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# DPNU-00-25 August, 2000 Emergence of power-law correlation in 1-dimensional self-gravitating system

## 1 Introduction

One-dimensional self-gravitating systems is a simplified model of gravitational many body system. The system represents the motion of parallel flat mass sheets interacting each other through Newtonian gravity. Since its equation of motion can be solved piecewise exactly during each interval between collisions, numerical integration of the system is particularly simple. Hence the system is used to study long-time behavior and relaxation process of gravitational systems \[HF67, LSR84, Mil96, TGK97\]. In addition, one-particle distribution for canonical and microcanonical ensemble is obtained \[Ryb71\].

Yamashiro et al. studied this model numerically to investigate relaxation process of elliptical galaxies \[YGS92\]. According to the virial theorem the virial ratio $`V_r2E_{kin}/E_{pot}`$ for this model is expected to relax to 1. They chose initial conditions with $`10^3V_r1`$. Typical feature of the system they described is shown in Fig. 1, where a snapshot of distribution in $`(x,u)`$ space ($`\mu `$-space) is shown. We can see a big cluster is formed.

While their main concern was the process of relaxation, they also noted that initial conditions with smaller virial ratio ( typically $`V_r<10^3`$ ) did not guarantee the relaxation within their CPU time. They also observed formation of lumped structure as observed in \[HF67\], which are quite different from the one shown in Fig. 1. Anomaly in relaxation for small value of $`V_r`$ is also pointed out in \[RJM88\].

We extend their study to the region $`V_r0`$ and found that there is a new phase of evolution where a fractal spatial structure is spontaneously created. We would like to stress that the fractal structure is created even when the initial condition is not fractal (typically uniformly random). We also note that not all the initial conditions lead to fractal structure.

In this letter we report the discovery of this novel phase. In the next section we describe the model. We present the numerical results in section 3, and the final section is for summary and discussions.

## 2 Model

The one-dimensional self-gravitating system (also known as ‘mass-sheet model’) consists of $`N`$ equivalent flat sheets of constant mass density. The sheets are infinitely extended in the $`y`$ and $`z`$ direction and are aligned parallel to each other and move in the $`x`$ direction.

If we suppose the sheets interact with Newtonian gravity, the Hamiltonian of the system reads

$`H`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{i=1}{\overset{N}{}}}{\displaystyle \frac{p_i^2}{2m}}+2\pi Gm^2{\displaystyle \underset{i>j}{}}\left|x_ix_j\right|,`$ (1)
where $`p_i=mu_i`$. ($`u_i`$ is the velocity of the sheet $`i`$ .) We set $`m=1/N`$ so that the total mass is unity, and $`4\pi G1`$. Time is measured in the unit

$$t_c1/\sqrt{4\pi GM/L}$$

where $`MmN`$ is total mass, $`L`$ is the spatial length on which particles are distributed initially. $`t_c`$ is called ‘crossing time’ and is a typical time for a particle to traverse the system.

With this Hamiltonian, the equation of motion reads

$$\ddot{x_i}=\frac{1}{2N}\left(N_RN_L\right)$$
(2)
where $`N_R`$ and $`N_L`$ are number of sheets which are on the right and left of the sheet $`i`$ , respectively.

Eq. (2) indicates that the force acting on each sheet is constant until a collision occurs between two sheets. Hence we can exactly integrate the equation of motion (2) between every two collisions. This fact greatly enhances the usefulness of this model.

## 3 Numerical results : structure formation

Fig. 2 show the evolution of the system (1) with $`N=2^{15}`$. Initial condition is chosen to be $`V_r=0`$ as $`x_i=\text{uniformly random}[0,1]`$ and $`u_i=0`$. That is, each sheet is placed randomly with zero velocity dispersion. The figures represent particle distribution in $`(x,u)`$ space ($`\mu `$-space). In the course of time evolution we see that fractal structure is formed. In Fig.3 we show box counting dimension of the $`\mu `$-space distribution shown in the bottom of Fig. 2. Dimension is $`D=1.1`$.

Fig. 4 is a two-body correlation function $`\xi (r)`$ at $`t=9.375`$ in Fig. 2. $`\xi (r)`$ is defined as

$$dP=ndV(1+\xi (r))$$
(3)
where $`dP`$ is probability to find a sheet in a volume $`dV`$ at distance $`r`$ apart from a sheet, and $`n`$ is the average number density. We can see clear power-law behavior in $`\xi (r)`$ in Fig. 4.

This power-law correlation is also formed if we modify the initial condition as $`x_i=\text{uniformly random}[0,1]`$ and $`u_i=a\mathrm{sin}2\pi (x_i1/2)`$, as shown in Fig. 5. In this initial condition initial velocity of each particle is uniquely determined by the initial position of the particle, hence there is no velocity dispersion.

If we slightly increase the virial ratio from 0, the power-law correlation is not created. Fig. 6 show the $`\mu `$-space for an initial condition $`x_i=\text{uniformly random}[0,1]`$ and $`u_i=\text{uniformly random}[0.01,0.01]`$. Here we see that fine structure observed in Fig. 2 is no longer observed. Flatness of two-point correlation function $`\xi (r)`$ in Fig. 7 supports the impression that structure here is not fractal but just made of lumps with constant density. This type of state is also observed in \[HF67\] and \[YGS92\].

The fractal structure seen in Fig. 2 is not a stationary state. As shown in Fig. 8, the fine structure once created is gradually dissolved into large clusters. The reason for the destruction of this structure is not clear now.

## 4 Summary and discussions

In this letter we have shown that there is a new phase in the evolution of one-dimensional self-gravitating system where the system creates fractal spatial structure from non-fractal initial conditions. This novel phase appears for initial conditions with small virial ratio. The structure is also formed for zero velocity dispersion ( i.e., ‘cold’ condition). Other initial conditions with large virial ratio do not lead to this phase.

As far as we observed, this phase is not a stationary state. Whether or not this transiency is a real one or an artifact caused by, for example, our computational limitation ( finiteness of number of particles and so on ) is not clear now.

Several studies revealed that two-point correlation function of young stars in star-forming regions obey power-law \[Lar95, NTHN98\]. The fractal structure we have found may be accounted for an origin of the power-law. Also it is a subject of future study if the phase can be found in other systems, such as galaxies in the course of evolution.

Similar structure is observed in a model with expanding universe \[RJF91, TM00\]. It will be an interesting subject to examine the effect of expanding universe on the structure formation.

We would like to stress the importance of the fact that, to create fractal structure, it is not necessary for initial conditions to be fractal. Fractal structure does not have characteristic spatial scale, nor does Newtonian potential. Hence it may not be so surprising that fractal structure can be found in systems interacting with Newtonian potential. However the relation between these two scale-free objects, Newtonian potential and fractal structure, are still unknown. If the initial condition is fractal, since the Newtonian interaction does not have characteristic length scale, the self-similar property of the initial condition would be conserved. In fact, initial conditions with exact self similarity (e.g., Cantor set) evolve in time while keeping the self-similar spatial structure. On the other hand, we have found that non-fractal initial conditions also leads to fractal structure, hence in this case the structure is created by the dynamics itself.

The search for the mechanism why the fractal structure emerges will be quite interesting. The emergence is interesting because it is an asymptote to scale-free behavior. The emergence is also unique in that this is a structure formation in conservative system against the tendency to thermal relaxation \[KK92, KK94\].

We would like to thank Naoteru Gouda for valuable comments and discussions, and Yuji Masutomi for useful discussions. We also thank Toshio Tsuchiya for advice on numerical methods.


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# Explorations in Hubble Space: A Quantitative Tuning Fork

## 1. INTRODUCTION

In any branch of science, classification systems work best when applied to subsets of objects that are unambiguously distinct. In such cases, a meaningful classification system can lead to fundamental insights. Two obvious examples are Mendeleev’s organization of chemical data into the periodic table of the elements, a discovery which anticipated electron orbital structure by decades, and Linnean binary nomenclature, which has formed the basis of the scientific naming scheme applied to organisms for over two centuries, and which lies at the foundation of most studies of evolution and natural selection.

On the other hand, the division of a smoothly varying population into subjectively defined classes has always proved a “sure formula for endless bickering among specialists, for no two will ever agree” (Gould 1998). On this basis, it seems reasonable to ask whether a truly fundamental classification scheme for galaxies will ever be devised, because, unlike systems whose components are either perfectly discrete or of roughly uniform strength, galaxy properties span a broad continuum. In addition, the complexity of galaxies’ morphologies means that any classification is likely to be based on a rather complex mixture of properties rather than a single defining feature. For such systems it may be more meaningful to think in terms of distributions in a multi-dimensional parameter space rather than in terms of discrete classes (Abraham et al. 1994; Bershady, Jangren, & Conselice 2000; van den Bergh et al. 2000).

Despite these caveats, Hubble’s (1926) simple scheme for classifying galaxy morphology has proved remarkably versatile and robust. Hubble classified galaxies into ellipticals and spirals, defining a sequence from “early” to “late” types111It is commonly held that Hubble used this nomenclature because he believed that the galaxies formed a temporal sequence. In fact, he explicitly warns against interpreting his choice of adjective in this way (Hubble 1926, p. 326). by the size of the central bulge, and the smoothness and pitch angle of the spiral arms, using the letters ‘a’ to ‘c’ to designate the location along the sequence. He then further divided the spiral galaxies into two parallel sequences of barred (‘SB’) and unbarred (‘S’) galaxies, depending on whether the central region contained a strong non-axisymmetric distortion. Drawing the full sequence from elliptical galaxies to late-type spiral galaxies, with the spiral sequence bifurcating into parallel barred and unbarred sequences, one obtains the classical “tuning fork” scheme for classifying galaxy morphology. The catch-all category of “irregular” allows one to deal with galaxies that do not fit within this simple scheme, but in the nearby Universe the vast majority of bright galaxies can be fairly reliably placed somewhere on the tuning fork.

In the past decade, a number of factors have arisen that drive us to look beyond such a qualitative scheme. Imaging surveys encompassing millions of galaxies, such as the Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS), are now sufficiently large that visual classification is impractical. Furthermore, direct studies of galaxy evolution are now possible by imaging galaxies at high redshift using the Hubble Space Telescope (HST). However, with the notable exception of data from the Hubble Deep Field (Williams et al. 1996), HST images of distant galaxies are not of high enough quality for it to be possible to undertake traditional morphological classifications directly onto Hubble’s tuning fork, since the finer details of spiral structure cannot be robustly studied at the signal-to-noise levels typical of these data.

In order get around this difficulty, the morphologies of distant galaxies have been probed using several different techniques, including:

1. Visual classifications using coarse bins that neglect the visibility of spiral structure (Griffiths et al. 1994; Glazebrook et al. 1995; Driver et al. 1995; van den Bergh et al. 1996).
2. Classifications based on surface-brightness profile fits to analytical models (Schade et al 1995; Odewahn et al 1997; Phillips et al. 1997; Marleau & Simard 1998; Corbin et al. 2000).
3. More general automated schemes based on various combinations of image concentration and surface brightness (Abraham et al. 1994), image concentration and asymmetry (Abraham et al. 1996; Brinchmann et al. 1998; Volonteri, Saracco, & Chincarini 2000), and image concentration, asymmetry, surface brightness, and spectral class (Bershady, Jangren, & Conselice 2000).

