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# Critical behavior of thermopower and conductivity at the metal-insulator transition in high-mobility Si-MOSFET’s

## Abstract

This letter reports thermopower and conductivity measurements through the metal-insulator transition for 2-dimensional electron gases in high mobility Si-MOSFET’s. At low temperatures both thermopower and conductivity show critical behavior as a function of electron density which is very similar to that expected for an Anderson transition. In particular, when approaching the critical density from the metallic side the diffusion thermopower appears to diverge and the conductivity vanishes. On the insulating side the thermopower shows an upturn with decreasing temperature.

Scaling theory of non-interacting, disordered, electron gases predicts that no metal-insulator transition (MIT) occurs in 2 dimensions  as temperature $`T0`$. Nevertheless, what appears to be a MIT has been observed (at finite, though low $`T`$), first in $`n`$Si-MOSFET’s  and more recently in many other 2-dimensional (2D) hole and electron gases . In the particular case of Si-MOSFET’s, the transition is most clearly visible in high-mobility samples, roughly $`\mu 1`$ m2/V s. As the density, $`n`$, is varied, there is a particular value, $`n_0`$, above or below which the resistivity $`\rho `$ shows metallic or insulating temperature dependence respectively. For the present purposes we will use as a working definition that negative $`d\rho /dT`$ indicates an ‘insulator’, and positive $`d\rho /dT`$ at the lowest temperatures we can reach corresponds to a ‘metal’ (possible deviations from this definition and the consequences will be mentioned later). At $`n`$ not too close to $`n_0`$, metallic behaviour is visible over a wide range of $`T`$, roughly $`T<0.5E_F/k_B`$ where $`E_F`$ is the Fermi energy. The decrease of $`\rho `$ in the metallic state for high mobility samples is typically two orders of magnitude larger than can be accounted for by electron-phonon scattering.

Most previous work on these systems has focused on $`\rho `$, though measurements of the compressibility  have also appeared recently. The present paper presents experimental data on the low temperature thermopower, $`S`$, and conductivity, $`\sigma =1/\rho `$, both of which are found to exhibit critical behavior around $`n_0`$. Earlier, a scaling behaviour was described  for the temperature dependence of $`\rho (T)`$ over a temperature range $`(0.050.3)E_F/k_B`$. In contrast, we report a different type of critical behavior for $`\sigma `$. When we extrapolate our data on $`\sigma `$, typically taken over the range $`0.34.2`$ K, to the $`T0`$ limit, we find a power-law critical behaviour as a function of $`(n/n_01)`$ on the metallic side. In addition, at our lowest temperature of around 0.3 K where diffusion thermopower dominates, $`S/T`$ appears to diverge when approaching $`n_0`$. At $`n_0`$ there is an abrupt change in behavior of $`S/T`$, with lower densities showing an upturn in $`S`$ as $`T`$ is decreased. Similar characteristics have long been predicted for an Anderson MIT in 3D  but such a transition should not occur in 2D.

The main sample used for the present $`\rho `$ and $`S`$ measurements (Sample 1) is the same as that described in a previous paper  and the techniques used to measure $`S`$ can also be found there. This sample has $`n_0=1.01\times 10^{15}`$ m-2 (as defined as above) and a peak mobility $`\mu =1.75`$ m2/Vs at $`T=1.1`$ K. $`S`$ and $`\rho `$ have been measured as a function of $`T`$, down to about 0.3 K, at many different values of $`n`$. We have also analyzed independent $`\rho (T,n)`$ data for two other samples over the same range of $`T`$, Sample 2 from the same wafer with $`n_0=0.99\times 10^{15}`$ m-2, and Sample 3  with peak $`\mu =3.6`$ m2/Vs and $`n_0=0.956\times 10^{15}`$ m-2. The major experimental problem was that of measuring thermoelectric voltages with the sample in the insulating state. For this purpose an amplifier with input bias current $`<1`$ pA and input impedance $`>10^{12}\mathrm{\Omega }`$ was used. With some averaging it had a resolution of 0.1 $`\mu `$V for source impedances of less than a few hundred k$`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ rising to about 1 $`\mu `$V at 10-20 M$`\mathrm{\Omega }`$, roughly the highest sample impedance in these measurements. With the sample in the metallic state, a Keithley 182 digital voltmeter usually gave the best compromise of input bias current, input impedance and noise. All connections to the sample had isolation resistance $`>50`$G$`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ and all leads were well shielded and filtered against rf interference.

In the metallic region $`n`$ is a linear function of gate voltage and it is believed to follow approximately the same dependence in the insulating region , at least close to $`n_0`$. The results on the temperature dependence of $`\rho `$ on both the insulating and metallic side are not shown but are very similar to those seen in previous work . In the metallic regime we have fitted our data on $`\rho `$, typically over the range 0.3 K to 4.2 K, to the equation

$$\rho =\rho _0+\rho _1\mathrm{exp}\left((T_0/T)^p\right)$$
(1)
where $`\rho _0`$, $`\rho _1`$, $`T_0`$ and $`p`$ are fitting constants, in order to evaluate $`\rho _0`$.

Figure 1 shows the results on $`\sigma _0=1/\rho _0`$ as a function of $`n`$. All samples follow the critical behaviour

$$\sigma _0=\sigma _m+\sigma _s\left(\frac{n}{n_0}1\right)^\nu .$$
(2)
The solid lines are the best fits with the following parameters (with $`\sigma `$ in units of $`e^2/h`$). For sample 2, $`\sigma _m=0.2\pm 0.3`$, $`\sigma _s=13.6\pm 0.7`$ and $`\nu =0.83\pm 0.03`$. Sample 1 has an identical behaviour within experimental error. The higher-mobility Sample 3 also follows the same equation with $`\sigma _m=0.36\pm 0.15`$, $`\sigma _s=34\pm 5`$ and $`\nu =1.39\pm 0.05`$. These results suggest $`\nu `$ increases with peak mobility but clearly more data on a variety of samples are required. The values of $`\sigma _m`$ for Sample 1 and 2 are consistent with zero within experimental uncertainty. For Sample 3, $`\sigma _m`$ may be finite. However, if $`n_0`$ is allowed to decrease from $`0.956`$ to about $`0.925\times 10^{15}`$ m-2, a fit which is indistinguishable over the range of the data can also be obtained with $`\sigma _m=0\pm 0.15`$, $`\sigma _s=32\pm 5`$ and $`\nu =1.48\pm 0.05`$. A small discrepancy in $`n_0`$ could arise from the identification of the critical density for the MIT with that density, $`n_0`$, where $`d\rho /dT`$ changes sign, a procedure which has no firm physical foundation . The critical behavior described by Eq. (2) with $`\sigma _m=0`$ is formally the same as that expected for a (continuous) Anderson transition with a mobility edge at $`n_0`$, whereas a finite $`\sigma _m`$ would correspond to a (discontinuous) Mott-Anderson transition; neither transition should arise in a non-interacting 2D gas . The inclusion of interactions along with disorder is a much more complex and ongoing theoretical problem (e.g. see Refs.  and references therein) and it is not yet clear if such transitions become possible under these conditions. Similar critical behaviour, usually with $`\sigma _m`$ consistent with zero, has been seen in many 3D systems, typically with values  of $`\nu `$ in the range $`0.51.3`$. There are only two previously reported cases related to 2D. Hanein et al.  have made a similar analysis to the one above for a 2D hole gas in GaAs and found a linear relation between $`\sigma _0`$ and $`n`$, but with a finite $`\sigma _m`$. Feng et al.  have also found scaling behaviour in a Si-MOSFET but it appears to be unrelated to that seen here.

We now turn to the thermopower data. A selection of data on $`S`$ is shown in Fig. 2. At $`n=8.5\times 10^{15}`$ m-2 diffusion thermopower, $`S^d`$, is almost zero and one sees only phonon drag, $`S^g`$, which varies approximately as $`T^6`$ at the lowest temperatures. As $`n`$ decreases, $`S`$ begins to show two distinct regions with different $`T`$ dependences. At $`T>1`$ K there is a relatively rapid increase of $`S`$, roughly $`T^3`$ which is that expected for $`S^g`$ at intermediate temperatures. At $`T<1`$ K, $`S`$ has a much weaker, approximately linear $`T`$ dependence indicative of $`S^d`$ becoming dominant; for $`n<n_0`$, this low-$`T`$ behaviour, which is characteristic of ordinary metals, is replaced by an upturn in $`S`$. Concentrating on the metallic region, the data at lowest $`T`$ are taken to give the best estimate of diffusion $`S^d=\alpha T`$. Fig. 3 shows that $`\alpha `$ as a function of $`n`$ appears to diverge as $`nn_0`$. One would expect a divergence when $`E_F`$ approaches a gap in the DOS but the present results are inconsistent with this explanation because Hall data  show that in the vicinity of $`n_0`$ the mobile carrier density equals $`n`$ within $`10\%`$. However, Eq. (2) also implies a divergence of $`S^d`$. Thus, with the assumption of a constant density of states (DOS) Eq. (2) is consistent with

$$\sigma (E_F)=\sigma _m+\sigma _s\left(\frac{E_F}{E_c}1\right)^\nu .$$
(3)
Again, with $`\sigma _m=0`$ this is formally equivalent to an Anderson transition with $`E_c`$ being the mobility edge. The use of the Mott relation $`S^d=(\pi ^2k_B^2T/3e)(\mathrm{ln}\sigma /E)_{E_F}`$ with Eq. (3) and taking $`\sigma _m=0`$ then gives

$$S^d=\frac{\nu \pi ^2k_B^2T}{3e(E_FE_c)}.$$
(4)
This result is valid only if $`(E_FE_c)/k_BT1`$; in the opposite limit $`S^d`$ tends to a constant  ($`228\mu `$V/K in 3D). Numerical calculations show that the approximation of Eq. (4) gives a magnitude roughly a factor of 2 too large when $`(E_FE_c)/k_BT2`$ which, for our samples, corresponds to $`\mathrm{\Delta }=(nn_0)/n_00.11`$ at $`T=0.4`$ K (using the ideal DOS, $`g_0`$, with an effective mass of $`0.19m_0`$).

To simulate this saturation we add $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ in the denominator (but allow it to be a variable when determining the best fit to the data) and, rewriting Eq. (4) in terms of $`n`$, we have

$$\alpha =S^d/T=C/\sqrt{\mathrm{\Delta }^2+(\frac{n}{n_0}1)^2}$$
(5)
where $`C=\nu \pi ^2k_B^2/(3eE_c)`$ is a constant expected to be about 32 $`\mu `$V/K2 for Sample 1, again using $`g_0`$. If $`\sigma _m`$ is finite in Eq. (3), then the Mott relation shows that it will contribute to the denominator of Eq. (4), also softening the divergence at $`n=n_0`$. However, the experimental $`\sigma _m`$ is so small that this is negligible compared to the finite-$`T`$ effect considered here. The best fit of the data to Eq. (5) gives $`\mathrm{\Delta }=0.15\pm 0.01`$ and $`C=(9.5\pm 1.5)\mu `$V/K2 and is shown as the solid line in Fig. 3. (As with $`\sigma `$, the fit can be improved if $`n_0`$ is slightly decreased). $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ is consistent with that expected from the argument above, but $`C`$ is too small by a factor of about 3. However, we emphasize that we are comparing our results for a 2D system with a theoretical model of an Anderson MIT valid for non-interacting electrons in 3D. Some progress has been made on calculating $`S^d`$ with the inclusion of weak interactions and disorder . Corrections are found which are logarithmic in $`T`$ and difficult to detect in thermopower; we are unable to explain the observed strong density dependence in terms of the calculations. We should mention that we can also represent the data over the same range using the simple expression $`\alpha =56/n^{2.5}\mu `$V/K2, with $`n`$ in units of $`10^{15}`$ m-2, but this has no obvious physical explanation; in particular, it does not have the form that we would expect for $`S^d`$ approaching a band edge at $`n=0`$, i.e. $`S^d1/n`$.

