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# Variability model for the microquasar GRS 1915+105

## 1  Microquasar GRS 1915+105

The X-ray source GRS 1915+105 discovered by GRANAT observatory exhibits both the superluminal jet (Mirabel & Rodriguez 1994) and very complex variability pattern (Belloni et al. 1997). The outburst X-ray luminosity is about $`10^{39}`$ erg/s, being of the order of Eddington luminosity in case of stellar mass black hole system. The spectral analysis reveals the domination of disk-like component during the outbursts, and therefore the variability of the source may be connected with disk evolution.

## 2  Instability in the accretion disc

The local time behaviour of an accretion disk at a given radius is determined by the stability curve, i.e. the log $`\dot{m}`$ vs. log $`\mathrm{\Sigma }`$ diagram constructed for a stationary disk, where $`\dot{m}`$ is the accretion rate and $`\mathrm{\Sigma }`$ is the disk surface density. The parts of the curve with a negative slope describe the unstable branch and indicate the range of accretion rates resulting in time dependent disk behaviour at this radius. The unstable part corresponds to the radiation pressure dominated region; including the advection term results in stabilizing the solution.

The disc is unstable in the inner part. For the limited range of radii the limit cycle behaviour occurs and propagates outwards. The value of viscosity parameter does not change the outburst amplitude, but influences the duration of the limit cycle.

## 3 Jet ejection

The observations of microquasar outbursts require that the whole limit cycle should run between $`\dot{m}0.01`$ and $`\dot{m}1.0`$. In the model, the maximal disc luminosity is lowered under the assumption that jet ejected from the disc takes away a certain part of the total emitted power, depending on the $`L/L_{Edd}`$ ratio. We adopt a jet power parameterization similar to Nayakshin et al. (1999)

We assume that the heat generated within the disk at any radius is either stored temporarily within it or removed by: (i) radiation (ii) advection (iii) jet. As the spectral observations show the presence of hard X-ray tail, we also assume the existence of hot corona, with moderate contribution to the energy dissipation ($`f_{cor}=0.5`$).

## 4 Theoretical lightcurves

We adopt the mass supply to the inner part of the disk as a model parameter and follow the time evolution of the disk under the radiation pressure instability, as described in Siemiginowska et al. 1996. The amplitude of the global outburst depends mostly on the shape of the stability curve in the innermost part of the disk. The duration of the limit cycle, on the other hand, is basically determined by the viscous timescale at the outer radius of the instability zone in a stationary model, i.e. on the stationary accretion rate, radial extension of the instability zone for that accretion rate and the viscosity parameter $`\alpha `$.

## 5 Summary

We used a physically viable instability due to radiation pressure to model the time dependent behaviour of the optically thick disk itself. The presence of the hot optically thin medium was accounted for by assuming assuming that a certain part of gravitational energy ($`f_{cor}=0.5`$) is released in hot corona outside the disc. The mechanism operates for accretion rates above $`\dot{M}_0/\dot{M}_{Edd}0.16`$ which is in agreement with the observations of GRS 1915+105 - the source does not exhibit the outburst if the mean luminosity temporarily drops below $`2.1\times 10^{38}`$ erg/s. The viscosity coefficient of order of 0.01 is appropriate to model the typical outburst duration. We conclude that the radiation pressure instability is a promising model of the basic instability mechanism underlying the observed variability of this microquasar.

## 6 References

Abramowicz M. A., Czerny B., Lasota J.-P., Szuszkiewicz E., 1988, ApJ, 332, 646
Belloni T., Mendez M., King A. R., van der Klis M., van Paradijs J., 1997, ApJ, 479, L145
Mirabel I.F., Rodriguez L.., 1994, Nature, 371, 46
Nayakshin S., Rappaport S., Melia F., astro-ph/9905371
Siemiginowska A., Czerny B., Kostyunin V., 1996, ApJ, 458, 491
Taam R.E., Chen X., Swank J.H., 1997, ApJ, 485, L83


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# 1 The effective potential () in the stationary case (𝑢_𝑖=0) as a function of the radial variable 𝑟=√{𝜉²+𝜂²} and its section by the plane passing across the axis of symmetry.

Confinement in a Model with Condensate of the Scalar Field

V.E. Kuzmichev aaa e-mail: specrada@bitp.kiev.ua and V.V. Kuzmichev bbb e-mail: specrada@bitp.kiev.ua; vvkuzmichev@yahoo.com

Bogolyubov Institute for Theoretical Physics, National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, Metrolohichna St. 14b, Kiev, 03143 Ukraine

Abstract: The idea of “soft” confinement when the lifetime of hadron with respect to quark-gluon channel of decay is greater or at least of the order of some characteristic time for our Universe is considered. Within the framework of a model of three nonlinearly interacting fields the explicit form of an effective potential is found. It provides the confinement of a massive particle within the limited region of space by means of constant component of the potential which arises as a result of reorganization of vacuum of one of the scalar fields. It is shown that the lifetime of hadron being equal to the age of the Universe leads to the Higgs boson with the mass $`m_H>63.7`$ GeV and realistic self-constant.

1. Introduction. The experimental data and the predictions of gauge theory of the strong interactions allow to conclude that an effective coupling constant at sufficiently small distances becomes small (phenomenon of asymptotic freedom) but at distances large in comparison with the hadron size ($`1`$ fm) the coupling becomes very strong and results in quark and gluon confinement . In other words the channels of decay of hadron via quarks and gluons are strictly forbidden. The nature of this prohibition is still unknown and it is introduced into the theory phenomenologically . In nonrelativistic approximation a naive potential model gives a good description of the radial excitations of ”hidden charm” $`(c\overline{c})`$ mesons if at large distances the potential is linearly or logarithmically growing to infinity but at small distances it is similar to Coulomb interaction . At the distances $`1`$ fm an effective cut off of the confining potential must be realized. The bag model  \-  is an example of such model where the condition that colour objects cannot appear as free particles is introduced explicitly by means of disappearance of quark current on the surface of the bag. With respect to potential model such condition is equivalent to the introduction of the unnatural infinite repulsion on the side of the external region to which quarks cannot penetrate.

In the present article we show that above mentioned cut off can be provided naturally by the condensate of the Higgs field which arises from the reorganization of the vacuum state  in the system of nonlinearly interacting fields. In such approach from the idea of absolute (strict) confinement (the decay of hadron into the free quarks and gluons is strictly forbidden) we come to the assumption of soft (nonstrict) confinement when the lifetime of hadron with respect to quark-gluon channel of decay is greater or at least of the order of some characteristic time for our Universe. For example, the age of our Universe can be in the role of such time.

2. Theory. We shall consider the system of three nonlinearly interacting fields $`\varphi ,\phi _1\text{and}\phi _2`$. The field $`\varphi `$ is supposed to be massive and complex and the fields $`\phi _i`$ are real. For simplicity we shall not take into account their spin, colour and flavour degrees of freedom. The corresponding generalization can be made by transition to spinor algebra. Let us define the Lorentz-invariant Lagrangian in the form

$$=_\mu \varphi ^{}^\mu \varphi \varphi ^{}m^2\varphi +\underset{i=1}{\overset{2}{}}\left[\frac{1}{2}_\mu \phi _i^\mu \phi _i\varphi ^{}U_i(\phi _i)\varphi \right],$$
(1)
where $`m`$ is the mass of the field $`\varphi `$. The functions $`U_i(\phi _i)`$ are chosen in the form of anti-Higgs $`(i=1)`$ and Higgs $`(i=2)`$ potentials respectively

$$U_i(\phi _i)=(1)^i\left[\frac{\mu _i^2}{2}\phi _i^2+\frac{\lambda _i}{4}\phi _i^4\right]$$
(2)
with constants $`\mu _i^2>0`$ and $`\lambda _i>0`$. Variational principle being applied to the Lagrangian (1) leads to the set of three nonlinear equations:

$$\mathrm{}\varphi =\left[\underset{i}{}U_i+m^2\right]\varphi ,$$
(3)
$$\mathrm{}\phi _i=\left|\varphi \right|^2\frac{U_i}{\phi _i}.$$
(4)
We shall limit ourselves to the consideration of the excitation spectrum of the field $`\varphi `$ with energies $`E^{}2m`$. After the unitary transformation $`\varphi =\psi \mathrm{exp}(imt)`$ the equation (3) in mentioned nonrelativistic limit reduces to the Schrödinger equation

$$i_t\psi =\frac{1}{2m}\left[^2+V\right]\psi $$
(5)
with the potential

$$V=\underset{i}{}U_i(\phi _i).$$
(6)
This equation describes the motion of a particle with the mass $`m`$ in the field of the potential (6) being provided by the relativistic fields $`\phi _i`$. We shall consider the case when a particle scatters on the potential (6) or tunnels from it. We take the axis $`OZ`$ for the initial direction of its motion. It turned out that the interaction will have the form of the barrier interesting for us if we suppose that dissipation of the fields $`\phi _i`$ in $`(x,y)`$ \- plane is small. It means that the fields $`\phi _i`$ represent the structures stretched along the axis $`OZ`$ with a cross-section $`R^2=x^2+y^2`$ small in comparison with the square of the distance $`z^2`$ at which the physical processes under consideration are observed. In this case the radial variable $`r`$ in the equation (5) coincides with $`|z|`$ to within the terms of the order of $`R^2/2z^2`$ and fields $`\phi _i`$ form the local spacetime particle-like formations which are the carriers of the effective interaction along the $`r`$. Considering the amplitude $`|\varphi |=|\psi |`$ as a slowly varying function of the variables $`(x,y,z;t)`$ in the above approximation we shall find the solutions of the equations (4) in the form of the solitary wave of sech-type $`(i=1)`$ and kink/antikink $`(i=2)`$ in $`(z,t)`$ \- plane . Substitution of these solutions into (6) leads to the effective potential

$$V(z,t)=\frac{\mu _1^4}{\lambda _1}\text{sech}^2\left(\mu _1|\psi |s_1\right)\mathrm{tanh}^2(\mu _1|\psi |s_1)+\frac{\mu _2^4}{4\lambda _2}\left[\text{sech}^4\left(\frac{\mu _2}{\sqrt{2}}|\psi |s_2\right)1\right],$$
(7)
where $`s_i=(zu_it)/\sqrt{1u_i^2}`$, and $`u_i`$ are the velocities of the solitary waves, $`1<u_i<1`$.

The first term in (7) is proportional to the sech-wave energy density being local. It has the shape of two humps with the maximums in the points $`\mu _1|\psi |s_1=\pm 0.881`$ and minimums at $`\pm \mathrm{}`$ and at the origin and organizes the interaction in the form of the barrier of the finite magnitude.

The second term in (7) describes the part of the interaction formed by the kink/antikink with the energy density localized near the value $`|\psi |s_2=0`$. Within limit of $`|\psi |s_2\pm \mathrm{}`$ it takes the constant negative value $`V_c=\mu _2^4/4\lambda _2`$.

Since both terms in (7) in the $`(z,t)`$ \- plane have a pronounced local character then the possible dependence of the amplitude $`|\psi |`$ on these variables does not change general form of the potential $`V(z,t)`$. Its concrete form depends only on the relations between the parameters $`\mu _i,\lambda _i\text{and}u_i`$. In stationary case at $`(\mu _1^4/\lambda _1)>(\mu _2^4/\lambda _2)`$ it has the form of the barrier localized in the space. One of the possible variants is shown in Fig. 1.

