text:
# I Introduction

## I Introduction

The SuperKamiokande Collaboration has recently confirmed the oscillation of atmospheric neutrinos . This evidence, as well as the strong indications of oscillation of solar neutrinos too, which could explain the solar neutrino deficit , lead to nonzero neutrino masses. Although not zero, such masses have to be much smaller than the charged lepton and quark masses, less than few eV . This feature can be explained by means of the seesaw mechanism , where the mass matrix $`M_L`$ of light (left-handed) Majorana neutrinos is given by

$$M_L=M_DM_R^1M_D^T,$$
(1)
with the Dirac mass matrix $`M_D`$ of the same order of magnitude of the charged lepton or quark mass matrix, and the eigenvalues of $`M_R`$, the mass matrix of right-handed neutrinos, much bigger than the elements of $`M_D`$.

In the Minimal Standard Model plus three right-handed neutrinos, the mass matrix of heavy neutrinos is generated by a Majorana mass term $`(1/2)\overline{\nu }_RM_R(\nu _R)^c`$ and hence $`M_R`$ is not constrained. Instead, in Grand Unified Theories (GUTs) like $`SO(10)`$, $`M_R`$ is obtained from the Yukawa coupling of right-handed neutrinos with the Higgs field that breaks the unification or the intermediate group to the Standard Model . When such a field gets a VEV $`v_R`$, which is the unification or the intermediate scale, the right-handed neutrinos take a mass and $`M_R=Y_Rv_R`$, where $`Y_R`$ is the matrix of Yukawa coefficients. Actually, this happens when and because at the same stage it is also $`BL`$ broken, allowing for Majorana masses. In the supersymmetric case $`v_R`$ is the unification scale ($`v_R10^{16}`$ GeV), while in the nonsupersymmetric case it is the intermediate scale ($`v_R10^910^{13}`$ GeV) . On the other hand, GUTs generally predict $`M_DM_u`$, where $`M_u`$ is the mass matrix of up quarks, and $`M_lM_d`$, where $`M_l`$ is the mass matrix of charged leptons and $`M_d`$ the mass matrix of down quarks. This is called quark-lepton symmetry.

From the experimental data on neutrino masses and mixings, and the quark-lepton symmetry, it is possible to infer the heavy neutrino mass matrix $`M_R`$ by inverting formula (1),

$$M_R=M_D^TM_L^1M_D.$$
(2)
In fact, $`M_L`$ can be obtained, at least approximately, from experimental data on neutrino oscillations, and quark-lepton symmetry suggests

$$M_D\frac{m_\tau }{m_b}\text{diag}(m_u,m_c,m_t).$$
(3)
The nearly diagonal form of $`M_D`$ is due to the fact that mixing in the Dirac sector is similar to the small mixing in the up quark sector , and the factor $`m_\tau /m_bk`$ is due to approximate running from the unification or intermediate scale, where $`m_b=m_\tau `$ should hold . As a matter of fact $`M_D`$ is almost scale independent. Then the Dirac masses of neutrinos are fixed by the values of the up quark masses at the unification scale in the supersymmetric model, and at the intermediate scale in the nonsupersymmetric model. However, in both cases their values are roughly similar , namely $`M_D`$diag$`(0.001,0.3,100)`$ GeV. It is now important to check if the resulting scale of $`M_R`$ is in accordance with the physical scales of GUTs, and also the structure of $`M_R`$, which would give further insight towards a more complete theory. This program has been addressed in refs. and in the recent papers . In this paper we want to extend the analysis of ref., in order to include small but not zero $`U_{e3}`$, inverted hierarchy of light neutrino masses, approximate effect of Majorana phases, and a discussion on the structure of $`M_R`$.

In section II we summarize the experimental informations on neutrino masses and mixings, coming mainly from solar and atmospheric oscillations. In sections III and IV the normal and inverted mass hierarchy cases are studied. In section V the effect of Majorana phases is briefly considered and finally we give some concluding remarks.

## II Neutrino masses and mixings

We denote by $`m_i`$ ($`i=1,2,3`$) the light neutrino masses. The mass eigenstates $`\nu _i`$ are related to the weak eigenstates $`\nu _\alpha `$ ($`\alpha =e,\mu ,\tau `$) by the unitary matrix $`U`$,

$$\nu _\alpha =U_{\alpha i}\nu _i.$$
(4)
The results on solar oscillations imply for the three solutions of the solar neutrino problem, namely small mixing MSW (SM), large mixing MSW (LM) and vacuum oscillations (VO), the following orders of magnitude for $`\mathrm{\Delta }m_{sol}^2`$ :

$$\mathrm{\Delta }m_{sol}^210^6\text{eV}^2\text{(SM)}$$
(5)
$$\mathrm{\Delta }m_{sol}^210^5\text{eV}^2\text{(LM)}$$
(6)
$$\mathrm{\Delta }m_{sol}^210^{10}\text{eV}^2\text{(VO)}$$
(7)
On the other hand, atmospheric oscillations give

$$\mathrm{\Delta }m_{atm}^210^3\text{eV}^2,$$
(8)
so that $`\mathrm{\Delta }m_{sol}^2\mathrm{\Delta }m_{atm}^2`$. We can set

$$\mathrm{\Delta }m_{sol}^2=m_2^2m_1^2,\mathrm{\Delta }m_{atm}^2=m_3^2m_{1,2}^2,$$
(9)
and, assuming without loss of generality $`m_3>0`$, there are three possible spectra for $`m_i`$ :

$$m_3|m_2|,|m_1|\text{(hierarchical)}$$
(10)
$$|m_1||m_2|m_3\text{(inverted hierarchy)}$$
(11)
$$|m_1||m_2|m_3\text{(nearly degenerate).}$$
(12)
Moreover, due to the near maximal mixing of atmospheric neutrinos  and the smallness of $`U_{e3}`$ , the mixing matrix $`U`$ can be written as

$$U=\left(\begin{array}{ccc}c& s& ϵ\\ \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}(s+cϵ)& \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}(csϵ)& \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}\\ \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}(scϵ)& \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}(c+sϵ)& \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}\end{array}\right),$$
(13)
where $`ϵ`$ is small and $`s=\mathrm{sin}\theta `$, $`c=\mathrm{cos}\theta `$, with $`\theta `$ the mixing angle of solar neutrinos. The SM solution corresponds to $`s0`$, while the LM and especially the VO solutions correspond to $`s1/\sqrt{2}`$ , that is bimaximal mixing .

We set $`D_L=`$diag$`(m_1,m_2,m_3)`$. Since the mixing in the charged lepton sector can be considered small  and our experimental informations on neutrinos are approximate, for our analysis we can also set $`U^{}M_LU^{}=D_L`$ (exact in the basis where $`M_l`$ is diagonal), that is

$$M_L=UD_LU^T,$$
(14)
which gives the light neutrino mass matrix , valid up to small corrections of the order $`ϵ^20.03`$,

$$M_L=\left(\begin{array}{ccc}\mu & \delta & \delta ^{}\\ \delta & \rho & \sigma \\ \delta ^{}& \sigma & \rho ^{}\end{array}\right),$$
(15)
with

$$\mu =m_1c^2+m_2s^2$$

$$\mu ^{}=m_1s^2+m_2c^2$$

$$\delta =\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}[ϵ(m_3\mu )+(m_2m_1)cs]$$

$$\delta ^{}=\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}[ϵ(m_3\mu )(m_2m_1)cs]$$

$$\sigma =\frac{1}{2}(m_3\mu ^{})$$

$$\rho =\frac{1}{2}[m_3+\mu ^{}2(m_2m_1)csϵ]$$

$$\rho ^{}=\frac{1}{2}[m_3+\mu ^{}+2(m_2m_1)csϵ].$$

The inverse of $`M_L`$ is given by

$$M_L^1=\left(\begin{array}{ccc}\rho \rho ^{}\sigma ^2& \sigma \delta ^{}\delta \rho ^{}& \delta \sigma \rho \delta ^{}\\ \sigma \delta ^{}\delta \rho ^{}& \mu \rho ^{}\delta ^2& \delta \delta ^{}\mu \sigma \\ \delta \sigma \rho \delta ^{}& \delta \delta ^{}\mu \sigma & \mu \rho \delta ^2\end{array}\right)\frac{1}{D},$$
(16)
with $`D=m_1m_2m_3`$.

In the following sections we will study the matrix $`M_R`$ which is obtained from eqns.(14),(3),(2) by the first two possible neutrino spectra (10),(11) and $`s0`$ (single maximal mixing) or $`s1/\sqrt{2}`$ (double maximal mixing). We do not consider the nearly degenerate spectrum because it suffers from a number of instabilities . Notice that one of the advantages of such spectrum was the possibility of providing a hot dark matter component (with $`m_i2`$ eV), but now we believe that the amount of hot dark matter is probably much smaller, and one neutrino with mass about 0.07 eV, as in the hierarchical case, can be relevant . In any case, if one assumes a hierarchical $`M_D`$ it is quite difficult to make $`M_L`$ having degenerate eigenvalues. Nevertheless, we give here a rough evaluation for the scale of $`M_R`$ at the intermediate value $`10^{12}`$ GeV.

In this paper we do not consider the results of the LSND experiment , which have not yet been confirmed by other experiments. If confirmed the LSND results would imply a third $`\mathrm{\Delta }m^2`$ scale, $`\mathrm{\Delta }m_{LSND}^21`$ eV2, and thus a fourth (light and sterile) neutrino.

## III Hierarchical spectrum

In this case the light neutrino mass matrix can be written as

$$M_L=\left(\begin{array}{ccc}\mu & \delta & \delta ^{}\\ \delta & \frac{m_3}{2}& \frac{m_3}{2}\\ \delta ^{}& \frac{m_3}{2}& \frac{m_3}{2}\end{array}\right),$$
(17)
with

$$\mu =m_1c^2+m_2s^2$$

$$\delta =\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}[ϵm_3+(m_2m_1)cs]$$

$$\delta ^{}=\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}[ϵm_3(m_2m_1)cs].$$

The leading form is

$$M_L\left(\begin{array}{ccc}0& 0& 0\\ 0& 1& 1\\ 0& 1& 1\end{array}\right).$$

The inverse of $`M_L`$ is given by

$$M_L^1\left(\begin{array}{ccc}m_3\mu ^{}& \frac{m_3}{2}(\delta ^{}\delta )& \frac{m_3}{2}(\delta \delta ^{})\\ \frac{m_3}{2}(\delta ^{}\delta )& \frac{m_3}{2}\mu \delta ^2& \delta \delta ^{}\frac{m_3}{2}\mu \\ \frac{m_3}{2}(\delta \delta ^{})& \delta \delta ^{}\frac{m_3}{2}\mu & \frac{m_3}{2}\mu \delta ^2\end{array}\right)\frac{1}{D},$$
(18)
where for the entry 1-1 we have used a better degree of approximation from eqn.(16) than that obtained from eqn.(17). Due to the mass hierarchy (10) we also have $`m_3^2\mathrm{\Delta }m_{atm}^2`$, for example we can take $`m_3=610^2`$ eV. It will be useful to match results obtained for the scale of $`M_R`$ with the one obtained when $`M_L=D_L`$, that is

$$M_{R33}\frac{k^2m_t^2}{m_3}.$$

Within the paper we assume that the largest Yukawa coefficient in $`Y_R`$ is of order 1, as indeed it happens for the up quark Yukawa coefficients.

