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# Untitled Document

Causal relation between regions I and IV of the Kruskal extension

Yi-Ping Qin1,2,3

1 Yunnan Observatory, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, Yunnan 650011, P. R. China

2 National Astronomical Observatories, Chinese Academy of Sciences

3 Chinese Academy of Science-Peking University joint Beijing Astrophysical Center

Summary

By extending the exterior Schwarzschild spacetime in two opposite directions with the Kruskal method, we get an extension which has the same $`TX`$ spacetime diagram as has the conventional Kruskal extension, while allowing its regions $`I`$ and $`IV`$ to correspond to different directions of the original spacetime. We further extend the exterior Schwarzschild spacetime in all directions and get a 4-dimensional form of the Kruskal extension. The new form of extension includes the conventional one as a part of itself. From the point of view of the 4-dimensional form, region $`IV`$ of the conventional extension does not belong to another universe but is a portion of the same exterior Schwarzschild spacetime that contains region $`I`$. The two regions are causally related: particles can move from one to the other.

It is known that the conventional Kruskal extension contains four parts of spacetime, a black hole, a white hole, and two regions of the exterior Schwarzschild spacetime . The two regions were believed to belong to different universes, and messages can not be exchanged between them. In the following we show that this interpretation is not correct.

The standard metric form of the exterior Schwarzschild spacetime is

$$ds^2=(1\frac{2M}{r})dt^2+\frac{1}{1\frac{2M}{r}}dr^2+r^2(d\theta ^2+\mathrm{sin}^2\theta d\varphi ^2)(r>2M).$$
(1)
Let

$$\{\begin{array}{c}t=t\\ x=r\mathrm{sin}\theta \mathrm{cos}\varphi \\ y=r\mathrm{sin}\theta \mathrm{sin}\varphi \\ z=r\mathrm{cos}\theta \end{array}(r>2M).$$
(2)
Then (1) can be written as

$$\begin{array}{c}ds^2=(1\frac{2M}{r})dt^2+[\frac{2Mx^2}{r^2(r2M)}+1]dx^2+[\frac{2My^2}{r^2(r2M)}+1]dy^2+[\frac{2Mz^2}{r^2(r2M)}+1]dz^2\\ \\ +\frac{4M}{r^2(r2M)}(xydxdy+yzdydz+zxdzdx)(r>2M),\end{array}$$
(3)
where

$$r=\sqrt{x^2+y^2+z^2}.$$
(4)
Now we consider the extension of the exterior Schwarzschild spacetime in two opposite directions.

We notice from the transformation (2) that when $`\theta =\pi /2`$ and $`\varphi =0,\pi `$ then

$$y=z=0andx=\pm r(r>2M),$$
(5)
where $`x=+r`$ corresponds to $`\varphi =0`$ and $`x=r`$ corresponds to $`\varphi =\pi `$. That is, while $`x>0`$ corresponds to one direction, $`x<0`$ corresponds to the opposite one. In this situation, from (3) and (4) one has

$$ds^2=(1\frac{2M}{\left|x\right|})dt^2+\frac{\left|x\right|}{\left|x\right|2M}dx^2(t,x,y,z)\stackrel{~}{x}_+\stackrel{~}{x}_{},$$
(6)
where $`\stackrel{~}{x}_+\{(t,x,y,z)|\mathrm{}>t>\mathrm{},\mathrm{}>x>2M,y=0,z=0\}`$ is a portion of the exterior Schwarzschild spacetime in one direction and $`\stackrel{~}{x}_{}\{(t,x,y,z)|\mathrm{}>t>\mathrm{},2M>x>\mathrm{},y=0,z=0\}`$ is another portion of the spacetime in the opposite direction. It can be verified that the transformation,

$$\{\begin{array}{c}T=(\frac{\left|x\right|}{2M}1)^{1/2}e^{\left|x\right|/4M}sh\frac{t}{4M}\\ X=(\frac{\left|x\right|}{2M}1)^{1/2}e^{\left|x\right|/4M}ch\frac{t}{4M}\\ y=y\\ z=z\end{array}(t,x,y,z)\stackrel{~}{x}_+$$
(7)
and

$$\{\begin{array}{c}T=(\frac{\left|x\right|}{2M}1)^{1/2}e^{\left|x\right|/4M}sh\frac{t}{4M}\\ X=(\frac{\left|x\right|}{2M}1)^{1/2}e^{\left|x\right|/4M}ch\frac{t}{4M}\\ y=y\\ z=z\end{array}(t,x,y,z)\stackrel{~}{x}_{},$$
(8)
will rewrite (6) in the form

$$ds^2=\frac{32M^3e^{\left|x\right|/2M}}{\left|x\right|}(dT^2+dX^2)(T,X,y,z)\stackrel{~}{X}_+\stackrel{~}{X}_{},$$
(9)
where $`T`$ and $`X`$ satisfy

$$X^2T^2=(\frac{\left|x\right|}{2M}1)e^{\left|x\right|/2M}(\left|x\right|>2M),$$
(10)
and $`\stackrel{~}{X}_+\{(T,X,y,z)|\mathrm{}>T>\mathrm{},\mathrm{}>X>0,y=0,z=0;X^2T^2>0\}`$, $`\stackrel{~}{X}_{}\{(T,X,y,z)|\mathrm{}>T>\mathrm{},0>X>\mathrm{},y=0,z=0;X^2T^2>0\}`$.

The above transformation, denoted $`f_x`$, is a 1-1 map,with $`f_x(\stackrel{~}{x}_+)=\stackrel{~}{X}_+`$, $`f_x(\stackrel{~}{x}_{})=\stackrel{~}{X}_{}`$ and $`f_x(\stackrel{~}{x}_+\stackrel{~}{x}_{})=\stackrel{~}{X}_+\stackrel{~}{X}_{}`$. Note that, if relation (7) is applied in the transformation for both $`\stackrel{~}{x}_+`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{x}_{}`$, then the map will no longer be 1-1 (even though the metric form of (9) is maintained).

Keeping the metric form of (9) but allowing $`X^2T^2>1`$ instead of $`X^2T^2>0`$ (these correspond to $`\left|x\right|>0`$ and $`\left|x\right|>2M`$ respectively), we have an extension of the part, $`\stackrel{~}{x}_+\stackrel{~}{x}_{}`$, of an exterior Schwarzschild spacetime, confined in two opposite directions, in a manifold $`\stackrel{~}{X}`$, $`\stackrel{~}{X}\{(T,X,y,z)|\mathrm{}>T>\mathrm{},\mathrm{}>X>\mathrm{},y=0,z=0\}`$ which is an R2 space. The new extension is 2-dimensional and has the same $`TX`$ spacetime diagram as has the conventional Kruskal extension. (Note that, here $`\left|x\right|=r`$ according to (4) and (5).) However, for the new extension, while region $`I`$ of the diagram (i.e. $`\stackrel{~}{X}_+`$) corresponds to a portion of the exterior Schwarzschild spacetime in one direction, $`\stackrel{~}{x}_+`$, region $`IV`$ (i.e. $`\stackrel{~}{X}_{}`$) corresponds to none other than a portion in the opposite direction, $`\stackrel{~}{x}_{}`$.

This result led us further to consider the extension of the exterior Schwarzschild spacetime in an equatorial plane.

In the spacetime where

$$\theta =\frac{\pi }{2},$$
(11)
(1) becomes

$$ds^2=(1\frac{2M}{r})dt^2+\frac{1}{1\frac{2M}{r}}dr^2+r^2d\varphi ^2(r>2M,\theta =\frac{\pi }{2}).$$
(12)
The following transformation

$$\{\begin{array}{c}T=(\frac{r}{2M}1)^{1/2}e^{r/4M}sh\frac{t}{4M}\\ R=(\frac{r}{2M}1)^{1/2}e^{r/4M}ch\frac{t}{4M}\\ \theta =\theta \\ \varphi =\varphi \end{array}(t,r,\theta ,\varphi )\stackrel{~}{r}_{\pi /2},$$
(13)
where $`\stackrel{~}{r}_{\pi /2}\{(t,r,\theta ,\varphi )|\mathrm{}>t>\mathrm{},\mathrm{}>r>2M,\theta =\frac{\pi }{2},2\pi \varphi 0\}`$, rewrites (12) in the form

$$ds^2=\frac{32M^3e^{r/2M}}{r}(dT^2+dR^2)+r^2d\varphi ^2(T,R,\theta ,\varphi )\stackrel{~}{R}_{\pi /2},$$
(14)
where $`T`$, $`R`$ and $`r`$ are related by

$$R^2T^2=(\frac{r}{2M}1)e^{r/2M}(r>2M),$$
(15)
and $`\stackrel{~}{R}_{\pi /2}\{(T,R,\theta ,\varphi )|\mathrm{}>T>\mathrm{},\mathrm{}>R>0,\theta =\frac{\pi }{2},2\pi \varphi 0;R^2T^2>0\}`$.

The above transformation, denoted $`f_r`$, is a 1-1 map, with $`f_r(\stackrel{~}{r}_{\pi /2})=\stackrel{~}{R}_{\pi /2}`$, where $`\stackrel{~}{r}_{\pi /2}`$ is an R3 space with an infinite length hollow column and $`\stackrel{~}{R}_{\pi /2}`$ is an R3 with two head-to-head opposite hollow cones extending to infinity.

In the same way, the extension of $`\stackrel{~}{R}_{\pi /2}`$ is realized by keeping the metric form of (14) but allowing $`R^2T^2>1`$ instead of $`R^2T^2>0`$ (they correspond to $`r>0`$ and $`r>2M`$ respectively). In this extension we find that a black hole is inside one of the two cones and a white hole is inside the other cone. This extension is 3-dimensional and can be realized by rotating the conventional Kruskal extension around its $`T`$ axis.

With the same method, the whole exterior Schwarzschild spacetime (in all directions) can be extended by making the following transformation

$$\{\begin{array}{c}T=(\frac{r}{2M}1)^{1/2}e^{r/4M}sh\frac{t}{4M}\\ R=(\frac{r}{2M}1)^{1/2}e^{r/4M}ch\frac{t}{4M}\\ \theta =\theta \\ \varphi =\varphi \end{array}(t,r,\theta ,\varphi )\stackrel{~}{r},$$
(16)
where $`\stackrel{~}{r}\{(t,r,\theta ,\varphi )|\mathrm{}>t>\mathrm{},\mathrm{}>r>2M,\pi \theta 0,2\pi \varphi 0\}`$, which rewrites (1) in the form

$$ds^2=\frac{32M^3e^{r/2M}}{r}(dT^2+dR^2)+r^2(d\theta ^2+\mathrm{sin}^2\theta d\varphi ^2)(T,R,\theta ,\varphi )\stackrel{~}{R},$$
(17)
where

$$R^2T^2=(\frac{r}{2M}1)e^{r/2M}(r>2M),$$
(18)
and $`\stackrel{~}{R}\{(T,R,\theta ,\varphi )|\mathrm{}>T>\mathrm{},\mathrm{}>R>0,\pi \theta 0,2\pi \varphi 0;R^2T^2>0\}`$. Then, keeping the metric form of (17), we extend the range of $`R^2T^2>0`$ to $`R^2T^2>1`$ (they correspond to $`r>2M`$ and $`r>0`$ respectively). This yields

$$ds^2=\frac{32M^3e^{r/2M}}{r}(dT^2+dR^2)+r^2(d\theta ^2+\mathrm{sin}^2\theta d\varphi ^2)(T,R,\theta ,\varphi )\stackrel{~}{K},$$
(19)
where

$$R^2T^2=(\frac{r}{2M}1)e^{r/2M}(r>0),$$
(20)
and $`\stackrel{~}{K}\{(T,R,\theta ,\varphi )|\mathrm{}>T>\mathrm{},\mathrm{}>R>0,\pi \theta 0,2\pi \varphi 0;R^2T^2>1\}`$.

