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# Hydrodynamic Simulations of the Sunyaev-Zel’dovich effect(s)

## 1. Introduction

On angular scales below $`10^{}`$, the microwave sky carries the imprint of large-scale structure in the low-$`z`$ universe. In particular, cosmic microwave background (CMB) photons propagating through the universe are inverse Compton or Doppler scattered by hot electrons along their path, either in dense structures such as clusters of galaxies or more generally in hot gas in the intergalactic medium. Inverse Compton scattering conserves the number of photons but preferentially increases their energy, leading to a spectral distortion whose amplitude is proportional to the product of the electron temperature and density (or pressure). Doppler scattering induces an intensity fluctuation with the same spectral shape as the CMB itself. These effects were first described by Sunyaev & Zel’dovich (SZ72 (1972, 1980)) and are known as the thermal and kinetic SZ effects, respectively (for recent reviews see Rephaeli Rep (1995) and Birkinshaw Bir (1999)).

The thermal effect is one of the primary sources of secondary anisotropies in the CMB on small angular scales. The change in the (thermodynamic) temperature of the CMB resulting from scattering off non-relativistic electrons is

$`{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Delta }T}{T}}`$ $`=`$ $`y\left(x{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{e}^x+1}{\mathrm{e}^x1}}4\right)`$ (1)
$``$ $`2y\text{for }x1,`$ (2)
where $`x=h\nu /kT_{\mathrm{CMB}}\nu /56.85`$GHz is the dimensionless frequency, and the second expression is valid in the Rayleigh-Jeans limit which we shall assume henceforth. The quantity $`y`$ is known as the Comptonization parameter and is given by

$$y\sigma _T𝑑\mathrm{}\frac{n_ek(T_eT_{\mathrm{CMB}})}{m_ec^2},$$
(3)
where the integral is performed along the photon path. Since $`T_eT_{\mathrm{CMB}}`$ the integrand is proportional to the integrated electron pressure along the line of sight.

The kinetic SZ effect arises from the motion of ionized gas with respect to the rest-frame of the CMB. The resulting temperature fluctuation is $`\mathrm{\Delta }T/T=b`$, where

$$b\sigma _T𝑑\mathrm{}n_e\frac{v_r}{c}$$
(4)
measures the magnitude of the effect along the line of sight if $`v_r`$ is the radial peculiar velocity of the gas. The different dependence on frequency of the two effects can, in principle, be used to disentangle them observationally, though the primary CMB anisotropies provide “noise” for the kinetic SZ signal. The imprint of the SZ effects on the CMB has been studied by a number of authors (Ostriker & Vishniac OsVi (1986), Persi et al. PSCO (1995), da Silva et al. SBLT (2000), Refregier et al. RKSP (2000), Seljak et al. SelBurPen (2000), among others), but the theoretical predictions still exhibit substantial quantitative uncertainty.

In this paper, we report first results of a sequence of high resolution hydrodynamic simulations designed to study the SZ signal on small angular scales. Our simulations can be used to calibrate and test the semi-analytic modelling that has been done before, explore the effect of varying the physics included, and provide predictions for upcoming experiments. In Section 2, we describe our simulation set and we discuss the techniques we use to compute SZ maps. In Section 3, we present our results for the power spectra of thermal and kinetic SZ effects, and we show SZ source counts as a function of source strength and source size. Finally, we summarize and discuss our results in Section 4.

## 2. Method

We are interested primarily in the consequences of assumptions about the physical state of the gas for predictions of the SZ signal, so we have focussed on one particular cosmological model, chosen from the $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$CDM family. For definiteness, we have adopted the “concordance” model of Ostriker & Steinhardt (OstSte (1995)) which has $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{m}=0.3`$, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }=0.7`$, $`H_0=100h\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1\mathrm{Mpc}^1`$ with $`h=0.67`$, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{B}=0.04`$, $`n=1`$ and $`\sigma _8=0.9`$ (corresponding to $`\delta _H=5.02\times 10^5`$). This model yields a reasonable fit to the current suite of cosmological constraints and as such provides a good framework for making realistic predictions.

We ran a number of simulations on the Cray T3E at the San Diego Supercomputing Center using the GADGET Tree/SPH code (Springel, Yoshida & White SprYosWhi (2000)). Each simulation employed $`2\times 224^3`$ particles and was carried out on 64 processors. Our basic model had a box size of $`134h^1`$Mpc, so the dark matter particles had masses of $`1.5\times 10^{10}h^1M_{}`$ and the SPH particles $`2.4\times 10^9h^1M_{}`$. The SPH densities were computed from 32 neighbours, so our minimum gas resolution was roughly $`8\times 10^{10}h^1M_{}`$. Our base simulation (134A) was evolved from $`z=50`$ to $`z=0`$, and the gravitational force softening was of a spline form (e.g. Hernquist & Katz HeKa (1989)), with a Plummer-equivalent softening length of $`25h^1\mathrm{kpc}`$ comoving.

As a test of our numerical resolution we also simulated the same cosmological model in a $`67h^1`$Mpc box (evolved from $`z=100`$ to the present; 67A), with a softening length half that of the 134A run and eight times better mass resolution. In all our runs, the full simulation box was output at 333 different times, between redshifts $`z19`$ and $`z=0`$. The simulations reported here followed only adiabatic gas physics. Since the SZ effect is dominated by massive objects with large cooling times this is a reasonable first approximation.

To investigate the effect of an early epoch of energy injection we took the $`z=7`$ output of 134A and added $`0.1`$keV, $`0.3`$keV or $`1`$keV of energy per (gas) particle. This injection scenario was deliberately chosen to be somewhat artificial. A more realistic approach might be to add the energy only to gas within halos above a certain density, to describe energy input from galaxy winds or QSO activity for example, or to add it over an extended period of time. Unfortunately, the very large parameter space of these possibilities cannot be explored easily. We thus decided to examine an “extreme” scenario to get a handle on the dependence of the small angle SZ signal on the amount of energy injected. The amount of extra energy was chosen to be plausible given the observed luminosity–temperature relation in clusters of galaxies (Cavaliere, Menci & Tozzi CavMenToz (1998); Wu, Fabian & Nulsen WuFabNul (1998)) and the expected X-ray background from the diffuse intergalactic medium (Pen Pen1999 (1999)). We added the energy at $`z=7`$, which we also took to be the epoch of reionization, so that the energy injection takes place “before” the gas contributes significantly to the SZ signal. A visual inspection of slices through the simulation shows that an energy injection as large as $`1`$keV literally blows gas out of small halos, leaving only the gas in the larger collapsed objects. The gas is thus more smoothly distributed in addition to being hotter. At $`z=0`$ the slope of the mass weighted temperature–mass relation in the $`1`$keV simulation is thus changed from a canonical $`1.5`$ to a considerably steeper $`1.7`$.

The evolution of the density weighted temperature in our simulations is shown in Fig. 1. Note the good convergence between the large (134A) and the small box (67A) at redshifts $`z<5`$. In the 67A run, the adiabatic decay of the mean temperature is halted at a somewhat higher redshift, as expected: due to the better mass resolution of this simulation, nonlinear structures of small mass collapsing at earlier times can be resolved. In the runs with energy injection, the temperature increases discontinuously at $`z=7`$, and then declines again with the adiabatic expansion, until shock heating takes over at $`z13`$, depending on the amount of injected energy. At $`z=0`$, all runs yield a mean mass-weighted temperature of $`0.3\mathrm{keV}`$.

We produced maps in a manner similar to da Silva et al. (SBLT (2000)). First, the various outputs from the boxes were “stacked” back along the line of sight, with each box randomly translated and oriented in the direction of either the $`x`$, $`y`$ or $`z`$ axis. Then, a grid of $`512^2`$ rays subtending a constant angle of $`1^\mathrm{o}`$ from the observer was traced through the boxes starting at $`z=19`$. For our choice of an opening angle of $`1^\mathrm{o}`$, the full $`134h^1\mathrm{Mpc}`$ box just subtends an angle equal to the field of view at $`z=19`$. For the smaller $`67h^1\mathrm{Mpc}`$ run, the field of view reaches the box size at a distance $`z2`$, beyond which we covered it by periodic replication of the box.

We produced maps of the $`y`$-parameter, the Doppler $`b`$-parameter, and the projected gas and dark matter densities. For example, the $`y`$ temperature decrement along any ray was calculated by distributing the product of pressure and specific volume of the gas particles over the angular grid:

$$y_{ij}L_{\mathrm{pix}}^2=\frac{\sigma _T}{m_ec^2}\underset{\alpha }{}p_\alpha w_{\alpha ,ij},$$
(5)
where $`w_{\alpha ,ij}`$ is the value of the (projected) smoothing kernel (normalized to unity for the pixels covered) of particle $`\alpha `$ at angular grid position $`(ij)`$, and $`L_{\mathrm{pix}}^2`$ is the physical area of a pixel at the particle’s distance.

The product of pressure and volume, $`p_\alpha `$, for each SPH particle is

$$p=(\gamma 1)(1Y_p)mu\mu x_e,$$
(6)
where $`\gamma `$ is the ratio of specific heats, $`Y_p=0.24`$ the primordial 4He mass fraction, $`m`$ the particle mass, $`u`$ the internal energy per unit mass, $`\mu `$ the mean molecular weight and $`x_e`$ the ratio of electron and hydrogen number densities. In the runs reported here, we do not track $`x_e`$ dynamically. Instead, we set it to 1.158 for temperatures above $`10^4`$K, corresponding to full ionization, and take the gas at lower temperature to be neutral. In reality, the inclusion of an ionizing background would render this assumption invalid at low redshift, but the small densities of the affected gas do not lead to any significant contribution to the SZ signals. These are thus unaffected by our assumption about the ionization state of the gas, provided ionization happens late enough. On the other hand, it is crucial to assume that the gas is neutral at very high redshift, otherwise the high physical density of the ambient gas in this regime would give rise to a significant contribution to the SZ effects. In particular, the finite box size of our simulations would then lead to a strong signal for the kinetic effect on large angular scales, reflecting motion of gas due to the largest modes in the box.