### A Single maximal mixing

If $`s0`$, then $`\delta =\delta ^{}=(1/\sqrt{2})ϵm_3`$, so that

$$M_L^1\left(\begin{array}{ccc}m_3m_2& 0& 0\\ 0& x& x\\ 0& x& x\end{array}\right)\frac{1}{D},$$
(19)
with $`x=m_3(m_1ϵ^2m_3)/2`$ and hence

$$M_{R33}\frac{1}{2}\frac{m_1ϵ^2m_3}{m_1m_2}k^2m_t^2.$$
(20)
If $`ϵ^2m_3m_1`$, then

$$M_{R33}\frac{1}{2}\frac{k^2m_t^2}{m_2}.$$
(21)
Since $`s0`$ corresponds to the SM solution, one has $`m_210^3`$ eV and $`M_{R33}10^{15}`$ GeV. The scale can be lowered for $`m_1ϵ^2m_3`$. If this cancellation does not occur, the structure of $`M_R`$ is hierarchical, with the leading form

$$M_R\text{diag}(0,0,1),$$
(22)
which is the same as that obtained for $`M_D`$ (see eqn.(3)).

### B Double maximal mixing

For $`s1/\sqrt{2}`$ we have three subcases: $`|m_2||m_1|`$, $`m_2m_1`$ and $`m_2m_1`$.

1. We consider now the case with $`|m_2||m_1|`$, where we have

$$\delta =\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}(ϵm_3+m_2/2)$$

$$\delta ^{}=\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}(ϵm_3m_2/2)$$

and $`\mu =m_2/2`$. If $`2ϵm_3|m_2|`$, then $`\delta =m_2/2\sqrt{2}=\delta ^{}`$ and

$$M_L^1\left(\begin{array}{ccc}\frac{m_3m_2}{2}& \frac{m_3m_2}{2\sqrt{2}}& \frac{m_3m_2}{2\sqrt{2}}\\ \frac{m_3m_2}{2\sqrt{2}}& \frac{m_3m_2}{4}& \frac{m_3m_2}{4}\\ \frac{m_3m_2}{2\sqrt{2}}& \frac{m_3m_2}{4}& \frac{m_3m_2}{4}\end{array}\right)\frac{1}{D}.$$
(23)
The scale of $`M_R`$ is given by

$$M_{R33}\frac{1}{4}\frac{k^2m_t^2}{m_1},$$
(24)
and $`M_{R33}10^{16}`$ GeV (LM) or $`M_{R33}10^{18}`$ GeV (VO). If $`\delta 0`$ or $`\delta ^{}0`$ results are similar. We have a hierarchical structure for $`M_R`$, reflecting the hierarchy of Dirac masses. The leading form is again eqn.(22).

2. If $`m_2m_1`$, then $`\delta =\delta ^{}=(1/\sqrt{2})ϵm_3`$ and $`\mu =m_2`$ yielding

$$M_L^1\left(\begin{array}{ccc}m_3m_2& 0& 0\\ 0& y& y\\ 0& y& y\end{array}\right)\frac{1}{D},$$
(25)
with $`y=m_3(m_2ϵ^2m_3)/2`$ and

$$M_{R33}\frac{1}{2}\frac{m_2ϵ^2m_3}{m_2^2}k^2m_t^2.$$
(26)
If $`ϵ^2m_3m_2`$, then

$$M_{R33}\frac{1}{2}\frac{k^2m_t^2}{m_2}$$
(27)
and $`M_{R33}10^{15}`$ GeV (LM and VO). The scale can be lowered if $`m_2ϵ^2m_3`$. If the cancellation does not occur, $`M_R`$ is hierarchical with the leading form (22).

3. For $`m_2m_1`$ we have

$$\delta =\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}(ϵm_3+m_2)$$

$$\delta ^{}=\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}(ϵm_3m_2)$$

and $`\mu 0`$. Assuming $`ϵm_3|m_2|`$, one has $`\delta =m_2/\sqrt{2}=\delta ^{}`$ and

$$M_L^1\left(\begin{array}{ccc}0& \sqrt{2}m_3m_2& \sqrt{2}m_3m_2\\ \sqrt{2}m_3m_2& m_2^2/2& m_2^2/2\\ \sqrt{2}m_3m_2& m_2^2/2& m_2^2/2\end{array}\right)\frac{1}{D},$$
(28)
$$M_{R33}\frac{1}{2}\frac{k^2m_t^2}{m_3}$$
(29)
$$M_{R13}\sqrt{2}\frac{k^2m_um_t}{m_2}.$$
(30)
For $`m_2/m_3m_u/m_t`$, $`M_{R33}`$ and $`M_{R13}`$ are similar and near the unification scale. Otherwise $`M_R`$ is hierarchical. An interesting case is $`\delta 0`$, which is possible if $`m_2<0`$, when $`\delta ^{}=\sqrt{2}m_2`$ and

$$M_L^1\left(\begin{array}{ccc}0& \frac{m_3m_2}{\sqrt{2}}& \frac{m_3m_2}{\sqrt{2}}\\ \frac{m_3m_2}{\sqrt{2}}& 2ϵm_3m_2& 0\\ \frac{m_3m_2}{\sqrt{2}}& 0& 0\end{array}\right)\frac{1}{D},$$
(31)
so that the scale is given by

$$M_{R13}\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}\frac{k^2m_um_t}{m_2}$$
(32)
that is intermediate. In fact $`m_210^3`$ eV gives $`M_{R33}10^{11}`$ GeV. In this special case the structure of $`M_R`$ is roughly off-diagonal with the leading form

$$M_R\left(\begin{array}{ccc}0& 0& 1\\ 0& 0& 0\\ 1& 0& 0\end{array}\right),$$
(33)
which was obtained for example in refs.. If $`\delta ^{}0`$, $`\delta =\sqrt{2}m_2`$ and

$$M_L^1\left(\begin{array}{ccc}0& \frac{m_3m_2}{\sqrt{2}}& \frac{m_3m_2}{\sqrt{2}}\\ \frac{m_3m_2}{\sqrt{2}}& 0& 0\\ \frac{m_3m_2}{\sqrt{2}}& 0& 2ϵm_3m_2\end{array}\right)\frac{1}{D},$$
(34)
with $`M_{R33}ϵk^2m_t^2/m_2`$, $`M_{R13}k^2m_um_t/m_2`$, near the unification scale.

## IV Inverted hierarchy

In this case the light neutrino mass matrix is

$$M_L=\left(\begin{array}{ccc}\mu & \delta & \delta ^{}\\ \delta & \frac{\mu ^{}}{2}& \frac{\mu ^{}}{2}\\ \delta ^{}& \frac{\mu ^{}}{2}& \frac{\mu ^{}}{2}\end{array}\right),$$
(35)
with

$$\mu =m_1c^2+m_2s^2$$

$$\mu ^{}=m_1s^2+m_2c^2$$

$$\delta =\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}[ϵ\mu (m_2m_1)cs]$$

$$\delta ^{}=\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}[ϵ\mu +(m_2m_1)cs]$$

$$M_L^1\left(\begin{array}{ccc}m_3\mu ^{}& (\delta +\delta ^{})\frac{\mu ^{}}{2}& (\delta +\delta ^{})\frac{\mu ^{}}{2}\\ (\delta +\delta ^{})\frac{\mu ^{}}{2}& \frac{\mu \mu ^{}}{2}\delta ^2& \frac{\mu \mu ^{}}{2}+\delta \delta ^{}\\ (\delta +\delta ^{})\frac{\mu ^{}}{2}& \frac{\mu \mu ^{}}{2}+\delta \delta ^{}& \frac{\mu \mu ^{}}{2}\delta ^2\end{array}\right)\frac{1}{D},$$
(36)
and $`m_{1,2}^2\mathrm{\Delta }m_{atm}^2`$. The lightest neutrino mass $`m_3`$ does not depend on the solar neutrino solution, and can be arbitrarily small.

### A Single maximal mixing

If $`s0`$, then $`\mu =m_1`$, $`\mu ^{}=m_2`$, $`\delta =(1/\sqrt{2})ϵm_1=\delta ^{}`$, the leading $`M_L`$ is given by

$$M_L\left(\begin{array}{ccc}1& 0& 0\\ 0& 1& 1\\ 0& 1& 1\end{array}\right)$$

and the inverse of $`M_L`$ by

$$M_L^1\left(\begin{array}{ccc}m_3m_2& ϵ\frac{m_1m_2}{\sqrt{2}}& ϵ\frac{m_1m_2}{\sqrt{2}}\\ ϵ\frac{m_1m_2}{\sqrt{2}}& \frac{m_1m_2}{2}& \frac{m_1m_2}{2}\\ ϵ\frac{m_1m_2}{\sqrt{2}}& \frac{m_1m_2}{2}& \frac{m_1m_2}{2}\end{array}\right)\frac{1}{D}$$
(37)
so that

$$M_{R33}\frac{1}{2}\frac{k^2m_t^2}{m_3},$$
(38)
which is at or above the unification scale. The structure of $`M_R`$ is hierarchical, with the leading form (22).

### B Double maximal mixing

For $`s1/\sqrt{2}`$ we have two cases, corresponding to $`m_2m_1`$ and $`m_2m_1`$.

If $`m_2m_1`$, then $`\mu =m_{1,2}=\mu ^{}`$, $`\delta =(1/\sqrt{2})ϵm_{1,2}=\delta ^{}`$, the leading $`M_L`$ is like for $`s0`$ and

$$M_L^1\left(\begin{array}{ccc}m_3m_{1,2}& ϵ\frac{m_{1,2}^2}{\sqrt{2}}& ϵ\frac{m_{1,2}^2}{\sqrt{2}}\\ ϵ\frac{m_{1,2}^2}{\sqrt{2}}& \frac{m_{1,2}^2}{2}& \frac{m_{1,2}^2}{2}\\ ϵ\frac{m_{1,2}^2}{\sqrt{2}}& \frac{m_{1,2}^2}{2}& \frac{m_{1,2}^2}{2}\end{array}\right)\frac{1}{D}$$
(39)
with the same result as for $`s0`$.

