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# 1 Signal significance of stoponium events in various channels for the first scenario; mass of the lightest higgs boson is taken equal to 100 GeV.

Introduction

The broken supersymmetry is favorite among the different extensions of the Standard Model. It can happen that superpartners of top-quarks (stops, $`\stackrel{~}{t}`$) are long-living enough to compose (colorless) bound states, stoponiums, denoted as $`S`$ in what follows. In this scenario experimental study of the corresponding resonances could provide precise value of stop mass and stoponium partial widths, consequently yielding precise values of various parameters of SUSY Lagrangian. Then, if the difference between stop and LSP masses is very small, the search for stop evidence in collisions at high energy could be problematic. Observation of stoponium bound states will be the signature of such models confirming the existence of stop.

There are theoretical motivations for stop to be fairly light. First one appeals to the renormalization group behavior of soft mass terms. Indeed, gauge couplings raise while Yukawa couplings reduce these terms when energy scale evolves down, with Yukawa contributions being very large for stop. The next motivation concerns left-right mixing in squark sector, which is proportional to Yukawa coupling and decreases the mass of the lightest stop. Therefore, light stop may appear in different SUSY models ( see, e.g., Refs.  for examples in the frameworks of supergravity and gauge mediation). Experimental bound on stoponium mass comes from searches for stop at LEP2 and TEVATRON. The concrete number depends on the MSSM spectrum : lower bound is about 90 GeV for sneutrino masses larger than 45-50 GeV or for neutralino masses larger than 50 GeV (ALEPH), while CDF excludes stop mass up to 130 GeV for smaller sneutrino masses. The limitation is weaker if stop and neutralino masses are degenerate, it is about 60 GeV (ALEPH).

Stoponium was studied in Refs.  in detail, in particular its effective couplings and partial widths were calculated, and probability to be discovered at LHC were estimated. In Ref.  it was briefly mentioned also the possibility to observe stoponiums in photon collisions, however, without analyzing this phenomenology.

Now, when main characteristics of future Photon Linear Colliders (PLC)111The possibility to get real photon beams by means of Compton backscattering of laser photons on high energy electrons from the basic electron beams was proposed a long time ago . are under technical discussion (see, e.g., Ref. ) one should understand clearly signatures of stop bound states in this type of high energy collisions. This is of special interest due to debates on PLC advantages in comparison with further increasing of the collision energy for basic electron-positron mode of the linear collider when the run at $`\sqrt{s_{e^+e^{}}}=500`$ GeV will be completed (see, e.g., Ref.  and references therein). One can easily perceive that $`e^+e^{}`$ colliders (LEP2 or linear electron-positron colliders) have no good chances to observe stoponiums. Indeed, high powers of the coupling constants, $`\alpha ^2\alpha _s^5`$, emerge in the squared matrix elements: $`\alpha ^2`$ arises from two electroweak vertices, and $`\alpha _s^5`$ comes from squared derivative of the stoponium wave function (scalar stoponium can be created there only in P-wave by propagation of vector particle, photon or $`Z`$). At the same time two powers of $`\alpha _s`$ are eliminated in the case of $`\gamma \gamma `$ collisions since stoponium can be produced in S-wave. So, one can expect much higher rate of the stoponium production at PLC.

In hadron collisions the stoponium production is also available in S-wave through the gluon fusion. So, effective $`ggS`$ vertex includes $`\alpha _s^{5/2}`$ and one can anticipate large stoponium cross sections as well. However, main decay channel $`gg`$ is too dirty due to huge QCD $`2jets`$ background. Then, as it was found in Ref. , the most promising decay channel at LHC is $`\gamma \gamma `$, but in order to discover stoponiums one year of LHC operating at high luminosity is needed, or even more (depending on SUSY scenario).

It is shown in this letter that Photon Linear Collider will be the best machine to discover and study stoponiums. For estimates we use basic parameters of the first stage of TESLA project: $`\sqrt{s_{ee}}500`$ GeV and integrated luminosity 500 fb-1  for basic electron-positron mode. It is well known that high energy photon beam at the PLC conversion point will have a rather wide spectrum . However, there are various ideas under discussion how to get more or less monochromatic photon beams. So, for estimates one can take the photon-photon collision energy spread within the interval of 15% below the maximal energy $`E_{\gamma \gamma }^{max}0.8\sqrt{s_{ee}}`$ . We set effective integrated luminosity of the first PLC equal to 100 fb-1 for this 15% window, although one can judge this figure as too pessimistic — in Ref.  this characteristic is argued to be at the same level as for basic $`e^+e^{}`$ mode.

We consider stoponium mass range $`M_S=200400`$ GeV, which could be surely probed by the first PLC. Of course tuning the $`\gamma \gamma `$ collision energy at the stoponium mass point is necessary. It is worth to note that the same interval is not an exceptional case for SUSY models with stoponiums as a quasistationary state, as we discuss briefly in the next section.

Stop bound states

It is clear that gluons try to bind two stops as well as ordinary quarks. The corresponding bound state can be described as a quasistationary system with energy levels $`E_n`$ ($`<0`$) and masses $`M_n=2m_{\stackrel{~}{t}}+E_n`$ similarly to quarkonium. For stoponium mass $`M_S=200600`$ GeV the binding energies $`E_n`$ are of order 1 GeV . This treatment is valid if the formation process (time scale $`|E_n|^1`$) is faster than destroying one.

Among destroying mechanisms the obvious ones are the stop decays222We suppose R-parity to be conserved, as favored by the absence of rapid proton decay and lepton flavor violating processes.: $`\stackrel{~}{t}t+`$LSP, $`b+chargino`$ and $`c+neutralino`$. At first, let us consider the third decay. It proceeds only through loop diagrams, that is motivated by the absence of FCNC (thus, leading to universality-like soft terms). So, partial width is highly reduced by a factor of $`10^7`$ in comparison with the first two tree-level decay processes . The rates of latter decays depend on the parameters of the model. As an example, in the framework of gravity mediation, where LSP is neutralino, these decays proceed at the tree level and the corresponding partial widths are of order $`𝒪(\alpha m_{\stackrel{~}{t}})`$. In the framework of models with gauge mediated supersymmetry breaking , where LSP is gravitino, the first process is strongly suppressed by supersymmetry breaking scale, but remaining one has the same partial width as in gravity mediation. Hence, the possibility of existence of stoponium is a subject of special study in each concrete model. For instance, in models with the lightest chargino being mostly wino and the lightest stop being mostly right stop (i.e., $`m_{t_L}>m_{t_R}`$), decay into chargino is damped and stoponium could exist if $`m_{\stackrel{~}{t}}m_{LSP}<m_t`$, i.e., when the first decay channel is kinematically forbidden. One can state that SUSY scenario, where tree-level decay channels, $`\stackrel{~}{t}t+`$LSP and $`\stackrel{~}{t}b+chargino`$, are somehow suppressed and, therefore, stop decay can not destroy the stoponium formation, is not an exceptional case.

Next destroying mechanism is related to the stop annihilation. Here two gluon channel is always open with partial width about 1 MeV. Generally the gluon channel is dominant. However, for the certain choice of model parameters, partial width into two lightest Higgs bosons, $`Shh`$, can be larger, increasing the stoponium total width by a factor of $`510`$. In Ref.  these figures were analyzed and found that quasistationary description is valid for $`M_S<600`$ GeV in models with forbidden stop tree-level decays and neutralino being mostly bino. The worst case is a model with chargino and neutralino states are both higgsino-like. Here the stoponium total width increases rapidly with $`M_S`$ and quasistationary treatment fails for $`M_S>300`$ GeV.

To be concrete let us describe one of the models studied in Ref. , where stoponium exists up to $`M_S<600`$ GeV. This is MSSM with $`\mu =300`$ GeV, $`m_{t_L}=400`$ GeV, $`m_{t_R}=300`$ GeV and mass of the lightest stop (so, $`M_S`$) varied with trilinear soft term $`A_t`$. The $`hh`$ decay channel dominates at $`2m_hM_S2m_h+150`$ GeV. Gluonic decay mode prevails in other cases, excluding the vicinity of the degenerate point with Higgs boson mass $`M_S=M_H`$ where $`b\overline{b}`$ or $`t\overline{t}`$ channels becomes principal because of s-channel Higgs propogator enhancement. In scenarios with $`A_t=2m_{t_L}=2m_{t_R}`$ and $`\mu =500`$ GeV decay into $`hh`$ final state dominates for wider range, $`2m_hM_S600`$ GeV.

Stoponium in $`\gamma \gamma `$ collisions

The main effect associated with stoponium would be a direct resonance production. The corresponding monochromatic cross section can be written in the Breit-Wigner form if collision energy is close to the resonance peak

$$\sigma _{\gamma \gamma Sf}(\widehat{s})=8\pi \frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\gamma \gamma }\mathrm{\Gamma }_f}{\left(\widehat{s}M_S^2\right)^2+\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\mathrm{tot}}^2M_S^2},$$

where $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_f`$ is the stoponium partial width for the decay into state $`f`$ and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\mathrm{tot}}`$ is stoponium total width. At the resonance point this cross section reads $`\sigma ^{res}=\frac{8\pi }{M_S^2}Br_{\gamma \gamma }Br_f,`$ where $`Br_f=\mathrm{\Gamma }_f/\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\mathrm{tot}}`$ is the corresponding branching fraction. The observable cross section can be estimated as $`\sigma ^{res}2\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\mathrm{tot}}/(0.15E_{\gamma \gamma }^{max})`$ with $`E_{\gamma \gamma }^{max}M_S`$. Photon beams are planned to be highly polarized. Hence, as stoponium is a scalar the production cross section will be enhanced by factor two if initial photons have opposite helicities. Hereafter we include this factor 2 in our estimates of signal rates. Finally, we parameterize the stoponium cross sections as follows

$$\sigma _f\mathrm{\hspace{0.33em}130}\text{fb}\left(\frac{Br_{\gamma \gamma }}{410^3}\right)Br_f\left(\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }_{tot}}{1\text{MeV}}\right)\left(\frac{200\text{GeV}}{M_S}\right)^3.$$
(1)
where, in addition, one should take into account that squared stoponium wave function at the origin, attending in $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_{tot}`$, scales as a square root of its mass .

As it has been stressed above one can discuss two main variants of the SUSY models, one with dominant $`gg`$ decay mode and another with stoponium total width being saturated by $`hh`$ mode. Let us make qualitative signal/background estimates for different decay channels within these two variants. The signal significance can be evaluated by ratio $`N_S/\sqrt{N_B}`$ because one deals with resonance and background rate in the signal bin can be fixed as average cross section in neighboring bins (here $`N_{S,B}`$ are numbers of signal and background events). We used the results for stoponium width and branching ratios calculated in Ref.  with some corrections. Namely, comparing our formulas with formulas in Ref.  we conclude that stoponium partial widths into two gluons and into two photons were overestimated in Ref.  because of extra factor 2 in Eqs. (A.1) and (A.2). In particular, it means that the signal cross sections were overestimated there. In the first scenario for $`gg`$ and $`\gamma \gamma `$ modes the correct cross sections are smaller by factor 2. In the second scenario for $`gg`$ and $`\gamma \gamma `$ modes this factor is 4, while for other modes it is 2.

Cross sections for various tree-level background processes were evaluated with the help of CompHEP package .

1. In the first scenario stoponium total width $`1.3`$ MeV at $`M_S=200`$ GeV and photon-photon branching is $`\mathrm{Br}_{\gamma \gamma }3.410^3`$. By making use of Eq.(1) one obtains the signal rate at the level of 140 fb for $`M_S=200`$ GeV. So, more than ten thousand stoponiums will be produced. Background is two jet production, where subprocess $`\gamma \gamma q\overline{q}`$ gives main contribution with very large cross section, $`50`$ pb (if cuts on the jet angle of 5 are applied). Since jet energy resolution is of order $`𝒪(10)`$ GeV, background events should be counted within whole 15% photon-photon energy window. One can estimate background rate directly as the average cross section in this window, $`50`$ pb. Hence dominant $`gg`$ channel is fairly dirty — the signal/background ratio is $`1/350`$. Nevertheless, for statistics 100 fb-1 signal significance is not too small, about $`6÷3`$ for $`M_S=200÷300`$ GeV, see Fig. 1, where we present signal significance for stoponium events in various channels. Here the $`2jets`$ background was calculated as a direct two-quark production, thus with the rate being dependent on the collision energy.

