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# Supernovae and the IGM

## 1. Introduction

Observations of both cool and hot intergalactic gas make it clear that heavy elements are by no means confined to galaxies.

Larson (1974) predicted that late in the galaxy formation process, galactic winds would carry heavy elements out into intergalactic space. Soon afterwards X-ray spectra of intracluster gas confirmed that the gas was quite metal-rich. In recent years observations of absorption lines in QSO spectra have elucidated the impact of supernovae on the diffuser gas that is found in the field, at least at high redshift. These observations imply that, from a redshift $`>3`$ onwards, there does not seem to be a parcel of gas that has not felt the impact of spernovae, probably mediated by galactic winds.

While the ubiquity of the products of supernovae is beyond doubt, many aspects of the interaction of supernovae and intergalactic gas are highly uncertain. Outstanding questions include: (i) in what types of galaxy were intergalactic metals manufactured? (ii) which type of supernova (core-collapse or Ia) has been most important, and at what epoch? (iii) how important have supernovae been for the entropy budget of intergalactic gas?

## 2. Winds from spiral galaxies

Most of the luminosity in the Universe comes from spiral galaxies like the Milky Way. Do such galaxies blow SN-driven winds?

Studies of the local ISM show that a significant fraction of the pressure in the ISM comes from cosmic-rays and the magnetic field. Supernovae and fast stellar winds are the main energy sources of the ISM, so the dynamical importance of cosmic rays and magnetic fields suggests that a significant fraction of the kinetic energy which these objects pump into the ISM is chanelled into cosmic rays and magnetic fields. Hence, assuming there to be $`3`$ supernova per century, the cosmic-ray reservoir is being energized at a rate $`10^{44}/3\times 10^93\times 10^{34}\mathrm{W}`$. How does this power, which could build up the observed interstellar pressure within a disk $`8\mathrm{kpc}`$ in radius and $`200\mathrm{pc}`$ thick within $`10^5\mathrm{y}`$, manifest itself?

The local cosmic-ray energy spectrum is such that the energy is overwhelmingly contained in only mildly relativistic particles. Such particles have enormous lifetimes because they are too fast to suffer much Coulomb scattering and too slow to produce significant synchrotron radiation – which explains why the non-thermal radio luminosity of galaxies like the Milky Way is $`10^{30}\mathrm{W}`$ (Condon 1992). Hence, the energy imparted by spernovae cannot be radiated either directly or by transfer to thermal particles, and is not simply building up within the disk. So it must drive expansion of the cosmic-ray plasma: the Milky Way must be blowing a wind that is working on the local IGM at a rate $`3\times 10^{34}\mathrm{W}`$.

What volume within the Local Group would this wind have filled to the present epoch? There are two ways of answering this question. If the wind were expanding into a vacuum, it would expand at $`200\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$ and extend to $`3\mathrm{Mpc}`$ in a Hubble time. This gives us an upper limit on the radius of influence of an $`L_{}`$ galaxy. A lower limit comes from assuming that the extragalactic baryons that are required by primordial nucleosynthesis theory were once distributed in galactic halos like dark matter, and the SN-driven wind raised its temperature by of order the virial temperature. We assume that $`\mathrm{\Omega }_b0.02`$ and $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{\mathrm{DM}}0.3`$, so with baryons following dark matter in a singular-isothermal halo of circular speed $`v_c`$, the baryonic mass interior to radius $`r`$ is given by $`M_b(r)=(\mathrm{\Omega }_b/\mathrm{\Omega }_{\mathrm{DM}})(v_c^2/G)r`$. Equating the energy required to heat this material by the virial temperature to the time-integral of the SN-power, we find111By the Tully–Fisher relation, $`E_{\mathrm{SN}}v_c^4`$, so $`r_{\mathrm{min}}`$ is independent of $`v_c`$.

$$r_{\mathrm{min}}\frac{\mathrm{\Omega }_{\mathrm{DM}}}{\mathrm{\Omega }_b}\frac{GE_{\mathrm{SN}}}{v_c^4}180\mathrm{kpc}.$$
(1)
We see that even the present supernova rate within the Milky Way would impact the IGM out to near the mid point to M31, and in reality the SN rate has almost certainly been substantially larger in the past.

Recently, Tripp, Savage & Jenkins (2000) have suggested that O5+ absorption in quasar spectra points to a major reservoir of baryons in warm ($`10^510^6`$K) gas in galaxy groups. As Pen (1999) points out, the thermal energy of this gas cannot derive from gravity alone: without non-gravitational heating it would be so clumpy that its soft X-ray emission would violate the constraint imposed by the unresolved component of the X-ray background. It is tempting to conclude that galactic winds provide the required heat source (see below).

## 3. Supernovae in galaxy clusters

The most compelling evidence for the impact of supernovae comes from rich clusters of galaxies. Arnaud et al (1992) show that for these objects gas mass and $`V`$-band luminosity are highly correlated – $`M_{\mathrm{gas}}L_V^{1.9\pm 0.3}`$. At least in part the steepness of this correlation will arise for two reasons. First, more luminous clusters tend to have higher frations of early-type galaxies, which have lower $`L_V`$ per unit stellar mass, $`M_{}`$. Second, lower-luminosity clusters are less likely to attract infall, and more likely to suffer outflow of gas – Renzini (1997) finds that systems with temperature in excess of $`3\mathrm{keV}`$ do not lose gas. Arnaud et al. note that $`M_{\mathrm{gas}}`$ is as tightly correlated with the luminosity from E and S0 galaxies as with total luminosity: $`M_{\mathrm{gas}}L_{V,\mathrm{E}+\mathrm{S0}}^{1.5\pm 0.25}`$ and argue that the exponent in this relation can be taken to be unity, so that with $`M/L_V`$ for early type galaxies set to $`\mathrm{{\rm Y}}_{\mathrm{E}+\mathrm{S0}}=7\mathrm{M}_{}/L_{}`$,

$$\text{constant}\frac{M_{\mathrm{gas}}}{M_{}}5.1\pm 0.7.$$
(2)
From the fact that $`M_{\mathrm{gas}}/M_{}>1`$ it is clear that much of the IGM has never been in a galaxy.

While the bulk of the gas may be primordial, the heavy elements in it are most certainly not. With $`\mathrm{{\rm Y}}_{\mathrm{E}+\mathrm{S0}}=7\mathrm{M}_{}/L_{}`$ the estimate of Arnaud et al. (1992) becomes

$$\frac{M_{\mathrm{Fe}}}{M_{}}(2.9\pm 0.6)\times 10^3,$$
(3)
while Renzini (1997) finds that for clusters hotter than $`2\mathrm{keV}`$ $`M_{\mathrm{Fe}}/L_B(0.02\pm 0.01)\mathrm{M}_{}/L_{}`$ independent of cluster temperature. Again adopting $`\mathrm{{\rm Y}}_{\mathrm{E}+\mathrm{S0}}=7\mathrm{M}_{}/L_{}`$, Renzini’s value of the Fe abundance becomes

$$\frac{M_{\mathrm{Fe}}}{M_{}}(2.5\pm 1.5)\times 10^3.$$
(4)
The IGM-abundances of several $`\alpha `$-elements, O, Ne, Mg, and especially Si, have been determined for many clusters (Mushotzky et al. 1996). When meteoric rather than solar-photospheric abundances are used as a point of reference, the IGM proves to be only mildly $`\alpha `$-enhanced – by a factor $`1.5`$ relative to solar (Brighenti & Mathews, 1999).

What does nucleosynthesis theory have to say about these mass fractions? The picture is confused by uncertainties in the yields of Fe and to a certain extent Si, from core-collapse SNe, and the rates (current and past) of type Ia SNe.

A key input into nucleosynthetic theory is the initial mass function (IMF). I shall assume that for $`M>\mathrm{M}_{}`$ this is of Salpeter’s form, since there is now significant evidence that the IMF is universal (which is surprising) and lies near Salpeter’s form at larger masses. In particular, recent work based on Hipparcos parallaxes (Binney, Dehnen & Bertelli, 2000) does not support the contention of Scalo (1986) that the local IMF is steeper than Salpeter at $`M>\mathrm{M}_{}`$, while Kennicut, Tamblyn & Congdon (1994) argue that measurements of H$`\alpha `$ fluxes from external disks rule out a steep IMF.

For a Salpeter IMF extending between $`100`$ and $`0.08\mathrm{M}_{}`$ we expect 0.0068 core-collapse SNe per M of star formation, and $`1/3`$ of the initial stellar mass would by now have been returned to the ISM. The average core-collapse SN is expected to inject $`(0.10.14)\mathrm{M}_{}`$ of Si and $`(0.070.14)\mathrm{M}_{}`$ of Fe into the ISM (Gibson, Loewenstein & Mushotzky, 1997), so from core-collapse SNe we expect $`7.8\times 10^4M_0=1.1\times 10^3M_{}`$ of Si and $`7.1\times 10^4M_0=1.0\times 10^3M_{}`$ of Fe, where $`M_0M_{}/0.7`$ is the mass in stars before the onset of mass loss.

These masses fall short of those observed \[eqs (3 and (4)\] by a factor of order 2. The calculation ignores the existence of intergalactic stars (Mendez et al., 1996), but it also ignores the retention of heavy elements within galaxies. In practice these two omissions will roughly cancel, and a more elaborate calculation would leave us significantly short of heavy elements.

