair. Marriage is a permanent union. Marriage is a community requirement in which everyone in the community participates. Each person is expected to undergo marriage because it is a rite of passage. Marriage gives a person, a high social status and prestige in the community. Marriage is also a covenant between a man and a woman that should not be broken. Two people are joined in marriage in order to procreate and perpetuate the community. Once married, a couple is allowed to have sexual relationship, and companionship. Marriage is an expression of and fulfillment of mutual love and comfort. It enhance unity; social prestige, and respect in society. Purpose of marriage is sexual fulfillment; cultural and social requirement; obligation to build a family; and procreation although children are a gift from God. Forms of marriages There are many forms of marriages. There is a marriage ceremony organised as a symbol or mark of the union between a man and a woman. These marriages ceremonies are either civil, or religious. The main religious ceremonies are Christian, Islamic, Hindu, and Sikh among others. We also have African customary ceremonies many of which are polygamous. Christianity does not allow polygamous ----- 414 marriage. Secular approaches to marriage. In the modern world, some people choose not to marry for personal reasons. Some people have children without getting married while others opt to have a marriage without children. Husband and wife are equal. Monogamy is practiced for economic reasons. In some families women are the heads of the family. Choosing a partner is an individual act and not communal. In marriage traditional qualities of a good wife such as industrious, honesty, and hospitality are not considered. The modern society values external beauty, financial status and social status. As a result, there is a high rate of marriage, separation, and divorce. At times young people fail to be married in church. There is no formalization of marriages. These marriages are called Come-we-stay arrangements. Gender issues in marriage. The wife is subordinate to the husband but had rights. Marriage did not end with death of the husband. The wife was inherited by one of her husbands brother. This is widow inheritance / Levirate marriage. She could also refuse to be inherited but remained married to that man even in death. The wife could not marry outside the family because of dowry. There was dowry payment to parents. If a wife died, the man would marry the sister of his dead wife. This is surrogate marriage. Those who did not marry were considered lesser humans. Young people were prepared for marriage ----- 415 during initiation, which was witnessed in a public ceremony. During marriage, couple makes vows to each other. The ancestors are invoked to bless the marriage. Factors that lead to a stable, healthy and successful marriage People are different and they understand their roles differently. Here am giving you a few suggestions. Discuss with your study companions and come up with other suggestions. One important factor is mutual responsibility by the couple. This occurs if there is mutual consultation with each other in decision-making. Two is forgiveness of each other. Three is good treatment of each other especially with equal respect. Four is sharing scriptures together. Five is giving love and respecting each other. Six is having a faithful sexual relationship and lastly being open and honest. Seven is African traditional qualities of a good wife who is described as: hardworking, fertile, morally upright, generous, kind, obedient, humble, clean, beautiful, polite, warm hearted and hospitable. Eight are the qualities of a good husband, which are described as: being able to provide good leadership in the family. Other qualities are being aggressive, wise, brave, courageous, responsible and good property manager. b. Christian Teaching about Marriage. Christians teach that marriage is sacred and that it is a divine institution, which is ordained God. God started it when he created Adam and Eve. Marriage should therefore be monogamous and permanent as God protects marriages. The woman should submit to the ----- 416 husband who is told to love the wife as Christ loved the church. Church teaches respect of each other. Marriage is complete even without children as it is between a male and a female. Marriage is not obligatory and it ends when one partner dies. Christians preparation and approach to marriage Christians organise youth seminars, and rallies to teach the youth how to choose marriage partners and how to treat wife / husbands; care for the children; behave towards in laws; acquire wealth men ; and head a family. Youth are taught to avoid sexual intimacy before marriage. Those intending to marry are encouraged to go for pre marital counselling. During counselling, they are informed that love is the most important bond of unity in marriage. Church encourages partners to go for HIV /AIDs test before marriage. Marriage ceremony is conducted in church Choice of a marriage partner There are many ways of identifying a marriage partner. One is arrangement by parents. If not one can make an individual decision and choose a wife or husband. Two is through an intermediary or third party. In African traditional polygamous marriages, the first wife identified a wife for her husband. Girls would be given out to a chief as a gift c. Courtship in African Traditional society A.T.S . Courtship varied from community to community. Courtship is the period between engagement and wedding ceremony. During courtship premarital sex is ----- 417 forbidden. Girls and boys dressed with bracelets and rings. Courtship was important in A.T.S. This was because the man and woman who were girls and boys got to know each other better before marriage. It was a period when girls/boys were instructed in family life education. It was also a period for linking the two marrying families. The couple had time to learn about one anothers character, and know their families. It is a symbol sign of the girls presence in her home maternal home . She continues to live with her own people. The families and clan had an opportunity to check if the marrying couple was related and if their clans were acceptable to the parents. Courtship gives time to the two families to negotiate and pay the bride wealth or dowry. Bridal Wealth, dowry, bride price are all expressions of partnership. The family of the man pays dowry to the family of the woman. Some churches disregard bride wealth, while others encourage it. Dowry is paid in different forms. The girls family decides what it wants. Will it be livestock poultry, pigs, camels, cows, goats, sheep , beer, grain, jewellery and clothes among others. Importance of dowry. It acts as a compensation for the girls labour and seals the marriage covenant. It is a public expression of appreciation for the coming of a new wife/mother into the mans family. It promotes friendship and cements relationship between families. It shows commitment and seriousness ----- 418 of the future husband. After dowry payment, the woman belongs to her husband. A ceremony is carried out depending on the community. Bride price payment is accompanied by marriage ceremonies. Lastly dowry helps in maintaining peace Traditional African approaches to marriage preparation. Polygamy is one husband, married to many wives. Polygamy is allowed by the African traditional religion because it occurs if the first wife is barren; ensures that all women have husbands; prevents infertility; provides extra labour in farms. A polygamous man has a higher status because many wives symbolize wealth. Children are important in a marriage because they promote social status of their parents. They cement a bond of unity between husband / wife. They are a source of labour, and wealth. They are heirs to the family wealth They provide security to the family. Divorce is legal dissolution of marriage. Christians allow divorce because of specific grounds. Divorce was rare in African traditional societies. Divorce is granted under circumstances of: adultery, witchcraft, laziness, cruelty and disrespect of wife. In the contemporary society, divorce is sought after or allowed because of: unfaithfulness in marriage or adultery; domestic violence; misuse of family resources; childlessness; in- law interference and alcohol abuse. Legal reasons for divorce ----- 419 According to the laws of Kenya, divorce is allowed under the following reasons; adultery; if a man deserts his wife for more than 3 years; if a partner becomes insane; and domestic violence for example, physical, and psychological torture. Christian teaching about divorce. Christians discourage divorce because marriage is a permanent status. There is no room for divorce. Church discourages divorce because of its adverse effects. Some denominations allow divorce if there is adultery. God hates divorce. Married couples should remain faithful to each other Effects of divorce are strained relationships, children suffering psychologically, and experiences of rejection. A divorcee faces social stigma, rejection, and isolation. If parents separate, they create single parent families. These families suffer from economic hardships and feelings of failure and inadequacy. e. Celibacy as an alternative to marriage. Celibacy is a Latin word Coelebes meaning bachelor. Why do some people fail to marry? There are many reasons. Some of these are to pursue education leading to delayed marriage; and career demands workaholic . Other people are discouraged by examples of failed marriages. Other reasons maybe economic independence, poor health, HIV /AIDS, mental illness; parental interference and disappointment from past failed relationships. This happens if parents do not approve a partner. Revision questions ----- 420 1. Explain the traditional African understanding of marriage 2, what is the importance of children in traditional African society? 3.what is the Christian teaching about marriage? 4. What is the importance of courtship period in T.As 5. Why are many people opting for celibacy? LESSON FOUR: THE FAMILY Introduction. As society grows and changes, the family grows and changes. As a result, there are several types and practices of the family. In this lesson, we shall discuss the traditional family as it is practiced in the Bible, the traditional African societies and some Christian families. Learning Outcomes. By the end of the topic, the learner should be able to a Explain types of families in society b Analyse traditional African family values and practices c Explain Christians family values and practices d Discuss problems related to family life today e Compare approaches to family by Christians and traditional African society f. Discuss responsible parenthood The family. What is a family? Family is the basic social unit of human society. This basic unit is extended to include relatives bound together by blood, marriage, friendship, and adoption. They are all members of the family. In Kenya, there are many types of families. a. Types of families i. Nuclear family is parents and their children. .It is father, mother, and children. There is an increase of monogamous families or nuclear because of urbanization as rural youth come to towns in search of ----- 421 white-collar jobs. Migration to cities by people of different tribes has led to pluralism. Education, high cost of living have led to the death of the African culture, which required men and women to marry many partners to produce many children to defend their tribe. Advantages of nuclear families are many. One, the man is able to give undivided attention to one wife and children. Two, there is sharing of mutual love, and peace in the home. Three it is economical to manage one family. Four there is little competition for attention, less strife, quarrels and stress. Five, it is easier to monitor the behaviour of a few children. ii. Polygamous family Father, mothers, children. These type of family have disadvantages in modern Kenya. Modern society is a cash economy. Thus if a man has many wives and children, they may lack basic necessities like food, shelter, education and clothes. iii. Single parent family one parent, and children. Single parent families are created by several circumstances. One is by parents separating. Separation of parents is due to several reasons. These are for example, one partner going to another country and failing to return to his or her country and family. Two, a single family is created by divorce. Divorced parents may decide not to marry again. Three is when one parent refuses to marry. This happens when a girl gets pregnant and the boy does not marry her. Four is because of death of a spouse. The remaining parent may decide not to remarry. Five is when ----- 422 some mothers decide to have children without marriage. This may not be correct as there is no research to suggest it. Six is imprisonment of one partner for a long time. One parent is left looking after children because one is in jail. iv. Extended family father, mother, children, uncles, aunts, and cousins. This is the common family type in traditional African communities. v. Children led family. This happens when parents die and the 1st born takes care of brothers and sisters including cousins. vi. Grandparent headed family. The HIV/AIDs epidemic has introduced this type of family where grandparents take care of their grandchildren due to the death of both parents especially the mother due to HIV / AIDS disease. This scourge has made many children orphans. In other cases parents go for further studies abroad and leave their children with their parents. b. Traditional African family values and practices. In African societies creation of a family is through marriage, and subsequent procreation. Family is viewed as a sacred institution in African society. The African traditional family includes the dead ancestors , the unborn children and the living. An African traditional family has obligations and duties. These were 1 offering sacrifices to ancestors, 2 pouring libations; and 3 giving the dead decent burials 4 providing basic needs to their children 5 bringing up children to be morally upright individuals. Further to this, the African traditional family is ----- 423 responsible for the upbringing, caring, and protection of its children. This is demonstrated by the nuclear family, which provides necessities required to meet and satisfy the economic needs of its members. The African traditional family is expected to participate in communal activities. Work in the family was divided according to age, gender and social status. Each family member worked for its basic needs as well as the welfare of the community. The African family had well-stated and practiced values There were 1 respect for family members 2 providing responsible parenthood, which is the process of bringing up children to become all round or self reliant persons 3 educating children in all aspects of life. Parents and the extended family members helped their children to develop intellectually and cognitively. The family taught children physical skills. It also gave children confidence to appreciate their physical strength. Children were taken through a rigorous physical curriculum of games such as wrestling, swimming and running to develop their physical strength. Childrens bodies were nourished thoroughly. They were served good and nutritious food, which improved their muscle strength. Children were taught social skills. They learnt how to behave towards adults, peers and grandparents. They developed social skills since parents allowed them to socialize and interact with other children, grandparents and the community. This made them grow socially, emotionally and psychologically. ----- 424 They had a curriculum for teaching and training in traditional African religious values, family matters, moral and social values. This teaching of children started from an early age. The teaching method used was observation and practice. Parents taught by being good role models. They were expected to model desired values and family practices. Children were taught how to relate with one another as brothers and sisters. Parents were to show tolerance to children. These values show that African parents understood their parental roles and responsibilities. These values were sometimes; exploited by the irresponsible family members or specific individuals. This exploitation encouraged dependency, leading to conflicts, competition, hatred, and jealousy. Christian parents are expected to train their children to know God; be self -disciplined, and follow the Christian way of living. Another duty is to provide basic needs to their children. Christian understanding of the family Among Christians, family is sacred and instituted by God. Read again about the Christian teachings about marriage. Role of children in the Christian family A Christian child is expected to obey parents, honor them, and respect parents. This is one of the Ten Commandments given to Moses by God. Parenting styles a Dictatorship /authoritative / autocratic the parents is the final authority, imposes decisions ----- 425 b Permissive or liberal style also referred to as Laissez faire the children do as they want c Democratic style parents discuss with their children on family issues. This is the best style. Problems related to family life today Families are faced with numerous problems such as a Children abuse sex assault, beating b Domestic violence abusive language, frequent fights, emotional abuse c Diseases e.g. HIV / AIDS epilepsy, autism. d Children with special needs, blindness, deafness or those with mental challenges, motor co ordination Autism e Separation, divorce f Childlessness g Single parent families economic hardships h Misuse of family resources, economic crisis i Affluence a lot of wealth j Unemployment, underemployment k Retrenchment laying off of some employees in order to reduce the workforce l Mismanagement of family finances m Alcohol and drug abuse n The generation gap o Poor relations with in-laws p Cultural and religious differences Traditional African approaches to problems related to family life today 1 Individuals were prepared for challenges of family life right from childhood 2 Adolescents, initiates were given family life education ----- 426 3 People entered marriage knowing that its a life long union 4 Rules were clear to govern marriage relations 5 Polygamy helped reduce unfaithfulness 6 There were no single parent families. Members lived together reducing loneliness 7 Widows / widowers were encouraged to marry again Traditional brew was taken in moderation Christians approaches to problems related to family life today 1 Christian families are obliged to live according to Christian principles and values such as mutual respect, self discipline, understanding, honesty, faithfulness, love and forgiveness 2 Premarital counseling is carried out 3 Church holds regular seminars and conferences on family life matters. Love and respect for each other. Christian wife to submit to husband who is head of the family. They are taught to take each other as complementary and equal partners. 4 Women are encouraged to form participate in church organizations e.g. mothers union, womens guild where they learn roles of being a wife, mother, and a woman. 5 Some churches offer advice to families on management of their families. They are encouraged to have investments. 6 Breadwinner is encouraged to write a written will 7 To improve the parent child relationship churches offer guidance and counseling to the youth Christian parents are advised to set positive role models to their children 9 Parents are encouraged to be open and promote effective communication with their children ----- 427 10 Churches in case of serious family conflicts such as child abuse, domestic violence, advise legal action. 11 Churches organize youth seminars where they talk about drug abuse, premarital sex, negative peer pressure and media influence etc. 12 Relevant information is passed through books, pamphlets, magazines, media FM, TV etc. 13 Some churches welcome unwed mothers 14 Churches provide health services, guidance on HIV / AIDS 15 Some churches care for widows, orphans widowers and the needy Revision questions 1. State the different types of families TOPIC THREE: CHRISTIAN APPROACHES TO WORK Learning Outcomes By the end of the topic you should be able to a Define the term work and vocation b Explain and appreciated the traditional African attitude towards work c Explain the role of professional ethos, ethics and code in society d Explain virtues related to work e Discuss the moral duties and responsibilities of employers and employees f Discuss Christian approaches to issues related to employment LESSON ONE: DEFINITION OF TERMS Learning outcomes. By the end of this lesson, you should be able to: a. Explain the meaning of work. Vocation, profession, trade, craft, and job b. Give general reasons why people work Work Use of energy, physical or mental, for the purpose of improving human life. It is any activity that requires ----- 428 expenditure of energy or application of skills e.g. studying, teaching, cooking, farming etc. Vocation Work can be described as a vocation, profession, trade, craft, career or a job. Vocation is from a Latin word Vocare which means call Christians believe that every individual has been called of God to various duties. Vocation is work that requires special skills, special training or a unique call or a special mission in society. Profession Work that is characterized by a code of ethics, lengthy specialized training, advance knowledge and self disciple. Professionals have their own set standards. The professionals determine entry requirements for new members and usually have machinery for dealing with errant members. E.g. Law, medicine, architecture etc. A trade Refers to an occupation, a way of making a living. Some trades require specialized training examples hairdressing A craft An occupation which requires manipulative skills or use of the hands e.g. woodcarving, pottery, weaving. A craft may be a trade depending on the nature of occupation. A career An occupation that one chooses to pursue in his/her life. Its the general way of earning a living. ----- 429 Job Refers to tasks performed, services rendered in return for payment of wages. Most jobs are temporary others casual and others permanent and pension able. What determines ones career, vocation? 1. Available opportunities for future development in a particular job 2. The need to serve others especially the church and the needy 3. Interests, strengths, talents, abilities 4. Inclination or attraction to a certain kind of work 5. Pressure from parents, peers etc General reasons why people work a Its an essential element of life b God ordained work. Humans work for their food c Work contributes to the development of the community d Work is personal. It defines a person e People work to earn a living f People work for enjoyment, leisure g To assist and give to the needy h To get luxuries i People work to raise their standards of living j For self satisfaction and fulfillment k For personal development l To keep a person occupied and not idle m To acquire wealth and status in the society n To socialize with other members of the society o To attain independence and not depend on someone else LESSON TWO: TRADITIONAL AFRICAN ATTITUDE TO WORK Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson, you should be able to: a. Explain importance of work ----- 430 1. Work is essential to the well being of the individual and survival of the community 2. Work ensured basic needs such as food, shelters etc were provided. 3. In traditional African society work was divided according to the age, gender, and status e.g. chief, elder of the individual. 4. Everyone was a worker. Boys assisted in herding, fishing, girls assisted in cooking fetching firewood. Women cooked, took care of babies constructed houses maasai etc. 5. Works among the traditional African societies included pastoralist, farmers, livestock keeping, fishing, bee keeping etc 6. Work was a communal affair; people would work together and assist each other 7. Work was not for a wage Money . The rewards of work-included food, communal unity, acquisition of moral values etc. 8. Hard work was emphasized, laziness was condemned 9. There were some specific works for specialization e.g. herbal medicine men, divination, prophecy, rain making, pottery etc. 10. Work involved giving prayers, offerings, and sacrifices to God 11. Through work, the basic needs of the individual, community were fulfilled 12. Through work potentials; talents and skills were explored, acquired and utilized. 13. Work had a religious dimension as well as a social dimension. It brought people together improving their relations 14. SAE ----- 431 1. Find out how different communities in Kenya lived in the past and how they live today 2. How did the lifestyle of the communities influence daily activities LESSON THREE: CHRISTIAN TEACHING ON WORK Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - 1. Describe the christens teachings about work The Christian teaching on work is based mainly on the interpretation of the bible, the teachings of Jesus and the teachings of the apostles. Some of the teachings are: - 1. God himself instituted work. He created the heavens and the earth and all in it. Since God worked man should work. Gen. 2:1 2. Gods work of creation is good Gen. 1:31 Christians should endeavor to produce good works 3. Work is a duty, an obligation, a command Christians are responsible for Gods creation Gen.2: 15 . They are to protect it animals, birds, plants, marine life are all under the care of man. 4. Human beings should work to acquire their basic needs Genesis. 1:29 30, 3:19 God blesses the work of our hands 5. Human beings are co creators with God Gen.1: 28 God continue to create through human beings. Human beings glorify God through their work. 6. God reveals himself through his work of creation. God had a purpose for his creation. He is orderly, source of life, Almighty etc. 7. Work is a co operative undertaking. Eve was created to be Adams helper Gen. 2:20 Christians should co operate in their undertakings ----- 432 8. Hard work is praised and laziness is looked down upon. Proverbs 31:27 . Christians should work for their daily needs and not become a burden to others. 9. Work should be accompanied with rest Gen.2: 2 God rested on the 7th day from all his work. God commanded the Israelites to rest on the 7th day. 10. People should enjoy what they have worked for Ecc.3: 22 11. Work should be done for the glory of God and for the good of the society. 12. People should work honestly not steal but work to earn an honest living Eph.4: 28 13. Those who do not work should not eat They should always work since God is always at a work John 15:17 LESSON FOUR: ROLES OF PROFESSIONAL ETHOS, ETHICS AND CODES IN THE SOCIETY Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson, you should be able to: - 1. Define the following terms, professional ethics, professional codes and professional ethos 2. Describe the role of ethics Definitions Professional ethics : principles of behaviour / conduct that guide members of a particular profession. What workers are allowed to do and not to do. Professional ethos The group identity of members of a profession, their unique custom or character e.g. what identifies doctors, lawyers etc. Profession codes or code of ethics Collection of laws arranged systematically according to major concerns and core functions of the ----- 433 profession. Roles - To regulate the behaviour of professional workers - Enables professionals to understand their role - Ensures professionals provide quality of services to their clients - To encourage respect among professionals - Give guidance on how professionals should relate to one another - They safe guard professionals against being compromised / misused - They determine expected level of performance - They serve as a measure of competence - Act as a measure of quality service - They protect the professionals - They provide a reference point for disciplining used to discipline the errant professional - They inspire respect and high esteem for professionals - Through professional codes, ethics, ethos, professional earn public trust LESSON FIVE: VIRTUES RELATED TO WORK Learning outcome. By the end of the lesson the learner should be able to: -es 1. Define the term virtue 2. Give examples of virtues related to work Definition A virtue is a good human habit. Its a moral principle, moral quality or goodness of character and behaviour. Examples of virtues elated to work i Diligence hardworking ii Honesty, integrity ability to be relied upon Integrity Honest is being truthful. iii Faithfulness being trustworthy and loyal ----- 434 iv Responsibility ability to make decisions and take action independently. Being mindful of other peoples welfare v Tolerance ability to bear with others or with difficult situations LESSON SIX: MORAL DUTIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF EMPLOYERS AND EMPLOYEES Learning outcomes: by the end of the lesson, you should be able to: - 1. State and explain the duties and responsibilities of employers towards employees 2. List the rights of employers 3. Outline the moral duties of employees 4. List the rights of employees Employers: government, non governmental organization, private sector individuals, company, selfemployment. Employers have several duties and responsibilities towards their employees. They are: - To organize and conduct business efficiently for the benefit of the institution, employer, community - To respect the employee, treat them with dignity - Pay a fair wage to the employee - Ensure good healthy and safe working conditions - Provide social welfare for the employees e.g. time off, leave days, time for recreation - Grant leave as required by law or the terms of contract - Take care of the welfare of the employees give medical cover, pension scheme etc - To motivate their employees - To reward employees - Compensate employees made redundant Rights of the employer ----- 435 Employers have a right to / are entitled to a Get profits from their businesses b Carry out their businesses without unfair taxation c Form association with other employers d Obtain and conduct business e Hire, dismiss employees in accordance with the requirements of their firms and contract f Demand a fair days work g Conduct business without subjection to unfair conditions and competitions Moral duties of the employees 1. Carry out their duties to the best of their ability without supervision 2. Respect and protect the property of the employer 3. Encourage peaceful solutions to any problems encountered in their work place 4. To work diligently for self fulfillment and development 5. To respect their employer and fellow employees 6. Observe terms of contract with employer 7. Be loyal, honest, respect to the employer Rights of the employees To receive fair wages To have a reasonable work load Have reasonable hours of work Have safety and protection at work Right to join a labour union Right to further individual training and development education Rights to retirement, terminal benefits Rights to a fair opportunity for provision A right to time for rest Right to Favourable working conditions ----- 436 LESSON SEVEN: CHRISTIANS APPROACHES TO ISSUES RELATED TO EMPLOYMENT Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to; - 1. Define the following terms, wages and industrial action 2. State the Christian teachings on wages 3. List the reasons for industrial action 4. State the results of workers strike/ industrial action 5. Explain the Christian approaches towards strikes Wages and industrial action Strikes A wage is payments for work done. Payment is in modern times done according to hours, weeks or days that one works. Christian teachings on wages - Human beings have the right to work for a decent living Matt.20:1 16 They should be paid for their work. - Workers should be paid wages to the amount and value of their work 1 Timothy 5:18 - Wages should be paid as agreed upon Mathew 20:13 - Employers should not take advantage of the poverty of the employee Deuteronomy 24: 14 15 - Human beings should not be enslaved to work Ex.5:22 23 - Employers who degrade their workers in wages are condemned Deut.24:14 15, Jer.22:13 - Oppression is condemned Amos 5:18, 8;4 - Workers wages should never be withheld James 5:4 Industrial action Also commonly called Strike this is an effort by workers to stop work in protest by boycott go-slow sit ----- 437 ins or refuse to work. There has been increase of industrial action in the recent past in most countries of the world. Reasons for industrial actions 1 Due to increased awareness of workers rights 2 Exposure to global trends through the media 3 Formation of trade unions that fight for the rights of workers 4 Due to poor working conditions 5 Underpaying workers 6 Threatening workers with unjustified dismissals 7 Suspending the workers / interdiction unjustly 8 A hostile working environment Results of workers strikes industrial / action a Pay cuts b Demotions c Loss of jobs d Employers suffer losses e Inflation f Injuries even death when confronted by police g Victimization of some individuals h Bitterness among the workers and employers Christian approaches towards strikes a Christians recommend a peaceful co existence between workers and employers b There should be fairness, justice, love among workers, employees c There should be an open communication channel across the ranks from top to bottom d Employees should not destroy property e Working conditions should be better and improved f Employees to be human when dealing with employees ----- 438 LESSON EIGHT: CHILD LABOUR Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - 1. Define the term child labour 2. State the reasons why children are employed 3. State the disadvantages of child labour 4. List down the causes of child labour 5. Describe the position of the church in dealing with child labour A child is a person below 18 years. A child does not have an identity card, does not vote in Kenya . According to International Labour Organization the minimum employment age is 14 years. Child labour It is engaging a person below the age of 14 years in wage / paid employment. Reasons why children are employed - To provide cheap labour - They cannot fight for proper terms - They are easily hired and fired Disadvantages of child labour Children are not yet mentally and physically prepared to do adult jobs. This leads to a Exploitation of children b Children paid less, taken advantage of c It inhibits the growth of a child and denies them a chance to enjoy their childhood d It deprives them of their right to basic education e It exposes children to hazards dangers from machines, chemicals f Heavy workload deprives children of social educational, moral, psychological, physical rights Places where children are employed ----- 439 - Plantations coffee, tea - Domestic services homes - Tourism sector - Industries - Children are trafficked and employed as commercial sex workers Causes of child labour reasons why children work 1 Lack of money / poverty 2 Death of parents 3 Dropping out of school due to pregnancy, indiscipline, truancy , poor academic performance or lack of school fees. 4 Those who never went or taken to school 5 Lack of good role models e.g. coast province Mombasa, Malindi has several of the financially stable people being school dropouts, engaged in drug trafficking, commercial sex etc. 6 Influence of cultural values e.g. circumcision of boys in some communities is done later in life and one is declared an adult e.g. the kikuyu circumcising at 13 years, or 12 years 7 Children being lured by employers 8 Greed for material benefits 9 Being homeless ending up as a street child Position of church in dealing with child labour - The church condemns it - It has put up homes for poor children orphanages - It provides guidance, counseling to both parents and children - Children are blessing from God hence should be loved and cared for - Parents have the responsibilities to protect their children from harm. LESSON NINE: UNEMPLOYMENT AND SELF EMPLOYMENT Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - ----- 440 1. Define the term unemployment and self employment 2. State the causes of unemployment 3. Describe the response of Christians to issues of unemployment 4. List the problems faced by self employed people Unemployment When people are capable and willing to work but are unable to find a viable income or occupation it is referred to as unemployment. Causes of unemployment 1 Preference for prestigious white collar jobs Office jobs, non manual jobs 2 Corruption tribalism, nepotism, bribery denying jobs to the qualified in preference for the unqualified. 3 Unequal distribution of wealth some regions are more resourceful than others. Industries, good infrastructure concentrated in some areas. 4 Inadequate resources for self employment lack of capital, skills 5 Limited job opportunities probably due to high population growth 6 Few international investors in Kenya, probably due to high crime rate, insecurity Identify ways of creating job opportunities Response of Christians to issues of unemployment a They encourage self employment in cases of unemployment b They have set up vocational training, polytechnics to train people towards jobs that are for self employment c Christians condemn idleness Self-employment ----- 441 Self-employment is an economic activity initiated, controlled by an individual. It is an occupation in which a person initiates a personal enterprise and manages it with the help of others. Examples Small businesses enterprises, Jua kali sector, music industry, entertainment e.g. comedians , community work, agriculture etc Problems / challenges - Some lack sufficient capital to start a business and keep it running - Lack of necessary skills to run the business - High taxation leading to some business closing down - Small scale traders face undue competition from larger firms Revision questions 1. What is work? 2. List any six reasons why people work 3. Explain T.As attitude towards work 4. List some of the factors that have changed the attitude towards work in the modern society 5. What are the rights of employers? 6. State the duties of employees 7. Why has child labour become common in Kenya? 8. What are the causes of unemployment in Kenya? 