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# 1 The single target-spin asymmetry 𝐴^sin{ϕ_ℎ}_{𝑈𝐿} for 𝜋⁺ production as a function of Bjorken 𝑥, evaluated using 𝑀_𝐶=0.28 GeV in Eq.(). The solid line corresponds to ℎ₁=𝑔₁, the dashed one to ℎ₁=(𝑓₁+𝑔₁)/2. Data are from Ref. [].

DESY 00-016

hep-ph/0002091

Single-spin Azimuthal Asymmetries
in the “Reduced Twist-3 Approximation”

E. De Sanctisa, W.-D. Nowakb, K.A. Oganessyana,b,c 111e-mail: kogan@hermes.desy.de

aINFN-Laboratori Nazionali di Frascati
I-00044 Frascati, via Enrico Fermi 40, Italy
bDESY Zeuthen
D-15738 Zeuthen, Platanenallee 6, Germany
cYerevan Physics Institute
375036 Yerevan, Alikhanian Br.2, Armenia

## Abstract

We consider the single-spin azimuthal asymmetries recently measured at the HERMES experiment for charged pions produced in semi-inclusive deep inelastic scattering of leptons off longitudinally polarized protons. Guided by the experimental results and assuming a vanishing twist-2 transverse quark spin distribution in the longitudinally polarized nucleon, denoted as “reduced twist-3 approximation”, a self-consistent description of the observed single-spin asymmetries is obtained. In addition, predictions are given for the $`z`$ dependence of the single target-spin asymmetry.

Semi-inclusive deep inelastic scattering (SIDIS) of leptons off a polarized nucleon target is a rich source of information on the spin structure of the nucleon and on parton fragmentation. In particular, measurements of azimuthal asymmetries in SIDIS allow the further investigation of the quark and gluon structure of the polarized nucleon. The HERMES collaboration has recently reported on the measurement of single target-spin asymmetries in the distribution of the azimuthal angle $`\varphi `$ relative to the lepton scattering plane, in semi-inclusive charged pion production on a longitudinally polarized hydrogen target . The $`\mathrm{sin}\varphi `$ moment of this distribution was found to be significant for $`\pi ^+`$-production. For $`\pi ^{}`$ it was found to be consistent with zero within present experimental uncertainties, as it was the case for the $`\mathrm{sin}2\varphi `$ moments of both $`\pi ^+`$ and $`\pi ^{}`$. Single-spin asymmetries vanish in models in which hadrons consist of non-interacting collinear partons (quarks and gluons), i.e. they are forbidden in the simplest version of the parton model and perturbative QCD. Non-vanishing and non-identical intrinsic transverse momentum distributions for oppositely polarized partons play an important role in most explanations of such non-zero single-spin asymmetries; they are interpreted as the effects of “naive time-reversal-odd” (T-odd) fragmentation functions \[2-6\], arising from non-perturbative hadronic final-state interactions. In Refs.  these asymmetries were evaluated and it was shown that a good agreement with the HERMES data can be achieved by using only twist-2 distribution and fragmentation functions.

In this letter the single target-spin sin$`\varphi _h`$ and sin$`\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2}\varphi _h`$ azimuthal asymmetries are investigated in the light of the recent HERMES results . It will be shown that these results may be interpreted towards a vanishing twist-2 quark transverse spin distribution in the longitudinally polarized nucleon 222After this work has been completed we became aware of Refs.  where this possibility has also been considered.. Under this assumption, which will be called hereafter “reduced twist-3 approximation”, the sub-leading order in $`1/Q`$ single target-spin sin$`\varphi _h`$ asymmetry reduces to the twist-2 level and is interpreted as the effect of the convolution of the transversity distribution and the T-odd fragmentation function. In this situation, also measurements with a longitudinally polarized target at HERMES may be used to extract the transversity distribution in a way similar to that proposed in Ref.  for a transversely polarized target, once enough statistics will be collected.

The sin$`\varphi _h`$ and sin$`\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2}\varphi _h`$ moments of experimentally observable single target-spin asymmetries in the SIDIS cross-section can be related to the parton distribution and fragmentation functions involved in the parton level description of the underlying process . Their anticipated dependence on $`p_T`$ ($`k_T`$), the intrinsic transverse momentum of the initial (final) parton, reflects into the distribution of $`P_{hT}`$, the transverse momentum of the semi-inclusively measured hadron. The moments are defined as appropriately weighted integrals over this observable, of the cross section asymmetry:

$$\frac{|P_{hT}|}{M_h}\mathrm{sin}\varphi _h\frac{d^2P_{hT}\frac{|P_{hT}|}{M_h}\mathrm{sin}\varphi _h\left(d\sigma ^+d\sigma ^{}\right)}{d^2P_{hT}\left(d\sigma ^++d\sigma ^{}\right)},$$
(1)
$$\frac{|P_{hT}|^2}{MM_h}\mathrm{sin}2\varphi _h\frac{d^2P_{hT}\frac{|P_{hT}|^2}{MM_h}\mathrm{sin}2\varphi _h\left(d\sigma ^+d\sigma ^{}\right)}{d^2P_{hT}\left(d\sigma ^++d\sigma ^{}\right)}.$$
(2)
Here $`+()`$ denote the antiparallel (parallel) longitudinal polarization of the target and $`M`$ ($`M_h`$) is the mass of the target (final hadron). For both polarized and unpolarized leptons these asymmetries are given by  333We omit the current quark mass dependent terms.

$$\frac{|P_{hT}|}{M_h}\mathrm{sin}\varphi _h(x,y,z)=\frac{1}{I_0(x,y,z)}[I_{1L}(x,y,z)+I_{1T}(x,y,z)],$$
(3)
$$\frac{|P_{hT}|^2}{MM_h}\mathrm{sin}2\varphi _h(x,y,z)=\frac{8}{I_0(x,y,z)}S_L(1y)h_{1L}^{(1)}(x)z^2H_1^{(1)}(z),$$
(4)
where

$$I_0(x,y,z)=(1+(1+y)^2)f_1(x)D_1(z),$$

$$I_{1L}(x,y,z)=4S_L\frac{M}{Q}(2y)\sqrt{1y}[xh_L(x)zH_1^{(1)}(z)h_{1L}^{(1)}(x)\stackrel{~}{H}(z)],$$
(5)
$$I_{1T}(x,y,z)=2S_{Tx}(1y)h_1(x)zH_1^{(1)}(z).$$
(6)
With $`k_1`$ ($`k_2`$) being the 4-momentum of the incoming (outgoing) charged lepton, $`Q^2=q^2`$ where $`q=k_1k_2`$ is the 4-momentum of the virtual photon. $`P`$ ($`P_h`$) is the momentum of the target (final hadron), $`x=Q^2/2(Pq)`$, $`y=(Pq)/(Pk_1)`$, $`z=(PP_h)/(Pq)`$, $`k_{1T}`$ the incoming lepton transverse momentum with respect to the virtual photon momentum direction, and $`\varphi _h`$ is the azimuthal angle between $`P_{hT}`$ and $`k_{1T}`$ around the virtual photon direction. Note that the azimuthal angle of the transverse (with respect to the virtual photon) component of the target polarization, $`\varphi _S`$, is equal to 0 ($`\pi `$) for the target polarized parallel (anti-parallel) to the beam . The components of the longitudinal and transverse target polarization in the virtual photon frame are denoted by $`S_L`$ and $`S_{Tx}`$, respectively. Twist-2 distribution and fragmentation functions have a subscript ‘1’: $`f_1(x)`$ and $`D_1(z)`$ are the usual unpolarized distribution and fragmentation functions, while $`h_{1L}^{(1)}(x)`$ and $`h_1(x)`$ describe the quark transverse spin distribution in longitudinally and transversely polarized nucleons, respectively. The twist-3 distribution function in the longitudinally polarized nucleon is denoted by $`h_L(x)`$ . The spin dependent fragmentation function $`H_1^{(1)}(z)`$, describing transversely polarized quark fragmentation (Collins effect ), can be interpreted as the production probability of an unpolarized hadron from a transversely polarized quark . The fragmentation function $`\stackrel{~}{H}(z)`$ is the interaction-dependent part of the twist-3 fragmentation function: $`H(z)=2zH_1^{(1)}(z)+\stackrel{~}{H}(z)`$. The functions with superscript $`(1)`$ denote $`p_T^2`$\- and $`k_T^2`$-moments, respectively:

$$h_{1L}^{(1)}(x)d^2p_T\left(\frac{p_T^2}{2M^2}\right)h_{1L}^{}(x,p_T^2),$$
(7)
$$H_1^{(1)}(z)z^2d^2k_T\left(\frac{k_T^2}{2M_h^2}\right)H_1^{}(z,z^2k_T^2).$$
(8)
The function $`h_L(x)`$ can be split into a twist-2 part, $`h_{1L}^{(1)}(x)`$, and an interaction-dependent part, $`\stackrel{~}{h}_L(x)`$ :

$$h_L(x)=2\frac{h_{1L}^{(1)}(x)}{x}+\stackrel{~}{h}_L(x).$$
(9)
As it was shown in Refs.  this relation can be rewritten as

$$h_L(x)=h_1(x)\frac{d}{dx}h_{1L}^{(1)}(x).$$
(10)
The weighted single target-spin asymmetries defined above are related to the ones measured by HERMES  through the following relations:

$$A_{UL}^{\mathrm{sin}\varphi _h}\frac{2M_h}{P_{hT}}\frac{|P_{hT}|}{M_h}\mathrm{sin}\varphi _h,$$
(11)
$$A_{UL}^{\mathrm{sin}2\varphi _h}\frac{2MM_h}{P_{hT}^2}\frac{|P_{hT}^2|}{MM_h}\mathrm{sin}2\varphi _h,$$
(12)
where the subscripts $`U`$ and $`L`$ indicate unpolarized beam and longitudinally polarized target, respectively.