For two photon channel the background process, $`\gamma \gamma \gamma \gamma `$, proceeds through one-loop diagrams, so the corresponding cross section is small, about 10 fb . One should note that the photon-photon invariant mass bin can be taken equal to $`2\text{GeV}\sqrt{M_S/100\text{GeV}}`$ for CMS-like crystal electromagnetic calorimeter . Thus, for $`M_{\gamma \gamma }=200\pm 1.4`$ GeV window the background rate can be estimated as $`1`$ fb. For $`M_S=200÷300`$ GeV the signal rate is $`0.5÷0.2`$ fb, providing the signal significance about $`5÷2`$.

Some other decay channels within the first scenario should be discussed. First note, that $`WW`$ final state has no chance for the detection of stoponiums due to huge SM background, $`\sigma _{\gamma \gamma WW}^{tot}60`$ pb at $`\sqrt{s_{\gamma \gamma }}=200`$ GeV. More promising are decay channels with background processes arising at higher orders of perturbation theory. For instance, SM background to $`\gamma Z`$ and $`ZZ`$ final states comes from 1) one-loop $`\alpha ^4`$ processes $`\gamma \gamma \gamma Z`$ ($`1015`$ fb ) and $`\gamma \gamma ZZ`$ ($`50`$ fb ), and 2) from tree-level $`\alpha ^3`$ processes (e.g. $`\gamma \gamma \gamma q\overline{q}`$ for $`S\gamma Z\gamma +2jets`$), with total cross section smaller than 1 fb within cuts on final $`\gamma `$ and jets reasonably motivated by 2-body ($`\gamma +Z`$) kinematics of the signal events. These figures should be considered as estimates of the background rates in these channels for 15% energy spread photon beams because of the same level of the energy resolution for final jets.

As to the signal $`\gamma Z`$ rate one can get from Ref.  the branching $`\mathrm{Br}_{\gamma Z}210^3`$, so $`\sigma _{\gamma Z}0.3`$ fb already for $`M_S=200`$ GeV. It means very low level of the signal significance, lower than 1 for statistics 100 fb-1.

Natural level of $`ZZ`$ branching is about $`410^2`$ for stoponium masses far from the threshold, 250-400 GeV, although in some points it could fall down due to opening of new channels or degeneration of stoponium and Higgs masses. This provides signal rate $`3.3`$ fb for $`M_S=250`$ GeV and significance at the level of 4.7 if one uses formula (1). However, the threshold effect is significant still for this value of the stoponium mass, and these figures should be improved to 2.25 fb for signal rate and to 3 for significance (see Fig. 1).

The $`hh`$ decay channel, where $`h`$ is the lightest Higgs boson, is open if $`M_S>2m_h`$. As current limit on $`h`$ mass is about 80-100 GeV this channel could exist for $`M_S>200`$ GeV. If consider mass region far from the threshold (say $`M_S>230`$ GeV for $`m_h=100`$ GeV) the $`hh`$ branching is about $`210^2`$ or even higher. In this case the signal rate is about 2 fb or larger, if one uses formula (1), and if take into account the threshold factor one gets signal cross section at the level of 1 fb or larger.

The background from direct double $`hh`$ production through one-loop diagrams can be estimated by the cross section of this process in SM, $`0.2`$ fb . There are no reasons for very large additional contributions to this process in supersymmetric models. Then, we found that direct electroweak production of four b quarks ($`\gamma \gamma bbbb`$) together with contribution from $`cccc`$ final state (assuming 10% of $`b/c`$ misidentification) has the rate smaller than 0.1 fb. Sum of these cross sections can be taken as the estimate of the background rate for 15% energy spread photon beams again, because larger scale of the resolution bin for invariant mass of the stoponium decay products. Therefore $`hh`$ decay mode will be the best channel for the observation of stoponiums — the signal significance is about 18 for $`M_S=230`$ GeV. The signal rate is not so low, about hundred stoponium events $`Shh`$ will be produced for statistics 100 fb-1 and with $`S/B`$ ratio about 3.

To resume the first scenario we conclude that, if stoponium decay into two lightest Higgs bosons is allowed kinematically, this bound state could be discovered after a few weeks of PLC operating. Otherwise, a year is necessary in order to observe stoponiums in $`gg`$, $`\gamma \gamma `$, $`ZZ`$ channels. Then, one can probe the stoponium effective couplings in all these channels if higher statistics will be accumulated.

Note that LHC (at high luminosity operating stage) has good prospects to observe light stoponium in $`\gamma \gamma `$ mode in this scenario , where signal significance is comparable with the significance of $`hh`$ mode at PLC. Thus, these two colliders could be complementary in study of different effective stoponium couplings, $`S\gamma \gamma `$ and $`Shh`$ correspondingly.

2. In the second scenario stoponium total width could be about 10 MeV or even larger. The photon-photon branching in this case is smaller, $`(24)10^4`$. So, thousands of stoponiums will be produced per year and almost all of them will decay to pairs of lightest Higgs bosons. We plot total number of stoponium events at various $`M_S`$ and $`m_h`$ in Figure 2.

This result means, that stoponium will be discovered practically immediately after PLC start, since the background ($`hh`$, $`bbbb`$ …) is very small.

Note that in this scenario several years of operating at high luminosity is needed in order to observe stoponium at LHC .

Other branchings are at the same level as in the first scenario, or even smaller. Thus, one can not hope to distinguish stoponium events in these channels with statistics 100 fb-1. Nevertheless, once stoponium has been discovered the $`gg`$, $`\gamma \gamma `$ and $`ZZ`$ channels will exhibit possibilities of study stoponium effective couplings with higher statistics.

There is a range of parameters in the model with light stop quarks and large $`A_t`$, where coupling between the lightest stops and the lightest Higgs boson tends to increase in comparison with $`t\overline{t}h`$ in SM , and which correlates with the parameter range of scenario 2. So, one can expect some enhancement of $`hh`$ production at PLC in this case due to stop-loop contribution. However, in the second scenario this stop-Higgs enhancement for sure can not reduce excellent discovery potential of the dominant $`hh`$ decay channel.

Conclusions and further comments

1. Main conclusion is that for some scenarios of supersymmetric extension of the Standard Model photon linear collider will be the best machine to discover and study bound state of stops if it exists.

In the decay channel into two lightest Higgs bosons (if it is permitted kinematically) stoponiums will be observed at the beginning of PLC operating in the case of dominant decay channel being $`hh`$, and during the first year if $`gg`$ channel dominates.

In scenario with $`hh`$ decay mode being principal the stoponium discovery mass range will be limited only by attainable values of the $`\gamma \gamma `$ collision energy, which is discussed up to $`0.8500`$ GeV. In this case PLC will be a stoponium factory producing thousands of these heavy strong resonances practically without background. Fine structure of their spectroscopy would be available for study.

The tuning of PLC collision energy at the resonance point is necessary within the 15% window.

If $`Shh`$ mode is closed, the search for stoponiums would be not easy, this bound state could be discovered in $`gg`$, $`\gamma \gamma `$ and $`ZZ`$ channels after a year. Anyway, if 500 fb-1 of integrated statistics will be really available for the first PLC these channels will allow to observe stoponium for sure.

All these channels ($`hh`$, $`gg`$, $`\gamma \gamma `$ and $`ZZ`$) have good chances for probing the corresponding effective coupling constants with statistics 500 fb-1.

2. A few comments can be made. The first one is related to the circumstance that ground state of stoponium could not be distinguished from excited states due to the detector resolutions. Therefore, the resonance peak will include contributions from ground state and all excitations, leading to enhancement factor of about 2  in all cross sections. At the same time there is a big uncertainty because of poor understanding of the stoponium wave function, that results in 30-50% error when the stoponium rates are estimated .

The second comment concerns the models with stoponium and the heaviest CP-even Higgs boson masses being almost degenerate, $`M_Sm_H`$. One can note that there is no motivation for this scenario. Nevertheless, this degeneration exhibits specific physics. In this case, all “standard” decay modes (determined by the same mechanisms as for quarkoniums) are highly suppressed, by a factor of $`10^310^4`$, due to huge increasing of the stoponium total width saturated there by Higgs-originated channels, e.g. $`b\overline{b}`$ at high $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$ or $`t\overline{t}`$ at large $`M_S`$. Certainly, if the mass degeneration is exact, $`M_S=m_H`$, quasistationary description of stoponium formation is spoilt by too fast annihilation through Higgs boson into $`b\overline{b}`$ ($`t\overline{t}`$). Nevertheless, in some vicinity of the degeneration point partial width of the corresponding dominant decay channel could be enhanced not so greatly and stoponium could be composed. In Eq. (1) the corresponding suppressing factor in the $`\gamma \gamma `$ branching will be compensated by the same factor inverted in the stoponium total width. As a result the signal rate in the main (Higgs originated) decay channel will be at the level of the total stoponium production rate in the nondegenerate case: 140-50 fb for $`M_S=200300`$ GeV. One can check that $`\gamma \gamma b\overline{b}`$ background has cross section about 1.8-0.9 pb for $`\sqrt{s}=200300`$ GeV. Therefore, stoponiums will be discovered in $`b\overline{b}`$ decay mode when PLC starts. At large $`M_S`$ in models with low and intermediate $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$, $`t\overline{t}`$ channel will dominate, and the stoponium production will be about 10 fb for $`M_S=A_t=500`$ GeV. The background ($`\gamma \gamma t\overline{t}`$) cross section is about 1pb, that yields the signal significance of 3 for statistics 100 fb-1. Hence, in such model heavy stoponium will be observed after accumulating of three years statistics.

The third comment is dedicated to the fact that stoponium and CP-even Higgs bosons have the same quantum numbers. Hence, first, they can be mixed and interfere in the collision experiments. The corresponding off-diagonal insertion $`\delta M^2`$ into mass squared matrix may be estimated as $`A_tM_S(|\psi (0)|/M_S^{3/2})`$, where $`\psi (0)`$ is stoponium wave function at the origin. By making use of results of Ref. , where $`\psi (0)`$ was evaluated, we obtain $`\delta M^22\%M_SA_t`$ for $`M_S200600`$ GeV. At $`A_t=M_S=200`$ GeV this contribution alters mass of the heaviest CP-even Higgs boson on 2 MeV-2 GeV depending on the degeneracy between stoponium and Higgs masses (we consider $`M_H<600`$ GeV). Moreover, stoponium could be mixed with the lightest Higgs boson leading to the contribution of a few MeV to the Higgs mass. Note, that in LHC and linear $`e^+e^{}500`$ experiments the mass of Higgs boson will be measured with accuracy of about 1 GeV, or even better. Thus, the effect of $`M_H`$ change due to stoponium-Higgs mixing could be valuable. We stress, that this effect can be detected even if stoponium is not observed directly.

It is worth to note, that construction of muon collider (which is under discussion now ) with unique energy resolution will allow the observation of the Higgs mass shifting at the level of tens MeV’s (maybe even a few MeV’s). Consequently, if stop bound states exist, the sector of neutral scalar resonances in supersymmetric models could have more complicated structure than it could be deduced from the MSSM Lagrangian. This mixing effect should be taken into account in the reconstruction of the Higgs potential (parameters of the symmetry breaking mechanism).

Then, stoponium may be misidentified with Higgs boson, because there is a range of parameters, where (dominant) partial widths of these two heavy objects almost coincide. In this case the observation of subdominant modes will be required in order to distinguish these two resonances.