The resolution of this shortfall is controversial. Some argue for a flatter than Salpeter IMF (David, 1997; Gibson et al., 1997). Others argue that the missing heavies were produced by type Ia supernovae (Renzini et al., 1993; Ishimaru & Arimoto, 1997) – after all more than half of the Fe in the solar neighbourhood is thought to come from type Ia SNe. A type Ia SN injects $`0.16\mathrm{M}_{}`$ of Si and $`0.74\mathrm{M}_{}`$ of Fe into the ISM (Thielemann, Nomoto & Hashimoto, 1993), so these objects inject four times as much Fe as Si, whereas core-collapse SNe inject at least as much Si as Fe. Consequently, the observed ratio of Si to Fe masses in the IGM ($`0.8`$) constrains the importance of type Ia SNe. The big problem with imposing this constraint at the present time is uncertainty in the ratio of mean yields of Si and Fe from core-collapse suprnovae: if as, is perfectly plausible, core-collapse supernovae produce significantly less Fe than Si, one will need a good number of type Ia SNe to bring the overall ratio $`M(\text{Si})/M(\text{Fe})`$ down to $`0.8`$ as observed.

The current rate of type Ia SNe can in principle be determined in two ways: (i) direct observation (with still depressingly uncertain results), and (ii) from models of isolated elliptical galaxies, which require the heating rate to decline towards the current epoch in such a way that galaxies of appropriate luminosity and ambient IGM pressure are now suffering cooling catastrophes in increasing numbers (Loewenstein & Mathews, 1987; Ciotti et al., 1991; Binney & Tabor, 1995). The rates in times past, which will surely differ from the present one, are well-nigh impossible to determine or predict.

## 4. SNe and the entropy of the IGM

If rich clusters were fashioned by gravity alone, they should evolve self-similarly. Kaiser (1991) pointed out that it is then almost inevitable that there should be more X-ray luminous clusters in the past than now. This conclusion follows because the luminosity of an individual cluster scales as the product $`M\rho `$ of mass times density, and with $`n`$ the usual spectral index of the primoridial fluctuations, $`M(1+z)^{6/(n+3)}=(1+z)^3`$ for $`n=1`$, while $`\rho (1+z)^3`$, so the characteristic luminosity will be roughly independent of $`z`$. The number density of freshly collapsed objects will, on the other hand, be much higher at high $`z`$. Hence there should have been many more luminous clusters in the past, in contradiction with observation.

The obvious way of suppressing the X-ray luminosities of early clusters is to have them form from preheated gas, which will either not be trapped by early potential wells, or will be trapped at lower density than in the unheated case. Kaiser estimates the entropy boost required by observing that the gas density at the core of a rich cluster is about $`10^3`$ times the current mean density, or the mean density at $`z=9`$. So we could get the gas onto the required adiabat by heating it to current cluster temperatures $`10^{7.5}`$K at $`z=9`$. Alternatively, we could heat it to $`[(1+z)/10]^210^{7.5}`$K at redshift $`z>3`$.

Pen’s lower limit on the entropy of gas in groups that was discussed above implies a similar energy budget. The current maximum density of the gas is only an order-of-magnitude greater than the current cosmic mean density, so two order of magnitude smaller than the maximum density of cluster gas, and the temperature would be at $`10^{6.5}`$K an order-of magnitude lower than the temperature of cluster gas. So the gas would be on a slightly higher adiabat. On the other hand, it could be put onto that adiabat rather later and therefore at a smaller cost in energy.

Do SNe provide the requisite energy? The energy release per cosmic baryon is

$$\frac{E_{\mathrm{SN}}M_{\mathrm{Fe}}}{n_BM_{\mathrm{gas}}y_{\mathrm{Fe}}},$$
(5)
where $`n_B`$ is the number of baryons per unit mass, $`E_{\mathrm{SN}}`$ is the energy and $`y_{\mathrm{Fe}}`$ is the mass of iron produced by a single SN. Since core-collapse SNe produce the least Fe per unit energy, we will maximize the energy release per Fe nucleus synthesized if we assume that type Ia SNe are unimportant. Using equations (2) and (4) to evaluate equation (5) under this assumption, and then equating the result to the thermal energy per baryon, $`\frac{3}{2}kT/\mu `$, of a plasma of molecular weight $`\mu 0.6`$, we find the plasma temperature to be

$$T=\frac{2\mu }{3k}\frac{E_{\mathrm{SN}}}{n_By_{\mathrm{Fe}}}\frac{M_{\mathrm{Fe}}}{M_{\mathrm{gas}}}1.1\times 10^7\text{K}.$$
(6)
This is clearly an upper limit on the achievable temperature because it is assumes core-collapse SNe to be dominant while ignoring radiative losses, which are liable to be significant for many core-collapse SNe, because they tend to go off in dense gas clouds. My judgment is that the enegy budget is too tight, even if we assume that the gas is heated as late as $`z=2`$, but others may disagree. AGN are strong candidates for providing the energy if SNe cannot do the job (Begelman, this volume).

## 5. Discussion

As one moves down the mass scale through virial temperatures below $`2\mathrm{keV}`$, the ratio of gas mass to stellar mass declines (Renzini, 1997).

One interpretation of this result is (Binney, 1980; Whitmore, Gilmore & Jones, 1993) that intracluster gas is the material from which disks are formed in the field, and that its early enrichment to $`0.3Z_{}`$ by early-type galaxies is the counterpart of the pre-enrichment of the Galactic disk by the bulge, which Ostriker & Thuan (1975) argued is the correct solution of the G-dwarf problem. Whereas in rich clusters late-infalling, high angular-momentum gas was shocked to the virial temperature before it could form an accretion disk around a spheroid, in systems like the Local Group disks did form, and the floor metallicity, $`0.3Z_{}`$, mirrors the current metallicity of intracluster gas. In this picture, the declining fraction of mass in the IGM as one moves to poorer and poorer clusters simply reflects the fact that a larger and larger fraction of the original IGM has settled into disks.

The argument I have given that star-forming $`L_{}`$ galaxies blow powerful winds suggests that all $`L_{}`$ galaxies, cluster and field alike, lose most of their heavy elements into deep space. If this is so, conventional galaxy evolution models require substantial revision. Moreover, in this picture overwhelming quantities of metal-enriched baryons are stored in deep space. More than one tentative line of argument now suggests that this is indeed the case. Within a few years we will probably know for sure.

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# A physical model for the hard X-ray background

## 1 INTRODUCTION

Since the discovery of the cosmic X-ray background (XRB) by Giacconi et al. (1962), almost every class of astronomical X-ray source has at some stage been invoked to account for it. The present consensus is that it represents the emission from active galactic nuclei (AGN) integrated over cosmic time; in the soft 0.5–2.0 keV band, deep ROSAT surveys have established that the bulk of it is due to broad line AGN i.e. quasars and Seyfert 1 galaxies (Hasinger et al. 1998; Schmidt et al. 1998), but the situation in the harder 2–10 keV band is quite different. No more than 30 per cent of it was resolved by the ASCA and BeppoSAX satellites, with the optical identifications being a mixture of quasars and narrow emission-line galaxies (Boyle et al. 1998, Ueda et al. 1999 and Akiyama et al. 2000; Fiore et al. 1999). Since the realisation by Setti & Woltjer (1989) that the flat spectrum of the 2–10 keV XRB implies considerable absorption in most objects, many workers have constructed AGN synthesis models to account for the remainder of the hard XRB (see e.g. Madau, Ghisellini & Fabian 1994; Comastri et al. 1995; Wilman & Fabian 1999). Fabian & Iwasawa (1999) emphasised the importance of the XRB as a probe of the cosmological evolution of the black hole population, by demonstrating that the XRB sources plausibly account for all of the accretion power in the Universe and that most of it is intrinsically absorbed.

With the advent of the Chandra and XMM telescopes, the predictions of these models for the 2–10 keV source counts below fluxes of $`10^{14}`$$`\mathrm{erg}\mathrm{cm}^2\mathrm{s}^1`$ are now being tested. Mushotzky et al. (2000) recently reported the results of an extremely deep Chandra observation with which they determined the source counts down to $`4\times 10^{15}`$$`\mathrm{erg}\mathrm{cm}^2\mathrm{s}^1`$ and thereby resolved essentially all of the XRB in this band (see also Brandt et al. 2000). But their optical follow-up campaign identified two new classes of object: (1) optically ‘faint’ objects ($`I23`$ mag) which may be either the first quasars at very high redshifts or dust enshrouded AGN at redshifts $`z>2`$; (2) point-like hard X-ray sources in the nuclei of apparently ‘normal’ bright galaxies showing no other signs of activity. In a related vein, Fabian et al. (2000) cross-correlated Chandra fields containing faint serendipitous sources with SCUBA sub-millimetre observations of the same lensing cluster fields; only one source is common to both datasets, suggesting that if the SCUBA sources do host powerful AGN, they must either contribute a small fraction of the sub-mm power, or be Compton-thick with X-ray scattering fractions of less than 1 per cent. This result was confirmed by Hornschemeier et al. (2000), who detected none of the 10 sub-mm sources in and around the Hubble Deep Field North in a 166-ks Chandra exposure. We stress, however, that Chandra has so far resolved the bulk of the XRB in the 2–7 keV band, which is mainly due to Compton-thin sources; forthcoming deep surveys with XMM will shed light on the more heavily obscured sources which are likely to contribute up to 15 keV, but the bulk of the energy density of the XRB at $`30`$ keV– which is likely to be dominated by Compton-thick sources– will not be resolved until Constellation-X is in flight (see e.g. Valinia et al. 1999).