## 3. Results

We show typical examples for our thermal and kinetic SZ maps in Fig. 2. These maps were produced by coadding a large number of partial maps, each giving the contribution of one of the boxes that we stacked along the photon’s path. It is interesting to note that filamentary structure is easily detected in these partial maps with their small depth in redshift space. However, in the full projection along the backward photon path, filaments are largely hidden in the high level of background arising from the summation over many of these structures. Things may not be quite so bad for the kinetic effect, where it seems that a somewhat larger degree of filamentary structure manages to survive at appreciable signal. Note that sources that are “bright” in the thermal effect are not necessarily among the brightest in the kinetic effect, and vice versa. Often, the kinetic effect shows neighboring large peaks of opposite sign. This may be useful in strategies for identifying clusters and superclusters (Diaferio, Sunyaev & Nusser Dia2000 (2000)).

### 3.1. Power spectra

For each map we computed a number of statistics, and we in general averaged the results for 15 random lines of sight to reduce field-to-field variance. Of most interest here are the angular power spectrum of the thermal and kinetic SZ effects (Fig. 3).

A comparison of our basic $`67h^1\mathrm{Mpc}`$ and $`134h^1\mathrm{Mpc}`$ runs shows that for the physics we have included we have converged in the mean mass-weighted temperature and the angular power spectrum for $`\mathrm{}20000`$, albeit some small residual resolution effects are visible for the kinetic effect. The good level of agreement for the two different runs down to very small angular scales builds confidence in our numerical technique. While this is to be expected as the signal is dominated by structures of mass $`>10^{13}M_{}`$, which should be well covered by our resolution, it also suggests that finite box size and the box stacking technique (White & Hu WhWa (2000)) are not a source of significant uncertainty in our results.

We note that the small box gives slightly more power at $`\mathrm{}20000`$ for the thermal effect, indicating its better resolution, while at lower $`\mathrm{}`$ the convergence is excellent. This is also reflected in the mean Comptonization, which both models give as $`y=2.6\times 10^6`$. For the kinetic effect, we observe a higher level of additional small-scale power for the small box on one hand, and slightly less power for all $`\mathrm{}`$ below $`\mathrm{}20000`$ on the other hand. This suppression likely originates from a deficit of large-scale power in the small box, which reduces the amplitude of peculiar velocities.

Interestingly, the power spectrum of the thermal SZ effect is not far from current observational upper limits, making it a highly interesting target for upcoming experiments. The power in fluctuations due to the kinetic SZ effect is substantially smaller, but may not be out of reach in future experiments, especially when multi-frequency observations are employed.

It is interesting to compare published results for the power spectrum of the thermal SZ effect with our measurement, as we have done in Figure 4. There are order of magnitude differences between the various results. Note that slight differences in the adopted cosmological models can partly account for these discrepancies, but even for cosmological parameters that are very close, substantial uncertainties remain. One group of results in this comparison is based on analytical computations, using either extensions of Press-Schechter theory (Komatsu & Kitayama Komatsu1999 (1999), Holder & Carlstrom Hold1999 (1999), Cooray Cooray2000b (2000), Molnar & Birkinshaw Mol2000 (2000)) or non-linear perturbation theory (Zhang & Pen Zhang2000 (2000)). Compared to our result, these computations suggest more power on large angular scales, and their spectrum usually peaks at somewhat larger angular scale, corresponding to $`\mathrm{}`$ of a few thousand. On the other hand, the numerical work by Seljak et al. (SelBurPen (2000)), which is based on simulations using a moving-mesh hydrodynamical code (Pen Pen1998 (1998)), suggests a very similar shape for the spectrum, but with an amplitude which is a factor 1.5-2 lower than our result. Refregier et al. (RKSP (2000)) use the same simulation technique as Seljak et al. (SelBurPen (2000)), albeit at lower resolution and in combination with a different analysis of the simulation outputs. Their spectrum peaks at an angular scale of $`\mathrm{}2000`$, roughly at the upper boundary of the author’s own range of confidence of $`200<\mathrm{}<2000`$ for their result.

In general, predictions in the literature for the kinetic SZ effect show a similar degree of quantitative uncertainty. Note however that the computations by Bruscoli et al. (Brus1999 (1999)) are very close to our result, as is Hu & White (HuWh96 (1996)) if reionization is assumed to happen late. On the other hand, the signals computed for inhomogeneous reionization (Gruzinov & Hu Gruz98 (1998), Benson et al. Bens2000 (2000), Valageas et al. Val2000 (2000)) are typically an order of magnitude smaller in power at the peak of the spectrum.

The relatively large scatter in these computations highlights that there is still substantial quantitative uncertainty in the theoretical predictions for the SZ power spectrum. High-resolution simulations like the ones discussed here should help to lead to a more reliable answer.

An additional complication besides computational uncertainties is that the theoretical predictions depend quite sensitively on the physics of reionization and preheating, especially for scales $`\mathrm{}2000`$, where the SZ effect dominates over primary CMB fluctuations. This is seen when analyzing the SZ signals of our energy injection runs (Fig. 5). Depending on the amount of energy injected, fluctuations on small angular scales can be suppressed very strongly, while additional power on large scales is seen from relatively diffuse, ionized gas. This signal on large angular scales is generated in a small redshift range right after the energy has been injected. Note that on the largest scales we probe, the amplitude of the kinetic SZ effect then becomes dominated by finite box size effects as the signal reflects the largest modes that are present in the simulation.

Apart from influencing the power spectrum, energy injection also alters the mean Comptonization of the models. It becomes $`y=6.9\times 10^6`$ for the $`0.1`$keV model, $`16.6\times 10^6`$ for the $`0.3`$keV run, and reaches $`38.0\times 10^6`$ for an injection of $`1`$keV. The latter is thus strongly excluded by the upper limit of $`15\times 10^6`$ from the COBE FIRAS experiment (Fixsen et al. FIRAS (1996)), and even the $`0.3`$keV model is marginally excluded. This highlights the power of the FIRAS constraint.

### 3.2. Source counts

The maps for the thermal SZ effect are dominated by discrete sources, as suggested by visual inspection. We have used the source detection software SExtractor (Bertin & Arnouts Bertin96 (1996)) to count individual sources, and to measure their strength. A similar technique has been employed by da Silva et al. (SBLT (2000)). Figure 6 shows a typical source detection, here obtained for the map shown in Fig 2. To mark each source, we have drawn a circle with area equal to the area of the ellipse matched by SExtractor to each source. We used default settings for the detection algorithm of the image processing software and let it estimate background and ‘noise’ levels automatically. Note that our maps are in principle noise-free, so what is interpreted as noise in this procedure effectively arises from limitations due to source confusion, which leads to non-detections of some of the faintest and smallest sources. In a typical analysis with SExtractor, we resolve slightly more than half of the total SZ signal into discrete sources.

We measure the strength of a source as the monochromatic brightness change

$$S_\nu =_\mathrm{\Omega }\mathrm{\Delta }B_\nu d\mathrm{\Omega }=f(x)B_\nu _\mathrm{\Omega }y(\theta )d\mathrm{\Omega }$$
(7)
of the CMB integrated over the solid angle of the source. Here $`B_\nu `$ is the Planck spectrum of the primary CMB, and $`f(x)`$ is the spectral function

$$f(x)=x\frac{\mathrm{e}^x}{\mathrm{e}^x1}\left(x\frac{\mathrm{e}^x+1}{\mathrm{e}^x1}4\right),$$
(8)
with $`x=h\nu /kT_{\mathrm{CMB}}`$. In the following, we quote results for a frequency of 150 GHz.

In Fig. 7, we show the cumulative source counts per square degree found in the simulations 134A and 67A. We find remarkably good agreement between the two simulations, which differ by a factor of 8 in mass resolution. However, the higher resolution run 67A resolves a slightly larger number of faint (small) sources, while the bigger box 134A shows a small increase of the counts at the bright (large) end of the distribution. Both of these weak trends reflect expected effects due to box size and numerical resolution. Notice that the source counts we find are quite close to predictions by De Luca et al. (DeLuca95 (1995)) based on Press-Schechter theory, however our simulations don’t show their exact power-law behavior at source strengths above 1 mJy. The dashed line in Fig. 7 gives the counts for the simulation with 1 keV energy injection. Interestingly, the counts for the bright sources are unaffected, but sources below a flux of 1 mJy (size of $``$30′′) are strongly reduced in number density, and still fainter (smaller) ones are practically eliminated.

Finally, we plot in Fig. 8 the differential flux distribution as a function of source strength. It is seen that the bulk of the total flux is provided by sources around 1 mJy, while the contribution by very faint and very bright sources is negligible. The good agreement at the faint end between the two adiabatic runs suggests that both of these simulations already resolve all the relevant sources that contribute significantly to the total Comptonization. Consistent with the results for the source counts, the energy injection run shows a strong suppression of faint SZ sources, while the brightest sources are nearly unaffected.

## 4. Discussion

We have performed a sequence of high resolution hydrodynamic simulations of structure formation in a $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$CDM model to investigate the thermal and kinetic Sunyaev-Zel’dovich effects. Figs. 1, 3, 7, and 8 show that including only adiabatic gas physics our simulations of the thermal effect are converged down to sub-arcminute scales. In particular, our results are well converged at the peak of the power spectrum, and they predict a mean Comptonization of $`y=2.6\times 10^6`$ for the adopted cosmology.