The authors are indebted to V. Kuzmin, A. Penin and G. Pivovarov for useful discussions. The work of D.G. was supported in part under RFBR grant 99-01-18410 and by the Russian Academy of Science, JRP grant # 37. The work of V.I. has been partially supported by the INTAS CERN99-0377 and RFBR-DFG 99-02-04011 grants and by St.Petersburg Grant Center.


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# Probing the 6He halo structure with elastic and inelastic proton scattering

## Abstract

Proton elastic scattering and inelastic scattering to the first excited state of 6He have been measured over a wide angular range using a 40.9$`A`$ MeV 6He beam. The data have been analyzed with a fully microscopic model of proton-nucleus scattering using 6He wave functions generated from large space shell model calculations. The inelastic scattering data show a remarkable sensitivity to the halo structure of 6He.

It is well known that neutron rich weakly bound light nuclei have abnormally large radii. This phenomenon is attributed to the valence neutrons which tunnel out of the core so that they have a large probability to be present at distances greater than the normal nuclear radius. Considerable experimental and theoretical efforts have been devoted to the understanding of the structure of these so-called halo nuclei. However, due to the low intensities of the available exotic beams, it is only recently that inelastic scattering and transfer reactions on light particles, which are the best tools to probe deeply the structure of nuclei could be undertaken under good conditions. Experimentally, the Borromean 6He nucleus is the best candidate for this kind of study since the only confirmed discrete state is a 2+ state situated at 1.87 MeV . It has been investigated through the measurement of interaction, dissociation and elastic scattering cross sections . However, apart from elastic scattering, those reactions involve breakup of the 6He into its constituents (4He $`+n+n`$), and that has been shown to be significantly influenced by final state interactions , which destroys information about the 6He ground state.

To study the microscopic structure of 6He we measured elastic and inelastic scattering of 6He from protons by making use of a new large acceptance detector array MUST. In this letter, extended angular distributions are presented along with a fully microscopic analysis using wave functions generated from large space shell model calculations allowing all the nucleons of 6He to be active in the field. The inelastic scattering angular distribution to the 2+ state can only be reproduced if wave functions including a neutron halo are used, demonstrating for the first time a strong sensitivity of inelastic scattering data to the halo structure.

The experiment was performed at the GANIL facility with a $`40.9A`$ MeV 6He radioactive ion beam produced by fragmentation of a primary $`75A`$ MeV 13C beam on a 8.45 mm thick C target located in the SISSI device. The secondary beam was purified with a 0.9 mm thick Al degrader situated between the dipoles of the $`\alpha `$-spectrometer. The beam intensity on the polypropylene (CH2)3 reaction target was $`10^5`$ particles per second with a 2% total contamination of 8Li and 9Be. As the beam spot on the target covered 1 cm2 with a maximum angular divergence of $`1^{}`$, two X and Y position sensitive detectors, CATS , were placed at 155 cm and 27 cm in front of the target as illustrated in Fig. 1. These detectors provided the impact point and the incident angle on the target event by event with a FWHM resolution of 0.55 mm (X), 0.7 mm (Y) and $`0.1^{}`$.

The recoiling protons were detected in MUST , an array of 8 three-stage telescopes $`6\text{ cm}\times 6\text{ cm}`$ each. The first stages consist in double-sided Si-strip detectors (300 $`\mu `$m). They were placed at 15 cm from the target and covered the angular range between 46 and 90 in the laboratory frame. At this distance, the 1 mm wide strips result in an angular resolution of $`0.4^{}`$ in both X and Y directions. Protons of less than 6 MeV were stopped in these detectors and were identified down to 0.5 MeV by measurement of energy versus time of flight (E-TOF). The start of the TOF measurement was given by the passage of the incident particle in one CATS tracking detector and the overall time resolution was 1.2 ns. Protons in the energy range of 6 to 25 MeV were stopped in the second SiLi stage (3 mm) of the telescopes while those in the energy range from 25 to 70 MeV were stopped in the third CsI stage (15 mm). They were identified by the $`\mathrm{\Delta }EE`$ method.

The ejectile was detected in coincidence with the recoiling proton to suppress the protons emitted from excited nuclei produced in central collisions of 6He on the carbon contained in the target. The coincidence allowed also to suppress the protons coming from reactions induced by the beam contaminants on the target. The ejectile was detected in a plastic wall, situated at 75 cm behind the target and made up of 6 horizontal bars of BC408, $`8\times 50`$ cm2 and 3 cm thick. Each bar was read out by a photo-multiplier at each end. The large angular coverage of the wall was imposed by the in flight decay of 6He ($`{}_{}{}^{6}\text{He}\alpha +2n`$) that occurs for excitation energies higher than the $`2n`$ separation energy of 0.9 MeV . Identification and counting of the beam particles were achieved in a plastic scintillator with a diameter of 2.8 cm and centered at zero degrees.

To measure angular distributions down to 10 in the center of mass (85 in the laboratory) where the energy of the recoiling protons decreases down to 0.5MeV, a 1.48 mg/cm2 thick polypropylene target was used. Good statistics at larger angles was obtained by using a 8.25 mg/cm2 thick target. Elastic (respectively inelastic) events were extracted by requiring that a proton be detected in coincidence with a 6He ( respectively alpha particle). Protons were selected with contours on the E-TOF and $`\mathrm{\Delta }EE`$ planes of MUST and 6He (alpha particles) with contours on the E-TOF matrix of the plastics. Events corresponding to the excitation of the 2+ state were extracted from inelastic events by taking a window between 0.8 and 2.3 MeV on the excitation energy spectrum of 6He calculated from the measured proton energy and angle. As an illustration, the excitation energy spectrum of inelastic events measured between 60 and 70 in the laboratory is shown in Fig. 2. A small contamination remains from elastic scattering and the high energy side of the 2+ peak is contaminated by low lying excitations in the continuum and by the fragmentation processes. In order to estimate the background under the 2+ peak, for each bin of 2 in the laboratory, the spectrum was fitted with four components as shown in Fig. 2: a small constant background corresponding to the background observed at the left of the elastic peak; two Gaussians for the elastic and inelastic peaks having the same width as the 6He elastic peak; and a third Gaussian on the high energy side to simulate the excitations in the continuum. In order to appreciate the uncertainty on the background subtraction, the fit was also done with a linear component beginning at the 2n separation energy (0.9MeV) instead of the third Gaussian. The background represented between 10 and 30% of the peak depending on the angle with an uncertainty of $`\pm `$5% on this percentage. Elastic and 2+ state contributions were extracted for each 1 bin in the laboratory frame and normalized with the acceptance of the detection system, the target thickness ($`\pm `$5% uncertainty) and the number of incident 6He ($`\pm `$3% uncertainty).

Angular distributions in the center of mass are presented in Fig. 3. The error bars given for elastic scattering are purely statistical whereas the error bars quoted for the inelastic scattering include in addition the error due to the background subtraction.

Calculations for the elastic proton scattering data were made using a fully microscopic model of the optical potential . In this model, the potential is obtained in coordinate-space by folding a complex energy- and density-dependent effective nucleon-nucleon ($`NN`$) interaction with the one-body density-matrix elements (OBDME) and single particle bound states of the target generated by shell model calculations. As the approach accounts for the exchange terms in the scattering process the resulting complex optical potential is non-local. This model has been applied successfully to calculate elastic and inelastic scattering of protons from many stable and unstable nuclei ranging from 3He to 238U at different energies between 65 MeV and 300 MeV . The effective interaction and the structure details were all preset and no a posteriori adjustment or simplifying approximation was made to the folded optical potentials. Hence the observables obtained are predictions. Hereafter, we refer to the process of making such potentials as $`g`$ folding.

Calculations of the transition amplitudes for the inelastic scattering have been done within the distorted wave approximation (DWA). The same effective $`NN`$ interaction and shell model calculations used to make the $`g`$ folding optical potential have been respectively used for the transition operator and the transition OBDME. For the stable nuclei whose spectroscopy is well defined from the measurement of inelastic electron scattering form factor, the inelastic scattering has been shown to be very sensitive, more than elastic scattering, to the details of the effective interaction . Conversely, when the effective interaction was well established, the analysis of inelastic data turned out to be a very sensitive test of the model structure used for the nucleus . As for elastic scattering the calculations were parameter free.

To apply these models to 40 MeV proton scattering, the effective $`NN`$ interaction had to be determined. As for the higher energies, it has been parametrized as a sum of central, two-body spin orbit and tensor components, each of them being a set of Yukawa functions of various ranges. This specific form is dictated by the structure chosen in the program DWBA98  which has been used for the analysis of both the elastic and inelastic scattering data. The complex, energy- and density-dependent strength and the range of each Yukawa function were obtained by accurately mapping the on- and half-on-shell $`g`$ matrices which are solutions of the Brueckner-Bethe-Goldstone equations of the Bonn-B realistic $`NN`$ interaction. The validity of the 40 MeV effective interaction has been verified by calculations of cross sections and analyzing powers of proton elastic scattering for different stable nuclei .

With the effective $`NN`$ interaction set, it remained only to define the structure of 6He. A view that this nucleus should resemble an $`\alpha `$ particle with two extraneous neutrons has fostered a semi-microscopic cluster model treatment of the system . On the other hand, large space (no-core) shell model calculations  and quantum Monte Carlo calculations  which are fully microscopic have been done. The Navrátil and Barrett  large space shell model calculations are suited to our scattering analyses. They allowed the 6 nucleons to be active and their shell model interaction was specified as $`NN`$ $`G`$ matrix elements  generated from the realistic CD-Bonn $`NN`$ interaction. We used their complete $`6\mathrm{}\omega `$ wave functions to specify the relevant ground state and $`0^+2^+`$ transition OBDME for 6He. To investigate the sensitivity of the analyses on the size of the model space we have also used wave functions from a complete $`4\mathrm{}\omega `$ shell model . However, in both models the binding energy of the last neutron is larger than the experimental separation energy 1.87 MeV . That would indicate that the size of the model spaces used is still too small to give the correct asymptotic behavior of the neutron density.

The $`p^6`$He $`g`$ folding optical potential made with the shell model prescribed HO functions is almost phase shift equivalent to that obtained using WS functions which allow to fit electron scattering for form factor of 6Li . This led us to use these WS functions but in order to specify the neutron halo in 6He we changed the bound state WS potential so that the 0p-shell binding energy became 2 MeV which is close to the single neutron separation energy. Also the binding energies of the higher orbits were all set to 0.5 MeV as more exact (smaller) values will not influence noticeably results of the scattering. The optical potential obtained using these adjusted WS single particle wave functions leads to the cross section hereafter designated as halo. The use of the HO single particle wave functions given by either shell model leads to the cross section that is designated as no halo. Use of the WS wave functions has been shown to reproduce the r.m.s. radius of 6He .

The elastic scattering data are compared in Fig. 3(a) to the halo (solid line) and no halo (dashed line) calculations. The two calculations are very similar up to 60 and notably differ at larger angles. The agreement of the calculations with the data is very good up to 60. The few data beyond these angles are better reproduced by the halo description but it is clear that data at larger momentum transfers are required to use elastic scattering as a probe of the halo structure of 6He.

The very good agreement obtained with the elastic scattering data is essential since it validates the $`g`$ folding optical potential used to define the distorted waves in the DWA analysis of the inelastic scattering leading to the $`2^+;T=1`$ state. Halo (solid line) and no halo (dashed line) calculated cross sections for the 2+ state are presented in Fig. 3(b). Contrary to the elastic scattering, the sensitivity to the halo is important over the entire angular domain. The data are very well reproduced by the halo calculation. This conclusion is strengthened by the fact that the results for both elastic and inelastic scattering obtained by using $`4\mathrm{}\omega `$  rather than $`6\mathrm{}\omega `$ model space wave functions and also by using the Paris Potential  rather than the Bonn-B interaction are very similar. The validity of the models used to predict the present data is corroborated by the very good agreement obtained between the result of the $`4\mathrm{}\omega `$ model (406 mb) and the measured ($`426\pm 21`$ mb)  reaction cross section.

