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# Towards A Query Language for Annotation Graphs

## 1. Introduction

In recent years, annotated speech databases have grown tremendously in size and complexity. In order to maintain or access the data, one invariably has to write special purpose programs. With the introduction of a general purpose data model, the annotation graph \[Bird and Liberman, 1999\], it is possible to abstract away from idiosyncrasies of physical format. However, this does not magically solve the maintenance and access problems. In this paper, we contend that some form of query language is essential for annotation graphs, and we report our research on such a language.

Query languages for databases have two, sometimes conflicting, purposes. First they should express – as naturally as possible – a large number of data extraction and restructuring tasks. Second, they should be optimizable. This means that they should be based on a few efficiently implemented primitives; they should also make it easy to discover optimization strategies that may involve query rewriting, execution planning and indexing. The relational algebra and its practical embodiment, SQL, are examples of such languages, however they are unsuitable for annotation graphs first because it is difficult (or impossible – depending on the version of SQL) to express many practical queries, and second because the optimizations that are necessary for annotation graph queries are not in the repertoire of standard relational query optimizations.

The recent development of query languages for semistructured data \[Buneman et al., 1996, Quass et al., 1995, Deutsch et al., 1998\] offer more natural forms of expression for annotation graphs. In particular, these languages support regular path patterns – regular expressions on the labels in the graph – to control the matching of variables in the query to vertices or edges in the graph. While regular path patterns are useful, the usual model of semistructured data, that of a labeled tree, is not appropriate for annotation graphs. In particular, it fails to capture the quasi-linear structure of these graphs, which is essential in query optimization.

After reviewing some existing languages for linguistic annotations, we present the annotation graph model, its relational representation, and some relational queries on annotation graphs. Then we develop a new query language for annotation graphs that allows complex pattern matching. It is loosely based on semistructured query languages, but the syntax simplifies the problem of finding regions of the data that bound the search. Finally, we describe an optimization method that exploits the quasi-linear structure of annotation graphs.

## 2. Query Languages for Annotated Speech

If linguistic annotations could be modeled as simple hierarchies, then existing query languages for structured text would apply \[Clarke et al., 1995, Sacks-Davis et al., 1997\]. However, it is possible to have independent annotations of the same signal (speech or text) which chunk the data differently. As a simple example, the division of a text into sentences is usually incommensurable with its division into lines. Such structures cannot be represented using nested, balanced tags.

The fundamental problem faced by any general purpose query language for linguistic annotations is the navigation of these multiple intersecting hierarchies. In this section we consider two query languages which address this issue.

### 2.1. The Emu query language

The Emu speech database system \[www.shlrc.mq.edu.au/emu\] \[Cassidy and Harrington, 1996, Cassidy and Harrington, 1999\] provides tools for creation and analysis of data from annotated speech databases. Emu annotations are arranged into levels (e.g. phoneme, syllable, word), and levels are organized into hierarchies. Emu supports multiple independent hierarchies, such that any specific level may participate in more than one orthogonal structure. An example is shown in Figure 1 \[Cassidy and Bird, 2000\].

A database of such annotations can be searched using the Emu query language. The language has primitives for sequence, hierarchy and “association”, as illustrated below.

* \[Phonetic=a|e|i|o|u\] – matches a disjunction of items on the phonetic level
* \[Phonetic=vowel -$`>`$ Phonetic=stop\] – matches a sequence of vowel followed immediately by stop.
* \[Word!=dark ^ Phoneme=vowel\] matches an word not labelled dark immediately dominating vowel.
* \[Word!=x $`=>`$ Tone=H\*\] Find any word associated111 This “association” can have either a temporal interpretation as overlap \[Bird and Klein, 1990\] and an atemporal interpretation as some essentially arbitrary binary relation; both interpretations are encompassed by our model.  with a H\* tone

Note that the language lacks a wildcard, and Word!=x serves this purpose in the absence of any actual word x.

More complex queries are built up using nesting. There is no (non-atomic) disjunction or negation in the language. An example of a nested query follows; here, the query finds any syllable dominating a stop that precedes a vowel which is associated to a high tone.

```
 [Syllable=S ^
     [Phonetic=stop ->
         [Phonetic=vowel => Tone=H*]]]

```

Cassidy has shown how expressions of this query language can be translated into a first-order query language, in this case, SQL \[Cassidy, 1999\].

In the Emu query language, the dominance relation is symmetric. (A separate type hierarchy is used to order the levels.) This property makes it possible to navigate a path through multiple hierarchies without using variables. For example, The following expression finds an NP which dominates a word dark that is dominated by an intermediate phrase that bears an L- tone.222We are grateful to Steve Cassidy for providing this example.

```
[ syntax=NP ^ [ word=dark ^ intermediate=L- ]]

```

These expressions correspond to the “where” clause of a conventional query language. The Emu query language lacks an explicit “select” clause. Rather the selected material is the left-most element of the where clause, by default, or else the single element distinguished with a hash prefix. The query result is a column of these elements, and this is typically processed with an external statistics package.

### 2.2. The MATE query language

The MATE project is developing standards and tools for annotating spoken dialogue corpora \[mate.nis.sdu.dk\]. Like Emu, MATE supports intersecting hierarchies; Figure 2 illustrates four hierarchies built over the same dialogue transcript \[Carletta and Isard, 1999\]. These hierarchies happen to intersect at their fringe, however this need not be the case.

MATE uses XML to represent these structures. Each node in Figure 2 corresponds to an XML element, and the node labels correspond to an attribute of the element or its content. For example, swamp could be represented as \<word id="A6" num="sing"\>swamp\</word\>, and np could be represented as \<phrase type="np"/\>. In the query language \[Mengel et al., 1999\], we can pick out these elements with the following expressions:

```
($w word); $w.orth ~ "swamp"
($p phrase); $p.type ~ "np"

```

Hierarchical relationships, like the one between game and move or between move and swamp, are represented using nesting of XML elements or by hyperlinks. The query language has a transitive dominance relation ^ which navigates down through nested structures and hyperlinks. For example, we can find noun phrases dominating the word “swamp” with the expression:

```
($p phrase) ($w word);
  ($p.type ~ "np")
  && ($w.orth ~ "swamp")
  && ($p ^ $w)

```

Each element spans an extent of textual material, and the query language supports a variety of temporal comparisons on these extents, reminiscent of Allen’s temporal relations \[Allen, 1983\]. So long as two hierarchies intersect at their terminals (and not at non-terminals) then their non-terminals will be comparable using these temporal expressions. However, the language directly supports queries on intersecting hierarchies. For example, we can find a word which is simultaneously a repair and a preposition, where 1^ is the immediate dominance relation:333We thank David McKelvie for furnishing this example.

```
($w word) ($ph phrase) ($r repair) ($d disfluency);
  ($r 1^ $w) && ($ph 1^ $w)
   && ($ph type ~ "prep") && ($d 1^ $r)

```

Unlike the Emu query language, the formal and computational properties of the MATE query language, vis-à-vis relational and semistructured query languages, are unexplored.

This concludes our brief survey of query languages for annotated speech. Other query languages exist; these two were chosen because of their interesting approach to the problem of intersecting hierarchies.

## 3. Annotation Graphs

Annotation Graphs were presented by Bird and Liberman as follows. Here we consider just the so-called “anchored” variety.

###### Definition 1

An anchored annotation graph $`G`$ over a label set $`L`$ and timelines $`T_i,_i`$ is a 3-tuple $`N,A,\tau `$ consisting of a node set $`N`$, a collection of arcs $`A`$ labeled with elements of $`L`$, and a time function $`\tau :NT_i`$, which satisfies the following conditions:

1. $`N,A`$ is a labeled acyclic digraph containing no nodes of degree zero;
2. for any path from node $`n_1`$ to $`n_2`$ in $`A`$, if $`\tau (n_1)`$ and $`\tau (n_2)`$ are defined, then there is a timeline $`i`$ such that $`\tau (n_1)_i\tau (n_2)`$;
3. If any node $`n`$ does not have both incoming and outgoing arcs, then $`\tau :nt`$ for some time $`t`$.

Note that annotation graphs may be disconnected or empty, and that they must not have orphan nodes. It follows from the above definition that every node has two bounding times, and we will make use of this property later. It also follows from the definition that timelines partition the node set.

The formalism can be illustrated with an application to a simple speech database, the TIMIT corpus of read speech \[Garofolo et al., 1986\]. This database contains recordings of 630 speakers of 8 major dialects of American English, each reading 10 phonetically rich sentences \[www.ldc.upenn.edu/Catalog/LDC93S1.html\]. Figure 3 shows part of the annotation of one of the sentences. The file on the left contains word transcription, and the file on the right contains phonetic transcription. Part of the corresponding annotation graph is shown underneath. Each node displays the node identifier and the time offset (in 16kHz sample numbers). The arcs are decorated with type and label information. The type W is for words and the type P is for phonetic transcriptions.

Observe that all the nodes in Figure 3 have time values. This need not be the case. For example, in the CALLHOME telephone speech corpus \[www.ldc.upenn.edu/Catalog/LDC96S46.html\], times are only available for speaker-turn boundaries (see Figure 6).

Annotations expressed in the annotation graph data model can be trivially recast as a set of relational tables \[Cassidy and Bird, 2000\], just as can be done for semistructured data \[Florescu and Kossmann, 1999\]. We employ three relations: arc, time and label. The arc relation is a four-tuple containing an arc id, a source node id, a target node id, and a type. The time relation maps (some of) the node ids to times. The label relation maps the arc ids to labels.

Figure 6 gives an instance of this schema for the TIMIT data of Figure 3 (enriched with the information shown in Figure 1. The names of key attributes are underlined. Figure 6 shows the graph representation for this data. Note that intersecting hierarchies find a natural expression in this model.

## 4. Some Example Queries

Interesting cases for query are those that involve more than one of these primitives. Here are some simple queries to select subsets of the data.

1. Find word arcs whose phonetic transcription contains a ’d’ and ends with a ’k’.
2. Find phonetic arcs which immediately precede a vowel that overlaps a high tone.
3. Find words dominating a vowel which overlaps a high tone.

These queries can be interpreted against the fragment shown in Figure 7.

Such queries have a first-order interpretation in graphlog \[Consens and Mendelzon, 1990\]. We employ a datalog syntax and the relations in Figure 6. We begin by defining some auxiliary relations.

