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# Nonextensive approach to decoherence in quantum mechanics

## Abstract

We propose a nonextensive generalization ($`q`$ parametrized) of the von Neumann equation for the density operator. Our model naturally leads to the phenomenon of decoherence, and unitary evolution is recovered in the limit of $`q1`$. The resulting evolution yields a nonexponential decay for quantum coherences, fact that might be attributed to nonextensivity. We discuss, as an example, the loss of coherence observed in trapped ions.

In the past decade, there have been substantial advances regarding a nonextensive, $`q`$-parametrized generalization of Gibbs-Boltzmann statistical mechanics . The $`q`$ parametrization is based on an approximate expression for the exponential, or the $`q`$-exponential

$$e_q(x)=\left[1+(1q)x\right]^{1/(1q)},$$
(1)
being the ordinary exponential recovered in the limit of $`q1`$ ($`e_1(x)=e^x`$). Thus we have a nonextensive $`q`$-exponential, i.e., $`e_q(x)e_q(y)e_q(x+y)`$, in general. Such a parametrization is the basis of Tsallis statistics, in which it is used a $`q`$-parametrized natural logarithm for the definition of a generalized entropy. We recall that in Tsallis’ statistics the entropy follows the pseudo-additive rule  $`S_q(A+B)=S_q(A)+S_q(B)+(1q)S_q(A)S_q(B)`$, where $`A`$ and $`B`$ represent two independent systems, i.e., $`p_{ij}(A+B)=p_i(A)p_j(B)`$. Hence for $`q<1`$ we have the supper-additive regime, and for $`q>1`$ the sub-additive regime. The parameter $`q`$ thus characterizes the degree of extensivity of the physical system considered. Tsallis’ entropy seems to be previligied, in the sense that it satisfies the concavity criterion, i.e., it has a well defined concavity . Moreover, it has also been shown that most of the formal structure of the standard statistical mechanics (and thermodynamics) is retained within the nonextensive statistics, e.g., the H-theorem , and the Onsager reciprocity theorem . Nonextensive effects are usual in many systems exhibiting, for instance, long-range interactions, and the nonextensive formalism has been succesfully applied not only to several interesting physical problems, but also outside physics . We may cite for instance, applications to statistical mechanics , Lévy anomalous supperdiffusion , quantum scattering , low dimensional dissipative systems , in cosmology , and others . This means that departures from exponential (or logarithmic) behavior not so rarely occur in nature, and that the parametrization given by Tsallis’ statistics seems to be adequate for treating them. Discussions concerning the quantification of quantum entanglement  as well as the implications on local realism  may be also found, within the nonextensive formalism. Quantum entanglement has itself a nonlocal nature, and this may have somehow a connection with the general idea of nonextensivity. In fact, it has been concluded that entanglement may be enhanced in the supper-additive regime (for $`q<1`$) . Thus, although nonextensive ideas open up new interesting possibilities, their application to a field such as foundations of quantum mechanics has not been so frequent. We would like, in this letter, to address fundamental aspects of quantum theory within a nonextensive approach.

In quantum mechanics, the issue of decoherence, or the transformation of pure states into statistical mixtures has been atractting a lot attention, recently, especially due to the potential applications, such as quantum computing and quantum criptography , that might arise in highly controlled purely quantum mechanical systems, e.g., in trapped ion systems . That extraordinary control is also allowing to address fundamental problems in quantum mechanics, such as the Schrödinger cat problem , and the question of the origin of decoherence itself. Despite of the progresses, it does not exist yet a proper theory handling the question of the loss of coherence in quantum mechanics, although there are several propositions, involving either some coupling with an environment , or spontaneous (intrinsic) mechanisms . Indeed dissipative environments, in which it is verified loss of energy, tend to cause decoherence. In spite of the destructive action of dissipation, though, it has been worked out a scheme to recover quantum coherences in cavity fields , even if its environment is at $`T0`$, and after the system’s energy, and coherences, have substantially decayed. Regarding the intrinsic decoherence, several models have been already presented , and decoherence has been attributed, for instance, to stochastic jumps in the wave function , or gravitational effects . These models may contain one  or even two new parameters . It is normally proposed some kind of modification of the von Neumann equation for the density operator $`\widehat{\rho }`$

$$\frac{d\widehat{\rho }}{dt}=\frac{i}{\mathrm{}}[\widehat{H},\widehat{\rho }].$$
(2)
A typical model yielding intrinsic decoherence, such as Milburn’s  (see also reference ), gives the following modified equation for the evolution of $`\widehat{\rho }`$

$$\frac{d\widehat{\rho }}{dt}\frac{i}{\mathrm{}}[\widehat{H},\widehat{\rho }]\frac{\tau }{2\mathrm{}^2}[\widehat{H},[\widehat{H},\widehat{\rho }]],$$
(3)
where $`\tau `$ is a fundamental time step. The second term in the right-hand-side (double commutator), leads to an exponential decay of coherences without energy loss . Nevertheless, other models concerning decoherence , as well as quantum measurements , predict nonexponential decay of coherences, going as $`\mathrm{exp}(\gamma t^2)`$ rather than as $`\mathrm{exp}(\gamma t)`$. In , decoherence is attributed to a whormhole-matter coupling of nonlocal nature. This suggests that decoherence might not be appropriately described by a Markovian stochastic process . Moreover, experimental evidence of nonexponential decay of quantum coherences has been recently reported, in a experiments involving trapped ions, , as well as in quantum tunneling of cold atoms in an accelerating optical potential .

Here we propose a novel model to treat decoherence, within a nonextensive realm. We are able to write down a $`q`$-parametrized (generalized) evolution for the density operator, which naturally leads to decoherence. As a first step we may express von Neumann’s equation \[Eq. (2)\] in terms of the superoperator $`\widehat{}`$, being $`i\mathrm{}\widehat{}\widehat{\rho }=\widehat{H}\widehat{\rho }\widehat{\rho }\widehat{H}`$, so that we may write its formal solution in a simple form

$$\widehat{\rho }(t)=\mathrm{exp}(\widehat{}t)\widehat{\rho }(0).$$
(4)
Now, we substitute the exponential superoperator $`\mathrm{exp}(\widehat{}t)`$ by a $`q`$-parametrized exponential as defined in Eq. (1)

$$\widehat{\rho }(t)=\left[1+(1q)\widehat{}t\right]^{1/(1q)}\widehat{\rho }(0).$$
(5)
The standard unitary evolution given by von Neumann’s equation is recovered in the limit of $`q1`$. Hence, departing from Eq. (5), we may write a generalized ($`q`$-parametrized) von Neumann equation, or

$$\frac{d\widehat{\rho }}{dt}=\frac{\widehat{}}{1+(1q)\widehat{}t}\widehat{\rho }(t).$$
(6)
Here we consider the case in which the parameter $`q`$ is very close to one. This represents a small deviation from the unitary evolution given by (2), but yields loss of coherence. For $`|1q|\mathrm{\Omega }t1`$, where $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ is the characteristic frequency of the physical system considered, we may write

$$\frac{d\widehat{\rho }}{dt}\left[\widehat{}(1q)t\widehat{}^2\right]\widehat{\rho }(t).$$
(7)
It may be shown, from Eq. (7), that there is decay of the nondiagonal elements in the basis formed by the eigenstates of $`\widehat{H}`$, characterizing decoherence, while the diagonal elements are not modified. Therefore the density operator remains normalized at all times, or $`Tr\widehat{\rho }(t)=Tr\widehat{\rho }(0)=1`$, property which must hold in any proper model for decoherence. We shall remark that in order to have a physically acceptable dynamics, the extensivity parameter should be greater than one ($`q>1`$), i.e., in the sub-additive regime. We may also rewrite Eq. (7) as

$$\frac{d\widehat{\rho }}{dt}\frac{i}{\mathrm{}}[\widehat{H},\widehat{\rho }]+g(t)[\widehat{H},[\widehat{H},\widehat{\rho }]],$$
(8)
where $`g(t)=(1q)t/\mathrm{}^2`$. Eq. (8) is similar to Eq. (3), apart from the time-dependent factor $`g(t)`$ multiplying the double commutator. Note that Eq. (8) is only valid for short times, or $`|1q|\mathrm{\Omega }t1`$. We have therefore constructed a novel model, based on a nonextensive generalization of von Neumann’s equation, which predicts loss of coherence, although with a time-dependence for the nondiagonal elements in the energy basis different from most that can be found in the literature . This particular time-dependence will lead to a nonexponential decay of quantum coherences, as we are going to discuss.