Scattering of the particle on such potential is described by the wave function in the form of the superposition of converging and diverging waves. It is convenient to normalize it to the unit density of the incident flux, $`\psi =\mathrm{exp}(iqziEt)+\psi _{scat}`$, where $`E=q^2/2m`$ is the energy of the particle and $`\psi _{scat}`$ takes into account the action of the potential. Since $`\psi _{scat}0`$ at $`r0`$  then $`|\psi |1`$ at $`r\mathrm{}`$. Hence at large values of $`|z|`$ the potential (7) tends to the constant negative value $`V_c`$ which can be expressed in terms of the Higgs mass $`m_H=2\mu _2m`$ and Higgs self-constant $`\lambda =\lambda _2m^2`$ corresponding to the free field $`\phi _2`$,

$$V_c=\frac{1}{64\lambda }\frac{m_H^4}{m^2}.$$
(8)
The appearance of the constant component (8) of the potential (7) at large distances $`|z|`$ can be interpreted as a consequence of the reorganization of vacuum of the field $`\phi _2`$ as a result of spontaneous symmetry breaking. Its value is determined by the constant field $`v`$ (condensate) originating from such reorganization and being equal to

$$v=\pm \frac{m_H}{2\sqrt{\lambda }}=\pm \frac{\overline{m}_H}{2\sqrt{\overline{\lambda }}},$$
(9)
where $`\overline{m}_H=m_H|\psi |`$ and $`\overline{\lambda }=\lambda |\psi |^2`$ are the effective values of the Higgs mass and the Higgs self-constant in the presence of the field $`\psi `$ (which generally speaking depend on the energy $`E`$ and on the location in the spacetime).

3. Numerical example. In order to demonstrate the role of the potential $`V_c`$ in the process of quantum tunneling of the particle from the region inside the barrier we shall consider the stationary case ($`u_i=0`$) and replace corresponding “real” effective potential by the simpler one in the form of the sum of square steps

$$V=V_1\theta (rr_1)\theta (r_2r)V_2\theta (rr_2),$$
(10)
where $`V_1`$ and $`V_2`$ are the positive constants, $`r_2`$ is the size of the barrier, $`\mathrm{\Delta }r=r_2r_1`$ is its width and $`\theta (x)`$ is the step-function.

Since we are interested only in the integral characteristics of the process then we may impose the constraints on the parameters of the potentials (7) and (10)

$$V_1=\frac{1}{\mathrm{\Delta }r}_0^{r_0}𝑑z\overline{V(z,t)},V_2=V_c,$$
(11)
where $`\overline{V(r_0,t)}=0`$ and the bar denotes transition to the stationary case. The quantities $`\mathrm{\Delta }r`$ and $`r_1`$ are determined by the corresponding parameters of the hadron. Such simple model, of course, does not describe observed spectroscopy of mesons but it has two important properties: (i) there exists the domain $`r<r_1`$ where the quarks with the energy $`E<V_1`$ behave as free; (ii) at definite relation between $`V_1`$ and $`V_2`$ the quark tunneling into the range $`r>r_2`$ is suppressed. Indeed the direct calculations of the decay probability of the system from $`S`$ \- state with the energy close to the energy of the stationary state $`E_0=k_0^2/2m`$ determined by the transcendent equation

$$\sqrt{V_1k_0^2}\mathrm{tan}k_0r_1=k_0$$
(12)
leads to the width for decay into quarks

$$\mathrm{\Gamma }=\frac{8}{m}\frac{k_0^2(V_1k_0^2)^{3/2}(V_2+k_0^2)^{1/2}}{V_1(V_1+V_2)(1+\sqrt{V_1k_0^2}r_1)}\mathrm{exp}\left\{\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2}\sqrt{V_1k_0^2}\mathrm{\Delta }r\right\}.$$
(13)
At $`V_1V_2`$ the width $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ is determined mainly by the exponential factor. But at $`V_2V_1`$ the pre-exponential multiplier becomes essential. The width $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ decreases as $`V_2^{1/2}`$ when $`V_2`$ grows and for sufficiently large value of $`V_2`$ but finite nonzero exponential factor we have $`\mathrm{\Gamma }0`$.

Let us estimate $`V_1`$ and $`V_2`$ for some “realistic” values of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ in approximation $`V_1k_{0n}^2=\pi ^2n^2/r_1^2`$, where $`n=1,2,3\mathrm{}`$ is the number of the $`S`$ \- level. We shall consider the tunneling of the quark from the ground $`1S`$ \- state. In order to illustrate the role of $`V_2`$ at first we assume that $`V_2=0`$ and the width of the $`1S`$ \- level equals to the decay constant of the nucleus $`\text{U}_{92}^{238}`$ into $`\alpha `$ \- particle and $`\text{Th}_{90}^{234}`$, $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_\alpha =7\times 10^{18}\text{s}^1`$. Taking the quark mass, the hadron size and the range of barrier to be equal to $`m=350`$ MeV, $`r_1=1`$ fm and $`\mathrm{\Delta }r=0.4`$ fm respectively, we obtain $`V_1=7\times 10^2`$ GeV for $`\mathrm{\Gamma }=\mathrm{\Gamma }_\alpha `$ and the energy $`E_{01}=547`$ MeV for emitted quark. Since free quarks are not observed then the lifetime of hadron with respect to quark decay mode is not less then the age of the Universe with $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_0=2\times 10^{18}\text{s}^1`$. For obtained $`V_1`$ the value $`\mathrm{\Gamma }=\mathrm{\Gamma }_0`$ is reached at $`V_210^7`$ GeV. The condition $`E_{01}V_1V_2`$ is valid. If hadron decays with respect to the same quark channel during the time typical for weak interactions then for $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_w=10^8\text{s}^1`$ and $`V_2=0`$ we would have $`V_1=95`$ GeV. At such height of barrier $`V_1`$ the width $`\mathrm{\Gamma }=\mathrm{\Gamma }_0`$ is reached at $`V_210^{55}`$ GeV.

These estimations show that along with practically infinite values (such as $`V_1=\mathrm{},V_20`$, corresponding to quark bag model, or $`V_1<\mathrm{},V_2=\mathrm{}`$) there also exist the values of $`V_1`$ and $`V_2`$, which provide the quark confinement while remaining finite within the energy scale of high energy physics.

Knowing $`V_2`$ we can estimate the value of admissible Higgs mass. For the value $`V_210^7`$ GeV and quark mass $`m=350`$ MeV we have the following relation between the values $`m_H`$ and $`\lambda `$,

$$m_H272\lambda ^{1/4}\text{GeV}.$$
(14)
For $`\lambda >3\times 10^3`$  it gives the value $`m_H>63.7`$ GeV which coincides with the current theoretical and experimental estimations of the Higgs mass .

We should like to express our gratitude to Alexander von Humboldt Foundation (Bonn, Germany) for the assistance during the research.


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# Interferometric measurement of resonance transition wavelengths in C IV, Si IV, Al III, Al II, and Si II

## Abstract

We have made the first interferomeric measurements of the wavelengths of the important ultraviolet diagnostic lines in the spectra C IV near 155 nm and Si IV near 139 nm with a vacuum ultraviolet Fourier transform spectrometer and high-current discharge sources. The wavelength uncertainties were reduced by one order of magnitude for the C IV lines and by two orders of magnitude for the Si IV lines. Our measurements also provide accurate wavelengths for resonance transitions in Al III, Al II, and Si II.

The resonance transitions 2s 2S1/2 – 2p 2P1/2,3/2 near 155 nm in C IV and 3s 2S1/2 – 3p 2P1/2,3/2 near 139 nm in Si IV are among the most important transitions for optical plasma diagnostics of hot plasmas in the interstellar medium, the intergalactic medium and stellar atmospheres. During the past decade, the increasing light gathering power of ground and space based telescopes has made it feasible to observe these lines with high resolution spectrometers. For example, the Goddard High Resolution Spectrograph (GHRS) and the Space Telescope Imaging Spectrograph (STIS) on the Hubble Space Telescope have modes of operation with resolving powers of up to 100000. For a reliable analysis of high resolution spectra from these instruments, transition wavelengths must be known with an accuracy of at least 1 part in 106. We have therefore undertaken new measurements of the C IV and Si IV resonance transition wavelengths. Our results confirm the observation of Smith et al. (1998) that the accuracy of available wavelength data for doubly- and triply-ionized atoms is often very inadequate.

The strongest motivation, at present, for a new measurement of the C IV and Si IV resonance lines came from the recent interest in determining bounds for temporal and/or spatial variations of the fine structure constant. This may be achieved through a measurement of the splitting of spectral lines in fine structure multiplets through spectroscopic observations of distant gas clouds seen against a background quasar. In a series of articles (Webb et al., 1999; Dzuba, Flambaum, & Webb, 1999a, b), a method was suggested that considerably increases the sensitivity of optical measurements to variations of the fine structure constant. A recent analysis of quasar absorption spectra (Webb et al., 1999), based on accurate wavelengths for ultraviolet transitions in Mg II (Pickering, Thorne, & Webb, 1998) and Fe II (Nave et al., 1991), found weak statistical evidence for a smaller fine structure constant in systems with cosmological redshifts $`z>1`$. With this paper we intend to contribute accurate measurements of wavelengths for resonance transitions of several important ions in the vacuum ultraviolet to enable the analysis of quasar absorption spectra with much larger cosmological redshifts.

Figure 1 is a block diagram of the experimental setup. The spectra were measured with the FT700 vacuum ultraviolet Fourier transform spectrometer (FTS) at the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) (Griesmann et al., 1999). Photomultipliers with cesium-iodine photocathodes limited the optical bandpass of the spectrometer to wavelengths below $``$190 nm which was essential to achieve sufficient signal-to-noise ratios in the vacuum ultraviolet. A number of scans were co-added for total observation times of 20 min to 30 min per interferogram. A high-current Penning discharge lamp (Heise et al., 1994) with silicon carbide (SiC) cathodes and Ne as carrier gas was used to excite Si and C spectra. The SiC cathodes of our Penning lamp contained Al as an impurity in sufficient quantity to allow us to measure the wavelengths of the Al III and Al II resonance transitions. High discharge currents up to 2 A and carrier gas pressures as low as 0.2 Pa were needed to excite spectra of triply ionized atoms in the Penning discharge. The radiation emitted from the center of the discharge was imaged near the entrance aperture of the Fourier transform spectrometer with a concave mirror (CM in Figure 1) and a metal-dielectric reflectance filter (RF in Figure 1). To avoid systematic uncertainties resulting from inhomogeneous illumination of the entrance aperture, the location of the discharge image was displaced from the entrance aperture by several cm to achieve a degree of spatial averaging in the plane of the entrance aperture. The aperture ratio of the imaging system was approximately matched to that of the spectrometer. All components of the imaging system were enclosed in a sealed chamber that was continuously purged with Ar gas to replace oxygen in the optical path. The metal-dielectric reflectance filter had a peak transmission of 60% at 160 nm, near the C IV resonance lines, and a bandpass (FWHM) of approximately 30 nm. The purpose of this filter was to reduce the intensity of several very strong Si II lines around 180 nm and thus to increase the signal-to-noise ratio in the spectra. Without this filter the weak C IV resonance lines were not observed. The Doppler width of spectral lines emitted by the Penning lamp under high current conditions was approximately 1 cm$`^1`$ and thus a spectral resolution of $``$0.2 cm$`^1`$was sufficient to resolve them. The interferograms were phase corrected, transformed and analyzed with the FTS data analysis program “xgremlin” (Nave, Sansonetti, & Griesmann, 1997).

It is one of the greatest strengths of the FTS method that the large optical bandpass allows the wavenumber calibration of VUV spectra with accurate wavenumber standards at much smaller wavenumbers. Wavenumber calibration is global, not local as with grating spectrometers. This leads to short calibration chains and therefore smaller statistical and systematic uncertainties. The wavenumber calibration of our spectra is based on a selection of the Ar II wavelength standard lines near 400 nm which were measured by Whaling et al. (1995). A broad band spectrum of the Penning lamp operating with Ar as a carrier gas and at a relatively low current of 0.5 A was measured. We selected 24 standard lines between 430 nm and 520 nm with signal-to-noise ratios between 200 and 1000 to calibrate the broad band spectrum. All lines had upper levels of low excitation and were free of self absorption. This resulted in very accurate wavenumbers for two Si II lines at 181.693 nm and 180.801 nm (see Table 1). These lines, which have a signal-to-noise ratio of at least 500 in both low and high current spectra, were then used to calibrate the wavenumber scales of the spectra from the high-current measurements in the vacuum ultraviolet.