Analysis using such techniques places the epoch at which the general framework of the early-to-late sequence is established to be at a redshift of $`z1`$ (Brinchmann et al. 1998; Driver et al. 1998).

Evidence for even more recent evolution in Hubble’s tuning fork has come from studies of the fraction of barred galaxies as a function of redshift. Unlike other aspects of spiral structure, bars are fairly high surface brightness features and are visible to quite high redshifts. van den Bergh et al. (1996) noted that the data from the Hubble Deep Field North gave the visual impression that there are few barred galaxies at high redshift. A quantitative analysis of both Hubble Deep Fields by Abraham et al. (1999) confirmed this visual impression, and showed that barred galaxies are rare at redshifts beyond $`z0.5`$. Recent data from the Caltech Faint Galaxy Redshift Survey (CFGRS) has lent further support to this picture (van den Bergh et al. 2000).

A major stumbling block in characterizing the evaporation of the Hubble sequence as a function of redshift has been the absence of a quantitative framework for describing the classical tuning fork. The primary aim of this paper is to set such a framework. Any galaxy can be placed in this “Hubble space”, where the $`x`$-coordinate measures position along the early-to-late sequence, while the $`y`$-coordinate measures in a quantitative way the degree to which the galaxy is barred. Since this system is fully parametric, it is not keyed in any way to local archetypes, and the system is robust enough to be useful over a broad range of redshifts.

The second aim of this paper is to apply this quantitative analysis to the morphological classification of nearby galaxies. Specifically, we seek to determine whether a tuning fork-shaped distribution genuinely defines the local “morphological zero-point”, or whether Hubble’s classification scheme is only a convenient idealization. The bifurcation implied by the tuning fork paradigm itself implies a genuine distinction between barred and unbarred galaxies. It is therefore important to determine whether a bimodal distribution of barred and unbarred galaxies exists in Hubble space, or whether these objects are better described as corresponding to the tails of a unimodal distribution, with the “average” galaxy lying somewhere in the middle. In addition to providing a baseline against which the properties of distant galaxies can be compared, this analysis may also offer insights into the physical interpretation of Hubble’s original classification scheme.

The remainder of this paper is arranged as follows. In Section 2, we present the two quantities adopted to parameterize Hubble space. In Section 3 we make a preliminary exploration of Hubble space using the data from the Frei et al. (1996) atlas. The limitations of this sample for conducting this investigation are also discussed. The implications of this analysis are discussed in Section 4, and our conclusions are summarized in Section 5.

## 2. DEFINITION OF HUBBLE SPACE

### 2.1. Measuring Hubble Stage

As described above, the classical Hubble type of a galaxy is based on the visual impression of several aspects of the system’s properties. The compound nature of this classification scheme is not conducive to summarizing a galaxy’s morphology with a single quantitative parameter. However, the close correlation between the parameters defining the Hubble type means that one can obtain a remarkably good measure of position on the early-to-late sequence \[the “Hubble stage” as defined in the Third Reference Catalog of Bright Galaxies, hereafter RC3 (de Vaucouleurs et al. (1991)\] by focusing on a single parameter, namely the bulge-to-disk ratio of the galaxy. We therefore measure the location of galaxies along the early-to-late axis of Hubble space using the central concentration parameter, $`C`$, defined in Abraham et al. (1994) and closely related to the parameter defined by Doi, Fukugita, & Okamura (1993). This quantity tracks bulge-to-disk ratio very closely, and has been shown to provide a good quantitative substitute for more orthodox visual classifications (Abraham et al. 1996).

### 2.2. Measuring Bar Strength

A first attempt at robustly measuring the orthogonal ordinate in Hubble space, the bar strength, was made by Abraham et al. (1999). Their parameter, $`(b/a)_{\mathrm{bar}}`$, measured the intrinsic axis ratio of any central bar under the assumption that the distribution of light corresponds to a thin disk that is intrinsically axisymmetric at large radii. This model is clearly an idealization, but still provides a robust objective measure of bar strength irrespective of the true distribution of light in the galaxy. As noted by Abraham et al. (1999), the assumption of a two-dimensional disk clearly becomes unreasonable if a galaxy is viewed close to edge-on, when the three-dimensional shape of the central bulge becomes a prominent feature. However, it is intrinsically almost impossible to determine whether a galaxy that lies close to edge-on is barred on the basis of photometry alone. We therefore follow Abraham et al. (1999), and only attempt to determine the value of $`(b/a)_{\mathrm{bar}}`$ for galaxies whose axial ratios imply an inclination of $`i<60\mathrm{degrees}`$.

Abraham et al. (1999) calculated $`(b/a)_{\mathrm{bar}}`$ using the second order moments obtained by slicing a galaxy image at two intensity levels. The moments at these slices were used to define “inner” and “outer” ellipses whose axis ratios and orientations were used to calculate $`(b/a)_{\mathrm{bar}}`$. A deficiency of this technique is the rather ad hoc choice of intensity levels used to define these ellipses (10% and 85% of the image maximum after the top 2% of the image pixels had been clipped), since it is conceivable that barred systems could exist with isophotal signatures outside the range explored by these cuts. To remedy this deficiency, we here adopt a “multi-thresholding” approach to define the optimum intensity cuts, using the following procedure. A single outer ellipse is defined using second-order moments obtained by a 3$`\sigma `$ cut above the sky noise, $`\sigma `$. A succession of inner ellipses is then defined by slicing the galaxy image at a range of intensity levels spaced apart by 1$`\sigma `$. At each cut, only those pixels contiguous with the center of the galaxy (defined as the position of the pixel with maximum flux) are retained. Some portions of a galaxy will be poorly described by elliptical isophotes, either intrinsically or because of poor sampling near the center of the object. Therefore, ellipses encompassing fewer than 80% of the pixels contained within the original isophote are discarded, as are ellipses with semi-major axis lengths smaller than 5% of the radius of the outer isophote. For every remaining ellipse, $`(b/a)_{\mathrm{bar}}`$ is calculated using equation (2) of Abraham et al. (1999). The final value of $`(b/a)_{\mathrm{bar}}`$ adopted for the galaxy is the minimum value of $`(b/a)_{\mathrm{bar}}`$ over all slices, which therefore defines the maximum of any bar-like distortion in the galaxy.

As a further refinement, we then calculate a quantity that is more closely related to most morphologists’ subjective notion of bar strength. Specifically, we define

$$f_{bar}=\frac{2}{\pi }\left\{\mathrm{arctan}\left[(b/a)_{bar}^{}{}_{}{}^{1/2}\right]\mathrm{arctan}\left[(b/a)_{bar}^{}{}_{}{}^{1/2}\right]\right\}.$$
(1)
This parameterization maps the bar strength into a closed interval from zero (unbarred) to unity (infinitely strong bar). For an idealized picture of a galaxy containing a central elliptical bar of uniform surface brightness, this quantity is the minimum fraction of the bar’s stars that one would have to rearrange in order to transform the structure into an axisymmetric distribution. As discussed above, we are not arguing that such an idealized model represents a real galaxy in any sense; rather, this explanation is intended to give a physical insight into the interpretation of the parameter, which remains valid for real systems.

## 3. THE DISTRIBUTION OF GALAXIES IN HUBBLE SPACE

Having defined the physical measure of Hubble space, we are now in a position to see how it is populated by galaxies. In this preliminary investigation, we will analyze the sample of nearby galaxies from the Frei et al. (1996) CCD imaging atlas. Of the 113 galaxies in the atlas, 91 are spirals, 56 of which satisfy the inclination cut of $`i<60\mathrm{degrees}`$. The CCD images in the Frei et al. sample were obtained using two telescopes (the Palomar 1.5m and the Lowell 1.1m) using different filters. Since the local morphological distribution has been defined using blue-sensitive photographic plates, in the present analysis we adopt the bluest images available for each object in the atlas ($`B_J`$-band images for data obtained at Lowell, and Gunn-$`g`$ images for observations from Palomar).

It is important to emphasize that the Frei et al. (1996) atlas was not designed to represent a flux-limited sample of objects: its original purpose was to provide a useful “training set” of galaxies for automated classification in the SDSS. It is clear that large homogeneous digital surveys such as the SDSS will ultimately provide the best way forward toward the overall goal of understanding the distribution of galaxy morphologies in the Universe. However, we will now show that the Frei et al. (1996) sample can already be used to draw several fairly general conclusions regarding the distribution of galaxies in Hubble space.

Figure 1 compares the distribution of morphological classifications for all low-inclination $`B<13.5`$ mag galaxies in the RC3, along with classifications for the corresponding low-inclination Frei et al. (1996) sub-sample. Individual histograms for the various bar classes from the RC3 are shown. Here, we adopt the terminology of the RC3, which denotes strongly barred spirals as class SB, weakly/tentatively barred systems as class SAB, and unbarred spirals as class SA, with lower-case Roman letters suffixed to denote Hubble stage. Clearly, the Frei et al. (1996) sample is strongly biased against early-type disk systems (S0 galaxies and Sa spirals), as well as very late-type spirals (Sd and beyond). Some galaxies near these endpoints are included in the Frei sample, but some bar classes are missing: strongly barred SBab galaxies are absent from the sample, while all Scd galaxies in the sample are weakly barred SABcd systems.

Fortunately, the Frei et al. (1996) sample is most representative (both in terms of relative numbers of systems as a function of Hubble stage, and in terms of the mix of SA, SAB, and SB systems) for the intermediate–late type spirals (types Sb, Sbc, and Sc) that define the two arms of the original tuning fork. While the absolute number ($`50`$) of such systems is not large, it is certainly comparable to the total number of archetypal galaxies that define the visual classification sequence. Thus, the Frei et al. (1996) sample, while modest in size, is actually a rather useful probe of the bifurcation of intermediate–late spiral galaxies into barred and unbarred systems, though it must be used with caution when probing early-type and very late-type spirals.

Figure 2 illustrates the inner and outer ellipses determined for three representative barred spirals in this sample using the multi-thresholding technique described above. These objects are illustrative of the general success of the multi-thresholding technique in isolating galactic bars over broad range of intensity and size. The orientation and semi-major axis length of the bar is determined very robustly by this technique. On the whole, bar axial ratios are also well-constrained, although they tend to be somewhat underestimated for early type systems, because the contribution from a strong central bulge tends to fatten inner isophotes and make bars less well-defined. In fact, a similar effect also impacts visual classifications, as is clearly seen in Figure 1 – note the sharp increase in the proportion of systems in the RC3 with unknown bar classifications as one moves from late-type to early-type galaxies.

The distribution of this sample in Hubble space is shown in Figure 3. Small “postage-stamp” images of the individual galaxies denote the position of each object in parameter space, while the surrounding colored boxes divide the galaxy population into SA (red), SAB (green), and SB (blue) spirals. For comparison, this figure also shows the Hubble space positions of the elliptical galaxies in the Frei et al. (1996) sample, surrounded by black boxes.

