text:
# DEEP OPTICAL IMAGING OF A COMPACT GROUP OF GALAXIES, SEYFERT’S SEXTET

## 1. INTRODUCTION

Since groups of galaxies are intermediate in number density between isolated galaxies and rich clusters of galaxies, it is important to investigate their dynamical properties in detail. Recently, the X-ray satellite ROSAT has been used to investigate the dark matter content of a large number of groups of galaxies because the hot gas probed in soft X-rays is generally believed to be gravitationally bound to the groups (Ponman & Bertram 1993; Ebeling, Voges, & Böhringer 1994; Pildis, Bregman, & Evrard 1995; Saracco & Ciliegi 1995; Ponman et al. 1996; Mulchaey & Zabludoff 1998). As expected, the majority of groups of galaxies detected by ROSAT show round-shaped morphologies in the soft X-ray. On the other hand, a few groups such as Seyfert’s Sextet (hereafter SS), show irregular-shaped soft X-ray morphologies (Pildis et al. 1995). The X-ray morphology can provide important information about the dynamical status of groups of galaxies. Another useful method to investigate the dynamical status is to search for a faint optical envelope surrounding a group of galaxies (Nishiura 1998). In this paper, in order to investigate the dynamical status of SS, we present a very deep optical image of this group and compare it with the soft X-ray halo obtained by Pildis et al. (1995).

SS is one of the most famous as well as densest compact group of galaxies (Seyfert 1948a, 1948b). This group is also a Hickson Compact Group of Galaxies, HCG 79 (Hickson 1982, 1993). The basic data of the galaxies in SS are listed in Table 1 taken from Hickson (1993). SS consists of four redshift-accordant galaxies (HCG79a, HCG79b, HCG79c, and HCG79d). Note that HCG 79e is a redshift-discordant galaxy which is believed to have no physical relation to SS. Also, the NE optical fuzz is now considered to be tidal debris associated with HCG 79b (Rubin, Hunter, & Ford 1991; Williams, McMahon, & van Gorkom 1991; Mendes de Oliveira & Hickson 1994; Vílchez & Iglesias-Páramo 1998). We assume a distance to SS of 44$`h^1`$ Mpc determined using the mean recession velocity of HCG 79a, HCG 79b, HCG 79c, and HCG 79d referenced to the galactic standard of rest, $`V_{\mathrm{GSR}}`$ = 4449 km s-1 (de Vaucouleurs et al. 1991), and a Hubble constant, $`H_0`$ = 100 $`h`$ km s-1 Mpc-1.

## 2. OBSERVATIONS

### 2.1. Optical Imaging

Optical $`VR`$\- and $`I`$-band deep images of SS were obtained with the 8192 $`\times `$ 8192 (8K) CCD mosaic camera (Luppino et al. 1996) attached to the f/10 Cassegrain focus of the University of Hawaii 2.2 m telescope at Mauna Kea Observatory, on 20 May 1999 ($`VR`$) and 23 May 1999 ($`I`$). The camera provided a $`18\mathrm{}\times 18\mathrm{}`$ field of view. Two-pixel binning was used yielding a spatial resolution of 0.26 arcsec per element. The integration time for each exposure was set to 8 minutes. Twenty-three exposures for the $`VR`$-band and 24 exposures for the $`I`$-band were taken; thus, the total integration time amounted to 10,560 seconds in the $`VR`$-band image and 11,520 seconds in the $`I`$-band image. The seeing was $``$0.8 arcsec during the observation.

Data reduction was performed in a standard way using IRAF111 Image Reduction and Analysis Facility (IRAF) is distributed by the National Optical Astronomy Observatories, which are operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under cooperative agreement with the National Science Foundation.. Flux calibration was made using the data of photometric standard stars in the field of SA 103, SA 104, SA 107, SA 109, and SA 110 (Landolt 1992). Since the $`VR`$-band is not a standard photometric band (Jewitt, Luu & Chen 1996), we adopted an AB magnitude scale for this bandpass. The photometric errors were estimated to be $`\pm 0.05`$ mag for the $`VR`$-band and $`\pm 0.03`$ mag for the $`I`$-band. The limiting surface brightnesses are $`\mu _{VR}^{\mathrm{lim}}`$ = 28.7 mag arcsec-2 and $`\mu _I^{\mathrm{lim}}`$ = 28.1 mag arcsec-2, corresponding to a 1 $`\sigma `$ variation in the background. The $`VR`$, $`I`$, and $`VR+I`$ images are shown in Figure 1 (a), Figure 2 (a), and Figure 3, respectively.

### 2.2. Optical Spectroscopy

In order to investigate the nuclear activity of the member galaxies of SS, we have performed optical spectroscopy during the course of our optical spectroscopy program of Hickson compact groups of galaxies (Shimada et al. 2000; Nishiura et al. 2000). Optical spectra were obtained with the Cassegrain spectrograph attached to the 188 cm telescope at the Okayama Astrophysical Observatory (OAO) on 22 February (HCG 79a), 15 August (HCG 79b), and 18 August 1996 (HCG 79c and HCG 79d). A 600 lines/mm grating blazed at 7,500 Å was used. The spectral coverage was 6,200 Å – 6,900 Å with a spectral resolution of 2.4 Å at 6,500 Å. The integration time was 1800 seconds for each galaxy. The spatial resolution was 1.75 arcsec pixel-1 and the slit width was 1.8 arcsec. The seeing size was 2 arcsec during the observations. The data reduction was made using IRAF with a special package SNGRED for the OAO spectrograph (Kosugi et al. 1995). Spectroscopic standard stars (HD 84937, HD 161817, HD 217086, BD 322642, and Feige 15) were observed to calibrate the spectra. One-dimensional nuclear spectra of the four member galaxies were extracted by tracing the central two pixels; i.e., 3.5 arcsec. The final nuclear spectra are shown in Figure 4.

## 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

### 3.1. The Morphology of the Faint Optical Envelope

As shown in Figure 1 (a), Figure 2 (a), and Figure 3, we can see a faint optical envelope surrounding SS both in the $`VR`$ image and in the $`I`$ image. However, since the member galaxies are very close together on the sky, we cannot rule out a possibility that we may misidentify the overlapping isophotes of galaxies for the real faint optical envelope. In order to confirm the presence of the faint optical envelope, it is necessary to subtract off models of all the galaxies in SS. For this purpose we have made a model of each galaxy in SS by fitting a surface brightness profile of its outer region. In this procedure, we adopt a de Vaucouleurs’ $`r^{1/4}`$ law for HCG 79a and 79c and an exponential law for HCG 79b, 79d, 79e. We also made a model for the tidal debris east of HCG 79b (see Fig. 3) with an exponential law. Surface photometry was carried out using the Surface Photometry Interactive Reduction and Analysis Library (Hamabe & Ichikawa 1992). We made an image of the model SS by adding the above models. In this procedure we use the ARTDATA package with the fitting parameters derived by the surface photometry. In Table 2 we list the parameters of our model galaxies. For the model of the tidal debris east of HCG 79b, it seems that there is a much better fit would be found with a rounder model at a larger position angle. Fainter parts of the debris may be connected to the optical envelope. Therefore, we have made our model fit for the brighter part of the debris and then subtracted it from the image.

The results are shown in Figure 1 (b) (VR-band) and 2 (b) (I-band). The model subtracted images are shown in Figure 1 (c) (VR-band) and 2 (c) (I-band). Figure 5 and 6 show the VR\- and I-band surface brightness profiles of all the galaxies in SS. The filled circles indicate the observed profiles and solid lines indicate the profiles of the model galaxies. As a result of the model subtraction, we can still see the faint optical envelope surrounding SS both in the $`VR`$ image and in the $`I`$ image.

Next, in order to check whether the skirts of the point spread function (PSF) of the galactic nuclei contaminate the faint optical envelope, we compared the surface brightness profiles of all the galaxies in SS with that of a star in the same frame of SS. The surface brightness profile of the star is shown as dotted lines in Figure 5 and 6. We cannot find any contribution of the light of the PSF to the faint optical envelope surrounding SS both in the $`VR`$ image and in the $`I`$ image. Throughout these two checks we have confirmed that the faint optical envelope is really present around SS.

Using the images in Figure 1c and Figure 2c, we roughly calculate the VR and I magnitudes of the faint optical envelope by integrating the light without any point sources (i.e., stars in our Galaxy) within a circle of the centered at $`\alpha =15^\mathrm{h}56^\mathrm{m}59\stackrel{\mathrm{s}}{\mathrm{.}}6`$, and $`\delta =+20^\mathrm{d}54^\mathrm{m}59\stackrel{\mathrm{s}}{\mathrm{.}}6`$ with a radius of 70 arcsec enclosing the optical faint envelope of SS. The regions which appear black on Figure 1c and 2c are also ignored. We obtain $`VR_{\mathrm{AB}}14.5`$ and $`I13.7`$ for the envelope. The luminosity contribution of the envelope to the total luminosity is $``$ 12 % in VR and $``$ 13 % in I. This implies that the envelope consists of red stars. If we assume that the mass-to-light ratio of the stellar component of the optical faint envelope is $`M/L=3.57\pm 0.43`$ ($`M_{}/L_{}`$) in I-band (Worthey 1994), we obtain the mass of the optical faint envelope, $`M_{\mathrm{env}}(9.1\pm 1.1)\times 10^9M_{}`$.

The morphology of the faint optical envelope in the $`VR`$ image is quite similar to that in the $`I`$ image. The overall morphology of the individual galaxies is consistent with that obtained previously (Sulentic & Lorre 1983). The faint optical envelope shows an irregular shape. It is likely that this shape is attributed either to recent-past or to on-going galaxy interactions in SS. If the member galaxies have experienced a number of mutual interaction over a long timescale, the shape of the envelope might reasonably be expected to be rounder. Therefore, the irregular-shaped morphology suggests that SS is in an early phase of dynamical interactions among the member galaxies.

Rubin et al. (1991) and Nishiura et al. (2000) showed that the optical rotation curve of HCG 79d is peculiar compared to those of normal spirals. Williams et al. (1991) obtained an H i map of SS and found that the H i emission, whose intensity peak appears at the center of HCG 79d, shows a southern extension from HCG 79d. They interpreted this as possible evidence for the interaction between HCG 79d and 79b. It is thus strongly suggested that HCG 79d shows tidal effects from this interaction.

Finally, we compare our very deep optical image \[$`VR+I`$; Figure 3\] with the soft X-ray image taken by Pildis et al. (1995) in Figure 7. It is shown that the soft X-ray morphology is quite similar to that seen in the optical. The optical faint envelope is most likely attributed to stars liberated from the member galaxies through past and on-going tidal interactions. Therefore, the morphological similarity between the optical and soft X-ray images implies that the dark matter in SS was originally associated with the individual galaxies and then has been liberated tidally together with the stars.

### 3.2. The Origin of Soft-X Ray Emission

The total soft X-ray luminosity of SS is given only as an upper limit, $`L_{\mathrm{X},\mathrm{tot}}<1.3\times 10^{41}h^2`$ ergs s-1 with ROSAT PSPC (Ponman et al. 1996; hereafter P96). On the other hand, using the same data, Pildis et al. (1995) detected soft X-ray photons at the $`2.6\sigma `$ level. The net count of the extended soft X-ray emission was 28.4$`\pm `$11.1 during the total integration time of 4910 sec. Using the software Xspec222Xspec is available at http://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/webspec/webspec.html, we estimate the soft X-ray luminosity of the extended emission; $`L_\mathrm{X}1.3\times 10^{40}h^2`$ ergs s-1 for $`kT`$ = 0.5 keV or $`L_\mathrm{X}1.4\times 10^{40}h^2`$ ergs s-1 for $`kT`$ = 1 keV, where the metal abundances are assumed to be 0.3 times solar. It is difficult to resolve X-ray emission from individual galaxies using the ROSAT PSPC because of the compactness of SS itself, even if the exposure time were long enough. It is possible that a part of the X-ray emission may be associated with individual member galaxies. Here we also attempt to examine whether or not the soft X-ray emission of SS really arises from hot gas since supernova remnants, low- and high-mass X-ray binaries, and/or active galactic nuclei could also contribute substantially to the soft X-ray emission to some extent if they are present in the member galaxies.