9. What can the government do to reduce unemployment in Kenya? TOPIC FOUR: CHRISTIANS APPROACHES TO LEISURE Learning Outcomes By the end of the topic, you should be able to a Explain the meaning of leisure b Discuss the traditional African understanding of leisure c Discuss Christian teaching on leisure ----- 442 d Discuss the importance of leisure e Outline various forms and uses of leisure f Explain how leisure is misused in the society today g Discuss the abuse of alcohol and other drugs and their effects h Explain Christian criteria for evaluating the use of leisure Christian criteria for evaluating the use of leisure LESSON ONE: MEANING OF LEISURE Work is an obligation however people cannot work 24 hours. They need to rest. God rested on the 7th day after work. Work and rest are complementary elements of human life. Definition of leisure This is the time when one is free from work or other duties. Time at ones own disposal, which can be utilized in a productive manner depending on ones interests and abilities. Leisure provides mental, physical relaxation, spiritual, emotional relaxation and enrichment Forms of leisure 1. Passive 2. Active leisure Passive involves use of mental energy Active leisure there is use of physical energy Examples of activities of passive leisure are - Watching television - Reading story books - Playing video games - Chatting with friends Examples of activities of active leisure are - Jogging - Mountain climbing - Gardening ----- 443 - Dancing - Tree planting - Playing football Leisure is used for - Enjoyment - Entertainment song, dance, watching movies etc - Relaxation exercises - Socialization sharing, education - Religious engagement wedding ceremonies, visiting the sick, worship In passive leisure others entertain while in active leisure the person is active, whole body is involved. Active leisure enables a person to 1. Develop his/her body 2. Build stamina 3. Strengthen relationships etc Some leisure activities are dangerous e.g. boxing, motor racing; while others are expensive e.g. golf. Other leisure activities are addictive while others are unproductive. - Leisure activities should be planned for - Leisure activities can also be economic, income generating activities. LESSON TWO: TRADITIONAL AFRICAN UNDERSTANDING OF LEISURE Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson, you should be able to: - 1.Define leisure according to the traditional African understanding 2. State the various forms of communal leisure activities In traditional African society leisure permeates all aspects of life. Leisure activities accompany work. Leisure and work were entertainment. Work was accompanied by singing, reciting stories sharing past ----- 444 events. Examples of leisure activities in traditional African society include - Wrestling - Running - Playing ajua - Mock fighting - Swimming - Spear throwing - Poetry - Music and dance etc Leisure activities that were communal include Bull fighting Tongue twisters Poetry recitation Telling of myths legends Dancing Brain teasers Riddles etc o Work in African society included fishing, tilling the land, herding, hunting, harvesting o Most leisure activities in traditional African society were active form of leisure, communal, not individualistic and not for monetary gains o All forms of leisure had an educational value. Folk stories had a moral value. People were taught not to be selfish, greedy jealousy etc Myths and legends tell of the origin of the community and its history of important people as well as history of the community. o In African traditional society, leisure led to acquisition of values or virtues such as co operation, ----- 445 sharing, solidarity, love, bravery, empathy, endurance, tolerance etc. o Most activities were linked to the worship of God and, veneration of the ancestors o Leisure activates were organized along gender and age group season E.g. harvest dancing, singing ; wet rainy seasons boat swimming o Rites of passage e.g. initiation, marriage, birth and naming provided leisure activities o Leisure activities were planned for LESSON THREE: CHRISTIAN TEACHING ON LEISURE Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - 1. Describe the Christian teachings on work 2. State the various ways that Christians use their leisure Christian teach that a Work and leisure are of divine origin. God rested on the 7th day after working b Leisure is a gift from God leisure should be put to good use. Its not be wasted c Leisure provides us with the opportunity to worship God. Leisure should be used to serve God. d Christians associate leisure with personal growth and fellowship e Jesus recognized the need for rest by withdrawing his disciples from their active ministry. Its good to have time alone for reflection, rest, visit friend etc. f Leisure should be used to seek God and help others e.g. Jesus prayed, helped the needy restored peoples health. Ways Christian use their leisure time activities Worshipping God Visiting the sick ----- 446 Caring for the needy Resting Watching television Chatting with family members Retreat time spend away with a group of people to be alone with God Visiting friends, relatives Reading the bible Praying etc LESSON FOUR: IMPORTANT USE AND MISUSE OF LEISURE Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - 1. State the importance of leisure 2. List the ways that leisure can be used properly 3. Describe how leisure is misused today Importance of leisure Leisure is necessary. Its important in various ways 1 It is a good time to assess the work we have done Reflection time 2 It brings people together leading to self growth and fulfilment Social function of leisure 3 Leisure helps individuals to discover their hidden talents 4 Leisure relaxes the mind a change of activity, relieves the mind 5 Leisure refreshes the body restores lost energy 6 Leisure enables Christians to offer charity to those in need 7 Leisure provides time for worship and spiritual renewal Leisure gives one time to rest 9 Its time for recreation 10 Give one time to attend social occasions 11 Allows people to travel and visit friends and relatives 12 Leisure can be used to enhance and acquire new skills and knowledge 13 Its a time to develop and discover ones talents Uses of leisure proper of leisure ----- 447 Leisure can be used for a. Religious experience b. A time for rest c. Leisure is used to provide us with time to help others d. Leisure can be used to spread the word of God e. Development of talents f. Its an opportunity for individual growth g. Leisure strengthens social relationships h. Leisure can be used for reflection on ones decision; actions etc leisure activities reveal who we are. i. Leisure can be used for educative and economic purposes Proper use of leisure is when leisure time is spent doing activities that add value to us. Misuse of leisure today Leisure time can be misused through various activities e.g. 1 Spending too much time in passive activities e.g. pornography watching, watching films that are violent 2 Spending leisure time in idle talk gossip-leading to conflicts 3 Spending time in gambling, casinos making bets on horses playing Ajua games etc 4 Alcohol and drug taking when a person over drinks alcohol, spends time drinking at the expense of family, abusing drugs is misuse of leisure time. 5 Leisure can also be misused by engaging in dangerous activities. Night dancing, disco dancing has become a common form of leisure worldwide. What are the advantages and disadvantages? LESSON FIVE: DRUG ABUSE AND ITS EFFECTS- ALCOHOL, SOFT AND HARD DRUGS ----- 448 Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson, you should be able to: - 1. Define the terms drug, drug use, drug abuse 2. State the different ways that drugs are administered 3. List the various categories of drugs 4. List the different types of drugs 5. Describe the various effects of different drugs A drug is any substance which when taken may alter or cause changes in the normal functioning of the body. Drug abuse Improper use of drugs. Using a drug for another purpose than what it is intended for Drug use Proper use of drugs Drugs are taken in various forms namely 1 Liquids 2 Lotions 3 Ointment 4 Powder 5 Cake form, Drugs are classified as legal and illegal Ways of administering drugs Drugs are taken /administered in various ways - Infecting - Inhaling / smoking - Chewing - Swallowing - Drinking - Sniffing / snuffing Categories of drugs ----- 449 a Medicinal b Soft drugs c Hard / narcotic drugs Types of drugs 1 Preventive drugs e.g. drugs to prevent polio, cholera, yellow fever 2 Curative drugs drugs that cure diseases 3 Sedatives, palliatives drugs that alleviate pain, put patients to sleep e.g. drugs for diabetes, heart diseases, asthma, painkillers 4 Tranquillizers drugs that relieve tension induce sleep e.g. piriton, valium 5 Stimulants drugs used to increase physiological activity of a particular organ. They arouse the activity of the central nervous system / senses. 6 Volatile drugs these drugs intoxicate the user, they are derived from petroleum products paint thinners dry cleaning fluids glue etc. stimulants and volatile drugs classified as soft drugs. 7 Hard drugs or narcotic drugs These are highly addictive drugs. The body forms dependence on these drugs. These drugs affect the mind causing drowsiness; sleep, stupor and they are the most commonly abused drugs. Examples are Cocaine - From coca leaves - Its highly addictive - Causes mental problems - Can lead to death on overdose - A very expensive drug ----- 450 Other side effects are confusion, Convulsions, circulatory collapse and rapid heart beat Bhang / Marijuana - A plant of Indian hemp - Also called marijuana, Hashish, Cannabis, Sativa depending on which part of the plant is taken i.e. leaves, stem, or roots. - Users become aggressive excited or high - Bhang changes perception of space, time and reality - It causes drowsiness and irresponsible behaviour - Its side effects causes people to be engaged in criminal activities e.g. robbery with violence as it gives changes in perception Morphine Its used to suppress pain clinically - Its addictive - Its derived from cocaine - Used as local aesthetic Heroine - Its pain relieving - Highly addictive - Powder heated in foil paper, vapour forms hence smoked referred to as chasing the dragon - Also called brown sugar - Its injected and inhaled - An overdose can lead to death - its expensive - It causes respiratory problems - Its depressive ----- 451 - Withdrawal symptoms when heroine is not available are nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea and severe anxiety Soft drugs - Cigarette - Alcohol - Miraa / khat Cigarette - Made from tobacco - Cigarettes contain a Nicotine a highly addictive substance. b Carbon monoxide, which damages arteries heart and lungs c Tar black substance which promotes cancer of the throat, heart and lungs Cigarettes are legal drugs in Kenya. Pregnant women may miscarry or terminate the pregnancy if they smoke. Leads to chest respiratory diseases poor blood circulation Leads to destructive fires due to carelessness Miraa / khat 1 Plants / legally in Kenyan, and other parts of the world 2 They are chewed 3 Causes temporary excitement 4 Makes one loose appetite for food and sex 5 The juice in miraa causes temporary excitement in the user when ingested 6 Miraa makes the user to be irritable Alcohol - Alcohol is a drug made through fermentation - Its a drink used in social ceremonial occasions ----- 452 - Its in form of beer wines, traditional brew e.g. busaa, muratina, mnazi and spirits e.g. whisks, brandy, gin, changaa - Alcohol is prepared by fermentation or distillation heating to a certain degree. - In African traditional society, alcohol was fermented and used for 1. Medicinal value 2. Entertainment 3. Marriage celebrations 4. Beer parties given to visitors - Excessive drinking was discouraged - Drunk people were scorned or scolded - Young people were not allowed to drink alcohol - When alcohol is taken excessively it is abused Alcohol abuse - Alcohol can lead to body dependence or addiction - Consequences of abusing alcohol are such as i Squandering family resources ii Health deterioration iii Lack of concentration leading to poor quality of work iv Family break-ups due to frustrations A man experiences a desire for sex but lacks the ability to perform leading to break ups v Deformed foetus if a mother abuses alcohol when pregnant vi Alcohol destroys brain cells vii It leads to unruly behaviour such as fights, violence viii One is vulnerable to risky behaviour a drunk person is unable to make proper decisions hence vulnerable to sexual infections such as HIV / AIDS ----- 453 ix Can make a person cause accidents if driving under the influence of alcohol or staggering on the road. LESSON SIX: CAUSES OF ALCOHOL AND DRUG ABUSE REASONS WHY PEOPLE ABUSE ALCOHOL AND DRUGS Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - 1. State and explain the effects of drugs 2. State and explain the causes of drug use and abuse i Frustration due to unemployment, inability to perform well and meet set standards or other personal frustrations. ii Idleness when idle some turn to alcohol and drug use iii Addiction iv Boredom v Bad examples from adults vi Availability of drugs in the Kenyan market vii Negative peer pressure viii Experimentation then addiction ix Media influence x Societal permissiveness xi Urbanization xii Pressure of work xiii Financial stress xiv Globalization foreign world influences Effects of drug abuse Drug abuse poses danger to the health of a person, affects family, society in general. Effects of drug abuse are ----- 454 A. Psychological problems drugs are addictive. The body becomes dependant on them. It cannot perform without the drugs. It leads to depression, irritability, aggressiveness, paranoia, one becoming afraid to face reality etc. B. Crime robbery, theft, people abusing drugs will rob, steal so as to get money to buy the drugs. Drugs have led to students setting schools on fire, killing their fellow students C. Illusion users do not face reality D. Health problems one is prone to diseases because of frequent use of drugs. Drugs weakens the bodys system e.g. alcohol leads to liver Cirrhosis, stomach ulcers. One is susceptible / prone to HIV / AIDS infection STIs lung cancer, still birth etc E. Economic problems Drugs are expensive. Abuse leads to depletion of family resources leading to poverty F. Loss of job and income G. Social problems Abuse of drugs leads to family conflicts, leading to separation, divorce, family quarrels fights and even murder domestic violence H. Accidents I. Frustrations J. Poor performance in school work K. Death People die out of drug abuse. An over dose of heroine, cocaine kills. Alcohol can lead to a blackout, this affects the brain LESSON SEVEN: REMEDIES TO DRUG ABUSE ----- 455 Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to:- 1. List down the various remedies to drug use and abuse Drug abuse has become a global problem. Remedies or solutions include a Law enforcement through bodies such as UNDCP United Nations International Drug Control Programme Anti Narcotics Police Units, NACADA National Agency for the Campaign Against Drug Abuse so as to control abuse of Narcotics and other drugs. b Education People to be educated on the effects of drugs. The curriculum from primary to secondary to include topics on drug abuse. Guidance and counselling Religious teachings all religious condemn the abuse of drugs Family values to be promoted. Parents should set good examples to their children Every individual to cultivate individual values. Respect their body and take care of their bodies Rehabilitation of drug users / abusers LESSON EIGHT: CHRISTIAN CRITERIA FOR EVALUATING THE USE OF LEISURE Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - 1. Describe the Christians criteria for evaluating the use of leisure Criteria criterion a principle or standard for judging something. How does a Christian determine whether a certain leisure activity is lawful, acceptable before God criteria for evaluating the use of leisure 1 Christians, should engage in leisure activities which promote their respect and dignity they should ----- 456 socialize with people who are morally upright bad company corrupts good morals 2 God ordains leisure hence it should serve Gods purpose. 3 Leisure should come after work 4 Leisure should be used for the good of others. The activities that are harmful to others should be avoided 5 Activities chosen should enrich their knowledge of God 6 Activities should provide service to others 7 Leisure doesnt mean laziness A Christian should not engage in a harmful activity to self but those that promote respect and dignity 9 Christians to avoid activities that lead to sin or to addiction 10 They should perform an activity which develop their physical emotional social and spiritual well being 11 Leisure should be enjoyed with moderation 12 Activities for leisure should be moral, within the laws of God and pleasing to good. Revision questions 1. Identify five 5 reasons why the taking of alcohol as a way of spending leisure is condemned 2. Write down five ways in which modern Christians use their leisure time 3. Give five ways in which drug use and abuse could affect a Christian 4.identify ways in which Christians can overcome temptations to drug use and abuse 5 a . Why is leisure important in the life of a Christian? 5 b . What factors have contributed to the misuse of leisure in Kenya? 6.state the factors that have led to the misuse of drugs in Kenya TOPIC FIVE: CHRISTIANS APPROACHES TO WEALTH, ----- 457 MONEY AND POVERTY Learning Outcomes By the end of this topic, you should be able to: - a. Define the concepts wealth, money and poverty b. Explain and appreciate the traditional African understanding of wealth and poverty c. Describe the impact of the introduction of money economy in the traditional African society. d. Explain Christian teachings on money, wealth and poverty e. Discuss Christians approached to some issues related to wealth money and poverty f. Uphold the Christian principles in acquiring and using wealth LESSON ONE: DEFINITION OF THE CONCEPTS WEALTH, MONEY AND POVERTY a Wealth: accumulation Accumulation of materials owned by an individual, family or a group of people. Wealth is property that has economic value e.g. land, animals, money, valuable possessions such as jewellery, commercial and residential buildings etc. Ways of acquiring wealth Inheritance Business Commercial farming Salaried Jobs Investment of money in financial institution Provision of commercial services b Money Its the medium of exchange that functions as a legal tender. It is something that is generally accepted as ----- 458 a medium of exchange, a means of payment. It is usually in form of coins or notes. Good monetary media money has certain qualities. Qualities of money It should be acceptable It should be fairly stable Easy to divide into small units Easy to carry Should be relatively scarce It should be durable Its value should be maintained through proper control of its circulations Money is a measure of wealth. What it can purchase is the value. Money is used to buy services, goods, pay debts etc. Examples of currencies in the world are Ksh. Kenya , Rand South Africa US Dollar, Pound Britain Euro Europe , Yen Japan Etc c Poverty State of being without adequate basic necessities of life e.g. food, shelter, clothing Its a state of helplessness. It is characterized by poor health, hunger, and lack of education facilities, uncared for environment. Causes of poverty a. Adverse climatic conditions Geographical factors b. Poor family background historical and social factors c. Political stability leading to civil wars d. Poor governance e. Regional imbalance of natural resources f. Low level of technology ----- 459 g. Laziness h. Over dependence on foreign aid LESSON TWO: THE TRADITIONAL AFRICAN UNDERSTANDING OF WEALTH AND POVERTY Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - 1. Define the terms wealth and poverty according to the traditional African understanding 2. State the various ways in which wealth was acquired in traditional African communities 3. List the causes of poverty in tradition African communities Wealth In African traditional societies wealth was measured in terms of the amount of land, livestock, grains, wives, children possessed by an individual or the community. Wealth was acquired in various ways. i As a gift from God Most Africans believe that wealth is a blessing from God. ii Inheritance In cases where the head of the family is dead, the eldest son becomes the custodian of the estate. The clan and community elders give direction on how the wealth is to be shared out. iii Bride wealth iv Farming v Exploitation of natural resources honey, wood for carving, building materials etc vi Trade African communities were involved in barter trade where they exchanged good and services ----- 460 vii Raids wealth was also acquired by raiding other communities goats, sheep, Cattle. - People were encouraged to work hard to acquire wealthy honesty - Wealthy people were highly regarded and were considered for leadership position - Wealth was incomplete without a family Poverty Poverty was viewed as punishment or curse for wrongdoing. Other causes of poverty according to African Traditional Society were: - Laziness Lack of inheritance Raids by other communities Famine Natural calamities Sickness rendering the individual weak to acquire wealth - In acquiring wealth, principles such as value for human life, mutual responsibility, and sharing, communal ownership were emphasized. - Places that were communal include grazing land, rivers, and watering places - Laziness was ridiculed through songs, riddles and proverbs. LESSON THREE: IMPACTS OF THE INTRODUCTION OF MONEY ECONOMY IN TRADITIONAL AFRICAN SOCIETY Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - 1. Define economy, development and money economy 2. Explain the reasons for the introduction of money 3. Explain the impact of money economy in traditional African society ----- 461 Introduction - Money was introduced to Africa by the Europeans - Before colonial period, Africans practiced barter trade actual goods exchanged with other goods e.g. animals would be exchanged with food grains, millet, sorghum, cowpeas, children exchanged for food during famine. - Trade merchants from Asia had introduced into Africa forms of currency such as the cowrie shells, gold and the Indian rupees. Europeans introduced currency still used today Economy: careful management of resources, finances, income and expenditure of a family, a business enterprise, community or a country. The economy of a country is to be well managed if it has the ability to meet the social economic needs of her members. Development Its measured by the healthy of its economy in the provision of health, education, housing, sanitation, employment, longevity of life, decrease of material and child mortality. Money economy: Use of money as a means of exchange in economic activities e.g. banking, investment, insurance, payment of goods and services. Reasons for money introduction 1 Colonization brought a lot of changes such as unoccupied land declared Crown land for colonialists. 2 Tax introduction Africans were supposed to pay taxes to the government. Taxes were paid in form of money. 3 Introduction of formal education School fees was introduced. Fees were paid in form of money. ----- 462 4 Introduction of modern medical services People paid medical services using money. 5 Emergence of new lifestyles Converts to Christianity were emphasized on to have materials, hence had to work to improve their living standards. They built houses, took their children to schools practiced modern family techniques hence had to use money. Impact of the introduction of money economy in traditional African society 1 Introduction of wage labour 2 Break up of family ties as people migrated from rural to urban areas in search of employment 3 African land taken by the colonialists, reducing people to squatters hence need to work 4 There was creation of a gap between people the rich and the poor 5 Emergence of vices e.g. corruption, bribery, prostitution, robbery 6 Deterioration of cherished African values e.g. bride wealth has become commercialized, customs lost etc. 7 Loss of African human dignity. Africans had to pay taxes to the colonial government. They were forced to work in European farms so as to get money. They worked under dehumanizing conditions Production of traditional food crops declined replaced by cash crops. 9 Individual ownership of land was emphasized. Land could be sold at will 10 There was increase of rural urban migration leaving the rural people less educated. ----- 463 11 Exploitation of the poor by the rich poor wages, overcharging prices on foods. 12 Destruction of the natural environment to create room for building projects, urban centres 13 The cost of living increased. Almost everything is acquired by money. LESSON FOUR: THE CHRISTIAN TEACHING ON WEALTH, MONEY, POVERTY Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - 1. Explain the Christian teachings on wealth 2. Explain the Christian teachings on poverty Teaching on wealth 1 Wealth is a blessing from God 2 Those who obey Gods laws, teachings of the prophets are promised blessings by God Deut28: 1 4 3 Wealth has duties associated with it e.g. 10 tithe, alms to the poor, and an aspect of stewardship. 4 Wealth should be used wisely. People are not owners of their property but are stewards. Should share with the poor, needy. 5 Wealth is not permanent e.g. parable of the rich fool. When people die, they take nothing with them. Naked into the world, naked out of the world. Job. 1:21 6 Wealth can create a false sense of independence feeling of self reliance no need for God 7 Wealth should be obtained justly no happiness for a person who gets riches in the wrong way. Wrong attitude to wealth can lead to idolatry and other dangers. Matt.19: 23 24 danger of materialism making riches their God, the love of money is the root of all evil 1 timothy 6:10 ----- 464 9 It is wrong to discriminate against others on the basis of material possessions. Jesus associated with the rich, the poor, the sick etc. 10 Seek spiritual wealth, which is permanent and more fulfilling than material wealth, which is transitory temporal. Matt 6:19 20 11 Acknowledge God as the source of ones riches 12 Use wealth to help the needy 13 Wealth is an instrument to enable us live decently. 14 Obsession with money and wealth leads to sin 15 Church leaders should avoid greed for wealth 1 Timothy 3:3 16 God will judge rich exploiters. Christian teaching on poverty 1 Christian teachings discourage irresponsible behaviour and habits e.g. laziness, idleness and negligence. Some people became poor because of such. 2 Some people become poor because of misfortunes 3 Others are poor because of judgment due to disobedience to God 4 God cares for the poor 5 Those with more should share with the poor 6 People should work to alleviate poverty in the society 7 Jesus helped the poor so should we The poor in spirit will be blessed LESSON FIVE: CHRISTIAN APPROACHES / RESPONSE TO ISSUES RELATED TO WEALTH AND MONEY. Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - 1. Describe the Christians response towards wealth and poverty 2. State the factors causing poverty 3. Describe how wealth/ resources can be distributed fairly Christian can respond by ----- 465 A. Insistence on fair distribution of wealth B. Fighting against bribery and corruption C. Using life skills D. Practicing Christian values Introduction - Affluence having a lot of material possessions and a luxurious standard of living. Poverty is a state of lack of the basic necessities. - Illegal means of acquiring wealth include fraud, grabbing public land, selling narcotic drugs etc Factors that have contributed to poverty 1. Political instability 2. Lack of formal education 3. Laziness 4. Negative attitude towards work choosing jobs 5. Historical factors colonization lack of land 6. Exporting unprocessed agricultural products cheaply then sold back expensively. A. Fair distribution of wealth / resources a Christians to promote the value of justice, fairness, social responsibility. How? By having anti corruption crusades, be role models, teach or import skills, advocate for cancellation of foreign debts, taxation to all etc. b Fair salaries c Promotion of affordable and decent housing d Favourable terms of loans e Encourage Jua Kali artisans f Christians to demand transformation of society through implementation of just economic policies that ----- 466 can ensure fair distribution of wealth. g Encourage foreign investors through good infrastructure, incentives e.g. shorter process to register business, security. h Christian to encourage investments by churches and inculcate in people the values of hard work, proper time management free education free health care for the poor or needy. Fair distribution of wealth / resources refers to jobs, infrastructure, hospitals, water, agricultural products etc. LESSON SIX: BRIBERY AND CORRUPTION Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - 1. Define the following terms bribery and corruption 2. Explain the factors that contribute to bribery and corruption 3. Explain the consequences of bribery and corruption Fighting against bribery and corruption Bribery and corruption are related terms. Corruption: practice of giving a bribe in the form of money, goods or privileges in return for a service. Bribery: act of giving money, material goods or services to someone to influence the recipient to give underserved favour. It is aimed at influencing a decision to favour. Bribery is a form of corruption. - Corruption is some kind of moral degeneration. A practice whereby someone uses his/her influence in an activity that is not morally acceptable. - Example of corruption include promotion by a senior for a favour, colluding to miss work, use of ----- 467 government vehicles to attend to personal matters. In Kenya, Kenya Anticorruption commission KACC is a national body formed to fight corruption. Factors leading to bribery and corruption 1. Un-employment one will bribe to secure employment 2. Greed for money caused by peer pressure, poor moral values, wrong ethical foundation about money etc. 3. Fear fear of being imprisoned 4. Ignorance giving bribes in form of gifts 5. Disintegration of traditional African values 6. Lack of moral integrity no Christian values, one having no spiritual basis 7. Frustration in the place of work 8. A perverted conscience Consequences of corruption and bribery 1. Leads to injustice 2. Leads to incompetent supplies of goods or services being awarded hefty contracts leads to poor services e.g. road construction 3. Poor infrastructure, poor public service delivery 4. Leads to undermining moral fabric of society leading to social hopelessness and despair 5. Has led to lack of trust in public servants, and the government 6. Discontentment among people. 7. Degrades the personality of an individual 8. Can lead to imprisonment and lose of job LESSON SEVEN: CHRISTIAN ATTITUDE TOWARDS BRIBERY AND CORRUPTION Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - ----- 468 1. Describe the Christian attitude towards bribery and corruption 2. Define the following terms life skills, decision making, critical thinking, creative thinking, self esteem and assertiveness 3. List the steps involved in decision making 1. It is condemned as an evil practice a social evil Ex. 23:8 2. Bribes cause injustice proverbs 17:23 3. Seen as morally wrong as they negatively affect ones family 4. Jesus drove out merchants from the temple. They had started exploitation of the poor. 5. Condemned because it degrades the personality of an individual 6. Amos condemned taking and giving of bribes 7. Bribes blinds the eyes In the parable of John the Baptist condemned soldiers from taking bribes Corrupt judge and the widow, corruption is condemned 8. Christians are to live righteously and not give bribes or receive. They are the light of the world. 9. Money gained from corruption is not acceptable before God. C Using life skills Life skills are abilities, which enable a person to face the challenges of life in an effective way they are Decision making Critical thinking Creative thinking Self esteem Assertiveness a. Decision making Process of identifying the best alternative to overcome a challenge encountered. Often decisions we make do not only affect us but those around us. ----- 469 Steps to decision making 1. Identify the challenge problem whats the problem? What is bothering you? 2. Understand the challenge / problem: What is really bothering you? 3. Find out possible solutions 4. Find out the possible options and alternatives 5. Consider the possible consequences for each option 6. Select the best option 7. Implement 8. Evaluate the outcome of the action b. Critical thinking g. Ability to examine and assess a given situation impartially or objectively. It involves reasoning carefully. Getting detailed information, consider the option before making a decision. Critical thinking makes a person responsible for their actions. c. Creative thinking This is the act or practice of using ideas imaginatively to solve a problem d. Self-esteem - This is the regard one has about himself or herself. Self-esteem can be low or high, positive or negative. A positive or high self-esteem person has confidence, is outgoing, social, appreciates self, realistic and independent. - A person with low, negative self-esteem is nave, withdrawn, shy, feels inadequate, and no selfconfidence. e. Assertiveness Ability to express ones feelings and wishes without hurting others. Assertive people are confident; direct in dealing with others assertive people have a high self-esteem. ----- 470 LESSON EIGHT: CHRISTIAN VALUES RELATED TO WEALTH, MONEY, AND POVERTY. Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - 1. Define the terms, values, love. Honesty, reliability, fairness, justice, respect, humility, faithfulness, persistence and chastity 2. State the values related to work Values Beliefs, which guide people on what is right and wrong. There are - Social values - Cultural values - Moral values Values related to wealth are: - - Love - Honesty - Reliability - Fairness - Justice - Respect - Faithfulness - Humility - Persistence - Chastity Love intense emotion of attachment, affection, warmth, fondness, regard for a person or something How should love guide a Christian in relation to wealth creation? Honesty quality of being truthful, fair trustworthy, sincere, genuine. The opposite of honesty is dishonesty. ----- 471 Reliability being dependable, faithful, predictable, unfailing. The ability of being relied upon and keeping promises. Fairness condition of being unbiased, free from discrimination. Justice fair dealings with the people, as they deserve according to the law. Being fair, giving people whats due to them. Opposite of justice is injustice. Respect Quality of having high regard for somebody or something. Politeness. Its important to respect other peoples property. Humility quality of not thinking that you are better than others. Being humble. Opposite of humility is pride, being proud. Those who humble themselves shall be exalted. Faithfulness quality of remaining loyal or true to someone. Christians should be faithful at their places of work and in allocating their wealth to Gods work. Those who are entrusted with public resources to manage on behalf of the people should show a high degree of faithfulness. Persistence quality to persevere. Quality to continue steadfastly, unrelentingly despite opposition e.g. the unjust judge and widow, job , Jeremiah are people who persisted. Chastity a state of being pure, holy, innocent modest. It is abstinence from actions that may make one impure before God. -Christians should strive hard not to defile their bodies in search of wealth -Christians should strive to live holy lives, avoid prostitution, drug abuse; corruption ----- 472 -people use sexual favour to get jobs or promotion. Christians should thus avoid such. Revision questions 1. Explain the biblical teaching on wealth 2. Discuss the biblical teaching on acquisition and use of wealth 3. Explain ways in which people misuse wealth in Kenya today 4. Show how misuse of wealth leads to family instability 5. Give ways in which the Kenyan government is alleviating the high levels of poverty 6. State the factors that have contributed to high levels of poverty in Kenya today TOPIC SIX: APPROACHES TO LAW, ORDER AND JUSTICE Learning Outcomes By the end of the topic you should be able to: a Define the terms law order and justice b Describe the traditional African practices that promote law, order and justice. c Explain the Biblical teaching on law, order and justice. d Identify and evaluate the need for law, order and justice in the society. e Explain the rights and duties of citizens f Explain the causes and remedies of social disorder. g Evaluate the role of Christians in the transformation of the society h Discuss church-state relationship LESSON ONE: DEFINITION OF TERMS Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - 1. Define the following terms law, order and justice 2. State the types of law 3. State the types of statutory laws Introduction - Law, order, justice are essential for the survival of any society ----- 473 - Following laws leads to order and justice lack of following leads to disorder and injustice laws of Kenya are laid down in the constitution. A. Law Established rules by an authority to regulate human behaviour in the community Schools laws, religious laws, factory laws, hospital laws etc. laws differ from society to society. Laws are dynamic. Laws cover all aspects of life. B. Order Condition brought about by obedience to set rules or laws. Order leads to peaceful co existence in the society. Where there is order, things are done systematically. The opposite of order is disorder. Types of laws 1. Non legal laws no court action e.g. school rules 2. Customary traditional laws based on culture, social traditions. They have to agree with state laws. They are respected by state. 3. Statutory laws / legal laws laws made by local council or national government and citizens are expected to obey them. Types of statutory laws a Civil laws made by parliament on issues such as taxes, labour, divorce etc b Criminal law on crime / punishment c Constitutional law matters of state and governance d Company law e Religious laws e.g. Islamic law sharia ----- 474 C. Justice treating others the way they deserve in relation to the law. Its administration of rightful dealings in a fair manner according to their actions. A just society follows rules and administers legal action to those who offend others or disobey rules. Justice means treating people the same way without discrimination. LESSON TWO: IMPORTANCE OF LAW, ORDER AND JUSTICE Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - 1. State the importance of law, order and justice a They are essential to preserve harmony and protect people b Laws guide people and ensure peoples rights are protected. c They protect peoples property and enable people to live in harmony d They protect the consumer from exploitation e They safeguard religious freedom f Laws control power of those in authority and promote political stability g Provides stability, encouraging economic growth h Helps to control discontentment among people i Helps implementation of taxes effectively j Provides / help in maintenance of security k Ensures human rights are upheld l Enables the government to protect its citizens from internal or external threats. m International law regulates relations between countries. LESSON THREE: RIGHTS AND DUTIES OF CITIZENS Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able: - 1. Define the terms citizen, rights and duty 2. List the rights of citizens 3. State te duties/ responsibilities of citizens ----- 475 Citizen person who is a member of a state, kingdom, empire. A person who has full rights as a member of a country by birth, decent, registration, naturalization. Rights legal claims that one is entitled to from the government Duty ones responsibility to the government. Rights 1 Right to life to live securely 2 Right to education 3 Right to liberty / freedom e.g. one should not be imprisoned, detained, without trial. One is innocent until proven guilty 4 Right to protection of property 5 Right to own a family right to marry and raise a family 6 Right to health 7 Freedom of movement Right to freedom of association 9 Right to freedom of assembly 10 Freedom of religion 11 Right to own property 12 Right to equality non discrimination 13 Protection of freedom of expression and speech own opinions, ideas Children have rights e.g. Right to life, education, parental care, health, protection from exploitation, right to identity etc. Duties of citizens responsibilities 1 Pay taxes to the government 2 Respect the flag and national anthem 3 Respect those in authority 4 Respect the laws of the land 5 Register as a voter and voter in national elections ----- 476 6 Be responsible at work 7 Participate in national development Promote peace and harmony in the society 9 Report errant members of the society to law enforcement agents 10 Protect the environmental clean, plant trees, avoid poaching etc LESSON FOUR: TRADITIONAL AFRICAN PRACTICES THAT PROMOTE LAW, ORDER, JUSTICE Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - 1. State and explain the traditional African practices that promoted law, order and justice Some of the practices that promote law, order and justice are a Punishment of offenders People who committed offences such as stealing, murder, witchcraft were punished through death, curses, paying heavy fines etc. this promoted law, order, justice b Installation of rules, kings, chiefs, elders They were installed to maintain law, order and to execute justice in their areas of jurisdiction c Administration of oaths - Administered by specialists and are used as a method of establishing and maintaining law and order d Making of covenants - Covenants were made if there was a conflict between two communities. They would promise to live in peace and harmony. e Observing of taboos and customary law Taboos were prohibitions. Those who went against taboos were severely punished f The kinship system defined how people related one to another g Rites of passage ensured customs, laws were adhered to ----- 477 h Religious practices- such as praying, singing, sacrificing and giving of offerings had the effect of maintaining order. LESSON FIVE: BIBLICAL TEACHING ON LAW, ORDER AND JUSTICE Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - 1. Describe the biblical teachings on law, order and justice God initiated Law, order, and justice. 1. Gods creation is orderly. God desires order 2. Man was created with a conscience to know right from wrong sin has consequences or punishment. God does punish disobedience i.e. justice 3. God instituted the laws as part of his plan for salvation e.g. law of circumcision, Torah 10 commandments , circumcision of the heart, laws on what to eat etc. 4. Gods law governed kingship in Israel. National prosperity depended on a kings ruler ship. Kings were to ensure law and order 5. In the New Testament John the Baptist urged people to observe the law social justice . 