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# Constraints on Cosmological Parameters from Future Galaxy Cluster Surveys

## 1. Introduction

It has long been realized that clusters of galaxies provide a uniquely useful probe of the fundamental cosmological parameters. The formation of the large–scale dark matter (DM) potential wells of clusters is likely independent of complex gas dynamical processes, star formation, and feedback, and involve only gravitational physics. As a result, the abundance of clusters $`N_{\mathrm{tot}}`$ and their distribution in redshift $`dN/dz`$ should be determined purely by the geometry of the universe and the power spectrum of initial density fluctuations. Exploiting this relation, the observed abundance of nearby clusters has been used to constrain the amplitude $`\sigma _8`$ of the power spectrum on cluster scales to an accuracy of $`25\%`$ (e.g. White, Efstathiou & Frenk (1993); Viana & Liddle (1996)). The value of $`\sigma _8`$ in these studies depends on the assumed underlying cosmology, especially on the density parameters $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m`$ and $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }`$. Subsequent works (Bahcall & Fan (1998); Blanchard & Bartlett (1998); Viana & Liddle (1999)) have shown that the redshift–evolution of the observed cluster abundance places useful constrains on these two cosmological parameters.

In the above studies, the equation of state for the $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$–component has been implicitly assumed to be $`p=w\rho `$ with $`w=1`$. The recent suggestion that $`w`$ might be different from $`1`$, or even redshift dependent (Turner & White (1997); Caldwell, Dave & Steinhardt (1998)) has inspired several studies of cosmologies with a component of dark energy. From a particle physics point of view, such $`w>1`$ can arise in a number of theories (see Freese, Adams & Frieman (1987); Ratra & Peebles (1988); Turner & White (1997); Caldwell, Dave & Steinhardt (1998) and references therein). It is therefore of considerable interest to search for possible astrophysical signatures of the equation of state, especially those that distinguish $`w=1`$ from $`w>1`$. Wang et al. (2000) has summarized current astrophysical constraints that suggest $`1w<0.2`$; while recent observations of Type Ia SNe suggest the stronger constraint $`w<0.6`$ (Perlmutter, Turner & White (1999)).

The galaxy cluster abundance provides a natural test of models that include a dark energy component with $`w1`$, because $`w`$ directly affects the linear growth of fluctuations $`D_z`$, as well as the cosmological volume element $`dV/dzd\mathrm{\Omega }`$. Furthermore, because of the dependence of the angular diameter distance $`d_A`$ on $`w`$, the experimental detection limits for individual clusters, e.g., from the Sunyaev–Zel’dovich effect (SZE) decrement or the X–ray luminosity, depend on $`w`$. Wang & Steinhardt (1998, hereafter WS98) studied the constraints on $`w`$ from a combination of measurements of the cluster abundance and Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) anisotropies. Their work has shown that the slope of the comoving abundance $`dN/dz`$ between $`0<z<1`$ depends sensitively on $`w`$, an effect that can break the degeneracies between $`w`$ and combinations of other parameters $`(h,\mathrm{\Omega },n)`$ in the CMB anisotropy alone.

Here we consider in greater detail the constraints on $`w`$, and other cosmological parameters, from cluster abundance evolution. Our main goals are: (1) to quantify the statistical accuracy to which $`w1`$ models can be distinguished from standard $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ Cold Dark Matter (CDM) cosmologies using cluster abundance evolution; (2) to assess these accuracies in two specific cluster surveys: a deep SZE survey (Carlstrom et al. (1999)) and a large solid angle X–ray survey, and (3) to contrast constraints from cluster abundance to those from CMB anisotropy measurements and from luminosity distances to high–redshift Supernovae (Schmidt et al. (1998); Perlmutter et al. (1999)).

Our work differs from the analysis of WS98 in several ways. We examine the surface density of clusters $`dN/dzd\mathrm{\Omega }`$, rather than the comoving number density $`n(z)`$. This is important from an observational point of view, because the former, directly measurable quantity inevitably includes the additional cosmology-dependence from the volume element $`dV/dzd\mathrm{\Omega }`$. We incorporate the cosmology–dependent mass–limits expected from both types of surveys. Because the SZE survey has a nearly $`z`$–independent sensitivity, we find that high–redshift clusters at $`z>1`$ yield useful constraints, in addition to those studied by WS98 in the range $`0<z<1`$. Finally, we quantify the statistical significance of differences in the models by applying a combination of a Kolmogorov–Smirnov (KS) and a Poisson test to $`dN/dzd\mathrm{\Omega }`$, and obtain constraints using a grid of models for a wide range of cosmological parameters.

This paper is organized as follows. In § 2, we describe the main features of the proposed SZE and X-ray surveys relevant to this work. In § 3 we briefly summarize our modeling methods and assumptions. In § 4, we quantify the effect of individual variations of $`w`$ and of other parameters on cluster abundance and evolution. In § 5, we obtain the constraints on these parameters by considering a grid of different cosmological models. In § 6, we discuss our results and the implications of this work. Finally, in § 7, we summarize our conclusions.

## 2. Cluster Surveys

The observational samples available for studies of cluster abundance evolution will improve enormously over the coming decade. The present samples of tens of intermediate redshift clusters (e.g., Gioia et al. (1990); Vikhlinin et al. (1998)) will be replaced by samples of thousands of intermediate redshift and hundreds of high redshift ($`z>1`$) clusters. At a minimum, the analysis of the European Space Agency X–ray Multi–mirror Mission (XMM) archive for serendipitously detected clusters will yield hundreds, and perhaps thousands of new clusters with emission weighted mean temperature measurements (Romer et al. (2000)). Dedicated X-ray and SZE surveys could likely surpass the XMM sample in areal coverage, number of detected clusters or redshift depth. The imminent improvement of distant cluster data motivates us to estimate the cosmological power of these future surveys. Note that in practice, the only survey details we utilize in our analyses are the virial mass of the least massive, detectable cluster (as a function of redshift and cosmological parameters), and the solid angle of the survey. We include here a brief description of two representative surveys.

### 2.1. A Sunyaev–Zel’dovich Effect Survey

The SZE survey we consider is that proposed by Carlstrom and collaborators (Carlstrom et al. (1999)). This interferometric survey is particularly promising, because it will detect clusters more massive than $`2\times 10^{14}M_{}`$, nearly independent of their redshift. Combined, this low mass threshold and its redshift independence produce a cluster sample which extends, depending on cosmology, to redshifts $`z3`$. The proposed survey will cover 12 deg2 in a year; it will be carried out using ten 2.5 m telescopes and an 8 GHz bandwidth digital correlator operating at cm wavelengths (Mohr et al. (1999)). The detection limit as a function of redshift and cosmology $`M_{\mathrm{min}}(z,\mathrm{\Omega }_m,h)`$ for this survey has been studied using mock observations of simulated galaxy clusters (Holder et al. (2000)), and we draw on those results here.

Optical and near infrared followup observations will be required to determine the redshifts of SZE clusters. Given the relatively small solid angle of the survey, it will be straightforward to obtain deep, multiband imaging. We expect that the spectroscopic followup will require access to a multiobject spectrograph on a 10 m class telescope. The ongoing development of infrared spectrographs may greatly enhance our ability to effectively measure redshifts for the most distant clusters detected in the SZE survey.

### 2.2. A Deep, Large Solid Angle X–ray Survey

We also consider the cosmological sensitivity of a large solid angle, deep X-ray imaging survey. The characteristics of our survey are similar to those of a proposed Small Explorer class mission, called the Cosmology Explorer, spear-headed by G. Ricker and D. Lamb. The survey depth is $`3.6\times 10^6`$ cm2s at 1.5 keV, and the coverage is 104 deg2 (approximately half the available unobscured sky). We assume that the imaging characteristics of the survey are sufficient to allow separation of the $`10\%`$ clusters from the $`90\%`$ AGNs and galactic stars. We focus on clusters which produce 500 detected source counts in the 0.5:6.0 keV band, sufficient to reliably estimate the emission weighted mean temperature in a survey of this depth (the external and internal backgrounds sum to $`1.4`$ cts/arcmin2).

To compute the number of photons detected from a cluster of a particular flux, we assume the clusters emit Raymond–Smith spectra (Raymond & Smith (1977)) with $`\frac{1}{3}`$ solar abundance, and we model the effects of Galactic absorption using a constant column density of $`n_H=4\times 10^{20}`$ cm-2. The metallicity and Galactic absorption we’ve chosen are representative for a cluster studied in regions of high Galactic latitude; when analyzing a real cluster one would, of course, use the Galactic $`n_H`$ appropriate at the location of the cluster. Cluster metallicities vary, but for the 0.5:6 keV band, line emission contributes very little flux for clusters with temperatures above 2 keV. For example, if the cluster metallicity were doubled to $`\frac{2}{3}`$ solar, the conversion between flux and the observed counts in the 0.5:6 keV band for this particular survey would vary by $`1.4`$% and $`0.1`$% for Raymond-Smith spectral models with temperatures $`kT=2`$ keV and 10 keV, respectively. We assume that the detectors have a quantum efficiency similar to the ACIS detectors (Bautz et al. (1998); Chartas et al. (1998)) on the Chandra X-ray Observatory, and the energy dependence of the mirror effective area mimics that of the mirror modules on ABRIXAS (Friedrich et al. (1998)).

