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# Untitled Document

Transverse momentum distributions and their forward-backward correlations in the percolating colour string approach

M.A.Brauna and C.Pajaresb

a Department of High Energy Physics, University of St. Petersburg,
198904 St. Petersburg, Russia
b Departamento de Física de Partículas, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela,
15706-Santiago de Compostela, Spain

The forward-backward correlations in the $`p_T`$ distributions, which present a clear signature of non-linear effects in particle production, are studied in the model of percolating colour strings. Quantitative predictions are given for these correlations at SPS, RHIC and LHC energies. Interaction of strings also naturally explains the flattening of $`p_T`$ distributions and increase of $`p_T`$ with energy and atomic number for nuclear collisions.

The study of $`p_T`$ distributions in hadronic and nuclear reactions at high energies offers a unique opportunity to observe non-linear effects in high-density nuclear matter. Indeed in a simple picture in which particle production goes via formation of several independent emitters, colour strings stretched between the projectile and target, the $`p_T`$ distribution is independent of the number of strings and coincides with the $`p_T`$ distribution from a single colour string. As a result, in this picture the observed $`p_T`$ distribution does not depend on the energy nor on the atomic number of the colliding particles. Experimentally this prediction is fulfilled only in a very crude manner. In fact the average $`p_T`$ grows with energy and also with the atomic number of the participants (the ”Cronin effect”). This behaviour clearly shows that particles are produced by different strings not independently. In other words, strings interact with each other and these non-linear effects result in the experimentally observed behavior of the $`p_T`$ distributions.

Some time ago the authors introduced a simple model which introduces the interaction between strings via their fusion and percolation . In this note we study the $`p_T`$ distributions in this model. We show that the model describes both qualitatively and quantatively the behaviour of the $`p_T`$ distributions of the produced particles with the growth of both the energy and atomic number of the participants. We also study the forward-backward correlations (FBC) in the $`p_T`$ distributions. We find that their mere existence is a signature of non-linear effects in particle production. Our model predicts a very concrete form of these correlations, which can be tested in present-day and future experiments.

We start from the particle spectra produced by a single colour string. The standard idea exploited in their description is that the observed particles are formed via quark-antiquark pair emissions by the colour field of the string. According to , the probability rate for this production then has a Gaussian form as a function of $`p_T`$. As soon as a $`q\overline{q}`$ pair is created, the colour charge $`Q`$ of the string diminishes, so that at the next step the production rate is different (although also of the Gaussian form in $`p_T`$). Detailed caluclations show that the resulting $`p_T^2`$ of particles produced after the complete break-up of the string is proportional to $`Q`$

$$p_T^2_Q=Qp_T^2_1,$$
(1)
where $`p_T^2_1`$ is the average $`p_T^2`$ of particles produced by a ”single” string, created by colour $`Q_0`$ corresponding to a single $`q\overline{q}`$ pair. In future we measure all colours in units $`Q_0`$, which is equivalent to putting $`Q_0=1`$. To simplify the notation we also omit the subindex $`T`$ in the momentum distribution, since we shall only consider the transverse momenta.

The Gaussian distribution in $`p`$ can be however theoretically supported only for infinitely high energies, which correspond to a string infinitely long in rapidity. For realistic strings with a finite length in rapidity one expects corrections due to energy conservation. Also fluctuations of the string tension may change the form of the $`p`$-distribution, as advocated in . Finally an evident restriction comes at large $`p`$ where the hard collision mechanism is expected to be responsible for particle creation. As a result one expects the $`p`$ distribution to have a power behaved tail.

A realistic form of the $`p`$ distribution corresponding to a single colour string can be extracted from the experimentally measured one in $`p\overline{p}`$ soft collisions at 630 and 1800 GeV/c . Assuming that the effects of string interactions are small for $`p\overline{p}`$ interactions, we may take that the measured distribution coincides with the one for a single ordinary ($`Q=1`$) string. This distribution has a form

$$w_1(p)=\frac{(k1)(k2)}{2\pi p_0^2}\frac{p_0^k}{(p+p_0)^k}.$$
(2)
Comparing the distributions at 630 and 1800 GeV and also taking into account the behaviour of the minimum bias distributions in all the energy interval from 63 to 1800 GeV  we parametrize

$$p_0=2\mathrm{G}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{V}/\mathrm{c},k=19.70.86\mathrm{ln}E,$$
(3)
where $`E`$ is the c.m. energy in GeV. With (2) the averages $`p`$ and $`p^2`$ are given by

$$p_1p_1=p_0\frac{2}{k3},p^2_1=p_0^2\frac{6}{(k3)(k4)}.$$
(4)
Passing to the string with colour $`Q`$, to satisfy (1), we change $`p_0^2Qp_0^2`$, so that our distribution corresponding to the string with colour $`Q`$ is

$$w_Q(p)=\frac{(k1)(k2)}{2\pi Qp_0^2}\frac{(p_0\sqrt{Q})^k}{(p+p_0\sqrt{Q})^k}.$$
(5)
We stress that this distribution only refers to the soft part of the spectrum, which supposedly is generated by the string decay. The observed spectrum also contains a contribution from hard events (with a produced cluster having $`p>`$1.1 GeV/c, in the definition of ).

Our picture for the high-energy particle production consists in assuming that in the collision several colour strings are created which may overlap in the transverse space. In the overlap area the colour fields of the strings add algebraically. Due to the vector character of color charge, the resulting colour squared of the overlap area is just a sum of the colour squared of the overlapping strings. Thus in the overlap of $`n`$ strings a new colour string is formed corresponding to colour $`Q_n=\sqrt{n}`$. The fact that the colour of the overlapping strings is proportional to the square root of their number and not to their number has an immediate consequence of damping the multiplicities of the produced particles by a factor of the order three at the LHC energies . Here we study its influence on the $`p`$-distribution.

To find the latter we have to know the distribution in the areas of overlaps of $`n`$ strings, which gives the weights with which different overlaps contribute to particle production. It has been shown in  that in the ”thermodynamic limit”, that is for an idealized system with a very large total interaction area $`S`$ and corresponsingly large number of strings $`N`$, the properties of the system and the overlap distribution in particular are governed by a dimensionless parameter

$$\eta =\sigma _0\frac{N}{S}=\sigma _0\rho .$$
(6)
Here $`\sigma _0`$ is an area of a single string and $`\rho `$ the string density. Note that at $`\eta >\eta _c1.121.20`$ the percolation phase transition occurs, most of the space being occupied by a single cluster formed by many overlapping strings.

It has been shown in  that in the thermodynamic limit the distribution in the overlaps areas with different $`n`$ follows the Poisson law with an average value equal to $`\eta `$:

$$\lambda (n)=\frac{S_n}{S}=a(\eta )\frac{\eta ^n}{n!}$$
(7)
with $`a=\mathrm{exp}(\eta )`$. Here $`S_n`$ is the total area in which exactly $`n`$ strings overlap. Eq. (7) is valid for $`n=0,1,2\mathrm{}`$, $`\lambda (0)`$ giving the part of the area in which there are no strings at all. Evidently the latter part does not produce particles. So we are only interested in the relative contribution to particle production of overlaps with $`n=1,2,\mathrm{}`$. This will be given by (7) with a different normalization factor $`a=1/(\mathrm{exp}\eta 1)`$.

The overall $`p`$ distribution $`P(p)`$ is obtained by convoluting the distribution (5) in $`p`$ for fixed $`Q`$ and (7) in $`n`$ and taking into account that for an overlap of $`n`$ strings $`Q=\sqrt{n}`$:

$$P(p)=\underset{n=1}{}\lambda (n)w_\sqrt{n}(p).$$
(8)
As a consequence of (1) we find

$$p=p_1a(\eta )\underset{n=1}{}n^{1/4}\frac{\eta ^n}{n!}.$$
(9)
For small $`\eta `$ this gives $`p/p_1=1+0.094\eta .`$ The behaviour of $`p/p_1`$ for $`0.5<\eta <4`$ can also be well described by a linear dependence $`1+0.098\eta `$.

So even with a fixed average $`p_1`$ for a single string, the overall average grows with $`\eta `$. On the other hand, $`\eta `$ grows both with the energy $`E`$ and the atomic number $`A`$ of the colliding particles , so that fusion of strings by itself leads to the growth of the average transverse momentum with $`E`$ and $`A`$. With the distribution (2) the average $`p_1`$ also rises with energy from 0.28 GeV/c at 19.4 GeV to 0.43 GeV/c at 5500 GeV. This rise has to be combined with that due to the growth of $`\eta `$ for collisions with nuclei. Using our earlier calculations  we find the values of $`\eta `$ for central p-PB and Pb-Pb collisions at c.m. energies 19.4, 200 and 5500 GeV shown in the second and fourth columns of the Table. In the third and fifth columns we present the corresponding values of $`p`$ which follow from Eq (9) with the distribution (5). Comparing these values with the experiment, one should remember that they refer only to the soft part of the spectra.

The form of the $`p`$ distribution in p-Pb and Pb-Pb collisons corresponding to Eq.(8) is shown in Fig. 1. With the growth of $`E`$ and $`A`$ the high $`p`$ tail is strongly enhanced. This corresponds to the well-known Cronin effect. In Fig. 2 we present the ratio of the distributions for the p-Pb and Pb-Pb to p-p reactions. They are well compatible with the experimental ones .

Now we pass to the FBC in the $`p`$-distributions. They can be studied from the observation of the average $`p`$ in the backward hemisphere $`p_B_{p_F}`$ for events with given $`p=p_F`$ in the forward hemisphere. In absence of any interaction between colour strings (independent colour string model) the average $`p`$ in both hemispheres evidently is identical with this average for a single string. Then

$$F(p_F)p_B_{p_F}/p_1=1.$$
(10)
Of course, one should have in mind that correlations between different strings are imposed not only but their fusion and percolation, but also on purely kinematical grounds, due to energy conservation. However this latter effect diminishes with energy and becomes neglegible in the mid-rapidity region at large enough energy. Modulo this kinematical effect, the mere existence of FBC, that is, the difference of the right-hand side of Eq. (10) from unity is a clear signature of a dynamical interaction between strings. In our percolation string model function $`F`$ can be found explicitly.