6. Jesus taught that the kingdom of God is based on law, order and justice. There should be fair treatment for all people 7. Jesus said that the law of Moses was given to guide people 8. Christians should obey the law of the land and respect those in authority 9. The apostolic teachings stress the need for law, order, justice 1 Cro.14: 33 10. Christians should be orderly. ----- 478 11. The birth of Jesus was orderly. His ministry was also orderly hence should Christians. LESSON SIX: CAUSES OF SOCIAL DISORDER AND THEIR REMEDIES Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - 1. State and explain the causes of social disorders 2. State the causes of discrimination 3. Explain the causes of crime 4. List the forms of punishment Social disorder is a state of confusion or lack of order in the society Causes 1 Discrimination 2 Inequitable distribution of wealth, resources 3 Crime 4 Racism 5 Tribalism 6 Sexism Discrimination Discrimination is unfair treatment. Discrimination is on basis of - Race - Tribe - Sex / gender People or a particular person is singled out and treated with disfavor or distaste. It is showing bias or prejudice. Causes of discrimination a. Culture b. Prejudice bias original from opinions that have no known basis or supporting facts stereotypes c. Ignorance e.g. on HIV /AIDS ----- 479 d. Social status ones position in a society Inequitable distribution of wealth and resources - This is when riches of family, community, and nation are not fairly shared out due to Selfishness or poor planning. Some areas are marginalized. Racism unfair treatment of people because of their race Tribalism discrimination on basis of ethnic group Crime an offence against state, normally settled in court. Its antisocial behaviour causing disorder. Causes of crime Why people commit crime 1. Poverty 2. Public mistrust for law enforces 3. Lack of parental guidance 4. Wide gap between the rich and the poor 5. Greed for power, money 6. Materialism 7. Drug and substance abuse Sexism - Discrimination against people because of gender - Women are discriminated in areas such as jobs, no promotion for women, oppression of women at home, cultural values demeaning the status of women, wife beating / men beating, female genital mutilation FGM early children marriages etc. Remedies to social disorder 1 Rehabilitation for drugs users / abusers 2 Punishment for offenders of crime Forms of punishment - Imprisonment - Payment of fines ----- 480 - Corporal punishment - Probation - Being assigned community work - Being placed under house arrest - Learning in approved schools, Juvenile homes 3 Equitable distribution of national resources - Develop marginalized areas - Create jobs 4 Campaign against drug abuse 5 The public to use hot lines to report crime to police 6 Preach against racism, tribalism, and preach equality, freedom and interaction with all people 7 People to be sensitized to appreciate and respect different ethnics groups Promote national unity through education /cultural programmes 9 Creation of more national schools so as to have students from all backgrounds 10 Encourage domestic tourism 11 Enlighten women on their rights 12 Employment on merit 13 Rich countries to share wealth with the poor LESSON SEVEN: ROLE OF CHRISTIANS IN TRANSFORMING THE SOCIAL, ECONOMIC, POLITICAL LIFE OF THE SOCIETY Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - 1. Define the term transformation 2. Describe Christians participation in social life 3. Describe Christians participation in political life 4. Describe Christians participation in economic life ----- 481 Transformation is to completely change the attitude, character, and well being of the society a Christian participation in the social life - Christians are involved in the preaching of the gospel in many places in the country. They use print and electronic media to spread the gospel. - Christians have shown concern for the destitute and victims of violence in the society by building homes for them and providing them with food and clothing. - Christians run schools, vocational institutions, universities providing educational services - Christians offer medical services to the society - They speak openly against sexual immorality, murder, bribery, corruption, abortion etc. - They show compassion to those in need the poor, HIV / AIDS orphans, widows, widowers, aged etc. - They offer guidance and counselling to dysfunctional families the pastors, those trained to do counselling almost all pastors get a training in guidance and counselling b Christians participation in the political life - Christians participate in the political life by advocating for fair distribution of wealth - They offer prayers for government, political leaders - They exercise their right by voting - They also participating in the political life by standing up for elections Vying for elections c Christian participation in economic life - Christians participate in economic life by paying taxes to the government ----- 482 - By contributing in collection of funds for construction of churches, schools, hospitals - They invest in business that promotes their own development as well as the development of the country. - They provide financial resources in order to assist others to start economic activities or self employment - They discourage business practices such as using faulty scales, hiking of prices cheating in business etc and encourage proper acquisition of wealth d THE CHURCH STATE RELATIONSHIP The government and the church interact at various levels and in different areas a Religious leaders give advice to the state b The church speaks against corruption, robbery, rape, abortion, vices which the government is fighting c The church is the conscience of the state d Both educate the citizens on the constitution and their rights e The church preaches peace, love, unity, order f The state needs support of the church in mobilizing citizens to adopt government policies g Both are involved in rehabilitation of prisoners h The church builds schools and other institutions that supplement government institutions. i The church is involved in formulation of educational curriculum. However the church differs with government on various issues such as a Use of condoms Some churches opposed to this b Use of live bullets by the law enforces when curbing riots ----- 483 c Fight on corruption a thorn to the church since state leaders are involved d Issue of death penalty church been fighting against death penalty to convicts NB. The government lifted the death penalty as a form of punishment in the year 2009. Revision questions 1.state ways in which Christians can promote peace/unity in the society 2. Why should Christians take part in voting? TOPIC SEVEN: CHRISTIAN APPROACHES TO SELECTED ISSUES RELATED TO MODERN SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT Learning Outcomes By the end of the topic, you should b able to: 1. Explain the Christian view on some issues related to modern science and technology 2. Explain the Christian view on the effects of modern science and technology on the environment LESSON ONE: DEFINITIONS Science subject field that deals with a systematic study of our surroundings and behaviour of materials in the universe It is based on observation, experimentation and measurement. Technology application of science to achieve desired objectives. Environment our surroundings both natural and human made i.e. mountains, lakes, land, forests, animals, buildings, flowers etc LESSON TWO: POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - ----- 484 1. State the various ways that science and technology has improved our lives 2. State the negative effects of science and technology Ways science and technology has improved human lives 1 Improvement of crop production a quality seeds, fertilizers leading to improved yields 2 Better nutrition, health care, medical services 3 Improvement of livestock production through artificial insemination, quality medicine leading to more milk production. 4 It has led to development of efficient means of transport land, air, seas 5 Work has been made easier and enjoyable. There is use of machines, automation, use of computers. 6 Peoples lives have been spared, saved e.g. through life saving machines ICU , incubators 7 Business transactions are being done through the internet Communication has been made easy fax, email, short text messages on mobile phones etc 9 Research is ongoing for incurable diseases i.e. HIV / AIDS, cancer 10 There is better management of environment 11 Technology has made the world a global village 12 Through family planning methods, its easier to control population growth 13 Theres a better security system through use of scanners, alarms, electrified fences etc. 14 Improvement of learning through elearning 15 Theres easier movement from one country to another Negative effects of science and technology 1. People use medicine to commit suicide ----- 485 2. Increase of crime, fraud and death through modern means of communication 3. Destruction of family relationships 4. Breakdown of community names, values morals, breakdown of families 5. Terrorism 6. Greed for money / materialism 7. Unemployment replacement of personnel by machines 8. Health hazards such as accidents in factories 9. Pollution, air poisoning LESSON THREE: CHRISTIAN VIEW ON ISSUES RELATED TO SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY. Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - 1. Define the following terms euthanasia, blood transfusion, organ transplant, genetic engineering and plastic surgery 2. Describe Christians view on euthanasia, blood transfusion, organ transplant, human cloning, genetic engineering and plastic surgery 3. State the reasons for and against euthanasia, blood transfusion, organ transplant, human cloning, genetic engineering and plastic surgery a. Euthanasia b. Blood transfusion c. Organ transplant d. Genetic engineering e. Plastic surgery Euthanasia Its a Greek word, which means an easy and painless death. It is mercy killing ending a persons life so ----- 486 as to alleviate them from experiencing pain. Its practiced with the sick persons knowledge It is involuntary when its practiced against or without the sick persons consent Its done by a Injecting an overdose of sleeping pills to the sick person b Switching off life support machine c Exposing the person with chronic pneumonia to very cold air. Christians view on Euthanasia Christians are opposed to euthanasia for several reasons such as a Life is sacred, a gift from God and only God can take away human life b Suffering is part of human life c Euthanasia is against medical ethos, which demands that doctors and nurses work for the sustenance of human life and alleviation of suffering but not to terminate it. d Jesus has power over sickness and through his name all sickness are healed e Accepting euthanasia discourages medical research on vaccines that may cure various diseases. f Euthanasia discourages patients and makes them to lose hope in life. They may feel unwanted and rejected. Blood transfusion - Its the process of injecting a persons blood into another person through his/her veins. The giver is a donor the receiver is a recipient. Reasons for blood transfusion 1. When a person is suffering from acute anemia little blood in the body low blood level. ----- 487 2. To restore blood lost during fatal accidents, wars, or childbirth 3. To maintain blood levels for patients undergoing major operations 4. To correct the low haemoglobin level of some patients 5 Blood has to be screened for any diseases, and then kept in blood bank after determining the blood group. The transfusion should be in a hygienic way. The equipment used should be sterilized 6. Donors should not be below 16 years or above 65 years Alternatives to blood transfusion a Volume expanders increase fluid levels in the body b Growth factors intra operative / post operative c Blood salvage same blood when on surgery is saved then transfused back to the patient Christian view on blood transfusion a Some Christians believe it is wrong to take blood from a healthy person and transfuse it to another person. b Blood is life and life cannot be taken from one person to another c Blood transfusion is essential as it saves life d Blood transfusion can transmit dangerous diseases like HIV / AIDS and Hepatitis B e God has given Christians the intelligence and capability to make the right decision and choice Organ transplant - This is the removal of a defective organ and replacing it with a healthy one. Body organs transplanted are kidneys, heart and eyes small intestines, pan crease. - The purpose is to replace the damaged organ of a recipient ----- 488 - Common transplants are the heart, kidney, eyes from living and the dead heart within a span of hours. Eyes can be transplanted from animals. Christian view on organ transplant a It saves life hence acceptable to some b Its transferring human life from one person to another c Its wrong to transplant from animals view by some Christians d Some support organ transplant by referring to the story of creation of Eve from parts of Adam e It is part of human beings continuing with the creation work of God. f It is an expression of love and concern for those suffering as taught by Jesus Christ. Genetic engineering - Its a scientific technique used by scientists to change the biological characteristics of living organisms by deliberately altering the structure of individual genes. - There are genetically modified foods, genetically engineered seeds, test tube babies, human clones, and genes of human insulin. Human cloning This is a form of genetic engineering. Its a creation of genetically identical copy of a human being, human cell. Twins are a form of natural cloning Theres therapeutic cloning and reproductive cloning human cloning Therapeutic cloning is when cells from an adult are used in creating medicine or for research Reproduction cloning is the making of human beings More than 90 of cloning has failed. Animals cloned have died young, had cancers or arthritis. ----- 489 Human cloning is illegal worldwide Genetic cells are used to treat Alzheimer, heart attack, cancer Test tube babies are different from human cloning. Test tube babies are where the egg and sperm is fused together outside the body. In cloning, a needle like device is used to draw out the cells from an embryo, then preserved using chemicals, then put in a womb/uterus to grow. Some do not need a sperm cell, they use other body cells for fertilization. Reasons for advocating human cloning Can clone people whose genetic composition is of a genius, people with special abilities or talents Can be able to bring, revive back great extinct characteristics. Those who support it believes it can reduce immorality Reasons against human cloning 1. God is the sole creator. Cloning takes the place of God. 2. It de humanizes human beings purpose of human reproduction 3. It destroys uniqueness of each individual Cloning is an exact copy 4. It can be abused and used to create antisocial people rapists, thieves 5. May create deformed people 6. Its un-ethical, immoral experiment. Its destruction of the embryo hence abortion 7. 95 of clones have failed animal most animals died 8. Its illegal 9. Closed animals died of cancer, had arthritis, deformities and an early death 10. Cloning may bring a destructive copy of humans Advantages of genetic engineering ----- 490 1. Implanting genes that are diseases free in people, plant and animals could prevent diseases. 2. Genetic crops yield more 3. Helps to determine the biological parent in case of dispute on babies DNA 4. Helps to increase disease resistance in crops and altering animal traits in plants and animals 5. Assists in classifying blood during screening before its transfused to another person. Christian view of genetic engineering 1. Christians support genetic engineering that is beneficial to human beings e.g. Cure of genetic diseases, production of drugs, plant and animals 2. Human beings are made in Gods image and are loved by God with or without defects. 3. The dignity of the human being is eroded or disregarded and should be upheld. 4. Christians oppose cloning and test tube babies 5. Its against Gods will or teaching Plastic surgery - Its to change or mould the shape of something, to enhance or restore an area of the body - Its repairing or improving of damaged, diseased or unsatisfactory shaped parts of the body with pieces of skin or bone taken from other parts of the body. - Skin grafting is the most common type of plastic surgery - Plastic surgery is done on cleft lips i.e. cosmetic surgery, breast surgery reduction or enlargement, surgery done to look younger. Reasons for plastic surgery ----- 491 - It can help restore ones confidence or self esteem - It enhances beauty, attractiveness or youthfulness - It enhances a persons life and can be a life changing procedure - It may help a person to get a new job Disadvantages - Its expensive - Can lead to transmission of diseases Christian views on plastic surgery - Some support it, as it has some benefits - Some Christian oppose plastic surgery in order to look younger - Some argue that some people do it because of a lack of self acceptance, low self esteem hence should work on such issues first. LESSON FOUR: THE CHRISTIAN VIEW ON THE EFFECTS OF MODERN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY ON THE ENVIRONMENT POLLUTION, DESERTIFICATION Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - 1. State the various ways of caring for the environment In Genesis 1, man was given the responsibility of taking care of the environment Ways of taking care of the environment 1. Cleaning up the environment, clean up rivers 2. Educating people on the importance of conservation 3. Dispose industrial wastes properly 4. Enforce use of environment friendly fuel unleaded fuel 5. Factory owners to supply protective wear to factory workers 6. Planting of trees and flowers 7. Establishing airports, industries, and disco clubs away from residential areas. ----- 492 8. Advocate for laws to be passed to minimize noise from vehicles, aircrafts, entertainment centres. 9. Waste to be managed through Reuse e.g. bottles Recycle plastic bottles to be recycled to plastic bins, old newspapers to be recycled to tissue papers. Recover burning waste products to produce electricity Waste can be managed to reduce use of Throw away goods e.g. batteries to use of electricity. LESSON FIVE: POLLUTION AND ITS EFFECTS. Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - 1. Define the terms pollutant and pollution 2. Give examples of pollutants 3. State and explain the types of pollution 4. State the effects of the various types of pollution. Its introduction into the environment of substances or energy that is liable to cause hazards to human health, harm to living resources and ecological systems In simple terms pollution is the contamination of the environment. Substances that cause pollution are called pollutants. Some of the pollutants include; Industrial affluent Pesticides Insecticides Fertilizers Ultra violent rays from nuclear plants Dust Smoke Noise Waste heat ----- 493 Exhaust gases from automobiles Types of pollution a Water pollution p Air pollution q Land pollution r Radiation pollution s Sound pollution noise Water pollution This is the increase of substances in water in excess of its rightful chemical components thus making it unsuitable for human, animal or plant use. - Disposing domestic and industrial waste into rivers, lakes, seas etc pollutes water. - Disposing agricultural chemicals pesticides into water bodies. - Oil spilling into waters - Poor sanitation bathing or washing clothes in rivers or dams Effects of water pollution a. Causes diseases, which are communicable such as cholera, typhoid, and dysentery. b. Leads to death of marine life birds Flamingo fish by oil spills c. Mercury metal leads, silver is poisonous. They kill organisms. d. Water becomes unfit for human consumption Air pollution - Presence of contaminants in the atmosphere caused by a. Smoke b. Fumes c. Dust from mines, quarries - When there is an increased level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere thats pollution ----- 494 - Other major atmospheric pollutants include gases such as chlorofluorocarbons CFC , and sulphur dioxide SO2 - Nitrogen Oxide NO i.e. fumes from vehicles, aircrafts, industries Effects i Leads to diseases such as bronchitis, asthma ii Leads to depletion of the Ozone layer leading to ultra violent rays of the sun penetrating to the earth causing skin cancer, cataracts eye problems , low plant yields. iii Causes rusting of roofs iv Causes acid rains v Carbon dioxide 02 in the atmosphere has led to global warming. vi Formation of smog thick fog , which can lead to accidents. vii Colored rain due to large amounts of dust in the atmosphere viii Eyesight loss due to gas leakages from industrial plants. Land pollution Land pollution is any physical or chemical alteration to land, which causes change in its use and renders it incapable of beneficial use without treatment. - Improper or excessive use of insecticides, pesticides makes land acidic - Land is also polluted by improper disposal of waste / garbage, broken glasses. Effects i Waste is an eye sore spoiling the beauty of the environment ii Broken glass can lead to injuries iii Open mining leaves pits, which are a danger to people and animals. Noise pollution - Experienced especially in urban centres, near roads, running water, mining areas, airports, music from bars, nightclubs etc. ----- 495 - An instrument called sound meter measures noise. The lowest unit is O Decitel, which is okay. More than 80 decibels is harmful to the ear. Noise over 80 decibels can cause effects - Deafness, hearing problems - Psychological disorders frustrations, irritation - Insomnia - Shock due to sudden noise - Cracking of walls Noise can be minimized by Construction of sound proof buildings Location of residential areas away from industries, airports, bars, main roads Banning of unnecessary hooting, playing of loud music in public vehicles Installing silencers in generators Education people on the effects of noise pollution Pollution caused by radiation Mainly in developed countries Atomic explosions e.g. Hiroshima / Nagasaki in Japan in 1945. The side effects of mutations of born children. Some children born with deformities. The radiation caused chromosome mutations. Some mutations on the cells of the parent / grandparents. Nuclear power stations also a danger Medical equipment e.g. X ray machines when one is over exposed to these radiations x rays it can lead to development of cancer. LESSON SIX: DESERTIFICATION Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - ----- 496 1. Define the term desertification 2. Describe the causes of desertification This is slow encroachment of desert like a condition to land that was previously productive making it desolate, uncultivatable and uninhabitable. Human activity accelerates creation of deserts. Causes of deserts 1. Natural a Persistent rains in a semi arid area b Exposure of an area to very high, very cold temperatures c Inadequate rainfall for a long period of time 2. Human Human activities that lead to desertification are i Cutting down of trees deforestation for land use such as building, industries, and not replacing them. ii Use of water from wells to irrigate land. Its harmful especially salty water salt on soil salination is toxic to soils. iii Incorrect use of pesticides and fertilizers destroy soil nutrients. iv Industrialization industries emit carbon dioxide CO2 leading to formation of acid rain, which leads to unproductive land hence desertification v Overgrazing especially among the pastoralist communities vi Poor farming methods like cultivation on riverbanks and slopes, which causes soil erosion, leading to desertification. LESSON SEVEN: SOLUTIONS TO DESERTIFICATION Learning outcomes. By the end of the lesson you should be able to: - 1.state the solutions to desertification ----- 497 Land can be restored through the following ways; i Removal of people, livestock from certain areas e.g. forests ii Installation of good drainage systems iii Reduction of water logging / salination iv Use of alternative sources of fuel such as wind, solar, biogas instead of cutting down trees to use as fuel charcoal v Advocate for penalties to those who pollute the environment factories vi Replace trees that are cut down vii Build water storage facilities to store rain water then use it for irrigation viii Educate people on the importance of the environment ix Use of manure instead of harmful fertilizers Emulate Prof. Wangari Maathai implanting trees 8th October 2004 she was awarded the Nobel peace prize, an international award, for her efforts in preserving the environment. Revision questions. 1. How can modern Christians evaluate scientific and technological discoveries 2. Why is the church in Kenya opposed to plastic surgery? 3. How has science and technology improved human life? 4. What are the consequences of science and technology in our society? C.R.E. QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS TOPIC ONE CHRISTIAN ETHICS Q1. What is the meaning of Christian Ethics? This is the study of human conduct or behavior. ----- 498 It is about how Christians make choices in their daily lives guided by Christian principles and value. Q2. What is the basis or sources or foundation of Christian Ethics? The Bible/Biblical scripture holy The natural law Human experience and reason The Christian community preachers Situation Ethics Secular/Civil Law Q3. List the basic life skills that one needs to be able to lead a better life a Critical thinking b Creative thinking c Decision making d Self-esteem e Assertiveness TOPIC TWO MALE/FEMALE RELATIONSHIPS Q1. Explain seven Christian teachings on male/female relationships Male/female were created as equal human beings: created in the image and likeness of God. Male/female created for companionship, help/ partners/ compliment each other. Both are co-creator with God done through procreation. Union between both is consummated in marriage. Relationship is based on love and respect/chastity. Man/husband is the head of the family. Each man to have his own wife and wife own husband. Husband and wife should not deny each other conjugal rights. Youth should abstain from sex until marriage. Male/female body is temple of the Lord. ----- 499 Short periods of abstinence are allowed among married people but with consent from each other. Christians appreciate different roles of men and women in the church e.g. leadership in choir for women and men. TOPIC THREE. HUMAN SEXUALITY Q1. Explain the Traditional African understanding of human sexuality Human sexuality is regarded as sacred and secret in many African communities. The sacredness of sex is related to the power to transmit life procreation. It is taboo to discuss sex matters freely especially in the presence of children. Grandparents who are free from any tying job teach sex education. Young people are prepared for adult life in the context of age group e.g. games of sexual nature take place within an age group. The age group has control of each other and there is no sex whatsoever. During initiation ceremonies, vigorous sex education is provided to the initiates. They are taught about sex, its secrets and the mystery of manhood and womanhood. Girls are expected to remain virgins Rape offenders are severely punished. Boys and girls are not allowed to mix. Division of labour is on the basis of sex. Roles of boys and girls are taught from childhood e.g. by copying their parents. Q2. Explain Christian attitude towards human sexuality Sex is sacred. ----- 500 Man and woman are equal before God. It is for procreation. Man and woman are complimentary. Both were created in the image of God. They became one in marriage. Sex is only allowed in marriage. Virginity is valued. Human beings have the ability to control sexual desires. Chastity is a virtue. All forms of irresponsible sexual behavior are condemned. Q3. In what ways is sex abused in Kenya? By practicing fornication/sex before marriage. Adultery sex outside marriage Through prostitution By practicing bestiality Through homosexuality/lesbianism/gayism Incest Rape/defilement of minors Masturbation Pornographic literature using of technological devices in sex Q4. Why do you think minors are defiled or sexually abused in Kenya daily? Lack of self-control among some men. Drugs and drug abuse. Permissiveness in society. Influence from the mass media. Mental illness mad people. Erosion of the African culture/moral values Devil worship/strange cults/false religion. Breakdown of religion values. ----- 501 Irresponsible parenthood. Indecent dressing. Leniency of the Law/no punishment for criminal. Idleness Poverty Responsible Sexual Behaviour Q 5. What is the Christian teaching on responsible sexual behavior? Responsible sex is between male and female. Sexual intercourse is allowed between married people. Faithfulness is a virtue in this: Both partners must avoid adultery. Responsible sexual behavior means exercising self-control. It entails obedience to Gods commands hence a Christian has to shun forbidden sexual behavior e.g. fornication. Body temple of the Lord. Our sexual relationships should uphold human dignity and respect for our bodies. The Bible teaches that whatever we do with our bodies should be for the glory of God 1 Cor. 7:19-20 . Q6. List the difference types of irresponsible sexual behavior Homosexuality lesbianism, sodomy Bestiality Masturbation Rape Incest Prostitution Fornication Abortion Q7. Explain the Christian teaching on responsible sexual behavior It defiles the body, which is the temple of God. ----- 502 It is wickedness. It is unholy and dirty before God. It is spiritually unclean. Those involved break the commandment of God. It involves coveting a sin. Polygamy is condemned and considered irresponsible. Q8. State the effects of irresponsible sexual behavior It can lead to sexually transmitted diseases AIDS . Can lead to pregnancy and then abortion. If married people are involved adultery divorce may occur. Separation Children suffer lack of parental care due to divorce as a result of adultery. It may lead to street children. It discourages young people from marrying. It can lead to fights, quarrels, misunderstanding and friction. Young people can chop out of school due to pregnancy/AIDS. Can lead to single parenthood. Withdrawing from family and society. Self-pity and loneliness. Psychological problems e.g. depression Stress Suicide and death. Unwanted/unexpected pregnancies. Aggressiveness and violence. LESSON THREE: THE FAMILY Q5. State the different types of families Nuclear family Single parent family Polygamous ----- 503 Extended LESSON TWO: MARRIAGE Q1. Explain the Traditional African understanding of marriage Marriage is viewed as the focus of existence, i.e. the point where the three members of the community meet i.e. living, departed and the unborn . A rhythm of life through which everybody must participate. Marriage is a duty/a must/compulsory Failure to marry means the person has rejected society and the society rejects him in turn. Those who do not marry are considered as sub-human or lawbreakers. Marriage is God ordained. Young boys and girls are prepared for this sacred institution during initiation. They are taught everything pertaining to marriage e.g. sex. Children cement the marriage. Q2. What is the importance of children in Traditional African Society They help their parents at old age. Cement a marriage: One without children is considered incomplete. Children boys provide security at home and the community. They help in the perpetuation of the family and community name. The departed are reborn through naming of children. Provide labour. It is through children that new members meet and get to know each other. Young children are introduced to their relatives e.g. during initiation, marriage etc. Children uphold the statue of parents. Q3. What is the Christian teaching about marriage? The church defines marriage as a covenant. The Bible teaches that marriage is a divine institution. ----- 504 Marriage is for procreation. Marriage is for companionship. It is for fulfillment of mutual love. Marriage is a remedy against sin fornication. It should be monogamous. Marriage should be permanent no divorce. Without or with children marriage is complete. Sex outside marriage is forbidden. Q4. What is the importance of courtship period in Traditional African Societies? It helped in identifying a suitable marriage partner. The two families involved established a firm relationship. The boy and the girl had a chance to learn each others character. It gives an opportunity to know whether the boy and girl are related. Allows time for exchange of gifts between the two families, thus a firm relationship is established. Time to negotiate the bride-wealth. Boy and girl are instructed about their duties and responsibilities. Q5. Why are many people opting for celibacy instead of marriage today? Celibacy is used to refer to the unmarried. Many remain single today because of Christianity to serve God. Some are born Eunuchs cannot father children. Education one may want to pursue education Career demands too demanding to allow one get time for a family. Lack of guidance and counseling on marriage and family. Discouragement from failing marriages. Economic reasons one may not have money for a big house, wedding and bringing up a family. Poor health e.g. epilepsy ----- 505 Economic independence whereby young people feel satisfied when they have enough money. Parental interference or whom their son should marry. Disappointing relationships. CHAPTER SIX CHRISTIAN APPROACHES TO WORK Q1. What is work? Answer Work means any human activity, be it manual, intellectual or both. Q2. List any six reasons why people work People work for self-satisfaction and fulfillment. For personal development. In order to acquire basic needs of life. To give life meaning, direction and dignity. To provide service for the community. To acquire wealth and status in the community. In order to socialize and grow as a member of a community. To attain independence and stop depending on others. In order to help others e.g. beggars. Q3. Explain the Traditional African attitude towards work Work was understood as a fundamental dimension of human existence here on earth. It is through work that human beings were able to change, reorganize and restructure their society. It was regarded as a recreational activity as through it, people built their houses, places of worship, produced art like sculpture and carving. Work was highly valued and the dignity of work was taught early in life. ----- 506 Each member had his own role to play e.g. men went out to hunt, herd etc accompanied with boys while mother did house work with the help of daughters. Grandparents taught the youth how to behave and baby seated. They believed work was Gods will and so they invoked Gods name through prayer, sacrifice to bless their work. They had freedom over their work. No supervision. They decided when to work, when to rest but rest came after work. Work was related to leisure, for people sang, danced and told stories as they worked. Through work, many people exploited talents or learned e.g. building houses, song etc. All were workers work was compulsory. Work brought people together solidarity. This is because they shared work communal work . Q3. List some of the factors that have changed the attitude towards work in the modern society Level of education determine the type of work. Availability of job opportunities. Stiff competition Work is personal unlike in Traditional African Communities where it was social. Negative attitude to work. This is where some people hate manual work. People work for personal gain and gratification. Work is a commodity to be sold to the highest bidder. Q4. What are the rights of employers? They have a right to a fair taxation in their business. Get profits from their business. ----- 507 Have association with other employers. Expect loyalty form their employees. Receive from their employees work input as agreed upon on the employment contract. Operate without being black mailed by trade unions. Open business ventures without Government restrictions. Q5. State the duties of employees To carry out their duties to the best of their ability without supervision e.g. be punctual, present etc. To respect and protect the property of the employer. To resort to peaceful means of solving problems, and not destructive ways e.g. strike. To work diligently for self fulfillment and development. To respect the employer and fellow employees. Q6. Why has child labour become common in Kenya? Definition: This is the employment of children on a full time basis. Reasons: Their labour is cheap. They are not unionisable and can therefore not fight for proper terms and conditions of service. They can easily be lured and fired. They do no have qualifications in any skill so as to negotiate for their terms. They are looked at as a source of income by their parents or guardians. Q7. What are the causes of unemployment in Kenya? High population There are too few job opportunities as compared to the many young people. Hatred for manual work many youth are looking for white-collar jobs despising the available blue jobs. ----- 508 Bribery and corruption In the job market whereby the rich are able to give while the poor though with good qualifications cannot secure a job. Lack of skills and capital to start self-employment. Bad governance and poor economic policies from the government. SAPS Structural Adjustment of Programmes i.e. Policy not giving funds has led to poverty. International policies of globalization that have affected the agric sector that has been the greatest employer in Kenya. Retrenchment of workers in the Civil Service and Private Sectors. Increase in crime that has aggravated insecurity in the country. This has discouraged local and international investors. Q8. What can the Government do to reduce unemployment in Kenya? By creating more job opportunities. By starting more industries. Increase of workers by 10 after every 10 years. Encouraging self-employment whereby loans and space are given. Starting of a school curriculum 8.4.4. starting that gears students into blue-collar jobs. Starting the District Funds for Rural Development C.D.F. Stopping rural urban migration. By Africanisation of jobs sending away foreign workers. CHAPTER SEVEN CHRISTIAN APPROACHES TO LEISURE: AND THE USE AND ABUSE OF DRUGS Q1. Identify five 5 reasons why the taking of alcohol as a way of spending leisure is condemned It leads to conflicts/quarrels within the family. ----- 509 Misuse of family resources. May lead to addiction. Leads to irresponsible sexual behaviours e.g. prostitution, adultery, and fornication. Could lead to loss of income. May lead to irresponsibility, which leads to accidents such as motor accidents. Q2. Write down 5 ways in which modern Christian use their leisure time Organize/attend religious seminars. Participate in church choir/concerts. Offers services to the aged. Read religious literature e.g. Bible. Keep the church and its environment clean. Have fellowship with other Christians. Initiate self-help projects to assist the needy. Provide guidance and counseling to the community. Preach the word of God. Visit relatives and friends. Be with family members. Listen to Christian preaching/songs on radio. Q3. Give 5 ways in which drug abuse could affect a Christian family Drains family resources. Fights in families may occur. Leads to diseases. Leads to family break-ups/separation/divorce. It reduces ones capacity to be productive in the family. Results in making wrong decisions/judgement. Leads to denial of conjugal rights. Leads to loss of religious values. Leads to poor role models for children. ----- 510 Leads to crime/imprisonment. Q4. Identify ways in which Christians can overcome temptations to drug abuse Practicing self-control. Praying against being tempted. Seeking guidance and counseling. Avoiding the company of those who misuse drugs. Reading literature on the correct use of drugs. Participating in activities that promote proper use of drugs/healthy activities. Q5. Why is leisure important in the life of Christians? Gives one time to visit the sick/needy. For dedicating oneself to God/worshiping God. Provide an opportunity to fellowship with others. It allows one to develop the different talents given by God. It gives one an opportunity to meet new friends/family. One is able to read the word of God. Provides an opportunity for one to preach/evangelize. Provides an opportunity to take care of the environment. Provides an opportunity to guide and counsel others and be guided. Provides time to rest to gain lost energy. Q6. What factors have contributed to the misuse or leisure in Kenya today? Too much money/wealth/availability of drugs/contraceptives. Inadequate facilities. Lack of proper guidance/education on how to use leisure. Poverty Inability to make right decisions. Bad company/peer pressure Watching/reading phonographic materials/negative media. ----- 511 Misunderstanding in families/frustrations. Inability to balance between different activities. Permissiveness Lack of role models Idleness/boredom/unemployment Q7. State the factors that have led to the misuse of drugs in Kenya today Poor role models. Stress/depression/rebellion. Peer pressure/curiosity. Irresponsible parenthood. Influence of mass media. Availability of drugs/wealth. Lack of guidance and counseling. Corruption/greed. Poverty Moral decay/permissiveness in the society. Lack of knowledge/ignorance on use of drugs. Idleness Urbanization/west culture. CHAPTER EIGHT CHRISTIAN RESPONSE TO ISSUES RELATED TO WEALTH, MONEY AND POVERTY Q1. Explain the biblical teaching on wealth It is a blessing from God. When wealth come with responsibility. Wealth can create a sense of false independence. It should be acquired in just and honest way. Wrong attitude to wealth leads to idolatry. One should seek spiritual wealth, which is permanent and more fulfilling. ----- 512 It is wrong to discriminate others on basis of material possessions. Christians should share whatever wealth they have. Wealth is not supreme good. Wealth gives people independence so that they do not beg. Wealth may bring suffering and insecurity. God is the owner of wealth and people should realize that they are only stewards. Q2. Discuss the biblical teaching on acquisition and use of wealth Riches acquired through just and fair means are not condemned. Even if wealth is acquired through just means it should not be idolized. Failing to use wealth to glorify God. God is the source of all riches. Wealth is acquired through obedience to Gods laws. People ought to take care of their wealth not misuse. Wealth should be equally distributed and not concentrated in the hands of a few. Wealth should be used to develop the nations infrastructure. Q3. Explain ways in which people misuse wealth in Kenya today Indulge in alcohol and drugs. Engaging in immoral practices e.g. prostitution. Gambling which might lead to loss of wealth. Being luxurious/extravagant Unfair class competition among the wealthy. Using wealth to undermine others e.g. assassination Using wealth to promote crime. Engaging in risky/dangerous sports or projects e.g. motor racing, wrestling. Using wealth selfishly/lack of social concern. Using wealth to engage young people into immoral practices e.g. sex tourism. ----- 513 Q4. Show how misuse of wealth leads to family instability One may indulge in alcohol/drug abuse at the expense of family needs. Engage in immorality/extra-marital sexual relations/prostitution. Leads to misunderstanding on how to use wealth/invest. One uses wealth to engage in gambling. Spoils children/encourages laziness. Arrogance/pride/showing off One becomes obsessed with wealth and fails to care for the family love has no time for the family. Inheritance squabbles in case of death. One fails to meet the basic needs for the family. Q5. Give ways in which Kenyan Government is alleviating levels of poverty Offering free education. Provision of C.D.F. Allocation of bursary to the needy. Creating and enabling environmental employment in formal and informal sectors easy access to loans . Providing market for agricultural products e.g. K.C.C, Cereal Board. Provision of low cost health services. Improving infrastructure e.g. roads, electricity. Providing youth fund through the Ministry of Youth Affairs. Q6. State the factors that have contributed to high levels of poverty in Kenya today Geographical factors e.g. adverse climate conditions. Historical/colonialism and social factors e.g. poor family background. Political instability, which may lead to civil wars. Poor governance. Regional imbalance of natural resources. ----- 514 Low level of technology. Unemployment Laziness Over dependence on foreign aid Abuse of alcohol and other drugs Lack of formal education hence no employment. CHAPTER NINE CHRISTIAN APPROACHES TO LAW, ORDER AND JUSTICE Q1. State ways in which Christians can promote unity/peach in the society By reporting criminals to the police. By being good example to others as peacekeepers. Praying for criminals. Building and counseling criminals. Teaching the society the importance of keeping peace. Condemning evil and evildoers. Q2. Why should Christians take part in voting? They belong to the society and leadership affects them. It is a God-given duty. In order to choose righteous leaders who will encourage values/virtues. In order to help reduce bribery and corruption and other vices in the society. CHAPTER 10 CHRISTIAN APPROACHES TO SELECTED ISSUES RELATED TO MODERN SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND THE ENVIRONMENT Q1. How can modern Christians evaluate scientific and technological discoveries? They should keep in mind that God gave them high-level power of thinking. Discoveries must be used intelligently to solve mans problems. ----- 515 They should not be used as an insult to God who created all things e.g. in things like plastic surgery, test tube babies etc. Discoveries must be used intelligently to solve mans problems. Discoveries should not erode Christian values by increasing mans trust in scientific and technological production. Acknowledge God as the source of all truth including science. Should help man make moral decision and judgments e.g. effect of alcohol, smoking, etc. Man should not be a slave to scientific discoveries instead he should control it. Q2. Why is the church in Kenya opposed to plastic surgery? It is against Gods plan of old age and death. It is a sign of lack of appreciation to Gods work of creation. It can lead to death if the operation fails. It interferes with Gods image given at birth. May be very expensive. Emphasis on beauty and pleasing which are seen as idolatry. Certain diseases can be transmitted especially where tissues may be detached from a donor with an infectious disease. Can bring about other operations like diseases. Scientists use it to compete with Gods creation. Leads to vices such as pride. It may lead to criminal activities by the victim due to different appearances. It is a sign of lack of faith in Gods power of creation/healing. It is against human dignity. Q3. How have science and technology improved human life? ----- 516 Modern methods of transport and communication have improved social interaction and faster movements. It has improved efficiency at work where machines are used. Has improved agricultural development hence increasing food production. Irrigation and wealth forecasting have too increased in food production. It has brought better health care through modern medical technology. Human beings are now better placed in terms of security matters by use of radar, alarms and electrical fencing. It has led to the creation of job opportunities through industrial development. Formal education and training has equipped human beings with new skills for survival. Trade has been promoted through the use of computers and the Internet. Q4. What are the consequences of science and technology in our society today? Unemployment is acute in our society today because computers have taken over. There is exploitation of workers by the employers because they want maximum profits. It has caused pollution and air poisoning. It has caused health hazards and accidents in factories, roads etc. Machines have replaced human labour. Families are separated due to employment whereby a mother lives in the rural with children while the father goes to town to work. It has destroyed family relationships and replaced it with individualis -----"}
