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# Prediction of nuclear reaction rates for astrophysics

## Prediction of nuclear reaction rates for astrophysics

Thomas Rauscher
Departement für Physik und Astronomie, Universität Basel,
Klingelbergstr. 82, CH-4056 Basel, Switzerland

The investigation of explosive nuclear burning in astrophysical environments is a challenge for both theoretical and experimental nuclear physicists. Highly unstable nuclei are produced in such processes which again can be targets for subsequent reactions. The majority of reactions can be described in the framework of the statistical model (compound nucleus mechanism, Hauser–Feshbach approach), provided that the level density of the compound nucleus is sufficiently large in the contributing energy window . Among the nuclear properties needed in this treatment are masses, optical potentials, level densities, resonance energies and widths of the GDR. All these necessary ingredients have to be provided in as reliable a way as possible, also for nuclei where no such information is available experimentally.

A recent experiment  has underlined that the low-energy extrapolation of the widely used optical $`\alpha `$+nucleus potentials may still have to be improved. Currently, there are only few global parametrizations for optical $`\alpha `$+nucleus potentials at astrophysical energies. Most global potentials are of the Saxon–Woods form, parametrized at energies above about 70 MeV, e.g. . The high Coloumb barrier makes a direct experimental approach very difficult at low energies. More recently, there were attempts to extend those parametrizations to energies below 70 MeV . Early astrophysical statistical model calculations  made use of simplified equivalent square well potentials and the black nucleus approximation. Improved calculations  employed a phenomenological Woods–Saxon potential , based on extensive data . However, it was not clear how well all these potentials would work for heavy targets with $`A>60`$ or in the thermonuclear energy range.

Most recent experimental investigations  found a systematic mass– and energy–dependence of the optical potentials and were very successful in describing experimental scattering data, as well as bound and quasi–bound states and $`B(\mathrm{E2})`$ values, with folding potentials. Based on that work, a global parametrization of the volume integrals can be found . In this description, the real part of the nuclear potential is given by a folding potential $`V_f(r,E)`$. The imaginary part $`W(r,E)`$ is of Woods–Saxon shape with a strongly energy–dependent depth. Nuclear structure and deformation information determines the shape of the energy–dependence by including level density dependent terms .

It is easy to show that the final transmission coefficients are not only sensitive to the strength of the potential but also to its geometry. Experimental data seemed to indicate that the geometry may also be energy–dependent . At low energies, the diffuseness of the standard volume Woods–Saxon potential had to be set to smaller values, while the radius parameter was increased, in order to be able to describe experimental scattering data. This can be understood in terms of the semi–classical theory of elastic scattering  which shows that the relative importance of contributions from different radial parts of the potential depends on the energy. It was shown  that the predicted enhanced surface absorption at low energies can be described by an increased surface Woods–Saxon term. Thus, the artificial change in geometry in the description of scattering data results from the use of a volume term only. Consequently, the optical potential proposed here contains an imaginary part which is given by the sum of a volume Woods–Saxon term and a surface term:

$$V(r,E)=V_C(r)+V_f(r,E)+i\left(W_v(E)f(r,R,a)W_s(E)\frac{d}{dr}f(r,R,a)\right)$$
(1)
with

$$f(r,R,a)=\left[1+e^{\frac{rR}{a}}\right]^1,W_v(E)=C\alpha e^{\beta E},W_s(E)=D+\gamma e^{\delta E}.$$
(2)
The depths of the potentials are exponentially dependent on the energy, with the volume depth $`W_v`$ increasing and the surface depth $`W_s`$ decreasing when going to higher energies. An increasingly dominant surface term at low energies leads to similar effects as reducing the diffuseness of a pure volume Woods–Saxon potential. The coefficients are related to the height of the Coulomb barrier and the microscopic and deformation corrections as used in Ref. . The total volume integral is still given by the relation derived in Ref. . The energy–dependence of the 144Sm($`\alpha `$,$`\gamma `$)148Gd excitation curve  at low energies can be reproduced by such a description. Nevertheless, more experimental data is needed which should be consistently analyzed at different energies with optical potential parametrizations similar to the one used in Ref. .

Based on the well–known code SMOKER , an improved code for the prediction of astrophysical cross sections and reaction rates in the statistical model has been developed . Among other changes, it includes an improved level density description , updated data sets of experimental level information, as well as the new $`\alpha `$+nucleus potential. It also allows to treat isospin effects which are especially important in $`\alpha `$ capture reactions on self–conjugate target nuclei and in proton capture reactions above the neutron separation energy. For a more detailed presentation of the code and possible isospin effects, see .

### Acknowledgements

TR is an APART fellow of the Austrian Academy of Sciences.


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# A SENSITIVE SEARCH FOR METHANE IN THE INFRARED SPECTRUM OF 𝜏 BOOTIS

## 1 Introduction

The discovery of a planetary companion to 51 Pegasus (Mayor and Queloz 1995) has been followed by a flood of planet detections using the Doppler reflex technique (Marcy and Butler 1998, 2000). The so-called ‘hot Jupiters’ or ‘roasters’ (Sudarsky et al. 2000), are gas-giants (Charbonneau et al. 2000) in very short period orbits, where they both reflect and absorb significant amounts of stellar radiation. This opens the possibility of detecting their reflection of the visible stellar spectrum (Charbonneau et al. 1999, Cameron et al. 1999), or the infrared (IR) spectrum produced by the planets themselves.

The $`\tau `$ Boo planet is believed to be the hottest of the ‘roaster’ class, with $`T1600`$ Kelvins (Seager and Sasselov 1999, Sudarsky et al. 2000). Charbonneau et al. (1999) placed an upper limit on the reflected flux of $`5\times 10^5`$ relative to the star. However, Cameron et al. (1999) claim a detection of reflected flux at the $`2\times 10^4`$ level, at a planetary radial velocity amplitude of 74 km sec-1. They mention the possibility that planetary molecular signatures might be detectable. This paper reports evidence for methane features in the $`\tau `$ Boo system, obtained using an IR spectral deconvolution technique.

## 2 Observations

Observations of $`\tau `$ Boo were made on UT 29 March - 3 April 1998 using the CSHELL spectrometer (Greene et al. 1993) on the 3-meter NASA IRTF on Mauna Kea. More than 1200 spectral frames were acquired under uniformly excellent observing conditions, and the actual integration time on $`\tau `$ Boo totaled to over 31 hours. Figure 1 shows the distribution of observations relative to the expected value of the planetary radial velocity during the run. The spectral region chosen was near 3044 cm-1, where methane lines occur whose lower state energy will be significantly populated at the temperature of the $`\tau `$ Boo planet. Numerous weak terrestrial absorptions due to ozone, methane, and water vapor also occur in this window. Figure 2 shows a high-resolution solar spectrum bracketing this region from the McMath-Pierce FTS (Delbouille et al. 1981); it reveals primarily terrestrial absorption. A weak solar iron line occurs near 3044.53 cm-1 (Livingston and Wallace 1991), but this line should be even weaker in the $`\tau `$ Boo spectrum. We convolved the FTS spectrum with a Gaussian whose FWHM was matched to the CSHELL resolution (0.076 cm-1), and the resultant simulated CSHELL spectrum is also shown on Figure 2.

Observations of $`\tau `$ Boo were typically made as 90 second integrations at two positions on the slit, by nodding the telescope between ‘a’ and ‘b’ positions. The slit was oriented East-West, and the width was 0.5 arc-sec. Multiple reads of the 256x256 InSb array were made to reduce read noise to negligible levels. We typically sum four spectral frames in the order ‘abba’ with the sign of the ‘b’ frames made negative to subtract the background. Observations of a continuum lamp were made before, during, and after each night, and used to flat-field the spectra. A Krypton emission lamp was observed in various grating orders, and used to establish the wavelength calibration. Each of the 303 sums shows the star at both ‘a’ and ‘b’ slit positions. Extracting both spectra from each sum yields a total of 598 spectra, after a few low-quality spectra are rejected. A sample spectrum, extracted by the processing described in Sec. 4, is shown on Figure 2. All of the features visible in these spectra are due to terrestrial absorption. The observed $`\tau `$ Boo spectra are similar to the convolved FTS spectrum, the differences being attributable to humidity and altitude. The water line at 3042.39 cm-1, for example, is much weaker in the $`\tau `$ Boo spectrum from Mauna Kea. Lunar spectra were also acquired with CSHELL to further characterize the terrestrial absorption spectrum.

## 3 Model Template Spectra

One form of spectral deconvolution is to cross-correlate (CC) the observed spectra with a modeled template spectrum (Deming et al. 2000). We computed a methane template from a model atmosphere, and also used it to simulate the planet in a set of ‘synthetic planet’ spectra (see Sec 4). The template spectrum was assumed to be independent of orbital phase. We used the temperature versus pressure profile for the ‘class IV’ atmosphere shown by Sudarsky et al. (2000, their Figure 1). Number fractions for methane at each pressure were calculated using the formulae given by Burrows and Sharp (1999), and solar abundances. A constant value was used for the continuous opacity, chosen to produce unit optical depth where the temperature equaled the effective temperature (1620K). The emergent flux spectrum was calculated, at sub-Doppler resolution, by a quadrature integration over emergent angle of intensity spectra. The line opacity profiles were taken as Voigt profiles, with depth-dependent Doppler broadening and damping. The damping was adopted to be 0.1 cm-1 per bar. The most current line data for methane were used (Brown 1999). A $`T^{3/2}`$ dependence was adopted for the rotational partition function (Robiette and Dang-Nhu 1979), and the vibrational partition function was calculated from the band centers listed by Brown et al. (1989). The emergent flux spectrum was convolved to the CSHELL spectral resolution.

Figure 3 shows the resultant methane spectrum; it is similar to the 51 Peg planet spectrum as modeled by Goukenleuque et al. (2000). Although most carbon will be in the form of CO at this temperature (Fegley and Lodders 1996, Burrows and Sharp 1999), the methane absorption in this spectral region remains sufficiently strong that the thermal modulation is limited by the overlapping profiles of saturated lines. In our template model, optical depth unity in the methane lines occurs in a pressure range of 0.01 to 0.1 bars, versus 10 bars for the continuum. A model with methane fractions reduced by an order-of-magnitude was also computed (Figure 3), and it shows substantially more modulation than does the nominal model.

## 4 Data Processing

All of our data processing and analysis used procedures specifically written for this problem. The first stage in the data processing was to flat-field each frame, remove cosmic ray defects, and ‘hot pixels’. Flat-fielding consisted of dividing each frame by a continuum lamp frame. Cosmic rays produce very large deviations, and stellar spectra which were directly affected by them were discarded. Cosmic ray defects in the background were repaired in a manner similar to the hot pixels, which were replaced by an average of surrounding pixels. Following these corrections, the frames are summed in groups of four (‘abba’).

At the second stage of the data processing, we created a set of synthetic planetary spectra, by adding a Doppler-shifted and intensity-scaled version of the methane template spectrum to the flat-fielded data sums. The Doppler shifts were based on the Cameron et al. (1999) velocity amplitude, with the orbital ephemeris from Butler et al. (1997) and Marcy (1998). The intensity scale factor (ratio of planetary to stellar continuum fluxes) was $`6.7\times 10^4`$. This follows from a planetary radius of $`1.8`$ Jupiter radii (Cameron et al. 1999) and 1620 Kelvin effective temperature (Sudarsky et al. 2000). The stellar temperature is near 6450 Kelvins (Perrin et al. 1977, Ford et al. 1999), with rotational $`v\mathrm{sin}i=15`$ km sec-1 (Baliunas et al. 1997). We adopted a stellar radius of $`2.0R_{{\scriptscriptstyle }}`$, which results from the Cameron et al. (1999) inclination ($`29^{}`$), combined with the assumption that the planetary orbit is locked to the stellar rotation. The synthetic and real spectra were processed and analyzed in parallel, using identical procedures.

