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# Duality between coordinates and Dirac field

## Abstract

The duality between the Cartesian coordinates on the Minkowski space-time and the Dirac field is investigated. Two distinct possibilities to define this duality are shown to exist. In both cases, the equations satisfied by prepotentials are of second order.

PACS numbers: 03., 03.65.-w, 03.65.Pm

Recently, a duality between the Cartesian coordinates on the Minkowski space-time and the solutions of Klein - Gordon equation could be derived by employing a method to invert the wave functions which was previously used in the context of Seiberg-Witten theory .

Several consequences of this duality were analyzed in subsequent studies. Based on it, there was proposed an equivalence principle stating that all physical systems should be related by coordinate transformation . By applying the equivalence principle to the phase-space in the Hamilton-Jacobi formulation it was discovered that the energy quantization of the bound states and the tunneling effect can be derived without any assumption about the probability interpretation of the wave function . In this way, a trajectory representation of the quantum mechanics that was previously used in  can also be obtained. The simplification of the coordinate-field duality at Planck scale and for Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle  was discussed in . In  it was analyzed a coordinate-free formulation of gravity, while in’  the coordinate-field duality was extended to curved space-time manifolds and in there was proposed a local formulation of gravity in terms of matter fields. (For recent attempts to formulate the gravity and supergravity in terms of quantum objects, see .) Although the above mentioned results were obtained basically from coordinate-field duality, one should note that, in the relativistic case, this is constructed exclusively for the Klein-Gordon field. In reference  it was suggested that the coordinate-field duality should hold for the Dirac field, too. However, this suggestion was never realized in a precise way. In this letter we follow  and concern ourselves with investigating the coordinate-field duality in the case of the Dirac field. For definiteness, we work in the four-dimensional Minkowski space-time with the metric signature mostly minus and we assume that the field is a Dirac spinor. However, the results can be straightforwardly generalized to different space-time dimensions and to other types of spinors. Basic remark is that the linear independent solutions of the Dirac equation for the field and its Dirac conjugate can be factorized as follows

$`\psi _\alpha (k,s;x)`$ $`=`$ $`u_\alpha (k,s)\varphi (k,x),\stackrel{~}{\psi }_\alpha (k,s;x)=v_\alpha (k,s)\stackrel{~}{\varphi }(k,x),`$ (1)
$`\overline{\psi }_\alpha (k,s;x)`$ $`=`$ $`\overline{u}_\alpha (k,s)\stackrel{~}{\varphi }(k,x),\stackrel{~}{\overline{\psi }}_\alpha (k,s;x)=\overline{v}_\alpha (k,s)\varphi (k,x).`$ (2)
Here, $`u_\alpha (k,s)`$ and $`v_\alpha (k,s)`$ are column vectors that span the space of $`spin(1,3)`$ spinors and they depend only on the momentum and the spin of the field. The fields $`\varphi (k,x)`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{\varphi }(k,x)`$ are linear independent solutions of the Klein-Gordon equation which usually are taken to be wave functions. The Dirac conjugation is denoted by a bar and the distinction between two linearly independent solutions is made by a tilde. To simplify the relations, we drop the indices $`k`$ and $`s`$ in what follows.

In order to determinate the coordinate-field duality for the Klein-Gordon field, one keeps a coordinate at a time as a variable, say $`x^\mu `$, and treat $`x^\nu `$ with $`\mu \nu `$ as parameters . The corresponding solutions are labelled with an upper index ($`\mu `$) which is a dumb index, e.g. $`\varphi ^{\left(\mu \right)}`$. Then a prepotential $`_\varphi ^{\left(\mu \right)}\left[\varphi ^{\left(\mu \right)}\right]`$ is introduced for each pair of linearly independent solution by

$$\stackrel{~}{\varphi }^{\left(\mu \right)}\frac{_\varphi ^{\left(\mu \right)}\left[\varphi ^{\left(\mu \right)}\right]}{\varphi ^{\left(\mu \right)}}.$$
(3)
In the case of the Dirac field, we can follow the same procedure. However, since the dependence on $`x`$ of $`\psi _\alpha `$ and $`\overline{\psi }_\alpha `$ is carried entirely by $`\varphi `$ and $`\stackrel{~}{\varphi }`$ according to (2), there is an ambiguity which in the case of the Klein-Gordon field does not appear: namely, one can use either $`\stackrel{~}{\psi }_\alpha `$ or $`\overline{\psi }_\alpha `$ to define the prepotential for $`\psi _\alpha `$. This ambiguity is due to the fact that the second-order Klein-Gordon equation has been split into two first-order differential equation. The second possibility which implies mixing the solutions of the Dirac equation for the field and its conjugate is treated as the first one from the point of view of the second-order differential equation. We analyze both cases.

In the first case we define the prepotential of the Dirac field by the following relation

$$\stackrel{~}{\psi }_\alpha ^{\left(\mu \right)}\frac{_{\alpha \psi }^{\left(\mu \right)}\left[\psi _\alpha ^{\left(\mu \right)}\right]}{\psi _\alpha ^{\left(\mu \right)}},$$
(4)
for $`\mu =0,1,2,3,`$ where $`\stackrel{~}{\psi }_\alpha ^{\left(\mu \right)}`$ are the solutions of the Dirac equation “along the direction $`x^\mu `$”, i.e. with $`x^\nu `$= const. for $`\nu \mu `$. It is easy to see that $`\psi _\alpha ^{\left(\mu \right)}`$ factorizes as in (2) with $`\varphi ^{\left(\mu \right)}`$ satisfying the corresponding Klein-Gordon equation . In order to express $`x^\mu `$ as a function of $`\psi _\alpha ^{\left(\mu \right)}`$ and $`_{\alpha \psi }^{\left(\mu \right)}`$, one has to derive the prepotential with respect to the space-time coordinate . However, the usual derivation does not make sense since it includes the product $`v_\alpha u_\alpha `$ which is not defined for two column vectors. To makeshift around this difficulty we define the derivative of the prepotential through a tensor product by

$$_\mu _{\alpha \psi }^{\left(\mu \right)}=\frac{_{\alpha \psi }^{\left(\mu \right)}}{\psi _\alpha ^{\left(\mu \right)}}\frac{\psi _\alpha ^{\left(\mu \right)}}{x^\mu }.$$
(5)
The definition (5) takes into account the internal structure of the Dirac field. The tensor product $`v_\alpha u_\alpha `$ can be identified with an invertible $`4\times 4`$ matrix. By a straightforward computation, one can verify that the duality between the coordinates and fields is given by the following relation

$$\frac{\sqrt{2m}}{\mathrm{}}X_{\alpha \alpha }^\mu =\frac{1}{2}\frac{_{\alpha \psi }^{\left(\mu \right)}}{\psi _\alpha ^{\left(\mu \right)}}\psi _\alpha ^{\left(\mu \right)}_{\alpha \psi }^{\left(\mu \right)}+C_\alpha ^{\left(\mu \right)},$$
(6)
for $`\mu =0,1,2,3`$. Here $`X_{\alpha \alpha }^\mu =O_{\alpha \alpha }x^\mu v_\alpha u_\alpha x^\mu `$. The arbitrary function $`C_\alpha ^{\left(\mu \right)}`$ does not depend on $`x^\mu `$ but depends on the parameters $`x^\nu `$ and on the momentum and spin of the field $`\psi _\alpha ^{\left(\mu \right)}`$.

In order to completely determine the duality (6) one has to find out the differential equation satisfied by the prepotential. The method for doing this was described in. By applying it in the present case, one can show that $`_{\alpha \psi }^{\left(\mu \right)}`$ satisfies the following differential equation

$$i\frac{\sqrt{8m}}{\mathrm{}}\gamma ^\mu O_{\alpha \alpha }\delta _\mu ^2_{\alpha \psi }^{\left(\mu \right)}+\left[\stackrel{~}{V}_\alpha ^{\left(\mu \right)}m\right]\delta _\mu _{\alpha \psi }^{\left(\mu \right)}\left(\delta _\mu ^2_{\alpha \psi }^{\left(\mu \right)}\psi _\alpha ^{\left(\mu \right)}\delta _\mu _{\alpha \psi }^{\left(\mu \right)}\right)=0,$$
(7)
for $`\mu =0,1,2,3,`$ where $`\delta _\mu =/\psi _\alpha ^{\left(\mu \right)}`$. The potential $`\stackrel{~}{V}_\alpha ^{\left(\mu \right)}`$ in (7) is given by

$$\stackrel{~}{V}_\alpha ^{\left(\mu \right)}=\left[i\underset{\upsilon \mu }{}\gamma ^\nu _\nu \stackrel{~}{\psi }_\alpha ^{\left(\mu \right)}\stackrel{~}{\overline{\psi }}_\alpha ^{\left(\mu \right)}\right]|_{x^\nu =ct;\nu \mu }.$$
(8)
Some comments are in order now. From (6) we see that the coordinate-field duality gives different “representations” of the coordinate $`x^\mu `$, corresponding to different solutions of the Dirac equation labelled by $`\alpha `$. This is to be expected, since the Dirac field has an inner structure manifest in the factorization (2). If the matrix $`O_{\alpha \alpha }`$ is invertible we can express the real coordinates as functions of the spinor fields. In this case, we expect that the image $`x^\mu `$ $`\left[\stackrel{~}{\psi }_\alpha ^{\left(\mu \right)}\right]`$ be an unique real number. If this is the case, on has to impose a constraint on the prepotentials which for this system is given by the following relation

$$\left(O_{11}\right)^1\left[\frac{1}{2}\frac{_{1\psi }^{\left(\mu \right)}}{\psi _1^{\left(\mu \right)}}\psi _i^{\left(\mu \right)}_{1\psi }^{\left(\mu \right)}+C_1^{\left(\mu \right)}\right]=\left(O_{22}\right)^1\left[\frac{1}{2}\frac{_{2\psi }^{\left(\mu \right)}}{\psi _2^{\left(\mu \right)}}\psi _2^{\left(\mu \right)}_{2\psi }^{\left(\mu \right)}+C_2^{\left(\mu \right)}\right].$$
(9)
Also, due to the fact that the field satisfies a first-order differential equation, the prepotential satisfy a second-order differential equation (7). We recall that in the Klein-Gordon case the corresponding equation is a third-order one. Another difference from the Klein-Gordon field is that the potential function (8) involves, beside the contribution from the parameters $`x^\nu `$, a solution of the conjugate Dirac equation, which shows that both the Dirac field and the conjugate Dirac field should be considered in the coordinate-field duality. Note than, when the matrix $`O_{\alpha \alpha }`$ is not invertible, although the real coordinates should be the same in all representations, the relation (9) can not be imposed as a constraint.