If $`m_2m_1`$, then $`\mu =\mu ^{}=0`$, $`\delta =(1/\sqrt{2})m_{1,2}=\delta ^{}`$, the leading $`M_L`$ is

$$M_L\left(\begin{array}{ccc}0& 1& 1\\ 1& 0& 0\\ 1& 0& 0\end{array}\right)$$

and the inverse is

$$M_L^1\left(\begin{array}{ccc}0& 0& 0\\ 0& \frac{m_{1,2}^2}{2}& \frac{m_{1,2}^2}{2}\\ 0& \frac{m_{1,2}^2}{2}& \frac{m_{1,2}^2}{2}\end{array}\right)\frac{1}{D}$$
(40)
with

$$M_{R33}2\frac{k^2m_t^2}{m_3},$$
(41)
similar to above, and with a hierarchical $`M_R`$, of the leading form (22).

## V Effect of phases

In the preceding sections we have considered only real matrices, which is a CP conserving framework. The signs of $`m_i`$ correspond to CP parities of neutrinos, while the physical masses are $`|m_i|`$ . Let us now write a more general form of $`M_L`$ , namely the same as eqn.(14) but with $`U`$ parametrized as the ordinary CKM matrix (with the CP violating phase $`\delta `$) and

$$D_L=\text{diag}(m_1e^{i\alpha },m_2e^{i\beta },m_3)$$
(42)
with $`m_i>0`$ . We see that the preceding formalism trasforms according to

$$m_1m_1e^{i\alpha },m_2m_2e^{i\beta },ϵϵe^{i\delta }.$$

Moreover, in the hierarchical case $`ϵ`$ (or $`ϵ^2`$) is often joined to $`m_3`$, while in the inverted hierarchy case it is joined to $`m_{1,2}`$. It is clear that if there is no fine tuning of the parameters $`m_i`$, $`ϵ`$, phases have a minor effect. However, we have found some important cases where cancellations occur, indicating also small (that is about 0) or large (that is about $`\pi `$) phase differences. For example eqn.(31) may be obtained for $`\alpha 0`$, $`\delta 0`$, $`\beta \pi `$. It is to remember that only the phase $`\delta `$ affects neutrino oscillations (see $`ϵ`$ in eqn.(13)), while all three phases appear in the neutrinoless double-beta decay parameter $`M_{ee}=|U_{ei}^2m_i|`$. If $`ϵ0`$ and $`|m_2||m_1|`$, a large phase difference $`\alpha \beta \pi `$ gives a much smaller $`M_{ee}`$ with respect to a small phase difference $`\alpha \beta 0`$.

## VI Concluding remarks

We have found two leading forms for $`M_R`$, namely eqn.(22) ($`M_R`$ diagonal) and eqn.(33) ($`M_R`$ off-diagonal). The diagonal form generally is around the unification scale (except for the case of VO with full hierarchy, where the scale goes well above the unification scale, towards the Planck scale ), while the off-diagonal form is at the intermediate scale and hence welcome in the nonsupersymmetric model. Moreover, the off-diagonal form is obtained for a particular pattern for the signs of the light neutrino masses, namely $`m_2`$ opposite to both $`m_1`$ and $`m_3`$, with nearly bimaximal mixing. Of course, this pattern gives a smaller $`M_{ee}`$ with respect to the pattern with all $`m_i`$ of the same sign.

From the point of view of effective parameters, the off-diagonal form seems related to some suitable cancellations, but all of them lead to the smallness of entry $`M_{R33}`$ and hence point towards a different underlying theory with respect to the diagonal form, where the largest element is just $`M_{R33}`$. With regard to this, we would like to refer, for example, to the model , where a suitable pattern of horizontal $`U(1)`$ charges gives

$$M_R\left(\begin{array}{ccc}0& \sigma ^2& 1\\ \sigma ^2& \sigma ^2& 0\\ 1& 0& 0\end{array}\right)M_0,$$

with $`\sigma =(m_c/m_t)^{1/2}`$ and $`M_010^{12}`$ GeV.

The author thanks F. Buccella for discussions.


format: text

text:
# I Introduction

## I Introduction

One approach to quantum Yang-Mills on a Riemann surface of genus $`g`$ requires rewriting the Yang-Mills action in terms of the energy of a $`2g`$-tuple of paths in the symmetry group $`G`$ (This assumes $`g1`$. For $`g=0`$, the energy is that of a based loop in $`G`$.) The energy of such paths appears more recently in Yang-Mills inequalities Sengupta has developed .

Sengupta considers the space of smooth connections, grouped into subspaces by certain requirements on holonomy. For each subspace, there is a loop in $`G`$ whose energy bounds from below the Yang-Mills action on that subspace. For appropriate choices of the requirements on holonomies, this lower bound can be saturated; Yang-Mills connections are precisely those which saturate this bound.

Uhlenbeck  has shown that, in two dimensions, the space of connections whose Yang-Mills action is finite contains discontinuous connections. Theorem III.1 below provides a lower bound for the Yang-Mills action on this larger space. It is analogous to Sengupta’s, but in this space the bound can always be saturated. One might then suppose that Yang-Mills connections arise when these saturating connections are also smooth; this is the import of Proposition III.1.

These relations between the Yang-Mills action and the energy of paths may help answer a question raised in Atiyah and Bott’s seminal work  on the topology of the moduli space of Yang-Mills connections; namely, does the Yang-Mills action, which they show to be equivariantly perfect, in fact define a Morse stratification? Theorem III.2 describes the correspondence between the critical sets of the Yang-Mills action and those of the energy on the relevant space of paths, for which there is reason to believe the analytic issues are more tractable.

## II The Geometry of $`𝒜/𝒢_m`$

To describe the required energy requires some background on the structure of the quotient $`𝒜/𝒢_m`$ of the space of connections modulo gauge transformations. Here $`𝒜`$ refers to connections with finite total curvature on a given $`G`$-bundle $`P`$ over a Riemann surface $`\mathrm{\Sigma }`$, and $`𝒢_m`$ refers to the space of gauge transformations which are the identity at a specified point $`m\mathrm{\Sigma }`$. What follows is an overview of the essential elements; details are in the references .

Let $`D`$, a regular $`4g`$-gon be a fundamental domain for $`\mathrm{\Sigma }`$, chosen so that $`m`$ corresponds to the center of $`D`$. The edges making up $`D`$ represent the generators $`\{a_i,b_i\}_{i=1}^g`$ of $`\pi _1(\mathrm{\Sigma })`$, and are identified in pairs, with opposite orientations, as in Figure 1.

Theorem 3.1 of  states that $`𝒜/𝒢_m`$ is itself a principal fiber bundle over $`Path^{2g}G`$ with an affine-linear fiber. Here $`Path^{2g}G`$ is the space of $`2g`$-tuples of paths in $`G`$ subject to a single relation on the $`4g`$ endpoint values of the paths. There is an obvious energy function (see Eq 2) on this base space $`Path^{2g}G`$; its critical points are are precisely the images of Yang-Mills connections. To understand how this arises, it will suffice to examine the projection $`\xi :𝒜/𝒢_mPath^{2g}G`$.

Consider holonomies by a given connection $`A`$ about the following loops in $`\mathrm{\Sigma }`$: Pick polar coordinates $`(r,\theta )`$ on $`D`$ centered at $`m`$. For a given point $`p`$ of the edge $`a_1D`$, the radial path from $`m`$ to that point followed by the radial path back to $`m`$ from the corresponding point $`p^1`$ of $`a_1^1`$ defines a loop in $`\mathrm{\Sigma }`$. See Figure 2.

Relative to a fixed choice of basepoint in the fiber over $`m`$, the holonomy by $`A`$ about this loop determines an element of $`G`$. Now, let the point $`p`$ vary within $`a_1`$. The corresponding holonomies trace out a path $`\alpha _1`$ in $`G`$. Holonomies about radial paths through the points of the other edges $`b_1,a_2,b_2,\mathrm{},a_g,b_g`$ similarly determine paths $`\beta _1,\alpha _2,\beta _2,\mathrm{},\alpha _g,\beta _g`$. Taken together, these define the $`2g`$-tuple $`\stackrel{}{\gamma }_A=(\alpha _1,\beta _1,\mathrm{},\alpha _g,\beta _g)`$. These $`2g`$ paths are not completely independent of each other, however, as the radii to the vertices of $`D`$ each lie on two distinct loops in $`\mathrm{\Sigma }`$ whose holonomies define the endpoint values of distinct paths in $`G`$. In fact, traversing, in the appropriate order, each such radius out to the vertex and back again to $`m`$ gives a certain product of the endpoint values of the paths in $`\stackrel{}{\gamma }_A`$. On the other hand, by construction, the holonomy about this path must be the identity in $`G`$. Equating these gives the relation defining $`Path^{2g}G`$:

$$\alpha _1(0)\beta _1(1)^1\alpha _1(1)^1\beta _1(0)\mathrm{}\alpha _g(0)\beta _g(1)^1\alpha _g(1)^1\beta _g(0)=\mathrm{𝟏}.$$

Define $`\xi ([A])\stackrel{}{\gamma }_A`$. This is well-defined on $`𝒜/𝒢_m`$, since acting on $`A`$ by an element of $`𝒢_m`$ has no effect on $`\stackrel{}{\gamma }_A`$. Clearly, adding to $`A`$ a Lie-algebra-valued one-form $`\tau `$ which vanishes in the radial directions of $`D`$ also has no effect on $`\stackrel{}{\gamma }_A`$. In fact, in $`𝒜/𝒢_m`$, as a bundle over $`Path^{2g}G`$, the fiber over $`\stackrel{}{\gamma }_A`$ is the space $`\{[A+\tau ]:\tau |_{\text{radii}}=0\}`$. This, and the fact that $`\xi `$ is onto, is proven in Theorem 3.1 of .

If the bundle $`P`$ is not topologically trivial, then, as detailed in , its topology is determined by an element $`z`$ of the center of the universal cover $`\widehat{G}`$ of $`G`$. On lifting $`P`$ to a $`\widehat{g}`$-bundle, the space $`Path^{2g}G`$ is replaced by the corresponding space for $`\widehat{G}`$ with the relation $`\alpha _1(0)\beta _1(1)^1\alpha _1(1)^1\beta _1(0)\mathrm{}\alpha _g(0)\beta _g(1)^1\alpha _g(1)^1\beta _g(0)=z`$. Henceforth, though we omit the hats, we assume we are on the lifted bundle with the corresponding relation.

