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# Sonic analog of gravitational black holes in Bose-Einstein condensates

## Abstract

It is shown that, in dilute-gas Bose-Einstein condensates, there exist both dynamically stable and unstable configurations which, in the hydrodynamic limit, exhibit a behavior resembling that of gravitational black holes. The dynamical instabilities involve creation of quasiparticle pairs in positive and negative energy states, as in the well-known suggested mechanism for black hole evaporation. We propose a scheme to generate a stable sonic black hole in a ring trap.

Many investigations of dilute gas Bose-Einstein condensates are directed towards experimentally creating nontrivial configurations of the semiclassical mean field, or to predicting the properties of such configurations in the presence of quantum fluctuations. Such problems are hardly peculiar to condensates, but ultracold dilute gases are so easy to manipulate and control, both experimentally  and theoretically , that they may allow us to analyze less amenable systems by analogy. As an essay in such an application of condensates, in this paper we discuss the theoretical framework and propose an experiment to create the analog of a black hole in the laboratory and simulate its radiative instabilities.

The hydrodynamic analog of an event horizon  was suggested originally by Unruh  as a more accessible phenomenon which might shed some light on the Hawking effect  (thermal radiation from black holes, stationary insofar as backreaction is negligible) and, in particular, on the role of ultrahigh frequencies . An event horizon for sound waves appears in principle wherever there is a closed surface through which a fluid flows inwards at the speed of sound, the flow being subsonic on one side of the surface and supersonic on the other. There is a close analogy between sound propagation on a background hydrodynamic flow, and field propagation in a curved spacetime; and although hydrodynamics is only a long-wavelength effective theory for physical (super)fluids, so also field theory in curved spacetime is to be considered a long-wavelength approximation to quantum gravity . Determining whether and how sonic black holes radiate sound, in a full calculation beyond the hydrodynamic approximation or in an actual experiment, can thus offer some suggestions about black hole radiance and its sensitivity to high frequency physics.

The basic challenge of our proposal is to keep the trapped Bose-Einstein gas sufficiently cold and well isolated to maintain a locally supersonic flow long enough to observe its intrinsic dynamics. Detecting thermal phonons radiating from the horizons would obviously be a difficult additional problem, since such radiation would be indistinguishable from many other possible heating effects. This further difficulty does not arise in our proposal, however, because the black-hole radiation we predict is, unlike Hawking radiation, not quasistationary, but grows exponentially under appropriate conditions. It should therefore be observable in the next generation of atom traps.

A Bose-Einstein condensate is the ground state of a second quantized many body Hamiltonian for $`N`$ interacting bosons trapped by an external potential $`V_{\mathrm{ext}}(𝐱)`$ . At zero temperature, when the number of atoms is large and the atomic interactions are sufficiently small, almost all the atoms are in the same single-particle quantum state $`\mathrm{\Psi }(𝐱,t)`$, even if the system is slightly perturbed. The evolution of $`\mathrm{\Psi }`$ is then given by the well-known Gross-Pitaevskii equation

$$i\mathrm{}_t\mathrm{\Psi }=\left(\frac{\mathrm{}^2}{2m}^2+V_{\mathrm{ext}}+\frac{4\pi a\mathrm{}^2}{m}|\mathrm{\Psi }|^2\right)\mathrm{\Psi },$$

where $`m`$ is the mass of the atoms, $`a`$ is the scattering length, and we normalize to the total number of atoms $`d^3𝐱|\mathrm{\Psi }(𝐱,t)|^2=N`$.

Our purposes do not require solving the Gross-Pitaevskii equation with some given external potential $`V_{\mathrm{ext}}(𝐱)`$; our concern is the propagation of small collective perturbations of the condensate, around a background stationary state $`\mathrm{\Psi }_s(𝐱,t)=\sqrt{\rho (𝐱)}e^{i\vartheta (𝐱)}e^{i\mu t/\mathrm{}},`$ where $`\mu `$ is the chemical potential. Thus it is only necessary that it be possible, in any external potential that can be generated, to create a condensate in this state. Many realistic techniques for “quantum state engineering,” to create designer potentials and bring condensates into specific states, have been proposed, and even implemented successfully ; our simulations indicate that currently known techniques should suffice to generate the condensate states that we propose.

Perturbations about the stationary state $`\mathrm{\Psi }_s(𝐱,t)`$ obey the Bogoliubov system of two coupled second order differential equations. Within the regime of validity of the hydrodynamic (Thomas-Fermi) approximation , these two equations for the density perturbation $`\varrho `$ and the phase perturbation $`\varphi `$ in terms of the local speed of sound $`c(𝐱)\frac{\mathrm{}}{m}\sqrt{4\pi a\rho (𝐱)},`$ and the background stationary velocity $`𝐯\frac{\mathrm{}}{m}\vartheta `$ read

$$\dot{\varrho }=(\frac{m}{4\pi a\mathrm{}}c^2\varphi +𝐯\varrho ),\dot{\varphi }=𝐯\varphi \frac{4\pi a\mathrm{}}{m}\varrho .$$

Furthermore, low frequency perturbations are essentially just waves of (zero) sound. Indeed, the Bogoliubov equations may be reduced to a single second order equation for the condensate phase perturbation $`\varphi `$. This differential equation has the form of a relativistic wave equation $`_\mu (\sqrt{g}g^{\mu \nu }_\nu \varphi )=0`$, with $`g=detg_{\mu \nu }`$, in an effective curved spacetime with the metric $`g_{\mu \nu }`$ being entirely determined by the local speed of sound $`c`$ and the background stationary velocity $`𝐯`$. Up to a conformal factor, this effective metric has the form

$$(g_{\mu \nu })=\left(\begin{array}{cc}(c^2𝐯^2)& 𝐯^\mathrm{T}\\ 𝐯& \mathrm{𝟏}\end{array}\right).$$

This class of metrics can possess event horizons. For instance, if an effective sink for atoms is generated at the center of a spherical trap (such as by an atom laser out-coupling technique ), and if the radial potential profile is suitably arranged, we can produce densities $`\rho (r)`$ and flow velocities $`𝐯(𝐱)=v(r)𝐫/r`$ such that the quantity $`c^2𝐯^2`$ vanishes at a radius $`r=r_h`$, being negative inside and positive outside. The sphere at radius $`r_h`$ is a sonic event horizon completely analogous to those appearing in gravitational black holes, in the sense that sonic perturbations cannot propagate through this surface in the outward direction . The physical mechanism of the sonic black hole is quite simple: inside the horizon, the background flow speed $`v`$ is larger than the local speed of sound $`c`$, and so sound waves are dragged inwards.

In fact there are two conditions which must hold for this dragged sound picture to be accurate. Wavelengths larger than the black hole itself will of course not be dragged in, but merely diffracted around it. And perturbations must have wavelengths $`\lambda 2\pi \xi ,2\pi \xi /\sqrt{|1v/c|}`$, where $`\xi (𝐱)\mathrm{}/[mc(𝐱)]`$ is the local healing length. Otherwise they do not behave as sound waves since they lie outside the regime of validity of the hydrodynamic approximation. These short-wavelength modes must be described by the full Bogoliubov equations, which allow signals to propagate faster than the local sound speed, and thus permit escape from sonic black holes. Even if such an intermediate range of wavelengths does exist, the modes outside it may still affect the stability of the black hole as discussed below.

As it stands, this description is incomplete. The condensate flows continually inwards and therefore at $`r=0`$ there must be a sink that takes atoms out of the condensate. Otherwise, the continuity equation $`(\rho 𝐯)=0`$, which must hold for stationary configurations, will be violated. We have analyzed several specific systems which may be suitable theoretical models for future experiments, and have found that the qualitative behavior is analogous in all of them. Black holes which require atom sinks are both theoretically and experimentally more involved, however; moreover, maintaining a steady transonic flow into a sink may require either a very large condensate or some means of replenishment. We will therefore discuss here an alternative configuration which may be experimentally more accessible and whose description is particularly simple: a condensate in a very thin ring that effectively behaves as a periodic one-dimensional system. Under conditions that we will discuss, the supersonic region in a ring may be bounded by two horizons: a black hole horizon through which phonons cannot exit, and a “white hole” horizon through which they cannot enter.

In a sufficiently tight ring-shaped external potential of radius $`R`$, motion in radial ($`r`$) and axial ($`z`$) cylindrical coordinates is effectively frozen. We can then write the wave function as $`\mathrm{\Psi }(z,r,\theta ,\tau )=f(z,r)\mathrm{\Phi }(\theta ,\tau )`$ and normalize $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$ to the number of atoms in the condensate $`_0^{2\pi }𝑑\theta |\mathrm{\Phi }(\theta )|^2=N`$, where with the azimuthal coordinate $`\theta `$ we have introduced the dimensionless time $`\tau =\frac{\mathrm{}}{mR^2}t`$. The Gross-Pitaevskii equation thus becomes effectively one-dimensional:

$$i_\tau \mathrm{\Phi }=\left(\frac{1}{2}_\theta ^2+𝒱_{\mathrm{ext}}+\frac{𝒰}{N}|\mathrm{\Phi }|^2\right)\mathrm{\Phi },$$
(1)
where $`𝒰4\pi aNR^2𝑑z𝑑rr|f(z,r)|^4`$ and $`𝒱_{\mathrm{ext}}(\theta )`$ is the dimensionless effective potential (in which we have already included the chemical potential) that results from the dimensional reduction. The stationary solution can then be written as $`\mathrm{\Phi }_s(\theta ,\tau )=\sqrt{\rho (\theta )}e^{i{\scriptscriptstyle 𝑑\theta v(\theta )}}`$ and the local dimensionless angular speed of sound as $`c(\theta )=\sqrt{𝒰\rho (\theta )/N}`$. Periodic boundary conditions around the ring require the “winding number” $`w\frac{1}{2\pi }_0^{2\pi }𝑑\theta v(\theta )`$ to be an integer.

