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# Cluster Populations in A115 and A2283

## 1 INTRODUCTION

The investigation of the blue and red populations in rich clusters have been our most lucrative glimpse into the evolution of galaxies. The search for changes in the stellar population of galaxies has mostly focused on clusters of galaxies due to their high visibility and ease of cataloging rich clusters even at distant redshifts. However, the gravitational clumping of a cluster also minimizes the effort required for distance determination where the measurement of a few of the brightest galaxies provides the redshift for the entire cluster. Attention concerning recent and rapid evolution has been diverted in the past decade to field galaxies (Tyson 1988), and the dilemma of the blue field population. However, clusters are the sites of numerous dramatic evolutionary effects, such as galaxy cannibalism (Moore et al. 1996) and the Butcher-Oemler population (Oemler, Dressler and Butcher 1997). In addition, cluster populations are key to understanding galaxy characteristics since they cover not only a full range of galaxy masses (from giants to dwarfs) but also the full range of Hubble types and intrinsic density (e.g. surface brightness) that are missing from field populations.

In a series of papers extending over the last 12 years (Rakos et al. 1988, 1991, 1995, 1996, 1997, 1999), we have used a narrow band filter system to perform photometry of galaxies in rich clusters for redshifts ranging from 0.2 to 1. Our studies have differed from previous photometry of distant clusters by the use of a color system surrounding the 4000Å break (the Strömgren $`uvby`$ system) and modified such that the filters are “redshifted” to the cluster of galaxies in consideration. This method results in effectively no k-corrections and allows discrimination between cluster membership based on spectrophotometric criteria. We call our modified system $`uz,vz,bz,yz`$ to distinguish it from the original $`uvby`$ Strömgren system and we believe we have demonstrated that these color indices are a profitable tool for investigating color evolution of both the red and blue populations in clusters of galaxies.

In an previous exploratory paper (Rakos, Maindl and Schombert 1996, hereafter RMS96), the modified $`uz,vz,bz,yz`$ Strömgren system was used to develop a photometric classification scheme based on the recent star formation history of a galaxy. From the $`mz`$ color index ($`mz=(vzbz)(bzyz)`$), the classification technique was shown to be extremely successful at discriminating normal starforming galaxies (spirals) and starburst galaxies despite the presence of heavy reddening. Rakos et al. (1996, 1997) applied this technique to the members of the blue population in several clusters of intermediate redshift ($`0.2<z<0.6`$) and demonstrated that many of the cluster members have strong signatures of star formation activity. An extreme example is CL0317+1521 at $`z=0.583`$ which has a blue fraction of $`f_B=0.60`$ and which 42% of the blue population have $`mz<0.2`$, the photometric signature for a starburst. Deep photometry of the cluster A2317 ($`z=0.211`$, Rakos, Odell and Schombert 1997) demonstrated that the ratio of the blue population to red population has a strong dependence on luminosity, such that blue galaxies dominate the very brightest and very faintest galaxies in the cluster. In contrast to the bright blue galaxies, the fraction of galaxies displaying the signatures of a starburst increases towards the faint end of the luminosity function, a dwarf starburst population first suggested by Koo et al. (1997).

The origin of this dwarf starburst population remains an enigma. Tidal interactions are frequently invoked as an explanation for the high fraction of starburst galaxies in Butcher-Oemler clusters (Dressler et al. 1994, Couch et al. 1994). If the same phenomenon acts on the low mass galaxies, then these starburst systems would have their origin as gas-rich dwarf galaxies who have had a short, but intense, tidally induced episode of star formation which would quickly exhaust their limited gas supply. It should be noted, however, that the orbits of cluster galaxies are primarily radial (Bothun and Schombert 1990), and the typical velocities into the dense cluster core are high. This makes any encounter extremely short-lived, with little impulse being transfered as is required to shock the incumbent molecular clouds into a nuclear starburst. The galaxy harassment mechanism (Moore et al. 1996) emphasizes the influence of the cluster tidal field and the more powerful impulse encounters with individual central galaxies at the cluster edges. These two processes can then conspire raise the luminosity of cluster dwarfs, increase their visibility and, thus, their detectability.

To further explore the behavior of the red E/S0’s, blue Butcher-Oemler galaxies and the newly detected dwarf starburst population, we began a program of obtaining deeper photometry then our previous work on intermediate redshift clusters. Our goal in this study is to 1) illuminate the types of galaxies involved in the Butcher-Oemler effect, 2) determine the dominance of the blue galaxies to the cluster luminosity function, 3) examine the spatial extent of the blue and red population, and 4) determine the existence and characteristics of the dwarf starburst population in other blue clusters. In order to maintain a correct timescale to stellar population models, calibrated to globular cluster ages, values of $`H_o=50`$ km sec-1 Mpc-1 and $`q_o=0`$ are used throughout this paper.

## 2 OBSERVATIONS

### 2.1 Cluster Sample

To determine if the results for A2317 were accidental, we have expanded our program to three clusters at similar redshifts; A115 ($`z=0.191`$), A2283 ($`z=0.182`$) and A2218 ($`z=0.180`$). Table 1 shows the cluster coordinates (1950.0), the Bautz-Morgan classification and the background corrected count $`C`$ in the magnitude range $`m_3+3`$ (Abell richness). A115 and A2283 are similar to A2317 in richness. A2218 is, on the other hand, one of the richest clusters in the Abell catalog and contains a large cD galaxy in its center which extends over more than 180 kpc (Wang and Ulmer 1997). A115 is also a known binary cluster (Beers, Huchra and Geller 1983) which is normally associated with a dynamically young system. A115 was also studied by our group in a previous paper (Rakos, Fiala and Schombert 1988); however, only 53 galaxies were measured at that time. This paper presents new results for A115 and A2283. The data for A2218 will be presented in a later paper (Rakos, Dominis and Steindling 2000).

The observing procedure and reduction used herein is similar to that described in Rakos and Schombert (1995). The observations of A115 were taken with 90-inch Steward Observatory telescope using 800x1200 pixel CCD and a focal reducer with 600 arcsec circular unvignetted field at a f/9 input beam. A2283 was observed with the 4m KPNO PFCCD Te1K, the 90-inch Steward telescope in direct mode plus 2K CCD and the 1m Wise telescope in Israel using 1K TEK CCD. The field size for the Wise telescope is 10 arcmin square. Calibration to the $`uz,vz,bz,yz`$ system used spectrophotometric standards (Massey et al. 1988). Colors and magnitudes were measured using IRAF APPHOT and are based on metric apertures set at 32 kpc (9 arcsecs for A115 and A2283) for cosmological parameters of $`H_o=50`$ km sec-1 Mpc-1 and $`q_o=0`$. Our typical internal errors were 0.05 mag in colors at the bright end of the sample and 0.1 mag for the faint end. No corrections for Galactic extinction were made due to the high latitude of the clusters. All the photometry ($`uzvz`$, $`bzyz`$, $`vzyz`$ and $`mz`$) is available at the narrow band photometry web site (zebu.uoregon.edu/$``$js/narrow).

Photometry using 32 kpc apertures was performed on the final, co-added frames. Objects were selected based on detection in all four filters at the 3$`\sigma `$ level. In addition to the colors, the $`yz`$ filter values can be converted to $`m_{5500}`$. The Strömgren system was originally designed only as a color system; however, the $`yz`$ filter is centered on 5500Å and it is possible to link the $`yz`$ flux to a photon magnitude, such as the AB79 system of Oke and Gunn 1983, through the use of spectrophotometric standards. This procedure was described in detail in Rakos, Fiala and Schombert (1988) and is used to determine the $`m_{5500}`$ values for all the cluster members. Typical errors were 0.02 mag for the brightest cluster members to 0.08 mag for objects below $`m_{5500}=20`$. Incompleteness of both clusters is evident below $`M_{5500}=20`$, the faintest objects are $`M_{5500}=19`$.

### 2.2 Cluster Membership

Each of the filters used for this study are approximately 200Å wide and were specially designed so that their central wavelengths matches the rest frame of the cluster. This provides a photometric method of determining cluster membership, without the use of redshift information, due to the unique shape of any galaxy’s spectra around the 4000Å break. Our method is fully discussed in Rakos, Schombert and Kreidl (1991) and Fiala, Rakos and Stockton (1986), but a brief discussion follows.

Figure 1 displays the changes in color indices for a standard elliptical profile (NGC 3379, Kennicutt 1992) and a starforming disk (NGC 6643, Kennicutt 1992) as a function of redshift. Since the 4000Å break brackets the $`uz`$ and $`vz`$ filters, sharp blue $`vzyz`$ colors are seen for low redshift objects (relative to the cluster redshift, i.e. foreground) and red $`bzyz`$ colors are found for high redshift objects (background).

Our procedure to determine cluster membership is to use the color information provided by the $`mz`$, $`vzyz`$ and $`bzyz`$ indices to measure a distance from the normal galaxy templates (see Rakos, Schombert and Maindl 1996). Any object more than 3$`\sigma `$ from the mean relationships is eliminated from the sample. As expected, a majority of the rejected objects are too red (background), but the criteria also eliminates foreground stars. While there could be contamination from poor S/N galaxies, whose erroneous colors place them within the 3$`\sigma `$ boundaries. However, these objects are eliminated by our photometric quality criteria (typically $`\sigma <0.07`$ mag, see below).