{"text": "CONTENTS br br Chapter 1: Trade br br Definition of trade ......................................................................................................1 br br Types of trade Local trade .................................................................................................................4 Regional trade Trans-Saharan trade ........................................................................5 International trade Trans-Atlantic trade ..................................................................11 Review questions .......................................................................................................16 Students activities .....................................................................................................17 br br Chapter 2: Development of Transport and Communication br br Traditional forms of transport ....................................................................................18 Development of modern means of transport ..............................................................20 Impact of modern means of transport ........................................................................23 Traditional forms of communication .........................................................................24 Development of modern means of communication ...................................................27 Impact of modern means of telecommunication ........................................................32 Print media .................................................................................................................33 Review questions .......................................................................................................35 Students activities .....................................................................................................36 br br Chapter 3: Development of industry br br Sources of energy .......................................................................................................37 Uses of metals in Africa .............................................................................................37 Uses of various sources of energy during the industrial revolution in Europe ..........39 Uses of iron and steel .................................................................................................41 Industrialisation in Britain .........................................................................................42 Industrialisation in continental Europe ......................................................................45 br br Emergence of world industrial powers: USA............................................................................................................................47 Germany .....................................................................................................................49 Japan ..........................................................................................................................51 Industrialisation in the third world: Brazil ..........................................................................................................................53 South Africa ...............................................................................................................55 India ...........................................................................................................................57 Scientific Revolution .................................................................................................60 Factors influencing scientific inventions in Africa and other developing nations .....67 Review questions .......................................................................................................67 Students activities .....................................................................................................68 Chapter 4: Urbanisation in Africa br br Definition of urbanisation ..........................................................................................69 Cairo ...........................................................................................................................70 Meroe .........................................................................................................................71 Kilwa ..........................................................................................................................71 Early urbanisation in Europe .....................................................................................72 London .......................................................................................................................72 Athens ........................................................................................................................75 Emergence of modern urban centres in Africa ..........................................................76 Nairobi .......................................................................................................................76 Johannesburg..............................................................................................................78 Review questions .......................................................................................................79 Students activities .....................................................................................................80 br br Chapter 5: Social, Economic and Political organisation of African societies in br br the 19th Century br br Buganda .....................................................................................................................81 Shona..........................................................................................................................85 Ashante Ashanti ......................................................................................................86 Review questions .......................................................................................................90 Students activities .....................................................................................................91 br br Chapter 6: Constitution and constitution making br br Definition of constitution ...........................................................................................92 Types of constitution..................................................................................................93 The independence constitution ..................................................................................96 The Kenya constitution ..............................................................................................98 Features of Kenya constitution ..................................................................................99 Constitutional amendment since independence .........................................................100 Review questions .......................................................................................................103 Students activities .....................................................................................................103 br br Chapter 7: Democracy and human rights Types of democracy ...................................................................................................105 Principles of democracy .............................................................................................107 Human rights and its violation ...................................................................................109 The Bill of Rights.......................................................................................................111 UN charter on human rights .......................................................................................113 The rights of the child ................................................................................................116 Classification of human rights ...................................................................................117 Review questions .......................................................................................................120 Students activities .....................................................................................................121 CHAPTER 1 br br Trade br br Trade is the exchange of goods or services for money or other commodities for mutual benefits. It is basically the buying and selling of goods. br br Trade originated during the New Stone Age. During this period, man began a settled lifestyle. He became specialised in various activities such as weaving, pottery and livestock keeping. This specialisation made some people to produce certain items which others did not produce. The need of satisfying various essential material needs therefore led to emergence of trade. br br Methods of Trade br br Barter trade and currency trade are the two existing forms of trade in the world. br br Barter trade. Barter trade is the oldest method of trade in the world. It existed even during the Old Testament time. Barter trade exists even today. This occurs when people exchange goods for other goods. In this case no established medium of exchange is used. In certain occasions, services are exchanged for goods. The goods may also be exchanged for services. br br Barter system was very popular before the introduction of money. For instance a cow could be exchanged for a number of goats. A basket of millet could be exchanged for a basket of maize or beans. br br The people of ancient Ghana exchanged their gold with the people of br br North Africa for salt. br br This form of trade did not succeed very well where there was language br br barrier. Barter trade exists even today. In Kenya, certain commodities e.g. agricultural products are exchanged for machinery and oil. Advantages of barter trade were: 1. 2. br br There was direct exchange of goods or services for goods. It encouraged people who were exchanging goods for goods to get involved in actual production of the items. This kept the communities busy. Barter trade enabled people who had no goods for exchange to acquire goods they wanted by merely rendering services to those who had. It enabled people to acquire the goods they did not produce themselves. br br 3. br br 4. Disadvantages of barter trade were: br br a br br Barter trade was not very convenient because sometimes people could not acquire the commodities they intended to exchange their goods for. For example one may have intended to exchange a bag of maize with a bag of millet just to find that there was no millet in the market. The method was tiresome because all those who wanted to exchange goods had to carry those goods to the market sometimes for long distances. Since in normal trade there is a buyer and a seller, it became difficult to specify who the buyer or seller was because both were just exchanging items and there was no specific buyer or seller. It was difficult to transport bulky goods to the market. It was difficult to value goods being exchanged to ensure that the deal was fair for both parties exchanging items. Barter trade was not very successful where the people exchanging goods had no common language to ease communication. It was not easy to exchange certain items such as a bull or a donkey because if the other party did not have sufficient goods for exchange, a bull or a donkey could not be split into smaller units to match with the goods available. br br b br br The Currency trade This method of trade involves the use of money as a medium of exchange. The medium of exchange must be acceptable and convenient to people. br br Money may be used to purchase commodities or to pay for services. Money is also used a measure of value. Today, people value their property in terms of money. Objects which have ever been used as money before the introduction of modern currencies are cowrie shells, iron bars, bronze, salt, gold and silver. The major world currencies are: br br i ii German Deutsche Mark iii British Sterling Pound iv v vi Mexican Peso vii Japanese Yen viii European Union Euro br br US Dollar br br French Franc Canadian Dollar Advantages of currency trade are a b Money can be split into smaller units which enables people to purchase br br It is easy to carry money when going to buy items because it is not heavy. br br any quantity of goods in the market. Items are valued easily in terms of Shillings, Dollars, Yen, Pound Sterling, etc. This makes the buyer to have an idea of the value of various items in advance. Currency trade brings about clear definitions of the terms buyer or seller. In this case the buyer is the one who gives out money to acquire goods while the seller is the one who gives out goods to acquire money. e When one receives money for goods delivered or sold, he can save it in banks or store it without fear of any damage such as decay for a long time. br br c br br d br br Disadvantages of currency as a medium of exchange are br br i br br Currency can easily loose value purchasing power as it happened in Uganda during the era of President Idi Amin. If there are no goods available for buying, money becomes useless. Many a times people have starved almost to death during famine due to shortage of food to buy with the money they have. br br ii br br iii Use of currency in business has encouraged robbery, pickpocketting and br br many other forms of crime. Types of trade There are three types of trade namely: local trade, regional trade and international trade. br br Local Trade Local trade is the exchange of goods within the same community at the village level. It may also involve the neighbouring communities or people who share a common boundary. br br People who conducted local trade established markets on the community boundaries or in a central place where people from a number of villages met to exchange goods. People exchanged goods they had for the things they did not have. This type of trade exists in Kenya even today where local county councils have established markets in certain trading centres. Local trade covers a small area. br br The origin of local trade Local trade originated from the time early man began a settled lifestyle. It was facilitated by the need to acquire what one did not have from those who had. The environmental differences also contributed the emergence of this type of trade. br br The development of local trade Local trade developed as human population increased. The increase in population led to demand for various items such as food, clothing, pots and ornaments. Some people became specialised in making iron tools, others in making items such as pots, baskets and bark-cloth while others became pastoralists and kept cattle, sheep and goats. br br The blacksmith obtained meat from the pastoralists and grains from the cultivators. The pastoralists needed knives and spears from the blacksmiths. The cultivators needed iron hoes; knives for harvesting; millet, sorghum and axes for clearing fields for cultivation. The demand for goods therefore encouraged local trade to develop and markets were established where people met to buy and sell things. br br The organisation of local trade People established markets at the most convenient places for all. They set market days when they would meet to exchange goods. At the beginning, the form of trade was mainly barter. Later there was introduction of money currency which acted as a medium of exchange. br br During this trade, people transported their commodities on their heads and backs. Some communities such as the Maasai used donkeys to carry their goods to the markets while the Somali and the Boran used camels. People who traded were provided with security by local leaders. br br Some established local merchants bought the items and resold them to other traders far away beyond the local boundaries. For example ivory was sometimes bought from the local markets in Samburu and Baringo and then transported to the coast where it was bought and shipped to Asia. The impact of the local trade Local trade led to intermarriages between people of different villages and people of neighbouring communities. br br It contributed to the unity of family members who constituted a community. This is because the interaction of people in the markets united them. Local trade enabled people to acquire what they did not have from those who had. br br It laid the basis for other types of trade such as the regional and the international trade because some of the goods sold at regional and international levels were bought from local markets by the traders and eventually sold far away from the sources. Local trade enabled some people such as Chief Kivoi of Ukambani to acquire skills in trade thereafter becoming experienced long distance traders. Where members of one community traded with members of another community there was development of languages through word borrowing as well as cultural exchange. br br In this case members of each community would borrow some cultural practices which became known to them as they interacted in the markets. Regional Trade Regional trade is the exchange of goods within a specified part of a continent or region. It can be trade between different communities in a region who are living apart. br br This trade involves a bigger geographical area than the one covered by local trade. It also involves more traders. An example of regional trade is the Trans-Saharan trade. br br The origin of the Trans-Saharan trade It is not known exactly the time this trade started but it was going on between 1000AD and 1500AD. The people of West Africa and those from North Africa exchanged goods from very early times even before the Sahara dried up into a desert. The desert trade was later revolutionised by the introduction of the camel in the first century AD. The development of the Trans-Saharan trade The Trans-Saharan trade began developing after the introduction of the camel which replaced the use of oxen and horses which were used by traders before the Sahara turned into a desert. br br The people involved in this trade were the local inhabitants of West Africa such as the people of ancient Ghana, Mali and Songhai. There were also desert communities like the Tuaregs, the Berbers and the Arabs from North Africa. Later Europeans and Jewish traders who had settled along the North African coast became engaged in this lucrative trade. br br The people of West Africa Western Sudan sold Gold, ivory, slaves, gum, ostrich feathers, colanuts and hides and skins to the people of North Africa and in return obtained horses, silk cloth, beads, cotton cloth, spices, mirrors, needles, dried fruits and salt from the North African traders. The salt sold was obtained from Targhaza, Taodeni and Ghadames while the gold brought for sale was obtained from Wangara, Bure and Budu mines. br br The main trade routes were that which connected Fez and Sijilmasa in Morocco with Audaghost in West Africa and passed through Targhaza. The other started from Tunis in Tunisia through Ghadames, Ghat and Agades in the Sahara desert to Hausaland. Another one ran from Sijilmasa through Tuat, Gao and reached Timbuktu. The other one started from Tripoli and went past Fezzan to Bornu via Bilma. There were several other minor ones which made the trade routes to resemble a cobweb. All these routes touched the salt mines in the desert as salt was a commodity of trade very much needed by the people of western Sudan. Some Trans-Saharan trade routes and sources of goods The Trans-Saharan trade developed due to the following reasons: 1. br br The trade commodities which the traders from both sides demanded were available. The trade goods themselves were in great demand. For instance the people of West Africa demanded salt while the people of North Africa demanded gold. The West African rulers provided the traders with security. The desert Tuaregs guided traders; provided them with water, food and accommodation; showed traders direction; acted as interpreters; provided traders with security while crossing the desert and cared for the oasis where traders obtained water. There were established trade routes in the desert which provided considerable transport and communication services to traders. There were enterprising professional merchants who conducted trade across the desert. There were means of transport provided by use of camels, horses and donkeys. There was sufficient capital to finance trade. The local trade which existed in North Africa and West Africa laid the basis for the Trans-Saharan trade. br br 2. br br 3. 4. The development of the Trans-Saharan trade was hampered by some of the obstacles traders encountered as they conducted their business across the desert. Some of these obstacles were: a b br br Traders lost direction in the desert. They were attacked by desert robbers. This occurred when the Tuaregs changed their role of guides to that of robbers. vggbThe traders were affected by numerous sandstorms which blocked the routes they followed. br br c br br d br br The trades were also affected by weather variations because sometimes it became too hot and at other times too cold. br br e The distance traders travelled across the desert was too long and scaring. br br f br br Traders were sometimes in danger of attacks by dangerous desert creatures such as snakes and scorpions. br br g br br There was communication barrier due to lack of a common language. This made it necessary for traders to use the Tuaregs as their guides and interpreters but later they became unreliable when they began stealing goods from traders. br br h br br There was lack of adequate basic needs such as food and water especially in the desert. iii The organisation of the Trans-Saharan trade br br The Trans-Saharan trade was conducted by the people of western Sudan and the people of North Africa. The traders from North Africa crossed the Sahara desert by use of camels. The traders travelled in large caravans some with about 1000 camels and hundreds of people for security reasons. br br The Tuaregs and Berbers were recruited to act as guides takshifs to the traders. These guides provided the traders with security. It took about three months to cross the desert. For this reason the traders had stopping places at the oases where they bought food and water for themselves and for their camels. It is the Tuaregs who maintained the oasis and acted as interpreters. When the traders reached western Sudan, they sometimes gave their goods to the local agents on credit. The form of trade was mainly barter. br br The rulers of West Africa controlled the trade and provided security to traders. In return the traders paid taxes to the rulers. The main items of trade included gold, salt, horses, hides and skins, beads and cloth. When the time to travel back to North Africa reached, the North Africa traders employed people to be left trading on their behalf. The merchants stored goods in specific gathering points which acted as distribution centres. They mainly travelled one way in a year. br br The problems the Trans-Saharan traders encountered The Trans-Saharan traders faced a lot of problems as they carried out their business. The traders travelled long distances across the Sahara desert. Their journeys were tiresome and they had insufficient food and water. Sometimes the trade goods became exhausted. traders were frequently br br interrupted by hostile desert communities who wanted to steal their goods and by dangerous sandstorms which blocked their way. Traders lost direction and they were sometimes attacked by dangerous desert creatures. There were frequent shifts of trade routes. Traders were sometimes robed by desert dwellers. br br The br br The impact of the Trans-Saharan trade The Trans-Saharan trade had several consequences: br br 1. br br The trade led to development of urbanisation for example towns such as Gao, Timbuktu and Jenne. br br 2. br br The trade led to the decline of empires such as ancient Ghana and Mali while others such as Songhai emerged. br br 3. Islamic religion and culture were introduced. br br 4. br br Intermarriages between North Africans and West Africans were promoted. The Trans-Saharan trade led to a class of wealthy merchants who participated in the trade. br br New cultures were introduced such as eating habits and new styles of dressing. br br The trade led to the introduction of foreign architectural designs in West Africa. br br The Trans-Saharan trade contributed to the establishment and development of diplomatic ties between West Africa and North Africa. br br There was growth of agricultural production as a result of the introduction of new crops. The decline of the Trans-Saharan trade The Trans-Saharan trade began to decline in the 15th century and disintegrated completely in the 19th century following colonisation of West Africa by the Europeans. The factors which contributed to its decline were as follows: br br a br br The gold mines in western Sudan got exhausted. This discouraged traders from coming to West Africa because the main trading commodity was not available. br br The Morrocans invaded West Africa in the 16th century. This undermined the trade because it created anarchy and insecurity in the region. The Morrocans wanted to capture this prosperous trade. The political instability in West Africa together with the decline of empires such as Mali and Songhai increased anarchy and insecurity in the region. br br b br br c br br d West Africa was invaded by the Almoravids and the Tuaregs. This further br br increased insecurity along the major trade routes. br br e br br The Tuaregs who guided the traders changed their roles from that of guides to that of robbers. br br f br br The emergence of the Trans-Atlantic trade attracted the West African traders who were formerly involved in the Trans-Saharan trade. This led to reduction of the volume of goods and traders who participated in the Trans-Saharan trade. g br br The Turks invaded North Africa creating insecurity along the caravan routes. br br h br br The colonisation of West Africa by the Europeans reduced regional links and encouraged European exploitation of West African resources therefore undermining the Trans-Saharan trade. The British anti-slave trade pressure and eventual abolition of slave trade led to decline of the Trans-Saharan trade. br br j br br Rivalry between caravans and the stiff competition of the traders sometimes resulted to wars which scared traders. br br k Moroccan ports along the Mediterranean Sea were invaded by the Spanish and Portuguese soldiers in the late 15th century and early 16th century. This disrupted trade. br br l br br European merchants began penetrating into the interior of West Africa for trade. They diverted the flow of goods such that goods were later taken to the West African coastal town such as Port Elmina and Accra. br br International Trade br br International trade refers to trade between nations. In modern international trade, nations within the same continent are included. The international trade of the period before the mid 20th century which is our main concern involved nations particularly those in different continents and which were not part of one geographical region. br br This ancient international trade developed as a result of the improvement in water transport. This was achieved mainly through the construction of strong ships and acquisition of better knowledge of navigation which enabled sailors to explore and acquire knowledge about foreign lands overseas. An example of the international trade was the Trans-Atlantic trade. The Trans-Atlantic trade br br i br br Origin The Trans-Atlantic trade began after the Portuguese explored the West African coast in the 15th century and after the Spanish sailor, Christopher Columbus sailed to Americas. br br In the 16th century the Americas became colonised by the Portuguese and the Spanish. These two nations began to open up and develop their acquired territories through mining and establishment of sugar plantations. Attempts to use the Red Indians as labourers eventually failed. There was need to import Africans to supply labour in the mines and sugar plantations. This attempt marked the beginning of the Trans- Atlantic slave trade. The increased demand for sugar, tobacco and cotton in the European countries led to the establishment and growth of more and more plantations in Americas. A lot of labourers were therefore needed to work in the growing plantations. br br Africans were more suited to plantation farming because they were handy and could work effectively in hot climates. They were used to tropical diseases and could survive longer. The Africans were also used to physical strains and hardships. All these made Africans to be regarded as the most potential suppliers of labour in the American plantations. iii The development of Trans-Atlantic trade br br The first African slaves were the twenty people who were captured and taken to Henry the Navigator in 1442. By 1510 a large number of African slaves from Guinea were exported by the Portuguese to the Spanish colonies. Later slaves were transported directly form Guinea coast to the West Indies. br br At first the Portuguese were the leading slave exporters. In the 17th century, the Dutch took the leading role as more Europeans settled in Americas and increased the demand for slave labour. The French and the British involved themselves in this lucrative trade. The British captured the leading role from the Dutch and they dominated the Trans-Atlantic slave trade in the 18th century. br br The increased demand for precious stones, sugar, cotton and tobacco in the European markets and the demand for fire arms, cloth, alcoholics, tobacco, utensils, glassware ornaments, sugar, sweets and iron bars in West Africa accelerated trade. br br The Trans-Atlantic trade developed and grew rapidly due to the following factors: br br 1. br br The commodities which were required by the Africans as well as the Europeans and Americans, were available in the three continents that took part in trade. The goods were also in great demand in the continents especially during the industrial revolution. br br The West African coast had natural harbours where ships anchored. br br The West African rulers provided foreign traders with security. br br There existed enterprising merchants in America, Europe and West Africa who engaged in trade. 6. br br The steamships provided efficient transport and communication means between the three continents. br br The acquisition of new knowledge of navigation enabled sailors to sail across the deep and stormy seas and oceans. br br The decline of the Trans-Saharan trade enabled a big volume of goods to be taken to the West African coastal markets. br br iii The organisation of Trans-Atlantic trade br br The Trans-Atlantic trade was well organised inform of a triangle which connected Europe, Africa and America. It involved European traders, African middlemen and American plantation owners. br br Ships loaded with European manufactured goods such as fire arms, cloth, wines and spirits, cigarettes, iron bars, utensils, glassware, ornaments and sweets left Europe and anchored along the West African coast. Slaves captured in the interior of West Africa were marched along the coast. There were established places where the slaves were kept while awaiting shipment. The Trans-Atlantic trade br br The ships from Europe were unloaded and the European manufactured goods exchanged for slaves, colanuts, precious stones, hides and skins. The ships were once more loaded with the West African commodities which were shipped across the Atlantic ocean to Americas. br br In Americas, the slaves were sold through auction. The ships were then filled with indigo, cotton, tobacco, rum, sugar, rice, timber and the precious stones like gold and silver. They were then shipped to European markets. br br How the slaves were obtained during the Trans-Atlantic trade a Raids were conducted for capturing slaves. br br b c br br Free men were kidnapped and thereafter sold as slaves. Two communities conducted wars and the one which was defeated had is people captured as slaves. br br d Leaders sold criminals and even some of their innocent subjects. br br e Slaves were battered with other commodities African traders required. br br f Children and women were enticed with sweets and thereafter captured. br br g br br The weaker states were forced to pay tributes imposed on them by use of slaves. br br h br br The people who failed to pay debts were captured and sold as compensation. Alternatively, they surrendered a family member to be sold instead. br br The impact of the Trans-Atlantic trade 1. br br The Trans-Atlantic slave trade caused immense pain and suffering to innocent Africans who were captured, chained, beaten and forced to walk long distances to the West Africa coast. br br 2. br br The trade caused an incalculable number of deaths especially during inter community wars, raids and during shipment. The death tool is estimated to be about 20 million. There was a decline in the local industries because the able bodied people were sold away leading to loss of labour and because of sale of cheap manufactured goods. br br There were changes in the role of chiefs who instead of protecting their people sold them as slaves. br br There was intensification of warfare in a bid to capture slaves. This resulted to division among and within communities which caused bitterness and disunity of the Africans. The wars between communities were accelerated by the acquisition of firearms. 6. br br A class of slave merchants emerged in West Africa. Examples of the slave merchants were Jaja of Opobo and Nana of Isekri. The two were very powerful and wealthy. br br Some states such as Asante, Benin, Oyo and Dahomey rose to power and expanded due to the great wealth obtained from trade. br br The Trans-Atlantic trade led to expansion of urban centres along the West African coast where commodities were exchanged. Such towns were Whydah, Accra, Porto Novo and Badgry. br br To some extent some parts of West Africa where raids were conducted retarding economic became depopulated. This development in those areas. br br contributed in br br 10. The European traders intermarried with the people of the West African br br coast giving rise to halfcaste mulato . br br 11. Africans developed a taste of the European goods. br br 12. Some weaker kingdoms such as Ketu declined due to constant raids br br conducted by stronger states such as Dahomey. br br 13. The Trans-Atlantic trade contributed to the decline of the Trans-Saharan trade because the goods flowing Northwards across the Sahara desert got reduced and instead were taken to the West African coastal markets. br br 14. Some powerful rulers such as King Geso of Dahomey emerged as a result br br of the introduction of fire-arms. 15. The trade encouraged slave raids which destroyed property. Houses and br br crops for instance were burnt into ashes during slave raids. br br 16. The Trans-Atlantic trade led to plantations in the Americas. br br the development of agricultural br br 17. The trade gave rise to people of African descent in Americas. These are br br referred to as American Negroes. br br 18. The final blow as a result of this trade was that West Africa was br br colonised and therefore came under European control. The decline of the Trans-Atlantic trade The Trans-Atlantic trade declined in the 19th century because of a number of factors. The industrial revolution in USA led to use of machines to work in the farms. Slave labour was no longer necessary. br br the Christian Missionaries in Britain who considered slave trade and slavery as unjust and inhuman. A typical example of humanitarians was Sir William Wilberforce who presented the issue of slave trade and slavery to the British parliament. Dr. Livingstone also advocated slave trade to be abolished. br br There emerged the humanitarian movement and br br Some economists and scholars were of the feeling that free labour was more paying and productive than slave labour. Some of them argued that mass migration of the Africans should be discouraged to ensure retention of the markets for the European manufactured goods. The decline of plantation economy in America and the Carribeans reduced the demand for slaves for use in the farms. Also the slaves in the Carribeans and America resisted because they wanted to be left free from being enslaved. br br Lastly, some Europeans felt that it was necessary to retain Africans in their motherland so that they could produce raw materials needed in the European industries. In order to achieve this, it was necessary to abolish the Trans-Atlantic slave trade which was draining Africa of its labour force. Review Questions br br 1. a br br Define the following: i ii iii Local trade iv Regional trade v Explain the advantages of using currency over barter trade. br br Barter trade Currency trade br br International trade br br 2. br br a b br br Explain the origin and organisation of local trade. Discuss the factors which contributed to the development of the Trans-Saharan trade. br br 3 br br a b br br Describe the role of Takshifs during the Trans-Saharan trade. Give five trade routes traders followed during the Trans-Saharan trade. what problems did the traders encountered during Trans-Saharan trade? b br br Discuss the effects of the Trans-Saharan trade on the people of western Sudan. br br 5 a What factors contributed to the development of the Trans-Atlantic br br trade. br br b br br Explain the impact of the Trans-Atlantic trade under the following headings. i ii iii Social impact Economic impact Political impact br br 6 Why did the Trans-Atlantic trade decline in the 19th century? Visit the nearest shopping centre and find out the problems the traders encounter as they carry out their business. br br Draw relevant maps indicating the trade routes during the Trans-Atlantic trade and Trans- Saharan trade. br br Demonstrate the methods used to obtain slaves and the way they were finally transported to the market along the West Africa Coast and sold. Development of Transport and Communication br br Transport is the movement of people and goods from one place to another. Communication is the transmission of information in form of news, messages and ideas over some distances. It includes sending and receiving of information. The early forms of transport included land transport, water transport, human transport and animal transport. Human transport involved carrying goods from one place to another on ones back, head and shoulders. Animals were also used to carry goods and people on their backs from one place to the other. br br The earliest forms of communication were smoke signals, drum beats, br br messengers, horn blowing and written messages on scrolls and stone tablets. Traditional Forms of Transport br br a br br Land transport This form of transport involved movement of people and goods on land. They either walked or they were transported by use of tamed animals which pulled carts and wagons. br br Land transport developed mainly because of the invention of the wheel. The invention of the wheel made transport easier because at first it was used to move war chariots and carts which carried agricultural produce. This also encouraged the development of trade and wars. The invention of the wheel therefore eased transportation of bulky loads and speeded transportation of people to various destinations. It also facilitated travel over long distances within a limited period of time. Wheeled vehicles were pulled by horses, donkey and oxen. The invention of the wheel was followed by the development of roads. br br b Human transport br br Human transport involved carrying of goods from one place to the other on the backs, shoulders and heads. Sometimes people used shoulder poles to transport goods. The slave traders in East Africa captured slaves and forced them to carry ivory from the interior to the East African coast. Human transport exists even today. It is common to see Kenyan women carrying firewood, coffee, picked tea and cattle feed either on their heads or back. Animal Transport After man domesticated animals, he learnt that some could be used to transport goods from one place to the other. These animals carried loads on their backs and they also pulled wheeled vehicles such as carts and wagons. br br The beasts of burden such as camels, oxen, horses and donkeys were also referred to as pack animals. Donkeys were commonly used in Kenya by the Maasai and the Kamba to fetch water. In