First we define a path relation that is sensitive to arc types. Two nodes X and Y are connected by a path of type T if there is a sequence of zero or more arcs, all of type T, beginning at X and ending at Y.

```
path(X,X,T) :- arc(_,X,_,T)
path(X,X,T) :- arc(_,_,X,T)
path(X,Y,T) :- arc(_,X,Z,T), path(Z,Y,T)

```

An arc A “structurally includes” an arc B if there is a path from the start node of A to the start node of B, and a path from the end node of B to the end node of A.

```
s_incl(A, B) :- arc(A, X1, Y1, _),
                arc(B, X2, Y2, _),
                path(X1, X2, _),
                path(Y2, Y1, _)

```

Finally, an arc A “temporally overlaps” an arc B if the start node of A precedes the end node of B, and the start node of B precedes the end node of A. (See section 6. for details of the precedence relation.)

```
ovlp(A, B) :- arc(A, X1, Y1, _), arc(B, X2, Y2, _),
              time(X1, X1t), time(X2, X2t),
              time(Y1, Y1t), time(Y2, Y2t),
              X1t $``$ Y2t, Y1t $``$ X2t

```

Now we can provide translations for the three queries listed above.

1. Find word arcs whose phonetic transcription contains a ’d’ and ends with a ’k’. We assume a relation path/3 which is the transitive closure of arc/4.

```
ans(A) :- arc(A, X, Y, word),
          path(X, X1, phonetic),
          arc(A1, X1, X2, phonetic), label(A1, d),
          path(X2, X3, p),
          arc(A2, X3, Y, phonetic), label(A2, k)

```
2. Find phonetic arcs which immediately precede a vowel that overlaps a high tone:

```
ans(A) :- arc(A, X, Y, phonetic),
          arc(A1, Y, Y1, phonetic), label(A1, [aeiou]),
          arc(A2, Z, Z1, tone), label(A2, h*)
          ovlp(A1, A2)

```
3. Find words dominating a vowel which overlaps a high tone:

```
ans(A) :- arc(A, _, _, word),
          arc(A1, _, _, phonetic), label(A1, [aeiou]),
          arc(A2, _, _, tone), label(A2, h*),
          s_incl(A, A1), ovlp(A1, A2)

```

While it is possible to give queries a first-order interpretation, the language is quite cumbersome, and we seek a more natural way to describe annotation graphs.

## 5. Query Syntax

In this section we introduce a query syntax which provides first an abbreviated notation for the queries expressed previously in datalog. Most importantly, the syntax allows us to recognize certain crucial optimizations.

### 5.1. Queries over arc data

The fundamental unit on which our query language is built is the arc. We form the join of the arc and label relations from Figure 6 and adopt names for our attributes. A query that finds the arc identifiers, types and labels of all edges in timeline tl1 is shown below:

```
select ans(E,T,L)
where [id: E, type: T, label: L] <- tl1

```

We follow the datalog convention of using uppercase symbols for variables and lowercase symbols for constants. The notation \[id: E, type: T, label: L\] is used for arcs and describes a arc pattern: it is matched against the arcs in the timeline tl1 and binds the variables E,T,L for each match to the arc data in the timeline. For each such match it constructs a tuple ans(E,T,L) in the output. Arc patterns may contain constants, e.g. \[id: E, type: word, label: L\] and there is no constraint on their width. In this sense they are ”ragged” or ”semistructured” tuples.

```
[id: E, start: X, end: Y, type: T, name: N,
  xref: X, lex-id: L, annotator: SB]

```

Since attributes are distinguished by name rather than position, it is safe (and often convenient) to omit them when we do not need to constrain their value, or bind a variable.

To query over a collection of timelines timit we use cascaded bindings:

```
select ans(E,L)
where  TL <- timit
       [id: E, start: X, end: Y, label: L, type: word] <-TL
       time(Y) - time(X) < 8000

```

This selects the edge identifiers and labels (the names of the words) from all words in the timit corpus of a suitably short duration.

The form of this query follows a standard syntax for semistructured query languages (see \[Abiteboul et al., 2000\]). We shall concentrate here on the development of a syntax for patterns that specify paths and assume a standard syntax, e.g. select ans(E,L), for returning results of the query.

### 5.2. Path patterns

Each arc has a start and end node. We can specify two adjacent arcs by requiring the start node of one arc to be the end node of another

```
[id: E1, start: X, end: Y, type: T1, label: L1] <- db
[id: E2, start: Y, end: Z, type: T2, label: L2] <- db

```

In this fashion we can specify any sequence of arcs. However we shall use an abbreviated syntax \[ ... \].\[ ... \] to specify the concatenation of edges, that is, the dot is an associative pattern concatenation operation. Thus the previous pair of patterns binds the same variables as the following single pattern

```
[id: E1, start: X, end: Y, type: T1, label: L1] .
[id: E2, end: Z, type: T2, label: L2] <-  db

```

Within edge patterns we also allow arbitrary predicates. For example: \[type: T, T = word or T = ph\], \[start: X, stop: Y, time(Y) - time(X) \> 200\]. Predicates may also use attribute names as values. For example, \[type: word\], \[type: X, X = word\], \[type=word\] are equivalent.

A sequence of arcs (phonemes, syllables, phrases, etc) is represented in our model using a concatenated sequence of arc patterns. To specify path patterns of arbitrary length we also allow arbitrary regular expressions on arcs. An arbitrary path of word arcs is represented by \[type = word\]\* and an arbitrary path of word or phoneme arcs by (\[type = word\]|\[type = phoneme\])\*. Care must be taken in interpreting variables inside a Kleene * or a union. The rule is that such variables must be bound elsewhere in the program. We cannot bind variables inside a union or Kleene \*. Thus \[type: T\]\* is illegal.

Suppose we have a path pattern \[type: word\]\* and we want to refer to the first node on the path. The pattern \[start: X, type: word\]\* is illegal. (Even if it were legal this pattern could only only match paths of length 0 or 1.) To allow the binding of nodes outside of an edge pattern we take single variables in the sequence to denote nodes. For example, X.\[type: T\].Y is equivalent to \[start: X, type: T, end: Y\]. Moreover, X.\[type: word\]\*.Y binds X to the first node and Y to the last node on a path of word arcs. Now consider the following example:

```
X.[type = parse, label = sentence].Y <- db           (a)
X.[type = word]*.[type = word, label = opera]
 .[type = word]*.Y <- db

```

This matches the start and end node of any sequence that contains the word opera. Another possibility is shown below.

```
X.[type = parse, label = sentence].Y <- db           (b)
X’.[type = word, label = opera].Y’ <- db
time(X) <= time(X’) and time(Y’) <= time(Y)

```

However, (a) and (b) are not equivalent queries.

One might think, from example (a) above, that one could dispense with node variables by having a parallel composition operator. It turns out that there are many situations where this is impossible. The simplest instance is shown in Figure 8.

The annotation graph in Figure 8 cannot be uniquely described using parallel and serial composition. Instead, we need a set of expressions as follows:

```
A.[label: W].B.[label: X].C.[label: Y].D <- db
A.[label: V].C <- db
B.[label: Z].D <- db

```

### 5.3. Arbitrary predicates on arcs

The bracket notation for describing arcs can also enclose arbitrary predicates. Predicates expressing the (temporal) overlap or inclusion of edges are particularly useful. Example (b) above may be expressed as.

```
[id: E, type = parse, label = sentence] <- db
[type = word, label = opera, subinterval(E)] <- db

```

Note that subinterval(E) can be thought of as a “method” of the edge, that is called when the pattern is matched.

### 5.4. Abbreviations

The preceding syntax is quite general; it has little to do with the specific conventions of linguistic data. Paths typically, though not always, follow the same type. Labels are also special. We propose the following syntactic sugar. (The proposal is tentative, all sorts of variations are possible).

Given a database of arcs db, the notation db/t restricts the database to those arcs of type $`t`$. Also the notation :L is an abbreviation for label: l. For example, X.\[:L\].Y \<- db/word is shorthand for X.\[label: L, type: word\].Y \<- db. Using this, example (a) becomes:

```
X.[:sentence].Y <- db/parse                         (a’)
X.[]*.[:opera].[]*.Y <- db/word

```

### 5.5. Horizontal path expressions

Find words with c.\*t.\* (our first query)

```
X.[].Y <- db/word
X.[:c].[]*.[:t].[]*.Y <- db/ph

```

Here’s a harder case, with a variable inside the scope of a Kleene star. The predicate ovlp(E) is an “overlap” predicate.

```
X.[].Y <- db/word
[id: E] <- db/background
X.[:c].[ovlp(E)]*.[:t].[]*.Y <- DB/ph

```

In this section we have paid little attention to the output of a query. From the introductory examples, it should be clear that it is straightforward to construct a set of tuples in the same sense that datalog constructs a set of tuples. It is also possible to extend the syntax to express the construction and augmentation of annotation graphs. The details will be described elsewhere

## 6. Optimization: exploiting quasi-linearity

In the previous sections we developed a query language for annotation graph data and showed how an analysis of that language might help - in many practical cases – to lead to tractable implementations. Here we show how we can exploit the “almost sequential” notion of annotation graph data to support these implementations. In particular, we will show how to use the underlying temporal order to select a small fragment of the input data that will fit into main memory, bypassing many of the database optimization issues.

Consider the example in Figure 9. It shows a collection of nodes, where nodes a-f are timed and the rest are untimed. All the untimed nodes are linked by arcs to other nodes. In order to extract those portions of the database that are needed to answer a query, we will typically need to find efficiently all arcs contained in some arc or all arcs that might overlap some arc. Such queries can be answered by computing the transitive closure $`TA`$ of the arc relation, but this is likely to be an expensive proposition ($`O(n^2)`$ in the number of nodes). An alternative is to store the two relations below.444 Our approach has similarities with Allen’s “reference intervals” \[Allen, 1983\].  The relation time contains, for every node $`n`$, the maximum time ante of a timed node that precedes $`n`$ and the minimum time post of a timed node that precedes $`n`$. If $`n`$ is itself timed, the ante and post agree.555Some saving in space could be achieved by having a separate relation for the timed nodes. It is a consequence of the definitions in section 3. that these times always exist. (Every node is bounded by some pair of timed nodes.) Note that node is a key for the time relation, and we shall refer to the attributes ante and post functionally, as $`\text{ante}(n)`$ and $`\text{post}(n)`$.

The relation $`TA^{}`$ is defined by $`TA^{}=\{(m,n)|TA(m,n)\text{post}(m)>\text{ante}(n)\}`$. This means that the precedence relation $`TC`$ can be reconstructed by the query:

$$TC(m,n):\text{post}(m)<\text{ante}(n)TA^{}(m,n)$$

With indexes on ante, post, and $`(\text{source},\text{target})`$, this predicate can be efficiently computed.