To test this procedure for A115, redshifts were extracted from NED. Within the 10 arcmin field of A115, 14 galaxies with redshifts are found, 12 at the cluster redshift ($`z=0.191`$) and two at a foreground redshift of 14,388 and 14,307 km sec-1. Ten of the twelve cluster galaxies were correctly identified by the photometric criteria, two others were eliminated due to poor S/N. The two foreground galaxies were correctly eliminated as non-cluster members by their $`mz`$ indices.

In A2218, five galaxies have redshifts, two cluster members and three foreground objects. As with A115, all three foreground objects were eliminated by the photometric criteria. One of the cluster members was identified, the other was too close to a bright, nearby galaxy for proper measurement. Combined with the A115 results, we believe this to validates our procedure, at least for the brighter cluster members. We only have numerical simulations for the fainter cluster members.

### 2.3 Photometric Classification

Before the advent of 2D photometry and spectroscopy, galaxies were understood by their morphological appearance and integrated colors. Star formation, in particular, was estimated based on the size and number of H II regions rather than the number of ionizing photons as produced by a set number of O and B stars. Currently, the morphological appearance of a galaxy has become a secondary parameter as the field of galaxy evolution has become more concerned with the actual star formation history of galaxies based on fits to spectrophotometric models, rather than the inferred history based on our conception of how star formation and galaxy appearance are related. Although there is a strong correlation between the current star formation rate and the morphological class of a galaxy, most of the questions arising in high redshift cluster studies will involve the underlying stellar and gas components of a galaxy, not its appearance.

Classification by colors or spectral type have their origin in the Morgan system (Morgan and Mayall 1957). Although primitive in its information, the Morgan system was key to developing an understanding of the morphological type of a galaxy as it relates to the state of its underlying stellar population. Modern studies have successful applied spectrophotometric classification to starforming and starburst systems in distant clusters (Poggianti et al. 1999).

The exact classification procedure for our Strömgren filters was discussed in RMS96, but the following is a brief review. For the purposes of classification, the galaxy types in clusters are basically divided into four categories based on their color indices as they reflect into current and recent star formation. The four classes are 1) a passive, non-starforming object (presumably the counterpart to present-day ellipticals and S0’s, at least in terms of the current star formation rate (SFR), if not the integrated past SFR), 2) a normal starforming object (with an SFR between 0.1 and 1 $`M_{\mathrm{}}`$ yrs-1 and standard values for the IMF, Kennicutt 1998) which can be associated with present-day spirals, 3) an object with anomalous colors that correspond to a region in the two-color plane occupied by starburst objects (i.e. SFRs greater than 1 $`M_{\mathrm{}}`$ yrs-1) and 4) objects with a non-thermal component to their luminosity that is associated with Seyfert activity.

This classification system is not exact, there are several transition regions that produce an ambiguous assignment of the state of the stellar population. The three most serious are the regions occupied by early-type spirals, low luminosity Seyfert galaxies and weak or post-starburst systems. Early-type spirals are found to overlap with the passive or E/S0 region of photometric space. This is not surprising since our system emphasizes the integrated color of a galaxy, and the large bulge component of early-type galaxies dominates the colors over a minor disk component. The impact of early-type spirals is minimized within the goals of our work since we can easily group galaxies with short gas depletion rates (ellipticals, S0’s and early-type spirals) into the same class when the focus is star formation rates.

The Seyfert classification overlaps with normal spirals depending on the ratio of the amount of light from the AGN versus the galaxy stellar disk. Most Seyfert galaxies are spiral (Ho, Filippenko and Sargent 1997), and heavily weighted towards late-types, in agreement with the model that AGN luminosity is correlated with the ability to fuel the central engine with HI gas. Since a global color measurement will overemphasize the contribution from normal starlight with respect to non-thermal emission, AGN colors will typically scatter towards the normal spiral sequence in multi-color space. Thus, when interpreting the fraction of Seyferts in our cluster sample, we must place the caveat that this fraction represents the number of ‘extreme’ Seyferts, i.e. ones where the light from the AGN is much stronger then the total disk and bulge contribution.

Lastly, the classification of galaxy as a starburst is based on a comparison with an IRAS sample of interacting galaxies and starburst models by Lehnert and Heckman (1996). Even highly reddened starburst systems are easily distinguished for ellipticals in multi-color diagrams such as $`vzyz`$ versus $`bzyz`$ (see RMS96). However, the tail end of the spiral sequence, composed of the late-type spirals, overlaps the starburst region. Again, from the point of view of a classification system aimed at the underlying stellar population, this simply acknowledges the fact that many late-type spirals have SFRs high enough to warrant a starburst classification. Thus, we emphasize that our scheme is not morphological and a majority of galaxies with Sc or Sd appearances would have a photometric classification of starburst in our scheme.

To increase the reliability of photometric classification, particularly for those galaxies whose colors place them at the borders of two different classifications, we have explored using data from nearby galaxies as template colors and assigning classification based on a statistical match in all four colors ($`mz`$, $`uzvz`$, $`vzyz`$, $`bzyz`$). To this end, 132 spectrophotometric scans were extracted from the literature as outlined in Rakos, Maindl and Schombert 1996. The templates are selected from four catalogs: 1) elliptical/S0 (Gunn and Oke 1975), 2) normal spirals (Kennicutt 1992), 3) Markarian (De Bruyn and Sargent 1978) and an 4) IRAS sample (Ashby, Houck and Hacking 1992). All four of these catalog samples are shown in Figure 2. The division for the IRAS sample is particularly striking considering the sample was selected solely for far-IR color. IRAS galaxies with merger signatures (disturbed morphology, tidal features) are indicated by the solid symbols, but do not distinguish themselves from the other IRAS galaxies, probably an indication that dynamical features have much shorter timescales than star formation effects (Sanders et al. 1988). The Markarian sample is a good example of the degree of difficulty in classification when there is a mixture of non-thermal and disk colors as discussed above. In this case, there is a clear extension of the Markarian colors to anomalous $`bzyz`$ values for constant $`mz`$, but the overlap with normal spirals is problematic. In the overlap region, classification as a spiral is preferred in order to trace the global star formation history of the galaxy, rather than the evolution of the nuclear region. The spiral sequence neatly divides into early and late-types, with early-types encroaching on the elliptical region and extreme late-types displaying starburst colors, again, reflecting the emphasis on star formation effects rather than dynamical or morphological appearance.

The multi-color, rest frame nature of our datasets have allowed for a fairly accurate classification of distant cluster members by photometric means since no k-corrections are involved. No single multi-color diagram (such as Figure 2) can portray all the information contained in the full photometry for each galaxy. Particularly for galaxies in the border regions, small errors in a single color can produce an erroneous classification. In order to minimize these errors, photometric class is assigned by a statistical weighting with respect to the template data. The templates are the same galaxies used in RMS96, only now weighted for all their colors (see Steindling, Borsch and Rakos 2000 for further discussion). The distant cluster data is directly compared with the template data and classification used herein is assigned based on the closest match. The difference between this method and simply using the divisions sketched RMS96 are minor, but this statistical method allows for some estimate of the internal errors of classification.

### 2.4 A115

A115 is a binary cluster (Beers, Huchra and Geller 1983), our CCD survey centered on the southern component. The field of view does not include the northern component, so the data should be considered a study of only one subcluster in A115. Over 300 objects in the A115 fields were detected in all the four filters. For final analysis, a photometric selection criterion of cluster membership was applied such that an object must have an internal accuracy of $`\sigma <0.07`$ mag to be included. This resulted in a total of 100 cluster members. The classification fractions for both the blue and red populations are listed in Table 2. A115 was also studied on one of the original papers of this series (Rakos, Fiala and Schombert 1988). The current sample triples the number of galaxies with narrow band photometry for A115 from our original work, and the accuracy is improved such that we can now sample below $`L^{}`$. The external errors were less than 0.01 for the lowest luminosity galaxies, and the mean color of the cluster is now $`vzyz=0.527`$ compared to the old value of 0.529.

Figure 3 presents the $`vzyz`$ versus $`bzyz`$ and $`mz`$ diagrams for the 100 cluster members. The various symbols display the photometric classifications based on template comparisons. The solid line in the left panel Figure 3 displays the relationship for normal spirals (Rakos, Maindl and Schombert 1997). Ellipticals and S0’s have a slightly shallower correlation due to the color-magnitude relation (see §3.1). The starburst objects near the $`mz`$ cutoff (blueward of $`vzyz=0.1`$) probably represent starforming late-type spirals. The red starburst systems lie along the reddening vector, below the spiral sequence. Most of the starburst systems with $`mz<0.25`$ are low in luminosity (and, therefore, mass), and are the reddest of the non-elliptical objects in the sample. This starburst population is similar to the dwarf starburst population in A2317 (Rakos, Odell and Schombert 1997). The solid lines in the right panel of Figure 3 display the mean cutoffs for the population types, although comparison to templates is used for the final classifications as described in §2.2.

The population fractions are fairly normal for an intermediate redshift cluster. We find that 68 (68%) of the cluster members are type E/S0, whereas 11 (11%) are Sp/Irr, 17 (17%) are starburst and remaining 4 (4%) are classified as Seyfert galaxies. These ratios are slightly richer in early-type galaxies compared to the ratio for a nearby rich clusters, given as E:S0:Sp/Irr ratios of 20%:40%:40% (Oemler 1992). It is assumed that all the galaxies photometrically classified as Sp/Irr, starbursts and Seyferts would be morphologically classified as late-type category. From this point of view, A115 is more evolutionary “developed” than A2317, meaning that it has a richer, red galaxy population and a weaker current star formation rate for the cluster as a whole. This is surprising given the dynamically young appearance to the A115 system as a whole (Beers, Huchra and Geller 1983). The fraction of Seyferts found in local clusters is extremely low, less than 1% of the total cluster population. However, a recent study by Sarajedini et al. (1996) finds the fraction of AGNs to increase to 10% between $`z=`$0.2 and 0.6. Thus, our observed value of 4% is in good agreement with expected number of AGNs at this epoch.

