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# 1 Introduction

## 1 Introduction

Two dimensional nonlinear sigma models (NL$`\sigma `$M) have been interested in, since they have many similarities to four dimensional QCD such as asymptotic freedom, the mass gap, instantons and so on. Non-perturbative analyses of NL$`\sigma `$M can be easily done by the large-$`N`$ method. In the $`O(N)`$ model, the mass gap appears as non-perturbative effect. In the $`𝐂P^{N1}`$ model, a gauge boson is dynamically generated. $`𝒩=1`$ SUSY NL$`\sigma `$M (SNL$`\sigma `$M) have been also investigated. The $`𝒩=1`$ $`O(N)`$ model is simply a combination of the bosonic $`O(N)`$ NL$`\sigma `$M and the Gross-Neveu model which shows dynamical chiral symmetry breaking .

Along this line it is interesting to discuss non-perturbative analyses of $`𝒩=2`$ SNL$`\sigma `$M, since they may have similarities to four dimensional $`𝒩=1`$ QCD. To discuss non-perturbative effects of NL$`\sigma `$M by the large-$`N`$ method, it is necessary to reformulate them by the auxiliary field method. However there was no auxiliary field formulation of $`𝒩=2`$ SNL$`\sigma `$M except for the $`𝐂P^{N1}`$ and the Grassmann models . In this talk, we formulate $`𝒩=2`$ SNL$`\sigma `$M on hermitian symmetric spaces (HSS) $`G/H`$ (see Table 1) by the auxiliary field method . Since $`𝒩=2`$ SUSY in two dimensions is equivalent to $`𝒩=1`$ SUSY in four dimensions, we use the notation of four dimensions.

## 2 Auxiliary Field Formulation

### 2.1 SNL$`\sigma `$M without F-term constraints

It was recognized in Ref.  that the $`𝐂P^{N1}`$ model can be constructed by an auxiliary vector superfield $`V`$: Let $`\varphi `$ be dynamical chiral superfields belonging to $`𝐍`$ of $`SU(N)`$. Then its Kähler potential can be written as

$`K(\varphi ,\varphi ^{},V)=e^V\varphi ^{}\varphi cV,`$ (1)
where $`cV`$ is an Fayet-Iliopoulos (FI) D-term. ($`c`$ is a positive constant called an FI-parameter.)

This model can be immediately generalized to the Grassmann model, $`G_{N,M}(𝐂)`$ $`(N>M)`$ by replacing $`\varphi `$ by an $`N\times M`$ matrix chiral superfield $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$ and $`V`$ by an $`M\times M`$ matrix vector superfield $`V=V^AT_A`$, where $`T_A`$ are generators of $`U(M)`$ gauge group:

$`K(\mathrm{\Phi },\mathrm{\Phi }^{},V)=\mathrm{tr}(\mathrm{\Phi }^{}\mathrm{\Phi }e^V)c\mathrm{tr}V.`$ (2)
After we integrate out $`V`$ and fix a gauge in these models, we obtain Kähler potentials of the Fubini-Study metric of $`𝐂P^{N1}`$ and its generalization to the Grassmann manifold.

### 2.2 SNL$`\sigma `$M with F-term constraints

In this section, to obtain the rest of HSS, we introduce auxiliary chiral superfields $`\varphi _0`$ or $`\mathrm{\Phi }_0`$ besides auxiliary vector superfields and construct $`G`$-invariant superpotentials as summarized in Table 2 .

Integration over the auxiliary chiral superfields gives F-term constraints, which are holomorphic.

The simplest example is $`Q^{N2}(𝐂)`$, where dynamical fields constitute an $`SO(N)`$ vector $`\varphi `$. It can be embedded into $`𝐂P^{N1}`$ by an F-term constraint $`\varphi ^2=0`$. Hence an auxiliary chiral superfield is taken to be a singlet $`\varphi _0`$ and a superpotential to be $`W=\varphi _0\varphi ^2`$.

Both $`SO(2N)/U(N)`$ and $`Sp(N)/U(N)`$ can be embedded into $`G_{2N,N}`$ by F-term constraints $`\mathrm{\Phi }^TJ\mathrm{\Phi }=0`$, where $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$ is a $`2N\times N`$ matrix chiral superfield. Here $`J=\left(\begin{array}{cc}\mathrm{𝟎}& \mathrm{𝟏}_N\\ ϵ\mathrm{𝟏}_N& \mathrm{𝟎}\end{array}\right)`$, where $`ϵ=+1`$ (or $`1`$) for $`SO(2N)`$ (or $`Sp(N)`$). Then auxiliary chiral superfields constitute an $`N\times N`$ matrix $`\mathrm{\Phi }_0`$ belonging to the symmetric (anti-symmetric) tensor representation of $`SO(2N)`$ ($`Sp(N)`$), and the superpotential is $`W=\mathrm{tr}(\mathrm{\Phi }_0\mathrm{\Phi }^TJ\mathrm{\Phi })`$.

It is less trivial to find F-term constraints for $`E_6`$ and $`E_7`$ models. The F-term constraints are $`G`$-invariants ($`I_2`$ or $`I_{2}^{}{}_{}{}^{}`$ in Table 2) for the classical groups; on the other hand they are not $`G`$-invariants but the differentiation of $`G`$-invariants ($`I_3`$ or $`I_4`$ in Table 2) for the exceptional groups. We must introduce auxiliary chiral superfields $`\varphi _{0}^{}{}_{}{}^{i}`$ and $`\varphi _{0}^{}{}_{}{}^{\alpha }`$ ($`i=1,\mathrm{},27`$; $`\alpha =1,\mathrm{},56`$) belonging to the fundamental representations of $`E_6`$ and $`E_7`$. Superpotentials can be written as $`W=\mathrm{\Gamma }_{ijk}\varphi _{0}^{}{}_{}{}^{i}\varphi ^j\varphi ^k`$ and $`W=d_{\alpha \beta \gamma \delta }\varphi _{0}^{}{}_{}{}^{\alpha }\varphi ^\beta \varphi ^\gamma \varphi ^\delta `$ for $`E_6`$ and $`E_7`$ models, where $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ and $`d`$ are rank-$`3`$ and rank-$`4`$ symmetric tensors of $`E_6`$ and $`E_7`$, respectively. At first sight one might consider the number of the F-term constraints are too large. However some of them are not independent due to the identities of invariant tensors $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ and $`d`$. (Only $`10`$ of $`27`$ equations and $`28`$ of $`56`$ equations are independent for $`E_6`$ and $`E_7`$ cases, respectively.)

## 3 Integration over Auxiliary Fields

The path integration over auxiliary chiral superfields $`\varphi _0`$ or $`\mathrm{\Phi }_0`$ is easy since they are linear in the lagrangian; on the other hand, the path integration over auxiliary vector superfields $`V`$ is nontrivial. However we can perform integration over $`V`$ exactly although they are not quadratic . The result for Abelian $`V`$ is

$`{\displaystyle [dV]\mathrm{exp}\left[id^Dxd^4\theta \left(\varphi ^{}\varphi e^VcV\right)\right]}=\mathrm{exp}\left[i{\displaystyle d^Dxd^4\theta c\mathrm{log}(\varphi ^{}\varphi )}\right].`$ (3)
This coincides with the result obtained by the equation of motion of $`V`$. Its coincidence is highly nontrivial since there are infinite number of corrections in bosonic cases. Eq. (3) can be proved by the following theorem.
Theorem. Let $`\sigma (x,\theta ,\overline{\theta })`$ and $`\mathrm{\Phi }(x,\theta ,\overline{\theta })`$ be vector superfields and $`W`$ be a function of $`\sigma `$. Then,

