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# Condensation of microturbulence-generated shear flows into global modes

## Numerical results. —

We discuss the results of turbulence simulations of the three dimensional electrostatic drift Braginskii equations with isothermal electrons (a subset of the equations of Ref. ) for two different cases: (a) the predominant instability is the resistive ballooning mode with the nondimensional parameters $`\alpha _d=0.2`$, $`ϵ_n=0.08`$, $`q=5`$, $`\tau =1`$, $`\eta _i=1`$, $`\widehat{s}=1`$; (b) there is a significant contribution from ITG modes with $`\alpha _d=0.4`$, $`\eta _i=3`$ and the other parameters as in (a). The radial domain width in terms of the resistive ballooning scale length, $`L_0`$, in (a) was $`24L_0`$ and in (b) $`48L_0`$, the width $`L_\theta `$ perpendicular to $`𝐫`$ and $`𝐁`$ was $`24L_0`$ \[only for (a)\], $`192L_0`$, $`384L_0`$, and $`768L_0`$ (the corresponding tokamak minor radius is $`a=L_\theta q/(2\pi )`$). For a definition of these parameters and units see Refs. . The parameters of the largest domain are consistent with the physical parameters $`R=3`$ m, $`a=1.5`$ m, $`L_n=12`$ cm, $`q_0=3.2`$, $`n=3.5\times 10^{19}`$ m<sup>-3</sup>, $`Z_{\mathrm{eff}}=4`$, $`B_0=3.5`$ T, and for (a) $`T=100`$ eV, $`L_0=5.1`$ mm, $`\rho _s=0.58`$ mm and for (b) $`T=200`$ eV, $`L_0=3.6`$ mm, $`\rho _s=0.82`$ mm. The perpendicular grid step size was $`\mathrm{\Delta }=0.19L_0`$ (a) and $`\mathrm{\Delta }=0.38L_0`$ (b). Parallel to the magnetic field 12 points per poloidal connection length were sufficient due to the large parallel scales of the ballooning modes. The largest runs had a grid of $`128\times 4096\times 12`$.

The dependence of the average $`(0,0)`$ shear flow energy density on the domain size, $`L_\theta `$, is compared for the two cases in Fig. 1. In contrast to case (b), the shear flows in (a) are apparently not condensed into the $`(0,0)`$ mode since its energy density decreases proportional to $`1/L_\theta 1/a`$, as is expected when a given shear flow energy density is distributed equally among an increasingly dense set of modes.

The $`k_\theta `$ spectrum of the flow velocity, $`v=v_\theta =_r\varphi `$, for the $`L_\theta =768L_0`$ runs \[for case (a) see Fig. 2\] exhibits a rise at low $`k_\theta `$ associated with the shear flows, different from the microturbulence fluctuations at $`k_\theta 1`$. The square amplitude of the $`m=0`$ mode in case (a) and (b) is $`0.3`$ and $`7`$ times, respectively, the total shear flow amplitude, suggesting strong condensation for (b). In both cases, the typical poloidal scale length of the $`m0`$ shear flows is roughly a factor $`10`$ greater than the scales of the turbulence. Failure of the computational domain to accomodate the scales of the uncondensed shear flows in case (a) results in an overestimate of the shear flow amplitude, and hence in an underestimate of the anomalous transport. The particle flux for $`L_\theta =L_r=24L_0`$ was found to be $`25\%`$ lower than for $`L_\theta =768L_0`$.

## Analytic model. —

As the first ingredient of a qualitative model for the poloidal shear flow spectra, we calculate the linear dispersion relation for finitely elongated shear flows. For clarity, in the linear electrostatic vorticity equation (with the plasma parameters absorbed into the units, see, e.g., ),

$$_{}^2(_t+\gamma )\varphi +_{}^2\varphi =0,$$
(1)
we neglect temperature fluctuations, parallel ion velocity, drift effects, curvature and magnetic fluctuations. These effects can lead to a real frequency (e.g., geodesic acoustic modes ) and to a coupling to parallel sound waves or Alfvén waves. The dissipative effects are the flow damping $`\gamma `$ due to the ion dissipation assumed independent of the wavenumber and the damping due to the resistive electron response. As we will see below, for a potential condensation of the shear flows into global modes only a small region around a certain radial wavenumber, $`k_0`$, is important, which we set to one in (1) since its absolute value is not important. Because of the large poloidal wavelengths of the flows, we approximate $`_{}^2k_0^2=1`$ and obtain the dispersion relation

$$\omega _{\mathrm{lin}}=i\left(\gamma +k_{}^2\right),k_{}=\left(\frac{m}{q(r)}n\right).$$
(2)
The damping by the parallel resistive electron response is weak if either $`m=n=0`$ holds, or $`r`$ is near a resonant surface defined by $`mnq(r_{mn})=0`$. Focusing on a thin region around $`r=r_0`$ we obtain $`k_{}m\alpha _0(rr_{mn})`$, $`\alpha _0=q^{}(r_0)/q(r_0)^2`$. Hence the resistive flow damping is proportional to $`m^2`$, which is the reason for the poloidal elongation of the flows, i.e., their low mode numbers.

As reaction to a shear flow  the microturbulence may in turn influence the flows via the Reynolds stress  or the Stringer–Winsor mechanism due to poloidal pressure asymmetries . Restricting ourselves to linear response theory, we assume a (coherent) flow amplification rate $`g(k_r)`$ depending only on the radial wavenumber $`k_r`$, because of the large poloidal correlation lengths of the shear flows. With the (incoherent) random forcing, $`f`$, representing the effect of the turbulence fluctuations, the equation for the flow amplitude in frequency space has the form of a Langevin equation,

$$_tv=i\omega _{\mathrm{lin}}v+g(k_r)v+f.$$
(3)
From (3) we obtain a relation between the mean square spectra of the flows and the forcing in frequency space,

$$\overline{|\widehat{v}|^2}=\frac{\overline{|\widehat{f}|^2}}{\omega ^2+(i\omega _{\mathrm{lin}}+g(k_r))^2}.$$
(4)
Assuming that $`\overline{|\widehat{f}|^2}`$ is independent of $`𝐤,\omega `$ (white noise), the integration of (4) over $`\omega `$ yields the relation between the mean square flow amplitude at an instant of time and the forcing,

$$\overline{|v|^2}=\frac{\overline{|\widehat{f}|^2}\pi }{|i\omega _{\mathrm{lin}}+g(k_r)|}.$$
(5)
The flow intensity (5) replaces the Bose distribution in the BEC case. Both functions tend to infinity when the amplification (stimulated emission) terms approach the damping (absorption) terms. As long as every mode is net-damped at a rate independent of the system size, the energy density stored in (0,0) modes must decrease proportional to the system size, since the total shear flow energy is distributed among an increasingly dense set of modes. However, analogous to the thermodynamic theory of the BEC, when the continuous flow spectrum is unable to hold the shear flow energy for non-zero minimum net-damping rate and given random forcing, the nonlinear flow amplification term must adjust so that the remaining part of the flow energy is excited in the form of the most weakly damped modes, which are (0,0) modes. Hence, to demonstrate the possibility of condensation, it has to be shown that the flow amplitude in $`m0`$ modes stays finite when the net-damping rate of the $`m=0`$ modes tends to zero, in the limit of infinite system size or, equivalently, in the approximation of a continuous poloidal mode spectrum.

It is sufficiently general, to assume that $`g(k_r)`$ has a maximum at $`k_r=k_0`$ of order of the turbulence wavenumbers and is parabolic near that maximum, $`g(k_r)=g_0g_1(k_rk_0)^2`$. The amplification terms will nearly cancel the damping terms only for wavenumbers near $`k_0`$, which justifies the approximation $`k_rk_0`$ which was made in the derivation of (2). For the following analysis we shift the $`k_r`$ spectrum of the flows so that $`k_0=0`$. With $`ik_r=_r`$, the operator in the denominator of (5),

$$(\gamma g_0)g_1_r^2+\left(m\alpha _0(rr_{mn})\right)^2,$$
(6)
is the quantum mechanical Hamiltonian of the harmonic oscillator. Its eigenvalue for a mode with the “quantum numbers” $`(m,r_{mn},l)`$, $`l\{0,1,2,\mathrm{}\}`$, is

$`\omega _l=\gamma g_0+2\sqrt{g_1}\left|\alpha _0m\right|(l+1/2).`$

The sum over $`l`$ of the eigenmode contributions to (5) at fixed $`(m,r_{mn})`$ results in a logarithmic divergence, which stems from the infinitely broad random forcing spectrum and infinitely fast turbulence response. Hence, we cut off $`\omega _l`$ at an appropriate $`\omega _\mathrm{c}`$ depending on the turbulence. The sum is then approximated by an integral over $`l`$. The resulting amplitude associated with each pair $`(m,r_{mn})`$ is

$$\overline{|v|^2}(m,r_{mn})=\frac{\overline{|\widehat{f}|^2}\pi }{2\sqrt{g_1}|\alpha _0m|}\mathrm{ln}\frac{\omega _\mathrm{c}}{\omega _0}$$
(7)
with $`\omega _0=\gamma g_0+\sqrt{g_1}|\alpha _0m|<\omega _\mathrm{c}`$. The density of rational surfaces is $`|\alpha _0m|`$ for given $`m`$. Approximating the sum over all $`\overline{|v|^2}(m,r_{mn})`$ contributions to (5) with $`m0`$ by an integral (which becomes exact for infinite system size), the total instantaneous energy density of the flow modes with $`m0`$,

$$\overline{|v|^2}_{m0}=_{m_\mathrm{c}}^{m_\mathrm{c}}\left|\alpha _0m\right|\overline{|v|^2}(m,r_{mn})𝑑m,$$
(8)
is obtained, where the integration interval is limited by the cutoff $`m_\mathrm{c}`$ defined by $`\omega _0(m=m_\mathrm{c})=\omega _\mathrm{c}`$. With the minimum net-damping rate $`\mathrm{\Omega }=\omega _0(m=0)=\gamma g_0`$ we obtain

$$\overline{|v|^2}_{m0}=\frac{\pi \overline{|\widehat{f}|^2}}{2|\alpha _0|g_1}\left[\omega _\mathrm{c}\mathrm{\Omega }\left(1+\mathrm{ln}\frac{\omega _\mathrm{c}}{\mathrm{\Omega }}\right)\right].$$
(9)
This expression converges to a finite value for $`\mathrm{\Omega }0`$. On the other hand, because the energy density of the $`m=0`$ modes, which tends to infinity for $`\mathrm{\Omega }0`$ \[the integral over $`k_r`$ of (5) does not exist for $`i\omega _{\mathrm{lin}}+g_0=0`$\], has to be finite, we always have $`\mathrm{\Omega }>0`$. If the turbulence saturation requires a higher flow level than (9) at $`\mathrm{\Omega }0`$, the description of the system by a continuum of poloidal mode numbers breaks down, the flow energy which can not be received by the $`m0`$ modes condenses into $`m=0`$ modes, and simultaneously $`\mathrm{\Omega }0`$.