First we estimate the expected soft X-ray luminosities of discrete sources such as X-ray binaries in the individual galaxies $`L_{\mathrm{X},\mathrm{gal}}`$. Such soft X-ray luminosities can be estimated using the following empirical $`L_X`$ \- $`L_B`$ relationship for galaxies where $`L_B`$ is the absolute blue luminosity.

$$\mathrm{log}L_\mathrm{X}=(2.47\pm 1.01)\times \mathrm{log}L_\mathrm{B}(68.36\pm 44.08),$$

for early-type galaxies (Brown & Bregman 1998), and

$$\mathrm{log}L_\mathrm{X}=(1.21\pm 0.03)\times \mathrm{log}L_\mathrm{B}(13.29\pm 1.39).$$

for late-type galaxies (Read, Ponman, & Strickland 1997; Vogler, Pietish, & Kahabka 1996). In Table 1, we give a summary of the expected soft X-ray luminosities for the individual galaxies where $`L_B`$ is estimated using the apparent blue magnitudes (Hickson 1993). Although HCG 79e is the redshift-discordant galaxy, this galaxy also contributes to the observed soft X-ray luminosity of SS because it lies in a line of sight toward the group. We obtain an expected total soft X-ray luminosity coming from individual soft X-ray sources in the five galaxies; $`L_{\mathrm{X},\mathrm{gal}}4.4\times 10^{39}h^2`$ ergs s-1, which is much lower than the observed soft X-ray luminosity of SS.

Second, we estimate possible contributions of soft X-ray emission from starburst phenomena in the member galaxies, $`L_{\mathrm{X},\mathrm{H}\mathrm{ii}}`$. The spectroscopic properties of the member galaxies based on our optical spectra (Figure 4) are summarized in Table 3. Our results show that HCG 79a, 79b and 79d have a weak Hii nucleus. HCG 79c shows no emission-line activity. For starburst galaxies, an average soft X-ray to optical $`B`$ luminosity ratio is estimated as, $`\mathrm{log}L_\mathrm{X}/L_B3.87\pm 0.19`$ (Read et al. 1997). We estimate that the soft X-ray luminosities from an H II nucleus in HCG 79a, 79b and 79d are $`L_{\mathrm{X},\mathrm{H}\mathrm{ii}}=2.8\times 10^{39}h^2,4.8\times 10^{39}h^2`$, and $`7.1\times 10^{38}h^2`$ ergs s-1, respectively. Thus, we obtain a total soft X-ray luminosity from starbursts in these galaxies, $`L_{\mathrm{X},\mathrm{H}\mathrm{ii}}`$ = $`8.3\times 10^{39}h^2`$ ergs s-1

The model estimated total soft X-ray luminosity from SS, which is the sum total we have calculated above for the soft X-ray luminosity of the individual galaxies, is $`1.3\times 10^{40}`$ ergs s-1. This value is nearly identical to our estimated value using Xspec, $`L_{\mathrm{X},\mathrm{tot}}=1.3\times 10^{40}h^2`$ergs s-1 with $`kT`$=0.5keV and $`Z`$=0.3 $`Z_{}`$ assumed, and $`L_{\mathrm{X},\mathrm{tot}}=1.4\times 10^{40}h^2`$ergs s-1 with $`kT`$=1.0keV and $`Z`$=0.3 $`Z_{}`$ assumed.

Finally, we estimate the X-ray luminosity of hot gas trapped by the gravitational potential of SS, $`L_{\mathrm{X},\mathrm{gas}}`$. Mulchaey & Zabludoff (1998) find a correlation between soft X-ray luminosity from hot gas within poor clusters $`L_{\mathrm{X},\mathrm{gas}}`$ and radial velocity dispersion $`\sigma _\mathrm{r}`$ of galaxies in them,

$$\mathrm{log}L_\mathrm{X}=(31.61\pm 1.09)+\mathrm{log}h^2+(4.29\pm 0.37)\times \mathrm{log}\sigma _\mathrm{r}.$$

Using this empirical relation, we obtain $`L_{\mathrm{X},\mathrm{gas}}=6.2\times 10^{40}h^2`$ ergs s-1 using the observed value $`\sigma _\mathrm{r}=138`$ km s-1 for SS. This value is a factor of five larger than the observed X-ray luminosity. Since the sum total we calculate for the soft X-ray luminosity of the individual galaxies is high enough to explain the observed X-ray luminosity, it is not necessarily to take account of the mass contribution from the hot gas. Deeper X-ray observations of SS are needed to discuss the nature of the hot gas in SS.

### 3.3. The Dynamical Properties of Seyfert’s Sextet

To discuss the dynamical properties of SS, we first estimate the dynamical mass of the system. Heisler, Tremaine & Bahcall (1985) have proposed four mass estimators for small-member galaxy associations such as compact groups of galaxies; 1) the virial mass estimator $`M_{\mathrm{vir}}`$, 2) the projected mass estimator $`M_{\mathrm{proj}}`$, 3) the average mass estimator $`M_{\mathrm{avg}}`$, and 4) the median mass estimator $`M_{\mathrm{med}}`$. In order to avoid accidental errors in each mass estimator, we estimate the total mass of SS by averaging masses derived from these four estimators; $`M_{\mathrm{tot}}3.6\times 10^{11}h^1M_{}`$. The results are summarized in Table 4.

TABLE 4

PROPERTIES OF SS

| Properties |  |
| --- | --- |
| $`L_{\mathrm{X},\mathrm{tot}}`$ (P96) | $`<1.3\times 10^{41}`$ $`h^2`$ ergs s-1 |
| $`L_{\mathrm{X},\mathrm{tot}}`$ ($`kT`$=0.5 keV, $`Z`$=0.3$`Z_{}`$) | $`1.3\times 10^{40}`$ $`h^2`$ ergs s-1 |
| $`L_{\mathrm{X},\mathrm{tot}}`$ ($`kT`$=1.0 keV, $`Z`$=0.3$`Z_{}`$) | $`1.4\times 10^{40}`$ $`h^2`$ ergs s-1 |
| $`L_{\mathrm{X},\mathrm{gal}}`$ | $`4.4\times 10^{39}`$ $`h^2`$ ergs s-1 |
| $`L_{\mathrm{X},\mathrm{H}\mathrm{ii}}`$ | $`8.3\times 10^{39}`$ $`h^2`$ ergs s-1 |
| $`L_{\mathrm{X},\mathrm{gas}}`$ | $`6.2\times 10^{40}`$ $`h^2`$ ergs s-1 |
| $`L_\mathrm{B}`$ | $`2.0\times 10^{10}`$ $`h^2`$ $`L_{}`$ |
| $`M_{\mathrm{vir}}`$ 333 Hickson et al. (1992) obtained a virial mass of SS, $`M_{\mathrm{vir}}=1.38\times 10^{11}M_{}`$, using $`M_{\mathrm{vir}}\pi V^2R/2G`$, where $`V`$ is the estimated intrinsic three-demensional velocity dispersion, $`V=[3(<v^2><v>^2)<\delta v^2>]^{1/2}`$, $`v`$ is the measured radial velocity of the galaxy, $`\delta v`$ is the estimated velocity error, and $`<>`$ denotes the average over all galaxies in the group, $`R`$ is the median length of the two-dimensional galaxy-galaxy separation, $`G`$ is the gravitational constant. In this study we estimated the virial mass of SS using the virial mass estimator taken from Heisler et al. (1985), $`M_{\mathrm{vir}}=[3\pi N_i(v_i<v>)^2/2G_{i<j}(1/R_{ij})]`$, where $`N`$ is the number of member galaxies, $`v_i`$ is the radial velocity of the $`i`$-th galaxy, $`R_{ij}`$ is the two-dimensional distance between the $`i`$-th galaxy and the $`j`$-th galaxy. | $`\left(3.89_{3.10}^{+1.18}\right)\times 10^{11}h^1M_{}`$ |
| $`M_{\mathrm{proj}}`$ | $`\left(3.63_{2.23}^{+9.88}\right)\times 10^{11}h^1M_{}`$ |
| $`M_{\mathrm{avg}}`$ | $`\left(3.80_{2.13}^{+9.79}\right)\times 10^{11}h^1M_{}`$ |
| $`M_{\mathrm{med}}`$ | $`\left(3.09_{2.02}^{+3.76}\right)\times 10^{11}h^1M_{}`$ |
| $`M_{\mathrm{tot}}`$ | $`\left(3.63_{2.43}^{+5.41}\right)\times 10^{11}h^1M_{}`$ |
| $`M_{\mathrm{tot}}/L_\mathrm{B}`$ | $`\left(18_{12}^{+27}\right)hM_{}/L_{}`$ |
| $`M_{\mathrm{gal}}`$ | $`\left(2.67\pm 0.11\right)\times 10^{11}`$ $`h^1M_{}`$ |

Next, we estimate the mass including dark matter associated with the member galaxies of SS, $`M_{\mathrm{gal}}`$. The mean mass-to-luminosity ratios for each Hubble type are as follows: 13.7 $`\pm `$ 0.3 for early-type galaxies (Bacon, Monnet, & Simien 1985), and 9.1 $`\pm `$ 4.0 for Sdm galaxies, where we have estimated a typical mass-to-luminosity ratio for Sdm galaxies by averaging that of Sc galaxies, 5.2 $`\pm `$ 0.4 (Rubin et al. 1985), and that of irregular galaxies, 12.9 $`\pm `$ 7.5 (Lo, Sargent & Young 1993). Although HCG 79a and 79b are LINERs, the line emission has little effect on their $`B`$-band luminosities because the equivalent widths of H$`\alpha `$ emission, $`EW`$(H$`\alpha `$), of these galaxies are less than several Å (see Table 3). HCG 79d has a much larger $`EW`$(H$`\alpha `$). However, its contribution to the total $`B`$-band luminosity of SS is only a few percent. Therefore, the $`B`$ luminosity derived above can be regarded as the stellar $`B`$ luminosity. We thus obtain an estimate of the total (i.e., stars, gas, and the dark matter) mass of the individual galaxies of SS, $`M_{\mathrm{gal}}2.7\times 10^{11}h^1M_{}`$; note that $`M_{\mathrm{gal}}`$ does not contain the mass of dark matter in intragroup space. Since this mass is 73$`\pm 3`$ % of the estimated dynamical mass of SS, it would appear that the majority of the dark matter may still be associated with the member galaxies. Since the dynamical mass measures the mass inside the circle enclosing the galaxies and is therefore insensitive to any mass outside it, we note that the ratio of 73% is an upper limit.

### 3.4. Dynamical Evolution of Seyfert’s Sextet

We discuss the possible future evolution of SS. The irregular-shaped soft X-ray morphology of SS suggests that the dark matter in SS has not yet completely relaxed dynamically. This appears consistent with the following observations: 1) the member galaxies in SS show morphological and kinematic evidence for violent interactions, and 2) the majority of the dynamical mass of SS can be associated with the member galaxies. It is thus strongly suggested that SS is a dynamically-young, compact group of galaxies which will eventually merge. It has been numerically shown that the merging time scale of a compact group of galaxies, each member of which has a dark halo, is much shorter (i.e., $`10^9`$ yr) than the Hubble time (Athanassoula, Makino, & Bosma 1998). Therefore, it is expected that SS will most likely merge into a single object within a time scale less than $`10^9`$ years and finally evolve into an elliptical galaxy with a large, virialized halo. Such a fossil group of galaxies has been reported; a soft X-ray source RXJ 1340.6+4018 turns out to be an elliptical galaxy with a large-scale ($``$ 250 $`h^1`$ kpc) X-ray halo (Ponman et al. 1994; Jones et al. 2000). Other candidates may be the elliptical galaxy NGC 4636 in the Virgo cluster of galaxies (Matsushita et al. 1998) and an isolated elliptical galaxy NGC 1132 (Mulchaey & Zabludoff 1999).