The point of this decomposition is that we expect the relation $`TA^{}`$ to be relatively small. For example, in the Switchboard database \[Godfrey et al., 1992\], the maximum size of $`TC`$ for any timeline is approximately 1.9 million, while while the sizes of time and $`TA^{}`$ are, for this timeline, $`1,992`$ and $`10,585`$ respectively.666 This computation is based on the version of Switchboard data that is marked with time information at turn boundaries only. Given an $`n`$-word turn, the size of the transitive precedence relation is approximately $`n^2/2`$.  Throughout the whole database, the largest value of $`TA^{}`$ was $`15,286`$. Evidently the decomposed representation will easily fit into main memory, while keeping $`TC`$ in main memory may pose problems.

Finally, let us put together the ideas of the last two sections. Consider example (a) of the previous section. The important point is that all nodes are bounded by a sentence arc. This suggests the following technique:

* Repeatedly match
$`X`$.\[type = parse, label = sentence\].$`Y`$
* For each match, obtain $`X^{}=\text{ante}(X)`$ and $`Y^{}=\text{post}(Y)`$
* Restrict the arc relation to arcs bounded by $`(X^{},Y^{})`$ (use an index that supports range searches)
* Perform the query on the restricted relation (main memory evaluation should be possible)

## 7. Conclusions

Like semistructured data, annotation graphs have a natural representation in terms of nodes and arcs. A key feature of annotation graphs is that the arcs are organized into a quasi-linear flow in the horizontal direction. As in the case of semistructured data, we seek a natural query language for accessing and transforming this data.

This paper has described progress on a query language for annotation graphs. Path patterns and some abbreviatory devices provide a convenient way to express a wide range of queries. We exploit the quasi-linearity of annotation graphs by partitioning the precedence relation, and we believe that this will enable efficient temporal indexing of the graphs.

In ongoing work we are exploring hybrid structures and languages which would permit both the vertical and horizontal perspectives on semistructured data to co-exist. On this view, a horizontal path expression could be embedded inside a vertical path expression, or vice versa.


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# Distribution of Cold dust in Orion A and B

## 1 Introduction

In this paper we present a large scale high angular resolution ($``$1′) study of the continuum emission at 205 and 138 $`\mu `$m from the two Giant Molecular Clouds Orion A and Orion B (south) in the Orion complex. The mapped region of Orion A includes OMC-1, 2, 3 and IRAS 05327-0457 (NGC 1977). In Orion B we have mapped mainly the southern portion covering NGC 2023 and NGC 2024. Limited regions including, OMC-1 and 2 in Orion A and NGC 2024 in Orion B have also been observed at 57 $`\mu `$m.

The southern part of the Orion cloud complex, also known as Orion A, contains star forming cores which are distributed along the north-south direction (integral shaped ridge) and named OMC-1, 2 and 3 from south to north. Observations at sub-millimeter/far-infrared wavelengths have shown that both warm and cold dust with quite different spatial distribution contribute to the emission from the Orion molecular clouds (Thronson et al., 1986; Chini et al., 1997). Cold dust, with temperature $``$ 20-25 K, accounts for bulk of the mass of dust in the Orion clouds and emits significantly only at wavelengths longer than 100 $`\mu `$m. Earlier observations of Orion A concentrated on the emission from the hot dust viz., mapping of OMC-1 at 50-100 $`\mu `$m by Werner et al. (1976) and of M43 at 37-160 $`\mu `$m by Smith, Harper, & Loewenstein (1987). Later observations have mostly explored the emission from the cold dust in this region. The most recent of these observations was by Johnstone & Bally (1999) covering OMC-1, 2 and 3 and extending over an area of 50′$`\times `$10′ with an angular resolution of $``$ 7$`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}`$5 at 450 $`\mu `$m and 14″ at 850 $`\mu `$m. Lis et al. (1998) had also mapped a region of 6′$`\times `$18′ covering OMC-2 and 3 at 350 $`\mu `$m with an angular resolution of 11″. However, the pioneering work in detecting a number of cold sources in OMC-2 and an extremely cold one ($``$ 10 K) in OMC-3 was by Chini et al. (1997), who mapped a region of $``$15′$`\times `$5′ with an angular resolution of $``$ 11″ at 1300 $`\mu `$m. Most of these condensations are considered to be protostellar candidates because of the associated outflow activities (Castets & Langer, 1995). Observations in molecular lines like C18O by (Castets & Langer, 1995, ;and references therein) have revealed that the gas in OMC-2 and OMC-3 have kinetic temperatures equal to 24 K and 19 K respectively, both much smaller than that in OMC-1 (70 K). These observations also identified both, OMC-2 and OMC-3, to be regions of high column density. C18O observations have also detected several moderate to strongly collimated bipolar outflows in OMC-3, which suggests recent star formation activity. The very low temperatures of sources in both OMC-2 and 3 along with the evidence for star formation, indicate very early stages of evolution of, probably intermediate mass stars. In this paper we have explored the distribution of dust emission and temperature of the Orion A region in a wavelength regime (205 & 138 $`\mu `$m in particular) where no high angular resolution measurements exist in literature.

The Orion B cloud contains 4 major sites of star formation viz., NGC 2071 & NGC 2068 in the north and NGC 2023 & NGC 2024 in the south. We have observed only the regions around NGC 2024 and 2023. The brightest emission source in the region is NGC 2024, which is a region of active star formation. The 1300 $`\mu `$m observations over a region of $``$ 5′$`\times `$5′ (with an angular resolution $``$ 30″) by Mezger et al. (1988) have revealed six condensations in NGC 2024, aligned in the north-south direction. These condensations also have masers and HII regions associated with them. The nature of these condensations was an issue of debate which was resolved by Mezger et al. (1992). From their observations at 870 & 1300 $`\mu `$m they concluded that these condensations are indeed isothermal protostars. Lada, Bally, & Stark (1991a) presented a survey of Orion B (Lynds 1630) molecular cloud in CS(2-1) line (1$`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}`$8 angular resolution) and identified the regions including NGC 2023 and NGC 2024 to be bright in CS, thus indicating high density of the region. In a follow-up program Lada et al. (1991b) surveyed Orion B in the K (2.2 $`\mu `$m) band and found that more than 50% of the NIR sources are associated with the 4 identified star forming regions. In a recent high angular resolution (22-30″) survey of Orion B (south) at 1300 $`\mu `$m extending over $``$80′$`\times `$68′, Launhardt et al. (1996) have identified some of the dust emission peaks around NGC 2023 and NGC 2024 with the CS cores detected by Lada, Bally, & Stark (1991a). Of the existing FIR observations of NGC 2023 and NGC 2024, the IRAS observations in the first place trace relatively warmer dust ($``$ 30 K) and secondly have angular resolutions varying with wavelength, so that calculating the temperature distribution from the observed flux densities is not straightforward. On the other hand, the 1300 $`\mu `$m observations, though of high angular resolution, trace extremely cold dust. This has motivated us to carry out simultaneous high angular resolution far-infrared observations at 205 and 138 $`\mu `$m with identical beams so that the density and temperature distribution of dust emitting significantly in this intermediate regime can be reliably quantified.

The rest of the paper is organized as follows: Section 2 describes the observations and Section 3 contains the results and discussion of the same.

## 2 Observations

### 2.1 The 205 & 138 $`\mu `$m maps

Orion molecular clouds A and B (south) were observed using a two-band far-infrared photometer system (PHT-12) at the Cassegrain focus of the TIFR 1-meter (f/8) balloon-borne telescope. The far-infrared telescope was flown from the TIFR Balloon Facility, Hyderabad, in central India (Latitude = 17$`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}`$47 N , Longitude = 78$`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}`$57 E ) in November, 1995. Details of the telescope and the observational procedure have been given by Ghosh et al. (1988). The photometer (PHT-12) consists of 12 composite silicon bolometers, each having a FOV of 1$`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}`$6 and arranged in a 3$`\times `$2 array for each band. These arrays are cooled to 0.3 K by liquid 3He. The sky was chopped at 10 Hz by wobbling the secondary mirror. The chopper throw was 4$`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}`$2 along the cross-elevation axis. The same region of the sky was viewed simultaneously in two bands. The effective wavelengths for the two bands for a $`\lambda ^2`$ emissivity law and a temperature of 35 K are 205 $`\mu `$m and 138 $`\mu `$m. Saturn was observed for absolute flux calibration (Ghosh et al., 1988) as well as determination of the instrumental Point Spread Function (PSF) including the effect of sky chopping.

The simultaneous mapping in the two FIR bands was carried out by using raster scans in which the telescope was continuously moved along the cross-elevation axis and stepped in elevation. The chopped FIR signals were gridded in a two dimensional sky matrix (elevation $`\times `$ cross-elevation) with a cell size of 0$`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}`$3$`\times `$ 0$`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}`$3 . The observed chopped signal matrix was deconvolved using an indigenously developed procedure based on the Maximum Entropy Method (MEM) similar to that of Gull & Daniell (1978) (see Ghosh et al., 1988, for details). The FWHM sizes of the deconvolved maps of the point-like source (Saturn) are found to be 1$`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}`$6$`\times `$1$`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}`$9 and 1$`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}`$6$`\times `$1$`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}`$8 in the 138 and 205 $`\mu `$m bands respectively. An optical photometer was used at the Cassegrain focal plane to improve the absolute positioning of the telescope during the flight. In addition for all the observations presented here, the signal from this optical photometer measured during the far-infrared scans have been used during offline analysis to further improve the aspect information. The absolute positional accuracy achieved in the FIR maps is $``$ 0$`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}`$5 .

### 2.2 The 57 $`\mu `$m map

Limited regions of both Orion A (OMC-1 & 2) and Orion B (NGC 2024) were also observed at 57 $`\mu `$m in an earlier flight (November, 1990) of the TIFR balloon-borne telescope, using a different photometer (PHT-2). This two band photometer, PHT-2, was based on two liquid 4He cooled Ge(Ga) bolometers. The FIR passbands were 45–70 $`\mu `$m and 110–160 $`\mu `$m with effective wavelengths 57 $`\mu `$m and 150 $`\mu `$m for an input source spectrum defined by a greybody of temperature 35 K and $`\lambda ^2`$ emissivity. A 2$`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}`$4 (dia) region of the sky was simultaneously viewed in both the FIR bands. More details of PHT-2 can be found in Verma et al. (1994). Here, only the observations at 57 $`\mu `$m are presented, since the other band is very similar to the shorter waveband of PHT-12 which has better sensitivity. The PHT-2 was calibrated by observing Jupiter. Some preliminary results from observations of the Orion region have been presented by Das et al. (1993). The final results are presented here. The achieved angular resolution in the image processed maps is $``$1$`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}`$5 as determined from the observations of Jupiter.