Table 1 contains our results for resonance transition wavenumbers in C IV, Si IV, Al III, Al II, and Si II. The wavenumbers shown are the combined results of several measurements that were made for different Penning discharge conditions. Five interferograms were analyzed for C IV and eight for Si IV. The table includes values from widely used critical compilations of optimized energy levels for comparison (Martin & Zalubas, 1979, 1983; Moore, 1993). For the C IV lines we have given the uncertainty of the best previous measurement by Bockasten, Hallin, & Hughes (1963). Uncertainties of the previous wavenumber data for the other ions can be found in the compilation by Kaufman & Edlén (1974). Figure 2 shows the signal-to-noise ratio that was obtained for several of the transitions. All but the C IV lines have very good signal-to-noise ratios of at least 100. The weakness of the C IV lines reflects the large amount of energy that is required to create C3+ in collisions. Using the ionization potentials for multiply charged ions published in Moore (1949) we estimate that $``$83.5 eV must be expended to remove three electrons from a C atom whereas only $``$57.9 eV are needed to remove the same number of electrons from a Si atom. Even without detailed consideration of the cross sections for the ionization processes, a higher density of Si3+ than C3+ is thus expected in the Penning discharge.

Spectral line positions were determined by fitting Voigt functions to the spectral lines. The values in Table 1 are the means of up to eight separate measurements. Uncertainties in Table 1 are reported at a level of one standard deviation. Statistical uncertainties of the line positions were calculated as described by Brault (1988). The total statistical uncertainty of a spectral line position combines the uncertainty in the wavenumbers of the Si II lines that were used to calibrate the spectra in the vacuum ultraviolet and the uncertainties of the wavenumber scale calibrations. In all cases the statistical line position uncertainty of the vacuum ultraviolet lines was the dominant uncertainty component. At first glance, our results in Table 1 are suggestive of systematic errors in our measurements because they are all somewhat smaller than previous data. The two systematic errors that could lead to significant uncertainties are pressure shifts in the discharge and illumination shifts. Learner & Thorne (1988) have investigated both effects in FTS measurements with a hollow cathode lamp and found that they never exceed a few times 10-3cm$`^1`$. Pressure shifts in the Penning discharge lamp are negligible because the pressure in the lamp is at least two orders of magnitude lower than in a hollow cathode lamp. Finally, the Zeeman splitting of the spectral lines emitted in the magnetic field of the Penning lamp (0.09 T) is only $``$0.1 cm$`^1`$\- about an order of magnitude smaller than the Doppler width of the lines. The Zeeman splitting is symmetric and does not shift the line positions.

The Al and Si lines included in Table 1 also allow us to make a strong presumptive case for the absence of significant systematic uncertainties. If the differences in the last column of Table 1 were the result of a calibration error, these differences would be proportional to the wavenumber which, as the numbers clearly show, is not the case. Also, the fact that the Si II lines and the Al II line are in very good agreement with earlier, relatively accurate, measurements precludes the possibility of a scale error due to calibration problems. As an additional test we have measured the Al III resonance lines with a high-current hollow-cathode lamp. In this measurement the Al III lines were measured together with Ar standard lines. The results agreed well with those that were obtained with the Penning lamp. The discharge temperature in the hollow-cathode lamp is much lower than in the Penning lamp which allowed us to resolve the hyperfine structure of the Al III resonance lines. Natural Al consists of a single stable isotope 27Al which has a nuclear spin of $`I=5/2`$. The ground level of Al2+ is split into two levels with total angular momenta $`F=2`$ and $`F=3`$. Table 1 contains wavenumbers for both hyperfine structure components of the Al III resonance lines and their centers of gravity (the wavenumbers were weighted with the integral of the spectral lines) for comparison with measurements in which the hyperfine structure remained unresolved.

We conclude that the reason for the significant discrepancies between our results and previous measurements are the improved experimental methods developed in the intervening years. For example, the last laboratory measurement of the wavelengths of the C IV resonance lines was made nearly four decades ago by Bockasten, Hallin, & Hughes (1963). Tunklev et al. (1997) who recently published a new analysis of the C IV spectrum adopted the wavelengths of Bockasten, Hallin, & Hughes (1963) for the resonance transitions. The only recent measurement of the C IV resonance lines by Rottman et al. (1990) was an observation of the lines in the solar photosphere which may be more susceptible to systematic errors than a laboratory measurement. In general, the older data appear to have considerable systematic wavelength uncertainties and those uncertainties seem to increase with increasing ionization stage. We believe that our new data make a strong case for further interferometric laboratory measurements of vacuum ultraviolet spectral lines that are important for astrophysical plasma diagnostics and for the need to extend the FTS method to even shorter wavelengths.

We gratefully acknowledge financial support by the National Aeronautic and Space Administration (NASA) through the UVGA interagency agreement W–19301. We are grateful to Prof. Victor V. Flambaum and Dr. John K. Webb, University of New South Wales, Australia, who encouraged us to undertake the measurements described in this paper. U. Griesmann was supported through NIST contract number 43SBNB960002 with Harvard College Observatory.


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# 1 Introduction

## 1 Introduction

The two Higgs doublet model represents one of the simplest extensions to the minimal Standard Model, and is also of interest in the context of supersymmetric models, which require the introduction of at least two Higgs doublets to allow for spontaneous symmetry breaking. The Minimal Supersymmetric Extension of the Standard Model (MSSM) is one of the more popular examples of such a model, and predicts the existence of five Higgs bosons, three of which are neutral, and two of which are charged (H+ and H-). The ratio of the vacuum expectation values of the two Higgs fields is an additional parameter in this model, and is referred to as $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$.

The most stringent previous indirect limit on the mass of the charged Higgs and $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$ is the limit111Unless otherwise specified, all limits presented in this note are the $`90\%`$ confidence limits. on the ratio $`\mathrm{tan}\beta /m_\mathrm{H}<0.27`$ GeV-1 obtained from an analysis of $`B^+\nu _\tau \tau ^+`$ decays collected by the L3 experiment at LEP  . Previous analyses have also obtained $`\mathrm{tan}\beta /m_\mathrm{H}<0.67`$ GeV-1 from studies of the leptonic decays of the tau lepton , and $`m_\mathrm{H}>[244+63/(\mathrm{tan}\beta )^{1.3}]`$ GeV at a 95% confidence limit from an analysis of the $`bs\gamma `$ branching ratio . Direct limits on the charged Higgs mass have also been set by CDF, D0, and the four LEP experiments.

In the work presented here, we explore possible charged Higgs effects in $`\tau ^{}\nu _\tau \mathrm{K}^{}`$ and $`\mathrm{K}^{}\overline{\nu }_ll^{}(\gamma )`$ decays. The branching ratios for these decay modes are well measured, and the Standard Model predictions are believed to be well understood.

## 2 Decays of the Tau Lepton and Charged Kaon in the Standard Model

The Standard Model prediction for the $`\tau ^{}\nu _\tau \mathrm{K}^{}`$ branching ratio, including $`𝒪(\alpha )`$ electroweak corrections, is given by

$`B(\tau ^{}\mathrm{K}^{}\nu _\tau )={\displaystyle \frac{G_F^2m_\tau ^3\tau _\tau }{16\mathrm{}\pi }}f_\mathrm{K}^2|\mathrm{V}_{us}|^2\left(1+{\displaystyle \frac{2\alpha }{\pi }}\mathrm{log}m_\mathrm{Z}/m_\tau \right)\left(1m_\mathrm{K}^2/m_\tau ^2\right)^2,`$ (1)
and the prediction for the $`\mathrm{K}^{}\overline{\nu }_ll^{}(\gamma )`$ branching ratio is

$`B(\mathrm{K}^{}l^{}\overline{\nu }_l(\gamma ))={\displaystyle \frac{G_F^2m_\mathrm{K}m_l^2\tau _\mathrm{K}}{8\mathrm{}\pi }}f_\mathrm{K}^2|\mathrm{V}_{us}|^2\left(1+{\displaystyle \frac{2\alpha }{\pi }}\mathrm{log}m_\mathrm{Z}/m_\rho \right)\left(1m_l^2/m_\mathrm{K}^2\right)^2.`$ (2)
Equation 2 is commonly used to derive the kaon decay constant, $`f_\mathrm{K}`$, from the experimental measurements of the $`\mathrm{K}^{}\overline{\nu }_\mu \mu ^{}(\gamma )`$ branching ratio, but the constant can also be obtained from lattice QCD calculations , or from other theoretical calculations, such as those based upon the relativistic constituent quark model .

## 3 Charged Kaon and Tau Decays in the MSSM

In theories where multiple Higgs doublets are responsible for spontaneous symmetry breaking of the electroweak interactions, charged Higgs particles arise as a natural consequence of the theory. These charged Higgs particles mediate charged current weak decays in the same manner as the W±, only differing in the Lorentz structure at the decay vertex and in the coupling strength of the boson to the fermions. The MSSM predicts the existence of two Higgs doublets, where the first and second doublets couple to the up- and down-type quarks, respectively, and where the strength of the coupling to fermions is proportional to the fermion mass. The Standard Model branching ratios for the leptonic decays of the kaon and the decay of a tau to a pseudoscalar kaon are both modified in the MSSM by a multiplicative factor $`_\mathrm{H}`$ :

$`_\mathrm{H}=\left(1{\displaystyle \frac{m_\mathrm{K}^2\mathrm{tan}^2\beta }{m_\mathrm{H}^2}}\right)^2.`$ (3)
We obtain the charged Higgs mass limits by comparing the experimental world average $`\tau ^{}\nu _\tau \mathrm{K}^{}`$ and $`\mathrm{K}^{}\overline{\nu }_ll^{}(\gamma )`$ branching fractions to the values predicted by Equations 1 and 2, multiplied by $`_\mathrm{H}`$222It should be noted here that QCD and SUSY radiative corrections to $`_\mathrm{H}`$ are expected to be either small, or modify the factor in such a way that the limit on $`\mathrm{tan}\beta /m_\mathrm{H}`$ from this analysis would actually improve if they were included ..

## 4 The Kaon Decay Constant

We must ensure that the value of $`f_\mathrm{K}`$ used in these studies is not related to the measured $`\mathrm{K}^{}\overline{\nu }_ll^{}(\gamma )`$ branching ratios, and therefore independent from possible charged Higgs effects. We thus use $`f_\mathrm{K}`$ derived from lattice QCD calculations; to cancel many of the systematics associated with such calculations, we use the calculated ratio $`f_\mathrm{K}/f_\pi `$ multiplied by $`f_\pi `$ determined from experiment . The values of $`f_\mathrm{K}/f_\pi `$ determined by two independent lattice calculations are shown in Table 1. The value of $`f_\mathrm{K}`$ derived from the average of these results is $`f_\mathrm{K}=0.1552\pm 0.0024`$ GeV.

As a cross-check of the lattice calculational framework, we also examine the value of $`f_\mathrm{K}^{}/f_\rho `$ determined by the same calculations. These results are also shown in Table 1, and are in agreement with each other, and also with the experimental measurement obtained from the $`\tau ^{}\nu _\tau \mathrm{K}^{}`$ and $`\tau ^{}\nu _\tau \rho `$ branching fractions , $`f_\mathrm{K}^{}/f_\rho =1.067\pm 0.030`$.