The blue fraction ($`f_B`$) for A115 is 0.13 (again, we note that the values presented herein are for the southern subcluster only), where we maintain the original definition of blue populations from Butcher and Oemler (1984) as the number of galaxies 0.2 mag blueward from the k-corrected mean E/S0 color. In the Strömgren system, 0.2 mag from the E/SO line translates into a rest frame blue/red cutoff of $`bzyz=0.2`$. This criteria will place many of the early-type spirals in the red category, although this would be expected from the dominance of the red bulge in such galaxies. However, a significant number of the starburst class galaxies will be misidentified as red population members due to heavy reddening by dust. As we will see below, many of the red starburst objects are low in luminosity and would not have contaminated the blue fraction values from earlier work of Butcher and Oemler (1984) or Dressler and Gunn (1983).

### 2.5 A2283

About 350 objects were measured in the 10 arcmin square field surrounding A2283. Elimination of foreground and background objects, stars and applying the photometric selection criterion for a minimal error of 0.07 mag, gives a total of 79 cluster members. The population fractions are listed in Table 3, such that 42 (53%) of the cluster members are E/S0, whereas 16 (20%) are Sp/Irr, 15 (19%) are classed as starburst and remaining 6 (8%) are classified as Seyfert or AGN galaxies.

Figure 4 presents the $`vzyz`$ versus $`bzyz`$ and $`mz`$ diagrams for the 79 cluster members. Symbols and lines are the same as Figure 3. As can be seen in the figure, A2283 has a broader population of spirals as compared to A115. There is slightly more scatter about the spiral relation, having colors blueward about 0.1 mag for their $`vzyz`$ colors. This is probably due to weak AGN colors contaminating any otherwise pure disk population. The bluest starburst systems are redward of the spiral sequence along the reddening vector. The slope of the elliptical/S0 population in the $`vzyz`$, $`bzyz`$ plane is the same as A115.

The population of A2283 is richer in Sp/Irr and starburst galaxies compared to A115. We find that 39 (49%) of the cluster members are type E/S0, whereas 21 (27%) are Sp/Irr, 17 (22%) are starburst and remaining 2 (2%) are classified as Seyfert galaxies. This is slightly more spiral-rich than the nearby cluster morphological ratios, assuming that the starburst systems would be classed as late-type galaxies. The fraction of blue to red galaxies is 30% ($`f_B=0.30`$), high compared to A115 but similar to A2317 (Rakos, Odell and Schombert 1997). For this reason, we refer to A115 (and A2218) as red clusters and A2283 and A2317 as blue clusters. Again, the blue galaxies dominate the very bright and very faint end of the luminosity function and are located primarily at the cluster edges, which also mimics the behavior of A2317.

## 3 DISCUSSION

### 3.1 Cluster Population Fractions

The results of the photometric classification for A115 and A2283 are shown in Figures 3 and 4 and summarized in Tables 2 and 3. The distribution of the three primary galaxy types (ellipticals/S0s, spiral/irregular and starburst), as a function of magnitude, are also shown in Figure 5 for the combined populations of A115, A2283 and A2317. Although the three clusters differ in the fraction of their blue, red and starburst populations, all three follow the same behavior with respect to population type and luminosity. The ellipticals/S0 population have numerical superiority in all three clusters and have a distribution of luminosity that is typical for rich cluster of galaxies (Dressler et al. 1999). In contrast, the photometrically classified spirals/irregulars have a sharply different distribution, peaking at high luminosities ($`M_{5500}21`$) and falling off to fainter magnitudes. The galaxies classified by our photometric scheme as starburst display the opposite behavior, rising to become a majority of the cluster population below $`M_{5500}=21`$.

Where the behavior for the different photometric types in A115, A2283 and A2317 seems contrary to our expectations from studies of nearby clusters (i.e. that ellipticals and S0’s dominant the bright end of luminosity function), it is not surprising when we remember that this is a photometric classification scheme. The objects in the spiral/irregular category may not be morphologically disk galaxies. Their classification is only a measure of the recent star formation history. In fact, the same luminosity distributions are evident in the Dressler et al. (1999) spectrophotometric catalog of ten distant clusters. Figure 7 of that paper displays the luminosity distribution for their sample divided by physical morphology and spectrophotometric class. The morphological distributions display the familiar cluster phenomenon of the bright end of the luminosity function being rich in ellipticals and S0’s and late-type galaxies having lower mean luminosities. The number of spirals and irregulars is higher in the Dressler et al. sample compared to nearby clusters, and there are a larger number of bright, blue late-type galaxies (the Butcher-Oemler effect). The early-type galaxies still comprise a majority of the brightest galaxies. However, when the sample is divided by spectrophotometric class (where their k/k+a corresponds to our E/S0, e(a)/e(c) corresponds to our S/Irr and e(b) corresponds to our starburst class) then the luminosity distributions agree remarkably well with our Figure 5. Their e(a)/e(c) classes peak at $`M_{5500}=23`$ ($`H_o=50`$ km sec1 Mpc-1) and decrease in number, the same as our spiral/irregular class. Their e(b) class also follows the same behavior as our starburst population, a slow rise starting at $`M_{5500}=22`$.

The differences between the characteristics of the three photometric populations can also be seen in Figure 6 where the fractions of the ellipticals/S0s, spiral/irregulars and starbursts galaxies are divided into four luminosity bins. The top panel displays the data for A2283 and A2317, the two clusters with high $`f_B`$ values. The bottom panel displays the data for the red cluster, A115. Immediately obvious from Figure 6 is the fact that there are two competing contributions to the number of blue galaxies in all three clusters. At the bright end, one finds luminous objects with normal star formation rates which we classify photometrically as spirals/irregulars. As the contribution by this spirals/irregular population declines with luminosity, the fraction of starburst systems increases. This trend is common to both the red cluster (A115) and the blue clusters (A2283 and A2317). It seems clear from this figure that the Butcher-Oemler effect, the increase in $`f_B`$ at these redshifts, is primarily due to the contribution of galaxies with spiral-like colors (i.e. normal star formation rates).

For further analysis of the changes in galaxy photometric type, we have divided the cluster members into three sub-populations; red, blue and starburst. The division between blue and red uses the same Butcher-Oemler criteria ($`bzyz<0.2`$) as was used to determine $`f_B`$ in each cluster. All objects classified as starburst, based on their $`mz`$ index, comprise the starburst population. Over 98% of the galaxies classed as elliptical/S0 (non-starforming) are members of the red population. The galaxies classed as Sp/Irr are evenly split between the red and blue populations (probably due to the effect that the early-type spirals by morphology comprise most of the red population Sp/Irr’s). The starburst galaxies would also be fairly evenly split into blue and red types, if not separated into their own class. Each of these three sub-populations will be examined in the next sections.

### 3.2 Red Population

One of the dilemmas associated with the discovery of the Butcher-Oemler effect is that a majority of the present-day cluster population is composed of old, red objects (ellipticals and S0s) with effectively no recent SFR. However, a large number of the cluster galaxies at intermediate redshifts are involved in star formation at relatively high levels. The mystery, then, revolves around whether the blue population individuals are converted into red members with time or whether blue cluster members fade from view with time (or destroyed), boasting the ratio of red galaxies. All indications, from studies of the age and star formation history of present-day cluster ellipticals (Abraham et al. 1999, Buzzoni 1995) and the color evolution of the red population to redshifts of 1 (Rakos and Schombert 1995), are that the history of ellipticals is one of passive evolution from an epoch of formation near a redshift of 5. Where there may be transitions at intermediate redshifts of blue S0’s into red S0’s (as gas is depleted from star formation, see discussion below), a majority of the red population must have its origin from galaxies who have undergone an initial burst of star formation followed by passive evolution and, thus, should not be a member of the blue population at redshifts of 0.4.

This being the case, the red population provides an opportunity to examine age and metallicity predictions as a function of time. The most obvious test is to explore the mass-metallicity relationship of the red population as reflected in the observed color-magnitude diagram. In the closed-box models of galaxy evolution (Faber 1973; Tinsley 1980), the greater the mass of a galaxy (higher luminosity), the higher its supernova rate which results in a more rapid initial enrichment of the first generation of stars. This, in turn, produces a redder red giant branch (RGB) for the composite population and strong signatures in the $`vzyz`$ indices. The $`vz`$ filter is located directly over several strong metal lines in an old population spectrum (Ca H and K, G band and Mg). Thus, there is the expectation that the $`vzyz`$ colors should be more sensitive to metallicity changes than most broadband indices. According to Visvanathan and Sandage (1977), the color magnitude relation is nearly zero from 5000 to 7000Å and increases steadily shortward of 4300Å reaching a maximum value of 0.11 mag per mag near 3400Å. The characteristics of metallicity and the Strömgren colors used here was studied extensively in Schombert et al. (1993) which found, and was confirmed by spectrophotometric models, that the $`vzyz`$ color was the strongest metal indicator for old stellar populations (i.e. ellipticals and S0’s) of the $`uz,vz,bz,yz`$ indices, and will be used for our color-magnitude analysis.