When combining the HERMES experimental results of a significant target-spin sin$`\varphi _h`$ asymmetry for $`\pi ^+`$ and of a vanishing sin$`\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2}\varphi _h`$ asymmetry with the preliminary evidence from $`Z^0`$ $`2`$-jet decay on a non-zero T-odd transversely polarized quark fragmentation function , it follows immediately from Eq.(4) that $`h_{1L}^{(1)}(x)`$, the twist-2 transverse quark spin distribution in a longitudinally polarized nucleon, should vanish. Consequently, from Eqs. (9, 10) follows that

$$h_L(x)=\stackrel{~}{h}_L(x)=h_1(x).$$
(13)
In this situation the single target-spin sin$`\varphi _h`$ asymmetry given by Eq.(3) reduces to the twist-2 level (“reduced twist-3 approximation”). The fact that $`h_{1L}^{(1)}(x)`$ (see Eq.7) vanishes may be interpreted as follows: the distribution function $`h_{1L}^{}(x,p_T^2)`$, which is non-zero itself, vanishes at any $`x`$ when it is averaged over the intrinsic transverse momentum of the initial parton, $`p_T`$. As a matter of fact, in a longitudinally polarized nucleon partons polarized transversely at large $`p_T`$ may indeed have a polarization opposite to that at smaller $`p_T`$, at any $`x`$.

It is important to mention that the “reduced twist-3 approximation” does not require $`\stackrel{~}{H}(z)=0`$, which otherwise would lead to the inconsistency that $`H_1^{(1)}(z)`$ would be required to vanish .

For the numerical calculations the non-relativistic approximation $`h_1(x)=g_1(x)`$ is taken as lower limit 444For non-relativistic quarks $`h_1(x)=g_1(x)`$. Several models suggest that $`h_1(x)`$ has the same order of magnitude as $`g_1`$ . The evolution properties of $`h_1`$ and $`g_1`$, however, are very different . At the $`Q^2`$ values of the HERMES measurement the assumption $`h_1=g_1`$ is fulfilled at large, i.e. valence-like, $`x`$ values, while large differences occur at lower $`x`$ . , and $`h_1(x)=(f_1(x)+g_1(x))/2`$ as an upper limit . For the sake of simplicity, $`Q^2`$-independent parameterizations were chosen for the distribution functions $`f_1(x)`$ and $`g_1(x)`$ .

To calculate the T-odd fragmentation function $`H_1^{(1)}(z)`$ , the Collins parameterization  for the analyzing power of transversely polarized quark fragmentation was adopted:

$$A_C(z,k_T)\frac{|k_T|}{M_h}\frac{H_1^{}(z,k_T^2)}{D_1(z,k_T^2)}=\frac{M_C|k_T|}{M_C^2+k_T^2}$$
(14)
For the distribution of the final parton’s intrinsic transverse momentum, $`k_T`$, in the unpolarized fragmentation function $`D_1(z,k_T^2)`$ a Gaussian parameterization was used  with $`z^2k_T^2=b^2`$ (in the numerical calculations $`b=0.36`$ GeV was taken ). For $`D_1^{\pi ^+}(z)`$ the parameterization from Ref.  was adopted. In Eq.(14) $`M_C`$ is a typical hadronic mass whose value may range from $`m_\pi `$ to $`M_p`$. Using $`M_C=2m_\pi `$ for the analyzing power of Eq.(14) results in

$$\frac{_{z_0=0.1}^1𝑑zH_1^{}(z)}{_{z_0=0.1}^1𝑑zD_1(z)}=0.062,$$
(15)
which is in good agreement with the experimental result $`0.063\pm 0.017`$ given for this ratio in Ref. . Here $`H_1^{}(z)`$ is the unweighted polarized fragmentation function, defined as:

$$H_1^{}(z)z^2d^2k_TH_1^{}(z,z^2k_T^2).$$
(16)
It is worth mentioning that the ratio in Eq.(15) is rather sensitive to the lower limit of integration, $`z_0`$ . By using $`z_0=0.01`$, the ratio reduces to 0.03; choosing a value of $`z_0`$ equal to 0.2 (0.3), the ratio increases to about $`0.1`$ ($`0.12`$). This behavior is mainly due to the fact that the fragmentation function $`D_1(z)`$ diverges at small values of $`z`$.

In Fig. 1, the asymmetry $`A_{UL}^{\mathrm{sin}\varphi _h}(x)`$ of Eq.(11) for $`\pi ^+`$ production on a proton target is presented as a function of $`x`$-Bjorken and compared to HERMES data , which correspond to $`1`$ GeV2 $`Q^215`$ GeV2, $`4`$ GeV $`E_\pi 13.5`$ GeV, $`0.02x0.4`$, $`0.2z0.7`$, and $`0.2y0.8`$. The two theoretical curves are calculated by integrating over the same kinematic ranges taking $`P_{hT}=0.365`$ GeV as input. The latter value is obtained in this kinematic region assuming a Gaussian parameterization of the distribution and fragmentation functions with $`p_T^2=(0.44)^2`$ GeV2 .

From Fig. 1 it can be concluded that there is good agreement between the calculation in this letter and the HERMES data. Note that the ‘kinematic‘ contribution to $`A_{UL}^{\mathrm{sin}\varphi _h}(x)`$, coming from the transverse component of the target polarization (with respect to the virtual photon direction) and given by $`I_{1T}`$ (Eq.(6)), amounts to only $`25\%`$.

The $`z`$ dependence of the asymmetry $`A_{UL}^{\mathrm{sin}\varphi _h}`$ for $`\pi ^+`$ production is shown in Fig. 2, where the two curves correspond to two limits for $`h_1(x)`$, as introduced above. No data are available yet to constrain the calculations.

In conclusion, the recently observed single-spin azimuthal asymmetries in semi-inclusive deep inelastic lepton scattering off a longitudinally polarized proton target at HERMES are interpreted on the basis of the so-called “reduced twist-3 approximation”, that is assuming a vanishing twist-2 transverse quark spin distribution in the longitudinally polarized nucleon. This leads to a self-consistent description of the observed single-spin asymmetries. In this approach the target-spin sin$`\varphi _h`$ asymmetry is interpreted as the effect of the convolution of the transversity distribution, $`h_1(x)`$, and a T-odd fragmentation function, $`H_1^{(1)}(z)`$, and may allow to probe transverse spin observables in a longitudinally polarized nucleon.

In addition, predictions are given for the $`z`$ dependence of the single target-spin sin$`\varphi _h`$ asymmetry, for which experimental data are not yet published.

We would like to thank P. Mulders for many useful discussions, V. Korotkov for very useful comments and R. Kaiser for the careful reading of the manuscript. The work of K.A.O. was in part supported by INTAS contributions (contract numbers 93-1827 and 96-287) from the European Union.


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# Structure and Magnetism of well-defined cobalt nanoparticles embedded in a niobium matrix

## I Introduction

Structural and magnetic properties of clusters, i.e. particles containing from two to a few thousand atoms, are of great interest nowadays. From a technological point of view, those systems are part of the development of high density magnetic storage media, and, from a fundamental point of view, the physics of magnetic clusters still needs to be investigated. Indeed, to perform stable magnetic storage with small clusters, one has to control the magnetization reversal process (nucleation and dynamics), and thus make a close connection between structure and magnetic behavior. To reach the magnetic properties of small clusters, there are two available approaches : ”macroscopic” measurements (using a Vibrating Sample Magnetometer (VSM) or a Super Quantum Interference Device (SQUID)) on a cluster collection (109 particles) that implicate statistical treatments of the data, and ”microscopic” measurements on a single particle. From now, micro-magnetometers (MFM,  Hall micro-probe, or classical micro-squid) were not sensitive enough to perform magnetic measurements on a single cluster. The present paper constitutes the preliminary study toward magnetic measurements on a small single cluster using a new microsquid design. We focus on and try to connect structural and magnetic properties of a cluster collection. With a view to clear up structural questions, we first study the structure of nanocrystalline Co-particles embedded in a niobium matrix by means of Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM) observations, X-ray diffraction and absorption techniques. Then magnetization measurements are performed on the same particles to deduce their magnetic size and their anisotropy terms.

## II experimental devices

We use the co-deposition technique recently developed in our laboratory to prepare the samples. It consists in two independent beams reaching at the same time a silicon (100) substrate at room temperature : the pre-formed cluster beam and the atomic beam used for the matrix. The deposition is made in a Ultra High Vacuum (UHV) chamber (p=$`5.10^{10}`$ Torr) to limit cluster and matrix oxidation. The cluster source used for this experiment is a classical laser vaporization source improved according to Milani-de Heer design. It allows to work in the Low Energy Cluster Beam Deposition (LECBD) regime : clusters do not fragment arriving on the substrate or in the matrix. The vaporization Ti:Sapphire laser used provides output energies up to 300 mJ at 790 nm, in a pulse duration of 3 $`\mu `$s and a 20 Hz repetition rate. It presents many advantages described elsewhere, such as adjustable high cluster flux. The matrix is evaporated thanks to a UHV electron gun in communication with the deposition chamber. By monitoring and controlling both evaporation rates with quartz balances, we can continuously adjust the cluster concentration in the matrix. We previously show that this technique allows to prepare nanogranular films from any couple of materials, even two miscible ones forbidden by the phase diagram at equilibrium. We determine the crystalline structure and the morphology of cobalt clusters deposited onto copper grids and protected by a thin carbon layer (100 $`\AA `$). From earlier High Resolution Transmission Electron Microscopy (HRTEM) observations, we found that cobalt clusters form quasi-spherical nanocrystallites with a f.c.c structure, and a sharp size distribution. In order to perform macroscopic measurements on a cluster collection using surface sensitive techniques, we need films having a 5-25 nm equivalent thickness of cobalt clusters embedded in 500 nm thick niobium films. We chose a low cluster concentration (1-5 $`\%`$) to make structural and magnetic measurements on non-interacting particles. One has to mention that such concentration is still far from the expected percolation threshold (about 20 $`\%`$). From both X-ray reflectometry and grazing X-ray scattering measurements, we measured the density of the Nb films: 92 $`\%`$ of the bulk one, and a b.c.c polycrystalline structure as reported for common bulk. X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) was performed on D42 at the LURE facility in Orsay using the X-ray beam delivered by the DCI storage ring at the Co K-edge (7709 eV) by electron detection at low temperature (T=80 K). The porosity of the matrix is low enough and avoids the oxidation of the reactive Co clusters as shown in X-ray Absorption Near Edge Structure (XANES) spectra at the Co-K edge where no fingerprint of oxide on cobalt clusters embedded in niobium films is observed. The results of the Extended X-ray Absorption Fine Structure (EXAFS) simulations reveal the local distances between first Co-neighbors and their number for each component. Magnetization measurements on diluted samples were performed using a Vibrating Sample Magnetometer (VSM) at the Laboratoire Louis Néel in Grenoble. Other low temperature magnetization curves of the same samples were obtained from X-ray Magnetic Circular Dichroism (XMCD) signal. The measurement was conducted at the European Synchrotron Radiation Facility in Grenoble at the ID12B beamline. The degree of circular polarization was almost 80 $`\%`$, and the hysteresis measurements were performed using a helium-cooled UHV electromagnet that provided magnetic fields up to 3 Tesla.