This extension is 4-dimensional, and contains the extension of the equatorial plane as a 3-dimensional section, and the conventional extension as a 2-dimensional section. From the point of view of the 4-dimensional extension, region $`IV`$ of the conventional extension does not belong to a different universe but is a portion of the same exterior Schwarzschild spacetime that contains region $`I`$. Particles can move from one to the other. For example, the world line of a particle in a circular orbit outside the Schwarzschild black hole (with $`r=`$ constant $`>2M`$ ) can be a line around the $`T`$ axis and towards the direction of $`T`$ from region $`I`$ (where $`\theta =\frac{\pi }{2},\varphi =0`$) through the regions of ($`\theta =\frac{\pi }{2},0<\varphi <\pi `$) to region $`IV`$ (where $`\theta =\frac{\pi }{2},\varphi =\pi `$), shown in the spacetime diagram of the 3-dimensional head-to-head double-cone extension.

Acknowledgements

It is my pleasure to thank Dr. Tao Kiang for helpful discussion. Thanks are also given to Professors G. Z. Xie, Xue-Tang Zheng and Shi-Min Wu for their help. This work was supported by the United Laboratory of Optical Astronomy, CAS, the Natural Science Foundation of China, and the Natural Science Foundation of Yunnan.

References

> 1. M. D. Kruskal, Phys. Rev. 119, 1743 (1960).
>
> 2. R. M. Wald, General Relativity (The University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1984).


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# LPTENS-00/18IEM-FT-202/00IFT-UAM/CSIC-00-17hep-ph/0004124 The lightest Higgs mass in supersymmetric models with extra dimensions 11footnote 1Work supported in part by EU under TMR contract ERBFMRX-CT96-0045, and by CICYT (Spain) under contract AEN98-0816.

## Acknowledgements

The work of AD was supported by the Spanish Education Office (MEC) under an *FPI* scholarship. We acknowledge usefull discussions with C. Kounnas and F. Zwirner. AD also wants to thank the LPT of Ecole Normale Supérieure for hospitality.


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# Anomalous field-dependent specific heat in charge-ordered Pr1-xCaxMnO3 and La0.5Ca0.5MnO3

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## Abstract

We report low temperature specific heat measurements of Pr1-xCaxMnO3 ($`0.3x0.5`$) and La0.5Ca0.5MnO3 with and without applied magnetic field. An excess specific heat, $`C^{}(T)`$, of non-magnetic origin associated with charge ordering is found for all the samples. A magnetic field sufficient to induce the transition from the charge-ordered state to the ferromagnetic metallic state does not completely remove the $`C^{}`$ contribution. This suggests that the charge ordering is not completely destroyed by a “melting” magnetic field. In addition, the specific heat of the Pr1-xCaxMnO3 compounds exhibit a large contribution linear in temperature ($`\gamma T`$) originating from magnetic and charge disorder.

PACS number(s): 75.40.Cx, 75.30.Vn, 71.30.+h, 75.50.Cc

PACS no.: 75.40.Cx, 75.30.Vn, 71.30.+h, 75.50.Cc

\]

Charge ordering (CO), i.e. the real space ordering of Mn3+ and Mn4+ ions, is one of the most intriguing properties observed in hole-doped manganites. These compounds with the generalized formula RE1-xAExMnO3 (RE being a trivalent rare-earth and AE being a divalent alkaline earth element occupying the A-site in the AMnO3 perovskite structure) undergo a charge-ordering transition for certain values of $`x`$ and the average A-site cation radius $`<r_A>`$. Remarkably, a modest external magnetic field can destroy the insulating CO state and produce a metallic ferromagnetic state (FMM). The $`<r_A>`$ determines the one-electron bandwidth $`W`$ in these materials and charge ordering is observed in materials with $`x=0.5`$ with small $`<r_A>1.23`$ Å (and consequently small $`W`$).

Among these, Pr1-xCaxMnO3 ($`<r_A>1.18`$ Å ) is especially interesting. This compound is a paramagnetic insulator at high temperature which undergoes a CO transition at $`T_{\mathrm{CO}}`$ $`230`$ K for the composition range $`0.3x0.5`$. An antiferromagnetic (AFM) ordering occurs below $`T_{\mathrm{CO}}`$ with Neel temperature ($`T_N`$) changing from $`180`$ K ($`x=0.5`$) to $`140`$ K ($`x=0.3`$) . The AFM ordering for charge-ordered Pr1-xCaxMnO3 is CE type for $`x0.5`$  and pseudo-CE type for $`x0.3`$ . Although the FMM state is never realized for Pr1-xCaxMnO3 in zero magnetic field, a competition between the ferromagnetic (FM) metallic and AFM charge-ordered ground states leads to an increase of FM tendencies as $`x`$ decreases below 0.5. The magnitude of the magnetic field required to induce a transition to the FMM state decreases from 24 T for $`x=0.5`$  to 4 T for $`x=0.3`$ . The charge ordering has been detected as a superlattice reflection in synchrotron , neutron , and electron diffraction  experiments for $`0.3x0.5`$. They show that the charge modulation for these compositions in the CO state is 1:1 as observed in La0.5Ca0.5MnO3  and Pr0.5Ca0.5MnO3. These observations illustrate the very sensitive balance between the CO and FMM phases as $`x0.3`$ for materials with small $`<r_A>`$ as in Pr1-xCaxMnO3. This was clearly demonstrated in the recent work on La$`_{\frac{5}{8}x}`$PrxCa$`_{\frac{3}{8}}`$MnO3 . These authors showed that by changing $`x`$ i.e. the relative amounts of La and Pr, the ground state could be changed from an FMM state (for $`x=0`$) to the CO state (for $`x=\frac{5}{8}`$). For intermediate values of $`x`$, $`T_C`$ was lowered on increasing $`x`$. In fact for a range of temperatures a micron scale phase separation (PS) between FMM and CO phases, was observed . The small magnetic fields ($``$ 4 T) needed to melt the CO state in Pr0.7Ca0.3MnO3 also brings out the delicate balance between the FMM and CO phases as $`x0.3`$. Therefore, the pertinent questions are: (1) What is the nature of the metallic state obtained on melting the CO state by a magnetic field? (2) Is it different from the low temperature FMM state in other manganites like La0.67Ca0.33MnO3? We expect that low temperature specific heat experiments, carrying the information about principal excitations, migh provide an answer to these questions.

In this paper we report a specific heat study of the CO state in Pr1-xCaxMnO3 ($`0.5x0.3`$) and the FMM state obtained on “melting” this CO state with a magnetic field. Previously, we found an anomalous excess specific heat $`C^{}`$ of non-magnetic origin in the CO state of La0.5Ca0.5MnO3. Here we find that this anomalous contribution is also present in Pr1-xCaxMnO3 ($`0.3x0.5`$), even in magnetic field sufficient to induce a CO insulator to FMM transition, This indicates the coexistence of metallic and CO regions (i.e. electronic phase separation). We also found that Pr1-xCaxMnO3 ($`0.3x0.5`$) exhibits a large linear in temperature contribution to the specific heat due to charge and magnetic disorder. This linear term is significantly reduced

upon the application of the magnetic field due to reduction of the disorder.

For this study we used ceramic samples of Pr1-xCaxMnO3 (x=0.3, 0.35, and 0.45), Pr0.5Ca0.5Mn0.97Cr0.03O3 and La0.5Ca0.5MnO3, and a single crystal of Pr0.5Ca0.5MnO3. Ceramic samples were prepared by a standard solid state reaction technique (details were described in Ref. ). X-ray powder diffraction showed that all samples are single phase and good quality. The single crystal was grown by the floating zone technique. The specific heat was measured in the temperature range 2-17 K and magnetic field range 0-8.5 T by relaxation calorimetry. This method has a relative accuracy of $`\pm 3`$%. Magnetization was measured with a commercial SQUID magnetometer, and resistivity was measured by a standard four-probe technique.

Figure 1 shows the low temperature specific heat of the Pr1-xCaxMnO3 system plotted as $`C/T`$ vs. $`T^2`$, for different values of $`x`$ in the temperature range from 2 to 16 K. Two anomalous contributions are evident from these data: an excess specific heat (indicated by the nonlinearity of the $`C/T`$ vs. $`T^2`$ plot) and the presence of a large $`\gamma T`$ term in insulating $`x=0.3`$ and 0.35 compositions. The low temperature specific heat $`C(T)`$ of an AFM insulator should be $`\beta T^3`$, because both lattice and AFM spin-wave contributions are proportional to $`T^3`$ , which should be a straight line passing through the origin in the $`C/T`$ vs. $`T^2`$ plot. This is not the case for any of our samples. Therefore, we express the low temperature specific heat of our samples in the following form:

$$C=\alpha T^2+\gamma T+\beta T^3+C^{}(T)$$
(1)
The first term in Eq. (1) is the hyperfine contribution caused by splitting of nuclear magnetic levels of Mn and Pr ions in the field of unpaired electrons, which was observed previously in the manganites . The origin

of the $`\gamma T`$ for these electrically insulating samples will be discussed later. We discovered the anomalous contribution $`C^{}(T)`$ previously in charge-ordered La1-xCaxMnO3 ($`x0.5`$) . The temperature dependence of this contribution corresponds to non-magnetic excitations with dispersion relation $`ϵ=\mathrm{\Delta }+Bq^2`$, where $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ is an energy gap and $`q`$ is a wave vector . Since Pr1-xCaxMnO3 ($`0.3x0.5`$) has the same charge modulation as in La0.5Ca0.5MnO3 and Pr0.5Ca0.5MnO3 , one possible origin of the $`C^{}(T)`$ contribution is the presence of low frequency optical phonons  corresponding to an out of phase motion of Mn3+ and Mn4+ ions in their respective planes in the structure. Another possible origin is orbital excitations , since the CO in manganites is accompanied by an orientational ordering of the $`d_{z^2}`$ orbitals of Mn3+. Clearly, other experiments are needed to determine the origin of the $`C^{}(T)`$ term.

