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# The warm circumstellar envelope and wind of the G9 IIb star HR 6902

## 1 Introduction

The spectroscopic binary system HR 6902 (G9 IIb + B8-9 V) belongs to the category of $`\zeta `$ Aur stars, where a hot companion (generally a main sequence B star) moves through the extended envelope of an evolved late-type star. The specific binary geometry provides an exceptional opportunity to probe the spatial dependence of the physical properties of the outer atmosphere and wind of the primary. Observations of $`\zeta `$ Aur systems and related objects with the International Ultraviolet Explorer (IUE) and more recently with the Hubble Space Telescope (HST) take advantage of the ultraviolet spectral region. At wavelengths below $`3000\mathrm{\AA }`$ the hot secondary dominates the observed flux allowing a separation of the spectral information. In the UV the observed spectrum is purely that of the companion with superimposed circumstellar and interstellar lines. Further information on the binary technique can be found in several reviews (e.g., Reimers (1989); Guinan (1990); Ahmad (1993); Harper (1996); Baade (1998)).

Ground based spectroscopic as well as UV and X-ray observations from space of stars in the cool half of the HR diagram have shown that the extended atmospheres of giants and supergiants undergo a dramatic physical change across a region in the HR diagram. To the right of this transition we observe cool and massive winds plus extended cool chromospheres, while to its left there is much hotter circumstellar matter. This transition is accompanied by different spectral indicators defining distinct dividing lines. The leftmost is the ”X-ray dividing line”. All stars to its left show X-ray emission, probably arising from extended corona-like plasma (e.g., Haisch, Schmitt, & Rosso 1991, 1992). In the ultraviolet the same stars also show C iv and Si iv and often N v emission (Linsky & Haisch (1979)). Additional dividing lines are defined by asymmetries in the Ca ii and Mg ii emission lines (e.g., Stencel & Mullan 1980a , 1980b). The strongest and most reliable evidence for the existence of a cool, massive wind is the appearance of circumstellar absorption features in the Ca ii line (Reimers (1977)). A theoretical discussion of the dividing line concept based on hydromagnetic waves can be found in Rosner (1993) and Rosner et al. (1995).

However, this simple picture is complicated by the existence of the so-called hybrid stars. Hartmann, Dupree & Raymond (1980) and Reimers (1982) found that some bright K giants and G supergiants show blue-shifted Mg ii (and partly Ca ii) absorption and emission lines like C iv and Si iv signifying temperatures of at least $`10^5\mathrm{K}`$. Hybrid stars are also X-ray emitters (Reimers et al. (1996)). The outflow properties of these stars are still very uncertain and it is controversial whether hybrids show cold ($`10^4\mathrm{K}`$) or possibly warm ($`10^5\mathrm{K}`$) winds.

Previous IUE observations of HR 6902 suggest the existence of warm circumstellar material that may represent the transitional physics of hybrid star atmospheres. Reimers, Baade, & Schröder (1990a) and Reimers et al. (1990b) have presented a series of IUE high resolution spectra ($`R10^4`$) taken a few days before and after eclipse. Si iv and C iv column densities indicate a height-independent electron temperature of $`T_\mathrm{e}\mathrm{70\hspace{0.17em}000}\mathrm{K}`$. As discussed by Reimers et al. (1990b) the density distribution is compatible with a low mass-loss wind.

In the present paper we report the results of a reanalysis of IUE spectra of HR 6902. Compared to the first study (Reimers et al. 1990a , 1990b) we utilize a substantially expanded observations database. The paper is organized as follows: In Sect. 2 we present the observations and basic stellar parameters used in this paper. Sect. 3 summarizes the methodical principles of our absorption analysis technique and the application to the HR 6902 spectra. In Sect. 4 we outline the multi-dimensional radiative transfer procedure used to infer global properties of the circumstellar shell.

## 2 Observations and basic stellar data

While nearly all observations have been conducted by ourselves in several IUE programs, the data used here are taken from the IUE Final Archive. We have compiled a sequence of large aperture spectra obtained between 1987 and 1990. Full details of the NEWSIPS data reduction have been given by Garhart et al. (1997), and will not be repeated here. It is, however, worth reiterating that the new processing techniques generally greatly enhance the quality of IUE spectra. The increase in signal-to-noise improves the detection limit of faint absorption features significantly. Furthermore, the new noise handling allows a reliable error estimate for each point in the flux spectrum. The archival IUE spectra exploited for this paper are listed in Table 1.