many other places, donkeys carried trade goods to the markets. Oxen transported people and goods from one place to the other. They were also used for ploughing. Oxen drawn carts br br Horses were used to transport soldiers during war times. The soldiers sometimes fought on horseback. Horses also pulled chariots which transported soldiers to battle fields. br br A camel was a very efficient beast of burden in the desert because it could stay for a long time without water or food. This is because it has a store of fat in its hump. Camels were used to transport goods during the Trans-Saharan trade. Other animals which are used for transport are elephants, water buffaloes, dogs and Llamas. br br d Water transport br br Water transport began due to the need to cross rivers and lakes to look for food on the other side. br br Mans first boat like vessel was made of a tree trunk. It was later br br improved by hollowing it to make a dug-out canoe. br br Man also discovered that he could make rafts with animal skins or br br from bundles of reeds tied together. The canoes and rafts were used to move across the shallow waters. br br The Phoenicians, the Egyptians and the Greeks made the earliest br br ships many years before the birth of Christ. These ships were used in seas and oceans. The Arabs made dhows that were driven by wind. A dhow br br Development of modern means of Transport br br Modern means of transport involves road transport, railway transport, water transport, air transport and space exploration by use of rockets. br br Road transport br br The Romans were the first to introduce good quality roads which were of very high standards. This occurred before the birth of Christ. Roman roads survived for hundreds of years because they were well drained and durable. These roads were used by carts chariots and wagons which were pulled by horses, donkeys and oxen. br br In the 17th and 18th century, British engineers began constructing better roads and bridges. Some of these engineers were George Wade, John Macadam and Thomas Telford. These engineers brought about the construction of high quality roads that were durable and well drained. By the close of the 19th century various modes of modern transport such as bicycles and motor vehicles had been invented and were in use especially in Europe. The invention of the pneumatic tyres by Dunlop to replace the solid ones and the invention of steam power engines revolutionised land transport. Etienne Lenoir from France invented the first internal combustion engine. br br A German citizen, Nicholas Otto, invented the four-stroke compression engine. Later in 1883 Gottliep Daimler of Germany came up with an efficient and portable petrol engine which he used to make the first motorcycle and later petrol driven car which was the first ever made. br br Others who joined in the league of manufacturing vehicles were Karl Benz of Germany and Henry Ford of USA who founded Ford motor company in USA and began manufacturing cars for sale. br br The vehicle industry since then has been greatly improved. Vehicles that move at very high speed have been introduced. This has resulted to many accidents. As a result of this, in January 2004, Kenya government took the following measures to reduce the increasing number of accidents on the Kenyan Roads and to make travel comfortable and enjoyable: Modern cars br br i ii All public service vehicles were to be fitted with speed governors and br br All motor vehicles were to be fitted with seat belts. br br were to move at a speed not exceeding 80 kilometres per hour. iii The carrying capacity of public service vehicles was reduced. iv Drivers and conductors of public service vehicles were to be permanently br br employed. Drivers and conductors of public service vehicles were to be issued with uniforms and badges and photographs for identification. br br v br br vi Drivers and conductors of public service vehicles were required to have br br certificates of good conduct. br br There are millions of motor vehicles in the world today. The number is still increasing each day because they are manufactured in thousands each day in the world. Railway transport The idea of making railway lines came earlier than the invention of the locomotive engines. For instance the Germans used wooden rails for their trucks. The trucks were pulled by horses and donkeys. Later iron rails replaced the wooden rails. br br The first steam engine that could be mounted on a truck was made by Richard Trevithick but it was slow and heavy. It was George Stephenson, a coal miner in England who came up with the best and powerful steam locomotive which was called the Rocket. Later diesel and electric engines were designed. A German called Rudolh Diesel designed a diesel engine. The Siemens brothers designed the electric locomotives in Britain. br br After these inventions the railway transport spread to other parts of the world. The European colonialists developed the railway transport in Africa in the 19th century and 20th century. br br Water transport The first sailing ships were propelled by wind. These ships were made of wood. When steam power was discovered, ships began being propelled by steam engines. A ship of the 17th century br br A Scottish engineer known as William Symington built a steamship which was driven by a paddle wheel. An American called Robert Fulton built a steamship called Clermont that was used to carry passengers between Albany and New York. Some years later, internal combustion engines were invented. Since then oil replaced the power from coal in driving engines. br br From 1881 iron and steel ships began replacing wooden ships. From 1840s, fast moving ships were developed when propellers or screws replaced paddle wheels. Between 1953 and 1962, the Americans were able to make war ships called submarines which used nuclear power. br br The ships of today are propelled by very powerful engines and are br br resistant to strong waves. Air transport The first person to fly used a balloon. The use of balloons was followed by the introduction of airships that carried passengers within the first half of the 20th century. The airships used hydrogen gas that caused accidents because it was highly flammable. The Wright brothers made the first aeroplane that used a petrol engine. Their findings helped to develop aeroplanes that were used in the First World War. br br Further improvements of engines brought about the development of jet br br planes that carry many passengers and travel at supersonic speed. An aeroplane br br Space Exploration The first satellite was launched into orbit round the earth by the Soviet Union in 1957. The USA also sent satellites into orbit round the earth in 1961. Yuri Gagarin from Soviet Union became the first man in space. br br The USA sent the first man, Neil Armstrong, to the moon in 1969. Since then a number of countries have engaged themselves in space exploration. The USA for example have a programme called Space Shuttle which helps to promote space exploration. Impact of modern means of transport br br The development of modern means of transport has positive and negative impact in the world. br br Positive impact The development of water transport, railway transport, road transport and air transport has improved trade between nations because it has quickened movement of business people and urgent documents and messages relating to trade. Goods are quickly and easily transported from one place to another. Job opportunities have been created in the transport sector. For example people have taken careers such as driving, mechanics, engineering and piloting. br br Industries for manufacturing engines, spare parts and other accessories have been established. Air transport has encouraged international co-operation and facilitated quicker and easier movement of perishable items such as fruits and meat. It has also enabled pests such as locusts to be sprayed from the air. It has enabled countries to conduct student exchange programmes. br br Air transport has encouraged space exploration by use of satellites. Geologists have used aeroplanes to explore and map oil pools. Geographers have used aeroplanes when conducting aerial survey. br br Water transport has provided cheaper means of bulky goods across seas and oceans for example the transportation of crude oil, machinery, agricultural products and chemical fertilizers. It has also promoted the fishing industry. br br In addition railway transport encouraged settlers to settle in the colonies acquired by their mother countries. It also encouraged migration of people to other places and enhanced colonisation. Railway transport encouraged urbanisation on railway junctions. It encouraged mining and farming as it opened up remote areas during the colonial rule in Africa. Road transport has helped to link communities leading to rapid cultural interaction. Road transport has also enabled many countries to have effective administration through quick transportation of administrators and police to the areas they are needed. br br Negative impact Modern means of transport have encouraged pollution of environment. Trains and vehicles emit fumes while aeroplanes produce a lot of noise. When ships carrying oil or mercury wreck, they contaminate the ocean waters and cause destruction of marine life. br br Modern means of transport have led to loss of life of many people due to accidents. Plane and vehicle hijacking has increased. There is piracy in seas and oceans. International terrorism has been encouraged through air transport. Modern transport has encouraged wars because ships, vehicles, trains and aeroplanes transport soldiers and weapons during wars. Traditional forms of communication br br The traditional forms of communication involve smoke signals, drum beats, messengers, horn blowing and written messages on scrolls and stone tablets. Communities used these forms of communication to make their members informed of what was happening and what was expected of them. The messages were sent quickly and easily over considerable distances. br br 23 The traditional forms of communication alerted people of impending dangers in times of war. For instance warriors used them in times of crisis to inform others of the approaching enemies. Lastly they enabled relatives who were living apart to keep in touch with each other. br br Smoke signals Fire was lit in the areas that were visible for example on hills. The smoke produced was used to convey certain information. The smoke signals reached people very fast. It was a convenient method because firewood was readily available and therefore making it easy to make fire. br br The method was disadvantageous in the sense that smoke signals could not be sent at night because smoke could not be visible. Smoke signals could not be used during cloudy and foggy weather. br br For the message to reach, people had to be on lookout. It was not possible to use this method to communicate with people who were blind. It was difficult to make fire during the rainy season on hilltops. Strong winds also hampered lighting of fire. Sometimes the receiver could wrongly interpret the message signalled. The message was also never recorded or stored for future reference. messages could not be transmitted without being revealed to people. br br Drum beats Many communities used drum beats as means of communication. People made special drums for communicating. The drums were made in such a way that they produced different sounds. Messages were conveyed through the sounds. The Buganda people used drums for communicating. The Ibos of Nigeria used talking drums to communicate matters concerning deaths and festivals. Sounds from drums were heard by people who were several kilometres away. br br This method was advantageous because messages were sent quickly. Sending the messages was not tiresome. People knew the meaning of the sounds produced by the drums so communication was easy. br br The method however had some disadvantages. The drums could not be heard by people who were separated by hills because of echoes. Sometimes people could interpret the sounds wrongly. br br Drumbeats required specialists to send accurate sounds for accurate br br interpretations. Deaf people could not communicate using the method. Messengers Messengers were people who were sent to deliver messages by word of mouth. They travelled on foot for some distances before they conveyed the messages to other messengers who also conveyed the messages to others. This continued until the message reached the recipient. These organised groups of messengers were known as runners. The messengers relayed the information and sometimes brought the feedback. They made people of a community to keep in touch with one another and to be aware of what was happening. Messengers informed rulers of the approaching enemies. br br The disadvantages of this method were as follows: br br The messengers sometimes gave wrong information in case they forgot the message. Sometimes the message could be distorted. Messengers were at times attacked by wild animals and killed. This resulted to the failure to deliver messages. br br Sometimes messengers delayed the information in cases of sickness or an accident. Messengers delivered limited ranges of messages because of the problems of memory. The information relayed could not be easily kept . br br The relay method was tiresome because one had to run for considerable br br distances. Horn blowing Horn blowing was a method which was widely used among the African communities to send important messages. Sometimes horn blowing was used to call people for urgent meetings. It gathered warriors together in times of war. Special horns were blown to call hunters together especially among the Ameru people of Kenya. br br Horns were also blown to alert people about important ceremonies such as circumcision among the Chuka people who are part of the Meru communities. Use of this method was advantageous in the sense that horn blowing could be used successfully at any time of both day and night except when it was raining heavily accompanied by thunderstorms because people could not hear. br br Horns relayed specific messages and could be used in all seasons. They spread messages very fast without delay. Horns were obtained from domesticated animals such as cows and goats and from wild animals such as antelopes and gazelles. br br The disadvantage of this method is that people who were specialised in blowing horns to produce meaningful sounds were required. Sometimes the messages could be wrongly interpreted if the horns were not accurately blown. br br People who were deaf could not get the message. People could not use the method to communicate with others if they were separated from them by mountain ranges and hills. This is because the hills acted as a barrier and reflected the sound back. Before the introduction of papers, the Egyptians used several sheets of papyrus to make a long sheet, which was known as a Scroll. They wrote messages on the scrolls. Part of the Old Testament Bible was written on scroll. br br Stones were also shaped and messages written on them. These were called stone tablets. The Ten Commandments in the Bible were at first written on stone tablets. These stone tablets are sometimes called clay tablets. Writing was done on wet clay which later dried and left permanent marks. In Mesopotamia this type of writing was called cuneiform. Developments in modern means of communication br br The modern means of communication are Telephones, Televisions, Radios, Telegraphs, Electronic mails, Facsimile transreceivers, Telex, Pager, Internet as well as the print media which includes newspapers, magazines, journals and periodicals. All these send messages over long distances. They also keep people informed of what is happening and enable them to keep in touch with one another. br br Telephone The first telephone was invented in 1875 by Alexander Graham Bell. It enabled speech to be transmitted along wire. The following year it became possible to send the first telephone messages after Thomas Edison made improvements on the initial model. br br At one end speech sound was converted into electric vibrations while at the other end the vibrations were converted into original speech. The telephone provides a very quick means of communication that enables the caller to get immediate feedback. Today, the telephone is competing stiffly with mobile phones. The Cellphone Cellphones are the so called mobile phones. They are manufactured by a number of companies and they use radio waves for transmitting messages. br br Mobile phone service providers in Kenya such as Safaricom and Kencell companies have established transmitter-receivers which detect radio signals sent by cellphones. The transmitter-receivers then send the signals back to the phones. Cellphones br br Cellphones vary in sizes and they are convenient as means of communication. They can be used anywhere so long as there is the network. br br The only disadvantages of cellphones is that they are easily stolen. Some phones have poor reception while others are very delicate and can get damaged easily. cellphones cannot be used in places where there are no sources of electrical power because their batteries require continuous charging. They are expensive to buy and also to maintain. br br Television The invention of the cathode ray tube in USA enabled the development of the modern television to take place. br br This enabled people to receive news through sound while seeing pictures on screen. The televisions also became educational and entertainment facilities. The first televisions showed black and white pictures. Later colour televisions were introduced. br br Today televisions are important because they entertain people, provide educative programmes and provide local and international news. However, the televisions are expensive to buy and require power from electricity or batteries which are expensive to buy and maintain. It is only the middle and upper class people who can afford to purchase and maintain televisions. br br Radio The first wireless messages were sent in form of electromagnetic signals through frequencies by Guglielimo Marconi. The wireless telegraphy became popular and more experiments were carried out which led to the transmission of speech by radio waves. br br During the First World War, more experiments were carried out. In 1920 the first radio broadcast was made in Britain by the Marconi Company. The same year the Westinghouse Company also begun sending out regular radio broadcasts in America. br br regular transmissions in 1922. The first BBC radio broadcast was transmitted in Kenya in 1928. Later during the Second World War English and Kiswahili programmes were introduced in Kenya. The radio transmitted local and foreign news. br br The British Broadcasting Company B.B.C began its Radio br br Today the radio has become a very useful means of communication. It sends messages to distant places in the shortest possible time. The radio transmits educative programmes in form of Radio broadcast to schools as well as local and foreign news. br br It also provides programmes to the general public, which give them awareness on HIV/AIDS, good morals, need for unity and how to become good law abiding citizens. br br The radio serves a large number of people at the same time and it is cheaper to use than many other means of communication. It plays a big role in promoting trade through advertisement. br br Lastly the radio entertains many people with songs and plays. This is possible because anybody can listen to the appropriate radio programme transmitted in a language he or she understands best. br br Telegraph Two scientists namely, Charles Wheatstone and William Coke invented the electric telegraph in 1837. The initial telephone wires were laid along railway lines in Britain inorder to alert railway officials about the movement of the locomotives. Later an American scientist called Samuel Morse improved the telegraph communication by inventing one which never used needles but used a code of dots and dashes. This new device came to be known as Morse Code. It was used to send telegrams to many parts of the world. In Kenya the telegraph wires were laid down during the construction of the Kenya-Uganda railway. br br Electronic Mail E-mail Electronic mail sometimes called E-mail is a device which allows computer users locally and internationally to exchange messages. The E-mail allows distribution of messages mails to and from computers in a network. Each user of the E-mail has a mailbox address to which messages are sent. Messages sent through e-mail arrive within a very short period irrespective of the distance the sender is. Messages sent merely take seconds to reach. br br The E-mail has some advantages when used as a means of br br communication: br br a It delivers messages very fast. br br b br br It is cheap because the cost of delivering messages far away is relatively low. br br c Volumes or several copies of messages can be sent at the same time. br br d The same message can be sent to many different people instantly. br br e br br The E-mail messages are secure and one does not need to own a computer to use the facility. All one is required to do is to open an account through an Internet Service Provider. Facsimile transreceivers Fax This is a machine which enables transmission of written information like drawings, diagrams and maps in their exact form. Messages to be transmitted are fed into the machine which is connected by a telegraphic or telephone wire to a similar machine elsewhere which produces the message in photographic detail. br br The sender makes first contact by telephone and then presses a button at the sending point. Both the sending machine and the receiving machine have drums with photographic papers. When the drums on both sides start to revolve, the facsimile copy is produced at the receiving end. The facsimile copy produced is exactly the same as the original copy at the sending end. It is transmitted in about half a minute. Fax br br This method of sending information is advantageous in that actual information is transmitted within a very short time. br br One disadvantage is that it is more expensive to send messages using facsimile transreceiver compared with some other means of communication such as e-mail and telephone over short distances. However, the method is cheaper when used to transmit messages over long distances. br br Telex Telex uses a teleprinter which prints messages and send them to the other places instantly. Telex machines are switched on the whole day. The telex subscribers have numbers which must be typed and the exchange operator advises when the connection is made so as to start typing the messages. br br When information is typed on a teleprinter, it is automatically typed and reproduced the same time by the machine at the receiving end in typescript. Today teleprinters are used all over the world to send urgent messages. br br Pager This is a device which enables the where about of a person to be located so that the person can be brought on telephone to hear a message and perhaps also reply to it immediately. It involves sending a signal that is received by a particular person who is alerted by the beeping of the pager. br br It is common where people do not sit in offices but move from one place to another within a specified area. Its disadvantages are that it only receives a signal and one cannot send back the reply using the machine. It operates within a specified area where the signals can reach. Internet This is a computer network made up of thousands of networks world-wide. Millions of world computers are connected to the Internet and the number is still increasing at alarming rate. br br There is no single individual, organisation or government which may claim ownership of the Internet. However, some organisations develop technical aspects of the Internet network and set standards for creating applications on it, but no single governing body is in control. br br The backbone through which the Internet traffic flows is owned by private companies. All computers on the Internet communicate with one another using the transmission control protocol. br br An Internet user has access to a wide variety of services which include shopping opportunities, real-time broadcasting, interactive collaboration, file transfer and electronic mail. br br Users of Internet can search and find information of interest aided by special software and data stored in ready usable formats. This is called information browsing. Individuals are able to gain access to a wide range of information topics. br br The Internet allows a person to use electronic mail and to transfer data in form of files across the Internet from one side to the other. The Internet also allows people to use other computers across the network. The use of computers is becoming popular in Kenya today. Many people and organisations are trying to connect their computers to the Internet so that they can interact with the rest of the world. br br The impact of modern means of telecommunication br br 1. br br The development of telecommunication has improved communication in the entire world by easing communication within countries, between various countries and between citizens and their governments as well as communication among individuals themselves. It has helped to improve travel. Pilots in ships and planes for instance communicate with others in control stations by use of telecommunication facilities. br br Trade has been promoted due to the development of telecommunication services which provide speed and efficiency of business transactions through advertisements. br br Radio and television provide mass entertainment to people all over the world. They have also kept people busy during their leisure time. br br Telecommunication technology has created employment opportunities for many people in the world. br br It has been used in modern warfare to communicate and to provide information to soldiers in war. 7. br br It has enabled astronomers to explore the outer space in order to conduct space research. Satellite communication is mainly for this purpose. br br 8. Many people have been able to learn a lot of new things as they watch the br br television and listen to radio programmes. br br 9. br br Telecommunication services have enabled people to learn the cultures of other people in the world. The television has played a great role in achieving this therefore promoting cultural interaction. br br 10. Means of communication such as the telephone enable direct delivery of br br messages to the recipients. br br 11. The message can be delivered very fast within seconds to a person very br br far away by use of telephone, telex, fax and e-mail. br br 12. The computers have enabled storage of information while the Internet has br br enabled access to other information in computers world wide. This is a great achievement in the development of telecommunication. Print media br br The print media includes communication through Newspapers, Magazines, Journals and Periodicals. br br Newspapers These are written messages containing local and foreign events. Before the introduction of regular newspapers, messages reached people through word of mouth and short letters posted to them or pinned on the notice boards for anyone to read. br br The Germans were the first to introduce the newspaper system following the invention of the printing press by Johann Gutenberg in 1440. By the close of the 18th century almost all the countries in Europe except Britain had regular newspapers. br br Britain however introduced the first newspaper entitled the Daily Courant in 1702. More and more publications followed in Britain after 1861 when printing of newspapers was legally allowed. Newspaper printing and circulation then spread to the rest of the world. br br Newspapers are printed on daily or weekly basis. They contain news, advertisements and various articles on many fields. In Kenya for example, we have daily newspapers such as the Daily Nation, The East African Standard, Kenya Times, The People, Taifa Leo, and weekly newspapers such as Sunday Nation, Sunday Standard and Taifa Weekly. br br Magazines Magazines resemble newspapers except the fact that they are not published frequently. They may be published after a week, after a fortnight or after a month or even three months. Magazines cover articles, stories and announcements. br br During the colonial rule Jomo Kenyatta was the editor of a magazine entitled, Muigwithania. Since independence, we have had magazines like the Kenya Gazette, Parents, Today, Weekly Review and Finance among others. br br Journals These are newspapers which deal with certain specialised subjects for instance they may deal with trade, medicine, education, science and specific topics in history. They are published at certain intervals. br br We may therefore have titles such as The Journal of African History, The Medicine Journal and The Scientific Journal but each of them covering a specific area in a specified field. br br Periodicals These are magazines or other publications published at regular intervals for instance on weekly or monthly basis. Advantages of print media br br 1. Written information through the print media is preserved for a long br br period without being distorted, forgotten and damaged. br br 2. Written of information through print media can be done any time because br br it is not effected by weather or any other physical aspects. br br 3. br br It is cheap to store and also transport written material such as newspapers and magazines that contain written information. br br 4. br br It is easy to use written information in the print media for future reference because one can easily review the message when necessary. br br 5. br br It is easy for the literate to get information and directives from the government by use of newspapers and magazines. 6. br br Newspapers and magazines are used to advertise business. This promotes business transactions. br br Ideas are able to spread fast. br br Printing and sale of newspapers and magazines has created employment opportunities. br br Print media provides foreign news therefore enabling people to be aware of what happens outside the country. br br 10. Print media is not discriminative because it serves all the people who can read since newspaper and magazines are written using several languages. For instance, some newspapers are written in English, others in Kiswahili and some in various local languages mother tongues br br Disadvantages of print media 1. They can be used to spread propaganda. br br 2. br br They can be used to tarnish the name of individuals for example the politicians. br br 3. br br They sometimes include information that is not suitable for young children. This can affect the morals of the youth. br br Review Questions 1 br br a b br br Define transport and communication. Explain why the camel is regarded as the best beast of burden for use in deserts. br br 2 br br a b c What is the impact of the development of modern water transport. br br Outline the impact of the invention of the wheel. Describe the main stages in the development of water transport. a b What was the impact of the development of rail transport. br br List the inventions, which helped to promote road transport. br br a b Explain the development of space exploration. Describe the advantages of the development of air transport. a b Identify the traditional forms of communications. Explain the importance of radio as a means of communication. br br 6 br br a b What is the print media? Discuss the impact of modern telecommunication. br br Students Activities 1 br br In groups discuss the problems of various means of transport and communication. Collect newspapers and magazines and then in groups classify the types of news reported. CHAPTER 3 br br Development of Industry br br Industrialisation is the process of producing goods from raw materials. Before the Industrial Revolution of the 19th century, wood, wind and water were the major sources of energy in the world. br br The sources of energy br br Wood Before the 19th century wood was an important source of energy. Wood was used for cooking, boiling water and warming houses in winter. In the early 19th century, it was also used for making charcoal that was used for smelting iron. Wood was also used to heat water to prepare the steam power for driving steam engines and steam ships. br br Wind Energy from wind was used for pumping water from mines and wells. It was used to separate grains from husks winnowing . Wind energy was used for driving ships and boats for instance the Arab dhows. Wind energy was also used to operate windmills used for grinding grains into flour. The balloons also used wind energy to fly. br br Water Water provided energy for operating spinning and weaving machines. It operated water mills for grinding flour. Water also provided energy for operating water pumps. It was heated to produce steam power. Uses of metals in Africa br br Bronze Bronze is a mixture alloy of copper and tin. Bronze was used to make weapons such as daggers, arrowheads, swords, axes and spears. It was used to make tools which included chisels and hoes. It was used to make ornaments and utensils. br br Bronze was also used to make containers, bronze sculptures and musical instruments such as flutes. Lastly, bronze was used for making stones for constructing pyramids in Egypt and also for decorating kings palaces. br br Gold Gold is an attractive metal that was used by rulers to decorate their palaces. It acted as a sign of wealth. The rulers of the Asante Kingdom in West Africa regarded gold as their sole property. Anyone who obtained a gold nugget had to hand it over to the king. br br Gold was used to make golden ornaments and sculptures. It was an important commodity of trade among the people of the Mwene Mtapa Kingdom and the city-state of Kilwa that minted gold coins. Gold was also used to make knife handles, utensils and containers. br br Copper Copper was found in many parts of Africa such as Egypt, Zaire and Zambia. Copper was used to make ornaments such as bangles. It was used to make tools such as needles and to mint copper coins that acted as a sign of wealth and medium of exchange. br br Copper utensils were also made from it. It was also used for decorating the kings palaces and for making brass and bronze alloys. Copper was used to make water pipes in Egypt. Lastly it was used for making weapons. Iron There were several early iron working centres in Africa such as Meroe, Nok, Taruga, Axum, Korotoro, Kwale and Kavirondo gulf. These early iron-working centres were famous for making a variety of iron tools such as hoes, knives and axes. In some places cattle bells and jingles for festivities were made. br br Iron was widely used for making high quality weapons of the time such br br as daggers, swords, spearheads, arrowheads and stabbing knives. br br Gold sculptures which represented people were made in West Africa in br br Nok and Taruga iron working sites. The Bantu are associated with the spread of iron working technology in Africa. br br The spread of iron working technology had the following impact: br br a More land was cultivated due to the introduction of better iron tools such br br as hoes and axes which cleared forests. Trade increased especially between the blacksmiths and the cultivators. b br br c br br It encouraged migrations because the iron weapons made the migrating communities to have confidence of conquering others and settling in their land since security was guaranteed. d br br The iron weapons made some communities to expand through conquest. This led to the growth of strong states such as Nubia, Mwene Mtapa, Buganda, Axum and Ancient Ghana. br br e br br The iron making in Africa encouraged wars because people acquired superior iron weapons which gave them courage to advance and conquer others. br br f br br Iron working encouraged job specialisation. Some people became blacksmiths others began making specific items such as knives, daggers, axes, hoes and spear heads. br br g br br There was rapid increase in food production because of increase in farmlands. br br h br br The early mining centres attracted more people. This encouraged urbanisation. br br i br br Iron weapons enables various communities to improve their systems of defence. br br j br br The weak communities were displaced by the stronger ones and sometimes assimilated during migration. br br k In some areas iron became a medium of exchange. Uses of various sources of energy during the Industrial Revolution in Europe br br Coal Coal was the main source of energy in the 19th century. It heated water to very high temperatures to produce steam which drove water pumps for removing water in the coal mines. Coal was used to produce steam for driving steamships and the locomotives. It was also used for heating and lighting houses. br br Today, coal is used for generating electricity and providing power for industries. br br Oil The use of petroleum became popular during the industrial revolution. At first oil was used to light lamps which were used in houses and streets. When the first internal combustion engine which used petrol was invented by Gottlieb Daimler, petroleum began being used for driving motor vehicles. Petroleum was also used for lubricating machines in factories and for generating thermal - electricity. Petroleum was used as medicine by the Chinese and the Indians. Today petroleum products are used in industries to make drugs, synthetics, plastics and fertilisers. br br The disadvantages of petroleum It is expensive to mine. Once extracted and exhausted it cannot be renewed. Lastly it pollutes the environment. br br Steam Steam was produced by heating water to very high temperatures. When steam was produced it was used as follows: br br a To drive heavy machines in factories. br br b To pump out water out of mines. br br c To drive steam driven vehicles. br br d To drive steam driven trains and locomotives. Steam locomotive br br e To drive steamships and steam boats. br br f To operate spinning and weaving machines. br br Electricity There are two forms of electricity, Hydro-electricity and Thermal electricity. Hydro-electricity is produced by converting the energy of moving water to electrical energy. Thermal electricity is produced by burning oil or coal to provide heat which is used to produce steam which turn steam turbines and hence generate electricity. The electrical power was used and is still used as follows: a To drive machines in industries and factories. br br b To light houses. br br c To drive electric trains and cars br br d To heat houses. br br e To supply power to radios, televisions, cinema and computers. br br f To supply power to refrigerators and electric cookers. br br g For welding. br br h To boil water. br br i To fence game parks. br br Uses of iron and steel The smelting of iron started very early when communities started separating it from rock. In the 18th and 19th centuries new iron smelting techniques were discovered. This came about because iron was very much in demand during the Industrial Revolution especially in the transport sector where it was used for making ships, trains, rails and bridges. Iron was also used to make textile machines, water pipes and ploughs. br br In the mid 19th century, Henry Bessemer discovered the method of converting iron into steel. There after, steel replaced iron in the making of many equipment required in the transport industry. For instance rail bars, trains, ships and bridges were made by use of steel because it is stronger than iron. Later steel was used for reinforcing concrete during construction of permanent buildings. Steel producing plant br br Today steel has a wide range of uses for instance it is used in the motor vehicle industries, ship building industries, in the industries for making trains and also in the industries which make building materials such as iron sheets, roofing bars, nuts and bolts. Steel is therefore widely used to make many kinds of tools and machinery. br br Industrialisation in Britain Britain was the first European nation to industrialise. During the first half of the 19th century, it was the leading industrialised nation in the world. It manufactured textiles and a variety of items made of iron. br br Britain had rich coal mines which provided enough coal for industrial power. The surplus was exported. This made Britain to be the leading trading nation during the first half of the 19th century. br br The other European countries and USA borrowed the industrial technology from Britain. By 1870s Britain ceased to be the worlds leading industrialised nation. br br The last half of the 19th century was associated with many scientific inventions and discoveries which promoted industrialisation not only in Britain but also in other nations like USA, France and Germany. Britain became the first nation to industrialise because of the following factors which contributed to the development of industries: Britain had good transport and communication network. br br It had enough capital to invest in industry. br br There was sufficient raw materials in Britain in form of coal, iron and cotton for use in the industries. br br Britain enjoyed a long period of peace and political stability. br br The British army was strong and superior. It defended the waters of Britain effectively from competitions by rival nations from sea pirates. br br Britain had well advanced insurance and banking systems. br br Trade barrier such as tariffs which could hinder trade never existed in Britain by then because it had adopted the policy of free trade. 