The findings of Mushotzky et al. (2000) and Fabian et al. (2000) demonstrate that the newly-discovered XRB sources may be quite different from established classes of AGN, such as the quasars and, at low redshift, the Seyfert galaxies. Indeed, Fabian (1999) has argued that the new XRB sources represent the hitherto unobserved phase associated with the major growth of massive black holes, whereas classical (optically-selected) quasars and Seyfert galaxies represent a later, transient phase during which the black hole acquires little additional mass. In his model for the formation of galactic bulges and central black holes, young spheroidal galaxies have a significant distributed component of cold dusty clouds which leads to absorption of X-rays from the accreting black hole. The accretion is terminated by wind-driven gas expulsion when the mass of the black hole reaches a critical fraction of that in the surrounding spheroid (see also Silk & Rees 1998), thereby accounting for the observed correlation between the mass of the remnant black hole and its host spheroid (Magorrian et al. 1998; Van der Marel 1999). Following expulsion, the object shines briefly as an optically-selected quasar.

In this paper, we incorporate Fabian’s (1999) model for the obscured growth of massive black holes into the semi-analytic model for galaxy formation and quasar fuelling developed by Nulsen & Fabian (1997, 2000) (hereafter NF97 and NF00). The result is a physical model for the XRB which works forward in cosmic time from the epoch when the first massive bound objects were forming, in contrast to the aforementioned synthesis models which start with the locally observed AGN luminosity functions and extrapolate them back to earlier epochs. We assume that quasars are fuelled by Bondi accretion from the dense, hot cooling atmospheres which form around collapsing objects about the size of normal galaxies. Earlier attempts to incorporate AGN into the framework of semi-analytic models were made by Kauffmann & Haehnelt (2000) and Cattaneo (2000), but they assumed that black holes are fed by cold gas during major galaxy mergers and they did not use the XRB as a constraint.

## 2 DESCRIPTION OF THE MODEL

We use the semi-analytic galaxy formation model and associated scheme for quasar fuelling developed by NF97 and NF00, the salient features of which we outline here.

### 2.1 Galaxy formation

The Cole & Kaiser (1988) block model is used to simulate the hierarchical growth of clustering, while the behaviour of the gas in collapsed regions is simulated using the model of Nulsen & Fabian (1995). In short, the gas in the collapsed halo is split into two regions, according to the value of $`\tau =t_{\mathrm{cool}}/t_{\mathrm{grav}}`$, the ratio of the cooling time of the gas to its free-fall time to the centre of the halo. Within a radius $`R=R_{\mathrm{CF}}`$ where $`\tau <1`$, the gas cools rapidly and forms stars. Any gas at $`R>R_{\mathrm{CF}}`$ has $`\tau >1`$ and is assumed to participate in a cooling flow (Fabian 1994). Collapses with and without the cooling flow atmosphere are identified as normal galaxies and dwarf galaxies, respectively.

The burst of star formation in $`R<R_{\mathrm{CF}}`$ leads quickly to supernovae, which can expel some or all of the remaining gas from the system; some gas is always expelled from dwarf galaxies, and in normal protogalaxies hot gas which is not ejected is heated and enriched by the supernovae. A normal galaxy is a spiral galaxy if the hot gas cools completely before the present or the next hierarchical collapse, otherwise it is an elliptical galaxy. Any collapse with at most one infalling normal galaxy forms a normal galaxy, so that dwarf galaxies are assumed to be destroyed in a collapse, with their stars contributing to the spheroid of the resulting system. A system containing more than one normal galaxy is assumed to form a group or cluster, as mergers between normal galaxies are ignored. Any collapse that is followed less than one dynamical time later by further collapse is ignored.

We use an open CDM cosmology, with $`H_0=50`$$`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1\mathrm{Mpc}^1`$, density parameter $`\mathrm{\Omega }=0.3`$, baryon density parameter $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{b}=0.075`$ and $`\sigma _8=1`$.

### 2.2 Quasars: fuelling, obscuration and demise

NF00 proposed that quasars are formed and fed largely by the accretion of hot gas from the atmospheres which form around normal galaxies. They showed that if such an atmosphere forms a nearly “maximal” cooling flow, then a central black hole can accrete at close to its Eddington limit, leading to the exponential growth of a seed black hole. They also incorporated this model into the above semi-analytic galaxy formation model, which we adopt here with some modifications.

Each of the smallest block model units has a mass of $`1.5\times 10^{10}`$$`\mathrm{M}_{}`$, and contains at its centre a seed black hole of mass $`M_{\mathrm{h}(\mathrm{seed})}`$. When a block collapses, the black holes associated with all merging sub-blocks are assumed to merge into a single black hole. The resulting nuclear black hole grows exponentially by Bondi accretion from the cooling flow, on the timescale given by eqn. (8) of NF00. Whilst accreting in this manner, the black hole is assumed to radiate with an accretion efficiency of 10 per cent (i.e. $`L_{\mathrm{Bol}}=0.1\dot{M_h}c^2`$, $`\dot{M_h}`$ being the accretion rate), with an intrinsic 2–10 keV luminosity equal to 3 per cent of the bolometric one (as deduced from the work of Elvis et al. 1994). The intrinsic spectrum is taken to be a power-law of photon index $`\mathrm{\Gamma }=1.9`$, with an exponential cut-off at $`E_\mathrm{c}=360\mathrm{keV}`$; for objects with $`L(210\mathrm{keV})<10^{44}`$$`\mathrm{erg}\mathrm{s}^1`$, we added to this a component reflected from a cold accretion disc subtending $`2\pi \mathrm{sr}`$ at the source, for a fixed inclination angle of $`60^{}`$. More powerful objects (i.e. quasars, rather than Seyfert galaxies) are not observed to exhibit such reflection components, perhaps because the accretion disc is ionized (see Reeves & Turner 2000 and references therein).

The above intrinsic spectrum is then absorbed by the cold, dusty clouds deposited by the cooling flow, as suggested by Fabian (1999). He showed that for a density distribution of cooled gas $`\rho r^2`$, the column density presented by such material exterior to a radius $`r_{\mathrm{in}}`$ is given by:

$$N_\mathrm{H}=\frac{v^2f}{2\pi Gm_\mathrm{p}r_{\mathrm{in}}}$$
(1)
where $`f`$ is the mass fraction in cold clouds and $`v`$ the line of sight velocity dispersion of the isothermal spheroid. For $`r_{\mathrm{in}}`$ we take the radius $`r_\mathrm{x}`$ at which the Bondi solution takes over from the cooling flow, given by NF00 as:

$$r_\mathrm{x}=\frac{GM_\mathrm{h}}{2s_\mathrm{i}^2_\mathrm{i}^{1/2}}$$
(2)
where $`M_\mathrm{h}`$ is the mass of the black hole, $`_\mathrm{i}`$ the Mach number of the cooling flow and $`s_\mathrm{i}`$ the adiabatic sound speed at large $`r`$. Within $`r_\mathrm{x}`$ the flow comes under the influence of the black hole and the flow time (in to the black hole) becomes negligible compared with the cooling time of the gas, so there is effectively no further cooling. Using eqns. (1) and (2), $`s_\mathrm{i}^2=2\gamma v^2`$ for an isothermal cooling flow (hereafter CF) (with $`\gamma =5/3`$), the normalization adopted by Fabian (1999) for the Faber-Jackson relation between $`v`$ and the mass of the host spheroid $`M_{\mathrm{sph}}`$ ($`v^4`$), and a hydrogen mass fraction of $`X=0.75`$, we find the following expression linking the obscuring column density to the instantaneous mass of the accreting black hole, $`M_\mathrm{h}`$:

$$N_\mathrm{H}=0.042f_\mathrm{i}^{1/2}\frac{M_{\mathrm{sph}}}{M_\mathrm{h}}N_\mathrm{T}$$
(3)
where the time dependence of $`_\mathrm{i}`$ may be taken from eqn. (12) of NF00 and $`1/N_\mathrm{T}=8.07\times 10^{25}`$cm2 is the Thomson electron scattering cross-section per hydrogen atom. The obscuration therefore diminishes as the black hole grows. We make use of the Monte Carlo simulations of Wilman & Fabian (1999) to compute the X-ray spectrum transmitted through a sphere of absorbing material of thickness $`N_\mathrm{H}`$. Both photoelectric absorption from neutral material and Compton down-scattering are modelled, the latter being described by the Klein-Nishina cross-section. We use an iron abundance of 5 times the solar value, after Wilman & Fabian (1999) demonstrated that this leads to better fits to the XRB spectrum and creates additional parameter space. The value of $`M_{\mathrm{sph}}`$ used in eqn. (3) is fixed prior to the onset of the accretion – i.e. we neglect any contribution from baryonic dark matter deposited by the cooling flow during the accretion.

