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# Testing CP Conservation at KLOE

## 1 Introduction

Bernstein, Cabibbo, and Lee , after the discovery  of 2$`\pi `$ decay of $`K_L^0`$ and the explanatory hypothesis of CP violation, considered the possibility that 2$`\pi `$ decay of $`K_L^0`$ could be due to the effect of an external field, thus saving CP symmetry . In this paper we try to resume the external-field hypothesis and the related CP conservation, by introducing the heterodox assumption that the gravitational field has a scalar component acting in opposite ways on the $`K^0`$ and the $`\overline{K^0}`$ mixed in the$`|K_L^0`$ state. When suitably developed, this assumption gives a picture which allows some simple predictions for the KLOE experiment at the DA$`\Phi `$NE collider in Frascati. For the first time, KLOE allows great vertical $`K_L^0`$ displacements, thus permitting the Earth’s gravitational field to manifest its possible effects clearly. The chief attraction of the present approach is on one hand the easiness of testing it at KLOE, and on the other hand the simplicity introduced by CP conservation. Some of the challenging questions opened by the repulsive gravitational coupling are briefly considered.

## 2 $`K_L^0`$ decays and a scalar component of the gravitational field

As is well known, the $`K^0\overline{K^0}`$ system has two $`\mathrm{𝑒𝑖𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠}`$ of the CP operator. If one assumes that CP is conserved in all decays, the physical $`K_S^0`$ coincides with the state $`|K_S^0=`$ $`(|K^0+|\overline{K^0})/\sqrt{2}`$ having CP $`\mathrm{𝑒𝑖𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒}`$ $`+1`$. It quickly decays with mean life $`\tau _S`$, practically always into two pions (CP $`\mathrm{𝑒𝑖𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒}`$ $`+1`$). The other state $`|K_L^0=(|K^0|\overline{K^0})/\sqrt{2}`$ with CP $`\mathrm{𝑒𝑖𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒}`$ $`1`$, coincides with the physical $`K_L^0`$, which decays slowly (mean life $`\tau _L600`$ $`\tau _S`$) along a lot of channels. Some of these channels have final states with CP eigenvalue $`+1`$. This long-lived state can be thought of as a fast mixing of $`|K^0`$ and $`|\overline{K^0}`$ performing the virtual oscillation: $`K^02\pi `$ $`\overline{K^0}2\pi K^0`$, with a frequency of the order of $`1/\tau _S`$, and a mixing energy $`\mathrm{}/\tau _S7\times 10^6`$ eV.

Although it’s been almost forty years since the experimental discovery of $`2\pi `$ decay of $`K_L^0`$ , the origin of the CP violation, usually assumed to be at the root of $`2\pi `$ $`K_L^0`$ decay, is still judged as not fully understood. Indeed as is well known, within the Standard Model, one can accommodate CP violation through a parametrization of Cabibbo-Kobayashi-Maskawa’s matrix (see, for instance,   ).

Bernstein, Cabibbo, and Lee  a year after the discovery of $`2\pi `$ $`K_L^0`$ decay, attempted to reconcile CP conservation with it. They analyzed the possibility that $`2\pi `$ decay could be explained in terms of the effect of an external field (they considered the three values of the intermediate-boson spin $`J`$: $`0`$, $`1`$, or $`2`$), producing a potential-energy difference $`+V/2`$ for $`K^0`$ but $`V/2`$ for $`\overline{K^0}`$. By means of a relativistic time evolution equation, they found for the complex $`2\pi `$ $`K_L^0`$ branching ratio $`ϵ`$, when $`V\mathrm{}/\tau _S`$:

$$ϵ\frac{\gamma V(\gamma )}{2}\left[\left(m_Lm_S\right)c^2\frac{i\mathrm{}}{2}\left(\frac{1}{\tau _S}\frac{1}{\tau _L}\right)\right]^{1/2},$$
(1)
where $`\gamma `$ is the kaon Lorentz factor in the laboratory frame, and $`m_L`$ and $`m_S`$ are the masses of $`K_L^0`$ and $`K_S^0`$, respectively. Starting from general assumptions for the classical Lagrangian, the intrinsic $`V`$ dependence on $`\gamma `$ must be expected to be: $`V(\gamma )=V_0`$ $`\gamma ^{J1}`$ , where $`V_0`$ is the potential energy seen by the particle when at rest, relative to the field source. In Ref., the assumption that $`V_0`$ is the fourth component of an unknown vector field ($`J=1`$), has been made, then, from (1), it follows that $`|ϵ|`$ must be proportional to $`\gamma `$. After a few years, the experiments  showed that $`|ϵ|`$ was independent of $`\gamma `$. Therefore the external-field CP-conserving interpretation of $`2\pi `$ $`K_L^0`$ decay was dismissed.

Actually, if in (1) one considers a scalar field ($`J=0`$), one has $`\left|ϵ\right|`$ independent of $`\gamma `$, as the experiments require. The questions arise whether this field can be identified with a scalar component of the Earth’s gravitational field, as well as through this scalar component, the Earth can exert an antigravitational force on $`\overline{K^0}`$. These questions raise a web of problems, which will be only briefly considered below.

By assuming that the Earth’s gravitational field has a scalar component, and by identifying $`V_0/2`$ with $`m_Kg_E\mathrm{\Delta }\zeta `$ , whith $`m_K`$ the kaon mass, $`g_E`$ the Earth fall acceleration, and $`\mathrm{\Delta }\zeta `$ the vertical $`K_L^0`$ displacement, one finds:

$$|ϵ|m_Kg_E\mathrm{\Delta }\zeta \left[\left(m_Lm_S\right)^2c^4+\frac{\mathrm{}^2}{4}\left(\frac{1}{\tau _S}\frac{1}{\tau _L}\right)^2\right]^{1/2}=m_Kg_E\mathrm{\Delta }\zeta \mathrm{\Lambda },$$
(2)
where $`\mathrm{\Lambda }=(1.231\pm 0.002)\times 10^{24}`$ J-1, as follows from using standard values  for kaon properties.

For KLOE, $`\mathrm{\Delta }\zeta `$ is the vertical displacement between the small intersection region of DA$`\Phi `$NE $`e^{}`$ and $`e^+`$ beams (within which $`\Phi `$ decays into kaons) and the $`K_L^0`$ decay vertex. The maximum effective $`\mathrm{\Delta }\zeta `$ is roughly 1.5 m, for which (2) gives $`|ϵ|=|\eta _+|15\times 10^3`$, that is, roughly seven times the standard value ($`|\eta _+|=(2.27\pm 0.02)\times 10^3`$ . According to this approach, the first effect that KLOE should have to observe, is an average $`|\eta _+|`$ value three to four times greater than the standard one. This large average $`|\eta _+|`$ could be observed with a number of $`K_L^0`$ much smaller than the number forecast for KLOE design targets.

For instance, when collecting a sample of 104 $`K_L^0`$ with a $`\mathrm{\Delta }\zeta `$ within $`0.95`$ m and $`1.05`$ m (inside the horizontal slabs below and above the production point), one finds one hundred of $`K_L^0`$ decaying into two charged pions, that is, a branching ratio $`|\eta _+|=(10\pm 1)\times 10^3`$. Such a value would practically exclude the standard picture. Better information can of course be obtained by collecting e.g. $`10^6`$ $`K_L^0`$ inside the whole KLOE volume. By subdividing them, for instance, in six bins of $`\mathrm{\Delta }\zeta `$ between 0.3 m and 1.5 m, one may look for the possible proportionality relationship between $`|\eta _+|`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }\zeta `$, and should it be found, by comparing the experimental slope with $`\mathrm{\Lambda }m_Kg_E=(1070\pm 2)\times 10^5`$ m-1, where $`m_K=`$ $`497.672\pm 0.031`$ MeV  and $`g_E=9.8`$ ms-2.