$`{\displaystyle [d\sigma ]\mathrm{exp}\left[id^Dxd^4\theta (\sigma \mathrm{\Phi }W(\sigma ))\right]}=\mathrm{exp}\left[i{\displaystyle d^Dxd^4\theta U(\mathrm{\Phi })}\right].`$ (4)
Here $`U(\mathrm{\Phi })`$ is defined as $`U(\mathrm{\Phi })=\widehat{\sigma }(\mathrm{\Phi })\mathrm{\Phi }W(\widehat{\sigma }(\mathrm{\Phi }))`$, where $`\widehat{\sigma }`$ is a solution of the stationary equation $`\frac{}{\sigma }(\sigma \mathrm{\Phi }W(\sigma ))|_{\sigma =\widehat{\sigma }}=\mathrm{\Phi }W^{}(\widehat{\sigma })=0`$.
To prove Eq. (3), put $`\mathrm{\Phi }=\varphi ^{}\varphi `$, $`\sigma =e^V`$ and $`W=c\mathrm{log}\sigma `$, and note that $`[d\sigma ]=[dV]`$. This theorem can be generalized to many variables and to matrix variables, which can be applied to integration over non-Abelian vector superfields. As an application of the theorem, we can show that

$`{\displaystyle [dV]\mathrm{exp}\left[id^Dxd^4\theta \left(f(\varphi ^{}\varphi e^V)cV\right)\right]}`$
$`={\displaystyle [dV]\mathrm{exp}\left[id^Dxd^4\theta \left(\varphi ^{}\varphi e^VcV\right)\right]},`$ (5)
where $`f`$ is an arbitrary function.

## 4 Discussion

Non-perturbative analyses of $`𝒩=2`$ SNL$`\sigma `$M on HSS are possible, which are in progress .

Let us discuss a generalization to an arbitrary Kähler $`G/H`$. It is known that $`H`$ must be of the form $`H=H_{\mathrm{s}.\mathrm{s}}\times U(1)^n`$, where $`H_{\mathrm{s}.\mathrm{s}}`$ is the semi-simple subgroup of $`H`$ and $`n=\mathrm{rank}G\mathrm{rank}H_{\mathrm{s}.\mathrm{s}}`$, and a Kähler potential has $`n`$ free parameters . As seen in Eq. (3), the FI-parameter $`c`$ represents a size of $`G/H`$ after integration over $`V`$. Hence to obtain a Kähler $`G/H`$, it is needed to introduce $`n`$ FI-terms by considering a gauge group including $`n`$ Abelian factors.

## Acknowledgements

The work of M. N. is supported in part by JSPS Research Fellowships.


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# References

Exact solution of a many body problem with nearest and next-nearest neighbour interactions

B. Basu-Mallick 111email:biru@tnp.saha.ernet.in and Anjan Kundu 222email: anjan@tnp.saha.ernet.in

Theory Group, Saha Institute of Nuclear Physics,
1/AF Bidhan Nagar, Calcutta 700 064, India.

## Abstract

Recently a partially solvable many-body problem with nearest and next-nearest neighbour interactions is proposed . We show that by adding a suitably chosen momentum dependent nearest neighbour interaction, such a model can be converted into an integrable system with Lax operator formulation and related conserved quantities. We also solve the eigenvalue problem for the model exactly and as a byproduct obtain some identities involving associated Laguerre polynomials.

It is well known that random matrix models have deep connection with some exactly solvable many-body systems having long-range interactions, namely Calogero  and Sutherland model . However recently a new type of random matrix model, known as short-range Dyson model, has been introduced, where only the nearest neighbour energy levels interact with each other . For finding out the corresponding many-body system, Calogero and Sutherland like models with nearest and next-nearest neighbour interactions have been proposed recently . Though many interesting results, e.g. construction of static correlation functions, partial solution of the energy eigenvalue problem, existence of off-diagonal long-range order etc. have been obtained, the integrability and complete solvability of these models could not be established. The Hamiltonian of such Calogero like model as considered in  is given by

$$H=\frac{1}{2}\underset{j=1}{\overset{N}{}}\frac{^2}{x_j^2}+\frac{\omega ^2}{2}\underset{j=1}{\overset{N}{}}x_j^2+\nu (\nu 1)\underset{j=1}{\overset{N1}{}}\frac{1}{(x_jx_{j+1})^2}\nu ^2\underset{j=2}{\overset{N1}{}}\frac{1}{(x_{j1}x_j)(x_jx_{j+1})}.$$
(1)
Our aim here is to propose an integrable and completely solvable variant of the above model by suitably redefining its coupling constants and introducing an additional momentum dependent nearest neighbour interaction. The Hamiltonian of this model may be given as

$`H={\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}{\displaystyle \underset{j=1}{\overset{N}{}}}{\displaystyle \frac{^2}{x_j^2}}`$ $`+{\displaystyle \frac{\omega ^2}{2}}{\displaystyle \underset{j=1}{\overset{N}{}}}x_j^2+g_1{\displaystyle \underset{j=1}{\overset{N1}{}}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{(x_jx_{j+1})^2}}`$ (2)
$`+g_2{\displaystyle \underset{j=2}{\overset{N1}{}}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{(x_{j1}x_j)(x_jx_{j+1})}}+g_3{\displaystyle \underset{j=1}{\overset{N}{}}}f_j{\displaystyle \frac{}{x_j}},`$
where the last term represents a momentum dependent interaction with

$$f_j=(1\delta _{1j})\frac{1}{x_jx_{j1}}+(1\delta _{N,j})\frac{1}{x_jx_{j+1}}$$
(3)
and the coupling constants are parametrised as

$$g_1=\nu (i+\nu ),g_2=\nu ^2,g_3=i\nu .$$
(4)
It is easy to see that for real parameter $`\nu `$ the Hamiltonian (2) becomes hermitian. It has been shown recently  that the original Calogero model with long-range momentum dependent interaction retains its integrability and complete solvability. Similarly for the present model (2), involving only nearest neighbour momentum dependent interaction, one can establish the integrability and the existence of infinite number of conserved quantities. For this purpose one needs the associated Lax operator, which may be expressed as a $`N\times N`$ matrix with elements

$$L_{jk}=(i\frac{}{x_j}+\nu f_j)\delta _{jk}.$$
(5)
One may check that this operator and Hamiltonian (2) satisfy the Lax equation

$$[H,L^\pm ]=\pm \omega L^\pm ,\text{where}L_{jk}^\pm =L_{jk}\pm i\omega x_j\delta _{jk}.$$
(6)
Note that though the complementary Lax operator $`M`$ is absent in this Lax equation, it still leads to a set of conserved quantities given by $`I_m=_{j,k}\left((L^+L^{})^m\right)_{jk},m=1,2,3,\mathrm{},`$ ensuring the integrability of the system. Evidently Hamiltonian (2) is the first element of this set.

For solving the energy eigenvalue problem of model (1) and its other variants, the authors of  have adopted two different approaches. The first one, as described in -, constructs the eigenfunctions by mapping the model to a system of free oscillators through a suitable similarity transformation. In the second approach, pioneered by Calogero , the solution for eigenfunctions is sought through an ansatz in the factorised form: $`P_k(x)\mathrm{\Phi }(r^2),`$ where $`P_k(x)`$ is a homogeneous polynomial in all coordinates $`x=x_1,x_2,\mathrm{},x_N`$ and $`\mathrm{\Phi }(r^2)`$ is a function of $`r^2=_{i=1}^Nx_i^2`$. Through both these methods some particular but exact eigenvalue solutions were obtained in .