The results of fitting the data to Eq. (1) are shown in Table 1. Fits corresponding to values listed in Table 1 are shown in Fig. 1 as solid lines. The value of $`\alpha `$ is larger than that reported in Ref.  for the Mn hyperfine term and it decreases with $`x`$. This suggests that the hyperfine term is a result of contributions from Mn and Pr nuclei. However, lower temperature measurements are needed to determine more precisely the hyperfine contribution of these materials. The $`\beta T^3`$ term is larger for Pr1-xCaxMnO3 than for charge-ordered La1-xCaxMnO3 ($`x0.5`$)  which indicates a smaller Debye temperature and/or a larger antiferromagnetic spin-wave contribution ($`T^3`$) in Pr1-xCaxMnO3. The data for these all charge-ordered samples can be best fit without the higher-order lattice term, $`\beta _5T^5`$. We note that values of $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ which differ from those listed in Table 1 by $`\pm 0.2`$ meV also give a good fit with a change of the other parameters by 10-15%. This is the error limit for the fit.

To confirm that the $`C^{}`$ contribution is present only in the CO state, we compare the specific heat of

Pr0.5Ca0.5MnO3 and Pr0.5Ca0.5Mn0.97Cr0.03O3 (Fig. 2). Doping of Cr at the Mn site destroys the CO in this compound and results in a FM metallic state at low temperature . We fit the Pr0.5Ca0.5Mn0.97Cr0.03O3 data to the form $`C=\alpha T^2+\gamma T+\beta T^3+\beta _5T^5+\delta T^{3/2}`$, where $`\gamma T`$ is a charge carrier contribution and $`\delta T^{3/2}`$ is a ferromagnetic spin-wave contribution. Values of the fitting parameters are listed in Table 1. The best fit also requires $`\beta _5T^5`$ with $`\beta _5=0.46\pm 1`$ $`\mu `$J/mole-K6 and $`\delta =0`$. As was noted in previous work , it is difficult to resolve the ferromagnetic spin-wave contribution to the specific heat in FMM manganites due to its small value and the presence of the $`\gamma T`$ contribution. The charge carrier contribution is close to that found in other FMM manganites . The large excess specific heat in the charge-ordered Pr0.5Ca0.5MnO3 sample compared to the FMM Pr0.5Ca0.5Mn0.97Cr0.03O3, is very evident in Fig. 2.

We now return to the unexpected $`\gamma T`$ term in the specific heat of these electrically insulating samples. The inset in figure 1 shows a plot of $`\gamma `$ values for the different $`x`$. As $`x`$ approaches 0.3, the values of $`\gamma `$ become increasingly large. In fact the $`\gamma `$ values are much larger than observed in metallic manganites , where $`\gamma `$ values were found to be in the range 3 - 7 mJ/mole K2. As $`x`$ changes from 0.5 to 0.3, the magnetic ordering at low temperatures changes from CE type to pseudo CE type magnetic ordering and FM correlations increase in the system . This leads to frustration in the spin system and to a spin-glass behavior, which was observed in neutron scattering  and AC susceptibility measurements . This spin glass behavior is a possible cause for the large values of $`\gamma `$ for $`x=0.3`$ and $`x=0.35`$ samples. A large linear in temperature contribution to the specific heat was observed in many spin glasses previously . Recently a large $`\gamma T`$ term associated with spin disorder was also found in insulating LaMnO3+δ .

Another possible cause for the presence of the large $`\gamma T`$ term is charge disorder. The charge modulation in Pr1-xCaxMnO3 ($`0.3x<0.5`$) is the same as for $`x=0.5`$ , but for $`x<0.5`$ there are not enough Mn4+ ions to provide a perfect 1:1 charge ordering of Mn4+ and Mn3+, resulting in charge disorder for $`x<0.5`$. The two level states of different charge configurations would also have a linear in temperature specific heat similar to spin glasses (or glasses ). We believe that the spin and charge disorder is responsible for the large values of $`\gamma `$ for $`x=0.3`$ and $`x=0.35`$ samples.

Next we discuss the effect of a magnetic field. Figure 3a shows $`C/T`$ vs. $`T^2`$ for the $`x=0.35`$ sample at different fields and different thermal and magnetic history. Resistivity measurements (Fig. 3a, inset) show that in a magnetic field of 8.5 T the material is in the metallic state. Magnetization measurements show that a magnetic field of 6 T is sufficient to induce a transition from the AFM CO insulating state to the FM metallic state for our $`x=0.35`$ sample. We find that the specific heat of the Pr0.65Ca0.35MnO3 sample decreases dramatically in a magnetic field of 8.5 T (Fig. 3a). Moreover, the specific heat exhibits a memory effect characteristic of the CO manganites . After reducing the magnetic field from 8.5 T to 2 T (while not increasing $`T`$ above 20 K), the sample tends to retain its smaller specific heat, while if a 2 T magnetic field is applied to the zero field cooled (ZFC) sample (not subjected previously to a magnetic field sufficient to “melt” the charge ordering), the specific heat is exactly the same as for zero field (Fig. 3a). This behavior indicates that the decrease of the specific heat in 8.5 T is associated with the “melting” of the charge ordering in this system.

A comparison of specific heat of Pr0.65Ca0.35MnO3 in magnetic field of 8.5 T and the FMM Pr0.5Ca0.5Mn0.97Cr0.03O3 sample shows that the excess specific heat, $`C^{}`$, does not disappear completely in a 8.5 T. Rather, it appears to move to a higher temperature (Fig. 3a). Since the $`C^{}`$ contribution is found only in the CO state, our data suggest that charge ordering is not destroyed completely by 8.5 T magnetic field. This result is surprising, since the resistivity and magnetization indicate that the CO is “melted”, yielding a metallic FM state. However, our results agree with neutron scattering studies  that suggest coexistence of metallic and CO phases in a magnetic field. Our results are even more striking for La0.5Ca0.5MnO3 in a “melting” magnetic field of 14 T (Fig. 3b and Table 1). Although a small $`\gamma T`$ term appears in this field indicating the presence of charge carriers, the $`C^{}`$ term remains essentially the same. These results indicate a coexistence of FMM and CO phases, an electronic phase separation, in a field above the “melting” magnetic field. In addition, since Pr0.65Ca0.35MnO3 is in the FM state at 8.5 T, the presence of the $`C^{}`$ contribution in our 8.5 T data confirms that $`C^{}`$ is not of AFM origin, as proposed in Ref. .

The lattice, charge carrier, hyperfine, FM spin wave and $`C^{}`$ terms were included in the fit of the magnetic field data. The fitting results are listed in Table 1. The variation of the fitting parameters within 5% of the cited values could still lead to a reasonable fit, but larger variations of these parameters lead to considerable deviations from the experimental data.

As we discussed above, the magnetic state of Pr1-xCaxMnO3 becomes more disordered as $`x`$ decreases towards 0.3 and exhibits spin glass behavior. We expect the magnetic disorder to be reduced when a magnetic field induces a transition to the FMM (well ordered) state. Indeed, we observe a large decrease of $`\gamma `$ in a magnetic field of 8.5 T (Fig. 3, Table 1) to a value found for metallic manganites . The change in magnetic state appeares to have removed (at least partially) the magnetic disorder responsible for the anomalously large $`\gamma T`$ term in insulating Pr0.65Ca0.35MnO3. However, it is not possible to determine what part of the $`\gamma T`$ term found at 8.5 T corresponds to the charge carrier contribution since some magnetic disordere may remain.

The $`\beta `$ value, $`0.12\pm 0.01`$ mJ/mole-K4, is close to the $`\beta `$ value found in metallic manganites. This decrease of $`\beta `$ in magnetic field is likely due to two effects: the absence of the AFM spin-wave contribution $`\beta _{\mathrm{AFM}}T^3`$ at this magnetic field and the decrease of the lattice contribution $`\beta _{\mathrm{latt}}T^3`$ due to the decrease of the unit cell volume at the “melting” field . The 8.5 T data fit well without including a FM spin-wave contribution. The change of the specific heat in the FMM state (difference between data sets (3) and (2) in Fig. 3) does not correspond to a temperature and magnetic field dependence of FM spin-waves, indicating, that other contributions to $`C`$ are also changing in the magnetic field. This does not permit us to resolve a FM spin-wave contribution from our data.

We have shown that an anomalous $`C^{}`$ term is observed for the composition range studied ($`0.3<x<0.5`$). These results support our view that this contribution caused by low frequency excitations due to the arrangement of the Mn+3 and Mn4+ ions in separate sublattices in the CO state. TEM studies have shown that the charge modulation in the CO state for $`0.3<x<0.5`$ is 1:1, i.e. the same as in the $`x=0.5`$ compound. This is supported by the observation that the gap value in the $`C^{}`$ excitation spectrum is similar for all the compounds studied here.

In conclusion, we have found a large linear in $`T`$ term in the low temperature specific heat of Pr1-xCaxMnO3 as $`x`$ approaches the AFM-FM boundary of the phase diagram. This contribution is most likely associated with spin and charge disorder. In the FM state induced by a magnetic field the $`\gamma T`$ contribution decreases to the typical value for metallic manganites. We found that Pr1-xCaxMnO3 ($`0.3x0.5`$) compounds, which have the same type of the charge ordering as La1-xCaxMnO3 ($`x0.5`$), have an excess specific heat, $`C^{}`$, of non-magnetic origin. A magnetic field sufficient to induce the transition from the insulating AFM to the metallic FM state in the Pr0.65Ca0.35MnO3 and La0.5Ca0.5MnO3 compounds modifies, but does not eliminate the $`C^{}`$ contribution. This suggest that charge ordering is not completely destroyed by the “melting” magnetic field and CO and metallic regions coexist in the sample.

Acknowledgment: We thank A. J. Millis for helpful discussion, H. D. Drew, J. Cerne, M. Grayson, J. Simpson, G. Jenkins and D. Schmadel for use of 14 T magnet. This work is supported in part by the NSF-MRSEC at Maryland, NSF-DMR-9802513 at Rutgers.


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# Kinematics and morphology of ionized gas in Hickson Compact Group 18

## 1. Introduction

Compact groups of galaxies have been known for over 30 years (Vorontsov-Vel‘yaminov 1959, Arp 1966, Rose 1977, Hickson et al. 1977, Hickson 1982). A spectroscopic survey confirmed that 92 of the 100 groups catalogued by Hickson (1982) have at least three accordant redshift members with 69 groups having at least four (Hickson et al. 1992). With a median galaxy-galaxy separation of 40 h-1 kpc and a low typical velocity dispersion ($`\sigma `$ $``$ 200 km s-1, Hickson et al. 1992), compact groups are usually considered to be ideal laboratories for studying galaxy interactions. The most direct way to determine if interactions have occurred among group galaxies is to measure their kinematics in order to check if they are disturbed or normal. Study of the ionized gas kinematics for several of the Hickson group galaxies has shown that they are in different evolutionary stages (Mendes de Oliveira et al. 1998, Plana et al. 1998).