## III The Yang-Mills action

Consider now the restriction of the Yang-Mills action on $`𝒜/𝒢_m`$ to the fiber through $`\stackrel{}{\gamma }_A`$.

$$S([A])=F_A,F_A,$$

where the inner product combines the invariant inner product on the Lie algebra, the metric-induced inner product on forms at each point and integration over $`\mathrm{\Sigma }`$. Along the fiber, $`F_{A+\tau }=F_A+D_A\tau `$, since the term quadratic in $`\tau `$ vanishes. Thus,

$$S([A+\tau ])=S([A])+2F_A,D_A\tau +D_A\tau ,D_A\tau .$$

Theorem 4.2 of  ensures that the requirement $`F_{\stackrel{~}{A}},D_A\tau =0`$, for every $`\tau `$ vanishing along radii, singles out a unique choice for a continuous connection $`\stackrel{~}{A}`$ to serve as an “origin” in the fiber. Note that $`[\stackrel{~}{A}]`$ defines a section of $`𝒜/𝒢_m`$ over $`Path^{2g}G`$. Relative to this choice of origin,

$$S([\stackrel{~}{A}+\tau ])=S([\stackrel{~}{A}])+D_A\tau ,D_A\tau .$$
(1)
(For $`\tau `$ of the specified form, $`D_{\stackrel{~}{A}}\tau =D_A\tau `$.) The key point is that $`S([\stackrel{~}{A}])`$ pulls back to the energy of $`\stackrel{}{\gamma }_A`$. This follows from the condition on $`F_{\stackrel{~}{A}}`$ which implies directly that $`F_{\stackrel{~}{A}}`$ is covariantly constant along radii. Thus, in $`S([\stackrel{~}{A}])=F_{\stackrel{~}{A}},F_{\stackrel{~}{A}}`$, $`F_{\stackrel{~}{A}}`$ may replaced by its average along the radius. This, however, by a non-Abelian analog of Stoke’s theorem, or by Polyakov’s formula, is $`\alpha _i^1\dot{\alpha _i}`$ (or $`\beta _i^1\dot{\beta _i}`$) for some $`i`$ depending on the value of $`\theta `$. In fact, for an appropriate choice of parametrization, determined by the area element on $`\mathrm{\Sigma }`$,

$$S([\stackrel{~}{A}])=\frac{1}{2}\underset{i=1}{\overset{2g}{}}\dot{\gamma }_i^2E(\stackrel{}{\gamma }_A),$$
(2)
as detailed in Section 5.1 of . Here $`\gamma _i`$ denotes the $`i`$th component of $`\overline{\gamma }_A`$. For a generic connection, which must be gauge equivalent to $`\stackrel{~}{A}+\tau `$, Eq 1 thus becomes

$$S([\stackrel{~}{A}+\tau ])=E(\stackrel{}{\gamma }_A)+D_A\tau ,D_A\tau $$
(3)
It leads immediately to a lower bound on the Yang-Mills action on a given fiber:

###### Theorem III.1

For any connection $`A`$ representing an element of the fiber through $`\stackrel{}{\gamma }_APath^{2g}G`$,

$$S([A])\frac{1}{2}\underset{i=1}{\overset{2g}{}}\gamma _i^2,$$

with equality holding iff $`A`$ agrees with the section $`\stackrel{~}{A}`$ (up to gauge transformation).

Proof: This is an immediate consequence of Eq 3, since the second term on the right-hand side is positive semi-definite, and zero iff $`\tau =0`$. $``$ $``$

Given this decomposition of the Yang-Mills action, it is easy to see how its critical points correspond directly to critical points of the energy $`E`$.

###### Theorem III.2

The connection $`\stackrel{~}{A}`$ represents a Yang-Mills critical point iff $`\stackrel{}{\gamma }_{\stackrel{~}{A}}`$ is a critical point of the energy $`E`$.

Proof: Suppose $`A=\stackrel{~}{A}+\tau `$ is a Yang-Mills critical point; that is, a point at which $`S([\stackrel{~}{A}+\tau ])`$ is stationary. (There is no loss of generality in omitting a possible gauge transformation on one side of this equation.) By considering just $`\tau `$ of the form $`\tau =t\tau _0`$, for $`tR`$, it is clear from Eq 3 that $`\tau =0`$ is a necessary condition for $`A`$ to be a critical point. It then follows that $`\stackrel{}{\gamma }_A`$ must be a critical point of the energy. The converse is immediate. $``$ $``$

To relate this picture, in which connections need not be smooth and the energy bound can always be saturated, to Sengupta’s, in which connections must be smooth and the energy bound can only be saturated on the fibers containing Yang-Mills connections, note that in the fibers over critical points of the energy the connection $`\stackrel{~}{A}`$ is smooth.

###### Proposition III.1

If $`\stackrel{}{\gamma }`$ is a critical point of $`E`$, then the corresponding $`\stackrel{~}{A}`$ is smooth.

Proof: A simple calculus of variations computation shows that $`\stackrel{}{\gamma }`$ extremizes $`E`$ iff

$$\frac{}{\theta }\gamma _i^1\dot{\gamma _i}=0.$$

On the other hand, this condition also ensures that the covariantly constant curvatures $`F_{\stackrel{~}{A}}`$, related by the non-Abelian analog of Stokes Theorem mentioned previously, are continuous at $`m`$. This was the only place $`\stackrel{~}{A}`$ might have failed to be smooth. $``$ $``$

## IV A possible application

Atiyah and Bott suggest equivariant Morse theory might apply to the cohomology of the Yang-Mills moduli space, and, more particularly, their stratification may correspond to the Morse stratification for the Yang-Mills action. With this in mind, they prove the Yang-Mills action is an equivariantly perfect Morse function. However, analytic concerns prevent them from developing the theory more fully, except in genus zero. There Bott and Samuelson  have shown that $`𝒜/𝒢`$ is topologically equivalent to based loops in $`G`$, and that Morse theory arguments go through for a wide variety of symmetric spaces including these based loops.

The geometric picture of $`𝒜/𝒢_m`$ as an affine-linear bundle shows it is topologically equivalent to its base space $`Path^{2g}G`$. Passing from $`𝒢_m`$ to $`𝒢`$, this becomes $`Path^{2g}G/G`$, where a given element $`gG`$ acts adjointly on each path: $`\gamma _i(t)g^1\gamma _i(t)g`$. Moreover Eq 3 says the section $`[\stackrel{~}{A}]`$ pulls the Yang-Mills action back to the energy on $`Path^{2g}G/G`$. Clearly, the Morse theory for this base space, if such exists, would be the Morse theory for $`𝒜/𝒢`$. Moreover, the generality of Bott and Samuelson’s results is nearly sufficient to apply them directly to $`Path^{2g}G/G`$. The endpoint condition, however, requires careful treatment, which we defer to future work.

Acknowledgements: The author is grateful to Ambar Sengupta for discussions of his work on the energy inequality and to Stephen Sawin for discussions of this and many other aspects of two-dimensional Yang-Mills.


text:
# Radial Velocity Studies of Close Binary Stars. III1footnote 11footnote 1Based on the data obtained at the David Dunlap Observatory, University of Toronto.

## 1 INTRODUCTION

This paper is a continuation of the radial velocity studies of close binary stars, Lu & Rucinski (1999) (Paper I) and Rucinski & Lu (1999) (Paper II). The main goals and motivations are described in these papers. In short, we attempt to obtain modern radial velocity data for close binary systems which are accessible to the 1.8 meter class telescopes at medium spectral resolution of about R = 10,000 – 15,000. Selection of the objects is quasi-random in the sense that we started with shortest period contact binaries. The intention is to publish the results in groups of ten systems as soon as reasonable orbital elements can be obtained from measurements evenly distributed in orbital phases. We are currently observing a few dozens of such systems. The rate of progress may slow down, as we move into systems with progressively longer periods.

This paper is structured in the same way as Papers I and II in that it consists of two tables containing the radial velocity measurements (Table Radial Velocity Studies of Close Binary Stars. III111Based on the data obtained at the David Dunlap Observatory, University of Toronto.) and their sine-curve solutions (Table Radial Velocity Studies of Close Binary Stars. III111Based on the data obtained at the David Dunlap Observatory, University of Toronto.) and of brief summaries of previous studies for individual systems. The reader is referred to the previous papers for technical details of the program. In short, all observations described here were made with the 1.88 meter telescope of the David Dunlap Observatory (DDO) of the University of Toronto. The Cassegrain spectrograph giving the scale of 0.2 Å/pixel, or about 12 km/s/pixel, was used; the pixel size of the CCD was 19 $`\mu `$m. A relatively wide spectrograph slit of 300 $`\mu `$m corresponded to the angular size on the sky of 1.8 arcsec and the projected width of 4 pixels. The spectra were centered at 5185 Å with the spectral coverage of 210 Å. The exposure times were typically 10 – 15 minutes long.

The data in Table Radial Velocity Studies of Close Binary Stars. III111Based on the data obtained at the David Dunlap Observatory, University of Toronto. are organized in the same manner as in Paper II. It provides information about the relation between the spectroscopically observed epoch of the primary-eclipse T0 and the recent photometric determinations in the form of the (O–C) deviations for the number of elapsed periods E. It also contains, in the first column below the star name, our new spectral classifications of the program objects. The classification spectra, were obtained with a grating giving a dispersion of 0.62 Å/pixel in the range 3850 – 4450 Å. The program-star spectra were “interpolated” between spectra of standard stars in terms of relative strengths of lines known as reliable classification criteria.

In the radial-velocity solutions of the orbits, the data have been assigned weights on the basis of our ability to resolve the components and to fit independent Gaussians to each of the broadening-function peaks. Weight equal to zero in Table Radial Velocity Studies of Close Binary Stars. III111Based on the data obtained at the David Dunlap Observatory, University of Toronto. means that an observation was not used in our orbital solutions; however, these observations may be utilized in detailed modeling of broadening functions, if such are undertaken for the available material. The full-weight points are marked in the figures by filled symbols while half-weight points are marked by open symbols. Phases of the observations with zero weights are shown by short markers in the lower parts of the figures; they were usually obtained close to the phases of orbital conjunctions.

All systems discussed in this paper but one have been observed for radial velocities for the first time. The only exception is RZ Dra for which an SB1 orbit solution was obtained by Struve (1946). The solutions presented in Table Radial Velocity Studies of Close Binary Stars. III111Based on the data obtained at the David Dunlap Observatory, University of Toronto. for the four circular-orbit parameters, $`\gamma `$, K1, K2 and T0, have been obtained iteratively, with fixed values of the orbital period. First, two independent least-squares solutions for each star were made using the same programs as described in Papers I amd II. Then, one combined solution for both amplitudes and the common $`\gamma `$ was made with the fixed mean value of T0. Next, differential corrections for $`\gamma `$, K1, K2, and T0 were determined, providing best values of the four parameters. These values are given in Table Radial Velocity Studies of Close Binary Stars. III111Based on the data obtained at the David Dunlap Observatory, University of Toronto.. The corrections to $`\gamma `$, K1, K2, and T0 were finally subject to a “bootstrap” process (several thousand solutions with randomly drawn data with repetitions) to provide the median values and ranges of the parameters. We have adopted them as measures of uncertainty of parameters in Table Radial Velocity Studies of Close Binary Stars. III111Based on the data obtained at the David Dunlap Observatory, University of Toronto..