With two different observables $`p_B`$ and $`p_F`$ we introduce the corresponding probability $`w(p_F,p_F)`$ which generalizes Eq. (5) and shows the probability to find the observed particle with transverse momenta $`p_F`$ and $`p_B`$ in the forward and backward hemispheres. Technically it can be found from the inclusive cross-section $`2Ed^3\sigma /d^3p`$ integrated over the angles in the forward or backward hemispheres respectively and properly normalized. Our starting point will be an assumption that there is no correlation between emission of particles in the forward and backward hemispheres for a single string:

$$w_Q(p_F,p_B)=w_Q(p_F)w_Q(p_B),$$
(11)
where each of the functions $`w`$ on the right-hand side is given by Eq. (5). Then for a single string of colour $`Q`$

$$p_F_Q=p_B_Q=p_Q=\sqrt{Q}p_1.$$
(12)
Passing to the system of percolating strings with different overlaps we find the final distribution in $`p_F`$ and $`p_B`$ as a suitable generalization of (8)

$$P(p_F,p_B)=\underset{n=1}{}\lambda (n)w_\sqrt{n}(p_F,p_B).$$
(13)
Integrating this expression over $`p_F`$ one obtains the distribution in $`p_F`$:

$$P(p_F)=d^2p_BP(p_F,p_B)=\underset{n=1}{}\lambda (n)w_\sqrt{n}(p_F)=P(p).$$
(14)
As expected, it coincides with the overall distribution (8).

The conditional probability to see a particle with momentum $`p_B`$ in the backward hemisphere, provided one observes a particle with momentum $`p_F`$ in the forward hemispere, is given by the ratio

$$P(p_B)_{p_F}=\frac{P(p_F,p_B)}{P(p_F)},$$
(15)
so that the average value of any observable $`A(p_F,p_B)`$ for a given fixed $`p_F`$ is given by

$$A_{p_F}=P^1(p_F)d^2p_BA(p_F,p_B)P(p_F,p_B).$$
(16)
Taking $`A(p_F,p_B)=p_B`$ we obtain for the function $`F`$ in (10)

$$F(p_F)=\frac{_{n=1}n^{1/4}\lambda (n)w_\sqrt{n}(p_F)}{_{n=1}\lambda (n)w_\sqrt{n}(p_F)}.$$
(17)
Its difference from unity measures the FBC in the transverse momentum distributions.

At small $`\eta `$ we find

$$F(p_F)=1+0.0669\eta \frac{(1.189(p+p_0))^k}{(p+1.189p_0)^k}.$$
(18)
So positive correlations follow (as expected), which grow with the momentum from a non-zero value to saturate at a certain larger value depending on the energy (via $`k`$).

The behaviour of $`F(p_F)1`$ for the reactions p-Pb and Pb-Pb at different energies is illustrated in Fig.3. The FBC rise with energy and atomic number, their magnitude well allowing for the experimental observation.

Summarizing, we have shown that interaction of strings predicts sizable FBC in the transverse momenta, which can be tested in the forthcoming experiments. Also the dependence of the $`p`$-spectra on $`E`$ and $`A`$ is naturally explained for collisions with nuclei.

This work has been done under the contract AEN99-0589-C02-02 from CICYT of Spain.

References

 M.A.Braun and C.Pajares, Phys. Lett. B287 154 (1992); Nucl. Phys. B390 542,549 (1993); N.S.Amelin, M.A.Braun and C.Pajares, Phys. Lett. B306 312 (1993); Z.Phys. C63 507 (1994).

 N.Armesto, M.A.Braun, E.G.Ferreiro and C.Pajares, Phys. Rev.Lett. 77 3736 (1996).

 J.Schwinger, Phys. Rev.82 664 (1951); T.S.Biro, H.B.Nielsen and J.Knoll, Nucl. Phys. B245 449 (1984).

 A.Bialas and W.Czyz, Nucl. Phys. B267 242 (1986) .

 A.Bialas, hep-ph/9909417

 CDF Collab, F.Rimondi, Talk presented at IX Int. Workshop on Multiparticle Production, Torino (2000), to appear in Nucl. Phys. B (Proc).

 UA1 Colab, G. Arnison et al., Phys. Lett. 118 B (1982) 167; CDF Collab., F.Abe et al., Phys. Rev. Lett., 61 (1988) 1819.

 M.A.Braun and C.Pajares, to be published in Eur. Phys. J. C; N.Armesto and C.Pajares, Int. J. Mod. Phys. A 15 (2000) 2019

 J.Schukraft, in Proc. Int. Workshop on Quark-Gluon Plasma Signatures, Strasbourg, France (1990)

Figure captions

Fig. 1. Transverse momentum distributions in the reactions p-Pb and Pb-Pb at different c.m.energies (normalized to unity). Curves 1,2 and 3 correspond to p-Pb, and curves 4,5 and 6 to Pb-Pb at 19.4, 200 and 5500 GeV respectively.

Fig. 2. Ratio of $`p_T`$ -distributions for the reactions p+Pb and Pb-Pb to p-p at c.m. energies 19.4, 200 and 5500 GeV. For p-Pb the curves go down with energy. For Pb-Pb the slope rises with energy

Fig. 3. The FBC parameter F-1 (Eq. (23)) as a function of $`p_F`$ for the reactions p-Pb and Pb-Pb at c.m. energies 19.4, 200 and 5500 GeV. For p-P the curves rise with energy.

Table

|  | p-Pb | | Pb-Pb | |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Energy (GeV) | $`\eta `$ | $`p_T`$ (GeV/c) | $`\eta `$ | $`p_T`$ (GeV/c) |
| 19.4 | 0.53 | 0.30 | 1.19 | 0.32 |
| 200 | 0.60 | 0.35 | 1.82 | 0.39 |
| 5500 | 0.76 | 0.46 | 3.54 | 0.58 |


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# X-ray induced persistent photoconductivity in Si-doped Al0.35Ga0.65As

\[

## Abstract

We demonstrate that X-ray irradiation can be used to induce an insulator-metal transition in Si-doped Al0.35Ga0.65As, a semiconductor with DX centers. The excitation mechanism of the DX centers into their shallow donor state was revealed by studying the photoconductance along with fluorescence. The photoconductance as a function of incident X-ray energy exhibits an edge both at the Ga and As K-edge, implying that core-hole excitation of Ga and As are efficient primary steps for the excitation of DX centers. A high quantum yield ($`1`$) suggests that the excitation is indirect and nonlocal, due to secondary electrons, holes, and fluorescence photons.

\]

Understanding the microscopic mechanisms of deep-level traps is important to semiconductor technology, due to their inevitable presence in many semiconductors. Deep-level traps can degrade device performance by acting as recombination centers in optical devices, such as lasers and light-emitting diodes, or by giving rise to high resistivity. Examples of deep-level traps are Si dopants in AlxGa1-xAs, which act as DX centers when $`x>0.22`$. DX centers can be optically excited to a shallow donor state. At low temperatures, this state is metastable because of the resulting structural rearrangement (Fig. 1A). In the ground state, substitutional Si dopants in Ga sites are displaced from the tetrahedral site resulting in a large bond-rupturing displacement . In the excitation process, the Si atom moves to the tetrahedral site, and two electrons are injected into the conduction band, increasing the conductivity. At temperatures below $`80`$ K the induced photoconductivity is persistent. Excitation of DX centers using visible light has been studied extensively in various semiconductor compounds over the last few decades. Here, we demonstrate that irradiation by X-rays can also induce persistent photoconductivity in Si-doped Al0.35Ga0.65As. While phenomenologically the persistent photoconductivity and its erasure upon annealing is similar to the X-ray induced metallization observed in a transition metal oxide, the underlying mechanisms are quite different.

There have been several attempts to determine the local structure of DX centers using X-ray absorption fine structure (XAFS). So far, the results have been inconclusive. Conventional XAFS, which monitored the Se fluorescence of Se-doped AlGaAs, failed to show the large lattice relaxation. Recently, a new method for XAFS, which measures the energy-dependent X-ray induced photocapacitance, has been suggested to be site-selective, and therefore, to reveal the large lattice relaxation. On the other hand, XAFS studies on CdTe:In claimed that X-rays do not induce photoexcitation based on the observation that consecutive XAFS scans were reproducible. In order to resolve this puzzle, we studied the mechanism of X-ray excitation of DX centers by measuring the energy-dependence of X-ray induced photoconductance along with fluorescence. Our key finding is that X-rays are efficient in inducing photoconductance by exciting the DX centers. However, the excitation process is indirect, i.e., core-hole excitation of host atoms not directly bonded to DX centers can lead to the excitation of DX centers. Thus, standard X-ray techniques for determining the local structure of DX centers are complicated by X-ray induced changes in their configuration. Unfortunately, methods relying on monitoring the ability to change their configuration, e.g. measures sensitive to the carriers liberated after X-ray photoexcitation, are unsuitable because of the non-locality of the photoexcitation process.

The sample consisted of a Si-doped Al0.35Ga0.65As film, grown using molecular beam epitaxy by Quantum Epitaxial Design. Over a semi-insulating GaAs substrate the following layers were grown: a 200 nm thick GaAs buffer layer, a 1.5 $`\mu `$m thick Al0.35Ga0.65As spacer, a 1 $`\mu `$m thick Al0.35Ga0.65As:Si layer, and a 10 nm thick GaAs cap layer. The doping concentration is estimated to be $`5\times 10^{19}\mathrm{cm}^3`$, which was extracted from temperature dependent Hall measurements.

Figure 2 shows the conductance measured as the sample was cooled in the dark. From 300 K down to 115 K, the conductance plotted on a logarithmic scale as a function of inverse temperature shows a linear behavior. The steep decrease of the conductance is due to DX centers, each of which traps two conduction electrons. From the slope we deduce a value of 0.23 eV for the binding energy of the DX centers, which is consistent with previously reported values.

The X-ray experiments were conducted at beam line X16C at the National Synchrotron Light Source at Brookhaven National Laboratory. The X-ray beam was centered in the middle of the sample and was spread laterally to $`6`$ mm to illuminate the region between the two ohmic contacts. The vertical width of the beam was less than 1 mm. At 300 K, no photoconductivity was detected. The photoconductivity became noticeable around 210 K, where the effect was about 1 %. Fig. 3 shows the time-dependent response of the photoconductance at 160 K to a varying incident photon flux together with the fluorescence. The energy of the incident X-ray beam was kept constant at the As K-edge. In contrast to the fluorescence, which responds instantaneously to the incident X-ray flux, the photoconductance grows more gradually. In addition, while the fluorescence response is proportional to the incident flux, the photoconductance shows saturation. Both effects follow from the metastability of the photoexcited DX centers. As the beam is turned on, an excess population of donors in the shallow state builds up, and so increases the photoconductance. A finite time is required to reach the steady-state value for a given incident photon flux, and to decay thermally to the ground state when the beam is turned off. The saturation effect arises due to the finite number of DX centers available for excitation, and becomes more pronounced at lower temperatures because the excited state becomes longer lived.