In a similar manner, it can be shown that in the limit of infinite system size the $`m=0`$ condensate is completely contained in the $`n=0`$ modes. Furthermore, there is no condensation of the radial wave numbers but the $`k_r`$ spectrum becomes arbitarily narrow around the point of weakest net-damping for large system size.

Strictly speaking, condensation is unprovable by numerical studies, due to the restriction to finite system sizes. However, the validity of the individual parts of the model can be checked in the simulations. The localization of the $`m0`$ shear flows on resonant surfaces is obvious in a plot of the flow spectra versus radius (Fig. 3). The total flow amplitude associated with each $`(m,r_{mn})`$ quantum number in Eq. (7) (Fig. 4) has much weaker slope than $`k_\theta ^2m^2`$ for $`k_\theta ,m0`$. Therefore the integral over all $`m0`$ shear flows (8) is expected to be finite in the limit of infinite system size (even if the estimate (7) for the individual amplitudes should be quantitatively wrong). Furthermore, the integral is reasonably well approximated by the corresponding sum in the finite system. Consequently, the infinite system will have approximately the same ratio of $`m=0`$ flow amplitude to $`m0`$ flow amplitude. Finally, we note that the numerical studies agree with the above analytical prediction, that the flow condensate exhibits a strong peaking in $`k_r`$ for sufficiently large system size.

## Conclusions and consequences. —

It has been shown numerically that in general the shear flows controlling the turbulence are not only $`(0,0)`$ modes but rather consist of a spectrum of poloidal mode numbers. The $`(m,n)(0,0)`$ flows differ from drift waves or convective cells by their large poloidal \[10 times larger than the turbulence (Fig. 2)\] and parallel scale length, while their perpendicular scale length is similar to that of the turbulence. These shear flows are localized in the vicinity of resonant surfaces (Fig. 3). In the limit of large system size, a non-zero (0,0)-mode amplitude develops only if the shear flows undergo a condensation into these modes, analogous to the Bose–Einstein condensation. Several features predicted by the analytic model have been reproduced by the numerical simulations.

Due to the cancelling of damping and amplification terms, the $`(0,0)`$ flow condensate is practically undamped. This means in quantum mechanical language that the rate of absorption and incoherent re-emission, the “collision” rate, vanishes. Hence, far ranging interactions or ordering effects might be mediated via the shear flow condensate (but not by the uncondensed flows that suffer collisions and are pinned to resonant surfaces). As a consequence in the simple system used here the $`k_r`$ spectra become arbitrarily narrow.

Since the flows depend on the distribution of rational surfaces and mode numbers, to accurately model the shear flow system in numerical studies, care has to be taken to not introduce spurious resonant surfaces or modes, e.g., by parallel extension of the flux tube . Remarkably, it can be shown that increasing the flux tube length does not lead to the correct limit of large system sizes, since, e.g., for an infinitely long flux tube, condensation into $`(0,0)`$ modes can not occur.

Up to now, in flux tube based turbulence computations the shear flows were implicitly assumed to be global modes. With domain widths too small for the large poloidal scales of the continuous part of the flow spectrum, the flows appear to have zero poloidal and toroidal mode number. Such modes do not experience the resistive damping, which would reduce the flow amplitude in a full system. Hence, the simulations tend to overestimate the total flow amplitude, which may therefore exert a strong stabilizing effect on the turbulence. To avoid an underestimate of the transport, flux tube simulations have to be checked for influences of a finite poloidal scale length of the flows.

The author would like to thank Dr. D. Biskamp for valuable discussions.


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# Background Studies for the Neutral Current Detector Array in the Sudbury Neutrino Observatory

## 1 Introduction

Using heavy water as its target the Sudbury Neutrino Observatory (SNO) is the first solar neutrino detector capable of determining both the flux of electron neutrinos and the total flux of all active neutrinos from the Sun. Photomultiplier tubes are used to detect the Čerenkov light associated with charged-current (CC) neutrino interactions. The total flux of solar neutrinos is determined from the neutral-current (NC) dissociation of the deuteron and the subsequent detection of the free neutron. The SNO collaboration is pursuing two completely independent methods of measuring the NC signal. One involves the addition of a salt to absorb the free neutron on 35Cl. The second method is the deployment of an array of discrete 3He-filled proportional counters  which detect the neutrons from the NC interaction via the 3He(n,p)3H reaction.

Photodisintegration of the deuteron, and alphas from the decay chains of 238U and 232Th in the proportional counters are the most significant backgrounds to the 3He method. Radioassay techniques and underground studies provide first results on the backgrounds in the Neutral-Current Detectors (NCD). An in-situ background test experiment has been designed to measure the photodisintegration background from the NCD array prior to its installation in SNO.

## 2 Neutral-Current Detection via Neutron Capture on 3He

Construction of an array of 3He-filled proportional counters is nearing completion . With an estimated efficiency of 37%, the expected number of neutron capture events on the NCD array is about 1700 events/year at the flux predicted by standard solar models . The use of two independent methods for the detection of the NC and CC signal allows their separation in real time and will help to determine signal and background events simultaneously.

### 2.1 Proportional Counter Signals

Neutrons from the NC interaction of neutrinos with the D2O thermalize and then capture via 3He(n,p)3H in the proportional counters. They produce a 573 keV proton and a 191 keV triton that leave ionization tracks in the proportional counters.

A number of different backgrounds contribute to the overall event rate. About 1000-10000 alpha particles per day are expected from the decay chains of 232Th and 238U. They enter the detection volume from the wall of the proportional counters and create a continuous background that underlies the 3He(n,p)3H peak. Pulse shape analysis of the digitized proportional counter signals can be used to distinguish between neutron capture, alphas, and other ionization events.

The 3He gas contains tritium that is of concern if the concentration is high enough to lead to random coincidences and to pileup of tritium decay pulses. 3H decays deposit an average of 6 keV/event in the proportional counters. Low temperature purification techniques are used to reduce 3H in the 3He-fill gas .

The sensitivity of the 3He counters and their stringent background criteria make it essential to minimize all spurious pulses including signals induced by high voltage. The phenomenon of microscopic surface discharges and techniques for their reduction have been described elsewhere .

Gamma rays with an energy greater than 2.2 MeV contribute to the photodisintegration background.

## 3 Photodisintegration Background

Gamma rays above the deuteron binding energy can break the deuteron in the heavy water apart and produce neutrons that are indistinguishable from the NC signal. In the SNO detector the main sources of the photodisintegration background are 238U and 232Th in the water, gammas from photomultipliers, and ($`\alpha `$, p$`\gamma `$) and ($`\alpha `$, n$`\gamma `$) reactions on the PMT’s and their support structure. 238U, 223Th, and cosmogenically activated 56Co in the nickel bodies of the Neutral-Current Detectors add to the photodisintegration background.

Čerenkov light from associated gammas and radioassay techniques can be used to estimate these backgrounds. Results from radioassays indicate that the neutron background from the NCD array will contribute about 130 neutrons/year in the main detector volume, i.e. about 2.8% of the expected neutrons from the NC interaction.

### 3.1 In-Situ Background Measurement

The photodisintegration background from the Neutral Current Detector array can be assessed with the Construction Hardware In-Situ Monitoring Experiment (CHIME) prior to the array’s installation in SNO. Observation of Cerenkov light from the CHIME background source will allow a quantitative estimate of the NCD originated photodisintegration background. The CHIME source consists of seven close-packed Neutral-Current Detectors. The construction materials and procedures are identical to those in the NCD array. The CHIME is negative buoyant and will be deployed along the central vertical axis of the SNO detector using a specifically designed winding mechanism. The expected deployment date for the CHIME background source is summer 2000.

## 4 Neutron Background to the NC Signal

The backgrounds to the NC signal rate of 4600 n/yr expected in standard solar models can be summarized in terms of the total number of neutrons produced in the detector. The photodisintegration background contributes an estimated 1600 n/yr to the internal D2O backgrounds. The neutron background due to spallation reactions with cosmic rays muons (about 6000 n/yr) can be completely discriminated by the Cerenkov signal associated with each muon. Reactor and terrestrial $`\overline{\nu _e}`$ do not contribute more than 50 n/yr. The NCD array itself produces less than 230 n/yr in the D20. The total detector-internal background to the NC signal is estimated to be less than 1900 n/yr . Determination of the photodisintegration and the additional external backgrounds is therefore essential for an accurate measurement of the NC interaction rate.


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# Transversity Distribution and Polarized Fragmentation Function from Semi-inclusive Pion Electroproduction

## 1 Introduction

Deep inelastic charged lepton scattering off a transversely polarized nucleon target is an important tool to further study the internal spin structure of the nucleon. While a lot of experimental data on the longitudinal spin structure of the nucleon has been collected over the last 10 years, the study of its transverse spin structure is just about to begin. Only a very limited number of preliminary experimental results is available up to now:

* measurements of the nucleon structure function $`g_2(x)`$ at CERN smcg2  and SLAC e154g2 -bosted99 ,
* a first measurement of a single target-spin asymmetry for pions produced in lepton scattering off longitudinally polarized protons at HERMES avakian ,
* a first study of hadron azimuthal distributions in DIS of leptons off a transversely polarized target at SMC bravar99 .

A quark of a given flavour is characterized by three twist-2 parton distributions. The quark number density distribution $`q(x,Q^2)`$ has been studied now for decades and is well known for all flavors. The helicity distribution $`\mathrm{\Delta }q(x,Q^2)`$ was only recently measured more accurately for $`u`$ and $`d`$quarks HERMESdeltaq  and is still essentially unknown for $`s`$quarks. The third parton distribution, known generally as ‘transversity distribution’ and denoted $`\delta q(x,Q^2)`$ characterizes the distribution of the quark’s transverse spin in a transversely polarized nucleon.

For non-relativistic quarks, where boosts and rotations commute, $`\delta q(x)=\mathrm{\Delta }q(x)`$. Since quarks in the nucleon are known to be relativistic, the difference between both distributions will provide further information on their relativistic nature. The transversity distribution does not mix with gluons under QCD evolution, i.e. even if transversity and helicity distributions coincide at some scale, they will be different at $`Q^2`$ values higher than that.