Moreover, one must find small values of $`|\eta _+|`$ at low $`\mathrm{\Delta }\zeta `$. For instance, once $`10^6`$ $`K_L^0`$ are collected, roughly $`7.5\times 10^4`$ $`K_L^0`$ decays along all channels, will be observed inside a horizontal slab $`20`$ cm thick placed from $`10`$ cm below to $`10`$ cm above the production point. With the standard $`|\eta _+|`$ value one must expect $`170\pm 13`$ decays into two charged pions, while following the present approach one must detect only $`40\pm 7`$ decays, with a difference of nearly $`9`$ standard deviations.

Most information on the $`K^0\overline{K^0}`$ system, has been obtained from horiz- ontal-beam experiments, to which of course the present gravitational interpretation must apply as well. When considering a nearly horizontal $`K_L^0`$ beam, $`V_0`$ can be due to the gravitational fields of the Earth and of the Sun. At the Earth’s surface, the latter is much smaller than the former. For the Earth’s field the vertical effective displacements are rather small since they are mainly linked to the $`K_L^0`$ beam divergency. For the Sun’s field the displacements projected along the field direction, can also be a few thousand times greater when considering long $`K_L^0`$ beams.

The papers reporting experimental $`\left|ϵ\right|`$ values, give in general little information, if any, concerning beam geometry. However, the first relevant information on decay amplitudes, comes from the experiments , where the $`K_L^0`$ beam lenght was markedly shorter than $`100`$ m. Thus, the unique possibility of having $`V_0`$ different from zero, is linked to a possible effect of the Earth’s field, when a vertical displacement due to a small vertical component of $`K_L^0`$ velocity, occurs. A first set of experiments up to 1972 , reported $`\left|ϵ\right|`$ values grouped around $`1.95\times 10^3`$, and all have roughly $`\mathrm{\Delta }\zeta 0.2`$ m, as far as is possible to judge from the beam size in the decay region. By taking $`\mathrm{\Delta }\zeta `$=$`(0.20\pm 0.04)`$ m (a somewhat arbitrary $`20\%`$ error has been assumed), and $`\left|ϵ\right|=(1.95\pm 0.2)\times 10^3`$ as correlated values, eq.(2) gives:

$`g_E=\left|ϵ\right|/(\mathrm{\Lambda }m_K\mathrm{\Delta }\varsigma )=8.9\pm 2.7`$ m s-2,

which is consistent with the standard $`g_E`$ value. Since 1973 higher values of $`\left|ϵ\right|`$ have been reported  grouped finally around $`2.27\times 10^3`$ (the presently accepted value), perhaps with slightly larger $`\mathrm{\Delta }\zeta `$ values.

If the present gravitational interpretation applies, the effect of the Earth’s field can introduce important biases in an experiment such as CPLEAR at CERN, where the effective maximum vertical displacement is roughly 0.4 m. This would make it necessary to reanalyze all CPLEAR results, such as those concerning CP violation parameters and the so-called direct T-reversal violation.

The four experiments NA31 and NA48 at CERN, and E731 and KTeV at Fermilab, have utilized and utilize long $`K_L^0`$ horizontal beams. Thus, their results could be biased by the effects of both the Earth’s and the Sun’s field. The latter effect depends on the beam length projected along the direction of the solar field, and this projected length continuously varies owing to Earth rotation and revolution. Thus, these long-beam experiments could be affected by non-trivial systematic errors, and their results, such as those concerning $`Re(ϵ^{}/ϵ)`$ and time reversal $`T`$ violation, would all have to be reanalyzed.

Among the various topics concerning the $`K^0`$-$`\overline{K^0}`$ system, let us consider an argument due to Sakurai and Wattemberg . They elegantly argued that CP violation in $`2\pi `$ $`K_L^0`$ decay is conclusively demonstrated by so-called soft regeneration, first observed by Fitch et al. . This argument does not apply if one assumes that $`K^0`$ and $`\overline{K^0}`$ have opposite gravitational behavior, with the possibility that CP is an exact symmetry .

Coherently with the starting hypothesis of antigravity, one must expect that, for instance, antiprotons, antineutrons, and antiatoms are gravitationally repelled from the Earth, thus antifalling with the acceleration modulus $`g_E`$. One must take into account that antigravity, besides introducing a lot of problems in the standard physical picture, cannot coexist with the equivalence principle . Actually, it seems possible to maintain the agreement with a very large part of the known phenomena, by embedding the antigravity assumption in a set of suitable hypotheses . In this way, it seems possible to avoid all paradoxes and difficulties (such as violation of energy conservation, causality violation, possible CPT violations, etc.), which antigravity implies when directly inserted into the standard physical picture, It also seems possible to circumvent any conflict with the so-well tested proportionality between the inertial and the gravitational mass .

## 3 Concluding remarks

For the first time the KLOE experiment at DA$`\Phi `$NE offers the possibility of having important vertical $`K_L^0`$ displacements, thus allowing the Earth’s gravitational field to manifest its possible effects clearly. The proposal advanced in 1964 by Bernstein, Cabibbo, and Lee has been resumed, by adding to it the heterodox hypothesis that the gravitational field has a scalar component acting in opposite ways on the $`K^0`$ and $`\overline{K^0}`$ mixed in $`|K_L^0`$. We have shown that the CP-conserving mechanism seems to fit the known $`K_L^0`$ properties well. The main new consequence is the proportionality between the modulus of $`2\pi `$ $`K_L^0`$ decay branching ratio and the vertical $`K_L^0`$ displacement. At KLOE, this proportionality should be observed with a relatively small number of $`2\pi `$ $`K_L^0`$ decays. If KLOE data should validate this proportionality, it would become necessary to consider the above sketched questions, and many other related topics and problems as well.


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# A simple interpretation of quantum mirages

## Abstract

In an interesting new experiment the electronic structure of a magnetic atom adsorbed on the surface of Cu(111), observed by STM, was projected into a remote location on the same surface. The purpose of the present paper is to interpret this experiment with a model Hamiltonian, using ellipses of the size of the experimental ones, containing about 2300 atoms. The charge distribution for the different wavefunctions is analyzed, in particular, for those with energy close to the Fermi energy of copper $`E_F`$. Some of them show two symmetric maxima located on the principal axis of the ellipse but not necessarily at the foci. If a Co atom is adsorbed at the site where the wavefunction with energy $`E_F`$ has a maximum and the interaction is small, the main effect of the adsorbed atom will be to split this particular wavefunction in two. The total charge density will remain the same but the local density of states will present a dip at $`E_F`$ at any site where the charge density is large enough. We relate the presence of this dip to the observation of quantum mirages. Our interpretation suggests that other sites, apart from the foci of the ellipses, can be used for projecting atomic images and also indicates the conditions for other non magnetic adsorbates to produce mirages. Pacs: 73.20.Hb, 73.23.Ps

Keywords: Mirages, Quantum corrals

The electronic structure of systems with adsorbed impurities on noble metal surfaces should depend both on the type and the geometric arrangement of the adsorbed atoms. In particular, the effect of single transition-metal impurities and also of dimers on the (111) surface of gold has been studied recently with scanning tunneling microscopy . Previously, closed loops of impurities had been shown to confine the surface state wavefunctions of Cu(111), producing what are now called ”quantum corrals” . In an interesting new experiment the electronic structure surrounding an adsorbed magnetic atom could be projected into a remote location on the same surface : a Kondo ”signature” in the tunneling spectrum of a cobalt atom located on one focus of an elliptical corral was observed as a mirage on the other focus. This possibility raises many theoretical questions, the first one being the relation between this quantum system and classical image projection. Other questions regarding the experimental setup are: How does the appearance of a mirage depend on the surface type, on the adsorbed atom type, on the shape of the corral, etc? The fact that the (111) surface of noble metals presents a symmetry gap at the $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ point and a surface state at about 0.5 eV below the Fermi energy, uncoupled from the bulk states, seems of course fundamental. For the other questions one must take a closer look and this is the purpose of the present paper. It must be emphasized, however, that we are not attempting a full theoretical description of the experiment but rather a simplified approach to the previous questions.