In conclusion, we have presented data for the elastic and inelastic ($`2^+`$) scattering of 6He from hydrogen at $`40.9A`$ MeV over a large angular domain ($`10^{}`$ to $`80^{}`$). An excellent prediction of both elastic and inelastic data has been made using a fully microscopic, complex, non-local optical potential based on large basis shell-model calculations of 6He with the incorporation of a neutron halo. On the other hand, we have shown that the 2+ state scattering data are not reproduced by using the unaltered shell model wave functions which overpredict the binding energy of the valence neutrons and thus do not allow the halo to be formed. The sensitivity of the inelastic scattering data to the structure of 6He and the success of the coordinate space scattering theories, based upon effective $`NN`$ interactions used successfully in analyses of proton scattering from stable nuclei, open large perspectives for the study of the microscopic structure of exotic systems.


text:
# A Realization of the infinite-dimensional Symmetries of Conformal Mechanics

## I Introduction

Recently, much attention has been devoted to the study of the symmetries of conformal mechanics , especially because this model is expected to play an important role in the context of the $`\mathrm{AdS}_2/\mathrm{CFT}_1`$ correspondence . Another reason of the renewed interest in this model is the fact that it describes the motion of a particle near the horizon of the Reissner-Nordstrom black hole .

Starting from the symplectic symmetry of its phase space, it was shown that conformal mechanics admits an infinite set of conserved charges, which span a $`w_{\mathrm{}}`$ algebra . However, the physical interpretation of this algebra and of the related charges, and its connection with the conformal algebra of the original de Alfaro, Fubini, Furlan (DFF) model  has not been discussed in the literature. In particular, the Virasoro algebra appearing as subgroup of the $`w_{\mathrm{}}`$ algebra can be thought of as an infinite dimensional extension of the $`SL(2,𝐑)`$ symmetry of the DFF model. It seems, therefore, very natural that a realization of the infinite dimensional symmetry of conformal mechanics exists, which generalizes the realization of the $`SL(2,𝐑)`$ symmetry of the DFF model in terms of quasi–primary fields. The $`SL(2,𝐑)`$ symmetry of the DFF model is realized as conformal transformations of the time $`t`$ with the coordinate $`q`$ transforming as a quasi-primary conformal field . The most natural generalization of this realization leading to an infinite dimensional symmetry is obtained by requiring invariance under diffeomorphisms of the time $`t`$. Such a generalization is also consistent with the fact that the conformal group in one dimension can be realized as the group of time reparametrizations and is generated by a Virasoro algebra . An implementation of the previous ideas could help to shed some light on the mysteries of the AdS2/CFT1 correspondence.

In this paper we discuss in detail these points. In particular, we show how the realization of the $`SL(2,𝐑)`$ symmetry of the DFF model can be generalized to an infinite dimensional symmetry realized as time reparametrizations. The price we pay in doing this operation is that the transformation law for the coordinate $`q`$ is not given by the simple transformation law of a conformal field with given weight but contains further terms depending on the dynamical variables of the system.

Another, related, issue we will address in this paper is to understand how a infinite dimensional symmetry can arise in a model with only one degree of freedom. We will show that the $`w_{\mathrm{}}`$ and conformal algebras have different origin, and that the generators of $`w_{\mathrm{}}`$ are not functionally independent, but are functions of two basic conserved quantities.

The structure of the paper is the following. In sect. 2 we discuss the conformal symmetry of conformal mechanics and its realization in terms of time reparametrizations generalizing the DFF realization of the $`SL(2,𝐑)`$ symmetry . In sect. 3, we show how this symmetry can be further extended to the full $`w_{\mathrm{}}`$ algebra.

## II Symmetries of one–dimensional Conformal Mechanics

In Ref.  was observed that the algebra of the symmetries of a generic one–dimensional conformal model described by the Hamiltonian,

$$H=\frac{p^2}{2f(u)},$$
(1)
where $`f(u)`$ is a function of $`u=pq`$, can be extended to a Virasoro algebra with generators

$$L_n=\frac{1}{2}q^{1+n}p^{1n}f^n,$$

such that§§§With $`\{F,G\}`$ we mean the Poisson Brackets with the convention $`\{q,p\}=1`$.

$$\{L_n,L_m\}=(mn)L_{m+n}.$$

The generators $`L_n`$ are not conserved charges. The origin of the symmetry is rather obscure in this formulation, but was partially clarified in Ref. , where the symmetry was also extended to a $`w_{\mathrm{}}`$ algebra. Since the Hamiltonian (1) can be transformed into the free Hamiltonian $`H=p^2/2`$ by a simple canonical transformation, the symmetries of the action are easily found. It turns out that the diffeomorphisms which preserve the symplectic form $`\mathrm{\Omega }=dpdqdHdt`$ are generated by vector fields spanning the $`w_{\mathrm{}}`$ algebra of area–preserving diffeomorphisms. One can choose a basis of generators

$$v_m^l=\left(\frac{p}{\sqrt{f}}\right)^{l+1}\left(q\sqrt{f}\frac{p}{\sqrt{f}}t\right)^{l+m+1},$$
(2)
with $`l=0,1,2,\mathrm{}`$ and $`m𝐙`$, which satisfy the $`w_{\mathrm{}}`$ algebra:

$$\{v_m^l,v_m^{}^l^{}\}=[m(l^{}+1)m^{}(l+1)]v_{m+m^{}}^{l+l^{}}.$$
(3)
The $`v_m^l`$ are conserved charges (constants of motion):

$$\frac{dv_m^l}{dt}=\frac{v_m^l}{t}+\{v_m^l,H\}=0.$$
(4)
The physical interpretation of these charges is still not completely evident. However, the same result can be recovered in a more intuitive way, when one tries to extend to an infinite dimensional Virasoro algebra the $`SL(2,𝐑)`$ symmetry algebra of the conformal mechanics of DFF , whose Hamiltonian

$$H_{DFF}=\frac{p^2}{2}+\frac{g}{2q^2},$$
(5)
with $`g`$ constant, is a special case of the model (1) with $`f=(1+g/u^2)^1`$. The coordinate $`q`$ transforms under the conformal group $`SL(2,𝐑)`$ as a quasi–primary field:

$$q^{}(t^{})=\frac{1}{\gamma t+\delta }q(t),t^{}=\frac{\alpha t+\beta }{\gamma t+\delta },\alpha \delta \beta \gamma =1.$$
(6)
The generators of infinitesimal translations, dilatations and special conformal transformations are given by $`H_{DFF}`$, $`D_{DFF}`$ and $`K_{DFF}`$, where

$`D_{DFF}=tH{\displaystyle \frac{pq}{2}},`$ (7)
$`K_{DFF}=t^2Htpq+{\displaystyle \frac{q^2}{2}}.`$ (8)
These generators are conserved under time evolution. The conformal $`SL(2,𝐑)`$ algebra is

$$\{H_{DFF},D_{DFF}\}=H_{DFF},\{K_{DFF},D_{DFF}\}=K_{DFF},\{H_{DFF},K_{DFF}\}=2D_{DFF}.$$
(9)
One can show that it is impossible to find an infinite dimensional extension of the little algebra generated by $`H_{DFF}=L_1`$, $`D_{DFF}=L_0`$, $`K_{DFF}=L_1`$, which is realized as time reparametrizations and preserves the transformation law for the coordinates $`q`$ given in Eq. (6). In fact, since $`\{L_1,L_0,L_1\}`$ are conserved charges, any extension can consist only of conserved charges. This proposition is easily proven. From

$`\{L_n,L_1\}`$ $`=(n+1)L_{n1}`$ (10)
$`\{L_n,L_1\}`$ $`=(n1)L_{n+1}`$ (11)
$`{\displaystyle \frac{dL_1}{dt}}={\displaystyle \frac{dL_0}{dt}}`$ $`={\displaystyle \frac{dL_1}{dt}}=0,`$ (12)
we conclude that

$$\frac{dL_2}{dt}=\frac{dL_2}{dt}=0\frac{dL_n}{dt}=0,n2\text{and}n+2.$$
(13)
The first relation on the r.h.s. of the previous implication is proved considering the total time derivative of

$$\{L_2,L_1\}=3L_1$$

and the last line of (10). From $`\frac{d}{dt}L_n=0`$ for $`n1`$, we infer that also the remaining generators $`L_n`$, $`n2`$ are conserved. But this conclusion implies that the coordinate $`q`$ should transform as a primary (not only quasi–primary) field in order to give a conserved action modulo a total time derivative, which is not the case. In fact, if we consider a generic time reparametrization $`t^{}=h(t)`$ we have

$$q^{}(t^{})=\left(\frac{dh(t)}{dt}\right)^{1/2}q(t).$$
(14)
The variation of the action $`S=𝑑tL(q,\dot{q})`$ is given by

$$\delta S=\frac{1}{2}𝑑t\left[\frac{d}{dt}\left(\frac{\ddot{h}}{\dot{h}}\frac{q}{2}\right)(h,t)\frac{q^2}{2}\right],$$
(15)
where $`(h,t)`$ is the Schwarzian derivative of the map $`tt^{}=h(t)`$. It is easy to see that $`\delta S`$ is a total derivative only if $`h(t)`$ is a conformal map, while for a generic infinitesimal time transformation $`t^{}=t+ϵg(t)`$, Eq. (15) becomes:

$$\delta S=\frac{1}{2}𝑑tϵ\ddot{g}q\dot{q}.$$
(16)
The conclusion is that there cannot exist conserved charges corresponding to time-reparametrizations with the field $`q`$ transforming as in Eq. (14). This implies, in turn, that it is impossible to generalize the $`SL(2,𝐑)`$ conformal symmetry (14) to the full diffeomorphisms group, if one requires that $`q`$ transforms as a conformal field.

It is evident that the quasi–primarity condition (6) is too strong. Let us try to relax this condition and impose an analogous condition only for translations and dilatations. From Noether theorem we get $`D=tHpq/2`$ $`(=D_{DFF})`$, which in turn implies

$$\frac{dD}{dt}=0H=\frac{p^2}{2f(pq)}.$$
(17)
Hence, $`H`$ must have the form given by Eq. (1) with $`f(pq)`$ being an arbitrary function. If we further impose that $`q`$ transforms as in (6) (quasi–primary) for infinitesimal special conformal transformation of $`t`$, we are forced to take

$`H`$ $`={\displaystyle \frac{p^2}{2}}\left(1+{\displaystyle \frac{g_1}{pq}}+{\displaystyle \frac{g_2}{(pq)^2}}\right)`$ (18)
$`K`$ $`=t^2Htpq+{\displaystyle \frac{q^2}{2}}{\displaystyle \frac{g_1}{2}}t,`$ (19)
where $`g_1`$ and $`g_2`$ are constants. With the trivial canonical transformation $`p^{}=p+g_1/(2q)`$, $`q^{}=q`$, we have $`HH_{DFF}`$ with $`g=g_2g_1^2/4`$, so the quasi–primarity condition for the $`q`$ is fulfilled only by the DFF conformal mechanics. Let us assume instead that under infinitesimal special conformal transformations $`t^{}=t\omega t^2`$, $`q`$ changes according to

$$\delta _0q=\omega \{q,K\}=\omega t^2\dot{q}\omega tq+\text{corrections}$$
(20)
where $`\delta _0q=q^{}(t)q(t)`$ and $`K`$ is the (conserved) charge to be determined. If we take $`K=t^2Htpq+f_2`$, the condition $`\frac{d}{dt}K=0`$ translates into

$$\frac{d}{dt}f_2=pq\{\begin{array}{cc}f_2=\frac{q^2}{2}\hfill & \text{DFF solution}\hfill \\ f_2=\frac{(pq)^2}{4H}\hfill & \end{array}$$
(21)
If we choose the second solution, we can write the three conserved generators as:

$`L_1`$ $`=H_{CCM}=H\left(t{\displaystyle \frac{pq}{2H}}\right)^0,`$ (22)
$`L_0`$ $`=D_{CCM}=H\left(t{\displaystyle \frac{pq}{2H}}\right)^1,`$ (23)
$`L_1`$ $`=K_{CCM}=H\left(t{\displaystyle \frac{pq}{2H}}\right)^2.`$ (24)
The extension to a Virasoro Algebra of conserved charges is now immediate:

$`L_n=H\left(t{\displaystyle \frac{pq}{2H}}\right)^{1+n}n𝐙`$ (25)
$`{\displaystyle \frac{d}{dt}}L_n=0`$ (26)
$`\{L_n,L_m\}=(mn)L_{n+m}.`$ (27)
The meaning of these charges is clear from their very construction: they canonically implement the transformation of the variables $`q,p`$ as primary “fields” plus interaction-dependent corrections necessary to close a Virasoro algebra of conserved quantities. It can be noted that the DFF generators of the $`SL(2,𝐑)`$ algebra coincide with the generators (22) only in the non-interacting $`g=0`$ case.