### 2.3 The HIRES processed IRAS maps

To supplement our balloon-borne observations, we have used the IRAS survey data in all wavebands (12, 25, 60 and 100 $`\mu `$m) for the regions mapped by us in Orion B (south). These data were HIRES processed (Aumann, Fowler, & Melnyk,, 1990) at the Infrared Processing and Analysis Center (IPAC111IPAC is funded by NASA as part of the IRAS extended mission program under contract to JPL., Caltech) for improving the angular resolutions of the raw maps.

## 3 Results & Discussion

### 3.1 Analysis of FIR data

Figure Distribution of Cold dust in Orion A and B and Figure Distribution of Cold dust in Orion A and B respectively show the regions (indicated by the dotted boundary) in Orion B (south) and Orion A mapped at 205 and 138 $`\mu `$m. Regions extending over $``$ 42′$`\times `$38′ in Orion A and $``$ 38′$`\times `$53′ in Orion B (south) have been observed at both these FIR wavelengths. The 57 $`\mu `$m maps for both sources cover relatively smaller regions. Reliable dust temperature T(138/205) maps for selected regions have been generated utilising the simultaneity of observation and nearly identical beams at 205 and 138 $`\mu `$m. The dust emissivity law has been assumed to be $`ϵ_\nu \nu ^\beta `$ and the method used is briefly described in Appendix 1. For most star forming regions the emissivity exponent at longer wavelengths ($`>`$ 100 $`\mu `$m) is found to be between 1.5 to 2.5 and the calculated properties of most common types of dust grains (Draine & Lee, 1984) show the same at these wavelengths. Based on these facts we have chosen $`\beta `$ = 2 for deriving the T(138/205) distribution. Considering the uncertainties in the measured flux densities and the wavelength regime probed, the temperature computed has an uncertainty of $``$ $`\pm `$2K between 14 K and 50 K and of $``$ $`\pm `$5K between 50 and 70 K. The intensity ratio of our FIR bands is rather insensitive to temperatures below 10 K and above 70 K. Above 70 K the estimated temperature has an uncertainty of $``$ $`\pm `$8K. The morphology of the spatial distribution of Td is insensitive to the assumed value of $`\beta `$. Only the numerical values of Td depend on $`\beta `$, e.g., a temperature of 15 K for $`\beta `$ = 2 corresponds to 17 K for $`\beta `$ = 1 and Td = 30 K for $`\beta `$ = 2 corresponds to 50 K for $`\beta `$ = 1. Distribution of $`\tau _{150}`$, the optical depth at 150 $`\mu `$m for Orion B has also been generated using these dust temperatures and $`\beta `$ = 2.

We have adopted a well-defined extraction algorithm to identify discrete sources in these maps. This algorithm is based on identification of a local maximum followed by a critical study of the growth curve of the integrated flux densities in consecutive annular rings with the maximum at the center. The reliability of the sources detected in each map has been ensured by the following procedure. The entire observation for each region has been split into two independent datasets (by considering only the alternate scan lines in each raster) and processed (deconvolved) separately to generate two maps. The peaks detected in both these maps within a predetermined positional error have been used to quantify the dynamic range and also to validate the detected sources. The final maps presented combine all data and positions of the “confirmed sources” in the composite maps have been determined. These sources have signals more than 10 times the estimated noise level of the respective maps. In this paper the method of presenting the sources is as follows : Peaks identified in any two TIFR wavebands are associated if they lie within 1′. For association with IRAS (HIRES) sources the same parameter has been taken to be 1$`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}`$5. The coordinates quoted for a particular source are for the position of the peak at the longest (TIFR) wavelength at which it is detected.

### 3.2 Orion A

Figure Distribution of Cold dust in Orion A and B shows the 205 and 138 $`\mu `$m intensity distribution of the mapped region in Orion A. The maps include the Orion Molecular Clouds 1, 2, 3 and the source IRAS 05327-0457. Figure Distribution of Cold dust in Orion A and B shows the intensity map for a limited region in Orion A at 57 $`\mu `$m. Table 1 presents the coordinates and flux densities (in a circle of 3′ dia) for all the discrete sources detected in the mapped regions of Orion A at 205 and 138 $`\mu `$m. In the same table we also present the longer wavelength associations of these sources along with the measured flux densities at 1300 $`\mu `$m (Chini et al., 1997). For the discrete sources detected at 138, 205 and 1300 $`\mu `$m the dust temperature (Td) and the emissivity exponent ($`\beta `$) have been determined by fitting a single temperature greybody spectrum. Td and $`\beta `$ for A8 have been determined in a similar manner by using the flux densities measured at 450, 790 and 1100 $`\mu `$m by Goldsmith, Bergin, & Lis (1997) along with those from the present work. For all other sources with flux densities measured only at 205 and 138 $`\mu `$m Td has been determined assuming $`\beta `$ = 2. For a source not detected in any one of the wavebands (marked by $``$ in Table 1), we give the flux density obtained by integrating at the position of the source as detected in the other waveband(s). Table 2 presents the positions, flux densities and associations of these sources detected at 57 $`\mu `$m. The source IRAS 05327-0457 has been studied in detail in the far-infrared by Mookerjea et al. (2000); here we concentrate mainly on OMC-1, 2 and 3.

Figure Distribution of Cold dust in Orion A and B shows the temperature distribution as calculated from the observations at 205 and 138 $`\mu `$m for OMC-1 and 2. The temperature in OMC-1 is as high as $``$ 70 K close to the Orion nebula. The temperature of the OMC-1 and the bar region as calculated by Werner et al. (1976) from the ratio of 50 and 100 $`\mu `$m flux densities is found to be between 55 and 85 K. For the same region, the temperature calculated from our 205 and 138 $`\mu `$m fluxes is between 45 and 70K. This is consistent with the fact that the longer wavelength observations presented here are tracing colder dust component as compared to those traced by the 50 and 100 $`\mu `$m observations. The temperature drops to an average of $``$ 25 K in OMC-2 and is as low as 15 K in OMC-3 (not shown in Figure). The temperature map has been generated by assuming the dust to be optically thin but explicit calculation of optical depth (at 150 $`\mu `$m) very close to the global intensity peak of OMC-1, shows the regions to be optically thick. In such cases, the temperatures quoted would be underestimates by as much as 5K. However, for OMC-1, 2 and 3, the basic morphology of the isotherms remains unaltered.

Orion A is an ensemble of cores with a variety of temperatures, physical sizes and masses. This variety in physical conditions makes it conducive to harbouring stars in different stages of formation and evolution and hence makes it astrophysically interesting. The far-infrared maps presented here also support this variety by showing morphological characteristics strongly dependent on the dust temperature. While the 205 and 138 $`\mu `$m maps tracing colder dust detect FIR emission from OMC-2 and OMC-3 very clearly, the 57 $`\mu `$m map fails to do so.

OMC-1 (A8 in Table 1 and # 1 in Table 2) is the brightest source detected at all wavelengths. As mentioned earlier, the submillimeter fluxes at 450, 790 and 1100 $`\mu `$m (Goldsmith, Bergin, & Lis, 1997) have been used along with the 57, 138 and 205 $`\mu `$m fluxes to determine Td and $`\beta `$ for this source. The dust temperature obtained by this method is 68 K and the $`\beta `$ is 0.5. If instead we do a similar fitting omitting the flux density at 57 $`\mu `$m we get Td =30 K and $`\beta `$ = 1.1. Thus the high temperature and low $`\beta `$ as presented in Table 1 might be due to the effect of attempting to explain the emission over a wide range of wavelengths using a single temperature greybody spectrum. In reality there is probably a cold diffuse component of dust as well which contributes to the emission at longer wavelengths. In the OMC-1 region the maps at 205 & 138 $`\mu `$m also detect the source A5. Although the position of this source at 205 and 138 $`\mu `$m differ by $``$1$`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}`$5, we have associated the two, since there is no other nearby source of similar strength. We also note that the temperature of the source A5 is $``$ 80 K, which is even higher than the temperature of A8.

The peaks # 2 and # 3 detected at 57 $`\mu `$m (see Table 2) are not detected at the longer wavelengths. The source # 2 is associated with the HII region M43 and the intensity distribution around it is similar to that observed at 60 $`\mu `$m by Smith, Harper, & Loewenstein (1987). The source # 3 is due to the heating of the dust in the photodissociation region around the trapezium stars. Northern tip of the emission detected at 57 $`\mu `$m is clearly displaced to the east with respect to the integral shaped emission ridge detected in OMC-2 and 3. We can discern local enhancements in T(138/205) map close to the positions of the peaks #2 and #3. These strongly indicate the existence of hotter dust towards the east.

Of the observations presented here OMC-2 and 3 are detected only at the longer wavelengths (205 and 138 $`\mu `$m). In OMC-2 we detect two sources (A10 and A11) at 138 $`\mu `$m and only one source (A12) at 205 $`\mu `$m. As suggested by Table 1 the sources detected at our resolution are each associated with more than one submillimeter (1300 $`\mu `$m) sources. We note that whereas A10 and A11 are associated with two mutually exclusive groups of submillimeter sources, A12 is associated with sources from both groups. The fact that we detect A10 and A11 only at 138 $`\mu `$m and A12 only at 205 $`\mu `$m could be due to the presence of a diffuse cold component which reduces the contrast between the sources and the intermediate region. This could effectively smoothen out the smaller peaks (like A10 and A11) in this region , thus resulting in only one peak (A12) at 205 $`\mu `$m. The flux densities at 1300 $`\mu `$m of the detected sub-mm sources have been calculated using the peak fluxes and size of the individual sources (refer to Table 1 of Chini et al., 1997). For each FIR source the contribution at 1300 $`\mu `$m from all associated sources are combined and presented in Table 1. For all sources detected in OMC-2 a single temperature greybody spectral fitting gives 20K$`<`$Td$`<`$25K and 1.6$`<`$$`\beta `$ $`<`$ 2.0. Both these are consistent with the results of Chini et al. (1997). Recent radio observations at 3.6 cm by Reipurth, Rodriguez, & Chini (1999) have detected sources coinciding with the peaks in dust emission. These associations are also presented in Table 1. The radio emission further substantiates that the sources detected in OMC-2 though reasonably cold are not only regions of high density but also have YSOs embedded in them.

We have detected one source (A9) in the OMC-3 region. Positionally it is coincident with the sub-mm source MMS 6 (Chini et al., 1997), the latter being the brightest of all the sub-mm sources detected in OMC-3. The flux density at 1300 $`\mu `$m for the source A9 is estimated in the same manner as above. A greybody spectrum fitted to the measured flux densities gives Td = 15 K and $`\beta `$ = 2.0. A9 is thus the coldest source in Orion A, both Td and $`\beta `$ estimated here are consistent with Chini et al. (1997) and Lis et al. (1998).