Some spectra showed an intermittent fringing effect, not removed by the normal flat-fielding procedure. Fortunately, we were able to verify (by comparing continuum lamp scans made at different times) that the spacing of the fringes was constant. We therefore removed them using a Fourier notch filter; we applied exactly the same filter to the synthetic planet data. The slight tilt of the slit was corrected by spline-interpolating intensities in each row onto a standard wavenumber scale. We computed a wavenumber calibration for each row using six lines from Krypton lamp spectra taken on the first night, and applied zero-point corrections for subsequent nights using atmospheric lines. The wavenumber versus pixel relation used both a linear and quadratic term, as needed for optimal approximation of the grating equation. For each spectrum, we calculated the average spatial profile along the slit at both the ‘a’ and ‘b’ positions, and these profiles were fit to the intensities at each wavelength using linear least-squares. This is equivalent to the optimal extraction algorithm discussed by Horne (1986).

Terrestrial atmospheric lines were removed by scaling an atmospheric template spectrum in intensity, using linear least-squares. Our atmospheric template was constructed by averaging all of the continuum-removed ‘a’ and ‘b’ spectra, producing a template for each set. We also explored using lunar spectra to construct atmospheric templates, but the number of lunar spectra is far fewer, and we obtained the lowest CC noise levels by averaging the $`\tau `$ Boo spectra themselves. Because our observations cover a range of phase over nearly two orbital periods, planetary lines will not reinforce in this averaging, so the loss of planetary signal by fitting and subtracting this template will be minimal. Moreover, this and other processing effects are evaluated by the effect on the synthetic spectra, which are treated in an identical fashion.

After all processing, the resultant signal-to-noise (S/N) ratios (typically $`100`$) are close to the photon statistical limit, as shown for the collection of ‘b’ spectra on Figure 4 (the ‘a’ spectra are of equal quality). The remaining differences between the measured noise and the theoretical limit are due to variability of a few atmospheric lines relative to the template, as well as small intermittent imperfections in the array detector which are not completely removed by flat-fielding.

## 5 Cross-Correlation Analysis

Following Deming et al. (2000), we look for the presence of the planet from significant peaks in a CC function, $`C(v_a,v_g)`$, where $`v_a`$ is the amplitude of the planetary orbital radial velocity, and $`v_g`$ is the geocentric radial velocity of the center of mass (for our purpose, the stellar radial velocity). We derive CC error estimates using a Monte-Carlo technique (see Sec. 6). Although $`v_g`$ is known (-19 km sec-1 for our observations), we treat it as a free parameter, to help distinguish between real and false signals. Similarly, we vary $`v_a`$ over a range which includes negative amplitudes, out of phase with plausible planetary signals. We compute $`C(v_a,v_g)`$ as:

$$C(v_a,v_g)=N^1\underset{i=1}{\overset{N}{}}[\frac{_{j=1}^Mr_{ij}\tau _{ij}w_{ij}}{(_{j=1}^M\tau _{ij})(M^1_{j=1}^Mw_{ij})}]$$
(1)
where $`r_{ij}`$ is the residual intensity in $`\tau `$ Boo spectrum $`i`$ at wavenumber $`\nu _j`$, in units of the stellar continuum, after the processing described in Sec. 4. $`N`$ is the number of spectra (598), and $`M`$ is the number of wavelengths (256). The template values $`\tau _{ij}`$ are computed as:

$$\tau _{ij}=F_\nu ^{}(\nu _j(1\frac{v_g+v_p^i}{c}))$$
(2)
where $`F_\nu (\nu _j)`$ is the planetary flux, in units of the stellar continuum flux, at wavenumber $`\nu _j`$ in the frame of the planet, and the prime indicates that the average value over the observed spectral interval has been subtracted. The $`\frac{v_g+v_p}{c}`$ factor shifts the wavenumber scale to the observers frame. The planetary radial velocity $`v_p^i`$ is computed as:

$$v_p^i=v_asin(2\pi (t_it_0)/P)$$
(3)
where $`t_it_0`$ is the time since 1998, March 29.58179 UT, and $`P=3.31267`$ days (Butler et al., 1997, Marcy, 1998). The denominator in Eq. (1) provides a normalization for $`C(v_a,v_g)`$ such that its peak values are equal to the average amplitude of the planetary lines, in units of the stellar continuum flux. Positive CC values correspond to methane absorption spectra, and negative to emission. The $`w_{ij}`$ are weights which allow for the variable quality of the data. We currently use:

$$w_{ij}=\sigma _i^2\sigma _j^2$$
(4)
where $`\sigma _i`$ is the noise level of spectrum $`i`$ and $`\sigma _j`$ is the standard deviation of $`r_{ij}`$ values at a given $`j`$.

## 6 Results

The number of photons detected over all wavelengths and summed over all 598 spectra is $`2.2\times 10^9`$. Our best-case detection limit will approach the inverse square-root of this number, $`2.1\times 10^5`$. We replaced the real $`r_{ij}`$ values with gaussian random noise whose amplitudes were equal to the photon noise level in each spectrum, and verified that the noise in $`C(v_a,v_g)`$ agrees with this limit. The noise levels achieved in the weighted real data produce $`\sigma =2.4\times 10^5`$ in $`C(v_a,v_g)`$. The computed $`C(v_a,v_g)`$ values are shown as false-color images over a range of $`v_a`$ and $`v_g`$ in Figure 5. Two special locations marked on these images are the position of the center of mass, at $`v_g=19`$ km sec-1, and the Cameron et al. (1999) claimed amplitude for the planet at $`v_a=+74`$ km sec-1. Figure 5a shows the results for the real data, 5b the synthetic data (which equals the real data plus a synthetic signal), 5c is the result when the data are replaced by gaussian random noise whose amplitude equals the noise level in each spectrum, and 5d is the real data cross-correlated with a perturbed template (described below). To enhance the visibility of the planetary signature in Figure 5b, the synthetic signal is multiplied by 10.

The strongest peak on Figure 5a occurs at $`v_g=10`$ km sec-1 and $`v_a=8`$ km sec-1. Given that our spectral resolution is $`7.5`$ km sec-1, and template errors are also likely, this peak coincides with the stellar position to within the errors, and we refer to it as the ‘stellar peak’ (SP). Its amplitude is $`3.3\times 10^4`$, which is well above the random noise level. It is present when both the ‘a’ and ‘b’ spectra are analyzed separately. Since our template for terrestrial atmospheric removal uses an average of all the $`\tau `$ Boo data, this will tend to remove features near $`v_a=0`$. However, the atmospheric template is used with a variable multiplier (depending on air mass), which will allow some fraction of features fixed in the stellar frame to survive the atmospheric corrections.

A second region of enhanced CC amplitude runs from the middle left to upper right, and passes close to the signal from the synthetic planet (5b) at the Cameron et al. (1999) amplitude of $`74`$ km sec-1. We refer to this region as the ‘planetary streak’ (PS). Its amplitude is $`2\times 10^4`$ in stellar continuum units, also well above the random noise. In our analysis, a feature at constant wavelength in the data will produce such slanted regions of enhanced CC amplitude. This occurs because a given wavelength is overlapped by a given template point over many pairs of values in $`(v_a,v_g)`$. Noise features can produce slanted patterns in either of two orthogonal directions. Planetary signals should be more concentrated at single points in the $`(v_a,v_g)`$ plane, depending on the distribution of the observations in phase, as well as potential phase-dependent spectral variations. Since the majority of our observations ($`63\%`$) happen to be made at negative planetary radial velocities (see Figure 1), using too negative a value for $`v_g`$ is partially compensated by using a smaller $`v_a`$, and the observed CC amplitudes should slant from upper right to lower left, qualitatively consistent with the observed slanting. Overexposed images of the synthetic planet CC amplitudes show this effect, but to a much smaller degree than the observed PS. Like the SP, the PS is present in both the ‘a’ and ‘b’ data.

We have subjected our results to numerous tests designed to identify false signals. Cool stellar spectra show vibrational OH lines in this region (Hinkle et al. 1995), but nothing resembling the SP/PS structure is produced by repeating our analysis using an OH template. A hot, optically thin planetary template, made by reducing the column density in the model atmosphere by several orders of magnitude, causes both the SP and PS to weaken greatly. We repeated the CC analysis using templates wherein the methane line wavelengths in the planetary model atmosphere calculation are given gaussian random perturbations with a standard deviation of $`1.5`$ cm-1. Computing 50 of these CC images, each representing $`500`$ CC values, we find that the standard deviation of the resultant ‘confusion noise’ is $`\sigma =8.2\times 10^5`$. A randomly-selected example of such a perturbed CC analysis is shown on Figure 5d. Based on this test, the SP is a $`4\sigma `$ feature, and the PS is $`2.4\sigma `$. We cannot envision how any error in our analysis could ‘know’ the real wavelengths of the methane lines in our template (Figure 3), so the appearance of the SP only with the correct template is credible evidence of a real methane signature.

Although the perturbed templates test indicates that the SP is a real methane signature, we must further establish that it is not produced by terrestrial methane, via an incomplete removal of the atmospheric spectrum. We computed several CC images where we deliberately under-corrected for terrestrial lines. These images show an increased noise level, but they do not show any SP/PS enhancement. We tried using the terrestrial spectrum (Figure 2) as an analysis template. This produces a feature similar to the SP but weaker (0.00026), and slightly closer to the terrestrial rest frame ($`v_a=5`$km sec-1). So at least a small portion of the terrestrial spectrum has survived our data processing. However, the fact that the SP strengthens and shifts toward the stellar velocity when using the Figure 3 spectrum as a template indicates a significant contribution from methane in the $`\tau `$ Boo system.

## 7 Discussion

Based on the tests described above, we regard the SP as evidence for methane in $`\tau `$ Boo. The SP cannot be attributed to the planet in a 3.3-day orbit, because the SP velocity amplitude is near zero (within the errors). It cannot be due to the F7 star, which is much too hot to contain significant quantities of methane. Detailed interpretation of such a weak feature is necessarily problematic. Nevertheless, we tried templates characteristic of different temperatures, but found insufficient sensitivity to meaningfully constrain the temperature of the absorbing region(s).

We considered the possibility that this methane absorption might be circumstellar. But methane is not commonly seen in interstellar regions (Knacke et al. 1985), and is easily destroyed by stellar ultraviolet radiation (Mount and Moos 1978). Also, the SP is much weaker for optically thin templates, so it does not seem indicative of absorption by a thin homogenous medium (e.g., a tenuous circumstellar cloud). Instead, it is more consistent with methane occurring in an optically thick clump of column density $`10^{21}`$ cm-2, with small filling factor relative to the star. This type of distribution suggests a compact object, such as a methane-dwarf. Can there be an undetected sub-stellar object in the $`\tau `$ Boo system? $`\tau `$ Boo was discovered to be a visual binary by Otto Struve in 1849, and Charbonneau (2000) has suggested that the M-dwarf companion may be contributing to our spectra. We here discuss the possibility that the M-dwarf, or a much cooler compact object, is producing the methane signal which we observe.

The M-dwarf companion is about 7 or 8 visual magnitudes fainter than the primary, and its spectral classification (M2) is at least 44 years old (Eggen 1956, attributes it to Kuiper). Two orbits for the system have been published, by Hale (1994) and Popovic and Pavlovic (1996). The orbital elements differ substantially. For example, Hale (1994) gives the eccentricity as 0.91 and the period as 2000 years, whereas Popovic and Pavlovic (1996) derive $`e=0.42`$ and $`P=389`$ years. Although the Hale orbit was published first, Hale made and utilized an observation of the system in 1991, which was apparently not known to Popovic and Pavlovic, who used observations prior to 1970. The orbits indicate that the position angle of the visual companion at the time of our observations was $`30^{}`$ (Hale orbit) or $`37^{}`$ (Popovic and Pavlovic orbit), with separation near 2.6 arc-sec in both cases. These values place the companion sufficiently off the CSHELL slit that no contribution to our observations would be possible.