Finally, we investigate the relationship between the mass-to-light ratio ($`M_{\mathrm{tot}}/L_B`$ where $`L_B`$ is the absolute $`B`$ luminosity) and the radius ($`R`$) of SS and compare it with those of the candidate fossil groups and typical elliptical galaxies studied by Bahcall et al. (1995). The basic properties of the ellipticals with large-scale X-ray halos are listed in Table 5 taken from Ponman et al. (1994), Matsushita et al. (1998), and Mulchaey & Zabludoff (1999). Summing the blue luminosities of the four member galaxies, we obtain a total blue luminosity for SS, $`L_{B,\mathrm{tot}}2.0\times 10^{10}h^2L_{}`$. We thus obtain a mass-to-light ratio for SS, $`M/L_B18hM_{}/L_{}`$. The linear size of SS is $`R8h^1`$ kpc which is the radius of a circle including the center of the four member galaxies. We also show these quantities in Table 5.

It seems worthwhile noting that the relationship between $`M/L_B`$ and $`R`$ for SS follows well that for elliptical galaxies (Bahcall et al. 1995: see Figure 4). We therefore suspect that the eventual merger remnant of SS may likely evolve into an ordinary elliptical galaxy.

We would like to thank an anonymous referee for his/her useful comments and suggestions. We would like to thank the staff members of the Okayama Astrophysical Observatory and the UH 2.2 m telescope for their kind assistance during our observations. We thank Harald Ebeling and Makoto Hattori for useful discussion on the X-ray data discussed in this paper. We also thank Richard Wainscoat and Shinki Oyabu for their kind help on photometric calibration and Youichi Ohyama for his kind help during the course of this study. T. M. is supported by JSPS. This work was supported in part by the Ministry of Education, Science, Sports and Culture in Japan under Grant Nos. 07055044, 10044052, and 10304013.


format: text

text:
# RADIATIVE COOLING FLOWS OF SELF-GRAVITATING FILAMENTARY CLOUDS

## 1 INTRODUCTION

Interstellar molecular clouds are very complex structures in which many physical processes come into play. In these clouds, rich and complex structures have been seen (see, e.g., Myers 1991). Since most star formation essentially occurs in molecular clouds, understanding the origin and evolution of their structures is very important.

Filamentary structures associated with clumps and cores are very common (e.g., Schneider & Elmegreen 1979; Houlahan & Scalo 1992; Wiseman & Adams 1994; Alves et al. 1998; Harjunpaa et al. 1999). It is now widely accepted that this hierarchical structure has been formed by gravitational instability. In this scenario for the formation of the hierarchical structure, four distinct phases have been studied: (a) gravitational instability along the filamentary cloud leads to the formation of clumps (e.g., Nagasawa 1987; Nakamura, Hanawa, & Nakano 1993; Gehman, Adams, & Watkins 1996; Nagai, Inutsuka, & Miyama 1998; Fiege & Pudritz 2000); (b) these clumps become geometrically thin disks, perpendicular to the filament axis (Nakamura, Hanawa, & Nakano 1995; Nakamura et al. 1999); (c) The disks collapse toward their centers and, because of gravitational instability, each of them fragments into cloud cores (Nakamura & Hanawa 1997; Saigo & Hanawa 1998); and finally (d) these cores are scattered by gravitational interaction.

It must be noted that in this scenario, the overall collapse of a filamentary cloud is slower than the growth of local density fluctuations. In fact, it has been assumed that the parent filamentary cloud is well below the critical mass per unit length required for radial collapse to a spindle. There is a possibility that the filamentary cloud collapses, however, and several authors have studied the collapse of filaments (Bonnell & Bastien 1991; Inutsuka & Miyama 1993; Kawachi & Hanawa 1998).

Most of the previous works have studied the collapse of spherically symmetric clouds (e.g., Larson 1972; Terebey, Shu, & Cassen 1984; Foster & Chevalier 1993). Calculations showed that the temperature of a collapsing spherical molecular cloud remains roughly constant in the early phases of star formation (see, e.g., Larson 1969). Investigating the collapse of a spherical cloud using three dimensional numerical simulations is very difficult. But there exists asymptotic self-similar solutions for the collapse of a spherical cloud (Larson 1969; Penston 1969; Shu 1977). Also, self-similar solutions for the collapse of a filamentary cloud were investigated, and different sets have been found (Inutsuka & Miyama 1992; Kawachi & Hanawa 1998; Semelin, Sanchez, & de Vega 1999). Kawachi & Hanawa (1998) investigated the gravitational collapse of a filamentary cloud using zooming coordinates (Bouquet et al. 1985). They used a polytropic equation of state to indicate the effects of deviations from isothermality in the collapse.

In fact, all of these authors followed the usual (Jeans) scenario for star formation. But as we shall show in this paper, there exists another (non-Jeans) scenario for star formation in filamentary clouds. Because of radiative cooling, a filamentary cloud which is in equilibrium, may evolve over a longer period of time. Thus, radiative condensation flows can be formed in a cooling filamentary cloud. So, although the cloud is in a quasi-hydrostatic state, we may have density collapse, due to the presence of a radiative condensation flow. The same problem has been investigated for the dynamics of cooling spherical clouds (Meerson, Megged, & Tajima 1996; hereafter MMT). In the present work, we have studied radiative cooling flows in a filamentary cloud, using a family of similarity solutions and instead of a polytropic equation of state, the energy equation is used. We found solutions that did not indicate any polytropic relation between pressure and density. Since we have considered the constraint of a constant mass per unit length, the solutions were parameterized by their line masses. We show that for the power-law radiative cooling function, the dynamics of quasi-hydrostatic, cylindrically symmetric flows in a filamentary cloud is independent of the specific heat ratio of the gas.

The plan of this paper is as follows. We present the general mathematical framework and equations in $`\mathrm{\S }`$ 2. By introducing similarity solutions, the dynamics of a radiative cooling filamentary cloud has been studied in $`\mathrm{\S }`$ 3. We concentrate on quasi-hydrostatic flows. In $`\mathrm{\S }`$ 4, after discussing the behaviour of central density and the radius of the cloud, we conclude with the implications of our model.

## 2 GENERAL FORMULATION

We present here the basic equations used to describe cylindrically symmetric radiative cooling flows. In this work, we neglect the effects of viscosity and magnetic fields. In cylindrical coordinates $`(r,\phi ,z)`$, which the filamentary cloud is assumed to be long in the $`z`$direction, we have:

$$\frac{\rho }{t}+\frac{1}{r}\frac{}{r}(r\rho v)=0,$$
(1)
$$\rho (\frac{v}{t}+v\frac{v}{r})+\frac{p}{r}+\rho \frac{\mathrm{\Psi }}{r}=0,$$
(2)
$$\frac{1}{r}\frac{}{r}(r\frac{\mathrm{\Psi }}{r})=4\pi G\rho ,$$
(3)
where $`\rho ,v,p,\mathrm{\Psi }`$ denote the gas density, radial velocity, pressure, and gravitational potential, respectively. We write the energy equation and the equation of state as follows:

$$\frac{1}{\gamma 1}(\frac{p}{t}+v\frac{p}{r})+\frac{\gamma }{\gamma 1}\frac{p}{r}\frac{}{r}(rv)+\mathrm{\Lambda }(\rho ,T)=0,$$
(4)
$$p=\frac{R_g}{\mu _g}\rho T,$$
(5)
where $`\mathrm{\Lambda }(\rho ,T)`$ is the radiative loss function and $`R_g`$ and $`\mu _g`$ are the gas constant and the effective molar mass, respectively. Neglecting any external heating, we can fit the radiative loss function by a power law,

$$\mathrm{\Lambda }(\rho ,T)=A_\nu \rho ^2T^\nu ,$$
(6)
where $`\nu `$ and $`A_\nu `$ are constants. Depending on selected intervals of temperature, these parameters can be determined (Spitzer 1978).

Our scope of interest is quasi-hydrostatic flows in filamentary clouds. In fact, this situation occurs when cooling is slow on the dynamic time scale. For quasi-hydrostatic flows, the equation (2) becomes

$$\frac{p}{r}+\rho \frac{\mathrm{\Psi }}{r}0.$$
(7)
The same relation has been used by MMT.

To simplify the problem, we introduce the dimensionless variables according to

$$\rho \widehat{\rho }\rho ,p\widehat{p}p,\mathrm{\Psi }\widehat{\mathrm{\Psi }}\mathrm{\Psi },T\widehat{T}T,v\widehat{v}v,r\widehat{r}r,t\widehat{t}t,$$
(8)
where

$$\widehat{\rho }=\rho _0,\widehat{p}=p_0,\widehat{T}=T_0,\widehat{\mathrm{\Psi }}=\frac{p_0}{\rho _0},\widehat{r}=(\frac{p_0}{4\pi G\rho _0^2})^{\frac{1}{2}},\widehat{t}=\frac{p_0}{(\gamma 1)A_\nu \rho _0^2T_0^\nu },\widehat{v}=\frac{\widehat{r}}{\widehat{t}}.$$
(9)
Under the transformation equations (8), the equations (1) and (7) do not change and the rest of the equations are cast into these forms:

$$\frac{1}{r}\frac{}{r}(r\frac{\mathrm{\Psi }}{r})=\rho ,$$
(10)
$$\frac{p}{t}+v\frac{p}{r}+\gamma \frac{p}{r}\frac{}{r}(rv)+\rho ^{2\nu }p^\nu =0.$$
(11)
## 3 SELF-SIMILAR SOLUTIONS

It is useful to study the similarity solutions of equations (1), (7), (10) and (11). We introduce the similarity variable as $`y=\frac{r}{r_0(t)}`$, where $`r_0(t)=(t_0t)^{\frac{1}{2}}`$ and $`t<t_0`$. Using this transformation, we have the following forms of $`\rho `$, $`p`$, $`v`$ and $`\mathrm{\Psi }`$:

$$\rho (r,t)=(t_0t)^1R(y),$$
(12)
$$p(r,t)=(t_0t)^1P(y),$$
(13)
$$v(r,t)=(t_0t)^{\frac{1}{2}}V(y),$$
(14)
$$\mathrm{\Psi }(r,t)=S(y),$$
(15)
where $`R(y)`$, $`P(y)`$, $`V(y)`$ and $`S(y)`$ satisfy these equations:

$$R+\frac{y}{2}\frac{dR}{dy}+\frac{1}{y}\frac{d}{dy}(yRV)=0,$$
(16)
$$\frac{dP}{dy}+R\frac{dS}{dy}=0,$$
(17)
$$\frac{1}{y}\frac{d}{dy}(y\frac{dS}{dy})=R,$$
(18)
$$P+(\frac{y}{2}+V)\frac{dP}{dy}+\gamma \frac{P}{y}\frac{d}{dy}(yV)+R^{2\nu }P^\nu =0.$$
(19)
This form of similarity solutions deals with blow-up, or at least rapid growth, in a finite time $`t_0`$. Since we are interested in cooling flows of an isolated filamentary cloud, the constraint of a constant mass per unit length can be written as

$$_0^{\mathrm{}}\rho r𝑑r=m=const,$$
(20)
where $`m=\frac{2G\rho _0}{p_0}M`$ and $`M`$ is mass per unit length.

Now, we have a set of ordinary differential equations. It is interesting that equations (16), (17), (18) and (19) are integrable. Using equation (16) we obtain

$$yRV+\frac{1}{2}y^2R=c,$$
(21)
where $`c`$ is a constant. The velocity of the flows on the axis of a filamentary cloud is assumed to be zero. So we obtain

$$V(y)=\frac{y}{2}.$$
(22)
It shows that the velocity of the cylindrically symmetric cooling flow is independent of $`\nu `$, the exponent of the power-law cooling function. MMT showed that for spherically symmetric cooling flows, we may have gas inflow or outflow, depending on the value of $`\nu `$ . Substituting equation (22) into (19), we find

$$P(y)=(\gamma 1)^\alpha [R(y)]^\beta ,$$
(23)
where $`\alpha =\frac{1}{\nu 1}`$ and $`\beta =\frac{\nu 2}{\nu 1}`$. This relation shows that $`\nu `$ may have any positive or negative values except $`\nu =1`$ or $`2`$. In addition there is no polytropic relationship between the pressure and the density.