We start by assuming a model Hamiltonian for the interaction of one adsorbed atom with the surface state of the metal, using the following approximations:

1. The substrate is represented by a bidimensional array of atoms arranged in a triangular lattice, representing the (111) surface of copper, the only effect of the bulk material being to provide the position of the Fermi level. A tight-binding model with one orbital per site and first neighbor interactions is used to represent the atomic interactions within the surface. It gives an energy band between $`E_06t`$ and $`E_0+3t`$, that shows a parabolic shape close to the $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ point, as does the surface state in the (111) surface of noble metals. The self-energy of the copper atoms ($`E_0`$) is set to zero and the nearest neighbor hopping parameter to $`t=1eV`$, a value in the appropriate range for the $`s`$ band of copper. Since the surface state at $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ is approximately 0.5 eV below the Fermi level in this case, the resulting Fermi energy is $`E_F=5.5eV`$

2. The corral is simulated by setting a very large value of $`E_0`$ for the limiting atoms, or else by just the absence of atoms beyond the corral limits. We have tried other boundary conditions and found that there is no qualitative difference in the results. From previous work  we know that the surface state develops when the size of the unperturbed surface region is larger than about 10 lattice spacings, which limits the size of the smaller ellipses to be considered.

The particular elliptical corral we study here, as the experimental one , has semiaxis $`a=26d=70\AA `$, $`d`$ being the nearest neighbor distance in copper, and eccentricity $`e=0.5`$ so that it encloses around 2300 copper atoms. Diagonalization of the tight-binding matrix gives information on the wavefunctions, in particular for the relevant levels close to the Fermi energy. Fig. 1 shows the charge density for four such levels, from the 39th to the 42nd eigenfunctions.

The oscillations observed in the STM topography  are expected to be related to the maxima and minima of these charge densities. It can be seen that functions number 39 and 42 are both quite similar to the pictures in Ref.5 but one has pronounced maxima very near the foci of the ellipse while the other has the maxima far away from them.

3. For simplicity, the adsorbed atom is assumed to be on the atop position, therefore interacting with only one of the copper atoms. In the experimental case the adsorbed atom is cobalt, which is strongly magnetic. When cobalt films or clusters are deposited on noble metals, a mean field approach to the electronic structure would postulate that due to a complicated many-body process the up and down bands separate, one of them being completely filled up while the other one straddles the Fermi level so as to be partially occupied . Therefore, the narrow minority band acts as an impurity with self-energy close to the Fermi energy. In the present case we only consider the minority level and its interaction with the corresponding surface level; the complicated process is therefore replaced by a resonant model in which the fine-tuning of the energies is fundamental. This resonant model can also apply to the Kondo resonance at $`E_F`$. An atom having a self energy very close to the Fermi energy is placed atop one of the copper atoms and the interaction between them is represented by a hopping constant $`t^{}`$. The value of this parameter is very important in the model; if it is too large it leads to a sizable distortion of the surface wavefunctions which is not the case experimentally. The STM pictures in Ref.5 show that one adsorbed cobalt atom inside the ellipse does not change the topography drastically. If $`t^{}`$ is too small its effect is of course negligible. The value $`t^{}=0.05eV`$ produces what we believe to be an effect related to the mirage, that is, a splitting of the correct magnitude of just the level with energy $`E_F`$, to which the atop atom is tuned. The wavefunctions in a tight-binding model are obtained as a linear combination of the atomic orbitals and elementary considerations show that the splitting is directly proportional to $`t^{}`$ and to the magnitude of the particular coefficient corresponding to the copper atom that is connected to the adsorbed atom, and inversely proportional to the mistuning of the energy.

Some results obtained from this model Hamiltonian are shown in Fig. 2. Fig. 2a shows a projection of the probability density from state 42 of Fig. 1, while Figs. 2b and 2c are the probabilities of the two split levels for the case of an adsorbed atom placed atop the site $`x=12d`$ where the wavefunction is maximal, near a focus of the ellipse. A similar plot is obtained when the adsorbed atom is placed in a position where there is a smaller secondary maximum, as for example $`x=7d`$. The only difference between the two situations is the larger energy splitting in the first case (8meV versus 5meV). The difference between Figs. 2b and 2c is a consequence of the slight mistuning of the adatom self-energy and the Fermi energy. The surface topography will remain unchanged by the interaction, as the sum of the split wavefunctions is almost identical to the original one, but a spectrum scanning the density of states will find a dip at the Fermi level of the order of the energy splitting, less than 0.01 eV. This dip will appear in the local densities of states proportionally to the corresponding coefficients and therefore will be larger at the foci. A similar calculation on function 41, with a close by energy, placing the atop atom on the position of the wavefunction maximum (that is, far away from the focus of the ellipse) gives a similar result that should be observed at the symmetrically opposed site. Also, a small change in the size of the ellipse shifts the eigenvalues so that the Fermi energy may tune to wavefunction number 39, that has two maxima on the principal axis of the ellipse but far away from the foci and therefore for this ellipse the mirage would not appear at the foci.

In fact, in this model there is nothing special about the foci of the ellipse. If you pick the right size and eccentricity for it so that the surface eigenfunction with energy $`E_F`$ has only two large symmetric maxima the splitting will also be largest. If the ellipse does not have a wavefunction at $`E_f`$ with such characteristics, no effect will be observed within our model. In particular, if we modify the size of the ellipse keeping the eccentricity constant, we observe alternate appearance and disappearance of wavefunctions of the described type with maxima near the foci at appropriate energies, in agreement with experiment.

This leads to the question: why ellipses? Any other corral with wavefunctions having a small number of well defined, pronounced, maxima should be as good for producing mirages. However, although we have explored several other possible shapes (ellipses narrowed at their center, for instance), ellipses seem to be the most efficient in this sense.

A final question : Is magnetism essential for obtaining a mirage? Cobalt is obviously an ideal atop atom because its local density of states develops a very narrow feature just at $`E_F`$: it fine-tunes itself; this is not the case for Fe, Ni, Cr, etc. However, other atoms and even non-magnetic ones may also have large densities of states near the Fermi level of the substrate, for example, S on Pd (111) . As it was reported that no mirage effect appeared for S or CO on Cu(111)  we decided to perform an ab-initio calculation to try to understand why this is so.

In a previous paper  we calculated the electronic densities of states of a periodic system that simulates the experimental situation of an adsorbed atom on a noble metal surface. It consists of repeated slabs of five layers of Au(111) with Co atoms deposited on both sides of them forming a dilute adsorbed layer. For this purpose we used the FP-LAPW method and the LSDA approximation with the WIEN97 code . The main result of that paper was that the minority spin contribution to the density of states due to the $`3d`$ orbitals of Co with $`m=0`$ is a very narrow band precisely at Ef.

In the present work we have repeated the same type of calculation for other cases, such as S and Si on Cu(111). The unit cell is the same as in the previous paper ; it has five noble metal layers with three atoms in each layer. One impurity atom is located on each side of the slab at one of the hollow sites of the (111) slab structure forming a $`\sqrt{3}\times \sqrt{3}`$ adsorbed layer. The slabs are separated by enough empty space so as to simulate non interacting surfaces. The distance between impurity atoms on the same plane is 5 Å. As in this calculation we are intending to simulate the real material, we used the more probable position rather then the atop one.

For S on Cu(111) we found that the local density of states is not peaked at $`E_F`$ but at slightly lower energies, so that if our interpretation is correct a bias voltage of 0.3 eV would help observing the mirage effect. If instead of S one would deposit Si, the tuning to the Fermi energy should be better (see Fig. 3). Because of the symmetry of the surface state, the orbitals of the adsorbed atom that should interact with it are those with $`l=1,m=0`$. These show a narrow feature close to $`E_F`$, although not as narrow as that of Co. It must be noted that this calculation does not intend to study the interaction of the adsorbed atom with the surface state, which should not be present due to the periodic location of the adsorbed impurities, but only the interaction with the bulk noble metal that determines the position of the adsorbed atom energy with respect to the Fermi energy.