The kaon decay constant can also be derived from calculations based upon the relativistic quark model. The author calculates, using the formalism presented in reference , $`f_\mathrm{K}=0.1579\pm 0.0044`$ GeV, where the uncertainty is due to the uncertainties on the experimental values of inputs to the calculation. These inputs include the $`\pi ^0\gamma \gamma `$ branching fraction, the charged pion decay constant, and the $`\mathrm{K}_{\mathrm{e3}}`$ form factor. Unlike the studies presented in reference , the inputs do not include the experimental value of $`f_\mathrm{K}`$. The author’s calculation of $`f_\mathrm{K}`$ is in agreement with the lattice results, and also with the result $`f_\mathrm{K}=0.155`$ GeV presented in reference . Reference  also estimates that the additional model dependent uncertainties on $`f_\mathrm{K}`$ are on the order of a few percent. In these studies, we thus choose to use the more precise lattice results, rather than this calculated value of $`f_\mathrm{K}`$.

## 5 $`\mathrm{V}_{us}`$

The most precise value of the CKM matrix element, $`\mathrm{V}_{us}`$, is derived from experimental $`\mathrm{K}^{}\pi ^{}\overline{\nu }_\mathrm{e}\mathrm{e}^{}`$ results , and is relatively free from charged Higgs effects. The author finds, with calculations based on those presented in references  and , that the Standard Model $`\mathrm{K}^{}\pi ^{}\overline{\nu }_\mathrm{e}\mathrm{e}^{}`$ branching ratio is multiplied in the MSSM by a factor which is generally much closer to one than $`_\mathrm{H}`$, and thus charged Higgs effects on $`|\mathrm{V}_{us}|`$ are neglected here.

## 6 Fitting Procedure

To determine $`_\mathrm{H}`$ we minimise the $`\chi ^2`$:

$`\chi ^2`$ $`=`$ $`\left({\displaystyle \frac{B_{\tau \nu \mathrm{K}}^{\mathrm{WA}}_\mathrm{H}B_{\tau \nu \mathrm{K}}^{\mathrm{SM}}(\stackrel{}{X})}{\mathrm{\Delta }B_{\tau \nu \mathrm{K}}^{\mathrm{WA}}}}\right)^2`$ (4)
$`+`$ $`\left({\displaystyle \frac{B_{\mathrm{K}\overline{\nu }\mu }^{\mathrm{WA}}_\mathrm{H}B_{\mathrm{K}\overline{\nu }\mu }^{\mathrm{SM}}(\stackrel{}{X})}{\mathrm{\Delta }B_{\mathrm{K}\overline{\nu }\mu }^{\mathrm{WA}}}}\right)^2+\left({\displaystyle \frac{B_{\mathrm{K}\overline{\nu }\mathrm{e}}^{\mathrm{WA}}_\mathrm{H}B_{\mathrm{K}\overline{\nu }\mathrm{e}}^{\mathrm{SM}}(\stackrel{}{X})}{\mathrm{\Delta }B_{\mathrm{K}\overline{\nu }\mathrm{e}}^{\mathrm{WA}}}}\right)^2`$
$`+`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{i}{}}\left({\displaystyle \frac{X_i^{\mathrm{WA}}X_i}{\mathrm{\Delta }X_i^{\mathrm{WA}}}}\right)^2,`$
where $`B_{\tau \nu \mathrm{K}}^{\mathrm{WA}}`$ and $`B_{\mathrm{K}\overline{\nu }l}^{\mathrm{WA}}`$ refer to the world averages of the $`\tau ^{}\nu _\tau \mathrm{K}^{}`$ and kaon leptonic branching ratios, and where $`B_{\tau \nu \mathrm{K}}^{\mathrm{SM}}`$ and $`B_{\mathrm{K}\overline{\nu }l}^{\mathrm{SM}}`$ are the Standard Model predictions for the branching ratios derived from Equations 1 and 2, respectively. Inputs to the predicted branching ratios, such as $`|\mathrm{V}_{us}|`$, the tau lifetime, etc., are contained in the vector $`\stackrel{}{X}`$; the vector $`\stackrel{}{X}^{\mathrm{WA}}`$ contains the world averages, while $`\stackrel{}{X}`$ contains the quantities allowed to float in the fit. Note that this approach ensures that the uncertainty on $`\mathrm{tan}\beta /m_\mathrm{H}`$ includes, in a natural way, the uncertainties on all of the quantities input to the fit. Unless otherwise specified, most of the inputs to the fit, such as lifetimes, and the meson and lepton masses, are taken from reference . The least precise inputs to the fit are shown in Table 2.

The experimental world average branching ratios input to the fit are shown in Table 3. The kaon branching fractions are taken from reference , while the world average of the $`\tau ^{}\nu _\tau \mathrm{K}^{}`$ branching fraction is derived from results presented in references  and .

## 7 Fit Results

The $`\chi ^2`$ fit using Equation 4 returns $`_\mathrm{H}=1.057_{0.039}^{+0.041}`$. Using the method presented in reference  to account for the unphysical region of $`_\mathrm{H}>1`$, a limit of $`\mathrm{tan}\beta /m_\mathrm{H}<0.21`$ GeV-1 is determined at a 90% confidence limit. The limit as a function of the fit input value of $`f_\mathrm{K}/f_\pi `$, along with its associated uncertainty, is shown in Figure 1.

The least precise outputs from the fit are shown in Table 2, and Table 3 shows the central values of the MSSM predictions for the branching ratios, as obtained from the fit results. The linear correlations between $`_\mathrm{H}`$ and the fit variables $`f_\mathrm{K}/f_\pi `$, $`|\mathrm{V}_{us}|`$, and $`f_\pi `$ are $`80\%`$, $`55\%`$, and $`15\%`$, respectively. When the fit is repeated, holding the values of all inputs fixed to the values returned by the first fit, the limit obtained is $`\mathrm{tan}\beta /m_\mathrm{H}<0.12`$ GeV-1.

Fitting only to the $`\mathrm{K}^{}\overline{\nu }_\mu \mu ^{}(\gamma )`$ branching ratio yields $`\mathrm{tan}\beta /m_\mathrm{H}<0.21`$ GeV-1, while fitting only to the $`\tau ^{}\nu _\tau \mathrm{K}^{}`$ (or the $`\mathrm{K}^{}\overline{\nu }_\mathrm{e}\mathrm{e}^{}(\gamma )`$) branching ratio yields $`\mathrm{tan}\beta /m_\mathrm{H}<0.35`$ GeV-1 ($`\mathrm{tan}\beta /m_\mathrm{H}<0.45`$ GeV-1). Thus the combined limit on $`\mathrm{tan}\beta /m_\mathrm{H}`$ is dominated by the result from the $`\mathrm{K}^{}\overline{\nu }_\mu \mu ^{}(\gamma )`$ branching ratio. However, the large tau samples expected to be collected by B meson factories such as Babar, Belle, and CLEOIII will dramatically improve the precision of the $`\tau ^{}\nu _\tau \mathrm{K}^{}`$ branching ratio, and thus improve the corresponding limit on $`\mathrm{tan}\beta /m_\mathrm{H}`$, potentially rivaling the result obtained from the current value of the $`\mathrm{K}^{}\overline{\nu }_\mu \mu ^{}(\gamma )`$ branching ratio.

In addition, future improvements in the precision of inputs to the fit such as $`|\mathrm{V}_{us}|`$ and $`f_\mathrm{K}/f_\pi `$ will also improve the limit on $`\mathrm{tan}\beta /m_\mathrm{H}`$. It is possible that the value of $`|\mathrm{V}_{us}|`$ extracted from the $`\tau ^{}\nu _\tau \mathrm{K}^{}`$ and $`\tau ^{}\nu _\tau \rho `$ decays expected to be collected by the B factory experiments will, when combined with the value of $`f_\mathrm{K}^{}/f_\rho `$ from lattice calculations, rival the precision of the current value of $`|\mathrm{V}_{us}|`$, especially if the precision of the lattice results also improves.

## 8 Conclusions

From a fit to the world average $`\mathrm{K}^{}\overline{\nu }_\mu \mu ^{}(\gamma )`$, $`\mathrm{K}^{}\overline{\nu }_\mathrm{e}\mathrm{e}^{}(\gamma )`$, and $`\tau ^{}\nu _\tau \mathrm{K}^{}`$ branching ratios we determine $`\mathrm{tan}\beta /m_\mathrm{H}<0.21`$ GeV-1 at a 90% confidence limit. The area of the $`m_\mathrm{H}`$ versus $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$ plane excluded by this, and previous indirect limits, is shown in Figure 2. The limit is expected to improve once precise values of the tau branching fractions are obtained by the various B factory experiments.

Acknowledgements

I am indebted to P. Santorelli for many informative discussions regarding the determination of the kaon decay constant in the Dyson-Schwinger formalism. I would also like to thank W.S. Hou, H.H. Williams, S. Godfrey, and P. Maris for their insightful commentary on various aspects of these studies. In addition, the financial support of the Ottawa-Carleton Institute for Physics, and the hospitality of the High Energy Physics group at the University of Pennsylvania over the period during which this work was completed are both gratefully acknowledged.


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# HI 21cm-line observations with the GMRT towards interstellar clouds previously seen in optical absorption

## 1. Introduction

Our picture of the interstellar medium, its structure and motion emerged from the optical absorption studies in the lines of CaII and NaI towards bright O & B stars. Soon after the 21cm-line from atomic hydrogen was discovered, attempts were made to detect the HI line from these clouds through emission measurements. Interestingly, although the HI emission velocity is clearly correlated with that of the optical absorption line at low random velocities, no HI was detected corresponding to the higher random velocity ($`|v|`$ $``$ 10 km sec-1) optical absorption lines. Recently, an HI absorption study was carried out (Rajagopal et al 1998a) using the VLA towards radio sources in the sky which are aligned very close ($``$ a few arc mins) to the star. No HI absorption corresponding to the high random velocity optical absorption lines was detected down to an optical depth of 0.1.

## 2. Motivation for the present observations

To explain the absence of the HI absorption line corresponding to the higher random velocity optical absorption features, Rajagopal et al (1998b) advanced the following arguements based on the scenario suggested by Radhakrishnan & Srinivasan (1980). If the high velocity optical absorption features arise in the clouds which had been shocked and accelerated by supernova remnants in their late phases of evolution, then it would result in the higher random velocity clouds being warmer and also of lesser HI column density as compared to the low random velocity clouds (shock heating and evaporation). The combination of the low column density and the higher temperature makes it tough to detect them in HI absorption. Our observations with the Giant meterwave radio telescope (GMRT) were primarily intended as a deeper HI absorption search, with a view to shed light on the above hypothesis.

## 3. Source selection and Observations

We selected 15 directions, towards which both low and high velocity optical absorption lines were seen (Adams 1949, Welty et al 1994, 1996) and towards which a bright radio source ($`S_{21cm}`$ $`>`$ 100 mJy) was aligned very close to the star. Rajagopal et al (1998a) chose their directions such that at half the distance to the star, the linear separation between the lines of sight towards the star and the radio source was $``$ 3 pc. In the present observations, we have chosen the directions where this value is $`<`$ 1 pc in most cases. This gives a better chance for both the lines of sight to sample the same gas. We aimed at an rms in optical depth of about 0.01, about 10 times better than the previous limits. The observations were carried out using 10 antennas of the 14 which are located within the central 1 km2 of the GMRT. We used a bandwidth of 2 MHz and 128 channels. Frequency switching on a nearby calibrator was employed for bandpass calibration. For each of the directions, the integration time varied from $``$ 1 hour to $``$ 7 hours, depending on the strength of the background source. Continuum subtracted spectral cubes were made for each of the observed fields and the rms noise levels in the line images were found to be consistent with the expected values.

## 4. Preliminary Results

We have obtained the first detections of HI absorption features corresponding to the high random velocity optical absorption lines, in 6 out of the 15 directions that we observed. The mean optical depth of these detections is $``$ 0.08. This low value of HI optical depth is not typical for the well known diffuse interstellar clouds.
The true nature of the high random velocity clouds identified through the optical absorption lines is still unclear. As a part of the ongoing studies, we will combine the HI absorption results with HI emission data and try to get a handle on the spin temperature and HI column density of these clouds. This would help us to address the question about the existence of a population of shocked clouds.