HCG 18 (H18, Arp 258 or VV 143) was cataloged by Hickson (1982) as a group of three irregular galaxies (H18b, c and d with radial velocities between 4080 and 4163 km $`s^1`$) plus one discordant-redshift S0 galaxy (H18a with a velocity of 10000 km $`s^1`$; Hickson 1993). In this paper the H18 group refers to the triplet H18b, c and d.

Verdes-Montenegro et al. (1998) determined the IRAS flux for H18d and upper limits on the flux for H18b and H18c. They also determined the H2 mass for H18b and H18c, from their CO observations. Allam et al. (1996) also give IRAS flux but for H18b, c and d together. We eventually use Allam’s values because H18 IRAS emission can not be spatially resolved. HI data is also available for this group, besides the optical measures (Hickson 1993). From a study of the HI velocity field of the group Williams and van Gorkom (1988, hereafter W&vG) concluded that the HI gas is concentrated in a single cloud with mHI = 1010 M encompassing all of the optical structures.

We observed the H18 group in the H$`\alpha `$ emission line with a scanning Fabry-Perot instrument and we obtained velocity and H$`\alpha `$ integrated flux maps for the system. This observation is part of a larger program that has the goal of unveiling kinematic evidences of interactions in compact groups of galaxies in order to determine their evolutionary stages.

H18 appears to be one of the most complex groups of the Hickson sample. A key question raised by the HI study of W&vG was the nature of the three components b, c and d, namely if they are individual entities or form one single galaxy. Based on our observations and comparisons between our data and the HI results, we conclude that H18 is likely to be a single large irregular galaxy. The H$`\alpha `$ maps presented in this study permit the determination of the H$`\alpha `$ luminosity (L(H$`\alpha `$)) and star formation rate (SFR) of the system, which can be compared with typical values for samples of irregular galaxies studied by Hunter et al. (1986, 1989 and 1993). We also compare the total B luminosity (LB) of the group and its far-infrared luminosity (L(FIR)) with values given in the literature for typical irregular galaxies.

The paper is organized as follows. Section 2 gives details about the reduction of the Fabry-Perot data. Section 3 describes the results. Section 4 has a comparison of our results with the HI observations. Section 5 presents a discussion about the nature of H18 in light of our new H$`\alpha `$ observations and section 6 contains our summary and final remarks.

## 2. Observations and data reduction

Observations were carried out in August 1996 with the multi-object spectrograph focal reducer in Fabry-Perot mode attached to the F/8 Cassegrain focus of the 3.6m Canada-France-Hawaii telescope (CFHT). The CCD was a STIS 2 detector, 2048 $`\times `$ 2048 pixels with a read-out noise of 9.3 e- and a pixel size on the sky of 0.86” after 2x2 binning. Table 1 contains the journal of observations. Reduction of the data cubes were performed using the CIGALE/ADHOC software (Boulesteix 1993). The data reduction procedure has been extensively described in Amram et al. (1996).

Wavelength calibration was obtained by scanning the narrow Ne 6599 Å line under the same conditions as the observations. Velocities measured relative to the systemic velocity are very accurate, with an error of a fraction of a channel width ($`<3\mathrm{kms}^1`$) over the whole field.

Subtraction of bias, flat fielding of the data and cosmic-ray removal have been performed for each image of the data cube. To minimize seeing variation, each scan image was smoothed with a gaussian function of full-width at half maximum equal to the worse-seeing data of the data cube. Transparency and sky foreground fluctuations have also been corrected using field star fluxes and galaxy-free windows.

The signal measured along the scanning sequence was separated into two parts: (1) an almost constant level produced by the continuum light in a 23 Å passband around H$`\alpha `$ (continuum map), and (2) a varying part produced by the H$`\alpha `$ line (H$`\alpha `$ integrated flux map). The continuum level was taken to be the mean of the three faintest channels, to avoid channel noise effects. The H$`\alpha `$ integrated flux map was obtained by integrating the monochromatic profile in each pixel. The velocity sampling was 11 $`km`$ $`s^1`$. The H$`\alpha `$ integrated flux map had one-pixel resolution in the positions of H18b, H18c and H18d. Spectral profiles were binned in the outer parts to 5x5 pixels in order to increase the signal-to-noise ratio. Strong OH night sky lines passing through the filters were subtracted by determining the level of emission away from the galaxies (Laval et al., 1987).

A rough flux calibration was attempted using the group HCG 100 observed during two runs (1995 at the ESO 3.6m and 1996 at the CFHT). Monochromatic images of HCG 100 have been calibrated in flux using the Cartwheel Galaxy, observed during the 1995 ESO run (see Amram et al. 1998 for details). We then determined the HCG 18 galaxy fluxes relative to HCG 100. We have reasonable agreement with fluxes published by Iglesias-Parámo & Vílchez 1999 for H100a and H100b. We compared our H18 fluxes with those determined by Laurikainen and Moles (1989) and we found a value that was four times higher for the flux of H18d and around five times for H18b (they did not measure the flux of the H18c). Difference by factors of four or five can be understood if we note that flux calibration with slit observations can significantly underestimate the true flux. H$`\alpha `$ profiles for the H18 galaxies were measured to a minimum flux density of 1.1 $`\times `$ 10-16 erg s-1cm-2 arcsec-2 and a maximum of 9.3 $`\times `$ 10-15 erg s-1cm-2 arcsec-2 (corresponding to a S/N between 3 and 500).

## 3. Results

We obtained H$`\alpha `$ integrated flux map and velocity maps for H18b, c and d. The systemic velocity of H18a was outside of the range of the interference filter we used. Fig. 1 shows continuum isophotes superimposed on a DSS image.

### 3.1. Fabry-Perot interferograms and channel maps

Fig. 2 presents channel maps for H18 with a field-of-view of is 1.8’ x 1.8’. The velocity amplitude is low, with the lowest-velocity channel at 4003 km s-1 and the highest-velocity channel at 4177 km s-1. The optical centers of H18b, c and d are represented by crosses. Several emission-line regions appear, with velocities between 4003 km s-1 and 4068 km s-1 south of the principal optical continuum sources. We can clearly see from channels 4047 to 4090 km s-1 that H18c and d have a common emission. North of the group there is another emission-line region which appears between channels 4068 - 4177 km s-1. Starting at channel 4025 km s-1, the emission for H18d gets continuously stronger, until it reaches channel 4090 km s-1. There are optical counterparts for almost all emission-line regions except the ones between 4003 - 4068 km.s-1. The southern regions between 4003 and 4047 km.s-1, form a circular pattern. Looking carefully at optical images (Hickson 1993; Arp 1966) reveals faint optical counterparts to the southern sources. This circular structur does not show any evidence for expantion. Examination of HI channel maps (W&vG), reveals that the southern emitting regions coincide with HI emission in the range 4015-3994 km.s-1.

The extended H$`\alpha `$ emission of H18 is not concentrated in a single cloud but instead shows substructures. As described in detail below, we do not detect rotation for individual group members. Except for the southern and northern clumps, all the other emission-line regions are aligned along a position angle of $``$ 160o.

### 3.2. Velocity field and line-of-sight velocity curves

Figure 3 presents the velocity field for the H18b, c and d system. H$`\alpha `$ intensity isophotes are superimposed on the velocity field. The total extent of the velocity mapped structure is $``$ 2.2’ by 30”. The radial velocity across the map varies from 4007 km s-1, in the southern region, to 4127 km s-1, in the northern and northeastern part of the group. This map shows that there is no circular motion for the group as a whole. Nevertheless, the southern region seems to have an independent kinematics from the rest of the group.

Line-of-sight (LOS) velocity curves (uncorrected for inclination) can be derived from the velocity field. Fig. 4 shows LOS velocity curves along different position angles. Fig. 4a presents the LOS velocity diagram for the southern region, with a cut along PA $``$ 80o (see Fig. 1 for the exact location). Fig. 4b presents the LOS velocity curve for the group as a whole, along a PA $``$ 160o, the PA that best describes the velocity field of the group.

The first plot (Fig. 4a) shows disk-like rotation with a velocity amplitude of 70 km s-1 and an almost solid body motion across a region of 20”. This plot includes all points within a cone of half radius 20 degrees. The emission is rather weak in comparison with the rest of the system. The measured profiles have a S/N ratio between five and ten. In this region there are no catalogued members noted by Hickson (1982). This clear velocity gradient may indicate an independent motion for the southern part of the system.

Fig. 4b shows the velocity curve along a PA $``$ 160o, which is our best estimate for the PA of the major axis of the entire group. For this plot we show the average velocity values with error bars (calculated in a two pixels crown) inside a cone of 20o half-radius. We note that although there is a large scatter in the velocities (with a dispersion of $`\pm `$ 20 km s-1), there is a clear velocity gradient from the northwest to the southeast of the group, of mean total amplitude of 78 km s-1, over 90 arcsec. We marked on Fig. 4b the positions of the three group members, H18b, c and d.

### 3.3. Monochromatic emission

Fig. 5 shows isophotes of averaged H$`\alpha `$ flux (superimposed on the DSS image) obtained by integrating the emission above the continuum. The image was smoothed with a box of 5 $`\times `$ 5 pixels. The threshold is 10-16 and the step is 5 $`\times `$ 10-16 erg s-1cm-2 arcsec-2. The total H$`\alpha `$ flux is 2.5 10-12 erg s-1cm-2. Using the formula of Osterbrock (1974) and assuming an electronic density of 1000 cm-3, we obtain an upper limit for the ionized gas mass of MHII = 2 $`\times `$ 106 M. The five compact emitting regions seen in Fig. 5 represent more than 50% of the total emission from the source. As mentioned before, although the gas emission is clumpy, the profiles are continuous between H18c and H18d. We also note that regions 2 and 5 do not correspond to any cataloged group members (Hickson 1993) although we do detect counterparts for these emission regions in our continuum image.

### 3.4. Star Formation History of HCG18

Total H$`\alpha `$ flux implies a luminosity L(H$`\alpha `$)=2.2 $`\times `$ 108 L adopting a distance of 54 Mpc for H18 (with Ho = 75 km.s-1.Mpc-1).

The visual B magnitude in Hickson (1993), yields a B luminosity of L(B)=1.1 $`\times `$ 1010 L.

From Allam et al. (1996) IRAS fluxes we derive the total FIR luminosity of L(FIR)=2.42 $`\times `$ 109 L for the whole group.