The X-ray survey could be combined with the Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS) to obtain redshifts for the clusters – the redshift distribution of the clusters which produce 500 photons in the survey described above is well sampled at the SDSS photometric redshift limit.

### 2.3. Determining the Survey Limiting Mass $`M_{\mathrm{min}}`$

For our analysis, the most important aspect of both surveys is the limiting halo mass $`M_{\mathrm{min}}(z,\mathrm{\Omega }_m,w,h)`$, as a function of redshift and cosmological parameters. More specifically, we seek the relation between the detection limit of the survey, and the corresponding limiting “virial mass”. In our modeling below, we will be using the mass function of dark halos obtained in large scale cosmological simulations (Jenkins et al. (2000)). In these simulations, halos are identified as those regions whose mean spherical overdensity exceeds the fixed value $`\delta \rho /\rho _b=180`$ (with respect to the background density $`\rho _b`$, and irrespective of cosmology; see discussion below). In what follows, we adopt the same definition for the mass of dark halos associated with galaxy clusters.

In the X-ray survey, $`M_{\mathrm{min}}`$ follows from the cluster X-ray luminosity – virial mass relation and the details of the survey. We adopt the relation between virial mass and temperature obtained in hydrodynamical simulations by Bryan & Norman (1998),

$$M_{\mathrm{vir}}=a\frac{T^{3/2}}{E(z)\sqrt{\mathrm{\Delta }_c(z)}},$$
(1)
where $`H(z)=H_0E(z)`$ is the Hubble parameter at redshift $`z`$, $`a=1.08`$ is a normalization determined from the hydrodynamical simulations, and $`\mathrm{\Delta }_c`$ is the enclosed overdensity (relative to the critical density) which defines the cluster virial region. The normalization $`a`$ is found to be relatively insensitive to cosmological parameters, and the redshift evolution of Equation 1 appears to be consistent with the hydrodynamical simulations in those models where it has been tested (Bryan & Norman (1998)). Here we assume that Equation 1 holds in all cosmologies with the same value of $`a`$ (see $`\mathrm{\S }`$6.2 for a discussion of the effects of errors in the mass-temperature relation), and use the fitting formulae for $`\mathrm{\Delta }_c`$ provided by WS98, which includes the case $`w1`$. Finally, we convert $`M_{\mathrm{vir}}`$ from Equation 1 to the mass $`M_{180}`$ enclosed within the spherical overdensity of $`\delta \rho /\rho =180`$ (with respect to the background density), assuming that the halo profile is well described by the NFW model with concentration $`c=5`$ (Navarro, Frenk & White 1997, hereafter NFW).

We next utilize Equation 1, together with the relation between bolometric luminosity and temperature found by Arnaud & Evrard (1999), to find the limiting mass of a cluster that produces 500 photons in the 0.5:6.0 keV band in a survey exposure. For these calculations we assume that the luminosity-temperature relation does not evolve with redshift, consistent with the currently available observations (Mushotzky & Scharf (1997); relaxing this assumption is discussed below in § 6).

For an interferometric SZE survey, the relevant observable is the cluster visibility $`V`$, which is the Fourier transform of the cluster SZE brightness distribution on the sky as seen by the interferometer. The visibility is proportional to the total SZE flux decrement $`S_\nu `$,

$$VS_\nu (M,z)f_{ICM}\frac{MT_e_n}{d_A^2(z)}$$
(2)
where $`T_e_n`$ is the electron density weighted mean temperature, $`M`$ is the virial mass, $`f_{ICM}`$ is the intracluster medium mass fraction and $`d_A`$ is the angular diameter distance. We normalize this relation using mock observations of numerical cluster simulations (see Mohr & Evrard (1997) and Mohr, Mathiesen & Evrard (1999)) carried out in three different cosmological models, including noise characteristics appropriate to the proposed SZE array (see Holder et al. (2000) for more details). The ICM mass fraction is set to $`f_{ICM}=0.12`$ in all three cosmological models. This mass fraction is consistent with analyses of X-ray emission from well defined samples if $`H_0=65`$ km s-1 Mpc-1, our fiducial value. Note that we use the same $`f_{ICM}=0.12`$ in all our cosmological models rather than varying it with the $`H_0`$ scaling appropriate for analyses of cluster X-ray emission. In the discussion which follows, this choice allows us to focus solely on the cosmological discriminatory power of cluster surveys; naturally, in interpreting a real cluster survey one would likely allow $`f_{ICM}`$ to vary with $`H_0`$.

Note that for a flux limited survey, the limiting mass in equation 2 is sensitive to cosmology through its dependence on $`d_A`$ and the definition of the virial mass $`M`$. We adopt the simulation–normalized value of $`M_{\mathrm{min}}^{}(z)`$ in our fiducial cosmology as a template, and then we rescale this relation to determine $`M_{\mathrm{min}}(z)`$ in the model of interest using the relation

$$M_{\mathrm{min}}(z)=M_{min}^{}(z)\frac{h^{}}{h}\left[\frac{hd_A(z)}{h^{}d_A^{}(z)}\right]^{6/5}$$
(3)
Here the superscript  refers to quantities in the $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$CDM reference cosmology, and we have used the scaling of virial mass with temperature (Eqn. 1): $`MT_e_n^{3/2}`$. We tested this scaling by comparing it to mock observations in simulations of two different cosmologies (open CDM and standard CDM), and found that agreement was better than $`10\%`$ in the redshift range $`0<z<3`$. Finally, in the numerical simulations used to calibrate Equation 2, the halo mass was defined to be the total mass enclosed within a region whose mean spherical interior density is 200 times the critical density. As in the X–ray case, we convert $`M_{\mathrm{min}}(z)`$ from Equation 3 to the desired mass $`M_{180}`$ by assuming that the halo profile follows NFW with concentration $`c=5`$.

The mass limits we derive for both surveys are shown in the redshift range $`0<z<3`$ in Figure 2.3, both for $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$CDM and for a $`w=0.5`$ universe. The SZE mass limit is nearly independent of redshift, and changes little with cosmology. As a result, the cluster sample can extend to $`z3`$. In comparison, the X–ray mass limit is a stronger function of $`w`$, and it rises rapidly with redshift. For the X-ray survey considered here the number of detected clusters beyond $`z1`$ is negligible.

These mass limits incorporate some simplifying assumptions that have not been tested in detail (although we consider small variations of the mass limits below). Our goal is to capture the scaling with cosmological parameters and redshift as best as presently possible. However, we emphasize that further theoretical studies of the sensitivities of these scalings to, for example, energy injection during galaxy formation will be critical to interpreting the survey data. In the case of the X–ray survey, the cluster sample will have measured temperatures, allowing the limiting mass to be estimated independent of the cluster luminosity. In the case of the SZE survey, deep X-ray followup or multifrequency SZE followup observations should yield direct measurements of the limiting mass.

## 3. Estimating the Cluster Survey Yield

To derive cosmological constraints from the observed number and redshift distribution of galaxy clusters, the fundamental quantity we need to predict is the comoving cluster mass function. The Press–Schechter formalism (Press & Schechter (1974); hereafter PS), which directly predicts this quantity in any cosmology, has been shown to be in reasonably good agreement (i.e. to within a factor of two) with results of N–body simulations, in cosmologies and halo mass ranges where it has been tested (Lacey & Cole (1994); Gross et al (1998); Lee & Shandarin (1999)). Numerical simulations have only recently reached the large size required to accurately determine the mass function of the rarest, most massive objects, such as galaxy clusters with $`M>10^{15}M_{}`$.

In this paper, we adopt the halo mass function found in a series of recent large–scale cosmological simulations by Jenkins et al. 2000. The results of these simulations are particularly well–suited for the present application. The large simulated volumes allow a statistically accurate determination of the halo mass function; for halo masses of interest here, to better than $`<\mathrm{\hspace{0.33em}30}\%`$. In addition, the mass function is computed in three different cosmologies at a range of redshifts, and found to obey a simple ’universal’ fitting formula. Although this does not guarantee that the same scaling holds in other, untested cosmologies, we make this simplifying assumption in the present paper. In the future, the validity of this assumption has to be tested by studying the numerical mass function across a wider range of cosmologies.

Generally, the simulation mass function predicts a significantly larger abundance of massive clusters than does the PS formula. For sake of definiteness, we note that in the simulations, halos are identified as those regions whose mean spherical overdensity exceeds the fixed value $`\delta \rho /\rho _b=180`$ with respect to the background density $`\rho _b`$. This is somewhat different from the typical halo definition within the context of the PS formalism, where the overdensity, relative to the critical density, is taken to be that of a collapsing spherical top–hat at virialization.