Throughout the paper, when the errors are not written otherwise, we express standard mean errors in terms of the last quoted digits, e.g. the number 0.349(29) should be interpreted as $`0.349\pm 0.029`$.

## 2 RESULTS FOR INDIVIDUAL SYSTEMS

### 2.1 CN And

The variability of CN And was discovered by Hoffmeister (1949). Modern light curves were presented by Kaluzny (1983), Refert et al. (1985), Keskin (1989) and Samec et al. (1998). The light curve is of the EB-type, with unequally deep eclipses. From the eclipse timing, there exists a clear indication of a continuous period decrease. We used the almost contemporary with our observations determination of the primary eclipse time $`T_0`$ by Samec et al. (1998). The radial velocity curve of the secondary component (see Figure Radial Velocity Studies of Close Binary Stars. III111Based on the data obtained at the David Dunlap Observatory, University of Toronto.) shows some asymmetry in the first half of the orbital period which may explain why our $`T_0`$ is shifted by $`0.014`$ day to earlier phases. From the radial-velocity point of view, the system looks like a typical A-type contact binary, but it can be also a very close semi-detached system.

Two groups of investigators attempted solutions of the light curves for orbital parameters, disregarding lack of any information on the spectroscopic mass-ratio. Our $`q_{sp}=0.39\pm 0.03`$ differs rather drastically from these photometric estimates. Kaluzny (1983) expected the mass-ratio to be within $`0.55<q_{ph}<0.85`$. Refert et al. (1985) found the most likely interval to be $`0.5<q_{ph}<0.8`$; they saw indications of a strong contact. The matter of the contact or semi-detached nature of the system should be re-visited in view of the discrepancy between our $`q_{sp}`$ and the previous estimates of $`q_{ph}`$.

The photometric data at maximum light were published by Kaluzny (1983): $`V=9.62`$, $`(BV)=0.45`$. The system is apparently a moderately strong X-ray source (Shaw et al. (1996)).

### 2.2 HV Aqr

Variability of HV Aqr was discovered relatively recently by Hutton (1992). The type of variability was identified by Schirmer (1992) and a preliminary, but thorough study was presented by Robb (1992). The system shows total eclipses at the shallower of the two minima, so it is definitely an A-type one. This circumstance is important to our results because both available ephemerides of Schirmer and Robb do not predict the primary minimum correctly and we are not sure how our radial-velocity observations relate to the photometric observations: Our $`T_0`$ falls at phase 0.47 for the former and at 0.70 for the latter. Probably the values of the orbital period are slightly incorrect for both ephemerides. We used the period of 0.374460 day, following Schirmer (1992); if this is incorrect, then part of the scatter in our data may be due to the incorrect phasing over the span of 450 days of our observations.

The mass-ratio of HV Aqr is small, $`q_{sp}=0.145\pm 0.05`$. It agrees perfectly with the photometric solution of Robb (1992) of $`q_{ph}=0.146`$ which confirms the validity of the photometric approach for totally eclipsing systems, in contrast with the typical lack of agreement for partially eclipsing systems.

Our spectral type of F5V agrees with the observed $`(BV)=0.630.78`$ for a relatively large reddening of $`E_{BV}=0.08`$ expected by Robb (1992). The system is bright with $`V=9.80`$, and is potentially one of the best for a combined spectroscopic – photometric solution.

### 2.3 AO Cam

Variability of AO Cam was discovered by Hoffmeister (1966). Milone et al. (1982) analyzed their photometric observations in a simplified way. Subsequent photometric solution by Evans et al. (1985) and even the sophisticated work of Barone et al. (1993) did not bring much progress in view of the partial eclipses and total lack of any information on the mass-ratio. Barone et al. (1993) stated that AO Cam is definitely a W-type system; they estimated the photometric mass-ratio at $`q_{ph}=1.71\pm 0.04`$ or $`1/q=0.585`$. This value is very different from our spectroscopic result, $`q_{sp}=0.413\pm 0.011`$, but we do confirm the W-type of the system.

AO Cam does not have any $`UBV`$ data. Our spectral classification is G0V. In view of its considerable brightness of $`V=9.50`$ at maxima, it appears to be a somewhat neglected system.

To predict the moment of the primary eclipse $`T_0`$, we used the ephemeride based on the period of Evans et al. (1985) and the observations of the secondary eclipses by Faulkner (1986). The (O–C) deviation is relatively small in spite of many orbital periods elapsed since Faulker’s observations.

### 2.4 YY CrB

YY CrB is one of the variable stars discovered by the Hipparcos satellite mission (ESA (1997)). The only available light curve comes from this satellite; the star has not been studied in any other way. There are no obvious indications of total eclipses, but the coverage of eclipses is relatively poor so that it is possible that the minimum identified as the primary is not the deeper one. We used the primary minimum ephemeride of Hipparcos and this results in a contact system of type A, that is with the more massive and hotter component eclipsed at this minimum.

The system is bright, $`V_{max}=8.64`$, and its Hipparcos parallax is relatively large and well-determined, $`p=11.36\pm 0.85`$ milli-arcsec (mas), giving a good estimate of the absolute magnitude of the system, $`M_V=3.92\pm 0.16`$. With $`(BV)=0.62\pm 0.02`$ from the Hipparcos database, the $`M_V(\mathrm{log}P,BV)`$ calibration (Rucinski & Duerbeck (1997)) gives $`M_V^{cal}=3.88`$ so that the agreement is perfect. Our spectral classification of F8V agrees with the $`(BV)`$ color index.

With the very good parallax and the new radial velocity data, YY CrB is one of the systems which have a great potential of providing an excellent combined photometric and spectroscopic solution.

### 2.5 FU Dra

FU Dra is another Hipparcos discovery. Again, we assumed the primary eclipse identification and its ephemeride as in the Hipparcos publication (ESA (1997)). With these assumptions, the system appears to belong to the W-type systems. The mass-ratio is somewhat small for such systems, $`q_{sp}=0.25\pm 0.03`$.

The system is bright, $`V_{max}=10.55`$, but its Hipparcos parallax is only moderately well determined, $`p=6.25\pm 1.09`$ mas, resulting in the absolute magnitude $`M_V=4.53\pm 0.38`$. The system was measured by the Hipparcos project to have a relatively large tangential motion, $`\mu _{RA}=255.85\pm 1.18`$ mas and $`\mu _{dec}=16.61\pm 1.18`$ mas. The large proper motion had been noticed before (Lee 1984a , Lee 1984b ), but the spatial velocity was then estimated assuming an uncertain spectroscopic parallax. Using the Hipparcos data one obtains the two tangential components, $`V_{RA}=194`$ km s-1 and $`V_{dec}=13`$ km s-1. The radial velocity $`\gamma =11`$ km s-1 is moderate, so that only the RA component of the spatial tangential velocity is very large.

### 2.6 RZ Dra

RZ Dra has been frequently photometrically observed since the discovery by Ceraski (1907). The most recent extensive analysis of the system was by Kreiner et al. (1994). It utilized the only extant set of spectroscopic observations by Struve (1946) which led to a detection of one, brighter component. Our data confirm the primary amplitude $`K_1=100`$ km s-1, but we have been to also detect the secondary component. The system consists of components considerably differing in the effective temperature, and thus is classified as an EB-type binary. Spectroscopically, one sees a more massive component eclipsed at the deeper minimum so that it can be an Algol semi-detached binary or an A-type contact system in poor thermal contact. The analysis of Kreiner et al. (1994) was made under the assumption of the semi-detached configuration. They found the photometric mass-ratio $`q_{ph}0.45`$, but some solutions suggested $`q_{ph}0.55`$. Our relatively well defined solution for both components gives $`q_{sp}=0.40\pm 0.04`$. The same investigation of Kreiner et al. provided the starting value of $`T_0`$. In spite of indications that the period may be variable and that many epochs elapsed since the study by Kreiner et al., the observed shift in the primary eclipse time is relatively small.

The spectral type that we observed, A6V, most probably applies to the primary component which is much hotter than its companion (we have not attempted to separate the spectra in terms of spectral types). The Hipparcos parallax of the system, $`p=1.81\pm 1.01`$ mas, is too poor for an more extensive analysis of the absolute magnitude of the system. RZ Dra appears to be a relatively short-period (0.55 day) semi-detached Algol with both components accessible to spectroscopic observations.

### 2.7 UX Eri

UX Eri is a contact binary which was extensively photometrically observed since its discovery by Soloviev (1937). The first modern contact-model solutions which gave surprisingly good agreement with our spectroscopic mass-ratio, $`q_{sp}=0.37\pm 0.02`$, was presented by Mauder (1972) almost quarter of a century ago; it utilized the light curve of Binnendijk (1967) and arrived at $`q_{ph}=0.42`$.

Our observations have been supplemented by four observations obtained at the same time by Dr. Hilmar Duerbeck at the European Southern Observatory with a 1.52m telescope and a Cassegrain spectrograph. As a starting point of our solution, we used the moment of the primary minimum $`T_0`$ as predicted on the basis of observations by Agerer & Huebscher 1998a  and Agerer & Huebscher 1998b ; both took place actually slightly after our spectroscopic observations.

UX Eri appears to be an A-type contact binary. The $`(BV)`$ color index is not available for this star (it has also not been measured by Hipparcos), so we have not been able to relate it to our spectral classification of F9V. The Hipparcos parallax $`p=6.57\pm 2.84`$ mas provides a relatively poor estimate of the absolute magnitude for the maximum brightness of $`V_{max}=10.59`$: $`M_V=4.7\pm 0.9`$.

### 2.8 RT LMi

RT LMi was discovered as a variable star by Hoffmeister (1949). The most recent analysis from which we took the time of the primary eclipse $`T_0`$ is by Niarchos et al. (1994). The system has been characterized in this study as a W-type contact binary of spectral type G0V with photospheric spots. Our spectral classification is based on poor spectra, but they indicate a slightly earlier spectral type, of approximately F7V. As Niarchos et al. (1994) pointed out, the minima were observed to be of almost equal depth. Our spectroscopic orbit gives an A-type so that the minimum selected by the authors as the primary corresponds to the eclipse of the more massive component (the temporal shift is very small in spite of many elapsed epochs). The photometric solution of Niarchos et al. (1994) assuming the W-type appears therefore to be invalid. The system is otherwise quite an inconspicuous contact binary. It lacks even most essential photometric data. The Simbad database gives $`V_{max}=11.4`$, but the source of this value is not cited.