However, there are additional relevant data for this system. Responding to our inquiry, Fischer, Butler and Marcy (2000) report that the primary star exhibits a long-term ($`1990`$ to current) velocity drift of -17 meters sec-1 year-1, requiring a companion in a long-period orbit. Can this reflex motion be caused by the M-dwarf? The Hale orbit predicts that the radial velocity of the M-dwarf will be changing by about 0.2 km sec-1 year-1 near periastron (in 2017). Assuming a mass ratio of $`10`$, this would account for the drift reported by Fischer et al., but only if periastron occurs near 2000, instead of 2017. Interestingly, an earlier periastron would place the M-dwarf close to the slit during our observations. If the spectral type is significantly in error (which is plausible), and the companion is much cooler than M2, then it might show sufficient strength in the strong $`3.3\mathrm{\mu m}`$ methane band to account for the SP in our data. Also, if the Hale orbit is correct, the periastron distance of $`22`$ a.u. seems to preclude stable orbits for additional companions with periods of tens of years (Holman and Wiegert 1999). Alternately, if the Popovic and Pavlovic (1996) orbit is correct, the M-dwarf did not contribute to our observations, nor can it account for the velocity drift observed by Fischer et al. (2000). So in this case another companion in the system would be indicated, and the periastron distance of $`66`$ a.u. for the M-dwarf might well permit stable orbits having periods of tens of years.

As for any signal so small ($`3`$ parts in $`10^4`$), the reality of the SP should be confirmed by additional observations. Moreover, as discussed above, the interpretation of our data and the Fischer et al. (2000) velocity drift as indicative of additional sub-stellar companions in this system, depends crucially on precise knowledge of the orbit for the M-dwarf. Additional observations of the M-dwarf are badly needed, including separation, position angle, an updated spectral type, and observations of infrared colors.

The PS is also well above the random noise level of our analysis, but only marginally above the ‘confusion noise’ ($`2.4\sigma `$). Because the confusion noise is estimated by applying random perturbations to the wavelengths of the methane template lines (Sec. 6), it measures not only the reality of a cross-correlation feature, but also the degree to which a feature can be attributed to methane. Accepting the $`2.4\sigma `$ statistical significance for the moment, we consider the possibility that this methane signal is produced by the planet. The amplitude of the CC peak from the synthetic planet is $`3\times 10^5`$ (the peak on Figure 5b has been amplified by 10, for clarity). So the PS (at $`2\times 10^4`$) is more than six times as large as the synthetic planet, which we have modeled to be consistent with the Cameron et al. (1999) planetary parameters. Since the Cameron et al. radius is already in modest excess of theoretical values (Guillot et al. 1996), it may seem that the PS amplitude is implausibly large. But the amplitude of our synthetic planet signal has been strongly reduced by the overlap of saturated lines (Figure 2). The chemical equilibrium abundance of methane (Burrows and Sharp 1999) will be competitive with CO only in the coolest regions of the planet’s atmosphere. If methane is convected to greater depths, then disequilibrium effects could result in a lower methane abundance (Griffith and Yelle 1999), and our synthetic planet signal would increase. Also, we have assumed a stellar radius of $`2R_{{\scriptscriptstyle }}`$, which follows from the Cameron et al. orbital inclination, the rotation data (Baliunas et al. 1997), and a synchronous assumption. A more conventional radius for the star (e.g., $`1.4R_{{\scriptscriptstyle }}`$, Ford et al. 1999) will increase the size of the synthetic planet signal, since it is measured in stellar continuum flux units. We conclude that the amplitude of the PS is plausible for the planet.

At $`v_g=19`$ km sec-1, the PS occurs at $`v_a=+61`$ km sec-1, whereas the Cameron et al. value is $`v_a=+74`$ km sec-1. If we entertain the possibility that the SP is displaced from the stellar position primarily by template error, then it is more appropriate to measure the difference in the Figure 5a ordinate between the SP and PS, which is $`+81`$ km sec-1. A reasonable estimate and error range for the PS position is to bracket these absolute and relative determinations, giving $`+71(\pm 10)`$ km sec-1. While this is consistent with the Cameron et al. value, the large spread of the PS into an extended streak seems inconsistent with a planetary origin. Nevertheless, it is possible that strong phase effects in the planetary spectrum could cause such large spreading in an analysis of this type. Observations with cryogenic cross-dispersed echelle spectrometers on $`10`$meter class telescopes (McLean et al. 1998) should be able to clarify the reality of this feature, and the role of spectral variation with phase, by providing very high S/N spectra over a much larger wavelength range.

## 8 Acknowledgments

We thank Adam Burrows for sending us methane cross-section data, Geoff Marcy for ephemeris data, and Linda Brown for providing the latest methane line parameters. We also thank Debra Fischer, Paul Butler and Geoff Marcy for communicating their results in advance of publication, and allowing us to quote them, and Bill Hartkopf for discussing the current status of the visual binary observations. We acknowledge extensive discussions on the data analysis and interpretation with Dennis Reuter and Don Jennings, and insightful comments by Dave Charbonneau, Mike Mumma, Sara Seager, and Roger Yelle. This research was supported by the NASA Origins of Solar Systems program.


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# Schwarzschild metrics and quasi-universes

## Abstract

The exterior and interior Schwarzschild solutions are rewritten replacing the usual radial variable with an angular one. This allows to obtain some results otherwise less apparent or even hidden in other coordinate systems.

Dipartimento di Fisica dell’Università di Genova
Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare,Sezione di Genova
Via Dodecaneso 33, 16146 Genova, Italy

PACS numbers: 04.20.Cv , 04.90.+z

*Introduction*: It is well known  that the three-dimensional space

$$d^{(3)}s^2=\frac{dr^2}{1{\displaystyle \frac{r^2}{R^2}}}+r^2(d\vartheta ^2+\mathrm{sin}^2\vartheta d\phi ^2)$$
(1)
of some models of closed homogeneous and isotropic universes has an especially simple geometry which can be seen best introducing a new angular coordinate $`0\chi \pi `$ via $`r=R\mathrm{sin}\chi `$ and transforming the line element (1) into the form

$$d^{(3)}s^2=R^2(d\chi ^2+\mathrm{sin}^2\chi d\mathrm{\Omega }^2)$$
(2)
where

$$d\mathrm{\Omega }^2=d\vartheta ^2+\mathrm{sin}^2\vartheta d\phi ^2$$
(3)
The metric (2) is that of a three-dimensional hypersurface of radius $`R`$ which can be represented in a flat, four-dimensional Euclidean embedding space.

Our purpose is to employ a similar angular variable to describe the geometry of the exterior Schwarzschild solution and to investigate such a description of the interior solution also when $`\chi >\pi /2`$, a possibility which appears to have been ignored in the literature.

*The exterior Schwarzschild solution*: The exterior spherically symmetric vacuum solution, which by Birkhoff’s theorem is also static, will be written in standard coordinates as

$$ds^2=\frac{dr^2}{1{\displaystyle \frac{2m}{r}}}+r^2d\mathrm{\Omega }^2N^2(t)\left(1\frac{2m}{r}\right)dt^2$$
(4)
The term $`N^2(t)`$ allows the matching between exterior and interior values of $`g_{tt}`$ when the interior solution is not static and the observer is below the radius $`r_1`$ of the body; of course in the static cases $`N^2(t)`$ reduces to a constant. Such a constant shall be written as $`(12m/r_0)^1`$ if the observer is placed at $`r_0`$ above the radius $`r_1`$; so the light will appear to him red-shifted if received from $`r<r_0`$ and blue-shifted if received from $`r>r_0`$.

Coming back to the line element (4), we want to replace the radial coordinate $`r`$ with an angular coordinate $`\psi `$; because of the covariance of Einstein’s equations there are infinite ways to accomplish the replacement. We choose to define an angular coordinate $`\psi `$ given by

$$r=\frac{2m}{\mathrm{cos}^2\psi }\frac{\pi }{2}\psi \frac{\pi }{2}$$
(5)
when $`r>2m`$, and analytically continued to

$$r=\frac{2m}{\mathrm{cosh}^2\psi }\mathrm{}<\psi <\mathrm{}$$
(6)
when $`r<2m`$. The line element (4) becomes, in the region $`r>2m`$

$$ds^2=\frac{16m^2}{\mathrm{cos}^6\psi }d\psi ^2+\frac{4m^2}{\mathrm{cos}^4\psi }d\mathrm{\Omega }^2\frac{\mathrm{sin}^2\psi }{\mathrm{sin}^2\psi _0}dt^2$$
(7)
Here the event horizon is placed at $`\psi =0`$, while infinity is reached at $`\psi =\pm \pi /2`$. The metrical relations in the surface $`t`$ = constant, $`\vartheta =\pi /2`$ are illustrated by means of the surface of revolution $`f(r)=\sqrt{8m(r2m)}`$ (remember the representation of the Flamm’s paraboloid with the Einstein-Rosen bridge). In the extended region $`r<2m`$ one has instead the line element

$$ds^2=\frac{16m^2}{\mathrm{cosh}^6\psi }d\psi ^2+\frac{4m^2}{\mathrm{cosh}^4\psi }d\mathrm{\Omega }^2+\frac{\mathrm{sinh}^2\psi }{\mathrm{sinh}^2\psi _0}dt^2$$
(8)
which describes the interior of a black hole joined to the exterior by the event horizon placed at $`\psi =0`$. It is worth noticing that the introduction of the $`\psi `$ coordinate provides a division of the maximally extended Schwarzschild spacetime in four regions with two singularities corresponding to an equal gravitational mass, just as described by Kruskal-Szekeres coordinates. These singularities are placed at $`\psi =\pm \mathrm{}`$, being now $`\psi `$ a time coordinate.

*The interior Schwarzschild solution*: The gravitational field inside a celestial body, say a star, modelled on an ideal fluid medium with energy-momentum tensor

$$T_{\mu \nu }=(\rho +p)u_\mu u_\nu +pg_{\mu \nu }$$
(9)
is given, for static distribution of matter and pressure and moreover under the hypotheses of spherical symmetry and constant mass density, by

$$ds^2=\frac{dr^2}{1{\displaystyle \frac{r^2}{R^2}}}+r^2d\mathrm{\Omega }^2\left[AB\sqrt{1\frac{r^2}{R^2}}\right]^2dt^2$$
(10)
Here $`A`$ and $`B`$ are integration constants to be determined by the matching conditions. We use this simple and rather unrealistic solution as a toy model uniquely to illustrate the employ of the new angular coordinate. If we now define the angular coordinate $`\chi `$ as

$$\frac{r}{R}\mathrm{sin}\chi 0\chi \pi $$
(11)
the line element (10) becomes

$$ds^2=R^2(d\chi ^2+\mathrm{sin}^2\chi d\mathrm{\Omega }^2)[AB\mathrm{cos}\chi ]^2dt^2$$
(12)
From Einstein’s equations the pressure $`p`$ and the mass density $`\rho `$ are

$$p=\frac{1}{8\pi R^2}\left[\frac{3B\mathrm{cos}\chi A}{AB\mathrm{cos}\chi }\right],\rho =\frac{3}{8\pi R^2}$$
(13)
In formulating the matching conditions to connect the exterior and interior Schwarzschild solutions, continuity of the metric and its derivatives are to be taken into account. However in our simple example we rest on physical plausibility considerations, so we require that the metric is continuous for $`\mathrm{sin}\chi _1={\displaystyle \frac{r_1}{R}}`$, where $`r_1`$ is the radius of the body, that the pressure $`p`$ vanishes on its surface and that the observer is in the interior at an angle $`\chi _0`$.