The chiral-odd nature of transversity distributions makes their experimental determination difficult; up to now no experimental information on $`\delta q(x,Q^2)`$ is available. It can not be accessed in inclusive deep inelastic scattering (DIS) due to chirality conservation; it decouples from all hard processes that involve only one quark distribution (or fragmentation) function (see e.g. jaffe97b ). This is in contrast to the case of the chiral-even number density and helicity distribution functions, which are directly accessible in inclusive lepton DIS.

In principle, transversity distributions can be extracted from cross section asymmetries in polarized processes involving a transversely polarized nucleon. The corresponding asymmetry can be expressed through a flavor sum involving products of two chiral-odd transversity distributions in the case of hadron-hadron scattering, while in the case of semi-inclusive DIS (SIDIS) a chiral-odd quark distribution function always appears in combination with a chiral-odd quark fragmentation function. These fragmentation functions can in principle be measured in $`e^+e^{}`$ annihilation.

The transversity distribution was first discussed by Ralston and Soper ralston  in doubly transverse polarized Drell-Yan scattering. Its measurement is one of the main goals of the spin program at RHIC rhic . An evaluation of the corresponding asymmetry $`A_{TT}`$ was carried out omartin  by assuming the saturation of Soffer’s inequality soffer95  for the transversity distribution. The maximum possible asymmetry at RHIC energies was estimated to be $`A_{TT}=1÷2\%`$. At smaller energies, e.g. for a possible fixed-target hadron-hadron spin experiment HERA-$`\stackrel{}{N}`$ heran  ($`\sqrt{s}40`$ GeV), the asymmetry is expected to be higher.

In semi-inclusive deep inelastic lepton scattering off transversely polarized nucleons there exist several methods to access transversity distributions; all of them can in principle be realized at HERMES. One of them, namely twist-3 pion production jaffe-ji93 , uses longitudinally polarized leptons and a double spin asymmetry is measured. The other methods do not require a polarized beam; they rely on polarimetry of the scattered transversely polarized quark:

* measurement of the transverse polarization of $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$’s in the current fragmentation region baldracchini82 -jaffe96 ,
* observation of a correlation between the transverse spin vector of the target nucleon and the normal to the two meson plane jaffe97b ; jaffe97a ,
* observation of the Collins effect in quark fragmentation through the measurement of pion single target-spin asymmetries collins93 -mauro .

The HERMES experiment Spectr  has excellent capabilities to investigate semi-inclusive particle production. Taking the measurement of the Collins effect as an example, it will be shown in the following that HERMES will be capable to extract both transversity and chiral-odd fragmentation function at the same time and with good statistical precision.

## 2 Single Target-Spin Asymmetry in Pion Electroproduction

A complete analysis of polarized SIDIS with non-zero transverse momentum effects in both the quark distribution and fragmentation functions was performed in the framework of the quark-parton model in kotzinian95  and in the field theoretical framework of QCD in mulders96 . An important ingredient of this analysis is the factorization property that was proven for $`k_T`$ integrated functions and that can reasonably be assumed for $`k_T`$ depending functions mulders96 . In the situation that the final state polarization is not considered, two quark fragmentation functions are involved: $`D_1^q(z,z^2k_T^2)`$ and $`H_1^q(z,z^2k_T^2)`$. Here $`k_T`$ is the intrinsic quark transverse momentum and $`z`$ is the fraction of quark momentum transfered to the hadron in the fragmentation process. The ‘polarized’ fragmentation function $`H_1^q`$ allows for a correlation between the transverse polarization of the fragmenting quark and the transverse momentum of the produced hadron. It may be non-zero because time reversal invariance is not applicable in a decay process, as was first discussed by Collins collins93 .

Since quark transverse momenta cannot be measured directly, integrals over $`k_T`$ (with suitable weights) are defined to arrive at experimentally accessible fragmentation functions:

$`z^2{\displaystyle d^2k_TD_1^q(z,z^2k_T^2)}`$ $``$ $`D_1^q(z)`$ (1)
is the familiar unpolarized fragmentation function, normalized by the momentum sum rule $`_h𝑑zzD_1^{qh}(z)=1`$. Correspondingly, the polarized fragmentation function is obtained as

$`z^2{\displaystyle d^2k_T\left(\frac{k_T^2}{2M_h^2}\right)H_1^q(z,z^2k_T^2)}`$ $``$ $`H_1^{(1)q}(z),`$ (2)
where the superscript $`(1)`$ indicates that an originally $`k_T`$ dependent function was integrated over $`k_T`$ with the weight $`\frac{k_T^2}{2M_h^2}`$. Here, $`M_h`$ is the mass of the produced hadron $`h`$.

To facilitate access to transversity and polarized fragmentation functions from SIDIS, single-spin asymmetries may be formed through integration of the polarized cross section over $`P_h`$, the transverse momentum of the final hadron, with appropriate weights. In the particular case of an unpolarized beam and a transversely polarized target the following weighted asymmetry provides access to the quark transversity distribution via the Collins effect kotmul97 :

$`A_T(x,y,z)`$ (3)
$`{\displaystyle \frac{𝑑\varphi ^{\mathrm{}}d^2P_h\frac{|P_h|}{zM_h}\mathrm{sin}(\varphi _s^{\mathrm{}}+\varphi _h^{\mathrm{}})\left(d\sigma ^{}d\sigma ^{}\right)}{𝑑\varphi ^{\mathrm{}}d^2P_h(d\sigma ^{}+d\sigma ^{})}}.`$
Here $`()`$ denotes target up (down) transverse polarization. The azimuthal angles are defined in the transverse space giving the orientation of the lepton plane ($`\varphi ^{\mathrm{}}`$) and the orientation of the hadron plane ($`\varphi _h^{\mathrm{}}`$ = $`\varphi _h\varphi ^{\mathrm{}}`$) or spin vector ($`\varphi _s^{\mathrm{}}`$ = $`\varphi _s\varphi ^{\mathrm{}}`$) with respect to the lepton plane. The angles are measured around the z-axis which is defined by the momenta $`q`$ and $`P`$ of the virtual photon and the target nucleon, respectively. The raw asymmetry (3) can be estimated kotmul97  using

$$A_T(x,y,z)=P_TD_{nn}\frac{_qe_q^2\delta q(x)H_1^{(1)q}(z)}{_qe_q^2q(x)D_1^q(z)},$$
(4)
where $`P_T`$ is the target polarization and $`D_{nn}=(1y)/(1y+y^2/2)`$ is the transverse spin transfer coefficient. The magnitude of the asymmetry depends on the unknown functions $`\delta q(x)`$ and $`H_1^{(1)q}(z)`$.

## 3 Transversity Distribution and Polarized Fragmentation Function

No experimental data are available on any of the transversity distributions $`\delta q(x)`$, while their behaviour under QCD-evolution is theoretically well established ArtruMek . An example for the leading order evolution of the proton structure functions $`g_1(x,Q^2)`$ $`=\frac{1}{2}_ie_i^2\mathrm{\Delta }q_i(x,Q^2)`$ and $`h_1(x,Q^2)=\frac{1}{2}_ie_i^2\delta q_i(x,Q^2)`$ is shown in Fig. 1. It was assumed that $`h_1^p(x)`$ coincides with $`g_1^p(x)`$ at the scale $`Q_0^2=\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0.4}`$ GeV2 and both functions were evolved to the scale $`Q^2=\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}10}`$ GeV2. The evolution

was performed using the programs from kumanog1 ; kumanoh1  for $`g_1`$ and $`h_1`$, respectively. The important conclusion, which was already discussed earlier (see e.g. scopetta ), follows that with increasing $`Q^2`$ the two functions are becoming more and more different for decreasing $`x`$ while at large $`x`$ the difference remains quite small.

Results from two independent measurements indicate that the polarized fragmentation function $`H_1^{(1)q}(z)`$ may be non-zero: i) azimuthal correlations measured between particles produced from opposite jets in $`Z`$ decay at DELPHI delphi2  and ii) the single target-spin asymmetry measured for pions produced in SIDIS of leptons off a longitudinally polarized target at HERMES avakian . The approach of kotmul97  is adopted to estimate the possible value of $`H_1^{(1)q}(z)`$. Collins collins93  suggested the following parameterization for the analyzing power in transversely polarized quark fragmentation:

$$A_C(z,k_T)\frac{|k_T|H_1^q(z,z^2k_T^2)}{M_hD_1^q(z,z^2k_T^2)}=\frac{M_C|k_T|}{M_C^2+|k_T^2|},$$
(5)
with $`M_C0.3÷1.0`$ GeV being a typical hadronic mass. Choosing a Gaussian parameterization for the quark transverse momentum dependence in the unpolarized fragmentation function

$$D_1^q(z,z^2k_T^2)=D_1^q(z)\frac{R^2}{\pi z^2}\mathrm{exp}(R^2k_T^2),$$
(6)
leads to

$`H_1^{(1)q}(z)=`$ (7)
$`D_1^q(z){\displaystyle \frac{M_C}{2M_h}}\left(1M_C^2R^2{\displaystyle _0^{\mathrm{}}}𝑑x{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{exp}(x)}{x+M_C^2R^2}}\right).`$
Here $`R^2=z^2/b^2`$, and $`b^2`$ is the mean-square momentum the hadron acquires in the quark fragmentation process. In the following the parameter settings $`M_C=0.7`$ GeV and $`b^2=0.25`$ GeV2 are used because they are consistent kotzinian99  with the single target-spin asymmetry measured at HERMES avakian . They are also compatible with the analysis of delphi2 , as can be seen by evaluating the ratio

$$R(z_{min})=\frac{_{z_{min}}^1𝑑zH_1^{}(z)}{_{z_{min}}^1𝑑zD_1(z)},$$
(8)
where $`H_1^{}(z)`$, in contrast to Eq.(2), is the unweighted polarized fragmentation function used in delphi2

$$z^2d^2k_TH_1^q(z,z^2k_T^2)H_1^q(z).$$
(9)
The BKK parameterization bkk  was used to estimate the integral over the unpolarized fragmentation function $`D_1(z)`$. The values obtained for the ratio, $`R(0.1)=0.048`$ and $`R(0.2)=0.070`$, are to be compared to the experimental result delphi2 : $`0.063\pm 0.017`$.