The detection of the brightest SZ sources with a density of $``$1 per square degree requires an angular resolution of $``$1, and the capability to separate brightness fluctuations of size $``$10$`\mathrm{mJy}`$ (for 150 GHz) from the primary CMB fluctuations. Several current experiments are capable of meeting such requirements, for example the OVRO and BIMA interferometers, and they are already being used to detect and study SZ clusters. Improvements to these experiments should soon reduce the upper bounds shown in Fig. 3 and make the thermal SZ signal we predict detectable in the near future. The planned satellite mission Planck Surveyor with its high sensitivity and multi-frequency capability should allow a clean separation of the thermal SZ signal from the primary anisotropies, even though its angular resolution will be limited to less than $`\mathrm{}`$$``$1000. However, future interferometric missions at mm-wavelengths, like ALMA, will be able to probe much smaller angular scales, up to $`\mathrm{}`$$``$$`10^6`$, and should have enough sensitivity to detect both the thermal and kinetic effects. More detailed discussions of the prospects for extracting the SZ signal from upcoming CMB experiments are given elsewhere (Cooray, Hu & Tegmark Cooray2000 (2000), Holder & Carlstrom Hold1999 (1999), and Bartlett Bart2000 (2000), among others).

We have examined the dependence of the SZ signal on early energy injection using an “extreme” model where $`0.1`$keV to $`1`$keV of energy was added into all of the gas at $`z=7`$. The energy injection heats the gas, but also drives it out of small halos, erasing small-scale structure. The loss of small scale structures causes a reduction of the angular power spectrum at high-$`\mathrm{}`$ while the heating of the gas enhances the large angle signal (see Fig. 5).

In the runs without energy injection, most of the mean Comptonization is generated at redshifts $`z3`$, with a small tail extending to a redshift of about 5 (da Silva et al. SBLT (2000)). However, in the runs with energy injection, additional Comptonization is provided by hot ionized gas in the IGM at still higher redshift. Current FIRAS limits on the mean Comptonization already exclude our most extreme model that injected $`1`$keV at $`z=7`$. In future work, we will investigate the dependence of the SZ effects on additional input physics such as radiative cooling, star formation and its associated energy input by supernova feedback.

We would like to acknowledge useful conversations with Rupert Croft, Chris Metzler, and Bill Holzapfel. This work was supported by NASA Astrophysical Theory Grant NAG5-3820 and by the NSF under grants ASC93-18185, ACI96-19019, and AST-9802568. M.W. was supported by NSF-9802362 and a Sloan Fellowship. The simulations were performed at the San Diego Supercomputer Center.


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# On invariants of Morse knots

## Introduction

In the last few years knot theorists have studied so many species of knots (Legendrian, transverse, holonomic, harmonic, Lissajou, virtual knots, etc) that perhaps “low-dimensional zoology” will develop as a subfield in its own right. As with bears, buffalos or bumble-bees, each species of knots has its own particular niche. In particular, our interest in Morse knots stems from the fact that Morse knots can be viewed as an intermediate class of objects between braids and knots and in this regard they appear at least in two important contexts in knot theory.

The first appearance of Morse knots (under the name of “plat representations”) was in connection with the plat closure of braids in the work of J.Birman . The main result of  is a Markov-type theorem for the plat closure. Similarly to the classical Markov theorem, the allowed moves on braids fall into two categories: moves preserving the number of strands and a stabilisation move. Morse knots then are equivalence classes of braids under the first class of moves; consequently, the theory of Morse knots can be regarded as an “unstable knot theory”. It turned out that there exist topologically equivalent (i.e. isotopic) Morse knots with the same number of strands, or, equivalently, with the same number of maxima of the “height function”, which belong to different classes with respect to the equivalence relation on Morse knots. Examples of such pairs of knots were given by Birman  and Montesinos .

Another context where Morse knots are relevant is Kontsevich’s construction of a universal Vassiliev invariant for knots . This invariant, known as the “Kontsevich integral”, is defined in two steps. First one chooses an embedding of a given knot into $`𝐑^3`$ as a Morse knot and defines what is sometimes called the “preliminary” Kontsevich integral. The preliminary integral is invariant under Morse equivalence of embeddings and it has to be normalised in a suitable way to obtain a genuine knot invariant. It may seem that the only information specific to Morse knots that is lost while passing to the stabilised (i.e. normalised) version of the Kontsevich integral is the number of critical points of the “height function” on the knot. (In fact, on page 145 of  an erroneous claim is made that the complete set of invariants of a Morse knot is its topological type together with the number of maxima of the height function.) However, certain stabilisation is implicit in the definition of the algebra of chord diagrams for knots. We will see how to refine the relations on chord diagrams in order to make the Kontsevich integral sensitive to more subtle information specific to Morse knots.

The main purpose of this paper is to show that some “unstable” information about Morse knots can be captured by Vassiliev invariants. In the first section we consider the basic properties of Morse knots. In particular, it is shown that the monoid of Morse knots is “almost commutative” and Morse knots with one maximum are classified. In section 2 we define the Vassiliev invariants and give an example which shows that they can distinguish isotopic (but not Morse equivalent) knots. We also introduce “semi-stable” invariants; these, however, turn out to be “uninteresting” in the sense that almost all of them are invariants of knots up to isotopy. Section 3 contains rough estimates of the stability range for the Vassiliev invariants of Morse knots. Finally, in section 4 we present some results of computer calculations. Here we encounter a rather unexpected phenomenon: there is a $`𝐙/2`$-valued Vassiliev invariant of Morse knots with two maxima which is not a mod 2 reduction of any integer-valued invariant.

We work with long knots, which are somewhat easier to deal with than compact knots in certain situations. We do not attempt to answer the question whether long and compact knots lead to the same theory.

We assume the reader to be familiar with the basics of Vassiliev knot invariants, suitable references are  and .

### Acknowledgments

We are grateful to Sergei Tabachnikov for useful comments. The first author thanks Max-Planck-Institut für Mathematik, Bonn for hospitality during the stay at which part of the work presented here was done. The second author was partially supported by the Naval Academy Research Council.

## 1. Morse knots

Throughout the paper we will work with oriented long knots. A long knot $`k`$ is a smooth non-singular embedding $`k:𝐑𝐑^3`$ such that the tangent vector to $`k`$ tends to $`(0,0,1)`$ when $`|t|`$ tends to infinity. Thus we adopt the convention that all knots “point downwards”.

We say that $`k`$ is a Morse knot if the height function, that is, the vertical component of the function $`k(t)`$ has only a finite number of critical points, all of which are non-degenerate. Two Morse knots are Morse equivalent if one can be deformed into the other through Morse knots. It is clear that Morse equivalent knots are isotopic.

Denote by $`_n`$ the set of Morse equivalence classes of knots with $`n`$ maxima (or, equivalently, $`n`$ minima) of height function and set $`=_i`$. Abusing the terminology, we will refer to elements of $``$ as to “Morse knots”; this should not lead to confusion. $`_0`$ consists of a single element $`[\mathrm{𝟎}]`$ which is the class of the embedding $`t(0,0,t)`$. The sets $`_n`$ are formed by Morse knots whose isotopy classes have bridge number less than or equal to $`n+1`$.

On Morse knots there is an operation of connected sum: $`k\mathrm{\#}l`$ is a knot formed by “putting $`k`$ on top of $`l`$”. If $`k_n`$ and $`l_m`$ the sum $`k\mathrm{\#}l`$ belongs to $`_{n+m}`$, so Morse knots form a graded monoid under connected sum. The grading comes from the number of maxima and the identity is $`[\mathrm{𝟎}]`$.

Denote by $`[𝐤]`$ the “$`k`$-hump” Morse knot as below:

Notice that $`[𝐦]\mathrm{\#}[𝐤]=[𝐦+𝐤]`$.

The following theorem is a version of a statement in :

###### Theorem 1.

 For any two isotopic Morse knots $`k,l_n`$ there exists a non-negative integer $`m`$ such that $`k\mathrm{\#}[𝐦]`$ and $`l\mathrm{\#}[𝐦]`$ are Morse equivalent.

Thus the theory of Morse knots can be thought of as an unstable version of the usual knot theory. Indeed, according to the theorem above the direct limit of the sequence

$$_n\stackrel{\mathrm{\#}[\mathrm{𝟏}]}{}_{n+1}$$

is precisely the set of isotopy classes of knots.

There are other “unstable knot theories” which stabilise to knots in a similar way. For example, closed braids can also be regarded as “unstable knots”. Note, however, that the stabilisation move for closed braids does not commute with the unstable moves, that is, with conjugation. In this respect, the theory of Legendrian and transverse knots is a better example of an unstable knot theory; certain statements and proofs can be transferred from the subject of Legendrian and transverse knots to Morse knots without major changes. In particular, we will apply the technique developed by D.Fuchs and S.Tabachnikov in  to describe the semi-stable invariants of Morse knots (Theorem 7 below).

### 1.1. Morse knots as closed braids.

The stabilisation phenomenon for Morse knots was discovered by J.Birman in  where she proved a Markov-type theorem for the plat closure. The counterpart of the plat closure for long knots (called “short-circuit” closure) is described in . The short-circuit closure of a pure braid on an odd number of strands is obtained by stretching the top of the first strand up and the bottom of the last strand down to infinity and joining all strands in turn at the bottom and at the top. Every braid in the pure braid group $`𝒫_{2n+1}`$ closes to a knot in $`_n`$. For example, the closure of a trivial braid on $`2n+1`$ strands is the $`n`$-hump knot $`[𝐧]`$.

There is a Markov theorem for the short-circuit closure:

###### Theorem 2.

 For all $`n0`$ there exist finitely generated subgroups $`H_n^T,H_n^B𝒫_{2n+1}`$ such that the fibres of the short-circuit map $`𝒫_{2n+1}_n`$ are the orbits of the simultaneous action on $`𝒫_{2n+1}`$ by $`H_n^T`$ on the left (that is, on the top) and by $`H_n^B`$ on the right.