Finally, after substituting equation (23) into equations (17) and (18) we obtain

$$\frac{1}{\xi }\frac{d}{d\xi }(\xi \frac{d\theta }{d\xi })+\theta ^n=0,$$
(24)
where

$$\theta =[R(y)]^{\frac{1}{n}},\xi =(n+1)^{\frac{1}{2}}(\gamma 1)^{\frac{1}{2n}}y,n=1\nu .$$
(25)
Equation (24) represents the form of the Lane-Emden equation appropriate for cylindrical polytropes. This equation on the study of the equilibrium of gaseous filaments has been studied (Ostriker 1964). The boundary conditions are

$$\theta (\xi =0)=1,(\frac{d\theta }{d\xi })_{\xi =0}=0.$$
(26)
It can be easily shown that solutions of the cylindrical Lane-Emden equation satisfying boundary conditions (26) must decrease monotonically from the origin and eventually approach zero. For $`n=0`$ $`(\nu =1)`$ or $`n=1`$ $`(\nu =0)`$, this equation becomes linear and the solutions can be readily obtained. If $`\theta _n(\xi )`$ reperesnts the required solution, we have

$$\theta _0(\xi )=1\frac{1}{4}\xi ^2,\theta _1(\xi )=J_0(\xi ).$$
(27)
We note that in our problem, $`\theta _0(\xi )`$ is not a solution. For other values of $`n`$, the solutions are not in closed forms. In general, however, Ostriker (1964) obtained a series solution:

$$\theta _n(\xi )=1\frac{1}{(1!)^22^2}\xi ^2+\frac{n}{(2!)^22^4}\xi ^4\frac{n(3n2)}{(3!)^22^6}\xi ^6+\frac{n(18n^229n+12)}{(4!)^22^8}\xi ^8\mathrm{}.$$
(28)
We note that the solutions must satisfy the constraint of conservation of mass. In fact, the solutions of the cylindrical Lane-Emden equation are subject to the same homology transformations as are the solutions of the spherical Lane-Emden equation: if $`\theta _n(\xi )`$ is a solution, then $`A^{\frac{2}{n1}}\theta _n(A\xi )`$ will also be a solution $`(n1)`$. Using this transformation, it is possible after finding the solution, then rescale it. Therefore, equation (20) is as follows:

$$A^{\frac{2n}{n1}}_0^{\xi _1}[\theta _n(A\xi )]^n\xi 𝑑\xi =\frac{m}{n+1}(\gamma 1)^{\frac{1}{n}},$$
(29)
where $`\xi _1`$ is the first zero of $`\theta _n(\xi )`$. All of the solutions $`\theta _n(\xi )`$ have a first zero; i.e., the radii and masses of the filamentary clouds are finite. For mathematical proof of this point see Ostriker (1964). If $`n=1`$ $`(\nu =0)`$, then $`A\theta _1(\xi )`$ will be a solution and the equation (29) is replaced by

$$A_0^{\xi _1}\theta _1(\xi )\xi 𝑑\xi =\frac{m}{2}(\gamma 1),$$
(30)
where $`\theta _1(\xi )=J_0(\xi )`$ , so

$$A=(\gamma 1)\frac{m}{2\xi _1J_1(\xi _1)}.$$
(31)
Equation (12) shows that for quasi-hydrostatic cylindrically symmetric cooling flows, the density at the center $`(\rho _c)`$ increases in proportion to $`(t_0t)^1`$. This is slower than the growth of density at the center, during gravitational collapse, which is in proportion to $`(t_0t)^2`$ (Kawachi & Hanawa 1998). We see that in a filamentary cloud $`\rho _c`$ is independent of $`\nu `$, while in a spherical cloud the central density $`\rho _c`$ depends on $`\nu `$ and varies in proportion to $`(t_0t)^{\frac{3}{2+\nu }}`$ (MMT).

Since the radius of the cloud $`(r_c)`$ is defined by the first zero of $`\theta _n(\xi )`$, we can see that $`r_c`$ decreases in proportion to $`(t_0t)^{\frac{1}{2}}`$, which is independent of $`\nu `$. MMT showed that in spherical clouds, $`r_c`$ is proportional to $`(t_0t)^{\frac{1}{\nu +2}}`$ which depends on $`\nu `$.

Another important difference between cylindrical and spherical cooling flows exists. In fact, MMT showed that the dynamics of quasi-hydrostatic spherically symmetric cooling flows depends on $`\gamma `$, the gas specific ratio. They found that $`\gamma =\frac{4}{3}`$ is a critical value, i.e., if $`\gamma `$ is greater (smaller) than $`\frac{4}{3}`$, then the cloud condenses (expands). But our study showed that in quasi-hydrostatic cylindrically symmetric cooling flows, there is no critical value. In fact, for all values of $`\gamma >1`$, filamentary clouds undergo radiative condensation.

## 4 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

In this paper, we have studied quasi-hydrostatic radiative cooling flows of self-gravitating filamentary clouds. A non-Jeans scenario for star formation in these clouds has been investigated. This scenario in spherical clouds was presented, as far as we know, for the first time by MMT.

When the line mass of a filamentary cloud exceeds the critical line mass, the entire filament collapses towards the axis without fragmentation. But a filamentary cloud which is in equilibrium is unstable along its axis and it will fragment. In this paper we suggested another possibility to this view point. A filamentary cloud which is in equilibrium may evolve over a longer time-scale, i.e., due to the cooling of the cloud, quasi-hydrostatic flows can be formed. Considering a simple power-law cooling function, we showed that the filament experiences radiative condensation. These cooling flows can be parameterized by the line mass of the filament.

It is remarkable that the decrement of the radius and the growth of density at the center of the cloud are independent of $`\nu `$; i.e., we have $`r_c(t_0t)^{\frac{1}{2}}`$ and $`\rho _c(t_0t)^1`$. We must note that these results strongly depend on the form of the cooling function. But it seems that we can use piece-wise solutions. That is, consider that for some part of the contraction, $`A_\nu `$ and $`\nu `$ have one set of values, and then join this on to another phase of contraction, when $`A_\nu `$ and $`\nu `$ have another set of values. What will change is $`t_0`$, but the equations should join with initial and boundary conditions in this way, it seems. If this is true, then we can, in principle, consider a much wider range of cooling functions with the same analytical-type solution. By finding suitable values of $`A_\nu `$ and $`\nu `$ for the range of densities and temperatures where there is a good approximation, we can find the analytical solution advancing forward from the final state of the previous partial solution. Although we actually do not do this in this paper, using this method we can broaden the applicability of our analysis. Our results would also apply to a turbulent filament, for some range of parameters. In fact, our cooling function in equation (6) is a general function and it might include, in the same qualitative sense, turbulent energy dissipation as well. In other words, one could represent the dissipation rate of turbulent energy as a power law dependent on density and velocity dispersion, and identify the velocity dispersion with the temperature in our equations. There are some nice studies of turbulent dissipation (see, e.g., Mac Low 1999). We suggest that, at least, for some range of parameters, our cooling expression might be used as an approximation to the turbulent cooling rate. Then our results would also apply to a turbulent filament for that parameter range.

Since the behaviours of $`r_c`$ and $`\rho _c`$ obtained based on the similarity solutions, it must be confirmed by a numerical calculation of solutions. We can see that for other forms of cooling function, finding self-similar solution is much more difficult. Thus, numerical simulations will reveal the behaviour of cooling flows in filaments. Accordingly, initial conditions which will lead to the formation of such flows can be determined. We expect that the similarity solutions for describing quasi-hydrostatic cooling flows in filamentary clouds will serve as guidelines for understanding filaments and doing numerical simulations. We must note that our solutions apply only to the early stages of filament contraction, and after the density in the center becomes high enough, perhaps the Jeans-collapse solutions would take over. Even if the Jeans-collapse is eventually important, we have still gained valuable insight into the early stages of filament formation. Since cosmological filaments, diffuse HI filaments, and molecular filaments, all of which show some cooling properties, our solutions might have applications to the formation of these structures.

Each molecular filament typically may contain several distinct clumps which are spaced along that filament. We can consider the filament and the embedded clumps as a self-gravitating system which is in equilibrium (Curry 2000). Theoretical arguments suggest that the mass of each clump is much larger than a typical stellar mass (see, e.g., Fiege & Pudritz 2000). In our scenario, on a longer time-scale the mass and the shape of these clumps have been affected by quasi-hydrostatic cooling flows. It will be interesting to investigate the effects of cooling flows on the clumps.
Acknowledgments
We are grateful to Professor Bruce Elmegreen for his many helpful discussions. MS acknowledges the financial support of Ferdowsi University. This work has made use of NASA’s Astrophysical Data System Abstract Service.

REFERENCES
Alves, J., Lada, C. J., Lada, E. A., Kenyon, S. J., & Phelps, R. 1998, ApJ, 506, 292
Bonnell, I., & Bastien, P. 1991, ApJ, 374, 610
Bouquet, S., Feix, M. R., Fijalkow, E., Munier, A. 1985, ApJ, 293, 494
Curry, C. L. 2000, ApJ, 541, 831
Fiege, J. D., & Pudritz, R. E. 2000, MNRAS, 311, 105
Foster, P. N., & Chevalier, R. A. 1993, ApJ, 416, 303
Gehman, C. S., Adams, F. C., & Watkins, R. 1996, 472, 673
Harjunpaa, P., Kaas, A. A., Carlqvist, P., & Gahm, G. F. 1999, A&A, 349, 912
Houlahan, P., & Scalo, J. M. 1992, ApJ, 393, 172
Inutsuka, S., & Miyama, S. M. 1992, ApJ, 388, 392
Kawachi, T., & Hanawa, T. 1998, PASJ, 50, 577
Larson, R. B. 1969, MNRAS, 145, 271
Larson, R. B. 1972, MNRAS, 157, 121
Mac Low, M. M. 1999, ApJ, 524, 169
Meerson, B., Megged, E., & Tajima, T. 1996, ApJ, 457, 321
Myers, P. C. 1991, in IAU Symp. 147, Fragmentation of Molecular Clouds and Star Formation, ed. E. Falgarone & G. Duvert (Dordrecht: Kluwer), 221
Nagasawa, M. 1987, Prog. Theor. Phys., 77, 635
Nagai, T., Inutsuka, S. I., & Miyama, S. M. 1998, 506, 306
Nakamura, F., Hanawa, T., & Nakano, T. 1993, PASJ, 45, 551
Nakamura, F., Hanawa, T., & Nakano, T. 1995, ApJ, 444, 770
Nakamura, F., & Hanawa, T. 1997, ApJ, 480, 701
Nakamura, F., Matsumoto, T., Hanawa, T., & Tomisaka, K. 1999, ApJ, 510, 274
Ostriker, J. 1964, ApJ, 140, 1056
Penston, M. V. 1969, MNRAS, 144, 425
Saigo, K., & Hanawa, T. 1998, ApJ, 493, 342
Schneider, S., & Elmegreen, B. 1979, ApJS, 41, 87
Semelin, B., Sanchez, N., & de Vega, H. J. 1999, astro-ph/9908073
Shu, F. H. 1977, ApJ, 214, 488
Spitzer, L., Jr. 1978, Physical Processes in the Interstellar Medium (New York: Wiley)
Terebey, S., Shu, F. H., & Cassen, P. 1984, ApJ, 286, 529
Wiseman, J. J., & Adams, F. C. 1994, ApJ, 435, 708


text:
# New Clock Comparison Searches for Lorentz and CPT Violation

## Introduction

Lorentz symmetry is a fundamental feature of modern descriptions of nature. Lorentz transformations include both spatial rotations and boosts. Therefore, experimental investigations of rotation symmetry provide important tests of the framework of the standard model of particle physics and single-metric theories of gravity will .