The multiwavelenght luminosities (B, H$`\alpha `$, FIR) can be used to determine the star formation rates (SFR) for different epochs in the galaxy history. Table 3 summarizes the different quantities derived for H18. A recent SFR can be estimated from the B luminosity and equation 7 in Gallagher et al. (1984b). This equation represents the average SFR over the lifetime of the stars which dominate the blue light (0.4 – 6 $`\times `$ 109 years). We then estimate SFR(B)= 0.29 $`\times `$ 10-10 LB M yr-1 (where LB is the bolometric solar luminosities). And SFR(B)=0.32 $`\times `$ M yr-1. The current SFR can be deduced from both FIR (L(FIR)) and H$`\alpha `$ (L($`H\alpha `$)) luminosities. The current SFR is driven by the number of OB stars. Knowledge of the FIR luminosity may measure this (through the dust heated by OB stars). But our lack of understanding of the details of the radiation processes responsible for the FIR luminosity introduces uncertainties in the calculation of the recent SFR (Gallagher & Hunter 1987). The major assumption for the recent SFR determined using L(FIR) is the role played by the massive stars in heating the dust. Thronson & Telesco (1986) adopted an SFR(IR)=6.5 $`\times `$ 10-10 L(FIR) M yr-1 (with L(FIR) in L) giving the current SFR over 2 $`\times `$ 106 years. Under similar assumptions but using a different stellar luminosity law and different upper mass limits, Gallagher & Hunter (1987) deduced another formula which give rates that are half the values calculated by Thronson & Telesco (1986) (for a given luminosity).

The H$`\alpha `$ luminosity provides another way to estimate the current SFR (Hunter & Gallagher 1986, Gallagher & Hunter 1987), by calculating the flux of Lyman continuum photons from hot young stars. In that case, a problem could arise from the effect of dust extinction and the model chosen to convert the observed L(H$`\alpha `$) to Lyman count luminosity (Gusten & Mezger 1982). Hunter & Gallagher (1986) adopted, SFR(H$`\alpha `$)=7.02 $`\times `$ 10-42 L(H$`\alpha `$) M yr-1, with L(H$`\alpha `$) in erg s-1. We found a SFR(FIR)= 1.58 M yr-1 and SFR(H$`\alpha `$)=6.1 M.yr-1 for H18. The factor of four difference between the measurements. However, is expected given the assumptions made in the calculations.

## 4. Comparison with HI data

HI data (W&vG) represents an important piece of information for understanding the nature of H18. They presented HI velocity field and integrated images for H18 and suggested that it is a single giant cloud (3.0’ $`\times `$ 2.5’) not associated with any individual member of the group. They found evidence for systematic rotation along a position angle of 20o and velocities amplitude from 150 km s-1. Inspection of their Fig. 3, which presents the HI velocity field of the group, shows a variation of the kinematic position angle along the major axis of the velocity field.

In order to compare W&vG’s data with the H$`\alpha `$ kinematics we performed a gaussian smoothing of our data cube with FWHM = 22”. In order to check for possible smoothing artifact due to very bright region (H18d), we normalized the ionized gas data cube and found no contamination was present. Fig. 6 shows the resultant H$`\alpha `$ velocity field superimposed on the HI velocity field for comparison. The velocity amplitude is between 170 km s-1, consistent with the HI velocity range.

The two velocity fields present similarities and differences. The global appearance of the H$`\alpha `$ velocity field appears to be less regular than that for the HI. The H$`\alpha `$ map shows a region of low velocities coinciding with H18d and not present in HI.

The southern part of the H$`\alpha `$ and HI velocity fields are similar. In this region the HI velocities range from 4020-4050 km s-1 while the H$`\alpha `$ velocities go from 4037 km s-1 to 4072 km s-1.

The HI and H$`\alpha `$ velocity fields show less the agreement in the northern part of H18. In the center, at the 4050 km s-1, the PA of the major axis of the H$`\alpha `$ velocity field is close to 0 $`\pm `$ 5o while it is close to 20 $`\pm `$ 5o for HI. In the northern part, the morphology of the two maps is different mainly due to the presence of the low velocity region to the west of the H$`\alpha `$ velocity field. In the northeast, where the influence of the low velocity region is not visible, the coincidence with the HI isovelocities is better.

Fig. 4c presents the LOS velocity diagram constructed from the smoothed velocity field at PA=20o. The center was chosen to coincide with H18c. We also include the data points from W&vG derived from their Fig 3. Our velocity amplitude $``$ 150 km s-1 but the rotation while systematic is obviously not axisymmetric. The HI velocities, in comparison suggest a solid-body rotation. The velocity amplitude is close to the value found by us and the gradient is slightly steeper.

## 5. Discussion – The nature of H18

The nature of H18 in light of HI observations was discussed by W&vG. They considered two possibilities for the nature of this system: 1) it is a knotty irregular galaxy (hereafter referred to as “the irregular-galaxy scenario”), or 2) it is an interacting group and the observed HI cloud is a remnant of an interpenetrating collision which stripped the gas from the colliding galaxies. Our data and analysis confirm the first scenario.

### 5.1. Arguments in favour of the irregular-galaxy scenario

The strongest argument in favour of H18 being an irregular galaxy comes from the kinematics of the HI and H$`\alpha `$ gas. The velocity maps show velocity amplitudes of $`\pm `$ 70 km s-1 and gradients of 15km s-1 kpc-1 for the ionized gas and 10km s-1 kpc-1 for the HI. These confirm that H18 is a slow rotator. The few detailed studies concerning the kinematics concerning irregular galaxies (Hunter 1982, Tomita et al. 1998) confirm that irregular galaxies are indeed slow rotators.

Hunter (1982) studied a sample of 15 irregular galaxies, five of which showed velocity gradients between 60 and 80 km s-1 kpc-1, consistent with results found for H18. Tomita et al. (1998) produced position–velocity diagrams for four dwarf galaxies along several slit orientations. They did not detect disk-like rotation but velocity gradients were clearly seen. They also found a velocity difference of 10 to 20 km s-1 between the HII regions and the HI gas disk. Saito et al. (1992) reported a kinematic study of the ionized gas in IC 10 and, particularly, a comparison between the ionized and HI gas kinematics for this galaxy giving the same kind of velocity differences that we found for H18. Two other works have studied a few irregular galaxies with a Fabry Perot interferometer. Sasaki et al. (1997) reported observations of NGC 4449 and its H$`\alpha `$ velocity field that show a kpc-scale mosaic structure of blueshift and redshift components with a slow global rotation. They confirmed the counter rotation between ionized gas and the HI halo for this galaxy. Rosado et al. (1998) and Valdez & Rosado (1998) present an optical velocity field for NGC 4449 showing a decreasing gradient along the optical bar and an anticorrelation with respect to the HI velocity field.

The LOS velocity curve of the southern part (Fig. 4a) suggests an independent disk rotation. The velocity curve along the major axis of H18 (Fig 4b) shows that H18b and c lie on the curve, suggesting that they are gravitationaly bound.

The ratio LB/L(H$`\alpha `$) of H18 is consistent with the irregular-galaxy hypothesis. Hunter et al. (1989) find a value for the ratio LB /L(H$`\alpha `$) $``$ 44, for giant irregular galaxies while we find 50 for H18.

One last piece of evidence for the irregular-galaxy scenario comes from the HI data. The size of the large HI cloud around H18 measured by W&vG and the total HI mass they found (M(HI)=1010 M) are consistent with values found for HI clouds around irregular galaxies such as IC 10 (Shostak & Skillman 1989) and NGC 4449 (Hunter et al. 1998). Normalized by the total B luminosity the HI total mass also compares with the typical values found for the Hunter (1993) sample.

### 5.2. Differences between H18 and irregular galaxies

The main difference between H18 and irregular galaxies concerns the FIR properties and star formation rates. Hunter et al. (1989, 1993) present properties (in FIR, H$`\alpha `$ and broad band imaging) for a sample of 43 irregular galaxies of different types (dwarf, giants, distant, amorphous). We used their sample of dwarf and giant irregular galaxies as a control sample for comparison with the properties of H18.

We measured ratios of L(FIR)/LB = 0.22 and L(FIR)/L(H$`\alpha `$)=11 for H18. The L(FIR)/LB ratio is significantly lower than the mean value of 1.9 and 1.0 found for Hunter et al.’s (1989) sample of giant and dwarf irregulars respectively (the two other classes, “amorphous” and “distant”, show much larger ratios). The L(FIR)/L(H$`\alpha `$) ratio is also lower than the mean values of 90 and 71 for the giant and dwarf irregulars respectively. However, within each subclass, giant, dwarf, amorphous and distant, there is significant scatter in the ratios. We also derived a dust temperature for H18 (from the S(100$`\mu `$) and S(60$`\mu `$) IRAS data) of Td=27K, which is cooler than typical dust temperatures derived for other irregular galaxies.

The recent SFR (SFR(B)) and the current SFR ( SFR(FIR) or SFR(H$`\alpha `$) ) are much higher (by one or two orders of magnitude) compared with values from Hunter et al’s sample. If, however, we calculate a SFR per area, using the SFR(H$`\alpha `$) and taking the area to be that enclosed within the ellipse of major and minor axes defined by the H$`\alpha `$ integrated flux map (Fig.5), we find that the SFR/area is 5 $`\times `$ 10-9 M yr-1 pc-2. Hunter & Gallagher (1986) have a similar average for the SFR/area for the giant irregular galaxies of their sample. The other subclasses of irregular galaxies have average values for the SFR/area ratio that are slightly lower than that found for H18.

## 6. Summary and final remarks

HCG 18 is a special case in the Hickson compact group catalogue (Hickson, 1982). It was originally thought to be a group composed of three members, H18b, c and d and a discordant-redshift galaxy, H18a. The three members are not well separated and they are embedded in a diffuse halo. A key question raised by W&vG was about the nature of H18. Our H$`\alpha `$ observations suggest that H18 is in fact a giant irregular galaxy confirming previous HI results.

Evidence in favour of the irregular-galaxy scenario here. We find that the blobs (previously called galaxies, when the system was classified as a group) are kinematically connected and therefore they may form a single object. We find a velocity gradient similar to what was found by W&vG from the HI data and consistent with values for irregular galaxies. A comparison between the H$`\alpha `$ and the HI velocity fields shows a difference on their morphologies but the velocity amplitudes and gradients are similar. Various authors also show differences between the HI and the optical kinematics for other irregular galaxies (see Section 5.1). The H$`\alpha `$ emission shows that the ionized gas distribution is clumpy which is rather common for irregular galaxies. The values for the total luminosities in B, H$`\alpha `$ and FIR are larger than those for the Hunter et al.’s sample (1989) of irregular galaxies but if we normalize the L(H$`\alpha `$) by the total B luminosity or the L(FIR) by the total B luminosity, it appears that the ratios are close to what other authors find for giant irregular galaxies. The inferred star formation rate of H18 is higher than the average for irregular galaxies although the values are comparable when they are normalized by the area of the galaxies.

Two others groups that may be classified as a single object, an irregular galaxy, are HCG 31 and HCG 54. H54 is formed by three members classified as irregulars and one late spiral and H31 is formed of four members, a and c seems to be an single object. Kinematical study is necessary to confirm if it is an irregular galaxy like H18. If true, this would suggest that only a small fraction ($``$ 3%) of catalogues of compact groups may be misclassified single objects.