The $`vzyz`$ color-magnitude relation is shown in Figure 7 for the red populations in A115 (68 objects) and A2283 (39 objects) along with a linear fit. For this test, only the members of the red population classified as ellipticals/SOs are used and, despite the radically different population fractions between the two clusters, there is no statistically significant difference in the color-magnitude relation between the two clusters. Also plotted in Figure 7 is the red population data for A2317 (Rakos, Odell and Schombert 1997) along with the color-magnitude relation for present-day ellipticals from Schombert et al. (1993). The A2317 data is a excellent match to the present-day color-magnitude relation ($`\mathrm{\Delta }(vzyz)/\mathrm{\Delta }(M)=6.6\times 10^2`$), but the data from A115 and A2283 is a factor of three shallower in slope ($`9.8\times 10^3\pm 1.2\times 10^2`$ and $`4.5\times 10^3\pm 1.6\times 10^2`$ respectfully). While there is agreement at the low luminosities, the A115 and A2283 data do not redden as strongly as the A2317 data for increasing luminosity. This discrepancy does not appear to be due to errors in the observations. The A2317 data is of similar accuracy as the A115 and A2283 data, plus the shallow slope does not appear to be due to increased scatter at the low luminosity end. In fact, the brightest galaxies in both clusters display an unusual amount of scatter in $`vzyz`$ for their luminosity, despite the fact that their errors are the smallest. Thus, we conclude that the differences in the red populations are intrinsic to the clusters.

Closer inspection of the color-magnitude diagrams for A115 and A2283 shows that A2283 has a similar distribution as A2317, but with a larger scatter that lowers the slope as calculated from a regression fit. A115, on the other hand, clearly has a large number of bright galaxies, classified photometrically as ellipticals/S0s, with colors that are too blue for their luminosity, lying both below the red population in A2317 and below the relationship derived from present-day ellipticals. It should be noted that A115 has several galaxies that are in excess of the brightest cluster members of either A2283 or A2317 which contribute heavily to this effect.

While it would be interesting to speculate that the shallower slope in the color-magnitude relation is due to some evolutionary effect, comparison to models (Buzzoni 1995) indicates that subtle changes in the underlying stellar population dominate over metallicity effects at this epoch. For example, the contribution from horizontal branch (HB) stars peaks at these redshifts for a galaxy formation epoch between 5 and 10 (see Rakos and Schombert 1995). The HB sub-population has a brief dominant phase in the integrated colors, with an change of 0.1 mag in $`vzyz`$ color at redshifts of 0.4 (Charlot and Bruzual 1991), that would serve to lessen the strength of integrated mass-metallicity effect as only a narrow slice of stellar mass function is sampled rather than the whole RGB population. And this effect would be amplified if the HB sub-population has a range of metallicity producing blue to red HB stars, or if mergers with dwarf, metal-poor galaxies, also containing blue HB stars, has occurred in the recent past for the brighter cluster galaxies (i.e. galaxy cannibalism). This HB effect was seen in the color with redshift plots of Rakos and Schombert (1995) and would seem to be our best candidate to explain the larger range in colors for the A115 and A2283.

An alternative explanation is that the greater scatter in $`vzyz`$ color is due to contamination by blue S0’s. These would be S0’s which have recently (in the last 3 to 4 Gyr’s) depleted their gas supplies and are evolving towards elliptical-like colors. The timescale for such a transition from spiral to S0 is evident in the near-IR colors of S0 disks (Bothun and Gregg 1990), and the brightest blue galaxies (classed as Sp/Irr in our scheme) would be obvious progenitors to these objects. In any event, it appears that, in the same manner as the blue population fraction of the Butcher-Oemler effect is irregular from cluster to cluster, the color-magnitude relation of the red population vary dramatically at intermediate redshifts and will require additional spectrophotometric information before any conclusions can be reached.

### 3.3 Blue Population

One advantage of the Strömgren colors (or any 4000Å color system) is the strong dependence of its indices on recent star formation and their sensitivity to recent deviations in star formation rates that signal starburst activity. RMS96 outlines the $`uvby`$ system sensitivity to star formation effects using the starburst models of Lehnert and Heckman (1996, see Figure 6 of RMS96). Starforming galaxies cover a range of colors from blue to red with the more extreme starbursts located on the reddened side of the two color diagram. For the sake of consistence with previous work, we have maintained our past definition of $`f_B`$, the blue fraction in a cluster, based on a rest frame cut at $`bzyz<0.2`$ regardless of extinction effects. While this criteria may miss a substantial number of reddened starburst systems, thus reducing the meaning of $`f_B`$ with respect to a clusters star formation history, we can isolate that population with other indices and discuss them separately (see §3.4).

The fraction of blue galaxies ($`f_B`$) in A115 is $`0.13\pm 0.04`$, whereas the $`f_B`$ value for A2283 is $`0.30\pm 0.06`$. This range is not unexpected as clusters located at intermediate redshifts display a wide variance of $`f_B`$ values (from 0.11 in CL0024.5+1653 to 0.65 in A227, Rakos and Schombert 1995). In fact, the Butcher-Oemler effect is better described as the increased occurrence of blue populations with redshift, not a uniform correlation with redshift (Allington-Smith et al. 1993). As noted by the original Butcher-Oemler papers, there exist several distant clusters with quite red mean cluster colors, meaning similar to present-day clusters population fractions.

The $`f_B`$ value in A2283 is similar to A2317 (Rakos, Odell and Schombert 1997) in that the blue population is strong at $`f_B=0.30`$. Also similar to A2317, the blue population in A2283 displays a clear dependence on absolute magnitude such that blue galaxies dominate the very bright and very faint end of the luminosity function. As discussed in §3.1 and shown in Figure 6, the blue population at the high luminosity end is comprised mostly of galaxies photometrically classified as spirals/irregulars with an increasing contribution by starburst systems at low luminosities. Since early detections of the Butcher-Oemler effect were based on samples heavily weighted towards the bright galaxies, we can reliably state that the Butcher-Oemler effect, and therefore most of the blue population, is due to galaxies with normal star formation rates (SFR $`<1M_{\mathrm{}}`$ yrs-1). In clusters with a high $`f_B`$ values (such as A2283 and A2317), there is a minor blue component from low luminosity starbursts, but this population has little impact on the calculated values of $`f_B`$ since a majority of those systems are heavily reddened.

The blue population in A2317 was found to have a wider distribution of radii then the red population (see Figure 6 in Rakos, Odell and Schombert 1997). Figure 8 displays the same analysis for A2283 and demonstrates that the same effect is also found there (the blue population in A115 was too small for a robust statistical test). The difference in the radial distribution of the blue population is even more extreme in A2283 than A2317, having a peak at 0.5 Mpc from the cluster center. This result remains regardless if the cluster center is calculated using geometric cluster center, the x-ray center or the center defined by the brightest cluster galaxy. Figure 8 also shows that the red population in A2283 is strongly peaked at the center with a core density of 160 galaxies per Mpc2. The blue population, on the other hand, are deficient in the cluster core, located primarily in the outer regions of the cluster.

As discussed in Rakos, Odell and Schombert 1997 for the A2317 data, a mechanism for cluster induced star formation has been proposed by Moore et al. (1996) called galaxy harassment which emphasizes tidally induced star formation imposed by both the mean cluster tidal field and rapid impulse encounters with massive galaxies at the cluster core. One of the predictions of galaxy harassment is that galaxies in the cores of clusters will be older than galaxies at the edges. In terms of star formation history, this is the behavior seen in Figure 8 for A2283 and A2317. The blue population (i.e. the harassed population) is primarily located in the outer 2/3’s of the cluster. Other explanations, such as infall of spiral-rich subclusters, are unsupported since the blue population is not clumped nor confined to the edges of the cluster.

We arrive at the conclusion that each of the clusters studied herein seem to be composed of two distinct components in terms of star formation history. The scenario for the construction of the blue population proposed here is similar to the one we proposed in RS95, that the Butcher-Oemler population is an evolved set of gas-rich (possibly low in surface brightness) galaxies. The mechanism of galaxy harassment induces highly efficient star formation in these dark matter dominated systems that increases their luminosity and visibility. Later encounters with the cluster core destroy these low density systems by tidal forces, effectively removing them from the present-day cluster sample. Eventually, the Butcher-Oemler clusters at intermediate redshifts will evolve into future cD clusters from the released stellar material of the disrupted blue population.

Lastly, we consider the Seyfert-like galaxies in A115 and A2283. Although the number of Seyferts is slightly above normal (as compared to nearby rich clusters), they are by no means a major component of the Butcher-Oemler effect. The amount of AGN activity certainly increases with redshift for cluster populations (Sarajedini et al. 1996) and the number of galaxies classified as Seyferts in this data set is in agreement with those studies even though we believe our classification to be extremely conservative. Whether the increase in the number of Seyferts is related to the increase in the blue population with redshift (the Dressler-Gunn effect) or whether this is a parallel processes remains undetermined by this dataset. A worthwhile future study would be high resolution spectroscopy of the Seyfert objects and many of the high $`mz`$ spiral/irregulars as a probe to the range and strength of AGN’s in Butcher-Oemler clusters.