In the second case one defines the prepotential through the relation

$$\overline{\psi }_\alpha ^{\left(\mu \right)}\frac{_{\alpha \psi }^{\left(\mu \right)}\left[\psi _\alpha ^{\left(\mu \right)}\right]}{\psi _\alpha ^{\left(\mu \right)}}.$$
(10)
The duality relation obtained from (10) is given by

$`{\displaystyle \frac{\sqrt{2m}}{\mathrm{}}}x^\mu `$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}{\displaystyle \frac{_{\alpha \psi }^{\left(\mu \right)}}{\psi _\alpha ^{\left(\mu \right)}}}\psi _\alpha ^{\left(\mu \right)}_{\alpha \psi }^{\left(\mu \right)}+C_\alpha ^{\left(\mu \right)}`$ (11)
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}{\displaystyle \frac{_\varphi ^{\left(\mu \right)}}{\varphi ^{\left(\mu \right)}}}\varphi ^{\left(\mu \right)}_\varphi ^{\left(\mu \right)},`$ (12)
for $`\mu =0,1,2,3`$. In deriving the second equality, we have used the fact that the prepotential depends only on a solution of the Dirac equation with given momentum and spin and we have used the normalization of $`\overline{u}_\alpha (k,s)`$ and $`u_\alpha (k,s)`$ to one. The relation (12) shows that in the second case the “representation” of coordinate $`x^\mu `$ in terms of the Dirac field is unique. In order to find the equation for the prepotentials, we have to assume that the matrix $`O_{\alpha \alpha }`$ is invertible. This allows us to write a potential functional on each directions. Then the prepotential defined in (10) satisfies the following differential equation

$$i\frac{\sqrt{8m}}{\mathrm{}}\delta _\mu ^2_{\alpha \psi }^{\left(\mu \right)}\gamma ^\mu +\left[\overline{V}_\alpha ^{\left(\mu \right)}m\right]\delta _\mu _{\alpha \psi }^{\left(\mu \right)}\left(\delta _\mu ^2_{\alpha \psi }^{\left(\mu \right)}\psi _\alpha ^{\left(\mu \right)}\delta _\mu _{\alpha \psi }^{\left(\mu \right)}\right)=0$$
(13)
where the potential $`\overline{V}_\alpha ^{\left(\mu \right)}`$ has the following form

$$\overline{V}_\alpha ^{\left(\mu \right)}=\left[i\underset{\upsilon \mu }{}\gamma ^\nu _\nu \overline{\psi }_\alpha ^{\left(\mu \right)}O_{\alpha \alpha }^1\psi _\alpha ^{\left(\mu \right)}\right]|_{x^\nu =ct;\nu \mu },$$
(14)
where $`O_{\alpha \alpha }=u_\alpha \overline{u}_\alpha `$. Note that although the tensor product disappeared from the duality relation, it still remains in the equation for $`_{\alpha \psi }^{\left(\mu \right)}`$ as in the first case. Due to this fact, the potential (14) acts as a tensor product on the next term in (13). However, one has to note that when the matrix $`O_{\alpha \alpha }`$ is not invertible, which is the case for most of the representations of the spinor field, the explicit form of the potential (14) is unknown and the resolution of the second case along the line of  is problematic and might very well not exist.

The relations (6), (7) and (12), (13) describe the coordinate-field duality and the equations of prepotentials for the Dirac field in the two cases allowed by the Klein-Gordon equation. When one takes for $`\varphi (k,x)`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{\varphi }(k,x)`$ the corresponding wave function, the entire dependence of $`x^\mu `$ on the Dirac fields is concentrated in $`_{\alpha \psi }^{\left(\mu \right)}.`$ Note that in the quantum case, the factors $`u_\alpha `$ and $`v_\alpha `$ include anticommuting creation and annihilation operators. Also, since the prepotential are functionals of fields, they can be in principle either anticommuting or commuting. In both cases the equations (7) and (13) become of first degree, since the prepotentials are polynomials of rank one in the fields. Then (7) and (13) can be easily solved. Two cases are to be considered. In the first one $`V_\alpha ^{\left(\mu \right)}=m`$ and the prepotential can be an arbitrary polynomial of rank one in the Dirac field. In the second case $`V_\alpha ^{\left(\mu \right)}m`$ and the prepotential is an arbitrary constant functional.

Finally let us discuss the symmetry of the coordinate-field duality. In  it was shown that the duality between the coordinate and the wave-function in the quantum mechanics obeys the modular symmetry $`SL(2,)`$ of the solution of the Schrödinger equation. In particular, under an $`SL(2,)`$ transformation of the linearly independent solutions, the prepotentials transform as (16) of . In the case of the Dirac field we have the same situation. Indeed, if we consider the coordinate-field duality defined by (12) on can reproduce (16) of  if we transform the linearly independent solution ($`\psi ,\stackrel{~}{\psi }`$) by $`\left(\begin{array}{cc}A& B\\ C& D\end{array}\right)SL(2,)`$ (for the sake of clarity, we omit all the indices). In this case the problem reduces to the Klein-Gordon problem as can be seen from the second equality from (12). For the first coordinate-field duality given by (6) one has to introduce the circle product between a line vector and a column vector with Dirac field components $`\left(\begin{array}{cc}\mu _1& \mu _2\end{array}\right)`$ and $`\left(\begin{array}{c}\nu _1\\ \nu _2\end{array}\right)`$ given by the following relation:

$$\left(\begin{array}{cc}\mu _1& \mu _2\end{array}\right)\left(\begin{array}{c}\nu _1\\ \nu _2\end{array}\right)=\mu _1\nu _1+\mu _2\nu _2.$$
(15)
The properties of (15) are given by properties of the tensor product. The product (15) is allowed because there is an ambiguity in defining a product between two vectors which have as components others vectors. Using (15), is easy to verify that under $`SL(2,)`$ the prepotential $``$ transforms as

$$\delta =\frac{1}{2}𝒳\left[G^T\left(\begin{array}{cc}0& 1\\ 1& 0\end{array}\right)G\left(\begin{array}{cc}0& 1\\ 1& 0\end{array}\right)\right]𝒳,$$
(16)
where $`𝒳`$ is the two components column vector $`\left(\begin{array}{c}\psi \\ \stackrel{~}{\psi }\end{array}\right)`$.

In conclusion, the coordinate-field duality for the Dirac field has two possible forms given by (6) and (12), respectively. Both of those forms are compatible with the Klein Gordon equation. However in the first case the representation of the Cartesian coordinates through the Dirac field is degenerate, while in the second case it is equivalent with the one obtained from the duality for Klein-Gordon field. In both cases, the prepotentials transform under $`SL(2,)`$ group as in (16) with the only difference that in the second case the circle product should be replaced by the usual product. It is important to note that we have used the fact that the matrix $`O_{\alpha \alpha }`$ is invertible in deriving the equations satisfied by prepotentials. This matrix depends crucially on the linear independent basis $`u_\alpha `$ and $`v_\alpha `$ as well as on the mapping of the tensor product of these vectors to quadratic matrices. An unappropriate choice of any of these two elements can lead to an univertible matrix. Nevertheless, one can always find a suitable basis and define the mapping in such of way that the inverse of $`O_{\alpha \alpha }`$ exists.

The fact that there are several “representations” of coordinates in terms of fields may bring some simplifications in the study of coordinate-field duality for supersymmetric systems.

We want to thank M. A. de Andrade, J. A. Helayel-Neto and A. I. Shimabukuro for useful discussions. A.L.G. acknowledgs V. S. Timóteo for discussions and CAPES for his fellowship. The work of I.V.V. was supported by a FAPESP postdoc fellowship.


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# Entanglement measures and the Hilbert-Schmidt distance

## Abstract

In order to construct a measure of entanglement on the basis of a “distance” between two states, it is one of desirable properties that the “distance” is nonincreasing under every completely positive trace preserving map. Contrary to a recent claim, this letter shows that the Hilbert-Schmidt distance does not have this property.

PACS: 03.67-a

Keywords: entanglement; completely positive maps; operations; Hilbert-Schmidt norm

As classical information arises from probability correlation between two random variables, quantum information arises from entanglement . Motivated by the finding of an entangled state which does not violate Bell’s inequality, the problem of quantifying entanglement has received an increasing interest recently.

Vedral et. al.  proposed three necessary conditions that any measure of entanglement has to satisfy and showed that if a “distance” between two states has the property that it is nonincreasing under every completely positive trace preserving map (to be referred to as the CP nonexpansive property), the “distance” of a state to the set of disentangled states satisfies their conditions. It has been shown that the quantum relative entropy and the Bures metric have the CP nonexpansive property , and it has been conjectured that so does the Hilbert-Schmidt distance .

In the interesting Letter , Witte and Trucks claimed that the Hilbert-Schmidt distance really has the CP nonexpansive property and conjectured that the distance generates a measure of entanglement satisfying even the stronger condition posed later by Vedral and Plenio . However, it can be readily seen that their suggested proof includes a serious gap. In this Letter, it will be shown that, contrary to their claim, the Hilbert-Schmidt distance does not have the CP nonexpansive property by presenting a counterexample.

Let $`=_1_2`$ be the Hilbert space of a quantum system consisting of two subsystems with Hilbert spaces $`_1`$ and $`_2`$. We assume that $`_1`$ and $`_2`$ have the same finite dimension. We shall consider the notion of entanglement with respect to the above two subsystems. Let $`𝒯`$ be the set of density operators on $``$. The set $`𝒟`$ of disentangled states is the set of all convex combinations of pure tensor product states. There are several requirements that every measure of entanglement, $`E`$, should satisfy :

(E1) $`E(\sigma )=0`$ for all $`\sigma 𝒟`$.

(E2) For any family of bounded operators $`\{V_i\}`$ of the form $`V_i=A_iB_i`$ such that $`_iV_i^{}V_i=I`$,

(a) $`E(_iV_i\sigma V_i^{})E(\sigma )`$,

(b) $`_i\text{Tr}[V_i\sigma _iV_i^{}]E(V_i\sigma _iV_i^{}/\text{Tr}[V_i\sigma _iV_i^{}])E(\sigma )`$.

Condition (E1) ensures that disentangled states have a zero value of entanglement. Condition (E2) ensures that the amount of entanglement does not increase totally or in average by so-called purification procedures. Note that (E2-a) implies the following condition:

(E3) $`E(\sigma )=E(U_1U_2\sigma U_1^{}U_2^{})`$ for all unitary operators $`U_i`$ on $`_i`$ for $`i=1,2`$.

Condition (E3) ensures that a local change of basis has no effect on the amount of entanglement.

Vedral et. al.  proposed the following general construction of the measure of entanglement $`E`$. Let $`D:𝒯\times 𝒯𝐑`$ be a function satisfying the following conditions:

(D1) $`D(\sigma ,\rho )0`$ and $`D(\sigma ,\sigma )=0`$ for any $`\sigma ,\rho 𝒯`$.

(D2) $`D(\mathrm{\Theta }\sigma ,\mathrm{\Theta }\rho )D(\sigma ,\rho )`$ for any $`\sigma ,\rho 𝒯`$ and for any completely positive trace preserving map $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ on the space of operators on $``$.

Condition (D1) ensures that $`D`$ has some properties of “distance”. Condition (D2) ensures that the “distance” does not increase by any nonselective operations. Then, it is shown that the “distance” $`E(\sigma )`$ of a state $`\sigma `$ to the set $`𝒟`$ of disentangled states defined by

$$E(\sigma )=\underset{\rho 𝒟}{inf}D(\sigma ,\rho )$$
(1)
satisfies conditions (E1) and (E2-a). It is shown that the quantum relative entropy and the Bures metric satisfy (D1) and (D2) , and it is conjectured that the Hilbert-Schmidt distance is a reasonable candidate of a “distance” to generate an entanglement measure . Here, the Hilbert-Schmidt distance is defined by

$$D_{HS}(\sigma ,\rho )=\sigma \rho _{HS}^2=\text{Tr}[(\sigma \rho )^2]$$

for all $`\sigma ,\rho 𝒯`$, which satisfies (D1) since $`\sigma \rho _{HS}`$ is a true metric.

Recently, Witte and Trucks  claimed that the Hilbert-Schmidt distance also satisfies (D2) and that the prospective measure of entanglement, $`E_{HS}`$, defined by

$$E_{HS}(\sigma )=\underset{\rho 𝒟}{inf}D_{HS}(\sigma ,\rho )$$

satisfies (E1) and (E2-a).

It should be pointed out first that their suggested proof of condition (D2) for $`D_{HS}`$ is not justified. Let $`f`$ be a convex function on $`(0,\mathrm{})`$ and let $`f(0)=0`$. Let $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$ be a trace preserving positive map on the space of operators such that $`\mathrm{\Phi }1`$. Then, Lindblad’s theorem  asserts that for every positive operator $`A`$ we have

$$\text{Tr}[f(\mathrm{\Phi }A)]\text{Tr}[f(A)],$$
(2)
where $`f(A)`$ is defined as usual through the spectral resolution of $`A`$. It is suggested that with the help of the above theorem it can be shown that

$$D_{HS}(\mathrm{\Theta }\sigma ,\mathrm{\Theta }\rho )D_{HS}(\sigma ,\rho )$$
(3)
by regarding $`D_{HS}`$ as a convex function on $`𝒯_+()𝒯_+()`$ for all positive mappings $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$. However, it is not clear at all how $`D_{HS}`$ and $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ satisfy the assumptions of Lindblad’s theorem.