There are three ways in which the growth of the black hole can be arrested: (i) exhaustion of the hot gas supply; (ii) participation in a new collapse; (iii) the black hole mass could reach a critical fraction of that of the surrounding spheroid, such that the wind which it drives is able to expel the remaining gas, as proposed by Fabian (1999). He showed that for reasonable wind parameters, this can be made to happen when $`M_\mathrm{h}=M_{\mathrm{h}(\mathrm{crit})}=0.005M_{\mathrm{sph}}`$, in agreement with the findings of Magorrian et al. (1998) from the demographics of remnant supermassive black holes in nearby galaxies. Moreover, the model predicts that $`M_\mathrm{h}v^4`$, in accord with the recent findings of Gebhardt et al. (2000). Following this expulsion, the black hole is assumed to shine as an unobscured, optically-selected, quasar for a time $`\mathrm{\Delta }t_{\mathrm{qso}}`$ (or until the next collapse if that happens sooner), with a constant luminosity equal to that immediately prior to expulsion. Unlike NF00, we do not assume that objects make a transition to an advection dominated (ADAF) phase when the accretion rate drops below a critical value.

In the next section we investigate the consequences of the model for the X-ray background and the quasar population, but before doing so we point out its deficiencies. Firstly, the Cole & Kaiser (1988) block has the drawback that halo masses always grow in discrete steps by factors of 2. As Somerville & Kolatt (1999) mention, this is problematic for semi-analytic galaxy formation modelling where one would like to follow individual systems with higher resolution; they propose a merger tree formalism which overcomes this and other difficulties, but for simplicity we do not use it here. There are also complications in the fuelling and obscuration model, related to the effect of the cold clouds on the structure of the CF. These depend upon whether the cold clouds rapidly decouple from the flow (as assumed here and in NF00) or remain tied to it, by e.g. magnetic fields (see e.g. Nulsen 1986). In the latter case, the cold clouds increase the total gas density but it is the hot phase alone which provides the pressure to support the flow against gravity and maintain approximate hydrostatic equilibrium; as a result, the accretion rate can be significantly higher than that given by eqn. (A9) of NF00. Our parameterisation of the obscuration in terms of a constant $`f`$, the mass fraction in cold clouds, is also quite simplistic. In practice $`f`$ is likely to be a function of time, with the obscuration being determined by a competition between the amount of cold material deposited by the CF and the position of the black hole accretion radius ($`M_\mathrm{h}`$; see eqn. (2)). Such non-trivial refinements to the model will be addressed in a later paper, but for now it is sufficient to note that our current treatment is likely to be accurate at the most important time, during the last black hole doubling time when the quasar is at its most powerful and the obscuration smallest (i.e. immediately prior to expulsion).

## 3 RESULTS

To demonstrate that the model works satisfactorily, we present results for a run comprising 60 iterations of the block model with the following parameter values: $`M_{\mathrm{h}(\mathrm{seed})}=1.6\times 10^6`$$`\mathrm{M}_{}`$, $`f=0.37`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }t_{\mathrm{qso}}=9\times 10^7`$ yr. At present, we leave $`M_{\mathrm{h}(\mathrm{crit})}/M_{\mathrm{sph}}`$ at the Magorrian et al. (1998) value of 0.005, despite more recent work suggesting that the true figure may be closer to 0.003 (see e.g. van der Marel 1999). With the exception of $`\mathrm{\Delta }t_{\mathrm{qso}}`$ (see discussion in section 4), the numerical values of these parameters accord well with those suggested by Fabian (1999).

Fig. 1 shows the XRB spectrum generated by this model. The soft excess below 4 keV can easily be removed by the introduction of some moderate absorption ($`N_\mathrm{H}10^{2223}`$$`\mathrm{cm}^2`$) into the spectra of some of the (currently unobscured) objects: e.g. the figure demonstrates that this can be effected by obscuring 70 per cent of the unobscured sources by $`N_\mathrm{H}=10^{22.75}`$$`\mathrm{cm}^2`$ (for all luminosities). Wind expulsion is likely to be a gradual and/or anisotropic process, with the quasar passing through an intermediate phase between the extremes of being Compton-thick and totally unobscured, as discussed in section 4.

Fig. 2 shows the 2–10 keV luminosity functions (XLFs) generated by the model. Those at $`z1`$ are compared with the $`z=0`$ AGN XLF deduced by Boyle et al. (1998) from a combination of ASCA and HEAO-A1 data (but for a $`q_0=0.5`$ cosmology). The double-peaked structure of the XLFs at $`z1`$ (which is most pronounced at $`z=0.2`$ where there are no objects at $`L_\mathrm{X}10^{41.5}`$$`\mathrm{erg}\mathrm{s}^1`$) is due to the separate contributions of the unobscured and obscured objects at high and low luminosities, respectively. As discussed in section 4, at all epochs most of the obscured objects are Compton-thick with $`N_\mathrm{H}3N_\mathrm{T}`$, from which there is very little transmitted flux in the observed 2–10 keV band for low redshift objects; at the higher redshifts in the lower panel of Fig. 2, a favourable negative K-correction applies to the observed 2–10 keV flux of a moderately Compton-thick source (as discussed by Wilman & Fabian 1999), such that the contributions of the obscured and unobscured AGN overlap in luminosity. There is some scope for adjusting the form of the XLF at $`z1`$ by introducing some scattered flux into the spectra of the obscured objects (of which there is at present none).

Our model fails, however, to produce enough of the high luminosity objects with $`L_\mathrm{X}>10^{45}`$$`\mathrm{erg}\mathrm{s}^1`$. Such objects would not contribute significantly to the XRB, but we speculate that they could be fuelled by mergers between normal galaxies, which the model in its current form does not treat (see section 4). In addition, systems with two or more normal galaxies represent groups and clusters in which the intragroup or intracluster medium can increase the fuelling rate (especially if Compton feedback occurs; Fabian & Crawford 1990). Concerning evolution, Boyle et al. (1998) parameterized it with pure luminosity evolution of the form $`(1+z)^k`$ for $`z2`$, with $`k2`$, but our model appears to show some density evolution out to $`z=2`$. Fig. 3 demonstrates more readily how the population evolves, by showing the co-moving densities of the obscured and unobscured objects as functions of redshift, broken down according to the 2–10 keV luminosity in the unabsorbed rest-frame. Two features are immediately apparent: the first is that the co-moving density of luminous ($`L_\mathrm{X}>10^{44}`$$`\mathrm{erg}\mathrm{s}^1`$) unobscured AGN (which we identify with optically-selected quasars) increases by more than two orders of magnitude between the present epoch and $`z=2`$, mirroring the observed evolution of the quasar luminosity function (its observed behaviour beyond $`z3`$ remains controversial: see Miyaji et al. 2000, Schmidt et al. 1995 and Shaver et al. 1999 for perspectives at X-ray, optical and radio wavelengths, respectively); secondly, we also see how low luminosity active nuclei become greatly more abundant towards the present epoch, and we tentatively identify these objects with the Seyfert galaxies.

In Fig. 4 we compare the 2–10 keV source counts generated by our model with those observed. These include some Chandra results from Mushotzky et al. (2000), which probe down to almost $`10^{15}`$$`\mathrm{erg}\mathrm{cm}^2\mathrm{s}^1`$ and essentially resolve the background flux in this band.

As a further constraint, we calculate some limits on the contribution of our sources to the far-infrared and sub-millimetre backgrounds. The obscured objects alone make a (bolometric) contribution of 2.3 nW m-2 sr-1, a figure which rises to 3.8 nW m-2 sr-1 if the unobscured quasars are also included (but the SEDs of the latter objects peak in the optical/UV, not the far-infrared). These figures compare favourably with other XRB-based estimates of the AGN contribution to the far-infrared and sub-millimetre backgrounds made by Almaini et al. (1999) and Fabian & Iwasawa (1999), and with the empirical constraints of McMahon et al. (1999).

## 4 DISCUSSION

Having demonstrated that the model agrees satisfactorily with the observational data, we look more closely at its internal workings. A feature which distinguishes it from other semi-analytic models is that mergers between normal galaxies are not considered. To gauge how serious an omission this is, we list in Table 1 the fraction of haloes collapsing at different epochs which contain more than one normal galaxy and in which our model permits no further black hole growth. In computing these averages, note that we exclude systems from which supernovae have expelled the remaining gas (i.e. mainly dwarf galaxies where the black hole masses are just a few times the seed mass). Whilst the fraction of haloes with multiple normal galaxies is relatively small, the table also shows that such haloes contain, on average, significantly more massive black holes than isolated systems. This is because the black holes in the former haloes have in general already undergone one accretion episode taking them close to the Magorrian threshold (where $`M_{\mathrm{BH}}=0.005M_{\mathrm{sph}}`$), whilst most of the black holes in isolated systems are in newly-formed normal galaxies with black hole masses up to a factor of 5 below the Magorrian threshold (as discussed later in this section and illustrated in Fig. 5). If considered, merger-driven accretion power – in which hot gas fuelling is supplemented by tidally-driven flows of cold gas towards the galactic nuclei – would thus become increasingly significant towards the present epoch. As the most massive black holes get incorporated into groups/clusters, mergers could potentially supply the highest luminosity systems ($`L_\mathrm{X}10^{45}`$$`\mathrm{erg}\mathrm{s}^1`$), of which there is a deficit when compared with observations (see Fig. 2).

In order to understand the different evolutionary behaviour of the high and low luminosity systems in Fig. 3, Table 2 provides some statistics on the black hole masses and accretion rates (in Eddington units) at various epochs, and on the relative importance of the different termination mechanisms for the obscured growth phase. It can be seen that, at all epochs, most black holes have masses close to $`10^8`$$`\mathrm{M}_{}`$ when the obscured Bondi accretion begins. Note that there is no accretion on to holes with $`M_\mathrm{h}<2.6\times 10^7`$$`\mathrm{M}_{}`$– at least 16 seed holes (or, equivalently, 16 of the smallest mass haloes) must merge before any accretion can begin. At earlier times black holes are mainly in low mass dwarf galaxies, which by definition lack a cooling flow atmosphere and from which supernovae have often expelled the remaining gas. An epoch-dependent black hole mass therefore does not account for the evolution in Fig. 3.