Energy scans of the photoconductance along with the fluorescence are plotted in Fig. 4 for both Ga and As K-edges at 180 K. Here, the photoconductance was plotted after subtracting the dark current conductance. As depicted in both K-edge scans, the photoconductance follows closely the fluorescence scan, with steps in the photoconductance occurring at the same location as for the fluorescence. In addition, the step heights are similar for both K edges: $`8.7\times 10^7`$ S for the Ga K-edge with an incident flux of $`4.15\times 10^{10}`$ photons/s, and $`8\times 10^7`$ S for the As K-edge with $`4.23\times 10^{10}`$ photons/s. This result has several significant implications. First, it demonstrates that core-hole excitation is an efficient primary step for the excitation of DX centers. Second, it suggests that the dominant mechanism for the X-ray excitation of DX centers is indirect. The fact that the additional photoconductance obtained by opening up a new core-hole excitation channel is similar for As and Ga shows that direct proximity of the absorbe to the Si dopant is not required since the Si dopants are believed to be directly bonded to As, not Ga.

As displayed in Fig. 5, persistent photoconductivity was induced at 24 K by illuminating the sample with a defocused Ga K-edge beam. After a few minutes’ X-ray irradiation, the conductance rose sharply by more than seven orders of magnitude. The saturated value of the conductance was $`8.04\times 10^4`$ S, higher than the room temperature conductance of $`2.66\times 10^4`$ S. At this value, the sample may be considered metallic. The photoconductance persisted even after the beam was turned off and remained constant during the monitored time, which was 17.5 hrs. The thermal decay of the persistent photoconductance, monitored during the warm up process in the dark (Fig. 2), shows an annealing temperature $`100`$ K.

The quantum yield Q, defined as the number of DX centers converted into shallow donors per incident photon, can be extracted from the photoconductance data at 24 K and is given by

$$\frac{dG/dt\times N_{\mathrm{sat}}}{2G_{\mathrm{sat}}I_\mathrm{o}}.$$
(1)
Here $`dG/dt`$ is the initial slope of the conductance, $`N_{\mathrm{sat}}`$ is the total number of photogenerated electrons at saturation, $`G_{\mathrm{sat}}`$ is the saturated value of the conductance, and $`I_\mathrm{o}`$ is the incident photon flux. Previous measurements using visible light have shown that the saturation density of photogenerated carriers in this sample is $`n_{\mathrm{sat}}4\times 10^{18}`$ cm-3. From the measured values for $`\frac{dG}{dt}=1.33\times 10^5`$ S/s, $`N_{\mathrm{sat}}3\times 10^{13}`$, $`G_{\mathrm{sat}}`$, and $`I_\mathrm{o}=2.8\times 10^{10}`$ photons/s, we obtain $`Q10`$. The fact that for each incident photon a large number of DX centers are converted to shallow donors is strong evidence for our model of indirect excitation of DX centers. From this value of Q, we can judge the extent to which the excitation process is non-local. The starting point is to note that at the Ga K-edge, the penetration depth of the incident photons is $`15\mu `$m. Thus, the number of incident photons absorbed in the 1 $`\mu `$m thick Si-doped layer is 1/15 of the incident photons. If photon absorption only within the next-nearest neighbor shell of the Si donor were to lead to excitation, the maximum value for Q could be approximated by the donor to host atom density ratio (which is of the order of $`10^3`$) times the number of nearest (for As K-edge) or next-nearest (for Ga K-edge) neighbors, multiplied by the probability that a photon is absorbed in the active layer ($`1/15`$). This would give $`Q10^3`$. From our result of $`Q1`$, it is evident that the excitation is highly non-local and secondary processes need to be invoked to describe the excitation of DX centers. A comparison of the cross-section for the excitation of DX centers ($`2\times 10^{15}\mathrm{cm}^2`$) with the cross-section for core-hole excitation ($`3\times 10^{20}\mathrm{cm}^2`$) further illustrates the efficiency of the former process.

After the initial core-hole excitation, Auger processes or secondary photon emission occur, which create a cascade of secondary electrons, holes, and photons (Fig. 1B). Eventually, these secondary electrons and holes thermalize to the band edges. The extent of non-locality of the excitation process is governed by the diffusion length of the secondary photons and holes. It is worthwhile to compare the newly discovered phenomenon - excitation induced by X-rays - to the previous experiments using visible light since the energy scale of the incident photons differ by more than three orders of magnitude. Interestingly, the excitation process is indirect in both cases. When using visible light, the most efficient way to excite DX centers is by first creating electron-hole pairs through band-gap excitation. The electrons and holes diffuse and thermalize to the band edges. A hole recombines with a DX center, which excites the DX center into a shallow donor. As a consequence an electron is emitted to the conduction band, resulting in the generation of two electrons in the conduction band for each band-gap excitation. Although the X-ray excitation process initially involves a core-hole excitation, the subsequent processes induced by the secondarily generated carriers, which eventually thermalize at the band edges, are the same as in the visible light case.

To summarize, we have investigated the excitation of DX centers using X-rays in Si-doped Al0.35Ga0.65As. Our key results are that X-rays are very efficient in inducing photoconductivity and that the predominant excitation mechanism is indirect and non-local. Secondary electrons, holes, and photons, which are created following the original core-hole excitation, are primarily responsible for the conversion of the DX centers into their shallow donor state. Therefore, each absorbed incident photon converts a large number of DX centers, resulting in a high quantum yield for the conversion process. The extent of non-locality is governed by the diffusion of the secondary photons and charge carriers.

We gratefully acknowledge valuable discussions with D. J. Chadi, technical assistance from D. Hines, W. Lehnert, A. Noszko, and T. Thio for providing us with the sample. AIF acknowledges support by the DOE Grant No. DEFG02-96ER45439 through the Materials Research Laboratory at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.


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# Delocalization of two interacting particles in a random potential: one-dimensional electric interaction

(Universidad de Tarapacá, Departamento de Física, Casilla 7-D, Arica, Chile)

We consider a continuous one dimensional model of two charged interacting particles in a random potential. The electric repulsion is strictly one dimensional and it inhibits Anderson localization. In fact, the spectrum is continuous. The case of electrical attraction is briefly studied and it shows bounded states. So, the dynamics is sign-dependent for this model.We support our analytical results with numerical simulations where the effect of repulsion breaking localization is clearly observed.

A complete version of this paper (with figures): Phys.Rev.B 62, 33 (2000).

The problem of one particle in a random potential has been studied widely after the pioneer work by Anderson \[1-5\]. Now, it is accepted that exponential localization could take place in such disordered systems depending on the degree of disorder, the dimension $`D`$, and the energy of the system. The role of internal spatial local correlations at the random potential has been considered as mechanism of delocalization. In fact, there is theoretical \[6-19\] and experimental  evidence of delocalization due to correlations. Moreover, the role of no local correlation has been studied showing new phenomena of delocalization . Also, the dynamics of some open random systems has been studied showing the breaking of Anderson localization . Recently, the role of interaction between particles in disordered systems has been considered (two interacting particles or TIP). Nevertheless, here some controversy exist \[23-31\]. It seems that for on-site interaction (discrete model), the localization length is enhanced with independence on the interaction sign.

In this paper, and for strictly one-dimensional electric repulsion, we show that Anderson localization is broken for two interacting particles. Moreover, the behavior of the system is not sign-independent. Our quantum model is continuous and different of the usual discrete TIP model found in the literature.

Consider Gauss’s theorem in $`D`$ dimension, namely a charge $`q`$ producing an electric field $`E`$ and a hypersphere of radius $`r`$ around the charge. The theorem establishes that the electric flux through the hypersphere is proportional to the charge enclosed. Namely,

$$Er^{D1}q.$$
(1)
So, the electric field produced by a charge is dependent on the dimension $`D`$. In three dimensions we have the usual $`r^2`$ dependence and in strictly one dimension the electric field is constant at the left and right of the charge $`q.`$ Namely, in one dimension, the electric potential produced by one charge $`q`$ is given by

$$V(x)=\alpha q\left|x\right|,D=1,$$
(2)
where $`\alpha `$ is a proportionality constant and $`x`$ the position.

A remark concerning the one dimensional case. Since for a ‘sphere’ in the one dimension we have problems defining its surface, the result (2) is also obtained by solving the Poisons equation $`V^{\prime \prime }q\delta (x)`$ with the corresponding conditions of continuity $`V^+(0)=V^{}(0)`$ , $`\frac{d}{dx}V^+(0)\frac{d}{dx}V^{}(0)q`$ and the symmetry condition $`V(x)=V(x)`$.

In order to consider two charged interacting particles in strictly one-dimensional disordered potential, we must consider the above electric potential in the Hamiltonian: let $`x`$ and $`y`$ be the coordinate-operator of two particles of charge $`q`$ and $`Q`$ , respectively; then the Hamiltonian-operator of the systems is given by

$$H=\frac{1}{2m}\frac{^2}{x^2}\frac{1}{2M}\frac{^2}{y^2}+\xi (x)+\xi (y)\alpha qQ\left|yx\right|,$$
(3)
where $`\xi `$ denotes the random potential acting on every particle. To study the above system we assume the following

(i) Particles do not overlap. Namely, we assume the charge $`Q`$ always on the right of $`q`$.

(ii) Particles are distinguishable ($`Qq`$), however by simplicity we assume $`M=m`$.

(iii) The random potential is bounded ($`\xi <\xi _{\mathrm{max}}`$) and has no internal correlation. Namely, if $`\xi (x)=f_i(xx_i)`$ then every function $`f_i`$ is independent (also the random variable $`x_i`$). So, if there are extended states they are not related to correlations at the random potential \[6-19\].

(iv) No decoherence effects due to an external bath, or measurement, are considered i.e. we have always a quantum pure state.

Let the state $`\mathrm{\Psi }_\omega (x,y)`$ be solution of the time independent Schrödinger equation, namely

$$H\mathrm{\Psi }_\omega =\omega \mathrm{\Psi }_\omega ,$$
(4)
where $`\omega `$ is the energy ($`\mathrm{}=1`$). The condition (i) requires that

$$\mathrm{\Psi }_\omega (x,y)\{\begin{array}{cc}=0;yx& \\ 0;y>x& \end{array}.$$
(5)
Since the charge $`Q`$ is on the right of $`q,`$ the electrical interaction does not require the absolute value i.e. $`\left|yx\right|=yx.`$ The Schrödinger equation (4) becomes separable, and related to the solution of

$$\frac{1}{2m}\frac{^2}{z^2}\varphi +(\xi (z)\pm \alpha qQz)\varphi =ϵ\varphi ,$$
(6)
where the constant $`ϵ`$ is the energy. Since we are assuming electrical repulsion ($`Q>0,q>0`$), the sign minus (or plus) in (6) corresponds to the equation for $`Q`$ (or $`q`$). So, the charge $`Q`$, on the right of $`q`$, experiences two forces: the random due to disorder, and the electrical repulsion directed to the right. The charge $`q`$ is repelled to the left.