In particular, the minimal SU(3)$`\times `$SU(2)$`\times `$U(1) standard model successfully describes particle phenomenology, but is believed to be the low energy limit of a more fundamental theory that incorporates gravity. While the fundamental theory should remain invariant under Lorentz transformations, spontaneous symmetry-breaking could result at the level of the standard model in violations of local Lorentz invariance (LLI) and CPT (symmetry under simultaneous application of Charge conjugation, Parity inversion, and Time reversal) sachs .

Clock comparisons provide sensitive tests of rotation invariance and hence Lorentz symmetry by bounding the frequency variation of a given clock as its orientation changes, e.g., with respect to the fixed stars kl99a . In practice, the most precise limits are obtained by comparing the frequencies of two co-located clocks as they rotate with the Earth (see Fig. 1). Atomic clocks are typically used, involving the electromagnetic signals emitted or absorbed on hyperfine or Zeeman transitions.

We report results from two new atomic clock tests of LLI and CPT:

1. Using a two-species 129Xe/3He Zeeman maser chupp94 ; stoner96 ; bear98  we placed a limit on CPT and LLI violation of the neutron of nearly $`10^{31}`$ GeV, improving by more than a factor of six on the best previous measurement hl95 ; hl99 .
2. We employed atomic hydrogen masers to set an improved clean limit on LLI/CPT violation of the proton, at the level of nearly $`10^{27}`$ GeV.

## Motivation

Our atomic clock comparisons are motivated by a standard model extension developed by Kostelecký and others kl99a ; ckpv ; bkr9798 ; cfj ; ck97jk99 ; bckp ; bkr99 ; bkl00 ; bk00 ; cg . This theoretical framework accommodates possible spontaneous violation of local Lorentz invariance (LLI) and CPT symmetry, which may occur in a fundamental theory combining the standard model with gravity. For example, this might occur in string theory kskp . The standard model extension is quite general: it emerges as the low-energy limit of any underlying theory that generates the standard model and contains spontaneous Lorentz symmetry violation ks89 . The extension retains the usual gauge structure and power-counting renormalizability of the standard model. It also has many other desirable properties, including energy-momentum conservation, observer Lorentz covariance, conventional quantization, and hermiticity. Microcausality and energy positivity are expected.

This well-motivated theoretical framework suggests that small, low-energy signals of LLI and CPT violation may be detectable in high-precision experiments. The dimensionless suppression factor for such effects would likely be the ratio of the low-energy scale to the Planck scale, perhaps combined with dimensionless coupling constants kl99a ; ckpv ; bkr9798 ; cfj ; ck97jk99 ; bckp ; bkr99 ; bkl00 ; bk00 ; cg ; kskp ; ks89 . A key feature of the standard model extension of Kostelecký *et al.* is that it is at the level of the known elementary particles, and thus enables quantitative comparison of a wide array of tests of Lorentz symmetry. In recent work the standard model extension has been used to quantify bounds on LLI and CPT violation from measurements of neutral meson oscillations ckpv ; tests of QED in Penning traps bkr9798 ; photon birefringence in the vacuum cfj ; ck97jk99 ; baryogenesis bckp ; hydrogen and antihydrogen spectroscopy bkr99 ; experiments with muons bkl00 ; a spin-polarized torsion pendulum bk00 ; observations with cosmic rays cg ; and atomic clock comparisons kl99a . Recent experimental work motivated by this standard model extension includes Penning trap tests by Gabrielse *et al.* on the antiproton and H- gab99 , and by Dehmelt *et al.* on the electron and positron deh99a ; deh99b , which place improved limits on CPT and LLI violation in these systems. Also, a re-analysis by Adelberger, Gundlach, Heckel, and co-workers of existing data from the “Eöt-Wash II” spin-polarized torsion pendulum adel99 ; harris98  sets the most stringent bound to date on CPT and LLI violation of the electron: approximately $`10^{28}`$ GeV hec99 .

## 129Xe/3He maser test of CPT and Lorentz symmetry

The design and operation of the two-species 129Xe/3He maser has been discussed in recent publications chupp94 ; stoner96 ; bear98 . (See the schematic in Fig. 2.) Two dense, co-located ensembles of 3He and 129Xe atoms perform continuous and simultaneous maser oscillations on their respective nuclear spin 1/2 Zeeman transitions at approximately 4.9 kHz for 3He and 1.7 kHz for 129Xe in a static magnetic field of 1.5 gauss. This two-species maser operation can be maintained indefinitely. The population inversion for both maser ensembles is created by spin exchange collisions between the noble gas atoms and optically-pumped Rb vapor wh97 . The 129Xe/3He maser has two chambers, one acting as the spin exchange “pump bulb” and the other serving as the “maser bulb”. This two chamber configuration permits the combination of physical conditions necessary for a high flux of spin-polarized noble gas atoms into the maser bulb, while also maintaining 3He and 129Xe maser oscillations with good frequency stability: $`100`$ nHz stability is typical for measurement intervals of $`1`$ hour bear98 . (A single-bulb 129Xe/3He maser does not provide good frequency stability because of the large Fermi contact shift of the 129Xe Zeeman frequency caused by 129Xe-Rb collisions rc98 .) Either of the noble gas species can serve as a precision magnetometer to stabilize the system’s static magnetic field, while the other species is employed as a sensitive probe for LLI- and CPT-violating interactions or other subtle physical influences. (For example, we are also using the 129Xe/3He maser to search for a permanent electric dipole moment of 129Xe as a test of time reversal symmetry; hence the electric field plates in Fig. 2.)

We search for a signature of Lorentz violation by monitoring the relative phases and Zeeman frequencies of the co-located 3He and 129Xe masers as the laboratory reference frame rotates with respect to the fixed stars. We operate the system with the quantization axis directed east-west on the Earth, the 3He maser free-running, and the 129Xe maser phase-locked to a signal derived from a hydrogen maser in order to stabilize the magnetic field. To leading order, the standard model extension of Kostelecký *et al.* predicts that the Lorentz-violating frequency shifts for the 3He and 129Xe maser are the same size and sign kl99a . Hence the possible Lorentz-violating frequency shift in the free-running 3He maser ($`\delta \nu _{\mathrm{𝐻𝑒}}`$) is given by:

$$\delta \nu _{\mathrm{𝐻𝑒}}=\delta \nu _{\mathrm{𝐿𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑧}}\left[\gamma _{\mathrm{𝐻𝑒}}/\gamma _{\mathrm{𝑋𝑒}}1\right],$$
(1)
where $`\delta \nu _{\mathrm{𝐿𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑧}}`$ is the sidereal-day-period modulation induced in both noble gas Zeeman frequencies by the Lorentz-violating interaction, and $`\gamma _{\mathrm{𝐻𝑒}}/\gamma _{\mathrm{𝑋𝑒}}2.75`$ is the ratio of gyromagnetic ratios for 3He and 129Xe.

We acquired 90 days of data for this experiment over the period April, 1999 to April, 2000. We reversed the main magnetic field of the apparatus every $`4`$ days to help distinguish possible Lorentz-violating effects from diurnal systematic variations. In addition, we carefully assessed the effectiveness of the 129Xe co-magnetometer, and found that it provides excellent isolation from possible diurnally-varying ambient magnetic fields, which would not average away with field reversals. Furthermore, the relative phase between the solar and sidereal day evolved about $`2\pi `$ radians over the course of the experiment; hence diurnal systematic effects from any source would be reduced by averaging the results from the measurement sets.

We analyzed each day’s data and determined the amplitude and phase of a possible sidereal-day-period variation in the free-running 3He maser frequency. (See Fig. 3 for an example of one day’s data.) We employed a linear least squares method to fit the free-running maser phase vs. time using a minimal model including: a constant (phase offset); a linear term (Larmor precession); and cosine and sine terms with sidereal day period. For each day’s data, we included terms corresponding to quadratic and maser amplitude-induced phase drift if they significantly improved the reduced $`\chi ^2`$ bev . As a final check, we added a *faux* Lorentz-violating effect of known phase and amplitude to the raw data and performed the analysis as before. We considered our data reduction for a given sidereal day to be successful if the synthetic physics was recovered and there was no significant change in the covariance matrix generated by the fitting routine.

Using the 90 days of data, we found no statistically significant sidereal variation of the free-running 3He maser frequency at the level of 90 nHz (two-sigma confidence). Kostelecký and Lane report that the nuclear Zeeman transitions of 129Xe and 3He are primarily sensitive to Lorentz-violating couplings of the neutron, assuming the correctness of the Schmidt model of the nuclei kl99a . Thus our search for a sidereal-period frequency shift of the free-running 3He maser ($`\delta \nu _{\mathrm{𝐻𝑒}}`$) provides a bound to the following parameters characterizing the magnitude of LLI/CPT violations in the standard model extension:

$`\left|3.5\stackrel{~}{b}_J^n+0.012\stackrel{~}{d}_J^n+0.012\stackrel{~}{g}_{D,J}^n\right|2\pi \delta \nu _{\mathrm{𝐻𝑒},J}`$ $`({}_{}{}^{129}\mathrm{Xe}/{}_{}{}^{3}\text{He maser})`$ (2)
Here $`J=X,Y`$ denotes spatial indices in a non-rotating frame, with $`X`$ and $`Y`$ oriented in a plane perpendicular to the Earth’s rotation axis and we have taken $`\mathrm{}=c=1`$. The parameters $`\stackrel{~}{b}_J^n`$, $`\stackrel{~}{d}_J^n`$, and $`\stackrel{~}{g}_{D,J}^n`$ describe the strength of Lorentz-violating couplings of the neutron to possible background tensor fields. $`\stackrel{~}{b}_J^n`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{g}_{D,J}^n`$ correspond to couplings that violate both CPT and LLI, while $`\stackrel{~}{d}_J^n`$ corresponds to a coupling that violates LLI but not CPT. All three of these parameters are different linear combinations of fundamental parameters in the underlying relativistic Lagrangian of the standard model extension kl99a ; ckpv ; bkr9798 ; cfj ; ck97jk99 ; bckp ; bkr99 ; bkl00 ; bk00 .

It is clear from Eqn. (2) that the 129Xe/3He clock comparison is primarily sensitive to LLI/CPT violations associated with the neutron parameter $`\stackrel{~}{b}_J^n`$. Similarly, the most precise previous search for LLI/CPT violations of the neutron, the 199Hg/133Cs experiment of Lamoreaux, Hunter *et al.* hl95 ; hl99 , also had principal sensitivity to $`\stackrel{~}{b}_J^n`$ at the following level kl99a :

$`\left|{\displaystyle \frac{2}{3}}\stackrel{~}{b}_J^n+\left\{\text{small terms}\right\}\right|2\pi \delta \nu _{\mathrm{𝐻𝑔},J}`$ $`({}_{}{}^{199}\mathrm{Hg}/{}_{}{}^{133}\mathrm{Cs}).`$ (3)
In this case, the experimental limit, $`\delta \nu _{\mathrm{𝐻𝑔},J}`$, was a bound of 110 nHz (two-sigma confidence) on a sidereal-period variation of the 199Hg nuclear Zeeman frequency, with the 133Cs electronic Zeeman frequency serving as a co-magnetometer.

Therefore, in the context of the standard model extension of Kostelecký and co-workers kl99a , our 129Xe/3He maser measurement improves the constraint on $`\stackrel{~}{b}_J^n`$ to nearly $`10^{31}`$ GeV, or more than six times better than the 199Hg/133Cs clock comparison hl95 ; hl99 . Note that the ratio of this limit to the neutron mass ($`10^{31}\mathrm{GeV}/m_n10^{31}`$) compares favorably to the dimensionless suppression factor $`m_n/M_{\mathrm{𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑘}}10^{19}`$ that might be expected to govern spontaneous symmetry breaking of LLI and CPT originating at the Planck scale. We expect more than an order of magnitude improvement in sensitivity to LLI/CPT–violation of the neutron using a new device recently demonstrated in our laboratory: the 21Ne/3He Zeeman maser.