As a result one obtains

$$\mathrm{sin}\chi _1=\left(\frac{2m}{R}\right)^{1/3},A=\frac{3\mathrm{cos}\chi _1}{3\mathrm{cos}\chi _1\mathrm{cos}\chi _0},B=\frac{1}{3\mathrm{cos}\chi _1\mathrm{cos}\chi _0}$$
(14)
where $`m`$ is the gravitational mass. The line element (10) can now be written

$$ds^2=R^2(d\chi ^2+\mathrm{sin}^2\chi d\mathrm{\Omega }^2)\left[\frac{3\mathrm{cos}\chi _1\mathrm{cos}\chi }{3\mathrm{cos}\chi _1\mathrm{cos}\chi _0}\right]^2dt^2$$
(15)
So the observer receives the frequency of light red-shifted when coming from inside and blue-shifted when coming from outside. The matching to the exterior solution requires that

$$N^2=\left[\frac{2\mathrm{cos}\chi _1}{3\mathrm{cos}\chi _1\mathrm{cos}\chi _0}\right]^2\left(1\frac{2m}{R\mathrm{sin}\chi _1}\right)^1$$
(16)
If the observer is at the exterior the previous values of $`A`$ and $`B`$ change accordingly. The pressure becomes

$$p=\frac{3}{8\pi R^2}\left[\frac{\mathrm{cos}\chi \mathrm{cos}\chi _1}{3\mathrm{cos}\chi _1\mathrm{cos}\chi }\right]$$
(17)
and is obviously observer independent. Because of definition (11) two cases are now to be considered, depending whether for a given value of $`r_1`$ one chooses $`\chi _1<\pi /2`$ or $`\chi _1>\pi /2`$. In the former case, while the mass density $`\rho `$ is constant, the pressure $`p`$, which is zero at the surface, increases inwards; the solution is non singular as long as $`p`$ is finite. At $`r=0`$ where $`p`$ takes its maximum value, this is only possible for $`\chi _1^{(1)}<\mathrm{arccos}(1/3)0.39\pi `$, that is, as known , for $`r_1/(2m)>9/8`$. In the latter case, the pressure $`p`$ takes negative values in the interior, and the solution is non singular at $`r=0`$ for $`\chi _1^{(2)}>\pi /2`$. In both cases, the weak energy condition

$$\rho 0,\rho +p0$$
(18)
is always satisfied. We would also point out that while the surface area $`S=4\pi R^2\mathrm{sin}^2\chi _1`$ is the same in the two cases, independently of the choice made for $`\chi _1`$, things are different in calculating volumes, given by the formula

$$V=4\pi R^3_0^{\chi _1}\mathrm{sin}^2\chi d\chi =\pi R^3(2\chi _1\mathrm{sin}2\chi _1)$$
(19)
To make an example let us consider two bodies having the same gravitational mass but different values of $`\chi _1`$ given respectively by $`\chi _1^{(1)}`$ and $`\chi _1^{(2)}=\pi \chi _1^{(1)}`$ (and so the same value of $`\mathrm{sin}\chi _1`$). The ratio $`V^{(2)}/V^{(1)}`$ of their volumes is

$$\frac{V^{(2)}}{V^{(1)}}=\frac{2(\pi \chi _1^{(1)})+\mathrm{sin}2\chi _1^{(1)}}{\chi _1^{(1)}\mathrm{sin}2\chi _1^{(1)}}$$
(20)
Therefore while the volume $`V^{(1)}`$ encloses a star whose matter is endowed by the usual properties ($`\rho >0,p>0`$), the volume $`V^{(2)}`$ may be so large to be considered as a “quasi-universe”, so named because it is an universe deprived of a spherical void, containing matter with unusual properties ($`\rho >0,p<0`$); we do not call such a matter exotic, because it satisfies the weak energy condition and so also the null energy condition . The connection between a body and a quasi-universe through a suitable part of the Flamm paraboloid is schematically represented in Figure 1. A different possibility is shown in Figure 2 where now two quasi-universes are joined through an Einstein-Rosen bridge (with throat at $`\psi =0`$) which can be renamed “extreme wormhole”; here the matching conditions to be fulfilled for the second junction are the same already seen for the first, analogous quantities being now renamed with the same letter primed. Because the throat is in the vacuum, the null energy condition is not violated; so, according to the Morris-Thorne analysis  it is not seen as traversable by an observer placed in a fixed forwarding station. The Einstein-Rosen bridge (or extreme wormhole) can also be considered as a limiting case, when the post-Newtonian parameter $`\gamma 1^+`$, of the corresponding Brans-Dicke solution . Finally, because of the necessary equality of the gravitational masses in the three joined solutions, one obtains the following relation between the densities of the two quasi-universes $`\rho `$ and $`\rho _1^{^{}}`$:

$$\frac{\rho }{\rho _1^{^{}}}=\left(\frac{\mathrm{sin}\chi _1}{\mathrm{sin}\chi _1^{^{}}}\right)^2$$
(21)
*Conclusions*: The metrics corresponding to the exterior and interior Schwarzschild solutions have been rewritten replacing the usual radial coordinate with an angular one. With respect to the exterior solution, it covers four different regions of the space-time. With respect to the interior solution, it has been extended from the case $`\chi <\pi /2`$ (first-type solution) to the case $`\chi >\pi /2`$ of a quasi-universe (second-type solution). A second-type solution can be joined either to a first-type or to a second-type solution respectively through a suitable part of the Flamm’s paraboloid or through a particular Einstein-Rosen bridge (extreme wormhole) provided the gravitational masses are equal.

Let us now consider Equations (7) and (8) in the limiting case when the exterior Schwarzschild solution goes over all the remaining space (asymptotic flatness). It is our opinion that the following unions ($``$) of two of the four regions \- named hereafter $`I,\mathrm{𝐼𝐼},\mathrm{𝐼𝐼𝐼},\mathrm{𝐼𝑉}`$ according to the customary nomenclature  - of the Kruskal-Szekeres diagram give rise to distinct solutions:

1) $`I\mathrm{𝐼𝐼}`$ : there is a singularity corresponding to a gravitational mass $`m`$ at $`\psi =\mathrm{}`$ and a quasi-universe of gravitational mass $`m`$ and density $`\rho =0`$ at the boundary $`\psi =\pi /2`$. The two regions are separated at $`\psi =0`$ by an event horizon.

2) $`\mathrm{𝐼𝐼𝐼}\mathrm{𝐼𝑉}`$ : there is a singularity corresponding to a gravitational mass $`m`$ at $`\psi =+\mathrm{}`$ and a quasi-universe of gravitational mass $`m`$ and density $`\rho =0`$ at the boundary $`\psi =\pi /2`$. The two regions are separated at $`\psi =0`$ by an event horizon.

3) $`I\mathrm{𝐼𝐼𝐼}`$ : there are two quasi-universes with gravitational mass $`m`$ and density $`\rho =0`$ at the boundaries $`\psi =\pi /2`$ and $`\psi =\pi /2`$, connected by an extreme wormhole.

4) $`\mathrm{𝐼𝐼}\mathrm{𝐼𝑉}`$ : the universe consists of two equal masses placed respectively at $`\psi =\mathrm{}`$ and at $`\psi =+\mathrm{}`$ with a cosmological horizon at $`\psi =0`$.

The Penrose diagram for the maximally extended Schwarzschild spacetime is a representation of the set of the four solutions.

More in general, one could consider expanding quasi-universes, which are universes with cavities ,,,. Inside one of such voids there is a body whose inertial mass is, by the equivalence principle, equal to its own gravitational mass and consequently, broadening the above considerations, also to the gravitational mass of the quasi-universe. Otherwise stated, the inertial mass of a body could be equal to the gravitational mass of its surrounding quasi-universe. While for a closed universe the angular momentum is “undefined and undefinable” , this is not true for a quasi-universe, and therefore it would be interesting to investigate whether its angular momentum is equal and opposite to that of the body in the cavity. As an example, the Kerr-dS solution does represent an universe containing two equal masses with two equal and opposite angular momenta . If this turns out to be the general case and if one remembers what stated before about the equality of the inertial mass of the body to the gravitational mass of the quasi-universe, it will prove attractive to search a link between these facts and Mach’s principle.

Figure captions

Figure 1: The connection between a body and a quasi-universe.

Figure 2: The connection between two quasi-universes.


text:
# Laser Cooling of TeV MuonsContributed to the NuFAct’00 International Workshop. Fermilab-Conf-00/162

## 1 Introduction

Muon colliders are a possible future tool for the exploration of physics at the TeV scale and beyond. The current status of the developent of the muon collider concept is described in Ref. , which includes a description of a 3 TeV center-of-mass (COM) machine.

One of the major challenges to realizing a high-luminosity muon collider is to cool the diffuse bunches of muons produced in pion decays. Much effort is being put into the problem of quickly cooling these bunches at the front-end of a muon-collider and maintaining the low emittance while bunches are being accelerated and brought into collision.

For the 3 TeV COM machine, the problems of neutrino radiation  and power consumption are already becoming prohibitive. Additional cooling of the bunches after acceleration would mitigate these problems by allowing a given luminosity to be attained with fewer stored muons and a lower repitition rate, and allow consideration of even higher energy muon colliders. For example, the tunnels and high-field magnets being discussed for future hadron colliders  could ultimately be used for a 100 TeV-scale muon collider. Post-acceleration cooling would also reduce detector backgrounds from muon decay.

The possibility of using Compton scattering for cooling of electron bunches for $`\gamma \gamma `$ colliders has been previously considered . The luminosity for $`e^+e^{}`$ collisions is already limited by beamstrahlung effects, but additional cooling may greatly improve the $`\gamma \gamma `$ luminosity.

We propose herein the possibility of post-acceleration cooling of muons beams using Compton scattering.

## 2 Compton Scattering

The Compton Scattering cross-section, in the rest frame of the muon, is:

$$\frac{d\sigma }{d\mathrm{\Omega }}=\frac{\alpha ^2}{2m^2}\left(\frac{k^{}}{k}\right)^2\left(\frac{k^{}}{k}+\frac{k}{k^{}}\mathrm{sin}^2\theta \right),$$
(1)
where

$$k^{}=\frac{k}{1+(k/m)(1\mathrm{cos}\theta )}$$
(2)
and $`k`$ is the incoming photon energy, $`k^{}`$ is the outgoing photon energy, and $`\theta `$ is the photon scattering angle. For $`km`$, $`k^{}k`$ and the scattering is roughly isotropic:

$$\frac{d\sigma }{d\mathrm{\Omega }}(1+\mathrm{cos}^2\theta ),$$
(3)
and the total cross-section is given by:

$$\sigma _\mathrm{C}=\frac{8\pi }{3}\frac{\alpha ^2}{m^2}=\frac{8\pi }{3}r_\mu ^2$$
(4)
where $`r_\mu ^2`$ is the classical muon radius. Thus, compared to electrons, the cross-section is reduced by $`4\times 10^4`$.

As an example, to expect 1 collision with a 0.1 eV photon, the light energy density would need to be 10 $`\mathrm{J}/(\mu \mathrm{m})^2`$.

Consider a beam of muons, with energy and momentum defined by $`\beta `$, $`\gamma `$, $`E_\mu `$, and $`p_\mu `$, colliding head-on with a mono-energetic beam of photons with energy $`E_\gamma `$. We will approximate $`\beta =1`$. The energy of the photons in the muon rest frame is:

$$E_\gamma ^{}=\gamma E_\gamma (1+\beta )2\gamma E_\gamma .$$
(5)
On average, the photon will transfer longitudinal momentum $`E_\gamma ^{}`$ to the muon. In the lab frame,

$$E_\mu E_\mu 2\gamma ^2E_\gamma .$$
(6)
Typically, the muon will receive a smaller transverse kick:

$$p_{T\mu }\gamma E_\gamma .$$
(7)
Therefore, for large $`\gamma `$, the muon is essentially slowed down without changing direction.

If lower photon energies are needed, this can effectively be achieved by aiming the photon beam at an angle $`\theta `$ relative to the head-on direction. The transverse momentum of the photon is inconsequential. The effective photon energy becomes:

$$E_\gamma E_\gamma (1+\mathrm{cos}\theta )/2.$$
(8)
## 3 Cooling Effect

For simplicity, we consider the case that the the muons undergo on average one Compton scattering, and are afterwards reaccelerated to compensate for the average energy loss. The following conclusions are also valid for any average number of scatterings, as long as the relative energy loss is small.

Transversely, a muon has a small angle $`\alpha `$ relative to the beam direction in a plane, for example the $`xz`$ plane. After the scattering, $`\alpha `$ remains unchanged, within an amount $`E_\gamma /m`$. After reacceleration,

$$\alpha \alpha (12\gamma E_\gamma /m).$$
(9)
Thus, the angular spread can be reduced, in the same way as for ionization cooling at low energy.