## III structure

The origin of the EXAFS signal is well established as mentioned in various references. If multiple scattering effects are neglected on the first nearest neighbors, the EXAFS modulations are described in terms of interferences between the outgoing and the backscattered photoelectron wave functions. We use Mc-Kale tabulated phase and amplitude shifts for all types of considered Co-neighbors. The EXAFS analysis is restricted to solely simple diffusion paths from the standard fitting code developed in the Michalowicz version where an amplitude reduction factor S$`{}_{}{}^{2}{}_{0}{}^{}`$ equal to 0.7 and an asymmetric distance distribution based on hard sphere model are introduced. The first consideration traduces the possibility of multiple electron excitations contributing to the total absorption coefficient reduction. The second one is needed to take into account the difference between the core and the interface Co-atom distances in the cluster. So, in the fit, Rj and sj values, corresponding to the shortest distance and to the asymmetry parameter of the jth atom from the excited one respectively, replace the average distance in the standard EXAFS formulation. We also define Nj the coordination number, $`\sigma _j`$ the Debye-Waller factor of the jth atom, k the photoelectron momentum and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$(k) its mean free path. Structural parameters ($`N_j,R_j,\sigma _j,s_j`$) were determined from the simulation of the EXAFS oscillations (Fig. 1). As for some systems with two components (for example in metallic superlattices previously studied), the first Fourier transform peak of the EXAFS spectrum presents a shoulder which can be understood unambiguously in terms of phase-shift between Co and Nb backscatterers for k values around 5$`\AA ^1`$. This splitting in the real space corresponds to a broadening of the second oscillation in the momentum space (see Fig. 1). Thus, in the simulations, we first consider two kinds of Co-neighbors : cobalt and niobium. But, a preliminary study of cobalt and niobium core levels by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy reveals a weak concentration of oxygen inside the sample owing to the UHV environment. The core level yielding provides an oxygen concentration of about 5 $`\%`$. Such Co-O bonding is taken into account for the fit improvement. Moreover, from HRTEM and X-ray diffraction patterns , we know : the mean size of the clusters (3 nm), their inner f.c.c structure with a lattice parameter close to the bulk one and their shape close to the Wulff equilibrium one (truncated octahedron). Finally, the Co/Nb system can be usefully seen as a cobalt core with the bulk parameters and a more or less sharp Co/Nb interface. From these assumptions, we use the simulation of EXAFS oscillations to describe the Co/Nb interface and to verify it is relevant with an observed alloy in the phase diagram (tetragonal Co6Nb7). The best fitted values of EXAFS oscillations are the following :
\- 70 $`\%`$ of Co atoms are surrounded with cobalt neighbors in the f.c.c phase with the bulk-like distance (dCo-Co=2.50 $`\AA `$), corresponding to N1=8.4, R1=2.495 $`\AA `$, $`\sigma _1`$=0.1 $`\AA `$, s1=0.18 $`\AA `$ in EXAFS simulations.
\- 26 $`\%`$ of Co atoms are surrounded with niobium neighbors in the tetragonal Co6Nb7 phase, corresponding to N2=3.1, R2=2.58 $`\AA `$, $`\sigma _2`$=0.16 $`\AA `$, s2=0.06 $`\AA `$ in EXAFS simulations.
\- 4 $`\%`$ of Co atoms are surrounded with oxygen neighbors with a distance equal to dCo-O=2.0 $`\AA `$ based on the typical oxygen atomic radii in chemisorption systems or transition metal oxides. This environment corresponds to N3=0.5, R3=1.9 $`\AA `$, $`\sigma _3`$=0.04 $`\AA `$, s3=0.1 $`\AA `$ in EXAFS simulations.
According to Ref., a 3 nm-diameter f.c.c truncated octahedron consists of 35.6 $`\%`$ core atoms (zone a), 27 $`\%`$ atoms in the first sublayer (zone b) and 37.6 $`\%`$ atoms in the surface layer (zone c). Let us propose the following compositions : a pure f.c.c Co phase in zone a, a Co4Nb phase in zone b, and a Co6Nb7O2 phase in zone c (i.e. : at the cluster-matrix interface). The corresponding coordination numbers : N1(Co-Co)=8.5, N2(Co-Nb)=3.1 and N3(Co-O)=0.4 are in good quantitative agreement with the coordination numbers N1, N2 and N3 we obtain from EXAFS simulations. Concerning the other fitting parameters, what is found is the high value for the mean free path of the photoelectron ($`\mathrm{\Gamma }=1.6`$) and the Debye Waller factor for Co-metal environment ($`\sigma `$$`>`$ 0.1 $`\AA `$). Notice that because we did not dispose of experimental phase and amplitude, but calculated ones, a large difference between sample and reference is expected, so their absolute values do not represent physical reality but only are necessary to attenuate the amplitude of oscillations. On the contrary, the total number of neighbors is fixed by TEM experiments which reveal a f.c.c-phase for the Co-clusters (so N1+N2+N3=11$`\pm `$1). To follow the shape, position and relative amplitudes of the oscillations, Nj is a free parameter for each component in the simulation and besides is related to the concentration of the jth atom from the Co-absorber one in the sample. This study finally evidences a diffuse interface between cobalt and niobium mostly located on the first monolayer.

In summary, we made a consistent treatment of all the experimental results obtained from different techniques. We notice that EXAFS spectra show unambiguously a smooth interface between miscible elements as cobalt and niobium. This information will be of importance and is the key to understand the magnetic behavior discussed below.

## IV magnetism

Here, we present the magnetic properties of these nanometer sized clusters embedded in a metallic matrix. Furthermore such a system will be used to perform microsquid devices in order to reach magnetization measurements on an isolated single domain cluster. The present study deals with macroscopic measurements performed on a particle assembly (typically 1014) of cobalt clusters in a niobium matrix to describe the magnetic properties of the Co/Nb system. Because of the goal mentioned above, we focus on very diluted samples (less than 2 $`\%`$ volumic for Co concentrations). For these low cluster concentrations, magnetic couplings between particles are negligible whereas dipolar and RKKY interactions in the case of metallic matrix, are considered. Nevertheless, both last contributions which vary as 1/d$`{}_{}{}^{3}{}_{ij}{}^{}`$ (where dij is the mean distance between particles) are expected to be weak compared to ferromagnetic order inside the cluster. In a first approximation, we neglect any kind of surface disorder so that a single domain cluster can be seen as an isolated macrospin with uniform rotation of its magnetization. It means that the atomic spins in the cluster remain parallel during the cluster magnetization rotation. In an external applied field, the magnetic energy of a nanoparticle is the sum of a Zeeman interaction (between the cluster magnetization and the local field), and anisotropy terms (as shape, magnetocrystalline, surface (interface in our case) or strain anisotropy). At high temperatures (T$`>`$100 K), anisotropy contributions of nanometric clusters can be neglected compared to the thermal activation ($`K_{eff}V/k_B30K`$) and clusters act as superparamagnetic independent entities. A way to estimate the interparticle interactions is to plot 1/$`\chi `$ vs. T in the superparamagnetic regime. 1/$`\chi `$ follows a Curie-Weiss-like law :

$$\frac{1}{\chi }=C(T\theta )$$
(1)
and $`\theta `$ gives an order of magnitude of the particle interactions. From experimental data, we give 1/$`\chi `$ vs. T on Fig. 2, and find $`\theta `$=1-2 K, which is negligible compared with the other energies of the clusters. In the superparamagnetic regime, we also estimate in Section A the magnetic size distribution of the clusters. At low temperatures, clusters have a ferromagnetic behavior due to the anisotropy terms. And, in Section B, we experimentally estimate their mean anisotropy constant.