The analysis presented by Reimers et al. (1990b) is based on IUE observations of the 1988 and 1989 eclipses, covering a range of impact parameters $`p`$ (projected distance between the stellar components) from $`1.12.0`$ giant radii. Our new study also includes the high resolution spectra of the 1990 eclipse showing Si iv and C iv absorption up to $`p=3.3\mathrm{R}_\mathrm{g}`$. These additional impact parameters allow us to directly examine the wind acceleration region. One additional observation obtained 1987 yields an upper limit to the column densities at $`p=5.3\mathrm{R}_\mathrm{g}`$.

A direct analysis of the circumstellar Si iv and C iv lines is not feasible owing to the considerable photospheric background absorption. We extract the circumstellar contribution by dividing all high resolution spectra by the out-of-eclipse exposure SWP 36589. This observation serves as suitable reference spectrum since the large impact parameter of $`p=9.1\mathrm{R}_\mathrm{g}`$ implies a pure B star spectrum. Indeed, the final wind model presented in Sect. 3 confirms that there should be no detectable circumstellar absorption. As an example we present in Fig. 1 the phase variation of the C iv absorption line. The observed line strength depends strongly on the relative position of the B star and decreases with increasing impact parameter. Though circumstellar C ii absorption at 1335 Å is clearly detectable, the poor S/N ratio of the IUE spectra does not allow an adequate absorption line reconstruction. In the case of nearly saturated photospheric absorption lines the dividing procedure leads to spurious line profiles with artificial emission features. Unfortunately, the C iv and Si iv doublets are the only circumstellar absorption lines that can be used for a quantitative analysis.

Great significance must be attached to the emission line spectrum visible during total eclipse of the B star. The 1988 total eclipse observation (SWP 34143, $`\varphi =0.998`$) was part of the first HR 6902 program and has been reported by Reimers et al. (1990a). The deep $`410^\mathrm{m}`$ exposure SWP 39795 (Fig. 2) obtained on 1990 October 8 provides a significantly improved signal-to-noise ratio and will be subject of this paper. We note that the large difference in quality does not allow a comparative analysis in order to search for long-term variations. While in ”normal” $`\zeta `$ Aur systems hundreds of scattering lines (e.g., Fe ii and Si ii) are seen, only a few are observed in the spectrum of HR 6902. A comparison with stars of similar spectral type suggests that the emission line spectrum cannot be due to the G star alone (Reimers et al. 1990a ). Instead, the observed C iv and Si iv doublets are formed primarily by resonance scattering of B star photons in the circumstellar envelope.

Griffin et al. (1995) have redetermined the orbital and stellar parameters of HR 6902 by means of photometric observations during the eclipses of 1987 and 1989 (Table 2). The relative orbit and the eclipse geometry are shown in Fig. 3. It should be noted that the stellar parameters of giants belonging to $`\zeta `$ Aur systems can be much better determined than for single stars. A recent evolutionary analysis suggests that the bright giant primary of HR 6902 is already evolved into its blue loop phase (Schröder et al. (1997)).

## 3 Absorption line diagnostics

A comparison of the total eclipse emission line spectrum with the out-of-eclipse observations shows immediately that the continuum flux is orders of magnitude larger than the scattered line flux. Hence, the circumstellar absorption profiles can be interpreted as pure absorption lines formed in the extended envelope of HR 6902. In the subsequent sections we present details of the analysis and interpretation of the spectra of HR 6902.

### 3.1 Basic equations

The line formation in HR 6902 is dominated by velocity fields on different scales. To simplify the concept we introduce a line broadening velocity $`v_\mathrm{b}`$ containing both the thermal velocity $`v_{\mathrm{th}}`$ and a stochastic component $`v_{\mathrm{sto}}`$ associated with turbulence or other short-scale nonthermal motions. Assuming a Gaussian distribution of the stochastic velocity the spectroscopic line broadening parameter becomes $`v_\mathrm{b}^2=v_{\mathrm{th}}^2+v_{\mathrm{sto}}^2`$. The macroscopic velocity field is characterized by a spherically symmetric expansion described by an a priori unknown velocity law $`v_{\mathrm{wind}}(r)`$.