Now we would like to apply our model to a specific system in which experimental results are available. One of the most interesting systems investigated nowadays is a single trapped ion interacting with laser fields. Quantum state engineering of motional states of a massive oscillator has been achieved , and the loss of coherence in that system has been already observed . In the experiment described in reference , two Raman lasers induce transitions between two internal electronic states ($`|e`$ and $`|g`$) of a single 9Be+ trapped ion, as well as amongst center-of-mass vibrational states $`|n`$. In the interaction picture, and under the rotating wave approximation, the effective hamiltonian (in one dimension) may be written as

$$\widehat{H}_{int}^I=\mathrm{}\mathrm{\Omega }\left(\sigma _+e^{i\eta (\widehat{a}_x^{}+\widehat{a}_x)i\delta t}+\sigma _{}e^{i\eta (\widehat{a}_x^{}+\widehat{a}_x)+i\delta t}\right),$$
(9)
being $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ the coupling constant, $`\delta `$ the detuning of the frequency difference of the two laser beams with respect to $`\omega _0`$, which is the energy difference between $`|e`$, or $`|g`$ ($`E_eE_g=\mathrm{}\omega _0`$). The Lamb-Dicke parameter is $`\eta =k\sqrt{\mathrm{}/(2m\omega _x)}`$, where $`k`$ is the magnitude of the difference between the wavevectors of the two laser beams, $`\omega _x`$ is the vibrational frequency of the ion’s center of mass having a mass $`m`$, and $`\widehat{a}_x(\widehat{a}_x^{})`$, are annihilation and creation operators of vibrational excitations. The ion is Raman cooled to the (vibrational) vacuum state $`|0`$, and from that Fock (as well as coherent and squeezed) states may be prepared by applying a sequence of laser pulses . If the atom is initially in the $`|g,n`$ state, and the Raman lasers are tuned to the first blue sideband ($`\delta =\omega _x`$), the evolution according to the hamiltonian in Eq. (9) (for small $`\eta `$) will be such that the system will perform Rabi oscillations between the states $`|g,n`$ and $`|e,n+1`$. If the excitation distribution of the initial vibrational state of the ion is $`P_n`$, occupation probability of the ground state $`P_g(t)`$ will be given by

$$P_g(n,t)=\frac{1}{2}\left[1+\underset{n}{}P_n\mathrm{cos}(2\mathrm{\Omega }_nt)e^{\gamma _nt}\right].$$
(10)
Here the Rabi frequency $`\mathrm{\Omega }_n`$ is

$$\mathrm{\Omega }_n=\mathrm{\Omega }\frac{e^{\eta ^2/2}}{\sqrt{n+1}}\eta L_n^1(\eta ^2),$$
(11)
where $`\mathrm{\Omega }/2\pi =500`$kHz, $`L_n^1`$ are Laguerre generalized polynomials, and $`\gamma _n=\gamma _0(n+1)^{0.7}`$, with $`\gamma _0=11.9`$kHz.

The experimental results are fitted using Eq. (10) . The Rabi oscillations are damped, and an empirical damping factor, $`\gamma _n`$, is introduced in order to fit the experimental data . There heve been attempts to derive such an unusual dependence on $`n`$ for the damping factor $`\gamma _n`$, by taking into account the fluctuations in laser fields and the trap parameters . Those models are somehow connected to a evolution of the type given by Eq. (3) , which predicts loss of coherence without loss of energy. In fact, at a time-scale in which the ion’s energy remains almost constant, decoherence is considerably large . Moreover, the actual causes of loss of coherence in experiments with trapped ions are still not identified . Our approach differs from previous ones because we depart from a different dynamics which leads to a peculiar nonexponential time-dependence. By employing a similar methodology to the one discussed in reference , we may calculate, from Eq. (8), the probability of the atom to occupy the ground state, obtaining

$$P_g^q(n,t)=\frac{1}{2}\left[1+\underset{n}{}\mathrm{cos}(2\mathrm{\Omega }_nt)e^{\gamma _{n,q}t^2}\right],$$
(12)
where $`\gamma _{n,q}=(q1)\mathrm{\Omega }_n^2/2`$, i.e., the damping factor arising in our model depends on the Rabi frequency $`\mathrm{\Omega }_n`$ and on the parameter $`q`$ in a simple way. It is also verified a nonexponential decay which goes as $`\mathrm{exp}(\gamma t^2)`$ rather than an exponential one. Now we may proceed with a graphical comparison between the curves plotted from expressions (10) and (12). This is shown in Figure 1, for two distinct cases. In Figure 1a we have plotted both the probability $`P_g`$ in Eq. (12) (dashed line) and the one in Eq. (10) (full line), as a function of time, for an initial state $`|g,0`$ $`(P_n=\delta _{n,0})`$, a Lamb-Dicke parameter $`\eta =0.202`$, and $`q=1.001`$. We note a clear departure from exponential behavior in the curve arising from our model, although they might coincide for some time-intervals. We remark that Eq. (12) is valid for times such that $`|1q|\mathrm{\Omega }t1`$. Here $`|1q|\mathrm{\Omega }t_{max}0.17`$. Right below, in Figure 1b, there is a similar plot, but using a different initial condition for the distribution of excitations of the ion state, e.g., a coherent state $`|\alpha `$, with $`\overline{n}=\alpha ^2=3`$ ($`P_n=\mathrm{exp}(\alpha ^2)\alpha ^{2n}/n!`$) instead of the vacuum state $`|0`$. In the coherent state case both curves are very close, although it seems that our curve (dashed line) represents a better fit for the experimental results . In general, our results are in reasonable agreement with the experimental data, as it may be seen in Figure 1 and in reference . This means that a nonexponential decay may also account for the loss of coherence in the trapped ions system.

In our model, the effects leading to decoherence are embodied within the nonextensive parameter $`q`$, rather than into a “fundamental time step” $`\tau `$, as it occurs in Milburn’s model. Nonextensivity may be especially relevant when nonlocal effects, for instance, long-range interactions, or memory effects are involved . In the specific example treated here, the ion is not completely isolated from its surroundings; electric fields generated in the trap electrodes couple to the ion’s charge, and this is considered to be a genuine source of decoherence to the vibrational motion of the ion .