## Hydrogen maser test of CPT and Lorentz symmetry

The hydrogen maser is an established tool in precision tests of fundamental physics happs . Hydrogen masers operate on the $`\mathrm{\Delta }F=1`$, $`\mathrm{\Delta }m_F=0`$ hyperfine transition in the ground state of atomic hydrogen kgrvv . Hydrogen molecules are dissociated into atoms in an RF discharge, and the atoms are state selected via a hexapole magnet (Fig. 4). The high field seeking states, ($`F=1`$, $`m_F=+1,0`$) are focused into a Teflon coated cell which resides in a microwave cavity resonant with the $`\mathrm{\Delta }F=1`$ transition at 1420 MHz. The $`F=1`$, $`m_F=0`$ atoms are stimulated to make a transition to the $`F=0`$ state by the field of the cavity. A static magnetic field of $`1`$ milligauss is applied to maintain the quantization axis of the H atoms.

The hydrogen transitions most sensitive to potential CPT and LLI violations are the $`F=1`$, $`\mathrm{\Delta }m_F=\pm 1`$ Zeeman transitions. In the $`0.6`$ mG static field applied for these measurements, the Zeeman frequency is $`\nu _Z850`$ Hz. We utilize a double resonance technique to measure this frequency with a precision of $`1`$ mHz andresen . We apply a weak magnetic field perpendicular to the static field and oscillating at a frequency close to the Zeeman transition. This audio-frequency driving field couples the three sublevels of the $`F=1`$ manifold of the H atoms. Provided a population difference exists between the $`m_F=\pm 1`$ states, the energy of the $`m_F=0`$ state is altered by this coupling, thus shifting the measured maser frequency in a carefully analyzed manner andresen  described by a dispersive shape (Fig. 5(a)). Importantly, the maser frequency is unchanged when the driving field is exactly equal to the Zeeman frequency. Therefore, we determine the Zeeman frequency by measuring the driving field frequency at which the maser frequency in the presence of the driving field is equal to the unperturbed maser frequency.

The $`F=1`$, $`\mathrm{\Delta }m_F=\pm 1`$ Zeeman frequency is directly proportional to the static magnetic field, in the small-field limit. Four layers of high permeability ($`\mu `$-metal) magnetic shields surround the maser (Fig. 4), screening external field fluctuations by a factor of $`\mathrm{32\hspace{0.17em}000}`$. Nevertheless, external magnetic field fluctuations cause remnant variations in the observed Zeeman frequency. As low frequency magnetic noise in the neighborhood of this experiment is much larger during the day than late at night, the measured Zeeman frequency could be preferentially shifted by this noise (at levels up to $`0.5`$ Hz) with a 24 hour periodicity which is difficult to distinguish from a true sidereal signal in our relatively short data sample. Therefore, we employ an active stabilization system to cancel such magnetic field fluctuations (Fig. 4). A fluxgate magnetometer placed as close to the maser cavity as possible controls large (2.4 m dia.) Helmholtz coils surrounding the maser via a feedback loop to maintain a constant ambient field. This feedback loop reduces the fluctuations at the sidereal frequency to below the equivalent of 1 $`\mu `$Hz on the Zeeman frequency at the location of the magnetometer.

The Zeeman frequency of a hydrogen maser was measured for $`31`$ days over the period Nov., 1999 to March, 2000. During data taking, the maser remained in a closed, temperature controlled room to reduce potential systematics from thermal drifts which might be expected to have 24 hour periodicities. The feedback system also maintained a constant ambient magnetic field. Each Zeeman measurement took approximately 20 minutes to acquire and was subsequently fit to extract a Zeeman frequency (Fig. 5(a)). Also monitored were maser amplitude, residual magnetic field fluctuation, ambient temperature, and current through the solenoidal coil which determines the Zeeman frequency (Fig. 4).

The data were then fit to extract the sidereal-period sinusoidal variation of the Zeeman frequency. (See Fig. 5(b) for an example of 11 days of data.) In addition to the sinusoid, piecewise linear terms (whose slopes were allowed to vary independently for each day) were used to model the slow remnant drift of the Zeeman frequency. No significant sidereal-day-period variation of the hydrogen $`F=1`$, $`\mathrm{\Delta }m_F=\pm 1`$ Zeeman frequency was observed. Our measurements set a bound on the magnitude of such a variation of $`\delta \nu _Z^H0.3`$ mHz. Expressed in terms of energy, this is a shift in the Zeeman splitting of less than $`110^{27}`$ GeV.

The hydrogen atom is directly sensitive to LLI and CPT violations of the proton and the electron. Following the notation of reference bkr99 , one finds that a limit on a sidereal-day-period modulation of the Zeeman frequency ($`\delta \nu _Z^H`$) provides a bound to the following parameters characterizing the magnitude of LLI/CPT violations in the standard model extension of Kostelecký and co-workers:

$$\left|b_3^e+b_3^pd_{30}^em_ed_{30}^pm_pH_{12}^eH_{12}^p\right|2\pi \delta \nu _Z^H$$
(4)
for the low static magnetic fields at which we operate. (Again, we have taken $`\mathrm{}=c=1`$.) The terms $`b^e`$ and $`b^p`$ describe the strength of background tensor field couplings that violate CPT and LLI while the $`H`$ and $`d`$ terms describe couplings that violate LLI but not CPT bkr99 . The subscript 3 in Eqn. (4) indicates the direction along the quantization axis of the apparatus, which is vertical in the lab frame but rotates with respect to the fixed stars with the period of the sidereal day.

As in refs. kl99a ; deh99a , we can re-express the time varying change in the hydrogen Zeeman frequency in terms of parameters expressed in a non-rotating frame as

$$2\pi \delta \nu _{Z,J}^H=\left(\stackrel{~}{b}_J^p+\stackrel{~}{b}_J^e\right)\mathrm{sin}\chi .$$
(5)
where $`\stackrel{~}{b}_J^w=b_j^wd_{j0}^wm_w\frac{1}{2}ϵ_{JKL}H_{KL}^w`$, $`J=X,Y`$ refers to non-rotating spatial indices in the plane perpendicular to the rotation vector of the earth, $`w`$ refers to either the proton or electron parameters, and $`\chi =42^{}`$ is the latitude of the experiment.

As noted above, a re-analysis by Adelberger, Gundlach, Heckel, and co-workers of existing data from the “Eöt-Wash II” spin-polarized torsion pendulum adel99 ; harris98  sets the most stringent bound to date on CPT and LLI violation of the electron: $`\stackrel{~}{b}_J^e10^{28}`$ GeV hec99 . Therefore, in the context of the standard model extension of Kostelecký and co-workers bkr99 ; kl99a  the H maser measurement to date constrains LLI and CPT violations of the proton parameter $`\stackrel{~}{b}_J^p210^{27}`$ GeV at the one sigma level. This limit is comparable to that derived from the 199Hg/133Cs experiment of Lamoreaux, Hunter *et al.* hl95 ; hl99  but in a much cleaner system (the hydrogen atom nucleus is a proton, compared to the complicated nuclei of 199Hg and 133Cs).

## Conclusions

Precision comparisons of atomic clocks provide sensitive tests of Lorentz and CPT symmetries, thereby probing extensions to the standard model kl99a ; ckpv ; bkr9798 ; cfj ; ck97jk99 ; bckp ; bkr99 ; bkl00 ; bk00 ; cg  in which these symmetries can be spontaneously broken. Measurements using the two-species 129Xe/3He Zeeman maser constrain violations of CPT and Lorentz symmetry of the neutron at the $`10^{31}`$ GeV level. Measurements with atomic hydrogen masers provide clean tests of CPT and Lorentz symmetry violation of the proton at the $`10^{27}`$ GeV level. Improvements in both experiments are being pursued.

## Acknowledgments

We gratefully acknowledge the encouragement and active support of these projects by Alan Kostelecký, and technical assistance by Marc Rosenberry and Timothy Chupp. Development of the 129Xe/3He Zeeman maser was supported by a NIST Precision Measurement Grant. Support for the Lorentz violation tests was provided by NASA grant NAG8-1434, ONR grant N00014-99-1-0501, and the Smithsonian Institution Scholarly Studies Program.


text:
# Disk Galaxies as Cosmological Benchmarks: Cold Dark Matter versus Modified Newtonian Dynamics

## 1. Introduction

Because of their fairly simple geometrical and dynamical structure disk galaxies are the ideal benchmarks to test our theories of galaxy formation, gravity, and cosmology. One notable characteristic of disk galaxies is the flatness of their rotation curves, which implies either that (i) disks are embedded in a massive dark matter halo, or (ii) our theory of gravity is incorrect. One theory build around the latter option is Modified Newtonian Dynamics (MOND), originally proposed by Milgrom (1983a). In MOND a characteristic acceleration $`a_0`$ is assumed, such that for accelerations $`aa_0`$ the true acceleration $`a=\sqrt{a_0a_N}`$, with $`a_N`$ the standard Newtonian acceleration. This implies flat rotation curves, with an asymptotic value $`V_{\mathrm{}}=(GMa_0)^{1/4}`$, without the need for dark matter.

Here we examine how MOND fairs in comparison to CDM when it comes to explaining global properties of disk galaxies in the context of a model for disk galaxy formation. A more detailed treatment of the models and results presented here can be found in van den Bosch (1998; 2000) and van den Bosch & Dalcanton (2000). Here we merely summarize some of our results.

## 2. The Tully-Fisher relation

The zero-point, scatter, and slope of the TFR of disk galaxies ($`LV_{\mathrm{rot}}^\alpha `$) all strongly depend on the photometric band in which the TFR is defined. In the near-infrared, where one is least sensitive to dust-extinction and to uncertainties regarding the ages and metallicities of stellar populations, one finds $`\alpha 4`$ (i.e., Verheijen 1997).

In the CDM scenario, one predicts a TFR of the form:

$$L\frac{ϵ_{\mathrm{gf}}}{\mathrm{{\rm Y}}_d}V_{\mathrm{vir}}^3$$
(1)
(see van den Bosch 2000 and references therein) with $`V_{\mathrm{vir}}`$ the circular velocity at the virial radius, $`\mathrm{{\rm Y}}_d`$ the mass-to-light ratio of the disk, and $`ϵ_{\mathrm{gf}}`$ a parameter that describes what fraction of the baryons inside the virial radius resides in the disk (as either stars or cold gas). Thus, $`ϵ_{\mathrm{gf}}`$ is related to the efficiencies of feedback and cooling.

In the case of MOND, direct application of the modified acceleration results in a TFR of the form

$$L\frac{1}{\mathrm{{\rm Y}}_d}V_{\mathrm{}}^4,$$
(2)
(see Milgrom 1983b). Thus, CDM and MOND make distinct predictions regarding the slope $`\alpha `$ of the TFR. Furthermore, the prediction for MOND is in better agreement with the near-infrared TFR. For CDM to yield a TFR as steep as observed the process of galaxy formation has to be such that $`ϵ_{\mathrm{gf}}/\mathrm{{\rm Y}}_dV_{\mathrm{vir}}`$. Advocates of MOND have used this to argue against CDM, as they have claimed that this requires extremely difficult fine-tuning (i.e,, McGaugh & de Blok 1998a,b).

In the upper panels of Figure 1 we plot the $`K`$-band TFR for the data as well as for three of our models: the $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$CDM model, and two MOND models ($`a`$ and $`b`$). As can be seen, the $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$CDM TFR is as steep as the data ($`\alpha =4.2`$), which we accomplished by adjusting the feedback efficiency. Thus, indeed some amount of tuning is required in a CDM Universe. The MOND $`a`$ model, which has zero feedback, also reveals a TFR in excellent agreement with the data. The MOND $`b`$ model, however, in which feedback is included, yields a TFR that is too steep and with too much scatter at the low-mass end. The reason for the inclusion of the feedback in this latter model becomes apparent below.

## 3. Other observational constraints

The panels in the second row of Figure 1 plot the gas mass fractions ($`M_{\mathrm{HI}}/L_B`$) as function of the absolute magnitude. The data reveals a systematic decrease of $`M_{\mathrm{HI}}/L_B`$ with increasing magnitude, which is remarkably well reproduced by the models and owes in large part to the stability related threshold densities for star formation used in our models.