Conclusions

We have performed a calculation which gives some insight on the main features of the imaging effect of the elliptical corral and leads to suggestions for future experiments which could confirm - or not- the idea presented in this paper. It should be possible to make use of sites other than the foci of the ellipses to project atomic images. In particular, while an ellipse of $`e=0.5`$ and $`a=26d`$ has the interesting wavefunction with its maxima near the foci ($`x=12d`$ ), reducing the size to $`a=25d`$ and keeping $`e=0.5`$ produces a wavefunction of a similar shape but with its maxima far from the foci, at $`x=16d`$ at $`E_F`$. In this sense the quantum mirage appears to be quite different from classical focusing by an ellipse. Also, other atoms such as S and Si could be used, the fine tuning being achieved by proper adjustment of the voltage bias in the STM experiments.


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# Calibration of Local Chiralities and Time-Arrows Based on Quantum Nonlocality

## Abstract

Unlike classical physics, quantum mechnanics is sensitive to mistaken choice of chiralities or time-arrows of local reference systems. Quantum correlations between distant electron spins, for instance, would reveal a mistaken local chirality. Local polarization measurements and classical communication enable the distant partners to compare their local chiralities. Local time-arrows can be calibrated in a similar way.

Both the chirality and the time-arrow of a Cartesian reference system $`xyzt`$ are mathematically ambiguous. To settle the ambiguity we use phenomenological conventions like, e.g., the right-hand-rule for $`xyz`$ and the thermodynamic time-arrow for $`t`$. Since classical dynamics is fundamentally invariant for space- and time-reversals P and T, no absolute calibration of chirality and time-arrow exists in classical physics. We calibrate chiralities and time-arrows of separate local frames relative to each other. Elementary quantum mechanics is also invariant for P and T. It is, at the same time, more sensitive to local application of P or T than classical physics is. To utilize nonclassical correlations exhibited by the so-called entangled quantum states, I propose a certain quantum calibration of distant frames, which works even when its classical counterparts could not. At the heart of the method lies the mathematical discovery done by Stinespring  as early as 1955. Many years after John Bell’s famous work , it became a second cornerstone in quantum nonlocality studies . Say, two distant quantum systems (Alice’s and Bob’s, resp.) form a composite quantum state $`\widehat{\rho }`$. Then Alice applies, at least theoretically, a T or P transformation to her subsystem while Bob retains his:

$$\widehat{\rho }(TI)\widehat{\rho }or\widehat{\rho }(PI)\widehat{\rho }.$$
(1)
Contrary to all classical evidences, the above local transformations may for some $`\widehat{\rho }`$’s not result in correct nonnegative density matrices. A necessary condition for this anomaly is that $`T`$ and $`P`$ must be anti-automorphisms . Indeed, time-reversal is always anti-unitary but space reversal $`T`$ is unitary. In this work, however, we restrict the fundamental space-reflection for a particular one (while notation $`T`$ is kept). We do not extend the operation $`T`$ universally for the (local) reference frame. To find an anti-unitary map, we have to restrict $`T`$ to certain local phenomena such as half-integer spins and we mean the reversal of the spin’s Cartesian coordinates. This is equivalent with the formal reversal of the spin’s reference frame and the reversal of the chirality of its axes $`xyz`$. This situation occurs when the detected spin components are reversed e.g. by mistake. Space-reversal $`T`$, when understood in such specific and restricted sense for systems of half-integer spins, will be anti-unitary. In particular, for single electron spin vector $`\widehat{\sigma }_n`$ the map $`T`$

$$\widehat{\sigma }_n\widehat{\sigma }_n(n=1,2,3)$$
(2)
requires an anti-unitary operator. Consequently, the corresponding composite quantum states may witness if Alice and Bob have mistakenly calibrated their local time-arrows or (half-integer-spin-frame’s) chiralities . Conditions regarding the class of ‘witness’ states follow from results in Refs. .

For concreteness, I consider the relative calibration of chiralities by Alice and Bob respectively. Suppose they share a certain composite polarization state of electron pairs:

$$\widehat{\rho }=\frac{1}{4}\left(11+\underset{n}{}a_n\widehat{\sigma }_n1+1\underset{n}{}b_n\widehat{\sigma }_n+\underset{n,m}{}c_{nm}\widehat{\sigma }_n\widehat{\sigma }_m\right),$$
(3)
expanded in terms of the Pauli-matrices $`\widehat{\sigma }`$ and parametrized by the local polarization vectors $`a,b`$ and by their correlation tenzor $`c`$. For symmetry reasons, we assume that the electron pairs were prepared in a third reference frame, say by Cecil, and the parameters $`a,b,c`$ refer to Cecil’s frame. It is most crucial that $`a,b,c`$ are constrained because the matrix $`\widehat{\rho }`$ is nonnegative. Let the state (3) be a P-witness state. Now, we assume that Alice and Bob have no prior information on the state $`\widehat{\rho }`$ and they do not know each others’ or Cecil’s reference frame either. Nonetheless, Alice and Bob are measuring their local electron polarization vector $`\widehat{\sigma }_1,\widehat{\sigma }_2,\widehat{\sigma }_3`$ on a large statistics of pairs and, exchanging the measurement records via classical communication, they will in bona fide calculate a quantum state

$$\widehat{\rho }^{}=\frac{1}{4}\left(11+\underset{n}{}a_n^{}\widehat{\sigma }_n1+1\underset{n}{}b_n^{}\widehat{\sigma }_n+\underset{n,m}{}c_{nm}^{}\widehat{\sigma }_n\widehat{\sigma }_m\right)$$
(4)
on the basis of the measured polarization vectors $`a^{},b^{}`$ and correlation tenzor $`c^{}`$. If Alice and Bob’s frames are rotated with respect to each other and/or to Cecil’s then the bona-fide-state $`\widehat{\rho }^{}`$ will differ from the true state $`\widehat{\rho }`$ (3). But Alice and Bob will not detect the discrepancy of states and frames. So far all is like in classical physics would be. However, a further discrepancy between the chiralities of their local frames can indeed be detected by Alice and Bob because the calculated bona-fide-state $`\widehat{\rho }^{}`$ will not exist at all. Alice and Bob will easily realize that the matrix (4) they have just calculated is indefinite.

Let us see a simple example. Assume everyone has in reality the same Cartesian system $`xyz`$ but either Alice’s or Bob’s one is space-reflected. Neither Alice nor Bob know about this. They have received pairwise correlated electrons from Cecil. Each pair is in the totally anti-correlated singlet polarization state:

$$|\psi =\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}\left(|+|||+\right)$$
(5)
but Cecil does not inform Alice and Bob about the state she prepared. According to all classical wisdom Alice and Bob, relying on local measurements and mutual information communication, will never detect the mentioned discrepancy between their reference chiralities. Yet, quantum correlations make the detection possible. The density matrix of the pure state (5) yields:

$$\widehat{\rho }|\psi \psi |=\frac{1}{4}\left(11\underset{n}{}\widehat{\sigma }_n\widehat{\sigma }_m\right).$$
(6)
The average polarizations $`a`$ and $`b`$ vanish at both sites and the correlation is negative and isotropic: $`c_{nm}=\delta _{nm}`$. When analysing the records of their local measurements, Alice and Bob will obtain vanishing average polarizations $`a^{},b^{}`$ and positive correlation $`c_{nm}^{}=\delta _{nm}`$. The wrong sign is caused by the opposite reference chiralities of which Alice and Bob can not be aware. The bona-fide-state (4) would read:

$$\widehat{\rho }^{}=\frac{1}{4}\left(11+\underset{n}{}\widehat{\sigma }_n\widehat{\sigma }_m\right)$$
(7)
but it does not exist since its matrix has a negative eigenvalue. Indeed,

$$\widehat{\rho }^{}|\psi =\frac{1}{2}|\psi ,$$
(8)
as it is easily seen from Eqs. (5,7). Hence, Alice and Bob realize immediately that the chiralities of their reference systems are incompatible. In the given context it is of course menaningless for Alice and Bob to specify whose frame is mistaken. They will agree that one of them must change the chirality of his/her local reference frame. Relative calibration of local chiralities is done.