## References

Adams, W. A. 1949, ApJ, 109, 131.
Rajagopal, J., Srinivasan, G., & Dwarakanath, K. S., 1998a, JAA, 19, 97.
Rajagopal, J., Srinivasan, G., & Dwarakanath, K. S., 1998b, JAA, 19, 117.
Radhakrishnan, V., & Srinivasan, G., 1980, JAA, 1, 47.
Welty, D. E., Hobbs, L. M., & Kulkarni, V. P., 1994, ApJ, 436, 152.
Welty, D. E., Morton, D. C., & Hobbs, L. M., 1996, ApJS, 106, 533.


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# Monte Carlo simulation of GaAs(001) homoepitaxy

## Acknowledgements

One of the authors (M.I.) would like to thank Dr. T. Ohno for his encouragement.


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# BFT embedding of noncommutative D-brane system

## I Introduction

The phenomena that spacetime does not commute appear in many physical systems. As an example, noncommutativity of spacetime arises in quantum mechanics of a particle constrained to move on a two-dimensional plane, interacting minimally with a constant magnetic field $`B`$ perpendicular to the plane when the velocity of particle is small or the strength of magnetic field is large . Also we encounter noncommutative spacetime when we deal with $`D`$-branes in string theory  or we consider the context of the matrix model of $`M`$-theory . In the matrix model the noncommutativity of spacetime is due to non-abelian Yang-Mills gauge theory induced from parallel $`N`$ $`D`$-branes at coinciding positions, all on top of each other. The noncommutativity of spacetime takes place in the direction perpendicular to $`D`$-branes. Furthermore, when the end points of the open strings are attached to $`D`$-branes in the presence of a constant Neveu-Schwarz (NS) $`B`$-field, the spacetime coordinates on $`D`$-branes also do not commute in the directions parallel to $`D`$-branes.

On the other hand, in an open string theory the noncommutativity of geometry is due to the mixed boundary conditions, which are neither Neumann conditions nor Dirichlet ones. Since these boundary conditions form second-class constraints, spacetime coordinates become noncommutative. Recently, in the framework of Dirac’s Hamiltonian analysis for this constraint system, the noncommutativity of geometry has been studied in Ref. . In the viewpoint of constraint algebra, some kind of local symmetry has been broken in this model, since the constraints are second-class ones. Therefore, according to the spirit of constraint analysis, one could conjecture that if we could recover this symmetry, the noncommutativity of spacetime coordinates would disappear, and boundary conditions would consist of a first-class constraint system. Furthermore, when we consider the system giving noncommutative geometry, ordinary product between functions must be replaced by the Moyal bracket . This bracket is of course reduced to the ordinary product in commutative geometry. In general, the Moyal bracket has a complex structure. If we can convert noncommutative geometry into commutative one without changing physics, the algebra of functions becomes simple. In fact, the commutative geometry can be obtained by constructing first-class constraint system.

In this paper, in order to convert a second-class constraint system into a first-class one to obtain the commutative geometry, we use the potent method of Batalin, Fradkin, and Tyutin (BFT) , which is compared with Dirac formalism. In fact, the BFT embedding has been widely applied to interesting Hamiltonian systems with second class constraints , such as Chern-Simons(CS) theory , chiral Schwinger model , chiral bosons , to yield the theories with first class constraints with additional symmetries .

In Sec. II, before we use the BFT method, we will construct the Hamiltonian system with second-class constraints and the nontrivial commutators in terms of Dirac brackets by using discretized Lagrangian of open string. In Sec. III, using the BFT procedure, we will find the modified Hamiltonian having desired canonical structure defined in terms of usual Poisson brackets, and the effective Lagrangian which gives simple commutative geometry since the constraints become first-class ones. Also we will obtain new symmetries recovered via the BFT embedding. Finally, in Sec. IV we will summarize the results of the BFT embedding.

## II Open Strings Attached At $`D`$-branes In The Presence Of Constant $`B`$-Field

We consider the open strings whose end points are attached at $`Dp`$-branes in the presence of a constant NS $`B`$-field. Although for arbitrary $`Dp`$-branes it is highly nontrivial to find the system with commutative geometry, we can systematically construct this system by introducing new variables through the BFT embedding. The number of necessary coordinates introduced by this BFT method depends on the residual rank, $`rp+1`$, of the matrix $`B_{ij}`$ from being gauged away.

First, let us briefly recapitulate the geometry of open string theory before we introduce new variables. Our worldsheet action of the open string, to which background gauge fields are coupled, is given as

$`S`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{4\pi \alpha ^{}}}{\displaystyle _\mathrm{\Sigma }}d^2\sigma \left[g_{ij}_ax^i^ax^j+2\pi \alpha ^{}B_{ij}ϵ^{ab}_ax^i_bx^j\right]`$ (2)
$`+{\displaystyle 𝑑\tau A_i_\tau x^i}|_{\sigma =\pi }{\displaystyle 𝑑\tau A_i_\tau x^i}|_{\sigma =0},`$
where $`\mathrm{\Sigma }`$ is the string worldsheet with the metric $`\eta _{ab}=\mathrm{diag}(+,)`$. The metric of target space on $`D`$-brane is taken to be Euclidean, $`g_{ij}=\delta _{ij}`$. Note that the action (2) has two $`U(1)`$ gauge symmetries. One of them is $`\lambda `$-symmetry for the transformation of $`AA+d\lambda `$ and the other is $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$-symmetry for the transformation with a form of both $`BB+d\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ and $`AA+\mathrm{\Lambda }`$. From the open string action (2) one can obtain the equations of motion to determine the mixed boundary conditions as follows

$$g_{ij}_\sigma x^j+2\pi \alpha ^{}_{ij}_\tau x^j|_{\sigma =0,\pi }=0,$$
(3)
where $`=BF`$ and $`F=dA`$. Without background fields $`B`$ and $`A`$, the boundary conditions (3) are Neumann boundary ones, $`_\sigma x^i=0`$ at $`\sigma =0,\pi `$, while for $`B_{ij}\mathrm{}`$ or $`g_{ij}0`$, the boundary conditions become Dirichlet, $`_\tau x^i(\tau )=0`$ on $`D`$-branes.

Next, in order to study the bulk near boundary and boundary itself in detail, let us discretize the open string action and the boundary conditions along the direction of $`\sigma `$ with equal spacing, $`ϵ=\frac{\pi }{N}`$ which is taken to be very small, and then the integral for $`\sigma `$ is changed to the sum, namely, $`_0^\pi 𝑑\sigma \mathrm{}=_{a=0}^Nϵ\mathrm{}`$ where $`N`$ is integer. Now, let us define $`x_{(a)}^i`$ by $`x_{(a)}^i(\tau )=x^i(\tau ,\sigma )|_{\sigma =aϵ}`$. The discretized action of the open string action (2) is then written as

$`S`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{4\pi \alpha ^{}}}{\displaystyle 𝑑\tau \underset{a=0}{}\left[ϵ\left(\dot{x}_{(a)}^i\right)^2\frac{1}{ϵ}\left(x_{(a+1)}^ix_{(a)}^i\right)^2+4\pi \alpha ^{}B_{ij}\dot{x}_{(a)}^i\left(x_{(a+1)}^jx_{(a)}^j\right)\right]}`$ (5)
$`+{\displaystyle 𝑑\tau \underset{a=0}{}A_i_\tau (x_{(a+1)}^ix_{(a)}^i)},`$
and the mixed boundary conditions are given by

$$g_{ij}\frac{1}{ϵ}(x_{(1)}^jx_{(0)}^j)+2\pi \alpha ^{}_{ij}\dot{x}_{(0)}^j=0,$$
(6)
where we have taken only $`\sigma =0`$ case of the boundary conditions since we have an interest at the boundary $`\sigma =0`$ only. Note that $`x_{(0)}^i`$ denotes the end of the open strings. The action (5) and the conditions (6) become continuous in $`\sigma `$-direction in the large $`N`$ limit (equivalently in the small $`ϵ`$ limit). From the action (5) we obtain the canonical momenta of $`x_{(a)}^i`$

$$p_{(a)i}=\frac{ϵ}{2\pi \alpha ^{}}\left[g_{ij}\dot{x}_{(a)}^j+2\pi \alpha ^{}B_{ij}\frac{1}{ϵ}\left(x_{(a+1)}^jx_{(a)}^j\right)2\pi \alpha ^{}\frac{1}{ϵ}A_i\delta _{a,0}\right].$$
(7)
The combination of the boundary conditions (6) and the canonical momenta (7) gives the primary constraints

$$\mathrm{\Omega }_i=\frac{1}{ϵ}\left[(2\pi \alpha ^{})^2_{ij}(p_{(0)}^j+A^j)+M_{ij}(x_{(1)}^jx_{(0)}^j)\right]0,$$
(8)
where $`M_{ij}=\left[g(2\pi \alpha ^{})^2g^1B\right]_{ij}`$. By taking the Legendre transformation, from the Lagrangian of the action (5) we can obtain the primary Hamiltonian of the form

$$H_p=H_c+u^i\mathrm{\Omega }_i,$$
(9)
where $`u^i`$ are the multipliers and the canonical Hamiltonian is given by

$`H_c`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{4\pi \alpha ^{}}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{ϵ}}{\displaystyle \underset{a=1}{}}\left\{(2\pi \alpha ^{})^2\left[p_{(a)i}B_{ij}(x_{(a+1)}^jx_{(a)}^j)\right]^2+(x_{(a+1)}^ix_{(a)}^i)^2\right\}`$ (11)
$`+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{4\pi \alpha ^{}}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{ϵ}}(\theta ^1^1g)_{ij}(x_{(1)}^ix_{(0)}^i)(x_{(1)}^jx_{(0)}^j)`$
with

$$\theta _{ij}^1=\frac{1}{(2\pi \alpha ^{})^2}\left[(g2\pi \alpha ^{})^1(g+2\pi \alpha ^{})\right]_{ij}.$$
(12)
On the other hand, the constraints (8) form a second-class system since their Poisson brackets are given as

$`\mathrm{\Delta }_{ij}`$ $``$ $`\{\mathrm{\Omega }_i,\mathrm{\Omega }_j\}`$ (13)
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{ϵ^2}}(2\pi \alpha ^{})^2\left[(G+M)g^1\right]_{ij},`$ (14)
where

$$G_{ij}=\left[(g+2\pi \alpha ^{})g^1(g2\pi \alpha ^{})\right]_{ij}=\left[g(2\pi \alpha ^{})^2g^1\right]_{ij}.$$
(15)
In order to find commutators of coordinates and momenta, we use the relation between the commutators and Dirac brackets as follows

$$[z,w]=i\{z,w\}_\mathrm{D},$$
(16)
where Dirac bracket is given by

$$\{z,w\}_\mathrm{D}=\{z,w\}\{z,\mathrm{\Omega }_i\}(\mathrm{\Delta }^1)^{ij}\{\mathrm{\Omega }_j,w\},$$
(17)
for $`z`$ and $`w`$ any functions of coordinates and momenta. Using Poisson brackets of the constraints (13), one can construct the corresponding inverse matrix

$`\left(\mathrm{\Delta }^1\right)^{ij}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{ϵ^2}{(2\pi \alpha ^{})^2}}\left[^1g(G+M)^1\right]^{ij}`$ (18)
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{ϵ^2}{(2\pi \alpha ^{})^2}}\left[\left(G+M\right)^1g^1\right]^{ij}.`$ (19)
to obtain commutation relations as follows