## 4 Projected Statistical Accuracy and Systematics

A full analysis to extract transversity and polarized fragmentation functions through (4) requires one to take into account all quark flavours contributing to the measured asymmetry. According to calculations with the HERMES Monte Carlo program HMC, the fraction of positive pions originating from the fragmentation of a struck u-quark ranges, depending on the value of $`x`$, between $`70`$ and $`90\%`$ for a proton target and is only slightly smaller for a deuteron target. Therefore, in a first analysis, the assumption of $`u`$-quark dominance in the $`\pi ^+`$ production cross-section appears to be reasonable. This is supported by the sum rule for T-odd fragmentation functions recently derived in schaefer . These authors concluded that contributions from non-leading parton fragmentation, like $`d\pi ^+`$, is severely suppressed for all T-odd fragmentation functions.

Consequently, the assumption of $`u`$-quark dominance was used to calculate projections for the statistical accuracy in measuring the asymmetry $`A_T^{\pi ^+}(x)`$. The expected statistics for scattering at HERMES unpolarized leptons off a transversely polarized target (proton or deuteron options are under consideration) will consist of about seven millions reconstructed DIS events. The standard definition of a DIS event at HERMES is given by the following set of kinematic cuts111$`Q^2`$ and $`\nu `$ are the photon’s virtuality and laboratory energy, $`x=Q^2/2M\nu `$ is the Bjorken scaling variable, $`y=\nu /E`$ is the fractional photon energy and $`W`$ is the c.m. energy of the photon-nucleon system; $`E=27.5`$ GeV at HERMES.:

$`Q^2>1`$ GeV2, $`W>2`$ GeV, $`0.02<x<\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0.7}`$, $`y<\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0.85}`$.

An additional cut $`W^2>10`$ GeV2 was introduced in the analysis to improve the separation of the struck quark fragmentation region. An average target polarization of $`P_T=75\%`$ is used for the analysis.
Considering only $`u`$-quarks the expression for the asymmetry (4) reduces to the simple form

$$A_T(x,y,z)=P_TD_{nn}\frac{\delta u(x)}{u(x)}\frac{H_1^{(1)u}(z)}{D_1^u(z)}$$
(10)
for a proton target, and

$`A_T(x,y,z)=`$ (11)
$`(1{\displaystyle \frac{3}{2}}\omega _D)P_TD_{nn}{\displaystyle \frac{\delta u(x)+\delta d(x)}{u(x)+d(x)}}{\displaystyle \frac{H_1^{(1)u}(z)}{D_1^u(z)}}`$
for a deuteron target. Here $`\omega _D=0.05\pm 0.01`$ is the probability of the deuteron to be in the $`D`$-state.
To simulate a measurement of $`A_T`$ the approximation $`\delta q(x)=\mathrm{\Delta }q(x)`$ could be used in view of the relatively low $`Q^2`$-values at HERMES, in accordance with the above discussion. The Gehrmann-Stirling parameterization in leading order gehrstir  was taken for $`\mathrm{\Delta }q(x)`$ and the GRV94LO parameterization grv94lo  for $`q(x)`$. The $`Q^2`$ evolution of the quark distributions was neglected and $`Q^2=2.5`$ GeV2 was taken as an average value for the HERMES kinematical region. The HERMES Monte Carlo program HMC was used to account for the spectrometer acceptance. The following cuts were applied to the kinematic variables of the pion222$`x_F=2p_L/W`$, where $`p_L`$ is the longitudinal momentum of the hadron with respect to the virtual photon in the photon-nucleon c.m.s., and $`z=E_h/\nu `$, where $`E_h`$ is the energy of the produced hadron.:

$`x_F>0`$, $`z>0.1`$, $`P_h>0.05`$ GeV .

The simulated data were divided into 5x5 bins in ($`x,z`$). The expectations for the asymmetry $`A_T^{\pi ^+}(x)`$ as would be measured by HERMES using a proton target, are presented in Fig. 2a in different intervals of the pion variable $`z`$. The projected accuracies for the asymmetry were estimated according to

$$\delta A_T=\left(\frac{P_h}{zm_\pi }\mathrm{sin}(\varphi _s^{\mathrm{}}+\varphi _h^{\mathrm{}})\right)^2^{\frac{1}{2}}\frac{1}{\sqrt{N_\pi }},$$
(12)
where $`N_\pi `$ is the total number of measured positive pions after kinematic cuts, and $`<\mathrm{}>`$ means averaging over all accepted events. In this way the product of the transversity distribution and the ratio of the fragmentation functions,

$$K(x,z)=\delta u(x)\frac{H_1^{(1)u}(z)}{D_1^u(z)},$$
(13)
as well as the projected statistical accuracy for a measurement of this function were calculated and are shown in Fig. 2b, again for the case of a proton target.

The factorized form of expression (10) with respect to the variables $`x`$ and $`z`$ allows the simultaneous reconstruction of the shape for the two unknown functions $`\delta u(x)`$ and $`H_1^{(1)u}(z)/D_1^u(z)`$, while the relative normalization cannot be fixed without a further assumption. As was discussed above, the transversity distribution $`\delta q(x)`$ conceivably coincides with the helicity distribution $`\mathrm{\Delta }q(x)`$ at small values of $`Q^2`$ where the relativistic effects are expected to be small. According to Fig. 1 the differences are smallest in the region of intermediate and large values of $`x`$. Hence the assumption

$$\delta q(x_0)=\mathrm{\Delta }q(x_0)$$
(14)
at $`x_0=0.25`$ was made to resolve the normalization ambiguity. The experimental data then consist of 25 measured values of the function $`K(x_i,z_j)`$, as opposed to 9 unknown function values: 4 values for $`\delta u(x_i)`$ and 5 values for $`H_1^{(1)u}(z_j)/D_1^u(z_j)`$, where the indices $`i`$ and $`j`$ enumerate the experimental intervals in $`x`$ and in $`z`$, respectively. The standard procedure of $`\chi ^2`$ minimization was applied to reconstruct the values for both $`\delta u(x)`$ and $`H_1^{(1)u}(z)/D_1^u(z)`$ and to evaluate their projected statistical accuracies expected for a real measurement at HERMES. The results are shown in Figs. 3a,b, respectively.

In an analogous way the consideration of the deuteron asymmetry (11) allows the evaluation of the projected statistical accuracies for a measurement of the functions $`\delta u(x)+\delta d(x)`$ and $`H_1^{(1)u}(z)/D_1^u(z)`$ (see Figs. 4a,b, respectively). The projected statistical accuracy is considerably worse than that for the proton target; this is caused mainly by the expected smaller value of the asymmetry (11), which in turn is due to the lower value of $`(\delta u(x)+\delta d(x))/(u(x)+d(x))`$ compared to $`\delta u(x)/u(x)`$.

Two sources of systematic uncertainties arising from approximations used in the analysis were investigated. To evaluate the contribution of the normalization assumption (14), the relative difference between transversity distribution $`\delta u(x,Q^2)`$ and helicity distribution $`\mathrm{\Delta }u(x,Q^2)`$ was studied as a function of $`x`$ and $`Q^2`$ in the HERMES kinematics. Starting from $`\delta u(x)=\mathrm{\Delta }u(x)`$ at the scale $`Q_0^2=\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0.4}`$ GeV2 both functions were evolved to higher values of $`Q^2`$. The results are shown in Fig. 5 and allow the conclusion that the relative difference is small for $`x`$ above $`0.2÷0.3`$; the corresponding systematic uncertainty is on the level of $`2÷5`$%. The same conclusion is valid for the evolution of $`\delta u(x)+\delta d(x)`$.

A larger contribution to the systematic uncertainty originates from the above mentioned ‘contamination’ of other quark flavors than $`u`$ to $`\pi ^+`$ production, when assuming u-quark dominance in the analysis. The $`x`$ and $`z`$ dependence of this contamination was evaluated with HMC. Both contributions were added linearly; the resulting total projected systematic uncertainties on the extraction of the transversity distribution $`\delta u(x)`$ and the fragmentation function ratio $`H_1^{(1)u}(z)/D_1^u(z)`$, as would be measured using a proton target, are shown as hatched bands in Figs. 3a,b, as a function of $`x`$ and $`z`$, respectively. The same procedure for a deuteron target yields projected systematic uncertainties for $`\delta u(x)+\delta d(x)`$ and $`H_1^{(1)u}(z)/D_1^u(z)`$, as shown as hatched bands in Figs. 4a,b, respectively.

## 5 Conclusions

In conclusion, the HERMES experiment using a transversely polarized proton target will be capable to measure simultaneously and with good statistical precision the shapes of the u-quark transversity distribution $`\delta u(x)`$ and of the ratio of the fragmentation functions $`H_1^{(1)u}(z)/D_1^u(z)`$. The normalization can be fixed under the assumption that in the HERMES $`Q^2`$ range the transversity distribution is well described by the helicity distribution at large $`x`$. Using a deuteron target, information on $`\delta u(x)+\delta d(x)`$ will be available, but with considerably less statistical accuracy compared to a measurement of $`\delta u(x)`$ from a proton target. The systematic uncertainty of the method proposed in this paper is dominated by the assumption of $`u`$-quark dominance.

## Acknowledgements

We thank Klaus Rith for discussions which led to the development of the method described in this paper and the HERMES Collaboration for the kind permission to use their Monte Carlo Program. We are indebted to Ralf Kaiser for the careful reading of the manuscript.


text:
# Gamma-Ray Bursts as a Probe of the Very High Redshift Universe

## Introduction

There is increasingly strong evidence that gamma-ray bursts (GRBs) are associated with star-forming galaxies  and occur near or in the star-forming regions of these galaxies . These associations provide indirect evidence that at least the long GRBs detected by BeppoSAX are a result of the collapse of massive stars. The discovery of what appear to be supernova components in the afterglows of GRBs 970228  and 980326  provides direct evidence that at least some GRBs are related to the deaths of massive stars, as predicted by the widely-discussed collapsar model of GRBs . If GRBs are indeed related to the collapse of massive stars, one expects the GRB rate to be approximately proportional to the star-formation rate (SFR).

## GRBs as a Probe of Star Formation

Observational estimates  indicate that the SFR in the universe was about 15 times larger at a redshift $`z1`$ than it is today. The data at higher redshifts from the Hubble Deep Field (HDF) in the north suggests a peak in the SFR at $`z12`$ , but the actual situation is highly uncertain. However, theoretical calculations show that the birth rate of Pop III stars produces a peak in the SFR in the universe at redshifts $`16z20`$, while the birth rate of Pop II stars produces a much larger and broader peak at redshifts $`2z10`$ . Therefore one expects GRBs to occur out to at least $`z10`$ and possibly $`z1520`$, redshifts that are far larger than those expected for the most distant quasars. Consequently GRBs may be a powerful probe of the star-formation history of the universe, and particularly of the SFR at VHRs.