The qualitative behavior of horizons in a ring is well represented by the two-parameter family of condensate densities

$$\rho (\theta )=\frac{N}{2\pi }(1+b\mathrm{cos}\theta ),$$

where $`b[0,1]`$. Continuity, $`_\theta (\rho v)=0`$, then determines the dimensionless flow-velocity field

$$v(\theta )=\frac{𝒰w\sqrt{1b^2}}{2\pi c(\theta )^2},$$

which depends on $`w`$ as a third discrete independent parameter. Requiring that $`\mathrm{\Phi }_s(\theta ,\tau )`$ be a stationary solution to Gross-Pitaevskii equation then determines how the trapping potential must be modulated as a function of $`\theta `$. All the properties of the condensate, including whether and where it has sonic horizons, and whether or not they are stable, are thus functions of $`𝒰`$, $`b`$ and $`w`$. For instance, if we require that the horizons be located at $`\theta _h=\pm \pi /2`$, which imposes the relation $`𝒰=2\pi w^2(1b^2)`$, then we must have $`c^2v^2`$ positive for $`\theta (\pi /2,\pi /2)`$, zero at $`\theta _h=\pm \pi /2`$, and negative otherwise, provided that $`𝒰<2\pi w^2`$. The further requirement that perturbations on wavelengths shorter than the inner and the outer regions are indeed phononic implies $`𝒰2\pi `$, which in turn requires $`w1`$ and $`1b1/w^2`$. In fact, detailed analysis shows that $`w5`$ is sufficient.

A black hole solution should also be stable over sufficiently long time scales in order to be physically realizable. Since stability must be checked for perturbations on all wavelengths, the full Bogoliubov  spectrum must be determined. For large black holes within infinite condensates, this Bogoliubov problem may be solved using WKB methods that closely resemble those used for solving relativistic field theories in true black hole spacetimes . The results are also qualitatively similar to those we have found for black holes in finite traps, where we have resorted to numerical methods because, in these cases, WKB techniques may fail for just those modes which threaten to be unstable.

Our numerical approach for our three-parameter family of black/white holes in the ring-shaped condensate has been to write the Bogoliubov equations in discrete Fourier space, and then truncate the resulting infinite-dimensional eigenvalue problem. Writing the wave funtion as $`\mathrm{\Phi }=\mathrm{\Phi }_s+\phi e^{i{\scriptscriptstyle 𝑑\theta v(\theta )}}`$, decomposing the perturbation $`\phi `$ in discrete modes

$`\phi (\theta ,\tau )=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{\omega ,n}{}}e^{i\omega \tau }e^{in\theta }A_{\omega ,n}u_{\omega ,n}(\theta )`$ (3)
$`+e^{i\omega ^{}\tau }e^{in\theta }A_{\omega ,n}^{}v_{\omega ,n}^{}(\theta ),`$
and substituting into the Gross-Pitaevskii equation, we obtain the following equation for the modes $`u_{\omega ,n}`$ and $`v_{\omega ,n}`$:

$$\omega \left(\begin{array}{c}u_{\omega ,n}\\ v_{\omega ,n}\end{array}\right)=\underset{p}{}\left(\begin{array}{cc}h_{np}^+& f_{np}\\ f_{np}& h_{np}^{}\end{array}\right)\left(\begin{array}{c}u_{\omega ,p}\\ v_{\omega ,p}\end{array}\right).$$

In this equation,

$`f_{np}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{𝒰}{2\pi }}\left(\delta _{n,p}+{\displaystyle \frac{b}{2}}\delta _{n,p+1}+{\displaystyle \frac{b}{2}}\delta _{n,p1}\right),`$ (4)
$`h_{np}^\pm `$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}(n+p)w\sqrt{1b^2}\alpha _{np}`$ (5)
$`\pm `$ $`\left(f_{np}+{\displaystyle \frac{4n^21}{8}}\delta _{n,p}+{\displaystyle \frac{1b^2}{8}}\beta _{np}\right),`$ (6)
$`\alpha _i`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{j|i|,i+j\mathrm{even}}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}\left({\displaystyle \frac{b}{2}}\right)^j\left(\begin{array}{c}j\\ (i+j)/2\end{array}\right),`$ (9)
$`\beta _i`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{j|i|,i+j\mathrm{even}}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}\left({\displaystyle \frac{b}{2}}\right)^j\left(\begin{array}{c}j\\ (i+j)/2\end{array}\right)(j+1).`$ (12)
Eliminating Fourier components above a sufficiently high cutoff $`Q`$ has negligible effect on possible instabilities, which can be shown to occur at relatively long wavelengths. The numerical solution to this eigenvalue equation, together with the normalization condition $`𝑑\theta (u_{\omega ^{},n}^{}u_{\omega ^{},n^{}}v_{\omega ^{},n}^{}v_{\omega ^{},n^{}})=\delta _{nn^{}}\delta _{\omega \omega ^{}}`$, provides the allowed frequencies. Real negative eigenfrequencies for modes of positive norm are always present, which means that black hole configurations are energetically unstable, as expected. This feature is inherent in supersonic flow, since the speed of sound is also the Landau critical velocity. In a sufficiently cold and dilute condensate, however, the time scale for dissipation may in principle be made very long, and so these energetic instabilities need not be problematic .

More serious are dynamical instabilities, which occur for modes with complex eigenfrequencies and are genuine physical phenomena. For sufficently high values of the cutoff (e.g., $`Q25`$ in our calculations), the complex eigenfrequencies obtained from the truncated eigenvalue problem become independent of the cutoff within the numerical error. The existence and rapidity of dynamical instabilities depend sensitively on $`(𝒰,b,w)`$. For instance, see Fig. 1 for a contour plot of the maximum of the absolute values of the imaginary parts of all eigenfrequencies for $`w=7`$, showing that the regions of instability are long, thin fingers in the $`(𝒰,b)`$ plane. Not shown in the figure is the important fact that the size of the imaginary parts, which gives the rate of the instabilities, increases starting from zero, quite rapidly with $`b`$, although they remain small as compared with the real parts.

The stability diagram of Fig. 1 suggests a strategy for creating a sonic black hole from an initial stable state. Within the upper subsonic region, the vertical axis $`b=0`$ corresponds to a homogeneous persistent current in a ring, which can in principle be created using different techniques . Gradually changing $`𝒰`$ and $`b`$, it is possible to move from such an initial state to a black/white hole state, along a path lying almost entirely within the stable region, and passing only briefly through instabilities where they are sufficiently small to cause no difficulty.

Indeed, we have simulated this process of adiabatic creation of a sonic black/white hole by solving numerically (using the split operator method) the time-dependent Gross-Pitaevskii equation (1) that provides the evolution of the condensate when the parameters of the trapping potential change so as to move the condensate state along various paths in parameter space. One of these paths is shown in Fig. 1 (light-grey solid line): we start with a current at $`w=7`$, $`b=0`$, and sufficiently high $`𝒰`$; we then increase $`b`$ adiabatically keeping $`𝒰`$ fixed until an appropriate value is reached; finally, keeping $`b`$ constant, we decrease $`𝒰`$ adiabatically (which can be physically implemented by decreasing the radius of the ring trap), until we meet the dashed contour for black holes of comfortable size. Our simulations confirm that the small instabilities which briefly appear in the process of creation do not disrupt the adiabatic evolution. The final quantum state of the condensate, obtained by this procedure, indeed represents a stable black/white hole. We have further checked the stability of this final configuration by numerically solving the Gross-Pitaevskii equation (1) for very long periods of time (as compared with any characteristic time scale of the condensate) and for fixed values of the trap parameters. This evolution reflects the fact that no complex frequencies are present, as predicted from the mode analysis, and that the final state is stationary.