Due to the integrability property of our model (2), we hope to get the complete solution of its eigenvalue problem by adopting similar methods. Following the first approach, we find that there exists an unitary transformation which reduces the Hamiltonian (2) to a system of free oscillators:

$$\left(\underset{j=1}{\overset{N1}{}}(x_jx_{j+1})\right)^{i\nu }H\left(\underset{j=1}{\overset{N1}{}}(x_jx_{j+1})\right)^{i\nu }=H_{free},$$
(7)
with

$$H_{free}=\frac{1}{2}\underset{j=1}{\overset{N}{}}\frac{^2}{x_j^2}+\frac{\omega ^2}{2}\underset{j=1}{\overset{N}{}}x_j^2.$$
(8)
As is well known, the eigenfunctions for the free oscillator model may be given by

$$\varphi _{n_1,n_2,\mathrm{},n_N}=e^{\frac{\omega r^2}{2}}\underset{j=1}{\overset{N}{}}H_{n_j}(\sqrt{\omega }x_j),$$
(9)
where $`r^2=_{j=1}^Nx_j^2`$ and $`H_n(x)`$ is the Hermite polynomial of degree $`n.`$ Therefore one can immediately write the eigenfunctions for our model (2) as

$$\psi _{n_1,n_2,\mathrm{},n_N}=\left(\underset{j=1}{\overset{N1}{}}(x_jx_{j+1})\right)^{i\nu }e^{\frac{\omega r^2}{2}}\underset{j=1}{\overset{N}{}}H_{n_j}(\sqrt{\omega }x_j).$$
(10)
The corresponding eigenvalues are evidently same as that of the free oscillators:

$$E_{n_1,n_2,\mathrm{},n_N}=\omega \left(\frac{N}{2}+\underset{j=1}{\overset{N}{}}n_j\right).$$
(11)
The ground state wave function is clearly given by $`\psi _{gr}=\left(_{j=1}^{N1}(x_jx_{j+1})\right)^{i\nu }e^{\frac{\omega r^2}{2}}`$, with energy eigenvalue $`E_{gr}=\frac{\omega N}{2}`$. Thus we see that model (2), which is obtained from (1) by adding a momentum dependent term and redefining the coupling constants, becomes exactly solvable giving very simple spectrum. In a similar way, by adding suitably chosen momentum dependent interactions, the other variants of model (1) considered in  can also be transformed to integrable systems and solved exactly.

We should note here that the unitary transformation (7), which brings our Hamiltonian to the free oscillator model, does not contain any singular terms. Consequently the eigenfunctions (10) form a complete set and the spectrum coincides with that of distinguishable oscillators. In contrast, the similarity transformations which map the standard Calogero model as well as (1) into the free oscillator model contain singular terms. In the case of Calogero model such singularities can be avoided by symmetrising the eigenfunctions of free oscillators in all coordinates . As a result the eigenfunctions of Calogero model represent a complete set with the excitation spectrum becoming equivalent to that of bosonic oscillators. However in the case of (1) such singularities can not be removed in general even by taking symmetrised eigenfunctions and that makes the completeness of eigenfunctions difficult to establish.

It may be noted that both (1) and our model (2) reduce to the free oscillator model at $`\nu 0.`$ Therefore it may be expected that a link should exist between the solutions of these two models at $`\nu 0`$ limit. To examine this possibility we follow the second approach, as mentioned above, for solving the model (2) and find that the corresponding eigenfunctions can be obtained in the factorised form

$$\mathrm{\Phi }_{n,k}=e^{\frac{\omega r^2}{2}}\left(\underset{j=1}{\overset{N1}{}}(x_jx_{j+1})\right)^{i\nu }L_n^{\frac{N}{2}+k1}(\omega r^2)P_k(x).$$
(12)
Here $`P_k(x)`$ is a homogeneous polynomial of degree $`k`$ satisfying the equation

$$\underset{j=1}{\overset{N}{}}\frac{^2}{x_j^2}P_k(x_1,x_2,\mathrm{},x_N)=0,$$
(13)
and $`L_n^{\frac{N}{2}+k1}(\omega r^2)`$ is the associated Laguerre polynomial. The corresponding eigenvalue would be $`E_{n,k}=\omega \left(\frac{N}{2}+2n+k\right)`$. A class of trivial solutions of (13) with $`kN`$ is clearly given by

$$P_k(x)=x_{\alpha _1}x_{\alpha _2}\mathrm{}x_{\alpha _k},$$
(14)
where $`\alpha _l`$s are all different integers ranging from $`1`$ to $`N`$. For finding nontrivial solutions of (13) we express $`P_k(x)`$ in a general form

$$P_k(x)=\underset{r_1+r_2+\mathrm{}+r_N=k}{}\frac{k!}{r_1!r_2!\mathrm{}r_k!}f_{r_1,r_2,\mathrm{},r_N}^kx_1^{r_1}x_2^{r_2}\mathrm{}x_N^{r_N},$$
(15)
where $`f_{r_1,r_2,\mathrm{},r_N}^k`$ are yet unknown coefficients and the summation variables $`r_j`$ are nonnegative integers. The equation (13) however puts constraints on these coefficients as

$$\underset{j=1}{\overset{N}{}}f_{r_1,r_2,\mathrm{},r_{j1},r_j+\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2},r_{j+1},r_{j+2},\mathrm{},r_N}^k=0,$$
(16)
where $`\{r_j\}`$ represents any partition of $`k2`$ satisfying $`_{j=1}^Nr_j=k2`$. Such constraints are evidently different for different choices of $`\{r_j\}`$. However since the number of constraints is less than the number of unknown coefficients, they can not be fixed uniquely unless one imposes some extra relationship among them. Therefore the corresponding polynomial (15) may not be symmetric in all its coordinates in general. For example for $`k=2`$ one gets the solution

$$P_2(x)=a_1x_1^2+a_2x_2^2+\mathrm{}+a_Nx_N^2,\text{with}\underset{j=1}{\overset{N}{}}a_j=0,$$
(17)
which can not be presented in a symmetric form. On the other hand for higher $`k`$ one may obtain symmetric polynomials as solutions of (16). For $`k=3`$ such a solution is explicitly given by

$$P_3(x)=a\underset{j=1}{\overset{N}{}}x_j^3+b\underset{jk}{}x_j^2x_k,$$
(18)
where $`3a+(N1)b=0.`$ For $`k=4`$ we get however two independent solutions of the form

$$P_4(x)=a\underset{j=1}{\overset{N}{}}x_j^4+b\underset{jk}{}x_j^2x_k^2,$$
(19)
with the constraint $`3a+(N1)b=0,`$ and

$$P_4(x)=c\underset{jk}{}x_j^3x_k+d\underset{jklj}{}x_j^2x_kx_l,$$
(20)
with $`3c+(N2)d=0`$.

We may compare now the above solutions at $`\nu 0`$ with those of (1), as obtained in , at the same limit. For the case $`k=2`$ while we get two solutions with $`P_2(x)`$ taking the trivial form (14) as well as the nontrivial one (17),  gives only one solution with trivial form of $`P_2(x)`$. For $`k=3`$ we get again two independent solutions corresponding to (18) and (14), while in  one finds only a particular combination of them. Similarly for $`k=4`$ we get three independent solutions in contrast to a single solution of . This picture prevails also for higher $`k`$.

Finally we would like to comment on some useful identities, which may be derived by comparing the eigenfunctions (10) and (12) obtained through two different approaches. Expressing each of the solutions (12) as some linear combinations of the complete set (10), one would generate such an identity involving associated Laguerre and Hermite polynomials. By using this procedure along with the familiar conversion formulas like $`H_{2n}(x)=(1)^n2^{2n}n!L_n^{\frac{1}{2}}(x^2)`$, $`H_{2n+1}(x)=(1)^n2^{2n+1}n!xL_n^{\frac{1}{2}}(x^2)`$, we find interestingly that (12) with the trivial solution (14) for $`P_k(x)`$ leads to a well known summation formula  for associated Laguerre polynomials:

$$L_n^{\frac{N}{2}+k1}(\omega r^2)=\underset{n_1+n_2+\mathrm{}+n_N=n}{}\underset{r=1}{\overset{k}{}}L_{n_r}^{\frac{1}{2}}(\omega x_r^2)\underset{r=k+1}{\overset{N}{}}L_{n_r}^{\frac{1}{2}}(\omega x_r^2).$$
(21)
On the other hand, (12) with nontrivial solutions for $`P_k(x)`$ leads to apparently new identities involving associated Laguerre polynomials. For example, the solution (17) for $`N=2`$ giving $`P_2(x)=x_1^2x_2^2`$ results an identity of the form

$$L_n^2(\omega x_1^2+\omega x_2^2)=\frac{1}{\omega (x_1^2x_2^2)}\underset{s=0}{\overset{n+1}{}}(2sn1)L_{ns+1}^{\frac{1}{2}}(\omega x_1^2)L_s^{\frac{1}{2}}(\omega x_2^2).$$
(22)
We hope to find similar identities for higher values of $`k`$ and $`N`$ and report elsewhere .