### 2.9 V753 Mon

V753 Mon is a new discovery of the Hipparcos mission. It is probably one of the most interesting new close binaries recently discovered. V753 Mon has not been studied before. The only published photometric data come from the $`uvby`$ survey of Olsen (1994) who found $`(by)=0.214\pm 0.008`$, $`m_1=0.160\pm 0.003`$ and $`c_1=0.693\pm 0.023`$. The $`(by)`$ color index color corresponds to $`(BV)0.34`$ or the spectral type F2V. Our spectral classification is A8V which does not agree with these estimates and with $`(BV)=0.36`$ in the Hipparcos catalog, unless there is considerable reddening of about $`E_{BV}0.12`$. However, the early type would be in a better accord with the large masses indicated by the radial velocity solution (see below). The brightness data in the Olsen measurements indicated quite appreciable variability, $`V=8.46\pm 0.34`$, but this indication has been apparently overlooked. The Hipparcos mission database treats it as a new discovery.

The two features distinguish V753 Mon as a particularly interesting system: The mass-ratio close to unity and the large amplitudes of radial velocity variations indicating a large total mass. The mass-ratio $`q_{sp}=0.970\pm 0.009`$ is the closest to unity of all known contact binaries. Note that the currently largest mass ratios are $`q=0.80`$ for VZ Psc (Hrivnak et al. (1995)) and SW Lac (Zhai & Lu (1989)) and $`q=0.84`$ for OO Aql (Hrivnak (1989)). Since contact systems with $`q1`$ are not observed, but are expected to experience strong favorable observational biases for their detection and ease in analysis, it is generally thought that contact configurations avoid this particular mass-ratio. The summed amplitudes of the radial velocity variations for V753 Mon give the total mass of the system, $`(M_1+M_2)sin^3i=2.93\pm 0.06`$. This is in perfect agreement with the expected masses of two main-sequence stars of the spectral type F2V seen on an orbit exactly perpendicular to the plane of the sky. The light variation is about 0.52 mag., in place of the expected about 1.0 mag. for a contact system with $`q1`$; therefore, the total mass for $`i<90^{}`$ may turn out to be substantially larger. For the spectral type estimated by us the individual masses should be close to $`1.7M_{}`$.

Our radial velocity data show that with the ephemeride based on the Hipparcos data, the system belongs to the W-type contact systems. Apparently, the eclipses are of almost the same depth, as expected for $`q1`$. However, the light curve from Hipparcos is poorly covered around the secondary minimum so that the identification of the eclipses is uncertain. Obviously, the distinction between A-type and W-type systems becomes immaterial for $`q1`$.

The system is begging a new light curve and an extensive analysis, not only because of the unusual properties, but also because it is bright, $`V_{max}=8.34`$, and has a moderately well determined Hipparcos parallax: $`p=5.23\pm 1.04`$ resulting in $`M_V=1.93\pm 0.43`$. This is in perfect agreement with the $`M_V(\mathrm{log}P,BV)`$ calibration which gives $`M_V^{cal}=1.90`$ for the assumed $`(BV)=0.34`$. The agreement would not be that good if the color index is smaller, say 0.22, then one would obtain $`M_V^{cal}=1.54`$ which is still within the uncertainty of the parallax. Further investigations of V753 Mon will therefore contribute to the absolute-magnitude calibration which is rather moderately-well defined for contact binaries with periods longer than about 0.5 day (Rucinski & Duerbeck (1997)).

### 2.10 OU Ser

OU Ser is the fourth Hipparcos mission discovery in this group of systems. The light curve shows almost equally deep minima. With the Hipparcos ephemeride, the system appears to be an A-type one with a small mass-ratio $`q_{sp}=0.173\pm 0.017`$. Our spectral classification of the system indicates the spectral type F9/G0V.

The distinguishing properties of OU Ser in the Hipparcos database are its large proper motion and a well measured parallax. The tangential components of the proper motion are $`\mu _{RA}=387.5\pm 0.9`$ mas and $`\mu dec=2.8\pm 0.8`$ mas. With the parallax of $`p=17.3\pm 1.0`$ mas this translates into the spatial components $`V_{RA}=106`$ km s-1 and $`V_{dec}=1`$ km s-1. The mean radial velocity of the system is $`\gamma =64.08\pm 0.41`$ km s-1. Thus, the RA and the radial velocity components indicate a high-velocity star.

The large proper motion of the star had been the reason for inclusion in the survey by Carney et al. (1994). They noted also the broad lines indicating short-period binarity and possibility of light variations. Their photometric data $`V=8.27`$, $`(BV)=0.62`$ and $`(UB)=0.08`$ agree with our spectral classification, F9/G0V. The $`ubvy`$ survey of Olsen (1994) suggests a slightly larger $`(BV)0.66`$ on the basis of the $`(by)=0.411\pm 0.003`$, hence a spectral type around G1/2V. The difference in the classification may be due to the apparently low metallicity of the system as judged by its low index $`m_1=0.168\pm 0.004`$ (provided this index is not confused by any chromospheric activity). the other data of Olsen are $`V=8.278\pm 0.005`$ and $`c_1=0.281\pm 0.006`$.

Assuming $`V_{max}=8.25`$ and the parallax $`p=17.3\pm 1.0`$ mas, one obtains $`M_V=4.44\pm 0.12`$. This again agrees very well with the absolute magnitude derived from the $`M_V(\mathrm{log}P,BV)`$ calibration of Rucinski & Duerbeck (1997): For $`(BV)=0.62`$, $`M_V^{cal}=4.32`$, while for $`(BV)=0.66`$, $`M_V^{cal}=4.46`$.

With the excellent parallax data and its properties of a high velocity star, OU Ser deserves a combined photometric – spectroscopic solution.

## 3 SUMMARY

The paper brings radial velocity data for the third group of ten close binary systems that we observed at the David Dunlap Observatory. All, but RZ Dra (which had SB1 radial velocity data), have never been observed spectroscopically; all ten are binaries with both components clearly detected so that they can be called SB2. All systems, but CN And and RZ Dra, which may be very close semi-detached systems, are contact binaries. We describe special features of the individual systems in the descriptions in Section 2. We note that again about half of the system are A-type contact binaries; the likely reasons why we prefer them over the W-type systems in our randomly drawn sample are given in the Conclusions to Paper II. We also observed as EB2 systems two binaries, CN And and RZ Dra; they are most probably semi-detached binaries.

We do not give the calculated values of $`(M_1+M_2)\mathrm{sin}^3i=1.0385\times 10^7(K_1+K_2)^3P(\mathrm{day})M_{}`$ because in most cases the inclination angles are either unknown or not trustworthy. However, one case is very interesting here: The total mass of components of the system V753 Mon is very large, $`M_1+M_2>2.93M_{}`$. Since too large velocity amplitudes are a rare phenomenon in the world of contact systems, this system requires special attention of the observers. The binary is also unique in having its mass-ratio exceptionally close to unity, $`q_{sp}=0.970\pm 0.009`$. Two other systems discovered by the Hipparcos mission are also very important and promise excellent combined solutions, YY CrB and OU Ser. It is important that both are high-velocity stars and have excellent parallaxes. And, finally, the recently discovered system HV Aqr offers an excellent solution in view of the total, well-defined eclipses and very good radial velocity data.

The authors would like to thank Jim Thomson for help with observations and to Hilmar Duerbeck for a permission to use his observations of UX Eri. The research has made use of the SIMBAD database, operated at the CDS, Strasbourg, France and accessible through the Canadian Astronomy Data Centre, which is operated by the Herzberg Institute of Astrophysics, National Research Council of Canada.

Captions to figures:


text:
# MPI-PhT/2000-09 Either neutralino dark matter or cuspy dark halos

## Abstract

We show that if the neutralino in the minimal supersymmetric standard model is the dark matter in our galaxy, there cannot be a dark matter cusp extending to the galactic center. Conversely, if a dark matter cusp extends to the galactic center, the neutralino cannot be the dark matter in our galaxy. We obtain these results considering the synchrotron emission from neutralino annihilations around the black hole at the galactic center.

The composition of dark matter is one of the major issues in cosmology. A popular candidate for non-baryonic cold dark matter is the lightest neutralino appearing in a large class of supersymmetric models . In a wide range of supersymmetric parameter space, relic neutralinos from the Big Bang are in principle abundant enough to account for the dark matter in our galactic halo .

A generic prediction of cold dark matter models is that dark matter halos should be have steep central cusps, meaning that their density rises as $`r^\gamma `$ to the center. Semi-analytical calculations find a cusp slope $`\gamma `$ between $`1`$  and 2 . Simulations find a slope $`\gamma `$ ranging from 0.3  to 1  to 1.5 . It is unclear if dark matter profiles in real galaxies and galaxy clusters have a central cusp or a constant density core.

There is mounting evidence that the non-thermal radio source Sgr A at the galactic center is a black hole of mass $`M3\times 10^6M_{}`$. This inference is based on the large proper motion of nearby stars , the spectrum of Sgr A (e.g. ), and its low proper motion . It is difficult to explain these data without a black hole .

The black hole at the galactic center modifies the distribution of dark matter in its surroundings , creating a high density dark matter region called the spike – to distinguish it from the above mentioned cusp. Signals from particle dark matter annihilation in the spike may be used to discriminate between a central cusp and a central core. With a central cusp, the annihilation signals from the galactic center increase by many orders of magnitude. With a central core, the annihilation signals do not increase significantly.

Stellar winds are observed to pervade the inner parsec of the galaxy , and are supposed to feed the central black hole (e.g. ). These winds carry a magnetic field whose measured intensity is a few milligauss at a distance of $`5\mathrm{p}\mathrm{c}`$ from the galactic center . The magnetic field intensity can rise to a few kilogauss at the Schwarzschild radius of the black hole in some accretion models for Sgr A .

In this letter we examine the radio emission from neutralino dark matter annihilation in the central spike. (Previous studies of radio emission from neutralino annihilation at the galactic center have considered an $`r^{1.8}`$ cusp but no spike .) Radio emission is due to synchrotron radiation from annihilation electrons and positrons in the magnetic field around Sgr A. Comparing the radio emission from the neutralino spike with the measured Sgr A spectrum, we find that neutralino dark matter in the minimal supersymmetric standard model is incompatible with a dark matter cusp extending to the galactic center.

There are two ways to interpret our results. If we believe that there is a dark matter cusp extending to the center of our galaxy, we can exclude the neutralino as a dark matter candidate. Conversely, if we believe that dark matter is the lightest neutralino, we can exclude that a dark matter cusp extends to the center of the galaxy.

Dark matter candidate. We examine the lightest neutralino in the minimal supersymmetric standard model. This model provides a well-defined calculational framework, but contains at least 106 yet-unmeasured parameters . Most of them control details of the squark and slepton sectors, and are usually disregarded in neutralino dark matter studies (cfr. ). So, following Bergström and Gondolo , we restrict the number of parameters to 7. Out of the database of points in parameter space built in refs. , we use the 35121 points in which the neutralino is a good cold dark matter candidate , in the sense that its relic density satisfies $`0.025<\mathrm{\Omega }_\chi h^2<1`$. The upper limit comes from the age of the Universe, the lower one from requiring that neutralinos are a major fraction of galactic dark halos. Present understanding of the matter density in the universe (e.g. ) suggests a narrower range $`0.08<\mathrm{\Omega }_\chi h^2<0.18`$, but we conservatively use the broader range.