The authors would like to thank the CFHT staff for helping during the observations and Drs. R. Sancisi, M. Moles, D.A Hunter and the anonymous referee for helpful discussions and corrections. H. Plana acknowledges the financial support of the Brazilian FAPESP, under contract 96/06722-0 and the Mexican CONACYT.


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# 1 Introduction.

## 1 Introduction.

In 1967-73, the four VELA spacecraft (named after the spanish verb velar, to keep watch), that where originally designed for verifying whether the former Soviet Union abided by the Limited Nuclear Test Ban Treaty of 1963, observed 16 peculiarly strong events (Klebesadel, Strong and Olson 1973, Bonnell and Klebesadel 1996). On the basis of arrival time differences, it was determined that they were related neither to the Earth nor to the Sun, but they were of cosmic origin. Therefore they were named cosmic Gamma-Ray Bursts (GRBs hereafter).

GRBs appear as brief flashes of cosmic high energy photons, emitting the bulk of their energy above $``$ 0.1 MeV. The KONUS instrument on Venera 11 and 12 gave the first indication that GRB sources were isotropically distributed in the sky (Mazets et al. 1981, Atteia et al. 1987). Based on a much larger sample, this result was nicely confirmed by BATSE on board the CGRO satellite (Meegan et al. 1992). In general, there was no evidence of periodicity in the time histories of GRBs. However there was indication of a bimodal distribution of burst durations, with $``$25% of bursts having durations around 0.2 s and $``$75% with durations around 30 s. A deficiency of weak events was noticed in the log $`N`$-log $`S`$ diagram, as the GRB distribution deviates from the -3/2 slope of the straight line expected for an homogeneous distribution of sources assuming an Euclidean geometry. However, the GRB distance scale had to remain unknown for 30 years. A comprenhensive review of these observational characteristics can be seen in Fishman and Meegan (1995).

## 2 The search and detection of counterparts at other wavelengths

It was well known that an important clue for solving the GRB puzzle was going to be the detection of transient emission -at longer wavelengths- associated with the bursts. A review on the unsuccessful search for counterparts prior to 1997 can be seen in Castro-Tirado (1998) and references therein. Here I will present some results concerning six selected bursts detected by the BeppoSAX (BSAX) and RossiXTE (RXTE) satellites in 1996-99 and their impact on the current understanding on the physics of GRBs.

### 2.1 GRB 970228

Thanks to BSAX, it was possible on 28 Feb 1997 to detect the first clear evidence of a long X-ray tail -the X-ray afterglow- following GRB 970228. A previously unknown X-ray source was seen to vary by a factor of 20 on a 3 days timescale. The X-ray fluence was $``$ 40 % of the gamma-ray fluence, as reported by Costa et al. (1997), implying that the X-ray afterglow was not only the low-energy tail of the GRB, but also a significant channel of energy dissipation of the event on a completely different timescale. Another important result was the non-thermal origin of the burst radiation and of the X-ray afterglow (Frontera et al. 1998). The precise X-ray position (1) led to the discovery of the first optical transient (or optical afterglow, OA) associated to a GRB, identified on 28 Feb 1997, 20 hr after the event (Groot et al. 1997, van Paradijs et al. 1997). The OA was afterwards found on earlier images taken by Pedichini et al. (1998) and Guarnieri et al. (1997), in the rising phase of the light curve. The maximum was reached $``$ 20 hr after the event (V $``$ 21.3), and followed by a power-law decay F $``$ t-1.2 (Galama et al. 1997, Bartolini et al. 1998). An extended source was seen at the OA position since the very beginning by ground-based and HST observations (van Paradijs et 1997, Sahu et al. 1997). New HST observations taken 6 months after the event were reported by Fruchter et al. (1997) and both the OA (at V = 28) and the extended source (V = 25.6) were seen. The extended object surrounding the point-source was interpreted as a galaxy, according to the similarities (apparent size, magnitude) with objects in the HST Deep Field. Finally, after two years of work, the redshift of this object has been determined as z = 0.695 (Djorgovski et al. 1999a), confiming its extragalactic nature and implying a star-forming rate comparable to other galaxies at similar redshifts. Reichart (1999) proposed a type Ib/c supernova lies ”behind” the GRB, overtaking the light curve two weeks after. This fact seems to be confirmed by the work of Galama et al. (2000).

### 2.2 GRB 970508

The second OA associated to a GRB was discovered by Bond (1997) within the GRB 970508 error box, and observed 3 hr after the burst in unfiltered images (Pedersen et al. 1998). The optical light curve reached a peak in two days (R = 19.7, Castro-Tirado et al. 1998a, Djorgovski et al. 1997, Galama et al. 1998a) and was followed by a power-law decay F $``$ t-1.2. Optical spectroscopy obtained during the maximum allowed a direct determination of a lower limit for the redshift of GRB 970805 ($`z0.835`$), implying E $``$ 7 $`\times `$ 1051 erg and was the first proof that GRB sources lie at cosmological distances (Metzger et al. 1997). The flattening of the decay in late August 1997 (Pedersen et al. 1998, Sokolov et al. 1998) revealed the contribution of a constant brightness source -the host galaxy- that was revealed in late-time imaging obtained in 1998 (Bloom et al. 1998, Castro-Tirado et al. 1998b, Zharikov et al. 1998). See Fig. 1. The maximum observed 1-day after the event has not been detected in other GRBs and it was interpreted by a delayed energy injection or by an axially symmetric jet surrounded by a less energetic outflow (Panaitescu et al. 1998). The luminosity of the galaxy is well below the knee of the galaxy luminosity function, L $``$ 0.12 $`L^{}`$, and the detection of deep Mg I absorption (during the bursting episode) and strong \[O II\] 3727 $`\mathrm{\AA }`$ emission (the latter mainly arising in H II regions within the host galaxy) confirmed $`z`$ = 0.835 and suggested that the host could be a normal dwarf galaxy (Pian et al. 1998), with a star formation rate (SFR) of $``$ 1.0 $`M_{}`$ year-1 (Bloom et al. 1998). Prompt VLA observations of the GRB 970508 error box allowed detection of a variable radio source at 1.4, 4.8 and 8.4 GHz, the first radiocounterpart ever found for a GRB (Frail et al. 1997). The fluctuations could be the result of strong scattering by the irregularities in the ionized Galactic interstellar gas, with the damping of the fluctuations with time indicating that the source expanded to a significantly larger size. However VLBI observations did not resolve the object (Taylor et al. 1997). The transient was also detected at 15 GHz (Pooley and Green 1997) and as a continuum point source at 86 GHz with the IRAM PdBI on 19-21 May 1997 (Bremer et al. 1998). A Fe K$`\alpha `$ line redshifted at $`z`$ = 0.835 in the X-ray afterglow spectrum (Piro et al. 1999) was attributed to a thick torus surrouding the central engine (Mészáros and Rees 1998). GRB 970508 is the best observed afterglow so far. The broad band spectrum (see Fig. 2) is nicely explained by the standard relativistic blast wave model (Wijers and Galama 1999).

### 2.3 GRB 970828

This burst was detected by RXTE (Remillard et al. 1997) and was followed up by ASCA and ROSAT (Murakami et al. 1997, Greiner et al. 1997). The fact that no optical counterpart down to R = 23.8 was detected between 4 hr and 8 days after the event, could support the idea that the non-detection was due to photoelectric absorption (Groot et al. 1998). The X-ray spectrum as seen by ASCA is strongly absorbed, suggesting that the event occurred in a dense medium. An excess at 6.7 keV was foud by ASCA in the X-ray afterglow spectrum. If this is due to highly ionized Fe, then $`z`$ $``$ 0.33 (Yoshida et al. 1999) and the host would be another dwarf galaxy (Gorosabel 1999). However, if the transient radiosource detected with the VLA is indeed associated to the event, the galaxy would be at a redshift of 0.96 (Frail et al. 2000).

### 2.4 GRB 980425

A peculiar type Ib/c supernova (SN 1998bw) was found in the WFC error box for this soft GRB (Galama et al. 1998b). The SN lies in the galaxy ESO 184-82 (at $`z`$ = 0.0085). The fact that the SN event occurred within $`\pm `$ 1 day of the GRB event, together with the relativistic expansion speed derived from the radio observation (Kulkarni et al. 1998a) strengths such a relationship. In that case, the total energy released would be 8 $`\times `$ 1047 erg which is about $``$ 105 smaller than for ”classical” GRBs. The fact that a fading X-ray source -as in all the previous cases- unrelated to the SN was detected by BSAX in the GRB error box (Pian et al. 1999, Piro et al. 1998) cast some doubts on the SN/GRB association (Graziani et al. 1999). Although a deeper X-ray observation is pending, there is a general agreement now that the SN 1998bw/GRB 980425 relationship is real.

### 2.5 GRB 990123

This is the first for which contemporaneous optical emission was found simultaneous to the gamma-ray burst, reaching V $``$ 9 (Akerloff et al. 1999). This optical flash did not track the gamma-rays and did not fit the extrapolation of theSAX and BATSE spectra towards longer wavelengths. This optical emission was interpreted as the signature of a reverse shock moving into the ejecta (Sari and Piran 1999). A brief radiotransient was also detected (Frail et al. 1999a) coincident with the optical counterpart (Odewahn et al. 1999) and spectrocopy indicated a redshift z = 1.599 (Kulkarni et al. 1999, Andersen et al. 1999). A break observed in the light curve $``$ 1.5 days after the high energy event suggested the presence of a beamed outflow (Castro-Tirado et al. 1999, Fruchter et al. 1999, Kulkarni et al. 1999). See Fig. 3. A weak magnetic field in the forward shock region could account for the observed multiwavelength spectrum in contrast to the high-field for GRB 970508 and it seems that the emission from the three regions was first seen in this event (Galama et al. 1999a): the internal, reverse and forward shocks.

### 2.6 GRB 990510

Following the BSAX/WFC detection, an optical counterpart was reported by Vreeswijk et al. (1999a). The acromatic break seen in the light curve was also interpreted as a jet, with a model yielding an opening angle of 0.08 and a beaming factor of 300 (Harrison et al. 1999). This is the first burst for which polarized optical emission was detected ($`\mathrm{\Pi }`$ = 1.7 $`\pm `$ 0.2 %), by means of an observation performed $``$18.5 hr after the event (Covino et al. 1999) and later on (Wijers et al. 1999). This confirms the synchrotron origin of the blast wave itself and represents the second case for a jet-like outflow (Stanek et al. 1999).

Further X-ray afterglows were observed by BSAX and RXTE in 1997-99. The optical afterglow of GRB 980326 was suggested to resemble a SN at late times (Castro-Tirado and Gorosabel 1999) and indeed the late time light curve of GRB 980326 was explained by an underlying SN 1998bw SN at redshift of around unity (Bloom et al. 1999), thus strenghtening a possible SN-GRB connection.