Let us emphasize that Alice and Bob’s test would be invariably conclusive if Cecil submitted electron pairs in totally correlated nonproduct pure states like, e.g.:

$$|\psi =\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}\left(|+|+||\right).$$
(9)
The test is unconclusive if the state $`\widehat{\rho }`$ is separable. Separable states mean uncorrelated (product) states or statistical mixtures of such states. Mixing generates nothing but classical statistical correlations. Alice and Bob need nonseparable states exhibiting quantum-correlations as well.

Let us extend the interpretation of the density matrix (3) for whatever two-by-two-state composite systems. Following Peres’ prediction , the Horodeckis’  point out that all nonseparable quantum states in $`2\times 2`$ dimensions witness the transpose of the local density matrix owned e.g. by Alice. This purely mathematical operation is, in the usual representation of Pauli-matrices, equivalent to the sign-reversal of Alice’s operator $`\widehat{\sigma }_2`$ and this is equivalent to the local time-reversal $`T`$. Therefore all nonseparable states are T-witnesses . The sign-reversal of $`\widehat{\sigma }_2`$ is, upto a unitary rotation, equivalent to space-reversal provided the system is a $`\frac{1}{2}`$-spin. Then, all nonseparable states are P-witnesses.

We can shortly discuss the calibration of local time-arrows. As we said above, all nonseparable states of $`2\times 2`$ dimensional composite systems are T-witnesses. Alice and Bob can use electrons as well as photons or atoms. The state can still be written in the form (3), the Pauli-matrices and the parameters will of course change their physical interpretations. Otherwise, the relative calibration of Alice and Bob’s local time-arrows is completely analogous with the calibration of chiralities. Of course, the postulated conditions are even more artificial. Few would beleive in the reality of mistaken local time-arrows. Furthermore, Alice and Bob should not leave any timing information in their local measurement records. Yet, these hypothetical conditions are logically consistent. We can thus think of time-reflection as simulated, e.g., by the electronics operating typically between the measured quantum system and the final records.

One can not escape discussing the present proposals in the light of particle physics. Why, the steadfast belief in fundamental P and T invariances of quantum physics had been overthrown long ago. In 1957 experiments confirmed that neutron decays broke the left-right symmetry . Later in 1964, the decay of neutral kaons proved, in an indirect way, to violate the time-reversal invariance . Now Alice and Bob do in principle have a perfect test: by exchanging measurement records on local neutron and kaon decays they can reveal if their local reference systems happened to have different chiralities and/or different time-arrows. They do not need to share entangled quantum states either. The tests, presented in my work, are not substitutes of the tests based on fundamental symmetry violations particularly because my tests can not detect a universally mistaken local chirality .

Let us summarize the points of my work. In both classical and quantum physics, relative calibration of local chiralities and time-arrows can be based on chiralities and timings of local physical objects. For successful calibration, an accompanying information is needed because the distant calibrating partners have to know which way the chiralities and timings of their local objects, respectively, are correlated between the different sites. In the case of quantum objects, this information may be spared provided the composite state of the objects is nonseparable, i.e., it exhibits quantum correlations. Quantum calibration needs less resources than its classical counterpart and this is a remarkable result in spite of the apparently artificial constraints postulated for the calibration. The present proposal confirms a conjecture that quantum nonlocality, a genuine physical feature of composite systems, is not ‘exploitable’ directly in a pure physical context. Advantage of quantum nonlocality manifests itself rather in contexts including physics and information, cryptography , computation , or just games . In a very recent work , Jozsa et al. exploit quantum nonlocality’s advantage in synchronizing local clocks. Calibration tasks seem, in certain circumstances, to priviledge methods of quantum-correlations.

I am indebted to Philippe Eberhard for his valuable remarks on the former version of this paper. This work was supported by the Hungarian OTKA Grant 32640.


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# Wide-Field Thermal Imaging of the Orion Nebula at High Spatial Resolution

## 1. Introduction

The OMC-1 cloud core in Orion contains two areas of active and recent star formation, namely the Trapezium Cluster in the Orion Nebula and the embedded BN/KL region, where the surrounding dense envelope of dust and gas conceals many of the important processes underway. Mid-infrared observations offer an opportunity to probe the physical properties of deeply embedded star formation regions. First, mid-infrared wavelengths suffer less extinction than shorter wavelengths due to scattering by dust. Second, mid-infrared observations trace the presence of warm dust (through thermal emission), which can be used to gain an understanding of the overall thermal structure of a region. Third, mid-infrared observations can help define the dust properties through the detection of spectral features such as the well known silicate band at 9.7$`\mu `$m and the ‘unidentified infrared’ (UIR) emission bands attributed to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, or PAHs. A number of investigators have looked at these regions at near- and mid-infrared wavelengths over the past 30 years: see, e.g., Becklin & Neugebauer (1967), Kleinmann & Low (1967), McCaughrean & Gezari (1991), Dougados et al. (1993), Gezari & Backman (1994), Hayward, Houck, & Miles (1994), McCaughrean & Stauffer (1994), Morino et al. (1998), Gezari, Backman, & Werner (1998), and references therein. See also the chapters by Allen & Hillenbrand, McCaughrean, and Schreyer, Henning, & Wiesemeyer.

Due to the technology available at the time, most previous mid-infrared imaging studies of the region covered either a large area at low spatial resolution or a smaller area in detail. Here we present new large-field, diffraction-limited, multiwavelength, and deep images covering an approximately 2$`\times `$2 arcminute field containing the BN/KL and Trapezium regions in Orion, made using MIRAC2 (Mid-infrared Array Camera, Hoffmann et al. 1998; see also http://cfa–www.harvard.edu/$``$jhora/mirac/mirac.html). These images have uncovered new information about embedded sources and circumstellar and extended material in these regions of active star formation. We present here a brief summary of our observational results.

## 2. Observations

Mid-infrared images at 8.8, 10.3, 12.5, and 20.6$`\mu `$m were made using MIRAC2 on the 3.0 m NASA Infrared Telescope Facility on 7–11 October 1995. Chop-nod images acquired in 3$`\times `$3 or 4$`\times `$4 (at 20.6$`\mu `$m) raster patterns centered on the Trapezium were registered using the commanded telescope offsets. The image scale at all wavelengths was 0.34 arcsec/pixel. The mosaicked field of $``$ 2.1$`\times `$2.1 arcmin covers both the Trapezium and BN/KL regions, and the final mosaics are made of 80–170 individual 10 second images coadded. The mosaics were calibrated using images of the standard star $`\alpha `$ Tau. The measured FWHMs for $`\alpha `$ Tau at 8.8, 12.5, and 20.6$`\mu `$m were equal to the diffraction limit values of 0.7, 1.0, and 1.7 arcsec, respectively. The NEFDs (equivalent to the 1$`\sigma `$ detection limit) for a point source are 9, 22, and 200 mJy, and the 1$`\sigma `$ background values are 0.3, 0.5, and 3.0 mJy, at 8.8, 12.5, and 20.6$`\mu `$m respectively.

Figures 1, 2, and 3 show the mosaics at 8.8, 12.5, and 20.6$`\mu `$m respectively (the 10.3$`\mu `$m image is not shown). Figure 4 then shows close-up views of the Trapezium and BN/KL regions at 12.5 and 20.6$`\mu `$m with overlaid contours.

## 3. The Trapezium Region

In the region surrounding the Trapezium OB stars, we detect mid-infrared emission at the locations of eleven proplyds (protoplanetary disks; see the chapter by McCaughrean) previously identified at optical and radio wavelengths (Laques & Vidal 1979; Churchwell et al. 1987; Garay, Moran, & Reid 1987; O’Dell, Wen, & Hu 1993; O’Dell & Wong 1996). In the nomenclature defined by O’Dell & Wen (1994), these proplyds are 158-323, 159-350, 160-353, 161-324, 163-317, 167-317, 168-326, 168-328, 170-337, 171-334, and 191-350: their locations are marked on the 8.8$`\mu `$m mosaic (Fig 1). There are many other proplyds for which no mid-infrared emission is detected. The 8.8$`\mu `$m mosaic also shows previously known arc-like structures (Hayward et al. 1994) containing some of the proplyds and curving away from $`\theta ^1`$Ori C.