The data in the insulating regime also show a critical behaviour qualitatively consistent with a mobility edge. Thus the observed upturn of $`S^d`$ is expected for activated conduction across a mobility gap with $`(E_cE_F)>k_BT`$. Under these conditions the 3D Anderson model predicts (see also the numerical calculations in Ref. )

$$S^d=\frac{k_B}{e}\left(A+\frac{E_cE_F}{k_BT}\right)$$
(6)
where $`A`$ is a constant of order unity. For $`n0.79\times 10^{15}`$ m-2 the observed minima in $`S^d`$ occur at $`T_m`$ consistent with $`(E_cE_F)/k_BT_m2`$. Eq. (6) would then imply that the values of $`S^d`$ at these points should all have about the same magnitude. However, the observed $`S`$ will have other contributions. In particular there will be $`S^g`$ (see below) and also a contribution to $`S^d`$ from variable range hopping (VRH) through localized states. (When two or more conduction mechanisms are present, the appropriate $`S^d`$ are weighted by their contributions to $`\sigma `$). The $`T`$ dependence of our $`\rho `$ data and other previously published data  in the insulating region are consistent with Efros-Shklovskii VRH across a soft Coulomb gap. For this mechanism one expects $`S^d`$ to be a constant given by $`S^d=(k_B/e)(k_BT_0/C)(\mathrm{ln}g(E)/E)_{E_F}`$ where $`T_0`$ can be obtained from the temperature dependence of $`\rho `$, e.g. Ref. , $`g(E)`$ is the background DOS, and $`C`$ a constant $`6`$. If we take $`(\mathrm{ln}g(E)/E)_{E_F}1/E_F`$ (implying that $`E_F`$ may be in the tail of the DOS) and again using $`g_0`$ to estimate $`E_F`$, we find that the calculated $`S^d`$ are typically a factor of two smaller than the values of $`S`$ observed at $`T_m`$. The argument is not significantly changed if Mott VRH is assumed. In this case $`S^dT^{1/3}`$ but the magnitudes calculated for $`S^d`$ are similar.

As far as we are aware, the only previous work which attempted to follow $`S^d`$ into the region of 2D electron localization was that of Burns and Chaikin on thin films of Pd and PdAu. They found an upturn of $`S^d`$ in the strong localization region but no divergence at higher conductivities. The authors attributed their results to the opening of a Mott-Hubbard gap. In 3D, Lauinger and Baumann observed critical behaviour of $`\sigma `$ and a divergence of $`S^d`$ for metallic AuSb films, but the magnitude of the latter was 2 orders of magnitude smaller than seen here. Other 3D experiments on SiP and NbSi saw no divergence on the metallic side.

For completeness, we make a few comments about $`S`$ at higher $`T`$ where $`S^g`$ is dominant. Little is known about the behavior of $`S^g`$ near a MIT but it should be present on the metallic side though its precise form is not known. On the other hand, $`S^g`$ requires conservation of crystal momentum for electron-phonon scattering so that $`S^g=0`$ for conduction via VRH. Thus, $`S^g`$ should only exist on the insulator side when excitation to delocalized states occurs. Our data show that at any fixed $`T2`$ K, $`S`$ rises as $`n`$ decreases but crosses $`n_0`$ smoothly, i.e., we no longer see divergent behavior of $`S`$ at $`n_0`$. These facts show that activated conduction must be present for all densities $`n<n_0`$ that we have investigated, even though $`\rho `$ data (both our own and those of others) appear to follow the Efros-Shklovskii VRH model.

In summary, the behavior of $`\sigma `$ and $`S^d`$ in the ‘metallic’ and ‘insulating’ phases in Si-MOSFETs are surprisingly consistent with a 3D Anderson MIT, though such a transition is not expected to occur in a 2D electron gas. Nevertheless, it is important to remember that to reliably identify the observed critical behaviour with a MIT requires data in the zero $`T`$ limit. Although our analysis is based on an extrapolation to zero $`T`$, the actual data extend only to 0.3K. Thus we should be careful not to conclude that a mobility edge or a MIT has necessarily been observed. Even so, the present results provide new information on these systems that further constrains any theoretical model proposed to explain the MIT, whether such a transition be an apparent or real property as $`T0`$.

We acknowledge the support of the NSERC Canada, and from INTAS, RFBR, NATO, Programs ‘Physics of nanostructures’, ‘Statistical physics’ and ‘Integration’.


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# Magnetic pair-breaking in superconducting Ba1-xKxBiO3 investigated by magnetotunneling

## I Introduction

The temperature dependence of the upper critical field $`B_{c2}`$ in several new classes of superconductors attracts much attention as it reveals very unusual behavior. For the conventional type-II superconductors $`B_{c2}`$ shows a linear increase below $`T_c`$ and a saturation at the lowest temperatures in agreement with the theoretical predictions of Maki  and Werthamer, Helfand and Hohenberg . In the case of certain new superconductors $`B_{c2}(T)`$ has a positive curvature practically in the whole temperature range. As examples of this anomalous behavior we mention the borocarbides , the organic superconductors , the high-$`T_c`$ bismuthates Ba1-xKxBiO3 , and in the most pronounced way the cuprates  where in some cases $`B_{c2}(T)`$ even diverges at very low temperatures. Several scenarios have been proposed to explain this anomalous behavior. Among others, one can find a bipolaron model , an unconventional normal state , a strong electron-phonon coupling , and the presence of inhomogeneities and magnetic impurities .

In the above mentioned cases, magnetotransport or magnetization measurements were employed for the determination of $`B_{c2}(T)`$. In strongly type-II superconductors a magnetization measurement near $`B_{c2}`$ can be very difficult because of its extremely small value. Moreover, because depinned vortices in the liquid or solid state cause a finite dissipative resistance before reaching the full transition to the normal state, the complexity of the $`BT`$ phase diagram in high-$`T_c`$’s  undermines any direct determination of the upper critical field from magnetotransport data. Recently, the $`B_{c2}(T)`$ dependencies have been determined for high-Tc superconductors by non-dissipative experimental methods. Carrington et al.  have shown, that magneto-specific-heat measurements in the overdoped Tl-2201 cuprates yield in the high temperature region a different curvature of $`B_{c2}(T)`$ as compared to that determined from ac-susceptibility or from magnetotransport. Blumberg et al.  determined the upper critical field from the electronic Raman scattering in the same cuprates and also obtained a conventional temperature dependence with a negative curvature and saturation at low temperatures. In our previous experimental work elastic tunneling was used as a direct tool to infer the upper critical field $`B_{c2}(T)`$ in the high-$`T_c`$ oxide Ba1-xKxBiO3 . Such a method is based on a measurement of the very fundamental superconducting density of states (DOS), where the superconducting part of the $`BT`$ phase diagram is defined from the non-zero value of the superconducting order parameter ($`\mathrm{\Delta }0`$).

In the present paper the tunneling characteristics measured on Ba1-xKxBiO3 in the mixed state at very high magnetic fields are discussed in the frame work of the de Gennes and Maki theory of the gapless superconductivity . We show that the theory is applicable at all temperatures below $`T_c`$ and in a wide range of magnetic fields below the upper critical one. In the experimentally measured tunneling conductances (proportional to the spatially averaged superconducting DOS) at high fields only the amplitude of the deviations from the normal-state tunneling conductance depends on the applied magnetic field. The energy dependence of these deviations is completely controlled by the temperature. The renormalized tunneling-conductance traces reveal a simple scaling behavior. This allows us to determine the temperature dependence of the pair-breaking parameter $`\alpha (T)`$ and the upper critical field $`B_{c2}(T)`$. The fitted $`B_{c2}(T)`$ follows the Werthamer-Helfand-Hohenberg prediction for classical type-II superconductors and is also in agreement with our previous direct determination . The analysis of the amplitude of the tunneling conductance at different magnetic fields enables us to determine the magnetic field dependence of the spatially averaged value $`\overline{\mathrm{\Delta }}(B)`$ of the superconducting order parameter at different temperatures and the temperature dependence of the second Ginzburg-Landau parameter $`\kappa _2(T)`$.

## II Theory

The behavior of type-II superconductors in the presence of external magnetic fields has been described on the basis of the phenomenological Ginzburg-Landau (GL) theory . Abrikosov  showed that a type-II superconductor exhibits a mixed (vortex) state, in which the magnetic flux penetrates the sample in the form of quantized flux lines. These results of the GL theory have validity in a restricted temperature region near the transition temperature $`T_c`$, where the lower and upper critical fields ($`B_{c1}(T)`$ and $`B_{c2}(T)`$) are both much smaller then their values $`B_{c1}(0)`$ and $`B_{c2}(0)`$ at zero temperature. An important generalization of the GL theory has been made by Maki  and de Gennes  in the case of dirty superconductors (where the mean free path $`l`$ is much smaller then the BCS superconducting coherence length $`\xi _0`$) extending this theory to arbitrary temperatures when the magnetic field is close to $`B_{c2}(T)`$. Maki has shown, that Abrikosov’s original theory is applicable at all temperatures in the dirty limit, if in the expressions for the temperature dependencies of critical magnetic field and magnetization two temperature dependent GL parameters $`\kappa _i`$ are introduced

$`\kappa _1`$ $`=`$ $`B_{c2}(T)/\sqrt{2}B_c(T),`$ (1)
$`M`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{B_{c2}B}{\mu _0\beta (2\kappa _2^21)}},`$ (2)
where $`M`$ is the magnetization and $`\beta `$ a geometric constant of the vortex lattice. The first GL parameter $`\kappa _1(T)`$, the ratio of the upper critical field $`B_{c2}(T)`$ and the thermodynamic critical field $`B_c(T)`$, is a slowly temperature dependent function with a $`20\%`$ larger value at $`0`$ K than at $`T_c`$. The parameter $`\kappa _2`$ is connected with the slope of the magnetization curve near $`B_{c2}`$. Caroli et al.  showed that $`\kappa _2(T)`$ will be equal to $`\kappa _1(T)`$ within $`2\%`$ for a dirty bulk type-II superconductor.

A magnetic field applied to a dirty superconductor breaks the (time-reversal) symmetry of the Cooper pairs and leads to a finite lifetime $`\tau _k`$ of the condensed paired electrons with the pair breaking parameter $`\alpha _k=\mathrm{}/2\tau _k`$. This decay process competes with a natural growth of pairs associated with a characteristic lifetime $`\tau (T)`$ and related parameter $`\alpha =\mathrm{}/2\tau `$ which is connected with the upper critical field $`B_{c2}`$ according to

$$B_{c2}=\frac{\alpha \mathrm{\Phi }_0}{\pi D\mathrm{}},$$
(3)
where $`\mathrm{\Phi }_0`$ is the flux quantum and $`D`$ the diffusion constant. Neglecting the effects of spin paramagnetism and spin-orbit scattering the temperature dependence of the pair-breaking parameter $`\alpha (T)`$ is given by

$$\mathrm{ln}(T_c/T)=\mathrm{\Psi }\left(\frac{1}{2}+\frac{\alpha }{2\pi k_BT}\right)\mathrm{\Psi }\left(\frac{1}{2}\right),$$
(4)
where $`\mathrm{\Psi }(z)`$ is the digamma function.

Magnetic pair-breaking in superconductors depresses the superconducting order with the occurence of quasi-particle states inside the otherwise forbidden energy gap. For sufficiently strong pair-breaking, near $`B_{c2}`$, a gapless superconducting state exists. Superconductivity with a finite value of the superconducting order parameter (pair potential $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$) exists without a minimum excitation energy in the quasi-particle excitation spectrum. This gapless superconducting behavior can be clearly seen in the calculations of Skalski et al.  for the density of states of the superconducting excitation spectrum in the presence of pair breaking. De Gennes  has derived a very simple expression for the density of states $`N(E,𝐫)`$ in dirty superconductors in the gapless region for small $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ in magnetic fields near $`B_{c2}`$, given by

$$N(E,𝐫)=N_N(0)\left[1\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }^2(𝐫,H)}{2}\frac{\alpha ^2E^2}{(E^2+\alpha ^2)^2}\right],$$
(5)
where $`N_N(0)`$ is the DOS at the Fermi surface of the superconductor in the normal state. In the range of validity of Eq. (5), $`\alpha `$ does not depend on magnetic field, but is a function of temperature only. Via Eq. (3), the pair-beaking parameter $`\alpha (T)`$ is related to $`B_{c2}(T)`$. The only magnetic field dependent parameter in Eq. (5) is $`\mathrm{\Delta }(𝐫,H)`$. It leads to the important conclusion that the energy dependence of $`N(E,𝐫)`$ is fully controlled by temperature and not by magnetic field or $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$. Via $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$, the magnetic field acts just as a scaling parameter for the amplitude of the deviations of $`N(E,𝐫)`$ from $`N_N(0)`$.