Fig. 5 shows Magorrian diagrams – plots of black hole versus spheroid mass – for the AGN in the simulation, at the beginning and the end of the obscured phase, demonstrating that black holes grow in mass by up to a factor of 5 during this phase. With reference to eqn. (3) for $`N_\mathrm{H}`$, we see that $`N_\mathrm{H}315N_\mathrm{T}`$ at the start of the obscured phase, diminishing to $`N_\mathrm{H}3N_\mathrm{T}`$ by its end. At every epoch, the majority of the obscured objects have $`N_\mathrm{H}3N_\mathrm{T}`$. The vertical banding of Fig. 5(a) reflects the discrete nature of the block model and could be mitigated by using seed black holes with a range of mass (e.g. drawn from a gaussian distribution). Decreasing (increasing) the seed hole mass results in the accreting hole reaching the expulsion threshold, $`M_{\mathrm{BH}}=0.005M_{\mathrm{spheroid}}`$, at a later (earlier) epoch, leading to a higher (lower) XRB. If the seed mass is made too large, all holes are above the expulsion threshold at formation and there is no accretion.

In contrast, the accretion rate is strongly epoch-dependent: at $`z<2.5`$ most black holes are fed at less than 10 per cent of the Eddington rate, and at $`z0.5`$ a significant proportion is fed at less than 1 per cent of the Eddington rate; at $`z2.5`$, however, most holes accrete at between 10 and 50 per cent of the Eddington rate. As pointed out by NF00, the physical mechanism for this evolution is apparent from equation (8) of NF00 for the black hole growth rate; the latter is in general maximised for the hottest collapses, and since the virial temperature of a halo of mass $`M`$ collapsing at time $`t_{\mathrm{coll}}`$ scales as $`(M/t_{\mathrm{coll}})^{2/3}`$, it follows that, for a given mass, the earliest collapses give the most growth. We conclude that the luminosity-dependent evolution of Fig. 3 is chiefly a reflection of an accretion rate which decreases strongly towards the present epoch, whilst the mass distribution of the accreting black holes depends far less strongly on redshift.

Although Table 2 shows that wind expulsion is the primary mechanism for terminating the obscured growth of the black holes, the scheme may require some modification from the simple form envisaged by Fabian (1999). He assumed that gas is ejected in a spherically symmetric manner, completely shutting off the black hole’s fuel supply and enabling it to shine as an optically-selected quasar for no more than $`10^6`$ years while the accretion disk empties. The lifetime of the unobscured quasar in our model is, however, $`\mathrm{\Delta }t_{\mathrm{qso}}=9\times 10^7`$ yr, and comparable to the length of the optically bright quasar phase required by other modellers (e.g. Kauffmann & Haehnelt 2000, Cattaneo 2000, Granato et al. 1999). If all the gas had been ejected, such a long accretion phase would be difficult to sustain unless the ejection were somehow anisotropic: ejection might for example occur along the hole’s rotation axis, leaving a torus of centrifugally-supported, accretable material in the plane of the accretion disk. Such a scenario may simultaneously address the problem of the excess soft XRB produced by the model, as alluded to in section 3. This torus will plausibly lead to moderate absorption in lines of sight passing through it, as in orientation-based AGN unification schemes (see Antonucci 1993 for a review). The number of sources with absorbed X-ray spectra and narrow optical emission lines, compared to those appearing as classical quasars will thus depend upon the solid angle subtended by the outflow (or, equivalently, on the ratio of the times spent in the ejection phase and quasar phase proper, in those cases where the gas expulsion is isotropic and ultimately complete). Note that even anisotropic ejection is likely to clear the spheroid of all hydrostatically-supported gas, leaving only that which is centrifugally supported. This means that the overall picture in which ejection ultimately terminates both black hole and spheroid growth is retained.

We can also compute the mechanical energy deposited by the AGN winds in the surrounding gas during the obscured growth phase. Averaging over all objects in the simulation and taking a wind power of the form $`L_\mathrm{W}=aL_{\mathrm{Edd}}`$ (where $`a`$ is constant), we find that the winds deposit a mean specific energy of $`1.4\times 10^{51}a`$ erg$`\mathrm{M}_{}`$-1 into the surrounding gas of their own haloes (assuming that all the wind power is absorbed). If instead the energy is distributed evenly among all the baryons in the Universe, the specific energy input is slightly lower at $`2.3\times 10^{50}a`$ erg$`\mathrm{M}_{}`$-1. For $`a0.1`$ (as suggested by Fabian 1999) these values are equivalent to $`40`$ and $`7`$ keV per particle (for fully ionized gas with cosmic abundances), respectively, and are thus more than capable of providing the excess specific energy of 1.8–3.0 keV per particle which Wu, Fabian & Nulsen (2000) find is required to break the self similarity of X-ray cluster properties and match the observed $`L_\mathrm{X}T`$ relation. That AGN winds may be important in this regard has been recognised by Ensslin et al. (1998), Wu et al. (2000) and Bower et al. (2000). A discussion of the impact of this energy release on the general (i.e. non-cluster) intergalactic medium is deferred to a later paper.

## 5 CONCLUSIONS

We have developed a physical model for the hard XRB which works forward in cosmic time from the epoch when the first massive bound objects were forming, by bringing together a semi-analytic galaxy formation model and prescriptions for the fuelling and obscuration of massive black holes. Quasars are assumed to be fuelled by hot gas from the cooling flow atmospheres which form around collapsing objects about the size of normal galaxies, and accretion is terminated by wind-driven gas expulsion when the mass of a black hole reaches 0.005 times that of its host spheroid (thereby forcing agreement with the findings of Magorrian et al. 1998). The model accounts quantitatively for the spectrum of the XRB and the source counts in the 2–10 keV band, and is compliant with current constraints on the AGN contribution to the far-IR and sub-mm backgrounds. Qualitatively at least, it also reproduces the dramatic decline in the co-moving density of luminous quasars since $`z=2`$. Our aim was merely to demonstrate that, with simple assumptions and reasonable values for the free parameters, many observations can be satisfactorily reproduced. A number of deficiencies in the model remain, such as our use of the relatively crude block model for hierarchical structure formation, and in the astrophysical details of the fuelling and obscuration via the cooling flow and its cold clouds (as mentioned in the final paragraph of section 2.2).

With its emphasis on hot gas fuelling and neglect of mergers between normal galaxies, our formalism may be considered orthogonal to that adopted by Cattaneo (2000) and Kauffmann & Haehnelt (2000), where quasars are fuelled by cold gas in major mergers with the host spheroid being formed in the process. It would clearly be of interest to construct a model which utilises elements from both approaches.

## ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

RJW acknowledges a PPARC Studentship and thanks Kelvin Wu for assistance during the early stages of this project. ACF thanks the Royal Society for support. We thank the referee, Gianni Zamorani, for a careful reading of the manuscript and constructive comments.


text:
# PMN J1838–3427: A new gravitationally lensed quasar1footnote 11footnote 1 Based on observations using the Very Large Array (VLA) and Very Long Baseline Array (VLBA) of the National Radio Astronomy Observatory (NRAO), the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope (HST), the 3.6m telescope of the European Southern Observatory (ESO) at La Silla, the du Pont telescope at Las Campanas Observatory (LCO), and the Australia Telescope Compact Array (ATCA). The NRAO is a facility of the National Science Foundation (NSF) operated under cooperative agreement by Associated Universities, Inc. The HST data were obtained from the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by AURA, Inc., under NASA contract NAS 5-26555. ATCA is part of the Australia Telescope which is funded by the Commonwealth of Australia for operation as a National Facility managed by CSIRO.

## 1 Introduction

The new double-image quasar presented in this paper is the first to result from a program that three of us (J.N.W., J.N.H., and P.L.S.) began to find new radio-loud gravitational lenses in the southern sky. Our main goal is to find suitable lenses for time-delay measurements. The time delays between the flux variations of the multiple images of a gravitationally lensed quasar can be used as a “one-step” measurement of the Hubble constant $`H_0`$ (Refsdal, 1964) or, more precisely, a combination of angular-diameter distances between the Earth, lens galaxy, and quasar (for recent reviews see Myers (1999); Williams & Schechter (1997)). In addition, the measured lensing rate in a well-defined sample of extragalactic sources places interesting limits on the cosmological constant (Fukugita et al. (1992); Kochanek (1996); Falco et al. (1998)).

Our search methodology will be described in a future paper; we confine ourselves here to a summary. We selected southern sources because the southern hemisphere is relatively unexplored for lenses and therefore more likely to contain bright and useful specimens. The southern limit is $`\delta =40\mathrm{°}`$ to permit the use of the NRAO Very Large Array (VLA) and Very Long Baseline Array (VLBA), instruments that facilitate the search.