Following Jenkins et al. 2000, we assume that the comoving number density $`(dn/dM)dM`$ of clusters at redshift $`z`$ with mass $`M\pm dM/2`$ is given by the formula,

$$\frac{dn}{dM}(z,M)=0.315\frac{\rho _0}{M}\frac{1}{\sigma _M}\frac{d\sigma _M}{dM}\mathrm{exp}\left[\left|0.61\mathrm{log}(D_z\sigma _M)\right|^{3.8}\right],$$
(4)
where $`\sigma _M`$ is the r.m.s. density fluctuation, computed on mass–scale $`M`$ from the present–day linear power spectrum (Eisenstein & Hu (1998)), $`D_z`$ is the linear growth function, and $`\rho _0`$ is the present–day mass density. The directly observable quantity, i.e. the average number of clusters with mass above $`M_{\mathrm{min}}`$ at redshift $`z\pm dz/2`$ observed in a solid angle $`d\mathrm{\Omega }`$ is then simply given by

$$\frac{dN}{dzd\mathrm{\Omega }}\left(z\right)=\left[\frac{dV}{dzd\mathrm{\Omega }}\left(z\right)_{M_{\mathrm{min}}(z)}^{\mathrm{}}𝑑M\frac{dn}{dM}\right]$$
(5)
where $`dV/dzd\mathrm{\Omega }`$ is the cosmological volume element, and $`M_{\mathrm{min}}(z)`$ is the limiting mass as discussed in section 2.3. Equations 4 and 5 depend on the cosmological parameters through $`\rho _0`$, $`D_z`$, and $`dV/dzd\mathrm{\Omega }`$, in addition to the mild dependence of $`\sigma _M`$ on these parameters through the power spectrum (although the dependence on the power–spectrum is more pronounced in the X–ray survey, where the limiting mass varies strongly with redshift). Note that the comoving abundance $`dn/dM`$ is exponentially sensitive to the growth function $`D_z`$. We use convenient expressions for $`dV/dzd\mathrm{\Omega }`$ and $`D_z`$ in open and flat $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ cosmologies available in the literature (Peebles (1980); Carroll, Press & Turner (1992); Eisenstein (1996)). In the case of cosmologies with $`w1`$, we have evaluated $`dV/dzd\mathrm{\Omega }`$ numerically, but used the fitting formulae for $`D_z`$ obtained by WS98, which are accurate to better than 0.3% for the cases of constant $`w`$’s considered here.

### 3.1. Normalizing to Local Cluster Abundance

To compute $`dN/dzd\mathrm{\Omega }`$ from equation 5, we must choose a normalization for the density fluctuations $`\sigma _M`$. This is commonly expressed by $`\sigma _8`$; the present epoch, linearly extrapolated rms variation in the density field filtered on scales of $`8h^1`$ Mpc. To be consistent in our analysis, we choose the normalization for each cosmology by fixing the local cluster abundance above a given mass $`M_{\mathrm{nm}}=10^{14}h^1M_{}`$. In all models considered, we set the local abundance to be $`1.03\times 10^5(h/0.65)^3\mathrm{Mpc}^3`$, the value derived in our fiducial $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$CDM model (see below). We have chosen to normalize using the local cluster abundance (upto a factor $`h^3`$) above mass $`M_{\mathrm{nm}}`$ rather than above a particular emission weighted mean temperature $`kT_{\mathrm{nm}}`$, because this removes the somewhat uncertain cosmological sensitivity of the virial mass temperature ($`MT_x`$) relation from the normalization process; spherical tophat calculations suggest a significant offset in the $`MT_x`$ normalization of the open and flat $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m=0.3`$ models which hydrodynamical simulations do not seem to reproduce (Evrard, Metzler & Navarro (1996); Bryan & Norman (1998); Viana & Liddle (1999)).

An alternative approach to the above is to regard $`\sigma _8`$ a “free–parameter”, on equal footing with the other parameters we let float below. This possibility will be discussed further in § 6. Here we note that our normalization approach is sensible, because the number density of nearby clusters can be measured to within a factor of $`h^3`$, and the masses of nearby clusters can be measured directly through several independent means; these include the assumption of hydrostatic equilibrium and using X-ray images and intracluster medium (ICM) temperature profiles, weak lensing, or galaxy dynamical mass estimates. The only cosmological sensitivity of these mass estimators is their dependence on the Hubble parameter $`h`$; we include this $`h`$ dependence when normalizing our cosmological models. Note that previous derivations of $`\sigma _8`$ (e.g. Viana & Liddle 1993; Pen 1998) in various cosmologies from the local cluster abundance $`N(>kT)`$ above a fixed threshold temperature $`kT_{\mathrm{min}}7`$keV yielded a constraint with the approximate scaling $`\sigma _8\mathrm{\Omega }_m^{1/2}0.5`$. We find a similar relation when varying $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m`$ away from our fiducial cosmology; however, we note that if a $`5`$ times smaller threshold temperature were used, the constrained combination would be quite different, $`\sigma _8\mathrm{\Omega }_m`$constant. Since our adopted normalization is based on mass, rather than temperature, in general, we find still different scalings. As an example, when $`h=0.65`$ and $`w=1`$ are kept fixed, our normalization procedure translates into $`\sigma _8(\mathrm{\Omega }_m/0.3)^{0.85}0.9`$.

### 3.2. Fiducial Cosmological Model

The parameters we choose for of our fiducial cosmological model are $`(\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda },\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{m},h,\sigma _8,n)=(0.7,0.3,0.65,0.9,1)`$. This flat $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$CDM model is motivated as a “best–fit” model that produces a local cluster abundance consistent with observations (Viana & Liddle (1999)), and satisfies the current constraints from CMB anisotropy (Lange et al. (2000), see also White, Scott & Pierpaoli (2000)), high–$`z`$ SNe, and other observations (Bahcall et al. 1999). We have assumed a baryon density of $`\mathrm{\Omega }_bh^2=0.02`$, consistent with recent D/H measurements (e.g. Burles & Tytler 1998). Note that the power spectrum index $`n`$ is not important for the analysis presented here, because we normalize on cluster scales $`\sigma _8`$, and we find that this minimizes the effect of varying $`n`$ on the density fluctuations relevant to cluster formation.

## 4. Exploring the Cosmological Sensitivity

In this section, we describe how variations of the individual parameters $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$, $`w`$, and $`h`$, as well as the cosmological dependence of the limiting mass $`M_{\mathrm{min}}`$, affect the cluster abundance and redshift distribution. This will be useful in understanding the results of the next section, when a full grid of different cosmologies is considered. We then describe our method of quantifying the statistical significance of differences between the distributions $`dN/dz`$ in a pair of different cosmologies.

### 4.1. Single Parameter Variations

The surface density of clusters more massive than $`M_{\mathrm{min}}`$ depends on the assumed cosmology mainly through the growth function $`D(z)`$ and volume element $`dV/dzd\mathrm{\Omega }`$, as well as through the cosmology–dependence of the limiting mass $`M_{\mathrm{min}}`$ itself. In the approach described in section 3, once a cosmology is specified, the normalization of the power spectrum $`\sigma _8`$ is found by keeping the abundance of clusters at $`z=0`$ constant. We therefore consider only three “free” parameters, $`w`$, $`h`$, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m`$, specifying the cosmology. We assume the universe to be either flat ($`\mathrm{\Omega }_Q=1\mathrm{\Omega }_m`$), or open with $`\mathrm{\Omega }_Q=0`$.

#### 4.1.1 Changing $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m`$

The effects of changing $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m`$ are demonstrated in Figure 4.1. The curves correspond to a flat $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$CDM universe with ($`h=0.65,w=1`$), and $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m=0.27`$ (dotted), $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m=0.30`$ (solid), and $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m=0.33`$ (short–dashed). In addition, the long–dashed curves show the same three models (top to bottom), assuming open CDM with $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }=0`$. The top left panel shows the total number of clusters in a 12 square degree field, detectable down to the constant SZE decrement $`S_{\mathrm{min}}`$. As discussed in section 2.3 above, a constant $`S_{\mathrm{min}}`$ implies a redshift and cosmology–dependent limiting mass $`M_{\mathrm{min}}`$. In the SZE case, we find that if we had not included this effect, the sensitivity to $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m`$ would have been somewhat stronger. Several conclusions can be drawn from Figure 4.1. Overall, the top left panel shows that a decrease in $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m`$ increases the number of clusters (and vice versa) at all redshifts. Note that the dependence is strong, for instance, a $`10\%`$ decrease in $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m`$ increases the total number of clusters by $`30\%`$ in either $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$CDM or OCDM cosmologies. As emphasized by Bahcall & Fan (1998), Viana & Liddle (1999) and others, this makes it possible to estimate an upper limit on $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m`$ using current, sparse data on cluster abundances (i.e. only a few high–$`z`$ clusters). A second important feature seen in the top left panel is that the shape of the redshift distribution is not changed significantly, a conclusion that holds both in $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$CDM and OCDM. Finally, the remaining three panels reveal that the effects of $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m`$ arise mainly from the changes in the comoving abundance (bottom left panel). In flat $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$CDM, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m`$ has relatively little effect on the volume or the growth function, and the comoving abundance is determined by the value of $`\sigma _8`$ that keeps the the local abundance constant at $`z=0`$ (we find $`\sigma _8`$=0.83 for $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m=0.33`$ and $`\sigma _8=1.00`$ for $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m=0.27`$). In addition, we find that the change in the shape of the underlying power spectrum with $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m`$ enhances the differences caused by $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m`$ (when we artificially keep the power spectrum at its $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m=0.3`$ shape, we find $`\sigma _8`$=0.84 for $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m=0.33`$). We also note that the volume element and the comoving abundance act in the same direction: a lower $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m`$ increases both the comoving abundance and the volume element. In OCDM, the growth function has a larger effect, and relative to $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$CDM, the redshift distribution is much flatter.