### A Magnetic size measurement

In the following, we make the approximation that the atomic magnetic moment is equal to 1.7 $`\mu _B`$ at any temperature (or 1430 emu/cm3 like in the bulk h.c.p cobalt). Besides, our synthesized cobalt clusters have approximately a 3 nm diameter and contain at least 1000 atoms. According to references , a magnetic moment enhancement only appears for particles containing less than 500 atoms. So in our size range we can assume that the atomic cobalt moment is close to the bulk phase one (mCo=1.7$`\mu _B`$). We consider a log-normal size distribution :

$$f(D)=\frac{1}{D\sqrt{2\pi \sigma ^2}}exp\left(\left(ln\left(\frac{D}{D_m}\right)\right)^2\frac{1}{2\sigma ^2}\right)$$
(2)
where Dm is the mean cluster diameter and $`\sigma `$ the dispersion. In the superparamagnetic regime, we can use a classical Langevin function $`L(x)`$ and write :

$$\frac{m(H,T)}{m_{sat}}=\frac{_0^{\mathrm{}}D^3L(x)f(D)𝑑D}{_0^{\mathrm{}}D^3f(D)𝑑D},x=\frac{\mu _0H(\pi D^3/6)M_S}{k_BT}$$
(3)
where H is the applied field ($`\mu _0`$H in Tesla), T the temperature and msat the saturation magnetic moment of the sample estimated on magnetization curves at low temperatures under a 2 Tesla field. First of all, on Fig. 3, one can see that for T$`>`$100 K, m(H/T) curves superimpose according to Eq. (3) for a magnetic field being applied in the sample plane (we checked that the results are the same for a perpendicular applied field). Secondly, one can notice that for T=30 K, the magnetization deviation to the high temperature curves comes from the fact that the anisotropy is not negligible anymore, and one has to use a modified Langevin function in the simulation. In this equation, we also assume the particles to feel the applied field, actually, they feel the local field which is the sum of the external field and the mean field created by the surrounding particles in the sample. Furthermore, in the superparamagnetic regime, we fit experimental m(H,T) curves obtained from VSM measurements to find Dm and $`\sigma `$, the mean diameter and dispersion of the ”magnetic size” distribution, respectively (see Fig. 4). For those fits, we still use the MS bulk value (the use of other ones given in references  leads quite to the same results (with an error less than 5 $`\%`$), the determining factors being Dm and $`\sigma `$). Figure (5) displays Dm and $`\sigma `$ for two niobium deposition rates (VNb=3 $`\AA `$/s and VNb=5 $`\AA `$/s, respectively). Such results are compared with the real cluster sizes deduced from TEM observations. The magnetic domain is always smaller than the real diameter. Furthermore, the magnetic domain decreases as the deposition rate increases. This indicates that the kinetics of the deposition plays a crucial role for the nature of the interface. For example, we found a magnetic domain size of 2.3 nm (resp. 1.8 nm) for a 3 nm diameter cluster when VNb=3 $`\AA `$/s (resp. VNb=5 $`\AA `$/s), the dispersion $`\sigma `$=0.24 remained the same.

### B Anisotropy

The bulk value of the f.c.c cobalt cubic magnetocrystalline anisotropy constant is : KMA=2.7.106 erg/cm3 less than the h.c.p bulk phase one (4.4.106 erg/cm3). The shape anisotropy constant Kshape can be calculated from the demagnetizing factors and the saturation magnetization. In case of weak distortions in the sphericity, the shape anisotropy for a prolate spheroid can be expressed as follows :

$$E_{shape}=\frac{1}{2}\mu _0M_S^2(N_zN_x)\mathrm{cos}^2(\theta )=K_{shape}\mathrm{cos}^2(\theta )$$
(4)
MS is the saturation magnetization of the particle : MS =1430 emu/cm 3, $`\theta `$ the angle between the magnetization direction and the easy axis, and Nx, Nz the demagnetizing factors along x-axis and z-axis respectively. We plot on Fig. 6, the constant anisotropy Kshape as a function of the prolate spheroid deformation c/a  (with c and a representing the wide and small ellipsoid axis, respectively). For a truncated octahedron, the ratio c/a has been evaluated lower than 1.2 which restricts the Kshape value of the order of 106 erg/cm3. However, we have no information about the magnitude of interface and strain anisotropies in our system.
Let us now experimentally evaluate the anisotropy constant Keff of cobalt clusters from low temperature measurements. Hysteresis curves are obtained from VSM experiments, but at very low temperatures (i.e. T$`<`$8 K), superconducting fluctuations appear due to the niobium matrix and prevent any magnetization measurements on the whole sample. So, we also use X-ray Magnetic Circular Dichroism as a local magnetometer by recording the MCD signal at the cobalt L3 white line as a function of the applied magnetic field (for details on the method see Ref.). The angle of the incident beam is fixed at 55 with respect to the surface normal and the magnetic field is parallel to the sample surface. The absorption signal is recorded by monitoring the soft X-ray fluorescence yield chosen for its large probing depth (1000 $`\AA `$). Finally, from hysteresis curves given by both VSM and XMCD techniques, we deduce mr(T), the remanent magnetic moment vs. T down to 5.3 K, and we normalize it by taking : mr(8.1K)VSM=mr(8.1K)XMCD, the curve mr(T)/mr(5.3K) is given on Fig. 7. To evaluate mr(T), one can write :

$$m_r(T)=\frac{m_{sat}}{Cte}\frac{_{D_B(T)}^{\mathrm{}}D^3f(D)𝑑D}{_0^{\mathrm{}}D^3f(D)𝑑D}$$
(5)
where DB(T) is the particle blocking diameter at temperature T. Cte is a parameter independent of the particle size. Cte=$`2`$ if clusters have a uniaxial magnetic behavior and $`3\sqrt{3}`$ if they have a cubic magnetic one. In order to rule out this Cte, we plot the ratio :

$$\frac{m_r(T)}{m_r(5.3K)}=\frac{_{D_B(T)}^{\mathrm{}}D^3f(D)𝑑D}{_{D_B(5.3K)}^{\mathrm{}}D^3f(D)𝑑D}$$
(6)
One finds DB(T) when the relaxation time of the particle is equal to the measuring time : $`\tau =\tau _0exp(K_{eff}V/k_BT)=\tau _{mes}`$.

$$D_B^3(T)=aT,a=\frac{6k_B}{\pi K_{eff}}ln\left(\frac{\tau _{mes}}{\tau _0}\right)$$
(7)
$`\tau _0`$ is the microscopic relaxation time of the particle, taken independent of the temperature. The fit result is presented on Fig. 7. We find a=3.5$`\pm `$0.1 nm3/K, and by taking $`\tau _{mes}`$=10 s, and $`\tau _0`$=10-12-10-9 s, we obtain Keff=2.0 $`\pm `$0.3.106 erg/cm3. By fitting Zero Field Cooled (ZFC) curves for different applied fields, we can also evaluate Keff. Besides, if we neglect the blocked particle susceptibility, we have :

$$\frac{m_{ZFC}(H,T)}{m_{sat}}=\frac{_0^{D_B(H,T)}D^3L(x)f(D)𝑑D}{_0^{\mathrm{}}D^3f(D)𝑑D}$$
(8)
Moreover, for low field values compared with the anisotropy field of cobalt clusters (estimated to be $`\mu _0`$Ha=0.4 T), we can make the approximation :

$$D_B^3(H,T)=af\left(\frac{H}{H_a}\right)Ta\left(1+\alpha \frac{H}{H_a}\right)T$$
(9)
where a is the coefficient of Eq. (7), $`\alpha `$ a numerical constant. The ZFC curve fits are presented on Fig. 8. A linear extrapolation to $`\mu _0`$H=0 T also gives a$``$3.5 nm3/K and an anisotropy constant of 2.0$`\pm `$0.3.106 erg/cm3 for the same numerical values as above. We found a similar result for the second sample with a niobium evaporation rate of 5 $`\AA `$/s. Finally, we experimentally found an anisotropy constant close to the one of quasi-spherical f.c.c cobalt clusters.

## V discussion

The ”magnetic size” distribution is compared to the one obtained from TEM observations of pure Co-clusters prepared in the same experimental conditions (see Fig. 5(a)). For all the studied Co/Nb samples, we systematically find a global size reduction which might be related to the formation of a non-magnetic alloy at the interface as suggested by EXAFS simulations. The most significant parameter in the magnetically dead alloy thickness, seems to be the rate of deposition of the niobium matrix (VNb). As an example, we mention that for VNb=5 $`\AA `$/s, the reduction is twice the one for VNb=3 $`\AA `$/s (see Fig. 5(b)). That result suggests the model proposed in Fig. 9(a), 9(b). As cobalt-niobium forms a miscible system, we show that the more VNb increases, the more the quantity of Nb-atoms introduced at the cobalt cluster surface increases.
To study the magnetism of the perturbed monolayers at the interface, we prepared a cobalt-niobium alloy using induction-heating under argon atmosphere with 40 $`\%`$-Co and 60 $`\%`$-Nb atomic weights. From classical X-ray $`\theta `$/2$`\theta `$ diffraction ($`\lambda `$=1.5406 $`\AA `$), we identified the $`\beta `$-phase given by the binary phase diagram : Co6Nb7. From VSM measurements on this sample, we found a remaining paramagnetic susceptibility $`\chi `$=10-4 (for 2$`<`$T$`<`$300 K) corresponding to the ”Pauli” paramagnetism of the sample. This feature could explain the ”dead” layer at the cluster surface. Obi and al. obtained two ”magnetically dead” cobalt monolayers on cobalt-niobium multilayers evaporated by a rf-dual type sputtering method (”magnetically dead” layers were also suggested by Mühge and al. for Fe/Nb multilayers). Finally, we can underline the fact that the pre-formed cobalt clusters by LECBD technique are very compact nanocrystallites which conserve a magnetic core even if embedded in a miscible matrix. The existence of a ”magnetically dead” layer at the cluster-matrix interface may reduce surface effects compared with recent results obtained on smaller cobalt particles (150-300 atoms) stabilized in polymers. The estimated mean anisotropy constant might correspond to cubic magnetocrystalline or shape effects. To confirm this assumption, works are in progress to investigate the magnetic properties of a single cluster in a niobium matrix using a new microsquid technique.
One can also mention that for XMCD signals detected from the total electron yield method, the extraction of quantitative local magnetic values from the applicability of the individual orbital and spin sum rules is in progress. Nevertheless, one can mention a small enhancement of the orbital/spin magnetic moment ratio. Such increase might come from the orbital magnetic moment enhancement expected for small particles.  Systematic XMCD studies on clusters assembled Co/X films should be performed on Si-protected layers under synchrotron radiation to confirm these results.

## VI conclusion

We have shown that the magnetic properties of nanoparticles can be evaluated unambiguously if we know the size, the shape and the nature of the interface. This latter is given by EXAFS spectroscopy. We summarize the main results :
\- the mean like-bulk Co-Co distance (dCo-Co=2.50 $`\AA `$) concerns the 3/4 of the atoms (namely : the core atoms)
\- Co-Nb bonds are located on roughly one monolayer at the surface of the Co-clusters embedded in the Nb-matrix.
Even though this interface is rather sharp, it is of importance since the interface thickness is on the same order of magnitude than the cluster radius. In addition, some magnetic properties were approached by different complementary techniques as VSM magnetometry (at temperatures higher than 8 K) and XMCD signal detected by the fluorescence yield method (at temperatures from 5.3 K to 30 K) under a magnetic field. We show the good result coherence on the superimposed range (8 K$`<`$T$`<`$30 K) for both techniques probing the whole thickness of the sample. The main result is the possibility of a ”magnetically dead” layer at the interface Co/Nb, to relate to the alloyed interface (from EXAFS measurements) and to the moderate anisotropy value (found around 2.106 erg/cm3). To confirm this assumption and to understand the role of the interface on the anisotropy terms involved in so low dimension magnetic nanostructures, XMCD measurements at the Co-L2,3 edge have to be provided on a Co/Nb bilayer stacking (alternating 2 monolayers of Co and 2 monolayers of Nb) with the same Nb-deposition rates as in our systems.