In Figure 1, we have plotted the SFR versus redshift from a phenomenological fit  to the SFR derived from submillimeter, infrared, and UV data at redshifts $`z<5`$, and from a numerical simulation by  at redshifts $`z5`$. The simulations done by  indicate that the SFR increases with increasing redshift until $`z10`$, at which point it levels off. The smaller peak in the SFR at $`z18`$ corresponds to the formation of Population III stars, brought on by cooling by molecular hydrogen. Since GRBs are detectable at these VHRs and their redshifts may be measurable from the absorption-line systems and the Ly$`\alpha `$ break in the afterglows , if the GRB rate is proportional to the SFR, then GRBs could provide unique information about the star-formation history of the VHR universe.

More easily but less informatively, one can examine the GRB peak photon flux distribution $`N_{GRB}(P)`$. To illustrate this, we have calculated the expected GRB peak flux distribution assuming (1) that the GRB rate is proportional to the SFR111This may underestimate the GRB rate at VHRs since it is generally thought that the initial mass function will be tilted toward a greater fraction of massive stars at VHRs because of less efficient cooling due to the lower metallicity of the universe at these early times., (2) that the SFR is that given in Figure 1, and (3) that the peak photon luminosity distribution $`f(L_P)`$ of the bursts is independent of $`z`$. There is a mis-match of about a factor of three between the $`z<5`$ and $`z5`$ regimes. However, estimates of the star formation rate are uncertain by at least this amount in both regimes. We have therefore chosen to match the two regimes smoothly to one another, in order to avoid creating a discontinuity in the GRB peak flux distribution that would be entirely an artifact of this mis-match.

For a peak luminosity function $`f(L_P)`$ and for $`dL_P/d\nu \nu ^\alpha `$, the observed GRB peak flux distribution $`N_{GRB}(P)`$ is given by the following convolution integration:

$$N_{GRB}(P)=\mathrm{\Delta }T_{obs}_0^{\mathrm{}}R_{GRB}(P|L_P)f[L_P4\pi D^2(z)(1+z)^\alpha P]𝑑L_P,$$
(1)
where $`\mathrm{\Delta }T_{obs}`$ is the length of time of observation, $`D(z)`$ is comoving distance,

$$R_{GRB}(P|L_P)\frac{R_{SF}(z)}{1+z}\frac{dV(z)}{dz}\left|\frac{dz(P|L_P)}{dP}\right|,$$
(2)
$`R_{SF}(z)`$ is the local co-moving SFR at $`z`$, and $`dV(z)/dz`$ is differential comoving volume .

The left panel of Figure 2 shows the number $`N_{}(z)`$ of stars expected as a function of redshift $`z`$ (i.e., the SFR, weighted by the co-moving volume, and time-dilated) for an assumed cosmology $`\mathrm{\Omega }_M=0.3`$ and $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }=0.7`$ (other cosmologies give similar results). The solid curve corresponds to the star-formation rate in Figure 1. The dashed curve corresponds to the star-formation rate derived by . This figure shows that $`N_{}(z)`$ peaks sharply at $`z2`$ and then drops off fairly rapidly at higher $`z`$, with a tail that extends out to $`z12`$. The rapid rise in $`N_{}(z)`$ out to $`z2`$ is due to the rapidly increasing volume of space. The rapid decline beyond $`z2`$ is due almost completely to the “edge” in the spatial distribution produced by the cosmology. In essence, the sharp peak in $`N_{}(z)`$ at $`z2`$ reflects the fact that the SFR we have taken is fairly broad in $`z`$, and consequently, the behavior of $`N_{}(z)`$ is dominated by the behavior of the co-moving volume $`dV(z)/dz`$; i.e., the shape of $`N_{}(z)`$ is due almost entirely to cosmology. The right panel in Figure 2 shows the cumulative distribution $`N_{}(>z)`$ of the number of stars expected as a function of redshift $`z`$. The solid and dashed curves have the same meaning as in the upper panel. This figure shows that $`40\%`$ of all stars have redshifts $`z>5`$.

The upper panel of Figures 3 shows the predicted peak photon flux distribution $`N_{GRB}(P)`$. The solid curve assumes that all bursts have a peak (isotropic) photon luminosity $`L_P=10^{58}`$ ph s-1. However, there is now overwhelming evidence that GRBs are not “standard candles.” Consequently, we also show in Figure 3, as an illustrative example, the convolution of this same SFR and a logarithmically flat photon luminosity function $`f(L_P)`$ centered on $`L_P=10^{58}`$ ph s-1, and having widths $`\mathrm{\Delta }L_P/L_P=10`$, 100 and 1000.222The seven bursts with well-determined redshifts and published peak (isotropic) photon luminosities have a mean peak photon luminosity and sample variance $`\mathrm{log}L_P=58.1\pm 0.7`$. The actual luminosity function of GRBs could well be even wider .

The middle panel of Figure 3 shows the predicted cumulative peak photon flux distribution $`N_{GRB}(>P)`$ for the same luminosity function. For the SFR that we have assumed, we find that, if GRBs are assumed to be “standard candles,” the predicted peak photon flux distribution falls steeply throughout the BATSE and HETE-2 regime, and therefore fails to match the observed distribution, in agreement with earlier work. In fact, we find that a photon luminosity function spanning at least a factor of 100 is required in order to obtain semi-quantitative agreement with the principle features of the observed distribution; i.e., a roll-over at a peak photon flux of $`P6`$ ph cm-2 s-1 and a slope above this of about -3/2. This implies that there are large numbers of GRBs with peak photon number fluxes below the detection threshold of BATSE and HETE-2, and even of Swift.

The lower panel of Figure 3 shows the predicted fraction of bursts with peak photon number flux $`P`$ that have redshifts of $`z>5`$, for the same luminosity functions. This panel shows that a significant fraction of the bursts near the Swift detection threshold will have redshifts of $`z>5`$.

## Conclusions

We have shown that, if many GRBs are indeed produced by the collapse of massive stars, one expects GRBs to occur out to at least $`z10`$ and possibly $`z1520`$, redshifts that are far larger than those expected for the most distant quasars. GRBs therefore give us information about the star-formation history of the universe, including the earliest generations of stars. The absorption-line systems and the Ly$`\alpha `$ forest visible in the spectra of GRB afterglows can be used to trace the evolution of metallicity in the universe, and to probe the large-scale structure of the universe at very high redshifts. Finally, measurement of the Ly$`\alpha `$ break in the spectra of GRB afterglows can be used to constrain, or possibly measure, the epoch at which re-ionization of the universe occurred, using the Gunn-Peterson test. Thus GRBs and their afterglows may be a powerful probe of the very high redshift ($`z5`$) universe.


text:
# 1 Introduction to the N=2 Superconformal Algebras

## 1 Introduction to the N=2 Superconformal Algebras

### 1.1 The N=2 superconformal algebras

The N=2 superconformal algebras were discovered in the seventies independently by Ademollo et al.  and by Kac . The first authors derived the algebras for physical purposes, in order to define supersymmetric strings, whereas Kac derived them for mathematical purposes along with his classification of Lie superalgebras. In modern notation these algebras read

$$\begin{array}{ccccccc}[L_m,L_n]\hfill & =& (mn)L_{m+n}+\frac{c}{12}(m^3m)\delta _{m+n,0},\hfill & & [H_m,H_n]\hfill & =& \frac{c}{3}m\delta _{m+n,0},\hfill \\ [L_m,G_r^\pm ]\hfill & =& \left(\frac{m}{2}r\right)G_{m+r}^\pm ,\hfill & & [H_m,G_r^\pm ]\hfill & =& \pm G_{m+r}^\pm ,\hfill \\ [L_m,H_n]\hfill & =& nH_{m+n}\hfill & & & & \\ \{G_r^{},G_s^+\}\hfill & =& \multicolumn{5}{c}{2L_{r+s}(rs)H_{r+s}+\frac{c}{3}(r^2\frac{1}{4})\delta _{r+s,0}.}\end{array}$$
(1.1)
The bosonic generators $`L_n`$ and $`H_n`$ correspond to the stress-energy tensor (Virasoro generators) and to the U(1) current, respectively. The fermionic generators $`G_r^\pm `$, with conformal weight 3/2, correspond to the two fermionic currents. Depending on the modings of the algebra generators $`G_r^\pm `$ and $`H_n`$ one distinguishes three N=2 algebras: the Neveu-Schwarz, the Ramond and the twisted N=2 algebras. For the Neveu-Schwarz N=2 algebra the two fermionic generators $`G_r^\pm `$ are half-integer moded and the U(1) generators $`H_n`$ are integer moded, i.e. $`r𝐙+1/2,n𝐙`$. For the Ramond N=2 algebra $`G_r^\pm `$ and $`H_n`$ are integer moded, i.e. $`r𝐙,n𝐙`$ and for the twisted N=2 algebra $`G_r^+`$ is integer moded whereas $`G_s^{}`$ and $`H_n`$ are half-integer moded, i.e. $`r𝐙,s𝐙+1/2,n𝐙+1/2`$.

The Neveu-Schwarz, the Ramond and the twisted N=2 superconformal algebras are not the whole story, however. In 1990 Dijkgraaf, Verlinde and Verlinde  presented the Topological N=2 superconformal algebra, which is the symmetry algebra of Topological Conformal Field Theory in two dimensions. This algebra can be obtained from the Neveu-Schwarz N=2 algebra by ‘twisting’ the stress-energy tensor by addding the derivative of the U(1) current, procedure known as ‘topological twist’ . The Topological N=2 algebra reads

$$\begin{array}{ccccccc}[_m,_n]\hfill & =& (mn)_{m+n},\hfill & & [_m,_n]\hfill & =& \frac{c}{3}m\delta _{m+n,0},\hfill \\ [_m,𝒢_n]\hfill & =& (mn)𝒢_{m+n},\hfill & & [_m,𝒢_n]\hfill & =& 𝒢_{m+n},\hfill \\ [_m,𝒬_n]\hfill & =& n𝒬_{m+n},\hfill & & [_m,𝒬_n]\hfill & =& 𝒬_{m+n},\hfill \\ [_m,_n]\hfill & =& \multicolumn{5}{c}{n_{m+n}+\frac{c}{6}(m^2+m)\delta _{m+n,0},}\\ \{𝒢_m,𝒬_n\}\hfill & =& \multicolumn{5}{c}{2_{m+n}2n_{m+n}+\frac{c}{3}(m^2+m)\delta _{m+n,0},}\end{array}m,n\text{Z}.$$
(1.2)
The fermionic generators $`𝒢_n`$ and $`𝒬_n`$ , with conformal weight 2 and 1, respectively, and the generators $`_n`$ are integer moded, i.e. $`n𝐙`$. The existence of two fermionic zero modes for the Ramond and for the Topological N=2 algebras allows one to classify the states in the corresponding Verma modules into two sectors: the $`(+)`$ and $`()`$ sectors for the Ramond states, $`G_0^{}`$ and $`G_0^+`$ interpolating between them, and the $`𝒢`$ and $`𝒬`$ sectors for the topological states, $`𝒬_0`$ and $`𝒢_0`$ interpolating between them. The two sectors are not the complete description of the states, however, since there exist indecomposible states in the Verma modules which do not belong to any of the sectors . In the case of the Ramond N=2 algebra the indecomposible states are called ‘no-helicity’ states and in the case of the Topological N=2 algebra they are called ‘no-label’ states.