The stable case of the theorem, i.e. the corresponding statement for knots up to isotopy is obtained by letting $`n`$ tend to infinity. For an explicit description of $`H_n^T`$ and $`H_n^B`$ for all $`n1`$ we refer to . In the last section we list the generators for $`H_2^T`$ and $`H_2^B`$; here we will discuss as an example the case $`n=1`$.

### 1.2. Morse knots with one maximum.

Recall that the pure braid group $`𝒫_3`$ is isomorphic to $`F_2\times 𝐙`$ where $`F_2`$ is the free group on two generators. Let $`a`$ and $`b`$ be the generators of $`F_2`$ and $`c`$ be the generator of $`𝐙`$ shown below.

Then $`H_1^T`$ is generated by $`a`$ and $`c`$, $`H_1^B`$ is generated by $`b`$ and $`c`$, so the quotient $`H_1^T\backslash 𝒫_3/H_1^B=_1`$ can be easily described:

###### Theorem 3.

Non-trivial knots in $`_1`$ are in one-to-one correspondence with all such reduced words on two letters $`a`$ and $`b`$ that start with a non-zero power of $`b`$ and end with a non-zero power of $`a`$.

By the “trivial knot” we mean here the hump $`[\mathrm{𝟏}]`$.

Notice that the mirror image of a knot $`k`$ in $`_1`$ with respect to a reflection in any vertical plane can be obtained by replacing $`a`$ and $`b`$ by $`a^1`$ and $`b^1`$ respectively and vice versa in the reduced word that represents $`k`$. This implies the following

###### Corollary 4.

Any non-trivial knot in $`_1`$ is distinct from its mirror image with respect to any vertical plane.

In particular, the figure eight knot (which is isotopic to its mirror image) has at least two distinct representatives in $`_1`$. In the next section we will see an example of two Morse knots which are both isotopic to the figure eight knot and can be distinguished by Vassiliev invariants.

### 1.3. Are Morse knots commutative?

We do not know if the monoid of Morse knots is commutative. The proof of the commutativity of the connected sum operation for usual knots consists of making one of the knots very small and running it through the other summand. This does not work with Morse knots for the following reason: while running one knot through the other one we have turn the smaller knot upside down at the maxima and minima of the bigger knot. It is not clear if this can be done without creating new critical points. Still, we have the following

###### Theorem 5.

$$\begin{array}{ccc}\hfill (\mathrm{a})& k\mathrm{\#}[\mathrm{𝟏}]=[\mathrm{𝟏}]\mathrm{\#}k& \mathrm{for}\mathrm{any}k;\hfill \\ \hfill (\mathrm{b})& k\mathrm{\#}l\mathrm{\#}[\mathrm{𝟏}]=l\mathrm{\#}k\mathrm{\#}[\mathrm{𝟏}]& \mathrm{for}\mathrm{any}k,l.\hfill \end{array}$$

Part (a) of the above theorem was proved in . Essentially, one has to show that a “hump” can be run through a critical point. The following picture illustrates how to do it:

To verify part (b) notice that the knot $`k\mathrm{\#}[\mathrm{𝟏}]`$ can be passed through a maximum as shown below.

Let $`k^{}`$ be the Morse knot obtained by passing $`k\mathrm{\#}[\mathrm{𝟏}]`$ through a maximum. Passing $`k^{}`$ through a minimum we again obtain $`k\mathrm{\#}[\mathrm{𝟏}]`$ as illustrated by the following picture:

Passing $`k\mathrm{\#}[\mathrm{𝟏}]`$ through maxima and minima of $`l`$ we see that $`l\mathrm{\#}k\mathrm{\#}[\mathrm{𝟏}]`$ equals to $`k\mathrm{\#}[\mathrm{𝟏}]\mathrm{\#}l`$ which is the same as $`k\mathrm{\#}l\mathrm{\#}[\mathrm{𝟏}]`$.

A possible method of showing that the connected sum is not commutative would be to prove the non-commutativity of the algebra of Morse chord diagrams defined in the next section. Our calculations up to degree $`7`$ in $`_2`$ failed to find any such phenomenon.

## 2. Vassiliev invariants

### 2.1. Vassiliev invariants of Morse knots.

Let $`v`$ be a function from $`_n`$ to some abelian group (which henceforth will be assumed to be the additive group of real numbers, unless stated otherwise). It can be extended inductively to a function on Morse knots with transversal double points by means of the Vassiliev skein relation:

$$v(\text{})=v(\text{})v(\text{}).$$

The function $`v`$ is a Vassiliev invariant of type (or order) $`k`$ if its extension vanishes on all knots with more than $`k`$ double points. Notice that we define Vassiliev invariants separately for each $`_n`$.

Just like in the usual knot theory one can introduce Morse chord diagrams. A Morse chord diagram with $`k`$ chords and $`n`$ maxima is a graph as below:

Here all $`k`$ chords are horizontal and the Wilson loop is a graph of a function on $`𝐑`$ with $`n`$ non-degenerate maxima. Let $`𝒜_{k,n}`$ be the R-vector space generated by all chord diagrams with $`k`$ chords and $`n`$ maxima modulo several types of relations:

* homotopy which preserves the number and non-degeneracy of critical points and horizontality of chords;
* braid-type 4T-relations;
* framing independence:

$$\text{}=\text{}=0;$$
* strand exchange:

$$\text{}=\text{}$$

and

$$\text{}=\text{}$$

Vector spaces $`𝒜_{0,n}`$ are one-dimensional; they are generated by diagrams without chords and with $`n`$ maxima.

The connected sum of Morse knots induces a structure of a bigraded algebra on $`𝒜_,=_{k,n}𝒜_{k,n}`$.

###### Theorem 6.

The Vassiliev invariants of Morse knots form the (graded) dual of the algebra $`𝒜_,`$. In particular, $`𝒜_{k,n}`$ is dual to the vector space of the invariants of type $`k`$ modulo invariants of type $`k1`$ for Morse knots with $`n`$ maxima.

The tool used to prove this theorem is the universal Vassiliev invariant for Morse knots known as the “Kontsevich integral”. The only difference between the Kontsevich integral for Morse knots and the Kontsevich integral (without normalisation) for knots up to isotopy is that by the “class of a diagram” one should understand its class in the algebra $`𝒜_,`$ rather than $`𝒜_{}`$. The proof is identical to that of the Kontsevich theorem for knots up to isotopy apart from that there is no need to check the invariance under an insertion of a hump. For details we refer to  or . Note that all terms of the Kontsevich integral of a knot in $`_n`$ belong to $`𝒜_{,n}`$. In particular, its first term is the chord diagram without chords and with $`n`$ maxima.

The algebra $`𝒜_,`$ contains some unstable information. For instance, an easy calculation shows that the vector space $`𝒜_{3,1}`$ is generated by two diagrams

$$d_1=\text{}d_2=\text{}$$

while there is only one Vassiliev invariant of knots up to isotopy in degree 3.

This implies, for example, that the two singular Morse knots $`k_1`$ and $`k_2`$ shown on Figure 1 are distinguished by Vassiliev invariants of Morse knots of type 3, as their underlying chord diagrams are precisely $`d_1`$ and $`d_2`$. On the other hand, their isotopy classes differ only by the reversal of orientation. It is well-known that all 2-bridge knots are invertible so $`k_1`$ and $`k_2`$ are in the same isotopy class. Thus Vassiliev invariants can distinguish isotopic but not Morse equivalent knots.

In fact, resolving the singularities of both $`k_1`$ and $`k_2`$ one obtains (up to isotopy) a formal sum of a trefoil and a figure eight knot. It is easily checked that a trefoil and its reverse are Morse equivalent so, as we have seen in the previous section, the figure eight knot has at least two distinct representatives in $`_1`$.

### 2.2. Semi-stable invariants.

The definition of Vassiliev invariants for Morse knots given above is not the only possible one. Along with double points one can consider yet another type of singularity, namely a degenerate critical point where the 3rd derivative of the height function does not vanish. The relation for resolving degenerate critical points is analoguous to the Vassiliev skein relation:

$$v(\text{})=v(\text{})v(\text{}).$$

We will call the Vassiliev invariants defined in this manner semi-stable. An example of a semi-stable invariant is the number of maxima of a Morse knot, this is an invariant of type 1. It is clear that each semi-stable Vassiliev invariant is a Vassiliev invariant. The converse is not true:

###### Theorem 7.

The algebra of semi-stable Vassiliev invariants of Morse knots is generated by Vassiliev invariants of knots up to isotopy and the single invariant of type 1, which is the number of maxima.

The proof is identical to that of Theorems 4.5 and 5.5 of  where similar statements about Legendrian and transverse knots are proved. The only modification needed is a substitution of a “hump” instead of a “zigzag” in Legendrian case or a “double loop” in the case of transverse knots.

## 3. Stabilisation of Vassiliev invariants.

Consider the algebra $`𝒜_{}`$ of usual chord diagrams, i.e. of the chord diagrams for knots up to isotopy. Each Morse chord diagram naturally gives rise to a chord diagam of knots up to isotopy. This “forgetful” map sends the relations between Morse chord diagams to relations (or trivial identities) in the algebra $`𝒜_{}`$ so there is a natural algebra homomorphism

$$𝒜_,𝒜_{}$$

which preserves the grading by the number of chords. The unstable Vassiliev invariants of Morse knots correspond to the kernel of this map and, as we have seen above, this kernel is non-trivial. It is clearly of importance to understand when the Vassiliev invariants for Morse knots coincide with those of knots up to isotopy. In this section we give a partial answer to this question.

###### Theorem 8.

The natural map $`𝒜_{k,n}𝒜_k`$ is an epimorphism for $`k2n`$ and an isomorphism for $`kn`$.