## VII Aknowledgements

The authors would like to thank M. NEGRIER and J. TUAILLON for fruitfull discussions, C. BINNS from the University of Leceister, United Kingdom and J.VOGEL from the Laboratoire Louis Néel at Grenoble, France for their help during the first XMCD tests on the ID12B line of N. BROOKES at the ESRF in Grenoble.


text:
# 1 Introduction

## 1 Introduction

One of the most compelling features of CP violation in the $`B`$ system is that all three interior angles of the unitarity triangle, $`\varphi _1(\beta )`$, $`\varphi _2(\alpha )`$ and $`\varphi _3(\gamma )`$, can be measured cleanly, i.e. without theoretical hadronic uncertainties. The $`B`$ system is thereby expected to provide a test of CP violation in the standard model (SM). Any inconsistency with the predictions of the SM will reveal the much sought after signal of new physics (NP).

NP can affect CP violation in one of two possible ways: through contributions to $`B`$ decays or to $`B_d^0`$-$`\overline{B_d^0}`$ mixing. Most decay modes of the $`B`$-meson are dominated by $`W`$-mediated tree-level diagrams and will not be much affected by NP, since in most models of NP there are no contributions that can compete with the SM. Thus, with the exception of penguin-dominated decay modes, NP cannot significantly affect the decays. However, new contributions to $`B_d^0`$-$`\overline{B_d^0}`$ mixing can affect the CP asymmetries. Such NP contributions will affect the extraction of $`V_{td}`$ and $`V_{ts}`$, as well as possible measurements of $`\varphi _1,\varphi _2`$ and $`\varphi _3`$. Thus, NP enters principally through contributions to $`B_d^0`$-$`\overline{B_d^0}`$ mixing.

The angles $`\varphi _1`$,$`\varphi _2`$ and $`\varphi _3`$ are to be measured principally through the modes $`B_d^0(t)\mathrm{\Psi }K_S`$, $`B_d^0(t)\pi \pi `$ (or $`\rho \pi `$), and $`B^\pm DK^\pm `$ (or $`D^{}K^\pm `$), respectively. NP in $`B_d^0`$-$`\overline{B_d^0}`$ mixing will then affect the measurements of $`\varphi _1`$ and $`\varphi _2`$, but in opposite directions. That is, in the presence of a new-physics phase $`\varphi _{NP}`$, the CP angles are changed as follows: $`\varphi _1\varphi _1\varphi _{NP}`$ and $`\varphi _2\varphi _2+\varphi _{NP}`$. Hence the sum $`\varphi _1+\varphi _2+\varphi _3`$ is insensitive to the NP. However, if $`\varphi _3`$ is measured in the decay $`B_s^0(t)D_s^\pm K^{}`$ , then $`\varphi _1+\varphi _2+\varphi _3\pi `$ can be found if there is NP in $`B_s^0`$-$`\overline{B_s^0}`$ mixing.

The most well known method for detecting NP is to compare the unitary triangle as constructed from measurements of the angles with that constructed from independent measurements of the sides. Any inconsistency will be evidence for new physics. However, since at present the allowed region of the unitarity triangle is rather large, the triangle as constructed from the angles could still lie within the allowed region even if NP is present. Furthermore, even if the $`\varphi _1`$-$`\varphi _2`$-$`\varphi _3`$ triangle lies outside the allowed region, one might still be skeptical about the presence of NP: perhaps the theoretical uncertainties which go into the constraints on the unitarity triangle have been underestimated.

Clearly we would like cleaner, more direct tests of the SM in order to probe for the presence of NP. More promising tests for NP are possible by comparing two distinct decay modes which, in the SM, probe the same CP angle. One can compare the rate asymmetries in $`B^\pm DK^\pm `$ and $`B_s^0(t)D_s^\pm K^{}`$, both of which measure $`\varphi _3`$. A discrepancy between the extracted values would point to NP in $`B_s^0`$-$`\overline{B_s^0}`$ mixing. Similarly, a discrepancy in $`\varphi _1`$, as measured via $`B_d^0(t)\mathrm{\Psi }K_S`$ and $`B_d^0(t)\varphi K_S`$, implies new physics in the $`bs`$ penguin. One can also measure the CP asymmetry in the decay $`B_s^0(t)\mathrm{\Psi }\varphi `$, which vanishes to a good approximation in the SM. Such an asymmetry would indicate the presence of new physics in $`B_s^0`$-$`\overline{B_s^0}`$ mixing. Note that all such tests probe NP in the $`bs`$ flavour-changing neutral current (FCNC).

One may then ask the question: are there are any direct tests of NP in the $`bd`$ FCNC? For example, consider pure $`bd`$ penguin decays such as $`B_d^0K^0\overline{K^0}`$ or $`B_s^0\varphi K_S`$, with the asumption that $`t`$-quark contribution dominates among up-type quarks in the loop. In such a case the SM would predict that (i) the CP asymmetry in $`B_d^0(t)K^0\overline{K^0}`$ vanishes, and (ii) the CP asymmetry in $`B_s^0(t)\varphi K_S`$ measures $`\mathrm{sin}2\varphi _1`$ . Any discrepancy between measurements of these CP asymmetries and their predictions would thus imply that there is NP in either $`B_d^0`$-$`\overline{B_d^0}`$ mixing or the $`bd`$ penguin, i.e. in the $`bd`$ FCNC. However, it is well known that $`bd`$ penguins are not dominated by the internal $`t`$-quark. The contributions of the $`u`$\- and $`c`$-quarks can be as large as 20–50% of that of the $`t`$-quark. As a consequence, one cannot probe NP in $`bd`$ FCNC using such modes, and, unfortunately, the answer to the question asked is no.

## 2 The CKM Ambiguity

The full $`bd`$ penguin amplitude is a sum of contributions from the three internal up-type quarks in the loop:

$$P=P_uV_{ub}^{}V_{ud}+P_cV_{cb}^{}V_{cd}+P_tV_{tb}^{}V_{td},$$
(1)
with $`V_{ub}e^{i\varphi _3}`$ and $`V_{td}e^{i\varphi _1}`$. Using the unitarity relation, $`V_{ud}V_{ub}^{}+V_{cd}V_{cb}^{}+V_{td}V_{tb}^{}=0`$, the $`u`$-quark piece can be eliminated in Eq. (1), allowing us to write

$$P=𝒫_{cu}e^{i\delta _{cu}}+𝒫_{tu}e^{i\delta _{tu}}e^{i\varphi _1},$$
(2)
where $`\delta _{cu}`$ and $`\delta _{tu}`$ are strong phases. Now imagine that there were a method in which a series of measurements allowed us to cleanly extract $`\varphi _1`$ using the above expression. In this case, we would be able to express $`\varphi _1`$ as a function of the observables.

On the other hand, we can instead use the unitarity relation to eliminate the $`t`$-quark contribution in Eq. (1), yielding

$$P=𝒫_{ct}e^{i\delta _{ct}}+𝒫_{ut}e^{i\delta _{ut}}e^{i\varphi _3}.$$
(3)
Comparing Eqs. (2) and (3), we see that they have the same form. Thus, the same method used to extract $`\varphi _1`$ from Eq. (2) can be used on Eq. (3) to obtain $`\varphi _3`$. That is, we would be able to write $`\varphi _3`$ as the same function of the observables as was used for $`\varphi _1`$ above! But this implies that $`\varphi _1=\varphi _3`$, which clearly does not hold in general.

Due to the ambiguity in the parametrization of the $`bd`$ penguin — which we refer to as the CKM ambiguity — we conclude that one cannot cleanly extract the weak phase of any penguin contribution. Indeed, it is impossible to cleanly test for the presence of new physics in the $`bd`$ FCNC. Nevertheless, it is instructive to examine in detail a few candidate methods, to see exactly how they fail.

The measurement of the time-dependent rate for the decay $`B_d^0(t)K^0\overline{K^0}`$ can at best allow one to extract the magnitudes and relative phase of $`e^{i\varphi _1}A`$ and $`e^{i\varphi _1}\overline{A}`$, where $`A`$ is the amplitude for $`B_d^0K^0\overline{K^0}`$. With an independent measurement of $`\varphi _1`$, there are a total of 4 measurements. Using the form of the $`bd`$ penguin given in Eq. 2, we have $`e^{i\varphi _1}A=e^{i\varphi _1}(𝒫_{cu}e^{i\delta _{cu}}+𝒫_{tu}e^{i\delta _{tu}}e^{i\varphi _1^{}})`$, where we have written the phase $`\varphi _1^{}`$ to allow for the possibility of new physics. There are thus 5 theoretical (hadronic) parameters: $`𝒫_{cu}`$, $`𝒫_{tu}`$, $`\delta _{cu}\delta _{tu}`$, $`\varphi _1`$, and $`\theta _{NP}\varphi _1^{}\varphi _1`$. We see that there are not enough measurements to determine all the theoretical parameters. In fact, there is just one more theoretical unknown than there are measurements. A similar examination of the $`B\pi \pi `$ isospin analysis, Dalitz-plot analysis of $`B3\pi `$, angular analysis of $`B^0VV`$ (where $`V`$ is a vector meson), and a combined isospin $`+`$ angular analysis of $`B\rho \rho `$ leads to the same conclusion that there is one more unknown than there are measurements.

