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# 1 Introduction

## 1 Introduction

Super-dense hadronic and/or quark matter is considered to be relevant for understanding compact stars in the context of supernova explosions, hypernovae, merging of compact (neutron and black-hole) stars, gamma-ray bursts etc. See  for a recent review. It is not known at present precisely which densities are relevant to such systems but the region of the density involved is presumably somewhere in-between very low and very high density regimes, the two extreme regimes being in principle fairly well controlled. To study the physics of the density regime involved which cannot be systematically accessed as I will describe below, we have at our disposal basically two possible theoretical approaches: One, “bottom-up” one going up from very low density and the other, “top-down” going down from very high (asymptotic) density. The former relies on laboratory (experimental) data available at low density in nuclear and hadronic physics and the latter on the theoretical machinery available at super-high density at which QCD becomes weak-coupling. We would eventually like to bring the two approaches together and have them match. But both going up beyond nuclear matter density and going down from the asymptotic density to the relevant regime are difficult because of lack of reliable theoretical tools and of experimental data. In this talk I will discuss some aspects of both and indicate how the two “extremes” could be brought together at a density regime supposedly relevant to the astrophysical processes of interest. This talk will be qualitative, intended to give a personal overview of the present situation. Certain aspects of the topic somewhat lying outside of the main theme of this meeting are discussed in a separate note .

## 2 Phase Structure

In many of the current meetings in nuclear and hadronic physics, one is shown a canonical diagram depicting the phase structure of hadsronic matter in terms of temperature (T) vs. chemical potential $`\mu `$ or baryon number density $`\rho `$. In heavy-ion meetings, the principal focus is put on the phase structure at high temperature. There, the phase below $`T_c150`$ Mev is in hadronic state and the one above in quark-gluon plasma. There is strong evidence from lattice gauge calculations that the phase transition does indeed take place at a given $`T_c`$ although above the $`T_c`$, things are not as simple as the naive form of quark-gluon plasma that people have thought of before. In any event, it seems likely that one will be able to follow temperature properties of the systems with small non-zero density both theoretically and empirically, the former on lattice and the latter in the heavy-ion machines that are operating and/or are to come in the near future . The most recent phase diagram taken from Braun-Munzinger’s article  – which was also seen in Schukraft’s talk – is shown in Fig.1 . It gives a perspective in this matter. There are many laboratories involved in this endeavor, such as “early universe,” LHC, RHIC, …, SIS as indicated in the figure.

It is a different story with matter at high density. For technical reasons, it turns out to be extremely difficult to put dense matter on the lattice except for the academic case of $`N_c=2`$ systems, accounting for the paucity of theoretical guidance as to what happens to hadronic systems at non-zero density. The knowledge we have up to date is based on various models. Models indicate that as density increases toward the point at which QCD (chiral) phase transition is supposed to take place, there can be a multitude of phase transitions that may or may not be in concordance with chiral phase transition. As I shall discuss below, there are some experimental data around nuclear matter density but there are no terrestrial data much beyond. Thus there is need to resort to astrophysical observations. Neutron stars are the only laboratory available for this purpose as indicated in Fig.1. The aim of this note is to discuss how to proceed along the density axis of the figure.

## 3 Probing Dense Matter

Matter at high temperature which may be relevant for the early Universe can be – and is being – probed in heavy-ion collisions at relativistic energy. Furthermore QCD at high temperature can be simulated on lattice which will eventually give a solid theoretical information. Now what about probing matter at high density? Up to nuclear matter density, ample information is available from nuclear systems. Thus combined with reasonable models, one could attempt to go beyond nuclear matter by extrapolating what we learn at nuclear matter density. This constitutes the “bottom-up” approach. At low density, hadrons are the proper variables in QCD and the “bottom-up” approach consists of doing systematic calculations in the strong-coupling regime aided by experimental data. However one cannot push this strategy too far: this scheme must break down at some density.

At asymptotic density, the theory is in principle well-defined since QCD is weak-coupling there and perturbation theory is well-defined. One may therefore start with the weak-coupling QCD and adopt the “top-down” approach. As we go down in density, however, the coupling increases, so at some point the perturbative approach must also break down. The ultimate goal would then be to have the two approaches come together at some intermediate density. The difficulty is that the gap between the two break-down points is not narrow and it is in this gap that interesting astrophysical phenomena seem to take place. Furthermore, the region in question cannot be probed in terrestrial laboratory experiments. Thus no reliable predictions can be made. We believe that the compact stars such as neutron stars are the only systems from which we can gain empirical information for the regime concerned and since no lattice QCD is available at finite density at least in the near future, the compact stars seem to be the only direct sources for dense matter physics.

## 4 Bottom-Up Approach

### 4.1 Pions Do Not Condense

Beyond the normal matter density, the first phase change that is expected to occur is meson condensation. The lightest meson is the pion so one would think that pions would condense first . What happens can be understood in a simple and caricatured way as follows.

Pions may condense in S or P waves. The S-wave condensation can occur due to a change in the pion mass in medium. This is a simple reflection of the fact that the mass term in scalar field theory is a “relevant” term. Since the pion mass in nature is $`140`$ MeV which is small compared with the chiral symmetry scale, $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_\chi 1`$ GeV, a small attraction in the scalar direction could push the mass down to zero, so one would think that it would be easy to trigger the phase transition with the order parameter $`\pi ^a0`$. Baryon matter density $`\rho B^{}B`$ where $`B`$ is the baryon field could induce such a change which will be an S wave. In nature this phase transition does not seem to occur mainly because there is chiral symmetry protection. Although the pion is massive, its mass is small because chiral symmetry is broken explicitly by a small amount, i.e., the tiny quark mass which arises from the symmetry breaking at the electro-weak scale. Thus in some sense chiral symmetry is still operative and hence protects the pions from undergoing a phase change in the S-wave channel.

On the other hand, the P-wave condensation can occur due to the P-wave attraction that pions feel in the presence of nucleons. The interaction dictated by chiral symmetry is of the derivative type $`\frac{g_A}{f_\pi }\overline{N}^{}(x)\tau ^a𝝈N(x)\mathbf{}\pi ^a(x)`$ where $`g_A`$ is the axial coupling constant and $`f_\pi `$ is the pion decay constant, both of which are associated with the weak interaction. This P-wave interaction with the nucleon is strong as evidenced by the huge resonance $`\mathrm{\Delta }(1230)`$ associated with the strong $`\pi N`$ interaction. The attraction is greater the greater the coupling $`g_A`$. The P-wave attraction which increases with density in nuclear medium can generate instability against P-wave pion condensation signaled by a space-dependent order parameter $`\pi ^a(x)`$. What happens as density increases can be analyzed with a Lagrangian that preserves chiral symmetry structure of dense matter . The crucial element in this formulation of pion condensation is that the phase transition is extremely sensitive to how $`g_A`$ – which is associated with the space component of the axial current – behaves in nuclear medium. It turns out that the critical density goes like $`\rho _c^\pi (g_A^{}1)^1`$. One can therefore get a qualitative idea as to how the P-wave condensation occurs by looking at how the effective coupling $`g_A^{}`$ behaves in nuclear medium.

There has been much controversy on the effective $`g_A`$ in nuclei and nuclear matter and its relevance to chiral phase structure. Experiments in nuclei exciting giant Gamow-Teller resonances have been interpreted in terms of this effective Gamow-Teller coupling. Whatever may be the valid interpretation, the outcome is that the effective $`g_A`$ (that is, $`g_A^{}`$ which is density dependent)111There has been much debate as to whether the quenching of $`g_A`$ in nuclei and nuclear matter as evidenced in Gamow-Teller transitions is fundamental or some garden-variety nuclear phenomenon. I believe this is a non-issue. There is no question that taken as an effective parameter in a precisely defined sense, the $`g_A`$ is quenched in nuclei. Whether it can be described by many-body effects (e.g., “core polarizations” due to tensor forces) or $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$-hole effects or even partial chiral restoration is mostly semantic – they are of the same physics – and is not relevant for the issue. What is relevant is that the effective Gamow-Teller matrix element can be described in dense medium by a quenched $`g_A^{}`$ in the chiral Lagrangian and that it goes to the value of 1 as density increases. tends to the limit

$`g_A^{}1\mathrm{as}\rho \rho _0.`$ (1)
This argument does not pinpoint the critical density but one can say that $`\rho _c^\pi `$ is pushed beyond the regime where the theoretical framework makes sense.

### 4.2 Kaon Condensation

As we will hear in the next talk by Chang-Hwan Lee, kaon condensation can occur in, and make an important impact on, neutron-star formation. I will give a very simplified argument for how and why kaons will condense in dense neutron-star matter. More rigorous discussion is given by Chang-Hwan Lee in .

In a nut-shell, a kaon, particularly the negative charged $`K^{}`$ which contains an anti-strange quark $`\overline{s}`$, can condense in neutron-star matter precisely because the strange quark is massive at the scale of low-energy physics we are concerned with. Since the strange quark has a current mass of $`150`$ MeV 222The quark mass is not renormalization-group invariant and so has to be defined with a given scale. Even at a given scale, it is not well-determined. Various methods of analysis give the range $`100200`$ MeV for the strange current-quark mass. This uncertainty makes the estimate of the critical density somewhat uncertain., chiral symmetry is explicitly broken in the strange sector and the low-energy theorems associated with Goldstone bosons sometimes fail badly. What the matter density does is to “rotate” the explicitly broken symmetry in such as way that the kaon mass gets lighter to partially restore the explicitly broken symmetry. Suppose that all Goldstone boson masses were zero. Then the same chiral symmetry protection argument that applies to pions will apply to kaons as well so that baryon number density cannot do anything to the energy density of the system. If on the other hand all Godlstone bosons were massive and degenerate, the rotation around the chiral circle (see Fig.2) would not affect the energy density and so nothing would happen. Indeed, things happen precisely because the potential is tilted due to the symmetry breaking and the baryon density does just the un-tilting to restore the symmetry triggering kaon condensation . The transition is essentially triggered by the “relevant” mass term in the Lagrangian, so is S-wave. There is a beautiful support for this dropping-mass scenario from laboratory experiments .