Throughout this paper we assume the line broadening velocity to be constant in the relevant parts of the envelope. It is convenient to define a dimensionless frequency variable $`x=(\nu \nu _0)/\mathrm{\Delta }\nu _\mathrm{d}`$, where $`\nu _0`$ is the line-center frequency and $`\mathrm{\Delta }\nu _\mathrm{d}=\nu _0v_\mathrm{b}/\mathrm{c}`$ the corresponding Doppler width. Macroscopic velocities are measured in the same units, i.e. $`u(r)=v(r)/v_\mathrm{b}`$. Regarding the B star as a point light-source of intensity $`I_\mathrm{B}`$ the emergent flux for a given impact parameter $`p`$ can be written

$$F_x(p)=I_\mathrm{B}\mathrm{exp}\left[\tau _x(p)\right].$$
(1)
The optical depth along a ray from the observer to the B star is given by

$$\tau _\mathrm{x}(p)=k_0_{z_{min}}^{z_{max}}n(r)\mathrm{\Phi }\left[x\frac{z}{r}u(r)\right]\mathrm{dz},$$
(2)
where $`\mathrm{\Phi }(x)`$ denotes the dimensionless profile function. The geometry is defined by the distance from the primary $`r`$ and the integration path $`z=\sqrt{r^2p^2}`$. The boundaries $`z_{min}`$ and $`z_{max}`$ depend on the position of the B star and the adopted outer radius of the envelope (chosen as large that the results are unaffected by its actual value), respectively. The line opacity per absorber reads

$$k_0=\frac{\pi \mathrm{e}^2}{\mathrm{m}_\mathrm{e}\mathrm{c}}\lambda _0fv_{\mathrm{sto}}^1,$$
(3)
where $`f`$ is the oscillator strength and $`\lambda _0`$ the rest wavelength of the transition under consideration.

In the static case (i.e. without considering the expansion explicitly) Eq. 2 degenerates to a simple relation between the optical depth and the column density $`N`$, viz

$$\tau _\mathrm{x}(p)=k_0N\mathrm{\Phi }(x).$$
(4)
Our analysis is carried out using a non-linear least square fit technique based on the Levenberg-Marquard method (e.g., Press et al. (1992)) to derive the column density $`N`$ and the line broadening parameter $`v_{\mathrm{sto}}`$. The NEWSIPS error estimate provides statistical errors of the deduced parameters and allows to assess the goodness-of-fit. As an additional constraint the best-fit parameters are forced to be equal for all lines of the particular multiplet under consideration, i.e., we favor the strategy of resonance doublet modeling instead of analyzing individual absorption lines. Our fitting procedure allows to vary the continuum flux level in order to avoid the difficulties associated with a continuum definition by eye. Finally, the theoretical profile has to be convoluted with the IUE line-spread function. The instrumental profile is assumed to be well represented by a Gaussian with FWHM in accordance with the actual determination of the NEWSIPS resolution (Garhart et al. (1997)).

### 3.2 Quasi-static approach

As a starting point of our analysis we use a quasi-static approximation neglecting macroscopic velocity fields. The objective of this approach is to provide a provisional set of column densities and stochastic velocities. However, line broadening effects due to the wind outflow calls the static model into question. In Sect. 3.3 we will examine possible consequences for the derived parameters.

In the spectrum SWP 31325 (impact parameter $`p=5.2\mathrm{R}_\mathrm{g}`$) we cannot identify any signature of C iv or Si iv absorption lines. Instead, we use the error information of the IUE flux to determine upper limits of the column densities. The results of the static analysis are summarized in Table 3. Fig. 4 shows the run of column densities as a function of the impact parameter. As already noticed by Reimers et al. (1990b), the egress observations indicate significant differences from epoch to epoch. The obtained stochastic velocities show a considerable scatter with a weighted mean of $`68\pm 16\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$.