The total far-infrared luminosity has been estimated using the temperature map (Fig. Distribution of Cold dust in Orion A and B) for the region with OMC-1 and OMC-2 and the intensity maps of the same region. The dust emissivity exponent assumed for this calculation is 2.0. From the FIR observations presented here the total luminosity detected in OMC-1 and 2 is $``$3.5$`\times `$105 $`L_{}`$. For a similar region the luminosity based on 60 and 100 $`\mu `$m observations as given by Stacey et al. (1993) is $``$5$`\times `$105 $`L_{}`$. The diffuse emission at these wavelengths has been calculated by subtracting the contribution of the discrete sources and is about 25% of the total luminosity.

The molecular cloud OMC-1 has long been the most extensively studied region in Orion A. OMC-2 and 3 have been studied only in the recent past and have been found to be rich and interesting as a star forming region. Our observations provide useful constraints on the intensity and temperature distribution of this region.

### 3.3 Orion B (south)

#### 3.3.1 Region around NGC 2024

Figure Distribution of Cold dust in Orion A and B presents intensity maps of the region around NGC 2024 at 205, 138, 100 and 57 $`\mu `$m. The map at 57 $`\mu `$m is for a smaller region, but brings out the main features of NGC 2024 at this wavelength. Table 3 presents the measured flux densities at the 4 IRAS and 3 TIFR wavelengths for the sources detected in this region. The sub-mm and IRAS Point Sources associated with these FIR sources, along with the sub-mm flux densities measured at 1300 $`\mu `$m by Launhardt et al. (1996) are presented in the Table 3. In all 7 sources have been identified with sources in the IRAS Point Source Catalog (PSC) and 2 sources (B3 and B9) have been found to have sub-millimeter (1300 $`\mu `$m) counterparts. For sources not detected in one or two of the TIFR bands (marked by $``$ in Table 3) we have presented the flux densities obtained by integrating in a circle around the position of the source as detected at the other wavelength(s). We have fitted a single temperature greybody spectrum for all sources for which measurement of flux densities at 3 or more wavelengths longer than 50 $`\mu `$m exist. The resulting Td and $`\beta `$ are also presented in the same table. For the remaining sources Td is determined using $`\beta `$ = 2. We find that the emissivity exponent ($`\beta `$) for some sources (B6, B10 and B12) are very small ($``$ 0.5). In addition, for B6 and B12 the fitted Td is also very high. This indicates that for these sources possibly a two or multi-temperature greybody spctrum is more appropriate.

Observations at 1300 $`\mu `$m by Mezger et al. (1988) have revealed 6 protostellar condensations within an area of 3′ $`\times `$ 3′ around NGC 2024. The far-infrared maps presented here being of limited angular resolution do not resolve these condensations. However the 205 $`\mu `$m and also the 100 $`\mu `$m maps show evidence of north-south extension with the northern tip having a slight westward bend (position of FIR-1, 2 ; Mezger et al., 1988). Positionally B9 coincides with FIR-5 (brightest condensation detected by Mezger et al., 1988) and also with LBS 33SM, a CS core detected by Lada, Bally, & Stark (1991a) (hereafter LBS), later detected at 1300 $`\mu `$m by Launhardt et al. (1996). The HIRES map at 100 $`\mu `$m shows possible signs of anomaly, particularly near the peak. The flux density measured (in 3′ dia) from the 100 $`\mu `$m map shows a very low value of $``$18 kJy compared to both the IRAS PSC value (35.3 kJy) and results from the KAO observations by Thronson et al. (1984) (85 kJy). We have used the measurements of Thronson et al. (1984) in the Table 3 as well as for determining Td and $`\beta `$ for B9.

Figure Distribution of Cold dust in Orion A and B shows the dust temperature distribution for this region. It has been generated using the same method as for Orion A. It shows several isolated peaks with temperatures varying between 60 to 70 K for most of them. The source B3 is quite cold with a maximum of 30 K and going below 15 K towards the edges. The $`\tau _{150}`$ map (Figure Distribution of Cold dust in Orion A and B) shows very interesting structure close to the main source B9. It distinctly shows that the region around B9 has an elongated structure with indications of at least 2 condensations. This structure is very similar to the structure shown by the NH3 column density map generated by Schulz et al. (1991). This very well substantiates the fact that these are indeed protostellar condensations since they are so luminous in the infrared as well. The cold source B3 is found to be mostly optically thin (peak 0.07) at 150 $`\mu `$m.

The total luminosity of the region calculated using the same method as for Orion A (Section 3.1) is 1.0$`\times `$105 $`L_{}`$. The diffuse emission contributes about 50% (at both the wavelengths) of the total luminosity. This is substantially larger than the value measured in Orion A (Sec 3.1) and in other young Galactic star forming regions ($``$ 35% in W31; Ghosh et al., 1989) . The morphology of the \[CII\] (158 $`\mu `$m) emitting region in Orion B (south) as observed by Jaffe et al. (1994) agrees very well with the maps presented in this paper. The total \[CII\] luminosity detected for their assumed distance of 415 pc is 230$`L_{}`$, while we have estimated the total far-infrared luminosity for a distance of 450 pc. Correcting for this difference in distances assumed we find the ratio of the \[CII\] luminosity to the total FIR luminosity to be 3$`\times `$10-3.

The observations presented here, being on a large scale and of good angular resolution would be useful as guidelines in understanding the star formation scenario vis-a-vis the temperature distribution for future large scale sub-millimeter continuum observations.

#### 3.3.2 Region around NGC 2023

Figure Distribution of Cold dust in Orion A and B shows intensity maps of the region surrounding NGC 2023 at 205 and 138 $`\mu `$m alongwith HIRES maps at 100 and 60 $`\mu `$m. The maps at 205 and 138 $`\mu `$m are generated by masking NGC 2024 prior to MEM deconvolution of the larger map so that details of the fainter source NGC 2023 are better visible and comparison with 100 and 60 $`\mu `$m HIRES maps is easier. The source NGC 2023 appears to have a double structure at 205 $`\mu `$m. It is of interest to note that the map of fluorescent H2 observed by Gatley et al. (1987) exhibits a shell structure with main peaks separated by similar extent as B13 and B14. The intensity map at 138 $`\mu `$m however shows only a single source close to the brighter source (B14) at 205 $`\mu `$m. Diffuse emission extending southward from the main source is clearly visible at 60, 100 and 205 $`\mu `$m, while at 138 $`\mu `$m the limited dynamic range of the map restricts this emission to a seemingly isolated peak. Table 3 presents the positions, flux densities and associated sources for the 2 peaks (B13 and B14) detected in this region. The coordinates of the global peaks in the 60 and 100 $`\mu `$m maps is found to be $``$ 5h 39m 7 ″- 2° 17′ 44″. These global peaks are separated from B14 by more than 1$`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}`$5. Since there is no other detected source of such brightness in the neighbourhood and observations at 100 and 138 $`\mu `$m trace dust of similar temperature we have associated B14 with NGC 2023. Both sources B13 and B14 have been detected at 1300 $`\mu `$m by Launhardt et al. (1996), but there is no IRAS detection of B13. For both sources we have used the available flux densities at wavelengths longer than 60 $`\mu `$m to estimate Td and $`\beta `$ from a single temperature greybody spectrum (Table 3). The flatness of $`\beta `$ for B14 indicates the existence of dust components of at least two temperature ranges. The source B13 is found to be reasonably cold (Td = 16 K), thus justifying it’s non-detection in the IRAS wavebands.

Figure Distribution of Cold dust in Orion A and B shows the T(138/205) and $`\tau _{150}`$ maps for the region around NGC 2023 (derived assuming $`\beta `$ = 2). The T(138/205) map shows a peak which does not coincide with the intensity peaks at 205 and 138 $`\mu `$m. The T(138/205) peak, however coincides with the peak positions at 60 and 100 $`\mu `$m. The temperature of most of the region is around 30 K and in places goes down to values as low as $``$ 20 K. The $`\tau _{150}`$ map more or less traces the high intensity regions. The $`\tau _{150}`$ displayed for regions which lie outside the contours of T(138/205) map are for an assumed temperature of 10 K (not plotted in the T(138/205) map).

NGC 2023, being a well known reflection nebula with a photodissociation region (excited by HD 37903) has been studied in various molecular and fine structure (\[CII\] at 158 $`\mu `$m) lines. The continuum maps presented in Figure Distribution of Cold dust in Orion A and B are morphologically similar to the C18O map by Wyrowski et al. (1997) and CO (J=2-1) map by White et al. (1990). The \[CII\] observations at 158 $`\mu `$m by Howe et al. (1991) and Jaffe et al. (1994) detect emission which is approximately 25 % of the emission from NGC 2024. The rise in temperature, T(138/205), to the north-west of the main peak is explained by the presence of the exciting star HD 37903. The total luminosity measured in this region is 1.5$`\times `$103 $`L_{}`$. The diffuse emission contributes about 35% of the total emission, which is smaller than the contribution of diffuse emission around NGC 2024. The total \[CII\] luminosity from the region as detected by Howe et al. (1991) is 7 $`L_{}`$ and is equal to $``$ 0.5% of the total FIR luminosity estimated here. This is consistent with results from most of the Galactic star forming regions as given by Howe et al. (1991). Detection of low temperature in the region around NGC 2023 alongwith emission in the far-infrared, support ongoing formation of low to intermediate stars in the region. Indication of more than 50 % of the emission being in the condensations further indicates star formation in clumps in this region.

## 4 Summary

In this paper we have presented large scale high angular resolution ($``$1′) far-infrared (205 and 138 $`\mu `$m) maps of the Orion A and Orion B (south) molecular clouds. For limited regions, maps at 57 $`\mu `$m have also been presented. HIRES processed IRAS images at 100 and 60 $`\mu `$m of the Orion B have been used for comparison. The regions covered include OMC-1, 2, 3 in Orion A and NGC 2024 and 2023 in Orion B (south). In all 15 condensations in Orion A and 14 condensations in Orion B (south) have been identified. In OMC-3 the very cold source MMS 6 (Chini et al., 1997) was detected at both 205 and 138 $`\mu `$m and the temperature was determined to be $``$15$`\pm `$2 K. The far-infrared counterparts of the extremely dense CS cores (Lada, Bally, & Stark, 1991a) LBS 33, LBS 34, LBS 36 and LBS 40 were detected in Orion B (south). The total far-infrared luminosity and the relative contribution of diffuse emission to the luminosity of these regions have also been quantified.

We thank B. Das for his help during initial stages of analysis of the 57 $`\mu `$m data and S.L. D’Costa, M.V. Naik, D.M. Patkar, M.B. Naik, S.A. Chalke, G.S. Meshram & C.B. Bakalkar for their support for the experiment. The members of TIFR Balloon Facility (Balloon group and Control & Instrumentation group), Hyderabad, are thanked for their roles in conducting the balloon flights. Thanks are due to IPAC for providing HIRES processed IRAS data. We thank the anonymous referee for the suggestions which have improved the quality of the paper.