In conclusion, we have presented a novel approach for treating the loss of coherence in quantum mechanics, based on a nonextensive formalism. In our model, the quality of decoherence depends on a single parameter, $`q`$, related to the nonextensive properties of the physical system considered. We obtain, with such a parametrization, an evolution equation which is a (nonextensive) generalization of von Neumann’s equation for the density operator, and that leads, in general, to a nonexponential decay of quantum coherences. We have applied our model to a concrete physical problem, that is, the decoherence occurring in the quantum state of a single trapped ion undergoing harmonic oscillations. This is a well know case in which decoherence may be readily tracked down, yet its causes remain unexplained. We have found that for values of the parameter $`q`$ rather close to one (in the sub-additive regime), our model is in reasonable agreement with the available experimental results, without the need of introducing any supplementary assumptions.

###### Acknowledgements.

One of us, H.M.-C., thanks R. Bonifacio and P. Tombesi for useful comments. A.V.-B. would like to thank the hospitality at INAOE, México. This work was partially supported by CONACyT (Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología, México), and CNPq (Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico, Brazil).


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# 1 Introduction

## 1 Introduction

The formation of galactic disks is one of the most important unsolved problems in astrophysics today. In the currently favored hierarchical clustering framework, disks form in the potential wells of dark matter halos as the baryonic material cools and collapses dissipatively. Fall & Efstathiou (1980) have shown that disks formed in this way can be expected to possess the observed amount of angular momentum (and therefore the observed spatial extent for a given mass and profile shape), but only under the condition that the infalling gas retain most of its original angular momentum.

However, numerical simulations of this collapse scenario in the cold dark matter (CDM) cosmological context (e.g., Navarro & Benz 1991, Navarro & White 1994, Navarro, Frenk, & White 1995) have so far consistently indicated that when only cooling processes are included the infalling gas loses too much angular momentum (by over an order of magnitude) and the resulting disks are accordingly much smaller than required by the observations. This discrepancy is known as the angular momentum problem of disk galaxy formation. It arises from the combination of the following two facts: a) In the CDM scenario the magnitude of linear density fluctuations $`\sigma (M)=(\delta M/M)^2^{1/2}`$ increases steadily with decreasing mass scale $`M`$ leading to the formation of non-linear, virialized structures at increasingly early epochs with decreasing mass i.e. the hierarchical “bottom-up” scenario. b) Gas cooling is very efficient at early times due to gas densities being generally higher at high redshift as well as the rate of inverse Compton cooling also increasing very rapidly with redshift. a) and b) together lead to rapid condensation of small, dense gas clouds, which subsequently lose energy and (orbital) angular momentum by dynamical friction against the surrounding dark matter halo before they eventually merge to form the central disk. A mechanism is therefore needed that prevents, or at least delays, the collapse of protogalactic gas clouds and allows the gas to preserve a larger fraction of its angular momentum as it settles into the disk. Two such possible solutions are discussed in section 2.

In section 3 we present some new results from our WDM disk galaxy formation simulations on the Tully-Fisher relation and in section 4 we discuss how the magnetic field strengths of a few $`\mu `$G observed in galactic disks can be obtained via disk galaxy formation, as an alternative to disk dynamo amplification.

## 2 Towards solving the angular momentum problem

Two ways of possibly solving the angular momentum problem have recently been discussed in the literature: a) by invoking the effects of stellar feedback processes from either single, more or less uniformly distributed stars or star-bursts and b) by assuming that the dark matter is “warm” rather than cold. Both options lead to the suppression of the formation of early, small and dense gas clouds, for a) because the small gas clouds may be disrupted due to the energetic feedback of primarily type II super-nova explosions and for b) simply because fewer of the small and dense gas clouds form in the first place for WDM free-streaming masses $`M_{f,\mathrm{WDM}}10^{10}`$-$`10^{11}M_{}`$.

### 2.1 Stellar feedback processes

Sommer-Larsen et al. (1999) showed that the feedback caused by a putative, early epoch of more or less uniformly distributed population III star formation was not sufficient to solve the angular momentum problem. Based on test simulations they showed, however, that effects of feedback from star-bursts in small and dense protogalactic clouds might do that. Preliminary results of more sophisticated simulations incorporating stellar feedback processes in detail indicate that this is at least partly the case. Considerable fine-tuning seems to be required, however: About 2-3% of the gas in the proto-galactic region of a forming disk galaxy should be turned into stars. If less stars are formed the feedback is not strong enough to cure the angular momentum problem and, vice versa, if more stars are formed during this fairly early phase of star-formation, the energetic feedback causes the formation of the main disks and thereby the bulk of the stars to be delayed too much compared to the observed star-formation history of the Universe.

This requirement of fine-tuning is advantageous, however, in relation to the early chemical evolution of disk galaxies, since the early star-formation histories of the galaxies are then well constrained. Furthermore, as it is possible to track the elements produced and ejected by (primarily) type II supernovae in the star-bursts one can determine the fraction of these elements, which ultimately settle on the forming disk and hence determine the rate and metallicity of the gas falling onto the disk. In Figure 1 we show the time evolution of the oxygen abundance in a forming disk as a result of infall of a mixture of enriched and unenriched gas (neglecting the contribution of ejecta from stars formed subsequently in the disk). We have assumed a Salpeter IMF with $`M_{low}=0.1M_{}`$ and $`M_{up}=60M_{}`$ and that a typical type II supernova ejects $`2M_{}`$ of oxygen. This abundance can be regarded as the initial abundance of the disk, its value depending on when star-formation subsequently commenced in the disk (note that such two-epoch star-formation models have been advocated by, e.g., Chiappini, Matteucci & Gratton 1997). As can be seen from the figure this initial disk abundance is of the order $`[O/H]2`$. This is similar to the lowest abundance of the low-metallicity tail of the Galactic thick disk – see Beers & Sommer-Larsen (1995).

### 2.2 Warm dark matter

Another, more radical way of solving the angular momentum problem is to abandon CDM altogether and assume instead that dark matter is “warm”. Such a rather dramatic measure not only proves very helpful in this respect, as will be discussed below, but may also be additionally motivated: Recently, various possible shortcomings of the CDM cosmological scenario in relation to structure formation on galactic scales have been discussed in the literature: 1) CDM possibly leads to the formation of too many small galaxies relative to what is observed, i.e. the missing satellites problem (e.g., Klypin et al. 1999). 2) Even if galactic winds due to star-bursts can significantly reduce the number of visible dwarf galaxies formed, sufficiently many of the small and tightly bound dark matter systems left behind can still survive to the present day in the dark matter halos of larger galaxies like the Milky Way to possibly destroy the large, central disks via gravitational heating, as discussed by Moore et al. (1999a). 3) The dark matter halos produced in CDM cosmological simulations tend to have central cusps with $`\rho _{DM}(r)r^N,N12`$ (Dubinski & Carlberg 1991, Navarro et al. 1996, Fukushige & Makino 1997, Moore et al. 1998, Kravtsov et al. 1998, Gelato & Sommer-Larsen 1999). This is in disagreement with the flat, central dark matter density profiles (cores) inferred from observations of the kinematics of dwarf and low surface brightness galaxies (e.g., Burkert 1995, de Blok & McGaugh 1997, Kravtsov et al. 1998, Moore et al. 1999b, but see also van den Bosch et al. 1999).