Assuming the simplifying conditions of a low density plasma the C iv and Si iv density ratio can be used to derive an ionization temperature $`T_{\mathrm{ion}}`$. We solve the ionization balance using the radiative-collisional equilibrium program CLOUDY (version 9003; Ferland (1997)). The metal abundances are supposed to be solar ($`A_\mathrm{C}=3.6\times 10^4,A_{\mathrm{Si}}=3.6\times 10^5`$ \[Anders & Grevesse (1989)\]). As an approximation we identify the ionization temperature with the kinetic temperature $`T_\mathrm{e}`$ knowing that the ionization state may freeze in, so that we have $`T_\mathrm{e}T_{\mathrm{ion}}`$ in the outer wind. It turns out that the electron temperature appears to be constant within the observed part of the envelope ($`p=1.13.3\mathrm{R}_\mathrm{g}`$) with a weighted mean of $`T_\mathrm{e}=\mathrm{78\hspace{0.17em}000}\pm 2000\mathrm{K}`$. However, the ion ratio may be affected by different CNO abundances due to the first dredge up which can deplete the carbon abundance significantly (e.g., Lambert (1981)). For example, a carbon abundance reduced by a factor of 4 would lead to a temperature of $`\mathrm{90\hspace{0.17em}000}\mathrm{K}`$.

### 3.3 Density models

With known electron temperature we are able to transform the ion density into total hydrogen densities. In the next step we try to match the derived hydrogen column densities employing different types of density laws. Each density law implies a physical model defined by a specific set of parameters. Again we implement a least square fit procedure using the Levenberg-Marquard method.

#### 3.3.1 Hydrostatic model

As a first attempt we use the hydrostatic equation for an isothermal plasma

$$n_\mathrm{H}(r)=n_0\mathrm{exp}\left(\frac{r_0}{r}\frac{rr_0}{H}\right),$$
(5)
where $`r_0`$ defines the bottom of the envelope with the corresponding hydrogen density $`n_0`$. $`H`$ denotes the density scale height. This approach is motivated by the fact that at least the subsonic region will be well represented by the hydrostatic density law. In order to fit the empirical column densities we adjust the density parameter $`n_0`$ and the scale height $`H`$. Identifying $`r_0`$ with the giant radius the least square procedure yields $`n_0=5.0\pm 0.92\times 10^6\mathrm{cm}^3`$ and $`H=3.4\pm 0.14\times 10^{11}\mathrm{cm}`$.

The pressure may be composed of two parts, the thermal gas component and an effective turbulent pressure leading to the total dynamical pressure

$$P_{\mathrm{tot}}=\rho \left(\frac{\mathrm{k}T}{\mu m_\mathrm{H}}+\frac{v_{\mathrm{turb}}^2}{2}\right),$$
(6)
where $`\mu `$ is the mean molecular weight measured in units of the hydrogen mass. The velocity $`v_{\mathrm{turb}}`$ denotes an isotropic turbulent motion with a spatial scale smaller than the pressure scale height. Assuming the ionization equilibrium to be described by the physics of a low density plasma with $`T_\mathrm{e}=\mathrm{78\hspace{0.17em}000}\mathrm{K}`$ we obtain $`\mu =0.64`$ \[for solar composition according to Anders & Grevesse (1989)\]. If we identify the stochastic velocity of $`68\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$ with the turbulent velocity we obtain a scale height of $`3.4\times 10^{11}`$ cm, in agreement with the best-fit parameter of the hydrostatic model. However, at the impact parameter of $`p=5.2\mathrm{R}_\mathrm{g}`$ the theoretical column density exceeds the observed upper limit by a factor of 3 (see Fig. 5). As expected the hydrostatic equation provides an adequate description of the inner shell ($`p<3\mathrm{R}_\mathrm{g}`$), but overestimates the densities in the outer envelope considerably.

#### 3.3.2 Kinematic model: $`\beta `$ power-law

A more realistic model of the large-scale density distribution requires an appropriate kinematic approach. We follow two different strategies to introduce a velocity law: an analytical $`\beta `$ power-law approach traditionally used in $`\zeta `$ Aurigae studies, and a hydrodynamic description of an isothermal, isoturbulent wind (where $`P/\rho =\mathrm{const}`$). For the sake of simplicity we adopt a steady, spherically symmetric outflow. We are aware of the fact that these assumptions may be a point of criticism, since the observations suggest a considerable variability. However, the amplitude of these variations are small and justify a kind of ”average” description.