Now, we shall show a counterexample to the claim that $`D_{HS}`$ satisfies condition (D2). Let $`A`$ and $`B`$ be $`4\times 4`$ matrices defined by

$$A=\left(\begin{array}{cccc}0& 0& 0& 0\\ 1& 0& 0& 0\\ 0& 0& 0& 0\\ 0& 0& 1& 0\end{array}\right),B=\left(\begin{array}{cccc}0& 0& 0& 0\\ 0& 1& 0& 0\\ 0& 0& 0& 0\\ 0& 0& 0& 1\end{array}\right).$$

Then we have

$$A^{}A=\left(\begin{array}{cccc}1& 0& 0& 0\\ 0& 0& 0& 0\\ 0& 0& 1& 0\\ 0& 0& 0& 0\end{array}\right).$$

It follows that $`A^{}A+B^{}B=I_4`$ and hence

$$\mathrm{\Theta }\sigma =A\sigma A^{}+B\sigma B^{},$$

where $`\sigma `$ is arbitrary, defines a completely positive trace preserving map. Let $`\sigma `$ and $`\rho `$ be density matrices defined by

$$\sigma =\left(\begin{array}{cccc}1/2& 0& 0& 0\\ 0& 1/2& 0& 0\\ 0& 0& 0& 0\\ 0& 0& 0& 0\end{array}\right),\rho =\left(\begin{array}{cccc}0& 0& 0& 0\\ 0& 0& 0& 0\\ 0& 0& 1/2& 0\\ 0& 0& 0& 1/2\end{array}\right).$$

Then we have

$$(\sigma \rho )^2=\left(\begin{array}{cccc}1/4& 0& 0& 0\\ 0& 1/4& 0& 0\\ 0& 0& 1/4& 0\\ 0& 0& 0& 1/4\end{array}\right)$$

and hence

$$D_{HS}(\sigma ,\rho )=\mathrm{Tr}[(\sigma \rho )^2]=1.$$

On the other hand, we have

$$A\sigma A^{}=\left(\begin{array}{cccc}0& 0& 0& 0\\ 0& 1/2& 0& 0\\ 0& 0& 0& 0\\ 0& 0& 0& 0\end{array}\right),B\sigma B^{}=\left(\begin{array}{cccc}0& 0& 0& 0\\ 0& 1/2& 0& 0\\ 0& 0& 0& 0\\ 0& 0& 0& 0\end{array}\right),$$

$$A\rho A^{}=\left(\begin{array}{cccc}0& 0& 0& 0\\ 0& 0& 0& 0\\ 0& 0& 0& 0\\ 0& 0& 0& 1/2\end{array}\right),B\rho B^{}=\left(\begin{array}{cccc}0& 0& 0& 0\\ 0& 0& 0& 0\\ 0& 0& 0& 0\\ 0& 0& 0& 1/2\end{array}\right).$$

It follows that

$$(\mathrm{\Theta }\sigma \mathrm{\Theta }\rho )^2=\left(\begin{array}{cccc}0& 0& 0& 0\\ 0& 1& 0& 0\\ 0& 0& 0& 0\\ 0& 0& 0& 1\end{array}\right)$$

and hence

$$D_{HS}(\mathrm{\Theta }\sigma ,\mathrm{\Theta }\rho )=\mathrm{Tr}[(\mathrm{\Theta }\sigma \mathrm{\Theta }\rho )^2]=2.$$

We conclude therefore

$$D_{HS}(\mathrm{\Theta }\sigma ,\mathrm{\Theta }\rho )>D_{HS}(\sigma ,\rho ).$$

From the above counterexample, we conclude that the inequality

$$D_{HS}(\mathrm{\Theta }\sigma ,\mathrm{\Theta }\rho )D_{HS}(\sigma ,\rho )$$

is not generally true for completely positive trace preserving maps $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$. Therefore, it is still quite open whether $`E_{HS}`$ is a good candidate for an entanglement measure or not.

In order to obtain a tight bound for $`D_{HS}(\mathrm{\Theta }\sigma ,\mathrm{\Theta }\rho )`$, we take advantage of Kadison’s inequality : If $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$ is a positive map, then we have

$$\mathrm{\Phi }(A)^2\mathrm{\Phi }\mathrm{\Phi }(A^2)$$
(4)
for all Hermitian $`A`$. Applying the above inequality to the positive trace preserving map $`\mathrm{\Phi }=\mathrm{\Theta }`$ and $`A=\sigma \rho `$, we have

$$(\mathrm{\Theta }\sigma \mathrm{\Theta }\rho )^2\mathrm{\Theta }\mathrm{\Theta }[(\sigma \rho )^2].$$

By taking the trace of the both sides we obtain the following conclusion: For any trace preserving positive map $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ and any states $`\sigma `$ and $`\rho `$, we have

$$D_{HS}(\mathrm{\Theta }\sigma ,\mathrm{\Theta }\rho )\mathrm{\Theta }D_{HS}(\sigma ,\rho ).$$
(5)
The previous example shows that the bound can be attained with $`\mathrm{\Theta }=2`$.

Acknowledgements

I thank V. Vedral and M. Murao for calling my attention to the present problem.


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# Emulsion Chamber with Big Radiation Length for Detecting Neutrino Oscillations

## 1 Introduction

Oscillatory transitions among neutrinos of different flavors have emerged as a major topic of particle physics . An accelerator experiment using muon antineutrinos from $`\mu ^+`$ decays at rest over an effective baseline of $`L/E1`$ m/MeV, LSND at Los Alamos, has reported a positive signal in the channel $`\overline{\nu }_\mu \overline{\nu }_e`$ with a probability of $`3\times 10^3`$ . A consistent, albeit less significant, signal was also observed in the CP-conjugate channel $`\nu _\mu \nu _e`$ using muon neutrinos from $`\pi ^+`$ decay in flight . When combined with the upper limits imposed by other accelerator and reactor experiments , the LSND data suggest that the $`\overline{\nu }_\mu \overline{\nu }_e`$ oscillation is driven by a mass difference squared, $`\mathrm{\Delta }m^2`$, between some 0.3 and 2.3 eV2. The transitions $`\overline{\nu }_\mu \overline{\nu }_e`$ and $`\nu _\mu \nu _e`$ in this region of $`\mathrm{\Delta }m^2`$ will soon be explored with higher sensitivity by the BooNE experiment at Fermilab .

Qualitatively, an analogy with the quark sector suggests that (i) the $`\nu _\tau `$ should pick the largest contribution of the heaviest mass state $`\nu _3`$, and that (ii) the mixings between the neighboring neutrino flavors (i.e., $`\nu _e\nu _\mu `$ and $`\nu _\mu \nu _\tau `$) should be the strongest. Therefore, a mass difference as large as $`\mathrm{\Delta }m^21`$ eV2 should primarily manifest itself in the $`\nu _\mu \nu _\tau `$ channel. The existing upper limits on the effective mixing $`\mathrm{sin}^22\theta `$ for the transition $`\nu _\mu \nu _\tau `$  largely come from experiments with small effective baselines of $`L/E_\nu 1`$ km/GeV, and therefore are much less compelling for $`\mathrm{\Delta }m^21`$ eV2 than for larger values of the mass difference.

At neutrino energies well below the $`\tau `$ threshold ($`E_\nu <2`$ GeV), the transition $`\nu _\mu \nu _\tau `$ in the required region $`L/E_\nu 1`$ km/GeV will be indirectly probed by BooNE through $`\nu _\mu `$ disappearance . However, a convincing $`\nu _\mu \nu _\tau `$ signal can only be demonstrated by detecting the CC collisions of the $`\nu _\tau `$ in appearance mode. For this, an appropriate environment is offered by the ”medium-baseline” location on Mount Jura  in the $`\nu _\mu `$ beam of CERN-SPS ($`L=17`$ km and $`E_\nu =27`$ GeV by flux). The CC collisions of the $`\nu _\tau `$ may be identified either topologically  or by detecting the detached vertex of the produced $`\tau `$ in a hybrid-emulsion spectrometer . The latter option is considered in this paper. For the ”original” transition $`\nu _\mu \nu _e`$ to be observed and investigated in the same experiment, that will have very different systematics compared to either LSND  and BooNE , secondary electrons must be efficiently detected and momentum-analyzed.

The atmospheric evidence for neutrino oscillations driven by a mass difference of 10-2–10-3 eV2  will be initially probed by the long-baseline experiments operating in the neutrino beams of proton accelerators . Large angular divergences of these beams dictate that, for the sake of statistics, fine instrumentation of the detector and/or the magnetic analysis be compromised for a multi-kiloton fiducial mass. Therefore, unraveling the pattern of oscillations in this mass region will probably require a much more intense beam generated by a muon storage ring with a straight section that points towards the detector . Assuming a $`\mu ^{}`$ ring, the beam fully consists of muon neutrinos and electron antineutrinos whose energy spectra and angular spreads are precisely known. That the original beam contains neither $`\overline{\nu }_\mu `$ nor $`\nu _e`$ allows to identify the parent neutrino by the sign of the lepton produced by the oscillated neutrino: negative and positive leptons are unambiguous signatures of the $`\nu _\mu `$ and $`\overline{\nu }_e`$ parents, respectively. Therefore, the transitions $`\nu _\mu \nu _e`$, $`\nu _\mu \nu _\tau `$, $`\overline{\nu }_e\overline{\nu }_\mu `$, and $`\overline{\nu }_e\overline{\nu }_\tau `$ can be tagged independently.

The unique properties of this neutrino beam may warrant a finely instrumented detector of relatively small mass, that would be sensitive to a broad range of neutrino transitions driven by a mass difference of 10-2–10-3 eV2. For this, several conditions are obligatory. Selecting the $`\nu _\tau `$ and $`\overline{\nu }_\tau `$ collisions by the detached vertex of the $`\tau `$ is only possible in a hybrid-emulsion apparatus. In order to suppress the background to $`\tau `$ decays arising from anticharm production in CC collisions of the $`\overline{\nu }_e`$, the detector should identify the electrons as reliably as the muons. For the transitions $`\nu _\mu \nu _\tau `$ and $`\overline{\nu }_e\overline{\nu }_\tau `$ to be reliably discriminated, all charged secondaries (and not just muons) should be sign-selected and momentum-analyzed in the detector. The latter will also allow extra kinematic handles for further suppressing the background to $`\tau `$ decays (such as $`p_\mathrm{T}`$ of a decay particle with respect to $`\tau `$ direction and transverse disbalance of the event as a whole with respect to incident neutrino).

In this paper, we propose a conceptual scheme of a hybrid-emulsion spectrometer for detecting and identifying the neutrinos of different flavors by their CC collisions, as required for probing various channels of neutrino oscillations. The design emphasizes detection of $`\tau `$ leptons by detached vertices, reliable identification and sign-selection of electrons, good spectrometry for all charged secondaries, and reconstruction of secondary photons and $`\pi ^0`$ mesons. We also estimate the performance of the proposed apparatus in a medium-baseline experiment using the neutrino beam of the proton machine CERN-SPS and in a long-baseline experiment in the neutrino beam of a muon storage ring.

## 2 The detector

Building on the ideas put forth by A. Ereditato, K. Niwa, and P. Strolin , we implement the principle of ”emulsion cloud chamber”: layers of thin emulsion are only used as a tracker for events occurring in passive material. But in contrast with , we aim at constructing a distributed target with low density and large radiation length , so that either muons, hadrons, and electrons can be momentum-analyzed by curvature inside the target itself. Accordingly, the target should largely consist of low-Z material like aluminum or carbon in the form of carbon-fiber composite. Apart from narrow gaps instrumented with drift chambers that provide an electronic ”blueprint” of the event, the target is built as a compact homogeneous volume in ambient magnetic field. Owing to relatively weak multiple scattering in low-Z material, the successive layers of thin emulsion may act as an ”emulsion spectrometer” for analyzing the momenta of charged secondaries by curvature in magnetic field. In untangling the topologies of neutrino events, the detector will operate very much like a bubble chamber. The proposed apparatus is therefore referred to as the Emulsion Bubble Chamber, or EBC.