The continuous Schrödinger equation (6) has been studied in the literature and it corresponds to a particle in a disordered potential with a dc electric field. For bounded disordered potential (iii), the states $`\varphi `$ are extended in the direction of the field and the spectrum $`ϵ`$ is continuous \[32-35\]. This can be understood intuitively when we consider that for a distance $`\left|z\right|\xi _{\mathrm{max}}/\alpha qQ`$ the electric dc field dominates the asymptotic behavior of the system and producing extended states. We remark that our model is continuous, with bounded disorder, as required by the theory of delocalization with electric dc field .

In this way, the solution of equation (4) can be written as

$$\mathrm{\Psi }_\omega (x,y)=\left\{\varphi _ϵ(x)\varphi _{\omega ϵ}(y)\varphi _ϵ(y)\varphi _{\omega ϵ}(x)\right\};xy,$$
(7)
where $`\varphi _ϵ`$ denotes the extended solution of energy $`ϵ`$ of (6). We remark that the condition (i) (not overlap $`\mathrm{\Psi }(x,x)=0`$) is satisfied automatically from the antisymmetric condition for the wave function. Then, for repulsion, localization is inhibited for two charged interacting particles in strictly one dimension. Moreover, the spectrum $`\omega `$ is continuous and determined asymptotically by the electric interaction. Namely, no periodic (or quasiperiodic) motion exists in the system.

Numerical time-evolution calculations confirm our conjecture about delocalization in the repulsive case: Figure (1a) shows the time-dispersion for two wavepackets (particles) when interaction and disorder do not exist. The initial condition is the localized state $`\mathrm{\Psi }(x,y,t=0)=\delta _{x,x_o}\delta _{y.y_o}`$ and the regime is ballistic. It shows the probability $`𝑑x\left|\mathrm{\Psi }(x,y,t)\right|^2`$ and $`𝑑y\left|\mathrm{\Psi }(x,y,t)\right|^2`$ to find the particle $`Q`$ and $`q`$ respectively at time $`t0`$. Figure (1b) shows the two particles under one-dimensional electric repulsion and the same initial conditions of (1a). Remark the time separation of the center of mass for every particle because repulsion. Figure (1c) shows the evolution when only disorder is present, and one notes the absence of dispersion for the wavepackets. Finally, Figure (1d) shows the combined effect of repulsion and localization. Clearly, disorder does not stop the separation due to repulsion of both particles. The numerical calculations were carried-out by solving the Schrödinger equation related to (3) with a simple procedure (finite-differences). The potential $`\xi `$ was constructed using a random number generator. The spatial boundary was avoided by considering a finite number of iterations. This number was found by using the iteration procedure related to figure (1b), the most fast motion. All figures have the same parameters (number of iterations, step, disorder, etc.).

On the other hand, when electrical attraction is considered in our one-dimensional systems, the numerical results show the existence of bounded states. Figures (2a) and (2b) show the temporal evolution for two interacting particles in a random potential. (2a) shows the repulsive behavior related to delocalization. Figure (2b) shows the evolution when one changes the parameter of repulsion by attraction and keeping the same initial conditions and disorder ($`qQqQ`$). Clearly the behavior between repulsion and attraction is different. Since we are assuming attraction between both particles, the charge $`Q`$ is pushed by the field to the left against $`q`$; but from (i) the wave function vanishes when $`y=x`$. From an analytical point of view, our result can be understood when we consider no disorder and the usual coordinate change to the centre of mass. Namely $`2X=x+y`$ and the relative coordinate $`2r=xy`$. The non overlap condition at $`r=0`$ and the constant attractive electric field gives origin to bounded states . The finite disorder ($`\xi <\xi _{\mathrm{max}}`$) does not change the behavior of the system governed asymptotically by the electric field. Discrete spectrum and bounded states exist in the system in this case.

Finally, we notice that the one-dimensional electric case studied here is formally similar to two infinite parallel planes separated by a distance $`\left|yx\right|`$ where the electric force is constant. This tells us that plane charged molecules are good candidates to test our result. Also quantum-wire, with one-dimensional directed electric-flux, seems an interesting candidate to explore our conjectures.

In conclusion: we have presented theoretical evidence that strict one dimensional electrical repulsion, which is long-range, breaks Anderson localization for two interacting charged particles. This result is different to the discrete on-site interaction which only enhances the localization length, but does not break localization. In our case, the attraction and repulsion behavior are sign-depending. These results were confirmed numerically.

I thank Professor S. N. Evangelou who explain us the TIP Problem (International Workshop on Disordered Systems with Correlated-Disorder, Arica’98, PELICAN and FDI-UTA Projects). Interesting comments were furnished by Professor Chumin Wang Chen, Professor V. Bellani (FDI-UTA and PELICAN Projects) and Professor E. Lazo (UTA) . This work was partially completed at Pavia University (CICOPS Scholarship), and partially supported by FONDECYT (proyecto 1000439).

FIGURE CAPTION

Figure 1. (1a) Time evolution probability for two particles without disorder and electric interaction. The initial condition is $`\mathrm{\Psi }(x,y)=\delta _{x,x_0}\delta _{y.y_o}`$. The dispersion is ballistic. For simplicity we do not consider antisymmetric states. (1b) Time evolution probability with electric field repulsion. The parameters are the same as in figure (1a). Still we have no disorder. Remark the increasing separation between the wavepackets with time. (1c) The same situation as in figure (1a) but with disorder and without electric interaction. Clearly, diffusion does not exist because Anderson localization. (1d) Combined influence of electric repulsion and disorder. Disorder does not stop the repulsion process and delocalization operates.

Figure 2. (2a) shows the repulsion for two electric charges in a random potential. Figure (2b) shows the attractive case with the same parameter of disorder and initial conditions. Clearly the behavior is different in both cases.


text:
# Stellar contributors to the hard X-ray background?

## 1 Introduction

Obscured AGN are now considered to be the most likely explanation for the bulk of the hard XRB. If this hypothesis is correct, the total energy output from these hidden AGN must exceed that of ‘ordinary’ (broad-line) objects by almost an order of magnitude (Fabian et al. 1998), with wide ranging implications. Existing deep X-ray surveys have already revealed what could be the ‘tip of the iceberg’ of this population. Several unambiguous cases of obscured QSOs have been detected (e.g. Almaini et al. 1995, Boyle et al. 1998, Fabian et al 2000) while at the faintest X-ray fluxes there is strong evidence for a large population of X-ray luminous emission-line galaxies (Boyle et al. 1995, Griffiths et al. 1996, McHardy et al. 1998). The true nature of this galaxy population remains controversial; however statistical cross-correlation studies clearly show that objects with a galaxy-like morphology contribute about $`30\%`$ of the soft ($`<1`$ keV) XRB (Roche et al. 1995, Almaini et al. 1997). Results from the ultra-deep ROSAT survey of Hasinger et al. (1998) suggest that most of these ‘galaxies’ contain AGN (Schmidt et al. 1998), but the statistical sample is small. In addition, many of these faint sources were classified on the basis of high-ionisation optical coronal lines, which could (in principle) arise from supernova activity. In summary, there is no doubt that most of the $`0.52`$keV XRB is produced by AGN, but there is the realistic possibility of a non-AGN contribution at the $`1020\%`$ level.

Work has recently been undertaken at harder energies with ASCA and BeppoSAX resolving $`30\%`$ of the harder, $`210`$ keV background. Many of these sources have now been identified, and most appear to be absorbed AGN (Georgantopoulos et al. 1997, Fiore et al. 1999). Nevertheless, there is still the possibility of a starburst contribution at fainter X-ray fluxes (Moran et al. 1999). Only the deepest surveys with Chandra and XMM will resolve this issue. The latest results from the first such survey probe an order of magnitude deeper than before (Mushotzky et al. 2000) and claim to have resolved $``$ 75% of the hard XRB. The nature of these Chandra sources is so far unclear, but the most likely explanation seems to be either absorbed AGN or possibly the first generation of quasars at very high redshift.

In this letter, we attempt to quantify the potential contribution of star-forming galaxies to the energy density of the XRB in a globally averaged sense. While this in itself is not a new suggestion (see Griffiths & Padovani 1990 and Treyer et al. 1992), recent determinations of the integrated star-forming history of the Universe (Madau et al. 1996; Lilly et al. 1996; Blain et al. 1999) enable a quantitative estimate of the X-ray emission from stellar processes at high redshift. Extrapolations based on no evolution models produce a negligible contribution, however, star-formation rates and SN rates were significantly higher during early epochs and so their integrated contribution over redshift can now be calculated. We use a recent determination of the star-formation rate of the Universe that combines optical and infra-red data (Blain et al. 1999) with observed properties of MXRBs and SN to estimate their probable contribution to the energy density of the XRB. Possible additional sources of hard X-ray emission are outlined in Section 4.

## 2 Massive X-ray binaries

MXRBs are produced in large numbers during bursts of star formation and are expected to dominate the X-ray emission from starburst galaxies (David, Jones & Forman 1992). MXRBs are composed of a compact object (a neutron star or a black hole) accreting matter from a close O - B (Be) companion. Hard X-ray emission E $``$ 20 keV results from the mass transfer process. About 50 candidate MXRBs have been detected in the Milky Way. They have thermal spectra with characteristic $`T>15`$ keV and $`L_\mathrm{X}10^{37}`$ erg s-1 in the $`E>2`$ keV band (van Paradijs & McClintock 1995). They are very short-lived, with life-times $`t_{\mathrm{MXRB}}10^{56}`$ yr, much shorter than low mass X-ray binaries (LMXBs) which can last up to a Gyr. The contributions of MXRBs and LMXBs to the X-ray flux of our Galaxy are comparable. In the Milky Way, the majority of the MXRBs are X-ray pulsars, for which the accreting object is a magnetic neutron star. In low metallicity environments, such as the Magellanic clouds, the X-ray emission from MXRBs is enhanced, and hence the contribution from starbursts at high redshift (and low metallicity) could be much more significant than is observed locally (van Paradijs & McClintock 1995).