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# Low-luminosity AGN and Normal Galaxies

## 1. Introduction

Since active galactic nuclei (AGN) comprise only a small fraction of all galaxies, it is more relevant for our general understanding of galactic processes to observe normal galaxies. With the availability of imaged X-ray observations, galaxies not necessarily dominated by a point source in their nucleus have now been studied in detail. This review will give an overview of these results, with an emphasis on galaxies exhibiting moderate or low amounts of activity in their nuclei.

In this paper, a low-luminosity AGN (LLAGN) is considered to be a galaxy with Seyfert-like optical spectra and an X-ray luminosity less than $`10^{42}\mathrm{ergs}\mathrm{s}^1`$. A starburst galaxy is a galaxy in which evidence of enhanced star-formation rates are observed, particularly in kpc-sized nuclear regions. Most often this is observed by the presence of HII-region like optical emission lines, however other signs include high IR luminosities (i.e., $`L_{IR}>10^{10}L_{}`$; c.f., Telesco 1988). In LINER galaxies the optical emission lines are observed with line diagnostic ratios that differ from both starburst and LLAGN ratios. The most likely scenarios for the ionization flux in LINERs are a LLAGN (albeit with different physical properties than LLAGN with Seyfert-like spectra), shocks (Dopita et al. 1996) and hot stars (c.f., Shields 1992). Interestingly, 15% of LINERs exhibit broad $`H\alpha `$ emission (Ho, Filippenko, Sargent, & Chen 1997). These “LINER 1” galaxies are almost certainly LLAGN, and the fact that the ratio of LINER 1 to LINER 2 galaxies is similar to the fraction of Seyfert 1/Seyfert 2 galaxies is suggestive that most LINERs are indeed LLAGN.

### 1.1. Demographics

In order to properly access the prevalence of LLAGN, LINER and starburst activity, it is necessary to perform a careful survey of nearby galaxies in which the galactic light is subtracted from the nuclear spectrum in order for the often-weak optical emissions line to be detected. Such as survey was recently completed by Ho, Filippenko & Sargent (1997). The demographics of these types of activity is shown in Figure 1. Clearly, “low-activity” galaxies (starburst, LINER, and LLAGN, and transition nuclei containing both LLAGN and starburst emission), 86% of the total, dominate over “normal” galaxies. Furthermore, “normal” AGN only comprise $`10\%`$ of all galaxies (Ho, Filippenko, & Sargent 1997). This emphasizes the importance of studying these types of galaxies: the usual state of affairs is for a galaxy to exhibit starburst or LLAGN activity (or both) in its nucleus, and most AGN in the local universe are in a low-luminosity state.

## 2. Normal Galaxies

In elliptical/early-type galaxies the X-ray emission is dominated by hot gas (in some cases similar to group or cluster of galaxies X-ray emission, with a King-like radial surface brightness profile, occasionally including a cooling flow), with a temperature of $`0.81.0`$ keV (Trinchieri, Fabbiano, & Kim 1998). Some early-type galaxies also contain a contribution from a LLAGN (see Di Matteo, et al.; these proceedings) and low-mass X-ray binaries (LMXB, Irwin & Bregman, 1998).

The X-ray emission of spiral galaxies is generally dominated by X-ray binaries (Fabbiano 1989). Spiral arms often contain HII regions, particularly regions of local density enhancements (i.e., knots). These HII regions are often X-ray bright as a result of the products of enhanced star formation: hot stars, supernovae (SN) and supernova remnants (SNR), high-mass X-ray binaries and black hole candidates (BHC) (c.f. NGC 1313 in Colbert et al. 1997). Not surprisingly, “bluer” galaxies, which tend to be later-type galaxies with higher star-formation rate (with the blue colors being a result of a higher proportion of massive stars than is observed in galaxies dominated by older stellar populations) are X-ray bright (Fabbiano, Feigelson, & Zamorani 1982). There is also a strong correlation between X-ray luminosity and IR luminosity, with the IR emission being produced by dust that has been heated by massive stars (David, Jones & Foreman 1992; Green, Anderson & Ward 1992). In cases of very high star formation rates occurring near the edge of galaxies, blow-outs can occur when the local pressure resulting from outflows from hot stars and SN exceeds the ambient interstellar medium (ISM) pressure, as observed by ROSAT in galaxies such as NGC 55 (Schlegel et al. 1997). There is also X-ray evidence that normal galaxies (Cui et al. 1996), including the Milky Way, possess hot ($`T10^6`$K) “halos” or “coronae” (Spitzer 1956).

Spiral galaxies also typically contain a bulge component, which may be counterparts to elliptical galaxies. A substantial fraction of the X-ray sources found in the nearest spiral galaxy, M31, are concentrated in the bulge. These sources are presumably mostly LMXB associated with the older stellar populations in globular clusters. The X-ray spectrum of the bulge region of M31 as observed by the ROSAT PSPC and ASCA (Irwin & Bregman 1999) and BeppoSAX (Trinchieri et al. 1999). This spectrum has a power-law component consistent with X-ray binaries in our galaxies, plus a soft component (see Figure 2) that is similar to that considered to be due to X-ray binaries in early-type galaxies. Note that it would be difficult to observe this soft component in Galactic binaries since most lie in the disk of the Milky Way and hence are highly absorbed.

Colbert and Mushotzky (1999) discuss a survey of X-ray sources in normal galaxies with luminosities in excess of $`1.3\times 10^{38}\mathrm{ergs}\mathrm{s}^1`$, the Eddington luminosity for accretion onto a solar-mass object. These intermediate-luminosity X-ray objects (IXO) have X-ray spectra consistent with accretion onto black holes with masses of $`10^{14}M_{}`$. IXOs are typically significantly displaced from the galactic centers, and hence they are not AGN. This implies that IXOs may be cases of “intermediate” mass black holes, and may be precursors to some modern-day AGN (see also M82 below and in Ptak & Griffiths 1999).

## 3. Low-Activity Galaxies

### 3.1. Spectral Properties

Despite their heterogeneous optical classification, low-activity galaxies usually have a similar spectral shape (Serlemitsos, Ptak & Yaqoob 1996). Specifically, in general these galaxies exhibit at least two spectral components: a soft, thermal component with kT $`0.7`$ keV and a hard component well-modeled by either a thermal bremsstrahlung with kT $`510`$ keV or a power-law with $`\mathrm{\Gamma }1.8`$ (Ptak et al. 1999). The hard (soft) component is typically absorbed by a column density of $`10^{22}\mathrm{cm}^2`$ ( $`10^{2021}\mathrm{cm}^2`$). The fact that the hard component tends to be more spatially compact (see below) and absorbed than the soft component implies that the hard component is emanating from further within the galaxies (i.e., the nuclei). The fact that starburst galaxies exhibit a hard component, likely due accreting sources, and LINER and LLAGN galaxies exhibit soft emission, likely due to starburst activity, strongly supports the idea of a starburst/AGN connection.