In strong interactions, strangeness has to be conserved and if kaons were to condense, the pairs $`K^\pm `$ would have to do so. If it were to happen at a low enough density, say, $`\rho /\rho _03`$, then condensation could occur only if the repulsive term that counteracts the scalar attraction associated with the symmetry breaking term, namely, the so-called vector coupling, gets decoupled. In this case, both $`K^\pm `$ mesons become lighter and eventually may condense. But if this were to occur at much higher density than say $`3\rho _0`$, then kaons would be prevented from condensing in heavy-ion process for the reason to be mentioned below.

In the neutron-star matter, the kaon mass does not have to go all the way to zero. In fact when the electron chemical potential that increases with density – for non-relativistic nucleons – crosses the dropping kaon mass, the electron will be converted by weak interaction to the kaon

$`e^{}K^{}+\nu _e`$ (2)
and the condensing of kaons is favored for energetic reasons. Here $`K^+`$ will play no role. For $`K^{}`$ the vector interaction is attractive, so it speeds up the drop of the kaon mass.

The theoretical arguments that go into this treatment can be reliable only if the condensation occurs at low enough density. Were it to occur at much higher density, then there would be no reason to believe that the approximation makes any sense. Indeed the physics at higher density coming up in the bottom-up approach will be obstructed by the inability to handle the short-distance physics referred in nuclear physics to as short-range correlations. For instance a straightforward embedding of two-nucleon interactions at short distance into many-body systems would predict that the phase transition will take place at a much higher density than that relevant to neutron stars . However this consideration is based on the Hartree approximation in a potential model with a $`KN`$ potential that is not realistic at high density . Nonetheless the issue of short-range correlations is open.

### 4.3 BR Scaling

Once kaons condense at some density $`\rho _{Kc}`$, going up further in density up to (QCD) chiral restoration is like opening a Pandora’s box. As mentioned, we have no firm proof for any transition with density since lattice calculations are not feasible at present. There are a large number of different and conflicting ideas published in the literature. I neither have time nor wish to go into details here. It is fair to say that nothing additional that is illuminating or startling is expected to emerge in the physics of compact stars in this regime, once the kaon condensation and related processes have done what Chang-Hwan describes in his talk. In this murky circumstance, I will take an option that allows me to go ahead all the same. That is to heed what is said in Chinese fortune cookies in North America: “There are only two ways of doing things: One is the wrong way and the other is our way.” I shall therefore take “our way” which is to invoke “Brown-Rho (BR) scaling” .

Consider symmetric nuclear matter. (Asymmetric matter can be treated similarly.) At a density found in nuclear matter, one finds that a description in which all degrees of freedom are quasi-particles treated in the mean field works well provided that those quasi-particles have masses and coupling constants that respect chiral symmetry and run with density . In particular if one considers an effective field theory with chiral symmetry with the nucleons, pions, scalar meson and vector mesons as the appropriate degrees of freedom, then with density, the masses run with density as 333These are not pole masses. They can however be related to physical masses given the appropriate corrections.

$`\mathrm{\Phi }(\rho ){\displaystyle \frac{f_\pi ^{}(\rho )}{f_\pi }}{\displaystyle \frac{m_\sigma ^{}(\rho )}{m_\sigma }}{\displaystyle \frac{m_V^{}(\rho )}{m_V}}{\displaystyle \frac{M^{}(\rho )}{M}}.`$ (3)
Here $`M`$ is the nucleon mass, and the subscripts $`\sigma `$ and $`V`$ stand respectively for the scalar $`\sigma `$ and the vector mesons $`\rho ,\omega `$. Since the pion decay constant can be taken as an order parameter for chiral symmetry phases, the masses are all seen to follow the order parameter in density. Thus when $`f_\pi ^{}0`$ in the chiral limit as $`\rho \rho _\chi `$ (where $`\rho _\chi `$ is the as yet undetermined critical density for chiral restoration), the masses approach zero in the same way. In nature, the chiral limit is not reachable, so the masses will not strictly go to zero but they will drop smoothly (in the scenario of BR scaling) as density increases with interesting physical consequences.

Following this BR scaling behavior all the way to the chiral transition clearly sidesteps the Pandora’s box alluded above. What happens in this scenario is then that as one approaches the chiral phase transition density, the relevant degrees of freedom will be quasi-quarks (rather than quasi-nucleons), pions, scalar $`\sigma `$ (i.e., a chiral partner of the pion) etc. These will go smoothly over to the other side of the phase boundary. This smooth transition could also be witnessed when one comes down in the top-down way from asymptotic density as I will discuss below.

The BR scaling as postulated in  has support both from theory  and from experiments, e.g., in inelastic electron scattering from nuclei and in dilepton production in heavy-ion collisions . It seems to also account for the $`J/\psi `$ suppression observed at CERN that is heralded to be the signal for the formation of quark-gluon plasma . This may be one more evidence for “quark-hadron” continuity and/or “Cheshire Cat phenomenon” mentioned below.

## 5 Top-Down Approach

### 5.1 Color superconductivity

When the density is asymptotically high, QCD in weak coupling is applicable so one can compute things reliably. Because of asymptotic freedom, the gauge coupling becomes weak and the dynamics of the quarks is governed by one gluon exchange. In this situation, diquarks are mostly likely to condense in the scalar channel giving rise to color superconductivity. There have been many papers written recently on this subject . I would like to discuss a few aspects of the phenomenon that may be relevant to the physics of compact stars.

When the quark chemical potential is so high that one can ignore the u-, d- and s-quark masses, the situation becomes simple and elegant. But as one goes down to the regime where the chiral phase transition takes place, the situation gets very muddy and we have no idea what’s really happening. Even color superconductivity scenarios differ depending upon how many flavors come into play. At non-asymptotic chemical potential, other excitations than diquark, such as quark-hole modes (e.g., Overhauser modes), can be equally or even more important. I shall therefore focus on the ideal case of infinite chemical potential with three flavors of quarks and hope for the best as we go down to the density relevant to compact stars.

A left-handed quark is characterized by three colors (i.e., group $`SU(3)_c`$) and three flavors (i.e., group $`SU(3)_L`$), so can be denoted $`q_{L}^{\alpha }{}_{a}{}^{}`$ with $`\alpha `$ standing for color and $`a`$ for flavor and similarly for the right-handed quark. It turns out that it is most favorable to condense the diquark in the color-flavor-locked (CFL) state as

$`q_{L}^{}{}_{i\alpha }{}^{a}(\stackrel{}{p})q_{L}^{}{}_{j\beta }{}^{b}(\stackrel{}{p})=q_{R}^{}{}_{i\alpha }{}^{a}(\stackrel{}{p})q_{R}^{}{}_{j\beta }{}^{b}(\stackrel{}{p})=\kappa (p_F)ϵ_{\alpha \beta }ϵ^{abI}ϵ_{ijI}`$ (4)
where $`i,j`$ are the spin indices. This means that both color and chiral symmetries are spontaneously broken by the condensate as 444The $`U(1)_V`$ corresponding to the fermion number is also broken but the $`U(1)_A`$ symmetry is restored at high density. There is also a $`Z_3`$ invariance that remains but we need not be concerned with it here.

$`SU(3)_c\times SU(3)_L\times SU(3)_RSU(3)_{c+L+R}.`$ (5)
As a consequence, seventeen Goldstone bosons are excited, i.e., nine scalars and eight pseudoscalars. Eight scalars get eaten up by the gluons which become massive and the remaining scalar gets condensed to give rise to superfluidity. The eight pseudoscalars constitute the lowest modes remaining in the system that pick up a mass proportional to the current quark mass that goes to zero as $`\mu \mathrm{}`$.

The most remarkable conjecture made by Schäfer and Wilczek  posits that there is one-to-one correspondence between the spectrum of excitations in the zero-density regime and that of excitations in the CFL phase. Apart from the 8 Goldstone pseudoscalars that are present in both regimes, the eight massive gluons possess the same quantum numbers as the octet vector mesons in free space and the 8 color-flavor-locked quarks (which may be simply understood as quark solitons or qualitons ) can be mapped to the octet baryons of zero density. The conjecture is that the infinite-density spectrum is continuously connected to the zero-density spectrum, implying “quark-hadron continuity” or in the more pictorial term, “Cheshire Cat phenomenon” . This aspect shows that going toward high density beyond $`\rho _\chi `$ may reveal a richer and quite different variety than going to high temperature. There is however an obstacle to this intriguing possibility: there may be a series of phase changes as one goes down in density from infinite to the regime relevant to compact stars. First of all, even in color superconductivity (CSC), scenarios differ depending upon the scale of the strange quark mass relative to the chemical potential . Not less importantly, there can be other phases than color superconductivity such as Overhauser effect , ISB  and others  that may intervene before going into the Goldstone phase of lower density. Despite the plethora of other possibilities, it is remarkable – and perhaps meaningful – that both pion condensation  and kaon condensation  could occur in the high density regime. If confirmed, this could be another support for the notion of quark-hadron continuity.

### 5.2 Astrophysical implications

The mere existence of pions and kaons in the CFL phase is a highly intriguing possibility one would like to explore. Although quarks/baryons are gapped in the CFL phase with a gap $`\mathrm{\Delta }10100`$ MeV, there can still be light fermions in some situations. These degrees of freedom could play an important role in astrophysical compact objects. Since it does not look feasible to make firm predictions for both terrestrial and astrophysical observables, one would like to turn the process around and learn from astrophysical observations about the state of matter in which such exotic phenomena take place.