Once the black/white hole has been created, one could further change the parameters $`(𝒰,b)`$ so as to move between the unstable “fingers” into a stable region of higher $`b`$ (a deeper hole); or one could deliberately enter an unstable region. In the latter case, the black hole should disappear in an explosion of phonons, which may be easy to detect experimentally. Such an event might be related to the evaporation process suggested for real black holes in the sense that pairs of quasiparticles are created near the horizon in both positive and negative energy modes. The Hermiticity of the Bogoliubov Hamiltonian implies that eigenmodes with complex frequencies appear always in dual pairs, whose frequencies are complex conjugate. In the language of second quantization, the linearized Hamiltonian for each such pair has the form

$$H=\underset{n}{}(\omega A_{\omega ^{},n}^{}A_{\omega ,n}+\omega ^{}A_{\omega ,n}^{}A_{\omega ^{},n}),$$

and the only nonvanishing commutators among these operators are $`[A_{\omega ,n},A_{\omega ^{},n^{}}^{}]=\delta _{nn^{}}`$. It is then clear that none of these operators is actually a harmonic oscillator creation or annihilation operator in the usual sense. However, the linear combinations (note that $`A_{\omega ^{},n}^{}A_{\omega ,n}^{}`$)

$$a_n=\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}(A_{\omega ,n}+A_{\omega ^{},n}),b_n=\frac{i}{\sqrt{2}}(A_{\omega ,n}^{}+A_{\omega ^{},n}^{})$$

and their Hermitian conjugates are true annihilation and creation operators, with the standard commutation relations, and in terms of these the Bogoliubov Hamiltonian becomes

$$H=\underset{n}{}\left[\mathrm{Re}(\omega )(a_n^{}a_nb_n^{}b_n)\mathrm{Im}(\omega )(a_n^{}b_n^{}+a_nb_n)\right],$$

which obviously leads to self-amplifying creation of positive and negative frequency pairs. Evaporation through an exponentially self-amplifying instability is not equivalent, however, to the usual kind of Hawking radiation ; this issue will be discussed in detail elsewhere.

Trapped bosons at ultralow temperature can provide an analog to a black-hole spacetime. Similar analogs have been proposed in other contexts, such as superfluid helium , solid state physics , and optics ; but the outstanding recent experimental progress in cooling, manipulating and controlling atoms  makes Bose-Einstein condensates an especially powerful tool for this kind of investigation. We have analyzed in detail the case of a condensate in a ring trap, and proposed a realistic scheme for adiabatically creating stable sonic black/white holes.

We thank the Austrian Science Foundation and the European Union TMR networks ERBFMRX–CT96–0002 and ERB–FMRX–CT96–0087.

Note added.— Further details as well as the study of cigar shaped condensates with atom sinks at the center will appear in Ref. .


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# Untitled Document

Some low energy effects of a light stabilized radion

in the Randall-Sundrum model

Uma Mahanta, Mehta Research Institute

Chhatnag Road, Jhusi, Allahabad-211019, India

and

Subhendu Rakshit, Department of Physics

University of Calcutta, Calcutta-700009, India

Abstract

In this paper we study some of the low energy effects of a light stabilized radion field in the Randall-Sundrum scenario. We find that the NLC 500 with its projected precision level will be able to probe the radion contribution to $`\kappa _v`$ and $`\lambda _v`$ for values of $`\varphi `$ up to 500 Gev. On the other hand the BNL E821 experiment will be able to test the radion contribution to $`a_\mu `$ for $`\varphi `$= 1 Tev and $`m_\varphi m_\mu `$. We have also shown that the higgs-radion mixing induces a 2.6% correction in the WWh coupling. Finally by comparing the radionstralung process with the higgsstralung process we have found that the LEPI bound of 60 Gev on the higgs mass based on $`Zhl\overline{l}`$ decay mode suggests a lower bound of about 35 Gev on the radion mass.

PACS numbers: 11.10Kk, 04.50+h, 12.10 Dm.

Key words: Theories in Extra dimension, Precision tests, Radion phenomenology.

Recently Goldberger and Wise  have shown that the separation between the branes in the Randall-Sundrum (R-S) scenario  can be stabilised by a bulk scalar field. They also showed  that if the large value of $`kr_c12`$ that is necessary for solving the heirarchy problem arises from a small bulk scalar mass term then the modulus potential is nearly flat near its minimum. The R-S scenario therefore predicts a modulus field which is much lighter than the Kaluza-Klein excitations of the bulk fields which usually lie in the Tev range. The modulus field is therefore expected to be the first experimental signal of R-S model. Its couplings to ordinary fields on the visible brane is suppressed by the Tev scale and completely determined by general covariance. Although the radion vev is more or less well determined in the R-S scenario its mass is an almost free parameter. It turns out to be much lighter than 1 Tev only if the mass of the bulk scalar field that stabilizes the modulus is smaller than 1 Tev. It is the purpose of this paper to investigate what bounds can be derived on the radion vev and particularly its mass from precision tests and direct searches at $`e^+e^{}`$ collider.

The couplings of the modulus field $`\varphi `$ to ordinary matter on the visible brane is given by

$$L_I=\frac{T_\mu ^\mu }{\varphi }\stackrel{~}{\varphi }.$$
$`(1)`$
where $`\varphi `$ is expanded about its vev as $`\varphi =\stackrel{~}{\varphi }+\varphi `$. In the context of the SM, ignoring the contribution of the higgs sector, we have $`T_\mu ^\mu =_fm_f\overline{f}f+2m_z^2Z^\mu Z_\mu +2m_w^2W^\mu W_\mu `$. The couplings of $`\stackrel{~}{\varphi }`$ to SM fields are therefore suppressed by $`\varphi `$ which is in the Tev range. Since conformal invariance is broken explicitly by the mass of the SM fields, the effects of $`\stackrel{~}{\varphi }`$ on low energy phenomenology ( i.e. much below the Kaluza-Klein excitations) can become appreciable only if the SM fields involved are quite heavy and lie in the few hundred Gev range. In discussing the low energy phenomenology of the radion we shall consider particularly those processes that involve the couplings of $`\stackrel{~}{\varphi }`$ to the heavy SM fields e.g. Z, W and t.

Loop induced virtual effects

Let us first consider the effects of $`\stackrel{~}{\varphi }`$ through loop induced radiative corrections which can be tested through high precision tests. In this category we shall discuss the effect of $`\stackrel{~}{\varphi }`$ on anomalous $`W^+W^{}\gamma `$, $`W^+W^{}Z`$ couplings and the renormalization of $`Zt_R\overline{t}_R`$ coupling. Besides we shall also consider the radion contribution to the magnetic moment anomaly of the muon. Unless stated otherwise we shall assume that $`\varphi `$= 1 Tev.

i) Anomalous magnetic moment of W boson: The anomalous magnetic moment of W boson is given by the operator

$$L_{WWV}=ie\kappa _vW_\mu ^+W^{}\nu V^{\mu \nu }.$$
$`(2)`$
where $`V^{\mu \nu }=^\mu V^\nu ^\nu V^\mu `$ and V=A, Z. $`\kappa _v`$ is the anomalous magnetic moment of the W boson. The value of $`\kappa _v`$ arising from SM interactions at one loop is of the order of $`6\times 10^3`$. The radion contribution to $`\kappa _v`$ arises from only one diagram. After pulling out one momentum corresponding to the incoming $`\gamma `$ or Z the remaining scalar integration can be evaluated by naive power counting. For $`m_\varphi m_w`$ the integral gets most of its contribution from loop momenta of order $`m_W`$ and is given by $`I(m_\varphi ^2,m_w^2)\frac{1}{16\pi ^2m_w^2}f(\frac{m_\varphi ^2}{m_w^2})`$ where $`f(\mu ^2)=_0^1x^2\frac{x^2x+2+\frac{\mu ^2}{2}(1x)}{x^2+\mu ^2(1x)}`$ and $`\mu =\frac{m_\varphi }{m_w}`$. For $`m_\varphi m_w`$ the radion contribution to $`\kappa _v`$ is therefore given by $`\kappa _v^{\stackrel{~}{\varphi }}\frac{1}{16\pi ^2}\frac{m_w^2}{\varphi ^2}f(\frac{m_\varphi ^2}{m_w^2})3.7\times 10^4`$. The anomalous magnetic moment of the W boson arising from radion exchange is therefore roughly one order of magnitude smaller than that from SM processes. The size of the above radiative correction however decreases inversely as $`\varphi ^2`$. Thus for $`\varphi =`$ 500 Gev the value of $`\kappa _v^{\stackrel{~}{\varphi }}`$ increases to $`1.5\times 10^3`$. However the dependence of $`\kappa _v^{\stackrel{~}{\varphi }}`$ on $`\frac{m_\varphi ^2}{m_w^2}`$ is almost flat over the entire range of the variable and therefore no useful bound on $`m_\varphi `$ can be obtained.

ii) Electric quadrupole moment of W boson: The electric quadrupole moment of the W boson is given by the operator

$$L_{WWV}=ie\frac{\lambda _v}{m_w^2}W_{\lambda \mu }^+W_\nu ^\mu V^{\nu \lambda }.$$
$`(3)`$
.

In SM $`\lambda _v`$ is zero at tree level. As in the case of $`\kappa _v`$ the radion contribution to $`\lambda _v`$ arises from only one diagram. To evaluate the electric quadrupole moment of the W boson arising from radion exchange we need to extract three momenta corresponding to the three external gauge bosons outside the loop integral. The remaining integral can be shown to converge as $`\frac{1}{m_w^4}g(\frac{m_\varphi ^2}{m_w^2})`$. The radion contribution to $`\lambda _v`$ is therefore given by $`\lambda _v\frac{1}{16\pi ^2}\frac{m_w^2}{\varphi ^2}g(\frac{m_\varphi ^2}{m_w^2})(1.63.2)\times 10^4`$ where we have taken $`g(x)`$ to lie between 1 and 2. At one loop order SM processes gives rise to a $`\lambda _v`$ that is of order $`5\times 10^3`$. The modulus contribution to $`\lambda _v`$ is therefore suppressed relative to the SM contribution by one order of magnitude.