A direct experimental verification of gapless superconductivity in the presence of a pair-breaking perturbation can be obtained by tunneling spectroscopy . The differential tunneling conductance measured on a metal-insulator-superconductor (N-I-S) tunnel-junction is directly proportional to the spatially averaged value of the superconducting DOS by

$$G(V)=\frac{(dI/dV)}{(dI/dV)_N}=_{\mathrm{}}^{\mathrm{}}\frac{N(E)}{N_N(0)}\left[\frac{f(E+eV)}{(eV)}\right]𝑑E,$$
(6)
where $`G(V)`$ represents the tunneling conductance normalized to its normal-state value and the brackets in the integral contain the bias-voltage derivative of the Fermi distribution function. In the case of a gapless DOS the normalized conductance may be transformed into

$$G(V)=1+\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }^2}{8\pi ^2k_B^2T^2}Re\left\{\mathrm{\Psi }_3\left(\frac{1}{2}+aib\right)\right\},$$
(7)
where $`a=\alpha /2\pi k_BT`$, $`b=eV/2\pi k_BT`$ and $`\mathrm{\Psi }_3`$ is the second derivative of the digamma function. In a geometry with the applied magnetic field perpendicular to the planar surface of the junction barrier, the sample is in the Shubnikov mixed phase with the Abrikosov vortex structure. In a tunneling experiment the spatial average $`\overline{N}(E)`$ of the density of states over the sample surface is measured. Therefore, one has to consider in Eq. (5) the spatially averaged order parameter $`\overline{\mathrm{\Delta }}`$ .

The magnetic field dependence of $`\overline{\mathrm{\Delta }}`$ in the gapless region of type-II superconductor near $`B_{c2}`$ has been calculated by Maki  yielding

$$\overline{\mathrm{\Delta }}^2=\frac{4\pi eck_BT(B_{c2}B)}{1.16\mu _0\sigma (2\kappa _2^21)\mathrm{\Psi }_2(\frac{1}{2}+a)},$$
(8)
where $`\mu _0`$ is the vacuum permeability, $`\sigma `$ the normal state conductivity and $`\mathrm{\Psi }_2`$ the first derivative of the digamma function. The linear field dependence of the averaged value of the energy gap squared results in a linearity in the above mentioned scaling of the averaged gapless DOS, or $`G(V)`$, with magnetic field. By a simple renormalization of the tunneling conductance to their zero-bias value according to the expression $`(G(V)1)/(G(0)1)`$, the field-dependent parameter $`\overline{\mathrm{\Delta }}`$ falls out the problem. The in such a way renormalized tunneling conductances at a fixed temperature should collapse on the same curve for different magnetic fields. This behavior can be very useful for the experimental determination of the pair-breaking parameter $`\alpha `$ or $`B_{c2}`$, and of the order parameter $`\overline{\mathrm{\Delta }},`$ or $`\kappa _2`$ . The region of validity of expressions (5),(7) and (8) in the $`BT`$ diagram is not very well known. They are certainly valid in the high-field region $`BB_{c2}(T)`$.

## III Experiment

The high quality single-crystalline Ba1-xKxBiO3 samples were grown by electrochemical crystallisation . The quality of the single crystals was verified by the measurement of the resistance in a four probe contact configuration. In zero magnetic field with decreasing temperature the samples showed metallic temperature dependence which saturates to a residual resistivity 100 $`\mu \mathrm{\Omega }`$cm above the superconducting transition with a width $`\mathrm{\Delta }T_c1.2`$ K. The ac-susceptibility measurement confirms this transition width. The critical temperature $`T_c=23`$ K has been determined from the midpoint of the zero field transition.

The tunnel junctions were prepared by painting a silver spot on the freshly cleaned surface of the crystal. The interface between the silver and Ba1-xKxBiO3 counter electrodes served as a natural barrier forming a planar normal metal-insulator-superconductor (N-I-S) tunnel junction. The tunneling measurements were performed in magnetic fields up to 30 T perpendicular to the planar tunneling junction enabling the formation of the vortex state in the junction area .

## IV Results and Discussion

In Fig. 1 the experimental tunneling data are shown at different magnetic fields increasing from zero to 30 Tesla with a step of 2 Tesla (if not otherwise specified) for three temperatures T=1.5, 4.2 and 16 K. For a specific temperature the upper critical field can be directly determined as the field where any trace of the superconducting density of states disappears in the conductance data. In our previous analysis of the tunneling data  we deduced the upper critical field from a linear extrapolation of the magnetic field dependence of the zero-bias conductance. The obtained temperature dependence of $`B_{c2}`$ agreed with the standard WHH theory.

To discuss the validity of the dirty limit ($`l<\xi _0`$) to our system now we have calculated the BCS coherence length $`\xi _049`$ Å from $`B_{c2}(0)=28`$ T and take the mean free path $`l33`$ Å from . The Ginzurg-Landau coherence length is related to the BCS one via $`\xi _{GL}=0.855\sqrt{\xi _0l}`$. The estimated ratio $`l/\xi _0`$ is about $`0.7`$. One of us (P.W.) has calculated the density of states as a function of $`l/\xi _0`$  and found very small differences for the ratio $`l/\xi _0`$ changing from 0 to 1. Similarly Eilenberger  found only small differences for this $`l/\xi _0`$ range when calculating the temperature dependence of the Ginzburg Landau parameters. Therefore, we believe that the dirty limit model of de Gennes and Maki is applicable in our case. The obtained agreement with experimental data, as discussed further on, seems to justify this approach.

The data sets as shown in Fig. 1 were rewritten in the above mentioned form $`(G(V)1)/(G(0)1)`$ and are shown in the right side of the Fig. 1. This simple renormalization of the conductance reveals, that above a certain magnetic field all renormalized conductance curves belonging to the same temperature collapse to the same curve. This is in a full agreement with Eq. (5) for the description of the gapless regime. We have also made the same rescaling procedure for the data sets taken at $`T`$ = 1.5, 3, 4.2, 8, 12, 16 and 20 K. At all temperatures an agreement with the de Gennes expression can be found for magnetic fields $`B>0.5B_{c2}(T)`$. Rewriting Eq. (5) in the form $`(N(E)1)/(N(0)1)`$, or $`(G(V)1)/(G(0)1)`$, makes that the only unknown quantity is the pair-breaking parameter $`\alpha `$. We have made a fit of this renormalized gapless DOS to the experimental data accounting for the thermal smearing as defined in Eq. (6). By this fitting procedure the same $`\alpha `$ can be obtained for any tunneling trace at $`B>0.5B_{c2}(T)`$ at a particular temperature.

The experimental values of the upper critical field obtained directly as mentioned above are displayed in the Fig. 2 as a function of temperature together with the temperature dependence of the pair-breaking parameter $`\alpha `$ obtained by the fits of the voltage dependence of the conductance. The shown error bars account for the scattering of the $`\alpha `$ values as obtained by the fitting to the curves at different fields. Because the amplitude of the normalized superconducting density of states decreases with increasing temperature the error bars increase for increasing temperature. Above 16 K the error bars are of the same order as $`\alpha `$ itself. The direct relation between $`\alpha `$ and $`B_{c2}`$ is defined by Eq. (3), which depends on the diffusion constant $`D`$ of the sample. The best agreement between the experimenatlly determined critical field and pair-breaking parameter is obtained for $`D=1`$ cm2s-1. This value is in a perfect agreement with the data of Affronte et al.  obtained on a very similar sample made in the same laboratory and also agrees reasonably with the value of Roesler et al.  obtained for a thin film, where they found $`D=0.64`$ cm2s-1.

In Fig. 3 we show that the zero-field tunneling-conductance trace at 1.5 K can be described by the BCS density of states using the Dynes formula $`N(E)\mathrm{Re}\{E/(E^2\mathrm{\Delta }^2)^{1/2}\}`$ with the complex energy $`E=E^{}+i\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ which takes account for a certain sample inhomogeneity via the broadening parameter $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$. This formula gives a good description of the tunnel spectra at 1.5 K and zero magnetic field with $`\mathrm{\Delta }=3.9\pm 0.1`$ meV and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }=0.4\pm 0.1`$ meV, yielding $`2\mathrm{\Delta }/kT_c=3.9\pm 0.1`$. This indicates that Ba1-xKxBiO3 is a BCS-like superconductor with a medium coupling strength .

In the case of weak-coupling superconductors, the pair-breaking parameter at $`T=0`$ K is connected with the energy gap $`\mathrm{\Delta }(0)`$ by the expression $`\alpha =\mathrm{\Delta }(0)/2`$. In our BKBO sample at $`T0`$ K the superconductivity is destroyed at $`\alpha 2.85`$ meV which is about $`45\%`$ higher than the expected value $`\mathrm{\Delta }(0)/22`$ meV. A similar discrepancy has been found in tunneling experiments of conventional type-II superconductors in the dirty limit with a finite value of $`l/\xi _0`$ and with strong-coupling effects . In our case with $`l/\xi _0`$ about $`0.7`$ also the strong-coupling plays an important role as shown in ref. .

In Fig. 3, the normalized tunneling conductances $`(dI/dV)/(dI/dV)_N`$ at $`T=1.5`$ K are also displayed for magnetic fields $`B>10`$ T where the scaling in the voltage dependence of the conductance curves holds. These curves are fitted by the de Gennes formula using the previously determined pair-breaking parameter $`\alpha =2.85`$ meV. Then the only fitting parameter is the superconducting order parameter $`\overline{\mathrm{\Delta }}`$. Thus, we obtained the magnetic-field dependence of the superconducting order parameter $`\overline{\mathrm{\Delta }}`$. The same procedure was repeated for the magnetic-field dependent data sets at different temperatures. The results of $`\overline{\mathrm{\Delta }}(B)`$ are shown in Fig. 4 for $`T=1.5`$, 8, and 16 K. In the inset we display the magnetic field dependence of $`\overline{\mathrm{\Delta }}^2`$. $`\overline{\mathrm{\Delta }}^2(B)`$ changes linearly with the applied field not only in the high field region near $`B_{c2}`$ as predicted by Maki (Eq. (8)) but at least from $`B>0.5B_{c2}(T)`$. This finding supports the evaluation of the upper critical field from tunneling spectroscopy as made in our previous work where a linear extrapolation of the zero-bias tunneling conductance $`G(0)`$ was used to obtain $`B_{c2}(T)`$ .

The normalized zero-bias tunneling conductance $`G(V=0,B)_T`$ at a certain temperature can be approximated by

$$G(V=0,B)_T=1P(B)_T(B_{c2}B),$$
(9)
where $`P(B)_T`$ is the slope of the normalized zero-bias conductance $`G(V=0,B)_T`$ versus magnetic field at a fixed temperature with dimension \[T-1\]. With this expression for the zero-bias tunneling conductance substituted into Eq. (7) together with $`\overline{\mathrm{\Delta }}`$ from Eq. (8) we can derive the second GL parameter $`\kappa _2`$ as a function of the temperature

$$\kappa _2(T)0.5=\frac{e}{4.64\pi \mu _0k_BT\sigma P(B)_T}\frac{\mathrm{\Psi }_3(\frac{1}{2}+a)}{\mathrm{\Psi }_2(\frac{1}{2}+a)}.$$
(10)
Here, besides the slope $`P(B)_T`$ of the zero-bias tunneling conductance and the pair-breaking parameter $`\alpha `$ the electrical conductance $`\sigma `$ is an experimental parameter. For $`\sigma `$ we can take $`\sigma =0.125`$ x $`10^7\mathrm{\Omega }^1`$m-1 from ref. . The resulting temperature dependence of $`\kappa _2`$ is shown in Fig. 5 by open symbols together with the theoretical prediction of Caroli, Cyrot and de Gennes  for a dirty type-II s-wave superconductors in the mixed state. Despite the fact that the error bars are very big a discrepancy is obvious. As shown by Guyon at al.  the slope $`P(B)_T`$ at different temperatures is expected to be constant. In our case it changes at higher temperatures (see inset in Fig. 5). If the slope is kept artificially constant as it was at low temperatures (dotted line in the inset) we derive a much better agreement with the theoretical prediction of Caroli et al. (full symbols in Fig. 5). One possible explanation of this discrepancy between the theoretical predictions of Caroli et al. and our $`\kappa _2(T)`$ calculation from the real temperature dependent $`P(H)_T`$ values could result from the local sample inhomogeneity  because at higher temperatures possibly another phase can play a role in the tunneling characteristics. In this case the correct $`\kappa _2(T)`$ dependence of the major bulk superconducting phase is determined from the constant $`P(H)_T`$ following the predictions of Caroli et al.. Then, $`\kappa _2(T)`$ is equal to $`\kappa _1(T)`$ and it can be used for the determination of basic superconducting quantities, connected with the GL parameters, like the thermodynamic critical magnetic field or the free energy.

Anyhow, the $`\kappa _2(T)`$ parameter calculated from our magnetotunneling data reveals a saturation at low temperatures. Its value at higher temperatures is in a qualitative agreement with the earlier published values of the GL parameter $`\kappa `$ in the BKBO system . The saturating character of $`\kappa _2(T)`$ in the low temperature region proves a dirty limit and a non $`d`$-wave character of the superconductivity in the BKBO system. Pure superconductors  similarly as $`d`$-wave superconductors should reveal a characteristic $`\kappa _2(T)\mathrm{ln}(1/T)`$ dependence .