There have been a series of papers addressing the role of color superconductivity (CSC) in the cooling of neutron stars . The situation is quite complex and a complete analysis is probably not yet possible. The complexity comes from the fact that we do not really know what should be taken into account in the cooling since there are meson condensations and other processes that could intervene at the same time. Even within the framework of CSC, there can be several competing factors to consider. First there is the effect on the electro-weak interaction proper. A simple calculation shows that inelastic neutrino processes (i.e., neutrino production) can be enhanced in the CFL phase . Next, the produced neutrinos may have longer mean-free path in the CFL phase than in normal phase , thereby increasing the emissivity. On the other hand, the gap $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ can be large so that there will be a strong suppression from the Boltzmann factor $`exp(\mathrm{\Delta }/T)`$. All these competing factors would have to be carefully accounted for before one can come to any estimate of the cooling rate. A lot more work and help from observations will be needed for a clearer picture. We heard in this conference about a very interesting data coming from a point source in Cassiopeia A which could be a valuable clue to the issue .

Another interesting effect is on magnetic fields in compact stars . Since vector symmetry is spontaneously broken (actually in all scenarios of color superconductivity (CSC)), both color and ordinary electromagnetism are spontaneously broken. However although electrically charged diquarks condense as do electron pairs in ordinary superconductivity, they do not produce the familiar Meissner phenomenon of ordinary superconductivity. The reason is that there is an unbroken $`U(1)`$ symmetry with a massless gauge boson. What happens is that as long as the color gauge coupling $`g_c`$ is much bigger than the electromagnetic coupling $`e`$, magnetic fields can penetrate into the system largely un-expelled from the CSC phase. As a consequence, if rotating compact stars are in the CSC phase, the magnetic field will be stable against decay on time scales longer than, say, $`10^7`$ years set by observation . In , it is even suggested that if an isolated pulsar were observed to lose its magnetic field as it spins down, it would rule out the presence of the CSC (or even quark) phase in the pulsar. Although quite interesting, this negative evidence is not too exciting. It would be a lot more exciting if the CFL or other CSC phases were associated with a positive consequence. Again, given the various other possibilities in the density regime involved, the situation may be different from this simplified consideration. It remains an open issue.

## 6 Summary

The approach to the density regime relevant to compact stars is made in both ways: “bottom-up” and “top-down.” The two extremes, namely, bottom and top, are fairly well described, the former based on effective field theory of QCD combined with experimental data and the latter based on weak-coupling theory of QCD. The two approaches leave a rather wide gap in between where they have no overlap and it is in this range that interesting phenomena seem to take place in dense matter in compact stars. A bridge is suggested in terms of BR scaling coming from bottom-up. Combined with what we learn from the top-down approach and from astrophysical observations, it would be possible to establish the intriguing “quark-hadron continuity” alias “Cheshire Cat.” The main aim of this talk was to stress that the compact stars are the only source for physics at high density, the domain that cannot be accessed in terrestrial laboratories.

### Acknowledgments

It is a pleasure to acknowledge the generous help and hospitality of Korea Institute for Advanced Study for my participation in co-organizing, and for attending, this first KIAS workshop on astrophysics and astro-hadron physics. This paper was prepared while I was visiting Korea Institute for Advanced Study.


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# SPECTROSCOPIC FOLLOW UP OF ARCLETS IN AC114 WITH THE VLT

## 1  Introduction

To study distant galaxies properties, we can either observe blank fields or use clusters of galaxies as natural telescopes. Cluster lenses allow to study in greater details the same population seen in blank field surveys and to probe intrinsically fainter galaxies that can otherwise not be studied. Of particular interest is to define a new sample of high-z galaxies in the cluster cores where the amplification is the highest (typically 1 to 3 magnitudes). For these galaxies, the signal to noise ratio in the spectra and the detection fluxes are improved beyond the limits of conventional techniques.

Such lensing techniques have been succesfully applied in various wavebands from UV to Submm. To get rid of the cluster galaxies, the selection criteria of the distant galaxy candidates are based on a combination of photometric redshits and lensing inversion methods (Kneib et al. 1996; Ebbels et al. 1998, Pelló et al 1999a,b). In our study, photometric redshifts are computed from broad-band photometry on a large wavelength interval. This allows to reduce errors on the redshift determination, and reduces the biases towards or against a particular type of object or redshift domain. Furthermore, it helps to optimize the instrument choice for the spectroscopic follow-up (visible vs. near-IR). Photometric redshifts were computed through a standard minimization procedure, using the public code hyperz (Bolzonella et al. 2000). This procedure uses a template library of spectra derived from the new Bruzual & Charlot evolutionary code (GISSEL98, Bruzual & Charlot 1993).

We report here the results obtained using the VLT/FORS instrument in the cluster-lenses AC114 (z=0.312). More details will be given in a forthcoming paper (Campusano et al., 2000)

## 2  Observations and data reduction

The spectra were obtained with the multi-objet spectroscopy mode of FORS1 at the UT1 of VLT on 1999 October 5. The grism used was G300V, with a wavelength coverage between $``$4000Å and $``$8600Å, and a wavelength resolution of $`R=500`$ for the 1” slit width used. 3 masks were cut for AC114, with total exposure times of 2h15, 1h30 and 1h10 respectively. Spectra of the spectrophotometric standard star Feige 110 were obtained for spectrophotometric calibration. The data reduction was done with standard $`IRAF`$ packages. From the 3 masks, 61 spectra of objects were extracted and calibrated, some of them being on several masks. Among these 61 objects, 30 are cluster galaxies, 20 are background galaxies and 11 are foreground objects.

## 3 Redshifts of amplified sources

The photometric selection in the cluster core was done using the available data set, which includes deep F702W/WFPC2 HST image, J and K images obtained with SOFI at NTT and older U (ESO-NTT) and V (Danish 1.5m telescope at ESO). In the present case, the lack of deep B images prevents a selection in terms of pure photometric redshift criteria, in such a way that the weight of the lens inversion method has been used advantageously in the selection. The size of the CCD images being different from one to another, the photometric selection could only be done effectively on the central HST field of $``$ 80”$`\times `$80”. This field is also ideal for lens inversion thanks to the high resolution of HST images (Kneib et al. 1996). As a consequence, all the objects selected for spectroscopic follow up in the HST field, using both photometry and lens inversion, are high-z candidates, and they were found to have redshifts between $`1`$ and 3.5. Our selection method was therefore 100% efficient to identify high redshift galaxies in the cluster core. Figure 1 displays the HST image of the central region of AC114 in F702W, together with the identification of the background sources. Table 1 summarizes the information about the redshifts and photometry for these objects. Magnitudes are computed within arbitrary apertures, adapted to the shape of each object, and fixed for all the filters. The idea is to keep the same physical region in the different filters when computing colors. Even though photometric redshifts are highly uncertain in this case, because of the lack of deep B photometry, we give the values found for comparison, with the corresponding $`1\sigma `$ error bars. In all cases the photometric estimate is fully compatible with the spectroscopic redshift within the errors.

We have computed the absolute MB magnitudes for these amplified sources through a direct scaling of the observed SED, taking into account the spectroscopic z, and using the best-fit templates from the Bruzual & Charlot code (Bruzual & Charlot 1993) to derive the k-corrections. The values, corrected for amplification, given in Table 1, are computed using an estimated value of the amplification obtained through the Natarayan et al. (1998) model. These results, ranging from MB $`18`$ to $`20`$, show that these objects are substantially fainter than the corresponding ones in the present conventional studies.

### 3.1 The multiple image S at z=1.867

The previous determination of the redshift by Smail et al. (1995) is confirmed by the present results. Figure 3 displays the high S/N spectrum as well as the line identification. This line identification is not complete, more work has to be done.

### 3.2 The multiple image system E at z=3.347

The spectrum of this compact source shows a strong Lyα in emission, in good agreement with the photometric estimate. From the morphologic point of view, it is compact on the WFPC images with a faint extension towards the NW direction. Because of its location in the cluster core, it is found to be a multiple-image showing a clear 5 image lensing configuration. The other 4 images are also identified on Figure 1. Given its morphology and the width of the emission line, this galaxy might be a seyfert 2.

## References


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# On the Kinematic Dynamo Action by ABC Flows

## 1 Introduction

The class of steady velocity flows called ABC flows (after Arnold, Beltrami, and Childress) is an example of how complex flows may be able to amplify weak seed magnetic fields. ABC flows have been studied in e.g. the context of the cyclonic $`\alpha `$-effect by , but the main reason that this rather special type of flow is interesting to dynamo theory, is that it on the one hand constitutes a situation so simple that it is possible to understand the details of the amplification process, and that it one the other hand displays a behavior that in some respect resembles that of astrophysical dynamos such as the Sun: The amplification is related to the stretching, twisting and folding of magnetic field lines, and the rôle played by the finite diffusivity is as essential to the amplification process as it is believed to be for the Sun. The main purpose of this paper is to illustrate the principle of operation of a dynamo by means of visualizing the 3-D structure of magnetic field lines and their dynamics. Doing so we discover yet unknown properties of this type of dynamo.