The proof occupies the rest of the section.

We will say that a chord diagram $`D`$ of knots up to isotopy can be presented on $`2n+1`$ strands if it is the diagram of some singular Morse knot with $`n`$ maxima. The corresponding Morse chord diagram will be called a presentation of $`D`$ (on $`2n+1`$ strands).

The first assertion of Theorem 8 follows from

###### Lemma 9.

Any chord diagram with $`2n`$ chords can be presented on $`2n+1`$ strands.

###### Proof.

For $`n=1`$ the statement is obvious. Suppose it is established for some $`n=p`$ and let $`D`$ be a diagram on $`2p+2`$ chords. Recall that we think of knots and diagrams as being “long” so the ends of chords of a chord diagram are naturally ordered. Consequently, the chords themselves can also be ordered according to the order of their larger ends. Let $`c_1`$ be the last (i.e. the largest) chord of $`D`$ and $`c_2`$ be the last chord of the diagram $`D\backslash \{c_1\}`$ obtained from $`D`$ by deleting $`c_1`$. The diagram $`D^{}=D\backslash \{c_1c_2\}`$ can be presented on $`2p+1`$ strands, so it can also be presented on $`2p+3`$ strands in such a way that no chords have ends on any of the last two strands. Now it is possible to add the chord $`c_2`$ to the presentation of $`D^{}`$ in such a way that (a) it is horizontal; (b) one of its ends is on one of the first $`2p+1`$ strands and the second end is on the $`(2p+2)`$nd strand. Similarly, one can add the chord $`c_1`$ to the obtained diagram in such a way that its last end is situated on the last strand; this gives a presentation of $`D`$ on $`2p+3`$ strands. ∎

To prove the second assertion of Theorem 8 it suffices to verify the following two lemmas:

###### Lemma 10.

If a diagram on $`k`$ chords can be presented in two different ways on $`2n+1`$ strands, where $`nk`$, these presentations are equivalent modulo the relations of strand exchange.

###### Lemma 11.

Every 4T and framing independence relation in $`𝒜_k`$ come from relations in $`𝒜_{k,n}`$ for $`nk`$;

###### Proof of Lemma 10.

Say that a diagram with $`n`$ chords on $`2n+1`$ strands is arranged if it has exactly one end of a chord on each of the first $`2n`$ strands. We describe an algorithm of connecting any diagram with $`n`$ chords on $`2n+1`$ strands to an arranged one by relations of strand exchange; the lemma follows from the existence of such an algorithm.

Let $`N(m)`$ be the number of ends of chords on the $`m`$th strand of a given Morse diagram. Suppose the diagram is not arranged.

Find such $`m`$ that $`N(m)=0`$ and that $`N(i)>0`$ for all $`1i<m`$. If $`N(i)=1`$ for all $`1i<m`$ and $`m^{}`$ is the smallest number such that $`m^{}>m`$ and $`N(m^{})0`$ we move one chord end from the $`m^{}`$th strand to $`(m^{}1)`$st strand by a strand exchange relation. (We can do it as $`N(m^{}1)=0`$.) Otherwise, move one chord end from $`(m1)`$st strand to the $`m`$th strand.

The above manipulations can be repeated until we get an arranged chord diagram. It is a straightforward check that the algorithm always terminates on such a diagram. ∎

###### Proof of Lemma 11.

A 4T relation can be thought of as a resolution of a “singular” chord diagram whose two chords have a common end. So in order to show that every 4T relation for diagrams of knots up to isotopy comes from a 4T relation for Morse diagrams one can just check that every singular chord diagram on $`n`$ chords can be presented on $`2n+1`$ strands. This can be easily seen using Lemma 9. The statement about the framing independence relations is similarly straightforward. ∎

###### Remark.

The estimates given by Theorem 8 are not sharp. Note, however, that nowhere in the proof we have used the framing independence relations. Also, the statement of the Lemma 11 can be easily improved. Namely, the condition $`kn`$ can be replaced by $`k2n`$; the proof is very similar to that of Lemma 9.

## 4. Computations in $`_2`$.

We performed some computer calculations of invariants of $`_2`$, with the hope of establishing the noncommutativity of some Morse knots. Although we failed in this objective, we did discover that there is a $`𝐙/2`$-valued sixth-order invariant of $`_2`$ which is not the mod 2 reduction of an integer-valued invariant. Moreover, this invariant can distinguish some elements of $`_2`$ from their reverses. We describe now how those calculations were carried out.

The basic idea behind our calculations is that Vassiliev invariants of Morse knots pull back under the short-circuit map to those Vassiliev invariants of pure braids which are preserved by the action of the subgroups $`H_n^T`$ and $`H_n^B`$, see Theorem 2. Thus the problem of computing invariants in $`_n`$ is reduced to considering the action of $`H_n^T`$ and $`H_n^B`$ on pure braid invariants. We refer the reader to  for a description of the Vassiliev theory for pure braids.

Rather than considering the Vassiliev filtration on knot invariants we will work with the dual filtration on $`𝐙`$-linear combinations of knots. Recall that a knot with $`k`$ double points can be identified with a formal alternating sum of $`2^k`$ nonsingular knots obtained by resolving all $`k`$ double points with the help of the Vassiliev skein relation. Consider the abelian group $`Q`$ generated by all elements of $`_2`$, subject to the relations that set all knots with $`7`$ double points equal to zero. A sixth-order Vassiliev invariant of Morse knots in $`_2`$ taking values in an abelian group $`G`$ is a homomorphism from $`Q`$ to $`G`$. We computed $`Q`$ to be $`𝐙^{19}\times X`$, where $`X`$ is a finite group whose order is divisible by $`2`$ but not by $`3,5,7,11,13,17,19,89`$, or $`131`$. The group $`X`$ is most likely to be $`𝐙/2`$, but since we did all our calculations modulo the primes listed, we do not know this for sure. In any event, there is a homomorphism $`Q𝐙/2`$ which does not factor through a homomorphism $`Q𝐙`$.

The elements of $`_2`$ pull back via the short-circuit map to equivalence classes in $`P_5`$, the equivalence being given by left multiplication by $`H_2^T`$ and right multiplication by $`H_2^B`$. Denote by $`p_{i,j}`$ the standard generators of $`P_5`$. The generators of $`H_2^T`$ and $`H_2^B`$ may be chosen as below (see ):

| $`H_2^T\text{}`$ | $`p_{2,3}`$ | $`p_{4,5}`$ | $`p_{1,2}p_{1,3}`$ | $`p_{1,4}p_{1,5}`$ | $`p_{2,4}p_{2,5}`$ | $`p_{3,4}p_{3,5}`$ | $`p_{2,4}p_{3,4}`$ | $`p_{2,5}p_{3,5}`$ |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| $`H_2^B\text{}`$ | $`p_{1,2}`$ | $`p_{3,4}`$ | $`p_{1,3}p_{2,3}`$ | $`p_{1,4}p_{2,4}`$ | $`p_{1,5}p_{2,5}`$ | $`p_{1,3}p_{1,4}`$ | $`p_{2,3}p_{2,4}`$ | $`p_{3,5}p_{4,5}`$ |

The linear extension of the short-circuit map sends $`𝐙P_5`$ to $`𝐙`$-linear combinations of elements of $`_2`$ and knots with $`7`$ singularities are the image of $`I^7𝐙P_5`$ under this extension. (Here $`I`$ denotes the augmentation ideal of $`𝐙P_5`$.) We thus take $`Q`$ to be the quotient of $`𝐙P_5/I^7`$ by the action of $`H_2^T`$ on the left and $`H_2^B`$ on the right.

Let $`q_{i,j}=p_{i,j}1`$. We call a product of $`m`$ elements from the set $`\{q_{1,2},q_{1,3},\mathrm{}q_{4,5}\}`$ a monomial of degree $`m`$. Let $`S`$ be the set of monomials of degree less than 7. The set $`S`$ generates $`𝐙P_5/I^7`$ (as a $`𝐙`$-module), subject to relations inherited from those among the $`p_{i,j}`$ in $`P_5`$. The simplest type of relation among the $`p_{i,j}`$ is a commutation relation. For example, $`p_{1,2}p_{3,4}=p_{3,4}p_{1,2}`$. This translates to $`q_{1,2}q_{3,4}=q_{3,4}q_{1,2}`$. This relation must then be multiplied on the left and on the right by all pairs of monomials, the sum of whose degrees is less than $`5`$, to obtain part of the total list of relations in a presentation of $`𝐙P_5/I^7`$. There are 10 commutation relations in $`P_5`$, and each generates a similar sublist of the relations of $`𝐙P_5/I^7`$.

Another type of pure braid relation is a three-strand relation, for example $`p_{1,2}p_{1,3}p_{2,3}=p_{1,3}p_{2,3}p_{1,2}`$. There are 20 such relations in $`P_5`$. This particular one translates to $`(q_{1,2}+1)(q_{1,3}+1)(q_{2,3}+1)=(q_{1,3}+1)(q_{2,3}+1)(q_{1,2}+1)`$, or $`q_{1,2}q_{1,3}q_{2,3}+q_{1,2}q_{1,3}+q_{1,2}q_{2,3}=q_{1,3}q_{2,3}q_{1,2}+q_{1,3}q_{1,2}+q_{2,3}q_{1,2}`$. The lowest-order terms of such relations are the familiar 4T braid relations.