## Appendix A Estimation of dust temperature distribution using the two band FIR observations

As mentioned in Section 2.1 the spatial intensity distribution in each band is gridded with pixels of size 0$`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}`$3$`\times `$0$`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}`$3. Only those pixels which have signals exceeding 5 times the noise level of the corresponding map are considered to be “valid” for the purpose of finding the dust temperature distribution. Each intensity map is first smoothed by taking a running average over 3$`\times `$3 “valid” pixels. This is done to be extremely conservative about the derived spatial structures in the temperature maps. Since the two intensity maps refer to identical portions of the sky and the beams are also almost identical, a “pixel by pixel” ratio between the two maps gives reliable dust temperatures.

For optically thin emission the observed flux density at any wavelength can be written as

$$F_\nu =\mathrm{\Omega }B_\nu (T_d)\tau _\nu $$
(A1)
where $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ is the solid angle of the region under consideration.

We assume $`\tau _\nu `$ $``$ $`\nu ^\beta `$. Since the pixel sizes are identical the ratio of flux densities at any two wavelengths would be:

$$\frac{F_{\nu _1}}{F_{\nu _2}}=\left(\frac{\nu _1}{\nu _2}\right)^{3+\beta }\frac{[exp(h\nu _2/kT_d)1]}{[exp(h\nu _1/kT_d)1]}$$
(A2)
Thus for an assumed emissivity exponent ($`\beta `$) the ratio of the flux densities at any two wavelengths is a function of the dust temperature only. The temperature is computed using a lookup table containing the calculated ratios of flux densities for various temperatures and an assumed $`\beta `$. This process is repeated for all pixels to generate the dust temperature distribution map.

Figure Captions


text:
# Thermal Equilibration of Brane-Worlds

## I Introduction: The Thermodynamics of inflating brane-worlds

Recently , Randall and Sundrum presented a model in which the universe is realized as a $`𝐙_2`$-symmetric positive tension domain wall, or brane, in $`AdS_5`$. They analyzed the linearized equation for a graviton propagating in this spacetime. They proved that there is a solution describing a ‘bound state’, i.e., an integrable wave function corresponding to a massless graviton which is confined to the domain wall. For low energy processes this bound state dominates over the Kaluza-Klein (KK) states, so that Newtonian gravity is recovered as long as the length scale of the AdS space is sufficiently small.

Soon after this model appeared, it was pointed out  that the AdS/CFT correspondence gives rise to the Randall-Sundrum model in a certain limit. More precisely, the AdS/CFT correspondence relates the Randall-Sundrum model to an equivalent four dimensional theory consisting of general relativity coupled to a strongly interacting conformal field theory.

Now, the Hawking-Page phase transition  manifests itself in the AdS/CFT duality (). Explicitly, there is a critical temperature, $`T_c`$, past which thermal radiation in AdS is unstable to the formation of a Schwarzschild black hole. (In fact, for $`T>T_c`$ there are two values of the black hole mass at which the Hawking radiation can be in equilibrium with the thermal radiation of the background. The lesser of these two masses is a point of unstable equilibrium (it has negative specific heat), whereas the greater mass is a point of stable equilibrium.)

Since the second Randall-Sundrum model may be understood by looking at the AdS/CFT duality in the non-gravity decoupled limit, one would expect that a similar phase transition should occur in that setting. In particular, during an inflationary phase on the brane, the brane-world is a de Sitter hyperboloid embedded in $`AdS_5`$, and it will generate an acceleration horizon in the bulk. This horizon will have a temperature, and so we would expect that inflating brane-worlds would be unstable to the creation of bulk (five-dimensional) black holes. In fact, this process was discussed in a recent paper by Garriga and Sasaki . There, the authors studied the ‘thermal instantons’ which correspond to black holes in AdS, and showed that these instantons describe the thermal nucleation of Schwarzschild-AdS black holes in the presence of a pre-existing $`𝐙_2`$ symmetric inflating brane-world.

For us, this is evidence that we should assume that a bulk black hole will be formed during the inflationary epoch of a brane-world universe. It therefore behooves us to answer the question: Can an inflating brane-world and a bulk black hole ever attain thermal equilibrium?

This question is very subtle, because we have to decide what boundary conditions to impose on the bulk fields at the location of the brane-world. Here we assume that the brane-world is a $`𝐙_2`$ symmetric domain wall, so that the brane acts like a reflecting mirror for massless bulk modes. In other words, for us the brane-world is like an accelerating mirror: A ‘black box’ with perfectly reflecting, accelerating walls. Certainly, this is the standard boundary condition for bulk modes when the wall is located at the boundary of AdS, and in particular it is the condition assumed by Hawking and Page . Because the wall acceleration will not be constant (as the wall climbs out of the potential well of the black hole), the wall should emit a flux of radiation with some temperature. There are thus naively three basic cases to consider. First, the black hole temperature ($`T_{BH}`$) may be greater than the brane-world temperature ($`T_{BW}`$), in which case the hole has negative specific heat and it will evaporate in a finite time and have no effect on the late time evolution of the system. Alternatively, the system may be fine-tuned so that $`T_{BH}=T_{BW}`$ exactly; this would describe thermal equilibrium between the two competing temperatures. Finally, it may be the case that $`T_{BW}>T_{BH}`$***This analysis is similar to that of Yi , who studied black holes which are uniformly accelerated by cosmic strings.; clearly, this case is of interest because it would appear that the black hole might be unstable to some runaway process where the mass increases indefinitely. One approach to this problem is to actually explicitly compute the brane-world temperature exactly; however, this task is rather difficult and one is inevitably led to estimates which are hard to control. In this paper, we will instead approach this problem using the more elegant techniques of Euclidean quantum gravity. In order to motivate this analysis, we will begin with a discussion of brane-world evolution in a non-static bulk with collapsing null dust fluid. We work with the signature convention $`(,+,+,+,+)`$.

## II Gravitational collapse in anti-de Sitter space: The Vaidya metric

In 1951, Vaidya  wrote down a metric that represents an imploding (or exploding) null dust fluid with spherical symmetry in asymptotically flat space. Recently , this metric has been generalized to describe gravitational collapse in spacetimes with a non-vanishing cosmological constant. Here, we are interested in the metric which describes gravitational collapse in a spacetime which is asymptotically Anti-de Sitter (AdS). This metric is written using ‘Eddington-Finkelstein’ coordinates, so that it takes the explicit form

$$ds^2=e^{2\psi (v,r)}f(v,r)dv^2+2ϵe^{\psi (v,r)}dvdr+r^2d\mathrm{\Omega }_3^2,$$
(1)
where

$`f(v,r)=k{\displaystyle \frac{2M(v,r)}{r^2}},`$

and

$`d\mathrm{\Omega }_3^2=d\chi ^2+R_k^2(\chi )\left(d\theta ^2+\mathrm{sin}^2\theta d\varphi ^2\right),`$with $`R_1(\chi )=\mathrm{sinh}(\chi )`$, $`R_0(\chi )=\chi `$ and $`R_{+1}(\chi )=\mathrm{sin}(\chi )`$ is the metric on hyperbolic space, flat space and the round three-sphere respectively. The function $`M(v,r)`$, called the mass function, is a measure of the total gravitational energy within a radius $`r`$. The sign $`ϵ=\pm 1`$ indicates whether the null coordinate $`v`$ is advanced or retarded. If $`ϵ=+1`$ then $`v`$ is advanced time, in which case rays of constant $`v`$ are ingoing. Likewise, $`ϵ=1`$ means that rays of constant $`v`$ are outgoing. Since we are interested in collapsing radiation, we will assume $`ϵ=+1`$.

In  the authors take $`\psi (v,r)=0`$, so that the Einstein equations simplify considerably. We also make this assumption, and so we may follow their analysis and conclude that the source for this metric is a ‘Type II fluid’ . Following , it is straightforward to see that if we want to describe gravitational collapse (or the time reverse) in $`AdS_5`$ then the appropriate mass function, in general, is

$$M(v,r)=\frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }}{12}r^4+m(v)\frac{q^2(v)}{r^2},$$
(2)
where $`\mathrm{\Lambda }=(6/l^2)`$ is the bulk cosmological constant, and $`m(v)`$ is an arbitrary function of $`v`$ which will be determined by the energy density of the radiation in the bulk. $`q(v)`$ corresponds to the charge of the bulk, if any.

Now that we have a precise idea of what the non-static bulk metric looks like, we turn to the question of how a domain wall moves in such a bulk.

## III The Israel Equations of Motion: The cosmology of brane-worlds

The equations of motion for a domain wall, when the effects of gravity are included, are given by the Israel junction conditions. These conditions relate the discontinuity in the extrinsic curvature ($`K_{AB}`$) at the wall to the energy momentum ($`t_{AB}`$) of fields which live on the wall:

$$\left[K_{AB}Kh_{AB}\right]^\pm =\kappa _D^2t_{AB}.$$
(3)
(see  for a derivation of this equation). The gravitational coupling constant, $`\kappa _D^2`$, in arbitrary dimension $`D`$, is given by

$$\kappa _D^2=\frac{2(D2)\pi ^{\frac{1}{2}(D1)}}{(D3)(D/23/2)!}G_D,$$
(4)
where $`G_D`$ is the $`D`$-dimensional Newton constant. Here, for instance, $`\kappa _5^2=3\pi ^2G_5`$. Given the form of (3), it is obvious that we need to calculate the extrinsic curvature for timelike hypersurfaces which move in the Vaidya-AdS background.