## 2 ABC Flows

The ABC flow is a 3-D periodic, incompressible and steady flow given by the sum of three parameterized Beltrami waves :

$$𝐮=A(0,\mathrm{sin}kx,\mathrm{cos}kx)+B(\mathrm{cos}ky,0,\mathrm{sin}ky)+C(\mathrm{sin}kz,\mathrm{cos}kz,0).$$
(1)
Traditionally the approach is purely kinematic, so that the back-reaction in the equation of motion by the Lorentz force is ignored in the treatment (but see ). Thus the problem reduces to one of solving the induction equation,

$$\frac{𝐁}{t}=\times (𝐮\times 𝐁)+\eta ^2𝐁,$$
(2)
where $`𝐁`$ is the magnetic field, $`𝐮`$ is the velocity field (Eq. 1) and $`\eta `$ is the magnetic diffusivity.

### 2.1 Method

The induction equation is solved with a simplified version of the code by Galsgaard, Nordlund and others (e.g.  and ), using both uniform magnetic resistivity and the quenched diffusion that is normally used in the full version of this MHD code: In both cases the magnetic Reynold number $`\mathrm{Re}_\mathrm{m}`$ increases with the size of the grid as $`n^2`$ (where the number of grid points is $`n^3`$). In this paper only results from cases with constant and uniform diffusion are presented.

The induction equation is solved on a periodic finite difference staggered mesh with 6th order staggering operators, 5th order centering operators, and a 3rd order Hyman time stepping routine.

Even though the flow is steady, in certain regions of the flow trace particles follow chaotic paths so that any two trace particles separate exponentially with time — a property that has been shown to be essential for dynamo action (). By varying the basic parameters of the flow $`A`$, $`B`$, $`C`$, and the wavenumber $`k`$ it turns out that a lot of both quantitatively as well as qualitatively different topologies are possible: A special case with $`A=0`$ is the G. O. Roberts dynamo used in the context of the Earth’s dynamo (). While the normal ABC flow with $`A=B=C=1`$ (hence also called the “111” flow) has 8 stagnation points, a flow with $`A=5`$ and $`B=C=2`$ has no stagnation points. If all the parameters are non-zero the flow in general contains a mixture of chaotic and regular islands ().

The normal ABC flow has two regimes of dynamo action: One at comparatively low magnetic Reynolds numbers $`\mathrm{Re}_\mathrm{m}`$ = 8.5 – 17.5 () and one starting at $`\mathrm{Re}_\mathrm{m}`$ $``$ 27 ( and ).

To initialize the mode in the high $`\mathrm{Re}_\mathrm{m}`$ regime one may use a weak uniform magnetic seed field pointing in any direction. By flux conservation the uniform part remains constant, and thus rapidly becomes insignificant relative to the growing mode. To initialize the growing mode in the low $`\mathrm{Re}_\mathrm{m}`$ window, one may use the following periodic initial condition (see  and ),

$$𝐁=(\mathrm{sin}(kz)\mathrm{cos}(ky),\mathrm{sin}(kx)\mathrm{cos}(kz),\mathrm{sin}(ky)\mathrm{cos}(kx)),$$
(3)
which is an eigenmode of Eq. 2 in the case of zero diffusivity $`\eta =0`$ and is related to the rate of strain matrix $`u_i/x_j`$ of the ABC flow.

### 2.2 Topology

The normal “111” ABC flow has 8 stagnation points and 8 points where the velocity is maximum (see Figure 1). A stagnation point is a point where the fluid velocity vanishes, and since the vorticity is aligned with the velocity vectors for Beltrami waves (), the vorticity also vanishes at stagnation points. There are two different types of stagnation points for the normal ABC flow:

* $`\alpha `$ type stagnation points where stream lines are diverging along an axis through the stagnation point and converging in the plane perpendicular to the axis.
* $`\beta `$ type stagnation point where stream lines are converging along the axis and diverging in the plane.

The stream lines of the flow have a three-fold symmetry in the converging (diverging) planes through the $`\alpha `$ ($`\beta `$) type stagnation points (see Figure 1). The three-fold symmetric ‘leaves’ of the converging/diverging stream lines are separated by convergence/divergence connect to other stagnation points: While the separator lines and leaves of diverging stream lines of a $`\beta `$ point connect to three $`\alpha `$ type stagnation points the reverse is true for an $`\alpha `$ point.

In itself it is not so important that there happens to be 8 stagnation points in the normal ABC flow. After all, many interesting flows do not possess stagnation points (such e.g. the flow, see  and turbulent flows in general), and in any case a stagnation point may be removed by a simple translation of the coordinate system. Rather it is the stretching ability of the flow that is relevant for the dynamo action. For a divergence free flow $`𝐮=0`$ such as the ABC flow the induction equation may be written in the form

$$\frac{𝐁}{t}+𝐮𝐁=𝐁𝐮+\eta ^2𝐁$$
(4)
Apart from diffusive effects the stretching term $`𝐁𝐮`$ implies a linear growth of the logarithm of the magnetic field magnitude.

In the high degree of symmetry of the normal ABC flow the stagnation points coincide with local extrema of the stretching rate. Hence the two types of stagnation points may be seen as convenient markers of these regions.

## 3 Results

Below the results of experiments with normal ABC flows are divided into results concerning the growth of e.g. magnetic energy and exponential growth rates and results related to the formation and evolution of magnetic structures.

### 3.1 Magnetic energy

As shown in Figure 2, the initially weak seed field is indeed amplified in an exponential manner, and the growth increases with $`\mathrm{Re}_\mathrm{m}`$. For intermediate $`\mathrm{Re}_\mathrm{m}`$ (in the second window), an oscillating behavior is associated with the growth (as also seen by e.g. ,  and ), see Figure 2. The oscillation may be understood as a direct consequence of the spatial periodicity of the ABC flow (). The period of the oscillation increases with increasing $`\mathrm{Re}_\mathrm{m}`$ until a transition to a non-oscillating regime occurs at a $`\mathrm{Re}_\mathrm{m}`$ of about 200 (). Figure 2 shows examples from all three $`\mathrm{Re}_\mathrm{m}`$ regimes.

As mentioned by  and  it is possible to rig the initial condition of the seed magnetic field such that only one mode is present in the calculations; the special initial condition for which that is possible is given by Eq. 3.

In that case the magnetic field is not amplified in the second window as mentioned by .  used this initial condition together with the so called ‘flux conjecture’ to try to deduce the limiting growth rate of the ABC flow. They found exponential growth of the flux in a selected region. The growth rate derived does not, however, agree with the asymptotic growth rates found by  and . One should indeed not expect to be able to recover the growth rate of a completely different (exponential growing) mode by studying the stretching of field lines in a another (secularly decaying) mode.

Figure 3 shows that the mode in the case of the initial condition given by Eq. 3 is an exponentially decaying mode: The decay is associated with an oscillation with a period about 10 times smaller than that of the growing mode. Because of numerical round-off errors the amplitude of the growing mode is not identically equal to zero in the initial condition, and eventually its inevitable growth and the decay of the initialized mode results in a transition from decay to growth of the total magnetic energy (see Figure 3).  found no growing solution and they concluded that “something odd is going on”.

### 3.2 Flux cigars

When the induction equation is evolved from a weak, uniform seed field, flux “cigars” rapidly arise at four of the eight stagnation points — the $`\alpha `$-points (see Figure 4). These are the regions in the flow where the magnetic field is most rapidly advected by a converging flow in two of the three dimensions. The flux cigars are aligned along the axis of divergence through the $`\alpha `$ type stagnation points and point directly to the $`\beta `$ type stagnation points. The regions around the $`\beta `$ type stagnation points are not unstable to flux cigar generation since the flow there is diverging in two directions. However, the converging flow along the axis from the $`\alpha `$ points creates weaker, sheet like flux concentrations on both sides of the plane of divergence (see Figure 8).

The four flux cigars seen in Figure 4 correspond to the fastest growing eigenmode in the diffusion-less case $`\eta =0`$. Initially several modes may be present but eventually the one with the largest exponential growth rate will be the only one that remains in the solution.

In our experiments we do indeed find that a second set of flux cigars is formed next to the 4 primary cigars, but we conclude that rather than obscuring the physics, they are absolutely essential. These secondary cigars have the opposite polarity of the neighboring cigars, and they are connected by reconnecting field lines (see Figure 5).

The secondary flux cigars arise after the initial transient phase. These cigars begin to form at the $`\alpha `$ point at the separator line next to the primary cigar. As the secondary cigar forms the primary cigar moves slightly away from the center of the stagnation point. In the simulation within the oscillatory regime, as the energy increases at the beginning of a ‘cycle’, the secondary cigar increases in size and field strength until the two cigars become equal in size midway through the cycle (Figure 6). The primary cigar now becomes smaller and actually vanishes at the end of the cycle, at which time the growth of the energy slows down, and even reverses briefly. At that point the flux cigar that was previously the secondary cigar moves into the center of the stagnation point (see the evolution in Figure 6).