Specified below is a tentative structure of the distributed target that has been assumed in our simulations of detector response. (The actual design, including the choice of low-Z material, must of course be carefully optimized for a particular experiment). The fine structure of the target is depicted in Fig. 1. The 6-mm-thick basic element of the structure is formed by a 1-mm plate of passive material, by an emulsion–plastic–emulsion sheet (referred to as the ES) with total thickness of 0.2 mm, and by a relatively large drift space of 4.8 mm in which $`\tau `$ decays are selected. In our tentative design, the passive plate is largely carbon (960 $`\mu `$m), but also includes a thin layer of denser substance (40 $`\mu `$m of copper) in order to boost the geometric acceptance. The ES is a 100-$`\mu `$m sheet of transparent plastic coated on both sides with 50-$`\mu `$m layers of emulsion. The medium formed by successive elements has mean density of $`\rho =0.49`$ g/cm3 and effective radiation length of $`X_0=52.6`$ cm. (These values of $`\rho `$ and $`X_0`$ are very similar to those of a bubble chamber with neon-hydrogen filling .) Note that the element does not feature the second ES downstream of the gap, as originally foreseen in : the idea is to detect the kink or the trident using track segments in the ESs of two successive elements, as allowed by relatively weak Coulomb scattering in low-Z material of the intervening passive plate.

On the technical side, the air gap can be created by thin and rigid ”bristles” on the upstream face of the carbon-composite plate that has been manufactured in ”brush-like” form. (This is only possible because we have just one ES per element.) The positions of the thin bristles will be tabulated, and secondary vertices that match these positions will be dropped. Another technical option for the drift space is 5-mm-thick paper honeycomb.

For a $`\tau `$ that emerged from the passive plate and suffered a one-prong or a three-prong decay in the gap, the decay vertex can be reconstructed from the track segments in two successive ESs. As soon as the fitted secondary vertex lies within the intervening passive plate, the candidate event must be dropped because of the high background from reinteractions. In principle, a $`\tau `$ that decayed before reaching the gap can be detected by impact parameter, but this possibility is not considered here. By adding a thin layer of denser material (copper) downstream of low-Z material (carbon), we slightly compromise the radiation length for geometric acceptance: thereby, the fraction of $`\tau `$ leptons that reach the air gap is effectively increased. That the proportion of copper events is boosted by the geometric effect is illustrated by Fig. 2. Here and below, the spectrum of incident $`\tau `$ neutrinos is assumed to be proportional to the spectrum of muon neutrinos from CERN-SPS .

For the tracks to be found in emulsion at scanning stage, planes of electronic detectors must be inserted in the continuous structure formed by the basic elements. These detectors should allow a crude on-line reconstruction of the event as a whole, and therefore they must have sufficient spatial resolution, provide angular information, and be spaced by less than one radiation length $`X_0`$. In our tentative design, a stack of 30 elements forms a ”module” with total thickness of $`0.34X_0`$, and 4-cm-wide gaps between adjacent modules are instrumented by multisampling drift chambers.

In a medium- or long-baseline experiment where the occupancy of ESs will be relatively low, the accuracy of ”electronic” reconstruction should be sufficient for unambiguously finding an energetic track in emulsion. Therefore, one can scan back along a stiff track, starting from the downstream ES of the module in which the collision occurred. As soon as the layer of origin is reached, a few successive ESs of the nearby elements must be fully scanned over relatively small areas towards finding the stubs of all other tracks associated with the primary vertex. To refine the alignment of ESs, a sufficient number of stiff muon tracks must be fully reconstructed in emulsion. This first stage of emulsion scanning will yield a relatively small number of events featuring decay signatures (either a kink or a trident in the air gap just downstream of the primary vertex). The second stage will be to scan down all tracks emerging from the primary vertex and to find and measure the conversions of secondary photons in the distributed target. This will allow to analyze the momenta of the secondaries in the ”emulsion spectrometer” and to identify electrons by change of curvature and by emission of brems.

We foresee that the scanning of emulsion will only start after the full period of detector exposure.

## 3 Spectrometry for charged particles and photons

The response of the EBC detector is simulated using GEANT. In fitting a track, we assume that each tracker traversed (either a ES or a drift chamber) provides two spatial points with resolutions of 2 and 150 $`\mu `$m, respectively. Because of multiple scattering, the fit is but marginally sensitive to increasing the spatial error in the ES from 2 up to 8 $`\mu `$m. A uniform magnetic field of 0.7 Tesla, that is normal with respect to beam direction, is assumed throughout. (Using a stronger field would boost the performance of the spectrometer, but may be impracticable for a big air-core magnet that will house a multiton EBC.)

When found in emulsion, the track of an electron can be identified by a variation of curvature due to energy losses in successive layers of the target. These losses must be accounted for in estimating the momentum by curvature in magnetic field. For this, we use a simple algorithm that should be treated as preliminary and is not fully realistic. Namely, we fit a restricted segment of the $`e^{}`$ track over which the actual loss of energy does not exceed 30%.

Additionally, this segment is required to cross no less than five ESs. We compute an ”ideal trajectory” for a given value of electron momentum $`p_e`$, to which the observed trajectory is then fitted, using GEANT. In doing so, we switch off multiple scattering and radiation losses, but instead reduce the momentum ”by hand” in each layer of the target by the same amount $`\mathrm{\Delta }p`$ that is treated as an empirical parameter. The value of $`\mathrm{\Delta }p`$ is selected so as to obtain (i) an unbiased estimate of electron momentum ($`p_e^{\mathrm{meas}}/p_e^{\mathrm{true}}1`$) and (ii) a reasonable value of $`\chi ^2`$.

For definiteness, we use a Monte-Carlo template of electrons with $`p_e>1`$ GeV originating from simulated decays $`\tau ^{}e^{}\nu \overline{\nu }`$ (see further). For these electrons, the mean length of the selected track segment is close to 30 cm (see Fig. 3), which proves to be sufficient for analyzing the momentum in the ”emulsion spectrometer” formed by successive ESs of the distributed target. Plotted in Fig. 4 is the ratio between the fitted and true momenta, $`p_e^{\mathrm{meas}}/p_e^{\mathrm{true}}`$, for the properly fitted electrons ($`\chi ^2<3`$). The same ratio is then separately shown for two regions of electron momentum: $`1<p_e<5`$ GeV and $`p_e>5`$ GeV. We estimate that of all electrons with $`p_e>1`$ GeV, nearly 90% can be reliably detected, identified, and sign-selected (that is, reconstructed with $`\chi ^2<3`$ and $`\delta p_e/p_e<0.40`$). On average, the $`e^{}`$ momentum is measured to a precision of some 11%.

Treating the length of the track segment as a free parameter of the fit, which is a more realistic approach that is not attempted in this paper, will further improve the momentum resolution and boost the fraction of sign-selected electrons. Good spectrometry for electrons will allow EBC to detect and discriminate the CC collisions of electron neutrinos and antineutrinos and, at the same time, to select electronic decays of the $`\tau `$ almost as efficiently as the muonic ones. A comparison between the two leptonic modes will provide an important handle on self-consistency of any $`\tau `$ signal.

The spectrometry of muons and charged pions is much less affected by energy loss in matter, but for pions the momentum resolution is slightly degraded by hadronic reinteractions. For the pions with $`p_\pi >1`$ GeV originating from the simulated decays $`\tau ^{}\pi ^{}\nu `$, Fig. 5 shows the ratio between the fitted and true momenta, $`p_\pi ^{\mathrm{meas}}/p_\pi ^{\mathrm{true}}`$. The mean uncertainty on pion momentum is seen to be close to 7%.

Neutral pions can be reconstructed from photon conversions in the distributed target. (Here, we assume that the potential length in the detector is much larger than $`X_0=52.6`$ cm.) In estimating the energy of a photon that has converted in the target, we count only those conversion electrons that have fired at least one drift chamber and, therefore, can be found in emulsion and then momentum-analyzed by curvature. We also assume that the primary vertex has already been fitted, so that the direction of the photon is precisely known. For illustration, we consider the $`\pi ^0`$ mesons originating from the decay $`\tau ^{}\pi ^{}\pi ^0\nu `$. The measured invariant mass of the two detected photons from $`\pi ^0\gamma \gamma `$, as plotted in Fig. 6, shows a distinct $`\pi ^0`$ signal. The actual size of the mass window for selecting the $`\pi ^0`$ candidates will be dictated by the level of combinatorial background in a particular analysis; for purely illustrative purposes, we assume a mass window of $`115<m_{\gamma \gamma }<155`$ MeV. Thus estimated detection efficiency for $`\pi ^0`$ mesons is close to 0.26.

## 4 Detecting the leptonic and semileptonic decays of the $`\tau `$

For the $`\tau `$ leptons emitted in either the deep-inelastic and quasielastic $`\nu _\tau N`$ collisions, we generate the two leptonic decays, $`\tau ^{}\mu ^{}\nu \overline{\nu }`$ and $`\tau ^{}e^{}\nu \overline{\nu }`$, and three semileptonic (quasi-)two-body decays: $`\tau ^{}\pi ^{}\nu `$, $`\tau ^{}\pi ^{}\pi ^0\nu `$ that is mediated by the resonance $`\rho ^{}\pi ^{}\pi ^0`$, and $`\tau ^{}\pi ^{}\pi ^+\pi ^{}\nu `$ that is mediated by the resonance $`a_1^{}\pi ^{}\pi ^+\pi ^{}`$. The threshold effect for $`\tau `$ production in neutrino–nucleon collisions and polarization of the $`\tau `$, that affects the angular distribution of decay products in the $`\tau `$ frame, are accounted for. Further details on our $`\tau `$ generator can be found in .

For definiteness, we again assume that $`\tau `$ neutrinos incident on EBC have the same energy spectrum as muon neutrinos from CERN-SPS  ($`E_\nu =27`$ GeV by flux), and that the distributed target is magnetized by a uniform field of 0.7 Tesla that is perpendicular to beam direction. The decay products of the $`\tau `$ are propagated through the target and then reconstructed from hits in emulsion, as explained in the previous section. In estimating the detection efficiencies for different decay channels of the $`\tau `$, we adopt the (quasi-realistic) selection criteria that are listed below.

* The $`\tau `$ must have decayed in the drift gap. This is necessary for reconstructing the detached vertex from track segments in the upstream and downstream ESs.
* The momentum of either charged daughter must exceed 1 GeV, and its emission angle must lie within 400 mrad of beam direction. These selections are suggested by the fact that soft and broad-angle tracks are poorly reconstructed in emulsion.
* For a one-prong decay to a charged daughter $`d`$ (either a muon, electron, or pion), the kink angle must be suffiently large: $`\theta _{\tau d}>20`$ mrad. This lower cut reflects the experimental uncertainty on the kink angle that is close to 5 mrad.
* All charged daughters of the $`\tau `$ must be momentum-analyzed by curvature and reliably sign-selected (that is, reconstructed in the detector with $`\chi ^2<3`$ and $`\delta p/p<0.40`$). This will fix the sign of the $`\tau `$ and, on the other hand, will allow kinematic handles for rejecting the decays of charmed and strange particles.
* In a one-prong decay, $`p_\mathrm{T}`$ of the charged daughter with respect to $`\tau `$ direction must exceed 250 MeV. This is aimed at rejecting the decays of strange particles.

For those $`\tau `$ decay channels that have actually been simulated in the detector, the estimated detection efficiencies (or acceptances) are listed in Table 1. (Note that here we do not require the $`\pi ^0`$ from $`\tau ^{}\pi ^{}\pi ^0\nu `$ to be reconstructed.) For these decay channels of the $`\tau `$, the acceptance-weighted branching fractions add up to some 0.28. Approximately accounting for the other one-prong and three-prong channels, we estimate that nearly 32% of all $`\tau `$ leptons produced in passive material will be detected in EBC by visible kinks or tridents.