Panels in the third row plot the central surface brightness of the disk as function of $`V_{\mathrm{flat}}`$ (the amplitude of the flat part of the rotation curve). The data indicates an absence of high surface brightness (HSB) galaxies at the low mass end (indicated by the thin solid line). This is nicely reproduced by the $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$CDM model, and owes to the particular feedback model used. In the MOND $`a`$ model, however, no such deficit of low-mass HSB disks is present, in clear contradiction with the data. In model $`b`$ we included feedback, for which we tuned the parameters to reproduce the data. Note, however, that this model yields a TFR that is too steep.

Finally, in the lower panels of Figure 1 we plot the enclosed mass-to-light ratio

$$\mathrm{{\rm Y}}(R)=\frac{RV_{\mathrm{rot}}^2(R)}{GM_{\mathrm{disk}}(R)},$$
(3)
as function of the local acceleration $`V_{\mathrm{rot}}^2(R)/R`$. Here $`M_{\mathrm{disk}}`$ is the ‘visible’ mass of the disk (stars and cold gas), and $`R`$ is the galactocentric radius. Each data point represents one resolved measurement in the rotation curve (RC) of a disk galaxy. As first pointed out by McGaugh (1998), the observed RCs of galaxies reveal a characteristic acceleration. This is evident from the fact that the data in the lower-left panel reveals very little scatter. The presence of such a characteristic acceleration is exactly the ‘ansatz’ of MOND, and, not surprisingly, the MOND models $`a`$ and $`b`$ nicely reproduce the data. However, the $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$CDM model is also in good agreement with the data. Therefore, the appearance of a characteristic acceleration is not a unique prediction of MOND.

## 4. Conclusions

The $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$CDM model requires tuning of the feedback parameters to yield a TFR as steep as observed. However, once this is achieved the model reproduces the gas mass fractions, the absence of low mass HSB galaxies, and reveals a characteristic acceleration as observed. All the particular problems for CDM pointed out by McGaugh & de Blok (1998a) are in fact solved by this one simple tuning. The MOND models, however, are unable to simultaneously reproduce the TFR and the absence of low-mass HSB disks. Although we do not consider this a strong proof against MOND (as our particular assumptions underlying the model for galaxy formation might not be valid under MOND), we do want to emphasize that our results largely remove the claimed advantages of MOND over CDM.

## References

McGaugh, S. S. 1998, preprint (astro-ph/9812327)

McGaugh, S. S., & de Blok, W. J. G. 1998a, ApJ, 499, 41

McGaugh, S. S., & de Blok, W. J. G. 1998b, ApJ, 499, 66

Milgrom, M. 1983a, ApJ, 270, 365

Milgrom, M. 1983b, ApJ, 270, 371

van den Bosch, F. C. 1998, ApJ, 507, 601

van den Bosch, F. C. 2000, ApJ, 530, 177

van den Bosch, F. C., & Dalcanton, J. J. 2000, ApJ, 534, 146

Verheijen, M. A. W. 1997, PhD Thesis, University of Groningen


text:
# REACH OF THE CERN LHC FOR THE MINIMAL ANOMALY-MEDIATED SUSY BREAKING MODEL

## Abstract

We examine the reach of the CERN LHC $`pp`$ collider for supersymmetric models where the dominant contribution to soft SUSY breaking parameters arises from the superconformal anomaly. In the simplest viable anomaly mediated SUSY breaking (AMSB) model, tachyonic slepton squared masses are made positive by adding a universal contribution $`m_0^2`$ to all scalars. We use the event generator ISAJET to generate AMSB signal events as a function of model parameter space. Assuming an integrated luminosity of 10 fb-1, the LHC can reach to values of $`m_{\stackrel{~}{g}}2.3`$ TeV for low values of $`m_0`$, where the dilepton plus jets plus $`\overline{)}E_T`$ channel offers the best reach. For large $`m_0`$, the best signature is typically 0 or 1 isolated lepton plus jets plus $`\overline{)}E_T`$; in this case the reach is typically diminished to values of $`m_{\stackrel{~}{g}}1.3`$ TeV. The presence of terminating tracks in a subset of signal events could serve to verify the presence of a long lived lightest chargino which is generic in the minimal AMSB model.

preprint:   FSU-HEP-000708 UH-511-965-00

The hypothesis of weak scale supersymmetry (SUSY) resolves several problems in particle physics, most notable of which is the gauge hierarchy problem. A consequence of the hypothesis is that supersymmetric matter should exist with masses typically less than $`1`$ TeV. These SUSY particles are expected to be produced with large cross sections at the CERN Large Hadron Collider (LHC). Specific SUSY particle signatures, however, depend on assumptions underlying the mechanism of SUSY breaking and its mediation to the superpartners of ordinary particles.

Since dynamical SUSY breaking at the TeV scale does not appear to be possible within the framework of the Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model (MSSM), a “hidden sector” where SUSY breaking occurs is generally assumed. SUSY breaking is then communicated to the visible sector via messenger interactions. In supergravity models, gravity acts as the messenger, and TeV level sparticle masses can arise if hidden sector SUSY breaking vevs of order $`M10^{11}`$ GeV can be arranged. Generically in these models, the induced soft SUSY breaking (SSB) parameters lead to problems with FCNCs and CP violating processes.

Recently, it has been noted that in supergravity models, there exist loop-suppressed contributions to soft SUSY breaking masses arising from the superconformal anomaly. Usually, these contributions are sub-dominant compared to tree level supergravity induced mass terms. However, in the higher dimensional universe scenario of Randall and Sundrum , SUSY breaking can take place in a brane separated from the visible sector brane by a large distance (the sequestered sector model). In this case, tree level supergravity masses do not occur, and the anomaly mediated SUSY breaking (AMSB) mass contributions dominate.

The AMSB soft SUSY breaking gaugino masses have the special property that they are proportional to the beta functions of their corresponding gauge group:

$$M_i=\frac{\beta _i}{g_i}m_{3/2},$$
(1)
where $`i=3,2,1`$ for gauge group $`SU(3)`$, $`SU(2)`$ and $`U(1)`$, $`g_i`$ is the corresponding gauge coupling, and $`m_{3/2}`$ is the gravitino mass. Similar formulae for SSB scalar squared masses and/or $`A`$ parameters were worked out in ; the formulae we use are presented in  in the notation of the event generator program ISAJET  that we use for our simulation, and will not be repeated here. The characteristic features of the SSB mass terms are the following.

* Since scalar masses are proportional to their beta functions, they only depend on their respective gauge and Yukawa couplings. This guarantees universality between first and second generation scalar flavors, thus providing a solution to the SUSY flavor problem. It has been argued  that these models also have the potential for resolving the SUSY $`CP`$ problem.
* The gaugino masses occur in the approximate ratio $`M_1:M_2:M_3=2.8:1:7.1`$, so that the $`SU(2)`$ gaugino is the lightest. This fact has profound consequences for phenomenology. The lightest neutralino $`\stackrel{~}{Z}_1`$ is dominantly a wino, and there is only a tiny mass gap between $`m_{\stackrel{~}{W}_1}`$ and $`m_{\stackrel{~}{Z}_1}`$. Including loop corrections, $`m_{\stackrel{~}{W}_1}m_{\stackrel{~}{Z}_1}160`$ MeV, and the decay $`\stackrel{~}{W}_1^\pm \pi ^\pm \stackrel{~}{Z}_1`$ dominates, although the pion energy will be very soft. This implies that the $`\stackrel{~}{W}_1`$ will give rise to nearly invisible decay products. The lightest chargino $`\stackrel{~}{W}_1`$ is long lived, with values of $`c\tau `$ typically a few $`cm`$. It is thus possible that the $`\stackrel{~}{W}_1`$ leaves an observable but terminating track, but whether or not this is detectable depends crucially on the detector apparatus.
* Since the Standard Model (SM) $`U(1)_Y`$ and $`SU(2)_L`$ gauge groups are not asymptotically free, negative squared masses for sleptons are predicted, leading to tachyonic states. This is viewed as the most severe shortcoming of the AMSB model, and numerous proposals have been put forth to ameliorate the situation. Usually, these involve introducing new fields at intermediate scales. A simple proposal, dubbed the minimal AMSB (mAMSB) model, which is phenomenologically acceptable, is that all scalars receive an additional universal contribution $`m_0^2`$, which of course, preserves the equality of masses for scalars with the same gauge quantum numbers.

Previous studies have addressed discovery of AMSB at collider experiments. In , several new triggers for the Fermilab Tevatron $`p\overline{p}`$ collider experiments were suggested that exploit the highly ionizing track expected from the chargino. In , it is suggested that Tevatron experiments look for isolated dilepton plus missing energy events which contain in addition displaced vertices from chargino decays. In , it is emphasized that naturalness constraints imply light chargino masses which should generally be accessible to Tevatron searches. In Ref. , the AMSB scenario was examined with regard to LHC searches. Here, a detailed analysis of one case study was performed, and it was shown that many of the techniques of reconstructing sparticle masses for mSUGRA models could be applied to the AMSB case. Finally, Ref.  discusses slepton signals at a high energy $`e^+e^{}`$ colliders within this framework.

An important issue in SUSY collider phenomenology is whether SUSY can be discovered or excluded over the entire range of reasonable model parameters. Although SUSY may be discovered at the Tevatron, for all distinct scenarios of SUSY breaking, there exist reasonable ranges of model parameter choices where no sparticles will be discovered. However, the CERN LHC collider is frequently regarded as the definitive machine where weak scale SUSY will either be discovered or essentially disproved. The reach of the CERN LHC has been examined for the mSUGRA model for both high and low values of $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$, and with and without $`R`$-parity violation. The LHC reach for models with gauge-mediated SUSY breaking (GMSB) has been explored for various model lines giving rise to distinct collider signatures, and again the reach has been found to be considerable. The unique sparticle mass spectrum and gaugino content of the LSP in AMSB models necessitates a distinct analysis for this class of models. In this paper, we present results showing the reach of the CERN LHC for the mAMSB model.

The mAMSB model has been presented in Ref. . Within this framework, all sparticle masses and couplings can be calculated in terms of the parameter set:

$$m_0,m_{3/2},\mathrm{tan}\beta \mathrm{and}sign(\mu ).$$
(2)
The mAMSB model has recently  been embedded in the event generator ISAJET. In ISAJET, the weak scale gauge and Yukawa couplings are used as inputs to determine the approximate GUT scale. At $`M_{GUT}`$, the mAMSB SSB masses are calculated, and used as boundary conditions to determine their weak scale counterparts. An iterative solution is employed in ISAJET 7.51, including 2-loop RGEs for couplings and SSB masses, and minimization of the renormalization group improved 1-loop effective potential at an optimized scale choice which effectively includes dominant 2-loop terms. Electroweak symmetry is broken radiatively (REWSB).

As far as LHC signatures go, the feature that most distinguishes the mAMSB from other frameworks (mSUGRA, GMSB) where the gaugino masses unify at $`M_{GUT}`$ is that the $`SU(2)`$ gaugino is much lighter than the bino. Since $`\mu `$ is typically large, the lighter chargino ($`\stackrel{~}{W}_1`$) and neutralino ($`\stackrel{~}{Z}_1`$) are essentially wino-like with $`m_{\stackrel{~}{Z}_1}`$ only slightly lighter than $`m_{\stackrel{~}{W}_1}`$, while the second lightest neutralino ($`\stackrel{~}{Z}_2`$) is essentially a bino. This has a large impact on the cascade decay patterns of gluinos and squarks. In particular, since gluinos and $`\stackrel{~}{q}_L`$ dominantly decay to $`SU(2)`$-like gauginos , within the mAMSB framework their cascade decays do not result in hard leptons. In contrast, $`\stackrel{~}{q}_R`$ now mainly decays to the hypercharge gaugino, i.e. via $`\stackrel{~}{q}_Rq\stackrel{~}{Z}_2`$, so that $`\stackrel{~}{q}_R`$ production is a potential origin of leptonic signals. This is in sharp contrast to the mSUGRA or GMSB frameworks, where these signals mainly come from $`\stackrel{~}{g}`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{q}_L`$ production. The jet-free trilepton signature from $`\stackrel{~}{W}_1\stackrel{~}{Z}_2`$ production is also expected to be small, partly because the $`\stackrel{~}{W}_1\stackrel{~}{Z}_2`$ cross section is small, but mainly because the $`\stackrel{~}{W}_1`$ does not decay leptonically. Thus if squarks are heavy, multilepton signals are expected to be relatively suppressed within the mAMSB framework.