### 3.3 A dynamical amplification process

The dynamical picture of an amplification cycle may be sketched as follows in the intermediate-$`\mathrm{Re}_\mathrm{m}`$ oscillating regime (see e.g. the case of $`\mathrm{Re}_\mathrm{m}`$ = 40 in Figure 2):

In the beginning of a cycle, at one of the local minima in the magnetic energy, there is only one flux cigar at each $`\alpha `$ point (see Figure 6). Gradually field lines of the opposite polarity pile up at the separator line close to the $`\alpha `$ point where a secondary cigar will eventually form. These field lines come from the plane of divergence of a neighboring $`\beta `$ point and are transported along two sets of converging stream lines on opposite sides of the separator line. The stream lines come from two leaves of diverging stream lines at the $`\beta `$ point separated by the separator line: Where the stream lines reach the $`\alpha `$ point they have twisted so that the field lines they carry are parallel to the axis of divergence through the $`\alpha `$ point. At the other side of the $`\alpha `$ point one of the leaves of diverging stream lines from a $`\beta `$ point supply field lines of the opposite polarity to the primary flux cigar. While these two flux cigars with opposite polarity sit at the stagnation point and receive field lines, the field lines that they are made of may reconnect because of their opposite polarities (see in Figure 5), and the non-vanishing magnetic diffusivity. This reconnection process is essential to the operation of the dynamo. If there were no reconnections of field lines, the magnetic field near the $`\beta `$ points could not be replenished. It is replenished by tight field line ‘hooks’ that are released to move out along the axis of divergence through the $`\alpha `$ point towards the plane of the $`\beta `$ point. The field lines of the legs of these hooks that come from the primary cigar are stretched out into triangular shapes by the three-fold symmetric diverging stream lines in the plane of a $`\beta `$ point (see Figure 7). The field lines in this leg of the hook go through the plane of divergence of the $`\beta `$ point and connect the two primary cigars on each side of the plane. The part of the field line that makes up the bases of the triangle line up perpendicular to the separator lines and are added to the two flux cigars at the $`\alpha `$, points at the end of these lines. The corners of the triangle are also added to $`\alpha `$ points but through the diverging leaves of the $`\beta `$ point, that become the converging leaves of three other $`\alpha `$ points. In the plane of the $`\beta `$ points an intricate folding of field lines takes place: Figure 8 shows isosurfaces of weak magnetic field and field lines near the plane of a $`\beta `$ point. The plane actually constitutes a region of discontinuity where the field lines change direction from above to below.

Towards the end of a cycle, the primary cigar begins to decay, because the supply of flux to the primary cigar is less than that to the secondary cigar. At the end of one cycle the secondary cigar is the only remaining one and it moves to the center of the stagnation point.

The magnetic energy grows through most of the cycle but the main growth takes place while the two cigars have about equal sizes. This is the time at which the most rapid reconnection take place and thus the time where the largest amount of magnetic flux is released down along the axis of divergence through the $`\alpha `$ points.

The cycle discussed above is actually only a half cycle: A full cycle requires that the flux cigars return to the original polarity and this is only achieved after two of the above cycles. In this respect the ABC dynamo is similar to the solar dynamo where the full cycle of the dynamo takes two 11 year migrations of the sunspot pattern before the polarity returns to the original.

For large $`\mathrm{Re}_\mathrm{m}`$ (in the non-oscillatory regime) the amplification process is similar to what was described above for the lower $`\mathrm{Re}_\mathrm{m}`$ case. However, for large $`\mathrm{Re}_\mathrm{m}`$, there are no oscillation associated with the amplification process: The double cigars always consist of one large strong cigar and one smaller and weaker one with the opposite polarity. The secondary cigars never becomes stronger than the primary but the mechanism that drives the amplification process remains the same.

In the case of the single-cigar mode in the low $`\mathrm{Re}_\mathrm{m}`$ window, the mode pulsates with a high frequency, corresponding roughly to the time of transport of field in a logical circle. Magnetic field of the opposite polarity to that of a pre-existing cigar is transported towards the $`\alpha `$ point by the three ‘leaves’ of converging flows. The three leaves do not provide equal amounts of flux but because the diffusion is relatively large this does not result in the formation of a discrete cigar of opposite polarity. Rather, the existing cigar is surrounded from all sides by magnetic flux of opposite polarity (cf. Figure 9), its field is cancelled, and a flux cigar of opposite polarity is formed. As a result of the polarity inversion, the polarity of the magnetic flux ejected from the $`\beta `$ point region is reversed, and the cycle repeats.

An analysis of work and dissipation shows that the average work done against the Lorentz force is positive throughout the cycle but that the average Joule dissipation is smaller than the average work in the growing phase of the cycle and larger than the average work in the decaying phase of the cycle. Averaged over a cycle, the work is slightly larger than the dissipation, and hence the mode energy grows.

## 4 Discussion and conclusions

The dynamo action in the two windows of $`\mathrm{Re}_\mathrm{m}`$ correspond to two distinct modes. In both cases the replenishing of the field near the $`\beta `$ points is crucial for the operation of the dynamo. In these regions a complicated folding of field lines takes place, that is accompanied by a discontinuity of the directions of field lines across the plane. The latter result would have been hard to discover without the use of modern visualization technics that allow direct “eye-contact” when data browsing.

Certain properties of the magnetic transport are nearly invariant as $`\mathrm{Re}_\mathrm{m}`$ is increased: The size of the regions where diffusion is important become smaller as $`\mathrm{Re}_\mathrm{m}^{\frac{1}{2}}`$ but reconnection still takes place and the field in the crucial $`\beta `$ regions continues to be replenished. In the bulk of the flow where the stretching takes place the decrease of the diffusivity is unimportant since the field lines there are not influenced by diffusion: They tend to obtain a certain alignment with the flow topology given by the stretching that is an invariant property and hence the linear rate of increase of $`\mathrm{ln}B`$ remains nearly the same. It thus appears very unlikely that the double-cigar mode should go away in the limit of infinite $`\mathrm{Re}_\mathrm{m}`$ and that the normal 111 ABC flow would not be a fast dynamo.

Acknowledgements
The author acknowledges support through an EC-TMR grant to the European Solar Magnetometry Network and thanks V. D. Archontis and Å. Nordlund for help and discussions.


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# A test of arm induced star formation in spiral galaxies from near-IR and H𝛼 imaging

## 1. Introduction

There are two models that describe star formation in spiral galaxies. The first of these in the Large Scale Shock Scenario (e.g. Roberts 1969) in which stars are formed when gas is compressed by shocks caused by density waves in spiral arms. The response of the gas to the shock can be non-linear if the relative motion is supersonic. The alternative is Stochastic Self Propagating Star Formation (e.g. Seiden & Gerola 1982) in which stars form randomly, e.g. when gas clouds compressed by shocks from supernovae. Density waves are still used in this model to concentrate the star formation in spiral arms. In this paper we test these models using a sample of 20 galaxies and methods described below.

## 2. Observations and Data Reduction

20 spiral galaxies were observed in the K-band with IRCAM3 on UKIRT and in H$`\alpha `$ with the CCD camera on the JKT. Detected H$`\alpha `$ fluxes were converted to intrinsic luminosities using a distance calculated from the heliocentric recession velocity and $`H_0=75`$kms-1Mpc-1. Star formation rates were derived from the H$`\alpha `$ luminosities using the empirical correlation of Kennicutt (1998).

## 3. Results

We tested to see whether the properties of the spiral arms, as measured in the near-IR (Seigar & James 1998), have any impact on the total rate of disk star formation, as traced by H$`\alpha `$ emission. We find no significant correlations between disk H$`\alpha `$ luminosity and arm strength, parametrized by a seeing-independent ‘Equivalent Angle’ (EA) (Seigar & James 1998). Dividing EA by the FWHM of arm cross-section gives a measure of arm contrast, which plausibly determines the strength of shocks induced in the inter-stellar gas by the spiral arm. No correlation was found with with disk H$`\alpha `$ luminosity. We then found that H$`\alpha `$ surface brightness anticorrelates with arm EA and arm contrast. Thus, strong spiral arms do not lead to more intense star formation in these galaxies. This is in agreement with Elmegreen & Elmegreen (1986), who found no difference in overall star formation rates in galaxies with and without strong spiral structure.

However, arms may have a local effect on star formation rate within the disks of individual galaxies, although other factors may dominate differences in star formation rate between galaxies. We thus came up with a test, based on a technique used to measure star-formation efficiency (Knapen et al. 1996), to identify arm-induced star formation in these galaxies. For galaxies with well-defined spiral arms in their K-band images, we rebinned the K images to the same pixel scale as the H$`\alpha `$ images, and overlaid them, using stellar centroids as references. A polygon lying around each K-band arm was defined. Regions were also fitted by eye to define the disk, excluding the central bulge. The counts within each of the arm regions, and the overall disk, were measured. These apertures were then imported into the H$`\alpha `$ images and photometry was then obtained for the same regions. Finally, the H$`\alpha `$/K flux ratio was calculated for all of the areas. The test is to see whether this ratio is larger in the arms than for the disks, where the latter ratio is taken from the total disk minus the central region. If arms represent regions where all disk material is concentrated by an equal factor, then the H$`\alpha `$/K ratio would be the same in arms as in the disk. However, in most cases, we found H$`\alpha `$/K ratios to be significantly higher in the K-band arms than in the disks. 37 arm regions were measured in 14 galaxies; 27 of these arms had H$`\alpha `$/K ratios greater than that of the disk of the same galaxy. We find that 13 of the 14 galaxies show a net enhancement in H$`\alpha `$/K ratio in spiral arms. The mean ratio found for all galaxies shows that H$`\alpha `$/K is 1.4$`\pm `$0.1 times higher in the arms than in the corresponding disks. This represents a highly significant finding of triggered star formation within spiral arms.

## 4. Conclusions

We have found an increase in H$`\alpha `$ flux near K-band arms in this sample. If K-band arms are dominated by light from old stars, this can be interpreted as star formation triggered by a density wave. Globally, no significant correlation was found between the properties of the old stellar disk and star formation rates.

## References

Elmegreen B.G., Elmegreen D.M., 1986, ApJ, 311, 554

Kennicutt R.C., 1998, ApJ, 498, 541

Knapen J.H., Beckman, J.E., Cepa J., Nakai N., 1996, A&A, 308, 27

Roberts W.W., 1969, ApJ, 174, 859

Seiden P.E., Gerola H., 1982, Fundam. Cosmic Phys., 7, 241

Seigar M.S., James P.A., 1998, MNRAS, 299, 685


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# Optimizing the angular resolution of the HEGRA telescope system to study the emission region of VHE gamma rays in the Crab Nebula

## 1 Introduction

Stereoscopic systems of imaging atmospheric Cherenkov telescopes (IACTs) such as the HEGRA IACT system (Daum et al. hegra\_perf (1997)) allow to reconstruct the directions and energies of TeV gamma-rays with high precision. The analysis techniques, the control of systematics, and the understanding of the angular resolution function of the instrument (Pühlhofer et al. hegra\_pointing (1997), Aharonian et al. 1999b , Hofmann et al. hegra\_reco (1999)) has progressed to a level that one can start to study the characteristics of extended sources on a scale of a few arcminutes. These scales start to become interesting in disentangling the emission mechanisms for Galactic TeV gamma-ray sources such as the Crab Nebula or the pulsar PSR B1706-44. In this paper, we present, as a case study, an investigation of the size of the emission region of the Crab Nebula at TeV energies.