### 1.2 Relations between the N=2 superconformal algebras

The Neveu-Schwarz and the Ramond N=2 algebras are connected through the spectral flows. Namely, the even $`(𝒰_\theta )`$ and the odd $`(𝒜_\theta )`$ spectral flows transform the Neveu-Schwarz and the Ramond N=2 algebras into each other for $`\theta =𝐙+1/2`$. However, they do not map highest weight (h.w.) vectors into h.w. vectors, but only in particular cases, and they deform the Verma modules very much, so that they are not isomorphic.

The Neveu-Schwarz and the Topological N=2 algebras are connected through the topological twists $`T_W^\pm `$. Under these only the topological h.w. vectors annihilated by $`𝒢_0`$ are transformed into h.w. vectors of the Neveu-Schwarz N=2 algebra and the Verma modules are deformed in a similar way as by the action of the spectral flows for $`\theta =\pm 1/2`$. Thus the corresponding Verma modules are not isomorphic. The topological twists $`T_W^\pm `$ consists of the modification of the stress-energy tensor by adding the derivative of the U(1) current: $`T(z)T(z)\pm 1/2H(z)`$. As a result the conformal weights (spins) of the fermionic fields are modified by $`\pm 1/2`$, what automatically produces a shift of $`\pm 1/2`$ in the modings of these generators: the spin-3/2 fermionic generators $`G_r^+,G_r^{}`$, with $`r𝐙+1/2`$, are transformed into the spin-2 and spin-1 fermionic generators $`𝒢_n`$ and $`𝒬_n`$, respectively, with $`n𝐙`$. In addition, $`𝒬(z)`$ has the properties of a BRST-current, $`𝒬_0`$ being the BRST charge. The topological nature of the resulting algebra manifests itself through the BRST-exactness of the stress-energy tensor: $`_m=1/2\{𝒬_0,𝒢_m\}`$. When this occurs, the correlators of the fields of the superconformal field theory do not depend on the two-dimensional metric, as is well known in the literature (see for example ref. ).

Finally, the Ramond and the Topological N=2 algebras are connected through the composition of the spectral flows with $`\theta =𝐙+1/2`$ and the topological twists. For $`\theta =\pm 1/2`$ one finds exact isomorphisms between the states of these algebras level by level . The Verma modules of the Ramond and of the Topological N=2 algebras are therefore isomorphic.

## 2 Representation Theory of the N=2 Superconformal Algebras

### 2.1 Historical overview

Let us now briefly review the most important developments concerning the representation theory of the N=2 superconformal algebras. One can distinguish two periods of remarkable activity. In the first period, from 1985 until 1988, the determinant formulae for the Neveu-Schwarz, the Ramond and the twisted N=2 algebras were written down by various authors, unitarity of the representations was analyzed and some singular vectors (called simply null vectors) were computed . Also some embedding diagrams were presented  and the (even) spectral flows interpolating between the Neveu-Schwarz and the Ramond N=2 algebras were written down .

During the period from 1989 until 1993 there was not much activity in the representation theory of N=2 algebras. However, two developments took place which were of crucial importance. On one side the chiral rings were discovered  and with them one realized the necessity to analyze the chiral representations of the N=2 algebras. On the other side the Topological N=2 algebra was written down  and its importance for string theory was also realized .

In the second period of remarkable activity, from 1994 until nowadays, there have been several important findings regarding the states in the Verma modules of the N=2 algebras: the discovery of two-dimensional singular spaces , the discovery of subsingular vectors  and the discovery of indecomposible states . In addition an (almost) complete classification of embedding diagrams was presented for the Neveu-Schwarz N=2 algebra  and the determinant formulae for the Topological N=2 algebra were computed  as well as the determinant formulae for the chiral representations of the Topological, the Neveu-Schwarz and the Ramond N=2 algebras . Moreover, the odd spectral flows were written down , which are believed to provide the complete set of automorphisms for the N=2 algebras. Furthermore, recently a powerful tool has been developed for the study of the representations of any Lie algebra or superalgebra, the so-called ‘adapted ordering method’. This method has been applied so far sucessfully to the N=2 algebras and to the Ramond N=1 algebra. In what follows we will say a few words about all these new results and developments.

### 2.2 The odd spectral flow

The odd spectral flow $`𝒜_\theta `$, when acting on the states and generators of the Neveu-Schwarz and the Ramond N=2 algebras read

$$\begin{array}{ccccccc}\hfill 𝒜_\theta L_m𝒜_\theta ^1& =& L_m+\theta H_m+\frac{c}{6}\theta ^2\delta _{m,0},\hfill & & & & \\ \hfill 𝒜_\theta H_m𝒜_\theta ^1& =& H_m\frac{c}{3}\theta \delta _{m,0},\hfill & & & & \\ \hfill 𝒜_\theta G_r^+𝒜_\theta ^1& =& G_{r\theta }^{},\hfill & & & & \\ \hfill 𝒜_\theta G_r^{}𝒜_\theta ^1& =& G_{r+\theta }^+,\hfill & & & & \end{array}$$
(2.3)
with $`𝒜_\theta ^1=𝒜_\theta `$ (it is therefore an involution). $`𝒜_\theta `$ and the even (usual) spectral flow $`𝒰_\theta `$  are quasi-mirror symmetric under $`H_mH_m,G_r^+G_r^{},\theta \theta `$. However, $`𝒜_\theta `$ generates $`𝒰_\theta `$ and consequently it is the only fundamental spectral flow, as one can see in the composition rules

$$𝒰_{\theta _2}𝒰_{\theta _1}=𝒰_{(\theta _2+\theta _1)},𝒜_{\theta _2}𝒜_{\theta _1}=𝒰_{(\theta _2\theta _1)},$$
(2.4)
$$𝒜_{\theta _2}𝒰_{\theta _1}=𝒜_{(\theta _2\theta _1)},𝒰_{\theta _2}𝒜_{\theta _1}=𝒜_{(\theta _2+\theta _1)}.$$
(2.5)
$`𝒜_\theta `$ is believed to provide the complete set of automorphisms of the N=2 algebras (for $`\theta 𝐙`$), whereas $`𝒰_\theta `$ provide only ‘half’ of them.

### 2.3 Indecomposible singular vectors

The indecomposible singular vectors of the Ramond N=2 algebra were overlooked until very recently (they do not exist for the Neveu-Schwarz N=2 algebra). In fact, they were discovered first for the Topological N=2 algebra in ref. , where they were called ‘no-label’ singular vectors. Shortly afterwards some examples were presented for the Ramond N=2 algebra  under the name ‘no-helicity’ singular vectors.

At first sight, just by inspecting the anticommutator of the fermionic zero modes, one realizes that indecomposible singular vectors are allowed to exist by the Topological (and Ramond) N=2 algebra. Namely, from $`\{𝒢_0,𝒬_0\}=2_0`$ one deduces that for non-zero conformal weight $`\mathrm{\Delta }0`$ all the states can be decomposed into linear combinations of $`𝒢_0`$-closed states and $`𝒬_0`$-closed states (i.e. states annihilated by $`𝒢_0`$ and states annihilated by $`𝒬_0`$):

$$|\chi =\frac{1}{2\mathrm{\Delta }}(𝒢_0𝒬_0|\chi +𝒬_0𝒢_0|\chi ).$$
(2.6)
For zero conformal weight $`\mathrm{\Delta }=0`$, however, there is not such a decomposition and the states can be annihilated either by one of the fermionic zero modes or by both or by none of them. The latter are the indecomposible ‘no-label’ states. In the case of the Ramond N=2 algebra, from the anticommutator $`\{G_0^+,G_0^{}\}=2L_0\frac{c}{12}`$ one deduces that the ‘no-helicity’ indecomposible states are allowed for $`\mathrm{\Delta }=\frac{c}{24}`$.

Indecomposible singular vectors are also allowed by the analysis of maximal dimensions  (see later). They actually exist already at levels 1 and 2  and recently it has been proved that they must necessarily exist . The argument goes as follows. One analyzes two curves in the parameter space of singular vectors. Each curve corresponds to two different families of singular vectors. In some discrete intersection points, however, the four singular vectors reduce to three (two of them coincide). But the rank of the inner product matrix is upper semi-continuous and therefore another singular vector must exist. By analyzing the dimensions of the singular vectors involved one deduces finally that the new singular vector must be indecomposible.

### 2.4 New determinant formulae

The determinant formulae for the Topological N=2 algebra have been computed for generic (standard) Verma modules, for chiral Verma modules and for no-label Verma modules . In addition, determinant formulae have been computed for the chiral Verma modules of the Neveu-Schwarz and of the Ramond N=2 algebras , as well as for the no-helicity Verma modules of the Ramond N=2 algebra (as a straightforward derivation of the results for the no-label Verma modules of the Topological N=2 algebra) .

The generic Verma modules of the Topological N=2 algebra are built on $`𝒢_0`$-closed and/or $`𝒬_0`$-closed h.w. vectors (annihilated either by $`𝒢_0`$ or by $`𝒬_0`$). For conformal weight $`\mathrm{\Delta }0`$ there are two h.w. vectors at the bottom of the Verma modules (one is $`𝒢_0`$-closed and the other $`𝒬_0`$-closed), giving rise to the two sectors: the $`𝒢`$-sector and the $`𝒬`$-sector. For $`\mathrm{\Delta }=0`$, however, there is only one h.w. vector (plus one singular vector at level zero) at the bottom of the Verma modules.

