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# The Fermion–Boson Transformation in Fractional Quantum Hall Systems

## I Introduction

The transformation of electrons into composite Fermions (CF) by attaching to each particle a flux tube carrying an even number of flux quanta has led to a simple intuitive picture of the fractional quantum Hall effect (FQHE). Shortly after the introduction of the CF picture, Xie et al. introduced a Fermion$``$Boson (F$``$B) mapping connecting a 2D Fermion system at filling $`\nu _F`$ with a 2D Boson system at filling $`\nu _B`$, where $`\nu _F^1=\nu _B^1+1`$. These authors stated that the sizes of the many body Hilbert spaces for the Boson and Fermion systems were identical, and that their numerical calculations verified that the mapping accurately transformed the ground state of the Fermion system into the ground state of the Boson system if and only if these ground states were incompressible FQH states. In this paper we show that the F$``$B transformation leads to identical energy spectra if and only if the pseudopotential $`V(L_{12})`$ describing the interactions among the particles is of the “harmonic” form $`V_H(L_{12})=A+BL_{12}(L_{12}+1)`$, where $`A`$ and $`B`$ are constants, and $`L_{12}`$ is the total angular momentum of the interacting pair.  Laughlin correlations occur when the actual pseudopotential $`V(L_{12})`$ rises more quickly with increasing $`L_{12}`$ than $`V_H(L_{12})`$. Anharmonic effects (due to $`\mathrm{\Delta }V(L_{12})=V(L_{12})V_H(L_{12})`$) cause the interacting Fermion and interacting Boson spectra to differ for every value of the filling factor $`\nu _F=\nu _B(1+\nu _B)^1`$. However, for appropriately chosen (short range) model pseudopotentials, the F$``$B mapping accurately transforms the ground state of the Fermion system to that of the Boson system both for incompressible FQH states and for other low lying states. The F$``$B mapping is also very useful in understanding the relation between the Haldane hierarchy of Boson quasiparticle (QP) condensates and the CF hierarchy of Fermion QP condensed states.

## II Gauge Transformations in Two-Dimensional Systems

By attaching to each Fermion or Boson of charge $`e`$ a fictitious flux tube carrying an even number $`2p`$ of flux quanta oriented opposite to the applied field, the eigenstates and particle statistics are unchanged. The “gauge field” interactions between the charge on one particle and the vector potential due to the flux quanta on every other particle make the Hamiltonian more complicated. Only when the mean field approximation is made does the problem simplify. In addition to these (CF and CB) transformations, a F$``$B transformation can be made by attaching to each Fermion an odd number $`2p+1`$ of flux quanta (one flux quantum changes the statistics; other $`2p`$ flux quanta describe an additional CF or CB transformation). If the particles are confined to the surface of a sphere containing at its center a magnetic monopole of strength $`2S_F`$ (for Fermions) or $`2S_B`$ (for Bosons) flux quanta, then the lowest shell of mean field composite particles has angular momentum $`l_F^{}=|l_Fp(N1)|`$ where $`l_F=S_F`$ or $`l_B^{}=|l_Bp(N1)|`$ where $`l_B=S_B`$. In the F$``$B transformation (with $`p=0`$), $`l_F`$ is replaced by $`l_B=|l_F\frac{1}{2}(N1)|`$.

## III Some Useful Theorems

When a shell of angular momentum $`l`$ contains $`N`$ identical particles (Fermions or Bosons), the resulting $`N`$ particle states can be classified by eigenvectors $`|L,M,\alpha `$, where $`L`$ is the total angular momentum, $`M`$ its $`z`$-component, and $`\alpha `$ a label which distinguishes independent multiplets with the same total angular momentum $`L`$. In the mean field CF (CB) transformation $`l_F`$ ($`l_B`$) is transformed to $`l_F^{}`$ ($`l_B^{}`$). In trying to understand why the mean field CF picture correctly predicted the low lying band of states in the interacting electron spectrum, the following theorem was important.

### Theorem 1.

The set of allowed total angular momentum multiplets of $`N`$ Fermions each with angular momentum $`l_F^{}`$ is a subset of the set of allowed multiplets of $`N`$ Fermions each with angular momentum $`l_F=l_F^{}+(N1)`$.

Thus, if we define $`g_{Nl}(L)`$ as the number of independent multiplets of total angular momentum $`L`$ formed by addition of the angular momenta of $`N`$ Fermions, each with angular momentum $`l`$, then $`g_{Nl^{}}(L)g_{Nl}(L)`$ for every value of $`L`$. A few examples for small systems suggest that the theorem is correct, but a general mathematical proof is non-trivial. A proof using the methods of combinatorics and the KOH theorem has been given recently. The same method allows the proof of a second theorem.

### Theorem 2.

The set of allowed total angular momentum multiplets of $`N`$ Bosons each with angular momentum $`l_B`$ is identical to the set of multiplets for $`N`$ Fermions each with angular momentum $`l_F=l_B+\frac{1}{2}(N1)`$.

From Theorem 2 it follows immediately that Theorem 1 also applies to Bosons. Theorem 2 is a stronger statement than a simple equality of the sizes of the many body Hilbert spaces.

## IV Interaction Effects

In studying why the mean field CF picture correctly predicts the low lying states of a 2D electron system in a magnetic field  the “harmonic pseudopotential”

$$V_H(L_{12})=A+B\widehat{L}_{12}^2$$
(1)
was introduced. Here $`A`$ and $`B`$ are constants and $`\widehat{L}_{12}`$ is the total angular momentum operator of the pair of particles. It was shown that for the harmonic pseudopotential the energy of any multiplet of angular momentum $`L`$ was given by

$`E_{L\alpha }`$ $`=`$ $`A{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}N(N1)`$ (2)
$`+`$ $`BN(N2)l(l+1)+BL(L+1).`$ (3)
The energy is independent of $`\alpha `$, so that every multiplet with the same value of $`L`$ has the same energy. Equation (3) holds both for Fermions and for Bosons. If $`B_F=B_B=B`$, then the spectrum of $`N`$ Bosons each with angular momentum $`l_B`$ is identical (up to a constant) to that of $`N`$ Fermions each with angular momentum $`l_F=l_B+\frac{1}{2}(N1)`$. This is a rather surprising result because Fermions and Bosons sample different sets of values of the pair angular momentum. For example, for $`N=9`$ and $`l_F=12`$ (corresponding to $`\nu _F=\frac{1}{3}`$) the allowed values of the Fermion pair angular momentum consist of all odd integers between 1 and 23; for the corresponding Boson system with $`l_B=8`$ ($`\nu _B=\frac{1}{2}`$), the allowed values of $`L_{12}`$ are all even integers between 0 and 16. Despite the totally different set of pseudopotential coefficients sampled, up to a constant, the spectra of the Boson and Fermion systems interacting through a harmonic pseudopotential are the same.

In earlier work it was emphasized that the harmonic pseudopotential led to an “anti-Hund’s rule” with the lowest energy state having the lowest allowed value of $`L`$. It is the positive anharmonicity $`\mathrm{\Delta }V(L_{12})>0`$ that causes Laughlin correlations. It is useful to introduce the “relative” angular momentum $`=2lL_{12}`$. For Bosons $`_B=0`$, 2, 4, … while for Fermions $`_F=1`$, 3, 5, …; in both cases, $`2l`$. We can write the pseudopotential and its harmonic and anharmonic parts in terms of $``$, and call them $`V()`$, $`V_H()`$, and $`\mathrm{\Delta }V()`$, respectively. It is more reasonable to make simple models for $`\mathrm{\Delta }V()`$ (e.g. assume that it vanishes for all $``$ greater than some value) than for $`V()`$ itself. From equation (3) and the equation for the total energy,

$$E_{L\alpha }=\frac{1}{2}N(N1)\underset{}{}𝒢_{L\alpha }()V(),$$
(4)
where $`𝒢_{L\alpha }()`$ is the coefficient of fractional grandparentage (CFGP), it is readily ascertained that the interacting Boson and interacting Fermion systems cannot have identical spectra when $`\mathrm{\Delta }V()`$ is non-zero.