The Crab Nebula is one of the best-studied objects in the sky, in all wavelength regimes. It has been established as a TeV gamma-ray source by the Whipple group, using the imaging atmospheric Cherenkov technique (Weekes et al. weekes (1989), Vacanti et al. vacanti (1991)), and has been studied with many other Cherenkov telescopes. The precise spectral shape of gamma-ray emission from the Crab Nebula has been the subject of a number of recent publications (Hillas et al. whipple\_c (1998), Tanimori et al. cangaroo (1998), Konopelko 1999a ). The spectrum is consistent with a power-law extending from a few 100 GeV out to energies of 50 TeV and beyond. Contrary to observations in the X-ray and GeV gamma-ray regimes, the TeV gamma-ray emission does not show a pulsed component attributable to a direct contribution from the Crab Pulsar; pulsed emission is below 3% of the DC flux (Aharonian et al. 1999c , Burdett et al. whipple\_pulsar (1999)). The commonly accepted model for VHE gamma-ray production in the Crab Nebula assumes electron acceleration in the termination shock of the pulsar wind at a distance of about 0.1 pc (0.2’) from the pulsar (see, e.g., Kennel & Coroniti (coroniti\_crab (1984)), De Jager & Harding (harding\_crab (1992)), Atoyan & Aharonian (aharonian\_crab (1996)), Aharonian & Atoyan (review (1998))). The electrons diffuse out into the Nebula and produce a characteristic two-component electromagnetic spectrum: synchrotron emission dominates at most energies up to about 0.1 GeV, whereas the inverse Compton process generates higher-energy gamma-rays with energies from the GeV range up to 100 TeV and beyond. From the relative strength of the two components, values for the average magnetic field of 15 - 30 nT have been derived (Hillas et al. whipple\_c (1998), De Jager & Harding harding\_crab (1992), Atoyan & Aharonian aharonian\_crab (1996)).

The Crab Nebula represents an extended source of electromagnetic radiation. Since the electrons loose energy as they expand out into the Nebula, primarily due to synchrotron losses, the effective source size is predicted to shrink with increasing energy of the radiation, with radio emission extending up to and beyond the filaments visible in the optical, whereas hard X-rays and multi-TeV gamma-rays should be produced primarily in the direct vicinity of the shock (see, e.g., Kennel & Coroniti (coroniti\_crab (1984)), De Jager & Harding (harding\_crab (1992)), Atoyan & Aharonian (aharonian\_crab (1996)), Amato et al. (amato (1999))). At TeV energies, a second production mechanism for gamma-rays could be the hadronic production by protons accelerated in the shock (Atoyan & Aharonian aharonian\_crab (1996)) or resulting from decays of secondary neutrons produced in the pulsar magnetosphere (Bednarek & Protheroe bednarek (1997)); gamma rays are produced in interactions with the surrounding material, e.g. in the filaments (Atoyan & Aharonian aharonian\_crab (1996)). This contribution might be enhanced due to a trapping of protons in local magnetic fields associated with the filaments, increasing the interaction probability. Given that the size of the Crab Nebula – with its about 4’ by 3’ extension in the optical – is comparable to the angular resolution achieved for TeV gamma rays by the HEGRA system of imaging atmospheric Cherenkov telescopes (IACTs), a study of the size of the TeV emission region of the Crab Nebula is now possible with meaningful sensitivity. This paper reports such an analysis, based on data collected over the last years with the HEGRA IACT system.

For comparison and later reference, we will briefly summarize the existing information on the size of the Crab Nebula, as a function of the energy of the radiation. An obvious problem in such a compilation is that there is no unique definition of ‘size’. For comparison with the TeV results given later, the most relevant quantity is an rms size, gained by approximating the intensity distribution by a two-dimensional Gaussian, or by directly calculating the rms width by projecting or slicing the intensity distribution along an axis, and averaging over directions. Rms width values based on 5 GHz radio data (Wilson wilson (1972)), optical data from Woltjer (woltjer (1957)) as displayed in Wilson (wilson (1972)), and 0.1 - 4.5 keV X-ray data (Harnden & Seward harnden (1984)) are compiled in Hillas et al. (whipple\_c (1998)). Additional rms values were obtained for the 327 MHz radio data of Bietenholz et al. (bietenholz (1997)), and for the 22 - 64 keV X-ray data of Makishima et al. (makishima (1981)). These data are shown in Fig. 1 as full circles.

The bulk of the size values quoted in the literature refer to a different measure, the full width at half maximum (FWHM), which unfortunately in case of a structured intensity distribution depends also on the resolution of the instrument. In some cases, data are only available along a specific direction, and do not allow to average over the long and short axis of the Nebula. In particular in earlier X-ray data, the contributions of the pulsar and of the surrounding nebula are not separated. Fig. 1 includes (as open circles) FWHM size data, averaged over the long and short axis, at radio wavelengths (Wilson wilson (1972)) and in the optical, NUV, FUV, and X-ray, as given in Hennessy et al. (hennessy (1992)). Also shown are X-ray data compiled in Ku et al. (ku (1976)), which refer to the width along the $`300^{}`$ direction (open squares). A clear trend for decreasing source size with increasing energy is evident, considering either the rms size values, the averaged FWHM size values, and the fixed-direction X-ray widths. Included as dashed line is the frequency dependence of the synchrotron emission region as sketched in Kennel & Coroniti (coroniti\_crab (1984)). The size of the emission region for inverse-Compton TeV gamma rays can be predicted using the average magnetic field to relate synchrotron photon energies to electron energies and to inverse-Compton gamma rays; from such arguments, one concludes that the size for TeV gamma-rays should correspond to the X-ray size. The rms size predicted for the TeV gamma-ray emission region by the detailed calculations of Atoyan & Aharonian (aharonian\_crab (1996)) is included in Fig. 1. Basically, inverse-Compton TeV gamma-rays should emerge from the toroidal X-ray emission region clearly visible in the ROSAT data (Hester et al. hester (1995)) and in the recent Chandra image (Weisskopf et al., 2000), as already speculated earlier by Aschenbach & Brinkmann (aschenbach (1975)). The projected semi-major and semi-minor axes of the emission torus are 38” and 18”, respectively. Due to the nonuniform strength of X-ray emission along the torus, the resulting emission profile is roughly elliptical, and its center is shifted N relative to the pulsar location by about 0.3’. Hadronic production mechanisms are expected to generate larger source sizes, of the scale of the size of the nebula (shaded region in Fig. 1).

## 2 Observations of the Crab Nebula with the HEGRA CT system

The HEGRA system of imaging atmospheric Cherenkov telescopes is located on the Canary Island of La Palma, on the site of the Observatorio del Roque de los Muchachos. The telecope system consists of five telescopes, with a mirror area of 8.5 m2 and a focal length of 5 m. A sixth prototype telescope is operated in stand-alone mode and is not used for the analysis presented here. The system telescopes are arranged at the corners and in the center of a square of about 100 m side length. The alt-azimuth mounted telescopes are equipped with cameras consisting of 271 photomultipliers (PMTs). Each PMT views an area of the sky of $`0.25^{}`$ diameter; the field of view of each camera is about $`4.3^{}`$. Cherenkov images of air showers are recorded whenever two telescopes trigger simultaneously; the trigger condition requires that two neighboring PMTs exhibit signals equivalent to 8 or more photoelectrons. Typical trigger rates are around 15 Hz, for an energy threshold of 500 GeV for vertical gamma rays. Details about the HEGRA IACTs and their performance can be found in Daum et al. (hegra\_perf (1997)), Aharonian et al. (1999b ), Hermann (hegra\_camera (1995)), Bulian et al. (hegra\_trigger (1998)).

The Crab Nebula was observed in each season since the HEGRA IACT system commenced operation in late 1996, initially with three telescopes, later with four and since late 1998 with the complete set of five telescopes. For this analysis, only data taken in the years 1997 and 1998 were used, acquired with at least four telescopes under good weather conditions; in order to be able to compare with earlier Mrk 501 data taken with four telescopes, data from the fifth telescope was not used in the most recent five-telescope data sets. The quality-selected data set amounts to an integral observation time of about 155 h, and includes about 6.3 million events. For the final analysis, only data taken at zenith angles of less than $`30^{}`$ were included, with about 3.5 million events remaining.

The Crab Nebula was observed in the so-called wobble mode, with the source offset by $`0.5^{}`$ in declination relative to the telescope axes. The sign of the offset alternated every 20 min. A region offset by the same amount, but in the opposite direction, is used for background estimates, avoiding the need for special off-source observations. Since the stereoscopic reconstruction of air showers provides an angular resolution of typically 6’, signal and background regions are well separated.

The techniques for data analysis are similar to those documented, e.g., in Aharonian et al. (1999b ,1999d ). Direction and impact point of an air shower are reconstructed from the stereoscopic views of the shower. Based on the measured impact point and the known (Aharonian et al. 1999a ) distribution of Cherenkov light as a function of the distance to the shower axis, an energy estimate is derived, with a typical resolution of 20%. Gamma-ray candidates are selected on the basis of image shapes. Given the core distance and the intensity (the Hillas size parameter (Hillas hillas\_param (1985))), the expected width of a gamma ray image is determined. The measured width values are normalized to this value, and averaged over telescopes. A cut on the resulting mean scaled width $`<`$ 1.2 retains most gamma-rays, but rejects the bulk of the cosmic-ray showers.