There is also a heating effect from the spread in the transverse kick. The average increase in the variance of $`\alpha `$ is equal to that for one Compton scattering:

$$\sigma _\alpha ^2\sigma _\alpha ^2+\frac{6}{5}\left(\frac{E_\gamma }{m}\right)^2.$$
(10)
To find the equilibrium angular spread we equate the cooling and heating effects to find:

$$\sigma _\alpha =\sqrt{\frac{3}{10}\frac{E_\gamma }{E_\mu }}.$$
(11)
Luminosity is inversely proportional to the sums of the emittances of the two colliding beams. It is also proportional to the product of the numbers of muons in the two beams. This product decays with a time constant of one-half the muon lifetime. For a fractionally small energy loss per collision, the number of Compton scatterings needed to reduce $`\sigma _\alpha `$ by a factor of $`1/e`$ is given by:

$$n=\frac{m}{2\gamma E_\gamma }$$
(12)
The total energy used to reaccelerate the muon after these $`n`$ collisions is equal the original muon energy:

$$E_{reacc}=E_\mu .$$
(13)
The power density needed to attain this factor in one-half muon lifetime is given by:

$$p=\frac{nE_\gamma }{\sigma _\mathrm{C}\gamma \tau _\mu /2}=\frac{3}{8\pi }\frac{m}{\gamma ^2\tau _\mu r_\mu ^2}.$$
(14)
Thus, the power required decreases as the square of the muon energy increases.

Longitudinally, since the average energy loss in a Compton scattering is greater the higher the muon energy, there is an energy bunching effect. For $`\sigma _{E_\mu }E_\mu `$, and the average case of one Compton scattering, the bunching effect is:

$$\sigma _{E_\mu }\sigma _{E_\mu }\frac{\sigma _{E_\mu }}{E_\mu }4\gamma ^2E_\gamma .$$
(15)
There are also two sources of energy heating. The first is from the variance in the number of Compton scatterings of the muon, given by Poisson statistics. This leads to a variance in the energy spread of $`(2\gamma ^2E_\gamma )^2`$. The second is from the variance in the energy spread within one Compton scattering, given by $`2/5(2\gamma ^2E_\gamma )^2`$. The total heating effect is then:

$$\sigma _{E_\mu }^2\sigma _{E_\mu }^2+(2\gamma ^2E_\gamma )^2+\frac{2}{5}(2\gamma ^2E_\gamma )^2.$$
(16)
Equating the heating and cooling effects, we find for the equilibrium energy spread:

$$\frac{\sigma _{E_\mu }}{E_\mu }=\sqrt{\frac{7}{10}\frac{E_\mu E_\gamma }{m^2}}.$$
(17)
We have checked these derivations with a simple Monte Carlo simulation of a set of muons undergoing repeated Compton scatterings and boosts. The predictions of these equations are in excellent quantitative agreement with the simulation.

## 4 Power Considerations

In principle, Compton scattering could be used to cool low-energy muons. Unfortunately, our estimates show that the power requirements would be prohibitive by many orders of magnitude. However, as shown in Eq. 14, the power density needed decreases as the square of the muon energy increases, and may be reasonable at TeV energies.

Two other general considerations affect how the power needed scales with the muon energy. First, the muons will be in a storage ring. The photon pulses can be placed in a cavity and reused once per turn of the muons around the ring, as illustrated in Fig. 1. The size of the ring, and therefore the time per turn, is proportional to the muon energy. For a lower muon energy, the photon pulses can be reused at a faster rate. Therefore, for this scheme, the power needed to produce the photons scales as only $`1/E`$.

The second consideration is that the geometric emittance, and therefore spot size, decreases linearly as the muon bunch is accelerated. Therefore, the area that needs to be illuminated, and the total power, decreases as the square of the muon energy. Putting these two considerations together, the power needed for cooling scales as $`1/E^3`$.

The length of the muon bunch can also affect the amount of power needed. A laser beam can be focussed to collide with the muon bunch. The diffraction-limited spot size at the focus is proportional to the F-stop ($`F`$). However, the depth of focus is proportional to $`F^2`$. If the length of the muon bunch is too long, we will need to increase the depth of focus, which implies increasing the spot size, which will require proportionally more total power.

Finally, Eq. 14 gives only the cooling rate needed to compensate the luminosity for the muon decays. A cooling rate several times higher than this will be necessary to realize large increases in the luminosity. We also note that as cooling power is added, we also need to add RF power to reaccelerate the muons, as described in Eq. 13.

Although a lot of additional power will be needed for the laser and RF systems, a much lower repitition rate will be needed for a given luminosity, and thus the power consumption for the facility as a whole may be much lower.

## 5 Application to the 3 TeV Muon Collider

We start with the parameters for the 3 TeV muon collider in Ref. . The ring has a circumference of 6 km, and contains 4 bunches at a time. We assume that this will be reduced to 1 bunch. We have assumed that the bunch length can be shortened to 1 mm. Midway between each crossing point, we place a resonant optical cavity. This is illustrated in Fig. 1. Each cavity contains a photon pulse reflecting back and forth. The length of the cavity is set to 3 km, so that the light pulse hits a muon bunch in alternating directions once per reflection. The luminosity lifetime is 15 msec, or 750 turns. Thus, the cavity should have a Q of $`10^3`$. The length of the photon pulse should be comparable to the $`\beta ^{}`$ of the machine, or about 30 ps.

Progress in improving laser intensity and decreasing photon pulse widths has been very rapid . For example, the Mercury project  is developing a 1.05 $`\mu `$m laser system that will generate 100 J at 10 Hz in 5 ns pulses at 10% efficiency. We have considered two types of laser systems to generate the necessary photon pulses: $`\mathrm{CO}_2`$ lasers, which typically have a 10.6 $`\mu `$m wavelength and 25% efficiency, and Nd:Glass lasers, which typically have a 1.05 $`\mu `$m wavelength and 1% efficiency. The parameters of these laser systems with the 3 TeV COM machine are shown in Table 1.

As shown in Table 1, we can expect emittance improvements by a factor of a few thousand. However, the energy needed in the laser pulses is very high: Of order one MJ. The two laser cooling stations in Fig. 1 would probably need to be divided into several cooling stations each with a fraction of the laser energy. Shortening the muon bunch length could also allow a considerable reduction in laser energy. It may be possible to exploit the reduction in beam size that occurs during the cooling process. Finally, a higher energy muon collider would also reduce the laser energy requirement.

Some of the other parameters of the collider with laser cooling may present challenges for the machine design. The small emittance leads to a very high value of the tune shift. Also, the energy spreads are somewhat high, especially for the lower-wavelength laser.

## 6 Conclusions

We have shown that Compton scattering can be used to cool muon beams. Eq. 11 and Eq. 17 describe the achievable transverse angular spread and longitudinal energy spread.

While the power needed for laser cooling of muon beams is very high, it decreases as the cube of the muon energy increases, and may become practical by TeV energies. If so, emittance reductions by factors of a few thousand are possible. This would allow a given luminosity to be attained with a much lower repitition rate, much less detector background from muon decays, and a much reduced neutrino radiation hazard. Several challenges remain to develop a plausible optical, laser, and machine system.

## 7 Acknowledgements

Thanks to the organizers of the NuFact’00 International Workshop for the opportunity to present these results. Thanks to David Neuffer for several useful conversations.

This work was performed at the Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory, which is operated by Universities Research Association, under contract DE-AC02-76CII03000 with the U.S. Department of Energy.


text:
# MAGNETIC RECONNECTION: SWEET-PARKER VERSUS PETSCHEK

## 1 Introduction

As is well known, the process of magnetic reconnection is important in many space and astrophysical contexts. The initial problem that first inspired research into the subject was the solar flare phenomenon, in which it appeared that energy was first slowly built up and stored in the magnetic field, and then suddenly released into thermal and kinetic energy. The first solution of the problem was given independently by Sweet (1958) and Parker (1957), who approximated the problem as a two dimensional incompressible MHD problem. They showed that the problem was essentially a boundary layer problem, and they estimated the rate of reconnection from a boundary layer analysis. This boundary layer analysis led to release of magnetic energy over a period of time several orders of magnitude longer than the observed energy release time in solar flares. A probable explanation of this discrepancy could be the fact that their estimates of the reconnection rate are based on normal (Spitzer) resistivity, while in the actual solar flare the resistivity could be greatly enhanced, leading to a much faster energy release.

On the other hand, at the time when Sweet and Parker developed their theories, the possibility of enhanced resistivity was not appreciated, and other means of increasing the reconnection rates were sought. Petschek (1963) pointed out that, since the magnetic reconnection was a topological process, the field lines need not reconnect resistively along the entire length of the boundary layer, but could merge over a shorter length $`L^{}`$.

For this to happen, the rest of the boundary layer region should consist of slow shocks that could accelerate the matter that did not pass through the diffusive region. He found that the resulting reconnection rate was increased by the factor $`\sqrt{L/L^{}}`$, and by choosing $`L^{}`$ small enough, a very rapid reconnection could be achieved.

Ever since the two theories, Sweet-Parker’s and Petschek’s, were published, there has been a controversy over which one was the correct one to apply. The controversy seemed to be settled, by the rather complete numerical simulation of Biskamp (1986), to be in favor of the Sweet-Parker result. Since then, a number of numerical simulations have confirmed this.

Since both theories seemed rather well founded, it is a question of how either of them could be incorrect. In this note, I will show that the Petschek theory, as he proposed, it is indeed not correct, at least in the context of MHD with constant resistivity. In the development of his theory, Petschek left out one condition that also must be satisfied. The satisfaction of this condition leads to a unique determination of the length $`L^{}`$ in his theory, and indeed, if the resistivity is constant in space, it is the case that $`L^{}`$ is equal to $`L`$. This reduces Petschek’s enhancement factor $`\sqrt{L/L^{}}`$ to unity and Petschek’s reconnection rate to Sweet-Parker’s rate for constant resistivity.

On the other hand, if one considers the possibility of enhanced resistivity, two things happen. (1) The Sweet-Parker reconnection rate becomes much faster, for the solar flare case, and (2) because such enhanced resistivity is very sensitive to current density, it can be space dependent also. This leads to $`L^{}`$, being smaller than $`L`$, and to a even faster, Petschek like, reconnection rate.

## 2 The Boundary Layer

Reconnection is as much a global phenomena as a local one. For example, consider the magnetic reconnection of two cylinders with opposite poloidal flux. (Figure 1.) Let us also assume that the velocities induced by magnetic reconnection are slow compared to the Alfven speed everywhere, except in the reconnection and separatrix layers. Then, everywhere else, we have

$$𝐣\times 𝐁=𝐩$$
(1)
Also, since the layers are thin, we have the jump in $`p+B^2/8\pi `$ zero across these layers. This means that, if the amount of reconnected and unreconnected flux is given, and if the rotational transform and pressure are known on each magnetic surface as functions of the poloidal magnetic flux, then there is a unique equilibrium. But as magnetic reconnection proceeds, one can keep track of the pressure and the rotational transform in both the regions of reconnected and unreconnected flux. The two regions change geometrically and physically as reconnection proceeds, Thus, the plasma first moves from the unreconnected region into the reconnection layer, where it is heated, then it flows into the separatrix region, and, finally, as the magnetic configuration changes, into the reconnected region. (However, this does not change the uniqueness of the equilibrium at each stage of reconnection.)

Because of this uniqueness, the length of the reconnection layer $`L`$ is totally determined at each stage as well as the horizontal field just outside of the layer.

Appreciating this fact, all three authors took the length of the layer as well as the variation of the bounding field as given. They assumed that the region into which the plasma flowed (the separatrix region) was at the same pressure as the upstream ambient pressure. This was the boundary layer problem to be solved.