$`[x_{(0)}^i,x_{(0)}^j]=i(2\pi \alpha ^{})^2\left[(G+M)^1g^1\right]^{ij},`$ (20)
$`[x_{(0)}^i,p_{(0)j}]={\displaystyle \frac{i}{2}}\delta _j^i,`$ (21)
$`[p_{(0)i},p_{(0)j}]={\displaystyle \frac{i}{4}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{(2\pi \alpha ^{})^2}}\left[g^1(G+M)\right]_{ij},`$ (22)
$`[x_{(1)}^i,x_{(1)}^j]=0,`$ (23)
$`[x_{(1)}^i,p_{(1)j}]=i\delta _j^i,`$ (24)
$`[p_{(1)i},p_{(1)j}]={\displaystyle \frac{i}{(2\pi \alpha ^{})^2}}\left[g^1M(G+M)^1M\right]_{ij},`$ (25)
$`[x_{(0)}^i,p_{(1)j}]=i\left[(G+M)^1M\right]_{}^{i}{}_{j}{}^{},`$ (26)
$`[p_{(0)i},p_{(1)j}]={\displaystyle \frac{i}{2}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{(2\pi \alpha ^{})^2}}\left(g^1M\right)_{ij},`$ (27)
$`[x_{(a)}^i,p_{(b)j}]=i\delta _j^i\delta _{ab},\text{for }a,b=2,3,4,\mathrm{}`$ (28)
$`\text{others}=0,`$ (29)
where $`g_{ij}=(g^1)^{ij}=\delta _j^i`$ and we have used the fact that gauge fields can be written as $`A_i=\frac{1}{2}F_{ij}x_{(0)}^j`$ for a constant field strength $`F_{ij}`$. Eqs. (20), (21), and (22) describe the geometry on $`D`$-brane, while Eqs. (23), (24), and (25) describe the geometry near $`D`$-brane. As a result, these commutators give rise to the noncommutative geometry in the direction parallel to $`D`$-brane. Here the product operation between functions of $`x_{(a)}^i`$ is described in terms of the Moyal bracket , instead of ordinary product. Eqs. (26) and (27) reflect the fact that $`D`$-brane and the bulk near $`D`$-brane interact each other since the commutators of variables on the $`D`$-brane and $`p_{(1)j}`$ do not commute. As shown in Eq. (28), the region out of $`D`$-brane has commutative geometry.

## III BFT Embedding of Noncommutative $`D`$-brane system

Since the boundary conditions are second class constraints, the noncommutativity of spacetime on $`D`$-brane arises as shown in the previous section. As a result, some kind of local symmetry has been broken due to the existence of these second class constraints. Now let us use the BFT method to recover the symmetry which converts the second-class constraints into first-class ones. From now on, we assume that $`r=2`$, namely $`i,j=1,2`$, for simplicity. In order to construct a first-class constraint system from the Hamiltonian (11) and the second class constraints (8), we introduce new auxiliary variables $`y^i`$ satisfying

$$\{y^i,y^j\}=\omega ^{ij},$$
(30)
where $`\omega ^{ij}`$ are antisymmetric constants. New constraints are then defined as

$$\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Omega }}_i=\mathrm{\Omega }_i+\gamma _{ij}y^j0,$$
(31)
where $`\gamma _{ij}`$ are constants. Here $`\omega ^{ij}`$ and $`\gamma _{ij}`$ will be determined to satisfy the strongly involutive constraint algebra $`\{\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Omega }}_i,\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Omega }}_j\}0`$, which yields the algebraic relation

$$\mathrm{\Delta }_{ij}+\gamma _{ik}\omega ^{kl}\gamma _{jl}=0.$$
(32)
Without any loss of generality , the solutions of Eq. (32) can be solved through the ansatz

$$\omega ^{ij}=ϵ^{ij},$$
(33)
$$\gamma _{ij}=\left(\begin{array}{cc}1& 0\\ 0& \mathrm{\Delta }_{12}\end{array}\right).$$
(34)
Using Eqs. (30) and (33) one can define conjugate pair ($`y`$,$`p_y`$) by

$`y`$ $`=`$ $`y^1,`$ (35)
$`p_y`$ $`=`$ $`y^2,`$ (36)
where the new auxiliary variables $`y`$ and $`p_y`$ can be interpreted as new coordinate and its conjugate momentum, respectively. Eq. (30) then describes the ordinary Poisson brackets. Then, using Eqs. (33), (34), (35), and (36), we obtain the desired first class system possessing the modified Hamiltonian, which satisfies $`\{\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Omega }}_i,\stackrel{~}{H}_c\}=0`$,

$`\stackrel{~}{H}_c`$ $`=`$ $`H_c{\displaystyle \frac{2\pi \alpha ^{}}{ϵ^2\mathrm{\Delta }_{12}}}y\left[M_{22}p_{(1)}^2(Mg^1B)_{21}(x_{(2)}^1x_{(1)}^1)\theta _{21}^1(x_{(1)}^1x_{(0)}^1)\right]`$ (39)
$`{\displaystyle \frac{2\pi \alpha ^{}}{ϵ^2}}p_y\left[M_{11}p_{(1)}^1(Mg^1B)_{12}(x_{(2)}^2x_{(1)}^2)\theta _{12}^1(x_{(1)}^2x_{(0)}^2)\right]`$
$`+{\displaystyle \frac{\pi \alpha ^{}}{ϵ^3}}(G+Mg^1M^T)_{11}({\displaystyle \frac{1}{(\mathrm{\Delta }_{12})^2}}y^2+p_y^2),`$
and the first constraints, which satisfy $`\{\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Omega }}_i,\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Omega }}_j\}=0`$,

$`\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Omega }}_1`$ $`=`$ $`\mathrm{\Omega }_1+y,`$ (40)
$`\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Omega }}_2`$ $`=`$ $`\mathrm{\Omega }_2\mathrm{\Delta }_{12}p_y.`$ (41)
Next, in order to obtain the corresponding Lagrangian from the first class Hamiltonian (39), we consider the partition function

$$Z=\underset{a=0}{}\underset{i,j}{}𝒟x_{(a)}^i𝒟y𝒟p_{(a)j}𝒟p_ydet\{\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Omega }}_i,\mathrm{\Gamma }_j\}\delta [\mathrm{\Gamma }_i]\delta [\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Omega }}_i]\mathrm{exp}\left[i𝑑\tau \left(\underset{a=0}{}p_{(a)i}\dot{x}_{(a)}^i+p_y\dot{y}\stackrel{~}{H}_c\right)\right],$$
(42)
where $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_i=0`$ are gauge fixing conditions which are chosen as the functions for coordinates only. Integrating out momenta $`p_{(a)i}`$ and $`p_y`$, we obtain

$$Z=\underset{a=0}{}\underset{i,j}{}𝒟x_{(a)}^i𝒟ydet\{\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Omega }}_i,\mathrm{\Gamma }_j\}\delta [\mathrm{\Gamma }_i]e^{i{\scriptscriptstyle 𝑑\tau \stackrel{~}{L}}},$$
(43)
where the effective Lagrangian is given by

$`\stackrel{~}{L}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{ϵ}{4\pi \alpha ^{}}}{\displaystyle \underset{a=1}{}}\left\{\left(\dot{x}_{(a)}^i\right)^2+4\pi \alpha ^{}B_{ij}\dot{x}_{(a)}^i{\displaystyle \frac{1}{ϵ}}\left(x_{(a+1)}^jx_{(a)}^j\right){\displaystyle \frac{1}{ϵ^2}}\left(x_{(a+1)}^ix_{(a)}^i\right)^2\right\}`$ (48)
$`+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{4\pi \alpha ^{}ϵ}}\left[g(2\pi \alpha ^{})^2Bg^1B\right]_{ij}\left(x_{(2)}^ix_{(1)}^i\right)\left(x_{(2)}^ix_{(1)}^i\right)`$
$`\dot{x}_{(0)}^i\left[A_i+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{(2\pi \alpha ^{})^2}}(^1M)_{ij}\left(x_{(1)}^jx_{(0)}^j\right){\displaystyle \frac{ϵ}{(2\pi \alpha ^{})^2}}_{1i}^1y\right]`$
$`+{\displaystyle \frac{M_{22}}{ϵ\mathrm{\Delta }_{12}}}\dot{x}_{(1)}^2y{\displaystyle \frac{\pi \alpha ^{}}{ϵ^3(\mathrm{\Delta }_{12})^2}}G_{11}y^2+{\displaystyle \frac{2\pi \alpha ^{}}{ϵ^2\mathrm{\Delta }_{12}}}\theta _{12}^1y\left(x_{(1)}^1x_{(0)}^1\right)`$
$`+{\displaystyle \frac{ϵ^3}{4\pi \alpha ^{}}}G_{11}^1\left[\dot{y}+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{ϵ}}\left\{M_{11}\dot{x}_{(1)}^1{\displaystyle \frac{ϵ^2\mathrm{\Delta }_{12}}{(2\pi \alpha ^{})^2}}_{21}^1\dot{x}_{(0)}^1{\displaystyle \frac{2\pi \alpha ^{}}{ϵ}}\theta _{12}^1\left(x_{(1)}^2x_{(0)}^2\right)\right\}\right]^2,`$
with $`_{12}^1=\frac{1}{_{12}}`$, $`G_{11}^1=\frac{1}{G_{11}}`$, and $`\mathrm{\Delta }_{12}=\frac{(2\pi \alpha ^{})^2}{ϵ^2}(G_{11}+M_{11})_{12}`$. When we quantize this system, the commutation relations are given by the usual Poisson’s bracket, not by Dirac’s one, because the constraints have become first-class. One can then obtain the nonvanishing commutators

$`[x_{(a)}^i,p_{(b)j}]=i\delta _j^i\delta _{ab},`$ (49)
$`[y,p_y]=i.`$ (50)
As a result, the extended geometry including the coordinate $`y`$, becomes commutative at the boundary as well as in the bulk of open string. The product of functions of ($`x_{(a)}^i`$, $`y`$) is then ordinary one, not the Moyal bracket any more.

On the other hand, since the effective Lagrangian gives first-class constraints, there exist some additional symmetries. To find the proper transformation rule corresponding to these symmetries we use the Hamiltonian formulation. The primary action with both coordinates and momenta is given as

$$\stackrel{~}{S}_0^p=𝑑\tau \left[\underset{a=0}{}p_{(a)i}\dot{x}_{(a)}^i+p_y\dot{y}\stackrel{~}{H}_c\stackrel{~}{u}^i\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Omega }}_i\right],$$
(51)
and the transformation generator in the corresponding symmetry group is then given by

$$G=\epsilon ^i\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Omega }}_i,$$
(52)
where $`\epsilon ^i=\epsilon ^i(\tau )`$ are the local parameters for the transformation. Since the transformation is given by $`\delta z=\{z,G\}`$ for any variable $`z`$, the coordinates and momenta in the modified Hamiltonian $`\stackrel{~}{H}_c`$ transform as

$`\delta x_{(0)}^i={\displaystyle \frac{1}{ϵ}}(2\pi \alpha ^{})^2_{ij}\epsilon ^j,`$ (53)
$`\delta x_{(1)}^i=0,`$ (54)
$`\delta x_{(a)}^i=0,\text{for }a=2,3,\mathrm{}`$ (55)
$`\delta y=\mathrm{\Delta }_{12}\epsilon ^2,`$ (56)
and

$`\delta p_{(0)i}={\displaystyle \frac{1}{2ϵ}}\left(G+M\right)_{ij}\epsilon ^j`$ (57)
$`\delta p_{(1)i}={\displaystyle \frac{1}{ϵ}}M_{ij}\epsilon ^j,`$ (58)
$`\delta p_{(a)i}=0,\text{for }a=2,3,\mathrm{}`$ (59)
$`\delta p_y=\epsilon ^1.`$ (60)
As a result, the action (51) is invariant under the local transformation Eq. (53). Now it seems appropriate to comment on the Lagrangian multipliers $`\stackrel{~}{u}^i`$. The transformations of these multipliers are determined to keep the action (51) invariant under the transformations (53) and (57). Since the number of the transformation parameters is two, we may choose gauge fixing conditions as $`y=0`$ and $`p_y=0`$ simultaneously. For the above gauge fixing conditions the multipliers $`\stackrel{~}{u}^i`$ are determined by

$`\stackrel{~}{u}^1`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{2\pi \alpha ^{}}{ϵ^2\mathrm{\Delta }_{12}}}\left[M_{22}p_{(1)}^2(Mg^1B)_{21}(x_{(2)}^1x_{(1)}^1)\theta _{21}^1(x_{(1)}^1x_{(0)}^1)\right],`$ (61)
$`\stackrel{~}{u}^2`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{2\pi \alpha ^{}}{ϵ^2\mathrm{\Delta }_{12}}}\left[M_{11}p_{(1)}^1(Mg^1B)_{12}(x_{(2)}^2x_{(1)}^2)\theta _{12}^1(x_{(1)}^2x_{(0)}^2)\right]`$ (62)
because the primary Hamiltonian is given by $`\stackrel{~}{H}_p=\stackrel{~}{H}_c+\stackrel{~}{u}^i\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Omega }}_i`$. Note that imposing these gauge fixing conditions the modified Hamiltonian $`\stackrel{~}{H}_c`$ is exactly reduced to the original Hamiltonian $`H_c`$ of the open string.