## V Conclusions

The pair-breaking theory has been applied for analyzing the magnetotunneling results in the BKBO superconductor. It has been shown, that the generalization of the Ginzburg-Landau theory provided by Maki and de Gennes for the dirty type-II superconductors in a field region close to $`B_{c2}`$ is valid in a much wider interval of magnetic fields. The theory for the gapless superconductors describes the experimental tunneling data for magnetic fields $`B>0.5B_{c2}(T)`$ very well. In this region of magnetic fields the tunneling curves can be fitted by the de Gennes formula for the thermally smeared averaged density of states. As a consequence the tunneling curves reveal an universal scaling in the magnetic field dependence for a fixed temperature. This allows us to calculate the temperature dependence of the pair-breaking parameter $`\alpha `$ (or $`B_{c2}`$) and the Maki parameter $`\kappa _2`$ from the tunneling curves. The averaged superconducting order parameter squared $`\overline{\mathrm{\Delta }}^2`$ reveals linearity with the magnetic field in the same range of magnetic fields. This linearity can be applied not only in interpretation of the tunneling measurements but also in the case of many superconducting quantities governed by $`\overline{\mathrm{\Delta }}^2(H)`$ in the high-field limit, like magnetization, magnetic susceptibility, thermal conductivity, etc.. The obtained temperature dependence of the upper critical field is in satisfactory agreement with the theoretical predictions of Maki and Werthamer, Helfand and Hohenberg for classical type-II superconductors.

The wide magnetic field range where the pair-breaking theory has been proved to be valid (far below the real $`B_{c2}`$) makes this tunneling approach very promising for the high-$`T_c`$ cuprates where the upper critical field is experimentally not available for reliable estimates of the temperature dependence of $`B_{c2}`$.

###### Acknowledgements.

We greatly acknowledge stimulating discussions with K. Maki. This work has been supported by the EC grant No.CIPA-CT93-0183 and the Slovak VEGA contract No. 2/5144/98.
FIGURE CAPTIONS

Fig. 1: Normalized ($`G`$, left side) and renormalized ($`(G1)/(G(0)1)`$, right side) tunneling conductances of the Ba1-xKxBiO3-Ag tunnel junction in magnetic fields from zero up to 30 T in steps of 2 T (if not mentioned else) at the indicated temperatures. The renormalized curves have been fitted to the de Gennes formula (Eq. (5)) of the DOS (open circles) yielding the indicated pair-breaking parameter $`\alpha `$.

Fig. 2: Temperature dependence of the upper critical magnetic field $`B_{c2}`$ of Ba1-xKxBiO3 determined directly from an extrapolation of the zero-bias tunneling conductance (closed circles, left scale) and of the pair-breaking parameter $`\alpha `$ determined from a fit to the de Gennes formula of the DOS for the full voltage-dependence of the conductance (open squares, right scale). The full line shows the prediction of the standard WHH theory.

Fig. 3: Experimentally measured normalized tunneling conductances at $`T=1.5`$ K (closed squares) shifted along the Y-axis as indicated by the high-voltage values at the right side. The lines show the BCS dependence at $`B=0`$ T (dotted line) and the fitting to the de Gennes pair-breaking (PB) formula of the DOS at $`B>10`$ T (full lines)
.

Fig. 4: Magnetic field dependencies of the averaged value of the energy gap $`\overline{\mathrm{\Delta }}`$ at different temperatures. The inset shows the squared values $`\overline{\mathrm{\Delta }}^2`$ as a function of magnetic field.

Fig. 5: Temperature dependence of the second Ginzburg-Landau parameter $`\kappa _2`$ calculated from magnetotunneling results (left scale) for the temperature dependent $`P(B)_T`$ (open circles) and for a constant $`P(B)_T=0.0395`$ T-1 (closed squares). The full line shows the theoretical prediction of Caroli et al. . The inset displays the temperature dependence of the zero-bias slope $`P(B)_T`$.


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# Untitled Document

TOWARDS A COMBINATORIAL INTERSECTION COHOMOLOGY FOR FANS

Karl-Heinz FIESELER

Matematiska Institutionen, Box 480, Uppsala Universitet, SE-75106 Uppsala, Suède

E-mail: khf@math.uu.se

Abstract.  The real intersection cohomology $`IH^{}(X_\mathrm{\Delta })`$ of a toric variety $`X_\mathrm{\Delta }`$ is described in a purely combinatorial way using methods of elementary commutative algebra only. We define, for arbitrary fans, the notion of a “minimal extension sheaf” $`^{}`$ on the fan $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ as an axiomatic characterization of the equivariant intersection cohomology sheaf. This provides a purely algebraic interpretation of the $`f`$\- and $`g`$-vector of an arbitrary polytope or fan under a natural vanishing condition. — The results presented in this note originate from joint work with G.Barthel, J.-P.Brasselet and L.Kaup (see ).

1. Minimal Extension Sheaves

We introduce the notion of a minimal extension sheaf on a fan and study some elementary properties of such sheaves.

Let $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ be a fan in a real vector space $`V`$ of dimension $`n`$. We endow $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ with the fan-topology, having the subfans $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ of $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ as the non-empty open subsets. In particular, affine subfans, i.e. fans $`\sigma `$ consisting of $`\sigma `$ and its faces, are open; for simplicity we usually write $`\sigma `$ instead of $`\sigma `$. A sheaf $``$ of real vector spaces on $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ is determined by the collection of vector spaces $`F_\sigma :=(\sigma )`$ for each $`\sigma \mathrm{\Delta }`$ together with the restriction homomorphisms $`F_\sigma F_\tau `$ for $`\tau \sigma `$. An important example is the sheaf $`𝒜^{}`$ with $`𝒜^{}(\sigma ):=A_\sigma ^{}:=S^{}(V_\sigma ^{})`$, where $`V_\sigma :=`$span$`(\sigma )`$, and the natural restriction homomorphisms. Its sections over a subfan $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ are the piecewise polynomial functions on the support $`|\mathrm{\Lambda }|`$ of $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$.

Warning: We use a topologically motivated grading for $`S^{}(V_\sigma ^{})`$: Linear polynomials are of degree $`2`$, etc.

We set $`A^{}:=S^{}(V^{})`$. For a graded $`A^{}`$-module $`F^{}`$, let $`\overline{F}^{}:=R^{}_A^{}F^{}=F^{}/𝐦F^{}`$ denote the residue class vector space modulo $`𝐦:=A^{>0}`$, where $`R^{}:=A^{}/𝐦`$.

Definition: A sheaf $`^{}`$ of graded $`𝒜^{}`$-modules on the fan $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ is called a minimal extension sheaf (of $`𝐑^{}`$) if it satisfies the following conditions:

(N)Normalization: One has $`E_o^{}A_o^{}=𝐑^{}`$ for the zero cone $`o`$.

(PF)Pointwise Freeness: For each cone $`\sigma \mathrm{\Delta }`$, the module $`E_\sigma ^{}`$ is free over $`A_\sigma ^{}`$.

(LME)Local Minimal Extension $`mod𝐦`$: For each cone $`\sigma \mathrm{\Delta }\{0\}`$, the restriction mapping $`\phi _\sigma :E_\sigma ^{}E_\sigma ^{}`$ induces an isomorphism $`\overline{\phi }_\sigma :\overline{E}_\sigma ^{}\stackrel{}{}\overline{E}_\sigma ^{}`$ of graded real vector spaces.

Condition (LME) implies that $`^{}`$ is minimal in the set of all flabby sheaves of graded $`𝒜^{}`$-modules satisfying conditions (N) and (PF), whence the name “minimal extension sheaf”. Moreover, $`^{}`$ vanishes in odd degrees. For a cone $`\sigma \mathrm{\Delta }`$ and for a subfan $`\mathrm{\Lambda }\mathrm{\Delta }`$, the $`A^{}`$-modules $`E_\sigma ^{}`$ and $`E_\mathrm{\Lambda }^{}`$ are finitely generated.

If $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ is a rational fan for some lattice $`NV`$ of maximal rank, then there is an associated toric variety $`X_\mathrm{\Delta }`$ with the action of an algebraic torus $`𝐓(𝐂^{})^n`$. Let $`IH_𝐓^{}(X_\mathrm{\Delta })`$ denote the equivariant intersection cohomology of $`X_\mathrm{\Delta }`$ with real coefficients. In , the following theorem was proved; it has been the starting point to investigate minimal extension sheaves.

Theorem. Let $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ be a rational fan.

i) The assignment $`_𝐓^{}:\mathrm{\Lambda }IH_𝐓^{}(X_\mathrm{\Lambda })`$ defines a sheaf on the fan space $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$; it is a minimal extension sheaf.

ii) If $`^{}`$ is a minimal extension sheaf on $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ and $`\sigma `$ a $`k`$-dimensional cone, then for the local intersection cohomology $`_x^{}`$ of $`X_\mathrm{\Delta }`$ in a point $`x`$ belonging to the orbit corresponding to $`\sigma `$, we have: $`_x^{}\overline{E}_\sigma ^{}.`$

iii) For a complete fan $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ or an affine fan $`\mathrm{\Delta }=\sigma `$ with a cone $`\sigma `$ of dimension $`n`$, one has $`IH^{}(X_\mathrm{\Delta })\overline{E}_\mathrm{\Delta }^{}.`$

The vanishing axiom for local intersection cohomology together with statement ii) in the above theorem yields that, in the case of a rational fan, the following vanishing condition is satisfied:

Vanishing Condition V($`\sigma `$): For a cone $`\sigma `$ and a minimal extension sheaf $`^{}`$ on a fan $`\sigma `$, we have $`\overline{E}_\sigma ^q=0\mathrm{for}qdim\sigma .`$

On every fan $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ there exists a minimal extension sheaf $`^{}`$. Furthermore, for any two such sheaves $`^{}`$, $`^{}`$ on $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$, each isomorphism $`E_o^{}𝐑^{}F_o^{}`$ extends (non-canonically) to an isomorphism $`^{}\stackrel{}{}^{}`$ of graded $`{}_{\mathrm{\Delta }}{}^{}𝒜_{}^{}`$-modules, which is unique in the case of a simplicial fan. Simplicial fans are easily characterized in terms of minimal extension sheaves: The sheaf $`{}_{\mathrm{\Delta }}{}^{}𝒜_{}^{}`$ is a minimal extension sheaf if and only if the fan $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ is simplicial.

2. Combinatorial equivariant perverse sheaves

We propose a definition for (combinatorially) “perverse” sheaves, here called semisimple sheaves.

Definition: A (combinatorially) semi-simple sheaf $`^{}`$ on a fan space $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ is a flabby sheaf of graded $`𝒜^{}`$-modules such that, for each cone $`\sigma \mathrm{\Delta }`$, the $`A_\sigma ^{}`$-module $`F_\sigma ^{}`$ is finitely generated and free.

For each cone $`\tau \mathrm{\Delta }`$, we construct inductively a “simple” sheaf $`{}_{\tau }{}^{}_{}^{}`$ on $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ as follows: For $`\sigma \mathrm{\Delta }^{dim\tau }:=\{\sigma \mathrm{\Delta };dim\sigma dim\tau \}`$ we set

$${}_{\tau }{}^{}E_{\sigma }^{}:={}_{\tau }{}^{}_{}^{}(\sigma ):=\{\begin{array}{cc}A_\tau ^{}\hfill & \text{if }\sigma =\tau \text{,}\hfill \\ 0\hfill & \text{otherwise.}\hfill \end{array}$$

Now, if $`{}_{\tau }{}^{}_{}^{}`$ has been defined on $`\mathrm{\Delta }^m`$ for some $`mdim\tau `$, then for each $`\sigma \mathrm{\Delta }^{m+1}`$, we set $`{}_{\tau }{}^{}E_{\sigma }^{}:=A_\sigma ^{}_𝐑\overline{}_\tau \overline{E}_\sigma ^{}`$ with the restriction map $`{}_{\tau }{}^{}E_{\sigma }^{}{}_{\tau }{}^{}E_{\sigma }^{}`$ being induced by some homogeneous $`𝐑`$-linear section $`s:{}_{\tau }{}^{}\overline{E}_{\sigma }^{}{}_{\tau }{}^{}E_{\sigma }^{}`$ of the residue class map $`{}_{\tau }{}^{}E_{\sigma }^{}{}_{\tau }{}^{}\overline{E}_{\sigma }^{}`$.