From our derived 12.5$`\mu `$m/20.6$`\mu `$m color temperature map (not shown), we find that the strongest temperature peak in this region is coincident with $`\theta ^1`$Ori D. The extended, diffuse emission in the area which contains most of the proplyds around $`\theta ^1`$Ori D is elevated in temperature ($``$ 110–130 K), and many of the detected proplyds are identified as distinct temperature peaks above the level of this diffuse emission. The arcs are also distinctly traced as 120 K structures on top of 110 K diffuse emission.

We have also detected two new sources without optical counterparts, about 50 arcsec southwest of the Trapezium. These lie in the vicinity of the OMC-1S complex, a site of ongoing star formation which includes a number of embedded near-infrared sources (McCaughrean 1988; Gaume et al. 1999), H2O masers (Gaume et al. 1998), and two or more highly-collimated molecular outflows (Ziurys, Wilson, & Mauersberger 1990; Schmid-Burgk et al. 1990; McMullin, Mundy, & Blake 1993; Rodríguez-Franco, Martín-Pintado, & Wilson 1999a, 1999b). Our 12.5$`\mu `$m/20.6$`\mu `$m color temperature map identifies the two sources as strong temperature peaks in the region, suggesting that they are self-luminous, with derived color temperatures of 225 K for the brighter northeast source and 180 K for the fainter southwest source. The new sources lie some 10–20 arcsec north of the origin of the OMC-1S outflows, and while they have no optical counterparts, they are seen to be coincident with very red near-infrared sources on the periphery of the OMC-1S core (see the chapter by McCaughrean).

The Ney-Allen nebula around $`\theta ^1`$Ori D appears to have a ring-like or toroidal structure as an extension to its familiar crescent shape. This structure is most apparent in the 20.6$`\mu `$m image and color temperature maps. In addition, the dust opacity map (not shown) derived from the color temperature and 12.5$`\mu `$m intensity maps shows an opacity ‘hole’ coincident with the center of the ring structure.

Finally, the strong, extended, diffuse emission throughout this region is seen to dominate at the longer wavelengths, with the relative contribution more compact sources such as the Ney-Allen nebula and proplyd-containing structures decreasing with wavelength.

## 4. The BN/KL Complex

The structure of the BN/KL region changes markedly as we look at longer mid-infrared wavelengths. At 8.8$`\mu `$m (Figure 1), the BN object or IRc1 is by far the brightest source in the field, followed by IRc2, IRc7, and source ‘n’ of Lonsdale et al. (1982). The individual sources appear relatively compact, and there is little apparent extended or diffuse emission associated with them. In the 10.3$`\mu `$m image (not shown), silicate absorption is clearly present. By 12.5$`\mu `$m (Figure 2), IRc3, 4, and 5 are substantially increased in relative brightness compared to the other sources in the field. A clumpy, apparently bipolar structure is present which is bifurcated by a dark dust lane at a position angle of approximately 30. The brighter half of this ‘butterfly’ includes the known IRc sources such as IRc1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 7, while the fainter half extends to the east with some symmetry in the location of clumps or sources between the two sides. A jet-like structure can be seen in the southwest which appears to lie along a line that includes IRc2 and passes through a ring-like structure defined by IRc3, 4, and 5. This collimated structure appears to coincide with slow, outflowing water masers (Genzel et al. 1985; see also the chapter by Schreyer et al.). At 20.6$`\mu `$m, the eastern half of the ‘butterfly’ shows even greater extension and intensity, and the symmetry of the structures in the two halves is quite pronounced. At both 12.5 and 20.6$`\mu `$m, a faint source appears just to the northeast of IRc2 in the center of a large, dark ‘hole’ between the two sides at the top of the dark lane. This source may lie along the line through the jet-like structure to the southwest. Also, by 20.6$`\mu `$m, IRc4 becomes brighter than the BN object, and IRc9 can be seen as an elongated object north of BN (only the 20.6$`\mu `$m image extends far enough north to include IRc9).

A derived color temperature map reveals that BN and IRc2 are the dominant temperature peaks in the region, in agreement with previous results (Wynn-Williams et al. 1984; see also the chapter by Schreyer et al.). Temperatures in the region away from these two temperature peaks fall in the range of 100–140 K. IRc3 and 5 do not correspond to color temperature peaks, but do correspond to dust opacity peaks, suggesting that they are not self-luminous sources. IRc4 and the faint source northeast of IRc2 correspond to slight local temperature increases. However, IRc4 is a definite opacity peak, while the faint northeast source is in an opacity hole. The pattern of the temperature contours follows the ring-like structure seen in the intensity images for IRc3, 4, and 5. Another source in the eastern half of the ‘butterfly’, just to the east of IRc2, shows up as both a local temperature peak and an opacity minimum. Finally, we see that the entire BN/KL region has a much higher average opacity than the region around the Trapezium OB stars.

This brief overview of the results from our imaging work will be followed by a full analysis in another paper presently in preparation.

### Acknowledgments.

The MIRAC2 project has been supported by the National Science Foundation, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Steward Observatory of the University of Arizona, and the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory. Lynne Deutsch and William Hoffmann were visiting astronomers at the NASA Infrared Telescope Facility. We thank Mrinal Iyengar, Mari Paz Miralles, and the IRTF staff for assistance at the telescope.

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# The X-Ray Jet of PKS 0637–752: Inverse Compton Radiation from the Cosmic Microwave Background ?

## 1 Introduction

The discovery made by Chandra of a handful of X-ray emitting kiloparsec-scale jets opens a new window on the study of the physics of relativistic jets. The X-ray emission offers the possibility to observe directly the sites of particle acceleration, and allows us to calculate important physical quantities such as the transported power. For this purpose it is of primary importance to establish the mechanism responsible for the observed X-ray emission.

Recently Chartas et al. (2000) and Schwartz et al. (2000) reported the discovery of the X-ray emission from the jet of a distant powerful quasar PKS 0637–752 ($`z=0.651`$). From the shape of the spectral energy distribution, one can exclude that the origin of the X-rays is synchrotron emission from the same electron population responsible for the radio continuum. This is because the observed optical flux is well below (about a factor of 10) the line connecting smoothly the radio and X-ray emission. Schwartz et al. (2000), in discussing several possibilities for producing the observed X-rays from knot WK7.8 (notation from Schwartz et al. 2000), exclude bremsstrahlung emission and inverse-Compton scattering of photons originating in the quasar. The synchrotron self-Compton (SSC) scenario implies a magnetic field well below the equipartition value, so Schwartz et al. conclude that a viable explanation is de-beamed SSC emission. However, this solution also presents problems which we address here.

In this letter we discuss the possibility that X-rays are produced through inverse Compton scattering of photons of the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB). The observed superluminal motion in the jet on parsec scales, together with the close alignment between parsec and kiloparsec scale jets (e.g., Tingay et al. 1998, Schwartz et al. 2000) suggests that the kiloparsec scale emission could be beamed, with a Doppler factor as high as 10-15. This effect was possibly not taken into account in the CMB model discussed by Chartas et al. (2000; see their Fig. 8). If the X-ray jet of PKS 0637–752 is indeed sufficiently Doppler beamed, inverse Compton scattering of CMB photons can easily explain the observed X-ray emission. In § 2 we discuss in detail the implications of an EC/CMB vs an SSC model and in § 3 we summarize our conclusions. Througout the Letter we assume $`H_{}=50`$ km s-1 Mpc-1 and $`q_{}=0`$.

## 2 Synchrotron Self-Compton versus the External Compton CMB Model

### 2.1 General Constraints

Given the observed spectral energy distribution of knot WK7.8 in PKS 0637–752, the most plausible mechanism responsible for the X-ray emission is inverse Compton scattering, although other mechanisms, such as synchrotron emission from a second electron population can not be ruled out. Possible sources of soft photons include the synchrotron photons themselves (SSC) or a radiation field external to the jet (External Compton, or EC). Given the large distance of the jet from the nucleus, we can exclude that an important contribution comes from the stellar and nuclear radiation of the quasar (Schwartz et al. 2000).