#### 4.1.2 Changing $`w`$

The effects of changing $`w`$ are demonstrated in Figure 4.1. The figure shows models with ($`\mathrm{\Omega }_m=0.3,h=0.65`$) and with three different $`w`$’s: $`w=1`$ (solid curve), $`w=0.6`$ (dotted curve), and $`w=0.2`$ (short–dashed curve). In addition, we show the result from an open CDM model with ($`\mathrm{\Omega }=0.3,h=0.65`$; long–dashed curve). The figure reveals that increasing $`w`$ above $`w=1`$ causes the slope of the redshift distribution above $`z0.5`$ to flatten, increasing the number of high–$`z`$ clusters. Furthermore, “opening” the universe has an effect similar to increasing $`w`$. The other three panels demonstrate the reason for these scalings. The top right panel shows that the growth function is flatter in higher $`w`$ models, significantly increasing the comoving number density of high–redshift clusters (bottom left panel). The volume element (bottom right panel) has the opposite behavior, in the sense the volume in higher–$`w`$ models is smaller, which tends to balance the increase in the comoving abundance caused by the growth function in the range $`0<z<\mathrm{\hspace{0.33em}0.5}`$; but for higher redshifts, the growth function “wins”. An important conclusion seen from Figure 4.1 is that both the total number of clusters as well as the shape of their redshift distribution, significantly depends on $`w`$. We also note that in the SZE case, our sensitivity to $`w`$ has been enhanced by the cosmological dependence of the mass limit (opposite to what we found for the $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m`$–sensitivity, which we found was weakened by the same effect).

#### 4.1.3 Changing $`h`$

Figure 4.1.1 demonstrates the effects of changing $`h`$. Three $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$CDM models are shown with ($`\mathrm{\Omega }_m=0.30,w=1`$), and $`h=0.55`$ (dotted curve), $`h=0.65`$ (solid curve), and $`h=0.80`$ (short–dashed curves). The long–dashed curves correspond to OCDM models with the same parameters (top to bottom). Comparing the top right panel with that of Figure 4.1, the qualitative behavior of $`dN/dz`$ under changes in $`h`$ and $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m`$ are similar: decreasing $`h`$ increases the total number of clusters, but does not considerably change their redshift distribution. However, the sensitivity to $`h`$ is significantly less: the total number of clusters is seen to increase by $`25\%`$ only when $`h`$ is decreased by the same percentage. Note that the growth function is not effected by $`h`$, and the $`h`$ sensitivity is driven by our normalization process, which fixes the abundance at $`z=0`$ (see § 3.1). Since the volume scales as $`h^3`$, we fix the comoving abundance to be proportional to $`h^3`$. As a result, $`dN/dzd\mathrm{\Omega }`$ is nearly independent of $`h`$. In fact, the entire $`h`$–dependence is attributable to the small change caused by $`h`$ in the shape of the power spectrum (for a pure power–law spectrum, there would be no $`h`$–dependence, and the three curves for the flat universe in the top left panel of Figure 4.1.1 would look identical).

#### 4.1.4 Abundances in the X–ray Survey

The evolution of the cluster abundance, and its sensitivity to $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m`$ and $`w`$ in the X–ray survey are shown in Figure 4.2. Because of the much larger solid angle surveyed, the numbers of clusters is significantly larger than in the SZE case, despite the higher limiting mass (cf. Fig 2.3). Nevertheless, the general trends that can be identified in the X–ray sample are similar to those in the SZE case. Raising $`w`$ increases the total number of clusters, and flattens their redshift distribution. As in the SZE survey, raising $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m`$ decreases the total number of clusters.

### 4.2. Effects of the Limiting Mass Function

Finally, we examine the extent to which the above conclusions depend on the cosmology and redshift–dependence of the limiting mass $`M_{\mathrm{min}}`$.

#### 4.2.1 The SZE Survey

We first compute cluster abundances above the fixed mass $`M_{\mathrm{min}}=10^{14}h^1\mathrm{M}_{}`$, characteristic of the SZE survey detection threshold in the range of cosmologies and redshifts considered here. The results are shown in Figure 4.1.3: the bottom panels show the surface density and comoving abundance when $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m`$ is changed (the models are the same as in Figure 4.1), and the top panels show the same quantities under changes in $`w`$ (the cosmological models are the same as in Figure 4.1). A comparison between Figures 4.1.3 and 4.1 gives an idea of the importance of the mass limit. The general trend seen in Figure 4.1 remains true, i.e. increasing $`w`$ flattens the redshift distribution at high–$`z`$. However, when a constant $`M_{\mathrm{min}}`$ is assumed, the “pivot point” moves to slightly higher redshift, and the total number of clusters becomes less sensitive to $`w`$. Similar conclusions can be drawn from a comparison of Figure 4.1 with the bottom two panels of Figure 4.1.3: under changes in $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m`$ the general trends are once again similar, but the differences between the different models are amplified when a constant $`M_{\mathrm{min}}`$ is used. In summary, we conclude that in the SZE case (1) the variation of the mass limit with redshift and cosmology has a secondary importance, and (2) it weakens the $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m`$ dependence, but strengthens the $`w`$ dependence.

#### 4.2.2 The X–ray Survey

In comparison to the SZE survey, the X–ray mass limit is not only higher, but is also significantly more dependent on cosmology (cf. Fig 2.3). On the other hand, the X–ray sample goes out only to the relatively low redshift $`z=1`$, where the growth functions in the different cosmologies diverge relatively little. This suggests that in the X–ray case the mass limit is more important than in the SZE survey. In order to separate the effects of the changing mass limit from the change in the growth function and the volume element, in Figure 4.2.2 we show the sensitivity of $`dN/dz`$ to changes in $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m`$ and $`w`$, without including the effects from the mass limit. The same models are shown as in Figure 4.2, except we have artificially kept the mass limit at its value in the fiducial cosmology. The figure reveals that essentially all of the $`w`$–sensitivity seen in Figure 4.2 is caused by the changing mass limit; when $`M_{\mathrm{min}}`$ is kept fixed, the cluster abundances change very little. On the other hand, comparing the bottom panels of Figures 4.2 and 4.2.2 shows that including the scaling of the mass limit somewhat reduces the $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m`$ dependence, just as in the SZE case.

### 4.3. Overview of Cosmological Sensitivity

In summary, we conclude that changes in $`w`$ modify both the normalization and the shape of the redshift distribution of clusters, while changes in $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m`$ or $`h`$ effect essentially only the overall amplitude. This suggests that changes in $`w`$ can not be fully degenerate with changes in either $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m`$ or $`h`$ (or a combination), making it possible to measure $`w`$ from cluster abundances alone. These conclusions hold either for clusters above a fixed detection threshold in and SZE or X-ray survey, or for a sample of clusters above a fixed mass. We find that the sensitivity to $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m`$ arises mostly through the growth function, both in the SZE and X–ray surveys. This sensitivity is slightly weakened by the scaling of the limiting mass $`M_{\mathrm{min}}`$ with $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m`$. We find that the $`w`$ sensitivity is also dominated by the growth function in the SZE survey, which goes out to relatively high redshifts; but the sensitivity to $`w`$ is enhanced by the $`w`$–dependence of $`M_{\mathrm{min}}`$. In comparison, in the X–ray survey, which only probes relatively low redshifts, nearly all of the $`w`$–sensitivity is caused by the cosmology–dependence of the limiting mass, rather than the growth function.

## 5. Constraints on Cosmological Parameters

We derive cosmological constraints by considering a 3–dimensional grid of models in $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m,h`$, and $`w`$. As described above, we first find $`\sigma _8`$ in each model, so that all models are normalized to produce the same local cluster abundance at $`z=0`$. We then compute $`dN/dzd\mathrm{\Omega }`$ in these models for $`0.2\mathrm{\Omega }_m0.5`$, $`0.5h0.9`$, and $`1w0.2`$. The range for $`w`$ corresponds to that allowed by current astrophysical observations (Wang et al. (2000)); although recent observations of Type Ia SNe suggest the stronger constraint $`w<0.6`$ (Perlmutter, Turner & White (1999)).