The sensitivity reach of different colliders for measuring $`\kappa _v`$ and $`\lambda _v`$ have been estimated by several working groups. These studies  indicate that LEPII with a design luminosity of 500 pb-1 will be able to measure $`\kappa _v`$ and $`\lambda _v`$ with a precision of a few times $`10^2`$. On the other hand NLC 500 with a design luminosity of 10 fb-1 will be able to reach precision levels of about $`10^3`$ which will enable it to probe the radion contributions for $`\varphi `$ up to 500 Gev. If $`\varphi `$ lies in the few Tev range then NLC 500 will not be able to probe the radion contribution to $`\kappa _v`$ and $`\lambda _v`$. However we have seen that increasing the center of mass energy from 200 Gev to 500 Gev enhances the sensitivity reach for measuring $`\kappa _v`$ and $`\lambda _v`$ by one order of magnitude. Hence a multi Tev $`e^+e^{}`$ collider with a very high luminosity may be able to probe the small radion contribution to $`\kappa _v`$ and $`\lambda _v`$ for $`\varphi `$ = 1 Tev.

iii) Effect of $`\stackrel{~}{\varphi }`$ on the renormalization of $`Zt\overline{t}`$ couplings: The radion contribution on the renormalization of $`Zt\overline{t}`$ couplings is important because top quark is by far the heaviest known particle and has the strongest coupling to the radion. The stabilized modulus of Golberger and Wise is expected to be lighter than 1 Tev and therefore it would contribute to the renormalization of Zt$`\overline{t}`$ coupling from $`m_t`$ to 1 Tev. There are two distinct vertex correction diagrams due to $`\stackrel{~}{\varphi }`$ exchange. The dominant diagram involves the exchange of $`\stackrel{~}{\varphi }`$ between the outgoing $`t_R`$ and $`\overline{t}_R`$. The vertex renormalization constant corresponding to this diagram is given by $`Z_v^1=1\frac{1}{32\pi ^2}\mathrm{ln}\frac{q^2}{m_t^2}\frac{g_L^t}{g_R^t}(\frac{m_t}{\varphi })^2`$ where q is the momentum of the incoming Z boson, $`g_L^t=\frac{1}{2}\frac{2}{3}\mathrm{sin}^2\theta _w`$ and $`g_R^t=\frac{2}{3}\mathrm{sin}^2\theta _w`$. In the second diagram Z goes into virtual $`\stackrel{~}{\varphi }`$ and $`Z`$ which then exchanges a top quark to produce a $`t_R`$, $`\overline{t}_R`$ pair in the final state. This diagram involves a chirality flip through a mass insertion on the internal top quark line. The renormalization constant corresponding to this diagram does not involve a leading log term and therefore it does not contribute to the renormalization of $`Zt\overline{t}`$ couplings. The self energy correction of Z due to $`\stackrel{~}{\varphi }`$ produces only a mass renormalization of Z but no wavefunction renormalization. The wavefunction renormalization of $`t_R`$ arising from $`\stackrel{~}{\varphi }`$ exchange is given by $`Z_{t_R}=1+\frac{1}{32\pi ^2}(\frac{m_t}{\varphi })^2\mathrm{ln}\frac{q^2}{m_t^2}`$. The effect of a light radion on the renormalization of $`g_R^t`$ from $`m_t^2`$ to $`q^2=(1000Gev)^2`$ is therefore given by

$$\frac{[g_R^t(q)]_{RS}}{[g_R^t(q)]_{SM}}=1+(1\frac{g_L^t}{g_R^t})(\frac{m_t}{\varphi })^2\frac{1}{32\pi ^2}\mathrm{ln}\frac{q^2}{m_t^2}.$$
$`(4)`$
where we have assumed that $`g_R^t(m_t)_{RS}=g_R^t(m_t)_{SM}=g_R^t(m_t)_{expt}`$. The presence of an extra light field ($`\stackrel{~}{\varphi }`$) in the RS scenario causes the renormalization of $`g_R^t`$ to deviate from that in the SM by .1% for $`\varphi `$= 1 Tev. The splitting increases to .004% for $`\varphi `$=500 Gev. This effect is of the same magnitude as the radiative corrections due to ordinary QED processes and it might be possible to detect this effect at a multi Tev scale $`e^+e^{}`$ collider. Note that the splitting between $`[g_R^t(q)]_{RS}`$ and $`[g_R^t(q)]_{SM}`$ increases logarithmically with the high energy scale at which they are compared.

iv) The muon magnetic moment anomaly: Although the muon coupling to the radion is small the muon magnetic moment anomaly is an extremely well measured quantity. The present experimental value of $`a_\mu `$ is given by

$$a_\mu ^{exp}=(116592.30\pm .8)\times 10^8$$
$`(5)`$
The extremely high precision with which $`a_\mu `$ can be measured compensates for the low radion coupling strength to the muon. The radion contribution to the muon anomaly arises from only one diagram and is given by

$$a_\mu ^{\stackrel{~}{\varphi }}=\frac{1}{4\pi ^2}(\frac{m_\mu }{\varphi })^2_0^1𝑑x\frac{x^2(2x)}{x^2+r(1x)}.$$
$`(6)`$
where $`r=(\frac{m_{\stackrel{~}{\varphi }}}{m_\mu })^2`$ is a free parameter. An upper bound on $`a_\mu ^{\stackrel{~}{\varphi }}`$ can be obtained by setting r=0. In this limit we get $`a_\mu ^{\stackrel{~}{\varphi }}4.4\times 10^{10}`$. This value should be compared with the present experimental precision of $`10^8`$ in measuring $`a_\mu `$. The BNL experiment (E821) hopes to lower the error the error down to $`4\times 10^{10}`$. At that level it will be able to probe the small radion contribution to $`a_\mu `$. As $`\frac{m_\varphi ^2}{m_\mu ^2}`$ becomes much greater than one the value of $`a_\mu ^{\stackrel{~}{\varphi }}`$ decreases from the above estimate. However for all $`m_\varphi m_w`$ the dependence of $`a_\mu ^{\stackrel{~}{\varphi }}`$ on $`m_\varphi `$ is almost flat. So even with the BNL precision neither a sharp nor a useful bound can be put on $`m_\varphi `$. It is worth noting that the bound from muon anomaly experiments are relevant only for very light radion ($`m_\varphi m_\mu `$). For such low radion mass the stabilization of the modulus is very weak.

iv) Radiative mixing between the radion and the higgs: Since the couplings of the radion and the higgs boson to SM particles are similar in structure they can mix through loop corrections. The dominant correction comes from the top loop because of a color factor and its large yukawa coupling. It can be shown that this contribution is given by

$$\delta m_\varphi ^2\frac{3N_c}{4\pi ^2}\frac{m_t^2}{v\varphi }m_t^2\mathrm{ln}\frac{m_t^2}{\mu ^2}$$
$`(7)`$
where $`\mu `$ is the renormalization scale. For $`\mu =m_h=m_\varphi 100`$ Gev the mixing angle is given by $`\theta \frac{\delta m_\varphi ^2}{m_h^2}`$-.11. This mixing between the radion and the higgs boson will shift the coupling of the physical higgs boson to W and Z. For example the WWh coupling is now given by

$$L_{wwh}=[gm_w+2m_w\frac{m_w}{\varphi }\theta ]WWh=gm_w[1.026]WWh.$$
$`(8)`$
. which implies a 2.6% correction to the WWh coupling. The shift in the Z coupling due to $`\varphi h`$ mixing is also of the same order. Needless to say that probing this shift is a challenging task but it should be reachable at NLC 500 with a high luminosity.

Direct production processes

Let us now consider the effects arising from direct production of $`\stackrel{~}{\varphi }`$. The prominent among them is the radionstrahlung at an $`e^+e^{}`$ collider. It involves the radiation of $`\stackrel{~}{\varphi }`$ from an on shell (LEP I) or off shell (LEP II or NLC) Z boson. This process is similar to higgsstrahlung which is used for higgs search at $`e^+e^{}`$ collider. At LEPII higgs boson is produced by the process $`e^+e^{}Z^{}h+Z`$. It can be shown that the momentum of the outgoing Z boson is given by $`p_h^z=\frac{1}{2\sqrt{s}}[s(m_hm_z)^2]^{\frac{1}{2}}[s(m_h+m_z)^2]^{\frac{1}{2}}`$. Hence the momentum of the outgoing Z boson for a 50 Gev higgs production at $`\sqrt{s}`$=160 Gev will be given by $`p_h^z`$= 37 Gev. On the other hand for a 20 Gev radion emission its momentum will be given by $`p_\varphi ^z`$=51 Gev. So by imposing the cut $`p_z>45`$ Gev it should be possible to suppress the SM higgs production for $`m_h`$ 50 Gev while still allowing considerable amount of radion production with a lower mass.