The (quasi-)two-body decays $`\tau ^{}\pi ^{}\nu `$, $`\tau ^{}\rho ^{}\nu `$, and $`\tau ^{}a_1^{}\nu `$ may provide an extra kinematic handle for discriminating the $`\tau ^{}`$ against the background of anticharm. In a decay $`\tau ^{}h^{}\nu `$, ”transverse mass” is defined as $`M_\mathrm{T}=\sqrt{m_h^2+p_\mathrm{T}^2}+p_\mathrm{T}`$, where $`m_h`$ and $`p_\mathrm{T}`$ are the $`h^{}`$ mass and transverse momentum with respect to $`\tau `$ direction. The two-body kinematics dictate that the unsmeared $`M_\mathrm{T}`$ distribution should reveal a very distinctive peak just below $`M_\mathrm{T}^{\mathrm{max}}=m_\tau `$, see the upper plots of Fig. 7. The $`M_\mathrm{T}`$ technique for identifying massive parents by two-body decays in emulsion was proven by discriminating the relatively rare decay $`D_s^+(1968)\mu ^+\nu `$ against a heavy background from other decays of charm . Observing the high-$`M_\mathrm{T}`$ peak in a detector requires good spectrometry of charged pions and, for the decay $`\tau ^{}\pi ^{}\pi ^0\nu `$ in particular, good reconstruction of $`\pi ^0`$ mesons. The bottom plots of Fig. 7 show the smeared $`M_\mathrm{T}`$ distributions for the reconstructed decays $`\tau ^{}\pi ^{}\nu `$, $`\tau ^{}\pi ^{}\pi ^0\nu `$, and $`\tau ^{}\pi ^{}\pi ^+\pi ^{}\nu `$ (the $`\pi ^0`$ for $`\tau ^{}\pi ^{}\pi ^0\nu `$ has been selected in the mass window $`115<m_{\gamma \gamma }<155`$ MeV, see Fig. 6). The Jacobian cusps of the original $`M_\mathrm{T}`$ distributions largely survive the apparatus smearings of EBC and, therefore, will provide distinctive signatures of the $`\tau `$.

## 5 Sensitivity to neutrino oscillations

Neutrino oscillations driven by $`\mathrm{\Delta }m^21`$ eV  can be efficiently probed at a location on Mount Jura near CERN, that is irradiated by the existing wide-band $`\nu _\mu `$ beam of the CERN-SPS accelerator ($`E_\nu =27`$ GeV by flux) over a ”medium” baseline of 17 km . At this location, an EBC detector can be deployed in the existing magnet of the NOMAD detector  that delivers a magnetic field of up to 0.7 Tesla. In the large internal volume of this magnet, $`3.5\times 3.5\times 7.5`$ m3, one might deploy a distributed target with a volume of $`3.0\times 3.0\times 6.6`$ m3, that will consist of 30 modules (see Section 2). The target has a total thickness of 10 radiation lengths, and contains nearly 20 tons of passive material and 3 tons of standard emulsion (or a lesser amount of diluted emulsion, that may be warranted by a relatively low occupancy at a medium-baseline location). The magnetic volume will also house a few drift chambers downstream of the target. As photon conversions and electrons will be efficiently detected in the distributed target, no extra electromagnetic calorimeter is foreseen. The design of the muon system is not discussed in this paper.

At the Jura location, the rate of $`\nu _\mu `$-induced CC collisions has been estimated  as 843 events per ton of target per $`10^{19}`$ protons delivered by CERN-SPS. Assuming $`10^{20}`$ delivered protons which corresponds to 3–4 years of operation, the proposed detector will collect nearly $`1.7\times 10^5`$ CC events. Even if the probability of the $`\nu _\mu \nu _\tau `$ transition is as small as 0.3% , we will detect some 80 $`\tau `$ events with a negligibly small background from the decays of strange and anticharm particles. (This prediction assumes a $`\tau `$ detection efficiency of 32%, as estimated above for the same beam, and takes into account the threshold effect in $`\tau `$ production.) Alternatively, a zero signal will allow to exclude (at 90% C.L.) an area of the parameter plane ($`\mathrm{sin}^22\theta _{\mu \tau }`$, $`\mathrm{\Delta }m_{\mu \tau }^2`$) that is depicted in Fig. 8.

As demonstrated above, EBC will very efficiently identify, sign-select, and momentum-analyze prompt electrons from CC collisions of electron neutrinos and antineutrinos. The energy of incident $`\nu _e`$ ($`\overline{\nu _e}`$) will be estimated to better than 10%. If at the Jura site the transition $`\nu _\mu \nu _e`$ indeed occurs with a probability of some 0.003 as in LSND , in an exposure of $`10^{20}`$ protons on target we will detect and reconstruct some 460 $`\nu _eNe^{}X`$ events due to oscillated neutrinos against a background of nearly 860 CC events due to the original $`\nu _e`$ component of the beam . As the original $`\nu _e`$ component of the beam is substantially harder than the $`\nu _\mu `$ component, a $`\nu _\mu \nu _e`$ signal will effectively reduce the mean energy of $`\nu _eNe^{}X`$ events.

A very intense and collimated beam of a muon storage ring  will allow long-baseline experiments with relatively small but finely instrumented detectors. For purely illustrative purposes, we assume an EBC detector as sketched above (20 tons of passive material plus 3 tons of standard emulsion) that is irradiated by a $`\mu ^{}`$ ring with parameters as foreseen in  (that is, $`7.5\times 10^{20}`$ injected muons per year of operation and a straight section that amounts to 25% of the ring circumference). We also assume a ”nominal” distance of 732 km (either from CERN to Gran Sasso or from Fermilab to Soudan) that results in effective baselines of $`L/E_\nu 20`$ and 10 km/GeV for the stored-muon energies of $`E_\mu =50`$ and 100 GeV, respectively. Then, given unpolarized muons with $`E_\mu =50`$ (100) GeV in the ring, in the absence of oscillations the detector will annually collect some $`5.5\times 10^3`$ ($`4.4\times 10^4`$) and $`2.4\times 10^3`$ ($`1.9\times 10^4`$) CC collisions of muon neutrinos and electron antineutrinos, respectively. Note that the expected event rate for $`E_\mu =100`$ GeV is as high as in the CERN-SPS beam at Jura location.

Taken together, the data on atmospheric  and reactor  neutrinos favor a $`\nu _\mu \nu _\tau `$ transition with almost maximal mixing and with a mass difference in the range $`\mathrm{\Delta }m_{\mu \tau }^210^2`$–10-3 eV2 . For definiteness assuming $`\mathrm{sin}^22\theta _{\mu \tau }=1`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }m_{\mu \tau }^2=5\times 10^3`$ eV2, we estimate that in three years of operation a 20-ton EBC will detect a signal of some 50 (170) $`\tau ^{}`$ leptons for $`E_\mu =50`$ (100) GeV with a negligible background of $`\overline{\nu }_e`$-produced anticharm. (Note that the $`E_\mu `$-dependence of the $`\tau `$ signal largely reflects the increase of $`\sigma (\nu _\tau N\tau ^{}X)`$ with neutrino energy: in the region $`\mathrm{\Delta }m^2`$(eV2) $`E_\nu /L`$ (GeV/km), the flux of oscillated neutrinos is virtually independent of $`E_\mu `$.) Alternatively, a zero $`\tau ^{}`$ signal will effectively exclude a large area of parameter space for the transition $`\nu _\mu \nu _\tau `$, see Fig. 8. The transition $`\overline{\nu }_e\overline{\nu }_\tau `$ will be simultaneously detected with a comparable sensitivity, and the two transitions will be reliably discriminated by the charge of the $`\tau `$. Using the detached-vertex information, the transitions $`\nu _\mu \nu _e`$ and $`\overline{\nu }_e\overline{\nu }_\mu `$ will be separated from the transitions $`\nu _\mu \nu _\tau `$ and $`\overline{\nu }_e\overline{\nu }_\tau `$ involving the leptonic decays $`\tau ^{}e^{}\nu \overline{\nu }`$ and $`\tau ^+\mu ^+\nu \overline{\nu }`$, respectively. We may conclude that, in this experimental environment, even a relatively small EBC detector will efficiently probe the entire pattern of neutrino oscillations in the region $`\mathrm{\Delta }m^210^2`$–10-3 eV2.

## 6 Summary

A conceptual detector scheme is proposed for studying various channels of neutrino oscillations. The hybrid-emulsion spectrometer will detect and discriminate the neutrinos of different flavors by their CC collisions. The design emphasizes detection of $`\tau `$ leptons by detached vertices, identification and sign-selection of electrons, and spectrometry for all charged particles and photons. A distributed target is formed by layers of low-Z material, emulsion-plastic-emulsion sheets, and air gaps in which $`\tau `$ decays are detected. Target modules with mean density of 0.49 g/cm3 and radiation length of 52.6 cm, that are similar to those of a bubble chamber with neon-hydrogen filling, are alternated by multisampling drift chambers that provide electronic tracking in real time. The tracks of charged secondaries, including electrons, are momentum-analyzed by curvature in magnetic field using hits in successive thin layers of emulsion and in drift chambers. Electrons are identified by change of curvature and by emission of brems. Photons are detected and analyzed by conversions in the distribute target, and neutral pions are reconstructed. The $`\tau `$ leptons are efficiently detected and sign-selected in all major decay channels, including $`\tau ^{}e^{}\nu \overline{\nu }`$.

At a medium-baseline location on mount Jura in the existing neutrino beam of the proton machine CERN-SPS, the detector will be sensitive to either the $`\nu _\mu \nu _\tau `$ and $`\nu _\mu \nu _e`$ transitions in the mass-difference region of $`\mathrm{\Delta }m^21`$ eV2, as suggested by the results of LSND. At a long-baseline location in the neutrino beam of a muon storage ring, even a relatively small spectrometer of the proposed type will efficiently probe the entire pattern of neutrino oscillations in the region $`\mathrm{\Delta }m^210^2`$–10-3 eV2 that is suggested by the data on atmospheric neutrinos.

This work was supported in part by the CRDF foundation (grant RP2-127) and by the Russian Foundation for Fundamental Research (grant 98-02-17108).

Figure Captions

Fig. 1.
Schematic of the assumed fine structure of the target, showing the 1-mm-thick carbon–copper plates (960 + 40 $`\mu `$m), emulsion–plastic–emulsion sheets (50 + 100 + 50 $`\mu `$m), and drift space in which $`\tau `$ decays are selected (4800 $`\mu `$m).

Fig. 2.
The depth of the primary vertex in the carbon–copper plate for all $`\tau `$ events (a) and for those events in which the $`\tau `$ has decayed in the drift space (b). Here and in subsequent figures, the energy spectrum of incident $`\tau `$ neutrinos is assumed to be proportional to the spectrum of muon neutrinos from the CERN-SPS accelerator.

Fig. 3
The length along the beam direction of the track segment used for analyzing the $`e^{}`$ momentum by curvature (see text).

Fig. 4.
The ratio between the fitted and true momenta of the electron from $`\tau ^{}e^{}\nu \overline{\nu }`$, $`R=p_e^{\mathrm{meas}}/p_e^{\mathrm{true}}`$, for $`p_e>1`$ GeV (a), for $`1<p_e<5`$ GeV (b), and for $`p_e>5`$ GeV (c).

Fig. 5.
The ratio between the fitted and true momenta, $`R=p_\pi ^{\mathrm{meas}}/p_\pi ^{\mathrm{true}}`$, for the $`\pi ^{}`$ with $`p_\pi >1`$ GeV originating from the decay $`\tau ^{}\pi ^{}\nu `$.

Fig. 6.
For the decay $`\tau ^{}\pi ^{}\pi ^0\nu `$ followed by $`\pi ^0\gamma \gamma `$, the measured invariant mass of the two photons that have been detected by conversions in the distributed target.

Fig. 7.
Transverse mass $`M_\mathrm{T}=\sqrt{m_h^2+p_\mathrm{T}^2}+p_\mathrm{T}`$ for the (quasi-)two-body decays $`\tau ^{}h^{}\nu `$ with $`h^{}=\pi ^{}`$ (left-hand column), $`h^{}=a_1^{}\pi ^{}\pi ^+\pi ^{}`$ (middle column), and $`h^{}=\rho ^{}\pi ^{}\pi ^0`$ (right-hand column). The unsmeared $`M_\mathrm{T}`$ distributions for all events in each channel prior to any selections are shown in the top row. The smeared distributions for detected events are shown in the bottom row.