The last type of pure braid relation is a four-strand relation. There are five of these in $`P_5`$, for example $`p_{1,3}p_{3,4}^1p_{2,4}p_{3,4}=p_{3,4}^1p_{2,4}p_{3,4}p_{1,3}`$. Here things are complicated by the presence of inverses of the $`p_{i,j}`$. We write $`p_{3,4}^1=_{i=0}^6(1)^iq_{3,4}^i`$ (since we are working modulo $`I^7`$). Our four-strand relation then expands to

$$0=q_{1,3}q_{2,4}q_{2,4}q_{1,3}$$

$$+q_{1,3}q_{2,4}q_{3,4}q_{1,3}q_{3,4}q_{2,4}q_{2,4}q_{3,4}q_{1,3}+q_{3,4}q_{2,4}q_{1,3}$$

$$q_{1,3}q_{3,4}q_{2,4}q_{3,4}+q_{1,3}q_{3,4}q_{3,4}q_{2,4}+q_{3,4}q_{2,4}q_{3,4}q_{1,3}q_{3,4}q_{3,4}q_{2,4}q_{1,3}$$

$$+q_{1,3}q_{3,4}q_{3,4}q_{2,4}q_{3,4}q_{1,3}q_{3,4}q_{3,4}q_{3,4}q_{2,4}q_{3,4}q_{3,4}q_{2,4}q_{3,4}q_{1,3}+q_{3,4}q_{3,4}q_{3,4}q_{2,4}q_{1,3}$$

$`q_{1,3}q_{3,4}q_{3,4}q_{3,4}q_{2,4}q_{3,4}+q_{1,3}q_{3,4}q_{3,4}q_{3,4}q_{3,4}q_{2,4}`$

$`+q_{3,4}q_{3,4}q_{3,4}q_{2,4}q_{3,4}q_{1,3}q_{3,4}q_{3,4}q_{3,4}q_{3,4}q_{2,4}q_{1,3}`$

The lowest-order terms of such relations are the same as commutation relations. As with the commutation relations, each three-strand and four-strand relation must be multiplied on the left and right by pairs of monomials, ignoring of course those terms of degree greater than $`6`$.

Then we must consider the relations generated by the action of $`H_2^T`$ and of $`H_2^B`$. Multiplying a braid on the left by $`p_{2,3}`$, for example, does not change the Morse knot represented. This translates to any element of $`S`$ which begins with $`q_{2,3}`$ being equal to $`0`$. Similarly, any element of $`S`$ which begins with $`q_{4,5}`$ or ends with $`q_{1,2}`$ or $`q_{3,4}`$ is also $`0`$. We may call such relations topological framing independence relations. Multiplying on the left by $`p_{1,2}p_{1,3}`$ doesn’t change the Morse knot represented, and this implies all relations in $`Q`$ of the form $`q_{1,2}x+q_{1,3}x+q_{1,2}q_{1,3}x=0`$, where $`x`$ is a monomial of degree less than $`5`$. There are five more such relations from $`H_2^T`$ and six from $`H_2^B`$. We may call such relations topological strand exchange relations.

We have now described all the relations we need for a presentation of $`Q`$. However, the set $`S`$ has $`1,111,111`$ elements, and rather than attempt to solve over this many unknowns, we consider the set $`TS`$ of all monomials which are generated by the set $`\{q_{1,5},q_{2,5},q_{3,5},q_{4,5}\}`$, and moreover which begin with either $`q_{1,5}`$ $`q_{3,5}`$ and end with either $`q_{2,5}`$ or $`q_{4,5}`$. There are $`1365=1+0+4+16+64+256+1024`$ (breaking it down by degree) elements of $`T`$. We describe briefly an algorithm for writing any element of $`S`$ as a linear ($`𝐙`$-linear, as always in this section) combination of elements of $`T`$.

Given a monomial $`x`$, we first replace it with a linear combination of monomials which do not contain $`q_{1,2}`$. If $`q_{1,2}`$ occurs at the end of $`x`$, then $`x=0`$, and we are done. If $`q_{1,2}`$ occurs in the middle of $`x`$, then there exists a commutation relation or a three-strand relation which moves $`q_{1,2}`$ closer to the end of $`x`$ at the expense of adding several more linear terms, each of which is either of higher degree than $`x`$ or contains one fewer occurences of $`q_{1,2}`$. For example, $`q_{1,2}`$ moves past $`q_{3,4}`$ with a commutation relation and past $`q_{2,3}`$ with a three-strand relation. We may then proceed inductively to eliminate all occurences of $`q_{1,2}`$.

The next step is to eliminate $`q_{1,3}`$ and $`q_{2,3}`$. Both of these may be moved toward the end of a monomial $`x`$ by a process similar to that just described. Four-strand relations may now be necessary, for example to move $`q_{1,3}`$ past $`q_{2,4}`$. One has to be careful not to reintroduce $`q_{1,2}`$, or at least to raise the degree of the monomial if it is introduced, but this is always possible.

If $`q_{1,3}`$ occurs at the end of $`x`$, then a topological strand exchange will change it to $`q_{1,4}`$ (a similar exchange will turn $`q_{2,3}`$ to $`q_{2,4}`$), introducing an extra term whose degree is one greater than that of $`x`$. Similarly, $`q_{i,4}`$ may be moved toward the beginning of $`x`$, and then exchanged for $`q_{i,5}`$. Now all the $`q_{i,j}`$ occuring in the linear expansion of $`x`$ so far have $`j=5`$. Any monomial which begins with $`q_{4,5}`$ is $`0`$, and any monomial which begins with $`q_{2,5}`$ may be exchanged for one which begins with $`q_{3,5}`$. Topological strand exchanges may also be employed to ensure that $`x`$ ends in $`q_{2,5}`$ or $`q_{4,5}`$.

We took all the relations—commutation, three-strand, four-strand, and topological strand exchange and framing independence—and applied the above algorithm to write each one as a linear combination of elements of $`T`$. This was the most time-consuming part of the calculation, taking several days using compiled C code on a 300 MHz processor. It was not unusual for a single monomial in $`S`$ to require several hundred million iterations of the algorithm to resolve it into a linear combination of monomials in $`T`$. What we did was overkill, of course, since many of the relations that we processed were accounted for by being used in the algorithm. In fact, most of the relations came out to be trivial in the end, though there still remained several hundred thousand nontrivial relations in the 1365 variables.

Exact rational solution of these equations did not seem feasible, so we solved these equations modulo various primes. For every prime we tried except $`2`$, the dimension of the solution space was $`19`$. For $`2`$, the dimension was $`20`$. Thus we obtain $`Q=𝐙^{19}\times X`$, as noted above. The reason we know that $`𝐙^{19}`$ is really $`𝐙^{19}`$, and not $`19`$ factors of the form $`𝐙/P`$ for various large numbers $`P`$ divisible by many small primes, is that $`19=1+0+1+1+3+4+9`$, and these numbers are the dimensions of the spaces of rational Vassiliev invariants (of isotopy). Moreover, we verified in our calculations that the map $`𝒜_{6,2}𝒜_6`$ described in Section 3 is an epimorphism.

To investigate what happens when a knot is reversed, we generated all the relations of the form “$`x`$ equals its reverse”, where $`xS`$. (The reverse of Morse knot is obtained by rotating the braid presenting it $`180^{}`$ in the plane, and this rotation induces an obvious involution on the set $`S`$.) We processed these relations with the same algorithm to obtain relations among the elements of $`T`$. When we added these relations to all the previous ones, the dimension of the solution space was $`19`$ for all primes, including $`2`$, thus indicating that the mod $`2`$ invariant which we had found sometimes detects the difference between a knot and its reverse.

We note that there are various modifications of the algorithm described. It is possible, for example, to avoid using the framing independence relation at all. One must add monomials that begin with $`q_{4,5}`$ to the set $`T`$, and instead of pushing $`q_{1,2}`$ to the end of a monomial $`x`$, as described above, one pushes it to the beginning and exchanges it for $`q_{1,3}q_{1,2}q_{1,3}`$. We attempted to run this version of the algorithm, but (in degree six) it was taking many times as long as the version described above, and so we gave up.


text:
# Cross Section for 𝒃 Jet Production in 𝒑̄𝒑 Collisions at √𝒔="1.8 TeV"

## Abstract

Bottom quark production in $`\overline{𝒑}𝒑`$ collisions at $`\sqrt{𝒔}\mathbf{=}\mathbf{1.8}`$ TeV is studied with 5 pb-1 of data collected in 1995 by the DØ detector at the Fermilab Tevatron Collider. The differential production cross section for $`𝒃`$ jets in the central rapidity region ($`\mathbf{|}𝒚^𝒃\mathbf{|}\mathbf{<}\mathrm{𝟏}`$) as a function of jet transverse energy is extracted from a muon-tagged jet sample. Within experimental and theoretical uncertainties, DØ results are found to be higher than, but compatible with, next-to-leading-order QCD predictions.

Measurements of the bottom-quark production cross section at $`\overline{𝒑}𝒑`$ colliders provide an important quantitative test of quantum chromodynamics (QCD). The mass of the $`𝒃`$ quark is considered large enough ($`𝒎_𝒃\mathbf{}𝚲_{\mathrm{𝐐𝐂𝐃}}`$) to justify perturbative expansions in the strong coupling constant $`𝜶_𝒔`$. Consequently, data on $`𝒃`$ quark production are expected to be adequately described by calculations at next-to-leading order (NLO) in $`𝜶_𝒔`$.

Past measurements of inclusive $`𝒃`$ quark production in the central rapidity region, at center-of-mass energies $`\sqrt{𝒔}\mathbf{=}\mathbf{0.63}`$ TeV  and $`\sqrt{𝒔}\mathbf{=}\mathbf{1.8}`$ TeV , indicate a general agreement in shape with the calculated transverse momentum ($`𝒑_𝑻`$) spectrum, but are systematically higher than the NLO QCD predictions by roughly a factor of 2.5. More recently, a measurement using muons at high rapidity  ($`\mathbf{2.4}\mathbf{<}\mathbf{|}𝒚^𝝁\mathbf{|}\mathbf{<}\mathbf{3.2}`$) to tag $`𝒃`$ quarks, indicates an even larger excess of observed cross section over theory. The measured differential production cross section for $`𝑩`$ mesons  is similarly higher than the NLO QCD prediction. Calculations of higher order corrections  have shown that additional enhancements to the cross section beyond NLO are likely. However, the expected enhancements fall short of accounting for the observed discrepancy between theory and data. This longstanding mismatch has motivated continuous theoretical and experimental effort dedicated to reduce uncertainties in general, and to broaden the scope of observable quantities .