We selected only sources with flat spectral indices ($`\alpha 0.5`$, where $`S_\nu \nu ^\alpha `$) as measured between the 4.85 GHz Parkes-MIT-NRAO catalog (Griffith & Wright, 1993) and the 1.4 GHz NRAO VLA Sky Survey (Condon et al., 1998, NVSS). Flat-spectrum sources tend to be core-dominated, and therefore variable (a prerequisite for measuring time delays), easily recognized when lensed, and easily mapped by an automatic procedure. In this respect our program is similar to the Cosmic Lens All-Sky Survey (CLASS; Myers et al. (1995)), a program that (after including the sample of the Jodrell-VLA Astrometric Survey, JVAS) has identified at least 15 new lenses among 15000 northern-hemisphere radio sources.

We observed each object for 30 seconds at 8.46 GHz with the VLA in its A configuration. Objects exhibiting multiple compact components (about 5% of the sample) were selected as lens candidates and scheduled for appropriate follow-up observations, including multifrequency VLA imaging, VLBA imaging, and optical imaging. The goal of the follow-up observations is to determine whether the components have similar spectral properties and surface brightnesses (as lensed images should) and to search for a lens galaxy.

For the particular case of PMN J1838–3427, the chronology of observations was as follows. The initial VLA image from 1998 May 19 contained two compact components separated by $`1\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}00`$. The most likely explanation for this morphology was a core-jet or core-hotspot structure. However, in ground-based images obtained during 1999 April 10-15, the optical counterpart was revealed to be a double with the same separation and position angle as the radio double, thereby suggesting PMN J1838–3427 was either a binary quasar or a gravitational lens.

On 1999 July 19, multifrequency observations with the VLA revealed that the spectral indices of the components were the same. This evidence favored the gravitational lens hypothesis, since lensing is achromatic. We used the VLBA on 1999 October 11 to search for matching milliarcsecond substructure within the radio components, which is characteristic (although not required) of lensed images. Both components were detected, but no matching substructure was seen.

On the strength of the evidence thus far, PMN J1838–3427 was included in the CfA-Arizona Space Telescope Lens Survey (CASTLES), an effort by seven of us (E.E.F., C.D.I., C.S.K., J.L., J.A.M., B.A.M., and H.-W.R.) to use the Hubble Space Telescope (HST) to observe all the known galaxy-scale gravitational lenses. The HST/WFPC2 image, obtained on 2000 March 1, revealed a diffuse light source between the quasar components which is naturally interpreted as a lens galaxy. This left no doubt that PMN J1838–3427 is a gravitationally lensed quasar.

We obtained optical spectra of the quasar and lens galaxy with the ESO 3.6m telescope at La Silla on 2000 March 4. This allowed us to measure the source redshift $`z=2.78`$ but our lens galaxy spectrum was inconclusive. Finally, in order to assess the radio variability of PMN J1838–3427 we measured its total flux at two frequencies with the Australia Telescope Compact Array (ATCA) on 2000 April 5.

Subsequent sections of this paper present these observations in logical rather than chronological order. Sections 2 through 4 present the radio properties of the system, as revealed by measurements with the VLA, VLBA, and ATCA. Sections 5 and 6 present space- and ground-based optical images, and § 7 presents optical spectra of the quasar and lens galaxy. We consider simple models of the lens potential in § 8. Finally, in the last section we review the evidence that PMN J1838–3427 is a gravitationally lensed quasar and discuss the prospects for measuring and interpreting the time delay between its lensed images.

## 2 VLA images

The date, frequency, resolution, and sensitivity of the VLA observations are listed in the first four rows of Table 1. In all cases the VLA was in its A configuration and the total observing bandwidth was 100 MHz. Radio source 3C286 was used to set the absolute flux scale, following the procedures suggested in the VLA Calibrator Manual and adopting flux densities 7.49, 5.52, and 3.42 Jy at 4.86, 8.46, and 14.94 GHz respectively. Calibration was performed with standard procedures in AIPS. Deconvolution and imaging were performed with Difmap (Shepherd et al., 1994). This included phase-only self-calibration with a 30-second solution interval. The final images, created with uniform weighting and an elliptical Gaussian restoring beam, are shown in Figure 1.

In each image there are two components. Throughout this paper we refer to the northern component of PMN J1838–3427 as A, and the southern component as B. To measure the separation and flux density ratio of A and B, we fit a two-component model to the self-calibrated visibilities using the “modelfit” utility of Difmap. After subtracting the best-fit model from the data, the residual images were all consistent with thermal noise.

The best-fit parameters are listed in Table 1. The flux density ratios are in rough agreement but are not equal within the quoted uncertainties. For a gravitational lens the ratios are expected to be approximately equal, but one reason to expect small discrepancies is variability of the background object (see § 9 for further discussion). Two-point spectral indices were computed for each component based on the 1999 July 19 observations. The results are listed in Table 2. Both components are verified to have flat radio spectra.

The coordinates of component A, based on the 1999 July 19 images, are R.A. (J2000)$`=18^\mathrm{h}38^\mathrm{m}28^\mathrm{s}.50`$, Dec. (J2000) $`=34\mathrm{°}27\mathrm{}41\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}6`$, within $`0\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}2`$.

## 3 VLBA image

We observed PMN J1838–3427 for 4 hours with the VLBA on 1999 October 11. The St. Croix and Brewster antennas were unavailable. The observing bandwidth was 48 MHz, divided into 8 IFs, with an average frequency of 4.975 GHz. The visibility averaging time was 1 second. This level of spectral and time sampling was sufficient to prevent significant bandwidth- and time-average smearing over the required field of view.

Calibration was performed with standard procedures in AIPS. Fringe fitting for sources with widely spaced components is problematic without a prior model of the source, because the source structure causes rapid time variation of the solutions. For this reason we used a two-step procedure. First, the data were fringe-fitted using a point source model and a 30-second solution interval. This allowed a preliminary image to be made, in which components A and B were both detected. Then, the calibration was redone by fringe-fitting with reference to a two-component model based on the preliminary image and a 3-minute solution interval. The final images were created with Difmap, after repeated iterations of model fitting and phase-only self-calibration.

The final uniformly-weighted images are shown in Figure 2. Both a wide-field map and close-ups of each component are displayed. Component B is unresolved. Component A is partially resolved; in addition to an unresolved component there is extended emission to the west, comprising about 10% of the total flux density.

A model for the surface brightness distribution was constructed with Difmap, by fitting a circular Gaussian to each compact component (which we continue to identify as A and B), and then using the Clean algorithm to account for the diffuse emission west of A with a large number of point sources. During the subsequent iterations of model-fitting and self-calibration, the Clean components were kept fixed and the circular Gaussian parameters were varied. The best-fit positions and flux densities of A and B are reported in the last entry of Table 1. The separation between the Gaussian components is 996.1 mas and the position angle is $`5\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}59`$ east of north. The total flux density of the diffuse emission is 16.7 mJy.

The flux density of B is the same in the VLBA and VLA images, but the flux density of A is 27% smaller in the VLBA image. As a result the VLBA flux density ratio (10.6) is smaller than the VLA ratios (which average 14.6). Even when the total flux density of the diffuse emission west of A is added to that of A, the VLBA ratio is only 11.8. One possible explanation is that the VLA image of A includes relatively diffuse flux that is missing from the VLBA image. The shortest VLBA baseline (236 km, or 4 M$`\lambda `$) is longer than the longest VLA baseline (35 km, or 0.6 M$`\lambda `$), so there is a range of spatial frequencies that are unresolved by the VLA and invisible to the VLBA. Another possibility to explain part or all of the discrepancy is that the source varied between observing epochs. Due to the time delay between components, source variability would cause fluctuations in the instantaneous flux density ratio.

Since PMN J1838–3427 is a gravitational lens, there should be radio emission east of B corresponding to the emission west of A. However, given the peak brightness of the emission west of A (2.5 mJy/beam) and the magnification ratio described above, one would expect the brightness of such emission to be at most 0.24 mJy/beam, which is not much higher than the RMS level of 0.18 mJy/beam. Confirmation of matching milliarcsecond substructure will require deeper imaging.

## 4 ATCA measurements

To test for variability we examined PMN J1838–3427 with the Australia Compact Telescope Array (ATCA) on 2000 April 5, observing simultaneously at 4.80 and 8.64 GHz while the array was in the 6D configuration. The observation was divided into three scans of one minute each, with 2 hours between scans to improve the $`uv`$-coverage. Calibration was performed with the software package MIRIAD, and imaging with Difmap. The absolute flux density scale was set by observations of PKS B1934–638, which is believed to match the 3C286-based flux scale within 3%.

The antenna spacings were not large enough to resolve the components, so we used the VLA models to fix the separation of the two components and varied their flux densities to achieve the best fit to the ATCA data. Since the individual flux densities are covariant we report only their sum in Table 3. The uncertainty was estimated as the quadrature sum of the range in total flux obtained by analyzing each one-minute scan separately, and a 3% uncertainty due to absolute flux calibration. Table 3 also lists other flux density measurements reported in this paper and in various published radio catalogs.

The total ATCA flux density at 4.80 GHz was the same as the most recent 4.86 GHz VLA measurement. However, the total flux density at 8.64 GHz was 44% higher than the most recent 8.46 GHz VLA measurement, indicating strong variability. (The expected difference due to spectral index alone is 0.6%, and the combined measurement uncertainty is 5%.) Variability at 8.46 GHz is corroborated by the 12% variation in total flux density observed between the two VLA measurements.

## 5 HST image

On 2000 March 1, three dithered exposures (700 sec, 700 sec, 600 sec) of PMN J1838–3427 were acquired during one HST orbit, using the Wide Field and Planetary Camera 2 (WFPC2) and the F814W filter. The data were reduced with the standard CASTLES pipeline: the exposures were registered, weighted by exposure time, and combined using a 3-sigma “ccdclip” rejection algorithm. (See Lehár et al. (2000) for other examples of two-image lenses observed in the CASTLES program.)