The first kinematic model uses a velocity law proven to be adequate for different classes of stellar winds including the envelopes of evolved late-type stars. The analyses of several $`\zeta `$ Aur binaries suggest a velocity field of the form

$$v(r)=v_{\mathrm{}}\left(1\frac{\mathrm{R}_\mathrm{g}}{r}\right)^\beta ,$$
(7)
where $`v_{\mathrm{}}`$ is the terminal wind velocity and $`\beta `$ the acceleration parameter which defines the steepness of the spatial velocity gradient associated with the expansion. The wind velocity $`v(r)`$ increases monotonically outward and approaches the terminal velocity at large distances from the giant. The number density is assumed to vary in accordance to the equation of continuity. The hydrogen density becomes

$$n_\mathrm{H}(r)=n_\beta \left(\frac{\mathrm{R}_\mathrm{g}}{r}\right)^2\left(\frac{r}{r\mathrm{R}_\mathrm{g}}\right)^\beta ,$$
(8)
where the density parameter $`n_\beta `$ is related to the mass-loss rate and terminal wind velocity:

$$n_\beta =\frac{\dot{M}}{4\pi v_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{R}_\mathrm{g}^2}\frac{X_\mathrm{H}}{m_\mathrm{H}}.$$
(9)
The hydrogen abundance by weight $`X_\mathrm{H}`$ is fixed at $`0.70`$ assuming solar chemical composition. The least square procedure yields a set of best-fit parameters $`n_\beta =6.6\pm 0.7\times 10^5`$ $`\mathrm{cm}^3`$ and $`\beta =0.60\pm 0.14`$.

The small value of $`\beta `$ indicates a rapid acceleration to $`0.5v_{\mathrm{}}`$ within $`1.5\mathrm{R}_\mathrm{g}`$. We note that the wind models of ”classical” $`\zeta `$ Aurigae systems ($`\zeta `$ Aur, 31 Cyg , 32 Cyg) indicate a gradual acceleration with $`\beta `$ in the range between 2.5 and 3.5 (e.g., Schröder (1985)). In the case of HR 6902 the terminal velocity eludes a spectroscopic determination, since we can only observe the tangential velocity component. The poor quality of the spectra does not allow the use of alternative velocity indicators like Mg ii absorption. As a consequence the mass-loss information is restricted to the ratio $`\frac{\dot{M}}{v_{\mathrm{}}}`$. The winds from hybrid stars show high terminal velocities (typically 50 to $`150\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$) as measured by the circumstellar Mg ii absorption (e.g., Dupree & Reimers (1987)). Furthermore, the flow velocities of luminous cool stars are always less than the escape speed from the photosphere (for HR 6902 we find $`v_{\mathrm{esc}}=211\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$). So we expect $`v_{\mathrm{}}`$ to lie in the range $`50200\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$. The corresponding mass-loss rate is $`8\times 10^{12}3.4\times 10^{11}\mathrm{M}_{}\mathrm{yr}^1`$ with a statistical error of $`10\%`$.

#### 3.3.3 Kinematic model: $`P\rho `$ wind

Finally, we try to attack the mass motion using the equations of gas dynamics. Conservation of momentum gives the one-dimensional Euler equation

$$v\frac{\mathrm{d}v}{\mathrm{d}r}=\frac{1}{\rho }\frac{\mathrm{d}P_{\mathrm{eff}}}{\mathrm{d}r}\frac{\mathrm{GM}_\mathrm{g}}{r^2}+f(r),$$
(10)
where $`f(r)`$ denotes a potential extra force per unit-mass. In the present study we set $`f=0`$ and introduce an effective pressure term containing an unspecified nonthermal contribution assuming a proportionality of the form $`P_{\mathrm{eff}}\rho `$. This simplification leads to a Parker-type wind. The Euler equation can be integrated immediately and yields a solution with a positive velocity gradient at all distances (e.g., Mihalas (1978)):