We thus conclude that, due to the CKM ambiguity, if one wishes to test for the presence of NP in the $`bd`$ FCNC by comparing the weak phase of the $`t`$-quark contribution to the $`bd`$ penguin with that of $`B_d^0`$-$`\overline{B_d^0}`$ mixing, it is necessary to make a single assumption about the hadronic parameters.

## Acknowledgments

R.S. would like to thank the organizers of this conference, Prof. H.Y. Cheng and Prof. A.I. Sanda, for financial assistance to attend the conference. The work of D.L. was financially supported by NSERC of Canada.


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# Multifrequency VLBI observations of faint gigahertz peaked spectrum sources

## 1 Introduction

Gigahertz Peaked Spectrum (GPS, e.g. O’Dea 1998) are a class of extragalactic radio source, characterised by a convex shaped radio spectrum peaking at about 1 GHz in frequency, and sub-galactic sizes. Their small sizes make observations using Very Long Baseline Interferometry (VLBI) necessary to reveal their radio morphologies. Early VLBI observations showed that some GPS sources identified with galaxies have Compact Double (CD) morphologies (Philips and Mutel, 1982), and it was suggested that these were the mini-lobes of very young or alternatively old, frustrated objects (Philips and Mutel, 1982; Wilkinson et al. 1984, van Breugel, Miley and Heckman, 1984). Later, when reliable VLBI observations at higher frequencies became possible, it was found that some of the CD-sources had a compact flat spectrum component in their centres (Conway et al. 1992, Wilkinson et al. 1994). These flat spectrum components were interpreted as the central cores, and many CD-sources were renamed compact triples or Compact Symmetric Objects (CSO, Conway et al. 1992, Wilkinson et al. 1994). High dynamic range VLBI observations by Dallacasa et al (1995) and Stanghellini et al. (1997) have shown that most GPS galaxies indeed have jets leading from the central compact core to the outer hotspots or lobes. This is in contrast to the GPS sources identified with quasars, which tend to have core-jet morphologies with no outer lobes (Stanghellini et al. 1997). Snellen et al. (1999) have shown that the redshift distributions of the GPS galaxies and quasars are very different, and that it is therefore unlikely that they form a single class of object unified by orientation. They suggest that they are separate classes of object, which just happen to have the same radio-spectral morphologies.

The separation velocities of the hotspots have now been measured for a small number of GPS galaxies to be $`0.2h^1`$c (Owsianik and Conway, 1998; Owsianik, Conway and Polatidis, 1998; Tschager et al. 1999). This makes it very likely that these are young objects of ages typically $`10^3`$ yr (assuming a constant separation velocity), rather than old objects constrained in their growth by a dense ISM. These are therefore the objects of choice to study the early evolution of extragalactic radio sources.

In the past, work has been concentrated on samples of the radio brightest GPS sources (eg. O’Dea et al 1991). In order to disentangle radio power and redshift effects on the properties of GPS sources, we constructed a sample of faint GPS sources from the Westerbork Northern Sky Survey (WENSS, Rengelink et al. 1997), which in combination with other samples allows, for the first time, the study of these objects over a large range of flux density and radio spectral peak frequency. The construction of the faint sample is described in Snellen et al. (1998a); the optical and near-infrared imaging is described in Snellen et al. (1998b); and the optical spectroscopy in Snellen et al. (1999a). This paper describes multi-frequency VLBI observations of the sample, and the radio-morphologies of the individual sources. What can be learned from the faint GPS sample about radio source evolution is discussed in the accompanying paper (Snellen et al. 2000).

## 2 The Sample

The selection of the sample has been described in detail in Snellen et al. (1998a), and is summarised here. Candidate GPS sources were selected from the Westerbork Northern Sky survey, by means of an inverted spectrum between 325 MHz and higher frequencies. The sources are located in two regions of the survey; one with $`15^h<\alpha <20^h`$ and $`58^{}<\delta <75^{}`$, which is called the mini-survey region (Rengelink et al. 1997), and the other with $`4^h00^m<\alpha <8^h30^m`$ and $`58^{}<\delta <75^{}`$. Additional observations at 1.4, 5, 8.4 and 15 GHz were carried out with the WSRT and the VLA, yielding a sample of 47 genuine GPS sources with peak frequencies ranging from 500 MHz to more than 15 GHz, and peak flux densities ranging from $`30`$ to $`900`$ mJy. This sample has been imaged in the optical and near-infrared, resulting in an identification fraction of $``$ 87 % (Snellen et al. 1998b). Redshifts have been obtained for 40% of the sample (Snellen et al., 1999).

## 3 Observations

Snapshot VLBI observations were made of the entire sample of faint GPS sources at 5 GHz, and of sub-samples at 15 GHz and 1.6 GHz frequency. In order to observe the large number of sources required in a reasonable amount of time, we observed in “snapshot” mode (eg. Polatidis et al. 1995, Henstock et al. 1995). This entails observing a source for short periods of time at several different hour angles. Using a VLBI array of typically more than 10 telescopes, this provides sufficient $`u,v`$ coverage for reliable mapping of complex sources (Polatidis et al. 1995). To maximize the $`u,v`$ coverage for each source we attempted to schedule three to four scans as widely spaced as possible within the visibility window during which the source could be seen by all antennas. Fortunately, the majority of the sources are located at a sufficiently high declination ($`>57^{}`$) that they are circumpolar for most EVN and VLBA antennas, and therefore could be scheduled for observation at optimal hour angles.

### 3.1 The 5 GHz Observations, Correlation and Reduction

The 5 GHz data were obtained during a 48 hour observing session on 15 and 16 May 1995. All telescopes of the VLBA, and six telescopes of the EVN were scheduled to participate in this global VLBI experiment (see table 1). The data were recorded using the Mark III recording system in mode B, with an effective bandwidth of 28 MHz centred at 4973 MHz. Left circular polarization was recorded. Since the motion of some of the antennas is limited in hour angle, we inevitably had to schedule a few scans when the source could not be observed at one or two telescopes. All sources were observed for three scans of 13 minutes (13m corresponds to a single pass on a tape).

The data were correlated using the VLBA correlator in Socorro, New Mexico, four months after the observations took place. The output of the correlator provides a measure of the complex fringe visibility sampled at intervals of 2 seconds on each baseline, at $`7\times 16`$ frequencies within the 28 MHz band, with the phase referenced to an a priori model of the source position, antenna locations, and atmosphere. The residual phase gradients in time and frequency due to delay and rate errors in the a priori model are estimated and removed, during the process of “fringe fitting”. Fringe fitting was performed using the AIPS task FRING, an implementation of the Schwab & Cotton (1983) algorithm. A solution interval of 3 minutes and a point source model were used, and Effelsberg was taken as the “reference telescope” whenever possible. No fringes were found for the Cambridge telescope. The amplitude calibration was performed with the AIPS tasks ANTAB and APCAL, using system temperature and antenna gain information. The visibility data were averaged across the observing band and then written in one single $`u,v`$-file per object. The typical $`u,v`$ coverage obtained for a source is shown in figure 1.

The final images were produced after several cycles of imaging and self-calibration using the AIPS tasks IMAGR and CALIB. Solution intervals were decreased in each step, starting with a few minutes, until no increase of the image quality (using noise-level and the presence of negative structure as criteria) was detected. If a source was sufficiently strong, antenna amplitude solutions were also determined for each scan. For each source a “natural” weighted image was produced. If the $`u,v`$-data were of sufficient quality, a “uniform” weighted image was also produced.

### 3.2 The 15 GHz Observations, Correlation and Reduction

The 15 GHz data were obtained during a 24 hour observing session on 29 June 1996, using the ten telescopes of the VLBA. The data were recorded in $`12881`$ mode (128 Mbits/sec, 8 IF channels, 1 bit/sample), with an effective bandwidth of 32 MHz centred at 15360 MHz. All 27 sources in the sample with peak frequencies higher than 5 GHz and/or peak flux densities greater than 125 mJy were observed. The expected maximum brightness in each of the images at 15 GHz was estimated from the overall radio spectra of the sources and their 5 GHz VLBI morphology. In order to use the conventional fringe-fitting methods of VLBI imaging, the signal to noise ratio on each baseline within the coherence time has to be sufficiently high. Sources with an expected maximum brightness at 15 GHz of $`>60`$ mJy/beam are sufficiently strong and were observed for 3 scans of 11 minutes each. However, sources with expected maximum brightnesses of $`<60`$ mJy/beam, were observed using a “phase-referencing” method to increase the signal to noise ratio. This involves observations of the target source interspersed with observations of a nearby ($`<2.5^{}`$) compact calibrator source. Measurements of residual delay and rate are made towards this bright source and transferred to the target source data. We used cycles of 3 minutes on the target source and 1.5 minutes on the calibrator source. The total integration time on a target was 45 minutes divided over three scans. The sources for which the phase referencing technique was required and the calibration sources used (in brackets) were B0400+6042 (B0354+599), B0436+6152 (B0444+634), B0513+7129 (B0518+705), B0531+6121 (B0539+6200), B0538+7131 (B0535+6743), B0755+6354 (B0752+6355),
B1525+6801 (B1526+670), B1538+5920 (B1550+5815), B1600+7131 (B1531+722), B1819+6707 (B1842+681),
and B1841+6715 (B1842+681). Data reduction of the phase referenced observations is similar to that for the 5 GHz data. The typical $`u,v`$ coverage obtained for a source at 15 GHz is shown in figure 1.

### 3.3 The 1.6 GHz Observations, Correlation and Reduction

The 1.6 GHz data were obtained during two observing sessions, both involving the ten telescopes of the VLBA and 4 antennas of the EVN (see table 1). The Westerbork data in the second session was lost due to technical failure. The data were recorded in $`12842`$ mode (128 Mbits/sec, 4 IF channels, 2 bit/sample), with an effective bandwidth of 32 MHz centred at 1663 MHz and 1655 during the first and second session respectively. In the first session, a subsample of 23 objects was observed for $`2\times 12`$ hours on 14 and 16 September 1997. This subsample contained all sources with peak frequencies $`<5`$ GHz, which were found to be extended in the 5 GHz observations. In the second session, all 9 remaining sources with peak frequencies $`<3`$ GHz, which had not been imaged before at this frequency, were observed. The sources were typically observed for $`4\times 11`$ minutes each, and an example of a $`u,v`$ coverage is shown in figure 1. The data were correlated in Socorro. No fringes were found for B0513+7129, B0537+6444, and B0544+5847. Several sources in the second session were observed using phase referencing. These sources, with their calibrators in brackets, are B0537+6444 (B0535+677), B0830+5813 (B0806+573), B1557+6220 (B1558+595), B1639+6711 (B1700+685), and B1808+6813 (B1749+701). The data were reduced in a similar way as the data at 5 GHz.