Xie et al. determined the Boson and Fermion eigenfunctions by exact numerical diagonalization for six particle systems connected through the F$``$B transformation. They then transformed the Boson eigenfunctions into Fermion eigenfunctions by multiplying them by $`_{i<j}(z_iz_j)`$, as required by the B$``$F transformation. The overlap of these transformed Boson eigenfunctions with the exact Fermion eigenfunctions was then evaluated. The overlap was quite close to unity for incompressible quantum fluid states when the full Coulomb interaction was used. A similar result was obtained for a model short range interaction $`H_1`$ for which $`V()`$ vanished for $`>1`$ and was equal to the Coulomb values at $`=0`$ (for Bosons) or at $`=1`$ (for Fermions). However, when the interaction was approximated by $`H_3`$ for which $`V()`$ vanished for $`>3`$ and was equal to the Coulomb values at $`=0`$ and 2 (for Bosons) or at $`=1`$ and 3 (for Fermions), the overlap was considerably smaller. The reason appears to be that for Fermions $`H_3`$ is subharmonic at $`=3`$, while for Bosons it is (marginally) superharmonic in the entire range of $``$, and that for a subharmonic pseudopotential Laughlin correlations are not expected to occur. By a subharmonic (superharmonic) behavior of $`V()`$ at a certain value $`_0`$ we mean that $`V(_0)`$ is larger (smaller) than a value $`V_H(_0)`$ for which $`V()`$ would be harmonic (i.e., linear in $`L_{12}(L_{12}+1)`$) in the range $`_02_0+2`$. We will later use an anharmonicity parameter $`x`$ defined as $`x(_0)=V(_0)/V_H(_0)`$; for the $`H_3`$ interaction, $`x(3)=1.3`$ (for Fermions) and $`x(2)=0.8`$ (for Bosons).

We have evaluated numerically the eigenstates of an eight electron system at $`2S_F=19`$ to 23 (these states correspond to Laughlin $`\nu _F=\frac{1}{3}`$ states with zero, one, or two QP’s) for a number of different pseudopotentials. We have used the full Coulomb pseudopotential, $`H_1`$, $`H_3`$, $`H_5`$, and a model pseudopotential $`V_x`$ in which $`V_x(1)=1`$, $`V_x(5)=0`$, and $`V_x(3)=xV_H(3)`$ is an arbitrary fraction $`x`$ of the “harmonic” value. We perform the same calculations for eight Boson systems at $`2S_B=12`$ to 16 (here, $`V_x(0)=1`$, $`V_x(4)=0`$, and $`V_x(2)=xV_H(2)`$).

In Fig. 1 we contrast the energy spectra for the Fermion and Boson systems at $`\nu _F=\frac{1}{3}`$ ($`\nu _B=\frac{1}{2}`$) for the Coulomb pseudopotential appropriate for the lowest Landau level (a–a), and for the model pseudopotentials $`H_1`$ (b–b) and $`H_3`$ (c–c).

In Fig. 2 we do the same for the state containing two Laughlin quasielectrons (QE).

The lowest states in (a–a) and (b–b) are quite similar consisting of a Laughlin $`L=0`$ ground state in Fig. 1 and two-QE states with $`l_{\mathrm{QE}}=\frac{1}{2}(N1)=\frac{7}{2}`$ giving $`L=N2`$, $`N4`$, $`\mathrm{}=0`$, 2, 4, and 6 in Fig. 2. The magnetoroton band (at $`2L8`$) is apparent in Fig. 1 although the gaps and band widths are different for different pseudopotentials. The pseudopotential used in (c–c) gives very different results both in Fig. 1 and Fig. 2. As mentioned before, this results because $`V(3)`$ used in Fermion pseudopotential $`H_3`$ is too large to lead to Laughlin correlations.

To illustrate this point we have calculated the energy spectra using pseudopotential $`V_x`$ with different values of $`x`$. In Fig. 3 we show the spectra at $`\nu _F=\frac{1}{3}`$ ($`\nu _B=\frac{1}{2}`$) for $`x=\frac{1}{2}`$, 1, and $`\frac{3}{2}`$.

For $`x<1`$, $`V_x()`$ is superharmonic at $`=3`$ (for Fermions; $`xx(3)`$) or at $`=2`$ (for Bosons; $`xx(2)`$), and Laughlin correlations with an $`L=0`$ ground state occur. For $`x1`$ there is little resemblance between the numerical spectra and that associated with the full Coulomb interaction. Furthermore, the Fermion and Boson spectra are quite different from one another.

From the eigenfunctions we can determine CFGP’s $`𝒢_{L\alpha }()`$ for each state $`|L,\alpha `$. In Fig. 4 we plot the $`x`$-dependence of the CFGP’s $`𝒢_{L\alpha }()`$ from pair states at three smallest values of $``$ calculated for the lowest energy $`L=0`$ state of eight Fermions at $`2S_F=21`$ ($`\nu _F=\frac{1}{3}`$) and eight Bosons at $`2S_B=14`$ ($`\nu _B=\frac{1}{2}`$).

In both systems, a Laughlin incompressible state with vanishing $`𝒢(1)`$ (for Fermions) or $`𝒢(0)`$ (for Bosons) occurs at small $`x`$, and a rather abrupt transition occurs at $`x1`$, implying a change of the nature of the correlations when the pseudopotential $`V_x()`$ changes from super- to subharmonic. At $`x>1`$, the correlations in the two systems are quite different and, for example, another abrupt transition occurs in the Boson system at $`x4`$ (not shown in the figure), which is absent in the Fermion system.

## V Quasiparticles

The F$``$B transformation allows us to better understand the Boson vs. Fermion description of QP’s in incompressible FQH states. Laughlin condensed states having $`\nu _F=(2p+1)^1`$ (where $`p`$ is a positive integer) occur at $`2S_F=(2p+1)(N1)`$ in the Haldane spherical geometry. The CF transformation gives an effective angular momentum $`l_F^{}=S_F^{}=Sp(N1)=\frac{1}{2}(N1)`$ when $`2p`$ flux quanta are attached to each electron and oriented opposite to the applied magnetic field. Thus the $`N`$ CF’s fill the $`2l^{}+1`$ states of the lowest CF shell giving an $`L=0`$ incompressible ground state.

The F$``$B transformation gives $`2S_B=2S_F(N1)=2p(N1)`$ and a Boson filling factor of $`\nu _B=(2p)^1`$. Making a CB transformation gives $`l_B^{}=S_B^{}=S_Bp(N1)=0`$. This also gives an $`L=0`$ incompressible ground state because each CB has $`l_B^{}=0`$. Thus the CF description of a Laughlin state has one filled CF shell of angular momentum $`l_F^{}=\frac{1}{2}(N1)`$, while the CB description has $`N`$ CB’s each with angular momentum $`l_B^{}=0`$.

For $`2S_B=2n(N1)\pm n_{\mathrm{QP}}`$, where the $`+`$ and $``$ occur for quasiholes (QH) and quasielectrons (QE), respectively, we define $`2l_B^{}=|2S_B^{}|=n_{\mathrm{QP}}`$. This gives exactly the same set of angular momentum multiplets as obtained in the CF picture with $`2S_F=(2n+1)(N1)+n_{\mathrm{QH}}`$. However it gives a larger set of multiplets than are allowed by $`2S_F=(2n+1)(N1)n_{\mathrm{QE}}`$. For example, for $`n_{\mathrm{QE}}=2`$, $`l_B^{}=1`$ and the allowed values of the pair angular momentum of the two QP’s are $`N`$, $`N2`$, $`N4`$, …. For a Fermion system with $`l_F^{}=\frac{1}{2}(N1)2`$, the allowed values of the QP pair angular momentum are $`N2`$, $`N4`$, …. The two sets can be made identical only if a hard core repulsion forbids the Boson QP pair from having the largest allowed pair angular momentum $`L_{12}^{\mathrm{MAX}}=N`$. This behavior is observed in Fig. 2 where the Boson treatment of two QE’s (i.e., the CB transformation) would predict states at $`L=0`$, 2, 4, 6, and 8, but the $`L=8`$ state does not occur in the low energy band.

Since the description of CB’s (with hard core QE interaction) and CF’s give identical sets of QP states, filled QP levels (implying daughter states) occur at identical values of the applied magnetic field. In earlier work we have emphasized that both the Haldane hierarchy and CF hierarchy schemes assume the validity of the mean field approximation, and we have shown that this approximation is expected to fail when the QP–QP interaction is subharmonic. Numerical results show when the mean field approximation is valid and when it fails.

## VI Summary

We have shown that the F$``$B transformation replaces the single Fermion angular momentum $`l_F`$ by $`l_B=l_F\frac{1}{2}(N1)`$, and that this transformation leads to an identical set of total angular momentum multiplets. The Fermion and Boson systems have identical spectra in the presence of many body interactions only when the pseudopotential is harmonic, i.e. linear in squared pair angular momentum, $`L_{12}(L_{12}+1)`$. However, similar low energy bands of states with Laughlin correlations occur in the two spectra if the interaction pseudopotential is superharmonic, i.e. has short range. We have studied numerically eight particle systems for different model interactions and shown the relation between the spectra and coefficients of fractional grandparentage for the Fermion and Boson systems. Finally, we have used the F$``$B transformation to clarify the relation between the Haldane Boson picture and the CF picture of the hierarchy of condensed states.

## VII Acknowledgment

Research supported by the US Department of Energy under contract DE-AC05-000R22725 with Oak Ridge National Laboratory managed by UT–Batelle, LLC. John J. Quinn acknowledges partial support from the Materials Research Program of Basic Energy Sciences, US Department of Energy.


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# Delayed X-Ray Afterglows from Obscured Gamma-Ray Bursts in Star-Forming Regions

## 1 Introduction

Most of the X-ray fluence of a Gamma-Ray Bursts (GRB) is emitted during the prompt X-ray flash, the afterglow emission being smaller by a factor $`10`$ (Costa 1999, Piro 2000, van Paradijs, et al 2000). For a GRB in a large star forming region, a significant fraction of the prompt X-ray emission will be scattered by dust grains. Since the dust grains scatter the X-rays by a small angle, time delays of the scattered x-rays will be small (minutes to days, depending on the X-ray energy and the grain size). If the X-ray scattering opacity is substantial, the intermediate timescale, softer part of the X-ray afterglow will be dominated by the dust scattering, the direct X-ray emission from the blast wave being weaker. This intermediate X-ray light curve will then generally be steeper than the original unscattered afterglow would have been. The optical afterglow will be undetectable, due to the high obscuration, but a near-infrared source at the $`\mu `$Jy level should be present over timescales of months. When a database of X-ray afterglows in different energy bands becomes available, through missions such as HETE-2 and Swift, one should be able to determine whether some GRBs indeed occur in large dusty regions.

## 2 A specific example

To illustrate the phenomenon, we consider as a starting point a typical GRB, whose unscattered X-ray light curve is parametrized in a simplified manner by two asymptotic power laws with a peak or break at about 100 s, decaying at late times as $`t^{1.3}`$,

$$F_0(t)=\frac{1+(t/100\mathrm{s})}{1+(t/100\mathrm{s})^{2.3}},$$
(1)
with an arbitrary normalization depending on the X-ray energy band. This is represented by the thin line in Fig.1.

To make our illustration concrete, we assume that the GRB occurs in a large star forming region, of typical radius $`R`$ about 100pc, where the dust grain populations and optical depths are close to what is observed in our Galactic center region. Thus we assume that (1) visual extinction is $`10`$, (2) X-rays are scattered preferentially by those dust grains whose size is in the range $`a=0.06\mu \mathrm{m}`$, (3) the optical depth to dust scattering at the X-ray energy $`ϵ`$ is

$$\tau (ϵ)=3\left(\frac{ϵ}{1\mathrm{k}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{V}}\right)^2.$$
(2)
The last two assumptions are adopted from the interpretation of the dust-grain scattering observations given by Mitsuda, Takeshima, Kii, & Kawai (1990). Of course, there is no reason to believe that the dust in a distant GRB host galaxy will be similar to the dust here. We just use these assumptions as a nominal example.

It follows from assumption (1) that a GRB going off in such a star-forming region will have no detectable optical afterglow, but the gamma-rays should be able to penetrate through. However the behavior of the X-ray afterglow will be dependent on the specific energy band being considered.

At X-ray optical depths less than few, dust grains of size $`a`$ will scatter X-rays of energy $`ϵ`$ by an angle $`\theta 0.2\lambda /a`$, where $`\lambda `$ is the X-ray wavelength (Overbeck 1964). We parametrize this as

$$\theta (ϵ)=4.13\times 10^3\left(\frac{a}{0.06\mu \mathrm{m}}\right)^1\left(\frac{ϵ}{1\mathrm{k}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{V}}\right)^1.$$
(3)
The corresponding time lag is $`tR\theta ^2/2c`$, or

$$t(ϵ)8.8\times 10^4\mathrm{s}\left(\frac{a}{0.06\mu \mathrm{m}}\right)^2\left(\frac{ϵ}{1\mathrm{k}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{V}}\right)^2\left(\frac{R}{100\mathrm{p}\mathrm{c}}\right).$$
(4)
In what follows, we assume that $`a=0.06\mu \mathrm{m}`$ and $`R=100\mathrm{p}\mathrm{c}`$.

The X-ray telescope (XRT) on the Swift afterglow space mission scheduled to be launched in 2004 (http://www.astro.psu.edu/xray/swift/xrt/) will be sensitive over an energy range $`0.2ϵ10`$ keV, corresponding to GRB rest-frame energies 0.5 to 25 keV for a redshift $`z=1.5`$. Let us consider the dust contribution at several GRB-frame X-ray energies.

At 10 keV, the X-ray optical depth given by equation (2) is much less than ubity, so the X-ray afterglow is not affected by the dust scattering. The light curve will then just be the usual unscattered time dependent X-ray afterglow, which in this example is parametrized through equation (1).

At 3 keV, the optical depth is $`\tau 0.3`$. The time lag, equation (4), is $`t10^4`$s. Since the total fluence is $`f𝑑tF_0500`$s, the scattered flux is $`F_s\tau f/t0.01`$. The unscattered flux at $`10^4`$s is given by equation (1), $`F_03\times 10^3`$. Thus scattering has only a minor influence on the afterglow.

At 2 keV, the optical depth is $`\tau 1`$. The time lag is $`t2\times 10^4`$s. The scattered flux is $`F_s\tau f/t0.03`$. The unscattered flux at $`2\times 10^4`$s is $`F_010^3`$. In the time interval from hours to weeks, the dust scattering dominates the afterglow, and, as shown in Fig.1 , the afterglow is approximately a power law $`Ft^{1.75}`$. This is because dust grains of radius $`a<0.06\mu \mathrm{m}`$ will scatter the prompt emission with longer time lags, $`ta^2`$, and with smaller optical depths $`\tau `$. To calculate $`\tau `$, we take a standard dust grain size distribution where the number of grains of size of order $`a`$ is $`a^{2.5}`$ (Mathis, Rumpl, & Nordsieck 1977). For a scattering cross section $`a^4`$ (Overbeck 1964), the optical depth is $`\tau a^{1.5}t^{0.75}`$, so the flux $`Ft^{1.75}`$.

At 1 keV, the optical depth is $`3`$, and the dust grain scattering dominates the afterglow at $`t>10`$min. Multiple scatterings will be important, the net deflection angle being, in the small-angle deflection regime, $`\overline{\theta }N_{sc}^{1/2}\theta (ϵ)\tau ^{1/2}(ϵ)\theta (ϵ)ϵ^2`$, so the time delay is $`t(ϵ)\overline{\theta }^2(R/2c)ϵ^4`$. This decreases at early times the ratio of the scattered to the unscattered flux, compared to the values in the single scattering regime at 2 keV, and it increases the time after which the scattered flux becomes dominant, the late time decay having the same time exponent of -1.75.

## 3 Discussion

The specific example that we have described shows that highly obscured star-forming regions should lead to specific signatures in the X-ray light curve of gamma-ray bursts occurring in them. This consists of a secondary flattening or bump in the light curve at X-ray energies $`ϵ23`$ keV. Depending on the size and dust column density of the region, this bump occurs hours to days after the initial “canonical” X-ray decay has been going on, followed by a steeper $`F_xt^{1.75}`$ decay. At lower energies (e.g. in the 0.2-0.5 keV range) the X-ray bump in the light curve should appear at increasingly later times and contribute a decreasing fraction of the total energy.

The presence of this X-ray signature is expected to be associated with bursts which do not produce a detectable transient at optical wavelengths (OT). There are at least three bursts so far for which an X-ray decay index is known and an OT was not detected: GRB 970204, 970828 and 991214. The X-ray decay indices of these were -1.4, -1.56 and -1.00, based on GCN notices (e.g. Greiner, 2000). The third is clearly a canonical decay, and should be the unscattered component, but the other two could be the scattered component, considering the uncertainties in the grain size distribution and cross sections that determine the decay rate. There is a larger number of bursts for which an X-ray afterglow was reported, while an OT was not found. However, since optical observations first require an X-ray position, which so far has been possible only after hours of delay and with arc-minutes accuracy, there is currently a possible bias against finding OTs. Stronger constraints will have to await the faster coordinate alerts and smaller X-ray error circles expected from dedicated GRB afterglow missions such as HETE-2 and Swift.

An infrared source is expected to be associated with such obscured, X-ray peculiar GRBs, since the dust will re-radiate the UV and soft X-ray radiation of the absorbed source. Thermal reemission and scattering outside the sublimation radius is expected to cause delayed IR emission even when the optical transient is only partially absorbed (Waxman & Draine 2000, Esin & Blandford 2000), and the same is expected here, except for the optical transient being compeletely obscured. As a numerical example, for an isotropic equivalent total burst energy $`E10^{53}`$ erg at a redshift $`z1`$ the normalization of the X-ray flux for the burst of Figure 1 would be $`F_x10^9`$ erg cm-2 s-1 keV-1 for $`t\text{ }<100`$ s, in the usual range of X-ray afterglow fluxes detected by Beppo-SAX (Costa, et al, 1999). The dust reradiation occurs beyond the sublimation radius $`R_s10L_{49}^{1/2}`$ pc at wavelengths $`\lambda \text{ }>2(1+z)\mu `$m, where $`10^{49}L_{49}`$ erg/s is the early UV component of burst afterglow (Waxman & Draine 2000). The time delay associated with the reradiated flux is $`t_{IR}(R_s/2c)\theta _j^2`$ where $`\theta _j=10^1\theta _1`$ is a typical collimation half-angle of the burst radiation. At $`z1`$ the corresponding infrared flux at 2.2 $`\mu `$m would be $`F_{2.2\mu \text{m}}L_{49}\theta _j^2/[4\pi D_L^2(R_s/2c)\theta _j^2\nu ]0.3L_{49}^{1/2}`$ $`\mu `$Jy, independent of $`\theta _j`$, or $`m_K23.3`$ compared to Vega, approximately constant for a time $`t_{IR}5\times 10^6\theta _1^2L_{49}^{1/2}`$ s. The IR flux of the host galaxy at that redshift could exceed this value, but 8-m class telescopes in good seeing conditions or with adaptive optics would resolve the galaxy, facilitating detection of the point-like IR afterglow. If the X-ray to IR fluxes can be calibrated for a sample of sources at $`z1`$, such $`\gamma `$-ray detected GRBs with anomalous X-ray afterglow behavior and no OT may be used as tracers of massive stellar collapses. It may thus be possible to detect star-forming regions out to redshifts larger than those detectable with optical or infrared techniques, since typical GRB $`\gamma `$-ray and X-ray fluxes can in principle be measured out to $`z1015`$.

###### Acknowledgements.

We thank Andrew Blain, Bruce Draine, Masataka Fukugita, David Hogg, Kevin Hurley, Richard McMahon, Martin Rees and Eli Waxman for useful discussions. PM was supported by NASA NAG5-9192, the Guggenheim Foundation, the Sackler Foundation and the Institute for Advanced Study. AG was supported by the W. M. Keck Foundation and NSF PHY-9513835.


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# Satellite observations of thought experiments close to a black hole

## 1 Introduction

Black holes are very compact astrophysical objects close to which gravity is very strong. Light rays emitted in the vicinity are bent back to itself. Matter rotating around it or infalling in it, moves with speed close to velocity of light. The gravity is stronger than $`1/r^3`$ close to the horizon, and hence matter with any arbitrary amount of angular momentum would eventually fall inside it, after some ‘hesitation’ at the centrifugal barrier. Since black holes are ‘black’ by definition, ways to identify them would necessarily be indirect, only the degree of ‘indirectness’ would vary. The strong gravity close to the horizon would force matter to act differently than what is normally seen in weak gravity regions. In this review, I shall elaborate results of a few recent computations which have the power of predictability and then show that observations indicate that the results generally agree with these predictions. Most of these predictions involve accretion processes and winds/outflows on which I shall concentrate my review.

Black hole accretion models seem to undergo major changes every twenty years or so. In 1950s, Bondi  accretion model was introduced, which describes adiabatic spherical accretion on a star. This was readily adopted for black hole accretion and was applied to explain quasars and black hole spectra. Since matter falls in rapidly, its density is very little, and the radiation is generally that of optically thin matter emitting through bremsstrahlung, not enough to explain quasar luminosity. It was not until the work of Lynden-Bell  the concept of accretion disks which include angular momentum was taken seriously. This idea matured in works of Shakura & Sunyaev  who systematically developed the theory of optically thick, but geometrically thin accretion disks. One of the major predictions of this model is that black body radiation should be emitted with local disk temperature and the resulting multi-colour bump in the spectra should be a major feature in the accretion disk spectrum. This bump occurs at UV radiation when the central black hole is super-massive (with mass around $`10^{78}M_{}`$) while it occurs at soft X-rays ($`23`$keV) when the black hole mass is around $`510M_{}`$. This bump was identified in several AGNs  and it was immediately understood that at least in some region of the disk, angular momentum distribution is Keplerian. However, by 1979 it was already clear that high energy radiation is emitted as a power-law which must be coming out of Comptonization of soft photons by hot electron clouds located nearby . Only through systematic study of accretion flows with proper boundary conditions, in the 1990s, we are sure that this Compton cloud is the inner part of the accretion disk itself and is not Keplerian. Extensive properties of these transonic flows are presented in Chakrabarti  which clearly show that centrifugal force could be strong enough to produce standing shocks when viscosity is low (less than a critical value). Complete set of solutions for winds for positive Bernoulli constant as well as for isothermal flow is also provided. Meanwhile, Chakrabarti & Wiita , using a single temperature model, found that the standing shocks in the advective flow may be responsible for excess UV radiations in AGN spectra. By 1993 it was already clear that the most general global solution of accretion flow should contain Keplerian and sub-Keplerian disks, with or without shock. Quoting Chakrabarti : “These findings are very significant as they propose a unifying view of the accretion disks. This incorporates two extreme disk models into a single framework: for inviscid disks, strong shocks are produced, and for disks with high enough viscosity, the stable shock disappears altogether and angular momentum distribution can become Keplerian.” Recent models of advective accretion flows (including ADAF  which mimic some of these properties, often for wrong reasons: some of the shortcomings of ADAF are discussed in Chakrabarti , Lu  and Bisnovatyi-Kogan ) are offshoot of this general solution.

In the next Section, we review these new paradigms of disks and outflow solutions and show that the predictions by these disks are generally verified through recent observations.

## 2 Brief Outline of the Advective Accretion Disks

Since the emergence of the standard Keplerian disk model  in the seventies, purely rotating thick accretion disk models  were built in the eighties, with nearly constant specific angular momentum $`\lambda `$, or where the angular momentum varies with radial parameter in the form of a power-law . These are the predecessors of current advective disk models \[6, 15-16\] but the current models self-consistently include radial motions as well. Certain old models did attempt to include radial motion in the past \[17-18\] but global solutions were not found correctly.

An accreting matter must have a significant radial motion, especially close to the compact object. A simple derivation of the specific binding energy $`u_t`$ of inflowing matter

$$u_t=\left[\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }}{(1V^2)(1\mathrm{\Omega }l)(g_{\varphi \varphi }+lg_{\varphi t})}\right]^{1/2}$$
$`(1)`$
where, $`\mathrm{\Delta }=r^22r+a^2`$, $`V`$ is the radial velocity in the rotating frame, $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ and $`l`$ are the angular velocity and angular momentum, $`g_{\mu \nu }`$ are the metric coefficients of the Kerr metric. What is clear is that finiteness of $`u_t`$ guarantees that $`V=1`$ when $`\mathrm{\Delta }=0`$, i.e., on the horizon. Since the sound velocity is less that the velocity of light, the matter must be super-sonic on the horizon. This is not true for a neutron star, since neutrons stars have hard surfaces and matter must stop on it. This means that for any generic equation of state, independent of outer boundary condition, matter must be supersonic on the horizon and subsonic on a neutron star surface. Since a supersonic flow must be sub-Keplerian, a black hole accretion must deviate from a standard Keplerian disk \[14-16\]. This may be the case even for a neutron star accretion, especially when the inflow passes through a sonic point. Since infall time \[$`t_{infall}r^{3/2}`$\] is very short compared with the viscous time to transport angular momentum \[$`t_{visc}=\frac{1}{\alpha }(\frac{h}{r})^2(\frac{r}{v_{Kep}})`$\] the specific angular momentum ($`\lambda `$) must be almost constant, i.e., the centrifugal force $`\lambda ^2/r^3`$ grows rapidly compared to the gravitational force $`1/r^2`$ and slows down the matter forcing it to be subsonic. Due to general relativistic effects (where gravity is really stronger than $`1/r^2`$ very close to the horizon. For instance, the first correction term comes from $`l^2/r^4`$.), matter recovers from this quasi-stagnant condition, passes through another sonic point and finally enters into the black hole supersonically. It is easy to show that the general relativity introduces one extra sonic point (inner sonic point) close to the horizon. This is discussed in detail in Sec. 5.1 of . Chakrabarti (\[14-16, 19\]), solves and classifies all possible ways inviscid and viscous matter can fall inside a black hole. No new solution has been found since then.

The temporary stagnation of matter due to centrifugal force (at the so-called centrifugal force driven boundary layer of a black hole, or CENBOL), especially true when viscosity is low , at a few to a few tens of Schwarzschild radii is of extreme importance in black hole physics. Slowed down matter would be hotter and would emit harder radiations. If viscosity is high, the Keplerian disk extends (from outside) to distances very close to the black hole, perhaps as close as the marginally stable orbit ($`3R_g`$, $`R_g`$ being the Schwarzschild radius.). If viscosity is low, the inner edge may recede outwards to a few tens to a few hundreds of Schwarzschild radii. This is because angular momentum must be transported outward by viscosity and smaller viscosity transports slowly taking longer path length to reach a Keplerian disk. Another major point which must be emphasized is that in order that matter falls to black hole steadily and at the same time forming a disk, the specific angular momentum at the inner sonic point should be between marginally stable and marginally bound values (i.e., between $`3.67GM/c`$ and $`4GM/c`$). Thus, if matter comes with a large angular momentum, viscosity must work its way to ensure that matter losses most of it before entering a black hole. When the viscosity is so high that the specific angular momentum rapidly decreases with decreasing distance, the centrifugal barrier weakens and the stagnation region disappears \[15-16\]. In this case, the sub-Keplerian region is confined roughly between $`3R_g`$ and $`R_g`$ only.

When the stagnation region forms abruptly in a fast moving sub-Keplerian flow, a shock is said to have formed. Depending on the parameter space \[14-16\] this shock may or may not be standing at a given radius. It may form and propagate to infinity , or may just oscillate \[21-23\] or may stand still . In any case, generally shock forms and it decidedly affects the nature of the spectra manifesting itself through propagating noise, or quasi-periodic oscillation, or steady state spectrum, or the formation of the quiescence state. There are overwhelming evidences that these shocks form in the advective accretion flows, details of which would be presented below. ADAF models are highly viscous and shocks are absent .

For a neutron star, accretion flow may be entirely sub-sonic and deviation from a Keplerian disk is not essential except in the narrow boundary layer where the rotational motion of the accreting matter must adjust to the rotational motion of the star and where the radial velocity must go down to zero. This is true when magnetic field is absent or very weak. In presence of a strong magnetic field, matter is stopped way ahead of the stellar surface and is bent back along the field line. If the flow deviates from a Keplerian disk, the ram pressure $`\rho v_r^2`$ is higher and some matter can penetrate radially through the field line and directly hit the surface when the field is weaker. If this flow does become supersonic and sub-Keplerian at any point, it must become subsonic just before hitting the surface .

In the centrifugal barrier dominated boundary layer of black holes and neutron stars, winds/outflows may form . This has been quantified very recently  where the ratio of outflow to inflow rates has been computed as functions of the compression ratio of matter at the CENBOL. (Detailed analysis with and without shocks are in Das & Chakrabarti ). Chakrabarti  pointed out that in presence of magnetic field, the outflow or jets coming out of the post-shock region could be blobby as seen in the black hole candidate GRS1915+105. Subsequently, it was pointed out (see below, ) that blobby flows may form even without a magnetic field. This phenomenon of outflow is more significant for a black hole than for a neutron star. Neutron stars are known to have magnetic fields and therefore most of the matter is stopped by it (unless the field is so weak that sub-Keplerian matter with larger ram-pressure penetrates it easily, directly hitting the surface). Matter moves along the field lines to the polar region and most of the winds come from that region only. On the contrary, black holes may not anchor magnetic fields. Most of the outflows can thus form at the CENBOL itself, due to its high outward pressure gradient force, and due to the high temperature. However, it is unlikely that purely hydrodynamic acceleration could cause a ‘super-luminal’ jet to form . Since in the low-luminosity hard state CENBOL is hotter, the ratio $`R_{\dot{m}}=\frac{\dot{M}_{out}}{\dot{M}_{in}}`$ should be higher in hard states than in soft-states (when the CENBOL is cooler).

There is another region of the outflow: at the boundary between the Keplerian and the sub-Keplerian matter. As Chakrabarti et al.  showed through extensive numerical simulation, angular momentum distribution at this transition region is often super-Keplerian and therefore the outward centrifugal force is very strong. Thus, a good deal of centrifugally driven outflow at this region cannot be ruled out. In case of neutron stars, because of the same reason, outflows are possible not only in polar caps, but at the transition radius as well. If the magnetic field is non-aligned with the rotational axis, the Coriolis force on both sides of the disk would be slightly different and the QPO frequencies would split. Such behaviours have been observed in several neutron stars  and these essentially verify outflow solutions from transition regions \[27-28\].

## 3 Schematic pictures of accretion and outflow processes

As mentioned in the Introduction, with the advent of more detailed and accurate observations which necessarily demand more accurate solutions for proper explanations, it has become necessary to revise models of accretion and outflows. Recently, it is understood that black holes have two major types of spectra \[30-32\]: one is the soft state where most of the power is emitted in soft radiation ($`210`$keV), and the other is the hard state, where most of the power is emitted in the hard radiation ($`1050`$keV). Up until 5-6 years ago, it was believed that the hard radiation is the result of Comptonization of soft photons by ‘Compton Clouds’ floating around the disk or by hot corona. Chakrabarti and Titarchuk , for the first time pointed out that the so-called ‘Compton Cloud’ is the blotted-out inner edge of the Keplerian disk itself! This has brought black hole accretions to a new paradigm. Today, this picture is universally adopted in most of the models of accretion flows. Figure 1a shows the schematic picture of accretion and outflows in the so-called ‘hard’ state and Fig. 1b shows the schematic picture in the so-called ‘soft’ state. The difference is that in the hard state, Keplerian flow rate could be very small while the sub-Keplerian rate could be very high . In the soft state, it is the opposite. The de-segregation of matter into these two types of rates are believed to be due to the fact that the flow closer to the equatorial plane is likely to be more viscous and with larger Shakura-Sunyaev parameter $`\alpha `$, and therefore is likely to be Keplerian. However, flows away from the equatorial plane may have smaller $`\alpha `$ and therefore they deviate from a Keplerian disk farther out. Contribution to this sub-Keplerian may also have come from wind accretion. This sub-Keplerian flow may form shocks at around $`1020R_g`$. In the soft state, shocks may be nominally present, but would be cooler due to Comptonization, and would be as good as non-existent. The combined picture in these two states was shown in Chakrabarti & Titarchuk . As far as the wind and outflow formation goes, the result strongly depends on the compression ratio ($`R`$) of the flow at the shock as discussed in Chakrabarti  where an analytical expression for the ratio $`R_{\dot{m}}`$ of the outflow (assumed isothermal) to inflow rates is provided. When the compression ratio is unity, i.e., in the shock-free case (i.e., soft state), the outflow rate is negligible. Thus, in soft states, no outflow is expected. In the hard state, shock is strong, and the outflow may be significant. In the intermediate state outflow rate is highest (see below). In Das & Chakrabarti  it was shown that outflow rate should generally depend on inflow rates as well and the ratio is very high for low accretion rates.

For intermediate compression ratio $`R`$, outflow rate is the highest, and if other conditions (namely, conditions for shock oscillations) are satisfied, X-rays may exhibit quasi-periodic oscillations  and rapid switch from harder and softer radiations are exhibited in so-called burst phases. This is schematically shown in Fig. 1c. In this case, the outflow would be blobby \[33-34\]. More detailed discussions would be made in the next Section.

A curious observation of generation of blobby jets was made, purely from theoretical point of view, in the context of anti-correlation found in the X-ray and radio fluxes in the black hole candidate GRS1915+105 (see, §4.7-4.8 of ). When magnetic field is dragged in by the accretion disks, it could be sheared and amplified in the post-shock region till an equipartition is reached. A strong field in a hot gas feels magnetic tension (‘rubber-band effect’) and is contracted catastrophically evacuating the post-shock flow, i.e., the inner part of the accretion disk. Quoting : “ Formation of coronae in an accretion disk is not automatic, i.e., presence of magnetic field inside a disk does not automatically imply that a hot magnetic coronae would form. The formation requires the ability of the accretion disks to anchor flux tubes inside the disk. This means that the disk should have an internal structure akin to the solar interior and the entropy must increase outwards. If the entropy condition is proper, the coronae would form, otherwise it would come out of the disk as a whole without causing any random flare. In former case, there would be sporadic flaring events on the disk surface as in the case of the sun, whereas in the latter case, the collapse of fields in the funnel would cause destruction of the inner part of the disk and formation of blobby radio jets. Detailed observation of GRS1915+105 shows these features . Since the inner part of the accretion disk could literally disappear by this magnetic process, radio flares should accompany reduction of X-ray flux in this objects. Since the physical process is generic, such processes could also be responsible for the formation of jets in active galaxies and similar anti-correlation may be expected, though time delay effects are to be incorporated for a detailed modeling.” In the absence of the magnetic field, periodic evacuation by oscillating shocks can also take place if the flow parameters are ‘wrong’ (see,  for details). This phenomenon may have been observed very convincingly in GRS1915+105.

## 4 Predictions of Advective Accretion and Winds

Several interesting ways advective accretion can manifest themselves.

### 4.1 Manifestation of Sub-Keplerian motion on a large scale

Sub-Keplerian flows rotate slower, and velocity predicted from Doppler shifted disk emission lines would correspond to a higher Central mass. Chakrabarti  pointed out that the disk around M87 contained shocks and therefore the flow must be sub-Keplerian. As a result, the mass of the central object is around $`4\times 10^9M_{}`$ rather than $`2\times 10^9M_{}`$ as predicted by Harms et al. and Ford et al. (see,  for references) purely based on Keplerian motion. The fact that shock-ionization causes the emission processes on M87 disk has been stressed by several others . It is expected that most of the derived masses of the black holes at galactic centres are seriously underestimated because of the presence of the sub-Keplerian and non-dissipative flows .

### 4.2 Deviation from a Keplerian Disk

Traditionally, it is assumed that the inner edge of a Keplerian disk extends till $`3R_g`$. However, after the development of the advective disk models \[14-16, 30\] this traditional picture has changed. It was predicted that the inner edge would be closer to $`1020R_g`$ where the CENBOL should form. There are overwhelming evidence today that this is indeed the case \[38-40\]. This sharply contrasts predictions of ADAF model which often models the inner edge a distance of several tens of thousands (even at hundreds of thousands) of Schwarzschild radii!

### 4.3 Power-law hard radiation in very high states

Chakrabarti & Titarchuk  pointed out that when the accretion rate is relatively high, the electrons in the sub-Keplerian region become cooler and this region becomes practically indistinguishable from that of Keplerian disk. However, very close to the black hole horizon, matter moves with almost velocity of light and deposits its bulk momentum onto the photons thereby energizing these photons to very high energy forming a power-law. This power-law has now been the hall-mark of all the known black holes . The success of this model crucially hangs on the transonic flow solution which utilizes the fact that the inner boundary condition is independent of the history of incoming matter.

### 4.4 Explanation of quasi-periodic oscillations from black hole candidates

X-rays from galactic black hole candidates often show persistent oscillations which are quasi-periodic in nature. While the standard accretion disks do not show any signatures of oscillations, the advective disk solutions do, especially in the X-ray emitting regions. There are two general causes of these oscillations. One is due to the inability of the steady shocks to form in the sub-Keplerian region when the Rankine-Hugoniot relation is not satisfied . In this case, the disk is periodically evacuated and strong wind and outflows are formed. The other reason for oscillation is the resonance between the cooling time and the infall time. When the black hole accretion rate changes from hard to soft states, the accretion rate, and therefore the cooling times change. When this roughly agrees with the infall time from the post-shock region, the otherwise steady shock starts oscillating with a period roughly comparable to the infall time . The observation of these oscillations during the transition of states is the triumph of the advective disk model  ADAF models, unlike our solutions, do not allow shock formation  and therefore cannot explain the quasi-periodic oscillations at all.

### 4.5 Formation of outflows and modification of spectral properties

Just as Parker’s solution of Solar wind is the outgoing solution of accretion flows, there are outgoing transonic solutions which are counterparts of transonic accretion flows onto black holes . These outflows may or may not have shocks, but they invariably have positive binding energy at a large distance. ADAF solution recently came to the same conclusion (that Bernoulli parameter should be positive ). However, when the outflow is accelerated by external agency such a conclusion is wrong as has been recently shown by Chattopadhyay and Chakrabarti . They showed that even matter with negative initial binding energy could be pushed to infinity (large distance) when radiation momentum is systematically deposited on the flow! This again shows that ADAF models are grossly incomplete. Recently, to overcome some of the shortcomings ADAF has also tried to produce self-similar outflows (ADIOS ) Being self-similar, jets are to come out all over the disk, as opposed to regions close to the black holes as predicted by our advective disk solutions. Recent high resolution observations of jets in M87 strongly suggest that they are produced within a few tens of Schwarzschild radii of the horizon , strongly rejecting ADAF and ADIOS models for the outflows, which has no special length scale at these distances.

Given an inflow rate, one is now capable of computing the outflow rate when the compression ratio at the shock surface is provided  This solution naturally predicts that the outflow must form at the CENBOL. The Globally complete Inflow-Outflow Solutions (GIOS) were also found . In presence of winds, the spectra is modified: outflows take away matter and reduces the number of electrons from the post-shock (CENBOL) region and thus they are cooled more easily by the same number of soft photons emitted by the pre-shock Keplerian flow. This makes the spectra much softer  in presence of winds.

### 4.6 Quiescence states of black holes

Chakrabarti  and Das & Chakrabarti , pointed out that in some regions of the parameter space, the outflow could be so high that it evacuates the disk and forms what is known as the quiescence states of black holes. A well known example is the starving black hole at Sgr A\* at our galactic centre whose mass is $`2.6\times 10^6M_{}`$ and the accretion rate is supposed to be around $`10^5M_{}`$ yr<sup>-1</sup> which is much smaller compared to the Eddington rate. Quiescence states are also seen in stellar mass black hole candidates such as A0620-00 and V404 Cygni. Another way of producing these states is to use well known viscous instability in an accretion disk as used models of dwarf-novae outbursts. This was mentioned in Chakrabarti & Titarchuk .

### 4.7 On and Off-states during QPOs in black holes

The black hole candidates GRS1915+105 displays a variety of behaviour: usual high frequency QPOs are frequently interrupted by low frequency oscillations. It has been recently suggested  that these low frequency oscillations are due to periodic cooling of the subsonic region of the outflow (also known as the extended corona). While the QPO frequency can be explained by the shock oscillations, the periodic cooling is explained by the duration in which extended corona becomes optically thick. It is possible that outflows are slowed down by this process and the matter falls back to CENBOL, extending the duration of the ‘on’ state (which, if exists, is found to be comparable to the duration of the ‘off’ state \[52-53\]). The QPO frequency does evolve during this time scale and it is suggested that this is due to the steady movement of the inner edge of the Keplerian accretion disk  or the steady movement of the shock itself in viscous time scale . Generally speaking, shocks may show large scale oscillations \[21-22\] but the wind plays a vital role in intercepting larger number of soft photons, characteristics of soft state. The correlation between the duration of the off-state and the QPO frequency has been found to agree with the observations .

### 4.8 Relationship of outflows and the black hole states

It has become apparent that outflow rates are the highest when the compression ratio $`R`$ of the gas is intermediate ($`R3`$; . When the compression ratio is unity (i.e., no compression other than the simple geometrical ones) no outflow is expected from these models. Similarly, when the compression ratio of the gas is very high, the outflow rate relative to inflow goes down. Figure 2 shows the variation of the outflow rate with the compression ratio (taken from ). In the soft state, when the post-shock region is cool , shock is as good as non-existent. In this case the outflow rate is also very low since $`R1`$. The outflow rate should be very little. On the other hand, when viscosity and accretion rate are so low that very strong shock forms ($`R57`$; ), then it would be a hard state without a QPO. When the accretion rate is higher such that some sort of resonance condition is satisfied  then the shock would oscillate and form QPOs. Higher accretion rate softens the shock by cooling the post-shock flow and it becomes of intermediate strength . Thus, the speculation is that the QPOs which are due to shock oscillations should not be formed in soft states, and should be in hard states only if the resonance condition is satisfied. Similarly, outflows should not be formed in soft state, and high outflows (relative to inflow) should form only when the shock compression ratio is intermediate. Recently, from observational point of view this picture has gained support .

### 4.9 Effect of advective disks on gravitational wave

It is well known that compact binary companions loss angular momentum due to emission of gravitational waves. Study of gravitational wave emission from binary systems has received a significant boost in recent years because of the realization that the detection of gravitational waves would directly identify such coalescing bodies. Laser Interferometric Gravitational Wave Observatory (LIGO) and Laser Interferometer Space Antenna (LISA) project instruments are being constructed to achieve these goals (see, Thorne  for a review).

In binary systems composed of only neutron stars and stellar black holes, these computations are adequate. However, when studying effects around a massive black hole which is assumed to be present in centers of many galaxies, one needs to consider an additional effect – the effect of an accretion disk. This was first pointed out by Chakrabarti \[57-58\]. It is widely believed that galactic centers are endowed with massive black holes and in order to explain the observed luminosity from a galactic core, one needs to supply matters ranging from a few hundredth or solar masses to a few solar masses per year, some of which may be in the form of stars. Some of the stars could be compact, namely, neutron stars and stellar mass black holes which orbit the massive ones at the same time gradually spiraling in towards the center due to loss of angular momentum by gravitational waves.

Chakrabarti  pointed out that the accretion disks close to the black hole need not be Keplerian and it would affect the gravitational wave properties. The radiation pressure dominated disks can be super-Keplerian in some regions (the very basis on which thick accretion disk models are made) which would transfer angular momentum to the orbiting companion and in some extreme situations, can even stabilize its orbit from coalescing any further. This was later verified by time-dependent numerical simulations  When one considers the more general solutions of viscous, transonic, accretion disks \[14-16\] one finds that the angular momentum distribution close to the black hole could be sub-Keplerian as well, depending upon the viscosity and the angular momentum at the inner boundary of the disk. Assume that a companion of mass $`M_2`$ is in an instantaneous circular Keplerian orbit around a central black hole of mass $`M_1`$. This assumption is justified, specially when the orbital radius is larger than a few Schwarzschild radius where the energy loss per orbit is very negligible compared to the binding energy of the orbit. The rate of loss of energy $`dE/dt`$ in this binary system with orbital period $`P`$ (in hours) is given by \[60-61\];

$$\frac{dE}{dt}=3\times 10^{33}(\frac{\mu }{M_{}})^2(\frac{M_{tot}}{M_{}})^{4/3}(\frac{P}{1hr})^{10/3}\mathrm{ergs}\mathrm{sec}^1,$$
$`(2)`$
where,

$$\mu =\frac{M_1M_2}{M_1+M_2}$$

and

$$M_{tot}=M_1+M_2.$$

The orbital angular momentum loss rate would be,

$$R_{gw}=\frac{dL}{dt}|_{gw}=\frac{1}{\mathrm{\Omega }}\frac{dE}{dt}$$
$`(3)`$
where $`\mathrm{\Omega }=\sqrt{GM_1/r^3}`$ is the Keplerian angular velocity of the secondary black hole with mean orbiting radius $`r`$. The subscript ‘gw’ signifies that the rate is due to gravitational wave emission. In presence of an accretion disk co-planer with the orbiting companion, matter from the disk (with local specific angular momentum $`l(r)`$) will be accreted onto the companion at a rate close to its Bondi accretion rate :

$$\dot{M}_2=\frac{4\pi \overline{\lambda }\rho (GM_2)^2}{(v_{rel}^2+a^2)^{3/2}}$$
$`(4)`$
where, $`\rho `$ is the density of disk matter, $`\overline{\lambda }`$ is a constant of order unity (which we choose to be $`1/2`$ for the rest of the paper), $`v_{rel}=v_{disk}v_{Kep}`$ is the relative velocity of matter between the disk and the orbiting companion. The rate at which the angular momentum of the companion is changed due to Bondi accretion will be ,

$$R_{disk}=\frac{dL}{dt}|_{disk}=\dot{M}_2(l_{Kep}(x)l_{disk}(x))$$
$`(5)`$
Here, $`l_{Kep}`$ and $`l_{disk}`$ are the local Keplerian and disk angular momenta respectively. The subscript in the left hand side signifies the effect is due to the disk. If some region of the disk is sub-Keplerian ($`l_{disk}<l_{Kep}`$), the effect of the disk would be to reduce the angular momentum of the companion further and hasten coalescence. This has now been demonstrated with actual solutions  and the nature of the variations of the signals are presented in Chakrabarti .

In order to appreciate the effect due to intervention of the disk, we consider a special case where, $`M_2<<M_1`$ and $`l_{disk}<<l_{Kep}`$. In this case, $`\mu M_2`$ and $`M_{tot}M_1`$. The ratio $`R`$ of these two rates is,

$$R=\frac{R_{disk}}{R_{gw}}=1.518\times 10^7\frac{\rho _{10}}{T_{10}^{}{}_{}{}^{3/2}}x^4M_{8}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}$$
$`(6)`$
Here, $`x`$ is the companion orbit radius in units of the Schwarzschild radius of the primary, $`M_8`$ is in units of $`10^8M_{}`$, $`\rho _{10}`$ is the density in units of $`10^{10}`$ gm cm<sup>-3</sup> and $`T_{10}`$ is the temperature of the disk in units of $`10^{10}`$K. It is clear that, for instance, at $`x=10`$, and $`M_8=10`$, the ratio $`R0.015`$ suggesting the effect of the disk could be a significant correction term to the general relativistic loss of angular momentum. In the above example, both the disk and the gravitational wave work in the same direction in reducing angular momentum of the secondary. Alternatively, when $`l_{disk}>l_{Kep}`$ they act in opposite direction and may slow down the loss of angular momentum . In either case, the ratio $`R`$ is independent of the mass of the companion black hole, as long as $`M_2<<M_1`$.

Figure 3 shows the effect of the presence of an accretion disk on the gravity wave pattern in a binary black hole system consisting of two black holes with mass $`10^8M_{}`$ and $`10^6M_{}`$. The solution for the disk quantities is obtained using hydrodynamic equations in presence of heating and cooling  for $`\gamma =5/3`$, $`\alpha =0.02`$, $`f=0.0`$, $`x_{in}=2.3`$, and $`l_{in}=1.7`$ ($`\alpha `$ is the Shakura-Sunyaev viscosity parameter, $`f`$ is a constant cooling efficiency factor , $`x_{in}`$ is the inner sonic point of the flow, $`l_{in}`$ is the angular momentum at the inner sonic point.). Accretion rate $`\dot{M}=1000\dot{M}_{Edd}`$ is chosen to enhance the effect. When $`\dot{M}`$ is reduced, as is appropriate for any advective disk, the effect is proportionately smaller. The ‘chirp’ profiles as functions of real time are compared (results at only the last few Schwarzschild radii are shown). When the sub-Keplerian disk is included, the companion falls more rapidly due to enhanced loss of angular momentum.

One of the exciting predictions of this scenario is that since the spectrum of an accretion disk contains a large number of informations (e.g. mass of the central black holes, distance of the black hole, accretion rate, and viscosity parameter) a simultaneous observation of the electromagnetic spectrum from the disk and the gravity wave spectrum (which also must depend on those parameters, except possibly the distance) should tighten the parameters very strongly. This issue is being investigated and will be reported shortly.

Recently, ADAF model of extremely low accretion rate was used to repeat these computations, and not-surprisingly, no significant change in gravitational signal was found . If little matter is accreting, it is as good as having no accretion disk at all. ADAF model ideally valid for zero accretion rate systems and thus not found to be true in any of the realistic accreting systems. As discussed earlier, evidences of the oscillating shocks, bulk motions etc. (which are absent in ADAF) are abundant. Thus it is likely that the gravitational signal would be affected exactly in a way computed by .

## 5 Concluding remarks

Ten years ago, when globally complete advective disk solutions were first introduced which included shocks around black holes, the community did not take these solutions seriously. Today, with the advent of accurate observational techniques, including those with high time resolutions, there is hardly a single paper in the literature which does not use the advective disk models. We have already presented several such observations and found that everyday there are more evidences for these solutions.

So far, most of these works have been carried out using Schwarzschild black holes. However, black holes should, in general, have some angular momentum. Not enough evidence has been obtained, or to be precise, sought, of rotation of a black hole. This deficiency is partly due to the fact that the effect of rotation is manifested only extremely close to the black hole and in most of the cases, the signatures expected from a rotating (Kerr) black hole, could be modeled often equally satisfactorily, by a Schwarzschild black hole with a different set of accretion disk and black hole parameter. In future, the task would be to separate astro physically significant effects which depend on Kerr parameters only.

## Acknowledgments

The author thanks DST for a partial support for the project ‘Analytical and numerical studies of astrophysical flows around black holes and neutron stars’ and the organizers to partly supporting his trip to Samarkhand and covering the local hospitalities.

## References


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# 1 Introduction

## 1 Introduction

Unification models adduce the main differences between the observed properties of different classes of AGNs to the anisotropy of the radiation emitted by the active nucleus (see Urry & Padovani 1995 for a review). In particular, for low luminosity radio-loud objects, namely BL Lacs and FR I radio galaxies, it is believed that this effect is mainly due to relativistic beaming. Within this scenario, the emission from the inner regions of a relativistic jet dominates the observed radiation in BL Lacs, while in FR I, whose jet is observed at larger angles with respect to the line of sight, this component is strongly debeamed. Evidence for this unification scheme includes the power and morphology of the extended radio emission of BL Lacs and the properties of their host galaxies, which are similar to those of FR I. Despite this global agreement, it should be stressed that beaming factors inferred from the broad band spectral properties of blazars are significantly and systematically larger than those suggested by radio luminosity data.

Thanks to the Hubble Space Telescope (HST), the optical counterparts of the radio cores have been recently discovered in FR I galaxies (Chiaberge et al. 1999). In this paper we directly compare the properties of the optical and radio cores of FR I radio galaxies belonging to the 3CR catalog with those of two complete samples of BL Lacs derived from the 1Jy catalog and from the Einstein Slew Survey.

## 2 Core versus extended luminosity

We firstly consider the optical and radio core luminosities separately, comparing the nuclear emission of FR I and BL Lacs for bins of equal extended radio power (see Fig 1 of Chiaberge et al. 2000). The BL Lacs are at least 4 order of magnitude brighter in the optical than FR I nuclei. As the core radiation of BL Lacs is enhanced by relativistic beaming, we can derive the bulk Lorentz factors $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ requested to account for the observed spread, if typical observing angles are known. If BL Lacs are observed at an angle $`\theta 1/\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ and $`\theta 60^{}`$ is the median observing angle of FR I galaxies, bulk velocities with $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ $`46`$ are requested to account for the optical enhancement of BL Lacs in each bin of extended luminosity. A similar result is obtained by comparing the radio core emission (e.g. Kollgaard et al. 1996). However, as already mentioned, such values are significantly and systematically lower than those required by other independent means, such as superluminal motions and high energy spectral constraints in both LBLs and HBLs. These in fact require values of the Doppler factor $`\delta `$ ($`=\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ for a viewing angle $`\theta =1/\mathrm{\Gamma }`$) in the range 15–20 for the region emitting most of the radiation in both HBLs and LBLs.

## 3 FR I and BL Lac in the $`L_o`$ and $`L_r`$ plane and jet velocity structures

In Fig. 1a we show the optical vs radio core luminosity for the three samples. In order to determine how beaming affects the observed luminosities and thus how objects could be connected in the $`L_oL_r`$ plane, we consider the SED of BL Lacs, observationally much better determined, and calculate the observed spectrum of the misaligned objects, by taking into account the relativistic transformations. In fact an important and previously neglected point, is that these transformations depend on the spectral index in the band considered, which in itself might change as a function of the degree of beaming. Therefore, in order to correctly de–beam the SED of BL Lacs, a continuous representation of the SED and an estimate of the bulk Lorentz factor of the emitting region are needed (it is again assumed $`\theta =1/\mathrm{\Gamma }`$). We derive both the continuous description of the SED and the bulk Lorentz factor of the source by adopting a homogeneous synchrotron self–Compton emission model. We model the observed SED of two sources (Mkn 421 and PKS 0735+178), representative of High and Low Energy-peaked BL Lacs (HBL and LBL), respectively. We then calculate the corresponding observed SEDs for different orientations. Clearly the net effect of debeaming is a “shift” of the SED towards lower luminosities and energies. As expected, for $`\theta =60^{}`$ the resulting “debeamed” BL Lac component is about four orders of magnitude below the radio galaxy region in the optical, and two/four in the radio band (see Fig 1b). While equivalently incompatible with the FR I population properties, the HBL and LBL move on different trails. This effect is due to the different shape of their SED. The simplest and rather plausible hypothesis to account for this discrepancy within the unification scenario is to assume a structure in the jet velocity field, in which a fast spine is surrounded by a slow layer. Note however that the slower jet component must be relativistic in order to explain the anisotropic radiation of radio galaxy cores (e.g. Capetti & Celotti 1998). The observed flux is dominated by the emission from either the spine or the slower layer, in the case of aligned and misaligned objects, respectively. Interestingly, the existence of velocity structures in the jet has been suggested by various authors (e.g. Laing 1999) in order to explain some radio structures observed in FR I jets. Recently, observational evidence for such a behaviour has been found in 3C 353 (an FR II), M 87, B2 1144+35. We thus considered this hypothesis in the simplest case, i.e. a model with two axisymmetric components having the same intrinsic luminosity, spectrum and emitting volume (see Chiaberge et al. 2000 for details). We found that Lorentz factors of the layer $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\mathrm{layer}}2`$ can account for the unification of FR I (of the 3CR) with LBL and intermediate luminosity BL Lacs. Instead the debeaming trails for the lowest luminosity HBL do not cross the FR I region in the $`L_oL_r`$ plane. While the HBL behavior should be compared with that of radio galaxies with which they share the extended radio power (e.g. those of the B2 catalogue), our simple two-component jet model would not account for the observed properties if the cores of such low-power FR I radio galaxies lied on the extrapolation of the 3CR radio-optical correlation. A possible interpretation is that in such weak sources the radio emitting region is less beamed than the optical one, as could be expected if the jet decelerates after the higher energy emitting zone.