Several papers have addressed the issue of the contribution of star-forming galaxies (Bookbinder et al. 1980; Griffiths & Padovani 1990; Lahav et al. 1993; Treyer & Lahav 1996) and MXRBs to the hard XRB (Treyer et al. 1992). In all these treatments, the evolution of the X-ray luminosity function of galaxies is extrapolated to high redshifts in order to estimate the contribution to the XRB. Both groups concluded that newly forming galaxies could contribute up to 15% of the hard XRB, modulo the various uncertainties in the modeling of the evolution of the galaxy luminosity functions, and the conversion factor from the infra-red flux to X-ray flux. With the recent progress in observational determination of the globally averaged star-formation rate as a function of redshift (Madau et al. 1996; Lilly et al. 1996), the calculation of the total integrated emission in the hard band from MXRBs in vigorously star-forming galaxies is relatively straight-forward, if one assumes that the MXRB rate instantaneously tracks the star-formation rate.

### 2.1 Spectra and contribution to the hard XRB

We commence with the assumption that the MXRB rate as a function of redshift is proportional to the total star formation rate density $`\rho _{\mathrm{MXRB}}(z)\rho _{\mathrm{SFR}}(z)`$. This amounts to assuming that for every solar mass of material that produces stars (given an IMF) with observed luminosity density, some fraction of that is processed into massive X-ray binaries. David, Jones & Forman (1992) find a tight relationship between the X-ray luminosity and the star formation rate in starburst galaxies from the IRAS Bright Galaxy sample, although there are recent claims that the scatter in the local group may be much larger. This proportionality is calibrated locally using fiducial values for the Milky Way: a star-formation rate of $`1\mathrm{M}_{}`$ yr-1 and a total integrated MXRB luminosity of $`\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2.2}\times 10^{38}`$ erg s-1 in the hard X-ray band ($`E>2`$ keV). This MXRB luminosity is based on the compilation of Dalton & Sarazin (1995), using the measured X-ray luminosities of the 8 known galactic MXRBs with peak X-ray luminosities in excess of $`10^{36}\mathrm{ergs}^1`$. The fraction of the X-ray luminosity that is emitted in the hard band is estimated with a typical spectral energy distribution $`f(E)`$ for an MXRB that is well-fit by,

$`f(E)`$ $``$ $`E^a,E<E_c`$ (1)
$`f(E)`$ $``$ $`E^bexp({\displaystyle \frac{E_cE}{E_f}})\mathrm{otherwise}`$ (2)
$`E_c=19`$ keV, $`a=0.217`$ and $`b=2.67`$ normalized at $`E=1`$ keV such that $`f(E)=1`$ keV-1 (Treyer et al. 1992). With this SED almost 90% of the X-ray emission is in the hard-band at $`z=0`$. An effective k-correction needs to be applied to take into account the red-shifting of this SED out of the hard-band, which is done through the function,

$`f_{\mathrm{hard}}(z)={\displaystyle \frac{_{3(1+z)\mathrm{keV}}^{\mathrm{}}f(E)𝑑E}{_{0.1\mathrm{keV}}^{\mathrm{}}f(E)𝑑E}}.`$ (3)
Note that since the bulk of the star formation occurs at $`z<\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2}`$, including the effect of redshift MXRBs do indeed have the required spectral shape to explain the XRB at $`E\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}3}`$ keV. The integrated contribution from MXRBs to the hard XRB energy density is therefore;

$`\rho _{\mathrm{MXRB}}(z)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle _{z_{\mathrm{max}}}^z}f_{\mathrm{hard}}(z)\xi _1({\displaystyle \frac{\rho _{\mathrm{SFR}}(z)}{1\mathrm{M}_{}\mathrm{yr}^1}})`$ (4)
$`\times (1+z)^{7/2}\mathrm{𝑑𝑧}\mathrm{erg}\mathrm{Mpc}^3,`$
where $`\xi _1`$ is the locally calibrated constant for $`\mathrm{\Omega }=1`$ and $`H_0=50\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1\mathrm{Mpc}^1`$. To illustrate the uncertainty in $`\xi _1`$, we write it explicitly in terms of the integrated MXRB luminosity function $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_in_iL_{X_i}`$,

$`\xi _1=6.31\times 10^{45}({\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Sigma }_in_iL_{X_i}}{2\times 10^{38}\mathrm{ergs}^1}}).`$ (5)
One can then substitute the parametric form for $`\rho _{\mathrm{SFR}}(z)`$ that is a good fit to both the optical and the far-infrared data from Blain et al. (1999), namely;

$`\rho _{\mathrm{SFR}}(z)`$ $`=`$ $`\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0.009}\times 10^{0.6592z}\mathrm{M}_{}\mathrm{yr}^1\mathrm{Mpc}^3z\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2.5}`$
$`\rho _{\mathrm{SFR}}(z)`$ $`=`$ $`\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0.4}\mathrm{M}_{}\mathrm{yr}^1\mathrm{Mpc}^3z>\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2.5}.`$ (6)
Note that star-formation in this model-fit continues at a constant rate out to high redshift. Another model that also fits current observations (the Gaussian model from Blain et al. 1999) produces very similar numbers. Integrating from $`z=5`$ to $`z=0`$, the contribution of MXRBs was found to be $`2.26\times \mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}10}^{54}`$ erg Mpc-3. The total energy density in the XRB is $`2.63\times \mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}10}^{57}`$ erg Mpc-3, 80% of which is in the hard band (Comastri 1998). MXRBs therefore contribute negligibly - of the order say 0.2%. Note that even if the IMF is biased toward high masses, increasing say, the total number of MXRBs by a factor of 10 or if the X-ray luminosities are higher in lower metallicity environments (van Paradijs & McClintock 1995), which is the case in high redshift starbursts or if X-ray luminosity is higher in very compact starbursts, then MXRB contribution to the hard XRB can be boosted to at most the few % level.

Our estimate differs from the results of previous work by Griffiths & Padovani (1990) and Treyer et al. (1992) due to reasons discussed below. Both those works had to assume detailed models for the relation between detected X-ray luminosity and either the optical luminosity or 60$`\mu `$m luminosity of star-forming galaxies and their evolution with redshift. Depending on their choice of assumed luminosity function, both studies concluded that star-forming galaxies could contribute anywhere from 4% - 25% or so. Therefore, we find consistency with their most conservative model.

## 3 The contribution from supernovae

In a typical galaxy, the total flux from the integrated number of SN over a Hubble time is roughly comparable to the luminosity of the central AGN, as we show below. The total energy output from SN can be estimated using the integrated SN rate from a given galaxy over a Hubble time with an assumed typical rate of $`1/\mathrm{galaxy}/100\mathrm{yr}=10^2/\mathrm{galaxy}/\mathrm{yr}`$,

$`E_{\mathrm{SN}}`$ $``$ $`f_x\times \nu _{\mathrm{SN}}\times t_H\times ϵ_{\mathrm{SN}}`$ (7)
$`=`$ $`2\times 10^{59}f_x\mathrm{erg}`$
where the typical energy output from a SN $`ϵ_{\mathrm{SN}}=10^{51}\mathrm{erg}\mathrm{s}^1`$, $`t_H=10\mathrm{Gyr}`$ and $`f_x`$ is the fraction of energy emitted in the X-rays by a typical SN. Note that this energy output is comparable to that from the central engine in AGN for $`f_x10^4`$,

$`E_{\mathrm{AGN}}`$ $``$ $`ϵf_{\mathrm{AGN}}M_{\mathrm{bh}}c^2`$ (8)
$`=`$ $`2\times 10^{55}({\displaystyle \frac{ϵ}{0.1}})({\displaystyle \frac{M_{\mathrm{bh}}}{10^7\mathrm{M}_{}}})\mathrm{erg}.`$
Since AGNs are the primary discrete sources that contribute to the XRB, SN are expected to contribute as well. However, since the fraction of energy expelled in a supernova explosion that is emitted in X-rays is small, their contribution to the hard XRB is expected to be limited. Locally it is observed that hard X-rays can be produced by SN remnants via other processes, namely, by the presence of rare Crab-like objects, synchrotron radiation from shocks due to the collision of expanding shells and the inverse Compton scattering of infra-red photons off radio-emitting electrons (as possibly seen in M82). Detailed treatment of these mechanisms however, is beyond the scope of this work since we are averaging over the population as a whole, but we discuss additional sources of X-ray emission further in Section 4.

### 3.1 X-ray flux from SN

The star formation rate per unit volume quoted above is used to estimate the supernova rate per unit volume, wherein the variations from specific galaxy types are averaged over and the calibration is performed to the Milky Way (Madau, Della Valle & Panagia 1998). Of the typical energy output from a SN, $`E_{\mathrm{SN}}=10^{51}\mathrm{erg}`$, only a very small fraction ($`f_x`$) is emitted in hard X-rays. SN, in general, are rather inefficient in emitting X-rays, unless the local conditions under which they explode and expand include the presence of strong magnetic fields, or are in the dense interiors of pre-existing HII regions. The X-ray luminosities of detected bright SN and compact SN remnants are observed to be roughly $`L_\mathrm{X}3\times 10^{37}`$ erg s-1 (Williams & Chu 1995), and with estimated mean ages of $`1000`$ years,

$`f_x10^3\times ({\displaystyle \frac{t_{\mathrm{rem}}}{1000\mathrm{yr}}})\times ({\displaystyle \frac{L_X}{3\times 10^{37}\mathrm{ergs}^1}}),`$ (9)
where $`t_{\mathrm{rem}}`$ is the average age of the remnant. Note that here ‘age’ refers to the period that the remnant remains X-ray bright in the hard band, the overall life-time is expected to be much longer, of the order of $`10^5`$ years or so. The integrated contribution from SN to the total energy density of the XRB is given by,

$`\rho _{\mathrm{SN}}(z)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle _{z_{\mathrm{max}}}^z}\xi _2E_{\mathrm{SN}}f_xn_{\mathrm{SN}}(z)`$ (10)
$`(1+z)^{7/2}\mathrm{dz}\mathrm{erg}\mathrm{Mpc}^3,`$
where $`f_x`$ is the efficiency of hard X-ray emission by the SN, $`E_{\mathrm{SN}}`$ is the typical energy output of a SN, $`E_{\mathrm{SN}}10^{51}\mathrm{erg}`$ and $`n_{\mathrm{SN}}(z)`$ is the supernova rate in units of number per year per Mpc-3. Integrating the above equation using $`n_{\mathrm{SN}}(z)`$ computed from the star-formation rate in equation (5) for Type IIs and Type Ias, contributions of $`1.95\times \mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}10}^{54}`$ erg Mpc-3 \[Type II\] and $`[5.89,6.03,3.63]\times \mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}10}^{53}`$ erg Mpc-3 \[Type Ias\] (with time delays of \[0.3, 1, 3\] Gyr assumed between the SN explosion and the collapse of the primary star) were found. Clearly, Type IIs are more important than Type Ias, but their contribution to the hard XRB is only at the $`0.1\%`$ level. Therefore, X-ray emission from ordinary SN cannot account for a sizeable fraction of the hard XRB; however, it is worth noting that SN are believed to contribute significantly to the gamma-ray background dominated by the $`\gamma `$-ray line emission from the decay of 56Ni, primarily from Type Ia’s (see Watanabe et al. 1998).