### 3.4 Starburst Population

The behavior of starburst galaxies for the $`uz,vz,bz,yz`$ color system was investigated in RMS96 by analysis of a set of interacting and merging galaxies. In that paper, it was demonstrated that it is possible to differentiate between starburst galaxies shrouded in dust with strong reddening (IRAS starbursts, Lehnert and Heckman 1996), versus the strong ultraviolet radiation of Wolf-Rayet galaxies, simply by the distance the galaxy lies from the spiral/irregular sequence along the reddening vector, although the exact amount of reddening is difficult to determine due to its shallow slope. The reddening line (see Figures 3 and 4) indicates that a majority of the starburst galaxies from the IRAS sample have Sb or later colors with significant extinction ($`A_V>5`$) by dust, in same range as IRAS starbursts (Leech et al. 1989).

Despite the difference in the blue fractions of A115 and A2283, their starburst populations are similar at 17% and 22% respectfully (A2317 also has a 22% starburst fraction). Both clusters starburst population are heavily weighted toward the faint end of the luminosity function, as was the starburst population in A2317. The starburst galaxies are evenly divided between the blue and red populations, reflecting the frequent occurrence of heavy dust extinction since the blue starbursts lie on the spiral sequence and the red starbursts lie in the reddened portion of the two-color diagrams. For example, most of the blue population in A115 is due to starburst galaxies since there is a real deficiency in spiral/irregular class objects. In contrast, the blue population in A2283 is comprised evenly of both spirals/irregulars and starbursts.

The luminosity distribution indicates that the starburst population entails a phenomenon that is focused on the faint galaxies in a cluster. While some of the starburst systems are quite luminous, comparable to Arp 220 in the strength of their current star formation, most are of low total luminosity even while, apparently, at the peak of their star formation rates. This is in sharp contrast with an IRAS selected local sample of galaxies (Kim and Sanders 1998) where a majority of those systems are extremely luminous and massive. The cluster starburst population appears to be composed of a unique type of galaxy, possibly the progenitors of present-day dwarf ellipticals and BCD’s. Deeper Hubble Space Telescope (HST) observations by Koo et al. (1997), Oemler et al. (1997) and Couch et al. (1998) have shown that many of the starbursts in distant clusters tend to be small objects whose final state is likely to be just such a dwarf galaxy. Further support for this view comes from the observations that dwarf galaxies in Virgo, Fornax and Coma have undergone recent episodes of star formation in the last 4 to 5 Gyrs (Bothun and Caldwell 1984), which corresponds to the epoch of the starburst population in all three of the intermediate redshift cluster we have studied.

## 4 CONCLUSIONS

The trends with respect to cluster populations for A115 (southern subcluster) and A2283 (combined with the data for A2218 and A2317) are shown in Figure 9. The data for A2317 are published in Rakos, Odell and Schombert (1997) and the data for A2218 will be published in Rakos, Dominis and Steindling (2000). Four parameters are plotted with respect to the elliptical/S0 fraction; the fraction of the blue population ($`f_B`$), the fraction of starburst galaxies, the richness of the cluster ($`C`$) and the radius of where the maximum value of $`f_B`$ occurs.

The fraction of the blue population drops inversely with the E/S0 percentage. This is not too surprising since a majority of the red population is classified photometrically as E/S0’s. However, the relation is nearly 1-to-1, suggesting that it is conversion of the E/S0 objects into the blue population that comprises the Butcher-Oemler effect. Since our previous work on present-day ellipticals and the color evolution of ellipticals (Schombert et al. 1993, Rakos and Schombert 1995) demonstrates that their colors have a narrow range and closely match the models for a passively evolving population with a formation redshift of 5, we must conclude that it is primarily the S0 galaxies that are the normal starforming objects of the Butcher-Oemler population. This scenario matches well to our expectations of gas depletion, where large bulge S0’s exhaust their supply first, followed by Sa’s, then Sb’s in the near future. We can assume that a gas-rich, proto-S0 undergoing star formation rates of around 1 $`M_{\mathrm{}}`$ yrs-1 will produce spiral structure and have morphologies similar to early-type spirals as revealed by HST imaging.

The fraction of starbursts is only weakly related to the E/S0 fraction confirming the split impact that the reddened starburst galaxies have on the color distribution of cluster populations. This is a new phenomenon for distant clusters and, while the same mechanisms may be at work for the dwarf starbursts, we believe this is a separate event from the Butcher-Oemler effect.

The radius of the peak density of the blue population is also uncorrelated with any population fraction or color fraction of the clusters. This fact is illuminating in the sense that distribution of the blue population in the red clusters (A115 and A2218) is similar to that of the blue clusters (A2283 and A2317). If tidal forces are responsible for the blue population, then there will be a mix of effects due to close encounters with other galaxies and the mean cluster tidal field which will only be weakly dependent on the cluster morphology. If ram pressure stripping is important, then this radius should be correlated with the x-ray profile of the cluster.

One of the primary results of this study is that there appears to exist a duality with respect to cluster population studies by morphology versus photometric classification. Morphological studies of intermediate redshift clusters (Oemler, Dressler and Butcher 1997, Dressler et al. 1997) find the fraction of ellipticals to be similar to present-day clusters with a sharp drop in the number of S0’s and a proportional increase in the number of spirals and irregulars. There is also an increase in the number of disturbed galaxies with redshift (Couch et al. 1998), galaxies with tidal signatures of past encounters. On the other hand, photometric classification (such as this study and Dressler et al. 1999) find a population of bright blue galaxies with normal star formation rates (the Butcher-Oemler effect) and a starburst population, dominated by low mass galaxies. But, the characteristics of these populations differ in their luminosity and geographical distributions compared to their morphological counterparts. This is particularly evident in magnitude diagrams such as Figure 5 compared to similar diagrams for nearby, rich clusters. The underlying consequence of this duality is the decoupling of the presence of star formation of the properties of Hubble types with redshift (i.e. the existence of blue S0’s, starbursting dwarfs, disturbed spirals at high redshift).

How this decoupling takes place is due to a separation of formation events (such as the density of the protogalaxy, the fraction of dark to baryonic matter) and the later effects of environment. Clearly, local density plays an important role in the evolution of a galaxy. As shown in Hashimoto et al. 1998, galaxies at intermediate densities have higher star formation rates than galaxies located in high dense regions (such as the core of a rich cluster). If the dominate process were galaxy encounters that induce star formation, then this correlation would be expected as intermediate density environments (such as loose groups) have the appropriate mix of galaxy density and low velocities to maximize tidal effects (Hashimoto et al. 1998). However, a competing process, that a pure density analysis does not take into account, is the possibly of ram pressure effects from the hot intracluster gas identified with every rich cluster of galaxies. There is clear evidence of such stripping ongoing in nearby clusters, such as Virgo, based on the HI and CO images of cluster spirals (Kenney and Young 1989).

We conclude that the Butcher-Oemler effect in rich clusters is the phenomenon of starforming S0’s being ram pressure stripped as they encounter the hot gas in the core of the cluster. The elimination of the atomic gas prematurely ceases star formation (although the question remains of the interplay with the molecular gas) and the S0’s disks age to the population we see today. On the other hand, the dwarf galaxy interactions in the outer regions of the cluster (where the velocities are lower) produce the starburst population. Both the blue and starburst population avoid the core of the cluster, but each for different reasons, one being intrinsic, the other environmental.

###### Acknowledgements.

The authors wish to thank the directors and staffs of KPNO, Steward and Wise Observatories for granting time for this project. Financial support from Austrian Fonds zur Foerderung der Wissenschaftlichen Forschung is also gratefully acknowledged. This research has made use of the NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database (NED) which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.


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# Theory of Microlensing

## 1. Introduction

All of gravitational microlensing is reducible to a single equation, the Einstein formula for $`\alpha `$, the deflection of light from a distant source passing by a lens of mass $`M`$ at an impact parameter $`b`$,

$$\alpha =\frac{4GM}{bc^2}.$$
(1)
This equation has been verified experimentally by Hipparcos to an accuracy of 0.3% (Froeschle, Mignard, & Arenou 1997). Despite its apparent simplicity, equation (1) generates an incredibly rich phenomenology. The aim of this review is to present the reader with a concise introduction to microlensing phenomena from the standpoint of theory. It is impossible to cover all aspects of microlensing in the space permitted. Several good reviews of microlensing can be consulted to obtain a deeper appreciation for various aspects of the subject (Paczyński 1996; Gould 1996; Roulet & Mollerach 1997; Mao 1999b).

By definition, microlensing is gravitational lensing where the images are too close to be separately resolved. The main microlensing effect that has been discussed in the literature (and the only one that has actually been observed) is photometric microlensing: the magnification of the source due to the convex nature of the lens (Einstein 1936; Refsdal 1964; Paczyński 1986; Griest 1991; Nemiroff 1991). However, there are two other effects that deserve attention from the standpoint of theory: astrometric microlensing, the motion of the centroid of the images relative to the source, and femtolensing, which refers to interference effects in microlensing.