Previous studies of $`𝒃`$ quark production by the DØ collaboration have exploited the kinematic relationship between $`𝒃`$ quarks and daughter (semileptonic decay) muons to extract integrated $`𝒃`$ quark production rates as a function of $`𝒑_𝑻^𝒃`$ threshold , and have examined azimuthal correlations between the $`𝒃`$ and $`\overline{𝒃}`$ in pair production .

The present study is a complementary measurement of $`𝒃`$ production, based primarily on calorimetry, with the main focus being on $`𝒃`$ jets rather than $`𝒃`$ quarks. $`𝒃`$ jets are defined as hadronic jets carrying $`𝒃`$ flavor. As opposed to quarks, jets are directly observable and therefore reduce model dependence when comparing experimental data with theory. This measurement is in direct correspondence with a NLO QCD calculation  that highlights the advantages of considering $`𝒃`$ jets rather than open $`𝒃`$ quarks. For instance, large logarithms that appear at all orders in the open quark calculation (due to hard collinear gluons) are avoided when all fragmentation modes are integrated.

The differential production cross section of $`𝒃`$ jets as a function of the jet transverse energy ($`𝑬_𝑻`$) has been measured using data collected during 1995 with the DØ detector at the Fermilab Tevatron Collider. The data correspond to an integrated luminosity of $`\mathbf{(}\mathbf{5.2}\mathbf{\pm }\mathbf{0.3}\mathbf{)}`$ pb-1. The analysis exploits the semileptonic decays of $`𝒃`$ hadrons which result in a muon associated with a jet. An inclusive sample of muon-tagged jets is selected from a trigger requiring a jet and a muon, and the $`𝒃`$ jet component of the inclusive sample is extracted, based on the properties expected of the associated muon and jet.

The DØ detector and trigger system are described elsewhere. Jet detection utilizes primarily the uranium-liquid argon calorimeters, which have full coverage for pseudorapidity  $`\mathbf{|}𝜼\mathbf{|}\mathbf{}\mathrm{𝟒}`$, and are segmented into towers of $`𝚫𝜼\mathbf{\times }𝚫\mathit{\varphi }\mathbf{=}\mathbf{0.1}\mathbf{\times }\mathbf{0.1}`$, where $`\mathit{\varphi }`$ is the azimuthal angle. The relative energy resolution for jets is approximately 80% /$`\sqrt{𝑬\mathbf{(}\mathrm{𝐆𝐞𝐕}\mathbf{)}}`$. The central muon system consists of three layers of proportional drift tubes and a magnetized iron toroid located between the first two layers. The muon detectors provide a measurement of the muon momentum with a resolution parameterized by $`𝜹\mathbf{(}\mathrm{𝟏}\mathbf{/}𝒑\mathbf{)}\mathbf{=}\mathbf{0.18}\mathbf{(}𝒑\mathbf{}\mathrm{𝟐}\mathbf{)}\mathbf{/}𝒑^\mathrm{𝟐}\mathbf{}\mathbf{0.003}`$, with $`𝒑`$ in GeV/$`𝒄`$. The total thickness of the calorimeter and toroid in the central region varies from 13 to 15 interaction lengths, which reduces the hadronic punchthrough for the muon system to less than 0.5% of muons from all sources.

Initial event selection used a trigger requiring (i) $`𝑬_𝑻\mathbf{>}`$ 10 GeV in at least one calorimeter trigger tile of $`𝚫𝜼\mathbf{\times }𝚫\mathit{\varphi }\mathbf{=}\mathbf{0.8}\mathbf{\times }\mathbf{1.6}`$, (ii) at least one muon candidate with $`𝒑_𝑻\mathbf{>}`$ 3 GeV/$`𝒄`$, and (iii) a single $`\overline{𝒑}𝒑`$ interaction per beam crossing as signaled by the trigger scintillation hodoscopes.

Jet candidates were reconstructed offline with an iterative fixed-cone algorithm (cone radius of 0.7 in $`𝜼`$-$`\mathit{\varphi }`$ space) and then subjected to quality selection criteria to eliminate background from isolated noisy calorimeter cells and accelerator beam losses which may mimic jets. Accepted jets were required to have $`𝑬_𝑻\mathbf{>}\mathrm{𝟐𝟓}`$ GeV, $`\mathbf{|}𝜼\mathbf{|}\mathbf{<}\mathbf{0.6}`$, and an associated muon within the reconstruction cone.

Offline muon selection required the triggered track to originate from the reconstructed event vertex, with $`𝒑_𝑻^𝝁\mathbf{>}\mathrm{𝟔}`$ GeV/$`𝒄`$ and $`\mathbf{|}𝜼^𝝁\mathbf{|}\mathbf{<}\mathbf{0.8}`$. Muon candidates in the azimuth region $`\mathrm{𝟖𝟎}^{\mathbf{}}\mathbf{<}\mathit{\varphi }^𝝁\mathbf{<}\mathrm{𝟏𝟏𝟎}^{\mathbf{}}`$ were excluded due to poor chamber efficiencies near where the Main Ring beam pipe passes through DØ.

Background events from cosmic ray muons were eliminated by requiring a 10 ns wide time coincidence of muon tracks with beam crossings. About 30,000 events were selected, of which less than 0.5% have either a second muon-tagged jet or a double-tagged one. This is in agreement with expectations from muon cuts and acceptance, branching fractions, and flavor content of the sample.

The differential $`𝒃`$ jet cross section as a function of jet $`𝑬_𝑻`$ is extracted from the inclusive tagged jet sample as

$$\frac{𝒅𝝈}{𝒅𝑬_𝑻^{𝒃\mathrm{𝐉𝐞𝐭}}}\mathbf{=}\frac{𝑼\mathbf{(}𝑬_𝑻\mathbf{)}𝑭_𝒃\mathbf{(}𝑬_𝑻\mathbf{)}}{\mathrm{𝟐}𝑩𝓛_{\mathrm{𝐢𝐧𝐭}}\mathit{ϵ}^{𝝁𝑱}\mathbf{(}𝒑_𝑻^𝝁\mathbf{,}𝑬_𝑻\mathbf{)}𝑨\mathbf{(}𝑬_𝑻\mathbf{)}}\frac{𝚫𝑵^{𝝁𝑱}}{𝚫𝑬_𝑻}$$
(1)
where $`𝚫𝑵^{𝝁𝑱}\mathbf{/}𝚫𝑬_𝑻`$ represents the inclusive tagged jet counts per transverse energy bin-width, $`𝑭_𝒃\mathbf{(}𝑬_𝑻\mathbf{)}`$ is the fraction of tagged jets containing muons from $`𝒃`$ quark decays, $`\mathit{ϵ}^{𝝁𝑱}\mathbf{(}𝒑_𝑻^𝝁\mathbf{,}𝑬_𝑻\mathbf{)}`$ is the event detection efficiency of a $`𝝁\mathbf{+}`$jet pair, $`𝑼\mathbf{(}𝑬_𝑻\mathbf{)}`$ corrects for spectrum smearing from jet energy resolution, $`𝑨\mathbf{(}𝑬_𝑻\mathbf{)}`$ corrects for the muon tagging acceptance, $`𝓛_{\mathrm{𝐢𝐧𝐭}}`$ is the integrated luminosity of the data sample, and $`𝑩\mathbf{=}\mathbf{0.108}\mathbf{\pm }\mathbf{0.005}`$ is the branching fraction for inclusive decays $`𝒃\mathbf{}𝝁\mathbf{+}𝑿`$ . Tagging muons of both charges are counted, and the number of events is divided by two. The cross section is determined for the $`\mathbf{(}𝒃\mathbf{+}\overline{𝒃}\mathbf{)}\mathbf{/}\mathrm{𝟐}`$ combination. In Eq. 1 and throughout this paper, $`𝑬_𝑻`$ represents the calorimeter-only component of the jet transverse energy: it excludes the tagging muon and associated neutrino. Once the correction for the lepton energy is included (see below), then $`𝑬_𝑻^{𝒃\mathrm{𝐉𝐞𝐭}}`$ measures the complete $`𝒃`$ jet.

The trigger and offline reconstruction efficiencies were determined from Monte Carlo events, and crosschecked with appropriate control samples of collider data. Monte Carlo events were generated with ISAJET , followed by a GEANT  simulation of the DØ detector response, trigger simulation, and reconstruction. The overall muon geometric acceptance multiplied by efficiency increases from 35% at $`𝒑_𝑻^𝝁\mathbf{=}`$ 6 GeV/$`𝒄`$ to a plateau of 45% above 10 GeV/$`𝒄`$. The overall jet efficiency increases from 85% at $`𝑬_𝑻\mathbf{=}`$ 25 GeV to a plateau of 97% above 45 GeV.

The transverse energy of each jet was corrected for the underlying event, additional interactions, noise from uranium decay, the fraction of particle energy showered outside the jet cone, detector uniformity, and detector hadronic response . The steeply falling $`𝑬_𝑻`$ spectrum is distorted by jet energy resolution, and was corrected as described in .