According to this interpretation we can establish a correspondence between the charges $`L_{n1}`$ and the infinitesimal time transformations $`tt\omega t^n`$, with $`n𝐙`$, identifying the $`L_{n1}`$ with the Noether charges for such transformations. In fact, under $`L_{n1}`$ the coordinates and momenta transform as

$`\delta _0q`$ $`=\omega \{q,L_{n1}\}`$ (28)
$`\delta _0p`$ $`=\omega \{p,L_{n1}\}.`$ (29)
Using Eq. (28) one can easily find the transformation law of $`p,q`$ for a generic infinitesimal time transformation $`t^{}=tϵ(t)`$,

$`\delta _0q`$ $`=\{q,Hϵ\left(t{\displaystyle \frac{pq}{2H}}\right)\}`$ (30)
$`\delta _0p`$ $`=\{p,Hϵ\left(t{\displaystyle \frac{pq}{2H}}\right)\}.`$ (31)
Expanding $`ϵ(t)=_nϵ_nt^n`$, and computing the Poisson brackets, we get

$`\delta _0q`$ $`=\left(ϵ\dot{q}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\dot{ϵ}q\right)+{\displaystyle \underset{n}{}}ϵ_n{\displaystyle \underset{k2}{}}\left({\displaystyle \genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{n}{k}}\right)t^{nk}\{q,H\left({\displaystyle \frac{pq}{2H}}\right)^k\},`$ (32)
$`\delta _0p`$ $`=\left(ϵ\dot{p}+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\dot{ϵ}p\right)+{\displaystyle \underset{n}{}}ϵ_n{\displaystyle \underset{k2}{}}\left({\displaystyle \genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{n}{k}}\right)t^{nk}\{p,H\left({\displaystyle \frac{pq}{2H}}\right)^k\}.`$ (33)
Comparing this realization of the infinite dimensional conformal symmetry with the usual realization in terms of primary fields,

$$\delta _0q=ϵ\dot{q}\frac{1}{2}\dot{ϵ}q,$$
(34)
one easily sees that our realization of the infinite dimensional conformal algebra differs from the usual one for terms depending on the dynamics of the system. In particular, in contrast with ordinary ”spacetime” symmetries, the additional terms depend both on $`q`$ and $`\dot{q}`$.

## III Further extensions of the symmetry algebra

The Virasoro algebra (25) can be easily extended to a $`w_{\mathrm{}}`$-algebra analogous to (3). In fact, starting from the two elementary conserved charges $`H`$ and $`G=t\frac{pq}{2H}`$, one can define the conserved generators

$$w_{l,m}=H^{1+l}G^ml,m𝐙,$$

with Poisson brackets

$$\{w_{l,m},w_{l^{},m^{}}\}=[m^{}(l+1)m(l^{}+1)]w_{l+l^{},m+m^{}}.$$
(35)
The charges so defined satisfy the same algebra as (3), and essentially coincide with the charges $`v_m^l`$, modulo some redefinitions. The Virasoro algebra (25) is contained in (35) as a subalgebra, $`L_n=w_{0,n+1}`$.

It should be noticed that in the particular case of DFF conformal mechanics, the algebra (35) also includes the generator of special conformal transformations $`K_{DFF}`$. In fact, from the definitions (7) and (25),

$$K_{DFF}=K_{CCM}+\frac{g}{4H_{DFF}}=w_{0,2}+\frac{g}{4}w_{2,0}.$$
(36)
Our construction clarifies how an infinite set of conserved charges can originate from a system with only one degree of freedom: all the charges are in fact functionally dependent from the two elementary charges $`H`$ and $`G`$.


text:
# Matter effects for ‘just so’ oscillations

## I Introduction

The solar neutrino data of Super-Kamiokande has lead to a reexamination of all the solutions of the solar neutrino problem . In addition to the overall suppression rate, Super-Kamiokande has measured the day-night asymmetry and the spectrum of the scattered electrons. These two measurements are independent of the overall normalization of the 8B neutrino flux. This normalization has the largest uncertainty among all the predictions of the solar models . Hence data, which are independent of it, are extremely important in studying the properties of 8B neutrinos from the sun. The present data, especially the recoil spectrum, favor ‘just-so’ oscillation solution to the solar neutrino problem .

In analyzing the solar neutrino data in terms of ‘just-so’ oscillations, the expression used for electron neutrino survival probability $`P_{ee}`$ is simply the vacuum survival probability. Given that the matter term in the sun is several orders of magnitude greater than the mass-squared difference, the question arises whether the use of vacuum survival probability is justified. A very simple justification can be given the following way: The mass-squared difference $`\delta `$ required for just-so oscillations is about $`10^{10}`$ eV2. The matter term

$$A(\mathrm{in}\mathrm{eV}^2)=0.76\times 10^7\rho (\mathrm{in}\mathrm{gm}/\mathrm{cc})E(\mathrm{in}\mathrm{MeV}),$$
(1)
is much larger than $`\delta `$ as long as the density $`\rho `$ is greater than $`0.01`$ gm/cc. First we assume that the density is spherically symmetric and it falls abruptly to $`0`$ once it decreases to a value of $`0.01`$ gm/cc. As long as the neutrino is in the sun, $`A`$ completely overwhelms $`\delta `$ and the electron neutrino in the sun is essentially the higher mass eigenstate. Hence during its travel through the sun, the neutrino does not oscillate and it simply acquires a phase. Thus throughout the travel through the sun, an electron neutrino remains an electron neutrino. When the neutrino comes out of the sun, it passes through the abrupt change in density from $`0.01`$ to $`0`$. In such a case, the flavour composition is unchanged. Since the neutrino in the sun remained an electron neutrino, we have an electron neutrino coming out of the sun. Thus the starting point of neutrino evolution is transferred from the core of the sun to the edge of the sun .

But now we can raise the question: Suppose the solar matter density does not change abruptly to zero but goes to zero smoothly. Then at some point in its propagation the neutrino will pass through a region where the density is equal to the resonant density. In such a situation, how is the neutrino oscillation probability modified? We address the question below.

## II Just-so Survival Probability

For simplicity here we consider only two flavor oscillations. The flavor states $`\nu _e`$ and $`\nu _\mu `$ are linear combinations of the two mass eigenstates $`\nu _1`$ and $`\nu _2`$

$`\nu _e`$ $`=`$ $`\mathrm{cos}\theta \nu _1+\mathrm{sin}\theta \nu _2`$ (2)
$`\nu _\mu `$ $`=`$ $`\mathrm{sin}\theta \nu _1+\mathrm{cos}\theta \nu _2.`$ (3)
Without loss of generality we can take $`\nu _2`$ to be more massive than $`\nu _1`$ and hence $`\delta =m_2^2m_1^2>0`$. If $`\theta <\pi /4`$, then $`\nu _e`$ is predominantly the lighter state. If $`\theta >\pi /4`$, then $`\nu _e`$ is predominantly the heavier state. Thus the two physically distinguishable possibilities are covered by taking the range of $`\theta `$ to be $`(0,\pi /2)`$. Since we are considering ‘just-so’ oscillations, we will assume that $`\delta =10^{10}`$ eV2. We will also assume that the value of $`\theta `$ is moderately large, i.e. $`\theta `$ is not finetuned to be very small or be very close to $`\pi /4`$.

Electron neutrinos are produced in the core of the sun. Since the solar matter near the core is very dense, one must take the matter term $`A`$ into account in determining the mass eigenstates in the core. We can define instantaneous matter dependent mass eigenstates

$`\nu _e`$ $`=`$ $`\mathrm{cos}\theta _m\nu _{1m}+\mathrm{sin}\theta _m\nu _{2m}`$ (4)
$`\nu _\mu `$ $`=`$ $`\mathrm{sin}\theta _m\nu _{1m}+\mathrm{cos}\theta _m\nu _{2m},`$ (5)
where $`\theta _m`$ is the matter dependent mixing angle and is given by

$$\mathrm{cos}2\theta _m=\frac{\delta \mathrm{cos}2\theta A}{\delta _m}.$$
(6)
$`\delta _m`$ is the matter dependent mass-square difference and is given by

$$\delta _m=\sqrt{(\delta \mathrm{cos}2\theta A)^2+(\delta \mathrm{sin}2\theta )^2}.$$
(7)
As the neutrino travels through the sun, it encounters matter of constantly decreasing density. In the basis of matter dependent mass eigenstates, the evolution equation for the neutrino is

$$i\frac{d}{dt}\left[\begin{array}{c}\nu _{1m}\\ \nu _{2m}\end{array}\right]=\frac{1}{4E}\left[\begin{array}{cc}\delta _m(t)& 4iE\dot{\theta }_m(t)\\ 4iE\dot{\theta }_m(t)& \delta _m(t)\end{array}\right]\left[\begin{array}{c}\nu _{1m}\\ \nu _{2m}\end{array}\right].$$
(8)
The propagation of neutrino is adiabatic as long as the off-diagonal terms are smaller than the difference of the diagonal terms in the above equation, i.e.

$$\delta _m\frac{2EA\delta \mathrm{sin}2\theta }{\delta _m^2}\left|\frac{\dot{A}}{A}\right|.$$
(9)
In the body of the sun the density profile is of the form

$$\rho (r)=\rho _0\mathrm{exp}(10.54r/R_s)$$
(10)
where $`\rho _0`$ is the core density (about 140 gm/cc) and $`R_s`$ is the radius of the sun (about $`7\times 10^5`$ km) . Therefore

$$\left|\frac{\dot{A}}{A}\right|=\left|\frac{\dot{\rho }}{\rho }\right|=\frac{10.54}{R_s}=3\times 10^{15}\mathrm{eV}.$$
(11)
As long as $`\rho 0.01`$ gm/cc (or $`r0.9R_s`$) the matter term $`A`$ is much larger than $`\delta `$, hence $`\delta _mA`$. According to our assumption on $`\theta `$, $`\mathrm{sin}2\theta 1`$. Substituting all these in Eq. (9), the adiabatic condition becomes

$$A^26\times 10^{19}(E/\mathrm{MeV}).$$
(12)
The most compelling reason for considering just-so oscillations as a solution to the solar neutrino problem is Super-Kamiokande data on electron spectrum due to 8B neutrinos. The observed range of these neutrinos is 6-14 MeV and they are peaked around 10 MeV. Henceforth, we will take E = 10 MeV for illustrative purpose. Conservatively we require that $`A^2`$ should be at least 10 times the value on RHS. With this requirement, we find that the adiabatic condition is satisfied if

$$\rho 0.01\mathrm{gm}/\mathrm{cc}.$$
(13)
The adiabatic condition is likely to break down if $`\rho 0.01`$ gm/cc, or for radial distances greater than $`r>0.9R_s`$.