### 5.1. Comparing $`dN/dz`$ in Two Different Cosmologies

The main goal of this paper is to quantify the accuracy to which $`w`$ can be measured in future SZE and X–ray surveys. To do this, we must answer the following question: given a hypothetical sample of $`N_{\mathrm{tot}}`$ clusters (with measured redshifts) obeying the distribution $`dN_A/dz`$ of the test model (A) cosmology, what is the probability $`P_{\mathrm{tot}}(A,B)`$ that the same sample of clusters is detected in the fiducial (B) cosmology, with distribution $`dN_B/dz`$? We have seen in section 4.1 that the overall amplitude, and the shape of $`dN/dz`$ are both important. Motivated by this, we define

$$P_{\mathrm{tot}}(A,B)=P_0(A,B)\times P_z(A,B)$$
(6)
where $`P_0(A,B)`$ is the probability of detecting $`N_{A,\mathrm{tot}}`$ clusters when the mean number is $`N_{B,\mathrm{tot}}`$, and $`P_z(A,B)`$ is the probability of measuring the redshift distribution of model (A) if the true parent distribution is that of model (B). We assume $`P_0`$ is given by the Poisson distribution, and we use the Kolmogorov–Smirnov (KS) test to compute $`P_z(A,B)`$ (Press et al. (1992)). The main advantage of this approach, when compared to the usual $`\chi ^2`$ tests, is that we do not need to bin the data in redshift.

For reference, it is useful to quote here some examples for the probabilities, taking ($`\mathrm{\Omega }_m=0.3,h=0.65,w=1`$) as the fiducial (B) model. For example, closest to this model in Figure 4.1 is the one with $`w=0.6`$. For this case, we find $`P_0=0.25`$ and $`P_z=0.1`$ for a total probability of $`P_{\mathrm{tot}}=0.025`$. In other words, the two cosmologies could be distinguished at a likelihood of $`1.2\sigma `$ using only the total number of clusters, at $`1.6\sigma `$ using only the shape of the redshift distribution, and at the $`2.3\sigma `$ level using both pieces of information. In this case, the distinction is made primarily by the different redshift distributions, rather than the total number of detected clusters. Taking the $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m=0.33`$ $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$CDM cosmology from Figure 4.1 as another example for model (A), we find $`P_0=0.0075`$ (=$`2.7\sigma `$), $`P_z=0.78`$ (=$`0.3\sigma `$), and a total probability of $`P_{\mathrm{tot}}=0.0058`$ (=$`2.8\sigma `$). Not surprisingly, the shape of the redshift distribution does not add significantly to the statistical difference between these two models, which differ primarily by the total number of clusters.

### 5.2. Expectations from the Sunyaev–Zel’dovich Survey

Figure 1 shows contours of 1, 2, and 3$`\sigma `$ for the total probability $`P_{\mathrm{tot}}`$ for models when compared to the fiducial flat $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$CDM model. For reference, we note that the total number of clusters in the SZE survey in our fiducial model is $`100`$, located between $`0<z<3`$. The three panels show three different cross–sections of the investigated 3–dimensional $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m,h,w`$ parameter space, taken at constant values of $`h=`$ 0.55, 0.65, and 0.80, spanning the range of values preferred by other observations. The most striking feature in this figure is the direction of the contours, which turn upwards in the $`w,\mathrm{\Omega }_m`$ plane, and become narrower for larger values of $`w`$. We find that the trough of maximum probability for fixed $`h=0.65`$ is well described by

$$(\mathrm{\Omega }_m0.3)(w+1)^{5/2}=0.1,$$
(7)
with further constant shifts in $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m`$ caused by changing $`h`$. The $`\pm 3\sigma `$ width enclosed by the contours around this relation is relatively narrow in $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m`$ ($`\pm 10\%`$). In a $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$CDM case, even when a large range of values is considered for $`h`$ ($`0.45<h<0.90`$), the constraint $`0.26<\mathrm{\Omega }_m<\mathrm{\hspace{0.33em}0.36}`$ follows; when $`w1`$ is considered, the allowed range widens to $`0.27<\mathrm{\Omega }_m<\mathrm{\hspace{0.33em}0.41}`$. On the other hand, a wide range of $`w`$’s is seen to be consistent with $`w=1`$: the largest value shown, $`w0.2`$ is approximately $`3\sigma `$ away from $`w=1`$, and $`w=0.6`$ is allowed at $`1\sigma `$. Note that $`h`$ is not well determined, i.e. the contours look similar for all three values of $`h`$, and 1$`\sigma `$ models exist for any value of $`h`$ in the range $`0.5<h<\mathrm{\hspace{0.33em}0.9}`$. This is not surprising, as Figure 4.1.1 shows $`dN/dzd\mathrm{\Omega }`$ is insensitive to the value of $`h`$, with only a mild $`h`$–dependence through the non–power law shape of the power spectrum.

### 5.3. Expectations from the X–ray Survey

The total number of clusters in the X–ray survey in our fiducial model is $`1000`$, ten times that in the SZE survey; all X–ray clusters are located between $`0<z<1`$. Figure 2 contains expectations for the X-ray survey; we show contours of 1, 2, and 3$`\sigma `$ probabilities relative to the fiducial $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$CDM model. The qualitative features are similar to that in the SZE case, but owing to the larger number of clusters, the constraints are significantly stronger and the contours are narrower. However, the contours extend further along the $`w`$ axis, and the largest value of $`w`$ allowed at a probability better than $`3\sigma `$ is $`w>0.2`$ (assuming that the values of $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m`$ and $`h`$ are not known). Although the contours are narrower than in the SZE case, assuming that $`h`$ and $`w`$ are unknown, the allowed range of $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m`$ is similar to that in the SZE case, $`0.26<\mathrm{\Omega }_m<\mathrm{\hspace{0.33em}0.42}`$. Note that because of the shape and direction of the likelihood contours, a knowledge of $`h`$ would not significantly improve this constraint (although if $`h`$ is found to be low, then the lower limit in $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m`$ would increase). Finally, assuming that both $`h`$ and $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m`$ are known to high accuracy ($`3\%`$), the allowed $`3\sigma `$ range on $`w`$ could be reduced to $`1w<0.85`$.

## 6. Results and Discussion

### 6.1. Total Number vs. the Redshift Distribution

Our main results are presented in Figures 1 and 2, which show the probabilities of various models relative to a fiducial $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$CDM model in the SZE and X–ray surveys. As demonstrated by these figures, the cluster data determine a combination of $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m`$ and $`w`$. In the absence of external constraints on $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m`$ and $`h`$, $`w`$ as large as $`0.2`$ differs from $`w=1`$ by $`3\sigma `$; while $`w=0.6`$ would be $`1\sigma `$ away from our fiducial $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$CDM cosmology. Owing to the larger number of clusters in the X–ray survey, the constrained combination of $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m`$ and $`w`$ is significantly narrower than in the SZE survey; the direction of the contours is also somewhat different. As a result, analysis of the X–ray survey could distinguish a $`w0.85`$ model from $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$CDM at $`3\sigma `$ significance, provided $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m`$ is known to an accuracy of $`3\%`$ from other studies.

It is interesting to ask whether these constraints arise mainly from the total number of detected clusters, or from their redshift distribution. To address this issue, in Figure 6.1 we show separate likelihood contours for the probability $`P_0`$ (total number of clusters, left panels), and for the probability $`P_z`$ (shape of redshift distribution, right panels). In the SZE case, the contours of likelihood from the shape information alone are broad, and adding these constraints to the Poisson–probability plays almost no role in the range $`w<0.7`$ (the contours of $`P_{\mathrm{tot}}`$ and $`P_0`$ are very similar). However, at larger $`w`$, the shape becomes increasingly important. Adding in this information significantly reduces the allowed region relative to the Poisson–probability alone at $`w>0.7`$. It is the combination of the $`P_0`$ and $`P_z`$ contours that allows ruling out $`w>0.2`$ at the $`3\sigma `$ level. Note that the difference in shapes arises mostly from the high–redshift ($`z>\mathrm{\hspace{0.33em}1}`$) clusters (cf. Fig. 4.1).

In the X–ray case (bottom panels in Fig. 6.1), the situation is different, because the contours of $`P_0`$ and $`P_z`$ are both much narrower. As a result, the contours for the combined likelihood are somewhat reduced, but they still reach to $`w0.2`$ (at $`2\sigma `$). Note that as in the SZE survey, the redshift distribution (of clusters primarily in the $`0<z<1`$ range) plays an important role. As Figures 4.1.1 and 4.1 show, the total number of clusters can be adjusted by changing $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m`$ and $`h`$. In terms of the total number of clusters, $`w`$ is therefore degenerate both with $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m`$ and $`h`$: raising $`w`$ lowers the total number, but this can always be offset by a change in $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m`$ and/or $`h`$. The bottom left panel in Fig. 6.1 reveals that based on $`P_0`$ alone, $`w=0.2`$ (and $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m=0.43`$) can not be distinguished from $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$CDM even at the $`1\sigma `$ level. On the other hand, the middle panel in Fig. 2 shows that when the shape information is added, $`w<0.2`$ follows to $`2\sigma `$ significance.

### 6.2. Discussion of Possible Systematic Uncertainties

Our results imply that the cluster abundances in the SZE and X–ray surveys can provide useful constraints on cosmological parameters, based on statistical differences expected among different cosmologies. The purpose of this section is to summarize and quantify the various systematic uncertainties that can affect these constraints.