Exponents for the power-law decay in the X-rays and in the optical are in the range $`\alpha `$ = 1.10-2.25 for a dozen of bursts. These results are given on Table 1. See also Greiner (2000) for an updated information. About 50% of the GRBs with X-ray counterparts are not detected in the optical, and this could be due to intrinsic faintness because of a low ambient medium, high absorption in a dusty enviroment, or Lyman limit absorption in high redshift galaxies (z $`>`$ 7). Table 2 summarizes the properties of the host galaxies found so far.

## 3 The relativistic blast wave model

The observational characteristics of the GRB counterparts can be accommodated in the framework of the relativistic fireball models, first proposed by Goodman (1986) and Paczyński (1986), in which a compact source releases 1053 ergs of energy within dozens of seconds in a region smaller than 10 km. The opaque radiation-electron-positron plasma accelerates to relativistic velocities (the fireball). The GRB itself are thought to be be produced by a serie of ”internal shocks” due to collisions amongst layers expelled with different Lorentz factors that are being caught up to each other. When the fireball runs into the surrounding medium, a ”forward shock” ploughs into the medium, and sweeps up the interstellar matter, decelerating and producing an afterglow at frequencies gradually declining from X-rays to radio wavelenghts (Mészáros and Rees 1997). A ”reverse shock” impinges on the ejecta. An extensive review is given by Piran (1999).

The properties of the blast wave can be derived from the classical synchrotron spectrum (Ginzburg and Syrovatskii 1965) produced by a population of electrons with the addition of self absorption and a cooling break (Sari, Piran and Narayan 1998). The determination for every GRB of the six observables: the synchrotron, break and self-absorption frequencies, the maximum flux and the power-law decay exponent (all from the multiwavelength spectrum) and $`z`$ (from optical or X-ray spectroscopy) allows to obtain the total energy per solid angle, the fraction of the shock energy in electrons and post-grb magnetic fields, and the density of the ambient medium.

How does the GRB take place? The most popular model is that of a “failed” type-I SN (Bodenhaimer and Woosley 1983, Woosley 1993) or hypernova (as it has been called by Paczyński (1998) on the basis of the observational consequences): very massive stars (Wolf-Rayet) collapse forming a Kerr black hole (BH) and a 0.1-1 $`M_{}`$ torus. The matter is accreted at a very high rate and the energy is extracted via the rotational energy of the BH (Lee et al. 1999) or via the accretion energy from the disk. In any case, a “dirty fireball”, is produced reaching a luminosity $``$ 300 times larger that than of a normal SN. This would happen every $``$ 106 yr. In this scenario, GRBs would be produced in dense enviroments near star forming regions (see also MacFadyen and Woosley 1999) and GRBs might be used for deriving the SFR in the Universe (Krumholz et al. 1998, Totani et al. 1999).

The coalescence of neutron stars in a binary system has been also proposed (Narayan et al. 1992): lifes of such systems are of the order of $``$ 109 years, and large escape velocities are usual, putting them far away from the regions where their progenitors were born. The likely result is a Kerr BH, and the energy released energy during the merger process is $``$ 1054 erg. It is also possible that a $``$ 0.1 $`M_{}`$ accretion disk forms around the black hole and is accreted within a few dozen seconds, then producing internal shocks leading to the GRB (Katz 1997). There are variations of these models where one or two components are substituted for black holes (Paczyński 1991). It fact, there it has been suggested that the short duration ($`<`$ 1 s) bursts could be due to compact star mergers, whereas the longer ones are caused by the collapse of massive stars.

## 4 Summary

The existence of X-ray afterglow in most bursts is confirmed. Out ot 26 BSAX pointings, 17 revealed a clear afterglow, leading to the detection of several optical/IR/radio counterparts in 1997-99. The determination of $`z`$ for the host galaxies by means of absorption edges or emission lines in the X-ray afterglow seems to be very promising. This requires prompt X-ray follow-up, as was achieved for GRB 970508 and GRB 970828. However, only the population of bursts with durations of few seconds has been explored. Short bursts lasting less than 1 s, like GRB 980706, that follow the -3/2 slope in the log $`N`$-log $`S`$ diagram (in contrast to the longer bursts) remain to be detected at longer wavelengths. Energy releases of $``$ 1054 erg (as derived for GRB 980329 and 990123) are difficult to reconcile with theoretical models and non-isotropic emission, such as intrinsic beaming appears as the most plaussible resolution of this problem.


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# Remark on “Conductance and Shot Noise for Particles with Exclusion Statistics” by Isakov, Martin, and Ouvry

## Abstract

Isakov, Martin, and Ouvry have recently proposed a fresh approach to the potential observation of fractional exclusion statistics. According to their argument, a clear signature of fractional statistics should exist in the shot noise of a Luttinger fluid, an ideal system postulated by some to underlie the well-founded Laughlin quasiparticle states of the two-dimensional electron gas. We elaborate on some delicate points made by Isakov et al. and reflect upon the relationship between this novel intuitive scheme and certain old issues of first principles.

PACS numbers: 71.10.Pm, 72.70+m, 73.40.Hm

The interplay of high magnetic fields and many-body interactions in a two-dimensional electron gas produces the fractional quantum-Hall effect (FQHE) at low temperatures. At filling factor $`\nu =1/m`$ ($`m`$ is an odd integer) the Hall resistivity reaches a plateau, showing that the correlated quasiparticles carry fractional charge $`\nu e`$. The fractionally charged quasiparticles (FCQPs) may obey fractional exclusion statistics (FES) .

Recent shot-noise and Coulomb-blockade experiments confirm that one-dimensional FCQPs carry the edge-state currents in the FQHE, but cannot establish FES unambiguously. Isakov et al.  consider a novel theoretical possibility. They generalize the Landauer-Büttiker first-quantized method for one-dimensional conductance and shot noise to noninteracting particles with FES, thought to be relevant to the edge-state FQHE. The explicit formula obtained for the crossover of shot noise to thermal noise stretches its normal interpretation in terms of the noninteracting Schottky and Johnson-Nyquist formulas.

The results of Ref.  may be of experimental interest. Despite this, we note some potentially troublesome issues of principle. These warrant closer examination.

(1) To obtain a FES noise spectral density strictly by first quantization, one must first have a counting method going beyond the normal occupancies for fermions and bosons. The proposal of Isakov et al. fails to recover standard results for normal fluctuations, as required by second quantization . To redeem their argument they must add an ad hoc term to their Eq. (3), maintaining presumed conformity with the fluctuation-dissipation theorem (FDT).

We draw attention to Isakov et al.’s stated need to call on the FDT with no idea whatever of how its microscopic proof plays out in this new physical context: a knowledge gap with serious implications. In every many-body system, the FDT is an absolutely essential structural link between equilibrium fluctuations and dissipative response. Its validity must be deduced from the model’s axioms; it can never be established inductively. This means that while the microscopic fluctuations prescribe the observable conductance, the converse does not hold. The present approach is unable to derive the appropriate FDT. It allows only speculation on some FDT-like ansatz that is cut and fit, inductively, to one’s notions of what the fluctuations might be (given the conductance). Such ad hoc inversion of the theorem’s prescriptive meaning severely undermines the microscopic credibility of the state-counting argument.

(2) FCQPs carry the FQHE edge-state current in one dimension, and thus represent the excitations of a correlated Luttinger fluid. This is totally unlike a fluid of “independent” quasiparticles. There are no grounds, in second quantization, to describe exclusion statistics by an ansatz that interpolates intuitively between the limiting occupancies for free bosons and fermions. Not surprisingly, the oversimplified accounting leads again to a familiar difficulty: a term must be added ad hoc to keep faith with the FDT. For bosons a further unphysical feature appears, in that the zero-frequency spectral density for shot noise diverges. This dilemma is avoidable – in second quantization – via the generalized commutation relations introduced long ago by H. S. Green .

(3) The crossover of the spectral density from thermal to shot noise is derived by assuming $`\mathrm{exp}(\beta \mu )1`$. This occurs when either the thermal energy (temperature) $`\beta ^1`$ is very small, or the chemical potential $`\mu `$ is very large. The latter corresponds to a high-density system. If the FCQPs are truly independent, the system will be ballistic. In the quantum ballistic limit there is no shot noise.

Shot noise is inherently a nonequilibrium phenomenon; any correlations in it must involve nonlinearity in the applied field. For normal fermions, linear theories based on quantum-coherent (or on semiclassical) diffusion imply a smooth crossover from low temperatures and high fields, to high temperatures and low fields. While this has strong appeal in making sense of experiments, a first-principles nonequilibrium theory is not in sight.

The Landauer-Büttiker approach is akin to Kubo linear response. For shot noise in correlated systems, a major question should be how its suppression is modified by many-body interactions. In a strictly single-particle, linear-transport picture, suppression enters via the factor $`T(1T)`$ where $`T`$ is the one-particle transmission probability through the system. In both limits $`T0`$ and $`T1`$, shot noise tends to zero. For $`T0`$ the system is nonconducting; trivially, there is no shot noise. When $`T1`$, the system is ballistic; again, within strictly first-quantized treatments of fluctuations, there is no shot noise. However, as the quasiparticles of a conventional Fermi system do interact, it is fair to wonder whether their shot noise is indeed so comprehensively suppressed.

One is now asked to go beyond the normal, and to postulate fractional statistics for (nearly free) quasiparticles in the Luttinger liquid, an utterly correlation-dominated and certainly unconventional many-body system. Isakov, Martin, and Ouvry raise many more open problems than have been answered satisfactorily for noise in the Landau model of normal quasiparticles. Furthermore, their concept of correlated quasiparticle systems amounts to the following.

* Strongly correlated systems can always be renormalized into an ensemble of quasiparticles. These may possess fractional statistics (which can be intuited).
* Since the low-lying excitation spectrum of the system will resemble one-body behavior, one can suppose that the residual quasiparticle interactions are literally weak. The system is effectively free.
* One can then safely analyze the two-body fluctuations (noise) of such systems as if the quasiparticles did not actually interact. Said differently: the mean-square fluctuations of a correlated system are fully and uniquely given by the effective mean single-particle properties.

In our view, such a proposal hardly fits what is known even for normal Fermi liquids. One need only recall that the low-order Landau parameters (essentially associated with quasiparticle renormalization) are quantitatively locked into all the higher-order ones (associated with the interactions among the quasiparticles) by a standard sum rule . This basic constraint will draw in higher and higher angular moments of the “residual” quasiparticle interaction as the coupling strength in the underlying Hamiltonian is increased. No-one is yet sure, of course, what holds for the Luttinger case.


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# Failed Oort Clouds and Planetary Migration

## 1. Introduction

Planet formation is a messy business. The process of accumulation of small bodies into large bodies results not only in the formation of large planetary-mass objects but also a significant population of scattered comets and asteroids. Studies of short and long period comets in our solar system (Oort 1950; Fernandez 1980; Duncan, Quinn & Tremaine 1988) point to the existence of two repositories of cometary material, the spherically distributed Oort cloud (Oort 1950) and a low inclination population of trans-Neptunian objects, the Edgeworth/Kuiper Belt (Edgeworth 1949; Kuiper 1951). These cometary reservoirs convey valuable information regarding the primordial conditions in the solar system and their manifestations around other stars offer insights into the formation of extrasolar planetary systems. In particular, the detection of infra-red emission from dust in such systems (Backman & Paresce 1993; Trilling & Brown 1998) is thought to supplied by ongoing evaporation or ablation of comet-like objects (Weissman 1984) .