When the neutrino is well out of the sun the matter term is much smaller than $`\delta `$ and adiabaticity is restored. In such a case we have, essentially, vacuum propagation. The radial distance at which this happens is a function of the density profile of the sun beyond $`0.9R_s`$. For example, if the density falls linearly beyond $`0.9R_s`$, vacuum propagation starts around $`r=R_s`$. If the density fall continues to be the exponential form shown in Eq. (10), then vacuum propagation starts only around $`2R_s`$. Between the time of breakdown of the adiabaticity and the time of its restoration, the off-diagonal terms in the equation of propagation, Eq. (8), are comparable to the diagonal terms. In fact, for some intermediate region, the off-diagonal terms completely dominate, making the propagation extremely non-adiabatic. These extreme non-adiabatic effects cause the just-so oscillation probability to reduce to vacuum oscillation probability.

An electron neutrino is produced in the core of the sun at time $`t_0`$ and proipagates adiabatically upto $`t_1`$. Between times $`t_1`$ and $`t_2`$ its propagation is non-adiabatic. Beyond $`t_2`$ the neutrino propagates in vacuum and is detected at $`t_3`$. Its state vector at $`t_3`$ is

$$|\mathrm{\Psi }_e(t_3)=\underset{j,i}{}|\nu _jexp\left(i\epsilon _j(t_3t_2)\right)M_{ij}exp\left(i_{t_0}^{t_1}\epsilon _i^S(t)𝑑t\right)U_{ei}^C,$$
(14)
where $`\epsilon _i^S(t)`$ are the matter dependent energy eigenvalues in the sun and $`\epsilon _i`$ are the energy eigenvalues in vacuum. $`M_{ij}`$ is the amplitude for non-adiabatic transition from mass eigenstate $`\nu _{im}`$ at $`t=t_1`$ to mass eigenstate $`\nu _j`$ at $`t=t_2`$. $`U_{ei}^C`$ is the $`ei`$ element of the matter dependent mixing matrix at the core of the sun. From the above equation, we obtain the electron neutrino survival probability to be

$`P_{ee}`$ $`=`$ $`|\nu _e|\mathrm{\Psi }_e(t_3)|^2`$ (15)
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{j^{},i^{}}{}}{\displaystyle \underset{ji}{}}U_{ej}M_{ij}U_{ei}^CU_{ej^{}}M_{i^{}j^{}}U_{ei^{}}^Cexp\left\{i\left({\displaystyle _{t_0}^{t_1}}(\epsilon _i^{}^S(t)\epsilon _i^S(t))𝑑t\right)\right\}exp\left\{i(\epsilon _j^{}\epsilon _j)(t_3t_2)\right\}.`$ (16)
Because of the variation in the production region, the phase picked up in the time from $`t_0`$ to $`t_1`$ can be averaged out. So $`exp\left(i_{t_0}^{t_1}(\epsilon _i^{}^S(t)\epsilon _i^S(t))𝑑t\right)`$ can be replaced by $`\delta _{ii^{}}`$. Thus, $`P_{ee}`$ is simplified to

$$P_{ee}=\underset{ijj^{}}{}U_{ej}M_{ij}U_{ei}^CU_{ej^{}}M_{ij^{}}U_{ei}^Cexp\left\{i(\epsilon _j^{}\epsilon _j)(t_3t_2)\right\}.$$
(17)
The mixing angle at the core of the sun $`\theta _C=\pi /2`$, because the electron neutrino is the heavier mass eigenstate due to the dominance of the matter term. In vacuum, of course, it is $`\theta `$. Substituting these in the expression for $`P_{ee}`$, we get

$`P_{ee}`$ $`=`$ $`x_{12}\mathrm{cos}^2\theta +(1x_{12})\mathrm{sin}^2\theta `$ (18)
$`+`$ $`2\mathrm{sin}\theta \mathrm{cos}\theta \mathrm{}\left(M_{12}^{}M_{22}\right)\mathrm{cos}\left(2.54{\displaystyle \frac{\delta x}{E}}\right),`$ (19)
where $`x_{12}=|M_{12}|^2`$ is the probability for the $`\nu _{1m}(t_1)`$ evolve into $`\nu _2`$ at $`t_2`$. In the above equation we have also made the extreme non-relativistic apporoximation for neutrinos and replaced the difference in energies by the mass-squared difference and the time time of travel $`(t_3t_2)`$ by the distance of travel $`x`$.

The survival probability given in Eq. (19) should give us vacuum survival probability if the density falls abruptly to $`0`$, that is $`t_2t_1`$ is extremely small. In such a case, it was shown that $`M_{12}=(U_S^{}U)_{12}=\mathrm{sin}(\theta _S\theta )=\mathrm{cos}\theta `$ because $`\theta _S`$, the mixing angle in the sun, is $`\pi /2`$ . For $`M_{12}=\mathrm{cos}\theta `$, $`P_{ee}`$ immediately reduces to vacuum survival probability. Now the question is: what is $`M_{12}`$ if the density falls smoothly to zero and the distance between the point of breakdown of adiabaticity and the point of start of vacuum propagation is a significant fraction of solar radius. In such a case, the calculation of $`M_{12}`$ is complicated and depends on the density profile of the sun beyond $`0.9R_s`$. Let us calculate $`M_{12}`$ in a simplified situation where we will assume that the off-diagonal terms are much larger than the diagonal terms between the point of breakdown of adiabaticity $`(t_1)`$ and the point of restoration of adiabaticity $`(t_2)`$. That is, in the region where adiabatic approximation is not valid, the evolution is extremely non-adiabatic. Then the evolution equation is

$$i\frac{d}{dt}\left[\begin{array}{c}\nu _{1m}\\ \nu _{2m}\end{array}\right]=\frac{1}{4E}\left[\begin{array}{cc}0& 4iE\dot{\theta }_m(t)\\ 4iE\dot{\theta }_m(t)& 0\end{array}\right]\left[\begin{array}{c}\nu _{1m}\\ \nu _{2m}\end{array}\right].$$
(20)
Integrating this equation from $`t_1`$ to $`t_2`$, we get

$$M_{12}=\mathrm{sin}\left(\theta (t_1)\theta (t_2)\right).$$
(21)
As mentioned above, until the time $`t_1`$, $`A>>\delta `$, hence $`\theta (t_1)=\pi /2`$. At time $`t_2`$, vacuum propagation starts, hence $`\theta (t_2)=\theta `$. So we get $`M_{12}=\mathrm{cos}\theta `$, which reduces $`P_{ee}`$ to vacuum survival probability. Note that we have not made any assumption about how the density varies to zero. The width of non-adiabatic region (given by $`(t_1t_2)`$) is irrelevant. In case $`\theta \pi /4`$ there may be a point within this non-adiabatic region where the resonance condition is satisfied. However, the discussion above is completely independent of whether a resonance exists or not. The reason for this is that the breakdown of adiabaticity condition is independent of the existence of resonance. This is in contrast to the usual MSW effect where the adiabaticity condition breaks down only in the neighbourhood of a resonance.

The above simplication is not very good because, just after the breakdown of adiabaticity and also just before the restoration of the adiabaticity, the diagonal and off-diagonal terms in the evolution matrix are comparable. We need to consider these regions of ‘moderate non-adiabaticty’ separately. To study how good the above assumption of extreme non-adiabaticity throughout the region of non-adiabaticity is, we define a quantity Non-Adiabaticity Paramater (NAP). It is the ratio of the non-diagonal term to the diagonal term in the evolution matrix (Eq. (8)

$`NAP`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{4E\dot{\theta }_m}{\delta _m}}`$ (22)
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{2E\delta \mathrm{sin}2\theta \dot{A}}{\delta _m^3}}.`$ (23)
Note that NAP is proportional to $`d\rho /dt`$ and is much smaller than $`1`$ for regions of adiabaticity and is comparable to or greater than $`1`$ in the region where adiabatic approximation breaks down. The region where NAP is much greater than $`1`$ is the region of extereme non-adiabaticity. Suppose density profile varies smoothly upto the edge of the sun and then abruptly falls to zero. If the adiabatic approximation holds till the edge of the sun, the graph of NAP vs r looks like a Dirac delta function at $`r=R_s`$. In the discussion below, we consider two different density profiles.

* Exponential density fall (given in Eq. (10)) for all $`r`$, even beyond $`r=0.9R_s`$.
* Exponential density fall upto $`r=0.9R_s`$ and then a linear density fall beyond $`r=0.9R_s`$. The equation of the linear fall is determined by requiring that the value of the density and its first derivative should match at $`r=0.9R_s`$.

We see that for linear fall, NAP is zero until $`rR_s`$ and then rises sharply at $`r=R_s`$, which resembles the NAP graph for an abrupt density change. Hence for linear fall at the edge of the sun, the just-so oscillation probability reduces to the vacuum oscillation probability. The region of moderate non-adiabaticity is very narrow ($`r=0.957R_s`$ to $`r=0.991R_s`$).

However for exponential fall, NAP rises slowly, becomes greater than $`0.3`$ (breakdown of adiabatic approximation) at $`r=0.96R_s`$, crosses $`10`$ around $`r=1.12R_s`$ and falls below $`10`$ again for $`r=1.71R_s`$. The adiabatic approximation (NAP ¡ $`0.3`$) is restored only for $`r=2.04R_s`$. We see that regions of moderate non-adiabaticity are reasonably large both during increasing NAP $`(0.16R_s)`$ and during decreasing NAP $`0.33R_s`$. The transition amplitude between the two edges of extreme non-adiabaticity can be easily calculated, as shown in Eqs. (20) and (21). However, the effects of propagation through the regions of moderate non-adiabaticity $`(0.3<\mathrm{NAP}<10)`$ must be taken into account. Since the regions of moderate non-adiabaticity are wide, these can be calculataed only by numerical integrattion of the evolution equation in these regions. These moderate non-adiabatic effects can lead to the energy dependence of the just-so survival probability to be different from that of the vacuum survival probability. This investigation is in progress.

As mentioned above, for exponential density fall for all $`r`$, the survival probability for just-so oscillations is likely to be different from that of vacuum oscillations. Recently a calculation of such a modified survival probability was presented . We find the calculation in  untenable for the following reasons.

1. The calculation uses an expression for non-adiabatic jump probability which was calculated under the assumption that the physical region in the sun of extreme non-adiabaticity is very small so that it can be taken to be a point (namely the resonance point) and the non-adiabatic jump is calculated only at this point. However, as can be seen from Figure 1, the physical region of non-adiabaticity is of the order of solar radius, hence the assumption of non-adiabatic jump occuring at a point is unreasonable.
2. In ref  it was pointed out that the survival probability is asymmetric under the exchange $`\theta \pi /2\theta `$. The expression for survival probability uses a standard formula for non-adiabatic jump probability. However, this formula is derived assuming the existance of a resonance . Hence it cannot be used for scenarios where $`\theta >\pi /4`$.

## III Conclusions

* If the solar density abruptly falls to zero at the edge of the sun, just-so oscillation probability reduces to vacuum oscillation probability.
* If the density fall is smooth, the just-so oscillation probability reduces to vacuum oscillation probability if one assumes that the evolution is extremely non-adiabatic throughout the region where adiabatic condition is not valid. This conclusion is independent of the exact density profile near the edge of the sun or the exact width of the region of non-adiabaticity.
* The regions of moderate non-adiabaticity can give corrections to the simple vacuum oscillation probability. However, for linear density fall these corrections are negligible.
* If the recoil spectrum analysis of Super Kamiokande points towards a departure from the simple vacuum oscillation probability for just-so parameters, these departures can be used to obtain information on the density profile at the edge of the sun.

Acknowledgements: We thank Prof. Paul Langacker for a helpful discussion.


text:
# The Sun, stellar-population models, and the age estimation of high-redshift galaxies

## 1 Introduction

For over a decade now, astronomers have attempted to estimate the ages of high-redshift galaxies using broad-band optical-infrared photometry (e.g. Lilly 1988; Dunlop et al. 1989, Chambers & Charlot 1990). Unfortunately, however, the derived ages have been rendered virtually meaningless by disagreements between modellers over post main-sequence evolution (e.g. Charlot, Worthey & Bressan 1996), and by the extreme susceptibility of such relatively crude broad-band data to dust reddening, emission-line contamination etc.