Decomposition Theorem: Every semi-simple sheaf $`^{}`$ on $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ is isomorphic to a finite direct sum $`^{}_i{}_{\tau _i}{}^{}_{}^{}[\mathrm{}_i]^{n_i}`$ of shifted simple sheaves with uniquely determined cones $`\tau _i\mathrm{\Delta }`$, natural numbers $`n_i1`$ and integers $`\mathrm{}_i𝐙`$.

From the theorem in section 3 we then obtain the following consequence:

Corollary 1: Let $`\pi :\widehat{\mathrm{\Delta }}\mathrm{\Delta }`$ be a refinement map of fans with minimal extension sheaves $`\widehat{}^{}`$ resp. $`^{}`$. Then the direct image sheaf $`\pi _{}(\widehat{}^{})`$ is a semisimple sheaf, in particular there is a decomposition $`\pi _{}(\widehat{}^{})^{}_i{}_{\tau _i}{}^{}_{}^{}[\mathrm{}_i]^{n_i}`$ with cones $`\tau _i\mathrm{\Delta }^2`$ and positive integers $`\mathrm{}_i,n_i`$.

Corollary 2: For a simplicial refinement $`\widehat{\mathrm{\Delta }}`$ of $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$, let $`\widehat{𝒜}^{}`$ be the sheaf of $`\widehat{\mathrm{\Delta }}`$-piecewise polynomial functions on $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$. Then a minimal extension sheaf $`{}_{\mathrm{\Delta }}{}^{}_{}^{}`$ on $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ can be realized as a subsheaf of $`{}_{\mathrm{\Delta }}{}^{}\widehat{𝒜}_{}^{}`$.

3. Cellular Cech Cohomology of Minimal Extension Sheave

In this section, we investigate under which assumptions the module of global sections $`E_\mathrm{\Delta }^{}:=^{}(\mathrm{\Delta })`$ of a minimal extension sheaf $`^{}`$ is a free $`A^{}`$-module.

Definition: A fan $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ is called quasi-convex if for a minimal extension sheaf $`^{}`$ on $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$, the $`A^{}`$-module $`^{}(\mathrm{\Delta })`$ is free.

According to Proposition 6.1 in , a rational fan $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ is quasi-convex if and only if the intersection cohomology of the associated toric variety $`X_\mathrm{\Delta }`$ vanishes in odd degrees. — The main tool to be used in the sequel is the “complex of cellular cochains with coefficients in $`^{}`$”: To a sheaf $``$ of real vector spaces on the fan $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$, we associate its “cellular cochain complex” $`C^{}(\mathrm{\Delta },)`$. The cochain module in degree $`k`$ is $`_{dim\sigma =nk}(\sigma )`$, the coboundary operator $`\delta ^k:C^k(\mathrm{\Delta },)C^{k+1}(\mathrm{\Delta },)`$ is defined with respect to fixed orientations as in the usual Čech cohomology. For $`=^{}`$, the above complex is – up to a rearrangement of the indices – a “minimal complex” in the sense of Bernstein and Lunts .

We also have to consider relative cellular cochain complexes with respect to the boundary subfan $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ of a purely $`n`$-dimensional fan $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$, supported by the topological boundary of $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$.

Definition: If the fan $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ is purely $`n`$-dimensional, then for a sheaf $``$ of real vector spaces on $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ we set

$$C^{}(\mathrm{\Delta },\mathrm{\Delta };):=C^{}(\mathrm{\Delta };)/C^{}(\mathrm{\Delta };),$$

where $`C^{}(\mathrm{\Delta };)C^{}(\mathrm{\Delta };)`$ is the subcomplex of cochains supported in $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$.

We also need the augmented complex

$$\stackrel{~}{C}^{}(\mathrm{\Delta },\mathrm{\Delta };):0(\mathrm{\Delta })C^0(\mathrm{\Delta },\mathrm{\Delta };)\mathrm{}C^n(\mathrm{\Delta },\mathrm{\Delta };)0$$

and its cohomology groups $`\stackrel{~}{H}^q(\mathrm{\Delta },\mathrm{\Delta };):=H^q(\stackrel{~}{C}^{}(\mathrm{\Delta },\mathrm{\Delta };)).`$

Theorem: For a purely $`n`$-dimensional fan $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ and a minimal extension sheaf $`^{}`$ on $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$, the following statements are equivalent:

i) We have $`\stackrel{~}{H}^{}(\mathrm{\Delta },\mathrm{\Delta };^{})=0`$.

ii) The $`A^{}`$-module $`E_\mathrm{\Delta }^{}:=^{}(\mathrm{\Delta })`$ of global sections is free.

iii) The support $`|\mathrm{\Delta }|`$ of the boundary subfan is a real homology manifold.

For a rational fan $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$, the above conditions are equivalent to

iv) For the toric variety $`X_\mathrm{\Delta }`$ associated to $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$, we have $`IH^{odd}(X_\mathrm{\Delta })=0`$.

Since complete fans are quasi-convex, the previous results provide a proof of a conjecture of Bernstein and Lunts (see , 15.9).

Corollary : For a complete fan $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$, the minimal complex of Bernstein and Lunts is exact.

Furthermore, for a quasi-convex fan $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ and a minimal extension sheaf $`^{}`$ on $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$, even the $`A^{}`$-submodule $`E_{(\mathrm{\Delta },\mathrm{\Delta })}^{}`$ of $`E_\mathrm{\Delta }^{}`$ consisting of the global sections vanishing on the boundary subfan $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ is a free $`A^{}`$-submodule.

4. Poincaré Polynomials and Poincaré duality

For a quasi-convex fan $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ and a a minimal extension sheaf $`^{}`$ on $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$, we want to discuss the Poincaré polynomials related to $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ and the pair $`(\mathrm{\Delta },\mathrm{\Delta })`$.

Definition: The Poincaré polynomial of $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ is the polynomial $`P_\mathrm{\Delta }(t):=_{q0}^<\mathrm{}dim\overline{E}_\mathrm{\Delta }^{2q}t^{2q}`$.

The relative Poincaré polynomial $`P_{(\mathrm{\Delta },\mathrm{\Delta })}`$ is defined in an analogous manner.

The relation between a global Poincaré polynomial $`P_\mathrm{\Delta }`$ and its local Poincaré polynomials $`P_\sigma `$ for $`\sigma \mathrm{\Delta }`$ is rather explicit:

Local-to-Global Formula: If $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ is a quasi-convex fan of dimension $`n`$, we have

$$P_\mathrm{\Delta }(t)=\underset{\sigma \mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Delta }}{}(t^21)^{ndim\sigma }P_\sigma (t)\text{and}P_{(\mathrm{\Delta },\mathrm{\Delta })}(t)=\underset{\sigma \mathrm{\Delta }}{}(t^21)^{ndim\sigma }P_\sigma (t).$$

The proof of the above formulæ depends on the fact that $`C^{}(\mathrm{\Delta },\mathrm{\Delta };^{})`$ resp. $`C^{}(\mathrm{\Delta };^{})`$ are resolutions of $`E_\mathrm{\Delta }^{}`$ resp. $`E_{(\mathrm{\Delta },\mathrm{\Delta })}^{}`$. Hence, the Poincaré series of $`E_\mathrm{\Delta }^{}`$ resp. $`E_{(\mathrm{\Delta },\mathrm{\Delta })}^{}`$ equals the alternating sum of the Poincaré series of the cochain modules $`C^i(\mathrm{})`$. Finally, we use the fact that $`E_\mathrm{\Delta }^{}A^{}_𝐑\overline{E}_\mathrm{\Delta }^{}`$, since $`E_\mathrm{\Delta }^{}`$ is free, and similarly for $`E_{(\mathrm{\Delta },\mathrm{\Delta })}^{}`$, while $`E_\sigma ^{}A_\sigma ^{}_𝐑\overline{E}_\sigma ^{}`$.

Using an induction argument one proves: Corollary: Let $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ be a quasi-convex fan.

i) The relative Poincaré polynomial $`P_{(\mathrm{\Delta },\mathrm{\Delta })}`$ is monic of degree $`2n`$.

ii) The absolute Poincaré polynomial $`P_\mathrm{\Delta }`$ is of degree $`2n`$ iff $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ is complete; otherwise, it is of strictly smaller degree.

iii) For a non-zero cone $`\sigma `$, the local Poincaré polynomial $`P_\sigma `$ is of degree at most $`2dim\sigma 2`$.

Of course, statement ii) is a rather weak vanishing estimate; in fact we expect the much stronger vanishing condition V($`\sigma `$) to hold.

In order to have a recursive algorithm for the computation of global Poincaré polynomials, we relate the local Poincaré polynomial $`P_\sigma `$ to the global one of some fan $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_\sigma `$ in a vector space of lower dimension: The fan $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_\sigma `$ “lives” in the quotient vector space $`V_\sigma /L`$, where $`L`$ is a line in $`V`$ passing through the relative interior of $`\sigma `$. For the projection $`\pi :V_\sigma V_\sigma /L`$, we pose $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_\sigma :=\{\pi (\tau );\tau \sigma \}`$. The homeomorphism $`\pi |_\sigma :|\sigma |V_\sigma /L`$ induces an isomorphism of the fans $`\sigma `$ and $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_\sigma `$. Using the truncation operator $`\tau _{<j}(a_qt^q)=_{q<r}a_qt^q`$ we can now formulate the next step:

Local Recursion Formula: Let $`\sigma `$ be a non-zero cone.

i) If $`\sigma `$ is simplicial, then we have $`P_\sigma 1`$.

ii) If the condition $`V(\sigma )`$ of section 1 is satisfied, then we have $`P_\sigma (t)=\tau _{<dim\sigma }\left((1t^2)P_{\mathrm{\Lambda }_\sigma }(t)\right)`$.

For the proof, we consider a minimal extension sheaf $`𝒢^{}`$ on the fan $`\mathrm{\Lambda }:=\mathrm{\Lambda }_\sigma `$. Let $`B^{}`$ be the polynomial algebra on $`V_\sigma /L`$, considered as subalgebra of $`A_\sigma ^{}B^{}[T]`$. Then we have an $`B^{}`$-module isomorphism $`G_\mathrm{\Lambda }^{}E_\sigma ^{}`$, such that $`\overline{E}_\sigma ^{}\overline{G}_\mathrm{\Lambda }^{}/T\overline{G}_\mathrm{\Lambda }^{}`$: Here $`\overline{G}_\mathrm{\Lambda }^{}`$ is the residue class module of the $`B^{}`$-module $`G_\mathrm{\Lambda }^{}`$ and $`T`$ acts on it via the isomorphism $`G_\mathrm{\Lambda }^{}E_\sigma ^{}`$, the latter module living over $`A_\sigma ^{}`$. The action of $`T`$ on $`G_\mathrm{\Lambda }^{}`$ coincides with the multiplication with the piecewise linear strictly convex function $`\psi :=T(\pi |_\sigma )^1𝒜^2(\mathrm{\Lambda })`$. Now we use the following combinatorial version of the Hard Lefschetz Theorem:

Combinatorial Hard Lefschetz Theorem: In the same notations as in the proof of the Local Recursion Formula we set $`m:=dim(V_\sigma /L)=dim\sigma 1`$. If the condition $`V(\sigma )`$ is satisfied, then $`\mu :G_\mathrm{\Lambda }^{}G_\mathrm{\Lambda }^{}[2],f\psi f`$ induces a map $`\overline{\mu }^{2q}:\overline{G}_\mathrm{\Lambda }^{2q}\overline{G}_\mathrm{\Lambda }^{2q+2},`$ which is injective for $`2qm1`$ and surjective for $`2qm1`$. The surjectivity is nothing but a reformulation of the vanishing condition V($`\sigma `$), whence the injectivity is obtained via Poincaré duality for the real vector space $`\overline{G}_\mathrm{\Lambda }^{}`$, the map $`\overline{\mu }`$ being selfadjoint with respect to the Poincaré duality pairing:

Such a Poincaré duality on a quasi-complex fan $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ is obtained as follows: By a stepwise procedure, one constructs an internal (non-canonical) intersection product $`^{}\times ^{}^{}`$. Then one composes the induced product on the level of global sections with an evaluation map $`E_{(\mathrm{\Delta },\mathrm{\Delta })}^{}A^{}[2n]`$, which is homogeneous of degree 0 and unique up to a non-zero real factor. That construction uses the above corollary and the freeness of $`E_{(\mathrm{\Delta },\mathrm{\Delta })}^{}`$. The pairing thus obtained induces a pairing on the level of residue class vector spaces.