### 3.2 Supernovae in compact, dense environments

SN exploding in high-density environments can rapidly reach very high X-ray luminosities, perhaps high enough to power the broad-line region of some AGN (e.g. Terlevich et al 1992). A good example is SN 1988Z, detected by Fabian & Terlevich (1996), the most distant SN yet detected in X-rays. These SN achieve maximum luminosity and very high temperatures ($`30`$keV) soon after the explosion ($`t1`$ yr). Thereafter they cool and the luminosity decays roughly as $`L_xt^{11/7}`$ (see Fabian & Terlevich 1992 and references therein) with luminous lifetimes of $`10100`$ years.

These events are much more efficient generators of X-ray emission. Taking SN 1988Z as a prototypical example, one finds that $`2`$ per cent of the total energy of the supernovae can be eventually liberated in X-rays, an order of magnitude higher than “ordinary” supernovae. Such events will clearly boost the potential supernovae contribution to the hard XRB. To place an upper bound on this contribution, one can assume that all supernovae occur in such environments and scale to the supernova rate as above. This leads to an upper limit of $`12\%`$ to the total XRB energy density.

## 4 Additional sources of hard X-ray emission?

In this work we concentrate on the ‘classic’ sources of X-ray emission from starburst galaxies, namely X-ray binaries and emission from supernovae. However there are additional sources of X-ray emission which, potentially, could significantly boost the starburst contribution to the hard X-ray background. Taking these in turn:

### 4.1 Compton scattering of IR photons

There is plausible evidence in at least two local galaxies (M82 and NGC3256) that IR photons can be Comptonised to X-ray energies by the relativistic electrons produced by supernovae (Moran & Lehnert 1997, Moran, Lehnert & Helfand 1999). Given the vast reservoir of IR photons produced by starburst activity, even a relatively low Comptonising efficiency can produce significant X-ray emission. Estimating the expected X-ray luminosity is highly uncertain however, and requires detailed knowledge of the geometry and energy budget in the Synchrotron plasma. Nevertheless, such models are strong candidates for explaining the hard X-ray emission in M82 and NGC3256. The possibility that these processes are globally important for starburst galaxies cannot be ruled out.

### 4.2 Crab-like Synchrotron sources

Crab-like SNRs (“plerions”; Weiler & Panagia 1978) are rare Synchrotron dominated X-ray sources. Synchrotron emission is unusual in X-ray astronomy due to the exceptionally high magnetic fields required and the short radiative lifetimes, but the handful of Crab-like objects known are important, highly luminous exceptions. One cannot exclude the possibility that extreme, Crab-like objects may be more important in early star forming galaxies, although so far there is no evidence to support this.

### 4.3 Starburst driven super-winds

Many local starburst galaxies show evidence for energetic outflowing winds (e.g. Heckman et al 1996). These winds can account for roughly 50 per cent of the X-ray luminosity in the soft (ROSAT) X-ray band but with typical thermal temperatures of $`<1`$ keV they are not expected to contribute significantly at higher energies.

## 5 Conclusions and discussion

In this letter, the contribution of MXRBs and SN to the hard XRB have been computed using recent estimates of the globally averaged star-formation rate in the Universe. It is found that MXRBs contribute at the 1% level and that the contribution of SN is probably significantly lower. Taking into account the uncertainties in the efficiency of hard X-ray emission and its unknown dependence on metallicity, MXRBs can at most account for a few percent of the hard XRB, despite their optimal spectral shape. Likewise, if most early supernovae occur in highly compact environments, their potential contribution could rise significantly, but still produce only $`12\%`$ of the hard XRB. We conclude that AGN will dominate the source counts in forthcoming X-ray surveys with Chandra and XMM unless the X-ray emission from distant starburst galaxies is dominated by alternative processes. Compton-scattering of IR photons by relativistic electrons and/or a hitherto unrecognized abundance of Crab-like synchrotron sources would boost the hard X-ray emission from starburst galaxies significantly, but as yet the universal role of such phenomena is unclear.

## Acknowledgements

Useful discussions with Philip Armitage, Guenther Hasinger and Piero Madau are gratefully acknowledged. PN thanks Andrew Blain for careful and detailed comments on the manuscript. We also thank the referee, David Helfand, for very constructive comments which tightened up the paper significantly.


text:
# JET FRAGMENTATION AND MLLA

## 1 Introduction and Theoretical Background

Perturbative QCD calculations, carried out in the framework of the Modified Leading Log Approximation  (MLLA), complemented with the Local Parton-Hadron Duality Hypothesis  (LPHD), predict the shape of the momentum distribution, as well as the total inclusive multiplicity, of particles in jets. The MLLA is an asymptotic calculation, which proves to be infrared stable, in the sense that the model cutoff parameter $`Q_{eff}`$ can be safely pushed down to $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_{QCD}`$. LPHD is responsible for the hadronization stage and implies that hadronization is local and happens at the end of the parton shower development. In its simplest interpretation, the model has one parameter $`K_{LPHD}`$, the rate of parton-to-hadron conversion:

$$N_{hadrons}=K_{LPHD}\times N_{partons}.$$
(1)
The low cutoff parameter Qeff allows the inclusion of hadrons with low transverse momentum, which constitute the majority of all hadrons in jets and could not be controlled in ordinary pQCD with a conventional cutoff scale of the order of 1 GeV. In the most favorable scenario, $`K_{LPHD}`$ $``$ 1. If only charged particles are observed, one may expect $`K_{LPHD}^{charged}`$ to be between 1/2 and 2/3.

In MLLA, momentum distributions and multiplicities in quark and gluon jets in a restricted cone of size $`\theta `$ around the jet axis are functions of $`E_{jet}\theta /Q_{eff}`$  and differ by a factor $`r`$:

$$N^{qjet}(\xi )=\frac{1}{r}N^{gjet}(\xi ),where\xi =\mathrm{log}\frac{1}{x},x=p_{track}/E_{jet}$$
(2)
Jets at the Tevatron are a mixture of quark and gluon jets. Therefore,

$$N_{hadrons}^{charged}(\xi )=K_{LPHD}^{charged}(ϵ_g+(1ϵ_g)\frac{1}{r})F^{nMLLA}N_{part}^{qjet}(\xi )=KN_{part}^{qjet}(\xi )$$
(3)
where $`ϵ_g`$ is the fraction of gluon jets in the events, the factor of $`1/r`$ reflects the difference between gluon and quark jets, and, finally, factor $`F^{nMLLA}`$ accounts for the next-to MLLA corrections to the gluon spectrum. Theoretical calculations  predict somewhat different values of $`F^{nMLLA}`$, but all agree that $`F^{nMLLA}`$ has almost no dependence on the jet energy in the region relevant to this analysis. We chose the average of the results above and used the difference between predictions as a theoretical error: $`F^{nMLLA}`$=1.3$`\pm `$0.2. The same papers predict the value of $`r`$ to be between 1.5 and 1.8.

## 2 Dijet Data Analysis

We used data collected by CDF during the 1993-1995 running period. For the analysis, we selected events with two jets well balanced in transverse energy. Both jets were required to be in the central region of the detector to ensure reliable tracking reconstruction. To avoid biases, third and fourth jets were allowed if sufficiently soft. Data was further subdivided into 9 dijet mass bins (mea values were ranging from 80 to 630 GeV). Tracks were counted in restricted cones of sizes 0.28,0.36 and 0.47 around the jet axis. Fig. 1(left) shows the inclusive mometum distribution of charged particles in jets for the 9 dijet mass bins for the largest cone-size of 0.47. The data was fitted with Eq.(3) for the parameters $`Q_{eff}`$ and normalization $`K`$ (see Eq.(3)). The visual agreement is good; however, the $`\chi ^2`$ is generally large indicating the importance of higher order and hadronization effects. We separately fitted the position of the peak of the momentum distribution for 27 combinations (9 dijet mass bins x 3 cone-sizes). In MLLA, the peak position depends on $`Q_{eff}`$ and is predicted to have $`E_{jet}\theta /Q_{eff}`$ scaling. In Fig. 1(right), we plotted the dependence of the peak position on $`M_{jj}\mathrm{sin}\theta `$ ($`e^+e^{}`$ and $`ep`$ data is shown as well). Clearly, the predicted scaling is present in data. Fig. 2(left) shows the 27 fitted values for $`Q_{eff}`$ as a function of the dijet mass. Taking into account that the errors are dominated by correlated systematics, one can conclude that $`Q_{eff}`$ is not absolutely universal, which again may be an indication of higher order effects. However, the scale of the deviations is very moderate suggesting that these effects are not large. We report a value for $`Q_{eff}=240\pm 40`$ MeV (corresponding range shown as a band on Fig. 2(left)).

Analysis of the fitted parameter K allows an extraction of both $`K_{LPHD}`$ and r. According to (3), the dependence is linear.On Fig. 2(right), we plotted 9 values of K (corresponding to 9 dijet masses for the largest cone-size 0.47) vs the gluon jet fraction (extracted using Herwig 5.6) in the events from respective dijet mass bins, as well as the results of the fit for $`K_{LPHD}`$ and $`r`$. The same parameters can be extracted from the inclusive multiplicity using an integrated version of Eq.(3). In this case, the extracted parameters will only rely on the total multiplicity and not on the exact shape of the distribution. Fig. 3(left) shows the fit of data with MLLA predictions as well as the fitted parameters $`K_{LPHD}`$ and $`r`$. It is remarkable that the two results are in such a good agreement.

## 3 Model-independent Measurement of r

We compared the multiplicity in dijet and $`\gamma `$-jet events (data selection was similar) to extract model-independent measurement of r. These samples have very different fraction of gluon jets for the jet energies 40-60 GeV (roughly 60% for dijets and 12% for $`\gamma `$-jet, according to Herwig 5.6). The multiplicities measured for each of the samples and a knowledge of the gluon jet fractions allowed us to extract $`r`$. Fig. 3(right) shows the measured r as a function of the jet energy. We report $`r`$=1.75$`\pm `$0.11$`\pm `$0.15 in perfect agreement with MLLA result.

## Conclusion

Results presented support the perturbative nature of jet fragmentation. The measured value of $`Q_{eff}`$ allows a consistent description of the majority of particles. $`K_{LPHD}`$ and $`r`$ are not only self-consistence within the model, but also with model-independent result. $`E_{jet}\mathrm{sin}\theta `$ scaling is observed for the first time.