The $`\stackrel{~}{\varphi }ZZ`$ coupling is suppressed relative to hZZ coupling by a factor of $`(\frac{\mathrm{sin}2\theta _w}{e}\frac{m_z}{\varphi })`$. Hence for a given $`\sqrt{s}`$ the production cross section for $`\stackrel{~}{\varphi }`$ will be comparable to that of higgs(h) only if $`m_{\stackrel{~}{\varphi }}`$ is light but $`m_h`$ is close to its kinematic limit so that its production is phase space suppressed. We find that at LEPII for a cm energy of 189 Gev, $`\sigma _{\stackrel{~}{\varphi }z}`$ .089 pb for $`m_{\stackrel{~}{\varphi }}=20`$ Gev and $`\varphi `$ =1 Tev, but $`\sigma _{hz}=.078`$ pb for $`m_h=97`$ Gev. For $`m_{\stackrel{~}{\varphi }}=20`$ Gev and $`m_h=97`$ Gev the branching ratio for $`\varphi b\overline{b}`$ and $`hb\overline{b}`$ are both roughly equal to one. Hence in this case the number of $`q\overline{q}b\overline{b}`$ events for example arising from $`e^+e^{}hz`$ will be roughly equal to that arising from $`e^+e^{}\stackrel{~}{\varphi }z`$. Let us consider the extreme scenario where the higgs is quite heavy so that it is kinematically inaccessible at LEPII but $`m_{\stackrel{~}{\varphi }}`$ lies in the 20 Gev range. In this case one can derive a lower bound on $`m_{\stackrel{~}{\varphi }}`$ from the condition $`S2\sqrt{S+B}`$ where is S is the signal and B is the background. The L3 collaboration at LEPII have placed a lower limit of 96 Gev on the higgs mass at 95% CL based on 176 pb-1 of data collected at $`\sqrt{s}=189`$ Gev . If we make the somewhat unrealistic assumption that the cut efficiencies and background estimates are the same for the radion then this would imply a lower bound of about 20 Gev on the radion mass. It should howver be noted that the optimal cuts that are necessary to enhace the signal to background ratio for a 20 Gev radion will be quite different from that for a 97 Gev higgs. Therefore to obtain a realistic bound on $`m_{\stackrel{~}{\varphi }}`$ from LEPII the different working groups will have to retune their cuts appropriately so that they correspond to light ($`m_\varphi 20`$ Gev) radion detection. Finally let us consider the implication of LEPI data on the radion mass. At LEPI the higgs scalar has been searched based on $`ZhZ^{}`$ with the $`Z^{}`$ going into $`l\overline{l}`$. LEPI has placed a lower bound of about 60 Gev on $`m_h`$ by looking for this decay mode. The branching ratio for the above decay mode for $`m_h`$= 60 Gev is around $`1.4\times 10^6`$. The smaller radion coupling to the Z boson implies that the same branching ratio will be attained for $`Z\stackrel{~}{\varphi }l\overline{l}`$ at $`m_\varphi =35`$ Gev. We therefore think that the present collider data on direct higgs searches does not rule out the existence of a light radion above 35 Gev. We would like to point out that these values are indications of the likely bounds on the radion mass and should not be considered as realistic collider bounds. More dedicated searches and detailed analysis are necessary to arrive at realistic collider bounds.

Conclusions

In this paper we have studied some low energy effects of a light stabilized radion in the R-S scenario. We have found that the radion contribution to the anomalous magnetic moment and electric quadrupole moment of the W boson will fall beyond the projected sensitivity reach of NLC 500 if $`\varphi `$=1 Tev. However the planned BNL experiment might be able to reach a sensitivity level just adequate for probing the radion contribution to $`a_\mu `$ if the radion mass is around 100 Mev. We have also shown that the higgs-radion mixing through loop corrections induces a shift in the WWh coupling of the order of 2.6%. The size of the radiative corrections arising from radion exchange however decreases inversely as $`\varphi ^2`$. Therefore with decreasing $`\varphi `$ the radiative corrections increase rapidly in size and approach the search limits. The dependence of the radiative corrections on the radion mass however does not produce any useful bound on it. We have also shown that the presence of a light radion field will cause the renormalization of $`Zt_R\overline{t}_R`$ coupling to deviate from that in the SM by about .1%. Finally by comparing the radion production cross section at LEPII with that of the higgs boson we find that the lower bound of 96 Gev on the higgs mass suggests a bound of about 20 Gev on the radion mass. The LEPI bound of 60 Gev on $`m_h`$ however implies a slightly stronger bound of 35 Gev on $`m_\varphi `$.

Acknowledgement

We would like to thank Dr. Sandip Trivedi, Dr. Sunanda Banerjee and Dr. Anindya Datta for several helpful discussions during the WHEPP6 working group activity. S. Rakshit would like to thank the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, India for support during this work.

References

1. W.D. Goldberger and M. B. Wise: Phys. Rev. Lett 83, 4922 (1999); Phys. Rev. D 60, 107505 (1999).

2. L. Randall and R. Sundrum: Phys. Rev. Lett. 83, 3370 (1999); Phys. Rev. Lett. 83, 4690 (1999).

3. W. D. Goldberger and M. B. Wise, hep-ph/9911457. C. Csaki, M. Graesser, L. Randall and J. Terning, hep-ph/9911406.

4. K. Hagiwara, R. Peccei, D. Zeppenfield and K. Hikasa, Nucl. Phys. B 282, 253 (1987).

5. Tests of alternative models at a 500 Gev NLC, ENSLAPP-A-365/92. Published in “$`e^+e^{}`$ collisions at 500 Gev, the physics potential” ed. P. Zerwas, DESY, 1992.

6. Caso et al., Particle Data group: Review of Particle Physics, Euro. Phys. J. C3, 1 (1998).

7. By E821 BNL collaboration (B. C. Roberts et al.). Published in the proceedings of XXVIII International Conference on High Energy Physics, Warsaw, Poland, 1996, River Edge, NJ World Scientific, 1997, p.1035.

8. Search for the SM higgs boson in $`e^+e^{}`$ interactions at $`\sqrt{s}`$= 189 Gev, L3 collaboration, CERN-EP/99-080.


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# Extended X-ray emission from FRIIs and RL quasars

## 1. Introduction

It is well known that the synchrotron radio emission from the extended lobes of strong radio galaxies and radio-loud (RL) quasars samples ultra relativistic electrons. It is a customary practice to estimate the average magnetic field intensity via the minimum energy argument by making use of the emitted radio flux in the 10 MHz – 100 GHz band (source rest frame). Since the critical frequency emitted in the synchrotron process is $`\nu (MHz)B(\mu G)(\gamma /10^3)^2`$ and typically $`B(\mu G)>10`$, it then follows that only electrons with Lorentz factor $`\gamma >10^3`$ are taken into account. These electrons are also responsible for producing X-rays via the inverse Compton (IC) scattering of the cosmic microwave background (CMB) photons \[$`ϵ(keV)(\gamma /10^3)^2`$\]. When these X-rays are detected, the number of ultra-relativistic electrons is fixed and from the radio flux one can uniquely determine the average magnetic field intensity. Up to now, because of the weakness and diffuse nature of the predicted X-ray emission, detection of X-ray fluxes due to this process has been possible for a few sources only, notably Fornax A (Feigelson et al. 1995; Kaneda et al. 1995) and Cen B (Tashiro et al. 1998); the derived magnetic field intensities are lower than the classical equipartition values by factors 1.5–2.

Brunetti, Setti & Comastri (1997) have pointed out that sizeable X-ray fluxes can also be emitted by the IC scattering of relativistic electrons in the FRII’s radio lobes with the IR photons from a quasar, and associated circumnuclear dusty/molecular torus, hidden in the galaxy’s nucleus. Since the IR emission peaks at $`50100\mu m`$ electrons at lower energies ($`\gamma <500`$) are involved in this process. Of course there are no reasons why these lower energy particles shouldn’t be present, on the contrary one would expect them on physical grounds based on acceleration and loss mechanisms. In order to estimate the size of the expected X-ray flux, for a given quasar IR emission, one may work out the equipartition by extrapolating downward the electron spectrum derived from the synchrotron emission to a minimum energy ($`\gamma _{min}`$) limited from below by possible Coulomb losses. The equipartition fields ($`B_{eq}`$) so derived are stronger than the classical one by factors from 1.5 to 3 (also Setti, Brunetti & Comastri 1999). We have shown that the IC scattering of the IR nuclear photons may easily account for a large fraction of the extended X-ray emission of several powerful FRIIs at large redshifts ($`z1`$) detected by ROSAT in the 0.1–2.4 keV interval.