Spike profile. We summarize the results of ref.  for the spike profile. We assume the cusp has density profile

$$\rho _{\mathrm{cusp}}=\rho _D\left(\frac{r}{D}\right)^\gamma ,$$
(1)
with $`\rho _D=0.24\mathrm{GeV}/c^2/\mathrm{cm}^3`$ the density at the reference point $`D=8.5\mathrm{kpc}`$, the Sun location (this is a conservative value for $`\rho _D`$, see ). Then within a central region of radius $`R_{\mathrm{sp}}=\alpha _\gamma D\left(M/\rho _DD^3\right)^{1/(3\gamma )},`$ where $`\alpha _\gamma `$ is given in ref.  and $`M=(2.6\pm 0.2)\times 10^6M_{}`$ is the mass of the central black hole, the dark matter density is modified to

$$\rho _{\mathrm{sp}}=\frac{\rho ^{}(r)\rho _\mathrm{c}}{\rho ^{}(r)+\rho _\mathrm{c}}.$$
(2)
Here $`\rho _\mathrm{c}=m_\chi /(\sigma vt_{\mathrm{bh}})`$, where $`t_{\mathrm{bh}}`$ is the age of the black hole (conservatively $`10^{10}`$ yr), $`m_\chi `$ is the mass of the neutralino, and $`\sigma v`$ is the neutralino–neutralino annihilation cross section times relative velocity (notice that for neutralinos at the galactic center $`\sigma v`$ is independent of $`v`$). Furthermore,

$$\rho ^{}(r)=\rho _Rg(r)\left(\frac{R_{\mathrm{sp}}}{r}\right)^{\gamma _{\mathrm{sp}}},$$
(3)
with $`g(r)=\left[1(8GM)/(rc^2)\right]^3`$ accounting for dark matter capture into the black hole, $`\gamma _{\mathrm{sp}}=(92\gamma )/(4\gamma )`$, and $`\rho _R=\rho _D\left(R_{\mathrm{sp}}/D\right)^\gamma `$.

Annihilation rate. The total number of neutralino annihilations per second in the spike follows from the density profile as

$$\mathrm{\Gamma }=\frac{\sigma v}{m^2}\rho _{\mathrm{sp}}^24\pi r^2𝑑r=\frac{4\pi \sigma v\rho _{\mathrm{in}}^2R_{\mathrm{in}}^3}{m^2},$$
(4)
with $`\rho _{\mathrm{in}}=\rho _{\mathrm{sp}}(R_{\mathrm{in}})`$ and $`R_{\mathrm{in}}=1.5\left[(20R_\mathrm{S})^2+R_\mathrm{c}^2\right]^{1/2}`$. The latter expression is a good approximation (6%) to the numerical integration of the annihilation profile.

Most of the annihilations occur either close to the black hole at $`13R_\mathrm{S}3\times 10^6\mathrm{pc}`$ (where $`R_\mathrm{S}2GM/c^2`$ is the Schwarzschild radius) or around the spike core radius $`R_\mathrm{c}=R_{\mathrm{sp}}\left(\rho _R/\rho _\mathrm{c}\right)^{1/\gamma _{\mathrm{sp}}}`$, whichever is larger.

Radio signals. The electrons and positrons produced by neutralino annihilation in the spike are expected to emit synchrotron radiation in the magnetic field around the galactic center.

The strength and structure of this magnetic field is known to some extent. A magnetic field of few milligauss has been detected  few parsecs from the center. Models of Sgr A contain accretion flows, either spherical  or moderately flattened , which carry a magnetic field towards the black hole. The strength of this magnetic field is assumed to increase inwards according to magnetic flux conservation or equipartition.

Including the gas and the radial dependence of the magnetic field in the synchrotron emission from neutralino annihilations is a complicated problem. Electrons and positrons in the regions where the magnetic field is strong may lose their energy almost in place, while those at the outskirts of the spike may have time to diffuse to very different radii. Moreover, the plasma may affect the shape of the synchrotron spectrum. We postpone this complicated analysis, and consider three simple but relevant models for the magnetic field and the electron/positron propagation.

In model A, we assume that the magnetic field is uniform across the spike, with strength $`B=1\mathrm{m}\mathrm{G}`$, and that the electrons and positrons lose all their energy into synchrotron radiation without moving significantly from their production point.

In model B, we also assume that the magnetic field is uniform across the spike with strength $`B=1\mathrm{m}\mathrm{G}`$, but that the electrons and positrons diffuse efficiently and are redistributed according to a gaussian encompassing the spike (we take the gaussian width $`\lambda =1`$ pc).

In model C, we assume that the magnetic field follows the equipartition value $`B=1\mu \mathrm{G}(r/\mathrm{pc})^{5/4}`$ (from ref. ) and that the electrons and positrons lose all their energy into synchrotron radiation without moving significantly from their production point. In addition, in this model, we neglect synchrotron self-absorption.

Under these assumptions, the electron plus positron spectrum follows from the equation of energy loss $`dE/dt=P(E)(2e^4B^2E^2)/(3m_e^4c^7)`$ as

$$\frac{dn_e}{dE}=\frac{Y_e(\mathrm{>}E)}{P(E)}\mathrm{\Gamma }f_e(r),$$
(5)
where

$$f_e(r)=\frac{\rho _{\mathrm{sp}}^2}{\rho _{\mathrm{sp}}^24\pi r^2𝑑r}$$
(6)
in models A and C, and

$$f_e(r)=\frac{1}{(2\pi \lambda ^2)^{3/2}}e^{r^2/2\lambda ^2}$$
(7)
in model B.

$`Y_e(\mathrm{>}E)`$ is the number of annihilation electrons and positrons with energy above $`E`$. We obtain $`Y_e(\mathrm{>}E)`$ with the DarkSUSY code , which includes a Pythia simulation of the $`e^\pm `$ continuum and the $`e^\pm `$ lines at the neutralino mass .

The synchrotron luminosity is given by

$$L_\nu =\frac{A_\nu \mathrm{\Gamma }}{\nu }𝑑r4\pi r^2f_e(r)_{m_e}^m\frac{Y_e(\mathrm{>}E)}{\nu _c(E)}F\left(\frac{\nu }{\nu _c(E)}\right)𝑑E,$$
(8)
where

$$\nu _c(E)=\frac{3eB}{4\pi m_ec}\left(\frac{E}{m_ec^2}\right)^2$$
(9)
and

$$F(x)=\frac{9\sqrt{3}}{8\pi }x_x^{\mathrm{}}K_{5/3}(y)𝑑y.$$
(10)
The factor $`A_\nu `$ accounts for synchrotron self-absorption. In models A and B, we write

$$A_\nu =\frac{1}{a_\nu }_0^{\mathrm{}}\left[1e^{\tau (b)}\right]\pi b𝑑b,$$
(11)
where $`(b,z)`$ are cylindrical coordinates,

$$\tau =a_\nu _{\mathrm{}}^+\mathrm{}f_e(b,z)𝑑z,$$
(12)
and

$$a_\nu =\frac{e^3B\mathrm{\Gamma }}{9m_e\nu ^2}_{m_e}^mE^2\frac{d}{dE}\left(\frac{Y_e(\mathrm{>}E)}{E^2P(E)}\right)F\left(\frac{\nu }{\nu _c(E)}\right)𝑑E.$$
(13)
In model C, we neglect self-absorption ($`A_\nu =1`$).

We have evaluated equation (8) numerically for each point in supersymmetric parameter space. In model C, we use the approximation $`F(x)\delta (x0.29)`$, which selects the peak of the synchrotron emission from each electron or positron (profuse thanks to Pasquale Blasi for suggesting this approximation).

Figure 1 shows a comparison of typical synchrotron spectra from neutralino annihilation in the spike with the measured spectrum of Sgr A (the latter is taken from the compilation in ref. ). Four spectra are plotted, corresponding to two points in supersymmetric parameter space (thick and thin lines) and two assumptions for the magnetic field (solid and dashed lines; for models A and C, respectively). The spectra are normalized to their maximal intensity, which is fixed by the upper bound at 408 MHz . This upper bound limits the synchrotron intensity for all points in supersymmetric parameter space.

Results. If a dark matter cusp extends to the galactic center, the neutralino cannot be the dark matter in our galaxy. For example, let us assume that the halo profile is of the Navarro-Frenk-White form , namely $`\rho r^1`$ in the central region. Figure 2 shows the expected radio fluxes $`S_\nu =L_\nu /4\pi D^2`$ at 408 MHz and the upper limit from . The upper panel is for model A, the lower panel for model C. Results of model B are similar to those of model A. Irrespective of the assumption on the magnetic field or the $`e^\pm `$ propagation, all points in supersymmetric parameter space where the neutralino would be a good dark matter candidate are excluded by several orders of magnitude.

Conversely, if the neutralino is the dark matter, there is no steep dark matter cusp extending to the galactic center. We see this by lowering the cusp slope $`\gamma `$ until the expected flux at 408 MHz decreases below the upper limit. We obtain a different maximum value $`\gamma _{\mathrm{max}}`$ for each point in supersymmetric parameter space. These values are plotted in figure 3 together with the range $`0.3\gamma 1.5`$ obtained in cold dark matter simulations. The upper bounds $`\gamma _{\mathrm{max}}`$ are generally orders of magnitude smaller than the simulation results.

We conclude that neutralino dark matter in the minimal supersymmetric standard model is incompatible with a dark matter cusp extending to the galactic center. If there is a dark matter cusp extending to the center, we can exclude the neutralino in the minimal supersymmetric standard model as a dark matter candidate. Conversely, if the dark matter of the galactic halo is the lightest neutralino in the minimal supersymmetric standard model, we can exclude that a dark matter cusp extends to the center of the galaxy.

Acknowledgements. Many thanks to the Fermilab Astrophysics group for the generous and warm hospitality. Thanks in particular to Pasquale Blasi for insistingly requesting a non-uniform magnetic field (model C).


text:
# Modification of AGB wind in a binary system

## 1. Introduction

Shapes of Planetary Nebulae, that deviate from spherical symmetry (in particular – axisymmetric ones) are often ascribed to binary interactions (e.g. Soker 1997). When an Asymptotic Giant Branch star loses its mass – which is to become a PN – the companion can affect the trajectories of the outflowing matter, concentrating it to the orbital plane. A density gradient between equatorial and polar regions is created, and when the star leaves AGB and the hot fast wind starts to break its way through the remnants of the expelled giant’s envelope, the elliptical or bipolar symmetry forms naturally.