$$\frac{v}{v_\mathrm{c}}\mathrm{exp}\left[\frac{1}{2}\left(\frac{v}{v_\mathrm{c}}\right)^2\right]=\left(\frac{r_\mathrm{c}}{r}\right)^2\mathrm{exp}\left(\frac{2r_\mathrm{c}}{r}+\frac{3}{2}\right).$$
(11)
The transcendental equation can be solved numerically to give $`v(r)/v_\mathrm{c}`$. The critical radius is defined by the singularity of the Euler equation:

$$r_\mathrm{c}=\frac{\mathrm{GM}_\mathrm{g}}{2v_\mathrm{c}^2}.$$
(12)
The hydrogen density may be expressed by an equation of the form

$$n_\mathrm{H}(r)=n_\mathrm{c}\left(\frac{\mathrm{R}_\mathrm{g}}{r}\right)^2\frac{v_\mathrm{c}}{v(r)},$$
(13)
where the density parameter $`n_\mathrm{c}`$ is related to the mass-loss rate by

$$n_\mathrm{c}=\frac{\dot{M}}{4\pi v_\mathrm{c}\mathrm{R}_\mathrm{g}^2}\frac{X_\mathrm{H}}{m_\mathrm{H}}.$$
(14)
This formalism suggests varying the density parameter and the critical velocity to model $`n_\mathrm{H}(r)`$. The critical velocity specifies the singularity of the momentum equation and thus determines the slope of the resulting density distribution. We note that there is no need to take explicitly care of specific pressure constituents. Our least square fit procedure yields $`n_\mathrm{c}=1.5\pm 0.3\times 10^6\mathrm{cm}^3`$ and $`v_\mathrm{c}=89.5\pm 13.7\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$. The density parameter leads to a mass-loss rate of $`\dot{M}=3.4\pm 1.2\times 10^{11}\mathrm{M}_{}\mathrm{yr}^1`$.

Using Eq. 12 the critical radius becomes $`1.4\mathrm{R}_\mathrm{g}`$, indicating a high velocity close to the surface of the giant. Fig. 5 demonstrates that both wind models lead to similar density laws. Indeed, the approximate relationship between $`v_\mathrm{c}`$ and $`\beta `$ derived by Harper et al. \[1995, Eq. (10)\] yields an acceleration parameter of 0.54 quite similar to the result of our beta-law analysis. This finding may justify the $`\beta `$ power-law approach in other red giant winds, where we have an unknown hydrodynamic situation.

Assuming the effective pressure to be supplied by both gas and turbulence pressure the critical velocity is given by

$$v_\mathrm{c}=\sqrt{\frac{\mathrm{k}T}{\mu m_\mathrm{H}}+\frac{v_{\mathrm{turb}}^2}{2}}.$$
(15)
The best-fit model with $`v_\mathrm{c}=89.5\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$ yields a turbulence of $`v_{\mathrm{turb}}=119\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$ which exceeds the observed stochastic velocity by a factor of 1.8. This discrepancy may become even worse when we allow for macroscopic line broadening. Either the identification of turbulent and stochastic velocity is completely inappropriate, or the momentum Eq. 10 contains unknown external forces or pressure terms. Furthermore, the relation between the observed line broadening velocity and the turbulent velocity is not clear and depends on the driving mechanism(s), the geometry, and the statistics of the absorbing structures.

In the preceding analysis we have ignored line broadening due to the wind velocity. In order to examine the effect on the derived parameters we repeat the absorption line analysis with the complete optical depth quadrature according to Eq. 2. The wind outflow is assumed to be well described by the $`\beta `$ power-law. Again we consider terminal velocities ranging from 50 to $`200\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$. It turns out that high velocity models with $`v_{\mathrm{}}150\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$ cannot reproduce the observed profile shapes adequately. The deduced stochastic component of the line broadening lies in the interval $`20100\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$ showing partly a large standard error. The range of stochastic velocities reflects both noisy IUE spectra and true irregularities of the local velocity field. As an example we present in Table 3 the results for $`v_{\mathrm{}}=100\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$ which represents the most probable fit model. Though this model yields considerably reduced stochastic velocities with a weighted mean (i.e., averaged over all heights) of $`47\pm 16\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$, the derived column densities are fairly close to the quasi-static model. This finding even holds for larger wind speeds and we conclude that the quasi-static analysis has produced column densities with a reasonable degree of confidence.