Morphologically there are two important aspects that should be mentioned: firstly, for obvious geometrical reasons, the X-rays from the IC scattering of the quasar photons are more concentrated toward the nuclear region than those from the IC scattering of the CMB photons and, secondly, given two symmetrical radio lobes the X-ray emission from the far lobe can be much larger than that from the near one, depending on the orientation of the radio axis with respect to the line of sight, due to the enhanced efficiency of head-on scatterings (Brunetti et al.1997). It should also be mentioned that, while the X-rays from the IC scattering of the CMB photons must have a spectral slope coincident with that of the synchrotron radio emission, the X-ray spectrum associated with the IC scattering of the nuclear photons may or may not have the synchrotron slope simply because a different portion of the primary electron spectrum is being sampled (see also Brunetti 2000).

Direct evidence of extended X-ray emission from the IC scattering of the IR photons from a hidden quasar has been gathered by Brunetti et al.(1999) making use of ROSAT HRI observations of the powerful, double lobed radio galaxy 3C 219. The residual X-ray distribution after subtraction of the absorbed, unresolved nuclear source is remarkably coincident with the radio structure. The central extended ($``$ 100 kpc) X-ray emission, somewhat stronger in the counter-jet side as expected in our model, can be accounted for by assuming a magnetic field $`3`$ times weaker than our equipartion value ($`B_{eq}10\mu G`$, $`\gamma _{min}=50`$). Of course this estimate depends on the assumed IR power of the hidden quasar which we have derived by two, albeit indirect, approaches since 3C 219 has not been detected by IRAS and not observed by ISO. Observations with Chandra, scheduled in the fall of the year 2000, will likely provide a check of our model.

## 2. IC X-rays from the radio quasars 3C 215 and 3C 334

Extended X–ray emission around RL quasars has been recently discovered from the analysis of ROSAT HRI observations (Crawford et al. 1999; Hardcastle & Worrall 1999). The origin of the extended and rather weak component (5–15% of total intensity) is usually ascribed to thermal emission from the surrounding intracluster medium (ICM), although a significant contribution from the IC scattering of the quasar’s photons predicted by our model cannot be excluded (Crawford et al. 1999).

In order to test the IC hypothesis we have carried out a detailed analysis of the spatial profiles of the sources in the Crawford et al.(1999) sample. The data retrieved from the public archive have been analyzed following a procedure similar to that in Crawford et al.(1999), but the azimuthal distribution has been investigated with the aim of checking for a possible correlation with the radio structure. Accordingly the source counts have been subdivided in four quadrants centered on the quasar (X-ray source peak) and so oriented that two opposite quadrants are aligned with the radio axis defined by the direction of the innermost radio lobes. We have then compared the source counts in the two quadrants along the radio axis with those collected in the perpendicular direction.

We find evidence of X–ray extension spatially correlated with the radio axis in two quasars: 3C 215 and 3C 334. For 3C 48, 254 and 273 our analysis is inconclusive since their radio angular sizes are lower then, or comparable to, the HRI PSF. For 3C 215 (Fig.1) the effect is strong : a KS test rejects at 99.9% level the hypotesis that the count distributions along (filled dots) and perpendicular to (open squares) the radio axis are extracted from the same population. In the case of 3C 334 (not shown here), although the count distribution along the radio axis systematically exceeds that in the perpendicular direction, the effect is statistically marginal (the same KS test gives $`92\%`$).

In order to check whether the elongation on $`10`$ arcsec scale could be due to an intrinsic elongation of the HRI PSF and/or to an insufficient correction of the wobbling, we have analyzed several isolated stars (companion at least 6 mag fainter) with similar count statistics extracted from the RASSDWARF catalogue (Huensch et al. 1998): no evidence of asymmetric distributions has been found. Moreover the count profiles of 3C 215 and 334 in the direction perpendicular to the radio axis are consistent with those of spatially unresolved sources.

The X–ray fluxes (0.1–2.4 keV, spectral index $`\alpha =1`$) associated with the extended structures have been estimated by subtracting the counts within the quadrants in the direction perpendicular to the radio axis from those within the quadrants aligned with radio axis: the luminosity of 3C 215 is $`1.510^{45}`$ erg s-1 of which $`2.210^{44}`$ erg s-1 in the extended component, while for 3C 334 one has $`10^{45}`$ erg s-1 and $`10^{44}`$ erg s-1, respectively \[$`H_o=75`$ km/s/Mpc, $`q_o=0`$\].

Knowledge of the quasar IR radiation is of crucial importance for the computation of the expected IC X-ray fluxes. Unfortunately no FIR data are available for 3C 215, while 3C 334 has been observed by IRAS with a 60$`\mu m`$ luminosity of $`10^{46}`$erg s-1 (van Bemmel et al. 1998). By adopting typical quasar SEDs we estimate a $`1100\mu m`$ luminosity of $`10^{46}`$ erg s-1 and $`410^{46}`$ erg s-1 for 3C 215 and 3C 334, respectively. Following Brunetti et al.(1997) model we find that the magnetic field intensities required to fully account for the X-ray fluxes of the extended components are $`5`$ and $`3`$ times smaller than $`B_{eq}`$ for 3C 215 and 334, respectively. In each source $`B_{eq}`$ has been calculated by extrapolating downward to $`\gamma _{min}=50`$ the power law electron spectrum derived from the low frequency radio spectrum. It should be pointed out that by applying the standard equipartition we would have obtained factors $`2.6`$ (3C 215) and $`2`$ (3C 334) below the corresponding equipartion fields, but this would be conceptually wrong.

## 3. Conclusions

There is supportive observational evidence of extended X-ray emission from the IC scattering of quasar IR photons with relativistic electrons in the lobes of powerful radio galaxies. Besides being a confirmation of the FRII–quasar unification, this may provide an important tool for the diagnostic of the relativistic plasma at particle energies not sampled by radio observations. The unavoidable presence of lower energy particles implies stronger magnetic fields than derived by standard equipartition formulae and, consequently, a larger pressure inside the lobes. Moreover, accounting for the extended X-ray emission in sources for which the quasar radiation can be constrained indicates magnetic field strengths lower than equipartition. Therefore, confirmation of our IC model by Chandra and XMM satellites may provide important clues on the physics and evolution of radio sources.

### Acknowledgments.

It is a pleasure to thank C.S. Crawford, A.C. Fabian and I. Lehmann for informative discussions concerning 3C 215 and 3C 334.

## References

Brunetti G., 2000, APh 13, 105

Brunetti G., Setti G., Comastri A., 1997, A&A 325, 898

Brunetti G., et al., 1999, A&A 342, 57

Crawford C.S., et al., 1999, MNRAS 308, 1159

Feigelson E.D., et al., 1995, ApJL 449, 149

Hardcastle M.J., Worrall D.M., 1999, MNRAS 309, 969

Huensch M., Schmitt J.H.M.M., Voges W., 1998, A&AS 132, 155

Kaneda H., et al., 1995, ApJL 453, 13

Setti G., Brunetti G., Comastri A., 1999, in ’Diffuse Thermal and Relativistic Plasma in Galaxy Clusters’, eds. H.Böhringer, L.Feretti, P.Schuecker, MPE Report 271, p.55

Tashiro M., et al., 1998, ApJ 499, 713

van Bemmel I.M., Barthel P.D., Yun M.S., 1998, A&A 334, 799


text:
# Hysteresis effect due to the exchange Coulomb interaction in short-period superlattices in tilted magnetic fields

## Abstract

We calculate the ground-state of a two-dimensional electron gas in a short-period lateral potential in magnetic field, with the Coulomb electron-electron interaction included in the Hartree-Fock approximation. For a sufficiently short period the dominant Coulomb effects are determined by the exchange interaction. We find numerical solutions of the self-consistent equations that have hysteresis properties when the magnetic field is tilted and increased, such that the perpendicular component is always constant. This behavior is a result of the interplay of the exchange interaction with the energy dispersion and the spin splitting. We suggest that hysteresis effects of this type could be observable in magneto-transport and magnetization experiments on quantum-wire and quantum-dot superlattices.

preprint: Version

A well known manifestation of the Coulomb exchange interaction in a two-dimensional electron gas (2DEG) in a perpendicular magnetic field is the enhancement of the Zeeman splitting for odd-integer filling factors, observable in magetotransport experiments on GaAs systems. The same mechanism leads to the enhancement of the Landau gaps for even-integer filling factors, which can be identified in more recent magnetization measurements.

In the presence of a periodic potential the Landau levels become periodic Landau bands, and the calculations based on the Hartree-Fock approximation (HFA) show an enhancement of the energy dispersion of the bands intersected by the Fermi level. Such an effect has been indirectly observed in the magnetoresistance of short-period superlattices as an abrupt onset of the spin splitting of the Shubnikov-de Haas peaks, occurring only for a sufficiently strong magnetic field.  In other words, when the magnetic field increases the systems makes a first-order phase transition from spin-unpolarized to spin-polarized states. This effect has also been discussed in other forms, for narrow quantum wires,  and for edge states.