In attempts to calculate such effects it is widely assumed, that the intrinsic AGB wind is spherically symmetric and the asymmetry is introduced only by the companion’s influence. But this need not to be the case for relatively close binaries, where the giant is noticeably distorted by tidal forces. Differences in local conditions through the stellar surface, mainly in temperature and gravity, may lead to different intensities of the outflow. Thus the wind would show an intrinsic directivity.

We investigate this possibility, using a simple model.

## 2. The model

We assume that:

* The orbit is circular and the giant corotates with orbital motion – hence the Roche model for the gravitational potential applies.
* Stellar surface is defined by the Roche equipotential surface.
* The local mass loss rate per unit area, $`\dot{m}`$, is a function of local stellar parameters such as effective temperature, $`T_{\mathrm{eff}}`$, and gravity, $`g`$.
* The luminosity is spread uniformly over the solid angle and therefore the effective temperature depends only on radius and inclination of a given surface element.

We have calculated sequences of models, representing stars filling increasing fraction of their Roche lobes for various mass ratios. For each point of the stellar surface we have computed gravity and effective temperature (relative to the spherical case). This allowed us to evaluate local mass loss rates, using the prescription derived by Arndt, Fleischer, & Sedlmayr (1997). Integration over the whole surface leads then to obtaining total mass loss rates.

## 3. Results

Figures 1–2 present our results. Figs. 1a–d show the local mass loss rates (according to Arndt et al. prescription), represented by grayscale. For each figure black denotes maximum and white – minimum in the mass loss rate. The mass loss rate at the dotted line is equal to that of a single, undistorted (i.e. spherical) star. It marks the border between the ”polar” regions where the mass loss rate is lower, and the ”equatorial strip” where it is higher than for a single star.

In Figs. 1a–c configurations with the mass ratio $`q`$ = $`0.5`$ and the ratio of giant volume radius to critical Roche surface volume radius $`R/R_{RL}`$ = $`1.0`$, $`0.5`$, $`0.1`$ are shown. The stars are viewed from the orbital plane, with the hemisphere facing the companion closer to the observer. Fig. 1d presents for comparison the $`q=0.5`$, $`R/R_{RL}=0.5`$ case viewed from the opposite hemisphere.

Fig. 2 plots the enhancement of the total mass loss rate caused by the presence of the binary companion, $`\mathrm{\Delta }\dot{M}/\dot{M}_{single}`$, against the $`R/R_{RL}`$ ratio. Note logarithmic scale on both axes. Points represent numerical results, lines – the derived analytical relation, which is

$$\mathrm{\Delta }\dot{M}/\dot{M}_{single}(R/R_{RL})^3$$

(see Sect. 4).

## 4. Discussion

As one could expect, we find significant differences in the local mass loss rates across the surface of the giant distorted by the presence of a companion. The gradient between the equatorial and polar regions is evident, although the strongest enhancement occurs toward the companion. It would be interesting to use these results as an input for modelling shapes of the Planetary Nebulae formed in binary systems, replacing the assumption of intrinsic sphericity of the AGB wind.

For evolutionary calculations considering binary evolution it is important to know by how much the stellar mass loss rate is affected by the presence of the companion. Tout and Eggleton (1988) proposed a formula, according to which the tidal torque would enhance the mass loss by a factor of $`1+B\times (R/R_{RL})^6`$, where $`B`$ is a free parameter to be adjusted (ranging from $`5\times 10^2`$ to $`10^4`$).

In our model the mass loss rate enhancement depends mainly on the $`g`$ value at the giant’s point closest to the binary companion. Therefore one may try a simple analytical approach to derive a similar relation for wind enhancement. Let us denote the gravity of a single star by $`g_{single}`$. Expanding the ratio $`g^1/g_{single}^1`$ at the point closest to the companion into a series in small $`R/R_{RL}`$ gives $`const\times (R/R_{RL})^3`$ as a first non-zero term following the unity. This leads to the following dependence for the mass loss rate:

$$\dot{M}=\dot{M}_{single}(1+const\times (R/R_{RL})^3).$$

Our numerical results confirm the above relation up to $`\mathrm{log}R/R_{RL}0.2`$ (i.e. $`R/R_{RL}2/3`$), which is shown on Fig. 2.

### Acknowledgments.

This work has been supported from the grant No. 2.P03D.020.17 of the Polish State Commitee for Scientific Research.

## References

Arndt, T. U., Fleischer, A. J., & Sedlmayr, E. 1997, A&A, 327, 614

Soker, N. 1997, ApJS, 112, 487

Tout, Ch. A., & Eggleton, P. P. 1988, MNRAS, 231, 823


text:
# IS IT POSSIBLE TO TRANSFER AN INFORMATION WITH THE VELOCITIES EXCEEDING SPEED OF LIGHT IN EMPTY SPACE?

## 1 Introduction

In the theory of special relativity (SR) the maximal velocity of any signal does not exceed speed of light in the empty space (the existence of optical taxions does not break SR ) In the frame of multifractal theory of time and space  it is possible to construct the theory of almost inertial systems . In this theory an arbitrary velocities of moving particles are possible if the approximate independence of speed of light from the velocity of the light source and the approximate constancy of speed of light in vacuum are valid (the breaking the low of constancy speed of light are less than possibility of modern experiment and consist $`10_{10}c`$, see ). Is the transfer of the information within the framework of the theory - possible with any velocities? The difficulty of create a signal carrier of the information spreading with arbitrary large (practically infinitely large) velocity is not the main difficulty at the answer to this question. These signals can be, for example, a beams of charged particles (protons, ionized atoms) accelerated up to velocities greater then the speed of light (their energy must be more then energy $`E_010^3`$ where $`E_0`$=$`m_oc^2`$) and then spontaneously accelerated at almost infinite quantity velocity. These beams may be the carriers of the transferring information. The difficulty consists in the creating the receivers (detectors) of the information recorded by beams (or single) faster than light particles. According to the theory - a particle with velocity $`v>c`$ is spontaneously accelerated up to the velocity $`v=\mathrm{}`$ and practically ceases to interact with a surrounding medium. The purpose of this paper is the attempt to analyze some opportunities of detection of such particles. If the problem of detectors for registration of the faster than light particles will be decided, the problem of practically instantaneous transfer of the information at any distances is solved positively.

## 2  What physical effects are existing for detection of particles moving with velocity $`v>c`$?

Let us suppose validity of the laws of the electrodynamics for the velocities $`v>c`$. After replacing $`\beta =\sqrt{1v^2/c^2}`$ by $`\beta ^{}=\sqrt[4]{(1v^2/c^2)^2+4a^2}`$, (see designations $`a`$ in -) the Lorentz’s transformation also may be used. In that case for the moving electrical charged particle possessing velocity $`v\mathrm{}`$ and energy $`E=\sqrt{2}E_0`$, near to the device playing role of the detector, there are following effects can be probably used for detection of the fact of transit of a particle:
a) In the real physical world any of the physical quantities can not be equal infinity, so we shall introduce for designation of maximal velocity of a particle designation $`v_m`$ ($`v_m`$ is the velocity of a faster than light particle for which the energy loss accompanying by increase of velocity is compensated by magnification of the energy gained from a medium in which the beam of the particles flow by, i.e. the velocity of a particle becomes practically stationary value, for example be in thermodynamic equilibrium with the relic radiation that gives the particle the velocity $`v_m`$$`500c`$ ). There are an almost instantaneous impulses of electrical and magnetic fields from an electrical current formed by transit of the faster than light particle through the media. These impulses could be discovered by detectors that are capable to detect super short impulses electrical or magnetic fields;
b)The kinetic energy of a faster than light particle at $`v>c`$ looks like $`E_k\sqrt{2}E_0c^2/v_m^2`$. The transfer of parts of this energy basically can be registered by high precision detector’s (counters of prompt particles for example based on use of an inner photoelectric effect) in case when a faster than light particle has the collision at a proton, nuclear or electron;
c) In the lengthy detector filled by substances with large density (small free length of collisions for particles) will arise the multiple collisions of faster than light particles with atoms. It can gives energy transition from substances to a faster than light particle and by that to decreasing of its velocity. The power transmission from medium to a particle will gives in decreasing of temperature of medium and besides gives the radiation of Cherenkov-Vavilov type (in an region of frequencies defined by number of collisions with atoms of the substance of the detector);
d) When the faster than light particle fly through the substance with many energy levels with negative temperatures as result may be lost of energy of substance without radiation and decreasing of negative temperature of active optical substance. Physical laws do not forbid all numbered methods of detection for ordinary particles with faster than light velocities and their experimental realization (as well as many other method’s are based on an energy exchange of a faster than light particle with energy of medium) are possible. The numbered methods realization depends on the value of maximal velocity $`v_m`$ .

## 3 Are the particles with $`v>c`$ and real mass exist in nature?

Let us put the question: are the faster than light particles exist in our world? When and where such particles can be discovered? As the one of consequences of the theory of fractal time (see ), the particles with velocities exceeding the velocity of light must have an energy exceeding their the rest energy $`E_o`$ in $`10^3`$ times. Such particles may be borne for example by explosions of stars ( in that case it is possible to expect the appearance of the maximum in the spectrum of $`\gamma `$\- quanta for the energies $`E_010^3`$ or at the first moments of ”big bang” when temperatures of the early Universe exceed $`10^{16}K`$. If a neutrinos have the rest mass and its rest energy are small and have the order (or less) $`1ev.`$ the neutrinos with faster then light velocities may be produced by stars, by nuclei explosions and in the reactions of thermonuclear controlled syntheses. May some super civilization use the faster then light particles, if this civilization has the technology of receiving the beams of such particle, for record and translating information with the faster than light velocities ? In that case it is necessary to seek such particles by mentioned above (or similar) methods.

## 4 Conclusion

On the basis of the above-stated treatment of possibilities of detection of the particles with the faster than light speed, it is possible to make a deduction: the prohibitions for transfer and receiving of the information with faster than light speed are absent (if the theory - are valid). The question about an existence of the ordinary particles (protons, electrons, neutrinos) with velocities faster than light and the real mass in nature ( that question was presented (and decided) for the first time in the paper  as one of the consequences of the theory of almost inertial systems that lays beyond of the special relativity and coincides with SR in the case of ideal inertial systems) is now unsolved. The search of taxions continue more than thirty years. I don’t mention about the optical taxions. The existence of the optical taxions do not contradict the SR and apparently they are discovered. I think that only careful experimental search of the ordinary particles with the real mass (the faster than light particles) and experiments that may examine the fractal theory of time  may throw light on this very interesting problem.
We suggest to carry out the experiments for receiving by accelerating the protons with energies equal $`10^{12}ev.`$ (that gives a protons the velocity equal the speed of light if the theory - are valid) , then to verify the predictions of the theory that presented in this paper and papers -