Several points are evident from inspection of Figure 3:

1. Barred, weakly-barred, and unbarred galaxies are remarkably well-separated in the diagram. The quantitative parameters defining Hubble space are clearly rather closely related to the subjective criteria upon which the original tuning fork classification system was based. There is no intermixing of unbarred galaxies and strongly barred galaxies, and only a small amount of intermixing between strongly barred and weakly barred galaxies. A close inspection of the individual galaxy images shown in Figure 3 suggests that even this small amount of mixing may well be due to visual misclassification. The single elliptical galaxy scattered into the SB distribution is the result of an image defect (a slight ramp in the sky background).
2. There is a general broad correlation between $`C`$ and $`f_{bar}`$. This trend presumably just reflects the diluting effects of large bulges on quantitative measures of bar strength, discussed above.
3. The spiral sequence is clearly bimodal. This bimodality is better displayed in Fig. 4, which shows the distribution of spiral galaxies in Fig. 3 projected on to an axis perpendicular to the mean correlation between $`C`$ and $`f_{bar}`$. Strongly barred spirals do not simply constitute the boundaries of a smooth unimodal distribution of bar strength. Instead, barred and unbarred spirals appear to populate two parallel sequences, with remarkably few galaxies occupying the region in between. It would be useful to assess the formal significance of the bimodality apparent in Fig. 4, using, for example, the KMM test (Ashman, Bird & Zepf 1994). However, there are two reasons why such a test would not yet be appropriate. First, this distribution was derived by projecting Fig. 3 along the axis which maximizes the bimodality signal, and this maximization would not be accounted for in the significance of the test. Second, the current data set has folded in with it the selection that Frei et al. made in defining their sample, and we have no way of quantitatively assessing the impact of this selection on the shape of this distribution. Nonetheless, it will be important to carry out such a test when a larger, more objectively-defined sample becomes available.
4. Rather surprisingly, weakly barred systems do not, on the whole, seem to correspond to systems bridging the parameter space between unbarred and strongly barred galaxies. Weakly barred SAB galaxies seem to be an extension of the SA sequence.

## 4. DISCUSSION

A schematic overview of Hubble space is presented in Fig. 5, which shows where various classes of galaxies lie in this morphological parameterization. Colored rectangles on this diagram correspond to approximate “1$`\sigma `$” contours in parameter space for the various populations. The dashed line intersecting these regions gives a schematic representation of the classical tuning fork within this parameter space. What is most remarkable about this diagram is how apt Hubble’s tuning fork description remains almost seventy-five years after its introduction. The correspondence is not perfect: in Hubble space, the tuning fork is both skewed and horizontally flipped relative to its usual representation, and elliptical galaxies are not arrayed in a sequence of axial ratio. However, the bimodal distribution of galaxies is clearly rather more than a convenient textbook abstraction of a smooth continuum in the bar strength of galaxies. There really is a genuine bifurcation in the properties of galaxies, which cleanly divides barred and weakly/unbarred galaxies. The fact that SB galaxies lie on a remarkably sharply-defined sequence strongly suggests the presence of some underlying unifying physical process – perhaps the classical bar instability (Binney & Tremaine 1987, and references therein).

The Frei et al. (1995) sample indicates that weakly-barred SAB galaxies appear much more closely related to SA galaxies than to SB galaxies, with the SABs forming the late-type extension of the SA branch of the tuning fork. It is important to avoid over-interpreting this result, since it partially depends on the mix of later-type galaxies for which, as we have discussed, the Frei sample is not entirely representative. Nonetheless, it seems quite possible that this will prove to be an example of a phenomenon that is obvious in a quantitative analysis, but which is difficult to detect using subjective criteria. Furthermore, it may well explain why the proportion of weakly barred systems is very discrepant in local catalogs. For example, there is reasonable agreement in local catalogs that the proportion of strongly barred galaxies is 25%–35%, based on the numbers given in the RC3, the Revised Shapley-Ames Catalogue (RSA; Sandage & Tammann 1987),and the Uppsala General Catalogue (UGC; Nilson 1973). However, an additional 30% of spirals are classed as weakly barred in the RC3, substantially higher than in the UGC or RSA. Figure 5 suggests that this discrepancy is manifestation of the non-fundamental nature of the “bars” seen in these objects, rendering them exceptionally problematic to pigeonhole visually.

Further support for the link between SAs and SABs can, in retrospect, be seen directly from the RC3 data. As Fig. 1 shows, the fraction of SAB galaxies grows and the fraction of SA galaxies decreases as one goes along the Hubble sequence from S0 to Sd. Again, it is tempting to invoke a simple underlying physical process. Perhaps, for example, the small bulges and weak bars of the SAB galaxies are both the result of the bar buckling instability seen in a number of numerical simulations (Combes & Sanders 1981, Raha et al. 1991). Such a process could well leave a modest non-axisymmetric signature in what is essentially an unbarred galaxy, explaining the close relation of these systems to the SAs (Kormendy 1992).

Variations in the distribution of galaxies in Hubble space as a function of rest wavelength will be investigated in a future paper, but it seems likely that the distribution will be at least moderately wavelength-dependent. Understanding the nature of this wavelength dependence will be important in order to extend our techniques for use in studying galaxies at higher redshifts. For example, Eskridge et al. (2000) found a higher fraction of barred galaxies when observing at longer wavelengths, which could produce a spurious decrease in the fraction of barred galaxies with redshift if one were to observe a sample of intrinsically identical galaxies through a single filter. Extending the methodology introduced in this paper to samples imaged at a range of wavelengths will allow direct comparison between the properties of nearby galaxies and those in higher-redshift samples.

## 5. CONCLUSIONS

Recent studies of high-redshift galaxies have revitalized the entire field of galaxy morphology. The myriad new forms of galaxies visible on deep HST images has led morphologists to devise new quantitative galaxy classification systems that, insofar as they connect to the classical Hubble system at all, focus on the early-to-late classification sequence and neglect the distinction between barred and unbarred galaxies. However, dynamical studies and direct observations of variations in the fraction of barred galaxies with redshift clearly imply that the bifurcation into barred and unbarred systems is a fundamental aspect of galaxy evolution.

In this paper, our goal has been to present a framework for combining these factors. We define a quantitative two-dimensional morphological parameterization (“Hubble space”) that maps closely on to Hubble’s original subjective visual definition of the morphological tuning fork. Using the Frei et al. (1995) sample, we have made a preliminary foray into Hubble space. We find that the distribution of bar strengths in galaxies in this sample is sharply bimodal — barred spirals do not simply delineate the extrema in a nearly uniform progression of galactic bar strength. Overall, this work lends support to Hubble’s original picture in which a genuine physical gulf exists between the properties of barred and regular galaxies, and indicates that a natural division in parameter space can be used to distinguish barred from regular spirals objectively.

In addition, this work also shows how adopting a quantitative approach sheds light on a possible close link between regular and weakly-barred spirals that is obscured by the nomenclature of visual classification. This analysis indicates that weakly barred systems may be naturally viewed as an extension of the regular spiral sequence, rather than as bridges between strongly barred and regular spiral systems. This conclusion is based on a small sample of galaxies, however, and the relationship between various categories of barred spiral galaxies clearly needs to be investigated in a more thorough manner with a much larger, more suitably-selected sample. In any case, the rich variety of galaxy forms visible on deep HST images shows that the parameters defining Hubble space are insufficient, on their own, to fully encompass galaxy morphologies at high redshifts. Nevertheless, this investigation demonstrates that parametric measures of bar strength should certainly be incorporated into whatever successor to Hubble’s sequence is ultimately adopted in order to describe galaxy morphologies over a broad range of look-back times.

Hubble constructed his original tuning fork guided strongly by his intuition and experience, but knowing comparatively little about the dynamical construction of galaxies. Seventy-five years later, Hubble’s intuition stands vindicated, with the broad outline of his tuning fork holding up remarkably well to quantitative inspection.

We thank Sidney van den Bergh, Richard Ellis, and Jarle Brinchmann for many valuable discussions on the physical origins of galaxy morphology. This research was supported by a grant from NSERC.


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# Contents

## 1 Introduction

As is well-known, on $`N`$ coincident D-branes, $`U(1)`$ gauge symmetries are enhanced to $`U(N)`$ gauge symmetries, and scalars that formerly described normal motions of the branes become $`U(N)`$ adjoints. People have often asked what the deep reason for this behavior is – what does this tell us about the geometry seen by D-branes?

One possible answer is that these are indications that D-branes sense some sort of noncommutative geometry. However, as this enhancement to nonabelian gauge symmetry occurs even when $`B0`$, if this is a sign of noncommutative geometry, it can not quite be noncommutative geometry in the same sense as .

In this very short note, we shall speculate that this strange behavior may, at least in special cases, be an indication that the geometry seen by D-branes should be understood as a type of “information-preserving” geometry known as scheme theory.

Specifically, we begin by giving a very short introduction to some relevant ideas from scheme theory, including the idea that coincident subvarieties can be understood as “non-reduced schemes.” We then point out in a simple example (originally worked out in , for very different reasons) that branches of the classical moduli space of vacua can be understood in terms of moduli spaces of rank 1 sheaves on non-reduced schemes, and that $`U(N)`$-adjoint-valued scalars also have a natural understanding.

Although this may sound somewhat new, in truth part of this is implicit in the idea that D-branes can be described, at some level, in terms of coherent sheaves . Certainly coherent sheaves can be used to describe non-reduced subschemes of a variety, which we shall tentatively identify (in special cases) with coincident D-branes. What is new in this paper is that scheme theory may tie into D-branes at a much deeper level, by giving a purely geometric means for studying branches of the classical moduli space of vacua on a D-brane worldvolume, and by giving a mechanism for understanding how scalars describing normal motion can become $`U(N)`$ adjoints.

We do not claim to describe any particularly new or deep results, mathematical or physical, in this short note; rather, we shall only give a few easy calculations and review relevant calculations done elsewhere. This note does little more than point out some interesting ideas. We hope to publish more on this topic in the future.

The recent preprint  contains closely related ideas to those we shall present here. We worked on these ideas about two years ago, but decided to put off trying to write up any part of it until after a number of thorny technical issues had been resolved. However, the publication of  has motivated us to rapidly publish this very short overview of our ideas.

We should also pause to mention important differences between this paper and . In , deformation quantization was used to generate recognizable D-brane features. By contrast, deformation quantization never enters this paper. Instead, we outline how essentially the same features of D-branes are already present in scheme theory, without resorting to deformation quantization, albeit in a rather subtle fashion.

A very different approach to understanding the non-abelian structure of coincident D-branes was also recently published in .

## 2 Information-preserving geometry

Scheme theory provides a notion of what we shall call an “information-preserving geometry.” What does that expression mean?