The luminosity of the hard component tends to be on the order of $`10^{4041}\mathrm{ergs}\mathrm{s}^1`$ and the luminosity of the soft component $`10^{3940}\mathrm{ergs}\mathrm{s}^1`$, with the relative intensity varying from galaxy to galaxy (see Figure 3). It is evidently rare for starburst activity, the origin of the soft component, to achieve luminosities in excess of $`10^{4041}\mathrm{ergs}\mathrm{s}^1`$ (Halpern, Helfand, & Moran 1995; however see Moran, Lehnert & Helfand 1999 for a counter-example in NGC 3256). Accordingly, sources with X-ray luminosities $`>10^{41}\mathrm{ergs}\mathrm{s}^1`$ (e.g., NGC 3998 and NGC 3147) only require a power-law component since the starburst component is overwhelmed. Conversely, in Seyfert 2s where the AGN is highly absorbed, starburst emission is often observed below 2 keV (see Turner et al. 1998).

The abundances inferred from the soft component tend to be sub-solar (on the order of 10-1 solar). This is surprising since starburst emission is presumably the result of massive star evolution and accordingly should be highly enriched, however many effects might be contributing to this. For example, it is probably too simple to be fitting the multi-temperature starburst emission with a single component (c.f., Breitschwerdt & Komossa 1999; Dahlem, Weaver & Heckman 1998), or other sources of continuum may be present such as soft emission from X-ray binaries (c.f., Figure 2). In brighter sources (see the residuals in Figure 3 and Ptak et al. 1997), it appears that there is a deficiency of Fe relative to $`\alpha `$-process elements (e.g., Ne, Mg, Si, S, etc. produced in massive stars), although the effect is diminished somewhat when more complex models are invoked (see Dahlem, Weaver, & Heckman 1999).

### 3.2. Fe-K Emission

Fe-K emission is an important diagnostic in AGN studies since its energy, physical width, and equivalent width (EW) are functions of the physical conditions in the accretion region. In the case of an obscured nuclear region, the EW of an Fe line is expected to be greatly enhanced since the direct continuum is diminished. Although most low-activity galaxies are too faint for Fe-K to detected, in several cases Fe-K is detected and is often complex. For example, the Fe-K EW in NGC 3147 (Ptak et al. 1996), NGC 1365 (Iyomoto et al. 1997), M51 (Terashima et al. 1998a), NGC 4736 (Roberts, Warwick, & Ohashi 1999) and NGC 1052 (Weaver et al. 1999) are high ($`>`$ 100 eV) relative to Seyfert 1 EW values ($`100200`$ eV; Nandra et al. 1997), consistent with an obscured nucleus. In M81, the Fe-K line appears to contain several components or may be broad, possibly due to an accretion disk (Ishisaki et al 1996; Serlemitsos, Ptak & Yaqoob, 1996). NGC 4579 (Terashima et al. 1998b; Terashima et al. 2000ab) is a particularly interesting case where the line was observed to be due to ionized material in a 1995 ASCA observation, but was observed to be due to neutral material in 1998.

(Ionized) Fe-K emission was detected marginally by ASCA in M82 (Ptak et al. 1997) and in M82 and NGC 253 significantly by BeppoSAX (Cappi et al. 1999). This emission stongly suggests that very hot gas (T $`10^8`$ K) is present in these starburst galaxies. However, the EW of the Fe-K lines is only on the order of $`100200`$ eV, considerably less than that expected from solar-abundance hot gas (EW $`600`$ eV). Again, the Fe abundance may be depressed in these galaxies, however it is also likely that other sources of continuum are present, diluting the thermal Fe-K emission.

### 3.3. Temporal Properties

Low-activity galaxies tend to vary on long (months to year) time scales (c.f., M81 in Ishisaki et al. 1996; NGC 4579 in Serlemitsos, Ptak & Yaqoob 1996), but not on short time scales as observed in Seyferts (Ptak et al. 1998; however note that M81 has been observed to vary at the 30% level on day time scales; Pellegrini et al. 2000). Suprisingly, some of the most variable low-activity galaxies have been starbursts. For example, the nuclear source in the starburst NGC 3628 “shut off”, varying by a factor of $`40`$ (Dahlem, Heckman, & Fabbiano 1995), and M82 has varied considerably in the 2-10 keV bandpass (Ptak & Griffiths 1999; Matsumoto & Tsusru 1999; Gruber et al., these proceedings). This implies that at least some of the contribution to the hard component in starburst galaxies is due to accreting sources. The lack of variability on short times scales is demonstrated in Figure 4. As argued in Ptak et al. (1998), this marked break from the temporal behavior of Seyfert 1s implies a large source extent for the X-ray producing regions in low-activity galaxies. While in some cases this might be due to a multiple sources of X-ray emission, it may also be due to the prevelance of advection-dominated accretion disks, in which the entire disk contributes to the X-ray emission, as opposed to the “$`\alpha `$”-disks in Seyferts in which the X-rays are most likely produced by flares. On the other hand, the short-term variability observed in M82 may be our first look at the hard X-ray light curve of an IXO, assuming that the source of the 2-10 keV variability is the off-nuclear point source observed by the ROSAT HRI (Collura et al. 1994).

### 3.4. Spatial Properties

Spatially most low-activity galaxies have 2-10 keV emission which is concentrated in the nucleus (see Ptak 1997, although the statistics are limited in many cases) and are extended over kpc scales in addition to being concentrated in multiple point sources. This tends to be particularly true of starburst galaxies (c.f., Read, Ponman, & Strickland 1997; Dahlem, Weaver, & Heckman 1998) but these phenomena are also seen in LINERs and LLAGN (c.f., the LINER NGC 4594 in Fabbiano & Juda 1997; the LINER NGC 3079 in Pietsch, Trinchieri, & Vogler 1998; the LLAGN M51 in Marston et al. 1995, and the LLAGN NGC 4258 in Cecil, Wilson, & De Pree 1998). In one of the nearest starburst galaxies NGC 253 (at $`2.5`$ Mpc), $`73`$ point sources (some of which are background QSOs) have been detectedby ROSAT (Vogler & Pietsch 1999; see Figure 5), in addition to the extended emission associated with the nuclear region, disk, and halo of NGC 253. Interestingly, the point source distribution in NGC 253 is consistent with that of M31 (with the older-population buldge sources removed) and M33 (Figure 6). A similar result is observed more generally by Roberts et al. (these proceedings), which provides motivation that a universal luminosity distribution of X-ray binaries can be found, and the high-luminosity end of which would be the IXOs.

## 4. Conclusions and Future Prospects

Both “normal” galaxies and low-activities provide very rich data sets for studying phenomena that is difficult to study in the Milky Way (i.e., due to extinction) and/or is not present in the Milky Way (i.e., starburst regions with very high star formation rates resulting in superwinds). The X-ray emission occurs in both point sources, which tend to be the most luminous known X-ray binaries and supernovae, and in complex diffuse emission that is the result of heating of the ISM by hot star, supernovae and, in some cases, superwind outflows. The brightest X-ray binaries (IXOs) are black hole candidates that potentially have masses on the order of $`10^{14}M_{}`$ , intermediate to that of Galactic BHC and AGN. Both starburst and accretion emission tend to be observed whenever either type of activity is present, strongly supporting the notion of a starburst/AGN connection. There appears to be a natural upper-limit to the luminosity of starburst processes on the order of $`10^{41}\mathrm{ergs}\mathrm{s}^1`$, and so starburst emission is usually overwhelmed by AGN emission that is not absorbed and exceeds $`L_X10^{42}\mathrm{ergs}\mathrm{s}^1`$. Observed abundances tend to be absurdly low, but that is almost certainly due to “contamination” of the continuum from multiple temperature gas emission and unresolved point sources. Chandra and XMM will be able to resolve the starburst emission spatial and extract CCD resolution spectra, which will resolve this issue and allow abundance and temperature enhancements to be observed in individual regions within the galaxies.