Finally, applying the solutions of the equations of motion for the momenta and multipliers to the primary action (51), we obtain the desired effective action, which is invariant under the local transformation Eq. (53), in terms of coordinates only

$$\stackrel{~}{S}=𝑑\tau \stackrel{~}{L},$$
(63)
where $`\stackrel{~}{L}`$ agrees with the effective Lagrangian (48).

## IV Conclusions

In conclusion, we have newly found that the coordinates of $`D2`$-brane with a constant Neveu-Schwarz $`B`$-field become commutative in the BFT quantization scheme. Furthermore, we have shown that in these systems, the Moyal bracket also becomes the ordinary product since the geometry is commutative. However these properties have originated from discretized action, not from continuous action. Therefore, it is interesting to apply the BFT method to highly nontrivial continuous system of string theory through further rigorous investigation, although one can conjecture that the BFT embedded systems in both discrete and continuous actions have the symmetry corresponding to the first-class constraints system.

## Acknowledgments

This work was supported by Ministry of Education, BK 21, Project No. D-0055, 1999.


text:
# Can the beta decay of neutral kaons be observed?

## Abstract

The rate of the beta decay of neutral kaons is calculated within the meson dominance approach taking into account the relation between the $`KK\rho `$ and $`\pi \pi \rho `$ coupling constants which follows from the vector meson dominance in electromagnetic interactions and isospin symmetry. The decay rate transforms into the following branching fraction summed over the charge states indicated: $`B(K_L^0K^\pm e^{}\nu )=(2.53\pm 0.10)\times 10^9`$. The error is dominated by our estimate of isospin violating effects. Experimental aspects of such a measurement are discussed.

In this work we built upon previous work by one of us  to give a prediction for the $`K_L^0K^\pm e^{}\nu `$ branching fraction which may be within the reach of some next generation neutral rare kaon decay experiments. The calculation presented here is performed using the meson dominance (MD) in weak interactions and the vector meson dominance (VMD) in electromagnetic interactions. Both these hypotheses naturally stem  from the Standard Model of electroweak interactions. The measurement of the $`K_L^0K^\pm e^{}\nu `$ decay can thus be considered as another test of the Standard Model.

The MD hypothesis leads  to the following formula for the $`K^0K^+e^{}\overline{\nu }_e`$ and $`\overline{K}^0K^{}e^+\nu _e`$ differential decay rate (see Fig. 1 for the corresponding Feynman diagram)

$$\frac{d\mathrm{\Gamma }}{dt}=\frac{G_F^2X_{K^0K^+\rho ^{}}}{3(4\pi m_{K^0})^3}\frac{tm_e^2}{t^3}\sqrt{\lambda (t)}\left[\phi _1(t)\phi _2(t)\right]\left(\frac{r}{rt}\right)^2,$$
(1)
where $`t`$ is the invariant mass squared of the outgoing lepton pair, $`r`$ is the mass of the $`\rho `$ meson squared, and

$$X_{K^0K^+\rho ^{}}=\left|V_{ud}\right|^2\left(\frac{g_{K^0K^+\rho ^{}}}{g_\rho }\right)^2,$$
(2)
with $`g`$s denoting the strong coupling constants. For the $`g_{\pi \pi \rho }`$ coupling constant, a simpler notation $`g_\rho `$ is used. Furthermore,

$`\lambda (t)`$ $`=`$ $`t^2+x^2+y^22tx2ty2xy,`$ (3)
$`\phi _1(t)`$ $`=`$ $`2t^4(4x+4y+z)t^3+\left[2(xy)^2+z(2x+2yz)\right]t^2`$ (5)
$`+2z\left[(xy)^2+z(x+y)\right]t4z^2(xy)^2,`$
$`\phi _2(t)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{3tz}{r^2}}(2rt)(tz)(xy)^2.`$ (6)
Here, $`x=m_{K^0}^2`$, $`y=m_{K^+}^2`$, and $`z=m_e^2`$. The quantity (2) was estimated in Ref.  using the experimental rate of the $`\tau ^{}K^{}K^0\nu _\tau `$ decay. The value obtained, $`X_{K^0K^+\rho ^{}}=0.64\pm 0.12`$, led to the following branching fraction prediction $`B(K_L^0K^\pm e^{}\nu )=(3.4\pm 0.6)\times 10^9`$, where the sum over the charge states indicated is understood.

In more recent work  one of us has shown that the VMD hypothesis, together with the isospin invariance of the strong vertices and normalization conditions on the form factors, implies that the contribution of the $`\rho `$ meson pole to the $`K^+`$ form factor is just half of that to the $`\pi ^+`$ form factor. In terms of the coupling constants it means that

$$\frac{g_{K^+K^+\rho ^0}}{g_\rho }=\frac{1}{2}.$$
(7)
To establish the connection of this result with our quantity (2) the isospin invariance relation $`|g_{K^+K^0\rho ^+}|=\sqrt{2}|g_{K^0K^+\rho ^{}}|`$ is required. We thus obtain

$$X_{K^0K^+\rho ^{}}=\frac{1}{2}\left|V_{ud}\right|^2=0.4739\pm 0.0008,$$
(8)
where the numerical value of $`|V_{ud}|`$ comes from Ref. .

Since the relative errors of all parameters that serve as input to our formula (1) are very small, it is important to discuss the systematic errors of our approach. They consist of several components.

First, we should account somehow for a possible violation of the isospin symmetry, which was assumed to be unbroken when deriving Eq. (8). Of course, there is no exact way to do that. Looking at the various quantities which reflect the violation of isospin invariance ($`np`$, $`\pi ^+\pi ^0`$, and $`K^0K^+`$ mass differences, $`K^+K^0`$ width difference, violation of the $`SU(2)`$ relation between the $`K_{e3}^+`$ and $`K_{e3}^0`$ decay rates) we expect that the relative error connected with this phenomenon does not exceed four per cent, which we will take as our very conservative “educated guess”.

Second, the systematic error of the MD approach is almost certainly negligible in this case. We base our judgement on a very precise MD result  for the branching fraction of the $`\pi ^+\pi ^0e^+\nu _e`$ decay, which is a process analogous to that considered here. In both cases we are very close to the threshold, where the assumptions leading to the MD formulas are well satisfied .

Third, there are uncertainties in the form of the $`\rho `$ meson propagator. One of us discussed this issue in Refs. , where references to some previous papers can also be found. Here, we proceed in the same way as in . We calculate the integrated branching fraction twice, for two (extreme) choices of the $`\rho `$ meson propagator and consider the difference between the two results as a measure of the systematic error. One of the choices is equivalent to using our original formulas (1-6) and the other to putting $`\phi _2(t)`$, Eq. (6), to zero identically. Both choices lead to the same result***This can easily be understood because $`\phi _2(t)`$ is proportional to $`(m_e/m_\rho )^2`$., which after the conversion to units of inverse seconds reads:

$$\mathrm{\Gamma }(K^0K^+e^{}\overline{\nu }_e)\mathrm{\Gamma }(\overline{K}^0K^{}e^+\nu _e)=(4.887\pm 0.008)\times 10^2\mathrm{s}^1.$$
(9)
The error quoted here reflects only the error of the $`V_{ud}`$ element of the Cabibbo-Kobayashi-Maskawa matrix. So, the systematic error connected with the uncertainties in the $`\rho `$ meson propagator is also negligible.

Using Eq. (9) and the experimental value of the $`K_L^0`$ lifetime  we arrive at the branching fraction

$$B(K_L^0K^\pm e^{}\nu )=(2.53\pm 0.10)\times 10^9.$$
(10)
The error is dominated by our “educated guess” of isospin violating effects.

For the other pseudoscalar mesons, beta decays (i.e. semileptonic transitions between the members of the same isotopic multiplets) may completely escape detection because of their extremely small branching fractions. The low-lying cases are discussed briefly below.

The branching fraction of the $`K_S^0`$ state, $`B(K_S^0K^\pm e^{}\nu )=(4.37\pm 0.17)\times 10^{12}`$, comes from Eq. (9) and the experimental value of the $`K_S^0`$ mean lifetime. The error is based on our guess above.

When calculating the decay rate of the $`D^+D^0e^+\nu _e`$ decay, we can use the same formalism as we have applied to the beta decay of neutral kaons. The electromagnetic form factors of the $`D^+`$ and $`D^0`$ mesons now contain, in addition to the $`\rho `$, $`\omega `$, and $`\varphi `$ terms, an important contribution from the $`J/\psi `$ pole. But the $`J/\psi `$ term transforms like an isoscalar and therefore again only the $`\rho `$ meson pole contributes to the isovector part of the $`D^+`$ and $`D^0`$ form factors. And it is this condition, not the detailed structure of the isoscalar part, which leads, together with the normalization of the $`D^+`$ and $`D^0`$ electromagnetic form factors, to the relation between the strong coupling constants of the same kind as shown in Eq. (7). The value of $`X_{D^+D^0\rho ^+}`$ is thus the same as that given in Eq. (8). The decay rate comes out about five times larger than that shown in Eq. (9), as a result of the larger mass difference and increased phase space. But the branching fraction is pushed to an unobservable value, $`B(D^+D^0e^+\nu _e)2.7\times 10^{13}`$, by the very short $`D^+`$ lifetime.

In the $`(B^+,B^0)`$ isomultiplet, the mass difference is smaller than the electron mass, so the beta transition is not possible.

Above we have discussed theoretical expectations for the branching fraction of the $`K_L^0`$ beta decay. Next we will briefly summarize some signatures of this decay and those accelerators and experiments which might have a chance to observe it.

First we note that the small $`K^0K^+`$ difference ($`\delta m4`$ MeV) gives striking characteristicsThe formulas used below are valid if the beam momentum is much greater than $`\delta m`$, which is satisfied in the cases we consider. to the kaon beta decay events:

1. a charged kaon with momentum approximately that of the beam (the relative loss of momentum is less than $`\delta m/m_{K^0}`$) and very close to the initial direction of the beam ($`\theta <\delta m/p_{K^0}`$, where $`p_{K^0}`$ is the beam momentum).
2. a large-angle electron (or positron) with small momentum ($`p<(E_{K^0}+p_{K^0})\delta m/m_{K^0}`$, where $`E_{K^0}`$ is the beam energy).

Although these characteristics are striking, they are not simple to achieve. Many experiments are intentionally blind in the forward direction, where the kaon will be found. Not all experiments are in a position to measure the momentum of the incident kaon. And not all experiments have a magnetic spectrometer or other means to measure the momentum and angle of the charged decay products. Even for experiments with magnetic spectrometers and information on the incident kaon momentum and direction, the suppression of the $`\pi ^\pm e^{}\nu `$ modes, which are about $`10^8`$ times more frequent than $`K^\pm e^{}\nu `$, requires particle identification to discriminate between pions and kaons.