## References


text:
# Observing the Unobservable: Coronal Line Data from Narrow-Line Seyfert 1s as a Test of EUV Continuum Models

## 1. Introduction

Narrow-line Seyfert 1 objects (NLS1s) are a phenomenologically interesting subclass of Seyfert 1s. As their name suggests, they have the narrowest permitted lines of all Seyfert 1s (FWHM(H$`\beta `$) $`\stackrel{<}{_{}}`$ 2000 km s-1), which appear to be associated with a range of other extremal properties, including strong, steep, soft X-ray excesses, strong permitted Fe II lines, weak forbidden lines, and a high degree of short timescale variability in X-rays. Coronal lines, forbidden transitions from highly ionised states of iron, are often present in their optical spectra. Their properties form a continuum with those of “normal” Seyfert 1s, but as they show extremal properties, they are important for testing AGN unification schemes. It is thought likely that they are Seyfert 1s with low mass black holes and/or high accretion rates.

To further understand the nature of the soft UV/X-ray excess, which is an important component of the energy output of these objects, we wish to study the EUV continuum. As this is not directly observable for extragalactic objects due to Galactic absorption, we use coronal lines (which have ionisation energies $``$ a few hundred eV) as diagnostics of this region. This approach also allows us to investigate the physical conditions in the coronal line region, particularly by kinematic methods.

## 2. Observations and data reduction

Nineteen NLS1s from the soft X-ray observed sample of Boller et al. (1996) were observed between 5 – 11 August 1996, using the Intermediate Dispersion Spectrograph mounted on the Isaac Newton Telescope at La Palma, obtaining dispersions of 1.6 – 3.2 Å pixel-1. The data were reduced with the Starlink project’s FIGARO software, and fitted using the ELF routines in DIPSO, which simultaneusly fitted gaussian line profiles and a linear continuum. This approach allowed the deblending of neighbouring lines.

The coronal lines \[Fe VII\] $`\lambda `$6038.9, \[Fe X\] $`\lambda `$6374.6, \[Fe XI\] $`\lambda `$7891.9 and \[Fe XIV\] $`\lambda `$5302.86 were identified where possible, and upper limits were placed on them otherwise. Line profiles were then transformed into velocity space relative to the rest-frame of the \[O III\] $`\lambda \lambda `$4959, 5007 doublet.

## 3. Results

### 3.1. Kinematic analysis

Erkens et al. (1997) noted a tendency for broader coronal lines to be more blueshifted than narrower ones. To further investigate this correlation in a manner independent of black hole mass, we assume that the FWHM of coronal lines is governed by the virial theorem and define a radial estimator

$$=\frac{r_{\text{[Fe]}}}{r_{\text{[O III]}}}=\left(\frac{\text{FWHM}_{\text{[O III]}}}{\text{FWHM}_{\text{[Fe]}}}\right)^2$$

where $`r_{\text{[Fe]}}`$ is the distance from the central black hole at which a line, \[Fe\], is emitted. Plotting the outflow velocity $`\delta v`$ against $``$ shows a decelerating outflow, which was fitted to first order by $`\delta v=(806\pm 93)(417\pm 25)`$ km s-1 (see Figure 1). The minimum value of $``$ observed is 0.024, which constrains the maximum size of the region over which the gas is accelerated.

For those objects for which at least 3 coronal lines had been detected, we plotted $``$ against the ionisation potential, in order to determine if stratification of the CLR was important. For Arakelian 564, there is a trend towards more highly ionised gas being detected closer to the nucleus, but this trend is not unambiguously detected in other objects (see Figure 2).

### 3.2. Comparison with X-ray data

Equivalent widths of \[Fe VII\] and \[Fe X\] were compared with ROSAT PSPC photon indices obtained from Boller et al. (1996) (see Figure 3). No strong correlation is present for either line.

## 4. Conclusions

Gas in the coronal line region is outflowing, and this outflow appears to be decelerating. The coronal line gas has reached an outflow velocity of 420 km s-1 within a distance from the nucleus estimated to be $`<1/40`$ that of the NLR. Radiation pressure does not appear to drive motion in the CLR, as this would be expected to produce accelerating, rather than decelerating outflows (see Binette (1998) for an example of a radiation pressure driven model).

Coronal line strengths do not follow a simple correlation with ROSAT PSPC photon index. To investigate the EUV continuum in more detail, we plan to create photoionisation models based on a fixed power-law, with a black body component of variable luminosity and temperature added, and test the predictions of these models against our observed coronal line strengths. The models will also allow for stratification of the CLR.

## ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank Dr. T. Roberts for his help with the observations. This work uses data obtained using the Isaac Newton Telescope, Observatorio de la Roque de los Muchachos, La Palma. P.J. Bleackley has been supported by a PPARC research studentship.

## REFERENCES

Binette, L., 1998, MNRAS, 294, L47–L51

Boller, Th., Brandt, W.N., and Fink, H., 1996, A&A, 305, 53–73

Erkens, U., Appenzeller, I., and Wagner, S., 1997, A&A, 323, 707–716


text:
# Higgs-mass predictions and electroweak precision observables in the Standard Model and the MSSM

## 1 INTRODUCTION

By confronting the electroweak precision data with the theory, i.e. the electroweak Standard Model (SM) or extensions of it, most prominently the Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model (MSSM), it is possible to test the theory at its quantum level, where all parameters of the model enter. Within the SM, a fit to the precision data allows to constrain the mass of the Higgs boson, being the last missing ingredient of the model. The present 95% C.L. upper bound on the Higgs-boson mass is given by $`M_\mathrm{H}<188`$ GeV . The dependence of the precision observables on $`M_\mathrm{H}`$ is only logarithmic in leading order, while they depend quadratically on the top-quark mass . Thus, in order to derive indirect constraints on the Higgs-boson mass a very high precision of the experimental data and the theoretical predictions is needed.

While within the SM only the mass of the Higgs boson has not been experimentally determined so far, the MSSM in its unconstrained form (i.e. without specific assumptions about the SUSY-breaking mechanism) introduces more than 100 unknown free parameters (masses, mixing angles, etc.). A precise determination of the model parameters will not only be important in order to investigate whether the MSSM is consistent with the data, but also to infer possible patterns of the underlying SUSY-breaking mechanism. In this context the indirect constraints on the model from precision data will often be complementary to the information from the direct production of SUSY particles. Furthermore, a very stringent direct test of the MSSM is possible. In contrast to the SM, the mass of the lightest $`𝒞𝒫`$-even Higgs boson, $`m_\mathrm{h}`$, is not a free parameter in the MSSM but is calculable from other parameters of the model. This results in the tree-level bound $`m_\mathrm{h}<M_\mathrm{Z}`$, which however is strongly affected by large radiative corrections , shifting it to about $`m_\mathrm{h}\stackrel{<}{}\mathrm{\hspace{0.33em}135}`$ GeV at the two-loop level . If the lightest $`𝒞𝒫`$-even Higgs boson of the MSSM will be detected, its mass will play an important role as a precision observable. The prospective accuracy at the LHC is $`\mathrm{\Delta }m_\mathrm{h}0.2`$ GeV . At a future linear collider this could be improved to $`\mathrm{\Delta }m_\mathrm{h}0.05`$ GeV , while at a future muon collider even an accuracy of $`\mathrm{\Delta }m_\mathrm{h}0.1`$ MeV  could be achievable.

## 2 PRECISION OBSERVABLES IN THE SM AT PRESENT AND FUTURE COLLIDERS

The present bound on the Higgs-boson mass derived within the SM by comparing the experimental data with the theoretical predictions arises mainly from the precision measurements of the mass of the W boson, $`M_\mathrm{W}=80.419\pm 0.038`$ GeV , and the effective leptonic weak mixing angle at the Z-boson resonance, $`\mathrm{sin}^2\theta _{\mathrm{eff}}=0.23149\pm 0.00017`$ . Theoretical uncertainties in the predictions for the observables arise both from unknown higher-order corrections and from the experimental errors of the input parameters (in particular $`m_\mathrm{t}`$, $`\mathrm{\Delta }\alpha _{\mathrm{had}}`$) used for the theoretical predictions.

The constraints on $`M_\mathrm{H}`$ arising from the prediction for the W-boson mass are illustrated in Fig. 1, where the most recent SM result for $`M_\mathrm{W}`$  is compared with the current experimental value. The present 95% C.L. lower bound on $`M_\mathrm{H}`$ from the direct search of $`M_\mathrm{H}=107.9`$ GeV  is also indicated. The plot shows the well-known preference for a light Higgs boson within the SM. Confronting the theoretical prediction (allowing a variation of $`m_\mathrm{t}`$, which at present dominates the theoretical uncertainty, within $`1\sigma `$) with the $`1\sigma `$ region of $`M_\mathrm{W}^{\mathrm{exp}}`$ and the 95% C.L. lower bound on $`M_\mathrm{H}`$, only a rather small region in the plot matches all three constraints.

At the next generation of colliders a significant improvement can be expected in the experimental accuracies of both the observables employed for testing the theory and of the input parameters used for deriving the theoretical predictions. This is illustrated in Fig. 2, where the SM predictions for $`M_\mathrm{W}`$ and $`\mathrm{sin}^2\theta _{\mathrm{eff}}`$ are compared with the experimental accuracy (assuming the present experimental central values of the observables) obtainable at LEP2, SLC and the Tevatron (Run IIA) as well as with prospective future accuracies at the LHC and at a high-luminosity linear collider in a dedicated low-energy run (GigaZ). The experimental accuracies assumed in Fig. 2 for LEP2/Tevatron, LHC and GigaZ are $`\mathrm{\Delta }M_\mathrm{W}=30`$ MeV, 15 MeV, 6 MeV and $`\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{sin}^2\theta _{\mathrm{eff}}=1.7\times 10^4`$, $`1.7\times 10^4`$, $`1\times 10^5`$, respectively. The allowed region of the present SM prediction corresponds to varying $`M_\mathrm{H}`$ in the interval $`90\mathrm{GeV}M_\mathrm{H}400\mathrm{GeV}`$ and $`m_\mathrm{t}`$ within its current experimental $`1\sigma `$ uncertainty. The theoretical prediction at GigaZ, assuming that the Higgs boson has been found, is shown for three values of the Higgs-boson mass, $`M_\mathrm{H}=120,150,180`$ GeV, and an uncertainty of $`\delta m_\mathrm{t}=\pm 200`$ MeV and $`\delta \mathrm{\Delta }\alpha =\pm 7\times 10^5`$ is taken into account in this case. As can be seen in Fig. 2, the precision observables $`M_\mathrm{W}`$ and $`\mathrm{sin}^2\theta _{\mathrm{eff}}`$ provide a very sensitive test of the theory, in particular in the case of the GigaZ accuracy .