Consider a collision of two points. When two points collide, one is left with a single point. One does not know if a single point is really some number of coincident points, or if it is a single point. Thus, when thinking about motions of points (and higher dimensional subvarieties), the usual notions of geometry lose information – in the example above, there is no natural way to tell within the geometry if a single point represents a collision of multiple points. In order to distinguish the two possibilities, one would need to add additional111The reader might well object that this distinction is rather trivial – one could merely keep track of multiplicities of points. However, there is additional information that scheme theory also encodes, such as the relative tangent directions of collisions. We shall – briefly – return to this point later. information.

By contrast, in scheme theory such information is automatically encoded in the geometry. In scheme theory not all points are identical – whether a point represents a collision of several other points is automatically encoded within the geometry itself. Thus, scheme theory is an example of an “information-preserving” geometry, and is a natural candidate for a purely geometrical means of distinguishing single D-branes from multiple coincident D-branes.

## 3 The skinny on fat points

How does scheme theory encode such additional information? The general idea is to work with the ring of functions222 In algebraic geometry, algebraic functions. on a space, rather than the space itself. By knowing the functions, one can learn about the space.

For example, instead of talking about the space $`𝐂^2`$, one works with the ring of holomorphic functions $`𝐂[x,y]`$. A single point at the origin in $`𝐂^2`$ is described by the ring $`𝐂[x,y]/(x,y)`$, where $`(x,y)`$ denotes the ideal generated by $`x`$ and $`y`$. Coincident points can be described in a number of different ways, such as $`𝐂[x,y]/(x^2,y)`$ or $`𝐂[x,y]/(x^2,xy,y^2)`$ (depending upon the number of coincident points, among other things). The rings describing coincident points differ from the ring describing a single point, so we see explicitly how scheme theory distinguishes coincident points from single, ordinary points. (Such points are known as “fat points,” because they carry more information than a single point ordinarily would.) In fact, there is additional information here. The multiple ways of describing two coincident points encodes the relative directions from which they collided – so scheme theory can not only tell whether a single topological point is secretly the collision of several points, but also contains information about the relative directions from which they came.

A full introduction to scheme theory is far beyond the intended scope of this paper. For the interested reader, the standard basic reference is ; significantly more readable accounts, at varying levels of difficulty, include . In the interests of brevity, our discussion will rapidly become significantly more technical; however the interested reader should hopefully still be able to follow our presentation by frequently consulting the aforementioned references.

A scheme describing multiple coincident varieties is an example of a “non-reduced scheme,” and is an obvious candidate for a geometric description of coincident D-branes. This is precisely the conjecture we shall pursue – that one can understand many classical features of coincident D-branes in terms of non-reduced schemes. (Non-reduced schemes are more general than merely describing coincident subvarieties, but we shall not need the more general case here.)

As we are interested in how the $`U(1)`$ gauge symmetry on the worldvolume of a single D-brane becomes enhanced to a $`U(N)`$ gauge symmetry on $`N`$ coincident D-branes, one of the first things we should study is sheaf theory on non-reduced schemes.

With that question in mind, what sorts of sheaves can appear on a non-reduced scheme? To be specific, let $`A`$ be a ring and $`I`$ a prime ideal in $`A`$. Define a non-reduced scheme $`R=\text{Spec }A/I^n`$, and the corresponding reduced scheme $`C=\text{Spec }A/I`$. In this description, $`R`$ describes $`n`$ coincident copies of $`C`$.

First, any coherent sheaf on $`C`$ defines a coherent sheaf on $`R`$ also. Specifically, it is straightforward to check that any $`(A/I)`$-module $`M`$ is also an $`(A/I^n)`$-module, hence any coherent sheaf on $`C`$ also defines a coherent sheaf on $`R`$. However, non-reduced schemes are subtle, and many statements that one would now be tempted to make are false. For example, although a bundle on $`C`$ defines a coherent sheaf on $`R`$, strictly speaking a bundle on $`C`$ does not define a bundle on $`R`$. For example, a rank 1 bundle on $`C`$ is described by the module $`A/I`$, but a rank 1 bundle on $`R`$ would be described by the module $`A/I^n`$, which is distinct.

Another set of examples of coherent sheaves on $`R`$ are furnished by ideal sheaves. For example, take $`A=k[x,y]`$ for some field $`k`$, $`I=(x)A`$, and define the ideal $`J=(x,y)`$ (i.e., the ideal generated by $`x`$ and $`y`$). The module $`J/I^2A/I^2`$ defines an ideal sheaf on $`R`$. It is interesting to note that the restriction of such an ideal sheaf to $`C`$ generically has rank 1, but also has a torsion component. Specifically, the restriction of this ideal sheaf to $`C`$ is defined by the module

$$(J/I^2)_{(A/I^2)}(A/I)$$

This module has two generators, namely $`(x+I^2,1+I)`$ and $`(y+I^2,1+I)`$, however the generator $`(x+I^2,1+I)`$ is annihilated by all elements of $`A/I`$ other than the identity. Thus, this module defines a sheaf on $`C`$ of the form $`𝒯`$, where $``$ is a locally free rank 1 sheaf (corresponding to generator $`(y+I^2,1+I)`$) and $`𝒯`$ is a torsion sheaf with support at $`x=y=0`$ (corresponding to generator $`(x+I^2,1+I)`$).

Now, it turns out that if $`R`$ corresponds to $`r`$ coincident copies of $`C`$, then rank $`r`$ bundles on $`C`$ often appear in the same families as rank 1 sheaves on $`R`$. (Note that for different sheaves to appear in the same flat family means they have the same Hilbert polynomial (with respect to some fixed projective embedding), and so appear on the same Hilbert scheme.) For example333We would like to thank R. Donagi for pointing out this example to us., suppose $`A=k[x,y]`$ and $`I=(x)`$, as above. Define a one-parameter family of $`(A/I^2)`$-modules $`M_t`$ as follows. Let $`M`$ be a freely-generated $`(A/I)`$-module with two generators, say $`u`$ and $`v`$. Construct a family $`M_t`$ ($`tk`$) of $`(A/I^2)`$-modules by taking the underlying abelian group to be the same as that for $`M`$, leaving the $`y`$ action on $`M`$ invariant, and changing $`x`$ to act on the generators $`u`$, $`v`$ as

$`x:u`$ $``$ $`tv`$
$`x:v`$ $``$ $`0`$
When $`t=0`$, we see that $`x`$ annihilates both generators, and in fact $`M_0(A/I)(A/I)`$. When $`t0`$, $`M_tA/I^2`$.

Now that we have set up some basic technology, we shall describe a simple example.

## 4 A simple example

In  it was claimed that $`r`$ D-branes wrapped on a curve $`C`$ in a K3 of genus $`g_C`$ were equivalent to a single D-brane wrapped on a curve of genus $`g_R=r^2(g_C1)+1`$, lying in the linear system $`|rC|`$. Upon deeper reflection, however, the reader may wonder about this. If the twisted bundle endomorphism $`\varphi `$ is nonzero, then this statement sounds reasonable – the eigenvalues of $`\varphi `$ over any point of $`C`$ define a cover of $`C`$ inside the total space of the canonical bundle on $`C`$, and it seems reasonable to think of such $`\varphi `$ as implying that the D-brane is wrapped on a cover of $`C`$.

But what about the degenerate limit in which the cover collapses down to $`C`$ itself? In this limit, the cover becomes a non-reduced scheme $`R`$, of arithmetic genus $`g_R=r^2(g_C1)+1`$ (in agreement with the cover). This situation was discussed in , in the special case $`r=2`$.

We claimed in the introduction that, just as a single D-brane has a $`U(1)`$ gauge field, features of $`r`$ coincident D-branes can be recovered from Hilbert schemes of rank 1 sheaves on a corresponding non-reduced scheme. In \[4, section 3\], the Hilbert scheme of rank 1 sheaves on a non-reduced scheme $`R=2C`$ is discussed. This Hilbert scheme has several disjoint components, whose closures intersect. One component consists of rank 2 bundles444The reader may be surprised to hear that a Hilbert scheme of rank 1 sheaves can include rank 2 sheaves, but recall that we worked out an example of this phenomenon at the end of the last section. on $`C`$, but in addition, there are other components as well.

The physical interpretation of the first component is clear – we were expecting to find rank 2 bundles, after all. But what is the physical interpretation of the other components?

In order to understand the other components, take a moment to consider the classical moduli space of a two-dimensional gauge-theory with a single scalar $`\varphi `$ transforming in the adjoint of $`U(2)`$. In particular, suppose $`\varphi `$ is nilpotent, e.g.,

$$\varphi =\left(\begin{array}{cc}0& 1\\ 0& 0\end{array}\right)$$

Such a $`\varphi `$ is not gauge-equivalent to the zero matrix, yet all gauge-invariant observables, such as $`\text{Tr }\varphi `$, $`\text{Tr }\varphi ^2`$, and $`\text{det }\varphi `$ vanish. So, if we want to study the classical moduli space of such a gauge theory, we need to be careful to find all possible Higgs branches. In particular, the “extra” components of a Hilbert scheme of rank 1 sheaves on $`R=2C`$ correspond precisely to such nilpotent Higgs branches.

So far we have described components of Hilbert schemes of rank 1 sheaves on a non-reduced scheme $`R=2C`$, and have given intuitive explanations of what these components should correspond to morally. However, a stronger statement can be made.

In \[4, section 1\], a precise description is given for how to explicitly deform Hilbert schemes of rank 1 sheaves on a non-reduced scheme $`R=2C`$ to solutions of Hitchin’s equations for which the twisted-bundle-endomorphism $`\varphi `$ is nilpotent (the “nilpotent cone”). In effect, \[4, section 1\] describes how to recover scalars that look like $`N\times N`$ matrices from non-reduced schemes. (Admittedly, however, such a description is implicit, not explicit, in their work.) In particular, our “intuitive explanations” for the components of the Hilbert scheme of rank 1 sheaves on $`R`$ have a firm footing.

## 5 Nonlocality

One of the oft-quoted reasons for the popularity of noncommutative geometry is a certain notion of nonlocality. There is also a notion of nonlocality in scheme theory.

More precisely, by “nonlocality” we are referring to the fact that in scheme theory, there is typically no notion of a “small” open set – all open sets are very large. The essential difficulty is that closed sets are specified as vanishing loci of holomorphic functions – so closed sets are complex codimension one or higher. Therefore, all open sets see most of the space.

Put another way, the topologies that are most natural here are not the same topologies that one typically learns about in the context of differential geometry, for example.

This fact leads to a number of nontrivial technical complications when working in scheme theory. For example, since there are no “small” open sets, there is no such thing as a tubular neighborhood. Workarounds exist for these difficulties – instead of trying to use tubular neighborhoods to study locally how subvarieties sit inside an ambient space, one instead uses deformation arguments (in this case, deformation to the normal cone).

We do not have any strong statements to make about this notion of nonlocality, its physical interpretation in general, or its relationship to the nonlocality bandied about in noncommutative geometry specifically. We are merely pointing that ideas of nonlocality, at least loosely analogous to those in noncommutative geometry, also exist in scheme theory.