The first two problems may possibly be overcome by invoking warm dark matter (WDM) instead of CDM: On mass scales less than the free-streaming mass, $`M\begin{array}{c}<\\ \end{array}M_{f,\mathrm{WDM}}`$, the growth of the initial density fluctuations in the Universe is suppressed relative to CDM due to relativistic free-streaming of the warm dark matter particles. In conventional WDM theory these become non-relativistic at redshifts $`z_{nr}10^6`$-$`10^7`$ for $`m_{\mathrm{WDM}}`$ 1 keV, which is the characteristic WDM particle mass required to give sub-galactic to galactic free-streaming masses. As a consequence of this suppression, fewer low mass galaxies (or “satellites”) are formed cf., e.g., Moore et al. (1999a) and Sommer-Larsen & Dolgov (1999, SD99). The central cusps problem may be more generic (Huss et al. 1999 and Moore et al. 1999b), but WDM deserves further attention also on this point.

SD99 show that the angular momentum problem may be resolved by going from cold to warm dark matter, with characteristic free-streaming mass $`M_{f,\mathrm{WDM}}10^{10}`$-$`10^{11}M_{}`$, and without having to invoke effects of stellar feedback processes at all. The reason why this kind of warm dark matter leads to a solution of the angular momentum problem is that because of the suppression of density fluctuations on sub-galactic scales relative to CDM the formation of a disk galaxy becomes a much more coherent and gentle process enabling the infalling, disk-forming gas to retain much more of its original angular momentum. In fact SD99 find it likely that the angular momentum problem can be completely resolved by going to the WDM structure formation scenario, which is more than can be said for the CDM+feedback approach so far. In Figure 2 we show a face-on view of a disk galaxy with characteristic circular velocity (where the rotation curve is approximately constant) $`V_c`$ 300 km/s formed in a WDM simulation (in this simulation gas was not converted into stars). Clearly it is no longer a problem to form extended, high angular momentum disks in fully cosmological simulations. In comparison the extent of typical disks formed in “passive” CDM simulations (i.e. simulations not incorporating the effects of stellar feedback processes) is less than 1 kpc – see, e.g., Sommer-Larsen et al. (1999).

Unlike the CDM+feedback solution, one does not get a constraint on the early star-formation histories of the proto-galaxies, so no statements about the abundance of the first generation of disk stars can be made without further assumptions.

SD99 discuss possible physical candidates for WDM particles and find that the most promising are neutrinos with weaker or stronger interactions than normal, majorons (light pseudogoldstone bosons), or mirror or shadow world neutrinos.

## 3 The Tully-Fisher relation

In Figure 3 we show the cooled-out disk mass $`M_{disk}`$ at redshift $`z`$=0 as a function of the characteristic circular velocity $`V_c`$ of model galaxies formed in our WDM simulations (assuming a Hubble parameter $`H_0`$=70 km/s/Mpc). Also shown is the $`I`$-band Tully-Fisher (TF) relation of Giovanelli et al. (1997) converted to mass assuming $`I`$-band mass-to-light ratios $`(M/L_I)`$=0.25, 0.5 and 1.0 in solar units and $`H_0`$=70 km/s/Mpc. Finally, the baryonic mass of the Milky Way, estimated in a completely independent way, is shown (see SD99 for details). As can be seen from the figure we can match the slope of the TF relation very well assuming a constant $`(M/L_I)`$. To get the normalization right a $`(M/L_I)0.8`$ is required. SD99 argue that this is quite a reasonable value in comparison with various dynamical and spectrophotometric estimates. Moreover, it is clearly gratifying that the Milky Way data point falls right on top of the theoretical as well as observational $`M_{disk}`$-$`V_c`$ relations (for $`(M/L_I)0.8`$, $`H_0`$=70 km/s/kpc).

Steinmetz & Navarro (1999) and Navarro & Steinmetz (1999) find a discrepancy between the observed and “theoretical” TF on the basis of CDM simulations of disk galaxy formation. It is hence possible that WDM helps out also on this point, but this has to be checked with more detailed simulations.

## 4 Magnetic fields in galactic disks and disk galaxy formation

Rögnvaldsson (1999) showed how the typical magnetic field strengths observed in galactic disks can be explained as a result of disk galaxy formation, as an alternative to the usually assumed dynamo amplification of an initially very weak magnetic field in the disk: Hot, virialized gas ($`T210^6`$ K) in a dark matter halo is assumed to initially follow the dark matter distribution and to be rotating slowly, corresponding to a spin-parameter $`\lambda `$ 0.05, typical of galactic, dark matter halos. The hot gas is assumed to be threaded by a weak and random magnetic field. As the hot gas cools radiatively, gravity forces it to flow inwards and due to the spin it forms a growing, cold, galactic disk in the central parts of the dark matter halo. The magnetic field follows the cooling gas inwards and is strongly amplified by compression and shear in the forming disk. Rögnvaldsson (1999) carried out magnetohydrodynamical (MHD) simulations of this process using an eulerian mesh MHD code. The simulations were run with various initial magnetic field strengths in the hot gas, parameterized by the initial ratio between the gas pressure and magnetic pressure $`\beta _0=\frac{P_{gas}}{B^2/8\pi }_0`$. The temporal evolution of the average magnetic field strength in the disk gas is shown in Figure 4. For weak initial fields ($`\beta _0`$=100-400 was taken as a starting point, since these values are typical values in the hot, intergalactic gas in clusters of galaxies) the average magnetic field strength grows gradually from about $`t`$=1 Gyr (after an initial relaxation phase). The average values of 1-2$`\mu `$G reached after about 5 Gyr are quite reasonable for typical disk galaxies, indicating a route to the explanation of the magnetic field strengths observed in galactic disks alternative to the usual dynamo one.

Another aspect of the growth of the field strength is reflected in the radial average in the disk, shown in Figure 5 at various times for a simulation with $`\beta _0`$=400. The field strength is always highest in the outermost part of the growing disk, since the fieldlines brought in with the cooling flow are stacked on top of the already existing field there and the field is further amplified by the disk shear.

## 5 Acknowledgements

I have benefited from comments by Örnólfur Rögnvaldsson, Sasha Dolgov and Jens Schmalzing and thank the organizers for a magnificent conference. This work was supported by Danmarks Grundforskningsfond through its support for the establishment of the Theoretical Astrophysics Center.


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# 1 Four different classes of scattering for the initial string perturbative vacuum (solid line). The two spatial reflections (𝑎) and (𝑐) describe the transition from an expanding pre-big bang configuration to an expanding post-big bang and contracting pre-big bang configuration, respectively. The two Bogoliubov processes (𝑏) and (𝑑) represent the production of universe-antiuniverse pairs from the vacuum. In case (𝑏) one universe is expanding, the other contracting, but they both fall inside the pre-big bang singularity. In case (𝑑) both universes are expanding, but only one falls inside the singularity, while the other one survives in the post-big bang regime.

## Abstract

The decay of the string perturbative vacuum, if triggered by a suitable, duality-breaking dilaton potential, can efficiently proceed via the parametric amplification of the Wheeler-De Witt wave function in superspace, and can appropriately describe the birth of our Universe as a quantum process of pair production from the vacuum.

BA-TH/00-378

February 2000

gr-qc/0002080

Birth of the Universe as anti-tunnelling
from the string perturbative vacuum

M. Gasperini

Dipartimento di Fisica, Università di Bari,
Via G. Amendola 173, 70126 Bari, Italy
and
Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare, Sezione di Bari, Bari, Italy

———————————————

Essay written for the 2000 Awards of the Gravity Research Foundation,
and selected for Honorable Mention.
To appear in Int. J. Mod. Phys. D

A consistent and quantitative description of the birth of our Universe is one of the main goals of the quantum approach to cosmology. In the context of the standard scenario, in particular, quantum effects are expected to stimulate the birth of the Universe in a state approaching the de Sitter geometric configuration, appropriate to inflation . The initial cosmological state is unknown, however, and has to be fixed through some “ad-hoc” prescription. It follows that there are various possible choices for the initial boundary conditions , leading in general to different quantum pictures of the early cosmological evolution.