8. br br Britain had enterprising merchants who manned encouraged industrial growth and development. br br trade and also br br It had well developed cottage industries which laid the basis of the industrial take off. br br 10. There was adequate skilled and unskilled labour. br br 11. The acquisition of colonies overseas provided Britain with more raw br br materials for the industries. br br 12. The rapid population growth in Britain expanded the internal market for the manufactured goods while the acquisition of colonies overseas provided external markets. br br 13. The technological advancement of the people in Britain brought about br br new inventions which stimulated industrialisation. br br 14. There was availability of energy from coal. br br 15. The Agrarian Revolution had provided industrial workers with sufficient br br food. br br The effects of the industrialisation in Britain in the 19th century br br The industrialisation of Britain in the 19th century stimulated the rural- urban migration of the landless who went to seek for employment in the emerging industrial centres. This led to expansion of industrial centres and hence urbanisation. br br a br br b br br Transport and communication facilities such as roads, railways, and telephones were developed to serve the industrial centres by facilitating trade and transportation of raw materials to the factories and manufacture of goods to the market. c br br There was the expansion of the banking industry and insurance. These provided services to both industrial owners and workers. They also created new employment opportunities. br br d br br The industrialisation in Britain led to enormous expansion of local and international trade. The manufactured goods were sold to the British citizens and the surplus was sold to the rest of Europe and to the British colonies overseas. The British colonies provided raw materials such as palm oil, iron, copper and cotton in return. br br e br br Colonialism was encouraged as a means of acquiring sources of raw materials for the British industries. Britain was able to acquire colonies such as India, Egypt, Ghana and Nigeria. br br f br br The standards of living of many Britons was raised due to income obtained from the industries. The rise of the standards of living of the middle class in particular resulted to the class struggle between the rich and the poor in Britain therefore sharpening the social stratification. br br g br br The industrialisation in Britain led to development of agricultural production in Britain as well as in USA and other British colonies. The industrial workers in Britain required food. The machines required lubricating oil which was obtained from the palm oil grown along the West African coast. Cotton was obtained from America and used in the British textile industries to manufacture cotton cloth. br br h br br The industrialisation in Britain encouraged establishment of many kinds of machines. These industrial machines produced fumes which polluted the environment. There was also excessive noise which made some people deaf. br br i br br Poor living conditions of factory workers encouraged emergence of poor housing or slums. In these slums there was overcrowding of houses which were not properly ventilated. The poor living conditions were as a result of the low wages of the factory workers. j br br The industrialisation in Britain also encouraged exploitation of labour. Children and women laboured for long hours in industries before manual labour was replaced by use of machines. br br k br br in Britain caused unemployment especially after Industrialisation machines were introduced which could do the work formerly done by labourers. The jobless still remained living in slums but they turned to new careers which were immoral such as robbery and prostitution as a means of their survival. br br l br br The overcrowding of people in towns and poor sanitary facilities resulted to outbreaks of diseases such as dysentery, cholera and tuberculosis. Industrialisation in continental Europe br br It is necessary to note that industrialisation technology spread to other countries of Europe from Britain in the second half of the 19th century. Countries such as Germany, France and Belgium which had abundant deposits of coal, iron and steel as well as the supply of both skilled and unskilled labour became industrialised next. br br To achieve this, industrial research was carried out. The discovery of the method of converting iron into steel by Henry Bessemer revolutionised the industrial sector. Electricity and petroleum were also discovered and they became important sources of energy for the industries. br br The rapid industrialisation of continental Europe was characterised by the following: 1 Improved transport and communication to ease transportation of raw br br materials and marketing of ready manufactured goods. br br 2 Increased exploitation of coal and iron ore. 3 Improvements in agriculture in order to produce enough food for urban dwellers and industrial workers and also to provide some industrial raw materials. br br 4 Mass production of manufactured goods as well as the coming up of many br br new inventions as a result of increased industrial research. br br Problems the industrial workers experienced br br a Workers were paid very low wages making them to experience poor br br living conditions. b Workers were exposed to very dangerous machines, noise and chemicals br br which resulted to injuries, suffocation, accidents and deaths. br br c br br Diseases attacked workers because their living conditions were very poor. Such diseases were typhoid, cholera, dysentery and tuberculosis. br br d Women and children toiled in the factories and they were also subjected br br to long working hours which denied them leisure and rest. br br e br br The environment they worked in was polluted due to improper disposal of industrial waste. br br f Workers lived in overcrowded houses where there was inadequate br br lighting conditions and poor ventilation. Effects of the industrial revolution in Europe br br 1. br br The Industrial Revolution in Europe stimulated rural urban migration of the landless who wanted to look for jobs in the expanding urban centres. br br 2. br br There was scramble for colonies as a means of acquiring sources of raw materials for the industries in Europe and looking for market for the surplus manufactured goods as well as suitable areas for investing their surplus capital. br br 3. br br There was increased urbanisation because employment opportunities towns attracted attracted many people. Trade businessmen who opened other commercial activities that also attracted many people. The development of transport and communication systems and the use of machines in the cottage industry also made people to move to urban centres and hence promoting urbanisation. br br that developed in br br 4. br br The standards of living of the people in Europe were raised due to income from the industries. br br 5. br br It stimulated expansion of factories instead of cottage industries. Banking and insurance were established. br br 6. br br Industrial Revolution in Europe created employment opportunities in the industrial sector in form of mechanics, plant operators, engineers and managers. br br 7. br br The Industrial Revolution led to the rise of trade unionism in the European countries such as Britain, France and Germany. 8. There was replacement of human labour with the use of machines. br br 9. br br The Industrial Revolution in Europe led to production of goods in large quantities. These goods were exported in bulk. br br 10. br br It encouraged the development of transport and communication systems such as railways and roads. 11. The industries led to pollution of the environment, overcrowding of br br people and crime. br br 12. The Industrial Revolution in Europe promoted the development of br br agriculture because the industrial workers needed food. br br 13. The Industrial Revolution in Europe caused unemployment in the countries where the use of machines had replaced manual labour. br br 14. The Industrial Revolution in Europe stimulated local and international br br trade. br br 15. The Industrial Revolution finally led to exploitation of labour. Children br br worked in factories for long hours. Emergence of the world industrial powers br br The USA The USA has led in industrialisation for a long period. Before it became industrialised the Americans were largely agricultural people. The Britons who migrated from Britain to America are the one who stimulated industrialisation in the USA. br br Many factors however contributed to the success of the industrialisation in the USA. These factors are as follows: br br 1. br br The USA had abundant natural resources such as iron ore and coal as well as forestry resources. br br 2. br br There was adequate skilled and unskilled labour due to the high population in USA. Slaves also provided labour in the American farms leading to production of raw materials for use in the American industries. br br 3. br br The USA had adequate energy resources such as coal and iron ore. Later uranium, petroleum, electricity and natural gas were introduced. br br 4. br br There was the development of transport and communication in form of railways, roads, airways, telegraph, radio, telephones, telegrams and televisions. The technological advancement in North America in the 19th and 20th centuries contributed to the industrial advancement in the USA because a lot of discoveries and inventions on industry were made. br br 6. br br Banks and insurance were introduced in the USA. They contributed a lot to the industrial sector. br br The government of the USA encouraged foreign investors from Germany and Japan to come and invest in industry. br br The USA had adequate capital obtained locally as a result of the Agrarian Revolution as well as from the foreigners who had invested there. br br The USA enjoyed a long period of political stability. Even in the 20th century the USA joined the two world wars almost the time they were ending. Also there were few strikes and industrial disputes. br br 10. The British citizens who migrated to the USA introduced plantation agriculture that provided the initial industries with the agricultural raw materials. This laid the basis for heavy industries that used iron and steel. br br In the 20th century the USA embarked on intensive research aimed at promoting industry. The institutions of learning emphasised on Science and scientific research. The universities in particular became devoted to industrial development. br br 11. br br 12. The government policies favoured the growing industries. The USA government for example encouraged the home market by discouraging the imposition of tariffs on locally manufactured commodities. br br 13. The USA had a strong agricultural base that contributed to her industrial take off. This is because the industrial labour force could get enough food supply and raw materials for the processing industries based on agricultural product. The effects of industrialisation on the USA a br br The peoples standards of living has been improved. The USA government supports the unemployed US citizens. br br b br br The USA economy has been diversified. It now attains income from both agriculture and industry. c br br The USA has been able to boost her industrial technology by encouraging education based on science and research. br br d br br The USA has become the major world power after the break of the former USSR. br br e br br The USA has been able to use its industrial product and technology to mechanise agriculture in order to increase the agricultural yields. This has enabled the USA to provide the growing population with sufficient food. br br f br br The industrial development in the USA has enabled it to take part in space exploration. The first human being to land on the moon, Neil Armstrong, was from the USA. br br g br br The USA has been able to earn foreign currency which has enabled it to acquire abundant foreign reserve. This has also enabled the USA to be one of the worlds leading donor states. For example the USA provided financial and technical aid to Brazil and Egypt which enabled them to industrialise. br br h br br The US businessmen have been able to invest locally because of the wealth obtained from the industrial sector. br br i br br Industrialisation has enabled the USA to develop its military might. This military might enabled US to oust Saddam Hussein of Iraq from power. br br j Industrialisation has encouraged urbanisation. br br k Industrialisation has encouraged pollution of the environment. br br l Industrialisation created job opportunities for the Americans. Germany Germany began being industrialised in the 19th century. By 1900 it was second to USA in industrialisation. br br Several factors facilitated the industrial development in Germany. These were as follows: br br 1. br br The creation of German customs union Zollverein unified the Germans. This was followed by rapid economic development. Germany had large amounts of raw materials such as iron ore and coal. Iron ore was obtained from Alsace-Lorraine while coal was obtained from Ruhr and Saar mines. br br 3. br br The USA through the Marshall plan provided Germany with financial aid for reconstruction after the Second World War. br br The German population was increased rapidly. This growing population provided skilled and unskilled labour. br br Germany had well-developed transport and communication facilities in form of railways, roads and canals. br br The German government supported industrialisation by encouraging ambitious Germans to invest locally in industry and also through protection of tariffs and subsidies. br br The industrial base that existed before the Second World War in Germany was revoked even after the war. br br Germany enjoyed political stability after the Second World War. This encouraged industrial development. br br There was sufficient power for the German industries from coal. br br 10. The manufactured goods from Germany had markets in South America br br and Far East. br br 11. The development of education based on science and technology in Germany enabled it to produce scientists and very skilled manpower. br br 12. The second unification of East and West Germany widened the scope of br br industrial output. br br 13. There were improved agricultural techniques in Germany that resulted to the increased yields that provided agricultural raw materials for the processing industries. The impact of industrialisation of Germany a br br Industrialisation improved the standards of living of the German society. Their purchasing power was raised. br br b br br Germany was able to develop a network of transport and communication to be able to transport raw materials and manufactured goods. c br br Industrialisation enabled Germany to become a strong power before the First World War. This made Germany to join other European nations to look for colonies overseas. br br d br br Industrialisation diversified the economy of Germany because the country was able to manufacture vehicles, machinery, chemicals, electronics and textiles that were exported in the local and international markets. br br e br br It created employment opportunities for the people in West Germany and the neighbouring states such as Yugoslavia, Turkey and Italy. br br f br br Industrialisation in Germany encouraged the growth of urban centres such as Berlin and Warsaw. br br g br br Germanys foreign reserve was boosted due to sale of her manufactured goods for instance machinery of all kinds. br br h Industrialisation boosted local and international trade. br br i Industrialisation of Germany contributed in reducing inflation. br br j br br Industrialisation in Germany also boosted foreign reserve due to sale of the manufactured goods. br br Japan Industrialisation of Japan began in the second half of the 19th century after the USA made treaties with Japan aimed at creating trade partnership. The introduction of compulsory primary and secondary education and the establishment of universities and other colleges followed this. Many students were sponsored abroad where they acquired education. br br Japan was engaged in wars with China and Russia between 1894 and 1905. It also fought on one side with Britain, France and Russia during the First World War against Germany and her allies. br br During the Second World War, Japan attacked the American naval base at Pearl Harbour in the Hawaiian Islands. The USA responded by bombing the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945. This act affected the economy of Japan but there was economic recovery and continued industrialisation in the later years. Japan had enough capital for carrying out research and for industrial development. Japan also benefited from the American aid obtained after the Second World War. br br 2. br br There was ready internal and external market for the Japanese manufactured goods. br br Japan enjoyed a long term of political stability mainly after the Second World War. This peaceful atmosphere encouraged industrial progress. br br Japan has a network of transport and communication for instance railways and roads. br br The Japanese industrial base which existed before the first world war was improved and made better after the second world war. br br Power was available from coal, uranium and hydro-electric power for industrial use. br br Skilled and unskilled labour was readily available in Japan. br br Japan had abundant raw material for instance, iron ore and coal. br br Japanese are hardworking people. This promoted industrial development. br br 10. br br Japanese goods are of very high quality and at the same time very cheap. This encouraged internal and external market. br br 11. br br Japan natural harbours encouraged trade through export and import of goods. br br 12. br br Japan has been politically neutral since the Second World War. It trades with any nation. br br 13. br br Japanese introduced a new form of taxation aimed at raising funds for promoting industrialisation. 14. The Japanese government encouraged home market and imposed tariffs on foreign goods to discourage them from competing with goods produced in other countries. br br 15. br br Japan encouraged foreign investors to come and invest in the country. Japan also invested in other countries. The effects of industrialisation in Japan br br 1. Industrialisation has led to improvement of the standards of living of Japan br br People. br br 2. The Japan foreign reserve has been boosted due to sale of Japanese br br manufactured goods. br br 3. Japan has been recognised as one of the developed industrialised country of br br the world. br br 4. Japan has diversified her economy from a predominantly agricultural br br country to a country which also obtains wealth from Industry. br br 5. Japan has promoted trade by using locally manufactured ships to carry br br imported raw materials and goods for export. br br 6. Job opportunities have been created in the industrial sector. br br 7. br br Industrialisation has encouraged development of better and sufficient means of transport and communications. br br 8. Many people prefer Japanese manufactured goods mainly because they are br br of high quality and at the same time cheap. Industrialisation in the third world br br Brazil Industrialisation in Brazil began in the last quarter of the 19th century. The countrys industrial process later developed tremendously because of the following factors. br br 1. Large deposits of minerals such as iron ore, gold, bauxite and manganese were available for industrial use. Other raw materials in form of wood for lumbering and agricultural products were available for the Brazilian industries. br br 2. The Brazilian government provided capital for developing industries. br br 3. The U.S.A. also provided technical and financial aid to Brazil, such aid was br br used to develop heavy industries like the Volta and Rendonda steel works. 4. Brazil had cottage industries that laid the basis of its modern industries. br br 5. There was development of transport and communication in Brazil. This was through the construction of roads and railways for transporting raw materials to the industries. br br 6. Brazil encouraged foreign investors who established companies from br br Europe and the U.S.A. br br 7. The Brazilian government introduced five year development plans to br br promote industrial development. br br 8. The first and the second world wars influenced the industrial take off in Brazil by encouraging mass production of locally manufactured goods, which were sold cheaply. br br 9. Brazilian goods were in demand in Britain, which provided a ready market. br br 10. The government nationalised industries to enable them to be supervised br br properly. It also encouraged industrialisation. br br 11. Coal, petroleum and hydro- electric power were available for providing br br energy in the industries. br br 12. There was internal market of the goods from the industries. For example the Brazilians purchase pharmaceuticals transport materials and spare parts, farm tools and machinery and textiles. br br Obstacles to the industrialisation of Brazil Industrialisation of Brazil has not been smooth A number of factors have undermined Brazilian effort to industrialise. These are: br br 1. A large percentage of Brazilian citizens are poor and they can not establish industries or provide a high purchasing power for the industrial goods. br br 2. Still there is inadequate transport and communication facilities even after br br the governments efforts to improve transport and communication. 5. Constant inflation in Brazil makes goods to be expensive. br br 6. Brazil has accumulated many foreign debts. This hinders steady progress of br br the country. br br 7. The available resources in the Amazon forest are under exploited due to the br br sparse population there. These are resources that can be used in industries. br br Impact of the industrial growth in Brazil br br 1. The Brazilian industrial sector has boosted her foreign reserve. br br 2. At least there is an improvement in the living standards of the local people in Brazil who survive from the spill of industrial gains. This has succeeded due to reduction of the inflation that has to the rise of the purchasing power of the Brazilians. br br 3. Exports have been increased due to increase in manufactured goods. br br 4. Brazil has emerged as one of the most industrialised third world countries. br br 5. br br Industrialisation of Brazil has encouraged modernisation of port facilities in order to provide an outlet of goods being exported. br br 6. br br It has accelerated the development of transport and communication in Brazil. br br 7. Employment opportunities have been created especially in the heavy and br br light industries. br br 8. br br Industrial growth has encouraged growth and expansion of urban centres especially those along the coastal belt such as Sao Paulo, Rio de Janeiro and Recife. South Africa South Africa first started as an agricultural country but later there was the discovery of gold and diamonds that promoted the industrialisation of the country. br br The industries which developed in South Africa, included textile industries, iron and steel industries, chemical industries, cement industries and locomotive industries among others. br br 54 The factors which contributed to the industrialisation of South Africa: 1. br br Availability of minerals such as coal, gold, diamonds, silver and iron ore some of which provided raw materials for the industries. br br 2. br br Availability of capital from the sale of some minerals such as gold and diamonds. br br 3. br br Availability of power for industries in form of coal and hydro-electric power. br br 4. br br Availability of network of transport and communication in form of railways, roads, air transport and telephones. br br 5. Encouragement of foreign investors who invested in the mining industry. br br 6. br br Availability of skilled labour and unskilled labour obtained from the neighbouring states such as Malawi and Mozambique. br br 7. br br Existence of local and international market especially after South African majority attained independence in 1994. br br 8. br br There has been a considerable period of political stability after the majority Africans took over the government after independence was granted to them in 1994. br br 9. br br The manufactured goods from South Africa are of high quality. These enable them to compete favourably with imported ones. br br 10. The government of South Africa supported industrialisation by imposing br br tariffs on imported goods. Factors that hindered industrialisation in South Africa br br a Majority of Africans were impoverished by the colonial regime and for br br this reason their purchasing power is low. br br b br br The international community banned South Africa from trading with countries that were United Nations UN members. Therefore, there was no external market for South African manufactured goods. br br c br br There was no political stability during colonial rule because Africans were always fighting against apartheid. This affected industrial growth and also discouraged investment. d br br South African goods have faced stiff competition from those from the developed nations like Japan and China. br br e br br The high crime rate in the South African cities discouraged those who wanted to invest in industry. br br India India was colonised by Britain and it supplied the colonial master with cotton. It attained independence in 1947 and since then it engaged itself in industrial development. br br A number of factors enabled India to industrialise. These are: br br 1. India had raw materials such as cotton and iron ore for use in industries. br br 2. br br India established a well developed infrastructure for instance its transport and communication facilities. br br 3. br br The cottage industries existed in India. These industries formed a basis for industrial growth. br br 4. br br There was adequate power from coal, natural gas and oil. Currently hydroelectricity and uranium are in use. br br 5. br br Indias high population provided skilled and unskilled labours. The government of India trained people to acquire technical skills and industrial technology. br br 6. br br The high population provided internal and external market for the manufactured goods. br br 7. br br India embarked on a series of five-year economic plans aimed at developing industry. The first of these plans was the 1950 - 1955 development plan. Impact of Industrialisation of India br br a br br Indias foreign exchange earnings have been increased due to sale of cheap manufactured goods. br br b br br There is a lot of improvement in the living standards of some sections of the Indian community. Even the purchasing power of the people has risen. br br c br br India has boosted the agricultural sector through manufacturing of farm tools and machinery. br br d br br Indias industrial development has created employment opportunities for the citizens. e br br Local and international trade has been encouraged through sale of the manufactured goods. br br f br br It has encouraged new urbanisation and expansion of the existing urban centres such as Bombay, Karachi and New Delhi. br br g br br Indias revenue has been increased and its economy diversified as a result of establishment of light and heavy industries as well as development of agriculture. br br h India has become technologically advanced and a nuclear power. br br i India is now one of the most industrialised third world nations. br br j br br India has used the income from industry to develop transport and communication network. br br k br br Today India is able to provide public services such as education and health care to its citizens. br br l Modern industrialisation in India has also boosted the cottage industries that include making of garments, plastics, shoes, hosiery and some household items. Scientific Revolution br br Scientific revolution refers to the period when man made many inventions and discoveries as a result of his improvement in knowledge and the interest to find out new thing about the universe. The scientific inventions began before the birth of Christ. A number of scientific discoveries and inventions were made in agriculture, industry and medicine. These discoveries and inventions improved mans conditions of living after he indetified various ways of solving his problems. br br The early civilizations for example in Greece, India, Iraq, Egypt and China influenced the development of early science. The Greeks and the Egyptians were great mathematicians. The Greek mathematician called Pythagoras came up with the right-angled triangle. The Egyptians used mathematical skills to construct pyramids. They also came up with Geometry and used it in farms. br br The Chinese also contributed to scientific knowledge in that they discovered the way of making silk cloth, gunpowder and paper. br br The Indians introduced Zero in mathematics and also use of the decimal points. br br The Iraq people were in ancient times called the Sumerians or the Mesopotamians. Their scientific inventions were mainly in the fields of medicine, architecture, mathematics and astronomy. During Renaissance, scientific knowledge spread to many countries especially in Europe. This was followed by Agrarian Revolution and Industrial Revolution. Individual scientists contributed a lot to the scientific inventions as from the 15th century. Some of these notable scientists were: 1. br br Nicolas Copernicus He learnt that the earth went round the sun within a period of one year. He also discovered that the earth rotated on its own axis. br br 2. br br Galileo Galilei He agreed with the theory of Copernicus that the earth and the remaining planets moved round the sun in one year after using a telescope to observe the universe. br br 3. br br Sir Isaac Newton He discovered the force of gravity and the spectrum. 4. br br Antoine Lavoisier He found that air is composed of hydrogen and oxygen elements. br br John Dalton He came up with the Atomic Theory and also discovered colour blindness. br br 6. Michael Faraday br br He discovered electricity. This enabled him to make a dynamo which gave out electricity. br br 7. br br Thomas Edison He came up with electric lamp. br br 8. br br Charles Darwin He formulated the evolution theory which stated that all living things developed from simple life forms to complex ones over millions of years. br br 9. br br Edward Jenner He came up with the vaccine for small pox br br 10. Louis Pastour br br He found that diseases and decay were caused by microbes. He introduced pasteurisation as a method of conserving liquid foods. br br 11. Alexander Graham Bell br br He invented the telephone. br br 12. George Stephenson br br He invented the steam locomotive. br br 13. The Wright Brothers Wilber and Oville Wright br br They invented the first aeroplane. 4. br br Justus Von Liebig He came up with the modern fertiliser industry. In his experiments, he found that plants obtain nitrogen phosphorus and salt from the soil. br br Cyrus Mc Comic He invented the reaper which could be used for harvesting. br br Sir John Bennet Lawes He began a super phosphate factory for making fertiliser. br br Impact of scientific inventions on agriculture br br a br br Scientific invention promoted agriculture leading to rapid increase in food production. Fertilisers added nutrients to the soils while farm machinery helped in ploughing, planting, harvesting and threshing. br br b br br Scientific inventions improved farming techniques and livestock rearing. For instance cross-breeding brought about quality livestock breeds, while the invention of the seed drill encouraged farmers to plant in rows. br br c br br Before the invention of agricultural machines such as tractors, combined harvesters and seed drills, human labour was very popular in farms. After the machines were introduced, manual labour was reduced. This resulted to unemployment of many people in the agricultural sector. br br d br br It became easy to preserve foods and even transport them over long distances and over a long period of time because of the invention of refrigerators and the canning process. This led to increase in cultivation. e br br The introduction of pesticides reduced crop destruction by pests while the development of fungicides reduced crop diseases. Food production therefore increased as a result of the reduction of crop diseases and pests. br br f br br The invention of farm machinery led to increase in cultivated land. This was followed by the establishment of large estates leading to plantation farming. g br br The desire to make more inventions and to improve what had already been established for instance the need to come up with better breeds of livestock and to come up with more efficient farm tools and machinery led to establishment of scientific research centres and schools which emphasised on science. br br h br br There was diversification of agriculture as well as diversification of economy. This was important because people stopped depending on a single source of livelihood. br br i br br Increase in food production led to increase in population growth. This is because the fertility rate rose as people obtained sufficient and nutritious food which also reduced the death rate. br br j br br The invention of farm machinery which replaced manual labour resulted to rural urban migration of the unemployed. There were therefore large populations in towns which required food. For this more land had to be cultivated to feed the town folk. This therefore indirectly promoted the development of agriculture. br br k br br Continuous application of fertilisers in farms have affected soils therefore leading to reduction in yields. br br l br br Indigenous crops and livestock have been replaced by exotic breeds which are mainly hybrids. br br m br br Inhaling of various chemicals and pesticides cause respiratory diseases e.g whooping cough and other diseases like tuberculosis and cancer. Important discoveries in industry br br a The textile industry had so many discoveries. These were: br br i br br James Hargreaves He invented the spinning jenny which prepared large amount of cotton threads. br br ii br br Edmund Cartright He invented the power loom which facilitated weaving. br br iii Samuel Crompton br br 62 He invented the spinning mule. This machine produced high quality threads. br br iv br br John Key He invented the flying shuttle. br br v br br Thomas Bell He made a cylindrical calico printing machine. br br vi Eli Whitney br br He invented the cotton gin which removed seeds from cotton fibre. br br b br br Others who made inventions on industry were: i Michael Faraday br br He discovered electricity and he made a dynamo for generating electricity. br br ii br br Benjamin Franklin He proved that lightning was a form of electricity. br br iii Otto Hahn and Stressman br br They discovered nuclear energy. br br iv George Stephenson br br He made the locomotive which was called The Rocket. br br v br br James Watt He invented the steam engine Impact of scientific inventions on industry br br 1. br br As a result of people getting exposed to the industrial goods, their living standards have improved. br br 2. br br Jobs have been created in industries. The textile industries for example employ a large number of people. br br 3. br br There is diversification of economy as a result of introduction of industries. This has stopped man from depending on agriculture only. New sources of energy were introduced as a result of scientific research. These were like solar energy, atomic and nuclear energy, and electric power. br br 5. br br Space exploration has been carried out due to invention of rockets, satellites, and digital cameras. br br Dangerous weapons such as atomic and nuclear weapons have been invented. This has increased wars in the world. br br Inventions of engines, motorcars, supersonic planes and locomotives encouraged manufacture of spare parts and vehicles and also refining of oil to get fuel for vehicles. Transport has therefore been revolutionised through scientific inventions. br br Scientific inventions had reduced the labour burden. Machines do most of the work especially in developed countries. br br The invention of computers has helped workers to perform their duties efficiently and accurately for example in the banking sector where computers are used to process information and many other types of data. br br 10. Trade has been encouraged due to the growing demand of the br br manufactured goods. br br 11. The industries cause pollution in cities. Industrial fumes, noise and smell br br affect people. Some are affected by diseases like tuberculosis. br br 12. Communication network has been improved through the use of Email and br br Internet. br br 13. Some countries of the world have become highly industrialized. This has given them the opportunity of becoming world powers. They use the products of their industries to overpower others. Important scientific inventions and discoveries in medicine br br 1. Joseph Lister br br He discovered he use of carbonic acid as an antiseptic to sterilise surgical apparatus. Then he developed an antiseptic spray for making the air clean during operations. He also discovered the use of carbonic acid for destroying microbes around the wound after an operation. 2. William Marton br br He discovered the use of chloroform sometimes refered to as carbonic acid during surgery. br br 3. br br Edward Jenner He invented the first vaccine for controlling smallpox. br br 4. br br Lous Pasteur He discovered that certain bacteria caused certain disease. He discovered that heat could kill bacteria. He therefore discovered that food could be preserved through the method he called pasteurisation. This is heating food to a certain temperature and then making it maintain the same temperature for a specific period of time before it is cooled quickly. He also came up with cures for anthrax and rabies. br br 5. br br Sir Ronald Ross He found out that the anopheles mosquitoes carried parasites that caused malaria. He also discovered that proper drainage systems could prevent the breeding of mosquitoes and therefore reduce malaria infections. br br 6. br br Rontgen He discovered the x-ray radiation which later enabled doctors to observe the internal organs of man and his bony framework.. br br 7. br br Alexander Flemming He discovered penicillin, which was an antibiotic capable for curing coughs, pneumonia, sore throat and wounds. br br 8. br br Dr Christian Bernard He introduced the method of transplanting the heart of a death person to a body of a living patient with heart problem. Impact of scientific inventions on medicine br br 1. br br There has been rapid increase in life expectancy of human beings. This has resulted to rapid increase in human population. br br 2. br br Drugs have been discovered which reduce pains therefore reducing human suffering. Others cure diseases completely. br br 3. Machinery for use in hospitals have been invented. These are used by br br doctors for locating and treating diseases. Industries for manufacturing drugs curatives have been established. This has created employment opportunities in the pharmaceutical industries. br br 5. br br Preventive measures have been applied such as vaccination which has led to eradication of many diseases. br br Excess use of drugs may affect the health of many people. This is because certain diseases become resistant to certain drugs. br br Factors influencing scientific inventions in Africa and other developing nations br br i Inadequate capital for the use in scientific research. br br ii br br Illiteracy of the people. Many people who are not educated cannot be able to apply scientific principles to come up with new findings. br br iii Over-depending on donor countries. This occurs because African br br countries are poor. br br iv Little emphasis in the teaching of science in school. This occurs because br br of shortages of science equipment for experimental work. br br v br br Failure for the governments to assist researchers. Many African countries cannot afford to fund researchers. Even those countries which may afford do not take research work as their first priority. br br vi Excessive dependence on items for instance engines, pharmaceuticals and other machinery reduce the importance of engaging on scientific research. br br vii Lack of initiative on the side of researchers. Therefore others are not br br encouraged to carry out research. Review Questions 1 br br a b Identify the early sources of energy. How was energy from wind used? br br a br br Give the uses of the following metals: i ii Explain the effects of the spread of iron smelting in Africa? br br Copper Iron br br b 3 What factors contributed to the industrialisation in Britain? br br 4. What were the social and economic effects of industrialisation in br br continental Europe? br br 5. br br a What is scientific revolution? b br br Discuss the impact of scientific inventions on: i ii Medicine br br Agriculture br br 6. a What are the main factors which contributed to the industrialisation br br of the developed countries? br br b What are the major obstacles to the industrialisation of the br br developing nations? br br Students Activities br br 1 br br Compare the type of industries found in the developed countries and those found in the third world developing countries. br br 2 br br In groups discuss various discoveries and inventions which have promoted Industry, Medicine and agriculture. Urbanisation br br Urbanisation is the process of peoples migration from rural areas to live in towns or cities. It can also imply the establishment of towns or cities. It can also be defined as the concentration of people in settlements usually referred to as urban centres. An urban centre according to the United Nations is a settlement with a population of 20,000 people and above. Early urbanisation in Africa br br Early urbanisation began in Africa before the birth of Christ. Early urban centres which declined such as Meroe and Aksum are suitable example of such towns. br br Several factors led to the establishment of the early urban centres before br br the establishment of the colonial rule. These are: br br 1. br br Due to development of trade, convergent centres emerged which became the meeting places for many people from different places. They later development into towns. Examples are Mombasa and Kilwa. br br 2. br br There was development of ports and harbours where ships anchored such as Cape Town and Malindi. 