Among other possible external sources of soft photons, the CMB is particularly important. Its energy density, at the redshift of the source, is a factor $`(1+z)^47.5`$ times the local value. More importantly, in the frame of the relativistic electrons in the jet, it is enhanced by a factor $`\mathrm{\Gamma }^2`$, where $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ is the bulk Lorentz factor of the emitting plasma (e.g., Ghisellini et al. 1998).

For any SSC or EC model, it is possible to constrain the allowed values of magnetic field and Doppler beaming factor using standard formulae (e.g., Tavecchio, Maraschi & Ghisellini 1998). We assume that the radiating region is approximately spherical, with radius $`R10^{22}`$ cm (corresponding to $``$0.3 arcsec; Schwartz et al. 2000), filled with tangled magnetic field with intensity $`B`$, and characterized by Doppler factor $`\delta (\mathrm{\Gamma }[1\beta \mathrm{cos}\theta ])^1`$. The particle distribution is a power law with index $`n=2\alpha +1`$ (i.e., $`N(\gamma )=K\gamma ^n`$), where $`\alpha =0.8`$ is the observed radio spectral slope (Schwartz et al. 2000; $`F_\nu \nu ^\alpha `$), and with low and high energy cut-off $`\gamma _{\mathrm{min}}`$ and $`\gamma _{\mathrm{max}}`$, respectively. Note that the X-ray spectrum also has this spectral index, $`\alpha 0.8`$ (Chartas et al. 2000), as expected in either EC or SSC models.

Using standard expressions for synchrotron and inverse Compton emissivities, corrected for Doppler beaming, and using the observed radio, optical, and X-ray fluxes as constraints, for both models the allowed values of $`B`$ and $`\delta `$ describe a line. These are shown in Figure 1 for the SSC and EC/CMB models. Also shown in Figure 1 are lines corresponding to equipartition between magnetic field and radiating particles for two values of the assumed $`\gamma _{\mathrm{min}}`$ (the line is rather insensitive to the value of $`\gamma _{\mathrm{max}}`$).

The SSC line depends primarily on the ratio of observed X-ray to radio luminosity. The condition for the EC/CMB model has a different slope due to the role of additional beaming of the CMB radiation in the rest frame of the emitting plasma — i.e., the electrons “see” a beamed CMB flux from the forward direction (e.g., Dermer 1995, Ghisellini et al. 1998). For the SSC emission, a greater degree of beaming implies a lower synchrotron energy density in the jet frame, which in turn implies lower values of the magnetic field for a given Compton/synchrotron luminosity ratio (solid line in Fig. 1). In the EC/CMB model (dashed line in Fig. 1), in contrast, the amplification of the external radiation increases with $`\delta `$, implying a larger energy density of soft photons in the jet frame, and thus a higher magnetic field for a given $`L_C/L_S`$.

From Figure 1 it is clear that the SSC model implies a very large deviation from equipartition unless the source is significantly de-beamed, with $`\delta 0.1`$ (Schwartz et al. 2000), while the EC/CMB model is compatible with equipartition for a moderate value of the Doppler factor, $`\delta 10`$. This is consistent with measurements of superluminal motion in the PKS 0637–752 jet on VLBI scales (Lovell 2000), $`\mathrm{\Gamma }>18`$ and $`\theta <6.4^{}`$ (implying $`\delta >8`$).

### 2.2 Reproducing the Spectral Energy Distribution

We computed spectral energy distributions (SED) for both the synchrotron plus EC/CMB and the synchrotron plus SSC models for a homogeneous sphere filled with relativistic electrons (as described by Tavecchio et al. 1998). The CMB spectrum is modeled as a blackbody and the Compton scattering calculation takes into account the full Klein-Nishina cross-section. In Figure 2 we compare our best results with the observed radio, optical and X-ray fluxes from knot WK7.8 (from Chartas et al. 2000).

The EC/CMB spectrum is obtained using equipartition values for the parameters, $`B=1.5\times 10^5`$ G and $`\delta =10`$ (see Fig. 1). For the small angles implied by VLBI observations, $`\theta 6^{}`$, we can also assume $`\delta \mathrm{\Gamma }`$. The electron distribution is described by a power law with low- and high-energy cutoffs, $`\gamma _{\mathrm{min}}=10`$ and $`\gamma _{\mathrm{max}}=4\times 10^5`$, and normalization $`K=6\times 10^5`$ cm-3. The value of $`\gamma _{\mathrm{min}}`$ was chosen so that the low energy spectral break of the EC/CMB component lies in the range $`10^{16}\mathrm{Hz}\nu _{\mathrm{break}}10^{17}\mathrm{Hz}`$. We could fit the spectrum with values in the range $`5\gamma _{\mathrm{min}}20`$; for lower $`\gamma _{\mathrm{min}}`$ the EC emission would over-predict the observed optical flux, while for higher values the X-ray spectrum would have a very steep slope. The value of $`\gamma _{\mathrm{max}}`$ is fixed by the optical point and by the values of $`B`$ and $`\delta `$. For the above parameters the SSC contribution is several orders of magnitude below the EC/CMB emission and is not visible in the figure. The predicted X-ray spectral slope matches well the observed slope ($`\alpha _\mathrm{X}=0.8`$; Chartas et al. 2000).

We calculated the SSC spectrum for the marginally unbeamed case, $`\delta =1`$ and $`B=1.2\times 10^6`$ G (see Fig. 1), as a sort of “best case” scenario. For larger beaming ($`\delta >1`$), the magnetic field is even farther from equipartition ($`B<10^6`$ G), while for lower Doppler factor (a very de-beamed jet), the jet may approach equipartition but the total implied energy grows very large (see further discussion below). The low- and high-energy cut-offs of the electron distribution are $`\gamma _{\mathrm{min}}=2.5\times 10^3`$ and $`\gamma _{\mathrm{max}}=4\times 10^6`$, respectively, and the normalization is $`K=19`$ cm-3. The high value of $`\gamma _{\mathrm{min}}`$ is imposed by the necessity of truncating the SSC spectrum below the soft X-ray band in order not to overproduce the optical flux. If, as in Fig 2, the low-energy tail of the SSC spectrum gives a significant contribution to the optical flux a strong UV emission from the jet would be expected. Note also that the predicted X-ray spectrum is somewhat harder than actually observed.

## 3 Discussion: The Power of the Jet

Given $`B`$ and $`\delta `$, together with the observed synchrotron flux, we can calculate the total kinetic power transported by the jet:

$$L_j=\pi R^2\mathrm{\Gamma }^2\beta c(U_p+U_e+U_B),$$
(1)
(e.g., Celotti, Padovani & Ghisellini 1997), where $`U_p`$, $`U_e`$, and $`U_B`$ are the energy densities of protons, electrons, and magnetic field, respectively.

The constraints are quite interesting in the case of the EC/CMB model, because most of the jet energy is in the less relativistic electrons (given their steep energy distribution), and it is those electrons that produce most of the X-ray emission. For minimum electron Lorentz factor $`\gamma _{\mathrm{min}}=10`$ as derived above, and assuming equal numbers of electrons and (cold) protons, we find $`L_j=3\times 10^{48}`$ erg s-1, consistent with the jet power estimated for the most powerful blazars (e.g., Celotti, Padovani & Ghisellini 1997; Tavecchio et al 2000). This is also consistent with the kinetic luminosity required to power the lobes of giant radio galaxies (Rawlings & Saunders 1991).

In contrast, the SSC model requires an unreasonably high value of the jet power. For $`\delta =1`$, even if $`\mathrm{\Gamma }=2`$ (which would imply $`\theta 60^{}`$) and for the lowest possible electron cutoff energy, $`\gamma _{\mathrm{min}}=2\times 10^3`$ from the spectral constraints discussed above, we find $`L_j>10^{49}`$ erg s-1 irrespective of the proton contribution since the average energy of the electrons is larger than the proton mass. For the de-beamed case the situation becomes far worse. Also, the de-beamed model implies that the jet, the projection of which is very well aligned from VLBI to kiloparsec scales, must actually bend away from us through a 90-degree angle.