In the spirit of the HFA, the Coulomb interaction can be split into a direct and an exchange component. The direct (classical) interaction is repulsive (i. e. positive) and long ranged, while the exchange (quantum mechanical) part is attractive (i. e. negative) and short ranged. The direct component is usually much larger than the exchange one. In our system this is decided by the two lengths involved, the superlattice (or modulation) period $`a`$, and the magnetic length $`\mathrm{}=\sqrt{\mathrm{}/eB_0}`$ determined by the perpendicular magnetic field $`B_0`$. For long periods, $`a\mathrm{}`$, the screening (direct) effects are strong: the width of the Landau bands is typically much smaller than the amplitude of the periodic potential, except when a gap is eventually present at the Fermi level.  For periods of the order of $`\mathrm{}`$ the situation becomes opposite: the screening effect is weak, the exchange interaction is the dominant Coulomb manifestation, and the energy dispersion of the Landau bands may exceed the amplitude of the periodic potential if the latter is small enough.

In a recent paper  we have studied the numerical solutions of the Hartree-Fock equations in the presence of short-period potentials. After preparing the solution for a fixed potential we change the potential amplitude by a small amount and find a new, perturbed solution, and then we change again the amplitude, and repeat the scheme. In this way, by increasing and then decreasing the amplitude, we obtain a hysteretic evolution of the ground state due to the combined effects of the external potential and of the exchange interaction, on the energy dispersion of the Landau bands. In the present paper we consider a fixed modulation amplitude, but a tilted magnetic field, such that we include in the problem, self-consistently, the Zeeman splitting of the Landau bands. We hereby intend to suggest further experiments that can identify strong effects of the Coulomb exchange interaction. The material parameters are those for GaAs: effective mass $`m_{\mathrm{e}ff}=0.067m_e`$, dielectric constant $`\kappa =12.4`$, bare g-factor $`g=0.44`$, and electron concentration $`n_s=2.4\times 10^{11}`$ cm<sup>-2</sup>.

We fix the component of the magnetic field perpendicular to the 2DEG, $`B_0`$, which determines our filling factors, while the bare Zeeman splitting is given by the total field $`B=B_0/\mathrm{cos}\varphi `$, where $`\varphi `$ is the tilt angle. We first consider a periodic potential varying only along one spatial direction, $`V\mathrm{cos}Kx`$, where $`K=2\pi /a`$, and solve for the eigenstates of the Hamiltonian within the thermodynamic HFA. We chose the Landau gauge for the vector potential and we diagonalize the Hamiltonian in the Landau basis $`\psi _{nX_0}(x,y)=L_y^{1/2}e^{iX_0y/\mathrm{}^2}f_n(xX_0)\sigma `$, where $`X_0`$ is the so-called center coordinate, $`L_y`$ is the linear dimension of the 2DEG, $`f_n(xX_0)`$ are shifted oscillator wave functions, and $`\sigma =\pm 1`$ is the spin projection.

We begin our calculations with $`\varphi =0`$, and find the numerical HFA-eigenstates by an iterative method, starting from the noninteracting solution. Then, we increase $`\varphi `$ and find a new solution starting from the previous one. In Fig. 1(a) we show a typical energy spectrum, i. e. the Landau bands $`E_{n\sigma X_0}`$, $`n=0,1,2,\mathrm{}`$, within the first Brillouin zone, for a small tilt angle, $`\varphi <\varphi _1`$. Here $`B_0=4.1`$ T, and the parameters of the external potential are $`a=40`$ nm and $`V=9`$ meV.

In a simplified view, the exchange interaction contributes with a negative amount of energy to the occupied states, which enhances the energy dispersion in the vicinity of the Fermi level. The classical Hartree (positive) energy is small in our case, but it would increase with increasing modulation period and would rapidly flatten the energy bands. Also, the spin splitting is almost suppressed for $`\varphi <\varphi _1`$. However, for a sufficiently high field, when $`\varphi =\varphi _1`$, the difference in population of the spin-up and spin-down bands exceeds a critical value, and the spin gap is abruptly amplified by the exchange energy. The spin-up states become self-consistently more populated and lower in energy. The energy spectrum becomes like in Fig. 1(b), and keeps this structure when $`\varphi `$ further increases. Then, we decrease $`\varphi `$ step by step. For low temperatures we find for $`\varphi =0`$ the solution with large spin gap, similar to Fig. 1(b), while for higher temperatures we may find a transition to the spin-unpolarized state, Fig. 1(a), at $`\varphi _2<\varphi _1`$.

We show in Fig. 2 the spin polarization, $`(n_{}n_{})/(n_{}+n_{})`$, for two temperatures, when $`\varphi _2>0`$. We consider here the temperature only as an effective parameter, that may also include includes the effects of a certain disorder, inherent in any real system. Clearly, in the presence of disorder similar results will appear for lower temperatures.

We have explicitly included disorder in a transport calculation, by assuming Gaussian spectral functions, $`\rho _{n\sigma }(E)=(\mathrm{\Gamma }\sqrt{\pi /2})^1\mathrm{exp}[2(EE_{n\sigma })^2/\mathrm{\Gamma }^2]`$, where $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ is the Landau level broadening. We have calculated the conductivity tensor $`\sigma _{\alpha \beta }`$, $`\alpha ,\beta =x,y`$, using the standard Kubo formalism for the modulated 2DEG.  In Fig. 3 we show the hysteresis loops for the longitudinal resistivities $`\rho _{xx,yy}=\sigma _{yy,xx}/(\sigma _{xx}\sigma _{yy}+\sigma _{xy}^2)`$. In our regime $`\sigma _{xy}^2\sigma _{xx}\sigma _{yy}`$, such that $`\rho _{xx,yy}`$ are in fact proportional to $`\sigma _{yy,xx}`$. Also, the conductivity in the $`y`$ direction is dominated by the quasi-free net electron motion along the equipotential lines of the modulation, with group velocity $`<v_y>=(eB_0)^1dE_{nX_0}/dX_0`$, known as band conductivity, while the conductivity in the $`x`$ direction is related to inter-band scattering processes (scattering conductivity). The band and the scattering conductivities are inverse and respectively direct proportional to a power of the density of states at the Fermi level (DOSF). In the transition between spin-unpolarized and spin-polarized states the Fermi level touches the minima of the band $`E_1`$, where DOSF has a van Hove singularity. Therefore, for that situation the band conductivity, and thus $`\rho _{xx}`$, have a minimum, whereas the scattering conductivity, and thus $`\rho _{yy}`$, have a maximum, see Fig. 3.

Similar hysteresis effects can be found in a 2DEG that is modulated in two perpendicular spatial directions.  However, in this case the picture is further complicated by the presence of the Hofstadter gaps and their interplay with the spin gaps. Then, since the dispersion of the Landau bands is essential for the hysteresis, another complication with the two-dimensional potential is that for an asymmetric unit cell the behavior of the system may not be the same when the magnetic field is tilted towards the $`x`$ or towards the $`y`$ axis of the plane, reflecting the anisotropy of the Brillouin zones. These details are not addressed in this paper.

In principle, the effects discussed in the present paper should also occur in narrow quantum wires or dots, and not necessarily only in periodic systems, as long as Landau bands with both flat and steep regions are generated, as in Fig. 1. In wide wires or dots the electrostatic screening is expected to dominate the exchange interaction, just like in long-period superlattices, and thus the Landau bands are smooth, except at the edges. Rijkels and Bauer  have also predicted hysteresis effects in the edge channels of quantum wires when a small chemical-potential difference between the spin-up and spin-down channels can be controlled. To our knowledge an experimental confirmation has not been reported yet. Instead, several groups have build short-period superlattices for transport and other experiments,  which can also be used to check our predictions.

In conclusion, we have found a hysteresis property of the numerical solution of the thermodynamic HFA, with the physical origin in the exchange effects of the Coulomb interaction in the quantum Hall regime, in the presence of a short-period potential, when the Zeeman splitting is changed by tilting the magnetic field with respect to the 2DEG. We suggest that such effects could be observed e. g. in magnetization or magnetotransport measurements.

A. M. was supported by a NATO fellowship at the Science Institute, University of Iceland. The research was partly supported by the Icelandic Natural Science Foundation, and the University of Iceland Research Fund.


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# References

MOLECULAR DYNAMICS STUDY OF THE
GLASS TRANSITION IN CONFINED WATER
P. Gallo and M. Rovere
Dipartimento di Fisica, Università di Roma Tre, and

Istituto Nazionale per la Fisica della Materia, Unità di Ricerca Roma Tre,

Via della Vasca Navale 84, I-00146 Roma, Italy

Abstract. A molecular dynamics simulation of SPC/E water confined in a Silica pore is presented. The pore has been constructed to reproduce the average properties of a pore of Vycor glass. Due to the confinement and to the presence of a strong hydrophilic surface, the dynamic behaviour of the liquid appears to be strongly dependent on the hydration level. The approach to the glass transition of confined water is investigated on lowering hydration and on supercooling in the framework of Mode Coupling Theories. At higher hydrations two quite distinct subsets of water molecules are detectable. Those belonging to the first layer close to the substrate suffer a severe slowing down, while the remaining ones display a scenario typical of supercooled liquids approaching the kinetic glass transition.