Fig. 8.
Null-limit sensitivity to the $`\nu _\mu \nu _\tau `$ transition (at 90% C.L.) of a 20-ton EBC detector deployed at 17 km from CERN-SPS and at 732 km from a muon storage ring with $`E_\mu =50`$ and 100 GeV, assuming 1020 protons delivered by CERN-SPS and $`2.2\times 10^{21}`$ negative muons injected in a ring with a straight section of 25%. The shaded area on the right is the region of parameter space for $`\nu _\mu \nu _\tau `$ suggested by a combined analysis of Kamiokande and Superkamiokande data . Also illustrated are the best upper limits on $`\mathrm{sin}^22\theta _{\mu \tau }`$ for $`\mathrm{\Delta }m_{\mu \tau }^2<10`$ eV2, as imposed by E531  and CDHS .


text:
# 1 Introduction

## 1 Introduction

It is about ten years now that the first theoretical work suggesting a strong enhancement around the $`2m_\pi `$ threshold of the in-medium ’sigma’-meson mass distribution was published . The threshold enhancement originates from in-matter p-wave renormalization of the two pions to which the ’bare sigma’ meson of about 1 GeV decays. The existence of such a bare sigma meson has in the meanwhile been confirmed by quenched lattice calculations . Its decay into two pions leads to a strong hybridization of the sigma meson and finally only a broad bump of about 600 MeV width survives at considerably lower energy. The $`\pi \pi `$ interaction constants in the completely phenomenological model of ref.  had been adjusted to reproduce the experimental $`\pi \pi `$ phase shift in the scalar -isoscalar channel. Since the latter raises right from threshold with considerable positive slope, it signals substantial attraction among low-energy pions. Pions are, however, too light to be bound by the interaction. On the other hand, the p-wave renormalization of the pions in the nuclear medium (nucleon- and delta-hole couplings) increases their kinetic mass and thus suppresses the kinetic energy. As a consequence binding of the two pions is favored at high density. Before this occurs, a strong accumulation of strength close to the $`2m_\pi `$ threshold takes place. Even if, with increasing density, the mass distribution receives contributions from below the $`2m_\pi `$ threshold, this does not lead to a sharp 2-pion bound state. Various decay channels such as $`\pi N`$\- $`\pi \mathrm{\Delta }`$\- or $`NN`$ render it broad . To describe the subthreshold behavior of the scalar-isoscalar strength function in accordance with chiral symmetry requirements it turned out later that the $`\pi \pi `$ scattering needs to be implemented by using chiral models such as the linear or non-linear sigma model, rather than an empirical parametrization of the s-wave phase shift. In addition a formalism is called for which respects chiral symmetry beyond the tree level, . Otherwise the in-medium effects become so strong that they lead to unreasonable pion-pair condensation . In the meantime s-wave pion-pion correlations have attracted a significant amount of attention both on the theoretical  and the experimental  sides. This is primarily related to the fact that these studies are of relevance for the evolution of the chiral condensate and its fluctuations with increasing density. The enhancement of the in-medium $`\pi \pi `$ correlations close to and below the vacuum threshold has recently been confirmed by an independent calculation within the non-linear sigma model. Also on the experimental side important progress has been made. The CHAOS collaboration has studied the $`A(\pi ,2\pi )`$ knock-out reaction  and the invariant-mass measurements of the outgoing pions reveal a strong low-mass enhancement which seems to corroborate the theoretical predictions. Performing elaborate reaction calculations, including initial- and final-state absorption, Vincente-Vacas and Oset have claimed that the theory outlined above underestimates the measured $`\pi \pi `$ mass enhancement. This claim may be partly questioned, since the reaction theory calls for the inclusion with a finite total three momentum of the in-medium pion pairs which sofar are only propagated in back-to-back kinematics ($`\stackrel{}{q}=0`$). It was shown in  that, allowing for finite three momenta of the pion pair, leads to further increase the $`\pi ^+\pi ^{}`$ invariant-mass distribution near threshold. On the other hand, Hatsuda et al.  have argued that the partial restoration of chiral symmetry in nuclear matter, which leads to a dropping of the $`\sigma `$-meson mass , induces similar effects as the standard many-body correlation mentioned above. It is therefore natural to study the combination of both effects.

## 2 The Model

As a model for $`\pi \pi `$ scattering we consider the linear sigma model treated in leading order of the $`1/N`$-expansion . The scattering matrix can then be cast in the following form

$`T_{ab,cd}(s)`$ $`=`$ $`\delta _{ab}\delta _{cd}{\displaystyle \frac{D_\pi ^1(s)D_\sigma ^1(s)}{3\sigma ^2}}{\displaystyle \frac{D_\sigma (s)}{D_\pi (s)}},`$ (1)
where $`s`$ is the Mandelstam variable. In Eq. (1) $`D_\pi (s)`$ and $`D_\sigma (s)`$ denote respectively the full pion and sigma propagators, while $`\sigma `$ is the sigma condensate. The expression in Eq. (1) reduces, in the soft-pion limit, to a Ward identity which links the $`\pi \pi `$ four-point function to the $`\pi `$ and $`\sigma `$ two-point functions as well as to the $`\sigma `$ one-point function. To this order, the pion propagator and the sigma-condensate are obtained from a Hartree-Bogoliubov approximation . In terms of the pion mass $`m_\pi `$ and the decay constant $`f_\pi `$, they are given as

$$D_\pi (s)=\frac{1}{sm_\pi ^2},f_\pi =\sqrt{3}\sigma .$$
(2)
The sigma meson, on the other hand, is obtained from the Random-Phase Approximation (RPA) involving $`\pi \pi `$ scattering  and reads

$$D_\sigma (s)=\left[sm_\sigma ^2\frac{2\lambda ^4\sigma ^2\mathrm{\Sigma }_{\pi \pi }(s)}{1\lambda ^2\mathrm{\Sigma }_{\pi \pi }(s)}\right]^1,$$
(3)
where $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_{\pi \pi }(s)`$ is the $`\pi \pi `$ self energy, regularized by means of a form factor which is used as a fit function  and allows to reproduce the experimental $`\pi \pi `$ phase shifts. The coupling constant $`\lambda ^2`$ denotes the bare quartic coupling of the linear $`\sigma `$-model, related to the mean-field pion mass, $`m_\pi `$, the sigma mass, $`m_\sigma `$, and the condensate, $`\sigma `$, via the mean-field saturated Ward identity

$$m_\sigma ^2=m_\pi ^2+2\lambda ^2\sigma ^2.$$
(4)
It is clear from the above that the sigma-meson propagator in this approach is correctly defined, since it satisfies a hierarchy of Ward identities.

In cold nuclear matter the pion is dominantly coupled to $`\mathrm{\Delta }h`$, $`ph`$, as well as to $`2p2h`$ excitations which, on the other hand, are renormalized by means of repulsive nuclear short-range correlations, (see  for details). Since the pion is a (near) Goldstone mode, its in-medium s-wave renormalization does not induce appreciable changes. The sigma meson, on the other hand, is not protected by chiral symmetry from large s-wave renormalization, resulting in a density-dependent mass modification  . We extract an approximate density dependence at mean-field level from the (leading-order) density dependence of the condensate. Indeed from Eq. (4) it is clear that the density dependence of the sigma meson mass is essentially dictated by the density dependence of the condensate.

Thus, for densities below and around nuclear saturation density, $`\rho _0`$, we take for the in-medium sigma-meson mass the simple ansatz

$$m_\sigma (\rho )=m_\sigma (1\alpha \frac{\rho }{\rho _0})$$
(5)
where $`\rho `$ is the nuclear matter density and $`m_\sigma `$ is the vacuum $`\sigma `$-meson mass. Such a density dependence very naturally arises in the linear sigma model from the tad-pole graph where the sigma meson directly couples to the nuclear density. In  this density dependence was investigated quantitatively and a value of $`\alpha `$ in the range of 0.2 to 0.3 was found. These are the values which we also will use. It should be mentioned at this point that between the (s-wave) density renormalization via the tad-pole of the bare sigma-meson mass in the linear sigma model (as we mentioned already, such a bare sigma exists in quenched QCD lattice calculations ) and the in-medium p-wave renormalization of the pion there exists no double counting. Besides the different partial waves involved, a simple inspection of the corresponding Feynman graphs shows that both density effects are of totally different microscopic origin.

## 3 Results

The result for the invariant-mass distribution $`ImD_\sigma (E_{\pi \pi })`$, as calculated from Eq. (3) by using the in-medium mass (5), is shown in Fig. 1 at saturation density. One observes a dramatic downward shift of the mass distribution as compared to the vacuum. The low-energy enhancement, already present without sigma-mass modification ($`\alpha =0`$) and induced by the density-dependence of the pion loop, is strongly reinforced as the in-medium $`\sigma `$-meson mass is included. For $`\alpha =0.2`$ and $`\alpha =0.3`$ the peak height is increased by a factor 2 and 4 respectively. Similarly for the T-matrix, a sizable effect can be noticed in its imaginary part, as shown in Fig. 2, which might be sufficient to explain the findings of the CHAOS collaboration . Further work in this direction is in progress.

## 4 Discussions and Conclusion

Let us further comment and discuss the above results. They clearly indicate that there exists a large conspiracy between s- and p-wave in-medium renormalisations of the hybrid ’sigma meson’. Both effects induce a strong shift of the strength towards and even below the $`2m_\pi `$ threshold. However, one has to worry about opposing effects. For example it may happen that vertex corrections, usually a source of repulsion and not taken into account in this work, weaken the effects. They seem, however, to be of minor importance as was recently shown by Chanfray et al. . More care should also be taken in properly incorporating Pauli-blocking when renormalizing the pion pairs in matter, although preliminary investigations  have shown that this effect is weak.

In conclusion we have shown that a dropping sigma-meson mass, linked to the partial restoration of chiral symmetry in nuclear matter, further enhances the build up of previously found $`\pi \pi `$ strength in the $`I=J=0`$ channel. This scenario holds in the linear sigma model but is likely to hold true in the non-linear sigma model as well, since the tad-pole graph which renormalizes the bare sigma meson mass in the linear sigma model has its equivalent in the non-linear version. Whether our findings are linked to similar ones found recently in the experiment by Bonutti et al  is an exciting possibility which, however, must still be consolidated by refined reaction calculations. Last but not least there remains the challenge that the results of Bonutti et al. are confirmed by other experiments. A promising reaction will be the $`A(\gamma ,2\pi )`$ reaction off nuclei with varying mass number, since the average density increases from low to high mass numbers and photons, in contrast to pions, probe the nuclear interior. Existing data from MAMI Mainz  are waiting to be analyzed! We hope to have shown in this contribution  that the scalar-isoscalar channel, in what concerns chiral symmetry, is at least as interesting and promising as the vector-isovector channel (rho-meson).