In the EC/CMB model the radiative power of the knot is dominated by the $`\gamma `$-ray peak. Its beaming-corrected value (Sikora et al. 1997) is $`P_{\mathrm{rad}}6\times 10^{43}`$ erg s-1. The position of the $`\gamma `$-ray peak, $`\nu _{\mathrm{peak}}\nu _{\mathrm{CMB}}\delta ^2\gamma _{\mathrm{max}}^2`$, is very well constrained because the CMB peak frequency ($`\nu _{\mathrm{CMB}}`$) is known and the values of the Doppler factor ($`\delta `$) and the maximum Lorentz factor ($`\gamma _{\mathrm{max}}`$) are well constrained by the assumption of equipartition. The corresponding $`\gamma `$-ray power for the minimally beamed SSC model ($`\delta =1`$) is $`P_{\mathrm{rad}}=6.7\times 10^{45}`$ ergs s-1, and this value increases rapidly with decreasing $`\delta `$.

Even for the EC/CMB model, the kinetic power of the jet is very high compared to the observed luminosity, implying very low radiative efficiency. (The efficiency is higher for the SSC model and it increases as $`\delta `$ decreases.) The electrons emitting via synchrotron in the optical band and via EC/CMB in the $`\gamma `$-rays have relatively short lifetimes, $`t_{\mathrm{cool}}10^{11}`$ s (Compton cooling dominates synchrotron cooling) and can travel for at most $`d\mathrm{\Gamma }ct_{\mathrm{cool}}10`$ kpc. This is consistent with ($`3`$ times) the size of the knot, which can therefore arise from a single acceleration site. Given the close alignment of the jet with the line of sight, its minimum de-projected length is $`1`$ Mpc, and in situ reacceleration beyond knot WK7.8 is required in either case.

We conclude, from spectral, equipartition and jet power arguments, that inverse Compton scattering of CMB photons is the most likely emission mechanism for the observed X-rays from PKS 0637–752.

## 4 Conclusion

We have shown that the X-ray emission from knot WK7.8 in the PKS 0637–752 jet likely originates from upscattering of CMB photons provided the jet is still relativistic on kiloparsec scales. The physical parameters in the emitting region are consistent with equipartition for moderate values of the Doppler beaming factor, $`\delta 10`$, which also agrees with observed superluminal motion in this jet (albeit on much smaller scales). Given a high degree of relativistic beaming, the size of the knot is also consistent with the diffusion length for the radiating electrons.

Modeling the radio-to-X-ray continuum constrains the value of the minimum Lorentz factor of the emitting electrons to be $`\gamma _{\mathrm{min}}10`$. This is the first such constraint from spectral modeling. Generally, the synchrotron emission from these electrons is self absorbed (here, $`\nu _{\mathrm{abs}}10^6`$ Hz). Minimum values for electron energy have been inferred from general arguments (e.g., Reynolds et al. 1996) or the lack of Faraday depolarization (e.g., Wardle et al. 1998), but a direct probe of $`\gamma _{\mathrm{min}}`$ is possible only when the observed spectrum describes a sharp break in the Compton-scattered radiation.

The estimated kinetic power of the jet, $`L_j10^{48}`$ ergs s-1, is then consistent with that of other powerful blazar jets. The SSC model requires far less reasonable assumptions, notably that the parsec-scale jet is nearly aligned with the line of sight but the kiloparsec-scale jet is roughly in the plane of the sky, and implies a jet kinetic power at least one order of magnitude larger. Observations of the jet in the UV could help discriminating between the two possibilities.

With the favored EC/CMB model (and also in the SSC case), the X-ray jet has remarkably low radiative efficiency, suggesting PKS 0637–752 should have powerful extended radio lobes or be in an early phase of evolution.

FT is grateful to STScI for hospitality during the preparation of this work. This work was supported in part by NASA grant NAG5-9327. FT and LM acknowledge partial support from grants CEE ERBFMRX-CT98-0195 and MURST-COFIN-98-02-15-41. RMS acknowledges support from NASA contract NAS–38252.
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# References

hep-ph/0007029

Reply to “Is $`U_{e3}`$ really related to the solar neutrino solutions?”

E. Kh. Akhmedov***On leave from National Research Centre Kurchatov Institute, Moscow 123182, Russia. E-mail: akhmedov@cfif.ist.utl.pt, G. C. BrancoE-mail: d2003@beta.ist.utl.pt and M. N. RebeloE-mail: rebelo@beta.ist.utl.pt
Centro de Física das Interacções Fundamentais (CFIF)

Departamento de Física, Instituto Superior Técnico
Av. Rovisco Pais, P-1049-001, Lisboa, Portugal

## Abstract

In a recent paper  we showed that, assuming no fine tuning between certain elements of the neutrino mass matrix, one can link the element $`U_{e3}`$ of the lepton mixing matrix to solar and atmospheric neutrino oscillation parameters. This result has been recently criticized by Haba and Suzuki . In the present note we show that their criticism is not valid and just reflects their failure to understand the content of our paper.

In a recent paper  we showed that, assuming no fine tuning between certain elements of the neutrino mass matrix, one can use the solar and atmospheric neutrino data to predict (up to a factor of the order of unity) the leptonc mixing parameter $`U_{e3}`$. Conversely, a measurement of $`U_{e3}`$ in atmospheric or long baseline accelerator or reactor neutrino experiments would help discriminate between possible oscillation solutions of the solar neutrino problem. This result has been recently criticized by Haba and Suzuki (HS) . In the present note we show that their criticism is not valid.

HS disputed our result on the grounds that no prediction regarding the value of $`U_{e3}`$ can be made basing on the solar and atmospheric neutrino oscillation parameters alone, without an additional nontrivial assumption. Obviously, in the absence of a theory of flavour, neutrino masses and lepton mixing angles are all independent parameters and therefore knowledge of some of them does not allow one to predict the others unless additional assumptions are made. The necessity of an additional nontrivial assumption has been clearly stated in our paper , and the assumption that we used was explicitly presented there: namely, no fine tuning between the elements $`m_{12}`$ and $`m_{13}`$ of the neutrino mass matrix $`m_L`$ in the basis where the mass matrix of charged leptons has been diagonalised. This assumption allowed us to obtain relations between the values of $`U_{e3}`$ and solar and atmospheric neutrino oscillation parameters, and therefore its nontriviality cannot be doubted. What HS actually dispute is whether our assumption is justified111The authors of  claim to dispute the nontriviality of our assumption, but this appears to be a language problem.. Our results were based on the simple observation that, for any two arbitrary real numbers, the ratio of their sum and difference is of the order of unity unless the absolute values of these numbers are finely tuned to be equal or nearly equal to each other. Our assumption barred the latter possibility for the elements $`m_{12}`$ and $`m_{13}`$ of $`m_L`$. Any fine tuning between the elements of the neutrino mass matrix in a physically meaningful basis is only natural if it is enforced by a symmetry. The existence of flavour symmetries leading to $`m_{12}\pm m_{13}`$ is certainly a possibility; we therefore stressed in  that our predictions give just the likely values of $`U_{e3}`$.

HS argue that our assumption leads to a relation between certain parameters $`\alpha `$ and $`\beta `$ introduced by them, which is not guaranteed by the data and therefore is not justified. Indeed, no relation between $`\alpha `$ and $`\beta `$ follows from the experiment; such a relation was obtained in our paper through the use of the above stated assumption. HS have apparently missed this point.

We have pointed out in  that future experiments can test our predictions and so the assumption on which they are based. If the predicted relationships are not confirmed, this would signify the existence of a flavour symmetry leading to a fine tuning between $`m_{12}`$ and $`m_{13}`$, which by itself would be an interesting result.

To summarize, the criticism of our paper  by HS is based on their misunderstanding of our analysis and is not valid.