As above, we begin by writing the metric in Eddington-Finkelstein coordinates:

$$ds^2=dv\left[f(v,r)dv+2dr\right]+r^2d\mathrm{\Omega }_3^2,$$
(5)
where we have assumed that the null coordinate $`v`$ represents Eddington advanced time. Since we are interested in the cosmological aspects of brane-world evolution, we want the metric induced on the brane-world to assume a manifestly FRW form:

$$ds^2|_{braneworld}=d\tau ^2+a^2(\tau )d\mathrm{\Omega }_3^2,$$
(6)
where the coordinates $`x^\mu =(\tau ,\chi ,\theta ,\varphi )`$ are the coordinates intrinsic to the brane-world. This means that we constrain the timelike hypersurface describing the evolution so that the brane can only shrink or contract as it moves in time, i.e., the position of the brane at a given time should be completely specified by its radial position: $`r=r(v)=a(\tau )`$. (In what follows we will let $`a=a(\tau )`$ denote the position of the brane, in order to avoid possible confusion between the coordinate $`r`$ and the radial position of the brane-world). In this way, the problem is basically reduced to a 1+1 dimensional system. Furthermore, we need only focus on the contributions to the Riemann tensor which are induced by the $`(r,v)`$-sector of the metric. Using the fact that $`\tau `$ is the time experienced by observers who move with the brane-world:

$$d\tau =\left(f2\frac{da(\tau )}{dv}\right)^{1/2}dv,$$
(7)
we may express the problem in the $`(\tau ,a)sector`$. In particular, if we let ‘$`\dot{a}`$’ denote differentiation relative to comoving time, i.e., $`\dot{a}=da/d\tau `$, then one can find the extrinsic curvature through the following relation

$`K_{\mu \nu }=e_\mu ^Ae_\nu ^B_An_B,`$with

$`e_\mu ^A=\left({\displaystyle \frac{1}{f}}\left(\dot{a}+\sqrt{\dot{a}^2+f}\right)\delta _v^A+\dot{a}\delta _r^A\right)\delta _{\mu \tau }+\delta _\mu ^A,`$as the tetrads at the wall and

$`n_A=\dot{a}\delta _A^v+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{f}}\left(\dot{a}+\sqrt{\dot{a}^2+f}\right)\delta _A^r,`$as the unit normal vector to the hypesurface $`a(\tau )`$. $`_A`$ is the covariant derivative associated with the metric (5). The nonvanishing components of extrensic curvature are then

$`K_\tau ^\tau `$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}{\displaystyle \frac{2\ddot{a}+f^{}}{\sqrt{f+\dot{a}^2}}}+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}{\displaystyle \frac{\dot{f}}{f^2}}\left(\dot{a}+\sqrt{f+\dot{a}^2}\right)^2`$ (8)
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{d}{da}}\left(\sqrt{f+\dot{a}^2}\right)+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}{\displaystyle \frac{\dot{f}}{f^2}}\left(\dot{a}+\sqrt{f+\dot{a}^2}\right)^2`$ (9)
$`K_\chi ^\chi =K_\theta ^\theta =K_\varphi ^\varphi =\sqrt{H^2(\tau )+{\displaystyle \frac{f(\tau ,a)}{a^2}}},`$ (10)
with $`H(\dot{a}/a)`$.

Given these expressions, we can examine how the non-static bulk is affecting cosmology. That is, we assume that the stress-energy tensor describing the fields which propagate in the brane-world is given as

$`t_B^A=\mathrm{diag}((\rho +\rho _\lambda ),p\rho _\lambda ,p\rho _\lambda ,p\rho _\lambda ,0)`$

We emphasize that $`\rho `$ and $`p`$ are the energy density and pressure of the ordinary matter, respectively, whereas, $`\rho _\lambda `$ is the contribution from the tension of the brane which is simply a Nambu-Goto term. From the Israel equations we may then derive the Friedmann equation on the brane:

$`H^2(\tau )`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }_{eff}}{3}}{\displaystyle \frac{k}{a^2}}+\left({\displaystyle \frac{8\pi G_4}{3}}\right)\rho `$ (12)
$`+\left(\pi ^2G_5\right)^2\rho ^2+{\displaystyle \frac{2m(\tau ,a)}{a^4}}{\displaystyle \frac{q^2}{a^6}},`$
Henceforth, we shall set $`q=0`$ and $`k`$ the (spatial) curvature of the brane to unity and $`G_5`$ to $`\sqrt{4G_4/3\pi \rho _\lambda }`$. $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_{eff}`$ is the 4-dimensional cosmological constant on the brane, which is given in terms of the brane tension $`\rho _\lambda `$ and the bulk cosmological constant $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$: $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_{eff}\mathrm{\Lambda }_4=\left(\frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }}{2}+4\pi G_4\rho _\lambda \right)`$.

Thus, we find that a time-dependent mass in the bulk gives rise to a time-dependent term that scales like radiation. In other words, the collapse of radiation (to form a black hole) in the bulk gives rise to a component of ‘Hot Dark Matter’ on the brane. While the form of (10) is what one might naively expect given the adS/CFT duality , our calculation actually shows explicitly how a time-dependent mass term in the bulk will affect the brane-world.

## IV Thermodynamics of the system

We have seen that the thermal nucleation of a black hole in the bulk gives rise to a time-dependent radiation term on the brane. To understand how this term will affect brane-world cosmology, we would like to solve for the back-reaction generated by 1-loop effects in the bulk. As this is a rather difficult problem, we will simply employ the technology of Euclidean quantum gravity.

We want to argue that there is no ‘runaway’ process, whereby a black hole can keep absorbing more energy than it emits. Furthermore, we are only interested in the situation where the brane-world remains outside of the horizon; from the analysis of  it is easy to see that this is true only when $`r^4>4m^2`$. In other words, the brane-world has to be sufficiently large relative to the black hole to accomodate the black hole.

The Euclidean action is given as

$$I=\frac{1}{\kappa _{5}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}}_{}d^5x\sqrt{g}(R2\mathrm{\Lambda })\frac{1}{8\pi }_{}d^4x\sqrt{\gamma }K$$
(13)
where $``$ is the bulk region of the spacetime, with boundary $``$ (i.e., the boundary is where the brane-world is located). In the usual situation (where the brane is actually the boundary of AdS) the boundary term does not contribute; however, in this situation the boundary is at a finite distance and does contribute. In order to show that the system equilibrates, we first calculate the action of the Euclidean section of the brane-world with a black hole in the bulk (denoted $`I_{BH}`$), then we calculate the action for the Euclidean section of the brane-world with no black hole (denoted $`I_{BW}`$), and we form the difference:

$`\mathrm{\Delta }I=I_{BH}I_{BW}`$Clearly, a phase transition occurs when $`\mathrm{\Delta }I`$ changes sign (i.e., when the system with a black hole has less action), and likewise the system is thermally stable when the specific heat, $`H`$, is positive:

$`H=\beta _\beta I`$where $`\beta =T^1`$ is the inverse temperature, or period of the Euclidean section of the relevant solution. The only subtle point in performing this calculation lies in matching the two solutions in the asymptotic region, near the brane-world. Once this is done, it is straightforward to see that the modification to the ordinary Hawking-Page analysis is negligible, as long as the brane-world remains far from the horizon (in particular, as long as $`r^4>4m^2`$). More precisely, the two boundary contributions differ by $`\frac{\sqrt{2m}}{r}`$. Furthermore, even when this correction is non-negligible, it does not affect the phase structure found by Hawking and Page.

From the point of view of the AdS/CFT duality, this makes sense. Truncating $`AdS_5`$ with a de Sitter brane introduces a UV cutoff in the CFT defined on the brane, but in our approximation it does not affect the boundary conditions on the bulk radiation (i.e., we assumed the same boundary conditions as in the original Hawking-Page paper ). As long as sufficiently large bulk black holes are allowed, we already knew that these holes can be in thermal equilibrium with thermal radiation. The main shortcoming of this analysis is that we assumed reflecting boundary conditions for all bulk modes at the brane-world. Presumably, there may exist fields on the brane which can be excited by bulk gravitons (for example). This would mean that the boundary conditions at the brane would have to allow for some absorption. We will consider such boundary conditions in an upcoming paper .

To summarize: We have shown that the Friedmann equations of the second Randall-Sundrum model will generically contain a hot dark radiation term which has an intensity that is variable but will settle down to a fixed value during inflation. Once inflation ends, the mass function will presumably change in some way; it remains to be shown that the system will still equilibrate once the equation of state on the brane is no longer pure vacuum. It is amusing to note that this varying mass function is reminiscent of the ‘$`C`$-field’ introduced by Hoyle and Narlikar in their steady state model and later on in the quasi-steady state model of the universe (see e.g.  and references therein). Both our dynamical mass function and their $`C`$-field can pump energy into the universe, so that total energy on the brane is not conserved. We will have more to say about the cosmology of this model in an upcoming paper .

Acknowledgements

We thank R. Battye, E. Bertschinger, A. Guth, P. Khorsand, P. Kraus, P. Mannheim, L. Randall and C. Vafa for useful conversations. AC and AK are supported in part by funds provided by the U.S. Department of Energy (D.O.E.) under cooperative research agreement DE-FC02-94ER40818. A.N. is supported by NSF grant ACI-9619019. CTP preprint # 2998.


text:
# Probing the Structure of Nucleons in the Resonance region with CLAS at Jefferson Lab

## 1 INTRODUCTION

Understanding the light-quark baryon spectrum and the electromagnetic transition amplitudes from the nucleon ground state to the excited states provides insight into the spatial structure and the spin structure of the nucleon. In this domain, constituent quarks and glue rather than elementary quarks and gluons appear to be the prevalent degrees of freedom. However, there is evidence that hadronic degrees-of-freedom are important as well, and there exists a well-known phenomenological connection to the valence quark regime in deep-inealstic scattering, known as Bloom-Gilman duality. In order to put the resonance region on the solid footing of QCD, the relative importance of these degrees of freedom as a function of the distance scales must be examined. Photo- and electroproduction of mesons from nucleons provide the most direct information about the spatial and spin structure of the excited states.

The following are areas where the lack of high quality data is most noticeable, and where data from CLAS will contribute significantly.

* To understand the internal nucleon structure, we need to study the full excitation spectrum as well as the continuum. While the continuum has been studied extensively, none of the resonance transitions have been studied well over a large enough distance scale.
* The known spectrum appears rather incomplete when compared with our most accepted constituent quark models . Many states are missing from the spectrum, and some masses of well known states are not well reproduced.
* The role of the glue in the baryon excitation spectrum is completely unknown, although gluonic excitations of the nucleon are expected to be produced copiously , and predictions of hybrid baryon masses and quantum numbers are available from bag models , QCD sum rules , and flux tube model  estimates.
* The nucleon spin structure has been explored for more than two decades at high energies. The nucleon resonance region which gives dominant contributions to the spin structure functions and sum rules at small $`Q^2`$ , and the transition to the deep inelastic regime have hardly been explored at all.
* The long-known connection between the deep inelastic regime and the resonance region (parton-hadron duality)  remained virtually unexplored in its potential to obtain a better understanding of the nucleon structure.

All these topics are currently studied at JLAB, many employing the CLAS detector . I will focus exclusively on the resonance region and the first preliminary data from CLAS that begin to elucidate some of these aspects of nucleon structure.