We now turn to the reach of the LHC. We use the generic analysis detailed in our studies  of the reach within the mSUGRA framework to obtain the reach for the present case. For each point in a grid in the mAMSB parameter space, ISAJET calculates the relevant sparticle mass spectrum, and all sparticle and Higgs boson branching ratios. ISAJET then generates all SUSY $`22`$ production processes, followed by cascade decays, QCD radiation in the parton shower approximation, hadronization and beam remnant evolution. The final state particles are passes to a toy detector simulation represenative of LHC detectors. Calorimeter extent, cell size and energy smearing and jet finding algorithm are as given in Ref. , and will not be repeated here.

In each signal event, we require the presence of i) at least two jets, each with $`E_T(jet)>E_T^c`$, where $`E_T^c`$ is a floating cut value designed to give some optimization of cuts throughout parameter space. We use values of $`E_T^c=100500`$ GeV, in steps of 100 GeV. We further require ii) $`\overline{)}E_T>E_T^c`$ and iii) $`S_T>0.2`$, where $`S_T`$ is the transverse sphericity. For multilepton events, we require each lepton $`p_T(\mathrm{})>10`$ GeV, $`|\eta _{\mathrm{}}|<2.5`$ and visible activity in a cone of size $`\mathrm{\Delta }R=0.3`$ about the lepton direction to be less than $`E_T(cone)=5`$ GeV (isolation). In addition, for events with two or more isolated leptons, the two hardest leptons in $`p_T`$ should have $`p_T(\mathrm{})>20`$ GeV. In the special case of single isolated lepton events, we require $`p_T(\mathrm{})>20`$ GeV, and transverse mass $`m_T(\mathrm{},\overline{)}E_T)>100`$ GeV to suppress backgrounds from $`W`$ production. The signal events are then classified according to the number of isolated leptons: $`0\mathrm{}`$ for multijet plus missing energy events with no isolated leptons, $`1\mathrm{}`$ for single isolated lepton events, $`OS`$ for events containg two opposite sign isolated leptons, $`SS`$ for events with two same-sign isolated leptons and $`3\mathrm{}`$ for events containing three isolated leptons.

SM background rates arising from $`t\overline{t}`$ production, QCD multijet production, $`W`$ or $`Z`$ plus jets production and vector boson pair production have been calculated in Ref.  as a function of $`E_T^c`$ for each of the signal channels. We use the background from this paper ***We caution the reader that these were obtained using CTEQ2L structure functions while for the signal we are using CTEQ3L structure functions. further requiring that $`E_T^c400`$ GeV (300 GeV) for the OS and SS (3$`\mathrm{}`$) channels. A signal is regarded as visible in a particular channel if, for any value of $`E_T^c`$, (i) it is $`5\sigma `$ above the SM background for an integrated luminosity of 10 fb-1, (ii) the signal cross section is larger than 20% of the corresponding background cross section, and (iii) there should be at least 5 signal events for an integrated luminosity of 10 fb-1.

Our first results are shown in Fig. 1, where we show the $`m_0vs.m_{3/2}`$ parameter plane for $`\mathrm{tan}\beta =3`$ and $`\mu <0`$. The upper-left shaded region is excluded because the $`\stackrel{~}{\tau }_1`$ slepton becomes the LSP. The low $`m_{3/2}`$ shaded region is excluded by LEP2 searches for charginos in the mAMSB scenario: $`m_{\stackrel{~}{W}_1}>86`$ GeV assuming a heavy sneutrino mass If the sneutrino is light the negative interference caused by the $`t`$-channel sneutrino exchange amplitude diminishes the limit to 68 GeV. The region of parameters where this might be relevant is excluded by the $`h`$ mass limit.. Finally, in the vertically hatched region $`m_h<100`$ GeV which is excluded by LEP2 searches for Higgs bosons A preliminary combined limit of $`106`$ GeV (low $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$) and about 88 GeV (high $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$) was presented at SUSY2K  after our analysis was completed. This would enlarge the vertically shaded region, but not affect the main results of the paper which is the delineation of the region that may be explored at the LHC. We expect qualitatively similar results say for $`\mathrm{tan}\beta =5`$.. We also show contours of $`m_{\stackrel{~}{g}}=2`$ TeV and $`m_{\stackrel{~}{u}_R}=2`$ TeV, to orient the reader as to the parameter space. Finally, the region to the left of the dotted line is where two body decays of the neutralino $`\stackrel{~}{Z}_2`$ are allowed.

In Fig. 1, parameter space points where there is a detectable signal with 10 fb-1 of integrated luminosity at the LHC are denoted by triangles for the $`0\mathrm{}`$ channel, dots for the $`1\mathrm{}`$ channel, circles for the $`OS`$ channel, squares for the $`SS`$ channel, and finally, by stars for the $`3\mathrm{}`$ channel. Points that we explored, but found no detectable signal in any of these channels, are denoted by asterisks. In the lower left, where $`m_0<1000`$ GeV and $`m_{3/2}60`$ TeV, the SUSY signal is visible in all channels considered. In this region, SUSY particle production cross sections are high, and cascade decays lead to visible signals in all channels. In the large $`m_02000`$ GeV region (where squarks are heavy) signals are observable in just the $`0\mathrm{}`$ and $`1\mathrm{}`$ channels as anticipated above; the reach of the LHC with just 10 fb-1 extends to $`m_{3/2}60`$ TeV, corresponding to values of $`m_{\stackrel{~}{g}}1350`$ GeV. In the region of parameter space with small $`m_0`$ and large $`m_{3/2}`$, the reach of the LHC extends up to $`m_{3/2}110`$ TeV, corresponding to values of $`m_{\stackrel{~}{g}}2200`$ GeV. In this region, the maximum reach is obtained in the $`OS`$ dilepton channel. The isolated leptons arise from $`\stackrel{~}{g}`$ cascade decays to $`\stackrel{~}{t}_1t`$, and also from $`\stackrel{~}{q}_R`$ decays to $`\stackrel{~}{Z}_2`$ which have a branching fraction close to 100%. For parameters to the left of the dotted line, $`\stackrel{~}{Z}_2`$ always decays leptonically via $`\stackrel{~}{Z}_2\mathrm{}\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{}}_R`$ since sleptons are relatively light while squarks are heavy. (e.g. $`m_{\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{}}_R}300400`$ GeV, while $`m_{\stackrel{~}{q}_R}15002000`$ GeV). The $`\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{}}_R\mathrm{}\stackrel{~}{Z}_1`$, which gives rise to a hard isolated lepton. In this region, the $`\mathrm{}\overline{\mathrm{}}`$ mass edge should be easily distinguished from background, and can serve as the starting point for reconstructing sparticle masses in cascade decays.

In Fig. 2, we show the LHC reach again for $`\mathrm{tan}\beta =3`$, but for $`\mu >0`$. For this sign of $`\mu `$ $`m_h>100`$ GeV so there is no vertically hatched region. For small values of $`m_0300`$ GeV, where the sneutrino is light, it is thus possible that the slanted hatched region is slightly too big. The reach results for the LHC are qualitatively very similar to the $`\mu <0`$ case.

Finally, in Fig. 3, we show the same parameter space plane but for the large value of $`\mathrm{tan}\beta =35`$ and $`\mu >0`$. The results are expected to be independent of the sign of $`\mu `$ when $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$ is large. Again the slanted hatched region is what is excluded by the chargino bound from LEP (where the same caveat as in Fig. 2 applies). The LEP limit on the $`h`$ mass does not provide any further constraints. In the region of large $`m_0`$ and low $`m_{3/2}`$ REWSB is not obtained. We see that the reach in $`m_{3/2}`$ for large $`m_0`$ is similar to the low $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$ cases, since sleptons and squarks are all very heavy in this region. Multilepton signals are obtained for $`m_{3/2}=40`$ TeV and very large $`m_0`$ from cascade decays of gluinos to heavier charginos and neutralinos (which decay to real vector bosons) plus third generation quarks: for low $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$ these decays are kinematically suppressed. However, for low values of $`m_0`$, the reach in $`m_{3/2}`$ is considerably reduced compared to the low $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$ case. Here, values of $`m_{3/2}90`$ TeV are accessible with 10 fb-1 of data, corresponding to $`m_{\stackrel{~}{g}}m_{\stackrel{~}{q}}1850`$ GeV. The reduction is due mainly to the large $`\tau `$ Yukawa coupling, which reduces the tau slepton mass compared to first and second generation slepton masses. This enhances the decay of $`\stackrel{~}{Z}_2\stackrel{~}{\tau }_1\tau `$ at the expense of $`\stackrel{~}{Z}_2`$ decays to $`e`$s and $`\mu `$s. The $`\stackrel{~}{Z}_2`$ originates again mainly via cascade decay of $`\stackrel{~}{q}_R`$. The maximum reach for large $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$ and low $`m_0`$ is attained via $`1\mathrm{}`$, $`OS`$ and $`3\mathrm{}`$ channels. In this case, the $`3\mathrm{}`$ events can come, for instance, from $`\stackrel{~}{g}\stackrel{~}{g}`$ events where $`\stackrel{~}{g}\stackrel{~}{t}_1t`$, and where the $`\stackrel{~}{t}_1`$ has significant branching fractions into $`\stackrel{~}{Z}_2`$, and then into leptons.

The reach that we obtain (expressed in terms of the gluino and squark masses) is similar to that in the mSUGRA framework. This is not altogether surprising since the latter reach was mainly determined by the $`1\mathrm{}`$ channel: while our arguments suggested that the multilepton reach would be affected by the very different mass spectrum, there appeared to be no reason why the reach in the $`0\mathrm{}`$ and $`1\mathrm{}`$ channels should qualitatively differ. By the same token, we might expect that the overall reach would be relatively insensitive to variations of the AMSB framework. The mass difference $`m_{\stackrel{~}{W}_1}m_{\stackrel{~}{Z}_1}`$ is, however, very sensitive to our specific model assumptions: if it is larger  as, for instance, in the deflected AMSB framework, then charginos would decay promptly, and its decay products might be visible, making the signal more “mSUGRA-like”.

In conclusion, the CERN LHC $`pp`$ collider should be able to discover supersymmetry with just 10 fb-1 of integrated luminosity, over most of the mAMSB parameter space where $`m_{\stackrel{~}{q}}<2`$ TeV, or where $`m_{\stackrel{~}{g}}<1300`$ GeV regardless of $`m_{\stackrel{~}{q}}`$. Moreover, these signals should be observable via canonical strategies  advocated for SUSY searches in the mSUGRA framework. As in this case, over a large region of parameter space, there should be observable signals in several channels. Once a signal is found, then signal events may be scrutinized for evidence of tracks from long lived charginos, which occasionally penetrate into tracking chambers. These tracks should either terminate, or result in a kink from the slow pion daughter of the $`\stackrel{~}{W}_1`$. Observability, if at all possible, will require large event rates since $`c\tau `$ for the decaying chargino is less than 5 $`cm`$ and we would be relying on charginos that live for several lifetimes for this purpose: this feature cannot, therefore, be used to extend the reach. The rate will be sensitive to detector characteristics and any instrumental backgrounds. The terminating tracks could serve to distinguish the mAMSB model from other scenarios.

###### Acknowledgements.

This research was supported in part by the U. S. Department of Energy under contract number DE-FG02-97ER41022 and DE-FG-03-94ER40833.