The X-ray properties of nearby normal and low-activity galaxies suggest that they will contribute less $`10\%`$ of the X-ray background (c.f., Griffiths & Padovani 1991; Yaqoob et al. 1995). This fraction can increase if these galaxies become harder and more luminous at earlier epochs, i.e., due to the enhanced starburst activity associated with the peak in the star formation history of the universe at redshifts of $`12`$ (Hughes et al. 1998). It may be possible to directly observe evolution in low-activity galaxies with ultra-deep XMM surveys or with telescopes such as XEUS that promise effective areas on the order of m2 (see Figure 7).

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text:
# Gas/Star Offsets in Tidal Tails

## 1. Observational Motivation

The development of tidal tails during galaxy encounters is predominantly a gravitational effect; as a result, both gas and stars should have similar kinematics and spatial morphology on large scales. However, in a significant number of systems the HI and stellar tidal debris do in fact show marked spatial offsets, including the tidal tails of NGC 520 (Hibbard, Vacca, & Yun 2000), 7714/5 (Smith etal 1997), and, most dramatically, NGC 3690 (Hibbard etal 2000). At face value, these observations suggest that hydrodynamic forces may also play a role in the global evolution of the tidal tails, via effects such as an interaction between the tidal gas and a hot gaseous halo or starburst wind (Hibbard etal 2000). Here I show that the offsets arise naturally from the differing radial distributions of gas and stars, coupled with interaction-driven dissipation and inflow in the tidal gas. No hot gas component is needed to explain these offsets.

## 2. Dynamical Modeling

Previous dynamical modeling of merging galaxies (e.g., Barnes & Hernquist 1991, 1996; Mihos & Hernquist 1996) showed no evidence for segregation of gas and stars in tidal debris. However, in those models, both the gas and stars had identical exponential spatial distributions, whereas the gas distribution in disk galaxies is typically much more spatially extended than the starlight. I have rerun the fiducial merger model of MH96, using an gas distribution which is exponential within $`2.5h`$ (where $`h`$ is the stellar disk scale length), then falls as $`r^1`$ until a truncation radius of $`r_t=8h`$. Figure 1 shows the model just prior to the final merging, and a prominent gas/star offset can be seen in the prograde tail. The fact that we see an offset at all argues that these offsets need not be the result of an interaction between the tail gas and a hot gas component, since no such hot gas component is present in our model.

Is the offset due solely to the differing initial spatial distribution of the gas and stars? A simulation was run identical to the first, but with the gas particles evolved collisionlessly. In this case, no gas/star offset developed, indicating that hydrodynamic forces are at work in shaping the tails. By analyzing a subset of tail particles in the full hydrodynamical model, we find that both the gas and star particles seen in the tail are following a largely collisionless evolution on large scales. The gas in the tail comes from larger initial radius than the stars; its systematically larger angular momentum, results in a leading gas tail. So what happened to the gas that would have been cospatial with the stars?

To answer this question, we followed the evolution of with gas particles that came from the same region of initial (i.e., pre-encounter) phase space as the stars which ended up in the tidal tail. Because of the exponential distribution of stars, these gaseous “phase space partners” come from small radius in the disk and are more subject to collisional dissipation and inflow during the encounter. As a result, this gas decouples from the collisionless evolution that the stars follow, flowing inwards and leaving the stellar tail gas-poor. In essence, it is not the hydrodynamic evolution of the gas observed in the tail which leads to the offset, but rather the hydrodynamic decoupling and inflow of the low angular momentum gas which would have otherwise filled in the stellar tail.

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Smith, B.J., Struck, C., & Pogge, R.W. 1997, ApJ, 483, 754


text:
# Annealing of radiation induced defects in silicon in a simplified phenomenological model

## 1 Introduction

A point defect in a crystal is an entity that causes an interruption in the lattice periodicity. In this paper, the terminology and definitions in agreement with M. Lannoo and J. Bourgoin  are used in relation to defects.

Vacancies and interstitials are produced in materials exposed to radiation in equal quantities; they are the primary radiation defects, being produced either by the incoming particle, or as a consequence of the subsequent collisions produced by the primary recoil

In previous papers  we calculated the concentration of radiation induced primary defects (CPD) in semiconductors exposed to hadron irradiation. Due to the important weight of annealing processes, as well as to their very short time scale, CPD is not a measurable physical quantity.

In silicon, vacancies and interstitials are essentially unstable and interact via migration, recombination, annihilation or produce other defects. The system evolves toward natural equilibrium.

The problem of the annealing of radiation induced defects in semiconductor materials is not new. Several models, empirical or more theoretic, have been previously proposed to explain these phenomena. Damask and Dienes developed, in the 1960s, a theoretical model that considers, as distinct cases, the kinetics of vacancy-interstitial annihilation with interstitial trapping at impurities , of vacancy-interstitial annihilation with interstitial trapping at impurities , and of vacancy-interstitial annihilation with diinterstitial formation . In the first two cases, analytical solutions have been obtained by the authors, while in the last case only numerical solutions are possible. The escape of interstitials and vacancies from clusters and their subsequent interactions have been modelled by Tsveybak et al. . Phenomenological approaches of the annealing could be found in Moll et al.  and Bates and co-workers  and references cited therein.

Most of the old studies were dedicated to electronic devices, made from low resistivity (in the $`\mathrm{\Omega }cm`$ range) silicon. Recently, the behaviour of the silicon material with medium and high resistivity (tens $`\mathrm{\Omega }cm`$ \- $`k\mathrm{\Omega }cm`$) in intense hadron fields started to present very much interest, these materials representing a major option for the detectors at the new generation of particle colliders and for space applications.

In the present paper, the time evolution of the concentration of primary defects induced by pion irradiation in silicon is studied in the frame of a simplified phenomenological model based on direct interactions between the primary induced defects and the impurities present in the material.

## 2 Equations for the kinetics of radiation induced defects: general formulation

The starting hypothesis of the physical model is that the irradiation process is unique at the determined particle fluence, and that the time of irradiation is shorter that all characteristic times of annealing.

In the frame of the model, equal concentrations of vacancies and interstitials are supposed to be produced by irradiation, in much greater concentrations than the corresponding thermal equilibrium values, characteristic to each temperature. Both the pre-existing defects and those produced by irradiation, as well as the impurities, are assumed to be randomly distributed in the solid. An important part of the vacancies and interstitials annihilate. The sample contains certain concentrations of impurities which can trap interstitials and vacancies respectively, and form stable defects.

In the present paper, vacancy-interstitial annihilation, interstitial migration to sinks, vacancy and interstitial impurity complex formation as well as divacancy formation are considered. The sample could contain more impurities that trap vacancies or interstitials, and in this case all processes are to be taken into account.

The following notations are used: $`V`$ \- monovacancy concentration; $`I`$ \- free interstitial concentration, $`J_1`$ \- total impurity ”1” concentration (impurity ”1” traps interstitials and forms the complex $`C_1`$); $`C_1`$ \- interstitial-impurity concentration: one interstitial trapped for one complex formed; $`J_2`$ \- total impurity ”2” concentration (impurity ”2” traps vacancies and forms the complex $`C_2`$); $`C_2`$ \- vacancy-impurity concentration: one vacancy trapped for one complex formed; $`V_2`$ \- divacancy concentration. All concentrations are expressed as atomic fractions.

The chemical scheme for reaction rates has been used, and the differential equations corresponding to the above picture are:

$$\frac{dV}{dt}=K_1VIK_5V\left(J_{20}C_2\right)+K_6C_2K_7V^2+K_8V_2$$
(1)
$$\frac{dI}{dt}=K_1VIK_2IK_3I\left(J_{10}C_1\right)+K_4C_1$$
(2)
$$\frac{dC_1}{dt}=K_3I\left(J_{10}C_1\right)K_4C_1$$
(3)
$$\frac{dC_2}{dt}=K_5V\left(J_{20}C_2\right)K_6C_2$$
(4)
$$\frac{dV_2}{dt}=\frac{1}{2}K_7V^2\frac{1}{2}K_8V_2$$
(5)
The bimolecular recombination law of interstitials and vacancies is supposed to be a valid approximation for the present discussion, because at the concentrations of vacancies of interest, only a small fraction of defects anneal by correlated annihilation if their distribution is random (see the discussion in ).