## 2. Observables and Physical Parameters

### 2.1. The Lens Diagram

Consider a lens at $`d_l`$ and a more distant source at $`d_s`$ that are perfectly coaligned with the observer (Fig. 1). By axial symmetry, the source is imaged into a ring (the “Einstein ring”) whose angular radius is denoted $`\theta _\mathrm{E}`$. The impact parameter, $`r_\mathrm{E}`$, is called the “physical Einstein ring”, and its projection back onto the plane of the observer is called the “projected Einstein ring”, $`\stackrel{~}{r}_\mathrm{E}`$. As I will show below, $`\theta _\mathrm{E}`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{r}_\mathrm{E}`$, are two of the seven observables of the system. Using the small-angle approximation, they can be related to the physical parameters, $`M`$ and the source-lens relative parallax, $`\pi _{\mathrm{rel}}`$ (Gould 2000b). First, $`\alpha /\stackrel{~}{r}_\mathrm{E}=\theta _\mathrm{E}/r_\mathrm{E}`$, so using equation (1), one finds

$$\stackrel{~}{r}_\mathrm{E}\theta _\mathrm{E}=\alpha r_\mathrm{E}=\frac{4GM}{c^2}.$$
(2)
Second, using the exterior angle theorem, $`\theta _\mathrm{E}=\alpha \psi =\stackrel{~}{r}_\mathrm{E}/d_l\stackrel{~}{r}_\mathrm{E}/d_s`$, so

$$\frac{\theta _\mathrm{E}}{\stackrel{~}{r}_\mathrm{E}}=\frac{\pi _{\mathrm{rel}}}{\mathrm{AU}}.$$
(3)
These equations can easily be combined to yield,

$$\theta _\mathrm{E}=\sqrt{\frac{4GM}{c^2}\frac{\pi _{\mathrm{rel}}}{\mathrm{AU}}},\stackrel{~}{r}_\mathrm{E}=\sqrt{\frac{4GM}{c^2}\frac{\mathrm{AU}}{\pi _{\mathrm{rel}}}}.$$
(4)
Note that if $`\theta _\mathrm{E}`$ and $`\pi _{\mathrm{rel}}`$ are measured in mas, $`\stackrel{~}{r}_\mathrm{E}`$ is measured in AU, and $`M`$ is measured in $`M_{}/8`$, then all numerical factors and physical constants in these last three equations can be ignored.

### 2.2. The Lensing Event

If the lens is not perfectly aligned with the source, then the axial symmetry is broken and there are only two images. A similar use of the exterior-angle theorem then yields $`\theta _I^2\theta _I\theta _s=\theta _\mathrm{E}^2`$, for the relation between the image positions, $`\theta _{I,\pm }`$ and the source position $`\theta _s`$, relative to the lens. It is conventional to normalize the (vector) source position to $`\theta _\mathrm{E}`$, i.e., $`𝐮\stackrel{}{\theta }_s/\theta _\mathrm{E}`$, so that the image positions are at

$$\stackrel{}{\theta }_{I,\pm }=\pm u_\pm \widehat{𝐮},u_\pm \frac{\sqrt{u^2+4}\pm u}{2}.$$
(5)
By Liouville’s theorem, surface brightness is conserved, so for a uniformly bright source, the magnification of each of the two images $`A_\pm `$ is given by the ratio of the area of the image to the area of the source. See Figure 2. In the limit of a point source, this ratio reduces to the Jacobian of the transformation,

$$A_\pm =\left|\frac{\stackrel{}{\theta }_{I,\pm }}{\stackrel{}{\theta }_s}\right|=\frac{u_\pm ^2}{u_+^2u_{}^2},A=A_++A_{}=\frac{u^2+2}{u\sqrt{u^2+4}}$$
(6)
Since $`A`$ is a monotonic function of $`u`$, the signature of a microlensing event is that the source becomes brighter and then fainter as the line of sight to the source gets closer to and farther from the lens. If the source, lens, and observer are all in rectilinear motion, then by the Pythagorian theorem, $`u(t)=[u_0^2+(tt_0)^2/t_\mathrm{E}^2]^{1/2}`$, where $`t_0`$ is the time of closest approach, $`u_0=u(t_0)`$,

$$t_\mathrm{E}\frac{\theta _\mathrm{E}}{\mu _{\mathrm{rel}}},\stackrel{}{\mu }_{\mathrm{rel}}\stackrel{}{\mu }_l\stackrel{}{\mu }_s,$$
(7)
and $`\stackrel{}{\mu }_{\mathrm{rel}}`$ is the lens-source relative proper motion.

### 2.3. Observables

From a photometric microlensing event, one can then usually measure three parameters, $`t_0`$, $`u_0`$, and $`t_\mathrm{E}`$. Of these, the first two tell us nothing about the lens, and the third is related to $`M`$, $`\pi _{\mathrm{rel}}`$, and $`\mu _{\mathrm{rel}}`$ in a complicated way through equations (4) and (7). However, as mentioned above, there are actually seven (scalar) quantities that can in principle be observed in a microlensing event. These are: $`t_\mathrm{E}`$, $`\theta _\mathrm{E}`$, $`\stackrel{~}{r}_\mathrm{E}`$, $`\varphi `$ (the angle of lens-source relative proper motion), and the source parallax and proper motion, $`\pi _s`$, and $`\stackrel{}{\mu }_s`$, which can be measured astrometrically after the event.

To date, there have been only a handful of measurements of $`\theta _\mathrm{E}`$, $`\stackrel{~}{r}_\mathrm{E}`$, and $`\varphi `$, no measurements of $`\stackrel{}{\mu }_s`$, and only estimates of $`\pi _s`$ (although these are probably very good). However, all that could radically change in the next decade. I first discuss what it means that these quantities are “observable” and then briefly outline future prospects.

The angular Einstein ring $`\theta _\mathrm{E}`$ can be measured by scaling the event against some known “angular ruler” on the sky. The only such “ruler” to be used to date is the angular size of the source (Gould 1994a; Nemiroff & Wickramasinghe 1994; Witt & Mao 1994), which can be determined from the source flux and color, together with the empirical color/surface-brightness relation (van Belle 1999; Albrow et al. 2000a). So far, $`\theta _\mathrm{E}`$ has been measured for only 7 of the $`500`$ events detected to date (Alcock et al. 1997,2000; Albrow et al. 1999a,2000a; Afonso et al. 2000). Many other methods have been proposed (see Gould 1996 for a review; Han & Gould 1997), but none have been carried out.

The projected Einstein ring $`\stackrel{~}{r}_\mathrm{E}`$ can be measured by scaling the event against some known “physical ruler” in the plane of the observer. Three such “rulers” have been proposed, but the only one to be used to date is the Earth’s orbit which induces a wobble in the light curve (Gould 1992b). Because this wobble depends on the Earth’s motion being non-rectilinear, it is only significant if the event lasts more than a radian (i.e., $`t_\mathrm{E}>58`$days), and such events are very rare. To date, only about a half dozen events have measured $`\stackrel{~}{r}_\mathrm{E}`$ (Alcock et al. 1995; Bennett et al. 1997; Mao 1999a). Another approach is to observe the event simultaneously from two locations (“parallax”). Since $`\stackrel{~}{r}_\mathrm{E}5`$AU, it would be best if the second location were in solar orbit (Refsdal 1966; Gould 1994b).

The essential idea of a parallax satellite is illustrated in Figure 5 of Gould (1996). Basically, the Earth and the satellite each see a different microlensing event characterized respectively by $`(t_{0,},u_{0,},t_{\mathrm{E},})`$, and $`(t_{0,\mathrm{sat}},u_{0,\mathrm{sat}},t_{\mathrm{E},\mathrm{sat}})`$. To zeroth order $`t_{\mathrm{E},\mathrm{sat}}t_{\mathrm{E},}`$, but the differences in the other two components,

$$\mathrm{\Delta }𝐮(\mathrm{\Delta }t_0/t_\mathrm{E},\mathrm{\Delta }u_0)=(t_{0,\mathrm{sat}}/t_\mathrm{E},u_{0,\mathrm{sat}})(t_{0,}/t_\mathrm{E},u_{0,}),$$
(8)
give the displacement in the Einstein ring of the satellite relative to the Earth. That is,

$$\stackrel{~}{r}_\mathrm{E}=\frac{d_{\mathrm{sat}}}{\mathrm{\Delta }u},$$
(9)
where $`d_{\mathrm{sat}}`$ is the Earth-satellite separation (projected onto the plane perpendicular to the line of sight). There is actually a four-fold ambiguity in $`\mathrm{\Delta }u_0=\pm (u_{0,\mathrm{sat}}\pm u_{0,})`$ but this can be resolved, at least in principle, from the small difference in Einstein timescales which constrains $`\mathrm{\Delta }u_0`$ by (Gould 1995),

$$w_{}\mathrm{\Delta }u_0+w_{}\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }t_\mathrm{E}}{t_\mathrm{E}}+d_{\mathrm{sat}}\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }t_\mathrm{E}}{t_\mathrm{E}^2}=0,$$
(10)
where $`w_{}`$ and $`w_{}`$ are the components of the Earth-satellite relative velocity respectively parallel and perperdicular to the Earth-satellite separation vector. Boutreux & Gould (1996) and Gaudi & Gould (1997) showed that the degency could be broken with relatively modest satellite parameters. Unfortunately, no such satellite has been launched.

In a few specialized situations, it should be possible to obtain parallaxes using Earth-sized baselines (Hardy & Walker 1995; Holz & Wald 1996; Gould 1997; Gould & Andronov 1999; Honma 1999), but to date no such measurements have been made. All measurements of $`\stackrel{~}{r}_\mathrm{E}`$ simultaneously measure $`\varphi `$, and to date no other measurements of $`\varphi `$ have been made.