## 3 The Sweet-Parker and Petschek Theories for a Constant Resistivity

Let us now examine the two theories. First consider that of Sweet and Parker. The reconnection layer is sketched in figure 2. It is easily shown that the flow out of the layer is at the Alfven speed, $`V_x=V_AB_0/\sqrt{4\pi \rho }`$. The incoming flow of matter $`LV_y=LV_R`$ must balance the outgoing flow $`V_A\delta `$, where $`V_R`$, the reconnection velocity, is the incoming velocity outside of the layer, where the plasma is tied to the field lines. $`\delta `$ is the half thickness of the layer. Thus,

$$V_RL=V_A\delta .$$
(2)
On the other hand, by Ohm’s law the field diffuses up stream with a velocity $`\eta c/4\pi \delta `$ with respect to the incoming plasma, with velocity $`V_R`$. Thus, in steady state,

$$V_R=\eta c/4\pi \delta .$$
(3)
From these equations we obtain

$$V_R=\sqrt{\frac{V_A\eta c}{4\pi L}}=\frac{V_A}{S},$$
(4)
and

$$\delta =\frac{L}{\sqrt{S}},$$
(5)
where

$$S=\frac{LV_A}{\eta c/4\pi }.$$
(6)
This is the Sweet-Parker result.

The Petschek theory is indicated in figure 3. In this model the diffusive region, in which the merging actually takes place is of a much shorter, length $`L^{}`$, than $`L`$. The remaining length of the boundary is occupied by slow shocks. In the diffusive layer the behavior is similar to the Sweet-Parker layer, the main difference being that the acceleration of the velocity up to the Alfven speed along the layer, is accomplished by magnetic tension associated with a transverse field component $`B_y`$. (In the Sweet-Parker theory this acceleration is produced mainly by a pressure gradient.) Outside of the Petschek diffusive layer the acceleration up to $`V_A`$ is accomplished almost instantaneously by the slow shocks. The Sweet-Parker model for their diffusive layer is replaced by the identical conditions for the Petschek model, but with $`L`$ replaced by $`L^{}`$, leading to the Petschek reconnection velocity,

$$V_R=\sqrt{\frac{V_A\eta c}{4\pi L^{}}}=\frac{V_A}{\sqrt{S}}\sqrt{\frac{L}{L^{}}},$$
(7)
a factor of $`\sqrt{L/L^{}}`$ faster than the Sweet-Parker reconnection velocity. The shocks in the outer $`LL^{}`$ region reduce the upstream $`B_x`$ to zero, and accelerate the plasma crossing them to $`V_A`$ in the $`x`$ direction to match the plasma flowing out of the diffusive region with the same Alfven $`x`$ velocity.

The shocks propagate in the $`y`$ direction upstream into the plasma with velocity $`B_y/\sqrt{4\pi \rho }`$. Since the plasma is flowing with the reconnection velocity $`V_y=V_A`$ we have in steady state,

$$\frac{B_y}{\sqrt{4\pi \rho }}=V_R,$$
(8)
which determines the magnitude of $`B_y`$ the transverse field component. This $`y`$ component of the field increases linearly along $`x`$ in the diffusive region from $`0`$ to this value, and it turns out that the tension produced by the $`j_zB_y`$ force is just enough to accelerate the plasma in the layer up to the Alfven speed.

These results are all given in Petschek’s paper and present a nearly complete, but qualitative, physical picture for magnetic reconnection, encompassing the possibility of a diffusive layer much shorter than $`L`$. Further, in his theory, $`L^{}`$ appears to be a free parameter. Petschek then chooses $`L^{}`$ as short as possible to get the maximum reconnection velocity. He determined this minimum to be the lower limit so that the current in the shocks did not seriously perturb the incoming magnetic field $`B_x=B_0`$. This limit was roughly

$$L^{}>\frac{L}{S}(\mathrm{ln}S)^2,$$
(9)
so that substituting in equation (7) he got a very fast limit on the reconnection velocity

$$V_R<\frac{V_A}{\mathrm{ln}S}.$$
(10)
This latter limiting velocity has been generally quoted in the literature as the so-called Petschek reconnection velocity, and it is this velocity that has been compared with the Sweet-Parker reconnection velocity equation (4) in the controversy between the two theories. The disagreement should more appropriately be between the Sweet-Parker velocity and equation (7).

Now, it turns out that $`L^{}`$ is not a free parameter in Petschek’s theory. There is an additional condition associated with $`B_y`$ that Petschek did not include . The all important $`B_y`$ field, which is needed to support the shocks, is embedded in the rapidly moving plasma and is swept down stream at the Alfven velocity, $`V_A`$. This field which is being swept away so rapidly must be regenerated at the same rate to preserve a steady state.

This regeneration occurs during the merging process. The external field is nonuniform, being strongest near $`x=0`$, so the lines of force at the center of the diffusive layer will move into the diffusive region fastest there. However, the nonuniformity of the external field is on the scale of the length of the layer $`L`$ because of the global conditions, so as $`L^{}`$ gets smaller, the nonuniformity over the shorter length is also smaller, and the regeneration process is weaker. A balance between the nonuniform merging process that creates the $`B_y`$ field, and the down sweeping which destroys it, must be reached and this leads to a relation between $`L^{}`$ and $`B_y`$. Thus, combining this relation with equations (7) and (8), determines $`L^{}`$ uniquely.

Let us estimate this balance qualitatively. The equation for $`B_y`$ will be shown to be

$$\frac{dB_y}{dt}=\frac{V_R}{L^{}}\frac{L^2}{L^2}B_0B_y\frac{V_A}{L^{}}=0.$$
(11)
The second term on the right is the down sweeping term that destroys $`B_y`$. Its form is obvious.

The first term represents nonuniform merging, and its form can be derived as follows: (see Figure 4).

The external field depends on $`x`$ as

$$B_x=B_0(1x^2/L^2).$$
(12)
We assume that each fresh line that is merging enters the layer with velocity, $`V_x^{}`$ proportional to $`B_x(x)`$, so that the line enters faster at $`x=0`$ than at $`x=L^{}`$. Thus, after entering the layer it will turn at the rate

$$\frac{d\theta }{dt}=\frac{V_x^{}(0)V_x^{}(L^{})}{L^{}}=\frac{\eta c}{4\pi \delta L^{}}[1(1L^2/L^2)],$$
(13)
or

$$\frac{d\theta }{dt}=\frac{\eta c}{4\pi \delta }\frac{L^2}{L^2}\frac{1}{L^{}}.$$
(14)
The turning of a line of strength $`B_0`$ at the rate $`d\theta /dt`$ produces a component $`B_y`$ at the rate $`(d\theta /dt)B_0=V_R(L^2/L^2)B_0/L^{}`$, which gives the first term in equation(11).

Now, setting $`dB_y/dt=0`$, for a steady state, gives from equation(9),

$$B_y=\frac{V_R}{V_A}(L^2/L^2)B_0.$$
(15)
From equation (8) we get

$$V_R=\frac{V_R}{V_A}(L^2/L^2)\frac{B_0}{\sqrt{4\pi \rho }}=V_R(L^2/L^2).$$
(16)
or,

$$L^{}=L$$
(17)
.

Thus, $`L^{}`$ is no smaller than $`L`$, and the Petschek rate equation (7) reduces to the Sweet-Parker rate equation (4).

I believe that this is the reason that the numerical simulations always yield the Sweet-Parker rate, rather than the faster rate implied by Petschek’s formula.

A more formal derivation of equation (11) is given in the appendix.

## 4 Anomalous Resistivity in the Sweet-Parker Model

In the absence of a $`B_z`$ component (that is no guide field), there is a strong instability, the lower hybrid instability, that should be excited, (Davidson 1975) This is the case if the current density in the layer is large enough that the difference in the electron and ion bulk velocities $`v_{}`$ and $`v_+`$ is greater than the ion acoustic speed. That is, if the drift velocity $`v_dv_+v_{}`$ satisfies $`v_d>v_i`$ with $`v_i`$ the ion thermal velocity. Note that $`j=n_e(e/c)v_d`$.

There are three well-documented instances where magnetic reconnection is definitely taking place, i.e. the solar flare, the magnetosphere-solar wind interface, and the magnetotail. If one examines these three cases, and applies the Sweet-Parker model to them, one finds in all three cases that the drift velocity, $`v_d`$, is much larger than $`v_i`$. One can express this as follows: There is a critical current, $`j_c`$, and critical layer thickness $`\delta _c=B_0/4\pi j_c`$ such that if $`\delta <\delta _c`$ and therefore $`j`$ is greater than the critical $`j`$, then the lower hybrid mode should be excited. This lower hybrid instability has the property, that it can generate an almost unlimited amount of resistive friction between the electrons and the waves.

Now, let us imagine the two plasmas with opposite magnetic fields, $`B_0`$, approach each other. The pressure, between them, $`p=B_0^2/8\pi `$, is dissipated at the rate $`V_A/L`$ by expansion due to flow out the ends, and by force balance, must be replenished by compression due to $`d\delta /dt<0`$. This compression normally continues until the Sweet-Parker thickness is reached. At this time, the plasma pressure in the layer is replenished by Ohmic heating $`\eta j^2\eta B_0^2/(4\pi \delta )^2`$ at the same rate at which it is depleted, $`(V_A/L)p=(V_A/L)(B_0^2/8\pi )`$, by the adiabatic expansion. Therefore at this time the collapse $`d\delta /dt`$ ceases.

On the other hand, if the critical thickness, $`\delta _c`$, is passed before the Sweet-Parker thickness is reached, the resistivity rapidly rises to generate an Ohmic heating large enough to balance the outflow adiabatic expansion at this larger distance $`\delta _c`$, and collapse ceases at this larger distance.

For these conditions, the layer thickness is known, and $`V_R`$ is determined by the mass conservation equation (2) alone,

$$V_R=\frac{\delta _c}{L}V_A.$$
(18)
Thus, reconnection can become much faster than the Sweet-Parker rate based on Spitzer resistivity. Under solar flare conditions, Kulsrud (1998), it can become as much as a factor of a thousand faster. The resulting reconnection time can be reduced to a few hours, perhaps an order of magnitude longer than the observed energy release time in solar flares.

## 5 Petschek Reconnection with Anomalous Resistivity

In the second section it was shown that for a constant resistivity, Petschek’s $`L^{}`$ parameter must be equal to $`L`$, so that Petschek’s reconnection rate reduces to that of Sweet-Parker. However, if $`\eta `$ is anomalous, enhanced by wave interactions, it can be very sensitive to the current density. The original problem with Petschek reconnection was that the external field at $`x=L^{}`$ was only slightly smaller, by a factor of $`1L^2/L^2`$, than its strength at $`x=0`$. But even this slight change in the resulting current density can lead to a finite and even large change in the resistivity $`\eta `$. Taking this into account, one finds that equation (11) becomes

$$\frac{d\theta }{dt}=\frac{\eta _0c}{4\pi \delta L^{}}\frac{\eta ^{}c}{4\pi \delta ^{}L^{}}(1\frac{L^2}{L^2})\frac{(\eta _0\eta ^{})c}{4\pi \delta L^{}},$$
(19)
in which we have neglected $`L^2/L^2`$ and any slight difference between $`\delta `$ and $`\delta ^{}`$. $`\eta _0`$ is the resistivity at $`x=0`$, and $`\eta ^{}`$ that at $`x=L^{}`$. Solving for $`B_y=(d\theta /dt)B_0`$ as before, with this different value of $`d\theta /dt`$, and using it in Petschek’s formula for the shock velocity, we find that with variable resistivity,

$$V_R=\frac{B_y}{\sqrt{4\pi \rho }}=\frac{1}{V_A}\frac{B_0}{\sqrt{4\pi \rho }}\frac{(\eta _0\eta ^{})c}{4\pi \delta }.$$
(20)
Taking $`\delta =\delta _c`$, we have

$$V_R=\frac{c(\eta _0\eta ^{})}{4\pi \delta _c}.$$
(21)
Now, to estimate the value of this revised reconnection velocity, we assume that $`\eta `$ is linear in $`j`$ for $`j>j_c`$, so that

$$\eta _0\eta ^{}=(j_0j^{})\frac{d\eta }{dj}=\frac{1}{4\pi }(\frac{B_0}{\delta }\frac{B^{}}{\delta ^{}})\frac{d\eta }{dj}=\frac{1}{4\pi }\frac{L^2}{L^2}\frac{B_0}{\delta _c}\frac{d\eta }{dj}$$
(22)
Combining this with the mass conservation relation for the $`L^{}`$ layer,

$$\frac{V_R}{V_A}=\frac{\delta _c}{L^{}},$$
(23)
we obtain

$$\frac{V_R^3}{V_A^3}=\frac{B_0}{V_AL^2}\frac{c}{(4\pi )^2}\frac{d\eta }{dj}.$$
(24)
This result can be written in a more familiar way by assigning a maximum value, $`\eta ^{}`$ to $`\eta `$ and assuming that $`\eta =\eta _{spitzer}`$ for $`j<j_c`$, and $`\eta =\eta ^{}`$ at $`j=2j_c`$. Thus,

$$\frac{d\eta }{dj}=\frac{\eta ^{}}{j_c}.$$
(25)
From $`j_c=B_0/4\pi \delta _c`$ equation (24) reduces to

$$\frac{V_R}{V_A}=\left(\frac{\delta _c}{L}\frac{1}{S^{}}\right)^{1/3},$$
(26)
where $`S^{}`$ is the modified Lundqvist number based on $`\eta ^{}`$

$$S^{}=\frac{V_AL}{\eta ^{}c/4\pi }$$
(27)
Numerically, $`\eta ^{}`$ comes from an electron wave collision rate equal to the electron plasma frequency $`\omega _{pe}`$. Under typical solar flare conditions, Kulsrud (1998), $`\eta ^{}10^6\eta _{Spitzer}`$, and

$$\frac{V_R}{V_A}10^4$$
(28)
One can carry out similar estimates for the magnetosphere-solar wind interface and one finds from equation (26) that

$$\frac{V_R}{V_A}10^0$$
(29)
## 6 Conclusions

We have shown or stated that:

(1). In general reconnection situations, $`L`$ and $`B_x`$ are determined globally, while $`\delta `$ and $`V_R`$ are determined locally.