The chiral Verma modules of the Topological N=2 algebra are built on chiral h.w. vectors annihilated by both $`𝒢_0`$ and $`𝒬_0`$. Therefore they have only one h.w. vector at the bottom, which has zero conformal weight $`\mathrm{\Delta }=0`$. They are incomplete Verma modues that can be realized as quotient modules of a generic Verma module with $`\mathrm{\Delta }=0`$ divided by the submodule generated by its level zero singular vector. Similarly, the chiral Verma modules of the Ramond N=2 algebra are built on h.w. vectors annihilated by both $`G_0^+`$ and $`G_0^{}`$, with $`\mathrm{\Delta }=\frac{c}{24}`$. The chiral (anti-chiral) Verma modules of the Neveu-Schwarz N=2 algebra, in turn, are built on chiral (anti-chiral) h.w. vectors annihilated by $`G_{1/2}^+`$ ($`G_{1/2}^{}`$), satisfying $`\mathrm{\Delta }=\frac{h}{2}`$ ($`\mathrm{\Delta }=\frac{h}{2}`$), where $`h`$ is the U(1) charge.

Finally, no-label (no-helicity) Verma modules are built on no-label (no-helicity) h.w. vectors. At the bottom they consist of one h.w. vector plus three singular vectors at level zero obtained by the action of $`𝒢_0`$ and $`𝒬_0`$ ($`G_0^+`$ and $`G_0^{}`$) on the no-label (no-helicity) h.w. vector. No-label (no-helicity) Verma modules appear as submodules inside generic Verma modules, the bottom of these submodules consisting of four singular vectors consequently.

Apart from no-label (no-helicity) submodules, in generic Verma modules of the Topological (Ramond) N=2 algebra one can find another three types of submodules, taking into account the size and the shape at the bottom of the submodule . In chiral Verma modules, however, one finds only one kind of submodule .

### 2.5 Discovery of subsingular vectors

Subsingular vectors are null, but not h.w. vectors, that become singular (i.e. h.w. vectors) after the quotient of the Verma module by a submodule. That is, they become singular by setting one singular vector to zero. This implies that they are located outside that submodule since otherwise they would go away after the quotient.

Subsingular vectors for the Neveu-Schwarz, the Ramond and the Topological N=2 algebras were reported for the first time in 1996 - 1997 in refs. . For the twisted N=2 algebra subsingular vectors were presented only recently in ref. . The discovery of subsingular vectors for the N=2 algebras was as follows. From the chiral determinant formulae for the Neveu-Schwarz, the Ramond and the Topological N=2 algebras  one deduces the existence of singular vectors in the chiral Verma modules that are not singular in the complete (generic) Verma modules before the quotient that gives rise to the chiral Verma modules. These are therefore subsingular vectors in the generic Verma modules. Many explicit examples of subsingular vectors of this type (i.e. becoming singular in the chiral Verma modules) were presented for the Neveu-Schwarz, the Ramond and the Topological N=2 algebras . For the twisted N=2 algebra subsingular vectors were found by analyzing the Verma modules using the ‘adapted ordering method’  (see later).

### 2.6 Discovery of two-dimensional singular vector spaces

The two-dimensional singular vector spaces were discovered first for the Neveu-Schwarz N=2 algebra by Dörrzapf  in 1994. In particular, some conditions were found to guarantee the existence of two-dimensional spaces of uncharged singular vectors. These conditions can be written as the simultaneous vanishing of two functions: $`ϵ_r^+(h,c)=ϵ_r^{}(h,c)=0`$, where $`h`$ is the U(1) charge of the h.w. vector of the Verma module. The corresponding uncharged singular vectors are located in Verma modules where two charged and one uncharged singular vectors intersect (at different levels) in such a way that the charged singular vectors are the primitive ones and the two-dimensional uncharged singular space is secondary of the two charged singular vectors. These two-dimensional spaces are spanned by a tangent space of vanishing surfaces corresponding to singular vectors. Once the ‘general formula’ for singular vectors vanish one gets the two-dimensional singular space in the tangent space.

An straightforward extension of these results to the Topological N=2 algebra was presented in ref. . As a result four types of topological singular vectors were found for which two-dimensional spaces may exist. The extension of these results to the Ramond N=2 algebra is also straightforward since the corresponding Verma modules are isomorphic to the Verma modules of the Topological N=2 algebra. For the twisted N=2 algebra two-dimensional singular spaces were found using the adapted ordering method . In this case, however, the two-dimensional singular spaces are of different nature than the ones corresponding to the other N=2 algebras: they are spanned by two primitive singular vectors instead of two secondary singular vectors.

### 2.7 N=2 Embedding diagrams

In 1995 Dörrzapf presented a complete classification of embedding diagrams for the Neveu-Schwarz N=2 algebra  (see also ref. ). He proved that the relative charge $`q`$ of all singular vectors (not only the primitive ones) satisfy $`|q|1`$, correcting many earlier diagrams in the literature , and he presented many more diagrams than previously known . These results have not been improved so far although we know that they must be improved because subsingular vectors were assumed not to exist, being discovered one year afterwards.

The embedding diagrams of the Neveu-Schwarz N=2 algebra can be carefully adapted to provide embedding diagrams for the Topological and for the Ramond N=2 algebras. One has to take into account, however, that many singular vectors of these algebras do not correspond to singular vectors of the Neveu-Schwarz N=2 algebra but to null descendants of singular vectors or even to subsingular vectors (for example, indecomposable no-label and no-helicity singular vectors of the Topological and of the Ramond N=2 algebras always correspond to subsingular vectors of the Neveu-Schwarz N=2 algebra ).

## 3 The Adapted Ordering Method

The ‘adapted ordering method’, developed in ref. , can be applied to most Lie algebras and superalgebras. It allows:

i) to determine maximal dimensions for a given type of singular vector space,

ii) to rule out the existence of certain types of singular vectors (with dimension zero),

iii) to identify all singular vectors by only a few coefficients,

iv) to spot subsingular vectors,

v) to obtain easily product expressions of singular vector operators in order to compute secondary singular vectors (or decide whether they vanish),

vi) to set the basis for constructing embedding diagrams.

The method originates (in rudimentary form) from a procedure developed by Kent for the analytically continued Virasoro algebra . The analytical continuation is not necessary, however, for the adapted ordering method. The key idea of this method is to find a suitable ordering for the terms of the singular vectors, i.e. a criterion to decide which of two terms is the bigger one, for example between the terms at level 4 and charge 1: $`G_2^+L_2`$ and $`G_1^+H_2L_1`$. The ordering must be adapted to a subset of terms $`𝒞_{l,q}^A𝒞_{l,q}`$, where $`𝒞_{l,q}`$ is the set of all possible terms at level $`l`$ with charge $`q`$ (for the details see ref. ).

The crucial point of this method is the following. The complement of $`𝒞_{l,q}^A`$ is the ordering kernel $`𝒞_{l,q}^K=𝒞_{l,q}/𝒞_{l,q}^A`$ and its size puts a limit on the dimension of the corresponding singular vector space. Namely, if the ordering kernel $`𝒞_{l,q}^K`$ has $`n`$ elements then there are at most $`n`$ linearly independent singular vectors $`\mathrm{\Psi }_{l,q}`$, at level $`l`$ with charge $`q`$, in a given Verma module. In other words, the singular vectors $`\mathrm{\Psi }_{l,q}`$ span a singular space that is at most $`n`$-dimensional. As a result, if $`𝒞_{l,q}^K=\mathrm{}`$ then there are no singular vectors of type $`\mathrm{\Psi }_{l,q}`$ (the singular space has dimension zero). Therefore we need to find a suitable, clever ordering in order to obtain the smallest possible kernel. Furthermore, the coefficients with respect to the terms of the ordering kernel uniquely identify a singular vector. This implies that just a few (one, two,…) coefficients completely determine a singular vector no matter its size. As a consequence one can find easily product expressions for descendant singular vectors and set the basis to construct embedding diagrams.

The adapted ordering method has been applied to the Topological, to the Neveu-Schwarz and to the Ramond N=2 algebras in ref.  and to the twisted N=2 algebra in ref. . The maximal dimensions of the existing types of singular vectors have been found to be one or two, with the exception of some types of singular vectors in ‘no-label’ and ‘no-helicity’ Verma modules for which the maximal dimension has been found to be three. For the Topological and the Ramond N=2 algebras the only existing types of singular vectors (primitive as well as secondary), distinguished by the relative charge $`q`$ and the annihilation properties under the fermionic zero modes, resulted in: twenty types in generic Verma modules, with $`|q|2`$, nine types in no-label and no-helicity Verma modules, with $`|q|2`$, and four types in chiral Verma modules, with $`|q|1`$. These results had been conjectured previously in ref. . For the Neveu-Schwarz N=2 algebra one obtained $`|q|1`$, in agreement with the results presented in ref. . As we pointed out before, in the case of the twisted N=2 algebra the application of the adapted ordering method has lead to the discovery of subsingular vectors and two-dimensional singular spaces for this algebra.

## 4 Final Remarks

In spite of the progress made in the last six years, the representation theory of the N=2 superconformal algebras is not finished yet. It remains to classify the subsingular vectors and to complete the classification of embedding diagrams. Several of the techniques that have been used for the analysis of these algebras can be easily transferred to the analysis of other Lie algebras and superalgebras. This holds especially for the adapted ordering method, that has already been applied sucessfully to the Ramond N=1 superconformal algebra , leading as a result to the discovery of two-dimensional singular spaces and subsingular vectors, which do not exist for the Neveu-Schwarz N=1 superconformal algebra.

Acknowledgements

I am very grateful to Prof. Alexander Belavin for the invitation to participate in the Conference on Conformal Field Theory and Integrable Models, at Landau Institute, and for his hospitality. Also I would like to thank the organizers of the 6th International Wigner Symposium, at Bogazici University, for the invitation to participate.


text:
# VLBI differential astrometry at 43 GHz

## 1 Introduction

One of the trends in Very-Long-Baseline Interferometry (VLBI) is to augment the angular resolution of the observations in search for a more detailed view of the inner structure of extragalactic radio sources. This is effectively carried out by either observing at millimeter wavelengths (mm-VLBI) or, at cm-wavelengths, by combining ground telescopes with antennas in space. The correct interpretation of these high-resolution observations is of much relevance since they map the morphology of highly variable regions close to the central engine of AGNs. However, multi-epoch analyses directed to understand the dynamical behavior of these inner regions critically depend on the alignment of the images: no solid conclusions can be extracted without an accurate source component (i.e. core) identification. In particular, VLBI reveals that cm-wavelength components break up in complex structures with multiple features at mm-wavelengths. These compact mm-features show a strong variability, which may be the result of phenomena only seen so far in numerical simulations (Gómez et al. 1995). For a meaningful physical understanding of those compact features, a detailed knowledge of the (absolute) kinematics of the region is crucial. It is therefore highly desirable to extend precision differential phase-delay astrometry to mm-wavelengths.
In this Letter we demonstrate the feasibility of using phase-delay differential astrometry at 43 GHz. We have selected the pair of sources QSO 1928+738 and BL 2007+777, $``$5° apart, with flat spectra, high flux densities, and rich structures at 43 GHz. The astrometry analysis of these data show the advantages and possibilities of mm-wavelength differential astrometry.