## 4 Results

The parameters of the resulting 102 images (29 at 1.6 GHz, 47 at 5 GHz, and 26 at 15 GHz) are given in table 2. Figure 2 shows the rms noise as function of the peak brightness in the images at the three observing frequencies. The dynamic ranges (defined as the ratio of the maximum brightness in the image to the rms noise in an area of blank sky) are between 125 and 2500 at 1.6 GHz, between 25 and 1700 at 5 GHz, and between 30 and 500 at 15 GHz. At 1.6 GHz, two of the bright sources have higher rms-noise levels than expected, which may indicate that the dynamic range is not limited by the thermal noise. To be able to compare the VLBI observations of this faint sample with those on bright GPS samples, it is important to determine whether components have been missed due to the limited dynamic range for this faint sample. We therefore plotted the distribution of dynamic range for the observations closest in frequency to the spectral peak (Fig. 3). Only 2 objects (B0755+6354 and B0544+5847) turn out not to have an image with a dynamic range $`>100`$.

In Figure 4 the ratio of total VLBI flux density in the images to the flux density in the NVSS at 1.6 GHz, to the MERLIN observations at 5 GHz, and to the VLA 15 GHz flux densities (from Snellen et al. 1998a), are plotted. This enables us to judge whether substantial structure has been resolved out in the VLBI observations. At 1.6 GHz, typically 90% of the NVSS flux density is recovered in the VLBI observations, while at 5 GHz the distribution peaks at 100%. Only at 15 GHz is the distribution much broader and peaks at about 80% of the flux density in the VLA observations, and hence provides some evidence that at this frequency some extended structure may be missed. The broadness of the peak is probably also influenced by variability.

Figures 5, 6, 7 give the maps of the individual sources with observations at three, two and one frequency respectively. For each source, the images have the same size at each frequency, and are centred in such a way that identical components at different frequencies match in relative position.

### 4.1 Model Fitting

Quantitative parameters of the source brightness distributions were estimated by fitting elliptical Gaussian functions to the maps, using the AIPS-task JMFIT. For some of the complex sources it was necessary to restrict the fit to a number of point sources (e.g. 0513+7129 at 5 GHz). In a few cases, the positions of some of the fitted components were kept fixed to correspond to their positions at higher frequency (e.g. 0752+6355 at 5 GHz). We checked whether the model was a good representation of the source structure, by comparing the total flux density in the image to that in the model, and by ensuring that the residual image did not show any significant negative structure. A spectral decomposition was performed by matching the components believed to correspond to each other at the different frequencies. Due to the increase in resolution with frequency, some components at the higher frequencies were combined to match a single component at the lower frequency. The decomposed spectra are shown along with the images in figures 5 and 6. The results of the fits are given in table 3.

Column 1 gives the source name, column 2 the figure in which the maps are shown, column 3 the classification (as discussed in the next section), and in column 4 the component name used for the spectral decomposition. Columns 5 to 9 give for each component observed at 1.6 GHz the flux density, relative position in R.A. and Dec., and the fitted angular size (major and minor axis, and position angle). Columns 10 to 14, and columns 15 to 19 give the same for the components observed at 5 GHz and 15 GHz respectively.

### 4.2 Classification of the Radio Morphologies

We classify the radio morphologies in four ways:

* Compact Symmetric Objects (CSO). Sources with a compact flat spectrum component with extended components with steeper spectra on either side.
* Core-Jet sources (CJ). Sources with compact flat spectrum component with one or more components with steeper spectra on one side only.
* Compact Double (CD). Sources showing two dominant components with comparable spectra, but no evidence of a central flat spectrum component.
* Complex sources (CX). Sources with a complex morphology, not falling in one of the above categories.

From the 47 sources in the sample, 3 could be classified as CSO, 11 as CD, 7 as CJ, and 2 as CX. Of the 25 remaining sources, 2 were resolved at only one frequency, 2 were only observed at one frequency, and 20 show a single component at 2 frequencies, and therefore could not be classified. For one source (1642+6701) it was not clear how to overlay the 1.6 and 5 GHz maps. The individual sources are briefly discussed below.

#### 4.2.1 Discussion of Individual Sources

B0400+6042: CD Several components are visible with the two outer components having comparable spectra and the central component having a marginally flatter spectrum. This source is tentatively classified as a CD, but it could also be a CSO.

B0436+6152: CSO The brightest component at 15 GHz in the centre is interpreted as the core, with extended steeper spectrum components to the north-east and south-west. This source is classified as a CSO.

B0513+7129: CX This object shows two dominant components with a jet-like feature pointed to the north-west. Although the component with the flattest spectrum is located in the center, this source is classified as a complex source due to the strangely bent structure.

B0539+6200: CJ The south-western component has a flatter spectral index than the north-eastern component. Only two components are visible, hence this object is tentatively classified as a CJ.

B0752+6355: CX The “C” shaped morphology of this compact source showing components with a large range of spectral indices, leads us to classify this object as one with a complex morphology.

B1620+6406: CD The steep spectrum of the northern component is similar to the spectrum of the southern component (using the upper-limit for the flux density at 5 GHz). We therefore tentatively classify this object as a CD.

B1642+6701: - It was not possible to reliably overlay the two maps at 1.6 and 5 GHz, but the most likely match is shown in figure 6. Due to this uncertainty, it was not possible to reliably classify this source.

B1647+6225: CD The two components have similar spectra, with a possible jet leading to the northern component. This object is tentatively classified as a CD.

B1655+6446: CD Only the southern component is detected at 5 GHz. However its steep spectral index, and the upper-limit to the spectral index of the northern component makes us tentatively classify this source as a CD.

B1657+5826: CD Only the western component is detected at 5 GHz. However its steep spectral index, and the upper-limit to the spectral index of the eastern component makes us classify this source as a CD.

B1819+6707: CSO Two dominant components are visible in this source at 1.6, 5, and 15 GHz with comparable spectra. A faint compact component is visible in between in the 5 GHz map. This object is therefore classified as a CSO.

B1942+7214: CJ This object shows faint extended structure to the south-west in its 1.6 and 5 GHz images. The bright northern component appears to have a flatter spectrum than the faint extended emission. We tentatively classify this object as a core-jet.

B1946+7048: CSO This source is the archetype compact symmetric object (CSO), and has been discussed in detail by Taylor and Vermeulen (1997). The core is only visible at 15 GHz.

B1954+6146: CJ Only the flat spectrum compact component in the south is detected at 15 GHz. The limit to the spectral index of the northern component makes us tentatively classify this source as a core-jet.

## 5 Discussion

In radio bright samples, GPS quasars are found to have core-jet or complex structure, while GPS galaxies are found to have larger sizes with jets and lobes on both sides of a putative center of activity (Stanghellini et al. 1997). Although observations at another frequency are needed to confirm their classification, allmost all radio-bright GPS galaxies from Stanghellini et al (1997) can be classified as CSOs. The morphological dichotomy of GPS galaxies and quasars, and their very different redshift distributions make it likely that GPS galaxies and quasars are not related to each other and just happen to have similar radio spectra. It has been speculated that GPS quasars are a subset of flat spectrum quasars in general (eg. Snellen et al. 1999a). In addition, if galaxies and quasars were to be unified by orientation, due to changes in its observed radio spectrum (Snellen et al. 1998c), it is not expected that a GPS galaxy observed at a small viewing angle would be seen as a GPS quasar.

Not all CSOs are GPS sources. The contribution of the (possibly variable) flat spectrum core can be significant and outshine the convex spectral shape produced by the mini-lobes. This can be due to a small viewing angle towards the object, causing the Doppler boosted core and fast moving jet, which feeds the approaching mini-lobe, to be important (Snellen et al. 1998c). An example of such a CSO, possibly observed at a small viewing angle, is 1413+135 (Perlman et al. 1994). In addition, the jets feeding the mini-lobes can be significantly curved, for example in 2352+495 by precession (Readhead et al. 1996). This can cause parts of the jet to move at an angle close to the line of sight, with significant Doppler boosting as a result. In both cases the large contrast between the approaching and receding parts of the radio source makes it also increasingly difficult to identify the object as a CSO.

Figure 8 shows the number of galaxies and quasars, in our faint GPS sample, classified as CJ, CSO, CX and those not possible to classify. All three objects classified as CSOs are optically identified with galaxies. Although this is in agreement with the findings of Stanghellini et al (1997) for the radio-bright sample, it should be noted that for only 4 quasars was it possible to make a classification. This is mainly due to the fact that the angular sizes of the quasars are significantly smaller than the angular sizes of the galaxies. Six out of 18 classifiable GPS galaxies are found to have CJ or CX structures, and 9 of the classifiable GPS galaxies are found to have CD structures. We conclude that the strong morphological dichotomy between GPS galaxies and quasars found by Stanghellini (1997) in the bright GPS sample, is not as strong in this faint sample. Note, however, that the classification for the majority of the CJ and CD sources is based on two components and their relative spectral indices only. This makes their classification rather tentative. Firstly, a CD source could be erroneously classified as a CJ source due to a difference in the observed age between the approaching and receding lobe, causing a difference in observed radio spectrum of the two lobes. For a separation velocity of 0.4c, as observed for radio bright GPS galaxies (Owsianik and Conway 1998; Owsianik, Conway and Polatidis 1998), such an age difference can be as large as 30%. Secondly, differences in the local environments of the two lobes can also influence the spectra of the two lobes, resulting in an erroneous classification as core-jet. For example, if only the two lobes had been visible, B1819+6707 (fig 6) could have been mistaken for a core-jet source, since the spectral index of the eastern lobe is flatter than that of the western lobe.