Knowledge of the Limiting Mass $`M_{\mathrm{min}}`$. Our conclusions above are dependent on the chosen limiting mass, which is a function of both redshift and cosmology. From the discussion in § 4.1 we have seen that the limiting mass plays a secondary role in the SZE survey, where the bulk of the constraint comes from the growth function. In comparison, we find that $`M_{\mathrm{min}}`$ plays an important role in the X–ray survey. To demonstrate the importance of the mass limit explicitly, in Figure 6.2 we show the likelihood contours in the $`\mathrm{\Omega }_mw`$ plane when the variations of the limiting mass with cosmology are not taken into account. Not surprisingly, this makes the contours somewhat narrower, but nearly parallel to $`w`$ – this is consistent with our finding in Figure 4.2.2 that the mass limit accounts for nearly all of the $`w`$–dependence, but it reduces the $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m`$ dependence. Figure 6.2 demonstrates the need to accurately know the limiting mass $`M_{\mathrm{min}}`$, and its cosmological scaling, in the X–ray survey.

Because our proposed cluster sample will have measured X–ray temperatures, the uncertainty in our knowledge of the limiting mass will likely be dominated by the theoretical uncertainties of the $`MT`$ relation. In order to quantify the effect of such errors, we have performed a set of simple modifications to our modeling of the constraints from the X–ray survey. In all cases, we adopt the same $`MT`$ relations as we did before (cf. eq. 1). However, in the fiducial model, we use a limiting mass that is altered by either $`\pm 5\%`$ or $`\pm 10\%`$ from the mass inferred from this $`MT`$ relation. This mimics a situation where the theoretical $`MT`$ relation we apply is either 5% or 10% away from the relation in the real universe. In a second set of calculations, we mimic a situation where the slope of the $`MT`$ relation is incorrectly modeled; i.e. we alter this slope in the fiducial model to $`\alpha =1.5\pm 0.05`$. The deviations to the likelihood contours caused by these offsets are demonstrated in Figure 3, which shows the effects of the offset in the $`MT`$ normalization, and in Figure 4, which shows the effects of the offsets in the slope. As the figures reveal, the contours shift relatively little under these changes. We conclude that the results we derive are robust, as long as we can predict the $`MT`$ relation to within $`10\%`$.

In our approach, we have attempted to utilize the whole observed cluster sample, down to the detection threshold: we had to therefore include the above cosmological dependencies. In principle, measured cluster velocity dispersions and X–ray temperatures (both of which are cosmology independent) could be utilized to improve the constraints, i.e. by selecting sub–samples that maximize the differences between models. Further work is needed to clarify the feasibility of this approach, as well as to quantify the accuracy to which the dependence of $`M_{\mathrm{min}}`$ on $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m`$, $`h`$, $`w`$, and $`z`$ can be predicted.

Evolution of Internal Cluster Structure. Further work is also required to test the cluster structural evolution models we use. For the X–ray survey, we have assumed that the cluster luminosity–temperature relation does not evolve, consistent with current observations (Mushotzky & Scharf (1997)), and in the SZE survey, we have adopted the structural evolution found in state of the art hydrodynamical simulations. Because of the sensitivity of the survey yields to the limiting mass, cluster structural evolution which changes the observability of high redshift clusters can introduce systematic errors in cosmological constraints: for example, both low $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m`$ cosmologies and positive evolution of the cluster luminosity–temperature relation increase the cluster yield in an X-ray survey. SZE surveys are generally less sensitive to evolution than X–ray surveys, because the X–ray luminosity is heavily dependent on the core structure (e.g., the presence or absence of cooling instabilities), whereas the SZE visibility depends on the integral of the ICM pressure over the entire cluster (Eqn. 2). We are testing these assertions with a new suite of hydrodynamical simulations in scenarios where galaxy formation at high redshift preheats the intergalactic gas before it collapses to form clusters (Bialek, Evrard & Mohr (2000); Mohr et al. in prep). However, most importantly, we emphasize that because of the sensitivity of X–ray surveys to evolution, we have only used those clusters which produce enough photons to measure an emission weighted mean temperature. In this case, one can directly extract the minimum temperature $`T_{lim}(z)`$ of detected clusters as a function of redshift. Correctly interpreting such a survey requires mapping $`T_{lim}(z)M_{lim}(z)`$ using the mass-temperature relation; the evolution of the mass-temperature relation is less sensitive to the details of preheating than the luminosity-temperature relation. Thus, in a survey constructed in this manner, it should be possible to disentangle the cosmological effects from those caused by the evolution of cluster structure.

Cluster Mass Function. In our treatment, we have relied on the mass function inferred from large scale numerical simulations of Jenkins et al. (2000). Although we do not expect the results presented here to change qualitatively, changes in $`dN/dM`$ by upto the quoted accuracy of $`30\%`$ could affect the exact shape of the likelihood contours shown in Figures 1 and 2. It is important to test the scaling of the mass function with cosmological parameters in future simulations. We have further ignored the effects of galaxy formation and feedback on the limiting mass. In principle, the relation between the cluster SZE decrement and virial mass in the lowest mass clusters could be affected by these processes. In addition, the dependence of both the SZE decrement and the X–ray flux likely exhibits a non–negligible intrinsic scatter. The SZE decrement to virial mass relation is found to have a small scatter in numerical simulations (Metzler 1998), and to cause a negligible increase in the total cluster yields (Holder et al. 1999). However, the presence of scatter could effectively lower the limiting masses in our treatment of the X–ray survey.

Local Cluster Abundance. Perhaps the most critical assumption is that the local cluster abundance is known to high accuracy. We have used this assumption to determine $`\sigma _8`$, i.e. to eliminate one free parameter – effectively assigning “infinite weight” to the cluster abundance near $`z=0`$. This approach is appropriate for several reasons. The cosmological parameters make little difference to the cluster abundance at $`z0`$, other than the volume being proportional to $`h^3`$. Similarly, the study of local cluster masses is cosmologically independent (upto a factor of $`h`$). In a $`10^4`$ square degree survey, we find that the total number of clusters between $`0<z<0.1`$, down to a limiting mass of $`2\times 10^{14}h^1\mathrm{M}_{}`$ is $`2500`$; with a random error of only $`\pm 2\%`$. We have experimented with our models, assuming that the normalization at $`z=0`$ is incorrectly determined by a fraction of 2%. In Figure 5, we show the shift in the usual likelihood contour in the X–ray survey, caused by errors in the local abundance at this level. As the figure shows, the shift is relatively small (by about the width of the $`1\sigma `$ region). In similar calculations with errors of $`\pm 4\%`$, we find shifts that are approximately twice as significant. We conclude that for our normalization procedure to be valid, the local cluster abundance has to be known to an accuracy of about $`<\mathrm{\hspace{0.33em}10}\%`$.

Although such an accuracy can be achieved by only $`600`$ nearby clusters (which can be provided, for example, by an analysis of the SDSS data or perhaps the 2MASS survey), it is interesting to consider a different approach, where $`\sigma _8`$ is treated as another free parameter in addition to $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m,h,`$ and $`w`$. The result of such a calculation over a 4–dimensional grid is displayed in Figure 6.2. This figure shows the likelihood contours along the slice $`h=0.65`$ through this parameter space, but in projection along the $`\sigma _8`$ axis; to be compared directly with the middle panel of Figure 2. Allowing $`\sigma _8`$ to vary results in a range of values $`0.70<\sigma _8<0.97`$, and considerably expands the allowed likelihood region. The shape of the contours stay nearly unchanged, but their widths along the $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m`$ direction expand by approximately a factor of $`4`$, and their lengths along the $`w`$ direction increase by about a factor of 2. We conclude that our constraints would be significantly weakened without the local normalization (but would still be potentially useful when combined with other data; see below).

More General Cosmologies. In section 5, we restricted our range of models to flat CDM models. We find that the redshift distribution of clusters in open CDM models typically resembles that in models with high $`w`$. This is demonstrated in Figure 4.1: both in the $`w=0.2`$ and the OCDM model, the redshift distributions are flatter and extend to higher $`z`$ than in $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$CDM. We find that OCDM models with suitably adjusted values of $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m`$ and $`h`$ are typically difficult to distinguish from those with $`w>0.5`$, but the flat shape of $`dN/dzd\mathrm{\Omega }`$ makes OCDM easily distinguishable from $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$CDM. Note that open CDM models appear inconsistent with the recent CMB anisotropy data from the Boomerang and Maxima experiments (e.g. Lange et al. (2000); White, Scott & Pierpaoli (2000); Bond et al. (2000)). A broader study of different cosmological models, including those with both dark energy and curvature, time–dependent $`w`$, and those with non–Gaussian initial conditions could reveal new degeneracies, and will be studied elsewhere.

### 6.3. Clusters versus CMB Anisotropy and High-$`z`$ SNe

A useful generic feature of the likelihood contours presented here is their difference from those expected in CMB anisotropy or Supernovae data. Two different cosmologies produce the same location (spherical harmonic index $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{peak}}`$) for the first Doppler peak for the CMB temperature anisotropy, provided they have the same comoving distance to the surface of last scattering (cf. Wang & Steinhardt (1998); White (1998); Huey et al. (1999)). Note that this is only the most prominent constraint that can be obtained from the CMB data, with considerable more information once the location and height of the second and higher Doppler peaks are measured. Similarly; the apparent magnitudes of the observed SNe constrain the luminosity distance $`d_L(z)`$ to $`0z<\mathrm{\hspace{0.33em}1}`$ (Schmidt et al. (1998); Perlmutter et al. (1999)). In general, both of these types of observations will determine a combination of cosmological parameters that is different from the cluster constraints derived here.