(2). For constant resistivity, the length of Petschek’s diffusive layer is not a free parameter, but is determined by the condition that $`B_y`$ be regenerated at the same rate as it is being dissipated by down stream flow.

(3).Constant resistivity gives $`L^{}=L`$, which makes Petschek’s reconnection rate equal to that of Sweet and Parker.

(4). If the Sweet-Parker thickness $`\delta =L/\sqrt{S}`$ is thinner than the critical thickness $`\delta _c`$ at which anomalous resistivity sets in, then the Sweet Parker reconnection rate becomes

$$V_R=\frac{\delta _c}{L}V_A,$$
(30)
a rate that can be very much faster than their reconnection rate based on Spitzer resistivity.

(5). In the case of anomalous resistivity the regeneration rate of $`B_y`$ in Petschek’s theory is much larger, and the Petschek’s rate becomes faster even than the Sweet-Parker rate with enhanced resistivity. It is given by

$$\frac{V_R}{V_A}=\left(\frac{\delta _c}{L}\frac{1}{S^{}}\right)^{1/3}$$
(31)
where $`S^{}=LV_A/(\eta ^{}c/4\pi )`$ is the Lundqvist number based on the maximum possible resistivity $`\eta ^{}`$. Note that it has a cube root dependence on this maximum resistivity, rather than a logarithmic dependence on the Spitzer resistivity which is the often quoted expression for Petschek reconnection. In spite of this, in many cases there is not a large numerical difference in the two results. Formula (31) gives an equally fast reconnection rate, and is more in tune with the true physical processes.

(6). A test for whether the anomalous resistivity rate equation (18) or (31), rather than the classical Sweet-Parker rate, equation (7), is applicable is: First, compute the Sweet-Parker thickness $`\delta _{SP}`$, of the reconnection layer $`\delta _{SP}=L/\sqrt{S}`$, and compare it with the critical thickness $`\delta _c=B_0/(4\pi n_ev_i/c)`$. If $`\delta _{SP}<\delta _c`$, then use the anomalous equation (31) for Petschek reconnection, or the anomalous Sweet-Parker equation (18), whichever is faster.

(7). In nearly all cases on the galactic scale, $`\delta _{SP}`$ is larger than or at least comparable to $`\delta _c`$, so the Sweet-Parker result gives the correct order of magnitude for the reconnection rate. This is almost always too slow to be of interest, so one concludes that reconnection on the galactic scale is hardly ever really important.

## 7 Acknowledgment

I gratefully acknowledge many useful discussions with my colleagues, Dmitri Uzdensky, Masaaki Yamada and Hantao Ji. I am also very grateful for much help from Leonid Malyshkin in preparing the manuscript for publication.

## Appendix

In this appendix we justify the intuitively described equation (11) for the evolution $`B_y`$, by a more precise derivation. In the intuitive derivation, it was assumed that the lines flowed into the reconnection only by resistive merging, and the effect of plasma flow on them was ignored. Also, the merging velocity was taken proportional to the external field, through its effect on the current density. Further, the thickness of the reconnection layer was assumed constant between $`x=0`$ and $`x=L^{}`$.

Consider an $`x`$ dependent thickness $`\delta (x)`$, as shown in figure 5, taken large enough that at $`y=\delta (x),B_xB(x)=B_0(1x^2/L^2)`$, the value for the external field. Also take $`\delta (x)`$ to follow a line of force. We have Ohm’s law in the layer,

$$cE_z=V_yB_x+V_xB_y\eta cj_z.$$
(A1)
In a steady state $`E_z`$ is a constant.

Integrate $`cE_z`$ at $`x=0`$, from $`y=0`$ to $`y=\delta _0=\delta (0)`$. See figure 5. Since $`B_y=0`$ at $`x=0`$, we have

$$c_0^{\delta _0}E_zdy=_0^{\delta _0}v_yB_xdy+\eta c_0^{\delta _0}j_zdy,$$
(A2)
or

$$c_0^{\delta _0}E_zdy=_0^{\delta _0}v_yB_xdy+\frac{\eta c}{4\pi }_0^{\delta _0}\frac{B_x}{y}𝑑y,$$
(A3)
or

$$c_0^{\delta _0}E_zdy=_0^{\delta _0}v_yB_xdy+\frac{\eta c}{4\pi }B_0.$$
(A4)
Note that $`E_z,V_y`$, and $`j_z`$ are positive.

Correspondingly, integrate $`E_z`$ at $`x=L^{}`$, from $`y=0`$ to $`y=\delta ^{}=\delta (L^{})`$,

$$c_0^\delta ^{}E_zdy=_0^\delta ^{}v_yB_xdy+_0^\delta ^{}v_xB_y𝑑y+\frac{\eta c}{4\pi }B_0(1L^2/L^2).$$
(A5)
At large enough $`\delta `$, we have

$$V_y(0,\delta _0)=V_R,$$
(A6)
and

$$V_y(L^{},\delta ^{})=\frac{V_RB_0}{B_0(1L^2/L^2)},$$
(A7)
since $`y=\delta (x)`$ is in the infinitely conducting region, and

$$cE_z=V_y(0,\delta _0)B_x(0,\delta _0)=V_y(L^{},\delta ^{})B_x(L^{},\delta ^{}).$$
(A8)
But, because $`E_z`$ is constant for all $`x`$ and $`y`$, the left hand side of equation (A4) and (A5) are equal to $`cE_z\delta _0`$ and $`cE_z\delta ^{}`$, respectively. Therefore, subtracting the right hand side of equation (A5) from $`\delta ^{}/\delta _0`$ times that of equation (A4), we get

$$\frac{\delta ^{}}{\delta _0}_0^{\delta _0}v_yB_xdy_0^\delta ^{}v_yB_xdy+\frac{\eta c}{4\pi }\left[\frac{\delta ^{}}{\delta _0}B_0B_0(1\frac{L^2}{L^2})\right]=_0^\delta ^{}v_yB_xdy.$$
(A9)
The third term on the left hand side, the $`\eta `$ term, is the non uniform merging term quoted in the text. In fact, we can write it as $`\alpha (\eta c/4\pi )(B_0/\delta _0)(L^2/L^2)`$ where $`\alpha `$ is a constant of order unity and equal to $`1+(1/2)d^2\delta /dx^2`$, which includes the change of $`\delta (x)`$ with respect to $`x`$. The right hand side represents the down sweeping term which destroys $`B_y`$.

We now argue that the sum of the first two terms on the left hand side is negative, so that the expression in the text for $`B_y`$ should be an inequality rather than an equality. Since this is partially compensated by the fact that the regeneration term is slightly larger, by the factor of $`\alpha >1`$, we work with equality in the main text.

First, the mean value of $`V_y`$ in the first term, weighted by $`B_x`$ is about 2/3 times $`V_y(\delta _0)=V_R`$ because both $`V_y`$ and $`B_x`$ are linear in $`y`$. Thus,

$$\frac{\delta ^{}}{\delta _0}_0^{\delta _0}v_yB_xdy\frac{\delta ^{}}{\delta _0}\frac{2}{3}V_R\psi $$
(A10)
where

$$\psi =_0^{\delta _0}B_x𝑑y,$$
(A11)
is the $`B_x`$ flux up to $`\delta _0`$. On the other hand, we see from figure 5 that the entire $`B_x`$ flux at $`y=L^{}`$ is near $`\delta ^{}`$, so here the $`B_x`$ averaged value of $`V_y`$ is $`V_R/(1L^2/L^2)V_R`$. Thus the sum of the first two terms in equation (A9) is essentially,

$$\frac{2}{3}\frac{\delta ^{}}{\delta _0}V_R\psi \frac{V_R}{1L^2/L^2}\psi ^{}$$
(A12)
where $`\psi ^{}`$ is the $`B_x`$ flux at $`y=L^{}`$. Further, we also see, from Figure 5, that $`\psi ^{}`$ is greater than $`\psi `$ because $`\psi ^{}`$ contains the $`\psi `$ flux (because $`\delta (x)`$ is a line of force) plus the flux through $`y=0`$, between $`x=0`$ and $`x=L^{}`$. Therefore, if $`\delta ^{}/\delta <3/2`$, a plausible assumption, since $`L^{}L`$, then the sum in equation (A12) is negative. In addition, the factors $`\psi ^{}/\psi >1`$ and $`1/(1L^2/L^2)>1`$ reinforce the conclusion that the sum is negative.

Now, dropping the first two terms in equation (A9) whose sum has been shown to be negative, we obtain the inequality,

$$\alpha \frac{\eta c}{4\pi }B_0\frac{L^2}{L^2}>_0^{\delta _0}v_xB_ydyV_A\delta ^{}<B_y>$$
(A13)
Comparing this with equation (11) of the text we see that, if $`\alpha `$ were one, equation (15) would yield an overestimate of $`B_y`$. Since $`\alpha `$ is certainly of order one, it is safe to take equation (15) as an estimate of $`B_y`$.

Note, that equation (A9) is approximately the rate of change of $`L^{}\delta B_y`$ since

$$_0^L^{}𝑑x_0^{\delta (x)}𝑑y\frac{B_y}{t}=𝑑x𝑑y\frac{E_z}{x}=\delta (x)E_z|_0^L^{},$$
(A14)
and the latter expression can easily be identified with the difference of the two integrals given in equations (A4) and (A5) with the extra $`\delta ^{}/\delta _0`$ factor.


text:
# Chandra imaging of the complex X-ray core of the Perseus cluster

## 1 Introduction

The Perseus cluster, Abell 426, at a redshift $`z=0.0183`$ or distance about 100 Mpc is the brightest cluster in the sky in X-rays. It hosts the nearest large cooling flow (e.g. Fabian et al 1981; Allen et al 1990; Fabian et al 1994). X-ray analysis of ASCA spectra indicates that the mass deposition rate is about $`300\mathrm{M}_{}\mathrm{yr}^1`$ (Allen et al 1999). At the centre is the galaxy NGC 1275, surrounded by a spectacular low-ionization, emission line nebula (Lynds 1970). The nucleus powers the radio source 3C84 (Pedlar et al 1990). ROSAT HRI images of the central region around NGC1275 show two ’holes’ in the X-ray emission coincident with the 0.5 arcmin sized radio lobes of 3C84 (Böhringer et al 1993). The overlap of the holes with both radio and optical images of NGC1275 have been discussed further by McNamara, O’Connell & Sarazin (1996) and the overall X-ray structure by Churazov et al (2000). Here we present Chandra observations of the core of the Perseus cluster using the ACIS-S detector, covering the energy range 0.5–7 keV.