In addition to $`𝒃`$ production, muon-tagged jets can also arise from semileptonic decays of $`𝒄`$ quarks, and in-flight decays of $`𝝅`$ or $`𝑲`$ mesons. Muons from Drell-Yan or on-shell $`𝑾\mathbf{/}𝒁`$ boson production are not expected to have associated jets, and Monte Carlo estimates confirm a negligible contribution. The background from light flavors is suppressed using the transverse momentum of the muon relative to the associated jet axis ($`𝒑_𝑻^{\mathrm{𝐫𝐞𝐥}}`$) as discriminator. The higher mass of the decaying $`𝒃`$ quark generates a rather different $`𝒑_𝑻^{\mathrm{𝐫𝐞𝐥}}`$ distribution than obtained from quark decays of lighter flavor.

Individual $`𝒑_𝑻^{\mathrm{𝐫𝐞𝐥}}`$ distributions for $`𝒃`$, $`𝒄`$, and $`𝝅\mathbf{/}𝑲`$ decays were modeled using the ISAJET  Monte Carlo, with individual samples of each flavor processed through complete detector, trigger, and offline simulation. Due to the similarity of $`𝒑_𝑻^{\mathrm{𝐫𝐞𝐥}}`$ for $`𝒄`$ and $`𝝅\mathbf{/}𝑲`$ sources, within resolution these distributions were indistinguishable. The $`𝒃`$ jet signal was extracted on a statistical basis, through maximum likelihood fits to the observed $`𝒑_𝑻^{\mathrm{𝐫𝐞𝐥}}`$ distribution. The normalizations of Monte Carlo templates representing light ($`𝒄`$ and $`𝝅\mathbf{/}𝑲`$) and heavy ($`𝒃`$) quark decay patterns were floated such as to fit the observed $`𝒑_𝑻^{\mathrm{𝐫𝐞𝐥}}`$ spectra in four ranges of transverse energy. The extracted fraction of $`𝒃`$ jets in each $`𝑬_𝑻`$ range is shown in Fig. 1. The systematic uncertainties were estimated by varying within errors the input distributions to the maximum likelihood fits.

The parameterization of the overall fraction of $`𝒃`$ jets in the inclusive sample as a function of jet $`𝑬_𝑻`$ was obtained from a two-parameter fit ($`𝝌^\mathrm{𝟐}\mathbf{=}\mathbf{0.96}`$) to the four bins in $`𝑬_𝑻`$, and is shown in Fig. 1, together with the uncertainty band (6% relative uncertainty at 30 GeV, 39% at 100 GeV). The form $`\mathbf{(}𝜶\mathbf{+}𝜷\mathbf{/}𝑬_𝑻^\mathrm{𝟐}\mathbf{)}`$ was chosen after Monte Carlo fit trials. There are partial bin-to-bin correlations in the uncertainty. The extracted $`𝒃`$ fraction is the dominant source of uncertainty in the cross section. The upper reach in $`𝒃`$ jet $`𝑬_𝑻`$ is limited by the deteriorating discrimination power of $`𝒑_𝑻^{\mathrm{𝐫𝐞𝐥}}`$ with increasing $`𝑬_𝑻`$.

Corrections for acceptance loss stem from (i) the tagging threshold for muon $`𝒑_𝑻`$ and range of pseudorapidity, (ii) the muon-jet association (tag) criterion, (iii) the undetected lepton energy of the jet, which is added (statistically) to the hadronic $`𝑬_𝑻`$ registered in the calorimeter, and (iv) the restricted pseudorapidity range for jets and muons (theory considers $`𝒃`$ jets with $`\mathbf{|}𝜼\mathbf{|}\mathbf{<}\mathrm{𝟏}`$).

The acceptance correction is extracted using the ISAJET  Monte Carlo simulation, and is defined as the ratio of $`𝒃`$ jets satisfying the analysis conditions to $`𝒃`$ jets satisfying the cross section definition. The transition from $`𝑬_𝑻`$ to $`𝑬_𝑻^{𝒃\mathrm{𝐉𝐞𝐭}}`$ is thus included in the correction. The simulated $`𝑬_𝑻`$ and $`𝜼`$ distributions are in agreement with the data. The overall correction increases from 6% at $`𝑬_𝑻\mathbf{=}`$ 30 GeV to 10% at 100 GeV. It is independent of assumed event production rates, and is affected primarily by models for fragmentation and decay. Decays are based on the QQ decay package  from the CLEO experiment. ISAJET uses the Peterson fragmentation model , with a parameter $`\mathit{ϵ}\mathbf{=}\mathbf{0.006}`$ that is varied by $`\mathbf{\pm }\mathrm{𝟓𝟎}\mathbf{\%}`$ to estimate uncertainty. It is observed that the impact of fragmentation on the acceptance is mainly due to the migration of tagging muons across the minimum-$`𝒑_𝑻`$ boundary. This uncertainty propagates to the cross section as a 9% effect independent of jet $`𝑬_𝑻`$.

The resulting $`𝒃`$ jet cross section for $`\mathbf{|}𝜼\mathbf{|}\mathbf{<}\mathrm{𝟏}`$ is shown in Fig. 2, together with the NLO QCD prediction . Inputs to this calculation are the renormalization scale (chosen equal to the factorization scale), the $`𝒃`$ quark pole mass (4.75 GeV/$`𝒄^\mathrm{𝟐}`$), the parton distribution function (MRSA), and the parton clustering algorithm. The uncertainty in theory is dominated by the QCD renormalization scale dependence, with the central value in Fig. 2 chosen as $`𝝁_\mathrm{𝟎}\mathbf{=}\mathbf{(}𝑬_𝑻^\mathrm{𝟐}\mathbf{+}𝑴_𝒃^\mathrm{𝟐}\mathbf{)}^{\mathrm{𝟏}\mathbf{/}\mathrm{𝟐}}`$, and varied between $`\mathrm{𝟐}𝝁_\mathrm{𝟎}`$ (lower curve) and $`𝝁_\mathrm{𝟎}\mathbf{/}\mathrm{𝟐}`$. The fact that there is such a strong dependence on scale suggests that important higher-order terms in the calculation are still missing.

The overall systematic uncertainty in the cross section has contributions from the integrated luminosity (5%), trigger (3%) and offline selection (4%) efficiencies, jet $`𝑬_𝑻`$ scale (15%–8%) and resolution effects (7%–3%), tagging acceptance (9%–12%), and the extracted $`𝒃`$ fraction of jets (6%–39%). Bin-to-bin errors are fully correlated for all sources of uncertainty, except for partial correlations in the $`𝒃`$ fraction of jets. Cross section values and overall uncertainties, as plotted in Fig. 2, are listed in Table I.

Figure 2 displays the same general pattern of past $`𝒃`$ production measurements , with data lying above the central values of the prediction, but comparatively less so in the present case, where general agreement between measurement and the upper band of the theoretical uncertainty is observed.

To connect the present measurement with previous findings, and in particular the apparent difference in normalization with respect to theory, the present data sample (muon-tagged jets) can be re-analyzed from a different perspective. Instead of focusing on the differential $`𝒃`$ jets cross section, the same data can be used to reproduce the integrated $`𝒃`$ quark cross section as a function of minimum $`𝒑_𝑻^𝒃`$. Similar measurements are described in Refs.  and . The kinematic relationship between daughter muons ($`𝒑_𝑻^𝝁`$ spectrum) and parent $`𝒃`$ quarks ($`𝒑_𝑻^𝒃`$ spectrum) is used to extract the $`𝒃`$ quark production cross section, integrated from $`𝒑_𝑻^{\mathrm{𝐦𝐢𝐧}}`$ to infinity, and over the rapidity range $`\mathbf{|}𝒚^𝒃\mathbf{|}\mathbf{<}\mathrm{𝟏}`$. Here $`𝒑_𝑻^{\mathrm{𝐦𝐢𝐧}}`$ is defined as the allowed $`𝒑_𝑻^𝒃`$ threshold for a given $`𝒑_𝑻^𝝁`$ distribution. Since the $`𝒃`$ quark signal fraction increases with muon $`𝒑_𝑻`$ (decreases with jet $`𝑬_𝑻`$), $`𝒃`$ tagging based on $`𝒑_𝑻^{\mathrm{𝐫𝐞𝐥}}`$ as a function of $`𝒑_𝑻^𝝁`$ is more precise than as a function of jet $`𝑬_𝑻`$. The model dependence, introduced in the conversion of the muon $`𝒑_𝑻`$ spectrum to the integrated $`𝒃`$ quark spectrum, dominates the uncertainty in this measurement.

The results of this re-analysis are shown in Fig. 3 (triangles) along with the theoretical expectation  and the previous DØ  results. Consistency among all measurements is evident. The present analysis extends significantly the $`𝒑_𝑻^𝒃`$ reach of the previous measurements. This is due to the requirement of jets in the trigger and offline selection, as opposed to requiring just muon triggers. The jet requirement naturally forces the sample into a higher region of $`𝒑_𝑻^𝒃`$. Figure 3 shows that the agreement between data and theory improves somewhat at higher $`𝒑_𝑻^𝒃`$.

In conclusion, two distinct measurements of $`𝒃`$ quark production in a previously unexplored region of larger transverse momenta have been presented, and are found to be compatible with the NLO QCD calculation for heavy-flavor production. Agreement between data and theory, unsatisfactory for previous measurements, is now observed to improve at higher transverse momenta.

We thank the staffs at Fermilab and at collaborating institutions for contributions to this work, and acknowledge support from the Department of Energy and National Science Foundation (USA), Commissariat à L’Energie Atomique and CNRS/Institut National de Physique Nucléaire et de Physique des Particules (France), Ministry for Science and Technology and Ministry for Atomic Energy (Russia), CAPES and CNPq (Brazil), Departments of Atomic Energy and Science and Education (India), Colciencias (Colombia), CONACyT (Mexico), Ministry of Education and KOSEF (Korea), CONICET and UBACyT (Argentina), A.P. Sloan Foundation, and the A. von Humboldt Foundation.