In detail, the reconstruction of shower geometry differs somewhat from the techniques used so far. Whereas the normal reconstruction procedure combines images from all telescopes regardless of their quality, the new procedure assigns – on the basis of the Monte Carlo simulations of Konopelko et al. (1999b ) – errors to the relevant image parameters (the location of the image centroid and the orientation of the image axis). These errors depend on the intensity and the shape of the images and are propagated through the geometrical reconstruction, resulting in error estimates (or, to be precise, a covariance matrix) for the shower parameters. Details of the algorithm are given in Hofmann et al. (hegra\_reco (1999)). Depending on the characteristics of an event, an angular resolution between 2’ and more then 10’ is predicted, with average value slightly below 6’ 111Here and in the following, “angular resolution” is defined as the Gaussian width $`\sigma `$ of the distribution of reconstructed shower directions, projected onto one axis of a local coordinate system.. The ability to select subsets of events with better-than-average resolution will be used extensively in the analysis of the size of the VHE emission region in the Crab Nebula.

## 3 The limit on the size of the emission region

Even if the size at radio wavelengths – about 1.3’ rms – is used as a most extreme possibility for the size at TeV energies, the source size $`\sigma _s`$ is still smaller than the angular resolution $`\sigma _o`$ for the best subsets - about 2’ to 3’. Therefore, one cannot expect to generate a detailed map of the source. Instead, an extended emission region of (rms) size $`\sigma _s`$ would primarily show up as a slight broadening of the angular distribution of gamma-rays, beyond the value determined by the experimental resolution:

$$\sigma =\sqrt{\sigma _o^2+\sigma _s^2}$$
(1)
or, for $`\sigma _s`$ small compared to $`\sigma _o`$,

$$\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }\sigma }{\sigma _o}=\frac{\sigma \sigma _o}{\sigma _o}\frac{\sigma _s^2}{2\sigma _o^2}$$
(2)
For an intrinsic resolution of 3’ (in a projection) and a 1.5’ rms source size, one would find a 3.4’ wide angular distribution; for the 6’ resolution, the resulting width is 6.2’. In order to positively detect a finite source size, or to derive stringent upper limits, one has (a) to measure the width of the angular distribution of gamma-rays with sufficient statistical precision, and (b) to quantitatively understand the response function of the instrument at the same level, and to control systematic effects which influence the resolution.

For a given number $`n`$ of events from the source, and ignoring for the moment the effect of background under the signal, the statistical error on the width of the (projected) angular distribution is $`\mathrm{\Delta }\sigma /\sigma =1/(2n^{1/2})`$. In case the angular distribution is consistent with a point source, Eqn. 2 then implies a (1 standard deviation) upper limit $`\sigma _s<\sigma _on^{1/4}`$. Therefore, one will want to minimize $`\sigma _o`$ by selecting a subset of events with particularly well-determined directions, even at the expense of event statistics. More critical are, in general, systematic errors. Pointing imperfections, changes in mirror alignment, etc. can cause differences in the angular resolution between data sets taken at different times, under different conditions, and between the data and the simulation. If, e.g., the intrinsic resolution of the instrument is known and reproducible to 10%, the minimum source size which can be reliably detected is $`0.46\sigma _o`$, according to Eqs. 1 or 2. Once more, a selection towards small $`\sigma _o`$ is preferred. Among gamma-ray events, we find that about 1% of the events have a predicted resolution below 1.8’ ($`0.03^{}`$), 6% below 2.4’ ($`0.04^{}`$), 15% below 3’ ($`0.05^{}`$), and 60% below 6’ ($`0.1^{}`$), respectively. In particular the samples with resolutions better than 2.4’ or 3’ combine good angular resolution with acceptable statistics. The cuts on angular resolution have the additional benefit on enhancing the gamma-ray sample relative to the cosmic-ray background; cosmic-ray showers generate more diffuse images and have a worse angular resolution. Fig. 2 shows the angular distribution of events retained after a cut at 3’ resolution in both projections, applying only very loose additional cuts on event shapes (a cut on the mean scaled width at 1.2, which retains over 80% of the gamma-ray events). The selection also biases the sample towards higher energies, since high-energy events produce more intense images, with smaller errors on the image parameters. In the overall data sample, the median energy of reconstructed events is 0.9 TeV; after a cut on the resolution at 3’, this value rises to 2.0 TeV.

While the evaluation of statistical errors is straight forward, the control of systematic errors is more difficult. The pointing of the telescopes is referenced to and corrected offline on the basis of star images (Pühlhofer et al. hegra\_pointing (1997)), and the achievable pointing precision has been investigated in considerable detail. We are confident to achieve a pointing deviation of less than $`\pm 0.5^{}`$ in each coordinate. Indeed, when the Crab data set was subdivided into seasonal subsets, the reconstructed source position was in all cases consistent with the nominal source location – the position of the Crab pulsar.

To evaluate the level at which the angular resolution is understood, we use the sample of gamma-rays from the AGN Mrk 501 as a reference set (see Aharonian et al. (1999b , 1999d ) for details on this data set), assuming that Mrk 501 represents a point source. Table 1, columns 2,3 compare the measured angular distribution for different subsets of events with the Monte-Carlo predictions. ‘Angular resolution’ again refers to the Gaussian width of the projected angular distribution of events. Excellent agreement between data and Monte-Carlo is seen for all data sets. We note that the resolution estimates given by the reconstruction algorithm are low by 10% to 15%, for the samples selected for good resolution. The $``$ 2.4’ sample, e.g., should show a 2.2’ resolution, compared to the measured value of 2.46’. Given the relatively crude parametrization of image parameter errors used in the reconstruction (Hofmann et al., hegra\_reco (1999)), a deviation at this level is not unexpected, and in any case the effect is fully reproduced by the simulations.

After these preliminaries, we can now address the Crab data set. Fig. 3(a) shows the background-subtracted angular distribution of reconstructed showers relative to the source direction, projected onto the axes of a local coordinate system, after a cut on the estimated error of less than 3’. Superimposed is the corresponding distribution of Monte-Carlo events, generated with the measured Crab spectrum. Fig. 3(b) shows the corresponding comparison with gamma-rays from Mrk 501. In particular after the selection on good angular resolution, the two event samples are very similar in their characteristics (mean predicted resolution, mean number of telescopes contributing to the reconstruction, etc.) and can be compared directly, despite the differences in the energy spectrum of the two sources. Table 1, cols. 4,5 list the widths of the distributions for the Crab gamma-rays, and the corresponding simulations. In general, we find, within the statistical errors, good agreement between the Crab and Mrk 501 data sets, and between Crab data and Monte-Carlo.

Another option to allow a direct comparison of the Mrk 501 and Crab data sets is not to look at the angular deviations $`(x,y)`$ between a gamma-ray and the source, but rather to normalize these quantities with the angular resolutions $`\sigma _{o,x},\sigma _{o,y}`$ predicted event-by-event by the reconstruction algorithm. Ideally, one expects to see a Gaussian distribution of unit width, independently of the energy spectrum, the number of telescopes active for a given data set, etc. The observed distributions are indeed Gaussian; as mentioned above, their widths differ by up to 10% to 15% from unity, depending on the selection of events. Most importantly, however, these width values are consistent between all four sets of events (Mrk 501 MC, Mrk 501 data, Crab MC, Crab data), within errors of 1.5% or less for the large-statistics sets where all events are included. This agreement demonstrates that there are no uncontrolled systematic effects between the two experimental data sets, or between the experimental data and the simulations.

Since the width of the angular distribution of gamma-rays from the Crab Nebula is consistent with the expected width, and with the width observed for Mrk 501, we can only give an upper limit on the source size. Taking into account the statistical errors on the Crab sample and on the reference samples, we find – following Caso et al. (pdg (1998)) – 99% confidence level upper limits of 1.0’ for the sample with a cut at 3’ resolution, and 1.3’ for the $``$ 2.4’ sample. To be conservative, and since it was always planned to use the $``$ 2.4’ sample as a safest compromise between statistical and systematic uncertainties, we adopt the 1.3’ limit. Adding in additional systematic uncertainties due to pointing precision, we quote a final limit of 1.5’ for the rms source size at a median energy of 2 TeV.

A possible contribution of gamma-rays from hadronic processes is generally expected to be most relevant at higher energies, in the 10 TeV to 100 TeV range. Therefore, the source size was also studied for an event sample with reconstructed energies above 5 TeV; data are consistent with a point source and the corresponding limit on the rms source size is 1.7’. Limited statistics prevent studies at even higher energies.

The elliptical shape of the X-ray emission region suggests to perform the same analysis in a rotated coordinate system, with its axes aligned along the major and minor axes of the X-ray profile. Results obtained for the width in the major and minor direction do not show any significant difference. Given the fact that the limits are large compared to the (rms-)size of the X-ray emission region, this observation is not surprising. The TeV source is reconstructed 0.2’ from the location of the pulsar, and is consistent both with the location of the pulsar, and with the center of gravity of the X-ray emission region, within the systematic errors in the telescope pointing (less than $`\pm 0.5^{}`$ in each coordinate). While the statistical error alone is small enough to resolve a shift of 0.3’ as observed in the X-ray image, current systematic errors prevent such a measurement at TeV energies.

The limits obtained in this work are included in Fig. 1.