Acknowledgements:

Fruitful and stimulating discussions with N. Grion, W. Nörenberg, E. Oset, M. Vincente-Vacas, T. Walcher, and W. Weise are appreciated.


text:
# Substructure of the Nucleon in the Chiral Quark Model∗

## Abstract

The spin and orbital angular momentum carried by different quark flavors in the nucleon are calculated in the SU(3) chiral quark model with symmetry-breaking. The similar calculation is also performed for other octet and decuplet baryons. Furthermore, the flavor and spin contents for charm and anti-charm quarks are predicted in the SU(4) symmetry breaking chiral quark model.

preprint:  INPP-UVA-00-01
**** Plenary talk presented at the Circum-Pan-Pacific RIKEN Symposium on ‘High Energy Spin
Physics’, RIKEN, Wako, Japan, November 3-6, 1999.
+ E-mail address: xs3e@virginia.edu

I. Introduction

One of the important tasks in hadron physics is to reveal the internal structure of the nucleon. This includes the study of flavor, spin and orbital angular momentum shared by the quarks and gluons in the nucleon. These structures determine the basic properties of the nucleon: spin, magnetic moment, axial coupling constant, elastic form factors, and the deep inelastic structure functions. The polarized deep-inelastic scattering (DIS) data  indicate that the quark spin only contributes about one third of the nucleon spin or even less. A natural and interesting question is: where is the missing spin ? Intuitively, and also from quantum chromodynamics (QCD) , the nucleon spin can be decomposed into the quark and gluon contributions

$$\frac{1}{2}=<J_z>_{q+\overline{q}}+<J_z>_G=\frac{1}{2}\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Sigma }+<L_z>_{q+\overline{q}}+<J_z>_G$$
$`(1)`$
where $`\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Sigma }=\underset{q}{}[\mathrm{\Delta }q+\mathrm{\Delta }\overline{q}]`$ and $`<L_z>_{q+\overline{q}}`$ are the total helicity and orbital angular momentum carried by quarks and antiquarks. $`<J_z>_G`$ is the gluon angular momentum. The smallness of $`\frac{1}{2}\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Sigma }`$ implies that the missing part should be contributed either by the quark orbital motion or the gluon angular momentum. Most recently, it has been shown that $`<J_z>_{q+\overline{q}}`$ might be measured in the deep virtual Compton scattering process , and one may then obtain the quark orbital angular momentum from the difference $`<J_z>_{q+\overline{q}}\frac{1}{2}\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Sigma }`$. Hence the study of the quark spin and orbital angular momentum are important and interesting both experimentally and theoretically.

In the naive quark model, $`<L_z>_{q+\overline{q}}=0`$ and $`<L_z>_G=0`$. In the bag model , $`\frac{1}{2}\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Sigma }0.39`$, and $`<L_z>_q0.11`$, while in the Skyrme model , $`\mathrm{\Delta }G=\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Sigma }=0`$, and $`<L_z>=\frac{1}{2}`$. Most recently Casu and Sehgal  show that to fit the baryon magnetic moments and polarized DIS data, a large collective orbital angular momentum $`<L_z>`$, which contributes almost $`80\%`$ of nucleon spin, is needed. Hence the question of how much of the nucleon spin is coming from the quark orbital motion remains.

II. SU(3) Chiral Quark Model

(a) Basic Asuumptions

The effective interaction Lagrangian for SU(3) chiral quark model  is

$$L_I=g_8\overline{q}\left(\begin{array}{ccc}G_u^0& \pi ^+& \sqrt{ϵ}K^+\\ \pi ^{}& G_d^0& \sqrt{ϵ}K^0\\ \sqrt{ϵ}K^{}& \sqrt{ϵ}\overline{K}^0& G_s^0\end{array}\right)q,$$
$`(2a)`$
where $`G_{u(d)}^0`$ and $`GB_s^0`$ are defined as

$$G_{u(d)}^0=+()\pi ^0/\sqrt{2}+\sqrt{ϵ_\eta }\eta ^0/\sqrt{6}+\zeta ^{}\eta ^0/\sqrt{3},G_s^0=\sqrt{ϵ_\eta }\eta ^0/\sqrt{6}+\zeta ^{}\eta ^0/\sqrt{3}.$$
$`(2b)`$
The breaking effects are explicitly included. $`a|g_8|^2`$ denotes the transition probability of chiral fluctuation or splitting $`u(d)d(u)+\pi ^{+()}`$, and $`ϵa`$ denotes the probability of $`u(d)s+K^{(0)}`$. Similar definitions are used for $`ϵ_\eta a`$ and $`\zeta ^2a`$. If the breaking is dominated by mass suppression effect, one reasonably expects $`0\zeta ^2a<ϵ_\eta aϵaa`$.

The basic assumptions of the chiral quark model are: (i) the quark flavor, spin and orbital contents of the nucleon are determined by its valence quark structure and all possible chiral fluctuations, and probabilities of these fluctuations depend on the interaction Lagrangian (2), (ii) the coupling between the quark and Goldstone boson is rather weak, one can treat the fluctuation $`qq^{}+\mathrm{GB}`$ as a small perturbation ($`a0.100.15`$) and the contributions from the higher order fluctuations can be neglected, and (iii) quark spin-flip interaction dominates the splitting process $`qq^{}+\mathrm{GB}`$. This can be related to the picture given by the instanton model , hence the spin-nonflip interaction is suppressed.

Based upon the assumptions, the quark flips its spin and changes (or maintains) its flavor by emitting a charged (or neutral) Goldstone boson. The light quark sea asymmetry $`\overline{u}<\overline{d}`$ is attributed to the existing flavor asymmetry of the valence quark numbers (two valence $`u`$-quarks and one valence $`d`$-quark) in the proton. On the other hand, the quark spin reduction is due to the spin dilution in the chiral splitting processes. Furthermore, the quark spin component changes one unit of angular momentum, $`(s_z)_f(s_z)_i=+1`$ or $`1`$, due to spin-flip in the fluctuation with GB emission. The angular momentum conservation requires the same amount change of the orbital angular momentum but with opposite sign, i.e. $`(L_z)_f(L_z)_i=1`$ or $`+1`$. This induced orbital motion is distributed among the quarks and antiquarks, and compensates the spin reduction in the chiral splitting.

(b) Quark Spin Contents in the Nucleon

The spin-weighted quark contents are

$$\mathrm{\Delta }u^p=\frac{4}{5}\mathrm{\Delta }_3a,\mathrm{\Delta }d^p=\frac{1}{5}\mathrm{\Delta }_3a,\mathrm{\Delta }s^p=ϵa,$$
$`(3a)`$
where $`\mathrm{\Delta }_3=\frac{5}{3}[1a(ϵ+2f)]`$ and $`f\frac{1}{2}+\frac{ϵ_\eta }{6}+\frac{\zeta ^2}{3}`$. The total quark spin content in the proton is

$$\frac{1}{2}\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Sigma }^p=\frac{1}{2}(\mathrm{\Delta }u^p+\mathrm{\Delta }d^p+\mathrm{\Delta }s^p)=\frac{1}{2}a(1+ϵ+f)\frac{1}{2}a\xi _1$$
$`(3b)`$
where the notation $`\xi _11+ϵ+f`$ is defined. A special feature of the chiral quark model is that all the spin-weighted antiquark contents are zero

$$\mathrm{\Delta }\overline{q}=0.$$
$`(3c)`$
Hence $`(\mathrm{\Delta }q)_{sea}\mathrm{\Delta }\overline{q}`$, which differs from the predictions of the sea quark and antiquark pair produced by a gluon (see discussion in ).

(c) Quark Orbital Momentum in the Nucleon

The orbital angular momentum produced in the splitting $`q_{}q_{}^{}+\mathrm{GB}`$ is shared by the recoil quark ($`q^{}`$) and the Goldstone boson (GB). Defining $`2\kappa `$ as the fraction of the orbital angular momentum shared by the GB, then the fraction shared by the recoil quark is $`12\kappa `$. We assume the fraction of $`2\kappa `$ is equally shared by the quark and antiquark in the GB and call $`\kappa `$ the partition factor which satisfies $`0<\kappa <1/2`$. For $`\kappa =1/3`$, the three particles $``$ the recoil quark, quark and antiquark in the GB equally share the induced orbital angular momentum. For the proton, we obtain

$$<L_z>_q^p<L_z>_{u+d+s}^p=(1\kappa )\xi _1a$$
$`(4a)`$
$$<L_z>_{\overline{q}}^p<L_z>_{\overline{u}+\overline{d}+\overline{s}}^p=\kappa \xi _1a$$
$`(4b)`$
and

$$<L_z>_{q+\overline{q}}^p<L_z>_q^p+<L_z>_{\overline{q}}^p=\xi _1a$$
$`(4c)`$
The orbital angular momentum of each quark flavor may depend on the partition factor $`\kappa `$, but the total orbital angular momentum (4c) is independent of $`\kappa `$. Furthermore, the amount $`\xi _1a`$ is just the same as the total spin reduction in (3b), and the sum of (4c) and (3b) gives

$$<J_z>_{q+\overline{q}}^p=\frac{1}{2}\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Sigma }_{q+\overline{q}}^p+<L_z>_{q+\overline{q}}^p=\frac{1}{2}$$
$`(4d)`$
In the chiral fluctuations, the missing part of the quark spin is transferred into the orbital motion of quarks and antiquarks. The amount of quark spin reduction $`a(1+ϵ+f)`$ in (3b) is canceled by the equal amount increase of the quark orbital angular momentum in (4c), and the total angular momentum of nucleon is unchanged.

(d) Paramters

The model parameters are determined by three inputs, $`\mathrm{\Delta }u\mathrm{\Delta }d=1.26`$, $`\mathrm{\Delta }u+\mathrm{\Delta }d2\mathrm{\Delta }s=0.60`$, and $`\overline{d}\overline{u}=0.143`$. The result is: $`a=0.145`$, $`ϵ=0.46`$, and $`\zeta ^2=0.10`$. The orbital angular momenta shared by different quark flavors are listed in Table I. We plot the orbital angular momenta carried by quarks and antiquarks in the proton as function of $`\kappa `$ in Fig.1. Using the parameter set given above, $`<L_z>_{q+\overline{q}}^p0.30`$, i.e. nearly $`60\%`$ of the proton spin is coming from the orbital motion of quarks and antiquarks, and $`40\%`$ is contributed by the quark and antiquark spins. Comparison of our result with other models is given in Fig.2.

Extension to other baryons and application to the baryon magnetic moments were discussed in . It has been shown that although the chiral model result of the magnetic moments seems to be better than the nonrelativistic quark model result, there is no significant difference between them. This is because the positive orbital contribution to the magnetic moment cancels in part the negative contribution given by the quark spin reduction. This cancellation was also discussed in . Hence the magnetic moment might not be a good observable to manifest the quark orbital contribution.

II. SU(4) Chiral Quark Model

The effective intercation Lagrangian in SU(4) case is

$$L_I=g_{15}\overline{q}\left(\begin{array}{cccc}G_u^0& \pi ^+& \sqrt{ϵ}K^+& \sqrt{ϵ_c}\overline{D}^0\\ \pi ^{}& G_d^0& \sqrt{ϵ}K^0& \sqrt{ϵ_c}D^{}\\ \sqrt{ϵ}K^{}& \sqrt{ϵ}\overline{K}^0& G_s^0& \sqrt{ϵ_c}D_s^{}\\ \sqrt{ϵ_c}D^0& \sqrt{ϵ_c}D^+& \sqrt{ϵ_c}D_s^+& G_c^0\end{array}\right)q,$$
$`(6)`$
where $`G_{u(d)}^0`$ and $`G_s^0`$ are defined similarly as in (2b), but with additional $`ϵ_c`$ term, and $`G_c^0=\zeta ^{}\frac{\sqrt{3}\eta ^0}{4}+\sqrt{ϵ_c}\frac{3\eta _c}{4}`$, with $`\eta _c=(c\overline{c})`$.

In the SU(4) chiral quark model, the charm and anticharm quarks are produced nonperturbatively, and they are ‘intrinsic. The intrinsic charm helicity $`\mathrm{\Delta }c`$ is nonzero and definitely negative. To estimate the size of $`\mathrm{\Delta }c`$ and other intrinsic charm contributions, we use the same parameter set ($`a=0.145`$, $`ϵϵ_\eta =0.46`$, $`\zeta ^2=0.10`$) given in the SU(3) case, and leave $`ϵ_c`$ as a variable, then other quark flavor and helicity contents can be expressed as functions of $`ϵ_c`$. We found that $`ϵ_c0.10.3`$ satisfactorily describes the data. Our model results, data, and theoretical predictions from other approaches are listed in Table II and Table III respectively. Several remarks are in order: (1) our result, $`2\overline{c}/(q+\overline{q})3.7\%`$, agrees with that given in  and the earlier number given in . But the result given in  is much smaller (0.5$`\%`$) than ours. (2) our prediction $`\mathrm{\Delta }c=0.029\pm 0.015`$ is very close to the result $`\mathrm{\Delta }c=0.020\pm 0.005`$ given in the instanton QCD vacuum model . However the size of $`\mathrm{\Delta }c`$ given in  is about two order of magnitude smaller than ours. (3) We plot the ratio $`\mathrm{\Delta }c/\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Sigma }`$ as function of $`ϵ_c`$ in Fig.3. Our result $`\mathrm{\Delta }c/\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Sigma }0.084\pm 0.046`$ agrees well with the prediction given in  and is also not inconsistent with the result given in .