## 2 The X-ray image

The core of the Perseus cluster was observed with the Chandra X-ray Observatory (Weisskopf et al 2000) on 2000 Jan 29 for 24,453 s. The 0.5–7 keV band image of the innermost 6.5 arcmin (195 kpc) diameter region centred on NGC1275 is shown in Fig. 1. It has been exposure-map corrected, chiefly to remove the effects of nodal readout boundary structures. These mainly consist of 2 rows of pixels running from close to the nucleus out to the west (p.a. 260 deg).

The holes in the emission associated with the inner radio lobes of 3C84 are clearly seen, as well as the larger hole to the NW, known from Einstein Observatory images (Fabian et al 1981; Branduardi-Raymont et al 1981). The inner radio holes in the 0.5–7 keV image are deep with a central surface brightness (20–25 ct arcsec-2 for the S hole and 15-30 ct arcsec-2 for the N hole) comparable to that of regions generally at a twice their radius (Fig. 2). The holes are surrounded by bright rims at about 60 to 30 ct arcsec-2 to the N and 40 to 30 in the S. The simplest interpretation is that the rims of bright emission are shells enclosing the holes. A bright patch of emission to the E, about 40 by 15 arcmin yields about 50–80 ct arcsec-2. The outer NW hole is at 7 ct arcsec-2 and is surrounded by emission at about 23 to 17 ct arcsec-2.

The nucleus of NGC 1275 appears slightly extended and is spectrally hard in our images. (Correction for the nodal readout boundary structures, one of which passes close to the nucleus, has artificially increased the apparent size of the nucleus in the images shown here.) We defer discussion of its structure and detailed spectrum to future work.

## 3 X-ray colour analysis

We have made soft (0.5–1 keV), medium (1–2 keV) and hard (2-7 keV) X-ray maps in order to study the X-ray colours of the inner parts of the cluster. They have been simply superimposed using the software tool GIMP to provide the colour image shown in Fig. 3. It is immediately seen that there are no strong colour gradients, apart from some patches of hard emission (blue) across the N hole and its W rim. The holes are clearly not due to absorption (or they would appear blue in Fig. 3) and the rims are not hard but moderately soft, of the same colours as the W bright patch. Inspection of separate colour images bears this last result out; the rims are not distinguishable as sharp features on a 3–7 keV image. They are therefore not shock features, contrary to the prediction of Heinz, Reynolds & Begelman (1998) and the holes are not expanding supersonically.

The patchy absorption structure seen across the N hole and its W rim is clearly seen in Fig. 4, which covers the 0.5–1 keV band. This structure coincides in position and length with the high-velocity emission-line nebulosity seen to the N of NGC 1275 (Unger et al 1990 and references therein). This gas is thought to be associated with a small irregular galaxy falling into the centre of the Perseus cluster at a relative velocity of $`3000\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$. Since it is seen in absorption at 21 cm (de Young, Roberts & Saslaw 1973) and Ly$`\alpha `$ (Briggs, Snijders & Boksenberg 1982), it must lie in front of NGC1275. Our discovery of extended X-ray absorption by this galaxy means that it must lie well in front of innermost regions, or such deep absorption features would not be apparent. Without knowledge of the detailed geometry of the holes and emission features we cannot establish any precise estimate of its radial distance from the centre, but note that the count rate at the bottom of the absorption patches is lower than anywhere else within the inner 2 arcmin radius. This suggest that the infalling galaxy may be more than 60 kpc from the cluster centre. The westernmost part of the absorption structure appears to be surrounded by brighter X-ray emission (Figs. 4 and 5). This could be shocked gas within the infalling galaxy.

In order to quantify the temperature and absorption column-density structure in the inner parts of the image we have compared colour ratio images with tables of theoretical colour ratios. First we have adaptively binned the data, after background subtraction, using a local bin size which approximately equalizes the joint fractional error per bin (over all colours) across the image. The counts from the 3 bands in each bin then provide the colour ratios. The tables were predicted using the appropriate response matrices and auxilary responses for the S3 detector and the MEKAL spectral code in XSPEC. A metallicity of 0.4 times the cosmic value for all bins has been assumed. Temperature and column density maps have been produced by least-squares fitting of the observed colour ratios to the tables. An adaptively smoothed (Ebeling et al 1999) image is included in Fig. 5 to illustrate the various features on the scale of the temperature and column-density maps. The results confirm and quantify the appearance obtained from inspection of the separate maps. The brighter emission is due to gas which is at about 2.7 keV temperature, less than half that of the outer gas which has a temperature of about 6.5 keV, in good agreement with the ASCA results (e.g. Allen et al 2000). The infalling galaxy has a mean excess column density of about $`10^{21}\mathrm{cm}^2`$ which, over the region covered, corresponds to any absorbing mass of about $`2\times 10^9\mathrm{M}_{}`$ at cosmic abundance.

The maps have then been converted into (hot) electron density, pressure and radiative cooling-time maps using the surface brightness of the 1–2 keV map (the band with the highest count rate). The XSPEC constructed tables enable the spectral normalization of the assumed MEKAL models to be obtained and thereby the emission measure of each pixel. We have then assumed that the path length through the emitting gas is equal to the radius from the nucleus of that pixel, in order to convert the emission measure into a density. This is a gross assumption approximately correct for a symmetrical, highly-peaked emission profile. Despite the holes etc in our image it should give a rough indication of the gas properties (the density depends on the inverse square root of the path length). We note that the pressure inferred for the gas within a few kpc of the nucleus agrees with that determined from the optical \[SII\] line ratio by Johnstone & Fabian (1988) and Heckman et al (1989).

## 4 Optical and radio

The soft X-ray image is shown next to an optical B-band image in Fig. 4. The B-band image was constructed from data obtained from the Isaac Newton Group Archive. The image is the combination of images taken on 1997 Dec 25 and 1998 Aug 22 with the Jacobus Kapteyn Telescope (JKT) using the Tek1024 detector, with a total exposure time of 17.7 ksec. The data have been bias-subtracted and flat-fielded before being combined. The correspondence between the soft X-ray absorption structure and the high velocity system in the optical image is good. There are no other obvious optical structures correlated with the X-ray image.

VLA Observations at a frequency of 1.4 GHz were combined from several runs of 3–10 hours duration each taken between 1989 and 1999 in the A, B and C configurations. The resulting radio image, shown in Fig. 7, has been restored with a 5 arcsec synthesised beam. Contour levels start at 1 mJy/beam and increase by factors of 2 to just below the peak of 21.7 Jy/beam.

We note that the steepest part of the radio contours abut the brightest part of the E patch.

## 5 Discussion

The overall X-ray appearance of the core of the Perseus cluster is of a broadly circularly symmetric peak centred on NGC 1275. The gas temperature decreases inward with radius, from about 6.5 to less than 3 keV, as determined from the colour ratios assuming a single phase gas. The radiative cooling time of the gas across the bright patch SE of the nucleus is about $`10^8\mathrm{yr}`$. Therefore, unless there is a balance with heating, the gas is part of a cooling flow (see Fabian 1994) and is expected to be multiphase, with the measured temperatures being an emission-weighted mean. The radiative cooling time is less than $`6\times 10^9\mathrm{yr}`$ across the whole of the images shown.

The radio lobes of 3C84 occupy holes in the X-ray emission. The simplest interpretation of the low surface brightness is that they are devoid of X-ray gas and have pressure support from cosmic rays and magnetic fields. However there may be hotter gas in the holes and indeed we find that the pressure map shows little evidence for the holes (the temperature map, Fig. 5, indicates 4–5 keV for the holes; a result which is highly geometry dependent). The data are consistent with the holes being filled with pressure-supporting hotter gas. Future work involving detailed deprojection and spectral fits to the data will enable this possibility to be carefully tested.

The composition of the radio lobes is important in determining the energy content of the radio source and, using a synchrotron age, the mean power output of the central engine. We have already noted that there is no evidence for shocks so any expansion is subsonic. If the holes only contain magnetic fields and cosmic rays then the energy is approximately $`P\mathrm{\Delta }V8\times 10^{58}\mathrm{erg}`$ (assuming that the holes are spheres of radius 6 kpc each). A similar amount of work must have been done in making the holes. That work probably causes a very low frequency sound wave to propagate out from the hole region and dissipate beyond the cluster core. There is no reason that it should lead to local heating. The age of the inner holes is unclear but probably of order $`10^{78}\mathrm{yr}`$, from synchroton ageing estimates and also buoyancy considerations (Pedlar et al 1991; McNamara et al 2000; Churasov et al 2000). The mean power of the nucleus is then $`10^{4445}\mathrm{erg}\mathrm{s}^1`$.

If the holes are just apparent and filled with hotter, lower surface brightness gas than the rims, then it is difficult to estimate the energy of the radio source. A probable lower estimate is the minimum energy one of Pedlar et al (1990), which implies a pressure for the relativistic fluid about ten times less than the local gas pressure. The magnetic fields and/or cosmic rays need not be space-filling; pressure balance is obtained if they occupy about 2 per cent of the volume. The relativistic fluid may still have a large covering factor and just pushes denser, cooler gas clouds out of the way, so that they accumulate at the edge of the lobes, forming the bright rims. The brightness of the rims relative to the surrounding region is consistent with this hypothesis (i.e. $`\mathrm{\Delta }S/SR/\mathrm{\Delta }R`$, where $`S`$ and $`R`$ are surface brightness and radius, respectively).

The origin of the outer NW hole is unclear. It could, as suggested by Churazov et al (2000), be a buoyant old radio lobe, or lobes, produced by the central engine in NGC 1275. If so then it must have considerable surface tension, presumably due to ordered magnetic fields, in order that it has not fallen apart. Perhaps the galaxy is moving slowly to the SE and shed this lobe in the past. Such a scenario could also account for the W bright patch as being where cooler X-ray emitting clouds of gas are swept up by the radio lobes.

The situation is clarified somewhat by the recent low-frequency (74 MHz) radio image of Blundell et al (2000) which shows a spur of radio emission out to the position of the outer hole (there is also some structure in the maps of Pedlar et al 1991 in this position). The low-frequency map also shows a spur to the SSE, in the direction of another hole seen in Fig. 5. Such low-frequency radio emission is likely to originate from the oldest electron populations, thereby supporting the idea that the spurs point to fossil radio lobes now devoid of energetic electrons.

Of course, some of the apparent displacement of the outer holes from the present jet (N–S) axis may be due to motion of the gas, rather than the galaxy. If there is slow rotation of the gas then this could explain the ‘swirly’ appearance of the outer gas in Fig. 1 (noted by Churazov et al 2000). It could be the remains an an earlier cooler subcluster which merged with the cluster core. The impression of a spiral structure winding inward in a clockwise sense is reinforced by similar structures apparent in optical images (see e.g. Carlson et al 1998). We note that such an overall structure is consistent with a cooling flow if the gas has some angular momentum which is roughly conserved as the slow inflow proceeds. The streamlines of the flow will be spiral rather than radial lines. These can then become apparent if the gas at $`50\mathrm{kpc}`$ radius has some large-scale inhomogeneity in the form of of wider spread of denser, cooler gas over, say, one quadrant. As the gas cools the denser gas cools fastest and as it flows inward creates an X-ray bright and cooler spiral. The optical spiral is explained by star formation from the cooled gas.

Neither movement of gas nor galaxy obviously explains however the outer S hole being along the present jet axis. The outer holes may result as much from previous beaming directions of the central engine as from its displacement. The situation resembles that around M87, as found by Böhringer et al (1995) and most recently by Owen, Eilek & Kassim (1999). If this explanation is correct then it argues against rapid spin of the central black hole being the origin of the jets. The outer holes nevertheless do provide direct evidence that the central radio source is sporadic and had earlier outbursts.

## 6 Acknowledgements

ACF is grateful to NASA for the opportunity to participate as an InterDisciplinary Scientist and the Chandra project for such a superb instrument. ACF, CSC and SWA thank the Royal Society for support.