## 2 Observations and Maps

We observed the radio sources QSO 1928+738 and BL 2007+777 at 43 GHz on 1999 January 3 from 15:00 to 23:30 UT. We used the complete Very Long Baseline Array (VLBA) recording in mode 256-8-2 in left circular polarization to achieve a recording bandwidth of 64 MHz. We interleaved observations of QSO 1928+738 and BL 2007+777 using integration times between 40 and 130 seconds on each source to make total cycle time durations between 110 and 300 seconds (antenna slew time was 15 seconds). The data were correlated at the National Radio Astronomy Observatory (NRAO, Socorro, NM, USA). Detections were found on both sources to all stations but Hancock, presumably due to severe weather conditions at this site. We made manual phase calibration, visibility amplitude calibration (using system temperatures and gain curves from each antenna), and fringe fitting at the correlation position with the NRAO Astronomical Image Processing System (AIPS). For astrometric purposes, we further processed the data in AIPS (tasks mbdly and cl2hf) to obtain, for each baseline and epoch, estimates of the group delay, phase-delay rate, and fringe phase at a reference frequency of 43,185 MHz. We discarded data from Saint Croix and Pie Town stations, which showed unacceptable scatter in the observables, for the astrometric analysis presented in Sect. 3. For mapping purposes, we transferred the data into the Caltech imaging program difmap (Shepherd et al. 1995). We performed several iterations of self-calibration in phase and gain. We present the resulting hybrid maps in Fig. 1.
The 43 GHz map of QSO 1928+738 displays several jet components extending southwards. All these features appear blended together as only one or two components in previous maps at cm-wavelengths (Guirado et al. 1995, hereafter G95; Ros et al. 1999, hereafter R99), and those obtained with space VLBI (Murphy et al. 1999). The brightest knot, labeled as Q1, is probably a jet component, unless the source is two-sided, but it is compact and well defined. Thus, it constitutes an appropriate reference point for relative astrometry at a single epoch. However, this component would not be a suitable reference point for a multi-epoch comparison of the relative separation between the two sources as it is likely to move and evolve in brightness and shape over time.
The 43 GHz map of BL 2007+777 represents a significant improvement in the knowledge of the inner structure of this source (see Fig. 1). The brightest knot seen earlier at cm-wavelengths (Guirado et al. 1998, hereafter G98; R99) breaks-up in at least three new features. The kinematic nature of component Q2, almost as bright as the easternmost component Q1, is of much interest. The brightest feature of BL 2007+777 at cm-wavelengths, a blending of all components seen within 1 mas from the origin in our 43 GHz map, has been taken as a reference point for astrometry (G95; G98; R99); even more, this feature has been considered stationary for multi-epoch astrometry analyses. Accordingly, should component Q2 be a travelling knot, the selected reference point at cm-wavelengths is likely to be not stable over time and part of previous astrometry results must be revised.

## 3 Astrometry Analysis

A goal of this research has been to calibrate the limitations of our standard astrometry procedure for 43 GHz, as well as to study the potential precision of the astrometric data at this frequency. Therefore, the data-reduction procedure for the 43 GHz observation deliberately followed the same steps as those used for the 5 GHz (G95) or 8.4 GHz observations (G98; R99). We briefly go again over each step of this analysis: For our 43 GHz data, (i) we predicted, via a precise theoretical model of the geometry of the array and the propagation medium, the number of cycles of phase between consecutive observations of the same source to permit us to “connect” the phase delay (e.g. Shapiro et al. 1979; G95; R99); (ii) we defined as reference points in the 43 GHz images of the two radio sources the maximum of the brightness distribution (components Q1 in the maps of QSO 1928+738 and BL 2007+777; see Fig. 1) and subtract the contribution of the structure of the radiosources, with respect to the reference points selected, from the phase delays; (iii) we formed the differenced phase delays by subtracting the residual (observed minus theoretical values) phase delay of BL 2007+777 from the previous observation of QSO 1928+738; and (iv) we estimated the relative position of the reference points from a weighted-least-squares analysis of the differenced residual phase delays. For this analysis we used an improved version of the program VLBI3 (Robertson 1975).

In step (i), the geometry of our theoretical model (set of antenna coordinates, Earth-orientation parameters, and source coordinates) was consistently taken from IERS (IERS 1998 Annual Report, 1999). The theoretical model also accounted for the effect of the propagation medium in the astrometric observables. We modeled the ionospheric delay by using total electron contect (TEC) data from GPS-based global ionospheric maps generated at the epoch of our observations by the Center for Orbit Determination in Europe (Schaer et al. 1998). We followed the geometric corrections described in Klobuchar (1975) and Ros et al. (2000). We modeled the tropospheric zenith delay at each station as a piecewise-linear function characterized by values specified at epochs one hour apart. We calculated a priori values at these nodes from local surface temperature, pressure, and humidity, based on the model of Saastamoinen (1973). The antenna elevations were always higher than 20° at all stations; this allowed us to use the dry and wet Chao mapping functions (Chao 1974) to determine the tropospheric delay at non-zenith elevations for each observation at each site. We estimated the tropospheric zenith delay at the nodes of each station, along with the relative position of the sources, from a weighted-least-squares analysis.

## 4 Results and Discussion

From the astrometric analysis described in Sect. 3, we obtain the following J2000.0 coordinates of QSO 1928+738 minus those of BL 2007+777 at 43 GHz:

| $`\mathrm{\Delta }\alpha =`$ | $`0^h\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}37}^m\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}42}\text{.}^s503443`$ | $`\pm \mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0}\text{.}^s000026`$ |
| --- | --- | --- |
| $`\mathrm{\Delta }\delta =`$ | $`3^{}\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}54}^{}\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}41}\text{.}^{\prime \prime }677208`$ | $`\pm \mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0}\text{.}^{\prime \prime }000056`$ |

where the quoted uncertainties are overall standard errors (see Table 1), nearly twofold smaller than the standard errors corresponding to previous determinations at 5 and 8.4 GHz. From the comparison of the results of the sensitivity analysis displayed in Table 1 with similar sensitivity analyses at lower frequencies (G95; R99), we see that the improvement in precision comes from (i) the small contribution to the standard errors of the reference point identification in the map (dominated by image noise), as a consequence of the improvement of resolution of the maps and of the lack of ambiguity in selecting the components acting as reference, and (ii) the negligible contribution of the ionosphere, that scales down by a factor of 25 with respect to its contribution at 8.4 GHz. As occurs at cm-wavelengths, the quoted standard errors of the relative position are dominated by the uncertainties of the fixed parameters of the astrometric model (entries 3 to 10 of Table 1), and, in particular, by the uncertainties of the coordinates of the reference source, as expected for objects with a large angular separation (notice that this error is not frequency dependent). The comparison and interpretation of the relative position estimate at 43 GHz with previously reported estimates at lower frequencies will be postponed to a later publication where the comparison will be made in great detail.

The postfit residuals of the differenced phase delays corresponding to all baselines included in our analysis are shown in Fig. 2. Note the scale of the plots, $`\pm `$23 ps, corresponding to $`\pm `$1 phase cycle. The average root-mean-square (rms) of the postfit residuals is 2 ps, less than one tenth of the phase cycle at 43 GHz. At this level of precision, the absence of systematic effects validates both the astrometric model, based on IERS standards, and the propagation medium procedures for mm-wavelength VLBI astrometry (at least for cycle times, source separations, weather conditions, and antenna elevations similar to those presented in this paper). To calibrate the quality of our procedure, we compared the residual of the differenced phase delay with similar residuals corresponding to observations at 8.4 GHz and 5 GHz made in the past (G95, G98). The rms of the residuals are about 15, 9, and 2 ps for the data sets at 5, 8.4, and 43 GHz, respectively, which expressed in equivalent-phase yield postfit residuals of roughly 30 degrees at each of the three frequencies. This similarity of the rms expressed in phase at all the observed frequencies demonstrates not only that the phase connection process is feasible at 43 GHz, but which is also of no less quality than at lower frequencies.
Likely, the most important contributors to the scatter of the phases at 43 GHz are the unmodeled variations of the refractivity of the neutral atmosphere. From the average rms of 2 ps of the phase residuals of Fig. 2, and assuming uncorrelated contributions from the antennas forming each interferometric pair, the average uncertainty for the single-site phase delay is $`\sqrt{2}`$ ps. This uncertainty is in good agreement with the predictions of water vapor fluctuations on time scales of 100 seconds ($``$2 ps) based on refractivity patterns described by Kolmogorov turbulences (Treuhaft & Lanyi 1987).
The importance of our result translates to VLBI phase-referencing mapping. This technique (see e.g. Lestrade et al. 1990) relies completely on the behavior of the phase of the reference source (usually a strong radio emitter) to predict the phase of the target source (usually a weak radio emitter). Beasley & Conway (1995) provide useful expressions for the maximum cycle time for phase-referencing with the VLBA. Under good weather conditions, average antenna elevation of 40°, and with the requirement that the rms phase between scans is $`<`$90°, the maximum cycle time at 43 GHz is $``$100s. This estimate should be shortened if atmospheric spatial variations from different lines of sight are considered. Actually, the facts are more favorable. For sources separated 5° on the sky, high antenna elevations, and good weather conditions, our results show that (i) the rms of the phases is below 90° throughout the experiment and does not seem to be substantially dependent of the cycle times used during our observation (100-300s); and (ii) the expected average uncertainty in interpolating the phases of one source to the epoch of the other is $``$30° in the differenced phase. This value is not larger than usual phase errors in phase-reference mapping at cm-wavelengths (e.g. Lestrade et al. 1990). Therefore, with the proper cycle times and nearby calibrator sources, diffraction limited VLBI phase-reference images at 43 GHz should be possible.

Our observations have shown that VLBI differential astrometry at 43 GHz provides high-precision relative positions. At this frequency, the astrometric precision is nearly equivalent to the resolution of the maps, and the reference point selected in the source structure might be associated with the core. This makes 43 GHz differential astrometry an ideal technique to trace unambiguously the kinematics of the inner regions of the extragalactic radiosources.

###### Acknowledgements.

We thank Patrick Charlot for a constructive refereeing of the paper and Walter Alef for his valuable comments. We thank Jon Romney for his efforts during the correlation. This work has been supported by the Spanish DGICYT grant PB96-0782. The National Radio Astronomy Observatory is operated by Associated Universities Inc., under a cooperative agreement with the National Science Fundation.