In the context of the pre-big bang scenario , typical of string cosmology, the initial state on the contrary is fixed, and has to approach the string perturbative vacuum. The quantum decay of this initial state necessarily crosses the high-curvature, Planckian regime, and can be appropriately described by a Wheeler-de Witt (WDW) wave function , evolving in superspace. The birth of the Universe may then be represented as a process of scattering and reflection , in an appropriate minisuperspace parametrized by the metric and by the dilaton. In that case the pre-big bang initial state – emerging from the string perturbative vacuum – simulates the boundary conditions prescribed for a process of “tunnelling from nothing”, in the context of the standard scenario . It seems thus appropriate to say that the above scattering process describes the birth of the Universe as a “tunnelling from the string perturbative vacuum” .

In a process of tunnelling, or quantum reflection, the WDW wave function corresponding to our present cosmological configuration turns out to be exponentially damped: the birth of the Universe from the string perturbative vacuum would thus appear to be a very unlikely (i.e., highly suppressed) quantum effect, according to the above representation. In the string cosmology minisuperspace, however, there are also other, more efficient “channels” of vacuum decay. The main purpose of this paper is to show that, with an appropriate model of dilaton potential, the transition from the pre-big bang to the post-big bang regime may correspond to a parametric amplification of the wave function, in such a way that the birth of the Universe can be represented as a process of “anti-tunneling from the string perturbative vacuum”. The name “anti-tunnelling”, which is synonymous of parametric amplification (a well known effect in the theory of cosmological perturbations) follows from the fact that the transition probability in that case is controlled by the inverse of the quantum-mechanical transmission coefficient in superspace.

In order to illustrate this possibility we shall use a quantum cosmology model based on the lowest order, gravi-dilaton string effective action, which in $`d+1`$ dimensions can be written as:

$$S=\frac{1}{2\lambda _s^{d1}}d^{d+1}x\sqrt{|g|}e^\varphi \left[R+(_\mu \varphi )^2+V(\varphi ,g_{\mu \nu })\right].$$
(1)
Here $`\lambda _s`$ is the fundamental string length parameter, and $`V`$ is the (possibly non-local and non-perturbative) dilaton potential. Considering an isotropic, spatially flat cosmological background,

$$\varphi =\varphi (t),g_{\mu \nu }=\mathrm{diag}(g_{00}(t),a^2(t)\delta _{ij}),$$
(2)
with spatial sections of finite volume (a toroidal space, for instance), it is convenient to introduce the variables

$$\beta =\sqrt{d}\mathrm{ln}a,\overline{\varphi }=\varphi \sqrt{d}\beta \mathrm{ln}d^dx/\lambda _s^d,$$
(3)
and the corresponding canonical momenta, defined in the cosmic time gauge by:

$$\mathrm{\Pi }_\beta =\left(\frac{\delta S}{\delta \dot{\beta }}\right)_{g_{00}=1}=\lambda _s\dot{\beta }e^{\overline{\varphi }},\mathrm{\Pi }_{\overline{\varphi }}=\left(\frac{\delta S}{\delta \dot{\overline{\varphi }}}\right)_{g_{00}=1}=\lambda _s\dot{\overline{\varphi }}e^{\overline{\varphi }}.$$
(4)
The WDW equation, which implements the Hamiltonian constraint $`H=\delta S/\delta g_{00}=0`$ in the two-dimensional minisuperspace spanned by $`\beta `$ and $`\overline{\varphi }`$, takes then the form :

$$\left[_{\overline{\varphi }}^2_\beta ^2+\lambda _s^2V(\beta ,\overline{\varphi })e^{2\overline{\varphi }}\right]\mathrm{\Psi }(\beta ,\overline{\varphi })=0$$
(5)
(we have used the differential representation $`\mathrm{\Pi }^2=^2`$).

As is well known from low-energy, perturbative theorems, the dilaton potential is strongly suppressed (with an istantonic law) in the small coupling regime, so that the effective WDW potential appearing in eq.(5) goes to zero as we approach the flat, zero-coupling, string perturbative vacuum, $`\beta \mathrm{}`$, $`\overline{\varphi }\mathrm{}`$. In the opposite regime of arbitrarily large coupling the dilaton potential is unknown, but we shall assume in this paper that a possible growth of $`V`$ is not strong enough to prevent the effective WDW potential from going to zero also at large positive values of $`\beta `$ and $`\overline{\varphi }`$, so that $`V\mathrm{exp}(2\overline{\varphi })0`$ for $`\beta ,\overline{\varphi }\pm \mathrm{}`$. In this case, the asymptotic solutions of the WDW equations (5) can be factorized in the form of plane waves, representing free energy and momentum eigenstates:

$$\mathrm{\Psi }(\beta ,\overline{\varphi })=\psi _k^\pm (\beta )\psi _k^\pm (\overline{\varphi })e^{\pm ik\beta \pm ik\overline{\varphi }},$$
(6)
where ($`k>0`$):

$$\mathrm{\Pi }_\beta \psi _k^\pm (\beta )=\pm k\psi _k^\pm (\beta ),\mathrm{\Pi }_{\overline{\varphi }}\psi _k^\pm (\overline{\varphi })=\pm k\psi _k^\pm (\overline{\varphi })$$
(7)
From a geometric point of view they represent, in minisuperspace, the four branches of the classical, low-energy string cosmology solutions , defined by the condition $`\mathrm{\Pi }_\beta =\pm \mathrm{\Pi }_{\overline{\varphi }}`$, and corresponding to :

* expansion, $`\mathrm{\Pi }_\beta >0`$, contraction, $`\mathrm{\Pi }_\beta <0`$,
* pre-big bang, $`\mathrm{\Pi }_{\overline{\varphi }}<0`$, post-big bang, $`\mathrm{\Pi }_{\overline{\varphi }}>0`$.

We now recall that, for an isotropic string cosmology solution , the dilaton is growing ($`\dot{\varphi }>0`$) only if the metric is expanding ($`\dot{\beta }>0`$), see eq. (3). If we impose, as our physical boundary condition, that the Universe emerges from the string perturbative vacuum (corresponding, asymptotically, to $`\beta \mathrm{}`$, $`\varphi \mathrm{}`$), then the initial state $`\mathrm{\Psi }_{in}`$ must represent a configuration which is expanding and with growing dilaton, i.e. $`\mathrm{\Psi }_{in}\psi ^+(\beta )\psi ^{}(\overline{\varphi })`$. The quantum evolution of the initial pre-big bang state is thus represented in this minisuperspace as the scattering, induced by the effective WDW potential, of an incoming wave travelling from $`\mathrm{}`$ along the positive direction of the axes $`\beta `$ and $`\overline{\varphi }`$.