1. INTRODUCTION

The study of the modification of the properties of confined water with respect to the bulk is highly interesting since in many technological and biological applications water is confined in porous media. Several experimental studies and computer simulations give evidence that the perturbation of the substrate and the geometrical confinement change the properties at freezing , the mobility  and the dynamical behaviour of water . Particularly attracting is the study of confined water in the supercooled region. It is well known that below $`235K`$ the crystallization process driven by the homogeneous nucleation prevents the observation of a transition to a glass phase of water . Experimentally forbidden regions of the phase diagram of bulk water could become accessible through the study of confined water. Molecular dynamics (MD) can be a suitable tool for exploring the approach of water to vitrification. In recent years MD simulation of Simple Point Charge/ Extended SPC/E  water model potential in the supercooled phase found a kinetic glass transition at a critical temperature $`T_C`$, as defined in the Mode Coupling Theory (MCT), which is $`T_CT_S`$ , where $`T_S`$ is the singular temperature of water , which is $`T_S=228K`$ or, for SPC/E, $`49`$ degrees below the temperature of maximum density. In many experimental studies  on confined or interfacial water a slowing down of the dynamics of the liquid with respect to the bulk water has been found with inelastic neutron scattering and NMR spectroscopy . It has been inferred from experiments that confining water could be equivalent to the supercooling of the bulk . Reduced self diffusion coefficient of water in contact with solid hydrophilic surfaces, when compared to bulk water are found in some of the computer simulation studies  but it is still difficult to find general trends in the dynamical properties of confined water and there are not any systematic studies in the supercooled region. Among the different systems studied experimentally water confined in porous Vycor glass is one of the most interesting with relevance to catalytic processes and enzymatic activity. Vycor is a porous silica glass with a quite well characterized structure of cylindrical pores and a quite sharp distribution of the pore sizes around the average value of $`40\pm 5\AA `$. Several experiments on water-in-Vycor have been performed . We present here results obtained from MD simulations of the single particle dynamics of SPC/E water confined in a cylindrical silica cavity modeled to represent the average properties of Vycor pores . The SPC/E potential used for water molecules models a single water molecule as a rigid set of interaction sites with an OH distance of $`0.1`$ nm and a $`HOH`$ angle equal to the tetrahedral angle $`109.47^o`$. The Coulomb charges are placed on the atoms. Oxygens atoms additionally interact via a Lennard-Jones potential. SPC/E is particularly suitable for the study of dynamics in the supercooled region since it has been explicitly parametrized to reproduce not only the density but also the experimental value of the self diffusion constant at ambient conditions and moreover it is able to reproduce the temperature of maximum density of water. In our study we will focus on the dynamics of confined water at room temperature where both on lowering the hydration and on supercooling we observe a splitting of the time scale in the relaxation laws.

2. SLOW DYNAMICS OF WATER CONFINED IN VYCOR

In our simulation we build up a cubic cell of silica glass of $`71\AA `$ with a cylindrical cavity of $`40\AA `$ of diameter as described in detail in previous works . The inner surface of the cylinder is then corrugated by removing all the silicon atoms bonded to less than four oxygens. The oxygens dangling bonds are then saturated with acidic hydrogens in analogy with the experimental preparation of the sample of Vycor before hydration. Water molecules interact with the substrate atoms using an empirical potential model . The periodic boundary conditions are applied along the axis of the cylinder.

The molecular dynamics calculations have been performed for different numbers of SPC/E water molecules, introduced in the pore, corresponding to different levels of hydration: $`N_W=2600`$ corresponding to $`96\%`$ of hydration level of the pore, $`N_W=2000`$ ($`74\%`$), $`N_W=1500`$ ($`56\%`$), $`N_W=1000`$ ($`37\%`$) and $`N_W=500`$ ($`19\%`$). We will discuss here the results obtained for two temperatures: $`T=298`$ $`K`$ for all the hydrations and $`T=240`$ $`K`$ for $`N_W=1500`$. A more detailed report will be published elsewhere . As a first result we show in Fig.1 the density profiles along the pore radius. Already at lower hydrations the presence of a layer of water molecules wetting the substrate surface is observed. At nearly full hydration two layers of water with higher than bulk density are evident. There is a strong tendency of water molecules close to the surface to form hydrogen bonds (HB) with the atoms of the substrate .

In the MCT  description of a liquid approaching the glass transition the dynamic behaviour is mastered by the “cage effect”. The molecule is trapped by the transient cage formed by its nearest neighbours. Signatures of the MCT behaviour can be found in the intermediate scattering function, ISF $`F_S(Q,t)`$, which will be shown below for our system. We expect to observe a diversification of the relaxation times resulting in a development of a shoulder in the relaxation laws. The long time tail of the ISF is predicted to have a stretched exponential behaviour when the system approaches the glass transition in the framework of MCT. In Fig.2 we present the ISF for the water oxygens at the oxygen-oxygen peak of the structure factor. The ISF are displayed at room temperature for the different hydrations. Upon decreasing hydration level the development of the shoulder in the relaxation laws is evident.

All the tails of the correlators of Fig.2 are highly non-exponential. None-the-less these ISF could not be fitted to the same formula used for bulk supercooled water ,

$$F_S(Q,t)=\left[1A(Q)\right]e^{\left(t/\tau _s\right)^2}+A(Q)e^{\left(t/\tau _l\right)^\beta }$$
(1)
where $`A(Q)=e^{a^2Q^2/3}`$ is the Lamb-Mössbauer factor (the analogous of the Debye Waller Factor for the single particle) arising from the cage effect, $`\tau _s`$ and $`\tau _l`$ are, respectively, the short and the long relaxation times and $`\beta `$ is the Kohlrausch exponent. Due to the strong hydrophilicity of the pore we observe a diversification of dynamic behaviour as we proceed from the pore surface to the center of the pore. The function $`F_S(Q,t)`$ is therefore splitted into the contribution coming from the two layers of water molecules closer to the pore surface (outer shells) and the contribution coming from all the remaining ones (inner shells) as displayed in Fig.1. The shell contribution is given only by the particles that move in the selected shell. We find that the inner shell contribution could be perfectly fit to eq.1, while the outer shells one decays to zero over a much longer timescale so that water molecules there behave already as a glass.

The double step relaxation observed for the lowest hydration deserves some comment. In fact for $`N_W=500`$ the surface coverage is not complete and patches of water molecules are visible along the pore surface. The MCT is able to account also for the dynamics of clusters in a frozen environment  and this might be the reason of the development of the diversification of the relaxation law. From our analysis of ISF turns out that the behaviour of molecules belonging to the first hydration layers changes as a complete surface coverage is achieved.

In Fig.3 we show an example of the shell analysis for T=240 K and $`N_W=1500`$. The top curve is the contribution to the total ISF coming from the molecules in the two shells closest to the substrate. The bottom curve is the contribution from the molecules in the remaining shells. The central one is the total ISF. The dashed line is the fit to eq.1. From the fit we obtain $`\beta =0.62`$, $`\tau _l=11`$ $`ps`$ $`\tau _s=0.16`$ $`ps`$. The $`\tau _l`$ is similar to that of bulk water at the same temperature while the $`\beta `$ is much lower. For the inner shells a bump around $`0.7ps`$ is also observed that could possibly be related to the existence of the Boson Peak feature in the $`S(q,\omega )`$ . This bump also appears in Fig.2 for the lowest hydration level investigated, namely $`19`$%. In Fig.4 the $`\tau _l`$ and the $`\beta `$ values extracted from the fits to eq.1 are plotted as a function of $`Q`$ for T=240 K and $`N_W=1500`$. The $`\beta `$ value reaches a plateau value and the $`\tau _l`$ values show a $`Q^2`$ dependence. Both these behaviours are found in some glass former undergoing a kinetic glass transition and in particular the $`Q^2`$ behaviour has been observed for example in glycerol close to the glass transition . However other behaviours of the relaxation times as a function of $`Q`$ have been also found .

3. CONCLUDING REMARKS

We report some of the results achieved in the computer simulation of the dynamics of water molecules confined in a silica pore. The substrate is carefully modeled to reproduce the main features of the hydrophilic cavity of Vycor glass. In the water density profile we observe at high hydration levels a double layer structure which strongly influences the dynamics of the molecules.

An analogy between supercooled bulk water and confined water as a function of hydration level of the pore is possible in the sense that upon decreasing the hydration level a glassy behaviour appears already at ambient temperature. None-the-less the approach of confined liquid to the kinetic glass transition is rather different with respect to its bulk phase. In particular two quite distinct subsets of water molecules are detectable for confined water. The subset that is in contact with the surface is at higher density with respect to the bulk and is already a glass with low mobility even at ambient temperature. The inner subset displays, like a supercooled liquid, a two step relaxation behaviour. The shape of the ISF long time tail, also called late part of the $`\alpha `$-relaxation region, can be perfectly fitted to a stretched exponential function. The $`\beta `$ and $`\tau _l`$ behaviours are consistent with the values extracted for other glass formers in literature.

More simulations on this system as function of temperature and hydration are in progress for a full MCT test and a complete comparison with the bulk. The relation between the two types of subsets and the so called free and bound water found in several experiments on confined water at freezing  is worthwhile to be explored in the future.

Acknowledgments

The authors wish to thank M.A. Ricci and E. Spohr for their contribution to this work.