## 6 Too much information?

One significant problem with any attempt to describe coincident D-branes in terms of non-reduced schemes is that non-reduced schemes appear to encode more information than D-branes do physically. More precisely, when subvarieties of some space collide, the resulting non-reduced scheme not only encodes the number of coincident subvarieties, but also the relative directions from which they came. (For example, it is this extra information that distinguishes a Hilbert scheme of $`N`$ points from a symmetric product.) Unfortunately, it is difficult to see how this extra information could appear physically.

The answer to this puzzle might be that scheme theory is only relevant for certain $`B`$ field backgrounds, analogous (perhaps even equivalent) to the occurrence of noncommutative geometry .

As a simple example, it was pointed out in  that this precise difficulty is solved for fat points by turning on a $`B`$ field. More precisely, in  it was argued that in the presence of a constant $`B`$ field background, torsion-free sheaves on $`𝐂^2`$ appear physically (as “noncommutative $`U(1)`$ instantons”). (The $`B`$ field appearing in  was of type (1,1), and so only generated noncommutativity between holonomorphic and nonholomorphic sectors. As emphasized to us by N. Nekrasov, if one restricts to holomorphic coordinates, the resulting ring is commutative, and so the noncommutative $`U(1)`$ instantons are truly the same thing as torsion-free sheaves.) Now, torsion-free sheaves encode the same information as fat points – the information about relative collision directions that confused us two paragraphs above appears physically as moduli of coincident noncommutative $`U(1)`$ instantons.

From the discussion in , we are led to suspect that scheme theory will only be physically relevant for certain nonzero $`B`$ field backgrounds, as such backgrounds naively seem to enable us to encode the information naturally present in scheme theory.

## 7 Conclusions and bolder conjectures

In this short note we have conjectured that scheme theory may be relevant for studying D-branes, and given some limited evidence for this proposal.

If indeed scheme theory is relevant for describing D-branes classically, one is naturally led to several further conjectures:

1. There is, at least naively, a natural candidate within scheme theory to understand large N limits. Namely, it seems very natural to try to describe large N limits in terms of completions, or formal schemes \[8, section II.9\]. (This idea was also pointed out in .)
2. One might be able to use scheme theory to shed new light on wrapped D-branes. For example, one can build schemes that are morally K3 surfaces (in that their dualizing sheaves are trivial and $`H^1`$ of their structure sheaf vanishes), but whose underlying topological space is merely some rational normal scroll . (Such schemes are known in the literature as K3 carpets.) Perhaps this is some scheme-theoretic way to think about the topological twisting on wrapped D-branes pointed out in .
3. It might be possible to explicitly see small instantons splitting off and becoming D-branes (described as torsion sheaves), as different components of some Hilbert scheme.
4. If the nonabelian gauge symmetry on D-branes has a scheme-theoretic understanding, then perhaps the $`\text{Spin}(32)/𝐙_2`$ gauge symmetry of type I strings also has a scheme-theoretic understanding, from viewing type I strings as D9-branes. It is difficult to see how such a gauge symmetry could arise in complex algebraic geometry; perhaps this arises from analogous ideas in real algebraic geometry.
5. One of the reasons mathematicians are fond of scheme theory is that it gives a unified framework in which to study both algebraic geometry and number theory. Perhaps some sort of scheme-theoretic approach to D-branes could be used to shed light on the number-theoretic ideas in .

We would again like to emphasize that we do not presently feel the ideas presented in this short note to be more than enticing conjectures. We hope to report on further developments along these lines at some point in the future.

## 8 Acknowledgements

We would like to thank P. Aspinwall, R. Donagi, D. Morrison, and R. Plesser for useful conversations.

This research was partially supported by National Science Foundation grant number DMS-0074072.


text:
# Weak binding limit and non zero angular momentum states in Light-Front Dynamics

## Abstract

We show some results concerning the weak binding limit for $`J=0`$ states – which turn out to strongly differ from the non relativistic case – together with the construction of non zero angular momentum states. The calculation of such states in the Light-Front Dynamics (LFD) framework has some peculiarities which are absent in other approaches. They are related to the fact that the rotation generators contain interaction. We present here the construction of non zero angular momentum states in LFD and show how it leads to a restoration of rotational invariance. For this purpose, the use of Light-Front Dynamics in its explicitly covariant formulation  is of crucial importance since the dependence of the wave function on the light-front plane is explicitly parametrized.

In the explicitly covariant version of LFD, the state vector is defined on a plane whose equation is written in the form: $`\omega x=\sigma `$, where $`\omega `$ is a light-like four-vector. The standard approach of LFD  is recovered for $`\omega =(1,0,0,1)`$. The dynamical equations for the state vector describing a physical system are obtained by imposing that it obeys the Poincaré group transformation laws and that it belongs to an irreducible representation. In addition, we are interested in systems with definite four-momentum $`p^\mu `$ and angular momentum projection $`\lambda `$, that is $`\mathrm{\Psi }`$ satisfies:

$`\widehat{P}^2\mathrm{\Psi }=M^2\mathrm{\Psi },\widehat{P}^\mu \mathrm{\Psi }=p^\mu \mathrm{\Psi },`$ (1)
$`\widehat{S}^2\mathrm{\Psi }=M^2J(J+1)\mathrm{\Psi },\widehat{S}_3\mathrm{\Psi }=M\lambda \mathrm{\Psi }.`$ (2)
$`\widehat{P}^\mu `$ is the four-momentum operator and $`\widehat{S}^\mu `$ the Pauli-Lubansky one, given by

$$\widehat{P}^\mu =T^{\mu \nu }(x)\delta (\omega x\sigma )\omega _\nu d^4x,\widehat{S}_\mu =\frac{1}{2}\epsilon _{\mu \nu \rho \sigma }\widehat{P}^\nu \widehat{J}^{\rho \sigma }$$

where $`T^{\mu \nu }`$ is the energy momentum tensor and $`M`$ the total mass of the system.

We consider a model consisting of two interacting scalar fields $`\phi `$ and $`\chi `$ with masses $`m`$ and $`\mu `$ respectively . The interaction Hamiltonian is $`=g\phi ^2\chi `$. The wave functions are the Fock components of the state vector and the kernels are restricted to the usual ladder approximation. We are looking for solutions written on a form which directly satisfies the four-momentum eigenvalue equation in (1). The mass eigenvalue equation in (1) results into a three-dimensional integral equation for the two-body Fock component $`\psi (\stackrel{}{k},\widehat{n})`$:

$`[4(\stackrel{}{k}^2+m^2)M^2]\psi (\stackrel{}{k},\widehat{n})={\displaystyle \frac{m^2}{2\pi ^3}}{\displaystyle \frac{d^3k^{}}{\epsilon _k^{}}V(\stackrel{}{k},\stackrel{}{k}^{},\widehat{n},M)\psi (\stackrel{}{k}^{},\widehat{n})}`$
$`\stackrel{}{k}`$ is the momentum of one particle in the system of reference where $`\stackrel{}{k}_1+\stackrel{}{k}_2=\stackrel{}{0}`$, $`\widehat{n}`$ is the unit vector in the direction of $`\stackrel{}{\omega }`$ and $`\epsilon _k=\sqrt{\stackrel{}{k}^2+m^2}`$. For $`J=0`$ state, $`\psi `$ is a scalar function depending on the scalars $`k`$ and $`\widehat{k}\widehat{n}`$. The kernel in the r.h.-side can be integrated analytically over the azimuthal angle and the equation is reduced to a two-dimensional one.

The solutions for this model in LFD have been obtained in  and turn to be very close to those provided by Bethe-Salpeter equation in a wide range of coupling constant, well beyond the perturbative region. We found in particular (see figure 1), that for $`\mu 0`$ and in the zero binding limit, the results for both equations – indistinguished in Figure (b) – dramatically depart from the non-relativistic theory, that is Schrödinger equation with a Yukawa potential. This difference vanishes for $`\mu =0`$ and increases with $`\mu `$. We conclude from that to the irrelevance of a non-relativistic approach to describe systems interacting via massive fields, what is the case of all the strong interaction physics when not described by gluons.

Equations (2) determine the total angular momentum $`J`$ and its projection $`\lambda `$. They contain interaction and this interaction dependence is not easy to deal with. To circumvent this difficulty, we make use of the so-called angular condition, derived from the transformation properties of the state vector under rotations of the light-front plane. In the same way the time dependence is given by Schrödinger equation, the dependence on the the light-front direction $`\omega `$ is given by

$`\widehat{L}_{\mu \nu }(\omega )\mathrm{\Psi }_\omega (p)=\widehat{J}_{\mu \nu }^{int}\mathrm{\Psi }_\omega (p)`$ (3)
where $`\widehat{J}_{\mu \nu }^{int}`$ is the interacting part of the angular momentum tensor $`\widehat{J}_{\mu \nu }`$ and $`\widehat{L}_{\mu \nu }`$ reads

$`\widehat{L}_{\mu \nu }(\omega )=i\left(\omega _\mu {\displaystyle \frac{}{\omega ^\nu }}\omega _\nu {\displaystyle \frac{}{\omega ^\mu }}\right)`$
Assuming that the state vector satisfies (3), we can replace in the Pauli-Lubansky operator $`\widehat{J}_{\mu \nu }^{int}`$ by $`\widehat{L}^{\mu \nu }`$. Namely, instead of the dynamical angular momentum tensor $`\widehat{J}^{\mu \nu }`$ we introduce the operator $`\widehat{M}_{\mu \nu }=\widehat{J}_{\mu \nu }^0+\widehat{L}_{\mu \nu }`$. The set $`\widehat{P}_\mu `$ and $`\widehat{M}_{\mu \nu }`$ form an algebra of the Poincaré group in the same way as $`\widehat{P}_\mu `$ and $`\widehat{J}_{\mu \nu }`$ do. We thus construct a new Pauli-Lubansky vector: $`\widehat{W}_\mu =\frac{1}{2}\epsilon _{\mu \nu \rho \sigma }\widehat{P}^\nu \widehat{M}^{\rho \sigma }`$ and, provided $`\mathrm{\Psi }`$ verifies the angular condition, equations (2) can be replaced by

$$\widehat{W}^2\mathrm{\Psi }=M^2J(J+1)\mathrm{\Psi },\widehat{W}^3\mathrm{\Psi }=M\lambda \mathrm{\Psi }$$
(4)
We deal now with an extended Fock space, where $`\omega `$ is not a fixed parameter but a four-vector variable. Since $`\mathrm{\Psi }`$ is an eigenvector of $`P^\mu `$, equations (4) determining the angular momentum are purely kinematical. Therefore, their solutions can be found using the standard methods of the theory of angular momentum.

Now, to construct $`J0`$ states, we start solving the mass and four-momentum equations (1) together with equations (4). This procedure gives $`2J+1`$ solutions which, in a full Fock space, are degenerated in mass . Indeed, it is readily verified that the operator $`\widehat{A}^2=(\omega \widehat{W})^2`$ commutes with $`P^\mu ,W^2,W_3`$ and with parity. Therefore the state vector satisfying (1) and (4) is characterized not only by its mass, momentum and angular momentum, but also by the eigenvalues $`a^2`$ of $`\widehat{A}^2`$: $`\widehat{A}^2\mathrm{\Psi }_a=a^2\mathrm{\Psi }_a`$. The operator $`\widehat{A}^2`$ has $`J+1`$ eigenvalues and $`2J+1`$ eigenfunctions which are split in two families of opposite parities.