The properties of recently detected extrasolar planets (e.g. Marcy, Cochran & Mayor 1999) suggest that the formation and evolution of planetary systems may be a much more dynamic and violent process than previously envisaged. The purpose of this letter is to examine the impact of this new paradigm on the configuration of cometary reservoirs in such systems. In particular, we will demonstrate the existence of a cometary component intermediate between a disk and isotropic component that will result in systems where significant planetary migration has taken place.

Section 2 reviews the process of formation of an Oort cloud and examines the implications of planetary migration for such a scenario. In section 3 we describe the implications for observations of dust disks around extrasolar planetary systems.

## 2. Planetary Scattering & Oort Clouds

Oort (1950) inferred the existence of a spherically distributed cometary reservoir containing objects of semi-major axis $`a10^4`$ Au. Perturbations of cometary orbits by passing stars or molecular clouds are responsible for scattering comets into the inner solar system. The origin of these bodies is explained by ejection of primordial material from the solar system. Proto-comets on planet crossing orbits are repeatedly scattered in close encounters with the outer planets and their orbits undergo a diffusive evolution towards large semi-major axis and high eccentricity. This diffusion continues until they are ejected from the solar system entirely or until perturbations at apastron due to the Galactic tide perturb the orbit sufficiently to remove it from a planet-crossing condition (Duncan, Quinn & Tremaine 1987, Tremaine 1993). Continued action of the tidal torques eventually result in an isotropically distributed population, responsible for the long period comets.

The origins of the short period comets seem incompatible with the properties of the Oort cloud (Joss 1973; Duncan, Quinn & Tremaine 1988) and are now thought to be related to a disk-like distribution of primordial protosolar material (Edgeworth 1949; Kuiper 1951; Fernandez 1980) in trans-Neptunian orbits. Recent observations (Jewitt & Luu 1993; Stern 1996) indicate the presence of $``$ 100 km bodies in this region and possible true cometary material as well. (Cochran et al 1995)

### 2.1. Migration

Implicit in the studies of the formation of the Oort cloud (e.g. Duncan, Quinn & Tremaine 1988) is the assumption that the planets themselves do not move significantly. Recent dynamical studies of the early evolution of our own solar system indicate that some small migration of the outer planets is likely (Fernandez & Ip 1984; Malhotra 1995; Hahn & Malhotra 1998). Recent discoveries of jovian mass planets in very close orbits around other stars (Mayor & Queloz 1995; Marcy & Butler 1996; Marcy, Cochran & Mayor 1999) suggests that, in some cases, far more extensive migration occurred.

The explanations for the source of this migration invoke either some kind of steady orbital decay (Lin, Bodenheimer & Richardson 1996; Murray et al 1998) or the scattering of several planets in an originally unstable orbital configuration (Rasio & Ford 1996; Weidenschilling & Marzari 1996; Lin & Ida 1998). However, the emphasis on migration as opposed to in situ formation is still largely theoretical prejudice. As I shall demonstrate, the Oort clouds/Kuiper belts around these systems could provide a potential test of the migration hypothesis.

In the standard picture of Oort cloud formation, a comet scattering off the giant planets returns repeatedly to the inner solar system until either something catastrophic (ejection or collision with a planet) happens or the orbit receives a sufficiently large external perturbation that it no longer enters the inner solar system. However, in a system where the scattering planet(s) are migrating, it is possible that the planet itself moves sufficiently far between encounters so that the comet no longer crosses its orbit and is thus no longer subject to strong perturbations. Thus, the diffusive evolution of comets to large semi-major axes and high eccentricities may ‘stall’ at much smaller radii than in the standard scenario. The timescales to eject comets to the Oort cloud is of order $`10^610^7`$ years (e.g. Dones et al 1996), a timescale similar to that on which migration is claimed to occur (Lin et al 1996; Murray et al 1998). Thus it is reasonable that planetary migration will leave many comets stalled in their diffusion process, on eccentric and inclined orbits of moderate semi-major axis. One possible exception is those scenarios which invoke dynamical instability in multi-planet systems, which could occur at much later times when the asteroids & comets have been mostly cleared.

Thus, in the case of steady migration, we expect a cometary component intermediate between a Kuiper belt disk population and an Oort cloud isotropic distribution. The orbital extent and inclination distribution will depend on the rate of planetary migration as well as other evolutionary factors, which we will describe below.

### 2.2. Cloud Size

Figure 1 shows the comet cloud that results when one considers the formation of a 51 Pegasi-like system in the planetesimal migration scenario of Murray et al (1998). The planet initially begins at 10 Au and migrates to 0.06 Au, leaving behind a cloud of comets or asteroids in a thickened disk. The evolution was followed using a Monte-Carlo code (Hansen et al, in preparation) utilising the Öpik approximation (Öpik 1976; Arnold 1965). In this particular instance, approximately $`50\%`$ of the disk planetesimal mass interior to the original orbit is scattered into a ”thick” component.

While the appearance of such thickened configurations is generic in single planet migration models, the exact nature of the scattered component will depend on the particular nature of the system, most particularly, the mass of the migrating planet and the rate of migration. Smaller planets migrate faster and result in less thickening. The rate of migration also slows as the planet gets closer in, so that the thickening of the disk increases inwards. Larger mass planets halt migration at larger radii, so that the scattered cloud shows an inner edge. Figure 2 shows the result for a 1 $`M_J`$ planet that migrates to 0.17 Au. The asteroid cloud truncates near 1 Au.

The comets scattered into inclined, eccentric orbits will also precess under the influence of any undisturbed extended disk component exterior to the original planetary orbit, on timescales $`10^5`$ years. The eccentricity and inclination undergo oscillations governed by Kozai’s integral $`\mathrm{\Theta }=(1e^2)\mathrm{cos}^2i`$ (Kozai 1962; Holman, Touma & Tremaine 1997). Thus, the minimum semi-major axis (maximum eccentricity) occurs when the comet lies in the orbital plane again. A small fraction of the comets at the inner edge of the cloud may again be brought into planet crossing orbits by this mechanism and ejected. However, this is only a small fraction ($`5\%`$) of the scattered component in the above cases.

The longevity of such a cloud is also affected by the presence of other planets in the system. Additional planets will also scatter planetesimals and may serve to clear out orbits left behind by the original migrating planet. Figure 3 illustrates the situation for two planets starting at 10 and 20 Au. The inner planet migrates down to inside 0.1 Au as in figure 1 while the second, jupiter mass planet stops at 1.6 Au. The resulting scattered cloud consists of an inner and outer component. The eccentricities of the inner cloud components are restricted by the fact that they cannot cross the orbit of either planet in the final state, otherwise they will be ejected. This is why there is no intermediate cloud left in our own solar system - the limited movement of the outer planets meant that, once a body crossed a planetary orbit it was doomed to continue scattering until it was either ejected or passed into the Oort cloud.

In conclusion, we reiterate that the above calculations represent the situation in the migration scenario of Murray et al(1998). In this case the migration is intimately coupled to the scattering of the planetesimals as these provide the sink for the planet’s gravitational binding energy. As such the results are robust to uncertainties inherent in the Öpik approximation (see Dones et al 1996) as these relate primarily to timescale. A similar result will occur in gaseous migration scenarios such as described by Lin, Bodenheimer & Richardson (1996), but the quantitative results will be more sensitive to the relative rates of migration and cometary orbital diffusion.

## 3. Implications

The search for residual material in known planetary systems is a rapidly advancing field. Observations of infra-red excesses and transient absorption events in the Beta Pictoris system have been explained by the existence of cometary bodies (Weissman 1984; Lagrange-Henri et al 1989; Artymowicz & Clampin 1997; Kalas et al 2000). Extensive studies of the dust distribution suggests that the properties change at smaller radii (Lecavalier des Etangs, Vidal-Majar & Ferlet 1996; Li & Greenberg 1998). While this is a reasonable explanation, it should be noted that most models assume a disk of constant opening angle and that the change in the disk properties suggested by the above results can influence the observations as well. A configuration similar to Figure 2 can perhaps explain the inner gap inferred in Beta Pictoris system. The scattered cloud is also a natural reservoir for bodies suggested to give rise to the transient absorption events observed in this system (Lagrange-Henri et al 1989).

Trilling & Brown (1998) have recently detected infra-red excesses using coronagraphic techniques around the 55 Cancri planetary system. They have used the observed axis ratio of the 55 Cancri disk to infer the inclination angle of the system, assuming a thin dust disk configuration and thereby constrain the true planet mass. The presence of a thickened disk as discussed above will change the inclination and mass estimates. The observed ratio of minor to major axis $`b/a`$ is now $`\mathrm{cos}(\theta +\delta \theta )`$, where $`\theta `$ is the inclination angle and $`\delta \theta `$ the disk thickness. Thus, an appreciably fattened disk will cause an overestimate of the inclination angle and an overestimate of the planetary mass. A significant fraction of the $`27^{}`$ inclination meas ured by Trilling & Brown could be the result of disk thickening (see Figure 1).

The larger members of these close, approximately spherical clouds may be detectable by transit observations. Our knowledge of the Kuiper Belt is due to the largest rocky bodies rather than the presumed cometary component. Similarly, the first detected objects in these failed Oort clouds may not be cometary but rather large asteroids or planetary embryos. The formation of Jovian cores may also leave a substantial population of planetary embryos. If so, one would expect to see transits of such bodies in many systems with close-in Jupiters, since they are not confined to the planetary orbital plane. To indicate this, consider the simulation shown in Figure 1. If we consider the scattered objects to be protoplanetary embryos $`0.2`$ earth masses and radii $`R4000`$ km, then the instantaneous geometrical filling factor for inclinations larger than 5 degrees out of the planetary orbital plane $`\tau _1=_i\pi (R_i/a_i)^26\times 10^5`$. However, for continuous monitoring over an orbital period, the optical depth to see a transit (with fractional depth $`10^4`$ in this case) is $`\tau _2=_i\mathrm{sin}\theta R_i/a_i0.09`$. Although these numbers are quite uncertain because of the unknown properties of the scattered bodies, they do indicate the desirability of re-examining all the known systems for transits as the technology improves, including those in which edge-on orbits for the known planets have been already ruled out.

In conclusion, the presence of a cometary or asteroidal component intermediate between the Kuiper Belt and the Oort cloud is a potential indicator of significant planetary migration. Such a component may also provide an important ingredient in the studies of young protoplanetary disks.

Support for this work was provided by NASA through Hubble Fellowship grant #HF-01120.01-99A, from the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under NASA contract NAS5-26555.