In contrast, it has long been anticipated that relatively robust age constraints for high-redshift galaxies could be derived given rest-frame near-ultraviolet spectra of sufficient quality. This is because, for the potential ages of interest at $`z>1`$ (i.e. ages $`<`$ 5 Gyr), the ultraviolet light of a stellar population is expected to be dominated by stars close to the turn-off point of the ‘well-understood’ main sequence (MS) (e.g. Magris & Bruzual 1993).

With the advent of deep optical spectroscopy on 10-m class telescopes, it has now proved possible to put this technique into practice. In particular, Dunlop et al. (1996) were able to use a deep Keck spectrum of the $`z=1.5`$ radio galaxy LBDS 53W091 to first confirm that its near-ultraviolet spectrum was indeed dominated by starlight, and then to extract an age constraint of $`>3`$Gyr based primarily on comparison with a main-sequence only model of an evolving stellar population. Spinrad et al. (1997) explored further the reliability of this age estimate, and confirmed that the best agreement between ages derived using alternative evolutionary synthesis models was obtained if fitting was confined to the detailed shape of the near-ultraviolet spectral energy distribution.

Not surprisingly, given its implications for cosmology (for $`H_0=70\mathrm{k}\mathrm{m}\mathrm{s}^1\mathrm{Mpc}^1`$, the age of an Einstein-de Sitter universe at $`z=1.5`$ is only 2.3 Gyr), this result has been the subject of subsequent close scrutiny, and claims that 53W091 is in fact less than 2 Gyr old have been put forward by, for example, Bruzual & Magris (1997). However, Dunlop (1999) has argued that such young ages are only deduced using some models if the near-infrared photometry is also included in the fitting process, once again placing undesirable emphasis on the reliability of the modelling of post main-sequence evolution (a point previously also explored by Spinrad et al. 1997). Moreover, Dunlop (1999) has shown that, certainly for the slightly redder $`z=1.43`$ galaxy 53W069, if fitting is confined to the Keck spectroscopic data (Dey et al. 2000), the models of Bruzual & Charlot (1993), Worthey (1994), and Jimenez et al. (2000a) all lead to the conclusion that its stellar population is $`>3`$ Gyr old (assuming solar metallicity).

Most recently, however, the reliability of even this near-ultraviolet spectroscopic age-dating has been called into question by Yi et al. (2000). Yi et al. (2000), claim to have derived a much younger age for 53W091, but also claim that this age is not due to differences in post-MS evolution, but rather to the fact that the spectrum produced by the main sequence in their models reddens much more rapidly than in the models of Jimenez et al. (2000a). In support of their revised age estimates, Yi et al. cite the fact that their models can reproduce the spectrum of the Sun at an age of 5 Gyr, whereas the solar spectrum is not reproduced by the Jimenez et al. models until 8-10 Gyr. It is unclear to us why a stellar population should be expected to mimic the spectrum of the Sun at its current age ($`5`$ Gyr); even if the light from the stellar population is dominated by stars near the main-sequence turnoff the Sun is not expected to leave the main sequence until an age of $`10`$ Gyr (Jorgensen 1991). Nevertheless this claim has motivated us to explicitly check the calibration of the main-sequence evolution in alternative evolutionary synthesis models of galaxy evolution.

This is the main subject of the present paper. What we have done is to take the 3 alternative and independent models of galaxy evolution developed by Yi et al. (2000), Jimenez et al. (2000a) and Worthey (1994), and to check how rapidly they evolve to mimic the solar spectrum with and (more importantly) without inclusion of their post-MS components. The models are summarized in section 2, and the results of comparison with the solar near-ultraviolet spectrum are presented in section 3. We then proceed, in section 4, to use these models (again with and without post-MS components) to check explicitly the extent to which the age estimates of 53W091 and 53W069 really are affected by different approaches to modelling post-MS evolution. The main remaining uncertainty is the impact of having to assume a value for the metallicity of the stellar population, and in section 5 we explore whether, given near-ultraviolet data of sufficient quality, it may be possible to break the well-known age-metallicity degeneracy. Finally, our conclusions are summarized in section 6.

## 2 The models

### 2.1 The models

This study was motivated by the apparent disagreement reported by Yi et al. (2000) between their own models and those of Jimenez et al. (2000a). We are able to perform our own comparison of these models because Sukyoung Yi has kindly supplied us with his model SEDs up to an age of 5 Gyr (Yi, private communication). We also wanted to compare the predictions of a third independent set of evolutionary synthesis models, and have chosen the models of Worthey (1994) for this purpose. The reason for this choice was that we already knew, from our previous modelling of 53W091 (Dunlop et al. 1996, Spinrad et al. 1997) that the models of Worthey (1994) also appear to yield younger ages than those of Jimenez et al. (2000a), but for reasons which we suspected were primarily due to a different treatment of post-MS evolution (see Charlot et al. 1996).

Since the primary objective in this paper is to check the calibration of MS evolution using the Sun, we have confined our attention only to models which assume solar metallicity. However, we are interested in removing any potential confusion introduced by different treatments of post-MS evolution, because it is hard to be sure that the UV spectrum of an instantaneous starburst really is completely dominated by MS stars in all alternative models beyond an age of 2-3 Gyr (and beyond 5 Gyr it is not expected to be). We have therefore constructed a MS-only version of the models of Jimenez et al. (2000a), and have also been supplied with a MS-only version of the models of Worthey (1994) (Worthey, private communication). In both the Jimenez and the Worthey models the isochrones have been cut off at the same point (corresponding to point 55 in the Vandenberg grid in the case of Worthey’s models). A pure MS-only version of the Yi et al. models was not available to us, but we do have access to a main-sequence + giant branch (MSGB) version, which is stripped of Horizontal Branch and Asymptotic Giant Branch contributions, and should be an excellent approximation to an MS-only model, at least in the near-ultraviolet for ages $`<`$ 5 Gyr, as Yi et al. themselves claim.

### 2.2 $`\chi ^2`$ minimization

Since our main aim in this work was to calibrate the age-dating of distant stellar populations based on the rest-frame near-ultraviolet spectra, fitting was deliberately restricted to the spectral range $`20004000`$Å. The best fit was determined by binning the data to the same spectral resolution as the model in question, and then varying the age and normalization as free parameters until $`\chi ^2`$ was minimized.

For the high-redshift galaxies 53W091 and 53W069, the error on each binned spectral datapoint was derived from propagation of the original errors in the Keck optical spectra (see Dunlop et al. 1996; Dey et al. 2000). In the case of the Sun, we are using the theoretical spectrum of Kurucz as the best available representation of the true solar SED, and have simply assumed a constant flux-density error (i.e. independent of wavelength), adjusted in size until reduced chi-squared ($`\chi _\nu ^2`$) equalled unity for the very best fitting model. It is thus only possible to compare the relative (rather than absolute) ability of the different models to reproduce the solar ultraviolet spectrum as the age of each model is varied.

## 3 Comparison with the solar spectrum

### 3.1 Full models

In Figure 1a we show reduced $`\chi ^2`$as a function of age for each of the full stellar population models when age is varied in an attempt to best reproduce the solar spectrum. The models of Yi et al. predict the youngest age, indicating that the near-ultraviolet spectrum produced by these models best mimics that of the sun after an age of only 4 Gyr. The models of Worthey yield a best-fit age of 5 Gyr, while those of Jimenez et al. predict an age of 8 Gyr. From this plot it might appear that it is the models of Jimenez et al. that are most unusual, but it is important to note that i) it is the models of Jimenez et al. which yield the best quality of fit to the solar spectrum, and ii) it is to be expected that the full stellar population models will underestimate the main-sequence turn-off (MSTO) age of the sun, because of the inclusion of post-MS stars. Moreover, from this plot it is completely unclear how much of the (substantial) difference between the derived best-fit ages can be attributed to differing contributions of post-MS stars to the galaxy ultraviolet SEDs.

### 3.2 Main-sequence only models

For a meaningful comparison between galaxy synthesis models and the expected MS turn-off age of the sun, we really require to ensure that the ultraviolet spectra produced by the models are completely MS dominated. Therefore, in Figure 1b we show reduced $`\chi ^2`$ as a function of age in an analogous way to Figure 1a, but this time using models, stripped as far as possible of post-MS contributions. This allows not only a sensible comparison with the Sun, but also makes it possible to assess the relative impact of post-MS contributions to the full model fits shown in Figure 1a.

This plot makes it clear that it is the models of Yi et al. that are unusual, and apparently in error by a factor of two in terms of rate of MS evolution. Stripped of HB and AGB contributions the predictions of the Yi et al. models are little changed, indicating a best-fit age of 4-5 Gyr. In contrast, stripped of post-MS evolution the models of Worthey and Jimenez et al. appear to be in good agreement not only with each other (9 Gyr and 11 Gyr respectively) but also with the generally accepted MS turnoff age of the Sun (10.5 Gyr - Jorgensen 1991).

It is hard to assess the likely impact on the predictions of the Yi et al. models if the GB was also removed, but the lack of any dramatic change upon removal of HB and AGB contributions does tend to support their own claim that their models are already highly MS dominated at ages $`<`$ 5 Gyr. In contrast the contribution of post-MS stars in the models of Worthey must be relatively strong, even at 5 Gyr, because removal of HB + AGB moves the derived age from 5 to 7 Gyr, and subsequent removal of remaining post-MS stars completes the shift to 9 Gyr as shown in Figure 1b. This therefore backs up the suggestion made in Jimenez et al. (2000a) that the main difference between the models of Jimenez et al. and Worthey lies in the strength of the AGB and RGB, but that the MS evolution in both models is very similar, and yields sensible values for the turn-off age of the Sun.

These results are tabulated in Table 1, and in Figure 2 we show the best-fit model spectra superimposed on the solar spectrum. It is worth noting (from both Figure 2 and Figure 1) that, as one would hope, the MS-only models in every case yield a better quality of fit to the solar spectrum than do the full models which include some contribution from more evolved stars. Interestingly, the MS-only models of Jimenez et al. yield both the best overall fit in terms of reduced $`\chi ^2`$, and a MS-turnoff age which most closely matches the accepted value of 10.5 Gyr (Jorgensen 1991).

In summary, either the timescale of MS evolution in the models of Yi et al. is too short by a factor $`2`$, or the GB contribution to the UV spectrum at an age of 4 Gyr is unexpectedly large, in which case these models would again be extremely unusual and the comparison with the age of the Sun as suggested by Yi et al. must inevitably be meaningless.

## 4 Comparison with the spectra of red galaxies at $`z1.5`$

### 4.1 LBDS 53W091

The age implications of the deep Keck optical spectrum of the red mJy radio galaxy 53W091 have been previously discussed in some detail by Dunlop et al. (1996) and Spinrad et al. (1997). However it is interesting and important to revisit the age-determination of this object for a number of reasons. First, the models of Jimenez et al. have been updated in the intervening years. Second, the Yi et al. models did not exist in 1996/1997. Third, we have only recently obtained the MS-only versions of the Worthey models. We also felt it was important to re-analyze this spectrum given the claims made by Bruzual & Margris (1997) and Yi et al. (2000) that the most recent models yield best-fit ages for the stellar population in 53W091 of less than 2 Gyr.