$`\widehat{A}^2`$ commutes also with $`\widehat{S}^2`$ but not with the operator $`\widehat{L}_{\mu \nu }\widehat{J}_{\mu \nu }^{int}`$, that is the states $`\mathrm{\Psi }_a`$ do not satisfy the angular condition (3). The physical solution, i.e. the solution satisfying the angular condition, is constructed from a superposition of the degenerated states $`\mathrm{\Psi }_a`$:

$$\mathrm{\Psi }_{J\lambda }=c_a\mathrm{\Psi }_a$$
(5)
with coefficients $`c_a`$ chosen such that $`\mathrm{\Psi }_{J\lambda }`$ satisfies (3).

Let us summarize the way we construct states with definite angular momentum. Instead of dynamical equations (1) and (2), we solve equations (1) together with the kinematical ones (4). To have the full equivalence between both systems of equations, the solutions must be constructed as a superposition satisfying the angular condition (3).

We propose a simple method to find the right linear combination without explicitly solving (3). It is based on the fact that, when $`k0`$, the interaction part $`J_{\mu \nu }^{int}`$ is irrelevant and the angular condition reads: $`\widehat{L}_{\mu \nu }\mathrm{\Psi }=0`$. Thus in this limit, $`\mathrm{\Psi }`$ does not depend on the light-front plane direction and hence should not depend on $`\widehat{n}`$ anymore. This unambiguously determines the coefficients of the superposition.

Our method is hereafter explicited for the case $`J=1^{}`$ but the results will be given for $`J=2`$ states as well. We are looking for solution of (1) and (4) with $`J=1^{}`$, which are also eigenvectors of $`\widehat{A}^2`$. The general form of these solutions reads $`\stackrel{}{\psi }_a(\widehat{k},\widehat{n})=\stackrel{}{\chi }_a(\widehat{k},\widehat{n})g_a(k,z)`$ where $`z=\widehat{n}\widehat{k}`$ and $`\stackrel{}{\chi }_a(\widehat{k},\widehat{n})`$ are given by

$`\stackrel{}{\chi }_0(\widehat{k},\widehat{n})=3z\widehat{n}\stackrel{}{\chi }_1(\widehat{k},\widehat{n})={\displaystyle \frac{3\sqrt{2}}{2}}(\widehat{k}z\widehat{n})`$
The scalar functions $`g_0(k,z)`$ and $`g_1(k,z)`$ satisfy:

$`[4(\stackrel{}{k}^2+m^2)M_0^2]zg_0(k,z)={\displaystyle \frac{m^2}{2\pi ^3}}{\displaystyle \frac{d^3k^{}}{\epsilon _k^{}}V(\stackrel{}{k}^{},\stackrel{}{k},\widehat{n},M_0)z^{}g_0(k^{},z^{})}`$ (6)
$`[4(\stackrel{}{k}^2+m^2)M_1^2](1z^2)g_1(k,z)`$
$`={\displaystyle \frac{m^2}{2\pi ^3}}{\displaystyle \frac{d^3k^{}}{\epsilon _k^{}}V(\stackrel{}{k}^{},\stackrel{}{k},\widehat{n},M_1)(\widehat{k}\widehat{k}^{}zz^{})g_1(k^{},z^{})}`$ (7)
As a consequence of the Fock space truncation, the mass degeneracy of states with different $`a`$ is violated. These states are split: different $`a`$’s correspond to different masses. Therefore equations (6) and (7) give two solutions with different masses $`M_0`$ and $`M_1`$. It was found in  that the splitting reduces when the two-boson exchanges, incorporating effectively higher Fock states, are added to the kernel. According to (5), the physical solution is

$$\stackrel{}{\psi }(\stackrel{}{k},\widehat{n})=c_0\stackrel{}{\psi }_0(\stackrel{}{k},\widehat{n})+c_1\stackrel{}{\psi }_1(\stackrel{}{k},\widehat{n})$$
(8)
with $`c_0`$ and $`c_1`$ determined by the condition that in the vicinity of $`k=0`$ $`\stackrel{}{\psi }(\stackrel{}{k},\widehat{n})k`$ is independent of $`\widehat{n}`$, which leads to

$$c_0=h_1/\sqrt{2+h_1^2}c_1=\sqrt{2}/\sqrt{2+h_1^2}$$

with $`h_1=lim_{k0}\frac{g_1(k,z)}{g_0(k,z)}`$. The coefficients $`c_0`$ and $`c_1`$, which in principle depend on $`\alpha `$, were found to be very close to $`\sqrt{\frac{1}{3}}`$ and $`\sqrt{\frac{2}{3}}`$ (with the accuracy $`1\%`$). We emphasize that we take the superposition (8) inspite of the fact that $`\stackrel{}{\psi }_{0,1}`$ correspond to different masses and the mass of the physical solution is

$$M^2=c_0^2M_0^2+c_1^2M_1^2$$

In Figure 3 the masses of $`2s`$ state are shown, together with $`M_0`$, $`M_1`$ and the physical mass of the $`1p`$ state $`M`$, as functions of the coupling constant $`\alpha =g^2/16\pi m^2`$. It is seen that the degeneracy which exists between $`2s`$ and $`1p`$ states in the case $`\mu =0`$ is restored up to a high accuracy. This is also the case for $`3s`$ and $`2p`$ states in Figure 3. Furthermore the physical masses $`M`$ are shown to be close to those provided by the resolution of Bethe-Salpeter equation, whereas the two approaches do not have the same diagrammatical content.

We display in Figure 4 the equivalent results for $`J=2`$, i.e. the $`3s`$-$`1d`$ degeneracy. Let us however mention that the case $`J>1`$ has some specificities which require some care, and will be presented elsewhere.

As a summary, by studying the zero binding limit, we come to the conclusion that composite systems strongly interacting via a massive exchange cannot be properly described by a non relativistic dynamics . Furthermore, we have developed a method to construct non zero angular momentum states in the explicitly covariant LFD framework. The results presented for $`J=1`$ and $`J=2`$ show that the rotational degeneracy in the case of a massless exchange is restored up to a high level of accuracy, and that binding energies are close to Bethe-Salpeter ones. The construction of $`J0`$ states proposed has been applied to a scalar model: the next challenge is the description of fermionic systems.


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# Fragmentation of a Protostellar Core: The Case of CB 230

## 1. Motivation and observations

Binary systems have been observed in all pre-main-sequence stages of evolution and there is growing evidence for proto-binary systems, although the numbers are still small (Mundy, this volume). Both theory and observations support the hypothesis that most binary systems form by fragmentation during the gravitational collapse of molecular cloud cores. We have started a program of high angular resolution observations to study the early formation process of binary stars in detail, using the Owens Valley Radio Observatory (OVRO) millimeter array.

This paper presents new observations of the protostellar core in the Bok globule CB 230 ($`D`$ = 450 pc). CB 230 contains a dense core (Launhardt et al. 1997, 1998, 2000) and two associated NIR reflection nebulae separated by $``$10′′ (Yun 1996; Launhardt 1996, Fig.1). The western nebula is bipolar, with a bright northern lobe perfectly aligned with the blue lobe of a collimated CO outflow (cf. Yun & Clemens 1994, Fig.3). The eastern nebula is much fainter and redder and displays no bipolar structure. No associated stars are visible.

CB 230 was observed at 1.2 and 3 mm with the OVRO mm array in spring 2000. The mm continuum emission traced the optically thin thermal dust emission, while molecular gas was traced by the N2H+(1–0) and 13CO(1–0) lines at 93 and at 110 GHz, respectively. N2H+(1–0) comprises seven hyperfine components and, compared to other molecules, depletes later and more slowly onto grains (Bergin & Langer 1997). It is a reliable indicator of the morphology and kinematics of protostellar cores. 13CO traces the small-scale structure of the outflow near the driving sources. Beam sizes for the different observations vary from 1′′ to 10′′, and the spectral resolution was $``$0.2 km/s.

## 2. Results

### 2.1. Morphology and kinematics of the double core

The NIR morphology of CB 230 suggests the presence of two deeply embedded YSO’s separated by $``$10′′ (Fig. 1b). These were not resolved in previous single-dish mm observations. With higher angular resolution observations in a reasonably optically thin line which is unlikely to deplete in protostellar cores (N2H+(1-0)), the puzzle is solved.

At 9′′ resolution, the N2H+ maps show that the molecular cloud core is elongated E-W and consists of two sub-cores separated in space (10′′ $``$ 4500 AU) and velocity. Each sub-core coincides spatially with one of the two NIR nebulae (Fig. 1b). The velocity field and the position-velocity (p-v) diagram along the major axis indicate that the double core rotates with $`\omega `$$``$ 2$`\times `$10-13 s-1 around an axis perpendicular to connecting line of the sub-cores and approximately parallel to the large-scale outflow axis (Figs. 1b and d). At higher angular resolution (4.5′′), the stronger western sub-core splits up into two separate maxima located almost symmetric to the mm continuum source at the origin of the western outflow and NIR nebula (Fig.1c). Since there is also a large velocity gradient along this double-peaked western sub-core, it can be interpreted as a thick gaseous disk or torus with $`R1600`$ AU, rotating at a rate of $`\omega `$$``$ 5$`\times `$10-13 s-1 around the embedded accretion disk (see Sect.2.2). Despite its smaller size, this torus has about the same specific angular momentum as the entire cloud core, $`J/M`$$``$ 5$`\times `$10-17 pc2 s-1, suggesting that it has rotationally decoupled from the cloud core.

### 2.2. Dust continuum emission from embedded disk(s)

Strong 1 mm continuum emission peaks at the origin of the western bipolar NIR nebula (Fig. 2a). This dust emission is extended towards the eastern NIR nebula. The total mass of the CB 230 core implied is 7 M, of which $``$2 M can be attributed to the unresolved central condensation (Launhardt et al. 2000). Figure 2a explains the north-south asymmetry of the western bipolar nebula; the southern (redshifted) lobe is heavily obscured by dust in the dense core, while in the nortern (blueshifted) lobe we are looking directly into the outflow cone. The OVRO 1 mm dust continuum map shows a compact source associated with the origin of the western bipolar nebula and outflow (Fig.2b). It is unresolved in the 1′′ beam, suggesting the presence of an embedded accretion disk with radius $`R`$$`<`$ 200 AU and mass $`M`$$``$ 0.1 $`M_{}`$. A significant contribution by free-free emission can be ruled out since the bolometric luminosity of the entire cloud core of 11 L points to a low-mass protostar with no capability to ionize its environment (Launhardt et al. 1997). The eastern source may be too faint to detect ($`<`$2 mJy at 3mm and $`<`$10 mJy at 1mm; $`M`$$`<`$ 0.006 $`M_{}`$) or simply lack a disk.