The upper left panel of figure 3 is a 3″$`\times `$ 3″ subraster of the final image. Components A and B are present with the same separation and position angle as the corresponding radio components. Crucially, the southern component is not compact. There is diffuse emission extending northward from B towards A, which is labeled G. The natural interpretation is that G is a lens galaxy: it lies along the line joining A and B, and its position near B is consistent with the large flux density ratio between A and B (see § 8 for simple models).

In addition, there is a third compact object $`0\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}28`$ southeast of A, labeled S. Object S is almost certainly not a third image of the background quasar, because it is silent in all our radio images. In particular, the 4.86 GHz image of 1999 July 19 requires S to be at least 200 times dimmer than A, whereas in the optical image it is about 8 times dimmer. Missing optical images can be plausibly explained by dust extinction (e.g. B1152+199; Myers et al. (1999)) but missing radio images defy simple explanation.

The low galactic latitude ($`b=12\mathrm{°}`$) of the field suggests that S is a foreground star. To estimate the a posteriori probability of a star intruding on the lens, we estimated the local mean density of stars by counting all the stars in the PC field (32″$`\times `$ 32″) that are at least as bright as S. Based on this mean density, the probability that at least one star would appear within $`0\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}5`$ of component A, component B, or the line joining them, is 5%. This is somewhat low but within reason.

To measure the relative positions and magnitudes of A, B, G, and S, we created parameterized models of the image using a twice-oversampled PSF created by TinyTim v4.4 (Krist & Hook, 1997). The models were fit to the data using the procedures of Lehár et al. (2000). The first model contained three point sources (representing A, B, and S) and a circular de Vaucouleurs profile (G). The residual image contained a diffuse pattern of residuals centered on component A with an integrated flux equal to 12% of the combined flux of A and S, suggesting that A is not adequately modeled by a point source. Possibly, the host galaxy of the background quasar and/or additional foreground objects are contributing light.

We tried accounting for this extra light with additional model components, such as a circular de Vaucouleurs profile, an elliptical de Vaucouleurs profile, and extra point sources. There is no compelling reason to recommend one of these models over the others, but we judged that the residuals appeared most random for a model with two extra point sources. We refer to these two extra point sources as p and q. The best-fit parameters of the model are listed in Table 4. Parameter uncertainties were estimated in the same manner as Lehár et al. (2000): three terms were added in quadrature, representing the statistical error in the fit, the range in parameters obtained with different choices of the model PSF, and the range obtained with two different modeling programs.

The upper right panel of Figure 3 shows the image after components A, B and S of the best-fit model have been subtracted. This allows the lens galaxy G and the excess residuals near A to be seen clearly. In the lower left panel, only G has been subtracted, highlighting component B. It is worth noting that the A/B flux ratio in this image (27:1) is much higher than any of the radio flux density ratios. This is probably due to the proximity of B and G. Optical extinction due to the lens galaxy should be greater for component B than for A.

In the lower right panel the entire model (including p and q) has been subtracted. There are still residuals near A, extending in both directions nearly perpendicular to the A/B separation. The elongation of the residuals is suggestive of tangentially-stretched emission from a host galaxy. Deeper HST or adaptive-optics imaging in the infrared will be useful to clarify the nature of the putative host galaxy.

To connect the WFPC2 photometry to the Johnson-Kron-Cousins system we approximated F814W $`I`$ and adopted a zero-point magnitude of 21.69, as did Lehár et al. (2000). This zero-point is based on the calibration of Holtzmann et al. (1995), but with a gain of 7 and a correction of 0.1 mag for finite aperture. The resulting magnitude of component A is $`I=19.21`$, and the total magnitude of all components is $`I=18.79`$, with a scatter of 0.05 between different models and an additional uncertainty of at least 0.05 due to the choice of zero-point magnitude.

## 6 Ground based optical images

During 1999 April 10-14 we obtained $`BRI`$ images of PMN J1838–3427 with the du Pont 2.5m telescope at Las Campanas Observatory (LCO). We used the SITe#3 $`2048\times 4096`$ CCD camera, with gain 2.5 e-/D.N. and read noise 6.6 e-. Table 5 is a journal of these observations. The images were bias-subtracted and flat-fielded with standard IRAF222 IRAF is distributed by the National Optical Astronomy Observatories, which are operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under cooperative agreement with the National Science Foundation.  procedures. The rotation and pixel scale ($`0\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}1631`$) of each image were derived using at least 30 stars from the USNO-A2.0 catalog (Monet et al., 1999). Figure 4 shows the $`5\mathrm{}\times 5\mathrm{}`$ $`I`$-band field. The left panel of Figure 5 is an $`8\mathrm{}\times 8\mathrm{}`$ subraster centered on PMN J1838–3427.

Photometry was performed with the DAOPHOT package in IRAF. First, we constructed an empirical PSF using the signal-weighted average of the images of 12 well-exposed, widely-spaced stars in the field. These reference stars are circled and labeled in Figure 4. Due to the crowded condition of the field, the PSF diameter was limited to $`5\mathrm{}`$. Next, we used this PSF template to fit simultaneously for the positions and magnitudes of all 12 reference stars, all the components representing PMN J1838–3427, and all the neighbors of the reference stars and PMN J1838–3427 within $`5\mathrm{}`$.

For the $`I`$ and $`R`$ images the model of PMN J1838–3427 consisted of four point sources representing A, B, G, and S. Their relative positions were fixed at the values measured in the HST image. For the $`B`$ images, which had poorer seeing and a smaller signal, the covariance between A and S and between B and G prevented convergence. For these we used a model consisting of two components with the same relative separation as A and B in the HST image.

The right panel of Figure 5 shows the $`I`$-band image at high contrast after subtraction of the best-fit model. The neighboring stars to the southeast and east were also subtracted. A pattern of positive residuals between A and B at the $`4\sigma `$ level may be unmodeled light from G. In all other images the residuals were consistent with noise.

The instrumental magnitudes of the reference stars and components of PMN J1838–3427, relative to reference star #8, are listed in Table 6. The quoted uncertainty in each magnitude difference is the statistical error in the fit. For a few stars in the $`R`$ and $`B`$ images the uncertainty was increased to encompass the difference between fits to the two different exposures. We emphasize that the magnitudes of A and S are covariant, as are those of B and G. Components A and S were typically separated by just one-third of the seeing disc and B and G by only one-tenth. For this reason, the combined magnitudes of A+S and of B+G are also listed in Table 6.

We connected the instrumental magnitudes to the Johnson-Kron-Cousins photometric system by observing at least one of the standard fields described by Landolt (1992) each night. Six stars in the field SA110-499 were used to calibrate the $`B`$ and $`R`$ magnitude scales, using the $`BR`$ index to compute color terms. Four stars in PG0918+029 and three stars in PG1323–086 were used to calibrate the $`I`$ magnitude scale, using the $`RI`$ index to compute color terms. In all cases the aperture diameter was $`14\mathrm{}`$. We adopted “typical” Las Campanas extinction coefficients of $`k_I=0.08`$, $`k_R=0.11`$, and $`k_B=0.28`$. The calibrated magnitudes of reference star #8 are printed beneath Table 6. The quoted uncertainty is the quadrature sum of the uncertainty in the instrumental magnitude and the RMS scatter in the calibration solution. With this calibration, the total apparent magnitudes of all model components (A, B, S, and G) during 1999 April 10-14 were $`I=18.56`$, $`R=19.16`$, and $`B=20.48`$, within 0.04 mag.

The total $`I`$ magnitude disagrees with the value derived from the HST/WFPC2 image ($`I=18.79\pm 0.07`$). More significantly, the LCO image exhibits a much larger contrast between northern (A+S) and southern (B+G) components. In the LCO image the flux ratio (A+S)/(B+G) is $`8.3\pm 0.3`$, whereas the WFPC2 value is $`4.6\pm 0.4`$. These discrepancies are possibly the result of variability of the source quasar. However, the significance of these discrepancies is unclear, since the results were derived from different instruments and photometric models. Repeated ground-based measurements will be important in assessing variability, using Table 6 as a baseline.

## 7 Optical spectroscopy

Optical spectra of the quasar and lens galaxy were obtained with the 3.6m telescope of the European Southern Observatory (ESO) at La Silla, Chile. We used the ESO Faint Object Spectrograph and Camera (EFOSC) with CCD #40 ($`2048\times 2048`$, gain 1.3 e-/D.N., readout noise 7.5 e-) and grism #6 (3860-8070Å, 30 gr/mm) giving a plate scale of 2Å per pixel. We obtained two separate spectra, one in which the slit was centered on quasar component A and one centered on the lens galaxy G. In both cases the slit was $`0\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}7`$ wide and oriented east-west in order to isolate the components as much as possible.

The quasar spectrum is shown in the top panel of Figure 6. It was obtained on 2000 March 4 in a 30-minute exposure in $`1\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}8`$ seeing, through an airmass of 1.5 and has a resolution of 10Å. No attempt was made to correct for differential atmospheric refraction. Three broad emission lines are obvious, corresponding to Ly$`\alpha `$ (1216Å), Si IV+O IV (1400Å), and C IV (1549Å) at a redshift of $`2.78\pm 0.01`$. This redshift was determined with reference to the Si IV+O IV and C IV lines only, since the broad absorption trough blueward of Ly-$`\alpha `$ makes centroid estimation difficult. Once this redshift was established, a probable emission line of C III\] (1909Å) was identified.