This fact manifests itself in the precision with which $`M_\mathrm{H}`$ can indirectly be determined within the SM. While at present the $`1\sigma `$ uncertainty of $`\delta M_\mathrm{H}/M_\mathrm{H}`$ derived from all data amounts to more than $`\pm 60\%`$, at GigaZ an accuracy of about $`\delta M_\mathrm{H}/M_\mathrm{H}=\pm 7\%`$ can be expected ,111For the future theoretical uncertainties from unknown higher-order corrections (including the uncertainties from $`\delta \mathrm{\Delta }\alpha `$) we have assumed $`\delta M_\mathrm{W}(\text{theory})=\pm 3`$ MeV and $`\delta \mathrm{sin}^2\theta _{\mathrm{eff}}(\text{theory})=\pm 3\times 10^5`$ . which is of the same order of magnitude as presently the indirect determination of $`m_\mathrm{t}`$ from the precision data (without using its experimental value).

## 3 CONSTRAINTS ON $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$ FROM THE HIGGS SEARCH AT LEP

The upper bound of about $`m_\mathrm{h}\stackrel{<}{}\mathrm{\hspace{0.33em}135}`$ GeV on the mass of the lightest $`𝒞𝒫`$-even Higgs boson is a definite and fairly robust prediction of the MSSM, which can be tested at the present and the next generation of colliders. By comparing the experimental limit on $`m_\mathrm{h}`$ from the search at LEP2 with the theoretical result for the upper bound on $`m_\mathrm{h}`$ in the MSSM as a function of $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$ (the ratio of the vacuum expectation values of the two Higgs doublets) it is possible to derive constraints on $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$.

The theoretical input used in the analysis of the search at LEP for the lightest $`𝒞𝒫`$-even Higgs boson of the MSSM has recently been improved in two ways. Firstly, a new “benchmark scenario” has been proposed  which slightly generalizes the parameter settings (for $`m_\mathrm{t}=174.3`$ GeV and $`M_{\mathrm{SUSY}}=1`$ TeV kept fixed) used so far in the LEP analyses. It leads to a more conservative upper bound on $`m_\mathrm{h}`$ as a function of $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$ (“$`m_\mathrm{h}^{\mathrm{max}}`$ scenario”). Secondly, a new Feynman-diagrammatic two-loop result for $`m_\mathrm{h}`$ became available  which incorporates genuine two-loop contributions (see Ref. ) that were not contained in the renormalization-group (RG) improved one-loop effective potential result  previously used for the data analyses. This is illustrated in Fig. 3, where the upper bound on $`m_\mathrm{h}`$ is shown as a function of $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$. The difference between the dashed and the dotted curve is the effect of changing the previously used parameter settings to the new LEP benchmark values ($`m_\mathrm{h}^{\mathrm{max}}`$ scenario), while the difference between the full curve and the dashed curve is caused by using the Feynman-diagrammatic (FD) result instead of the previous result (RG). As can be seen in the figure, both changes (for $`\mathrm{tan}\beta \stackrel{>}{}\mathrm{\hspace{0.33em}1}`$) result in a sizable shift towards higher values of $`m_\mathrm{h}`$. Their combined effect amounts to an upward shift of $`m_\mathrm{h}`$ of up to almost $`10`$ GeV.

This upward shift in $`m_\mathrm{h}(\mathrm{tan}\beta )`$ gives rise to the fact that the excluded $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$ region in the $`m_\mathrm{h}^{\mathrm{max}}`$ scenario using the combined data taken by the four LEP collaborations up to the end of 1999 is smaller than in the previous LEP analyses, despite the fact that the experimental lower bound on $`m_\mathrm{h}`$ as function of $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$ has considerably improved. In Fig. 4, the excluded region resulting from the combination of the data of the four LEP experiments is compared with the upper (and lower) bound within the MSSM (marked as “theoretically inaccessible”) obtained with the program FeynHiggs  based on the Feynman-diagrammatic result. The upper plot shows the case of the $`m_\mathrm{h}^{\mathrm{max}}`$ scenario, for which an excluded region of $`0.7<\mathrm{tan}\beta <1.8`$ can be inferred . The lower plot shows the so-called no-mixing scenario , where vanishing mixing in the scalar top sector is assumed (the other parameters are the same as in the $`m_\mathrm{h}^{\mathrm{max}}`$ scenario), resulting in significantly smaller values of $`m_\mathrm{h}`$. In this scenario an excluded region of $`0.4<\mathrm{tan}\beta <4.1`$ is obtained .

## 4 PRECISION TESTS OF THE MSSM AT GigaZ

Similarly to the case of the SM, the predictions for $`M_\mathrm{W}`$ and $`\mathrm{sin}^2\theta _{\mathrm{eff}}`$ can also be employed for an indirect test of the MSSM. We consider here the unconstrained MSSM with real parameters. For the precision observables and $`m_\mathrm{h}`$ mainly the parameters of the scalar top and bottom sector and of the Higgs sector are relevant. In Fig. 5 the predictions within the SM and the MSSM in the $`M_\mathrm{W}`$$`\mathrm{sin}^2\theta _{\mathrm{eff}}`$ plane are compared with the experimental accuracies at LEP2/Tevatron, the LHC (and an LC without the GigaZ mode) and GigaZ. For the SUSY contributions to $`M_\mathrm{W}`$ and $`\mathrm{sin}^2\theta _{\mathrm{eff}}`$ we use the complete one-loop results in the MSSM  combined with the leading higher-order QCD corrections .222The recent electroweak two-loop results of the SM part in the MSSM  have not been taken into account, since no genuine MSSM counterpart is available so far. The allowed region of the SM prediction is the same as in Fig. 2, while in the MSSM prediction besides the uncertainty of $`m_\mathrm{t}`$ also the SUSY parameters are varied. Fig. 5 shows that the predictions of the two models have only a relatively small overlap in the $`M_\mathrm{W}`$$`\mathrm{sin}^2\theta _{\mathrm{eff}}`$ plane (corresponding to the SM with a light Higgs boson and the MSSM in the decoupling region). With the GigaZ accuracy, the precision observables provide a high sensitivity to deviations from both models.

The constraints from the precision data on $`M_\mathrm{W}`$, $`\mathrm{sin}^2\theta _{\mathrm{eff}}`$, etc. at GigaZ can be combined with those from a prospective measurement of $`m_\mathrm{h}`$ with a precision of $`\delta m_\mathrm{h}=0.05`$ GeV. This could allow to indirectly probe the masses of particles in supersymmetric theories that might not be accessible directly neither at the LHC nor at the LC.

As an example, we consider the case where at the LHC and the LC the mass of the lighter scalar top quark, $`m_{\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{t}}_1}`$, and the $`\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{t}}`$-mixing angle, $`\theta _{\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{t}}}`$, are measurable very well. On the other hand, we assume no experimental information on the heavier $`\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{t}}`$-particle, $`\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{t}}_2`$, and on the mass of the $`𝒞𝒫`$-odd Higgs-boson, $`M_\mathrm{A}`$. For large masses, $`\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{t}}_2`$ and the heavy Higgs bosons A, H and $`\mathrm{H}^\pm `$ are very difficult to observe as a consequence of background problems at the LHC and lacking energy at the LC. For $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$ we assume that from measurements in the gaugino sector either a fairly tight bound can be set if $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$ turns out to be relatively small, e.g. $`2.5\mathrm{tan}\beta 3.5`$, or otherwise only a lower bound, e.g. $`\mathrm{tan}\beta 10`$ (see e.g. Ref. ). As for the other parameters, the following values are assumed, with uncertainties as expected from LHC  and TESLA : $`m_{\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{t}}_1}=500\pm 2\mathrm{GeV}`$, $`\mathrm{sin}\theta _{\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{t}}}=0.69\pm 2\%`$, $`A_\mathrm{b}=A_\mathrm{t}\pm 10\%`$, $`\mu =200\pm 1\mathrm{GeV}`$, $`M_2=400\pm 2\mathrm{GeV}`$ and $`m_{\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{g}}}=500\pm 10\mathrm{GeV}`$. In our analysis we assume a future uncertainty in the theoretical prediction of $`m_\mathrm{h}`$ of $`\pm 0.5\mathrm{GeV}`$.

In this scenario, assuming as experimental values $`M_\mathrm{W}=80.400\pm 0.006`$ GeV, $`\mathrm{sin}^2\theta _{\mathrm{eff}}=0.23140\pm 0.00001`$ and $`m_\mathrm{h}=115.00\pm 0.05`$ GeV, we find the allowed region in the $`M_\mathrm{A}`$$`m_{\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{t}}_2}`$ plane shown in Fig. 6 . In the case of large $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$, where the prediction for $`m_\mathrm{h}`$ depends only mildly on $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$, the constraint from the $`m_\mathrm{h}`$ measurement yields a rather tight bound on $`m_{\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{t}}_2}`$ . In combination with the information from the data on $`M_\mathrm{W}`$ and $`\mathrm{sin}^2\theta _{\mathrm{eff}}`$ this gives rise to a relatively small allowed region in the $`M_\mathrm{A}`$$`m_{\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{t}}_2}`$ plane ($`660\mathrm{GeV}\stackrel{<}{}m_{\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{t}}_2}\stackrel{<}{}\mathrm{\hspace{0.33em}680}\mathrm{GeV}`$, $`200\mathrm{GeV}\stackrel{<}{}M_\mathrm{A}\stackrel{<}{}\mathrm{\hspace{0.33em}800}\mathrm{GeV}`$). In the small $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$ region, on the other hand, where $`m_\mathrm{h}`$ depends very sensitively on $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$, a larger allowed region in the $`M_\mathrm{A}`$$`m_{\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{t}}_2}`$ plane is obtained. In both cases, however, an upper bound on $`M_\mathrm{A}`$ can be established, which mainly arises from the precise measurement of $`\mathrm{sin}^2\theta _{\mathrm{eff}}`$. Note that we have assumed a measured value of $`\mathrm{sin}^2\theta _{\mathrm{eff}}`$ in accordance with the MSSM prediction in a region where the SUSY particles do not completely decouple, i.e. a value slightly below the corresponding SM prediction (see Fig. 5). For the experimental accuracy at an LC without the GigaZ mode no bound on $`M_\mathrm{A}`$ could be inferred.

We thank J. Erler, W. Hollik and P.M. Zerwas for collaboration on various parts of the results presented here. G.W. thanks the organizers of Loops and Legs 2000 for the invitation, the excellent organization and the pleasant atmosphere during the workshop.