## 2 THE QUADRUPOLE TRANSITION TO THE $`\mathrm{\Delta }(1232)`$

The lowest excitation of the nucleon is the $`\mathrm{\Delta }(1232)`$, the ground state of the isospin 3/2 spectrum. The electromagnetic excitation is dominanted by a quark spin flip corresponding to a magnetic dipole transition $`M_{1+}`$. This contribution is well known up to fairly large $`Q^2`$. The current interest is in probing the small electric ($`E_{1+}`$) and scalar quadrupole ($`S_{1+}`$) transitions. These are sensitive to possible deformations of the nucleon or the $`\mathrm{\Delta }(1232)`$ from spherical symmetry. Contributions at the few percent level to the ratios $`R_{EM}=E_{1+}/M_{1+}`$ and $`R_{SM}=S_{1+}/M_{1+}`$ may result from interactions with the pion cloud at large and intermediate distances . Quark models that include hyperfine interaction from one-gluon exchange predict small contributions as well . An intriguing prediction is that in the hard scattering limit the electric quadrupole contribution should be equal in strength to the magnetic dipole contribution . An analysis  of earlier DESY data found small nonzero values for $`R_{EM}`$ at $`Q^2=3.2GeV^2`$, showing that the hard scattering limit may be approached only at much larger values of $`Q^2`$ than currently accessible.

A recent experiment at Jefferson Lab  measured $`p\pi ^o`$ production in the $`\mathrm{\Delta }(1232)`$ region at high momentum transfer, and found values for $`E_{1+}/M_{1+}0.02`$ at $`Q^2=4GeV^2`$. The focus with CLAS is on the low to medium $`Q^2`$ regime, where data are sensitive to ingredients in nucleon structure models. The $`epep\pi ^o`$ is particularly suited to measure the $`N\mathrm{\Delta }`$ transition multipoles. Complete distributions in the $`p\pi ^o`$ azimuthal and cms polar angle have been measured over the hadronic mass range from threshold up to W = 1.6 GeV in a range in momentum transfer $`Q^2=0.41.8`$GeV2. The data have been analysed using different approaches which give consistent results . Preliminary results for $`R_{EM}`$ and $`R_{SM}`$ are shown in Figure 2 and 2, and compared with recent model calculations. $`R_{EM}`$ is small and negative, with a weak $`Q^2`$ dependence, while $`R_{SM}`$ exhibits a strong $`Q^2`$ dependence with a trend towards increasingly negative values. The trend of the data is qualitatively described by quark models that include pion degrees of freedom. These results are in contrast to previous data which show no clear $`Q^2`$ dependence of $`R_{SM}`$, and do give ambiguous results for the sign of $`R_{EM}`$.

## 3 WHAT IS SO SPECIAL ABOUT THE ROPER RESONANCE?

The internal structure of the $`N^{}(1440)`$ has been the subject of an intensive debate in recent years. It is clearly visible as a resonant state in $`\pi N\pi N`$ and $`\gamma N\pi N`$ scattering. However, its transition strength drops rapidly with $`Q^2`$ in electroproduction , and its longitudinal coupling is weak. Neither of these properties is well described in non-relativistic constituent quark models which assign the state to a radial excitation of the nucleon. Moreover, its mass is lower than most models would predict. Models trying to explain these features range from assigning a large gluonic component , using light-cone kinematics , including strong meson cloud effects , to describing it as a molecular-type bound system of a nucleon and a $`\sigma `$ pseudo-particle . A clear distinction between a gluonic model for the Roper, and meson cloud models, as well as light-cone models, is that the latter ones all predict a zero crossing of $`A_{1/2}(Q^2)`$ while the gluonic model does not. Moreover, the scalar amplitude $`S_{1/2}`$ should be 0 for a gluonic Roper, while it is large for other models.

Although these models may qualitatively explain the fast drop of the transverse transition amplitude with $`Q^2`$, calculations exist only for the first two models. They make quite distinct predictions regarding the $`Q^2`$ dependence as shown in Figure 3. While recent flux tube model calculations  give higher masses to gluonic (hybrid) baryons than previous estimates in the bag model  and QCD sum rules , the Roper could still have a substantial gluonic component due to mixing with higher mass gluonic states . Studying these transitions in electroexcitation allows us to probe the internal structure and reveal the true nature of this state. Single $`\pi ^o`$ and $`\pi ^+`$ production as well as $`N\pi \pi `$ data from CLAS are currently being analyzed to determine the transition amplitudes in a large range of $`Q^2`$.

## 4 HIGHER MASS RESONANCES

The total photoabsorption cross section shows only 3 or 4 enhancements; however, more than 20 states are known in the mass region up to 2 GeV. By measuring the electromagnetic transition of many of these states we obtain a more complete picture of the nucleon structure, and provide the basis for testing symmetry properties of resonance transitions and the underlying 3-quark symmetry group structure. For example, the approximate SU(6) symmetry of the non-relativistic symmetric quark model predicts relationships between transition amplitudes of states belonging to the same $`SU(6)O(3)`$ supermultiplets. For example, in the single-quark-transition model (SQTM), only one quark participates in the interaction. The model predicts transition amplitudes for a large number of states based on a few measured amplitudes . At the photon point the symmetry relations are in good agreement with the data, showing that symmetry properties dominate over differences in the internal quark-gluon structure of different states. If the nucleon is probed at smaller distances, we expect symmetry properties to become less important.

The current situation is shown in Figure 4, where the SQTM amplitudes for the transition to the $`[70,1^{}]`$ supermultiplet have been extracted from the measured amplitudes for $`S_{11}(1535)`$ and $`D_{13}(1520)`$. Predictions for other states belonging to the same multiplet are shown in the other panels . The lack of accurate data for most resonances prevents a sensitive test of the SQTM for space-like photons.

The goal of the experimental N\* program at JLAB with the CLAS detector is to provide data in the entire resonance region, by measuring many channels in a large kinematic range, including various polarization observables. The yields of several channels, recorded simultaneously in CLAS, are shown in Figure 6 and Figure 6 . Resonance excitations seem to be present in all channels. The graphs also illustrate how the various channels have sensitivity to different resonance excitations. For example, the $`\mathrm{\Delta }^{++}\pi ^{}`$ channel clearly shows resonance excitation near 1720 MeV while single pion production is more sensitive to a resonance near 1680 MeV . The $`p\omega `$ channel seems to show resonance excitation near threshold, similar to the $`p\eta `$ channel. No resonance has been observed in this channel so far. The single pion channels are essential for an accurate determination of many transition amplitudes. For the first time, $`n\pi ^+`$ electroproduction has been measured throughout the resonance region, and in a nearly complete angle range.

New data have been obtained in the channel $`epep\eta `$. The $`p\eta `$ channel selects isopin 1/2 resonances, and is particularly sensitive to the $`N^{}(1535)`$ state. Preliminary data from CLAS are shown in Figure 7. The data confirm the previously observed, and not fully understood, slow fall-off of the resonance transition form factor with $`Q^2`$. However, at low $`Q^2`$, the trend of the data favors a larger photocoupling amplitude for that state than the $`Q^2=0`$ data point indicates. One should note that meson cloud effects can give different results for $`N\pi `$ or $`N\eta `$ channels unless the analysis properly accounts for rescattering and coupled channel effects.

For the first time the $`N\pi \pi `$ channel has been measured with high statistics in photo-and electroproduction. Using an isobar model approach one can study contributions of $`N\rho `$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }\pi `$ decay channels  which are especially sensitive to the so-called missing resonances. Figure 6 illustrates the vast improvement in data volume for the $`\mathrm{\Delta }^{++}\pi ^{}`$ channel. The top panel shows DESY data taken more than 20 years ago. The other two panels show samples of the data taken so far with CLAS. At higher $`Q^2`$, resonance structures, not seen before in this channel, are revealed.

## 5 MISSING QUARK RESONANCES

With large acceptance detectors such as CLAS more complex final states can be studied than has been possible in the past. This will allow us to systematically tackle a longstanding problem, the so-called “missing resonances”. These are states predicted in the symmetric $`|Q^3>`$ model to populate the mass region around 2 GeV but have not been seen in $`\pi N`$ elastic scattering, which is our main source of information on the nucleon excitation spectrum. These states may thus be either absent from the spectrum, or they may not couple to the $`N\pi `$ channel. It is important to search for at least some of these states since their absence from the spectrum would be evidence that SU(6) symmetry is strongly violated in light-quark baryon spectroscopy. Other symmetry scheme have been considered. For example, the observed clustering of baryon states may reflect an underlying Lorentz-isospin group symmetry $`O(1,3)SU(2)_I`$, as discussed recently in ref. . The number of states is significantly reduced in this latter approach compared to the symmetric model, more in accordance with the observed spectrum. As these possibilities reflect very different underlying baryon structure models, it is extremely important to search for states that are predicted in one scheme but not in the other.

How do we search for states that do not couple to the $`\pi N`$ channel? Channels which are predicted to couple strongly to “missing” states are $`N(\rho ,\omega )`$ or $`\mathrm{\Delta }\pi `$. Some may also couple to $`KY`$ or $`p\eta ^{}`$ . Some of the “missing” states may also couple to $`N\gamma `$, and should therefore be excited in photo- or electroproduction experiments.

Figure 8 shows very preliminary data from CLAS in the $`p\omega `$ channel. The process is expected to be dominated by t-channel $`\pi ^o`$ exchange with strong peaking at forward $`\omega `$ angles, or low t, and a monotonic fall-off at large t. The data show clear deviations from the smooth fall-off for the W range near 1.9 GeV, where some of the “missing” resonances are predicted, in comparison with the high W region. Although indications for resonance production are strong, analysis of more data and a partial wave study are needed before definite conclusions can be drawn.

CLAS has collected $`310^5`$ $`p\eta ^{}`$ events in photoproduction. Production of $`\eta ^{}`$ has also been observed in electron scattering for the first time with CLAS. This channel may provide a new tool in the search for missing states as well . The quark model predicts two resonances in this mass range with significant coupling to the $`N\eta ^{}`$ channel .

$`K\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ or $`K\mathrm{\Sigma }`$ production may yet be another source of information on resonant states. Previous data show some evidence for resonance production in these channels . New data with much higher statistics are being accumulated with the CLAS detector, both in photo- and electroproduction. Analysis of the $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ polarization provides additional information sensitive to resonance excitations.

## 6 OUTLOOK

The experimental effort with CLAS at Jefferson Lab will provide the community with a wealth of data in the first decade of this new millennium to address many open problems in hadronic structure in the domain of nucleon resonances and at intermediate distances. The experimental effort must be accompanied by a significant theoretical effort to translate this into real progress in our understanding of the complex regime of strong interaction physics. The region of nucleon resonances is of special interest as it represents a domain where different degrees of freedom, from hadronic, to constituent quarks, to valence quarks, overlap. On the one hand, this provides a challenge to theory, on the other hand an opportunity, as only under such circumstances can there be a realistic possibility for a unified description of hadron structure from small to large distances.