In Figure 6.3, we zoom in on the relevant region of the $`\mathrm{\Omega }_mw`$ plane in the X–ray survey, and compare the cluster constraints to those expected from CMB anisotropy or high–$`z`$ SNe. The three dashed curves correspond to the CMB constraints: the middle curve shows a combination of $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m`$ and $`w`$ that produces the constant $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{peak}}243`$ obtained in our fiducial $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$CDM model (using the fitting formulae from White 1998 for the physical scale $`k_{\mathrm{peak}}`$); the other two dotted curves bracket a $`\pm 1\%`$ range around this value. Similarly, the dotted curves correspond to the constraints from SNe. The middle curve shows a line of constant $`d_L`$ at $`z=1`$ that agrees with the $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$CDM model; the two other curves produce a $`d_L`$ that differs from the fiducial value by $`\pm 1\%`$. As the figures show, the lines of CMB and SNe parameter degeneracies run somewhat unfavorably parallel to each other; however, both of those degeneracies are much more complementary to the direction of the parameter degeneracy in cluster abundance studies. In particular, the maximum allowed value of $`w`$, using both the CMB or SNe data, is $`w0.8`$; while this is reduced to $`w0.95`$ when the cluster constraints are added. Note that in Figure 6.3, we have assumed a fixed value of $`h=0.65`$; however, we find that relaxing this assumption does not significantly change the above conclusion. The CMB and SNe constraints depend more sensitively on $`h`$ than the cluster constraints do: as a result, the confidence regions do not overlap significantly even in the three–dimensional ($`w,\mathrm{\Omega }_m,h`$) space.

The high complementarity of the cluster constraint to those from the other two methods can be understood based on the discussions in $`\mathrm{\S }`$ 4.1. To remain consistent with the CMB and SNe Ia constraints, an increase in $`w`$ must be coupled with a decrease in $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m`$; however, both increasing $`w`$ and lowering $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m`$ raises the number of detected clusters. To keep the total number of clusters constant, an increase in $`w`$ must be balanced by an increase in $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m`$. Note that this statement is true both for the SZE and the X–ray surveys. Combining the cluster constraints with the CMB and SNe Ia constraints will therefore likely result in improved estimates of the cosmological parameters, and we do not expect this conclusion to rely on the details of the two surveys considered here.

## 7. Conclusions

We studied the expected evolution of galaxy cluster abundance from $`0<z<\mathrm{\hspace{0.33em}3}`$ in different cosmologies, including the effects of variations in the cosmic equation of state parameter $`wp/\rho `$. By considering a range of cosmological models, we quantified the accuracy to which $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m`$, $`w`$, and $`h`$ can be determined in the future, using a 12 deg2 Sunyaev-Zel’dovich Effect survey and a deep 104 deg2 X-ray survey. In our analysis, we have assumed that the local cluster abundance is known accurately: we find that in practice, an accuracy of $`5\%`$ is sufficient for our results to be valid.

We find that raising $`w`$ significantly flattens the redshift–distribution, which can not be mimicked by variations in either $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m`$, $`h`$, which affect essentially only the normalization of the redshift distribution. As a result, both surveys will be able to improve present constraints on $`w`$. In the $`\mathrm{\Omega }_mw`$ plane, both the SZE and X–ray surveys yield constraints that are highly complementary to those obtained from the CMB anisotropy and high–$`z`$ SNe. Note that the SZE and X–ray surveys are themselves somewhat complementary. In combination with these data, the SZE survey can determine both $`w`$ and $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m`$ to an accuracy of $`10\%`$ at $`3\sigma `$ significance. Further improvements will be possible from the X–ray survey. The large number of clusters further alleviates the degeneracy between $`w`$ and both $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m`$ and $`h`$, and, as a result, the X–ray sample can determine $`w`$ to $`10\%`$ and $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m`$ to $`5\%`$ accuracy, in combination with either the CMB or the SN data.

Our work focuses primarily on the statistics of cluster surveys. We have provided an estimate of the scale of various systematic uncertainties. Further work is needed to clarify the role of these uncertainties, arising especially from the analytic estimates of the scaling of the mass limits with cosmology, the dependence of the cluster mass function on cosmology, and our neglect of issues such as galaxy formation in the lowest mass clusters. However, our findings suggest that, in a flat universe, the cluster data lead to tight constraints on a combination of $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m`$ and $`w`$, especially valuable because of their high complementarity to those obtained from the CMB anisotropy or Hubble diagrams using SNe as standard candles.

We thank L. Hui for useful discussions, D. Eisenstein, M. Turner, D. Spergel and the anonymous referee for useful comments, and J. Carlstrom and the COSMEX team for providing access to instrument characteristics required to estimate the yields from their planned surveys. ZH is supported by the DOE and the NASA grant NAG 5-7092 at Fermilab, and by NASA through the Hubble Fellowship grant HF-01119.01-99A, awarded by the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., for NASA under contract NAS 5-26555. JJM is supported by Chandra Fellowship grant PF8-1003, awarded through the Chandra Science Center. The Chandra Science Center is operated by the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory for NASA under contract NAS8-39073.


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# References

IFT 2000/2

Heavy Quark Production at a Linear $`e^+e^{}`$ and Photon Collider and its Sensitivity to the Gluon Content of the Photon
P. Jankowski and M. Krawczyk
Institute of Theoretical Physics, Warsaw University
ul. Hoża 69, 00-681 Warsaw, Poland
A. De Roeck
CERN, 1211 Geneva 23, Switzerland

## Abstract

A high energy linear $`e^+e^{}`$ collider (LC) can also be used as a Photon Collider (PC), using Compton scattering of laser photons on the $`e^+/e^{}`$ beams. The leading order cross-section for the production of heavy quarks, $`e^+e^{}e^+e^{}Q(\overline{Q})X`$, at high transverse momenta is calculated for both LC and PC modes. The sensitivity of this process to the parton distribution parametrizations of real photons, especially the gluon content, is tested for both modes.

For the study of a future electron-positron Linear Collider (LC) it is important to examine the physics potential for its main and possible derived options. The so called Photon (or Compton) Collider (PC) is an option in which high energy real photons can be obtained by backscattering photons from a laser beam on the electron or positron beam . This way an excellent tool for the study of $`\gamma \gamma `$ collisions at high energies can be constructed.

In high energy $`e^+e^{}`$ collisions the hadronic final state is predominantly produced in $`\gamma ^{}\gamma ^{}`$ interactions where the virtual photons are almost on mass shell. These processes can be described by an effective (real) photon energy spectrum, i.e. using the Weizsäcker-Williams (WW) approximation. A Photon Collider based on Compton scattering, however, provides beams of real photons, which can be produced in a definite polarization state and with high monochromaticity. Moreover, the resulting photon spectrum (denoted as LASER) is much harder then the WW one. The comparison of the photon spectra used in this analysis (see Appendix) is presented in Fig. 1.

The main goal of this work is to compare the LC and PC opportunities for probing the gluon distribution in the photon, without making use of polarization. Heavy quark production in the unpolarized electron-positron scattering $`e^+e^{}e^+e^{}Q(\overline{Q})X`$ is a promising process for such a study, see e.g.  and also , where the related topic is considered. The measurement of this process is also an important test of QCD by itself. Heavy quarks can be produced in $`\gamma \gamma `$ collisions through three mechanisms. Direct (DD) production occurs when both photons couple directly to the $`Q\overline{Q}`$ pair. In single resolved photoproduction processes (DR) one of photons interacts via its partonic structure with the second photon. When both photons split into a flux of quarks and gluons, the process is labelled a double resolved photon (RR) process.

Calculations for processes involving heavy quarks are performed in two schemes. They differ by the number of quark flavours which are considered to be part of the structure of the photon, and thus can take part in the process as partons. In the case of the massive scenario, the so called Fixed Number Flavour Scheme (FFNS), the photon “consists” only of light quarks and gluons, which may interact, and massive heavy quarks can be only created e.g. via gluon-gluon fusion. The massless Variable Number Flavour Scheme (VFNS) considers apart from the gluons and $`u,d`$ and $`s`$ quarks also heavy quarks as active flavours, which are all treated massless. This scheme is expected to be valid only for $`p_T>>m_{c(b)}`$. All the partonic reactions contributing in LO to heavy quark production in these schemes are shown in table 1.