At least two significant non-terrestrial absorption lines are also present in the spectrum (4890Å and 5000Å), but we are unable to assign them confidently to systems at particular redshifts. We did not identify any $`z=0`$ stellar absorption lines in this spectrum, which would have confirmed the hypothesis of § 5 that component S is a foreground Galactic star. This is not surprising, because the A/S flux ratio is 8.1 in the HST image while the signal-to-noise ratio of each resolution element is only 7.5.

The lens galaxy spectrum, shown in the bottom panel of Figure 6, was obtained on 2000 March 6 with a 60-minute exposure through an average airmass of 1.5 in 1$`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}`$3 seeing. The resolution has been degraded to 30Å by combining wavelength bins, in order to boost the signal-to-noise. The slit also admitted the southern quasar component B, but based on the HST photometric model (Table 4) the light from G was expected to dominate B.

There is only one definite feature, an emission line at 6560Å with a S/N of about 3. This feature does not appear in the quasar spectrum, which has been scaled to the level expected from the B component and plotted as a dotted line in Figure 6. Although the wavelength of this feature is suspiciously close to $`z=0`$ H$`\alpha `$, suggesting it might result from imperfect background subtraction, there were several brighter sky lines that were subtracted successfully. It is therefore tempting to identify this feature with emission from the lens galaxy.

With one line of unknown origin, redshift determination is impossible. However, it is possible to estimate the lens galaxy redshift from photometry alone, by requiring the photometric properties to be consistent with the passively-evolving fundamental plane (FP) of early-type galaxies. Kochanek et al. (2000) described the FP method and applied it to 17 lenses with known spectroscopic redshifts, finding a scatter of 0.11 between the FP and spectroscopic redshifts. Applied to PMN J1838–3427, the lens galaxy redshift estimate is $`z_{FP}=0.36\pm 0.08`$. Given this redshift estimate, one plausible identification for the emission at 6560Å is \[O III\] (5007Å) at $`z=0.31`$. The emission line appears to be resolved, which could be a result of blending with \[O III\] (4959Å) and/or H$`\beta `$ (4861Å). In this case one would expect to see these lines in a deeper spectrum, along with \[O II\] (3727Å) at 4882Å. A redder spectrum would reveal H$`\alpha `$ (6563Å) at 8598Å.

Obviously there are many other possibilities, if the lens redshift is not correctly predicted by the FP method. Nevertheless, for the purpose of lens modeling (§ 8) we adopt $`z_l=0.36`$ as a working hypothesis.

## 8 Models of the lens potential

The present observations of PMN J1838–3427 provide only five useful constraints on the lens potential: the positions of B and G relative to A in the HST/WFPC2 image (Table 4) and the A/B radio flux density ratios (Table 1). The optical magnitude differences are not useful because they are affected by dust extinction, reddening and possibly microlensing in the lens galaxy. Any additional lensed images must be dimmer than A by a factor of at least 200, based on the radio images. We therefore confine ourselves to simple two-image models.

Our first purpose is to confirm that lensing is a natural explanation for the observed image configuration. For this purpose we consider the simplest plausible model for the dark-matter halo of a galaxy, an isothermal sphere. This model produces two images with a magnification ratio equal to the ratio of their distances from the lens center. The lens galaxy center in the HST/WFPC2 image is displaced 8 mas east of the line joining A and B (see Table 4); this is within the positional uncertainty, so an isothermal sphere is a viable model.

The image separations in Table 4 imply a magnification ratio of $`11.8\pm 1.7`$. This compares well with the radio flux density ratios in Table 1, although it is only in actual agreement with the VLBA ratio. There is a good reason why one might expect the VLBA flux density ratio to correspond more closely to the magnification ratio: it may exclude relatively diffuse flux that is lumped into component A in the VLA images (see § 3). Another possible explanation for the small but significant discrepancies is source variability. The proper comparison to the magnification ratio is not the instantaneous flux density ratio, but rather the ratio of light curves that have been shifted by the appropriate time delay.

Our second purpose is to model the system in the same manner as other two-image lenses observed in the CASTLES program (Lehár et al., 2000), for the sake of uniformity and to provide the starting point for more detailed models. Although the rough agreement with the isothermal sphere model is encouraging, it would be naive to conclude that it is an adequate model for the lens potential. Numerous studies have shown that, while an isothermal sphere provides a good first approximation, extra terms representing internal or external shear must be added at the 10-20% level to match all the observational constraints (Keeton, Kochanek & Seljak, 1997). We therefore consider a singular isothermal ellipsoid (SIE), in which the surface mass density is (in units of the critical surface density for lensing),

$$\kappa (x,y)=\frac{b}{2}\left[\frac{2q^2}{1+q^2}\left(x^2+y^2/q^2\right)\right]^{1/2},$$
(1)
where $`q`$ is the axis ratio and $`b`$ sets the mass scale.

There are five parameters ($`b`$ and $`q`$ as above, and three implied parameters for the position angle of the axes and the source coordinates). Since there are also five constraints, the parameters are determined uniquely. We chose the mean of the radio flux density ratios listed in Table 1 as the constraint on the magnification ratio, with the caveats discussed above. We determined parameter uncertainties by surveying the range of parameters for which $`\mathrm{\Delta }\chi ^2<1`$. The results are listed in Table 7.

We used this model to predict the quantity $`h\mathrm{\Delta }t`$, where $`\mathrm{\Delta }t`$ is the time delay and $`H_0=100h`$ km/s/Mpc. The prediction depends on the lens galaxy redshift, the cosmological parameters $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m`$ and $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }`$, and the clumpiness of matter on cosmological scales. For the lens galaxy redshift we adopt the FP estimate $`z_l=0.36`$ (see § 7). Under the further assumptions $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m=0.3`$ and $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }=0.7`$, and using the filled-beam approximation, $`h\mathrm{\Delta }t=14.9\pm 0.2`$ days. If instead $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m=1`$ and $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }=0`$ then $`h\mathrm{\Delta }t=14.0\pm 0.2`$ days. The quoted uncertainties are based on the SIE model only, and are therefore underestimates; many authors have shown that a wider class of lens models needs to be explored to obtain realistic error estimates (e.g. Kochanek (1991); Bernstein & Fischer (1999); Williams & Saha (1999)).

## 9 Summary and future prospects

We now summarize the argument that PMN J1838–3427 is a gravitational lens. It consists of two flat-spectrum radio components, each of which is compact on milliarcsecond scales and has a stellar optical counterpart. This implies both components are quasars, and indeed the bright component is a spectroscopically verified $`z=2.78`$ quasar. Radio-loud quasars are scarce enough that when two of them are observed within $`1\mathrm{}`$, they are probably either a physical binary or a pair of lensed images. That the spectral indices of each component are the same suggests lensing is the explanation. A high-resolution optical image shows diffuse emission (the lens galaxy) along the line between the components. The image configuration is consistent with the simplest plausible mass distribution for the lens galaxy.

Will this new lens be useful in the enterprise of using time delays to constrain cosmological parameters and/or aspects of galaxy structure? The answer depends on whether the time delay of PMN J1838–3427 can be measured and whether more constraints on the potential of the lens galaxy are likely to be discovered.

As for the first issue, measuring the time delay, prospects are good. There are several indications that PMN J1838–3427 is variable at radio wavelengths. Its spectral index is flat and the components are compact on milliarcsecond scales, both of which are indicators of variability. In addition, the three measurements of total flux density at 8.5 GHz listed in Table 3 (two from the VLA and one from ATCA) are all significantly different. At optical wavelengths we do not have as much information to judge variability. The discrepancy between the ground-based (LCO) $`I`$-band photometry and the WFPC2 photometry (see § 6) is one suggestion of variability, but further monitoring is required. The local reference system established in § 6 and Table 6 will be of use in future measurements.

The second issue, constraining the lens potential, is the greater challenge. At least the lens appears to be a single galaxy, and the lens position and magnification ratio are consistent with the simplest plausible models, giving PMN J1838–3427 an advantage over more obviously complicated lenses with measured time delays, such as Q0957+561 and CLASS B1608+656. The challenge will be to obtain enough constraints to explore a wider class of models. Deeper or higher-resolution VLBI observations may reveal corresponding substructure in the lensed images. Infrared images from space or with adaptive optics will improve estimates for the lens galaxy’s position and shape. They would also clarify the nature of the host galaxy that was tentatively identified in § 5, which could provide very important model constraints (Kochanek, Keeton & McLeod, 2000). Obtaining the lens galaxy redshift is also a priority. If these observational challenges can be met, PMN J1838–3427 will contribute to the growing field of using lensing phenomena to study galaxy structure and cosmology.

We are grateful to Alok Patnaik and André Fletcher for their help with the lens search. We thank Joan Wrobel, Geoff Bower and Greg Taylor for assistance with NRAO telescopes. Chris Fassnacht and Steve Myers kindly made their VLA mapping script available. John Tonry provided valuable advice regarding spectroscopy. This research was supported by the National Science Foundation under grants AST-9617028 and AST-9616866. M.T.R. received partial support from Fondecyt grant 1980659 and Catedra Presidencial en Ciencias. J.N.W. thanks the Fannie and John Hertz foundation for financial support.