If $`N`$ is the total defect concentration, expressed as atomic fraction:

$$N=V+I+2V_2+C_1+C_2$$
(6)
then it satisfies the differential equation:

$$\frac{dN}{dt}=2K_1VI$$
(7)
The initial conditions, at $`t=0`$, are: at the end of the irradiation, there are equal concentrations of interstitials and vacancies: $`I_0=V_0`$; the concentrations of impurities are $`J_{10}`$ and $`J_{20}`$ respectively, there are no complexes in the sample: $`C_{10}=C_{20}=0`$, and no divacancies $`V_{20}=0`$.

The reaction constants $`K_1`$ and $`K_3`$ are determined by the diffusion coefficient for the interstitial atom to a substitutional trap, and therefore $`K_1=K_3`$:

$$K_1=30\nu \mathrm{exp}\left(E_{i1}/k_BT\right)$$
(8)
where $`E_{i1}`$ is the activation energy of interstitial migration and $`\nu `$ the vibrational frequency. The reaction constant $`K_2`$ (related to interstitial migration to sinks) is proportional to the sink concentration $`\alpha `$:

$$K_2=\alpha \nu \lambda ^2\mathrm{exp}\left(E_{i1}/k_BT\right)$$
(9)
with $`\lambda `$ the jump distance.

$`K_4`$ characterises the decomposition of a complex into an impurity and an interstitial, and is given by:

$$K_4=5\nu \mathrm{exp}\left(\frac{E_{i1}+B_1}{k_BT}\right)$$
(10)
$`K_5`$ and $`K_6`$ describe the formation and decomposition of vacancy-impurity complexes, while $`K_7`$ and $`K_8`$ the formation and decomposition of divacancies. and are given by:

$$K_5=30\nu \mathrm{exp}\left(E_{i2}/k_BT\right)$$
(11)
with $`E_{i2}`$ the activation energy for vacancy migration;

$$K_6=5\nu \mathrm{exp}\left(\frac{E_{i2}+B_2}{k_BT}\right)$$
(12)
$$K_7=30\nu \mathrm{exp}\left(E_{i2}/k_BT\right)$$
(13)
$$K_8=5\nu \mathrm{exp}\left(\frac{E_{i2}+B_3}{k_BT}\right)$$
(14)
where $`B_1`$ is the binding energy of $`C_1`$, $`B_2`$ the binding energy of $`C_2`$ and $`B_3`$ is the corresponding binding energy of divacancies.

Due to the mathematical difficulties to solve analytically the complete differential equation system, some simplifications are necessary.

## 3 Hypothesis, approximations and discussions

The interstitials are much more mobile in silicon in respect to vacancies, and are characterised by an activation energy of migration a factor of two times smaller.

This difference between the activation energies $`E_{i1}`$ and $`E_{i2}`$ respectively justifies the introduction of two time scales, and the separate study of the processes involving interstitials and vacancies respectively. In the first stage, vacancy interstitial annihilation and interstitials migration to sinks are studied. The concentration of interstitials decays much rapidly than the concentration of vacancies. A cut-off condition for $`I`$ is imposed (a $`p`$ times decrease of interstitial concentration, $`p`$ being an adjustable parameter of the model). The vacancy concentration determined by this procedure is the initial value for the processes comprised in the second stage, and will be denoted by $`V_{initial}`$. The formation of complexes by vacancies is considered less important, and is neglected in the following discussion.

So, for the ”first stage”, after some simple manipulations, from (1) and (2), the equation:

$$\frac{dI}{dt}=1+\frac{K_2}{K_1V}$$
(15)
has been obtained, with the solution:

$$I=V+\frac{K_2}{K_1}\mathrm{ln}\frac{V}{V_0}$$
(16)
and:

$$t=\frac{\mathrm{ln}\left[1+\frac{K_1V\left(t\right)}{K_2\mathrm{ln}\left(V\left(t\right)\right)}\right]}{K_2\mathrm{ln}\left(V\left(t\right)\right)}$$
(17)
Imposing the cut-off condition for the concentration of interstitials, both $`V_{initial}`$ and the characteristic time could be found. As specified, $`V_{initial}`$ is used as initial vacancy concentration for the second step in the analysis, where the equations (4) and (5) are considered. $`V_{initial}`$ depends on $`V_0`$ and $`p`$, and it is temperature independent. This system of equations, expressing the kinetics of divacancy and vacancy-impurity formation, have no analytical solution. These processes are governed by the initial concentrations of vacancies and impurities.

If the impurity that traps vacancies is phosphorus, the limiting cases correspond to low initial doping concentration (high resistivity, uncompensated materials) and very high impurity concentration (low resistivity), respectively. In both cases the equations could be decoupled, and analytical solutions are possible.

So, if the formation of vacancy-impurity complexes is not so important, the main process responsible for the decay of vacancy concentration is divacancy production. In this case, the time evolution of the vacancy concentration is described by the equation:

$$V\left(t\right)=\frac{1}{4K_7}\left\{K_8+R\frac{\frac{K_8+4K_7V_i}{R}+\mathrm{tanh}\left(\frac{tR}{4}\right)}{1+\frac{K_8+4K_7V_i}{R}\mathrm{tanh}\left(\frac{tR}{4}\right)}\right\}$$
(18)
where:

$$R\sqrt{K_8\left(K_8+8K_7V_i\right)}$$
(19)
while the increase of the divacancy concentration is given by:

$$V_2\left(t\right)=\frac{V_iV\left(t\right)}{2}$$
(20)
The stationary solution for $`V(t)`$ is given by:

$$\underset{t\mathrm{}}{lim}V\left(t\right)=\frac{1}{4K_7}\left(RK_8\right)$$
(21)
For n-type high doped Si, the process described by eq. (4) is the most probable. If $`J_0`$ is the initial concentration of impurities, and the initial concentration of complexes is zero, than:

$$V\left(t\right)=\frac{1}{2K_5}\left\{K_6+K_5\left(V_iJ_0\right)+R^{}\frac{\frac{K_6+K_5\left(V_iJ_0\right)}{R^{}}+\mathrm{tanh}\left(\frac{tR^{}}{2}\right)}{1+\frac{K_6+K_5\left(V_iJ_0\right)}{R^{}}\mathrm{tanh}\left(\frac{tR^{}}{2}\right)}\right\}$$
(22)
with:

$$R^{}\sqrt{K_6^2+K_5^2\left(V_iJ_0\right)^2+2K_5K_6\left(V_i+J_0\right)}$$
(23)
and with the stationary solution:

$$\underset{t\mathrm{}}{lim}V\left(t\right)=\frac{1}{2K_5}\left[K_5\left(V_iJ_0\right)+R^{}K_6\right]$$
(24)
and

$$C=V_iV$$
(25)
## 4 Results and physical interpretations

In Figure 1, the absolute value of the CPD per unit fluence (CPD) induced by pions in silicon is presented as a function of the kinetic energy of the particle. This curve has been obtained in the hypothesis listed in references . In the kinetic energy range between 100 to 300 MeV, pion - nucleus interaction is resonant in all waves, the $`\mathrm{\Delta }_{33}`$ resonance is produced and a pronounced maxima in the CPD is observed at approximately 150 MeV followed by a slight monotonic decrease at higher energies. Some local maxima are also presents at high energies, but with less importance.

The process of partitioning the energy of the recoil nuclei (produced due the interaction of the incident particle with the nucleus, placed in its lattice site) in new interaction processes, between electrons (ionisation) and atomic motion (displacements) has been considered in the frame of the Lindhard theory.