Poincaré Duality Theorem: For every quasi-convex fan $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$, the pairings

$$\begin{array}{cc}\hfill E_\mathrm{\Delta }^{}\times E_{(\mathrm{\Delta },\mathrm{\Delta })}^{}& E_{(\mathrm{\Delta },\mathrm{\Delta })}^{}A^{}[2n]\hfill \\ \hfill \overline{E}_\mathrm{\Delta }^{}\times \overline{E}_{(\mathrm{\Delta },\mathrm{\Delta })}^{}& \overline{E}_{(\mathrm{\Delta },\mathrm{\Delta })}^{}𝐑^{}[2n].\hfill \end{array}$$
$`\mathrm{𝑎𝑛𝑑}`$
are dual pairings of free $`A^{}`$-modules resp. of $`𝐑`$-vector spaces.

We end this section with a numerical version of Poincaré duality:

Corollary: For a quasi-convex fan $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$, the global Poincaré polynomials $`P_\mathrm{\Delta }`$ and $`P_{(\mathrm{\Delta },\mathrm{\Delta })}`$ are related by the identity

$$P_{(\mathrm{\Delta },\mathrm{\Delta })}(t)=t^{2n}P_\mathrm{\Delta }(t^1).$$

Références bibliographiques

 Barthel G., Brasselet J.-P., Fieseler K.-H., Kaup L., Equivariant Intersection Cohomology of Toric Varieties, Algebraic Geometry: Hirzebruch 70. Contemp. Math. AMS 241, (1999) 45–68.

 —, Equivariant Intersection Cohomology of Toric Varieties, Dep. Math. Uppsala, U.U.D.M. Report 1998:34.

 —, Combinatorial Intersection Cohomology of Fans, To appear.

 Bernstein J., Lunts V., Equivariant Sheaves and Functors, Lecture Notes in Math., vol. 1578, Springer-Verlag Berlin etc., 1993.

 Brion M., The Structure of the Polytope Algebra, Tôhoku Math. J., 49, (1997), 1–32.

 Brylinski J.-L., Equivariant Intersection Cohomology, in: Kazhdan-Lusztig Theory and Related Topics, Contemp. Math. vol. 139, Amer. Math. Soc., Providence, R.I., (1992), 5–32.

 Fieseler K.-H., Rational Intersection Cohomology of Projective Toric Varieties, Journ. reine angew. Math. (Crelle), 413, (1991), 88–98.

 Goresky M., Kottwitz R., MacPherson R., Equivariant Cohomology, Koszul Duality, and the Localization Theorem, Invent. Math., 131, (1998), 25–83.

 Oda T., The Intersection Cohomology and Toric Varieties, in: T. Hibi (ed.), Modern Aspects of Combinatorial Structure on Convex Polytopes, RIMS Kokyuroku, 857 (Jan. 1994), 99–112.


text:
# SOURCES FOR ELECTROWEAK BARYOGENESIS

## 1 Introduction

Although CP violation and the phase transition are known to be too weak for baryogenesis within the Standard Model, these problems can be overcome in the Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model (MSSM). In a small region of MSSM parameter space, corresponding to so called “light stop” scenario, the transition may be strong enough to avoid the wash-out of baryon number by sphaleron interactions in the broken phase. The sphaleron wash-out computations, while mired with problems associated with the infrared sector of gauge theories, are simple in the sense that one is dealing with equilibrium physics. Situation is markedly different for the theory of baryon production. In this case CP-violating currents are generated inside the bubble walls, diffuse into the plasma in the unbroken phase, and bias sphalerons to produce the baryon asymmetry. By the very axioms of baryogenesis this is an inherently out-of-equilibrium system. As of to date, no theory exists that could tackle the problem in its full extent, while many scenarios have been put forward in an attempt to extract the leading effect in one or the other limit. (However, for an ongoing project with the aim to self-consistently derive the transport equations for baryogenesis see ref..)

Common to all methods is reducing the problem to a set of diffusion equations for the particle species that bias sphalerons. These coupled equations, it is universally agreed, have the general form

$$D_i\mu _i^{\prime \prime }+v_w\mu _i^{}+\mathrm{\Gamma }_i(\mu _i+\mu _j+\mathrm{})=S_i,$$
(1)
where $`i`$ labels the particle species, $`\mu _i`$ is its chemical potential, primes denote spatial derivatives in the direction ($`z`$) perpendicular to the wall, $`v_w`$ is the wall velocity, $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_i`$ is the rate of an interaction that converts species $`i`$ into other kinds of particles, and $`S_i`$ is the source term associated with the current generated at the bubble wall. The essential point, and the one where little agreement exists between different aproaches, is how to properly derive the source terms $`S_i`$ appearing in (1).

In MSSM, potentially the most dominant source arises from the chargino sector. The CP violating effects are due to the complex parmeters $`m_2`$ and $`\mu `$ in the chargino mass term,

$$\overline{\psi }_RM_\chi \psi _L=(\overline{\stackrel{~}{w}^^+},\overline{\stackrel{~}{h}^^+}_2)_R\left(\begin{array}{cc}m_2& gH_2\\ gH_1& \mu \end{array}\right)\left(\begin{array}{c}\stackrel{~}{w}^^+\\ \stackrel{~}{h}_1^^+\end{array}\right)_L.$$
(2)
Spatially varying Higgs fields cause the phase of the effective mass eigenstates vary nontrivially over the bubble wall. In all methods that address the thick wall limit, one computes the current effected by these spatialy varying phases to leading order in an expansion in derivatives of the Higgs fields.

There was an important discrepancy in the literature concerning the derivative expansion of the chargino source. References and  obtained a source for the $`H_1H_2`$ combination of higgsino currents of the form

$$S_{H_1H_2}\mathrm{Im}(m_2\mu )(H_1H_2^{}H_2H_1^{}),$$
(3)
whereas ref., albeit unknowingly, found the other orthogonal linear combination, $`H_1+H_2`$, for which the result is

$$S_{H_1+H_2}\mathrm{Im}(m_2\mu )(H_1H_2^{}+H_2H_1^{}),$$
(4)
We have recently understood that this disagreement about the sign is spurious and that all three methods actually agree with eq. (4); it simply was not computed by the other authors of the references.

The reason that the combination $`H_1+H_2`$ was not considered by the other authors is because it tends to be suppressed by Yukawa interactions and helicity-flipping interactions from the $`\mu `$ term in the chargino mass matrix. Indeed, if all the interactions arising from the Lagrangian

$`V=y\mu \stackrel{~}{h}_1\stackrel{~}{h}_2`$ $`+`$ $`h_2\overline{u}_Rq_L+y\overline{u}_R\stackrel{~}{h}_{2L}\stackrel{~}{q}_L+y\stackrel{~}{u}_R^{}\stackrel{~}{h}_{2L}q_L`$ (5)
$``$ $`y\mu h_1\stackrel{~}{q}_L^{}\stackrel{~}{u}_R+yA_t\stackrel{~}{q}_Lh_2\stackrel{~}{u}_R^{}+\text{h.c.},`$
are considered to be in thermal equilibrium, they give rise to the constraints $`\xi _{H_1}\xi _{Q_3}+\xi _T=0`$ and $`\xi _{H_2}+\xi _{Q_3}\xi _T=0`$, which would damp out the effect of the source $`S_{H_1+H_2}`$. The rates $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_A`$ of the processes coming from (5) are finite however, so the equilibrium relations are satisfied only up to corrections of order $`(D_i\mathrm{\Gamma }_A)^{1/2}`$, where $`D_i`$ is the diffusion coefficient for Higgs particles or quarks. Using the Higgs diffusion constant $`D_h20/T`$ and the Yukawa rate $`\mathrm{\Gamma }3y^2T/16\pi `$, one finds only a mild suppression factor $`(D_h\mathrm{\Gamma })^{1/2}1`$. The source $`S_{H_1H_2}`$ on the other hand suffers from a serious suppression: baryon number generated is (obviously) proportional to a spatial variation of $`H_2/H_1`$, but relative deviations from constancy of this ratio have been found to be very small, in the range $`10^210^3`$.  Therefore the source $`S_{H_1H_2}`$ should be expected to be subdominant to $`S_{H_1+H_2}`$ even in the models of refs. . In the CFM the situation is even worse, because there the source for $`S_{H_1H_2}`$ actually vanishes, as we shall see below.

## 2 Semiclassical Boltzman equation

The classical force baryogenesis rests on particularily appealing intuitive picture. One assumes that the plasma in the condensate region can be described by a collection of semiclassical WKB-states, following world lines set by their WKB-dispersion relations and corresponding canonical equations of motion. One can then immediately write down a semiclassical Boltzman equation for the transport

$$(_t+𝐯_g_𝐱+𝐅_𝐩)f_i=C[f_i,f_j,\mathrm{}].$$
(6)
where the group velocity and the classical force are given by

$$𝐯_g_{𝐩_c}\omega 𝐅=\dot{𝐩}=\omega \dot{𝐯}_g,$$
(7)
where $`𝐩_c`$ is the canonical and $`𝐩\omega 𝐯_g`$ is the physical, kinetic momentum along the WKB-world line. Because of CP-violating effects particles and antipartices experience different force in the wall region, $`F_{\mathrm{ap}}F_\mathrm{p}`$, which leads to separation of chiral currents. What remains is to compute the disperson relation to obtain the group velocity and the force, after which the diffusion equations follow from (6) in a standard way by truncated moment expansion.

### 2.1 Dispersion relation

I will first consider the example of a single Dirac fermion with a spatially varying complex mass:

$$(i\gamma ^\mu _\mu mP_Rm^{}P_L)\psi =0;m=|m(z)|e^{i\theta (z)},$$
(8)
where $`P_{L,R}=(1\gamma _5)/2`$. Assuming planar walls I will also boost to the frame in which the momentum parallel to the wall is zero, $`p_x=p_y=0`$ (I am ignoring the effects of thermal background here). In this simple case it is fairly easy to solve the whole wave function to the first nontrivial order in the gradients,

$$\psi _s=\frac{|m|}{\sqrt{2p_s^+(\omega +sp_0)}}\left(\begin{array}{c}1\\ \frac{\omega +sp_s^+}{|m|}\end{array}\right)\chi _se^{i{\scriptscriptstyle \stackrel{~}{p}_s}+i\frac{\theta }{2}\gamma _5+i\varphi _G},$$
(9)
where $`p_0\sqrt{\omega ^2+m^2}`$, $`\stackrel{~}{p}_sp_0+s\omega \theta ^{}/(2p_0)`$, $`p_s^+\stackrel{~}{p}_s+\omega \theta ^{}/2`$, with $`\theta ^{}_z\theta `$, and $`\sigma _3\chi _s=s\chi _s`$. The phase of the wave function in (9) can be written as an integral over the local (canonical) momentum:

$$p_c=p_0+\frac{s\theta ^{}}{2p_0}(\omega \pm sp_0)+\alpha _G^{}.$$
(10)
This is, of course, just the usual WKB-dispersion relation which has been derived in many places. The presence of an arbitrary function $`\alpha _G^{}`$111It may be introduced at any point by a local phase transition $`\psi e^{i\alpha _G(x)}\psi `$, which leaves the lagrangian invariant. shows explicitly, as one should expect, that $`p_c`$ is a gauge dependent quantity. The physical quantities are gauge independent, however. For example, in the computation of the group velocity, the gauge dependent parts (including the chiral rotation proportional to $`\pm \theta ^{}`$) vanish because they are $`\omega `$-independent:

$$v_g=_{p_c}\omega =(_\omega p_c)^1=\frac{p_0}{\omega }\left(1+\frac{sm^2\theta ^{}}{2p_0^2\omega }\right)$$
(11)
Similar equation holds for antiparticles, but with $`\theta \theta `$. The gauge independency of the current $`j^\mu =\overline{\psi }\gamma ^\mu \psi `$ is obvious from (9). Moreover, it is easy to show by direct substitution that

$`j^\mu =(1/v_g;\widehat{𝐩}).`$ (12)
Thus, in the absence of collisions, the WKB-particles merely follow their trajectories (corresponding to the stationary phase of the wave) and if they slow down at some point, the outcome is an increase of local density. The crux of the CFM is that where particles slow down, antiparticles speed up in relation, leading to a local particle-antiparticle bias.