Therefore in Figure 3 we show the results of fitting the same six models (as fitted to the Sun above), to the rest-frame near-ultraviolet SED of 53W091. The results, summarized in Table 1, are that both the Jimenez et al. (2000a) models (full and MS only) yield a best-fit age of 3 Gyr (with ages as young as 2 Gyr formally excluded), both the Yi et al. models (full and MSGB) yield a best fit age of 2 Gyr, while the best-fit age yielded by the Worthey models changes from 2 Gyr to 3 Gyr if post-MS contributions are excluded. Given the fact that we have already shown that the MS clock in the Yi et al. models appears to be running up to a factor of 2 too fast, this means that the argument over whether the age of 53W091 can or cannot be younger than 3 Gyr comes down to a debate over the validity of the stronger AGB and GB contributions in the Worthey models compared with the more MS-dominated Jimenez et al. models. Jimenez et al. (2000a) argue that their models include a better treatment of mass-loss in evolved stars which results in less luminous RGB and AGB contributions. In summary, the available evidence still appears to favour a minimum age of 3 Gyr for this galaxy, subject to remaining uncertaintities over the impact of possible non-solar metallicity (see section 5).

### 4.2 LBDS 53W069

As discussed by Dunlop (1999), the Keck spectrum of the even redder mJy radio galaxy 53W069 ($`z=1.43`$; Dey et al. 2000) appears to offer the best example discovered to date of a highly-evolved coeval stellar population at a redshift as high as $`z1.5`$. Dunlop (1999) found, from a comparison of their near-ultraviolet SEDs, that 53W069 is significantly redder than 53W091, and that the SED of the latter galaxy can be decomposed into that of 53W069 plus a low-level blue component which is approximately flat in $`f_\lambda `$. It is therefore to be expected that model-fitting to the near-ultraviolet SED of 53W069 might yield even older age limits than those derived above for 53W091.

In Figure 4 we show the results of fitting the same six models as before to the near-ultraviolet SED of 53W069. The results can again be found in tabulated form in Table 1. In summary, for this object 5 out of the 6 models yield a minimum age $`>3`$ Gyr, with only the Yi et al. full models allowing an age as young as 2 Gyr. Since these models appear flawed based on the solar comparison discussed in section 3, we conclude that it is extremely hard to escape the conclusion that 53W069 is at least $`3`$ Gyr old. For this object the debate over whether the post-MS treatment of Jimenez et al. (2000a) is to be preferred over that of Worthey (1994) translates into an uncertainty over whether the best-fit age is in fact $`>3`$ or $`>4`$ Gyr (see Table 1).

For $`H_0=70\mathrm{k}\mathrm{m}\mathrm{s}^1\mathrm{Mpc}^1`$, the age of an Einstein-de Sitter Universe at $`z=1.43`$ is only 2.5 Gyr. Therefore, given the apparently flawed nature of the Yi et al. models, we conclude that the only way that the age of 53W069 at $`z=1.43`$ can be contained within an Einstein-de Sitter Universe is if varying the assumed metallicity from solar can in fact reduce the best-fit age to $`<2.5`$ Gyr.

## 5 Breaking the age-metallicity degeneracy

The potential severity of the age-metallicity degeneracy was highlighted in the work of Worthey (1994), and acknowledged by Dunlop et al. (1996) in their original attempts to determine the age of 53W091. It is clear that assuming a metallicity of twice solar for the entire stellar population results in the lower limit to the derived age of both 53W091 and 53W069 falling below 2.5 Gyr.

Spinrad et al. (1997) presented arguments that, even assuming these galaxies possess a high-metallicity core, adoption of a universally high metallicity is inappropriate when analyzing the integrated light from the central $`10`$ kpc of an elliptical galaxy (as sampled at $`z>1`$ by the Keck spectroscopic slit). Moreover, both Jimenez et al. (2000b) and Yi et al. (2000) have now attempted to produce more realistic mixed metallicity models and have independently found that such mixed-metallicity models in fact yield very similar ages to simple solar metallicity models (despite the basic disagreement between model timescales detailed above). This appears to be true, even when the average metallicity is twice solar, simply because it is the low metallicity component which dominates the light shortward of 3000Å (Jimenez et al. 2000b).

Ideally, however, we would like to be able to fit both metallicity mix and age to the data. The extent to which this is possible obviously depends both on the quality of the spectroscopic data available, and on the presence of (primarily) metallicity-dependent and age-dependent features within the available spectral range.

This approach will be explored further in a separate paper, but here we present evidence that the age metallicity degeneracy can, at least in principle, be broken with data in the spectral range 2000Å– 4000Å, using the Sun as a test case.

A mixed-metallicity model was constructed from the 0.2$`\mathrm{Z}_{}`$, $`\mathrm{Z}_{}`$ and 2.5$`\mathrm{Z}_{}`$ full models of Jimenez et al. , with the relative contributions of the different metallicity models allowed to vary as free parameters. The ability of this mixed-metallicity model to reproduce the metallicity and MSTO age of the sun is a test of the stellar population synthesis models’ ability to break the age-metallicity degeneracy given data in this near-ultraviolet spectral range.

The solar spectrum was rebinned in the same way as for the solar-metallicity only fitting process. The mixed-metallicity model flux was built from normalised SED’s, so that

$`F_{3Z,\lambda ,age}`$ $`=`$ $`X_{0.2\text{ }\mathrm{Z}_{}}f_{0.2\text{ }\mathrm{Z}_{},\lambda ,age}+X_{\text{ }\mathrm{Z}_{}}f_{\text{ }\mathrm{Z}_{},\lambda ,age}+`$
$`X_{2.5\text{ }\mathrm{Z}_{}}f_{2.5\text{ }\mathrm{Z}_{},\lambda ,age}`$
where $`F_{3Z,\lambda ,age}`$ is the mixed metallicity flux per unit wavelength in the bin centred on wavelength $`\lambda `$ at $`age`$ Gyr, $`f_{Z,\lambda ,age}`$ is the flux per unit wavelength in the bin centred on wavelength $`\lambda `$ of the model at $`age`$ Gyr, and metallicity Z, and $`X_{0.2Z}`$ is the fractional contribution to $`F_{3Z,age}`$ by $`f_{Z,age}`$.

A $`\chi ^2`$fit was used to determine the best-fit age, total normalization, and values of $`X_{0.2\text{ }\mathrm{Z}_{}}`$, $`X_{\text{ }\mathrm{Z}_{}}`$ and $`X_{2.5\text{ }\mathrm{Z}_{}}`$.

In Figure 5 we show the results of this mixed-metallicity fitting procedure. Comparison of the left-hand plot with the dotted line in Figure 1a demonstrates the extent to which allowing metallicity to vary has weakened the constraint on age. However, the best-fit age is still 8 Gyr, as for the full solar-metallicity only models. Figure 5b shows the evolution of the fractional contributions to the flux of the different metallicity SED’s. At the best-fit age of 8 Gyr, the flux is clearly completely dominated by the solar metallicity SED, as it should be. $`X_{0.2\text{ }\mathrm{Z}_{}}`$ is 0.01, $`X_{\text{ }\mathrm{Z}_{}}`$ is 0.99 and there is no contribution from the 2.5$`\mathrm{Z}_{}`$ model. This gives a mean metallicity of 0.99$`\mathrm{Z}_{}`$. In summary, given data of this (obviously excellent) quality, the mixed-metallicity model can return both the correct metallicity and the correct age to high accuracy (where here the correct age does not mean the turnoff age of the Sun, but rather the age of 8 Gyr which was returned using the full model with the correct metallicity).

## 6 Conclusion

In this paper we have not attempted a model-maker’s comparison of different evolutionary synthesis models, deliberately not entering into the debate over which model uses the most trustworthy components, such as isochrones, stellar atmospheres etc. These issues will be addressed in a future paper (Jimenez et al., 2000c). Instead, we have addressed the simple issue of whether the near-ultraviolet spectral energy distribution of the Sun is reproduced by the main-sequence only components of three independent models at an age commensurate with current estimates of the MS-turnoff age of the Sun. This test was suggested by Yi et al. (2000), but in fact leads us to the conclusion that the evolutionary timescale of the main sequence in the Yi et al. models is anomalous when compared with the either the models of Worthey (1994), Jimenez et al. (2000a) or the current best estimate of the MS turn-off age of the Sun.

We have also re-addressed the issue of the extent to which varying contributions from post-MS phases of stellar evolution can affect the age estimation of galaxies at $`z1.5`$ from rest-frame ultraviolet spectra. We find that (assuming solar metallicity) the minimum age of the dominant stellar population in the the $`z=1.55`$ radio galaxy 53W091 is 2 Gyr if one invokes the relatively strong AGB/RGB components included in the models of Worthey (1994), and 3 Gyr is one adopts the weaker post-MS contributions included in the models of Jimenez et al. (2000a). In the case of the even more passive $`z=1.43`$ radio galaxy 53W069, these numbers become 3 Gyr and 4 Gyr respectively.

Finally, as stated above, these figures are derived on the assumption of approximately solar metallicity. Yi et al. (2000) and Jimenez et al. (2000b) have in fact shown that the age metallicity degeneracy in a realistic mixed-metallicity population is probably not nearly as severe as previously feared. Nevertheless, ideally it is clearly desireable to determine both age and metallicity directly from the observations. Using the spectrum of the Sun, we have shown that, given data of sufficient quality, it should in principle be possible to break the well-known age-metallicity degeneracy using data covering only the near-ultraviolet spectral range which is accessible when observing galaxies at $`z>1`$ with optical spectrographs. The possibility of breaking the age metallicity degeneracy will be explored further in a subsequent paper.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would especially like to thank Sukyoung Yi for making his models available to us in exchange for the Jimenez models, and also Guy Worthey for the willingness and speed with which he supplied us with specific versions of his model predictions, customised to meet our specific requirements. Louisa Nolan acknowledges the support of a PPARC studentship, and Raul Jimenez acknowledges the support of a PPARC Advanced Fellowship.

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text:
# Free Energy of a Hot Quark-Gluon Plasma[1]

\[

## Abstract

Thermal (Th-)QCD properties appear to disagree with lattice (L-)QCD results, which suggests that Th-QCD does not have a valid perturbative expansion. However, we reproduce L-QCD using the first order $`\alpha _s`$ corrections in Th-QCD.

\]

We believe that the sensitivity of thermal (Th-)QCD to the value of QCD coupling, combined with a common, but rough approximation of QCD coupling employed in Ref.  is the cause of the failure to recognize correspondence between lattice (L-)QCD results and Th-QCD. The approximate two loop result for $`\alpha _s^{par}`$ used in the study of quark-gluon liquid is shown by the dotted line in Fig. 1. Using $`\alpha _s^{par}`$ and comparing to the pure-glue L-QCD results , the authors of Ref. in their Fig. 1 show lack of agreement between Th-QCD and L-QCD.

As the large coefficients in free energy $``$ weak coupling expansion suggest, the convergence of Th-QCD is not expected in any scheme considered so far. For this reason it seems to us to be more appropriate to check only the lowest order of this possibly semi-convergent series. In Fig. 2, we show a comparison of the first order in $`\alpha _s`$ Th-QCD result for pressure $`P/T^4=/VT^4`$, with a L-QCD calculation which includes dynamical quarks. To obtain these results: a) we use numerically computed $`\alpha _s(\mu =2\pi T\kappa T/T_c)`$, solid line in Fig. 1, obtained integrating the renormalization group equation , using the two loop $`\beta `$-function; b) we assume that $`T_c`$150–160 MeV; and thus $`\alpha _s(2\pi T)\alpha _s(1\mathrm{GeV}T/T_c)`$ ; c) we allow for a vacuum property and add to the quark-gluon free energy the vacuum term $`_V=BV,B=0.19\text{GeV}/\text{fm}^3`$, this influences only the slope in $`P`$ near to $`T=T_c`$; d) we took for the case 2+1 flavors a renormalized strange quark mass $`m_s/T=1.7m_s^0/T=1.7`$, which leads to a 50% reduction in strange quark number.

We conclude that for $`T2.5T_c`$, $`𝒪(\alpha _s)`$-corrections accurately describe L-QCD free energy of a hot quark-gluon plasma. Introducing a vacuum energy-pressure $`B`$, L-QCD results are reproduced near to $`T=T_c`$.