### 2.3. The outflow is also double

The OVRO 13CO(1–0) map of CB 230 at 4′′ resolution reveals that the large-scale outflow discovered by Yun & Clemens (1994) is actually composed of two approximately co-oriented pairs of lobes. The outflow centers are $``$10′′ apart and coincide with the assumed origins of the two NIR reflection nebulae, thus confirming the presence of two embedded protostars (Fig. 3). The outflow velocities are small ($`\mathrm{\Delta }v_{\mathrm{mean}}0.7`$ km/s, $`\mathrm{\Delta }v_{\mathrm{max}}1`$ km/s) and the exact alignment cannot be derived since the southern, red lobes overlap. The extended 13CO gas at the rest velocity of the cloud core ($`v_{\mathrm{LSR}}=2.9\pm 0.2`$ km/s) is completely resolved out in the interferometer image.

## 3. CB 230 in the framework of binary star formation

The globule CB 230 contains an embedded, wide binary protostellar system with a projected separation of $`4500`$ AU, placing the system at the upper end of the pre-main sequence binary separation distribution (Mathieu 1994). The specific angular momentum of the double core is $`J/M`$$``$ 5$`\times `$10-17 pc2 s-1, which is at the lower end of values for dense cores in dark clouds (e.g., Goodman et al. 1993), but still at the upper end of the range for pre-main sequence binary star systems (Simon et al. 1995). In this sense, the CB 230 system closes the gap between pre-star-forming molecular cloud cores and young binary star systems. The ratio of rotational kinetic to gravitational energy of the double core is $`\beta 0.01`$. This value is too small to explain the binary formation due to pure rotational fission, but large enough to be consistent with fragmentation of a slowly rotating, magnetically supported cloud (Bodenheimer, Boss, Klein, this volume).

## References

Bergin, E.A., & Langer, W.D. 1997, ApJ, 486, 316

Goodman, A.A., Benson, P.J., Fuller, G.A., & Myers, P.C 1993, ApJ, 406, 528

Launhardt, R. 1996, PhD thesis, University of Jena

Launhardt, R., & Henning, Th. 1997, A&A, 326, 329

Launhardt, R., Evans II, N.J., Wang J., et al. 1997, ApJS, 119, 59

Launhardt, R. Ward-Thompson, D., & Henning Th. 1998, MNRAS, 288, L45

Launhardt, R., Henning, Th., & Zylka, R. 2000, in preparation

Mathieu, R.D. 1994, ARA&A, 32, 465

Simon, M., Ghez, A.M., Leinert, Ch., et al. 1995, ApJ, 443, 625

Yun, J.L. & Clemens, D.P. 1994, ApJS, 92, 145

Yun, J.L. 1996, AJ, 111, 930


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# Influence of carbon and nitrogen on electronic structure and hyperfine interactions in fcc iron-based alloys

## 1 Introduction

Face centered cubic (fcc) iron-based alloys are widely used for developing of stainless austenitic steels especially for using in critical temperature ranges, aggressive environment and other severe external conditions. Doping of these steels with light interstitial impurities influence mechanics and kinetics of structure phase transitions in Fe-based alloys. Nitrogen doping enables to solve the problem of the strengthening of stainless steels.

Carbon and nitrogen doping differently influence structure and mechanical properties of austenites. Studying of this effect by means of Mössbauer spectroscopy determined substantial differences in spectra of carbon and nitrogen austenitic steels (Sozinov et al1997, 1999). A lot of information, containing in Mössbauer spectra as well as high accuracy of measurements lead to the fact that detailed interpretation of these experimental results appears to be a very complicated problem and needs application of high-accuracy theoretical methods.

The role of ab initio calculations in the area of solid state research rapidly increased last years. Step by step semiempirical methods, containing a lot of parameters, are replaced by calculations from first principles. We observe the extension of application field of ab initio quantum mechanical methods of calculations of electronic structure and physical properties of solids. Last years these methods are more often used for solving not only fundamental, but also applied problems.

In this paper we study the influence of carbon and nitrogen on atomic and electronic structure of fcc-iron. Mössbauer spectroscopy gives the most interesting data about impurity distributions, electronic structure and magnetic interactions in solids. The study of shifts and splitting of nuclear energy levels gives information about symmetry of charge distributions near the nucleus, electronic configurations of atoms and ions as well as about peculiarities of atomic structure of solids. We believe that detailed interpretation of these experimental data using single up-to-date ab-initio approach is an important step in investigation of the influence of light impurities (C,N) in case of real Fe(fcc) - based alloys.

## 2 Atomic structure

Up to now there is no full understanding of influence of carbon and nitrogen atoms on atomic and electronic structure of fcc Fe-C and Fe-N alloys. Based on Mössbauer spectroscopy data different authors made different conclusions about atomic structure of carbon and nitrogen Fe-based fcc alloys. For example, the group of Genin concluded that carbon distribution in fcc Fe-C alloy is close to the ordered Fe8C1-x structure (Bauer et al1990). On the other hand, the group of Gavriljuk using another method of Mössbauer spectrum deconvolution and after performing Monte Carlo computer simulations showed that formation of the ordered Fe8C1-x structure is improbable (Sozinov et al1997).

In this paper we are trying to solve two problems: to study differences in electronic structure of carbon and nitrogen austenites, and to perform detailed interpretation of Mössbauer experimental data for Fe-N and Fe-C alloys. As an object of our investigations we chose model Fe8C and Fe8N fcc-type superstructures. The same type of C and N ordering in this structures allow us to determine peculiarities of electronic structure and hyperfine interaction parameters, connected only with different influence of two types of impurity atoms.

Calculations were performed by applying highly accurate WIEN97 programme package (Blaha et al1999), which employs full-potential LAPW method (Singh 1994a). Generalized gradient approximation (GGA) according to Perdew-Burke-Ernzerhof (Perdew et al1996) model was used for exchange-correlation potential. The value of plane-wave cutoff was $`R_{mt}\times K_{max}=8.4`$ which corresponds to about 190 plane waves per atom in the basis set. Inside atomic spheres the wave function was decomposed up to $`l_{max}=12`$. Charge density and potential was decomposed inside atomic spheres using lattice harmonics basis up to $`L_{max}=6`$. In the interstitial region Fourier expansion was used with 847 coefficients. Calculations were performed for 3000 K-points in the Brrillouin zone. The radii of atomic spheres were chosen as 1.9 a.u. for Fe atoms and 1.6 a.u for N(C) atoms. Standard LAPW basis set was expanded by including local orbitals (Singh 1994b) for Fe$`3s3p`$ \- states and N(C)$`2s`$ \- states. The values of all parameters were tested for convergence and ensure accuracy of 0.1 mRy in total energy of the system. In order to check the role of local magnetic moments on Fe atoms, all calculations were performed using spin-polarized approximation.

Figure 1 presents Fe8A supercell (Fm$`\overline{3}`$m, No.225), which was used for calculations. The structure has two symmetry types of Fe atoms: Fe1 type forms octahedron around impurity atom (has one impurity atom in the first coordination sphere); Fe0 type has no impurity atoms in the first coordination sphere. Before we performed the final electronic structure and hyperfine interaction parameters calculations, total energy minimization procedure was performed to obtain equilibrium positions of atoms. The lattice constant as well as the size of Fe1-octahedron were varied to achieve total energy minimum. Optimization results were approximated by second-order polynomials using least square fit method. Then we analytically found the values of lattice parameters and positions of Fe-octahedron atoms. Calculated and experimental values of lattice parameters as well as calculated distance between Fe and C(N) atoms are presented in table 1. Optimization results for iron nitride Fe4N are also presented. Good agreement with experiment shows that the method can be successfully applied for iron-nitrogen (iron-carbon) compounds.

## 3 Electronic structure

Figure 2 presents total and partial density of states for Fe, C and N atoms in Fe8A compounds. The main difference in electronic structure of two compounds is the energy position of impurity $`2p`$ states. In Fe8C carbon $`2p`$ states are located right below the $`d`$-band of iron. In Fe8N nitrogen $`2p`$ states are located 2 eV below the bottom of Fe $`d`$-band. This difference in energy positions of C and N $`2p`$ states leads to essential difference in the character of chemical bonding in these two compounds. In Fe8C we see stronger $`pd`$ hybridization compare to Fe8N compound. The width of N $`2p`$-band is twice shorter than corresponding $`2p`$-band of carbon. This probably leads to much higher Fe-C interaction compare to Fe-N interaction.

The difference in energy distribution of valent electrons leads to considerable difference in electronic density distribution in Fe8N and Fe8C. Figure 3 presents electronic density distribution in (100) plane for two energy intervals: $`2p`$ states of impurity atoms and $`3d`$ states of iron in Fe8N and Fe8C compounds. Nitrogen $`2p`$ electrons are much more localized (figure 3a) compare to $`2p`$ electrons of carbon (figure 3c). Charge distribution around Fe1 atom in Fe8C is more symmetric (figure 3d) compare to corresponding charge distribution in Fe8N (figure 3b). It should be noted that impurity atoms cause asymmetric charge distribution around Fe1 atom. This also leads to asymmetric charge distribution of $`d`$ electrons around Fe1 atom. These effects greatly influence electric field gradient (EFG) at Fe1 nuclei, which can be measured as quadrupole splitting in Mössbauer spectra of these two compounds.

## 4 Hyperfine interactions in Fe8N and Fe8C

For our structures 57Fe nucleus quadrupole splitting is given by the following expression:

$$\mathrm{\Delta }=\frac{1}{2}eQV_{zz},$$
(1)
where $`Q`$ \- quadrupole moment of the nucleus and $`V_{zz}`$ \- principal component of electric field gradient (EFG) tensor.

In our calculations we used Q57Fe =0.16$`b`$, which was determined by Dufek, Blaha and Schwarz (1995) by comparing experimental quadrupole splitting and calculated EFG values for a large number of different Fe compounds. EFG is calculated on ab-initio basis directly from electronic density distribution using method, developed by Blaha, Schwarz and Herzig (1985).

Table 2 presents our theoretical results for quadrupole splitting as well as experimental data for carbon and nitrogen austenites, obtained by several groups. We see that reasonable agreement with experiment is obtained for Fe-C alloy. This leads to conclusion that local environment of Fe1 atom in real alloy is close to Fe1 environment in our model Fe8C superstructure. This is also supported by the fact that according to experimental data (Bauer et al1988, Gavriljuk and Nadutov 1983, Oda et al1994) Fe-C austenite has only Fe0 and Fe1 atoms, which corresponds to Fe configurations in our model superstructure. On the other side, in Fe-N austenite Mössbauer spectrum is formed by contributions from Fe0, Fe1 and Fe$`_{2180^o}`$ (dumb-bell configuration) atoms (Oda et al1990, Foct et al1987, Gavriljuk et al1990). Both absence of Fe$`_{2180^o}`$ atoms in our structure and bad agreement with experiment shows that Fe-N austenite can not be modeled by Fe8N superstructure.