3. br br Some areas like Meroe where local industries were established attracted many people who settled there. These settlements later developed into towns. br br Areas which had reliable water for irrigation, industrial use and domestic use attracted people who established settlements which later developed into towns. br br Some administrative centres and palaces of rulers expanded to become towns after the subjects came to settle close to rulers for security reasons. br br Urban centres developed at major cross-roads and where several trade routes met. Examples are Tuat, Timbuktu and Sijilmasa. br br Notable religious centres became the meeting places for many people. They attracted people who settled nearby and thereafter towns developed. br br Development of early education centres such as Timbuktu, Gao and Cairo contributed to development of urbanisation in those centres. br br The development of Agriculture made people to settle permanently together because food was available. br br 10. Areas that were secure and were sheltered from possible attacks attracted people who concentrated there. These settlements later developed into towns. br br Cairo br br Modern Cairo is situated at the delta of River Nile where some earlier settlements had been established about 2000 years ago. Egypt was invaded by the Fatimids who established a walled town. By mid 14th century Egypt had grown into a big city with many mosques and palaces. It served as an early religious centre. br br The town had narrow streets, bazaars, shops and crowded living quarters. br br There was a market where people sold their produce. br br The Ottoman Turks took control of Egypt in 1517 and remained under their control until 1798 when Napoleon Bonaparte of France captured it from the Turks. Three years later in 1801 the French were driven out of Cairo and it was thereafter made the capital of Egypt by the then ruler, Mohammed Ali. During the reign of Ismaili, Egypt was first modernised. Later it expanded as more buildings reflecting the European style were constructed. Today it is the Meroe br br Meroe is an ancient city in Africa that emerged in an iron working site North of modern Khartoum. The inhabitants of Meroe developed the style of building in brick and plaster during the first century BC. They white-washed the outer walls of palaces and also decorated them with glowing mural-paintings. The inner walls were also painted and decorated with ornaments. br br Meroe started expanding when it was made the capital of Kush instead of the former capital, Napata because the people of Kush had learnt the knowledge of iron working from the Assyrians and they also traded with the Greeks by exporting ivory, slaves, animal skins, ostrich feathers, timber and gold which provided them with income to expand the town. br br The city of Meroe declined during the first century AD mainly due to trade rivalry from the growing kingdom of Axum in Ethiopia. When Meroe began becoming weak, the King of Axum known as Ezana attacked Meroe, burnt it and took everything of value. Ezana destroyed their stores of corn and cotton and the statues in their temples. This marked the decline of the great city of Meroe. Kilwa br br The origin of Kilwa is associated with the Persian immigrants who established settlements on the Indian Ocean coast. At the beginning of the 13th century Kilwa began expanding due to wealth obtained from the gold trade. From the end of the 13th century, it was the most important trading town on the East Coast of Africa. br br It controlled the coastal settlement in the North as far as Pemba Island. Kilwa was a walled town which minted its own coins. It controlled the gold trade with Sofala and Zimbabwe. The inhabitants were mainly Muslims. br br The town of Kilwa had beautiful buildings such as the Great Mosque and the large palace known as Husuni Kubwa. The town began declining first in the second hand of the 14th century. The fine buildings were ruined. Between 1420 and 1440 the mosque was renovated. The town of Kilwa lost its glory and prosperity and declined completely almost at the close of the 15th century because of the following reasons: br br j There were dynastic quarrels in Kilwa. ii The Sofala gold trade was interrupted by wars in the interior. br br iii Mombasa became a strong rival of Kilwa. br br iv The arrival of the Portuguese interfered with the gold trade because the Portuguese soldiers attacked and conquered all the coastal city states. br br v There were constant rivalries between Kilwa and other coastal city states. London is the capital city of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. It is in the continent of Europe. The city is situated in South East England. br br The town of London originated before the first century AD. When the Romans occupied Britain in the 1st century AD, London was already a town of considerable importance. br br The Romans expanded the town and made it an important religious centre. They also established Christianity which became the dominant religion in England. br br London continued to expand even after it was burnt in the first century AD. When the Romans left England, London had already been established with a large population. br br The withdrawal of the Romans did not affect the growth of London br br because what they did in Britain perished after they left. br br In the 9th century, King Alfred made London the capital of his kingdom. Later King William I established himself in England and developed the town of London. He built the Tower of London and also rebuilt the London bridge. Initially it was built of wood but he rebuilt it using stone. br br Throughout the Middle Ages the growth of London was slow as a result br br of wars, epidemics and commercial crisis. br br When Queen Elizabeth I opened the Royal exchange in 1566 AD, the city of London grew into an important city of the world. By 1580 AD Queen Elizabeth I issued a proclamation which prohibited construction of any new buildings within a radius of about 4 kilometres outside the city gates. In 1667 the rebuilding act was enacted. It stipulated that all buildings be of stone and brick. In the 1760s the walls and gates of old medieval city of London were demolished. During the 19th century, London was modernised through the construction of many suburbs, rebuilding of bridges and through lighting of city streets. By the close of the century, London had grown into a beautiful city served by a well developed networked of transport and communication. br br During the First World War, London became the German target. London was heavily bombed. The Tower of London and the British Museum were destroyed. Many other buildings were also damaged. br br After the war, the British government reconstructed the war damage. Many tall storey buildings were constructed such as the Museum Radio Tower of the General Post Office building. This was followed by construction of shops, residential houses, school, hotels and cultural centres. br br The city of London got most of its water from river Thames. There were several city markets which provided people with food, meat, fruits and flowers. Today the city of London is under the control of the local government headed by mayors. br br Several factors contributed to the growth of the city of London. These were: Development of transport and communication. London had a network of roads and railways. Underground roads and railways were established in underground tunnels to reduce traffic congestion. br br Modern international airports such as Heathrow airport were also established. London was connected to the rest of the world with telegraphs, telephones and radio transmissions. br br Trade enabled the town of London to grow into city status. Many people migrated to London to conduct business as a way of earning a living. br br The success of their businesses made them wealthy and they settled permanently. As this process continued, the town also continued to expand. br br The establishment of industries attracted the people who came to seek for employment and those who came to survive on cheap manufactured goods. br br The development of port facilities in London encouraged many people to go and do the jobs of loading and unloading cargo. The sailors from England also started their journeys from the seaports like London. Those who came from abroad on their way to England regarded London as their port of call. This contributed to the growth of London. br br 5. br br London served as a political and an administrative centre for a long time. The Romans constructed a fort and surrounded it with a wall for security reasons. The colonies Britain acquired were under the colonial secretary who was based in London. br br The city of London had several museums and theatres that made it an important cultural centre. Many people were attracted by the activities in the city making them to settle there in great numbers. br br Functions of London a br br London is the capital of the United Kingdom. It acts as an administrative headquarters. br br b It is an industrial centre that has both heavy and light industries. br br c br br It is a cultural and recreational centre. London has many theatres and museums. br br d br br London is a centre of international transport and communication. This is because there are international airports in London and there is the harbour where ships from all over the world anchor. br br e br br London is a centre of learning. It has international Universities and colleges. br br f br br It is also a commercial centre that has many banks and insurance. It has many shopping centres. iii London was burnt down in 1666 AD. br br iv There was the problem of unemployment. br br v There was the problem of rural - urban migration of the jobless. br br vi There was inadequate housing facilities and poor sanitation. br br vii There was high crime rate. br br viii There was pollution of the environment due to fumes from industries and br br vehicles. br br ix London was bombed by the Germans during the First World War. This br br resulted to deaths of people and destruction of property. br br x There was the demolition of the old city of London in the 1760s. Athens br br The growth and prosperity of Athens is based on trade and commerce. The land surrounding Athens was rocky. It could not support a large population. The people of Athens depended mainly on imported food that they exchanged with olive oil, wine and wool. br br Athens was a famous centre of learning. The city state provided education in such fields as philosophy, architecture, drama, science and medicine. The democracy that is enjoyed in the world today originated in Athens where it was actually practised. br br Athens was surrounded by a protective wall for security purposes because of constant wars with the other city states. The town itself looked clumsy. The streets were merely narrow earth roads that became dusty during the dry spell and muddy during the rainy season. br br Some houses were made of unbaked brick while others were made of mud. A few beautiful and well-built buildings such as Parthenon temple and the temple of Athena Nike existed. br br There was a market place in the centre of the town which also acted as a meeting place for people and also the place where people assembled for debates. On top of the high cliff was the Acropolis Fortress which provided protection for the village below. br br The biggest problem of Athens was that it had inadequate sanitary facilities for disposing human waste and refuse. Due to this the town was exposed to very bad smell from rotting garbage. br br Athens weakened and lost its glory between 430 BC and 335 BC due to br br the following reasons: i Athens was affected by constant rivalries and wars with other city states. br br ii Athens was conquered by King Philip of Macedonia and put under the br br Macedonian domination. br br iii Constant epidemics like plague led to death of many Athenian citizens br br therefore weakening the military might of Athens. br br iv The final blow, which made the town to disintegrate, was the death of Alexander the Great whose empire controlled Athens. Other towns such as Rome and Cathage rose to power to fill the political vacuum left by Macedonia. Emergence of modern urban centres in Africa br br There are many urban centres in Africa that began when the Europeans acquired colonies and settled there. Such towns never existed in Africa before the coming of the Europeans. br br Some of them began as administrative centres for the colonial authority. Some emerged as mining towns, others as commercial centres some as agricultural centres or farming centres while others began as industrial centres. br br those places and established administrative and commercial buildings. The emerging settlements attracted rural people who also migrated there to look for employment, start business and seek for other fortunes. Examples of the modern urban centres in Africa are Nairobi and Johannesburg. br br The Europeans at first settled in The place looked suitable for a depot and for resting because of its mild climate that was preferable by Europeans. There was also the Nairobi River which provided water to the railway builders. The site was somehow flat for construction compared to the land ahead of them before they reached the Rift Valley. At the same time Nairobi was the midpoint between Mombasa and Lake Victoria. br br In 1907 the Imperial British East Africa IBEA company transferred its capital from Mombasa to Nairobi. During the colonial period the Europeans and Asians dominated the town. br br Migration of Africans to Nairobi was restricted but quite a number went br br there to work as labourers. br br The town was associated with racial discrimination in employment, br br commerce and housing. br br Today Nairobi lies at the heart of Kenyas rail and road network. It has a modern international airport known as Kenyatta International Airport. It has several other small airports such as Eastleigh, Embakasi and Wilson airports. Nairobi is the seat of the government and the commercial centre of Kenya. Nairobi is also industrial, cultural, educational, communication and transport centre. br br It has modern buildings that are used as offices, hotels and shopping centres. The city attracts Kenyan citizens from all parts of the country and also foreigners who include tourists from many countries of the world. However, Nairobi City is facing a number of problems as below: a The city has inadequate drainage and sanitary facilities. br br b br br There is the problem of pollution as a result of many industries producing fumes and noise. There is acute problem of water. c br br d br br There are inadequate educational facilities such as schools for the rapid growing urban population. br br e There is congestion of traffic leading to traffic jams. br br f There is a high rate of crime such as robbery and prostitution. br br g br br There is inadequate housing facilities leading to development of slums and overcrowding in residential areas. br br h br br There is high rate of unemployment. School leavers flock in Nairobi to look for jobs. Johannesburg br br Johannesburg is a city of the Republic of South Africa, in Transvaal province. br br The discovery of minerals during the second half of the 19th century was largely responsible for the emergence of a number of towns in South Africa. Location of the city of Johannesburg br br Johannesburg mushroomed after large gold deposits were discovered in Witwatersrand in September 1886. This was followed by a gold rush. At first Johannesburg began with a very small population. Within a very short time people flocked to Johannesburg on the Witwatersrand in great numbers from Britain, America, Australia and other countries of Europe. br br At first the early settlements were mere shanties made of galvanised iron. These shanties were the basis of a miraculous growth of the city of Johannesburg. Within a decade, the town had a population of about 100,000 people. br br Other factors that contributed to the growth of Johannesburg are: br br 1. br br There was cheap labour from the Africans. Labour was also obtained from the neighbouring countries like Malawi, Namibia and Botswana. These labourers increased the population of the city. 2. River Vaal provided enough water for mining, industry and domestic use. br br 3. br br There was development of transport and communication in form of road and railway. br br The land surrounding Johannesburg was suitable for farming. This provided enough food for the people in the mining centre and industries. br br The availability of other minerals such as iron ore and flourspar in the outskirts of the city contributed in the industrial growth. br br The availability of coal, which provided energy also, promoted industrial development. br br Today, Johannesburg is the largest city of the Republic of South Africa and the industrial and commercial centre. It is the centre of the countrys gold mining industries and the site of the Johannesburg stock exchange. br br It is a strategic rail, road and air hub with an international airport. It is a mining as well as an industrial centre whose industries include manufacture of mining and railway equipment, automobile parts, chemicals, textiles, electrical and communication equipment. br br Johannesburg is a cultural and educational centre of South Africa. It has a number of museums, theatres, a symphony, orchestra and an opera company. It has schools and universities. br br Review Questions br br 1 br br a What is urbanisation? b What favoured development of early urbanisation in Africa? a br br Describe the factors which contributed to the growth of: i ii Kilwa br br London br br b What problems did each of the two towns above encounter that br br affected its growth. br br Explain the factors which led to the decline of the city of Athens in the first millennium AD? br br Describe the major problems of the modern urban centres. br br Explain the growth of Johannesburg as an important urban centre. Students Activities br br 1. br br Compare the factors that led to the growth of the early urban centres with those which led to the growth of modern urban centres. br br 2. br br Draw a map of Africa and indicate the locations of Nairobi, Cairo, Meroe, Johannesburg and Kilwa. Buganda br br The Buganda Kingdom was one of the Kingdoms in Uganda. During the 19th century Buganda expanded to become the largest and most powerful kingdoms in Uganda. Several factors brought about the rise of Buganda. These were: br br a br br The Baganda were agriculturists. They grew bananas which was their staple food. This enabled them to feed the army. The fertile soils and suitable climate enabled them to grow crops. br br During the 18th and 19th centuries, Buganda was under very strong and competent rulers entitled Kabaka. One such ruler was Kabaka Mtesa I. br br b br br c br br Buganda kingdom was centralised and it had a well-organised political system. The centralisation of Buganda enhanced effective control of the kingdom, enhanced loyalty to one single ruler, promoted control and unity of other traditional leaders and also led to emergence of able rulers who strengthened the Kingdom. br br d br br Buganda had a strong army, which defended the kingdom, and a navy that conquered people living in the islands of Lake Victoria such as the people of Sese Island. br br e br br The decline of Bunyoro Kitara Kingdom enabled Buganda to expand to fill the power vacuum left by Bunyoro. f br br Participation in the long distance trade by the Baganda people enabled the kingdom to attain wealth that was used to maintain the kingdom. The rulers also taxed the Arab and Swahili traders who ventured into the kingdom to trade. br br g br br The annexation of Buddu iron fields enabled Buganda to manufacture superior iron weapons. br br 80 h When the British occupied Uganda, she handed over the lost counties of Bunyoro to Buganda. These counties included Bungaizi and Buyoga. This action of the British contributed to more expansion of Buganda. Social organisation of Buganda The social organisation of the Baganda was based on clans made up of members of several related families. br br There were also social classes with members of the loyal family on top followed by local chief and then below were the commoners followed by slaves. The Kabaka existed who played social roles such as presiding on various ceremonies and rituals, being the chief priest and therefore being in charge of all religious activities. br br The Kabakas power was symbolised by his loyal regalia that included br br the royal drums, the stools and the spears. br br The Baganda worshipped a god entitled Katonda. They believed in the spirits of the dead ancestors. They thought that the death affected the affairs of the living people. br br They had a traditional religion they called Lubaale. They consulted the spirits of the dead through prophets. The mediums who consulted the spirits were usually given gifts. The Baganda had medicinemen and sorcerers. br br They conducted marriage and initiation ceremonies. During the reign of Kabaka Mwanga, same people of Buganda were converted to Christianity while others were converted to Islam. After the arrival of many Christian Missionaries, Christianity took the dominance that was followed by rivalry between various religious groups. Economic organisation of Buganda Buganda Kingdom was located on the northern shores of Lake Victoria. The Kingdoms geographical location, the nature of its environment and climate influenced the economic activities of the Baganda. br br The Baganda were mainly cultivators. They grew bananas, millet and sorghum. Bananas matoke were the staple food of the Baganda. The high rainfall and fertile soils enabled them to cultivate. The Baganda kept livestock such as cattle, sheep, goats and chickens. They also conducted raids and captured slaves and cattle from the neighbouring weaker communities such as Bunyoro and Busoga. br br The Baganda benefited by fishing due to their proximity to Lake Victoria that had a lot of fish. This supplemented their diet. The Baganda like many other Bantu communities in Uganda had acquired the skills of iron working from the Abachwezi. They conducted raids that exposed them to the iron- bearing field in the neighbouring lands. The iron obtained was used for making iron hoes, spear heads, arrowheads and a variety of other tools. br br The Baganda also manufactured bark-cloth, weaved and built canoes for use in Lake Victoria for fishing and for the navy that was used to conquer people living in the islands of Lake Victoria such as the people of Sese Island. Some of the Baganda hunted animals such as buffaloes and antelopes for meat. They also gathered fruits and roots that they used as food. The Baganda conducted local trade which involved exchange of goods within themselves or with their immediate neighbours. For example trade in salt existed with people around Lake Victoria. br br The Baganda engaged themselves in the long distance trade mainly in the 19th century after the Arab and Swahili merchants from the coast penetrated into kingdom. This trade expanded rapidly during the era of Kabaka Mtesa I. Slaves and ivory were the main commodities the Arab and Swahili traders demanded. They in turn brought ammunitions, cloth, beads and swords that were demanded by the Baganda. br br Political organisation of Buganda Baganda is believed to have originally been a section of the Chwezi State. It is not known clearly whether it is Kintu or Kimera who established the early kingdom of Buganda. br br What is clear is that Buganda was a centralised kingdom controlled by a ruler entitled Kabaka whose authority in those early days was limited by the power of the clan heads each entitled Bataka. br br In the later years, the Kabakas assumed a lot of power because they played the following roles: a br br They acted as the chief political and religious leaders and heads of government. br br b br br They were considered as the supreme judges in the kingdom and also as the final court of appeal. br br c br br They were regarded as the sole defenders of Buganda and protectors of their subjects. They commanded the army as well as all other juniors for instance, the Katikiros, the Saza chiefs and the Gombolora chiefs. br br d br br e br br It was their responsibility to appoint or fire senior officials like the Katikiro and the Chief Justice. br br f br br They controlled trade to such an extent that they even taxed foreign traders. The Kabaka was assisted to administer the kingdom by a Prime Minister entitled Katikiro. br br In the Kabakas court, their existed the Chief Justice entitled Omulamuzi and the treasurer entitled Omuwanika, all appointed by the Kabaka. Together with the Katikiro, they formed the Kabakas advisory body. br br There existed a legislature assembly called Lukiko, which acted like the modern day parliament. It discussed important issues affecting Buganda kingdom such as issues pertaining to external attacks, relations with foreigners, trade regulations and the ways to deal with the citizens. br br The kingdom was split into counties each called Saza. Each county was br br headed by a Saza chief. br br Counties were further split into sub-counties each entitled Gombolola. Each Gombolola was under the leadership of a Gombolola chief whose duty was to collect the taxes and remit to Kabaka as well to maintain law and order in his area of Jurisdiction. br br Each Gombolola was further split into a small division called Miluka br br headed by Miluka chief. br br Buganda had a strong standing army and navy. The army defended the kingdom while the navy controlled Bugandas possessions in Lake Victoria such as Sese Island. Leadership among the Baganda was hereditary passed from father to son at first but later the Kabaka could appoint a minor chief from the citizens who was royal to him. br br The Kabaka strengthened the loyalty bestowed on him by all the people in the kingdom by marrying from all popular clans and accepting sons of popular people from various families to come and work in his court. Social organisation of the Shona The Shona worshipped a god who was believed to be all-powerful. They called their god Mwari. The Shona had priest who presided over religious functions for instance during the time of offering sacrifices to the supreme being. br br The priests also conducted rituals to appease their gods. The Rozwi clan provided the shona community with priests. Worship was conducted in shrines. The shona believed in the existence of the ancestral spirits they referred to as clan spirit, Mhondoro, and the family spirits, Vadzimu. The spirits communicated through intermediaries referred to as Svikiro. The Shona communicated with the spirits through mediums. br br They conducted a number of ceremonies and festivals. The shona were socially organised into families, several of which made a clan. The clan elders were highly respected. Polygamy was a very common practice among the Shona. It was common to find men with very many wives. This was one way of ensuring that the community had enough warriors and was provided with sufficient labour force. br br The Economic Organisation of the Shona The Shona grew a variety of subsistence crops such as beans, millets and vegetables. They also kept livestock such as cattle, sheep and goats, which provided them with milk and meat. br br The Shona made iron tools such as spears, hoes and knives. They also br br weaved and made back cloth. br br The Shona supplied the people of Sofala with gold. In return the Shona br br obtained cloth, glassware, and firearms obtained from the Portuguese. The political Organisation of the Shona An emperor who was the head of state and government controlled the Shona kingdom. When the emperor died, his son took over leadership. This implies that leadership among the Shona was hereditary. br br The emperor administered the empire with the assistance of his immediate relatives and leading officials. These were queens mother, his principal wives, his sister, the head drummer, the chancellor, the supreme cook, the chief door keeper and the commander of his army. br br The emperor was the overall military leader and for this reason he acted as the commander in chief of the standing army which not only defended the kingdom but also tried to conquer other neighbouring communities in order to expand it. br br The Shona kingdom was divided into smaller divisions that were under br br the control of lesser kings who were answerable to the emperor. br br The lesser kings ensured that trade was promoted. The emperor was the sole controller of the entire trade. The profit from trade maintained the army and also sustained the kingdom. Vassal states were made to pay tribute to the emperor. br br The Shona priest played political roles in that they acted as the emperors spies. The priests also linked the people with the emperor. In so doing religion was used to create political unity among the Shona. Asante Ashanti br br The Asante is one of the Akan or Twi speaking peoples of the present day Ghana. The Asante kingdom is believed to have been established as a result of a number of states which united together and settled at a place called Asantemanso. br br From Asantemanso they dispersed in clans and family groups to new settlements such as Bekwai, Tafo, Nsuta, Mampong, Amakom and Kwaman. Later in the 17th century these settlements united under the leadership of the Oyoko clan. br br All the Asante states were established surrounding modern Kumasi in an area referred to as Kwaman forest. By the middle of the 18th century, the Asante had become a very large empire as a result of the efforts of Osei Tutu who introduced the golden stool, which became the symbol of Asante union. The Asante rulers were entitled Asantehene. Factors that led to the rise and expansion of the Asante kingdom br br We have already seen that the Asante kingdom rose from a number of clans and families who migrated and then settled together at Asantemanso. Those settlements later united into states. The rise of the kingdom was therefore as a result of the unity of those states. The Asante emerged and expanded into a mighty kingdom because of the following reasons: br br 1. br br The area the Asante people settled had abundant rainfall which enabled them to grow crops and gather wild fruits to sustain the growing population. br br 2. br br Asantehehe Osei Tutu with an Akwamu priest, Okomfo Anokye cemented the Asante union when they introduced the golden stool as the symbol of Asante union. br br 3. br br The Asante obtained income for expanding the empire from the trade they conducted with the Europeans at the coast. br br 4. br br The Odwira Festival was organised which enabled the state rulers to gather together to pay allegiance to the Asantehehe. br br 5. br br The Asante kingdom was controlled by strong and able rulers like Osei Tutu, Opoku Ware and Osei Bonsu who engaged themselves on expansionist missions aimed at enlarging and strengthening the kingdom. br br 6. br br The fact that Asante kingdom was highly centralised enabled people to join in order to fight against a common enemy. br br 7. br br The neighbouring states such as Denkyira and Fante were weaker that the Asante kingdom. This gave the Asante the advantage of expanding its empire. 8. br br The Asante army was very strong and well organised. It was made up of soldiers from all the Asante states. br br The Asante used modern weapons such as guns which they bought from the Europeans along the west African coast. br br 10. The Asante rulers obtained revenue from the tribute paid by conquered states. This enabled the Asantehene to maintain his army and his kingdom. br br Social organisation of Asante In the early beginning the Asante lived in separate clans and family groups. When the family and groups migrated from Asantemanso, they went to places where they lived in settlements. At first the settlements were not united but later they joined together into states. br br An Akwamu priest named Okomfo Anokye together with Osei Tutu introduced the golden stool as a symbol of unity, which had religious symbolism. It united all the states not only politically but also socially. br br The Asante introduced the national festival called Odwira that united the whole of Asante by making state rulers to be royal to the Asantehene. The Asante were polytheistic. They worshipped gods and goddesses. The Asantehene played both political and religious roles. He acted like a religious leader and presided over religious ceremonies. br br The Asante people worshipped their gods through their ancestors. The ancestors acted as intermediaries between gods and the people. The Asante people sacrificed to their gods. They believed in life after death and in punishment of wrong doers and reward for those who did well. br br By the first half of the 19th century, the Asante had embraced Islam. The br br Asante Muslim converts therefore adopted Islamic culture and law sharia . This became the beginning of the Islamic influence in Asante. Economic organisation of Asante The Asante lived in the forest region in the west of River Volta. The land they occupied received heavy rainfall which enabled them to grow crops such as vegetables, kolanuts and grains. br br The Asante also kept few livestock. They hunted and gathered fruits and red kolanuts from Kwaman forest for sale. The Asante also participated in the local trade. They traded with the Ga and the people of Benin. br br They exchanged commodities such as salt, cloth and fish. Later they traded with the Europeans who had settled along the West African coast in settlements such as Accra, Anomabo, Cape Coast, Winneba and Elmina. The Asante traders gave Europeans ivory, slaves, gold and colanuts in exchange for firearms, cloth and ironware. br br The Asante mined gold in the Kwaman forest and practised iron working. They used iron to manufacture tools, bangles, hoes and arrowheads. They practised traditional crafts such as cloth making, basketry, pottery and sculpture making. The Asante hunted elephants to obtain ivory. They also gathered fruits and edible roots. br br Political organisation of Asante The Asante Empire was centralised and divided into three parts. The first part was the metropolitan or Nucleus State that consisted of the Kumasi State that was directly under the Asantehehe. br br The second part was the Amatoo or the states within a radius of about 30 to 40 miles of modern Kumasi. These states were outside Kumasi and they recognised the Golden stool as the symbol of unity of the Asante. Some of them were Dwaben, Adansi, Bekwai, Nsuta, Mampon and Kokofu. br br The third part was the conquered states or provincial Asante states that consisted of all the outer circle of states which had earlier been conquered and controlled by the Asante. Examples of them are Akwamu, Akyem, Twifu, Wassa, Denkyira, Sefwi, Akwapem, Assin, Gonja, Dagomba, Gyaman and Takyiman. The Asante kingdom was ruled by kings entitled Asantehene. The Asantehene was the supreme ruler of the kingdom. He had direct control over Kumasi State. The Asantehene was the conmmander in - chief of the army. He presided over political and religious festivals and he acted as the final court of appeal because he was the supreme judge. Leadership among the Asante was hereditary. br br The Asantehene ruled with the advice of the state rulers who formed the union of rulers. The conquered states were administered by their kings but they were regarded as the provinces of the Asante kingdom .A representative who was an appointee of the Asantehene was posted in each province where he acted as the eyes and ears of the Asantehene. He also levied taxes, supervised trade and mining of gold nuggets. br br Each Asante State was under the rule of Omanhene who took the oath of allegiance to demonstrate loyalty to the Asantehene. The Omanhene represented the Asantehene in the provinces but they were required to pay tribute to the Asantehene and also to provide soldiers in times of conflicts. The Asante states were all bound together by the golden stool which was the symbol of unity of the Asante. This stool was preserved in the capital, Kumasi. Every state ruler was presented with a symbolic black stool to signify unity of the provinces. br br There was a national festival organised particularly for state rulers to pay br br allegiance to the Asantehene. This festival was known as Odwira festival. br br The Asante had a strong standing army consisting of an infantry and a calvary wing. The Asante army was divided into four segments which included the left wing, the right wing the van and the rear. Every king of a state was given a position within the wings. This position was taken by the army he controlled in his state a thing which made him remain powerful. br br At its peak, the Asante kingdom consisted of the area surrounding Kumasi which was directly under the Asantehene, the states outside Kumasi which were part of the original Asante union and lay about 90 kilometre radius of present day Kumasi and the vassal or conquered states. br br The Asante government finally collapsed due to the following reasons: br br i br br Constant rebellions by the vassal states who wanted to reassert their independence. ii The British supported the Fante to flight against the Asante. br br iii The kingdom had grown too large for the rulers to control effectively. br br iv Asante strained relations with Fante and the British affected Asante trade br br and source of income. br br v br br There was weakness in the system of provincial administration because vassal states were not fully incorporated to the kingdom. br br vi The Asante ruler, Osei Tutu was forced to grant independence to the br br southern states. br br vii Asantehene Prempe I was exiled. br br Review Questions br br Explain the roles of the following in the 19th century: i ii Asantehene of Asante br br 1. br br Kabaka of Buganda 2. Describe the political and social organisation of Buganda. br br 3. a br br Explain the factors that led to the rise and growth of Asante Empire. Describe the political organisation of the Asante Kingdom up to the 19th century. br br b br br Describe the Shona kingdom under the following headings: a b c Economic organisation Political organisation Social organisation br br 5. What factors contributed to the decline of the Asante Kingdom. br br Identify the economic and social activities of the Asante in the 19th century. br br 6. br br Students Activities 1. Draw maps to show the location of the Asante and Buganda kingdoms br br 2. br br Discuss in groups the factors which contributed to the rise and decline of the Asante and Buganda Kingdoms. br br 3. br br Compare the administration of Buganda kingdom with the administration of Asante Kingdom. Constitutions and constitution making br br A constitution is a set of fundamental principals and laws established to govern and regulate the behaviour of citizens of a particular state as they relate to each other in their daily activities as well as regulating the conduct of the people who are entrusted with the responsibility of managing the affairs of the state. br br A constitution therefore clarifies the duties and rights of the citizens as well as the duties, rights and responsibilities of the rulers. br br The constitution regulates the powers of government by controlling the way it behaves as it manages the countrys affairs. The constitution also regulates the relationship between the government and the citizens of the state. br br A countrys constitution has the following functions: br br 1. br br It clarifies the powers, duties and responsibilities of those in power rulers and their subjects. br br 2. It protects the rights and freedoms of all citizens. br br 3. br br It limits the powers of rulers who would attempt to oppress their subjects. It also limits the possibilities of the subjects to insurbodinate the rulers. This is done by limiting some of their rights and freedoms. br br 4. br br A constitution enables a country to follow a well defined cause by spelling out the powers of the government. This helps to control national instability. A constitution defines and spells out the formal structure of government and the functions and powers of each state organ for example the powers of the regional government in relation to the central government and also the powers and duties of the executive, the legislature and the judiciary. br br A constitution offers the legal framework from which the countrys laws are made. A constitution also reflects the wishes of the people and their social, cultural, economic and political aspects. br br Characteristics of a good constitution br br a br br A good constitution must define and spell out clearly the structure of government and the functions and powers of each level and arm of government. br br b br br The fundamental rights and duties of all citizens must be clearly spelt out and the way the rights will be guaranteed specified. br br c br br Roles and powers of specific rulers such as Presidents and Prime Ministers must be stipulated. br br d br br The separation of powers of the Judiciary, the Legislature and the Executive must be very clear to avoid conflicts of roles. br br e br br The composition, functions and powers of all laws to be enacted by parliament must be made clear. Types of constitution br br There are various kinds of constitutions in the world. Some of them are democratic constitutions, others are undemocratic constitutions. There are also unitary or federal constitutions. We also have two other types of constitutions. These are written constitutions and unwritten constitutions. br br Written constitutions A written constitution is the one in which the basic principles and laws are written down and are therefore available in a formal document. Examples of the countries with written constitutions are Kenya, USA and France. br br The following are the characteristics of a written constitution: br br 1. It is written in an official volume that one can buy in order to study. br br 2. br br It is rigid and not easy to alter. Any amendment is made using a procedure that is usually slow and cumbersome. A written constitution is usually simple, clear and consistent. A special body of experts is therefore given the responsibility of drafting it using a well formulated procedure. br br 4. br br It sets clearly the powers of the judiciary, the executive and the legislature in a particular state. br br It spells out the fundamental rights and freedoms of the citizens. To ensure this is accomplished the constitution is taken to the legislature for approval. br br In some written constitutions, rules are found in traditions. Some of them are based on conventions and customs of the people. br br A written constitution is prepared in such a way that one can be able to compare the actions and day to day activities of the government with what is written and expected to be achieved and maintained. br br Advantages of written constitution br br The following are the advantages of a written constitution: br br a br br Once prepared, it is not easy to change or amend it so as to favour particular personalities in power. br br b br br It becomes easy for the literates to know the expectations of the government because they can buy the official copies and read themselves. This is because it is readily available for reference and use. br br c br br No individual can alter or manipulate any part of the written constitution. The legislative body is the one which has a right of making even a minor amendment or