It follows that, in general, there are four different types of evolution, depending on whether the asymptotic outgoing state $`\mathrm{\Psi }_{out}`$ is a superposition of waves with the same $`\mathrm{\Pi }_\beta `$ and opposite $`\mathrm{\Pi }_{\overline{\varphi }}`$, or with the same $`\mathrm{\Pi }_{\overline{\varphi }}`$ and opposite $`\mathrm{\Pi }_\beta `$, and also depending on the identification of the time-like coordinate in minisuperspace . These four possibilities are illustrated in Fig. 1, where cases $`(a)`$ and $`(b)`$ correspond to $`\mathrm{\Psi }_{out}^\pm \psi ^+(\beta )\psi ^\pm (\overline{\varphi })`$, while cases $`(c)`$ and $`(d)`$ correspond to $`\mathrm{\Psi }_{out}^\pm \psi ^{}(\overline{\varphi })\psi ^\pm (\beta )`$.

The two cases $`(a)`$ and $`(c)`$ represent scattering and reflection along the spacelike axes $`\overline{\varphi }`$ and $`\beta `$, respectively. In case $`(a)`$ the evolution along $`\beta `$ is monotonic, so that the Universe always keeps expanding. The incident wave is partially transmitted towards the pre-big bang singularity (unbounded growth of the curvature and of the dilaton, $`\beta +\mathrm{}`$, $`\overline{\varphi }+\mathrm{}`$), and partially reflected back towards the low-energy, expanding, post-big bang regime ($`\beta +\mathrm{}`$, $`\overline{\varphi }\mathrm{}`$). In case $`(c)`$ the evolution is monotonic along the time axis $`\overline{\varphi }`$, but not along $`\beta `$. So, the incident wave is totally transmitted towards the singularity ($`\overline{\varphi }+\mathrm{}`$), but in part as an expanding and in part as a contracting configuration.

In the language of third quantization  (i.e., second quantization of the WDW wave function in superspace) we can say that in case $`(a)`$ we have the production of expanding post-big bang states from the string perturbative vacuum; in case $`(c)`$, instead, we have the production of contracting pre-big bang states. In both cases, however, such a production is exponentially suppressed, and the suppression is proportional to the proper spatial volume of the portion of Universe emerging from the string perturbative vacuum .

The other two cases, $`(b)`$ and $`(d)`$, are qualitatively different, as the final state is a superposition of positive and negative energy eigenstates, i.e. of modes of positive and negative frequency with respect to time axes chosen in minisuperspace. In a third quantization context they represent a “Bogoliubov mixing”, describing the production of pairs of universes from the vacuum. The mode moving backwards in time has to be “re-interpreted”, like in quantum field theory, as an “antiuniverse” of positive energy and opposite momentum (in superspace). Since the inversion of momentum, in superspace, corresponds to a reflection of $`\dot{\beta }`$, the re-interpretation principle in this context changes expansion into contraction, and vice-versa.

Case $`(b)`$, in particular, describes the production of universe-antiuniverse pairs – one expanding, the other contractiong – from the string perturbative vacuum. The pairs evolve towards the strong coupling regime $`\overline{\varphi }+\mathrm{}`$, so both the members of the pair fall inside the pre-big bang singularity. Case $`(d)`$ is more interesting, in our context, since in that case the universe-antiuniverse of the pair are both expanding: one falls inside the pre-big bang singularity, the other expands towards the low-energy, post-big bang regime, and may expand to infinity, representing the birth of a Universe like ours in a standard Friedman-like configuration.

Case $`(b)`$ was discussed in a previous paper : with a simple, duality-invariant model of potential, it was shown to represent an efficient conversion of expanding into contracting internal dimensions, associated to a parametric amplification of the wave function of the pre-big bang state. In this paper we shall concentrate on the process illustrated in case $`(d)`$, already conjectured  to represent a promising candidate for an efficient transition from the pre- to the post-big bang regime, but never discussed in previous papers. To confirm this conjecture, we will provide here an explicit example in which the production of pairs of universes containing an expanding post-big bang configuration may be associated to a parametric amplification of the WDW wave function.

To this purpose we should note, first of all, that for a duality-invariant dilaton potential the string cosmology Hamiltonian associated to the action (1) is translationally invariant along the $`\beta `$ axis, $`[H,\mathrm{\Pi }_\beta ]=0`$: in this case, an initial expanding configuration keeps expanding, and the out state cannot be a mixture of states with positive and negative eigenvalues of $`\mathrm{\Pi }_\beta `$. In order to implement the process $`(d)`$ of Fig. 1 we thus need a non-local, duality-breaking potential, that contains both the metric and the dilaton, but not in the combination $`\overline{\varphi }`$ of eq. (3).

We shall use, in particular, a two-loop dilaton potential induced by an effective cosmological constant $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$, i.e. $`V\mathrm{\Lambda }\mathrm{exp}(2\varphi )`$ (two-loop potentials are known to favour the transition to the post-big bang regime already at the classical level , but only for appropriate repulsive self-interactions with $`\mathrm{\Lambda }<0`$). We shall assume, in addition, that such a potential is rapidly damped in the large radius limit $`\beta +\mathrm{}`$, and we shall approximate such a damping, for simplicity, by the Heaviside step function $`V\theta (\beta )`$. With this damping we represent the effective suppression of the cosmological constant, required for the transition to a realistic post-big bang configuration, and induced by some physical mechanism that does not need to be specified explicitly, for the purpose of this paper. Also, the choice of the cut-off function $`\theta (\beta )`$ is not crucial, in our context, and other, smoother functions would be equally appropriate.

With these assumptions, the WDW equation (5) reduces to

$$\left[_{\overline{\varphi }}^2_\beta ^2+\lambda _s^2\mathrm{\Lambda }\theta (\beta )e^{2\sqrt{d}\beta }\right]\mathrm{\Psi }(\beta ,\overline{\varphi })=0,$$
(8)
and the general solution can be factorized in terms of the eigenstates of the momentum $`\mathrm{\Pi }_{\overline{\varphi }}`$, by setting

$$\mathrm{\Psi }(\beta ,\overline{\varphi })=\mathrm{\Psi }_k(\beta )e^{ik\overline{\varphi }},\left[_\beta ^2+k^2\lambda _s^2\mathrm{\Lambda }\theta (\beta )e^{2\sqrt{d}\beta }\right]\mathrm{\Psi }_k(\beta )=0.$$
(9)
In the region $`\beta >0`$ the potential is vanishing, so that the general outgoing solution is a superposition of eigenstates of $`\mathrm{\Pi }_\beta `$ corresponding to the positive and negative frequency modes $`\psi _k^\pm `$, as in case $`(d)`$ of Fig. 1. In the opposite region $`\beta <0`$ the general solution is a combination of Bessel functions $`J_\nu (z)`$, of imaginary index $`\nu =\pm ik/\sqrt{d}`$ and argument $`z=i\lambda _s\sqrt{\mathrm{\Lambda }/d}e^{\sqrt{d}\beta }`$.