The CPD multiplied by the fluence is the initial value of the concentration of vacancies and interstitials, and in the forthcoming discussion it is expressed, as specified, as atomic fraction. Without loss of generality, will shall consider that the primary defects are produced by 150 MeV kinetic energy pions.

The following values of the parameters have been used: $`E_{i1}`$ = 0.4 eV, $`E_{i2}`$ = 0.8 eV, $`B_1`$= 0.2 eV, $`B_2`$ = 0.2 eV, $`B_3`$ = 0.4 eV, $`\nu `$ = 1013 Hz, $`\lambda ^2`$ = 1015 cm2, $`\alpha `$ = 1010 cm-2, The value of the parameter$`p`$ is taken 100.

The time evolution of the concentration of vacancies, normalised to the concentration of vacancies created by irradiation is represented in Figure 2. Fluences in the range $`10^{11}10^{15}`$ pions/cm2 have been considered. The weight of the annihilation process in respect to interstitial migration to sinks increases abruptly with the fluence. At low fluences, up to $`10^{11}`$ pions/cm2, the annihilation has a low importance. With a good approximation, it could be considered that after 0.2 sec. after irradiation the vacancy concentration is saturated. As could be seen from the figure, observable effects in $`V/V_0`$ appear for fluences higher than $`10^{12}`$ pions/cm2. Experimentally, for silicon particle detectors irradiated with hadrons, some modifications in the electrical characteristics have been observed in the fluence range $`10^{12}10^{13}`$ cm-2 .

All the curves correspond to room temperature (20 oC) annealing.

The interval of time after which the concentration of interstitials decreases $`p`$ times, given by eq. (17) with $`V(t)=V_{initial}`$ is a characteristic time of the processes in the first stage, and depends on temperature and fluence.

In Figure 3, this characteristic time is represented as a function of fluence, in the fluence range $`10^{11}10^{15}`$ pions/cm2, for three temperatures of interest for high energy physics applications: -20, 0 and +20 oC. It may be seen that, up to $`10^{13}`$ pions/cm2, the characteristic time is independent on the fluence, and for higher fluences a decrease of the characteristic time is to be noted and a fluence dependence is obtained.

The initial concentration of vacancies for the second stage is $`V_{initial}`$ previously calculated. The second stage starts at a time equal to the characteristic time.

Two limiting cases have been studied, low doping concentration (high resistivity uncompensated material), and low resistivity, phosphorus doped silicon. The formation and decomposition of divacancies is a good approximation for the first, while the second is related to $`VP`$ complexes.

The time evolution of the concentration of vacancies when divacancy formation is considered is illustrated in Figure 4a. As underlined in Section 3, the time scale of this process is much longer in respect to the first stage. The origin of time in Figure 4a is the beginning of the second stage, this means a characteristic time after the start of the annealing.

The curves in this figure are normalised to the concentration of vacancies remained after the first stage. Values of the initial concentrations of vacancies that correspond to fluences in the same range as in the previous analysis have been considered. It could be observed that the time after which $`V(t)/V_{initial}`$ saturates is in the range $`10^710^8`$ sec., and increases with the irradiation fluence. All curves have been calculated also for 20 oC temperature.

The time evolution of divacancy concentration is represented in Figure 4b, also in a similar manner with the vacancy concentration in Figure 4a.

The case of high initial impurity (phosphorus) concentration, where divacancy formation is neglected in respect to complex formation, is presented in Figures 5a and 5b respectively.

Three initial concentrations for phosphorus in silicon (expressed as atomic fractions) have been considered: $`10^5`$, $`10^7`$, and $`510^{10}`$, corresponding to 0.1 $`\mathrm{\Omega }cm`$, 10 $`\mathrm{\Omega }cm`$, and 1 $`k\mathrm{\Omega }cm`$ resistivity respectively. The time evolution of the concentration of vacancies is represented in Figure 5a, while the corresponding one for the concentration of complexes in Figure 5b, both normalised to the concentration of vacancies remained after the first stage. An irradiation with $`10^{13}`$ pions/cm2 has been considered.

The origin of time in Figures 5a and 5b is displaced in respect with the origin of the annealing, in the same way as in Figs. 4a and 4b.

The curves corresponding to $`10^{11}10^{15}`$ cm-2 are superimposed on the same curve, with the exception of the tail at times longer than 104 sec. where the values corresponding to higher fluences are slightly higher.

The time interval after which $`V(t)/V_{initial}`$ saturates is shorter than in the case of divacancy, and at room temperature is in the range $`10^310^4`$ sec. for the doping concentrations considered. It shortens with the increase of impurity concentration.

Some explicit considerations must be done about the formation of vacancy-impurity complexes. The mechanisms supposed above can be used both for boron and for phosphorus impurities. In this case, the corresponding processes are :

$$B_i+V\left[B_iV\right]$$
(26)
and respectively:

$$P_s+V\left[P_sV\right]$$
(27)
While the complex formed by boron is unstable and self anneals bellow room temperature, the interaction between a $`V`$ and a $`P_s`$ leads to the formation of an $`E`$ centre which is stable in the same conditions .

Interactions between interstitial oxygen (another very studied impurity in the last time) and free vacancies is described as a higher order process (third order in the  and fourth power in ). If the process is stopped as a first order one, the time evolution of the concentrations is not different from the case of phosphorus, studied before.

If two or more impurities that trap vacancies are considered as existing simultaneously in silicon, the system of coupled equations must be solved. Only numerical solutions for particular cases are possible.

If two or more impurities that trap vacancies are considered as existing simultaneously in silicon, the system of coupled equations must be solved. Only numerical solutions for particular cases are possible.

So, in the frame of this model, three characteristic times have been found for 20 oC self annealing in silicon: one in the order of 0.2 sec., corresponding to vacancy - interstitial annihilation and interstitial migration to sinks, one around 104 sec., related to vacancy-phosphorous formation and decomposition, and another one around 107 sec., divacancy related.

The present model could be applied to the annealing of primary radiation defects induced in Si by any other hadron, the difference coming from the value of the CPD.

## 5  Summary

The time evolution of the primary concentration of defects induced by pions after irradiation process has been modelled.

In this model, vacancy-interstitial annihilation, interstitial migration to sinks, vacancy and interstitial impurity complex formation as well as divacancy formation have been considered. In the considered hypothesis, the time evolution of impurity concentrations has been decoupled into two steps, the first one involving vacancy-interstitial annihilation and interstitial migration to sinks, the second vacancy-complex and divacancy formation.

The equations corresponding to the first step have been solved analytically for a wide range of particle fluences and for a wide energy range of incident particles, and for three different temperatures: -20, 0 and +20 oC.

The approximations that permit to decouple the differential equations representing the time evolution processes in the second step have been studied, and the processes have been treated separately. The simultaneous consideration of more processes in this last step of the model is possible only numerically.

The predictions of the model are in general agreement with the experimental results, and suggest a possible connection with the self annealing mechanisms.

## 6 Acknowledgements

The authors are very grateful to Professor Gh. Ciobanu from the Bucharest University for helpful discussions during the course of this work.

Figure captions

Figure 1: Energy dependence of the absolute value of the concentration of primary defects per unit fluence induced by pions in silicon.

Figure 2: Concentration of vacancies created by irradiation versus time, normalised to the concentration of vacancies for the first stage, for different particle fluences, expressed in cm-2.

Figure 3: Characteristic time of the first stage versus the irradiation fluence, for -20, 0 and +20 oC temperature.

Figure 4: a) Time evolution of the concentration of vacancies, normalised to the concentration of vacancies remained after the first stage when divacancy formation and decomposition are considered, for different particle fluences, expressed in cm-2. b) Same as (a) for the concentration of divacancies.

Figure 5: a) Time evolution of the concentration of vacancies, normalised to the concentration of vacancies remained after the first stage when $`VP`$ complex formation and decomposition are considered. The three curves correspond to different initial impurity concentrations, expressed in atomic fractions. b) Same as (a) for the concentration of complexes.