### 2.2 Physical force

We still need to see how the classical force arises from the dispersion relation. Physically, one expects that force simply corresponds to acceleration, as was assumed above in Eq. (7). It is instructive to see that this force is consistent with the canonical equations of motion. First note that the physical momentum $`p\omega v_g`$, may be written in terms of canonical momentum as

$$pp_c^\pm \alpha ^\pm \frac{s\theta ^{}p}{2\omega }.$$
(13)
where $`\alpha ^\pm =\alpha _G^{}\pm \theta ^{}/2`$. Force acting on this momentum is then

$$F=\dot{p}=\dot{p}_c\dot{z}_z(\alpha ^\pm +\frac{s\theta ^{}p_k}{2\omega }).$$
(14)
Using the canonical equations $`\dot{z}=v_g`$ and $`\dot{p}_c=(_z\omega )_{p_c}`$, along with the energy conservation, one finds that

$`F={\displaystyle \frac{mm^{}}{\omega }}+{\displaystyle \frac{s(m^2\theta ^{})^{}}{2\omega ^2}}=\omega v_g_zv_g=\omega \dot{v}_g,`$ (15)
in accordance with (7). Note that while the canonical force $`F_c(_z\omega )_{p_c}`$ is obviously gauge dependent, the gauge parts cancel in the expression for the physical force $`F`$. Again, for antiparticles $`\theta \theta `$, so that the second term in (15) is the CP-violating force, which leads to baryon production.

## 3 Baryogensis from chargino transport

The WKB-analysis of the chargino sector proceeds very similarly to the above simple example. Naturally there are some complications due to the additional $`2\times 2`$ flavour mixing structure. After a little algebra one finds the dispersion relation

$`p_{H_{i_\pm }}=p_{0_\pm }`$ $``$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{s(\omega +sp_{0_\pm })}{2p_{0_\pm }}}{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{}(m_2\mu )}{m_\pm ^2\mathrm{\Lambda }}}(u_1u_2^{}+u_2u_1^{})`$ (16)
$``$ $`s_{H_i}{\displaystyle \frac{2\mathrm{}(m_2\mu )}{\mathrm{\Lambda }+\mathrm{\Delta }}}(u_1u_2^{}u_2u_1^{})+i\alpha _{i\pm }^{}`$
where $`u_igH_i`$, $`\mathrm{\Lambda }=m_+^2m_{}^2`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }=|m_2|^2|\mu |^2+u_2^2u_1^2`$. If $`m_2>\mu `$, ($`m_2<\mu `$) then the larger (smaller) mass eigenstate $`m_+`$ ($`m_{}`$) corresponds to higgsinos. Although promisingly $`s_{H_1}=s_{H_2}=1`$, the $`(u_1u_2^{}u_2u_1^{})`$-term does not source the combination $`H_1H_2`$, because it vanishes when differentiated with respect to $`\omega `$. (It could also be absorbed into the arbitrary phase functions $`\alpha _{i\pm }`$ arising from freedom to perform field redefinitions.) Apart from this “gauge” phase, both higgsinos have identical dispersion relations and hence have identical sources in their diffusion equations, from which it follows that $`S_{H_1H_2}=0`$ in CFM. The nonvanishing source has a very simple form

$$S_{H_1+H_2}=\frac{s}{2}\frac{v_wD_h}{p^2/\omega ^2_\pm }p_z/\omega ^3_\pm \left(m_\pm ^2\theta _\mathrm{e}^{}\right)^{\prime \prime },$$
(17)
where $`\mathrm{}`$ refers to thermal average and $`m_\pm ^2\theta _\mathrm{e}^{}\mathrm{}(m_2\mu )(u_1u_2^{}+u_2u_1^{})/\mathrm{\Lambda }`$. The appropriate diffusion equations have been set up and solved in reference. The final baryon number can be written as a one-dimensional integral over the source

$$\eta _B\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\mathrm{sph}}}{v_w}C_{sq}_{\mathrm{}}^{\mathrm{}}𝑑zS_{H_1+H_2}(z)𝒢(z),$$
(18)
where $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\mathrm{sph}}`$ is the Chern-Simons number diffusion rate in the symmetric phase, $`v_w`$ is the wall velocity and $`𝒢(y)`$ is a Greens function which I do not write explicitly here. The parameter $`C_{sq}`$ encodes the essential squark spectrum dependence of our results: if only $`\stackrel{~}{t}_R`$ is light then $`C_{sq}=5/23`$. If, in addition, $`\stackrel{~}{t}_L`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{b}_L`$ are light then $`C_{sq}=1/41`$ and finally, if $`\stackrel{~}{t}_L`$, $`\stackrel{~}{b}_L`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{b}_R`$, and any number of other squarks are light then $`C_{sq}=0`$. This trend lends striking and entirely independent support for the wash-out motivated light stop scenario.

In Fig. 1 shown are the contours of $`\delta _\mu =arg(\mu )`$ corresponding to the eventual baryon to photon ratio of $`\eta _B=3\times 10^{10}`$ for $`v_w=0.1`$ and $`v_w=0.01`$. Baryogenesis is seen to remain viable in the MSSM at least for $`\delta _\mu `$ as small as $`\mathrm{𝑓𝑒𝑤}\times 10^3`$.

## 4 Conclusions

I have reviewed baryogenesis via the classical force mechanism (CFM) from the chargino transport in the Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model. It was shown that the physical quantities entering the CFM computation are unambiguos and independent of phase transformations on fields. It was pointed out that the dominant source for baryogenesis in the thick wall limit is the one corresponding to the linear combination of higgsinos $`H_1+H_2`$, despite the suppression by top-Yukawa strength interactions, because the corresponding suppression is much milder than the suppression on $`H_1H_2`$ arising due to need for non-constancy of $`H_2/H_1`$ over the bubble wall. I suggest that this linear combination should lead to dominant effect also in the thin wall limit. It was also observed that CFM is most efficient for the case when as few squarks as possible are light, which lends support for the so called ”light stop scenario”, necessary for avoiding the baryon wash-out in the broken phase. It was finally shown that the CFM may be able to produce the observed baryon asymmetry with the explicit CP-violating phase $`\delta _\mu `$ well below present observational limits.

## References


text:
# Model of Large Mixing Angle MSW Solution

## Abstract

We have obtained the neutrino mass matrix with the large mixing angle (LMA) MSW solution, $`\mathrm{sin}^22\theta _{}=0.650.97`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }m_{}^2=10^510^4\mathrm{eV}^2`$, in the $`S_{3L}\times S_{3R}`$ flavor symmetry. The structure of our neutrino mass matrix is found to be stable against radiative corrections.

The solar neutrino data as well as the atmospheric one give big impact on the study of the lepton mass matrices. There is a typical texture of the lepton mass matrix with the nearly maximal mixing of flavors, which is derived from the symmetry of the lepton flavor democracy , or from the $`S_{3L}\times S_{3R}`$ symmetry of the left-handed Majorana neutrino mass matrix . This texture have given a prediction for the neutrino mixing $`\mathrm{sin}^22\theta _{\mathrm{atm}}=8/9`$. The mixing for the solar neutrino depends on the symmetry breaking pattern of the flavor such as $`\mathrm{sin}^22\theta _{}=1`$ or $`1`$. However, the LMA-MSW solution, $`\mathrm{sin}^22\theta _{}=0.650.97`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }m_{}^2=10^510^4\mathrm{eV}^2`$ , has not been obtained in the previous works . We study how to get the LMA-MSW solution in the $`S_{3L}\times S_{3R}`$ symmetric mass matrices, and discuss the stability of the neutrino mass matrix against radiative corrections.

The texture of the charged lepton mass matrix was presented based on the $`S_{3L}\times S_{3R}`$ symmetry as follows :

$$M_{\mathrm{}}=\frac{c_{\mathrm{}}}{3}\left(\begin{array}{ccc}1& 1& 1\\ 1& 1& 1\\ 1& 1& 1\end{array}\right)+M_{\mathrm{}}^{(c)},$$
(1)
where the second matrix is the flavor symmetry breaking one. The unitary matrix $`V_{\mathrm{}}`$, which diagonalizes the mass matrix $`M_{\mathrm{}}`$, is given as $`V_{\mathrm{}}=FL`$, where

$$F=\left(\begin{array}{ccc}1/\sqrt{2}& 1/\sqrt{6}& 1/\sqrt{3}\\ 1/\sqrt{2}& 1/\sqrt{6}& 1/\sqrt{3}\\ 0& 2/\sqrt{6}& 1/\sqrt{3}\end{array}\right)$$
(2)
diagonalizes the democratic matrix and $`L`$ depends on the mass correction term $`M_{\mathrm{}}^{(c)}`$.

The neutrino mass matrix is different from the democratic one if they are Majorana particles. The $`S_{3L}`$ symmetric mass term is given as follows:

$$c_\nu \left(\begin{array}{ccc}1& 0& 0\\ 0& 1& 0\\ 0& 0& 1\end{array}\right)+c_\nu r\left(\begin{array}{ccc}1& 1& 1\\ 1& 1& 1\\ 1& 1& 1\end{array}\right),$$
(3)
where $`c_\nu `$ and $`r`$ are arbitrary parameters. The eigenvalues of this matrix are easily obtained by using the orthogonal matrix $`F`$ in eq.(2) as $`c_\nu (1,1,1+3r)`$.

The simplest breaking terms of the $`S_{3L}`$ symmetry are added in (3,3) and (2,2) entries. Therefore, the neutrino mass matrix is written as

$$M_\nu =c_\nu \left(\begin{array}{ccc}1+r& r& r\\ r& 1+r+ϵ& r\\ r& r& 1+r+\delta \end{array}\right),$$
(4)
in terms of small breaking parameters $`ϵ`$ and $`\delta `$. In order to explain both solar and atmospheric neutrinos in this mass matrix, $`r1`$ should be satisfied. However, there is no reason why $`r`$ is very small in this framework. In order to answer this question, we need a higher symmetry of flavors such as the $`O_{3L}\times O_{3R}`$ model .

Let us consider the case of $`\delta ϵr`$, in which $`S_{3L}`$ symmetry is completely broken. Then neutrino mass eigenvalues are given as

$$m_11+\frac{1}{2}ϵ+r\frac{1}{2}\sqrt{ϵ^2+4r^2},m_21+\frac{1}{2}ϵ+r+\frac{1}{2}\sqrt{ϵ^2+4r^2},m_31+r+\delta ,$$
(5)
in the $`c_\nu `$ unit. The orthogonal matrix $`U_\nu `$ is given as

$$U_\nu \left(\begin{array}{ccc}t& \sqrt{1t^2}& \frac{r}{\delta }\\ \sqrt{1t^2}& t& \frac{r}{\delta ϵ}\\ \frac{r}{\delta }(\sqrt{1t^2}t)& \frac{r}{\delta ϵ}(t+\sqrt{1t^2})& 1\end{array}\right),t^2=\frac{1}{2}+\frac{1}{2}\frac{ϵ}{\sqrt{ϵ^2+4r^2}}.$$
(6)
Since the correction term $`L`$ is close to the unit matrix, the MNS matrix $`U_{\alpha i}`$ is approximately given as $`F^TU_\nu `$ as follows:

$$F^TU_\nu \left(\begin{array}{ccc}\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}(t+\sqrt{1t^2})& \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}(\sqrt{1t^2}t)& \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}\frac{ϵr}{\delta (\delta ϵ)}\\ \frac{1}{\sqrt{6}}(t\sqrt{1t^2})(1+\frac{2r}{\delta })& \frac{1}{\sqrt{6}}(t+\sqrt{1t^2})(1+\frac{2r}{\delta ϵ})& \frac{2}{\sqrt{6}}(1\frac{r}{\delta })\\ \frac{1}{\sqrt{3}}(t\sqrt{1t^2})(1\frac{r}{\delta })& \frac{1}{\sqrt{3}}(t+\sqrt{1t^2})(1\frac{r}{\delta ϵ})& \frac{1}{\sqrt{3}}(1+\frac{2r}{\delta })\end{array}\right).$$
(7)
The mixing angle between the first and second flavor depends on $`t`$, which is determined by $`r/ϵ`$. It becomes the maximal angle in the case of $`t=1`$ ($`r/ϵ=0`$) and the minimal one in the case of $`t=1/\sqrt{2}`$ ($`ϵ/r=0`$). Since we get $`\mathrm{sin}^22\theta _{}=ϵ^2/(ϵ^2+4r^2)`$, the relevant value of $`r/ϵ`$ leads easily to $`\mathrm{sin}^22\theta _{}=0.650.97`$, which corresponds to the LMA-MSW solution. The numerical results have been shown in ref. .

We should carefully discuss the stability of our results against radiative corrections since the model predicts nearly degenerate neutrinos. When the texture of the mass matrix is given at the $`S_{3L}\times S_{3R}`$ symmetry energy scale, radiative corrections are not negligible at the electoroweak (EW) scale.