We now fix the boundary conditions by imposing that the Universe starts expanding from the string perturbative vacuum: for $`\beta \mathrm{}`$, the solution must then reduce to a plane wave representing a classical, low-energy pre-big bang solution, with $`\mathrm{\Pi }_\beta =\mathrm{\Pi }_{\overline{\varphi }}=k>0`$. In particular, if we use the differential representation $`\mathrm{\Pi }=i`$ for both $`\beta `$ and $`\overline{\varphi }`$:

$$\mathrm{\Psi }_{in}=\underset{\beta \mathrm{}}{lim}\mathrm{\Psi }(\beta ,\overline{\varphi })e^{ik(\overline{\varphi }\beta )}.$$
(10)
This choice uniquely determines the WDW wave function as:

$`\mathrm{\Psi }(\beta ,\overline{\varphi })=N_kJ_{\frac{ik}{\sqrt{d}}}\left(i\lambda _s\sqrt{{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }}{d}}}e^{\sqrt{d}\beta }\right)e^{ik\overline{\varphi }},\beta `$ $`<`$ $`0,`$ (11)
$`=\left[A_+(k)e^{ik\beta }+A_{}(k)e^{ik\beta }\right]e^{ik\overline{\varphi }},\beta `$ $`>`$ $`0.`$ (12)
With the matching conditions at $`\beta =0`$ we can then compute the Bogoliubov coefficients $`|c_\pm (k)|^2=|A_\pm (k)|^2/|N_k|^2`$ determining, in the third quantization formalism, the number $`n_k`$ of universes produced from the vacuum, for each mode $`k`$ (here $`k`$ represents a given configuration in the space of the initial parameters).

In contrast to the tunnelling process discussed in preivious papers , this process may represent an efficient mechanism of vacuum decay since the wave function is parametrically amplified (i.e., $`n_k1`$) for all $`k<\lambda _s\sqrt{\mathrm{\Lambda }}`$. To illustrate this point we have numerically integrated eq. (9), and plotted in Fig. 2 the evolution in superspace of the real part of the wave function, for different configurations of initial momentum $`k`$ (the behaviour of the imaginary part is qualitatively similar).

It may be interesting to note that the amplification is smaller at higher frequencies or – to use the language of cosmological perturbation theory – the pairs of universes are produced with a decreasing spectrum . This result has a quite reasonable interpretation, once we express the momentum $`k`$ in terms of the physical parameters of the final geometric configuration. Indeed, from the definitons (3) and (4) we find, for a realistic transition occurring at the string scale, $`\dot{\beta }\lambda _s`$, that $`k(\mathrm{\Omega }_3/\lambda _s^3)g_s^2`$, where $`\mathrm{\Omega }_3=a^3d^3x`$ is the proper spatial volume emerging from the transition in the post-big bang regime, and $`g_s=e^\varphi /2`$ is the string coupling, parametrized by the dilaton. The condition of parametric amplification,

$$k\left(\frac{\mathrm{\Omega }_3}{\lambda _s^3}\right)\frac{1}{g_s^2}<\lambda _s\sqrt{\mathrm{\Lambda }},$$
(13)
implies that the transition is strongly favoured for configurations of small enough spatial volume in string units, large enough coupling $`g_s`$, and/or large enough cosmological constant $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$, in string units (in agreement with previous results ).

For $`k\lambda _s\sqrt{\mathrm{\Lambda }}`$ the wave function does not “hit” the barrier, and there is no parametric amplification. The inital state runs almost undisturbed towards the singularity, and only a small, exponentially suppressed fraction is able to emerge in the post big bang regime. In the context of third quantization this process can still be described as the production of pairs of universes, but the number of pairs is now exponentially damped, $`n_k\mathrm{exp}(k/\lambda _s\sqrt{\mathrm{\Lambda }})`$, with a Boltzmann factor corresponding to a “thermal bath” of universes, at the effective temperature $`T\sqrt{\mathrm{\Lambda }}`$ in superspace.

In view of the above results, we may conclude that the decay of the string perturbative vacuum, if triggered by an appropriate, duality-breaking dilaton potential, can efficiently proceed via the parametric amplification of the WDW wave function in superspace, and can describe the birth of our Universe as a forced production of pairs from the vacuum fluctuations. One member of the pair disappears into the pre-big bang singularity, the other bounces back towards the low-energy region. The resulting effect is a net flux of universes that may escape to infinity in the post-big bang regime (see Fig. 3). This effect is similar to the quantum emission of radiation from a black hole , with the difference that the quanta produced in pairs from the vacuum are separated not by the black-hole horizon, but by the “Hubble” horizon associated to the “accelerated” variation of the dilaton in minisuperspace.


text:
# NEW CONSTRAINTS ON WIMPS FROM THE CANFRANC IGEX DARK MATTER SEARCH

## 1 Introduction

Substantial evidence exists suggesting most matter in the universe is dark, and there are compelling reasons to believe it consists mainly of non-baryonic particles. Among these candidates, Weakly Interacting Massive and neutral Particles (WIMPs) are among the front runners. The lightest stable particles of supersymmetric theories, like the neutralino, describe a particular class of WIMPs.

Direct detection techniques rely on measurement of WIMP elastic scattering off target nuclei in a suitable detector. Slow moving ($`300`$ km/s) and heavy ($`1010^3`$ GeV) galactic halo WIMPs could make a Ge nucleus recoil with a few keV, at a rate which depends on the type of WIMP and interaction. Only about 1/4 of this energy is visible in the detector. Because of the low interaction rate and the small energy deposition, the direct search for particle dark matter through scattering by nuclear targets requires ultralow background detectors with very low energy thresholds.

To detect the possible presence of WIMPs, the predicted event rate is compared with the observed spectrum. If this predicted event rate is larger than the measured one, the particle under consideration can be ruled out as a dark matter component. Such absence of WIMPs can be expressed as a contour line, $`\sigma `$(m), on the WIMP-nucleus elastic scattering cross-section plane. This excludes, for each mass, those particles whose cross-section lies above the contour line, $`\sigma `$(m).

This direct comparison of the expected signal with the observed background spectrum can only exclude or constrain the cross-section in terms of exclusion plots of $`\sigma `$(m). A convincing proof of the detection of dark matter would require finding unique signatures in the data, characteristic of the WIMP, which cannot be attributed to the background or instrumental artifacts. An example is the predicted summer-winter asymmetry  in the WIMP signal rate due to the periodicity of the relative Earth-halo motion resulting from the Earth’s rotation around the Sun.

Germanium detectors used for double-beta decay searches have reached one of the lowest background levels of any type of detector and have a reasonable quenching factor ($`0.25`$). Thus, with sufficiently low energy thresholds, they are attractive devices for dark matter searches.

Germanium diodes dedicated to double-beta decay experiments\[4-11\] were applied to WIMP searches as early as 1987. The exclusion contour based on the best combination of data from these experiments is referred to in this paper as the “combined germanium contour”. Only recently has this exclusion plot been surpassed by a sodium iodide experiment (DAMA NaI-0), which uses a statistical pulse-shape discriminated background spectrum.

This paper presents a new germanium detector data limit for the direct detection of non-baryonic particle dark matter in the $``$50 GeV DAMA mass region.

## 2 Experiment

The IGEX experiment, optimized for detecting 76Ge double-beta decay, has been described in detail elsewhere. The IGEX detectors are now also being used in the search for WIMPs interacting coherently with germanium nuclei. The COSME detector described below, is also operating in the same shield at Canfranc.

The IGEX detectors were fabricated at Oxford Instruments, Inc., in Oak Ridge, Tennessee. Russian GeO2 powder, isotopically enriched to 86% 76Ge, was purified, reduced to metal, and zone refined to $`10^{13}`$ p-type donor impurities per cubic centimeter by Eagle Picher, Inc., in Quapaw, Oklahoma. The metal was then transported to Oxford Instruments by surface in order to minimize activation by cosmic ray neutrons, where it was further zone refined, grown into crystals, and fabricated into detectors.

The COSME detector was fabricated at Princeton Gamma-Tech, Inc. in Princeton, New Jersey, using naturally abundant germanium. The refinement of newly-mined germanium ore to finished metal for this detector was expedited to minimize production of cosmogenic 68Ge.