### 2.4. Physical Parameters in Terms of Observables

It is convenient to replace $`t_\mathrm{E}`$ and $`\varphi `$ together by $`\stackrel{}{\mu }_\mathrm{E}`$ whose direction is $`\varphi `$ and whose magnitude is $`\mu _\mathrm{E}t_\mathrm{E}^1`$, and to replace $`\stackrel{~}{r}_\mathrm{E}`$ by $`\pi _\mathrm{E}\mathrm{AU}/\stackrel{~}{r}_\mathrm{E}`$. Then equation (4) can be rewritten as,

$$\theta _\mathrm{E}=\sqrt{\kappa M\pi _{\mathrm{rel}}},\pi _\mathrm{E}=\sqrt{\frac{\pi _{\mathrm{rel}}}{\kappa M}},\kappa \frac{4G}{c^2\mathrm{AU}}8.144\frac{\mathrm{mas}}{M_{}},$$
(11)
and the physical parameters can be written in terms of the observables as,

$$M=\frac{\theta _\mathrm{E}}{\kappa \pi _\mathrm{E}},\pi _l=\pi _\mathrm{E}\theta _\mathrm{E}+\pi _s,\stackrel{}{\mu }_l=\stackrel{}{\mu }_\mathrm{E}\theta _\mathrm{E}+\stackrel{}{\mu }_s.$$
(12)
## 3. Astrometric Microlensing

While microlensing images cannot be resolved, the centroid of the images deviates from the source position by

$$\delta \stackrel{}{\theta }=\frac{A_+\stackrel{}{\theta }_{I,+}+A_{}\stackrel{}{\theta }_{I,}}{A_++A_{}}\stackrel{}{\theta }_s=\frac{𝐮}{u^2+2}\theta _\mathrm{E},$$
(13)
which reaches a maximum of $`\theta _\mathrm{E}/\sqrt{8}`$ when $`u=\sqrt{2}`$. See Figure 1. Since typically $`\theta _\mathrm{E}300\mu `$as, $`\delta \stackrel{}{\theta }`$ is well within the range of detection of the Space Interferometry Mission (SIM) and perhaps ground-based interferometers as well. While it is not obvious from equation (13), if $`𝐮(t)`$ is rectilinear, then $`\delta \stackrel{}{\theta }`$ traces out an ellipse. The size of the ellipse gives $`\theta _\mathrm{E}`$ and its orientation gives $`\varphi `$. Hence, if microlensing were monitored astrometrically, it would be possible to routinely recover these two parameters (Boden, Shao, & Van Buren 1998; Paczyński 1998). In fact, astrometric microlensing has a host of other potential applications including measurement of the lens brightness (Jeong, Han, & Park 1999; Han & Jeong 1999), removal of degeneracies due to blended light from unmicrolensed sources (Han & Kim 1999), and the detection and characterization of planetary (Safizadeh, Dalal & Griest 1999) and binary microlenses (Chang & Han 1999; Han, Chun, & Chang 1999).

Because at late times the astrometric signature falls off as $`u^1`$ (eq. 13), compared to $`u^4`$ for the photometric signature (eq. 6), it could in principle be possible to measure $`\stackrel{~}{r}_\mathrm{E}`$ astrometrically from the Earth’s orbital motion, even for events with $`t_\mathrm{E}58`$days (Boden et al. 1998; Paczyński 1998). If practical, this would mean that all the observables listed in § 2.3 could be extracted from astrometric observations alone. Unfortunately, such measurements are not practical (Gould & Salim 1999).

Nevertheless, using SIM one can in fact extract all seven parameters, and therefore can accurately determine both the masses and distances of the lenses. SIM makes its astrometric measurements by centroiding the fringe, i.e., by counting photons as a function of fringe position. This means that SIM’s astrometric measurements are simultaneously photometric measurements. Since SIM will be launched into solar orbit, it therefore can effectively act as a parallax satellite (Gould & Salim 1999). Moreover, SIM can break the degeneracy in $`\mathrm{\Delta }u_0`$ in two ways: photometrically (according to eq. 10) and astrometrically (by measuring the angle $`\varphi `$ associated with the astrometric ellipse, eq. 13).

An alternate approach to measuring $`\stackrel{~}{r}_\mathrm{E}`$ would be to compare SIM and ground-based astrometry rather than photometry (Han & Kim 2000).

Another important application of astrometric micolensing is to measure the masses of nearby stars (Refsdal 1964; Paczyński 1995, 1998; Miralda-Escudé 1996). Equation (13) still effectively describes the astrometric deflection, but since typically $`u1`$, this equation can be more simply written as

$$\mathrm{\Delta }\theta =\frac{\kappa M\pi _{\mathrm{rel}}}{\theta _{\mathrm{rel}}},$$
(14)
where $`\theta _{\mathrm{rel}}|\stackrel{}{\theta }_l\stackrel{}{\theta }_s|`$. In this form, it is clear that the probability that a given lens will come close enough to a background source to allow a mass measurement of fixed precision in a fixed amount of time is

$$PM\pi _l\mu _lN,$$
(15)
where $`N`$ is the density of background sources (Gould 2000a). Hence, the best place to look for such candidates is a proper-motion selected catalog near the Galactic plane. In fact, the selection of such candidates is a complex undertaking, but good progress is being made (Salim & Gould 2000).

## 4. Binary Lenses

Binary microlensing is one of the most active fields of theoretical investigation in microlensing today. In part this is due to the mathematical complexity of the subject and in part to the demands that are being placed on theory by new, very precise observations of binary events. Schneider & Weiss (1986) made a careful early study of binary lenses despite the fact that they never expected any to be detected (P. Schneider 1994, private communication), in order to learn about caustics in quasar macrolensing. Indeed caustics are the main new features of binaries relative to point lenses. These are closed curves in the source plane where a point source is infinitely magnified. The curves are composed of 3 or more concave segments that meet at cusps. Binary lenses can have 1, 2, or 3 closed caustic curves. If the two masses are separated by approximately an Einstein radius, then there is a single 6-cusp caustic. If they are separated by much more than an Einstein ring, then there are two 4-cusp caustics, one associated with each member of the binary. If the masses are much closer than an Einstein ring, there is a central 4-cusp caustic and two outlying 3-cusp caustics. Figure 3 shows two cases of the 6-cusp caustic, one close to breaking up into the two caustics characteristic of a wide binary and the other close breaking up into the three caustics characteristic of a close binary. Witt (1990) developed a simple algorithm for finding these caustics. Multiple-lens systems can have even more complicated caustic structures (Rhie 1997; Gaudi, Naber, & Sackett 1998).

### 4.1. Binary Lens Parameters

Recall that a point-lens light curve is defined by just three parameters, $`t_0`$, $`u_0`$, and $`t_\mathrm{E}`$. These three generalize to the case of binaries as follows: $`u_0`$ is now the smallest separation of the source relative to the center of mass (alternatively geometric center) of the binary, $`t_0`$ is the time when $`u=u_0`$, and $`t_\mathrm{E}`$ is the timescale associated with the combined mass of the binary. At least three additional parameters are required to describe a binary lens: the angle $`\alpha `$ at which the source crosses the binary axis, the binary mass ratio $`q`$, and the projected separation of the binary in units of the Einstein ring. Several additional parameters may be required in particular cases. If caustic crossings are observed, then the infinite magnification of the caustic is smeared out by the finite size of the source, so one must specify $`\rho _{}=\theta _{}/\theta _\mathrm{E}`$, where $`\theta _{}`$ is the angular size of the source. If the observations of the crossing are sufficiently precise, one must specify one or more limb-darkening coefficients for each band of observation (Albrow et al. 1999a, 2000a; Afonso et al. 2000). Finally, it is possible that the binary’s rotation is detectable in which case one or more parameters are required to describe that (Dominik 1998a; Albrow et al. 2000a). In addition, binary light curves often have data from several observatories in which case one needs two parameters (source flux and background flux) for each observatory.

### 4.2. Binary Lens Lightcurve Fitting

The problem of fitting binary-lens lightcurves is extremely complicated and is still very much under active investigation. There are actually three inter-related difficulties. First, as discussed in § 4.1, the parameter space is large. Second, it turns out the minima of $`\chi ^2`$ over this space are not well behaved. Third, the evaluation of the magnification for a finite source straddling or near a caustic can be computationally time consuming. The combination of these three factors means that a brute force search for solutions can well fail or, worse yet, settle on a false minimum.

The ideas for tackling these problems go back to the detection of the first binary microlens OGLE-7 (Udalski et al. 1994). There are two major categories: ideas for improving efficiency in the evaluation of the magnification, and ideas for cutting down the region of parameter space that must be searched. For the first, various methods have been developed by Kayser & Schramm (1988), Bennett & Rhie (1996), Gould & Gaucherel (1997), Wambsganss (1997) and Dominik (1998b), although in fact all are still fairly time consuming. For the second, Mao & Di Stefano (1995) developed a densely sampled library of point-source binary microlensing events, each of which is characterized by cataloged “features” such as the number of maxima, heights of peaks, etc. They can then examine individual events, characterize their “features,” and search their library for events that are consistent with these features. Di Stefano & Perna (1997) suggested that binary lenses could be fitted by decomposing the observed light curve into a linear combination of basis functions. The coefficients of these functions could then be compared to those fitted to a library of events in order to isolate viable regions of parameter space. This is essentially the same method as Mao & Di Stefano (1995), except that, rather than use gross features to identify similar light curves, one uses the coefficients of the polynomial expansion, which is more quantitative and presumably more robust.