Let us consider the basis, in which the mass matrix of the charged leptons is diagonal. The neutrino mass matrix in eq.(4) is transformed into $`V_{\mathrm{}}^{}M_\nu V_{\mathrm{}}`$. The radiatively corrected mass matrix in the MSSM at the EW scale is given as $`R_G\overline{M}_\nu R_G`$, where $`R_G`$ is given by RGE’s  as

$$R_G\left(\begin{array}{ccc}1+\eta _e& 0& 0\\ 0& 1+\eta _\mu & 0\\ 0& 0& 1\end{array}\right),\eta _i=1\sqrt{\frac{I_i}{I_\tau }}(i=e,\mu ),I_i\mathrm{exp}\left(\frac{1}{8\pi ^2}\underset{\mathrm{ln}(Mz)}{\overset{\mathrm{ln}(M_R)}{}}y_i^2𝑑t\right).$$
(8)
We transform back this neutrino mass matrix $`R_G\overline{M}_\nu R_G`$ into the basis where the charged lepton mass matrix is the democratic one at the EW scale as follows:

$$FR_G\overline{M}_\nu R_GF^Tc_\nu \left(\begin{array}{ccc}1+\overline{r}& \overline{r}& \overline{r}\\ \overline{r}& 1+ϵ+\overline{r}& \overline{r}\\ \overline{r}& \overline{r}& 1+\delta +\overline{r}\end{array}\right)+2\eta _Rc_\nu \left(\begin{array}{ccc}1& 0& 0\\ 0& 1& 0\\ 0& 0& 1\end{array}\right),\overline{r}=r\frac{2}{3}\eta _R.$$
(9)
Here we take $`\eta _R\eta _e\eta _\mu `$, which is a good approximation . Its numerical value depends on $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$ as: $`10^2`$, $`10^3`$ and $`10^4`$ for $`\mathrm{tan}\beta =60,10,`$ and $`1`$, respectively. As seen in eq.(4) and eq.(9), radiative corrections are absorbed into the original parameters $`r`$, $`ϵ`$ and $`\delta `$ in the leading order. Thus the structure of the mass matrix is stable against radiative corrections although our model leads to nearly degenerate neutrinos. Of course, it does not means that the radiative corrections are small.

We have obtained the neutrino mass matrix with the large mixing angle MSW solution, $`\mathrm{sin}^22\theta _{}=0.650.97`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }m_{}^2=10^510^4\mathrm{eV}^2`$, in the $`S_{3L}\times S_{3R}`$ flavor symmetry. The structure of our neutrino mass matrix is found to be stable against radiative corrections. We wait for results in KamLAND experiment as well as new solar neutrino data.


text:
# Radio Emission Properties of Millisecond Pulsars

## 1. Introduction — Duo quum faciunt idem, not est idem.1

11footnotetext: If two do the same, it is not the same.

Through intensive research for almost two decades, it has been well established, both in theory and observation, that millisecond pulsars (MSPs) are the end product of mass accretion in binary systems. As MSPs emerge in the radio universe having been given a second chance in life, they are surrounded by magnetospheres which are several orders of magnitude more compact than those of slower rotating pulsars. Inferred magnetic fields close to the surface of MSPs are 3 to 4 orders of magnitude weaker than in normal pulsars while charges at these regions experience an accelerating potential similar to that of normal pulsars. The impact of the different environment on the emission process in MSP magnetospheres has been a question addressed already shortly after the discovery of a first few such sources.

With the plethora of MSPs detected over the years, a significant sample became available to us, enabling a better understanding of not only MSPs (as radio sources and tools) but slower rotating (normal) pulsars as well. In the following, we will concentrate on recent progress, referring to Kramer et al. (1998, Paper I) on spectra, pulse shapes and beaming fraction; Xilouris et al. (1998, Paper II) on polarimetry of 24 MSPs; Sallmen (1998) and Stairs et al. (1999) on multi-frequency polarimetry; Toscano et al. (1998) on spectra of Southern MSPs; Kramer et al. (1999b, Paper III) on multi-frequency evolution; and Kramer et al. (1999a, Paper IV) on profile instabilities of MSPs; but see also the following contributions by Kuzmin & Losovsky and Soglasnov.

## 2. Single Pulses vs. Average Profile Studies

Single pulse observations still remain the only tool available to address some fundamental questions listed below. They are, however, still technically challenging and the number of observations described in the literature are scarce. In total, data for only three sources describing 180 min of observations have been presented, i.e. PSRs B1937+21, B1534+12 and J0437–4715 (e.g. Sallmen 1998, Cognard et al. 1996, Jenet et al. 1998 and references therein). The results can be summarized in the statement that based on the single pulses studied, one cannot distinguish between a millisecond or slowly rotating pulsar. More observations are required to further investigate pulse fluctuations (e.g. stabilization processes), the short-term structure (e.g. how it relates to microstructure) and in particular the polarization characteristics in detail. For the time being, we investigate the wealth of information already provided by average profile studies.

## 3. Flux Density Spectra and Radio Luminosity

Prior to the investigations leading to Paper I it was commonly believed that the spectra of millisecond pulsars were steeper than those of normal pulsars. We demonstrated in Paper I that the distribution of spectral indices for MSPs is in fact not significantly different, finding an average index of $`1.76\pm 0.14`$ (Paper III). The initial impression was due to a selection effect, since the first MSPs were discovered in previously unidentified steep spectrum sources, as it was later pointed out by Toscano et al. (1998). Consequently, the number of MSPs to be discovered in high-frequency surveys was underestimated. The predictions for searches at frequencies as high as 5 GHz appear even more favourable in light of the latest results presented in Paper III. These suggest that most spectra can be represented by a simple power law, i.e. clear indications for a steepening at a few GHz as known from normal pulsars are not seen. Extending the data to lower frequencies (see Paper III; Kuzmin & Losovsky, next contribution), evidence for spectral turn-overs were not found.

22footnotetext: Upper row: MSPs (PSRs J0218+4218, J0621+1001, B1534+12, J1640+2224, J1730$``$2304), lower row: normal pulsars (PSRs B1831$``$04, B2045$``$16, B2110+27, B2016+28, B1826$``$17)

Bailes et al. (1997) pointed out that isolated MSPs are less luminous than those in binary systems, pointing towards a possible relation between radio luminosity and birth scenarios. We have compared a distance limited sample of normal pulsars and MSPs and came to a similar result with the MSPs as a whole appearing as weaker sources than normal pulsars.

## 4. Pulse Profiles – Complexity, Interpulses and Beaming Fraction

It was also believed that MSP profiles are more complex than those of normal pulsars. Using a large uniform sample of profiles for fast and slowly rotating pulsars, we showed in Paper I that the apparent larger complexity is due to the (typically) larger duty cycle of MSPs. As a result we see “blown-up” profiles which make it easier to see detailed structure. In fact, blown-up normal pulsar profiles show very similar structure. A quantitative proof is given in Paper I, while Fig. 1 provides an illustration of this effect.

Despite this apparent similarity, there is a profound difference betweent MSP profiles and those of normal pulsars! Additional pulse features like interpulses, pre- or post-cursor are much more common for MSPs. While only $`2`$% of all normal pulsars are known to show such features, we detect them for more than 30% of all (field) MSPs. They also appear at apparently random positions across the pulse period in contrast to normal pulsars (Fig. 2a). Their frequent occurrence and location makes one wonder — given the similarity of the main pulse shapes otherwise — whether these components are of the same origin as the main pulse profile or whether other sources of emission (e.g. outer gaps) are responsible (see Paper II). Other possibilities involve an interpretation first put forward for some young pulsars by Manchester (1996), who interpreted some interpulses as the results of cuts through a very wide cone. This is an interesting possibility also for MSPs, since their beam width appears to be much smaller than predicted from the scaling law derived for normal pulsars. The beam width of normal pulsars, $`\rho `$, i.e. the pulse width corrected for geometrical effects (see Gil et al. 1984), follows a distinct $`\rho P^{0.5}`$-law (e.g. Rankin 1993, Kramer et al. 1994, Gould 1994). Using polarization information to determine the viewing geometry and also applying statistical arguments, we calculated $`\rho `$ (at a 10% intensity level) for MSPs in Paper I. We showed that they are not only much smaller than the extrapolation of the known law to small periods, but that – under the assumption of dipolar magnetic fields – the emission of some MSPs seems to come even from within the neutron star — a really disturbing result! While we discuss the possibility of non-dipolar fields and the used polarization information below, one explanation would be that (perhaps below a critical period) the emission beam does not fill the whole open field line region (“unfilled beam”). The situation improves somewhat when we consider the additional pulse features as regular parts of the pulse profile (Fig. 2b). In fact, those MSPs with interpulses may indicate an additional inner scaling parallel to that known for normal pulsars, which could be a result of unfilled beams. We close this section by pointing out that the much smaller beam width has consequences for population studies, which usually utilize the $`\rho P`$ scaling as found for normal pulsars. The failure of this law leads to an overestimated beaming fraction and an underestimation of the birth rate of recycled pulsars (see Paper I).

## 5. Polarization Properties

The radio emission of MSPs shows all polarization features known from normal pulsars, i.e. circular polarization which is usually associated with core components, linear polarization which is usually associated with cone components, and also orthogonal polarization modes (see Paper II, Sallmen 1998, Stairs et al. 1999). Despite the qualitative similarities, the position angle (PA) swing is often strikingly different. While normal pulsars show typically a S-like swing, which is interpreted within the rotating vector model (RVM; Radhakrishnan & Cooke 1969), the PAs of many MSPs often appear flat (see e.g. Fig. 3a). This could be interpreted in terms of non-dipolar fields, but Sallmen (1998) noted that larger beam radii lead to a larger probability for outer cuts of the emission cones, i.e. flatter PA swings according to the RVM. Although one should bear in mind the limitations of the $`\rho `$-scaling law and another caveat discussed later, this interpretation justifies the geometrical interpretation of the data, which is supported by the results of Hibschman (these proceedings). Magnetic inclination angles derived from RVM fits are important for binary evolution models and determinations of the companion mass (Fig. 3b).

## 6. Frequency Evolution

The radio properties of normal pulsars show a distinct frequency evolution, i.e. with increasing frequency the profile narrows, outer components tend to dominate over inner ones, and the emission depolarizes. The emission of MSPs, which at intermediate frequencies tends to be more polarized than that of normal pulsars (Paper II), also depolarizes at high frequencies (Fig. 4b; Paper III). Simultaneously, the profile width hardly changes or remains constant (see Fig. 4a, Paper III; Kuzmin & Losovsky, these proceedings). This puts under test attempts to link both effects to the same physical origin (i.e. birefringence). In fact, many profiles also exhibit the same shape at all frequencies, while others evolve in an unusual way, i.e. the spectral index of inner components is not necessarily steeper, so that a systematic behaviour as seen for normal pulsars is hardly observed. This can be understood in terms of a compact emission region, an assumption further supported by a simultaneous arrival of the profiles at all frequencies. We emphasize that we have not detected any evidence for the existence of non-dipolar fields in the emission region (Paper III).

## 7. Profile and Polarization Instabilities

The amazing stability with time of MSP profiles has enabled high precision timing over the years. However, in Paper IV we discussed the surprising discovery that a few MSPs do show profile changes caused by an unknown origin. The time scales of these profile instabilities are inconsistent with the known mode-changing. In particular, PSR J1022+1001 exhibits a narrow-band profile variation never seen before (Paper IV), which could, however, be the result of magnetospheric scintillation effects described by Lyutikov (these proceedings). With the pulse shape the polarization usually changes as well, and hence this effect is possibly related to phenomena which we discovered in Paper II. Some pulsars like PSR J2145–0750 (Paper II) or PSR J1713+0747 (Sallmen 1998) show occasionally a profile which is much more polarized than usual. In the case of PSR J2145–0750, the PA also changes from some distinct (though not S-like) swing to some very flat curve. This is a strong indication that some of the flat PA swings discussed above may not be of simple geometrical origin alone.

## 8. Summary – MSPs in 2000 and Beyond

While we have had to be necessarily brief in reviewing MSP properties, we direct the interested reader to the extensive studies of MSPs presented in the quoted literature. We summarize here our point of view: MSPs emit their radio emission by the same mechanism as normal pulsars. Some distinct differences may originate from the way they were formed, but most observed features can be explained by very compact magnetospheres. Our data can be explained without any need to invoke deviations from dipolar field lines, although a large number of open questions remain. We need more polarization information at higher frequencies and, in particular, single pulse studies. These will allow us to study the formation of the profile and its stability, to see if the additional pulse features are distinct from the main pulse, and how the polarization modes behave under the magnifying glass of the blown-up MSP profiles. There are exciting years to come!

### Acknowledgments.

We are very grateful to all the people involved in the studies of MSPs at Bonn, i.e. Don Backer, Fernando Camilo, Oleg Doroshenko, Alexis von Hoensbroech, Axel Jessner, Christoph Lange, Dunc Lorimer, Shauna Sallmen, Norbert Wex, Richard Wielebinski and Alex Wolszczan.

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