Our calculation shows that contribution to Vzz (the principal component of EFG tensor) from the regions outside the spheres (lattice EFG) is 5%, 3% and 10% for Fe8N, Fe8C and Fe4N respectively. So, for understanding of the origin of the EFG we focus on its main component, the valence EFG, which originates from the space inside the atomic spheres. The ingredients for the calculation of the valence EFG are the density coefficients $`\rho _{2M}`$, which originate from two radial wave functions with $`l`$ and $`l^{}`$:

$$\rho _{LM}(r)=\underset{E<E_F}{}\underset{l,m}{}\underset{l^{},m^{}}{}R_{lm}(r)R_{l^{}m^{}}(r)G_{Lll^{}}^{Mmm^{}},$$
(2)
where $`R_{lm}(r)`$ \- LAPW radial wave functions, $`G_{Lll^{}}^{Mmm^{}}`$ \- Gaunt integrals.

We performed comparative analysis of EFG formation for Fe8N and Fe8C structures. Table 2 and table 3 show that total EFG and quadrupole splitting is almost 3 times larger in Fe8C structure compare to Fe8N. By performing the analysis of mechanisms of EFG formation, we tried to find out the reasons of this considerable difference. First of all it is obvious that contribution from Fe $`3s3p`$ energy interval remains constant while going from nitrogen to carbon compound. This means that redistribution of electronic density in this region is not considerable and can not influence total EFG increasing. We observe increase of negative contribution from C $`2s`$ interval, but it is also not considerable. Moreover, the sum of contributions from impurity $`2s2p`$ energy interval remains almost constant while going from nitrogen to carbon. This means that the main reason of EFG increasing is redistribution of charge density in Fe $`3d`$ band (and partially in impurity $`2p`$ band).

In Fe8N $`2p3d`$-band EFG contribution is positive, which decreases total EFG. In Fe8C this contribution is negative and increases total EFG. In Fe8C charge distributions in $`2p`$ and $`3d`$ bands is more symmetric than in Fe8N. While going from N to C the relative increasing of symmetry of $`3d`$ charge distribution is much larger than relative increasing of symmetry of $`2p`$ charge distribution, which leads to smaller EFG compensation and, as a result, to negative contribution from $`2p3d`$-band.

Let us now consider partial EFG contributions ($`pp`$, $`dd`$) inside Fe1 sphere (other symmetry contributions like $`sd`$, etc. are negligibly small and can not determine EFG formation). While going from N to C we observe relatively small increase of the absolute value of $`pp`$ contribution and quite large decrease of $`dd`$ contribution. As far as $`dd`$ contribution is mostly formed by own Fe$`3d`$ electrons, we can make a conclusion that while going from N to C the increasing of space symmetry of Fe $`3d`$ electrons causes stronger influence of the asymmetric distribution of $`2s`$ and $`2p`$ electrons of the impurity, located in Fe1 sphere.

Finally we tried to analyze the reasons of symmetry increase of $`3d`$-band charge distribution in Fe8C. Let us consider partial EFG contributions only for $`3d`$-band. In Fe8N $`pp`$ and $`dd`$ contributions are both positive and decrease total (negative) EFG. In Fe8C situation is different: $`pp`$ contribution becomes negative and its absolute value becomes twice larger. This decreases positive $`dd`$ contribution and causes the increase of total EFG.

## 5 Summary

The results of our full-potential band structure calculations of Fe8N and Fe8C structures lead to the following conclusions. We observe that in Fe8C chemical Fe-C bonding is more covalent compare to Fe-N bonding in Fe8N. Fe-C austenite can be successfully modeled by ordered Fe8C superstructure, containing iron atoms in Fe0 and Fe1 configurations. Calculated quadrupole splitting is in good agreement with experimental values.

We performed detailed analysis of EFG formation on Fe nuclei in this structure. The main EFG contribution in made by carbon 2s and 2p states. The contributions of these two states appear to be almost equal. Carbon states contributions are greatly canceled by asymmetry of space distribution of Fe$`3d`$-electrons.

We also calculated structure, magnetic and hyperfine interaction parameters for ordered iron nitride Fe4N structure. The results of our calculations are in excellent agreement with experimental data.

We come to conclusion that Fe-N austenite can not be modeled by Fe8N structure. The results of our calculations show that nitrogen distribution in real Fe-N alloy is different from nitrogen distribution in Fe8N structure.

## References


text:
# Prospects for future far-infrared/submillimeter studies of the high-redshift Universe

## 1. Introduction

The determination of the intensity of extragalactic background radiation in the submm and far-infrared wavebands has been a very important development in observational cosmology (Puget et al. 1996; Hauser et al. 1998; Schlegel, Finkbeiner & Davis 1998; Finkbeiner, Davis, & Schlegel 2000). Over the same period, the first observations that were sufficiently deep to detect high-redshift galaxies in the mm, submm and far-infrared wavebands were made using the 1.25-mm MAMBO bolometer camera at the IRAM 30-m telescope (Bertoldi et al. 2000), the 450/850-$`\mu `$m SCUBA camera at the JCMT (Smail, Ivison, & Blain 1997; for a current summary see Blain et al. 2000a) and the PHOT instrument aboard ISO (Kawara et al. 1998; Puget et al. 1999; Juvela, Mattila, & Lemke 2000). Most of the results for both counts and background have been summarized elsewhere, see for example Figs 9 and 12 in Blain et al. (1999b). Progress has been rapid: not only has the background radiation spectrum been determined for the first time, but most of the 850-$`\mu `$m background radiation, and about 30% and 10% of the background at wavelengths of 450 and 175 $`\mu `$m respectively has been accounted for as coming from individual detected galaxies.

This progress has been possible only because of tremendous improvements in the sensitivity and field of view of instruments in these wavebands. Many instrumental references can be found in Blain (1999a): to save space in this brief article they are generally not repeated here. The important pieces of missing information and the prospects for future developments of observations in the mm, submm and far-infrared wavebands are discussed below.

## 2. Key missing information – redshifts of submm-selected galaxies

The mm–far-infrared background radiation spectrum is generated by thermal emission from interstellar dust in all the galaxies that lie along the line of sight, right back to the epochs when the first dust was formed during the early process of galaxy formation. It potentially includes emission from redshifts beyond recombination, as a neutral Universe is transparent to long-wavelength radiation. The intensity and spectral shape of the background radiation provides information about the volume emissivity, intrinsic spectral energy distribution and redshift of dusty galaxies; however, this information is not unambiguous. The counts of galaxies that make up the brighter fraction of the population contributing to the background can be used to refine and confirm the results of analyses of the background spectrum, but unfortunately neither the values of these quantities nor different scenarios of galaxy evolution can be distinguished strongly. Indeed, from the background and count data alone, the median redshift of galaxies detected in deep SCUBA images at 850-$`\mu `$m could plausibly lie between 1 and 5. In order to discriminate between different well fitting models, measurements of redshift distributions are necessary; determinations of accurate counts at other mm/submm wavebands are useful, but less important. For more details see Blain et al. (1999a,b)

Unfortunately, the redshift distribution of SCUBA galaxies is hard to determine for two reasons. First, it is difficult to identify counterparts for submm-selected galaxies in other wavebands because their positions are relatively uncertain. The JCMT beam is 15 arcsec wide, and so the centroids of even the most significant detections are uncertain to within several arcseconds. Secondly, counterparts are reasonably expected to be extremely faint, perhaps so faint that optical spectroscopy will remain challenging until NGST is available (Smail et al. 2000).

Deep radio observations are very useful for finding the positions of counterparts (Ivison et al. 1998; 2000). The flux density ratio between the submm and radio wavebands can also be used to provide an indication of redshift (Carilli & Yun 1999, 2000; Smail et al. 2000; Barger, Cowie, & Richards 2000). Note however that the result is offset to lower values by the presence of any radio emission from a buried AGN, and depends on the dust temperature in the galaxy (Blain 1999b), with hotter galaxies at higher redshifts being difficult to distinguish from cooler ones closer by. Observations of high-resolution dust emission using mm-wave interferometer arrays can also be used to obtain better positions (Downes et al. 1999; Frayer et al. 2000; Gear et al. 2000); however, accurate relative optical–mm astrometry may be difficult in the absence of deep radio data because of the small fields of both the optical and mm-array images.

To confirm an identification beyond reasonable doubt, it is necessary to obtain an optical/near-infrared redshift for the candidate and then detect CO line emission at the same redshift and position. However, this is a slow process and an accurate redshift is essential. So far only three submm-selected galaxies have been observed in this way (Frayer 1998, 1999; Kneib et al. in prep), less than 10% of those described in the literature. Future wide-band mm and submm spectrographs will improve this situation.

## 3. Future progress

At present, the SCUBA camera detects sources at the rate of about one per 8-hour shift at the JCMT. Within the next few years, new large-format mm–submm cameras on ground-based telescopes – including BOLOCAM for the CSO/50-m LMT, SHARC-II (Dowell, Moseley, & Phillips 2000) for the CSO and SCUBA-II for the JCMT – will offer more rapid detection rates and access new wavebands. At shorter wavelengths, the MIPS instrument onboard SIRTF, the HAWC camera aboard SOFIA and balloon-borne instruments such as BLAST (Devlin et al. 2000) will provide similar improvements over existing surveys. The simple increase in the detection rate of galaxies will assist follow-up studies by providing larger samples of objects to sift. In addition, the higher spatial resolution of images – from SCUBA-II at 450 $`\mu `$m, SHARC-II at 350 $`\mu `$m, and BOLOCAM at 1.1 mm on the LMT – will make the identification process easier. Wider survey fields and greater numbers of detections will allow large-scale statistical studies of the distribution and clustering of high-redshift dusty galaxies to be carried out (Haiman & Knox 2000).

There are also excellent prospects for more rapid detection of redshifted CO emission from candidate galaxies, mainly by increasing the bandwidth of instruments from the current maximum of 4 GHz to several 10’s of GHz. This will be sufficient to yield a realistic chance of detecting simultaneously adjacent CO lines – separated by $`115/(1+z)`$ GHz in the observer’s frame for a galaxy at redshift $`z`$ – from a submm-selected galaxy, and so determine a redshift without requiring optical observations (see Blain et al. 2000b; Blain 2000).

In the longer term, the ground-based ALMA interferometer array and space-borne mid- and far-IR interferometers such as SPECS will provide wide spectral coverage, sub-arcsec spatial resolution and great sensitivity. Using these instruments the detailed astrophysics within distant dusty galaxies will be resolved in detail. However, interferometers have small fields of view. Wide-field surveys made using the FIRST and Planck Surveyor space missions will be required provide extensive lists of targets, in addition to the legacy of observations left by surveys made using SIRTF and ASTRO-F (Takeuchi et al. 1999).

## 4. Summary

A wide range of new instruments for studying the evolution of galaxies in the mm, submm and far-infrared are proposed and under construction. Observations using these facilities will enhance significantly the size and spatial resolution of catalogs of galaxies selected in these wavebands, and the amount of spectroscopic information available. The goal of understanding the history of dust-enshrouded galaxy formation and evolution in detail by determining the redshift distributions of galaxies selected in these wavebands will be realized.

### Acknowledgments.

I thank the Raymond & Beverly Sackler Foundation, and ESO for support at the IAU meeting.

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