We calculate in LO QCD the production rates for $`c`$ and $`b`$ quarks produced with large $`p_T`$ for the $`e^+e^{}`$ colliders LEP and LC at energies of 180 GeV and of 300, 500 and 800 GeV, respectively, and for the $`\gamma \gamma `$ PC based on the corresponding ($`e^+e^{}`$) LC collider. We test the sensitivity of considered processes to the gluonic content of the photon by using two different parton density parametrizations for the real photon: GRV and SaS1d . Both these parametrizations were extracted from QCD fits to photon structure function data measured in $`e\gamma `$ collisions from $`e^+e^{}`$ interactions, but have different assumptions for the gluon content, which is only weakly constrained by these measurements. The GRV and SAS1d distributions both start the evolution from a small starting scale, $`Q_0^2=0.25`$ GeV2 and 0.36 GeV2 respectively, a procedure which has turned out to be quite successful for the parton densities in the proton. Consequently both parton densities predict a rise of the gluon density at small $`x`$. The different treatment of the vector meson valence quark distributions leads to a larger gluon component at small-$`x`$ of the photon for GRV compared to SAS1d.

In the massive (FFNS) calculations the number of active flavours ($`N_f`$) is taken to be 3. In the massless (VFNS) scheme it varies from 3 to 5 depending on the value of the hard (factorization, renormalization) scale $`\mu `$. Heavy quarks are included in the computation provided that $`\mu >m_c`$ ($`m_b`$) with $`m_c=1.6`$ GeV ($`m_b=4.5`$ GeV) being the mass of $`c`$ ($`b`$) quark. When charm production is calculated in the VFNS the bottom quarks are always excluded, hence $`N_f=3`$ or $`N_f=4`$. Also the QCD energy scale $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_{QCD}`$, which appears in the one loop formula for the strong coupling constant $`\alpha _s`$, is affected by change of the number of active flavours. Therefore we denote it as $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_{QCD}^{N_f}`$. We take this scale to be:

$$\mathrm{\Lambda }_{QCD}^3=232\mathrm{\Lambda }_{QCD}^4=200\mathrm{\Lambda }_{QCD}^5=153\mathrm{MeV}$$
(1)
as in . If not stated otherwhise the hard scale in the calculation of the cross-section $`\mu `$ is taken to be the transverse mass of the produced heavy quark $`m_T=\sqrt{m_Q^2+p_T^2(Q)}`$.

Both resolved photon contributions (DR and RR) to the process $`e^+e^{}e^+e^{}Q(\overline{Q})X`$ are dominated by reactions initiated by gluons, especially in the PC kinematic regime. This can be seen in Fig. 2, where the individual contributions to the differential LO cross-section are presented for the charm quark production. We study $`\frac{d^2\sigma }{dp_T^2dy}`$, with $`y=`$$`\frac{1}{2}\mathrm{ln}\frac{Ep_L}{E+p_L}`$ being the rapidity of the produced heavy quark and $`p_T`$ its transverse momentum. The results were obtained in the VFNS scheme for both types of initial photon spectra. A fixed energy $`\sqrt{s}`$=500 GeV and $`p_T`$ =10 GeV for the charm quark was assumed. The calculation was performed using the GRV parton parametrization. The dominance of the gluon over the quark contribution is larger for the PC spectrum; it is also larger in the FFNS scheme (not shown) compared to the VFNS one.

Fig. 3 shows the differential cross-sections for charm quark production with $`p_T`$=10 GeV for the direct, single resolved, double resolved and total contributions. The results were obtained in the VFNS scheme using the GRV parton distribution. An interesting pattern is observed. In case of the $`e^+e^{}`$ LC with a WW photon spectrum either the process is dominated by direct photons coupling to heavy quarks, or resolved and direct contributions are found to be of the same importance. The DR and RR contributions increase with increasing energy. Nevertheless in the range of the anticipated LC energies, the gluon induced reactions do not play the dominant role for heavy quark production. The opposite is found for a PC: heavy quark production is always dominated by resolved photon interactions. The direct contribution becomes even less important with increasing centre of mass system energy. Hence, the charm production cross-section is much more sensitive to the parton distribution parameterization of the photon for a PC compared to a LC. Since for the PC option the resolved photon contributions are clearly dominated by the processes involving gluons (Fig. 2) this option offers an excellent tool for measuring the gluonic content of the photon.

An important feature of the results is the observed rise of the resolved photon process contribution, and therefore also an increasing sensitivity to gluons (see below), with increasing energy. This results from the fact that higher energies explore regions of small Bjorken-$`x_\gamma `$ values. The minimal $`x_\gamma `$ value reached for $`p_T=10`$ GeV varies from $`0.01`$ for $`\sqrt{s}=180`$ GeV to $`0.0006`$ for $`\sqrt{s}=800`$ GeV. At the same time the gluon distributions differences for the GRV and SaS1d parametrizations are large for small $`x_\gamma `$ values. These results are not affected by the choice of the scheme for the heavy quark calculation (see Fig. 4): for both the FFNS and VFNS the cross-section is 20-30 times larger for the PC than for the LC.

The sensitivity of the considered process to the gluon distribution is studied further by comparing the predictions obtained using two different parton parametrizations for the photon. In Fig. 5 and 6 the ratio of the relative difference of cross-sections $`\frac{d^2\sigma }{dp_T^2dy}`$ is presented, obtained using the GRV and SaS1d parton distribution parametrizations in the VFNS and FFNS schemes. As expected the PC photon spectrum leads to a larger sensitivity than the WW spectrum for a given energy of the $`e^+e^{}`$ collider: the difference between the two structure function parametrizations shown is 5-20% for a WW and 25-40% for a PC photon spectrum.

We presented here only the results for $`c`$ quark production. The corresponding $`b`$-quark production (not shown) has all the features listed above though the difference between the sensitivity to the gluon distribution at a PC compared to a LC is smaller. All calculated cross-sections for beauty production are found to be even more sensitive to the gluonic content of the photon than the corresponding ones for charm production, but the cross-sections are smaller, see also below.

Our calculation predicts a high number of the heavy quarks, $`c`$ and $`b`$, produced at the considered centre of mass energies of the $`e^+e^{}`$ collider of 300, 500 and 800 GeV for both the LC and PC options. The event numbers are given in Table 2 assuming an $`e^+e^{}`$ integrated luminosity of 100 $`fb^1`$, which could be achieved at a high luminosity LC with one year of running, and for $`p_T>`$ 10 GeV. In practice, charm with a $`p_T>10`$ GeV produced, e.g. via $`D^{}`$ decays, can be detected in a generic LC detector without dedicated detectors in the rapidity range of $`|y|<1.52`$. The charm detection efficiency, including fragmentation fraction and branching ratios, is typically around a few times 10-3 . Hence the number of detected events from charm with such high $`p_T`$ will be approximately a few thousand for the LC and several ten thousands for the PC. The latter will clearly allow for precision measurements of charm production and the gluon distribution in the photon. Some of the advantage of the PC over the LC is lost however due to the charm production at large $`y`$ in case of the PC (see Fig. 4), which will go undetected with the presently planned detectors. The statistical precision of the measurements of $`\frac{d^2\sigma }{dp_T^2dy}`$ will be approximately 5-10% at the LC and a few % at the PC.

In conclusion, the calculated cross-sections for heavy quarks ($`c`$ and $`b`$) production in two photon collisions show a much higher sensitivity to the parton distribution parametrization of the structure of the photon in case of a Photon Collider compared to a $`e^+e^{}`$ Linear Collider. This does not depend on the particular scheme used to calculate the heavy quark cross-sections. Since the resolved photon contribution is to a large extend dominated by gluon induced processes, especially for a high energy PC, we conclude that heavy quark production provides indeed a sensitive probe of the gluon content of the photon. Combining the above features with the much larger cross-sections achieved at energies of the $`e^+e^{}`$ collisions at a PC favours this option for future photon structure research. A high luminosity $`e^+e^{}`$ collider which drives the PC collider will however be essential.

Appendix

The simplest Weizsäcker-Williams formula of the Equivalent Photon Approximation is used:

$$f_\gamma (x)=\frac{\alpha }{2\pi }(\frac{2}{x}2+x)\mathrm{log}(\frac{\mu ^2}{4m_e^2})$$
(2)
where $`x=\frac{E_\gamma }{E_e}`$, $`m_e`$ is the mass of the electron and $`\mu `$ is the energy scale of the process.

In case of the Compton (LASER) mode we use the original energy spectrum of unpolarized photons :

$`f_\gamma (x)={\displaystyle \frac{1}{\sigma _c^{np}}}[{\displaystyle \frac{1}{1x}}+1x4r(1r)],`$
$`\sigma _c^{np}=(1{\displaystyle \frac{4}{\kappa }}{\displaystyle \frac{8}{\kappa ^2}})\mathrm{ln}(\kappa +1)+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}+{\displaystyle \frac{8}{\kappa }}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2(\kappa +1)^2}},`$ (3)
$`r={\displaystyle \frac{x}{\kappa (1x)}},`$
where $`\kappa `$ is a parameter giving the restriction of $`x`$ value: $`x<\frac{\kappa }{1+\kappa }`$. It is argued  that the optimal value of $`\kappa `$ is 4.83, which gives a cut of $`x`$, $`x_{max}=0.83`$. We have chosen these values for this analysis. Note that the part of the spectrum with $`x<0.6`$ is very sensitive to the technical parameters of the PC such as the size of the beam.

M. Krawczyk has been partly supported by the Polish State Committee for Scientific Research (grant 2003B 01414, 1999-2000)