We note in passing that also the widths of the distributions obtained for the AGN Mrk 501 are consistent with MC expectations, indicating the absence of a halo on the arcminute scale. Potential halo types for AGNs include wide pair halos (Aharonian, Coppi & Völk 1994) or narrow halos caused by intergalactic magnetic fields (Plaga 1995). For a relatively near source such as Mrk 501, a pair halo would be much wider than the field of view of the camera and could not be detected as an increased apparent source size; the other type of halo speculated in (Plaga 1995) would be well below our resolution. We do not see any time-dependence of the source size, or any correlation with the TeV gamma-ray flux. Details will be given elsewhere.

## 4 Concluding remarks

The size limits given in this work illustrate the precision which can nowadays be reached in TeV gamma-ray astrophysics; a number of potential galactic and extragalatic sources are predicted to be extended sources on this scale.

A few remarks concerning the interpretation of the limits: the values quoted above refer to the rms source size, with the implicit assumption that source strength is distributed over an area which is similar to, or small compared to the angular resolution of the instrument, such that the convolution of the source distribution and the Gaussian response function can again be approximated by a Gaussian distribution. This is obviously the case for a roughly Gaussian source, and was explicitly checked for two alternative distributions, namely (a) the case that the source strength is uniformly distributed over the surface of a sphere of radius $`r`$, resulting in an rms source width of $`r/\sqrt{3}`$, and (b) the case that the source is uniformly distributed inside a sphere of radius $`r`$, with an rms size of $`r/\sqrt{5}`$. The limit on 1.5’ rms size can be reliably translated into a limit on the radius of a surface source of 2.6’, or on the radius of a volume source of 3.4’. We note, however, that one can construct source models with a large rms source width which would not be detected by our method. One example is a combination of a localized source at the center with a weak halo with an extension of a few degrees or more. Such a faint, diffuse halo could not be detected, yet formally results in a large rms width of the source. However, given that it is hard to imagine to have TeV emission even beyond the radio emission region, such scenarios are hardly relevant for the Crab Nebula.

The limit on the size of the TeV emission region of the Crab Nebula is, by a factor around 4, larger than the size predicted by the standard inverse Compton models for gamma-ray production in the nebula. The limits, however, approach the sizes expected for hadronic production models, where high-energy gamma-rays are produced by nucleon interactions, more or less uniformly throughout the nebula.

## Acknowledgments

We profited from discussions with O.C. De Jager both on the emission mechanism in the Crab Nebula, and on Crab data analysis. The support of the HEGRA experiment by the German Ministry for Research and Technology BMBF and by the Spanish Research Council CYCIT is acknowledged. We are grateful to the Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias for the use of the site and for providing excellent working conditions. We gratefully acknowledge the technical support staff of Heidelberg, Kiel, Munich, and Yerevan. GPR acknowledges receipt of a Humboldt Foundation postdoctoral fellowship.


text:
# TRI-PP-00-30 June 23, 2000 Charged radiative pion capture on the nucleon in heavy baryon chiral perturbation theory

## 1 INTRODUCTION

Radiative pion capture by the nucleon, via the associated pion photoproduction process, has been extensively investigated for neutral pions in the context of heavy baryon chiral perturbation theory (HBChPT). Much less is known however about the charged pion case, which has contributions from the leading order, $`O(p)`$. There the s-wave multipole has been calculated  and is in reasonable agreement with experiment. A calculation of the p-wave multipoles can provide additional interesting information about the convergence of the HBChPT expansion above absolute threshold and also an opportunity to compare this approach with others, for example dispersion relation approaches. Such a calculation is also important as a way to obtain some more of the low energy constants. The values of such constants are necessary if we are to continue the program begun for ordinary muon capture in Ref.  and extend it to radiative muon capture .

## 2 OUTLINE OF CALCULATION

We begin with the HBChPT Lagrangian $`_{\pi N}=_{\pi N}^{(1)}+_{\pi N}^{(2)}+_{\pi N}^{(3)}`$ to $`O(p^3)`$. The lowest order Lagrangian is given by the standard form $`_{\pi N}^{(1)}=\overline{N}_v(iv+g_ASu)N_v`$. The higher order terms are taken in the specific representation of Ecker and Mojz̆is̆  exactly as used in Ref. . To $`O(p^3)`$ it is necessary to calculate all tree level diagrams together with the one loop diagrams constructed from the low order parts of the Lagrangian. We performed the calculation in an arbitrary gauge, so that we could check gauge invariance explicitly, and only at the end reduced to the specific gauge $`vϵ=0`$. The calculation was also performed in a general isospin basis, so that we could verify that the $`\pi ^0`$ amplitudes agreed with previous work.

The reaction of interest here is the radiative pion capture process, whereas almost all previous work has dealt with the inverse, photoproduction, reaction. The cross sections are related trivially via the usual detailed balance equation. However the relations between the amplitudes for the two processes, and thus between the multipoles, are not so simple and involve complex conjugation and various sign changes. Thus we have actually evaluated the amplitude and multipole amplitudes for the photoproduction process, making connection with the radiative capture data at the cross section level. This means that we can compare results for amplitudes and multipoles directly with the conventional ones derived for photoproduction.

With this understanding the amplitude can be written, in terms of the T-matrix, in the Coulomb gauge with $`ϵ_0=0`$ and the transversality condition $`\stackrel{}{ϵ}\stackrel{}{k}=0`$ as

$`^{\gamma N\pi N}={\displaystyle \frac{m_N}{4\pi \sqrt{s}}}Tϵ`$ $`=`$ $`F_1(E_\pi ,x)i\chi ^{}\stackrel{}{\sigma }\stackrel{}{ϵ}\chi +F_2(E_\pi ,x)\chi ^{}\stackrel{}{\sigma }\widehat{q}\stackrel{}{\sigma }\left(\widehat{k}\times \stackrel{}{ϵ}\right)\chi +`$
$`F_3(E_\pi ,x)i\chi ^{}\stackrel{}{\sigma }\widehat{k}\stackrel{}{ϵ}\widehat{q}\chi +F_4(E_\pi ,x)i\chi ^{}\stackrel{}{\sigma }\widehat{q}\stackrel{}{ϵ}\widehat{q}\chi ,`$
where $`\sigma ^i`$ is a Pauli matrix in spin space between the two-component spinors of the incoming/outgoing nucleon ($`\chi /\chi ^{}`$), $`ϵ`$ is the photon polarization vector and $`x=\mathrm{cos}\theta `$ corresponds to the cosine of the angle between the photon and the pion momenta and $`E_\pi `$ is the pion’s center of mass energy. Furthermore, each structure amplitude $`F_i(E_\pi ,x)`$ ($`i`$=1,2,3,4) can be decomposed into three isospin channels, corresponding, when the appropriate linear combinations are taken, to the physical processes. The s-wave electric, p-wave electric and two p-wave magnetic multipoles can then be projected from these using standard formulas.

## 3 RESULTS

By squaring the amplitude we obtain expressions for the differential cross sections which can be fitted to recent data from TRIUMF  and SAL  to obtain values for the three unknown low energy constants, $`b_{10},b_{21}^r,b_{22}^r`$, which contribute. The $`O(p)`$ result does not fit the data. Adding $`O(p^2)`$ terms improves the fit, but it is necessary to include the full $`O(p^3)`$ result to get a good fit. This is consistent with applications of HBChPT to other processes which also often find that the $`O(p)`$ terms dominate, but $`O(p^2)`$ and $`O(p^3)`$ are both important and comparable corrections. The values $`b_{21}^r=8.2\pm 0.7`$ and $`b_{22}^r=9.2\pm 0.6`$ so obtained are stable and quite reasonable. The constant $`b_{10}`$ is double valued, based only on the empirical fit to the data. However comparison to dispersion relation calculations , strongly favors one of the fits and results in a best value $`b_{10}=13.7\pm 4.5`$.

From the amplitudes we can obtain expressions for the s-wave and p-wave multipoles, in the energy region near threshold and exactly at threshold, in the two relevant isospin channels, namely, $`E_{0+}^{(0,)}`$, $`m_{1+}^{(0,)}`$, $`m_1^{(0,)}`$, $`e_{1+}^{(0,)}`$. These rather complicated formulas are given explicitly in Ref. . Then, using the values of the $`b_i`$ obtained above and in our earlier calculation of muon capture  we can evaluate these multipoles. The results for the s-wave multipoles agree well with previous HBChPT calculations  and with dispersion analyses . The p-wave multipoles are also in reasonable agreement with the dispersion results for one of the two solutions. The other solution, which has a very large value of $`b_{10}`$ also gives multipole amplitudes quite different than those obtained in the dispersion relation calculation, and it is on that basis that we rule it out. In general the convergence is good for the electric multipoles, whereas for the magnetic multipoles the $`O(p^3)`$ terms are comparable to or only a bit smaller than the $`O(p^2)`$, thus suggesting that it would be interesting to extend this calculation to $`O(p^4)`$, which can still be done within the context of a one loop calculation.

## 4 CONCLUSIONS

To summarize, we have investigated the radiative capture of a charged pion by a nucleon using heavy baryon chiral perturbation theory and have obtained explicit expressions for the amplitude and for the s- and p-wave multipoles. Fits to the available cross section data allowed us to obtain the three necessary low energy constants. Using the values so obtained, the eight s- and p-wave multipoles (four for the $`\pi ^+`$ case and four for the $`\pi ^{}`$ case) were calculated and compared with results previously obtained from dispersion theory . In general the agreement was good, though the convergence of the results for the magnetic multipoles was not as fast as for the electric ones, thus suggesting that it might be valuable to consider extending the present work to $`O(p^4)`$ or to include explicit $`\mathrm{\Delta }(1232)`$ fields in the chiral Lagrangian.

This work was supported in part by the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada.