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# Real inertons against hypothetical gravitons. Experimental proof of the existence of inertons11footnote 1 Indian Journal of Theoretical Physics 48, no. 1, pp. 1–23 (2000)

## 1 Introduction

Gravitational waves of the general theory of relativity are presumed to be real carriers of the gravitational interaction. The waves came out, based on the belief that the matter was highly rarefied, Bergmann : space between distant massive points was perceived to be empty and hence a moving massive point did not interact with a vacuum. It is assumed that gravitational waves are quantized and that quanta of the gravitational field – gravitons – are massless particles (see, e.g. Weinberg ). However, it is important to keep in remember that Einstein  derived the solutions for gravitational waves in 1918 and those solutions were resting on the pure classical consideration. Quantum mechanics was constructed later in the mid-1920s. It introduced such a notion as the matter waves which are described by the $`\psi `$-wave function. And just these waves as we know are of primary importance in determining the behaviour of matter at the scale comparable with the de Broglie wavelength $`\lambda `$ of the quantum system studied. On the atom size at which the means of quantum mechanics operates the $`\psi `$-wave function is considered as the probabilistic characteristic of the quantum system. The Schrödinger nonrelativistic formalism and the Dirac relativistic one were developed just for the description of steady-states of the electron in an atom in which the de Broglie wavelength $`\lambda `$ defines the length of stationary orbit of the corresponding electron. In the range lesser $`\lambda `$ the behaviour and construction of the matter waves have not practically been investigated, de Broglie .

Turning back to the gravitation we should note that it has never taken into account the presence of the matter waves. In this connection one can raise the question whether the hypothesis of the theory of gravitation about the existence of a macroscopic quantization of space is correct. Probably it is quite reasonable to assume that the theory is based on an essential methodological mistake. Evidently, the main error was made when gravitational waves deduced in the framework of phenomenological theory were quantized in a scale much exceeded the de Broglie wavelength. In other words, the large-scale quantization was thrown on space without any investigation whether such a requantization could exist on the background of reliably established quantization in the microworld. Therefore, in this case one faces a conflict between the general theory of relativity and quantum mechanics. Other significance aspects of the conflict have been discussed in literature as well (see, e.g. Stapp ). Moreover, the background of general relativity itself can be reconsidered from new standpoints, Kar  (see also Logunov and Metvirishvili ).

Modern theories of gravitation try to reach quantum foundations starting from the macroscopic background. However, we can attempt to construct the gravitation phenomenon beginning with quantum mechanics. In fact, one can suppose that the matter waves which are associated with structural blocks (electrons, nuclei, atoms, etc.) of an object overlap and form the whole matter field surrounding the object. It is apparent that a solution of this difficult problem will be possible only in the case when we clear up the substructure of matter waves.

Currently several new views on the nature of a vacuum substance have been introduced in quantum physics. Among them one can point out mathematical approaches by Hoyle  on the origin of matter, by Kohler  on point particles as defects in solid continuum, and Bounias and Bonaly  who consider the matter as deformations of space and in particular, could find relativistic principles (the Lorentz constriction) and investigate the gravity and quantum properties in the framework of the topology and the set theory. There are also works which consider the vacuum as a special kind of crystal, Fomin , as a ”liquid crystal” model, Aspden , as a zero point energy field, Haisch et al. , as an electromagnetic energy density, Vegt , as an inelastic Planck aether, Winterberg  and as a degenerate electron-positron plasma that dominates the aether, Rothwarf . Winterberg’s Planck aether consists of positive and negative Planck masses, which interact locally through contact-type delta function potentials. It is interesting that these potentials are neither electromagnetic nor gravitational. That does Winterberg provide an in-depth analysis has shown that in microcosmos a new type of physical interaction could quite exist.

Previously one of the authors studied \[18-20\] the motion of a canonical particle in a vacuum regarded as a cellular elastic space. In this approach space is superdensely packed with structural units, or cells – superparticles – which are found in a degenerate state and whose size is of the order of $`10^{28}`$ cm (all kinds of interactions come together at this scale, as required by the grand unification of interactions). It was conceived that a moving particle was interacting with superparticles of the space net and as a consequence elementary excitations called ”inertons” were knocked out of the particle. These excitations are virtual, since each emitted inerton is again absorbed by the particle. So a moving particle is constantly surrounded by a cloud of oscillating inertons and this oscillating nature of the motion is also applied to the particle. It has been found that this kind of motion is characterised by the two basic quantum mechanical relations: $`E=h\nu `$ and $`p_0=h/\lambda `$ where $`p_0`$ is the initial momentum of the particle and $`\nu `$ and $`\lambda `$ are respectively the frequency and amplitude of spatial oscillations of the particle (to put in differently, these are peculiar submicroscopic overdeterminations of the de Broglie wavelength $`\lambda `$ and the frequency $`\nu `$.) As is well known, de Broglie21, the availability of these two relations enables the wave $`\psi `$-function to be introduced which in its turn results in the Schrödinger wave equation. The relationship between the parameters of the particle and the cloud of inertons has the form

$$v_0/\lambda =c/\mathrm{\Lambda }.$$
(1)
where $`v_0`$ is the initial velocity of the particle, $`c`$ is the initial velocity of inertons (speed of light) and $`\mathrm{\Lambda }/\pi `$ is the enveloping amplitude of the inerton cloud which oscillates in the neighbourhood of the particle. Consequently, the particle’s inerton cloud is extended on a distance of $`\lambda `$ along the particle path and restricted by the size $`2\mathrm{\Lambda }/\pi `$ in the transversal directions. Such motion of the particle studied from the submicroscopic deterministic view-point is easily result in the Schrödinger and Dirac formalism at the atom range \[18-20\].

It is known that a behaviour of each element of a solid such as the electron or a more composite system (nucleus, atom) is characterised by its own de Broglie wavelength $`\lambda `$ and own wave $`\psi `$-function. Based on our concept of space we can consider any solid as being built into the space net. In this case one can suggest that it is this inner substance, that exerts control over electrons and atoms in solids, in the same way as space governs a free moving elementary particle . The quantity $`\lambda `$ of the composite system clearly characterises the coherent motion of all strong-coupling elementary particles of which the system is composed. Therefore, inerton clouds of separate particles merge into a common inerton cloud of the moving system and then relation (1) can be applied to this system as well. The application of the wave $`\psi `$-function to the description of the whole composite system should mean that any moving atom/nucleus is shrouded in an inerton cloud much as a free moving elementary particle.

It has been recently demonstrated by the author  that clouds of inertons enclosing electrons reveal themselves in a great number of experiments. Thus based on our results \[18-20,22\] we can say that the wave $`\psi `$-function of any quantum system, from a particle to a solid, is ”filled” by a huge number of very light inertons. This means that one may speculate that inertons could be emanated from the $`\psi `$-function, that is, from the system’s inerton cloud and, because of this, they could be fixed by the instrument. The nature of inertons is not directly associated with the electromagnetism or gravitation. The inertons are more likely to belong to the nature of matter, that is to the space net as it follows from our concept (and the same possibility lies in the Winterberg’s aether model  as well). Moreover one can infer that just these elementary excitations of space may successfully substitute for hypothetical gravitons of the general theory of relativity (recall that the latter are derived from a pure classical consideration, see e.g. Refs. ).

The goal of the present work is to study the impact of inertons on the collective behaviour of atoms in a solid. The problem is regarded both theoretically and experimentally. In the first part of the work we show how inerton clouds of separate atoms, which are overlapped in a solid, form a system of entirely cooperated inertons that is interpreted as a field of the matter waves of the body studied. A contribution of inertons to the atoms vibration is considered in the framework of a modified standard model of the harmonic interaction of atoms in the crystal lattice. In the second part of the work an experiment which concerns the possibility of an inerton field to act upon the test specimen is carried out. The microstructure of the reference and test specimens is investigated using the electron microscope. The corresponding micrographs appear in the affixed figures.

## 2 Inerton contribution to crystal atoms vibration

Atoms in solids vibrate with respect to the equilibrium positions. Let us evaluate the velocity of the atoms passing through the equilibrium position, based on the equality of kinetic and thermal energy

$$Mv_0^2/2k_\mathrm{B}T.$$
(2)
At the room temperature, assuming, e.g., for the atomic mass $`M=30M_p`$, where $`M_p=1.67\times 10^{27}`$ kg is the mass of proton at rest, we find from (2) the value of the velocity: $`v_04\times 10^2`$ m/s. The respective de Broglie wavelength is $`\lambda =h/Mv_03.3\times 10^{11}`$ m. According to our concept any motion of atoms in space should be accompanied by the motion of inertons. Hence, substituting the atoms’ values $`v_0`$ and $`\lambda `$ into expression (1) we obtain for the amplitude of inerton cloud of an atom: $`\mathrm{\Lambda }2.4\times 10^5`$ m, that essentially exceeds the lattice constant $`g_04\times 10^{10}`$ m. Thus, hypothetical inerton clouds of atoms noticeably overlap in a solid and it is obvious that this overlap should make a definite contribution to the collective behaviour of atoms. Let us study this problem in the context of the standard model of the harmonic interaction of atoms in the crystal lattice.

We will proceed from the Lagrangian

$`L`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{M}{2}}{\displaystyle \underset{ł\alpha }{}}\dot{\xi }_{ł\alpha }^2{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}{\displaystyle \underset{\stackrel{}{l}\alpha ,\stackrel{}{n}\beta }{}^{}}V_{\alpha \beta }(\stackrel{}{l}\stackrel{}{n})\xi _{\stackrel{}{l}\alpha }\xi _{\stackrel{}{n}\beta }`$ (3)
$``$ $`\sqrt{Mm}{\displaystyle \underset{\stackrel{}{l}\alpha ,\stackrel{}{n}\beta }{}^{}}\xi _{\stackrel{}{l}\alpha }\tau _{\alpha \beta }^1(\stackrel{}{l}\stackrel{}{n})\dot{\chi }_{\stackrel{}{n}\beta }+{\displaystyle \frac{m}{2}}{\displaystyle \underset{\stackrel{}{l}\alpha }{}}\dot{\chi }_{\stackrel{}{l}\alpha }^2.`$
Here the first two terms describe the vibrations of the sites in a three-dimensional lattice (see, e.g. Davydov ) and the last two terms, which we have additionally introduced, describe the interaction of the atoms with inertons and the kinetic energy of inertons. $`\xi _{\stackrel{}{l}\alpha }`$ ($`\alpha `$ = 1, 2, 3) are three components of atom displacement from the lattice site whose equilibrium position is determined by the lattice vector $`\stackrel{}{l}`$; $`\dot{\xi }_{\stackrel{}{l}\alpha }`$ are three components of the velocity of this atom; $`V_{\alpha \beta }(\stackrel{}{l}\stackrel{}{n})`$ are the components of the elasticity tensor of the crystal lattice. Let $`m`$ be characteristic mass of the inerton cloud and, if $`\chi _{\stackrel{}{l}\alpha }`$ ($`\alpha `$ = 1, 2, 3) are three components of the position of the inerton cloud for the atom determined by the lattice vector $`\stackrel{}{l}`$, then $`\dot{\chi }_{\stackrel{}{l}\alpha }`$ are three components of the velocity of this inerton cloud. $`\tau _{\alpha \beta }^1(\stackrel{}{l}\stackrel{}{n})`$ are components (generally they might be tensor quantities) of the rate of collisions between the inerton cloud of the atom determined by the lattice vector $`\stackrel{}{n}`$ and with the atom whose equilibrium position is determined by the vector $`\stackrel{}{l}`$. The prime at the sum symbol means that terms with coinciding indices $`\stackrel{}{l}`$ and $`\stackrel{}{n}`$ are not taken into account in summation.

In a standard way, we carry out canonical transformations in (3) with respect to collective variables, both for atoms ($`A_\stackrel{}{k}=(A_\stackrel{}{k})^{}`$) and for inerton clouds ($`a_\stackrel{}{k}=(a_\stackrel{}{k})^{}`$):

$$\xi _{\stackrel{}{l}\alpha }=\frac{1}{\sqrt{NM}}\underset{\stackrel{}{k}}{}e_\alpha A_\stackrel{}{k}e^{i\stackrel{}{k}\stackrel{}{l}};$$
(4)
$$\chi _{\stackrel{}{l}\alpha }=\frac{1}{\sqrt{Nm}}\underset{\stackrel{}{k}}{}e_\alpha a_\stackrel{}{k}e^{i\stackrel{}{k}\stackrel{}{l}}$$
(5)
where $`e_\alpha e_\alpha (\stackrel{}{k})`$ are components of the polarisation vector and $`N`$ is the number of atoms in the crystal. On rearrangement, the Lagrangian (3) takes the form

$`L={\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}{\displaystyle \underset{\stackrel{}{k}\alpha }{}}e_\alpha \dot{A}_\stackrel{}{k}e_\alpha \dot{A}_\stackrel{}{k}`$ $``$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}{\displaystyle \underset{\stackrel{}{k}\alpha \beta }{}}\stackrel{~}{V}_{\alpha \beta }(\stackrel{}{k})e_\alpha A_\stackrel{}{k}e_\beta A_\stackrel{}{k}`$ (6)
$``$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{\stackrel{}{k}\alpha \beta }{}}\stackrel{~}{\tau }_{\alpha \beta }^1e_\alpha A_\stackrel{}{k}e_\beta \dot{a}_\stackrel{}{k}+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}{\displaystyle \underset{\stackrel{}{k}\alpha }{}}e_\alpha \dot{a}_\stackrel{}{k}e_\alpha \dot{a}_\stackrel{}{k}`$
where real elements of force matrices are

$$\stackrel{~}{V}_{\alpha \beta }(\stackrel{}{k})=\frac{1}{M}\underset{\stackrel{}{l}}{}V_{\alpha \beta }(\stackrel{}{l})e^{i\stackrel{}{k}\stackrel{}{l}};$$
(7)
$$\stackrel{~}{\tau }_{\alpha \beta }^1(\stackrel{}{k})=\underset{\stackrel{}{l}}{}\tau _{\alpha \beta }^1(\stackrel{}{l})e^{i\stackrel{}{k}\stackrel{}{l}}.$$
(8)
Euler-Lagrange equations

$$\frac{d}{dt}\left(\frac{L}{\dot{Q}_s}\right)\frac{L}{Q_s}=0$$

for the variables $`Q_1=e_\alpha A_\stackrel{}{k}`$ and $`Q_2=e_\alpha a_\stackrel{}{k}`$ are respectively

$$e_\alpha \ddot{A}_\stackrel{}{k}+\underset{\beta }{}[\stackrel{~}{V}_{\alpha \beta }(\stackrel{}{k})e_\beta A_\stackrel{}{k}+\stackrel{~}{\tau }_{\alpha \beta }^1(\stackrel{}{k})e_\beta \dot{a}_\stackrel{}{k}]=0;$$
(9)
$$e_\beta \ddot{a}_\stackrel{}{k}\underset{\alpha }{}e_\alpha \stackrel{~}{\tau }_{\alpha \beta }^1(\stackrel{}{k})\dot{A}_\stackrel{}{k}=0.$$
(10)
Differentiating Eq. (9) with respect to time and replace (-$`\stackrel{}{k}`$) for $`\stackrel{}{k}`$ we obtain

$$e_\alpha \stackrel{\mathrm{}}{𝐴}_\stackrel{}{k}+\underset{\beta }{}[\stackrel{~}{V}_{\alpha \beta }(\stackrel{}{k})e_\beta \dot{A}_\stackrel{}{k}+\stackrel{~}{\tau }_{\alpha \beta }^1(\stackrel{}{k})e_\beta \ddot{a}_\stackrel{}{k}]=0.$$
(11)
Substituting $`e_\beta \ddot{a}_\stackrel{}{k}`$ from Eq. (10) into Eq. (11), we gain the equation for $`A_\stackrel{}{k}`$ which after integration over $`t`$ changes to

$$e_\alpha \ddot{A}_\stackrel{}{k}+\underset{\beta }{}W_{\alpha \beta }(\stackrel{}{k})e_\beta A_\stackrel{}{k}=C$$
(12)
here $`C`$ is the integration constant and the force matrix

$$W_{\alpha \beta }(\stackrel{}{k})=\stackrel{~}{V}_{\alpha \beta }(\stackrel{}{k})+\stackrel{~}{\tau }_{\alpha \beta }^1\underset{\alpha ^{}}{}\stackrel{~}{\tau }_{\alpha ^{}\beta }^1(\stackrel{}{k})\frac{e_\alpha ^{}}{e_\beta }.$$
(13)
Eq. (12) has the form of a standard equation for collective variables of the crystal lattice and it determines three frequencies $`\mathrm{\Omega }_s(\stackrel{}{k})`$ ($`s`$ = 1, 2, 3), that is, three branches of acoustic vibrations: one longitudinal branch (along $`\stackrel{}{k}`$) and two transverse ones (normal to $`\stackrel{}{k}`$). The equation for the frequencies $`\mathrm{\Omega }_s(\stackrel{}{k})`$ has the form

$$\mathrm{\Omega }_s^2(\stackrel{}{k})W_{\alpha \beta }(\stackrel{}{k})=0.$$
(14)
But in our case, as seen from (13) the force matrix $`W(\stackrel{}{k})`$ comprises in addition to the elastic (electromagnetic nature) component $`\stackrel{~}{V}(\stackrel{}{k})`$ also the inerton component caused by overlapping the inerton cloud of each atom with the adjacent atoms and proportional to $`(\tau ^1)^2`$.

It seems likely that in a crystal under ordinary conditions the correction $`(\tau ^1)^2`$ to the elastic matrix $`V(\stackrel{}{k})`$ is small. But given a sufficiently intensive external source of inertons, this correction can substantially increase and then the inerton component can show up explicitly. Indeed, given an external inerton source, Eq. (10) is replaced by the generalised equation

$$e_\beta \ddot{a}_\stackrel{}{k}\underset{\alpha }{}e_\alpha \stackrel{~}{\tau }_{\alpha \beta }^1(\stackrel{}{k})\dot{A}_\stackrel{}{k}=f_{\stackrel{}{k}\beta }\mathrm{cos}(\omega _\stackrel{}{k}t).$$
(15)
With the permanently acting source, when the external force $`f_\stackrel{}{k}>\stackrel{~}{\tau }^1\dot{A}_\stackrel{}{k}`$, the equation

$$e_\beta \ddot{a}_\stackrel{}{k}f_{\stackrel{}{k}\beta }\mathrm{cos}(\omega _\stackrel{}{k}t)$$
(16)
follows from (15). Integrating (16) over $`t`$ and then substituting $`e_\beta \dot{a}_\stackrel{}{k}`$ from (16) into (9), we obtain the equation

$$e_\alpha \ddot{A}_\stackrel{}{k}+\underset{\beta }{}\stackrel{~}{V}_{\alpha \beta }(\stackrel{}{k})e_\beta A_\stackrel{}{k}=\underset{\beta }{}\frac{\stackrel{~}{\tau }_{\alpha \beta }^1(\stackrel{}{k})}{\omega _\stackrel{}{k}}f_\stackrel{}{k}\mathrm{sin}(\omega _\stackrel{}{k}t).$$
(17)
At a sufficiently large value of the permanent disturbance, e.g. along the projection $`e_1`$, it is easy to find from (17) the amplitude $`A_{k_1}^{(0)}`$ of collective vibrations of atoms:

$$A_{k_1}^{(0)}=f_{k_1}\frac{\stackrel{~}{\tau }_{11}^1/\omega _\stackrel{}{k}}{\mathrm{\Omega }^2(\stackrel{}{k})\omega _\stackrel{}{k}^2}$$
(18)
and, therefore, the amplitude of individual atom vibration

$$\xi _{n_1}=\frac{1}{\sqrt{NM}}\underset{k_1}{}A_{k_1}^{(0)}e^{ik_1n_1}$$
(19)
(as is generally known, the consideration of friction $`\eta `$ enables the limitedness and constant sign of amplitude $`A_{k_1}^{(0)}`$ in (18)). Thus, it is easily seen from (19) and (18) that given disturbing force $`f_\stackrel{}{k}`$ of the applied inerton field, the amplitude of atom vibrations in the crystal should increase, especially at resonance.

## 3 Source of inertons

A condensed medium and, in particular, our planet itself could be considered as a source of inerton. Moreover, two types of stationary inerton flows can be set off in the terrestrial globe; their availability being associated with the motion of the Earth: 1) the orbital motion around the Sun with the velocity $`v_{01}`$ 30 km/s and 2) the proper rotation; with this motion the velocity changes from $`v_{02}=0`$ in the centre of the Earth to $`v_{02}=2\pi R_{\mathrm{Earth}}/24\mathrm{hour}`$ 462 m/s in the equator surface.

Actually, the motion of atoms of the Earth considered to be an ideal globe moving as a single unit apparently does not differ in principle from the motion of a free particle \[18-20\]. Structural bonds, which keep atoms in the globe, lead to the coherence of their motion. If we assume that the mean mass of atoms of the Earth is $`M=30M_p`$, then the de Broglie wavelength for the two types of the motion will be $`\lambda _1=h/Mv_{01}4\times 10^{13}`$ m and $`\lambda _2=h/Mv_{02}1.5\times 10^{11}`$ m respectively. Substituting the values $`\lambda _{1(2)}`$ and $`v_{01(02)}`$ into formula (1), we acquire the amplitudes of inerton clouds of the moving atoms of the terrestrial globe: $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_18\times 10^9`$ m and $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_24\times 10^5`$ m. In both cases the overlap of inerton clouds is substantial ($`\mathrm{\Lambda }_1/g_010`$ and $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_2/g_010^4`$), but due to inequality $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_2\mathrm{\Lambda }_1`$ the degree of coherence between atoms is greater along the velocity vector $`\stackrel{}{v}_{02}`$ (i.e., along the West-East line) than along the orbital velocity vector $`\stackrel{}{v}_{01}`$.

Deviations from coherence in the motion of atoms caused by thermal fluctuations and various mechanical, physical and chemical processes produce excitation of the atoms and as a result generation of acoustic waves takes place. As a consequence corresponding excitation of inertons (inerton waves) accompanying the acoustic waves will appear as well. We may expect that owing to the inequality $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_2\mathrm{\Lambda }_1`$ the generated inerton waves will have a maximum intensity along the West-East line. The velocity of the generated inerton wave propagation may be equal to (or even exceed) the speed of light.

## 4 Resonator

If inerton waves really exist, then we can try to amplify their intensity in a resonator and then to register the waves experimentally. Let us consider characteristics which a resonator of inerton waves of the Earth should possess. As mentioned above, we can separate out two types of inerton waves propagating in the terrestrial globe: 1) radial waves propagation along the diameter (in parallel and antiparallel with the orbital velocity vector $`\stackrel{}{v}_{01}`$ of the Earth) and 2) tangential waves propagation over the surface zone of the Earth along the equatorial West-East line (i.e., along or against the vector of the rotational velocity $`\stackrel{}{v}_{02}`$ of the Earth on the equator). In the former case, the inerton wave front travels a distance $`L_{\mathrm{rad}}=4R_{\mathrm{Earth}}`$ in the cyclic period and in the second case $`L_{\mathrm{tan}}=2\pi R_{\mathrm{Earth}}`$. From these two expressions we obtain the relation

$$L_{\mathrm{tan}}/L_{\mathrm{rad}}=\pi /2.$$
(20)
Apparently, relation (20) also characterises the ratio between the wavelengths of the tangential and radial $`n`$ths harmonics.

The time of passing of the mentioned distances by the front of an inerton wave is equal to $`L_{\mathrm{tan}}/c0.13`$ s and $`L_{\mathrm{rad}}/c0.09`$ s correspondingly where we take the speed of light $`c`$ for the velocity of spreading of inerton waves. So, if the lifetime of acoustic waves which are excited in the directions $`L_{\mathrm{tan}}`$ and $`L_{\mathrm{rad}}`$ far exceeds these two magnitude, for instance by ten times, then inerton waves accompanying the acoustic waves can turn round and pass through the Earth the same number of times to the moment when the acoustic excitations are fully scattered or absorbed (and hence the inertons waves scattered too).

Let us assume that a material object is located in the globe surface far from its poles. The object has linear dimensions $`l_{\mathrm{tan}}`$ in the horizontal plane along the West-East line and $`l_{\mathrm{rad}}`$ in the vertical direction, that is radial one. Now, if the above dimensions satisfy relation (20), that is

$$l_{\mathrm{tan}}/l_{\mathrm{rad}}=\pi /2,$$
(21)
then this object can play the role of a resonator of inerton waves of the Earth since the object has a form similar to the Earth sphere (in the limit $`l_{\mathrm{tan}},l_{\mathrm{rad}}R_{\mathrm{Earth}}`$). Such a resonator could amplify inerton waves, which have wavelength $`l_{\mathrm{tan}}`$ in the horizontal direction and $`l_{\mathrm{rad}}`$ in the vertical one and could also amplify their harmonics.

## 5 Experimental

Of course, it is by no means a simple problem to register the amplification of the amplitude of atom vibrations in the specimen in question placed into the resonator, the more so as we can say a priori nothing about the figure of merit of the resonator. However, a conclusion about the existence of inerton field can be made from the resulting integral effect.

The amplification of vibrations of the atoms of the test specimen in the resonator under the effect of the force of the inerton field can apparently be considered as an analogy of the effect of ultrasound or micro waves sound. This is evident from expression (13): the total force matrix of a crystal is formed by the two terms having the same rights. As is generally known (see, e.g. Yavorskii and Detlaf ), the effect of destroying and crushing various structures and polishing surfaces is characteristic of ultrasound. Thus, in our case, the experiment can be carried out to study the extent of changes in the non-uniformity surface of the specimen (its polish, finish or sharpening) which stayed in the resonator for some time.

The resonator was made of two identical rectangular plates of organic glass (transparent in the visible optical spectral band and with the dimensions of the plate $`20\times 16.5\mathrm{cm}^2`$ and the plate thickness 3 mm) which were sharpened and bonded together along one of the long sides. The angle of inclination of each of the plates with respect to the horizontal has made up $`52^{}`$ so that in the section perpendicular to the line of bonding of the plates, the resonator had the shape of a triangle. The dimensions of the base of the triangle $`l_{\mathrm{tan}}`$ = 20 cm and of the height $`l_{\mathrm{rad}}`$ = 12.7 cm satisfy relation (21). The resonator was placed on a polished wooden horizontal surface. No objects were found at a radial distance of about 70-cm from the resonator. The upper edge of the resonator (the line of the plates bonding) was oriented along the North-South line and, therefore, one plate faced the West and the other the East. A wooden support column 4.5 cm height, with the cross-section area $`1\times 1\mathrm{cm}^2`$ was placed in the center of the resonator and the specimen being tested was put on the column.

Our investigation was related with the cutting edge (point) of a razor blade, but prior to putting it into resonator, a small reference specimen in area $`15\times 7\mathrm{mm}^2`$ was cut out of the blade (the first dimension is the length of the cutting edge). The blade was put on the column in the resonator so that the axis of the blade was oriented along the North-South line. The main action on the blade on the part of inerton waves was expected in the plane of the blade along the West-East line (this action amounts to a peculiar sharpening of the cutting edge) and the less intensive action – along vertical direction. Razor blades produced by four different companies have been studied: ”Shick” (the Netherlands), ”BIC” (Hungary), ”Sputnik” (Russia) and ”Gillette” (the U.K.). Investigation of the structure of the cutting edge point of the reference specimen and of the specimen subjected to the hypothetical inerton field was carried out by scanning electron microscope JSM-35 (Japan) operated in secondary electron mode under 25 kV accelerated voltage. As for the blades of the first three companies the time of exposure of test specimens in the resonator varied from one to two weeks. Nevertheless no substantial distinction has been observed. In this connection the exposure time was increased up to 30 days.

Fragments of the cutting edge of a ”Gillette” blade are presented for comparison in Fig. 1 (the reference and test specimens, micrographs $`a`$ and $`b`$, respectively). The same for one more ”Gillette” blade, Fig. 2 (the reference ($`a`$) and test ($`b`$) specimens). The Figs. 1 and 2 show that the fine structure well discernible on the reference specimen (Figs. 1$`a`$ and 2$`a`$) is substantially smothered on the edge of the blade which has stayed in the resonator for a month (Figs. 1$`b`$, 2$`b`$). The morphologically more coarse structure is well preserved. (Note that pressure, temperature, humidity, etc. could not make any changes in the morphological structure of the test metal specimen separated from the reference one by 1.5 meters; the two specimens were found under the same atmospheric conditions.)

It can be seen that the established difference in the microstructure of the cutting edge of the razor blade confirms the qualitative treatment performed in Section 2 regarding the increase of the amplitude of atom vibrations under the external inerton field. In fact, it is central tenet of our concept that the influence of the acoustic or inerton field on any heterogeneity-crystallite of the specimen is not fundamentally different. There was no ultrasound in our experiment and therefore changes revealed in the fine structure of the specimens could arise only from the impact of Earth’s inerton field. From the above reasoning it is clear that a macroscopic mechanism of these changes is identical to peculiarities of the absorption of sound in polycrystalline bodies, Landau and Lifshitz . Thus, if the wavelength of the sound $`\lambda _{\mathrm{sound}}`$ is large as compared to the size $`d`$ of individual crystallites, then each crystallite being in the field of this sound wave is subjected to an uniformly distributed pressure. However, the deformation arising in this case is nonhomogeneous due to anisotropy of the crystallites and boundary conditions on their contact surfaces. As can be seen from the Figs. 1 and 2, the typical size $`d`$ of a crystallite in the blade is approximately $`(0.11)`$ $`\mu `$m. The acoustic frequency is limited by the value $`\nu _{\mathrm{Debye}}10^{13}`$ Hz and owing to our main supposition that acoustic waves generate inerton waves, we should ascribe this frequency also to the latter (see expressions (14) and (13)). Let us take the speed of light $`c`$ for the velocity of spreading of an inerton wave. Then we can make an estimation of the lower length of the inerton waves excited in the Earth which propagate through the specimen and destroy its fine morphological structure: $`c/\nu _{\mathrm{Debye}}30`$ $`\mu `$m. The upper value of inerton wavelength was obviously limited by the resonator dimensions – approximately 12 cm. So the wave length and frequency spectra of inerton field influenced the specimen in the resonator were restricted by the following uncertainties:

$$30\mu \mathrm{m}<\lambda _{\mathrm{iner}}<12\mathrm{cm};$$

$$2.5\times 10^9\mathrm{Hz}<\nu _{\mathrm{iner}}<10^{13}\mathrm{Hz}.$$

If the whole system is swung through $`90^{}`$, i.e. the planes of the resonator and the cutting edge of the blade are oriented to the North and South, then no distinctions are observed between the fine structure of the test and the reference specimens after the blade has stayed in the resonator for 30 days (Fig. 3). Thus points to the fact that generation of the coherent inerton field of the Earth along the North-South direction is absent.

## 6 Concluding remarks

The present research unambiguous demonstrates that a vacuum should be considered in the form of a cellular elastic space. A submicroscopic analysis of the behaviour of objects in space performed in Refs. \[18-20,22\] and in this work has shown that any motion of objects is accompanied by elementary excitations of space called inertons. It is obvious that these quasi-particles should replace gravitons – hypothetical massless particles of the classical general theory of relativity. In fact, gravitons were deduced on the assumption that a moving massive object did not interact with the surrounding space (space was supposed to be empty); besides, gravitons did not occupy any place in quantum mechanics. By contrast, inertons fit naturally into quantum mechanics explaining physical processes, which are veiled from view by its formalism. Our data evidently display the existence of inertons in the system studied.

In such a manner inerton waves should be present in any system consisting of a large number of bound particles. These waves are excited and propagate in space and can influence material objects. In particular, our planet itself is an inerton generator and, evidently, the Earth inerton field may be considered as an alternative to the aether wind which, speaking the language of physicists of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, Born , the Earth might experience in its motion through the world aether.

Surprisingly, the mankind is familiar with the effect of influence of the Earth inerton waves over a long time. Egyptian pyramids are an glowing example. It is well-known (see, e.g. Schul and Pettit ) that Egyptian pyramids and their small models possess inexplicable properties: the pyramids provide the mummification of animal remains, depress germination of moistened grains, keep up the razor blades sharp, etc. The base of the pyramid is a square oriented with a high degree of accuracy to the directions of the world. The ratio between the side of the square $`a_{\mathrm{pyr}}`$ and the height $`h_{\mathrm{pyr}}`$ of the pyramid satisfies relation (21): $`a_{\mathrm{pyr}}/h_{\mathrm{pyr}}=\pi /2`$. This means that like our resonator, which has the shape of a partly open book, the Egyptian pyramid is a resonator for inerton waves generated by the Earth as well. By the way, the word pyramid means the ”inside fire” in Ancient Greek, that is the word itself alludes to some inner properties of the pharaoh monument rather than points to the monument habit.

Review by Puthoff and Targ  describes experiments on transmission of mental information over a distance of hundreds kilometers by extrasensitive participants placed into a special metal room. The room shielded the participant-sender by two metal screens; hence the room was absolutely impenetrable for the electromagnetic field. Nevertheless the information transmitted via the perceptive channel from one participant to another was received successfully. However, it was pointed out in Ref. 28 that the transmission was efficient only along the West-East line; but it is just this direction that the intensity of inerton waves of the Earth is maximum. It is not ruled out that the inerton field as an informational field plays an important role in other phenomena of parapsychology (on parapsychology see, e.g. Dubrov and Pushkin , and Morgan and Morris ).

Of course the existence of inerton field should beyond any reasonable doubt be sustained by other pure physical experiments. Such candidates are in stock at present. Specifically, unusual effects of the multiphoton ionisation of atoms of gas or ”effective photon”, Panarella , caused by low energy photons provide a useful check on the availability of clouds of inertons enclosing electrons . Other remarkable unusual physical effects revealed in the area of optical phenomena such as diffraction/diffractionless of a single photon, Panarella , photon as a particle-wave, Mizobuchi and Ohtake , and particle tunneling and superluminal photonic tunneling, Nimtz and Heitmann  can be easily understood from the submicroscopic view-point drawing inertons which should be an integral part of the systems studied and setups used by the researchers as well.

Acknowledgement

We thank greatly Professor Michel Bounias for the valuable remarks and reprints of his articles cited herein.


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# Quantum codes on high-genus surfaces

## Abstract

An economy of scale is found when storing many qubits in one highly entangled block of a topological quantum code. The code is defined by construction of a topologically convoluted 2-d surface and does *not* work by compressing redundancy in the encoded information.

The distinguishing property of a quantum computer is its ability to hold an amount of data that grows exponentially with the size of the computer. Entanglement is the main tool for generating and manipulating this data. And quantum error correcting codes are how we make sure all this goes according to plan, given finite control over physical components of the computer. An unexpected connection has been made between quantum codes and the geometry of 2-d surfaces, rooted in a shared notion of locality . The resulting geometrical intuition here enables definition of a code storing many qubits in one large entangled state that exhibits a novel economy of scale. Each encoded qubit becomes more resistant to errors as we increase the number of encoded qubits at fixed information rate (number of encoded qubits per physical qubit).

In one version of the so-called “topological” or “lattice” quantum codes, two qubits are encoded in a set of physical qubits identified as the edges of a $`L\times L`$ square lattice on the surface of a torus . The encoded $`Z`$ operation for qubit number one (two) is given by any non-contractible loop of $`\sigma ^z`$ operators winding around the torus in the “vertical” (“horizontal”) direction. The encoded $`X`$ for qubit one (two) is given by a co-loop (“train-track”) of $`\sigma ^x`$ operators in the horizontal (vertical) direction; see Fig. 1. It is known how to perform an encoded Hadamard transformation and $`\pi /2`$ phase gate with these codes. Also, a method exists for performing a Toffoli (C-C-NOT) gate although with certain complications if very large blocks $`10^9`$ are involved .

Errors to physical qubits in a toric code are periodically detected by “syndrome” measurements that happen to involve operations which are all local on the lattice. One performs error correction based on these measurements, aiming to prevent errors from joining together into long error chains that might encircle the torus and result in an encoded $`X`$ or $`Z`$ operation being applied unbeknownst to us.

What determines the code’s fidelity $`1ϵ`$ in maintaining encoded information is the length of (number of edges contained in) the shortest possible non-contractible loops on the lattice, in this case $`L`$ . In particular

$$ϵ(p/p_c)^{KL^\beta }$$
(1)
where $`p`$ is an error probability for physical qubits, and $`p_c`$, $`\beta `$, and $`K`$ are parameters depending on the particular error correction algorithm used.

$`2N`$ qubits may be encoded in $`N`$ separate lattices, each with fidelity given above. The main result of this paper is that, if instead of $`N`$ separate lattices we combine them into one large lattice on a high genus surface constructed by a certain method, the information rate and/or fidelity may be improved as the number of encoded qubits increases.

As a motivating example, consider joining two $`L^{}\times L^{}`$ toric lattices by removing a $`L^{}/2\times L^{}/2`$ square from each and sewing together the perimeters of the resulting square holes; it is straightforward to define a code on this new lattice preserving the total number, four, of encoded qubits. Taking $`L^24L^2/3`$, the number of physical qubits is nearly the same as for two separate $`L\times L`$ lattices, but the minimum length of non-contractible loops is now $`2L/\sqrt{3}`$, improving the code’s fidelity.

This suggests, given $`N`$ separate $`L\times L`$ toric lattices, we combine the $`2L^2N`$ physical qubits into one large high-genus surface on which each torus becomes one handle. We can increase the code’s fidelity by the following construction. Cut each handle through its width, along a “w-loop” (see Fig. 2), giving two loose ends per handle. Then randomly re-pair the set of $`2N`$ loose ends and rejoin each pair.

Before cutting and rejoining w-loops, the lengths of length-wise “l-loops” had been as small as $`L`$; now the shortest simple l-loops for a typical handle will have length $`LN`$. If each handle is made to encode a qubit with $`Z`$ operator given by an l-loop, it appears the chances of a $`Z`$ error to these encoded qubits has been markedly diminished. One might like to say this error probability is now exponentially small in $`(LN)^\beta `$. But there are more complicated l-type loops with lengths much smaller than $`LN`$; each such loop involves many handles. The minimal l-loops of this kind determine the encoded $`Z`$ error probability of a lattice code based on this large surface. Let us first determine the lengths of minimal l-loops, then symmetrize the construction of our surface to handle encoded $`X`$ errors as well.

To characterize the minimal l-loops we will calculate some geometrical properties of our high-genus surface, on which it will be convenient to recall the square lattice of qubits. If each handle connects to the surface through a square patch, the lattice will be locally identical to a simple square lattice except at the corners of a square patch. Each corner vertex has valence (number of edges containing it) equal to five not four, giving five quadrants of 2-d space (see Fig. 3). The corner constitutes a kink of negative curvature on the otherwise flat lattice.

Around some vertex $`P`$ draw a small “circle,” *i.e.* a diamond-shaped locus of vertices equidistant from $`P`$. As its radius $`r`$ increases, the circle will encounter handles over which it must climb, extending out to new places on the surface. From an intrinsic perspective, the circle merely sees an occasional kink, from which emanates an extra quadrant of space. Having passed over a kink and encroached into its extra quadrant, the circle’s perimeter will become larger than it would be apart from the kink. It is not hard to see the perimeter will contain an additional $`rr_\mathrm{k}`$ vertices, where $`r_\mathrm{k}`$ is the distance from $`P`$ to the kink.

As the circle expands, it encounters more kinks and its perimeter grows even faster. Moreover, all kinks contribute independently to the perimeter. Assuming a constant density, $`8/L^2`$ per vertex, of kinks on the lattice, the perimeter $`c(r)`$ approximately satisfies the recursion relation

$$c(r)=4r+\frac{8}{L^2}\underset{r_\mathrm{k}=0}{\overset{r}{}}c(r_\mathrm{k})(rr_\mathrm{k}),$$
(2)
obtained by adding independent contributions from all kinks within the circle; $`c(r)=4r`$ would be the result in flat space. The above relation can be cast as a second order finite difference equation, with initial conditions, whose solution is approximately

$$c(r)=L\sqrt{2}\mathrm{sinh}\left(\sqrt{8}r/L\right).$$
(3)
To obtain the minimal l-loop length for a given handle $`H`$, consider the set of open paths of length $`r`$ and starting at some vertex $`P`$ around the base of $`H`$. As $`r`$ increases, the circle forming the outer boundary of this set will be pushed across various handles to random new places on the surface, gradually filling it up. Once a path encounters the other end of $`H`$, it can be closed across $`H`$ to form an l-loop. The chances there will be such a path become significant only when the area of our $`r`$-circle approaches a significant fraction of the total surface area, $`L^2N`$. Obtaining the circle’s area by summing (3), this condition is found to be $`rL\mathrm{log}N/\sqrt{8}`$, which thus gives the minimal l-loop length for almost all handles on the surface. As for the other handles, one can either attempt to re-pair them or simply discard them.

The probability of encoded $`Z`$ errors associated with l-loops is thus exponentially small in $`(L\mathrm{log}N)^\beta `$; however no improvement has been achieved for $`X`$ error correction. To symmetrize the above construction, we simply add an additional cut-and-pair step. Previously we had cut along a w-loop on each handle and then re-paired all the cuts. Now we cut along an l-loop, which may be as short as $`L\mathrm{log}N`$, and randomly re-pair as before. There is no longer a simple w-loop that can be drawn encircling a given handle. A w-loop must proceed across many of these cuts before it can close on itself non-contractibly. Topologically, this new step is identical to the previous one but with the surface turned inside-out. The effect of these new cuts and joins is just a doubling of the kink density to $`16/L^2`$ in (2), giving the minimal loop length—now for l-loops and w-loops—as $`L\mathrm{log}N/4`$.

This result can be applied either as an improvement to the $`L,N`$-dependence of the lattice code’s fidelity at fixed information rate, an improvement to the information rate at fixed fidelity, or as a simultaneous improvement to both. But there is another parameter to be considered: the accuracy threshold $`p_c`$. Indeed, this convoluted surface topology suggests a greater variety of possible catastrophic error processes (long error chains) which would tend to worsen the threshold.

Nevertheless, as $`L`$ is increased at fixed $`N`$ the error processes affected by the convoluted topology will only be those involving longer and longer, hence less and less probable, error chains. For large $`L`$ the threshold will then tend back to its original value. Based on analysis of one quasi-local error correction algorithm  with $`\beta =\mathrm{log}_32`$, it is found that the effect of convoluted topology is to multiply a bound on the threshold by

$$\underset{k=1}{\overset{\mathrm{log}_3(L\mathrm{log}N)}{}}\left[\frac{2(3^k)^2}{a(3^k)}\right]^{(1/3^k)^\beta }8e^{12(\mathrm{log}N)^{1\beta }/L^\beta }$$

where $`a(r)`$ is the circular area obtained by summing (3). This means that $`N`$ should not be increased faster than $`\mathrm{log}NL^{\beta /(1\beta )}`$ or else the code’s accuracy threshold may be greatly diminished. Thus the fidelity $`1ϵ`$ from (1) will scale as

$$\mathrm{log}ϵ(L\mathrm{log}N)^\beta L^{\beta /(1\beta )}$$

This calculation applies only to the one particular error correction algorithm for which $`\beta `$ is fixed as $`\mathrm{log}_32`$; however if we naively use $`\beta =1`$ above, we find there is no restriction on how $`N`$ scales with $`L`$—unbounded gains can be had by increasing $`N`$ at fixed $`L`$ without serious damage to the accuracy threshold. In fact one error correction algorithm has $`\beta =1`$, and explicit consideration of its performance under convoluted topology corroborates this result. Bounds on the threshold are obtained here by counting certain classes of paths on the lattice . For instance, the number of length $`r`$ paths with given starting point on a flat square lattice is $`4^r`$. On our curved lattice, some vertices (the kinks) have valence 5, so the number of walks is bounded by $`v^r`$ with $`4<v<5`$. The effect of convoluted topology on a threshold bound based on this counting would be to multiply it by the near-unity factor $`4/v`$.

It has been shown how to achieve gains in the fidelity and/or efficiency of storing quantum information by encoding many qubits in one block of a topological quantum code. The code involves a lattice of qubits on a 2-d surface of highly convoluted topology. As more encoded qubits are added, keeping fixed the number of physical qubits per encoded qubit, asymptotically significant gains are obtained in the code’s fidelity. This is an economy of scale in the error correction hardware independent of any software gains achieved by compressing redundancy within the encoded information itself, as in Shannon’s coding theorems and their quantum equivalents , which rely on the encoded qubits’ occupation of “typical” subspaces in the many-qubit Hilbert space.

One nice feature of the original topological codes is that error correction operations are local on the lattice; however, this is also a limitation. The convoluted topology of the above construction, which effectively destroys the codes’ locality, is a way of overcoming this limitation.

Thanks to U. Madhow and R. Q. Epstein.


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# Kondo Temperature for the Two-Channel Kondo Models of Tunneling Centers

## Abstract

The possibility for a two-channel Kondo ($`2CK`$) non Fermi liquid state to appear in a metal as a result of the interaction between electrons and movable structural defects is revisited. As usual, the defect is modeled by a heavy particle moving in an almost symmetric double-well potential (DWP). Taking into account only the two lowest states in DWP is known to lead to a Kondo-like Hamiltonian with rather low Kondo temperature, $`T_K`$. We prove that, in contrast to previous believes, the contribution of higher excited states in DWP does not enhance $`T_K`$. On the contrary, $`T_K`$ is reduced by three orders of magnitude as compared with the two-level model: the prefactor in $`T_K`$ is determined by the spacing between the second and the third levels in DWP rather than by the electron Fermi energy. Moreover, $`T_K`$, turns out to be parametrically smaller than the splitting between the two lowest levels. Therefore, there is no microscopic model of movable defects which may justify non-Fermi liquid $`2CK`$ phenomenology.

It is well known that two-level systems (TLS) determine the low energy phenomena in a glassy matter. The most popular realization of the TLS is a movable atom tunneling between two minima of the two-well potential created by other atoms. The low-temperature behavior of glasses was found to be consistent with the assumption of homogeneous distribution of both energy difference and spatial distance $`a`$ between the minima. In metallic glasses TLS interact with itinerant electrons. Usually this interaction in metallic glasses is assumed to be weak and to manifest itself only in a finite relaxation rate of the TLS, see Ref.  for a review.

It was proposed long ago  that a TLS interacting with itinerant electrons behaves like a localized spin in the Kondo model. Indeed, in the limit $`k_Fa1`$, where $`k_F`$ is the Fermi wavelength, only the electrons with two spherical harmonics, namely, $`l=0`$ and $`l=1,m=0`$ interact with TLS. (Here and below the axis of the momentum quantization is the easy axis of TLS, $`x`$)

Let us introduce a pseudospin $`\widehat{S}`$ of a symmetric TLS: $`S=1/2`$ corresponds to the ground state (even wave function), whereas $`S=1/2`$ labels the excited state with the odd wave function. One can map the electrons with the two relevant spherical harmonics on the one-dimensional Fermi gas of particles that are characterized by a pseudo-spin with components $`\sigma =+,`$ as $`\widehat{\mathrm{\Psi }}_{l=0}\widehat{\mathrm{\Psi }}_{}`$, $`\widehat{\mathrm{\Psi }}_{l=1,m=0}\widehat{\mathrm{\Psi }}_+`$, while the real electron spin index $`s=,`$ is replaced with the channel index $`\mu =0,1`$. Furthermore, provided that the Fermi energy, $`\epsilon _F`$, exceeds all of the relevant energies, one can linearize the electron dispersion law near the Fermi level, $`\epsilon (p)v_F|p|`$, where $`v_F`$ is the Fermi velocity. The divergences caused by the linearized spectrum should, thus, be cut off by the bandwidth $`D\epsilon _F`$. The resulting Hamiltonian of the system can be expressed as

$`\widehat{H}=iv_F{\displaystyle _{\mathrm{}}^{\mathrm{}}}𝑑x{\displaystyle \underset{\mu =0,1}{}}{\displaystyle \underset{\sigma =\pm }{}}\mathrm{\Psi }_{\mu ,\sigma }^{}_x\mathrm{\Psi }_{\mu ,\sigma }+{\displaystyle \underset{i=x,z}{}}\mathrm{\Delta }_i\widehat{S}_i`$ (1)
$`+2\pi v_F{\displaystyle \underset{j=x,y,z}{}}{\displaystyle \underset{\mu =0,1}{}}{\displaystyle \underset{\sigma ,\sigma ^{}=\pm }{}}v_j\mathrm{\Psi }_{\mu ,\sigma }^{}\widehat{\tau }_{\sigma \sigma ^{}}^j\mathrm{\Psi }_{\mu ,\sigma ^{}}\widehat{S}_j.`$ (2)
Here the Pauli matrices, $`\tau _{\sigma \sigma ^{}}^j`$, act in the space of the electron pseudospin, and $`\widehat{S}`$ is the operator of the TLS pseudospin, $`[S^i,S^j]=iϵ^{ijk}S_k`$. The first term in Eq. (2) describes kinetic energies of 1D electrons. The second term characterizes the TLS level splitting: $`\mathrm{\Delta }_z`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }_x`$ represent correspondingly the tunneling and the initial TLS asymmetry. The third term in Eq. (2) describes TLS-electron interaction. The Hamiltonian Eq. (2) is nothing but the two-channel Kondo Hamiltonian, where the level splitting plays the role of the Zeeman splitting of states of the usual Kondo impurity. For a comprehensive review of implication of this model to magnetic ions and tunneling centers in metals see Ref. .

The two-channel Kondo effect is known to manifest itself through a non-Fermi liquid behavior of the specific heat, magnetization and electronic correlation functions. Such a behavior takes place when both the temperature, $`T`$, and the level splitting,

$$\mathrm{\Delta }=\sqrt{\mathrm{\Delta }_x^2+\mathrm{\Delta }_z^2},$$
(3)
do not exceed the Kondo temperature, $`T_K`$. It can be shown that in the limit $`v_zv_x1`$

$$T_K=D\left(v_xv_z\right)^{1/2}\left(\frac{v_z}{4v_x}\right)^{1/4v_x}.$$
(4)
The non-Fermi liquid behavior of the TLS at the two-channel Kondo fixed point was used in Ref.  to interpret the zero bias anomaly in characteristics of point contacts  and more recently  to explain the temperature behavior of the dephasing rate observed in Refs. . In general, TLS were assumed to play important role in crystalline metals as well as in metallic glasses.

Assumptions of Ref.  were criticized on the grounds that the disorder induced splitting estimates were too high for the Kondo-like behavior to develop . Although several questions raised in Refs.  remain unanswered, we put this issue aside. Instead, we concentrate on a different objection - smallness of $`T_K`$ in Eq. (4) for reasonable values of parameters. Here we prove that $`T_K\mathrm{\Delta }_z`$ for any set of the microscopic parameters, which allows the Kondo like description, Eq. (2). Therefore, the two channel Kondo fixed point by no means can be reached with the lowering $`T`$ and thus is irrelevant for the description of the TLS in metals.

To understand why the resulting Kondo temperature is so small, let us first discuss the physical meaning of the bare coupling constants $`v_j`$ and estimate them.

The coupling constant $`v_x`$ in Eq. (2) determines the renormalization of the TLS asymmetry by the electrons - a tilting of the double-well potential by the dipole moment of the electron density. Assuming a contact interaction characterized by a dimensionless coupling constant $`\lambda <1`$ we can estimate $`v_x`$ at given Fermi wave number, $`k_F`$, and the size of TLS, $`a`$, as (see, e.g., ) $`v_x\lambda k_Fa`$.

As to $`v_z`$, it characterizes transition between the two states of the TLS assisted by an electron transition. Incoming electron renormalizes the barrier’s height, $`V`$, and consequently the tunneling amplitude. However, the tunneling event still has to occur. Therefore,  $`v_z\lambda k_F^2a^2\mathrm{exp}(\eta )`$, where the tunneling exponent $`\eta `$ is determined by $`V`$ and the atomic mass $`M`$. Since $`M`$ is large, $`\eta 1`$ even for relatively low barriers. As a result, the coupling constant $`v_z`$ is always much smaller than $`v_x`$:

$$v_zv_x(k_Fa)\mathrm{exp}(\eta )v_x,\eta \mathrm{}^1a\sqrt{8MV}$$
(5)
This is why $`v_z`$ was usually neglected in previous treatments of TLS. For “typical” values of the parameters

$$D5\text{eV},v_x0.2,v_z/v_x10^3,$$
(6)
the “conventional” estimate of the Kondo temperature is $`T_K^c10^210^3`$ K . This low value of $`T_K`$ makes it hard to believe that the Kondo fixed point is relevant for the discussion of existing experiments.

In attempt to resolve the problem of small $`T_K`$ authors of Ref.  went beyond the two level approximation and considered virtual tunneling through the third level of the “TLS”. This contribution to $`v_z`$ apparently does not contain the tunneling exponent. According to Ref. , this fact dramatically increases $`T_K`$ comparing to the “conventional” estimate. In our opinion the statement about the large increase in the Kondo temperature is *incorrect*. Below we discuss the problem in detail.

$`T_K`$ can be extracted from second order perturbation theory in the interaction of the tunneling particle with the electrons. We calculate this correction within the one-dimensional (1D) model suggested in Ref. .

Consider a heavy particle in a symmetric 1D double-well potential $`V(x)`$. Let the energies of the two lowest eigenstates, $`E_{1,2}`$, be indistinguishable: $`E_2E_10`$. One can express the matrix element of the contact interaction of this particle with electrons through the coupling constant, $`\lambda `$, Fermi velocity, $`v_F`$, the heavy-particle eigenfunctions, $`\varphi _i(x)`$, and the electron wave functions, $`\psi _\sigma (x)`$, with a given isospin, $`\sigma =+,`$:

$$U_{ij}^{\sigma _1\sigma _2}=2\pi v_F\lambda I_{ij}^{\sigma _1\sigma _2},I_{kl}^{\sigma \rho }𝑑x\varphi _k\varphi _l\psi _\sigma \psi _\rho .$$
(7)
There are two second order corrections to the scattering amplitude $`\sigma _1,i\sigma _2,j`$, which correspond to processes with different intermediate states:

(i) In the intermediate state an electron has an isospin $`\sigma `$ and the particle occupies a state $`k`$ with the energy $`E_kE_1+\epsilon _k`$ (see Fig. 1a).

(ii) The transition $`ik`$ of the heavy particle produces an electron-hole pair - an electron in the final state $`\sigma _2`$ and a hole in the state $`\sigma `$. Afterwards the hole annihilates the electron in the initial state $`\sigma _1`$ and the heavy particle changes its state from $`k`$ to the final state $`j`$ (Fig. 1b)

Combining the contributions of these two processes and taking into account the occupation numbers of electron states at a given temperature $`T`$ we present the second order correction to the matrix element as:

$$\delta U_{ij}^{\sigma _1\sigma _2}\lambda ^2v_F\underset{k,\sigma }{}_D^D\frac{d\xi \left(I_{ik}^{\sigma _1\sigma }I_{jk}^{\sigma _2\sigma }I_{jk}^{\sigma _1\sigma }I_{ik}^{\sigma _2\sigma }\right)}{\left(\epsilon _k\xi \right)\left[1+\mathrm{exp}\left(\xi /T\right)\right]}.$$
(8)
Here $`I_{kl}^{\sigma \rho }`$ is determined by Eq. (7), $`\xi `$ denotes the energy of the intermediate electron or hole state counted from the Fermi level, and $`\epsilon _kE_kE_1`$ is the energy of the $`k`$-th state in the double-well potential counted from its ground state $`E_1=E_2`$. We have already discussed that the domain of the integration over $`\xi `$ should be $`|\xi |<D\epsilon _F`$. As to the singularity at $`\xi =\epsilon _k`$, the integral in Eq. (8) should be understood as the principal value. The minus sign in front of the second (hole) term in the numerator is due to the anti-commutation of fermionic operators.

Consider now matrix elements $`U_{12}^{\sigma _1\sigma _2}=U_{21}^{\sigma _1\sigma _2}`$ that describe transitions of the heavy particle between its two lowest states. Using Eqs. (8) one can show that such a transition should be accompanied by the change of the electron isospin: due to the parities of the wave functions $`U_{12}^{}=U_{12}^{++}=0`$. To evaluate $`U_{12}^+`$ we sum over $`\sigma `$ and integrate over $`\xi `$ in Eqs. (8). The result can be written as

$`{\displaystyle \frac{\delta U_{12}^+}{U_{12}^+}}`$ $`=`$ $`\lambda u_{\mathrm{}},u_n{\displaystyle \frac{1}{I_{12}^+}}{\displaystyle \underset{k=1}{\overset{n}{}}}{\displaystyle \underset{i,j=1}{\overset{2}{}}}ϵ^{ij}c_{ij}^k\mathrm{ln}\left({\displaystyle \frac{D}{\epsilon _k^{}}}\right),`$ (9)
where $`ϵ^{11}=ϵ^{22}=0`$, $`ϵ^{12}=ϵ^{21}=1`$, and

$`c_{ij}^kI_{ik}^+(I_{jk}^{}I_{jk}^{++}),\epsilon _k^{}\mathrm{max}\{\epsilon _k,T\}.`$ (10)
We start with the contribution of the first two levels ($`k=1,2`$) to the sum over $`k`$ in Eq. (9). Using Eqs. (8), and (10) one obtains, cf. with Ref. ,

$$u_2=\mathrm{ln}\left(\frac{D}{T}\right)𝑑x\left[\varphi _2^2\varphi _1^2\right]\left[\psi _{}^2\psi _+^2\right],$$
(11)
The electron wave functions $`\psi _\sigma (x)`$ are standing waves, $`\psi _{}(x)+i\psi _+(x)=\sqrt{2}\mathrm{exp}(ik_Fx)`$. Since $`k_Fa1`$ (otherwise this 1D approach is not applicable)

$$\psi _{}(x)\sqrt{2}\left[1(k_Fx)^2/2\right],\psi _+(x)\sqrt{2}k_Fx.$$
(12)
We introduce the wave functions, $`\varphi _{l(r)}`$, localized in the left (right) well, $`\sqrt{2}\varphi _{l,r}=\varphi _1\pm \varphi _2`$, recall that the functions $`\varphi _i`$ are normalized, and rewrite Eq. (11) as

$$u_2=8\mathrm{ln}\left(\frac{D}{T}\right)𝑑x\left(k_Fx\right)^2\varphi _l(x)\varphi _r(x).$$
(13)
The wave functions $`\varphi _l(x)`$ and $`\varphi _r(x)`$ are localized in the different wells, their overlap being exponentially small. Accordingly, $`u_2`$ is exponentially small as well, and one arrives at the “conventional” estimate for $`T_K`$.

It turns out that taking into account the higher excited states in the double-well potential, i.e., terms with $`k>2`$ in the sum Eq. (9), can only reduce the estimation of $`T_K`$.

Indeed, it follows from the definition of $`I_{ij}^{\sigma \rho }`$, Eq. (7), and completeness of the set of the functions, $`\{\varphi _k\}`$, ($`_k\varphi _k(x)\varphi _k(y)=\delta (xy)`$) that the sums, $`_kI_{ik}^{\sigma _1\sigma _2}I_{jk}^{\sigma _3\sigma _4}`$ with any set $`\sigma _n`$ and consequently $`_kc_{ij}^k`$, are symmetric with respect to the permutation of $`i`$ and $`j`$, i.e., $`_kc_{ij}^k=_kc_{ji}^k`$. As a result

$$w_{\mathrm{}}=0,w_n\underset{k=1}{\overset{n}{}}\underset{i,j=1}{\overset{2}{}}ϵ^{ij}c_{ij}^k.$$
(14)
The sum rule, Eq. (14), together with Eq. (9) imply that the second order correction Eq. (10) to the matrix element $`U_{12}^+`$ vanishes at high temperatures, when $`\epsilon _k^{}=T`$. More precisely, the usual Kondo logarithmic temperature dependence of $`U_{12}^+`$ persists only for $`T<\epsilon _3E_3E_1`$. Therefore, in the expression for $`T_K`$, Eq. (4), the bandwidth $`D\epsilon _F`$5eV should be substituted by $`\epsilon _3`$3meV:

$$T_K=\epsilon _3\left(v_xv_z\right)^{1/2}\left(\frac{v_z}{4v_x}\right)^{1/4v_x}.$$
(15)
It means that the Kondo temperature is about three orders of magnitude less than the “conventional” estimate!

To interpret this result note that when it tunnels, the heavy particle is under the barrier for a time $`\mathrm{}/\epsilon _3`$. At energies bigger than $`\epsilon _3`$ we thus deal with a continuously moving particle rather than a pseudospin.

However, any truncation of the sum, Eq. (9), results in a strong overestimation of the Kondo temperature. Indeed, the truncated sum $`w_{n<\mathrm{}}`$, Eq. (14), is neither zero, nor exponentially small. Thus $`u_n=w_n\mathrm{ln}(D/T)u_2`$ at least when $`\epsilon _nT`$. It is the substitution of $`u_{\mathrm{}}`$ by $`u_3`$, proposed in Ref. , that dramatically enhanced $`T_K`$.

The sum rule Eq. (14) hints that although contribution of each excited state $`k`$ to $`u_n`$ is quite large in absolute value (if $`k`$ is not too big), these contributions have different signs and cancel each other up to an exponentially small quantity $`u_{\mathrm{}}`$ when all of them are included.

To demonstrate that this is the case we repeated numerical calculations of Ref. , using the same model potential, Fig. 2, but took into account all of the excited states $`\{k\}`$ rather than only $`k=3`$.

Following Ref.  we chose the barrier height to be $`V=9.86\mathrm{}^2/2Mb^2`$, where $`M`$ is the particle mass and b is the well width. We computed the eigenfunctions $`\varphi _i(x)`$ and used Eqs. ( 9),( 10) and (7) to evaluate $`\stackrel{~}{u}_nu_n(k_Fb)^2`$.

Fig. 3 shows $`n`$-dependence of the ratios $`y_nu_n/u_2=\stackrel{~}{u}_n/\stackrel{~}{u}_2`$ (for $`\epsilon _F=10^3\epsilon _3`$, $`T=0.00204\epsilon _3`$, and the relative width of the barrier $`\alpha `$ equal to 2.5). One can see that $`y_31`$, i.e., $`u_3u_2`$. As we expected, absolute values of $`y_4,y_5,y_6,`$ are also large, but the signs alternate. In agreement with our analytical conclusions further increase of $`n`$ gradually reduces $`|y_n|`$, and $`y_ny_{\mathrm{}}1`$ when $`n\mathrm{}`$.

On the insets of Fig. 3 we present $`\alpha `$-dependencies of $`y_n`$ to make it evident that although $`u_{n>2}`$ is not exponentially small as $`u_2`$ is, it regains this smallness as $`n\mathrm{}`$. Indeed, $`y_{34}`$ is almost a constant in the interval 2.5$`<\alpha <`$3.0 whereas $`y_5`$ increases with $`\alpha `$ by factor $``$5 in the same interval, and $`\mathrm{ln}(y_5)`$ is a linear function of $`\alpha `$.

We also computed the temperature dependence of $`\stackrel{~}{u}_{30}\stackrel{~}{u}_{\mathrm{}}`$ for several Fermi energies. This dependence is presented on Fig. 4 in semilogarithmic scale. All four curves coincide , i.e., $`\stackrel{~}{u}_{\mathrm{}}`$ does not depend on $`\epsilon _F`$. Moreover, as it was expected, the logarithmic dependence, $`u_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{ln}(T)+const`$, persists only as long as $`T<\epsilon _3`$

One can see that the numerical simulations unambiguously support the analytical conclusions. Taking into account the excited levels does not remove exponential smallness of the second order correction to the scattering amplitude. A similar problem with the similar solution - contribution of the continuous spectrum above the barrier to the $`\alpha `$-decay rate - is described in the book .

Returning to the Kondo temperature, Eq. (15), we find that $`T_K10^5`$ for the ”typical parameters” Eq. (6) and an optimistic estimate $`\epsilon _350K`$. Therefore the Kondo model based on movable structural defects is hardly able to explain the experiments, .

Moreover, the estimate (15) excludes the very possibility of the development of the strong coupling two-channel Kondo regime at arbitrary low temperatures: it implies that the splitting of the two lowest levels of a TLS , $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$, Eq. (3), always exceeds $`T_K`$. Indeed, $`\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Delta }_z\epsilon _3e^\eta v_z\epsilon _3\lambda (k_Fa)^2\mathrm{e}^\eta \epsilon _3`$. Using the fact that the model is applicable only in the limit $`v_zv_x1`$ we obtain

$$\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }_z}{T_K}\left(\frac{4v_x}{v_z}\right)^\gamma 1,\gamma =\frac{1}{4v_x}\frac{1}{2}1.$$
(16)
The same conclusion can be reached for any double-well potential model. Therefore a movable defect weakly coupled with electrons is unable to demonstrate the two channel Kondo non-Fermi liquid behavior. .

We are grateful to G. Zaránd, A. Zawadowski, I. Smolyarenko and N. Wingreen for useful discussions. The work at Princeton University was supported by ARO MURI DAAG55-98-1-0270. I.A. is a Packard Fellow.