Because of the intense kaon beam requirement, there are only a few facilities in the world at which the kaon beta decay could be measured: Brookhaven National Laboratory (BNL), Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory (Fermilab), European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN), Phi-factory DA$`\mathrm{\Phi }`$NE at the Frascati National Laboratory, and the High Energy Accelerator Research Organization (KEK) in Tsukuba.

A natural place for the kaon beta decay measurement would be a beam designed for the important decay $`K_L^0\pi ^0\nu \overline{\nu }`$ and similar rare decays of neutral kaons. Such beams are presently in place or in the planning or preparatory stages at all the laboratories mentioned above. The characteristics and advantages of the kaon beams and detectors vary:

(1) The completed experiment E871 at BNL was a search for the lepton family violating decay $`K_L^0\mu ^\pm e^{}`$, with a limit set at the $`4.7\times 10^{12}`$ level  and observation of the $`K_Le^+e^{}`$ branching fraction as $`(8.7_{4.1}^{+5.6})\times 10^{12}`$ . This experiment had a double charged particle spectrometer with electron and muon identification. However, it was blind in the forward direction, and the kaon beta decay cannot be studied in their data .

(2) The KTeV experiment at Fermilab, ) has a beam of 70 GeV/c neutral kaon average momentum, leading to charged kaons of approximately 70 GeV/c momentum and nearly exactly straight forward (within about 0.06 mrad) and electrons up to about 1.1 GeV/c (the estimates here and below are given for the average beam momentum). The momentum kick of the spectrometer magnet (205 MeV/c) would allow the highest energy electrons to pass through, but would bend the kaons only by about 3 mrad, not enough to avoid the 50 mrad blind spot in the center of the calorimeter. The kaons might still be seen by the drift chambers, and some $`\pi /K`$ rejection might be available from the transition radiation detectors, though they are optimized for $`e/\pi `$ separation at lower energies. But these events would not be included in any data taken to date because of the trigger requirement of $`20`$ GeV/c in the calorimeter. There is no time of flight and therefore no momentum information for the parent kaon.

(3) Experiment NA48 at CERN  has a kaon beam of 110 GeV/c, which, as for KTeV, would lead to charged kaons nearly straight ahead ($`\theta <0.04`$ mrad). The latter thus remain in the beam pipe and cannot reach the detector. The electron momentum extends up to 1.8 GeV/c. Experiment NA48 has a magnetic spectrometer but no time of flight for the incident kaon, nor particle identification to distinguish charged kaons and pions.

(4) The KLOE detector at DA$`\mathrm{\Phi }`$NE  is a general purpose detector with $`K_SK_L`$ pairs produced nearly at rest by decays from the $`\varphi `$(1020). The momentum is known, and the opposite kaon is measured, to give the kaon direction. The decay kaon may be at angles of order 36 mrad, but electron momenta will be only of order 5 MeV/c, below the spectrometer minimum momentum for detection, in normal running.

(5) For the KOPIO experiment  BNL has proposed an intense neutral kaon beam of 0.7 GeV/c average momentum, with time-of-flight tagging allowing momentum determination of the $`K^0`$ to within a few per cent. The advantage of such momentum resolution is important for the $`K_L^0`$ beta decay. The outgoing kaon would have an angle ranging out to about 6 mrad from the incident beam, and the electron momentum would range up to about 13 MeV/c. The KOPIO experiment as proposed does not include any provision for a magnetic spectrometer (or any other charged particle identification except for identification of electrons and positrons in the electromagnetic calorimeter).

(6) Fermilab has a proposed experiment KAMI (Kaons at the Main Injector)  with $`K^0`$ momentum about 10 GeV/c. The momentum of this beam is too high for time of flight momentum measurement of the beam, but the proposed experiment has a charged particle spectrometer which could detect a fast outgoing charged particle close to the beam and a slow wide angle particle appropriate for the electron or positron. No charged particle identification is included at this time, beyond the comparison of energy deposit with momentum measured in the spectrometer. The kaon would be within about 0.4 mrad of the incident $`K^0`$ direction, and the electron momentum would range up to about 160 MeV/c. This experiment is essentially an upgraded continuation of the KTeV experiment, with nearly the same collaborators.

(7) In KEK, a $`K_L^0\pi ^0\nu \overline{\nu }`$ experiment E391A is in preparation  by experimenters from KEK, Osaka University, Saga University, and Yamagata University. It will be situated in a new $`K^0`$ beamline at the 12 GeV Proton Synchrotron. The detection system consists of an array of CeF3 crystal calorimeters to measure the energies and positions of the two gammas from the $`\pi ^0`$ decay, and a barrel of lead-scintillator sandwich calorimeters to eliminate backgrounds involving other particles. The average kaon momentum will be about 2 GeV/c. The momentum of the electron from the kaon beta decay would range up to about 33 MeV/c, and the outgoing charged kaon would be within about 2 mrad of the incident $`K^0`$ direction. Since neither time of flight for the kaon momentum nor charged particle identification or measurement is planned, it seems unlikely that the KEK experiment as designed will observe the kaon beta decay. Let us note that a similar experiment is envisioned  at the planned JHF (Japan Hadron Facility) 50 GeV high intensity proton synchrotron, which is a joint project of JAERI (Japan Atomic Energy Research Institute) and KEK .

In summary, the (as yet unmeasured) kaon beta decay has a predicted branching fraction of $`(2.53\pm 0.10)\times 10^9`$ within the MD model. Observation of the decay at this level would be a test of meson dominance. A substantial departure from this prediction would be surprising within the framework of the standard model. If the elusive $`K_L^0\pi ^0\nu \overline{\nu }`$ mode is measured, and if some thought is given beforehand to details of the experimental configuration, the measurement of the kaon beta decay branching fraction may be a useful and interesting additional result. The two experiments with the most intense neutral kaon beams are KAMI at Fermilab and KOPIO at BNL. The background from the semileptonic decay to $`\pi e\nu `$ is of order $`10^8`$ times the expected signal. No planned experiment has all three possible handles: incident kaon momentum and angle information; outgoing charged decay particle spectrometer; and particle identification to identify kaons and pions in the charged decay particles. Detailed studies beyond the scope of this note would be required to establish whether either the KAMI experiment (which has a charged particle spectrometer but no decay particle identification and no time of flight for the incident momentum) or the KOPIO experiment (which has time of flight for the incident kaon momentum but no charged particle spectrometer and no charged decay product particle identification) could be successful without modification of their apparatus.

###### Acknowledgements.

We are indebted to Elliott Cheu, Bob Hsiung, Konrad Kleinknecht, Dave Kraus, Ivan Mikulec, and Mike Zeller for useful discussions. This work was supported by the U.S. Department of Energy under contract No. DOE/DE-FG02-91ER-40646 and by the Grant Agency of the Czech Republic under contract No. 202/98/0095.


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# References

Loutsenko and Roubtsov Reply: The model proposed in  can be considered as a model describing the anomalous transport of nonrelativistic bosons in a medium with the linear dispersion law at zero temperature.

The main idea of Letter  is that the effective two-particle interaction between bosons switches from being repulsive to the attractive one if the velocity of collective propagation of the bosons in the medium exceeds some critical speed. This effect occurs due to different covariance of the dynamic equations that describe the nonrelativistic subsystem of bosons and the linearly dispersive medium. As a result, the boson subsystem “collapses” into a soliton wave packet above this threshold.

Note that the effect of such an anomalous propagation is the quantum one, since Bose-Einstein condensation (more exactly, occurrence of the exciton-phonon Bose condensate) is essential in our consideration.

The theory developed in  was applied to interpret the experiments on excitonic propagation in semiconducting crystals (Cu20) at nonzero temperature . In this series of experiments, a crystal was irradiated by laser pulses. At low intensities of the laser beam (i.e. at low concentration of the excitons), the system revealed a typical diffusive behavior. Once the intensity of the beam exceeded some value, the majority of particles moved together in a sharp solitonic packet with the ballistic velocity exceeding some critical speed. This coincides with the main result of our theory.

Although this theory yields a qualitative description of the experiments and a reasonable value for the critical velocity, the estimate of the width of the condensate at zero temperature is in a strong disagreement with experimental data  for the total exciton-phonon packet (at finite temperature). Indeed, we obtain

$$L_{\mathrm{ch}}(N_\mathrm{o},v)4\sqrt{\frac{\mathrm{}^2}{m_\mathrm{x}|\stackrel{~}{\nu }_0(v)|}\mathrm{\Phi }_\mathrm{o}^2(N_\mathrm{o},v)},$$
(1)
i.e., $`L_{\mathrm{ch}}=a_\mathrm{x}`$, where the large factor $``$ can vary as $`10^210^4`$, and $`a_\mathrm{x}`$ is the exciton Bohr radius. Thus, the duration of the condensate can be estimated as $`t_{\mathrm{ch}}2\times (10^{11}10^9)`$ s (compare with the corresponding estimate in ). On the other hand, $`\mathrm{\Delta }t5\times 10^7`$ s was obtained experimentally .

This fact was pointed out by S. G. Tikhodeev in Comment . In our opinion, the crucial question is whether the Bose-Einstein condensate, or, better, any macroscopically occupied coherent mode, exists inside the exciton-phonon packet at $`T<T_c`$. If yes, one can ask, for example, how many excitons form the coherent core of the packet, and the value of $`N_\mathrm{o}(T)/N_{\mathrm{tot}}`$ has to be estimated at $`T<T_c`$.

Indeed, localized moving solutions for the exciton concentration $`n(x,t)`$ can be obtained within classical models (see, e.g., ), in which the Bose-Einstein condensate of excitons is absent and the excitonic cloud is dragged by the sound wave of a large amplitude created under the action of the strong laser pulse.

Here, we list several facts that support the idea that the localized excitonic condensate has to be taken into account to interpret experimental data .

* Experiments are conducted at nonzero temperature, and the excitonic condensate (if appears) can constitute of a relatively small fraction of the total number of particles. We considered the system bosons $`+`$ medium at zero temperature. Experimental data, however, show strong dependence of the packet length on the temperature (at least, an order of magnitude in the range of $`25`$ K). Thus, no conclusion can be made until our theory is extended to nonzero temperatures or experiments are conducted at much more lower temperatures.
* All the results on nonlinear interaction between two packets  point out to a kind of coherent interaction. This is expected within our quantum model of the moving exciton-phonon droplet with the “Bose-nucleus”. It is an open question whether such a behavior can be the case within any classical model.
* If, according to experiments, the phonon source is generated at a surface by a strongly absorbed radiation, the phonon wind  does not effect strongly the excitons with a density just below the threshold one, and no appreciable effect is detected. On the contrary, the injection of cold excitons distributed throughout the volume leads to the appearance of a localized packet in the above conditions.

We believe that the future theory needs both the exciton-phonon condensate and the proper incorporation of non-condensed excitons and phonons. It can be tested by further experiments as well. For example, one can set the crystal geometry in such a way that the sound wave of the phonon wind theory can be dumped out, and only the coherent part of the packet (if exists) will continue to propagate.

In conclusion, we note that the phonons play a crucial role in almost all current models aimed to explain or predict coherent behavior of excitons in semiconductors, see, f.ex., ,,. The fact that our simple model fails to predict the width of the packet correctly does not mean our approach is wrong. Indeed, one has to take into account the thermal excitons (e.g., the weak tail that is always observed behind the soliton ) and the thermal phonons of the crystal to make the model with condensate more realistic.

I. Loutsenko, 1 and D. Roubtsov 2
1Physics Department
Princeton University
Princeton New Jersey 08544
2Département de Physique et GCM
Université de Montréal
Montreal, Quebec, Canada H3C 3J7

Received September 1999

PACS numbers: 71.35.Lk