alteration. d br br The legislators and delegates are able to incorporate the traditions, conventions and customs of the citizens into a written constitution which is people driven and which recognises peoples ethnic groupings. br br e br br A well written and acceptable constitution can play the role of uniting all the people in a nation. br br f br br A written constitution provides a smooth procedure of handing over power after general elections, death of rulers or resignation. This is because it provides a clear guideline of what should be done if such a thing happens. br br g br br A written constitution enables a country to operate in favourable and orderly manner. br br h br br A written constitution spells out the fundamental rights of citizens very clearly therefore making them aware of their rights and also making them have a reference when their rights are infringed. br br Disadvantages of written constitution br br i It is too rigid to be easily altered without a lot of consultation. br br ii Amending a written constitution is slow and cumbersome. br br iii The language used to write the constitution volumes is difficult for people who have not learnt disciplines such as law. Yet it becomes difficult to simplify without altering the meaning and the stress. br br iv br br If the constitution is not properly formulated, it can make various arms of the government to conflict. br br v br br For a good lasting written constitution, very qualified experts are required. These may not be available in some countries. br br vi The constitution making process is costly and very involving if all the br br procedures are followed to the dot. br br Unwritten constitution br br An unwritten constitution is one which does not exist in a single formal official document. Britain is an example of a country with unwritten constitution. The sources of the British constitution are the Act of Parliament, British conventions, the Hansard, Legal publications by reputable authorities, decisions made by the British law courts from time to time and Royal prerogatives of the King or Queen to declare war or make treaties of peace. a br br Fundamental rights of citizens are not clearly spelt out in an unwritten constitution. br br b br br Unwritten constitution requires very qualified judges and lawyers of the law courts who are able to cope with the tedious work of referring to many constitutional documents e.g. statutes, historical documents and customs in order to make any judgement. br br c br br An unwritten constitution is not clearly expressed as compared to the written constitution. The independence constitution br br The first constitution in Kenya was established during the British colonial rule. This may be referred to as the colonial constitution. The colonial constitution discriminated against the Africans while it favoured the whites. br br As the Africans continued to be aware of their rights they appealed to the colonial government to grant them their rights. Due to political pressure from the Africans, the colonial government unwillingly tried to change the constitution. br br In 1960 and 1962, constitutional conferences were held in London. African representatives attended. The Lancaster House conference held in London in 1962 concluded the constitution for independent Kenya. The date for independence was also set. The constitution made is the one we are calling the independence constitution. br br The conference was attended by representatives of the African political parties such as Kenya African National Union KANU , Kenya African Democratic Union KADU and African Peoples Party APP . KANU and KADU differed in the structure of government they wanted. br br KANU preferred a strong unitary constitution while KADU wanted a majimbo or Federal constitution. KADU was in favour of majimbo constitution because it feared that smaller communities would be dominated by large ones such as the Luo and the Kikuyu. KANU believed that a unitary government would protect the interests of the smaller communities. br br The outcome of the 1962 conference was a federal form of constitution. This was followed by the formation of a coalition government between KANU and KADU. br br Provisions of the independence constitution The independence constitution provided a regional majimbo government. The country Kenya was therefore split into six regions each with its own regional government and assembly with full legislative powers. br br There was a central government consisting of two chamber national assembly namely the senate and the House of Representatives. The central government was headed by a Prime Minister from the party with majority seats. Nairobi was the headquarters of the central government. br br The Queen remained as the head of state. She was represented by the Governor General whose duties were to approve legislation, to ensure there was internal security, to deal with all foreign affairs and to give assent to bills to become laws. br br The independent constitution recommended a multi-party system of government. The party with the majority was to form the government. It recommended a Bill of Rights whose role was to protect the fundamental interests of the individuals. br br It also recommended formation of a Central Land Board for dealing with all issues concerning land and an independent public Service Commission for appointing, disciplining and firing civil servants. br br The independence constitution recommended the setting up of an independent electoral commission for setting constitutional boundaries and conducting elections. br br An electoral commission was established. It was made up of the speakers of both the House of Representatives and the Senate, nominated representatives of each region and a nominated representative of the Prime Minister. The independence constitution provided an independent judiciary that showed complete impartiality when judging cases. No one was allowed to influence the decisions of judges and they enjoyed security of tenure. br br Lastly, the independence constitution organised for the protection of the minority rights. This was mainly to ensure that the European and Asian minorities were protected and their properties were safeguarded. The Kenya Constitution Kenya is governed by a democratic constitution. A democratic constitution recognises and protects human rights for instance the right to acquire and own property, right to life and the rights safeguarding the individuals freedom of expression, association, conscience, movement and assembly. It also recognises the freedom of worship, belief and opinion. br br The Kenya constitution ensures that people have full and equal enjoyment br br of all rights and freedoms. br br It also ensures that all people are equal before the law. An individual has right to equal protection and equal benefit of the law. He has the right to a fair trial. According to the Kenya constitution, no person may be required to perform forced labour or be held in slavery. Constitutional making process br br Constitution making can take place in a number of ways as follows: a br br Having it done by Parliament whereby at least 65 of all parliamentary members must vote for a change to the Kenya constitution. br br b br br Using a constitutional review commission. This commission may be set up by the President or by Parliament. br br c br br Having a constitutional conference attended by selected people from various interests in society. They then make a constitution that can if necessary pass through a referendum. br br d br br Having a national convention composed of representatives from all walks of life who identify and discuss important national issues in order to prepare a constitution. br br Constitutions are therefore made through established procedures that are agreed upon by the majority. In Kenya the constitutional making process is as follows: br br 1. br br The general public is provided with civic education to enable them to take part in the constitution making process. To begin with, they are made to understand what a constitution is and why it is necessary in any state. They are the current then enlightened on constitutions and also its strength. br br the shortcomings of br br People are then requested to give their views on various aspects of the constitution. A commission is set to visit all the constituencies in Kenya to listen and record the views of the public. All the views obtained from the constituencies of Kenya are compiled together. The wishes of the majority are isolated and used to prepare a constitution which is forwarded for further discussion. br br The recommendations are printed, published and circulated to the public. The commission once more visit the public to give their remarks. All the provinces are covered to ensure that the outcome reflects the will of the people. br br A national constitutional conference is organised and attended by delegates from each district in Kenya. The commission then submits the recommendations which are largely the opinions of the public for further discussion and careful scrutiny. br br rejected. Other recommendations are accepted while some are amended. The National Constitution conference members may reject some recommendations and replace them with their own. br br Some of the recommendations may be br br Sometimes the National Constitutional Conference members are unable to reach a consensus concerning certain recommendations. If this happens the recommendations causing disagreement are referred back to the public to be resolved through a referendum which is organised by the Constitution of Kenya Review Commission. The referendum is conducted within two months. br br After this is done the constitution is forwarded to the National the the Attorney General after receiving Assembly by Commission. The constitution is treated as a bill and then published for discussion. Once it is recommended by the Members of Parliament after passing through all the stages a bill undergoes before becoming law, it is finally presented to the President for assent. br br it from Features of Kenya constitution br br a br br The constitution is democratic Due to the wishes and ambitions of the people since Kenya attained independence, the country has developed a democratic constitution based on the principles of separation of powers between the Judiciary, the Legislature and the Executive. This is aimed at reducing conflicts b br br There is supremacy of the constitution and the rule of law Kenya is established on the principles of the supremacy of the constitution and the rule of law. It is governed in accordance with the constitution that acts as the supreme law that binds all authorities and individuals throughout the country. br br However, the rule of the law emphasises on handling all legal matters in accordance with the Kenyan laws. Every individual suspects is supposed to be given an opportunity for self-defence before a competent court of law after being arrested. The prosecution is supposed to prove the defendant guilty within a specific period and until the victim is proved guilty beyond reasonable doubt, he should be presumed innocent. br br c Recognition for and protection of individual human rights and br br freedom The Kenya constitution accommodates this distinctive characteristic in order to preserve the dignity of individuals and communities, to promote the realisations of the potential of all the people and also to promote social justice. The rights and freedom of the individuals are contained in the Bill of Rights. br br d A government must have relationship with the constitution br br It is unlawful to establish a system of government that is contrary to the constitution. Constitutional amendments since independence br br Kenya attained internal self-government on 1st June 1963. The constitution which the country adopted in 1963 was the independence constitution. br br a br br In 1964, the independence majimbo constitution was abolished. Kenya became a republic with an executive President. The President was the head of state and government. The country adopted a republican constitution with a unitary system of government. b br br In 1966, the two houses of parliament, that is the senate and the House of Representatives were abolished and replaced with a single chamber National Assembly Parliament . br br d br br In 1966, a member who resigned from the party that sponsored him or her was required to seek fresh mandate from the electorate on the ticket of the new party. Also a member who missed eight consecutive parliamentary sittings or who served a prison sentence of over six months would automatically lose his seat. br br d br br In 1966, for any constitutional amendment to be affected there had to be a majority of the members of Parliament. br br e br br In 1966, the Public Security Act stated that people could be detained on public interest without trial. For example, a citizen who was considered to be a danger to state security was detained without trial. br br f br br In 1966, it was declared that if the Presidency fell vacant, the Vice- President would take over and act as President for the remaining term of office. The President was given power to nominate 12 members of parliament. br br g br br In 1968, the President was empowered to make changes on the administrative boundaries. In this case, the Parliament lost control over the changing of administrative boundaries. h br br In 1968, voting age was lowered from 21 to 18 years. One could qualify to contest for Presidency at the age of 35 years. Before one could contest at the age of 40 years and above. br br i br br In 1968, the presidential election was to be done directly by the people who qualified to vote. br br j br br In 1968, If the presidency fell vacant, elections were to be held within 90 days. The Vice - President acted as President for a period not going beyond 90 days. The President was also given power to postpone elections when and if he or she found it necessary. He could also shorten the life of the Parliament. br br k br br In 1975, the President was empowered to pardon election offenders enabling them to contest in future elections. In 1977, the Kenya Court of Appeal was established to replace the East African Court of Appeal. br br m br br In 1978, Public officers who wanted to contest during parliamentary elections had to resign six months before election time. br br n br br In 1982, Kenya was changed from a de-facto one-party state to a de jure one-party state. This was done through the constitutional amendments which brought about the Section 2A. KANU was to be the only legal political party. br br o br br In 1982, the security tenure of office of the Attorney General and Controller Audit General was established. br br p br br In 1982, The office of the Chief Secretary and Head of Civil Service was established. br br q br br In 1987, The post of Chief Secretary was abolished and replaced by the office of the secretary to the cabinet. This occurred because the office of the Chief Secretary was too powerful. br br r br br In 1987, The President was empowered to dismiss government officers such as the Attorney General and the Controller and Audit General at will. br br s br br In 1988, The President was empowered to dismiss the High Court judges and the chairman of the Public Service Commission at will. t br br In 1988, The Police department was empowered to hold suspected criminals for a maximum of 14 days before presenting them to a court of law for hearing and trial. br br u br br In 1990, The tenure of office of the Attorney General, The Chairman of the Public Service Commission and the Controller and Audit General were guaranteed. br br v br br In 1990, The Presidency was limited to 2 five-year terms. For one to qualify as President he or she had to win 25 of the votes cast in at least 5 provinces of Kenya. br br w br br In 1991, The section 2A of the constitution was repealed and Kenya became a multi-party state. The voting age was lowered from 21 years to 18 years. x br br In 1997, Political parties were given the mandate to appoint nominated members of parliament. br br The Kenya electoral commission commissioners were increased while certain oppressive laws were either amended or repealed. Such laws were: i The public order act br br ii The Chiefs Act br br iii The Preservation of Public Security Act br br iv The Vagrancy Act Review Questions br br 1. br br a b Define the term constitution. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of a written constitution. br br 2. Outline the provisions of the independence constitution of Kenya. br br 3. br br Discuss the main constitutional amendments in Kenya since independence. br br 4. Identify the differences between written and unwritten constitution. br br 5. What are the main features of the Kenya constitution? br br 6. Give reasons why a constitution is necessary in any country. br br Students Activities br br 1. Describe the stages in the constitution making in Kenya. br br 2. Discuss the factors that determine a countrys constitution. br br 3. br br Have a class debate on whether Kenya should have a Prime Minister with more powers than that of the President or not. Democracy and human rights br br Democracy is a Greek term derived from the Greek words demos, which means people and Kratia signifies power or rule. br br The word democracy may mean peoples rule. It may also imply a system of government where the people of a country take part in decision making through elected representatives. Abraham Lincoln defined democracy as a government of the people, for the people and by the people. br br His definition is very popular and easy to comprehend. Any country with a true democratic system of government allows the people to enjoy the rights and freedoms such as rights to life, right to liberty and freedom of speech, freedom of political opinion and freedom of religion. It handles legal matters in accordance with the law. All people in the country are regarded as equal before the law irrespective of their status, race or religion. br br In a democratic country, peoples opinions are taken very seriously because the government has to live to peoples expectations. A country which does not honour the opinions of the people public opinion becomes unpopular and it is disowned by the majority who later vote it out of power. br br From the above explanation we may summarise the main features of br br democracy as below: a br br Democracy gives room for consent to various aspects. This is either done directly or through peoples representatives. br br b br br Democracy emphasises on equality of all the people. The government therefore tries to provide all the people with equal opportunities. br br c Democracy gives people freedom to organise and enjoy their rights. Direct democracy A direct democracy is one which people in a country are allowed to participate directly in all decision making. It is sometimes called pure democracy. This kind of decision making was very common among the Bushmen of South Africa and the people of the Greek city states. br br Unfortunately direct democracy cannot work in countries with large populations because all the people cannot be consulted before decisions are made. It therefore succeeds in countries or communities with very few people where the opinion of every person is considered to be very useful before final decisions on various issues are made. What is agreed upon by all is accepted by all of them without any question. br br Direct democracy principles have been applied in Kenya in the attempt to allow people to exercise their democratic rights. Kenyans for example have been consulted to give their opinion concerning the constitutional review. br br Incase some issues are not agreed upon by members of the constitutional conference, a referendum has to be used so as to act according to the will of the people. br br Indirect democracy br br This is sometimes referred to as representative democracy. br br In this case, people do not participate directly in decision making. They normally use their representatives. The people by way of voting elect the representatives and they specifically express peoples feelings on public issues. Indirect democracy is practical in large modern states because there are huge in size and population. br br The disadvantages of this method are that the people who are elected can easily ignore the people who elected them. They can also fail to consult the electorate in order to be able to air their views in the parliament. There are two types of representative democracy. These are: br br i ii Parliamentary democracy Presidential democracy br br Parliamentary democracy br br Here people cast votes to elect their representatives. Those who are elected choose one person to take leadership as Prime Minister. br br The one who is chosen appoints the other ministers from among the members of parliament. Those appointed forms the cabinet. The Prime Minister can be forced to resign if the other legislators cast a vote of no confidence on him. If this is done, another Prime Minister is elected to form the government. Presidential Democracy Here the President and other members of Parliament are elected directly by the electorate. They then form a government that lasts for a specified period of time. In the Kenyan case, it is 5 years. Non of the two arms of the government, executive and legislature has full control over the other in this type of democracy. They only act as checks and balances therefore ensuring that non of them tries to overshadow the other. br br Principles of democracy br br Democratic principles are the moral professional standards that are necessary in a democracy. br br They play the role of showing whether a country is democratic or not. The principles of democracy are found in the Bill of Rights that is the framework for the adoption of social, economic and cultural policies. br br The principles of democracy are: br br 1. br br Rule of law This implies that there must be equality before the law. All people in a country are subject to the same law. People must obey the law. Those who violate the established laws are prosecuted and punished if found guilty. The law should apply to all people equally without any discrimination on the basis of gender, race, ethnicity, religion, political affiliation, colour, disability, social status and other physical or social characteristics. Peoples participation in governance In a democratic country, people should participate in the governing of their country. They should be involved in the decision-making processes. A person can participate in government by getting involved in voting to elect the most responsible representative of the people in the countrys parliament. A person can also contest for a parliamentary or civic post. br br One can be a member of a non-governmental organisation or association that is free to hold discussions on matters affecting the country e.g. Maendeleo ya Wanawake. Such an organisation can help to control the activities of the government inorder to prevent it from abusing its powers. br br Economic liberty Democratic governments allow their citizens to have freedom of action, choice and decision when dealing with issues pertaining to their economic status. This may be achieved through allowing privatisation of business partners, and market for selling ones goods. All this gives individuals lawful authority to genuinely attain and control their own wealth. br br Respect for and protection of human rights Human rights should be respected and protected because they are essential aspects of democracy which promote the respect for human life and dignity. Human rights are recognised and protected to preserve the dignity of individuals and communities and to promote social justice and the realisation of the potential of all human beings. br br Need to conduct free and fair elections Elections should be held every time after an agreed period of time. In Kenya elections are held after every five years. Elections should not involve some unfair practices such as corruption, intimidation and rigging. br br Respect of other peoples opinions In a democratic country, the opinions of political opponents should never be dismissed. br br The opinions of political opponents should help those in control to br br streamline or even adjust their actions. br br Bill or Rights Every democratic country should have a Bill of Rights, which contain the rights and freedoms of all the citizens and the limitations of these rights and freedoms. Equal status of all people citizens There should be no discrimination based on colour, race, gender, political position or ethnic group. br br All people should be regarded as equal before the law and therefore br br be provided with equal opportunities and privileges. br br Transparency and Accountability Any country which claims to be democratic must operate in such a way that the citizens are aware of what the government is doing and what it is intending to do. There should be high degree of openness on the side of the government. The government should listen to and respect the views of its citizens and otherwise act accordingly. Transparency and accountability may be achieved through constant meetings of the authorities with the people and through advertisements done through the mass media and print media. br br 10. Application of democratic principles such as liberty and social justice. br br 11. Separation of functions between the Executive, the Legislature and the br br Judiciary. br br 12. Provision of equal opportunities for all citizens without discrimination. br br NB: The process of building a democracy is referred to as democratisation. The agents of democratisation are interest groups, political parties, civil society, the mass media and state institutions such as Judiciary, Parliament, the civil service and other state sponsored bodies such as human rights commission and anti-corruption authorities Human rights br br Human rights can be defined as set of basic rules of justice to which each human being is entitled. They can also be defined as things that any individual is allowed to do or have by the law. One is legally allowed to do or have those things irrespective of race, religion, political opinion, creed, sex, language, place of origin, age, ones tribe, colour or other local connections. br br In Kenya, every person is guaranteed freedom of speech, religion, association and movement. He or she is also guaranteed the right to life, right to own property and right to personal liberty. Governments do not give these rights. They are the rights needed to live a human life. br br As one enjoys these fundamental rights, he or she should follow the law. He or she should not interfere with other peoples rights or with the functioning of the government or the whole societys enjoyment of rights. The rights of the individuals are contained in chapter five of the constitution. The functions of Human Rights are: br br 1. To safeguard the individuals security, life and liberty. br br 2. br br To safeguard the individuals freedom of conscience, movement, association and speech, etc. br br 3. To safeguard the individuals private property and home. Human rights empower people to air their own views independently without fear. People should have the freedom of expression. br br They ensure that the weak and the poor are not oppressed by the rich and powerful. br br The human rights fulfil the moral and spiritual requirements of individuals. br br They limit conflicts between people therefore inculcating to people the need for unity. br br The human rights guide the government on how to deal with its citizens so that the citizens can gain confidence with the government. Features of human rights br br The main features of human rights are: br br a br br Human rights affect all the people in the world. Every human being therefore has the right to enjoy these fundamental human rights. br br b br br There are limitations of human rights. This simply means that sometimes people abuse the human rights when they fail to honour the rights of others. Due to this, the law has put some limitations on some of the rights and freedoms of the individuals. br br c br br Human rights are interdependent in that sometimes you must be having a certain right in order to enjoy the other. You cannot enjoy the freedom of speech if you are denied the freedom of association because you will not get somebody to talk to. If you are living in a state of insecurity and your life is in danger then you cannot enjoy many other rights such as right to liberty, freedom of association and freedom of movement. br br d br br If the country is at war, certain provisions of the fundamental rights can be suspended. Examples of the provisions which can be suspended are: i The protection in respect to the rights to liberty br br ii Freedom of expression speech br br iii Freedom of movement Violation of human rights br br In order to ensure that human rights are not violated, the government of Kenya set up a standing committee on human rights aimed at providing citizens with a way they can report abuses of human rights. The role of this committee is to receive complaints on human rights abuses from the public. It then makes reports and suggestions to the government on the action to be taken against those who violate the rights. The Kenyan Human Rights Commission also draws attention to human rights abuses. Other groups that observe and report issues on the abuse of human rights are religious groups, police, newspaper journalists, judges, educators, lawyers, trade unionists and the civil society organisations. br br The Bill of Rights br br The Bill of Rights is a statement of human or civil rights in a constitution. It explains and guarantees the rights of the individuals. It also clarifies the circumstances which may force the government to deny an individual his rights and freedoms. br br The Bill of rights in the Kenya constitution is derived from the International Bill of Rights that is found in the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. br br Some of the provisions of the International Bill of rights are: br br a br br It states clearly the right to self-determination. Here people are allowed to determine their political position and to continue with their socio-economic and cultural advancement. b br br There should be equal rights for both men and women as they enjoy civil and political rights. br br c All people have right to freedom of association. br br d br br No person shall be subjected to arbitrary interference of his family or privacy. e br br All people are equal before the law. Therefore no person is above the law and the law should apply to all people equally without any discrimination. br br f All people have a right to freedom of conscience and religion. br br g No person shall be subjected to inhuman treatment or torture. br br h All people have right to liberty. br br i br br All people living in a particular state lawfully have freedom of movement in that particular state. br br j Every person has the right to life that must be protected by law. br br k br br No person should be enslaved because all people have a right to freedom. br br l br br Every person has the right of being recognised every where in the world as a human being person before the law. br br m A couple has freedom to marry and start a family so long as they br br agree to do so. br br n Minority groups should never be denied their rights for instance br br religious rights and cultural rights. br br o br br Everyone has the right to take part in the public affairs of the state he belongs either directly or indirectly. So the right to vote and to be voted for is provided. br br The Bill of Rights was included in the constitution of many democratic states that include Kenya. However the Bill of Rights in Kenya had a number of limitations in connection to the constitution in use from independent up to 2003. These are: The ways of making sure that the rights in the Bill of Rights were carried out were not clarified. br br The Bill of Rights did not include or protect persons with disabilities against discrimination. br br The provisions of suspending some of the rights contained in the Bill of Rights were generally very wide. br br The marginalised communities were not very well protected because the Bill of Rights did not provide clear protection guidelines for such communities. br br The Kenyan Bill of Rights did not mention the socio-economic and cultural rights as well as the rights to development and the rights to a clean environment. br br Some sections of the laws allowed discrimination. For example section 91 of the constitution discriminated against women when it allowed the child of a Kenyan father married to a foreign woman to get citizenship automatically while the child of a Kenyan woman married to a foreigner could not be awarded citizenship automatically. The UN charter on human rights br br The United Nations Organisation UNO sometimes referred to as UN was established after the Second World War to promote international co-operation by encouraging the respect for human rights and freedoms. br br The Charter of the UN was signed on 26th June 1945 and came into force on 24th October 1945. It provided the constitutional basis for establishing international peace and security. br br The need to have international peace and security arose as a result of peoples concern due to the damages caused by the first world war and the second world war. During these two world wars, many people were killed and property worth millions of shillings destroyed. br br To prevent such damages occurring again, the Universal Declaration of br br Human Rights was written. br br The Declaration of Human Rights states that, all human beings are br br born free and equal in dignity and rights. The General Assembly of the United Nations adopted this declaration. It declares: br br i Civil and political rights br br ii Cultural rights br br iii Economic rights br br iv Social rights br br 1. br br Civil and political rights The aliens are protected from expulsion. People are prevented from being forced to testify against themselves or confess their guilt. It also provides for a right to be compensated in case of misuse or error of justice. There is prohibition of racial or religious hatred and ban of wars. Lastly, protection of ethnic, religious or different language minorities is provided. br br 2. br br Cultural Rights, Economic Rights and Social Rights The rights included here are the right to work, the right to education, the right to form trade unions, the right to strike, the right to participate in cultural life, the right to have an adequate standard of living, the right to social security, the right to fair and favourable conditions of work and the rights of minorities. 2. Nobody should be enslaved. br br 3. All human beings are born free and equal. br br 4. All people have a right to life and liberty. br br 5. All people have a right to freedom of association and assembly. br br 6. br br Any person charged with an offence must be presumed innocent until proved guilty in a court of law. br br Every person has a right to own property. No property should be taken away without proper compensation. br br Every person is entitled with the right to a fair hearing by an impartial and independent court. br br The right to freedom of movement within ones country is provided. br br 10. Anybody has a right to seek refuge in another country for political br br reasons. br br 11. Anybody has a right to freedom of expression speech . br br 12. Anybody has a right to belong to a particular nation. One can also change br br his nationality if he wants. br br 13. All people are equal before the law. br br 14. Anybody is allowed to marry another person and start a family br br irrespective of their nationality, religion, colour or race. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights document is important because: br br i br br It provides an international standard by which governments can be judged on issues of human rights so that they can be accused of violating them and therefore be cut off internationally or certain sanctions put in place to punish them. br br ii br br It encourages some countries to form regional blocs so as to be able to introduce and protect human rights. The rights of the child br br Children like any other human beings are entitled to certain rights that provide special protection to them. Children differ from adults in that they have limited capabilities. For this reason they require protection and support of adults. br br The rights of children are contained in the United Nations Convention on br br the Rights of the Child. br br The Childrens Act in Kenya was passed by Parliament in the year 2002. br br It contained a number of rights for children. Some of them are as below: br br 1. br br Right to life Every child is entitled to the right to life. The parents and the government should therefore ensure that the children grow up without any obstacles that may affect their lives. br br 2. br br Right to education Children have a right to be educated. The parents must therefore ensure that their children obtain basic primary education that is now free. The government is ensuring that successful primary school pupils acquire secondary school education by providing bursary funds to students from poor families. br br 3. br br Protection from exploitation Children can easily be exploited as cheap labour. There should be regulations that protect children against exploitation. Children should not be forced to do any work that is likely to negatively affect them morally, physically and mentally. Protection from discrimination Children should be protected against various kinds of discrimination such as being discriminated on the bases of colour, race, religion, sex and many others. br br Right to good medical care Parents and the government should ensure that children are provided with medical care. For instance they can be vaccinated against certain diseases. Specialists for treating children should also be available. br br Right to religious guidance The parents should guide their children on how to practice their religion and also instruct them on religious matters. Protection from sexual abuse Children should be protected from rape and from being given money in exchange for sex by adults. br br 8. br br Right to basic requirements like food, shelter and clothing Children have a right to be provided with food, shelter and clothing by their parents. In times of famine, the government should provide children with food if their parents are not able to do so. br br Right to adoption The government has put in place guidelines on the way adoption should be done. br br 10. Right to play br br Children should be allowed to play. It is when they play that they make discoveries and also settle their minds. Playing also enables them to socialise with others. iv Development and group rights br br Political and civil rights Political and civil rights are generally referred to as Civil rights or Fundamental rights, freedoms and protections. br br They enable individuals to follow their values and interests. They provide br br individuals with basic freedoms. Examples of civil rights are: br br i The right to life br br ii The right to personal liberty br br iii Freedom of expression br br iv Freedom of conscience br br v Freedom of association and assembly br br vi Freedom of movement br br vii Freedom of discrimination br br viii Protection against slavery and forced labour br br ix Protection from arbitrary search and entry br br x Right to the secure protection of law. br br Social and cultural rights They provide people with social freedom and basic needs such as education and health. They also provide people with the right to take part in cultural activities. They encourage fair treatment of all citizens and discourage inhuman treatment and interference with ones body, premises or private life therefore ensuring security to the people. Examples of social and cultural rights are: br br i Right to education br br ii Right to start a family or marry br br iii Right to health or medical care br br iv Right to housing or good shelter v Right to good food br br vi Right to good clothing br br vii Right to play and leisure br br viii Right to social security br br ix Right to parental love br br x Right to association br br xi Protection from discrimination, sexual abuse, drugs and disaster. br br Economic rights These provide people with economic freedom. They enable people to take part in the economic activities freely without harassment. Economic rights provide people with the right to own and use property and the chance to work and provide for their livelihood. They also provide people with the right to freedom from forced labour and slavery. Examples of economic rights are: br br i Right to form and become a trade union member br br ii Right to own property br br iii Right to work and to fair judgement br br iv Right to start and operate a business br br v Right to form and join a trade union br br Developmental and group rights These help people to have better life. One of the ways of having a better life is living in a clean environment which is free from all forms of pollution for instance excessive noise, excessive fumes and smoke, bad smell from rotting objects and contaminated water due to careless dumping of pollutants. Group rights represent a specific group of people. Examples of development and group rights are: iii The right to development br br iv The right of persons with disabilities br br v The right of minorities br br In conclusion, it is vital to note that the new government which took over leadership after 2002 immediately began addressing itself to the issue of discrimination against women and other minorities which is an important issue on human rights. For decades women and womens groups have been disadvantaged yet they contribute greatly to the economy of the country. br br There were also other groups that are marginalised on the basis of gender, br br disability, age, customs and traditions. br br The new government responded positively after power was handed over by the previous regime by taking Affirmative action measures to accelerate equality and reverse discrimination which resulted to nomination of more women to parliament after the general election. br br It is hoped that the government will continue to encourage fairness to both genders in the assignment of responsibilities and leadership roles as well as making opportunities available for the marginalised groups. By so doing, there will be fair sharing, distribut