To summarize, the chiral quark model with $`a`$ $`few`$ parameters can well explain many existing data of the nucleon properties: (1) strong flavor asymmetry of light antiquark sea: $`\overline{d}>\overline{u}`$, (2) nonzero strange quark content, $`<\overline{s}s>0`$, (3) sum of quark spins is small, $`<s_z>_{q+\overline{q}}0.10.2`$, (4) sea antiquarks are not polarized: $`\mathrm{\Delta }\overline{q}0`$ ($`q=u,d,\mathrm{}`$), (5) polarizations of the sea quarks are nonzero and negative, $`\mathrm{\Delta }q_{sea}<0`$, (6) the orbital angular momentum of the sea quark is parallel to the proton spin, and (7) the SU(4) chiral quark model predicts a small amount of intrinsic charm and a negative $`\mathrm{\Delta }c`$ in the proton. (1)-(4) are consistent with data, and (5)-(7) could be tested by future experiments.

Acknowledgments

The author would like to thank S. Brodsky, P. K. Kabir and H. J. Weber for useful comments and suggestions. This work was supported in part by the U.S. DOE Grant No. DE-FG02-96ER-40950, the Institute of Nuclear and Particle Physics, University of Virginia, and the Commonwealth of Virginia.


text:
# The Light Elements Be and B as Stellar Chronometers in the Early Galaxy

## 1. Introduction

It has become clear, from a number of lines of recent evidence, that the early evolution of the Galaxy is best thought of as a stochastic process. Within the first 0.5-1 Gyr following the start of the star formation process, chemical enrichment does not operate within a well-mixed uniform environment, as was assumed in the simple one-zone models that were commonly used in past treatments of this problem. Rather, the very first generations of stars are expected to have their abundances of heavy elements set by local conditions, which are likely to have been dominated by the yields from individual SNeII.

The seeds of this paradigm shift can be found in the observations, interpretations, and speculations of McWilliam et al. (1995), Audouze & Silk (1995), and Ryan, Norris, & Beers (1996). Models which attempt to incorporate these ideas into a predictive formalism have been put forward by Tsujimoto, Shigeyama, & Yoshii (1999; hereafter TSY), and Argast et al. (2000). Although they differ in the details of their implementation, and in a number of their assumptions, both of these models rely on the idea of enhanced star formation in the high-density shells of SN remnants, and the interaction of these shells of enriched material with a local ISM. The predictions which result are similar as well: (1) Both models are capable of reproducing the observed distributions of abundance (e.g., \[Fe/H\]) for stars in the tail of the halo metallicity distribution function (Laird et al. 1988; Ryan & Norris 1991; Beers 1999), and (2) Both models predict that the abundances of heavy elements, such as Fe, are not expected to show strong correlations with the ages of the first stars, at least up until an enrichment level on the order of \[Fe/H\]$`2.0`$ is reached, i.e., at the time when mixing on a Galactic scale is possible (roughly 1 Gyr following the initiation of star formation).

Suzuki, Yoshii, & Kajino (1999; hereafter SYK, see also Suzuki, Yoshii, & Kajino, this volume) have extended the SN-induced chemical evolution model of TSY to include predictions of the evolution of the light element species 9Be, 10B, and 11B, based on secondary processes involving spallative reactions with Galactic Cosmic Rays (hereafter GCRs). Recently, Suzuki, Yoshii, & Beers (2000) have considered the extension of this model to the prediction of 6Li and 7 Li, and demonstrate that they naturally reproduce the recently detected slope in the abundance of Li in extremely metal-poor stars noted by Ryan, Norris, & Beers (1999; see also Ryan this volume). It is particularly encouraging that the same stochastic star-formation models which reproduce the observed trends of some (but not all) heavy elements, such as Eu, Fe, etc., also obtain predictions of the light element abundance distributions that match the available observations quite well, with a minimum of parameter tweaking.

In this contribution we summarize one of the more interesting predictions of the TSY/SYK class of models, that the abundances of the light elements Be and B (hereafter, BeB) might be useful as stellar chronometers in the early Galaxy (a time when the heavy element “age-metallicity” relationships are not operating due to the lack of global mixing). It appears possible that, with refinement of the modeling, and adequate testing, observations of BeB for metal-poor stars may provide a chronometer with “time resolution” on scales of tens of Myrs.

## 2. The Essence of the Model

In this section we would like to briefly explain our model of SN-induced star formation and chemical evolution. After formation of the very FIRST generation of (Pop. III) stars, with atmospheres containing gas of primordial abundance, the most massive of these stars exhaust their core H, and explode as SNeII. Following the explosion a shock is formed, because the velocity of the ejected material exceeds the local sound speed. Behind the shock the swept-up ambient material in the ISM accumulates to form a high-density shell. This shell cools in the later stages of the lifetime of a given SN remnant (SNR) and is a suitable site for the star formation process to occur. The SNR shells are expected to be distributed randomly throughout the early and rapidly evolving halo, and the shells do not easily merge with one another because of the large available volume. As a result, each SNR keeps its identity and the stars which form there reflect the abundances of material generated by their “parent” SN. TSY present this model, and describe the input assumptions, in more quantitative detail. Figure 1 provides a cartoon illustration of the processes which we discuss herein.

One of the most important results of the TSY model is that stellar metallicity, especially \[Fe/H\], cannot be employed as an age indicator at these early epochs. Thus, to consider the expected elemental abundances of the metal-poor stars which form at a given time, a distribution of stellar abundances must be constructed, rather than adopting a global average abundance under the assumption that the gas of the ISM is well mixed. SYK constructed such a model, coupled with the model of SN-induced chemical evolution, which considers the evolution of the light elements.

SYK proposed that GCRs arise from the mixture of elements of individual SN ejecta and their swept-up ISM, with the acceleration being due to the shock formed in the SNR. GCRs originating from SNeII propagate faster than the material trapped in the clouds of gas making up the early halo. As a result, GCRs are expected to achieve uniformity throughout the halo faster than the general ISM, with its patchy structure. It follows that the abundances of BeB, which are mainly produced by spallation processes of CNO elements involving GCRs, are expected to exhibit a much tighter correlation with time than those of heavy elements, synthesized through stellar evolution and SN explosions.

We note that alternative models for the origin of spallative nucleosynthesis products have been developed which rely on the existence of spatially correlated SNeII in superbubbles of the early ISM (see Parizot & Drury 1999, and this volume). The superbubble model predicts a locally homogeneous production of both heavy and light elements, and the variety of stellar abundances which are observed are explained by the differing diffusion processes of metal-rich (\[Fe/H\] $`1`$) shells swept-up by the bubble and mixed with a metal-poor (\[Fe/H\] $`4`$) ISM. Tests of the “isolated” SN models vs. the superbubble models are expected to be conducted in the near future.

## 3. Abundance Predictions of the Model

Figure 2 shows the predicted behavior of the abundance of \[Fe/H\], log(Be/H), and log(B/H), as a function of time, over the first 0.6 Gyrs of the evolution of the early Galaxy, according to the model of SYK. At any given time (note that “zero time” is set by the onset of star formation, not the beginning of the Universe) the range of observed BeB is substantially less than that of Fe, owing to the global nature of light element production. For example, at time 0.2 Gyrs, the expected stellar \[Fe/H\] extends over a range of 50, while that of log (BeB/H) is on the order of 3–7.

During early epochs Fe is produced only by SNeII, and most of the Fe observed in stars formed in SNR shells originates from that contributed by the parent SN, because of uniformly low Fe abundance in the ISM at that time. Thus, the expected \[Fe/H\] of stars born at that time will exhibit a rather large range, reflecting differences in Fe yields associated with the different masses of the progenitor stars. On the other hand, according to the SYK model, most of the BeB is produced by spallation reactions of CNO nuclei involving globally transported GCRs. The observed abundances of BeB in metal-poor stars which formed at this time should reflect the global nature of their production, and the correlation between time and BeB abundance is expected to be much better than that found for heavier species.

In Table 1, we use the predictions from SYK, and the stellar abundance data from Boesgaard et al. (1999) for Be, to put forward “bold” estimates of stellar ages (since the onset of star formation). We note that these numbers are meant to be indicative, not definitive, predictions, as further tests of the model and its underlying assumptions still remain to be carried out. We have ordered the table according to estimated (Be) time since the onset of star formation in the early Galaxy.

It is interesting to consider the implications of this strong age-abundance relationship for individual stars which have been noted in the literature as having “peculiar” BeB (or 7Li for that matter) abundances, at least as compared to otherwise similar stars of the same \[Fe/H\], Teff, and log g. The set of “twins” G64-12 and G64-37 have been noted as one example of stars with very low metallicity, and apparently similar Teff and log g, which never-the-less, exhibit rather different abundances of 7Li. Could this difference be accounted for by a difference in AGE of these stars ? Answering this question is of great importance, and hopefully will be resolved in the near future.

## 4. Can we Test This Model ?

Yes, but it will take some hard work. Obviously, if there exists an independent method with which to verify the relative age determinations predicted by this model, that would be ideal. Fortunately, there have been numerous refinements in models of stellar atmospheres, and their interpretation, which may make this feasible (see Fuhrmann 2000). In order to apply the methods described by Fuhrmann, one requires high-resolution, high-S/N spectroscopy of individual stars. It is imperative that the present-generation 8m telescopes (VLT, SUBARU, GEMINI, HET) obtain this data, so that this, and other related questions, may be addressed with the best possible information.

Another feasible test would be to compare the abundances of BeB with \[Fe/H\], and other heavy elements, for a large sample of stars with \[Fe/H\] $`<2.0`$. If the superbubble model is the correct interpretation, with an implied locally homogeneous production of the light elements, then one might expect to find correlations between the abundances of various heavy element species (including those other than Fe and O) and BeB. Simultaneous observations of light and heavy elements for stars of extremely low abundance are planned with all the major 8m telescopes, so it should not be too long before a sufficiently large sample to carry out this test is obtained.

One can also seek, as we have, confirmatory evidence in the predicted behavior of 7Li vs. \[Fe/H\] (Suzuki et al. 2000).

## 5. Other Uses for This Model

If the model we have considered here can be shown to be correct, there are several new avenues of investigation which are immediately opened. For example, if one were able to “age rank” stars on the basis of their BeB abundances, one could refine alternative production mechanisms for the light element Li which are not driven by GCR spallation, including the SN $`\nu `$process and/or production via a giant-branch Cameron-Fowler mechanism (see Castilho et al. , this volume), in stellar flares, etc..

Furthermore, since BeB nuclei are more difficult to burn than Li nuclei, one could imagine a powerful test for the extent to which depletion of Li has operated in metal-poor dwarfs, with important implications for the Li constraint on Big Bang Nucleosynthesis (BBN). Realistic modeling of BeB evolution at early epochs may also help distinguish between predictions of standard BBN, non-standard BBN, and the accretion hypothesis (see Yoshii, Mathews, & Kajino 1995).

An age ranking of metal-poor stars based on their BeB abundances, in combination with measurements of their alpha, iron-peak, and neutron-capture elements, would open the door for an unraveling of the mass spectrum of the progenitors of first generation SNeIIs, and allow one to obtain direct constraints on their elemental yields as a function of mass, a key component to models of early nucleosynthesis.

### Acknowledgments.

TCB expresses gratitude to the IAU for support which enabled his attendance at this meeting, and acknowledges partial support from the National Science Foundation under grant AST 95-29454. TCB also wishes to express his congratulations to the LOC and SOC for a well-run, scientifically stimulating, and marvelously located meeting. YY acknowledges a Grant-in-Aid from the Center of Excellence (COE), 10CE2002, awarded by the Ministry of Education, Science, and Culture, Japan.

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