Albrow et al. (1999b) developed a hybrid approach that both simplifies the search of parameter space and vastly reduces the computation time for individual light curves. It makes use of the fact that one of the very few things that is simple about a binary microlens is the behavior of its magnification very near to a caustic. A source inside a caustic will be imaged into five images, while outside the caustics it will be imaged into three images. Hence, at the caustic two images appear or disappear. These images are infinitely magnified. In the immediate neighborhood of a caustic (assuming one is not near a cusp), the magnification of the two new images diverges as $`A_2(\mathrm{\Delta }u_{})^{1/2}`$, where $`\mathrm{\Delta }u_{}`$ is the perpendicular separation of the source from the caustic (in units of $`\theta _\mathrm{E}`$). On the other hand, the three other images are unaffected by the approach of the caustic, so $`A_3`$const. Hence, the total magnification is given by (Schneider & Weiss 1987)

$$A=A_2+A_3\left(\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }u_{}}{u_r}\right)^{1/2}\mathrm{\Theta }(\mathrm{\Delta }u_{})+A_{cc},$$
(16)
where $`u_r`$ is a constant that characterizes the approach to the caustic, $`A_{cc}`$ is the magnification just outside the caustic crossing, and $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ is a step function. For a source of uniform brightness, or limb darkened in some specified way, one can therefore write a relatively simple expression for the total magnification as a function $`\mathrm{\Delta }u_{}`$ (Albrow et al. 1999b; Afonso et al. 2000).

### 4.3. Degeneracies

By fitting just the caustic-crossing data to a simple form based on equation (16), Albrow et al. (1999b) were able to reduce the search space from 7 to 5 dimensions and so effect a brute force search. This turned up a degeneracy between a wide-binary geometry and a close-binary geometry that both equally well accounted for the observed light curve. The Albrow et al. (1999b) data did not cover large parts of the light curve, but even when Afonso et al. (2000) combined these data with very extensive data sets from four other microlensing collaborations, the close/wide degeneracy survived. Simultaneously, Dominik (1999b) discovered a whole class of close/wide binary degeneracies whose roots lie deep in the lens equation itself.

This was unexpected. It was previously known that various observed light curves could be fit by several radically different binary geometries (Dominik 1999a). However, Han et al. (1999) showed that these geometries produced radically different astrometric deviations, so that the photometric degeneracy could be taken to be in some sense “accidental”. Moreover, for all of the examples examined by Dominik (1999a) and Han et al. (1999), the data, while reasonably good, were substantially poorer in quality than those used by Afonso et al. (2000). Hence, it was plausible to hope that with better photometric data, the degeneracies could be resolved. However, since the Dominik (1999b) degeneracies are rooted in the lens equation, they may prove more intractible. For example, Gould & Han (2000) showed that, in contrast to the cases examined by Han et al. (1999), the wide and close models presented by Afonso et al. (2000) generated similar astrometric deviations, although they could be distinguished with sufficiently late time data. On the other hand, Albrow et al. (2000b) showed that in at least one case this degeneracy is easily broken with photometric data alone.

## 5. Femtolensing

Femtolensing refers to interference effects in microlensing and derives its name from the very small angular scales that are usually required to produce such effects (Gould 1992a). To date, work on femtolensing has been almost entirely theoretical, although there has been at least one significant observational result.

As I mentioned in § 2.2, the magnification is given by the ratio of the area of the image to the area of the source, but this applies only to single images. Multiple images will in general interfere with one another. The reason that this can generally be ignored (and so one can write $`A=A_++A_{}`$ as I did in eq. 6) is that usually the source is large enough that for some parts the two images interfere constructively, and for other parts they do so destructively, so that one can simply add intensities rather than amplitudes.

The validity of this approximation then depends on how rapidly the relative phase (proportional to the time delay) varies across the source. For a point lens and for $`u1`$, the time delay between the images is given by $`\mathrm{\Delta }t=8GM/c^3(1+z_L)u`$ where $`z_L`$ is the redshift of the lens. The phase delay is therefore,

$$\mathrm{\Delta }\varphi =\frac{E\mathrm{\Delta }t}{h}=9.5\times 10^9\frac{M}{M_{}}\frac{E}{\mathrm{eV}}(1+z_L)u,$$
(17)
where $`E`$ is the energy of the photon. Hence, for ordinary Galactic microlensing observed in optical light, the interference effects are completely wiped out unless the source covers only a tiny part of the Einstein ring, $`\rho _{}<10^{10}`$. Thus, applications of femtolensing require a search for unusual regions of parameter space. However, if such regions of parameter space can be identified, the effects can be dramatic: if the magnifications of the images are written in terms of $`u_\pm `$ (eq. 6), it is not difficult to show that,

$$𝒜_\pm =(A_+^{1/2}\pm A_{}^{1/2})^2=(1+4/u^2)^{\pm 1/2},$$
(18)
where $`𝒜_\pm `$ are the magnifications at constructive and destructive interference. Hence the ratio of the peaks to the troughs is $`𝒜_+/𝒜_{}=(1+4/u^2)`$, which for typical $`u0.5`$ can be quite large. Hence, the interference pattern should manifest itself regardless of what intrinsic spectral features the source has.

Femtolensing was first discussed by Mandzhos (1981) and further work was done by Schneider & Schmidt-Burgk (1985) and Deguchi & Watson (1986). Peterson & Falk (1991) were the first to confront the problem of scales posed by equation (17). They considered radio sources (and so gained about 5 orders of magnitude relative to the optical) and advocated high signal-to-noise ratio observations that could detect the O(1/N) effects if the source subtends $`N`$ fringes.

Gould (1992a) sought to overcome the huge factor in equation (17) by going to smaller $`M`$. He showed that asteroid-sized objects ($`M10^{16}M_{}`$) could femtolens gamma-ray bursts (i.e., $`E`$MeV). Plugging these numbers into equation (17) yields phase changes $`\mathrm{\Delta }\varphi 1`$ over the entire Einstein ring. This is the only femtolensing suggestion that has ever been carried out in practice: Marani et al. (1999) searched BATSE and Ulysses data for femtolensing (as well as several other types of lensing) and used their null results to place weak limits on cosmological lenses in this mass regime. Kolb & Tkachev (1996) showed that these type of observations can also be used to probe for axion clusters to determine if such axions make up the dark matter.

Ulmer & Goodman (1995) developed a formalism capable of going beyond the semi-classical approximation of previous investigations. They thereby found effects that are in principle observable even at optical wavelegths and solar masses, despite the seemingly pessimistic implications of equation (17). Jaroszynski, & Paczyński (1995) then showed that these results could have implications for microlensing observations of Huchra’s Lens.

I close this review with a description of another potential application of femtolensing due to Gould & Gaudi (1997). The Einstein ring associated with a typical M star at $`20`$pc is $`\theta _\mathrm{E}10`$mas, corresponding to $`r_\mathrm{E}0.2`$AU. Hence, the binary companions of such stars are likely to be several orders of magnitude farther away. The binary lens can then be approximated as a point lens perturbed by a weak shear due to the companion. This produces a Chang-Refsdal lens (Chang & Refsdal 1979, 1984), which is more thoroughly described by Schneider, Ehlers, & Falco (1992). A source lying inside the caustic and near one of the cusps will produce four images near the Einstein ring, three highly magnified images on the same side of the Einstein ring and one moderately magnified image (which we will henceforth ignore) on the other. Depending on the details of the geometry, the three images can easily be magnified $`10^6`$ times in one direction but are not much affected (indeed shrunk by a factor 2) in the other. Thus a $`10^8M_{}`$ black hole (Schwarzschild radius 2 AU) at the center of a quasar at 1 Gpc, could be magnified in one direction from 2 nas, to 2 mas, and so could easily be resolved with a space-based optical interferometer having a baseline of a few hundred meters.

The only problem, then, is how to get similar resolution in the other direction. Femtolensing provides the answer. Because the three images are not magnified in the direction perpendicular to the Einstein ring, they will each necessarily contain images not only of the black hole, but of considerable other junk along one-dimensional bands cutting through its neighborhood. The three bands from the three images will cut accross one another and will only intersect along a length approximately equal to the width of the bands, i.e., $`1`$AU. If light from two of these images is brought together and dispersed in a spectrograph, then only the light from the intersecting region will give rise to interference fringes. The amplitude of these fringes will be set by the ratio of the length in the source plane over which the time delay between the images differs by 1 wavelength to the width of the bands. For typical parameters this could be a few percent. Since the $`V22`$ quasar will be magnified $`10^6`$ times to $`V7`$, this should not be difficult to detect.

There are a few difficulties that must be overcome to make this work in practice. First, the nearest position from which a dwarf star appears aligned with a quasar lies about 40 AU from the Sun. So while the huge “primary” of this “femtolens telescope” (the dwarf star) comes for free, getting the “secondary optics” aligned with the primary is a big job. Second, unlike other space missions that deliver payloads to 40 AU (e.g., the Voyagers), this package must be stopped at 40 AU so that it remains aligned with the dwarf star and quasar. Third, there are station keeping problems because the telescope will gradually fall out of alignment due to the Sun’s gravity and will have to be realigned about every 10 hours. However, what sort of theorist would recoil from a few engineering challenges?

## 6. Conclusion

When microlensing experiments began in the early 1990s, few participants expected that there was much room for theoretical development at all. The physical effect (eq. 1) was completely understood, and the basic equations of microlensing had all been worked out. A decade later, microlensing theory has shown itself to be a very dynamic field. The original problems turned out to be much richer than expected, while new observations and new developments in instrumention have raised new problems. Thus, microlensing theory promises to remain vibrant.

Acknowledgements: This work was supported by grant AST 97-27520 from the NSF.

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