All of the cryostat parts were electroformed using a high purity OFHC copper/CuSO4/H2SO4 plating system. The solution was continuously filtered to eliminate copper oxide, which causes porosity in the copper. A Ba(OH)2 solution was added to precipitate BaSO4, which is also collected on the filter. Radium in the bath exchanges with the barium on the filter, thus minimizing radium contamination in the cryostat parts. The CuSO4 crystals were purified of thorium by multiple recrystallization.

The IGEX detector used for dark matter searches, designated RG-II, has a mass of $`2.2`$ kg. The active mass of this detector, $`2.0`$ kg, was measured with a collimated source of 152Eu in the Canfranc Laboratory and is in agreement with the Oxford Instruments efficiency measurements. The full-width at half-maximum (FWHM) energy resolution of RG-II was 2.37 keV at the 1333-keV line of 60Co. The COSME detector has a mass of 254 g and an active mass of 234 g. The FWHM energy resolution of COSME is 0.43 keV at the 10.37 keV gallium X-ray. Energy calibration and resolution measurements were made every 7–10 days using the lines of 22Na and 60Co. Calibration for the low energy region was extrapolated using the X-ray lines of Pb.

For each detector, the first-stage field-effect transistor (FET) is mounted on a Teflon block a few centimeters from the center contact of the germanium crystal. The protective cover of the FET and the glass shell of the feedback resistor have been removed to reduce radioactive background. This first-stage assembly is mounted behind a 2.5-cm-thick cylinder of archaeological lead to further reduce background. Further stages of preamplification are located at the back of the cryostat cross arm, approximately 70 cm from the crystal. The IGEX detectors have preamplifiers modified for the pulse-shape analysis used in the double-beta decay searches.

The detectors shielding is as follows, from inside to outside. The innermost shield consists of 2.5 tons of 2000-year-old archaeological lead forming a 60-cm cube and having $`<9`$ mBq/kg of 210Pb(210Bi), $`<0.2`$ mBq/kg of 238U, and $`<0.3`$ mBq/kg of 232Th. The detectors fit into precision-machined holes in this central core, which minimizes the empty space around the detectors available to radon. Nitrogen gas, at a rate of 140 l/hour, evaporating from liquid nitrogen, is forced into the detector chambers to create a positive pressure and further minimize radon intrusion. The archaeological lead block is centered in a 1-m cube of 70-year-old low-activity lead($`10`$ tons) having $`30`$ Bq/kg of 210Pb. A minimum of 15 cm of archaeological lead separates the detectors from the outer lead shield. A 2-mm-thick cadmium sheet surrounds the main lead shield, and two layers of plastic seal this central assembly against radon intrusion. A cosmic muon veto covers the top and sides of the central core, except where the detector Dewars are located. The veto consists of BICRON BC-408 plastic scintillators 5.08 cm $`\times `$ 50.8 cm $`\times `$ 101.6 cm with surfaces finished by diamond mill to optimize internal reflection. BC-800 (UVT) light guides on the ends taper to 5.08 cm in diameter over a length of 50.8 cm and are coupled to Hamamatsu R329 photomultiplier tubes. The anticoincidence veto signal is obtained from the logical OR of all photomultiplier tube discriminator outputs. An external polyethylene neutron moderator 20 cm thick (1.5 tons) completes the shield. The entire shield is supported by an iron structure resting on noise-isolation blocks. The experiment is located in a room isolated from the rest of the laboratory and has an overburden of 2450 m.w.e., which reduces the measured muon flux to $`2\times 10^7\mathrm{cm}^2\mathrm{s}^1`$.

The data acquisition system for the low-energy region used in dark matter searches (referred to as IGEX-DM) is based on standard NIM electronics and is independent from that used for double-beta decay searches (IGEX-$`2\beta `$). It has been implemented by splitting the normal preamplifier output pulses of each detector and routing them through two Canberra 2020 amplifiers having different shaping times enabling noise rejection. These amplifier outputs are converted using 200 MHz Wilkinson-type Canberra analog-to-digital converters, controlled by a PC through parallel interfaces. For each event, the arrival time (with an accuracy of 100 $`\mu `$s), the elapsed time since the last veto event (with an accuracy of 20 $`\mu `$s), and the energy from each ADC are recorded.

## 3 Results

The IGEX-DM results obtained correspond to 30 days of analyzed data (Mt=60 kg-days) from IGEX detector RG-II. Also presented for comparison are earlier results from the COSME detector (COSME-1) , as well as recent results obtained in its current set-up (COSME-2).

The detector RG-II features an energy threshold of 4 keV and an energy resolution of 0.8 keV at the 75 keV Pb x-ray line. The background rate recorded was $`0.3`$ c/(keV-kg-day) between 4–10 keV, $`0.07`$ c/(keV-kg-day) between 10–20 keV, and $`0.05`$ c/(keV-kg-day) between 20–40 keV. Fig. 1 shows the RG-II 30-day spectrum; the numerical data are given in Table 1.

The exclusion plots are derived from the recorded spectrum in one-keV bins from 4 keV to 50 keV. As recommended by the Particle Data Group, the predicted signal in an energy bin is required to be less than or equal to the (90% C.L.) upper limit of the (Poisson) recorded counts. The derivation of the interaction rate signal supposes that the WIMPs form an isotropic, isothermal, non-rotating halo of density $`\rho =0.3`$ GeV/cm3, have a Maxwellian velocity distribution with $`\mathrm{v}_{\mathrm{rms}}=270`$ km/s (with an upper cut corresponding to an escape velocity of 650 km/s), and have a relative Earth-halo velocity of $`\mathrm{v}_\mathrm{r}=230`$ km/s. The cross sections are normalized to the nucleon, assuming a dominant scalar interaction. The Helm parameterization is used for the scalar nucleon form factor, and the quenching factor used is 0.25. The exclusion plots derived from the IGEX-DM (RG-II) and COSME data are shown in Fig. 2. In particular, IGEX results exclude WIMP-nucleon cross-sections above 1.3x10-8 nb for masses corresponding to the 50 GeV DAMA region. Also shown is the combined germanium contour, including the last Heidelberg-Moscow data (recalculated from the original energy spectra with the same set of hypotheses and parameters), the DAMA experiment contour plot derived from Pulse Shape Discriminated spectra, and the DAMA region corresponding to their reported annual modulation effect. The IGEX-DM exclusion contour improves significantly on that of other germanium experiments for masses corresponding to that of the neutralino tentatively assigned to the DAMA modulation effect and results from using only unmanipulated data.

Data collection is currently in progress with improved background below 20 keV. Based on present IGEX-DM performance and reduction of the background to $`0.1`$ c/(keV-kg-day) between 4–10 keV, the complete DAMA region (m=$`52_8^{+10}`$ GeV, $`\sigma `$p=($`7.2_{0.9}^{+0.4}`$)x10-9 nb) could be tested after an exposure of 1 kg-year, i.e. a few months of operation with two upgraded IGEX detectors.

## Acknowledgements

The Canfranc Astroparticle Underground Laboratory is operated by the University of Zaragoza under contract No. AEN99-1033. This research was partially funded by the Spanish Commission for Science and Technology (CICYT), the U.S. National Science Foundation, and the U.S. Department of Energy. The isotopically enriched 76Ge was supplied by the Institute for Nuclear Research (INR), Moscow, and the Institute for Theoretical and Experimental Physics (ITEP), Moscow.