## 6 Conclusions

Multi-frequency VLBI observations have been presented of a faint sample of GPS sources. All 47 sources in the sample were successfully observed at 5 GHz, 26 sources were observed at 15 GHz, and 20 sources were observed at 1.6 GHz. In this way 94% of the sources have been mapped above and below their spectral peak. The spectral decomposition allowed us to classify 3 GPS galaxies as compact symmetric objects (CSO), 1 galaxy and 1 quasar as complex (CX) sources, 2 quasars and 5 galaxies as core-jet (CJ) sources, and 9 galaxies and 2 quasars as compact doubles (CD). Twenty-five of the sources could not be classified, 20 because they were too compact. The strong morphological dichotomy of GPS galaxies and quasars found by Stanghellini et al. (1997) in their radio bright GPS sample is not so clear in this sample. However, many of the sources classified as CD and CJ have a two-component structure, making their classification only tentative.

## Acknowledgements

The authors are greatful to the staff of the EVN and VLBA for support of the observing projects. The VLBA is an instrument of the National Radio Astronomy Observatory, which is operated by Associated Universities, Inc. under a Cooperative Agreement with the National Science Foundation. This research was supported by the European Commission, TMR Access to Large-scale Facilities programme under contract No. ERBFMGECT950012, and TMR Programme, Research Network Contract ERBFMRXCT96-0034 “CERES”.


text:
# Localization of gravitational energy in ENU model and its consequences

## 1 Section

$`\backslash `$$`\backslash `$

Localization of gravitational energy in ENU model and its consequences

Jozef Simaa, Miroslav Sukenika and Julius Vankob

aSlovak Technical University, Dep. Inorg. Chem., Radlinskeho 9, 812 37 Bratislava, Slovakia

bComenius University, Dep. Nucl. Physics, Mlynska dolina F1, 842 48 Bratislava, Slovakia

e-mail: sima@chelin.chtf.stuba.sk; vanko@fmph.uniba.sk

Abstract. The contribution provides the starting points and background of the model of Expansive Nondecelerative Universe (ENU), manifests the advantage of exploitation of Vaidya metrics for the localization and quantization of gravitational energy, and offers four examples of application of the ENU model, namely energy of cosmic background radiation, energy of Z and W bosons acting in weak interactions, hyperfine splitting observed for hydrogen 1s orbital. Moreover, time evolution of vacuum permitivity and permeability is predicted.

I. Theoretical backround

Due to the simultaneous creation of both the matter and gravitational energy (having the identical absolute values but differing in the sign of the values) the total energy of the Universe is equal to zero in the model of Expansive Nondecelerative Universe (ENU) and thus one of the fundamental requirement of the Universe evolution  is fulfilled. It has been evidenced  that such a Universe can expand by the velocity of light $`c`$ and it therefore holds

$`a=c.t_c=\frac{2G.M_U}{c^2}`$ (1)

where $`a`$ is the gauge factor (at present a 1.3 x 1026 m), $`t_c`$is the cosmological time, $`M_U`$ is the mass of the Universe (it approaches at present 8.6 x 1052 kg).

In the ENU model, due to the matter creation the Vaidya metrics  must be used which enables to localize the gravitational energy. For weak fields Tolman’s relation

$`\epsilon _g=\frac{R.c^4}{8\pi .G}=\frac{3m.c^2}{4\pi a.r^2}`$ (2)

can be applied in which $`\epsilon _g`$ is the density of the gravitational energy induced by a body with the mass $`m`$ in the distance $`r,R`$ denotes the scalar curvature. It should be pointed out that contrary to the more frequently used Schwarzschild metrics (in which $`\epsilon _g`$= 0 outside a body, and $`R`$ = 0), in the Vaidya metrics $`R`$ $``$0 and $`\epsilon _g`$ may thus be quantified and localized also outside a body. It has been shown  that at the same time it must hold

$`\epsilon _g=\frac{3E_g}{4\pi .\lambda ^3}`$ (3)

where $`E_g`$ is the quantum of the gravitational energy, the corresponding Compton wavelength can be expressed as

$`\lambda =\frac{\mathrm{}.c}{E_g}`$ (4)

Substitution of (4) into (3) and comparison of (2) and (3) leads to

$`\left|E_g\right|=\left(\frac{m.\mathrm{}^3.c^5}{a.r^2}\right)^{1/4}`$ (5)

in which $`E_g`$denotes the quantum of the gravitational energy induced by a body with the mass $`m`$in the distance $`r`$.

The validity of (5) was tested both in the field of macrosystems and microworld. Application of equation (5) allowed us to derive in an independent way the Hawking’s relation for black hole evaporation and explain the presence of some peaks in low-temperature far-infrared and Raman spectra of several compounds .

Some of the further verifications and applications of relation (5) are given in the following parts.

II. Energy of cosmic background radiation

From the beginning to the end of radiation era, the Universe was in thermodynamic equilibrium. Based on the above postulate it can be supposed that the energy of a photon of the cosmic background radiation equaled to the energy of a gravitational quantum, i.e.

$`k.T=\left|E_g\right|=\left(\frac{m.\mathrm{}^3.c^5}{a.r^2}\right)^{1/4}`$ (6)

When taking m in (6) as the mass of the Universe, $`M_U`$

$`M_U=\frac{a.c^2}{2G}`$ (7)

and $`r`$ as the gauge factor $`a`$

$`r=a`$ (8)

a well-known formula

$`k.T\left(\frac{\mathrm{}^3.c^5}{2G.t_c^2}\right)^{1/4}`$ (9)

is obtained, however, when comparing to , the mode of its derivation is independent. The present consistency might be evaluated as an evidence of justification of the ENU model.

III. Weak interactions

In our previous paper  the mass of Z and W bosons was derived stemming from the energy density. As it will be shown in the following, an identical relationship can be obtained using equation (5), i.e. stemming from gravitational energy quantization. Let us substitute m by the limiting mass

$`m=\frac{a.\mathrm{}^2}{g_F}`$ (10)

where $`g_F`$ is the Fermi constant, and express $`r`$ as the Comptom wavelength of the vector bosons Z and W possessing the mass $`m_{ZW}`$

$`r=\frac{\mathrm{}}{m_{ZW}.c}`$ (11)

In such a case, from (5), (10) and (11) we obtain

$`\left|E_g\right|=m_{ZW}.c^2`$ (12)

if the known relation

$`m_{ZW}^2\frac{\mathrm{}^3}{g_F.c}`$ (13)

was applied.

IV. Hyperfine structure of the hydrogen atom K-level

Equation (5) can be exploited to an independent prediction of the value of hyperfine structure $`E_{HF}`$observed in the spectra of hydrogen atom (experimental value for the electron occupying H1s orbital is $`E_{HF}`$ = 1420 MHz). Suppose, the energy of the hyperfine splitting induced in the hydrogen atom K-level by the proton magnetic momentum is identical to the energy given by equation (5). Such an identity may be taken as a condition of the stability of the hydrogen atom. When putting the mass of electron $`m_e`$ (9.109 x 10-31 kg) and the Bohr radius of H1s orbital

$`r52.9\times 10^{12}m`$ (14)

into (5), the energy value

$`E_{HF}2400MHz`$ (15)

is obtained. This value is 1.7 times higher than the experimental value and thus closer to it than that of calculated one using a commonly applied simplified equation (16)

$`E_{HF}\frac{I_{H1s}.\alpha ^2.m_e}{m_p}`$ (16)

in which $`I_{H1s}`$ is the hydrogen atom ionization energy (13.6 eV) and $`\alpha `$is the constant of hyperfine splitting.

V. Time evolution of the vacuum permitivity

The constant of hyperfine structure $`\alpha `$ is defined as

$`\alpha =\frac{e^2}{4\pi .ϵ_o.\mathrm{}.c}`$ (17)

At the beginning of separation of electromagnetic interactions the equation

$`\alpha =1`$ (18)

had to be valid. When substituting

$`r=\frac{\mathrm{}}{m_e.c.\alpha }`$ (19)

into the left side of (21) and

$`I_{H1s}m_e.c^2.\alpha ^2`$ (20)

into the right side of (21)

$`\left(\frac{m_e.\mathrm{}^3.c^5}{a.r^2}\right)^{1/4}I_{H1s}.\alpha ^2.\frac{m_e}{m_p}`$ (21)

the dependence

$`\alpha a^{1/14}`$ (22)

appears. Two conclusions may be derived from the above relationships. The first one is that equation (18) relates to the time

$`t10^{10}s`$ (23)

which is just the time in which the weak and electromagnetic interactions were separated. The second consequence relates to (22), i.e. the time evolution of the constant of hyperfine splitting. Since the velocity of light, electronic charge and Planck constant are considered to be time independent quantities, time evolution of the Universe (e.g. changes in its mass and, in turn, also in charge and electrostatic field density) and the gradual increase of the gauge factor may be reflected in a very slow change in the vacuum permitivity $`\epsilon _o`$ (an electric property) and vacuum permeability $`\mu _o`$ (a magnetic property).

Conclusions

1.Increase in the gauge factor has several consequences which are to be unveiled and explained in the future. One of them is a gradual decrease in the hyperfine splitting constant which can be related to a time-increasing of vacuum permitivity and time-decreasing of vacuum permeability.

2.Capability of localization of the gravitational energy within ENU is a challenge for answering the questions such as unification of all four fundamental physical interactions, stability or invariability of some physical quantities and “constants“.

References

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2.V. Skalsky, M. Sukenik, Astrophys. Space Sci., 236 (1991) 169

3.P.C. Vaidya: Proc. Indian Acad. Sci., A33 (1951) 264

4.J. Sima, M. Sukenik, Preprint: gr-qc 9903090

5. I. L. Rozentahl, Advances in Mathematics, Physics and Astronomy, 31 (1986) 241 (in Czech)

6.M. Sukenik, J. Sima, J. Vanko, Preprint: gr-qc 0001059