## 4 Emission line diagnostics

Reimers et al. (1990a) have shown that the C iv and Si iv emission lines are formed by resonance scattering of B star photons in the envelope of the primary. Profile modeling requires the solution of a two-dimensional radiative transfer problem. The difficulty arises due to the fact that the light source (i.e. the B star) is displaced from the center of wind symmetry. It is well-known that the scattering lines are formed in a large volume compared to the scale of the binary orbit (Baade et al. (1996)). Hence, the emission line diagnostics allows to study the large-scale properties of the circumstellar envelope.

For the 2-D radiative transfer calculations we employ the SEI (Sobolev with exact integration) method, i.e., the source function is approximated using the escape probability formalism followed by an exact formal solution using short characteristics. This procedure is simple in concept and can be applied to very extended geometrical grids. In normal $`\zeta `$ Aur systems the Sobolev approach leads to erroneous results, since the wind velocities are typically only a few times the stochastic velocities. However, a comparison with a more refined 2-D radiative transfer code (Baade (1989), 1990) demonstrates the reliability of the Sobolev solution in the case of HR 6902. The reason is the low mass-loss rate ($`\dot{M}10^{11}\mathrm{M}_{}\mathrm{yr}^1`$) compared to the ”classical” $`\zeta `$ Aur systems ($`\dot{M}10^910^8\mathrm{M}_{}\mathrm{yr}^1`$). As a consequence the line opacities are small and multiple line photon scattering is of minor importance.

### 4.1 Sobolev approximation

In the framework of the first order escape probability theory the scattering integral is given by (e.g., Mihalas (1978))

$$J=[1\beta (𝐫)]S(𝐫)+\beta _\mathrm{c}(𝐫)I_\mathrm{c},$$
(16)
where $`I_\mathrm{c}`$ denotes a constant core intensity representing the B star. The escape probabilities are given by

$$\beta (𝐫)=\frac{1}{4\pi }_{4\pi }\frac{1\mathrm{exp}\left(\tau _\mathrm{s}\right)}{\tau _\mathrm{s}}d\mathrm{\Omega },$$
(17)
and

$$\beta _\mathrm{c}(𝐫)=\frac{1}{4\pi }_{\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{c}}\frac{1\mathrm{exp}\left(\tau _\mathrm{s}\right)}{\tau _\mathrm{s}}d\mathrm{\Omega },$$
(18)
with the Sobolev optical thickness $`\tau _\mathrm{s}=k_0n(𝐫)L(𝐫,𝐧)`$. The so-called Sobolev length in the direction $`𝐧`$ may be defined in tensor notation:

$$L(𝐫,𝐧)=\left|\underset{ij}{}n_in_j\frac{u_i}{r_j}\right|^1.$$
(19)
The quantity $`\beta (𝐫)`$ denotes the probability that a photon emitted at the point $`𝐫`$ escapes from the outer boundary and $`\beta _\mathrm{c}(𝐫)`$ symbolizes the probability that a photon emitted by the core (i.e. the B star) penetrates to the point $`𝐫`$. In the case of pure resonance scattering the line source function is simply given by

$$S(𝐫)=\frac{\beta _\mathrm{c}(𝐫)I_\mathrm{c}}{\beta (𝐫)}.$$
(20)
Detailed information can be found in Hempe (1982) who applied the Sobolev formalism to the specific conditions of the binary configuration. With known source function on a two-dimensional grid, we can calculate the emergent radiation field. The intensities are supplied by the formal solution of the transfer equation and can be integrated along a set of parallel rays through the envelope. In a subsequent step the integration over all solid angles and normalization yields the residual flux $`F_\mathrm{x}/F_\mathrm{c}`$. For a detailed description we refer to Baade (1990) and Kirsch & Baade (1994).

### 4.2 Application to HR 6902

To calculate synthetic emission lines we extrapolate the wind models derived in Sect. 3 to the whole envelope assuming the temperature and thus the ionization state to remain fixed. Though this simplistic approach implies spurious energy sources to maintain the temperature it may be sufficient to explain qualitatively the observed flux.

In the first step we use the C iv and Si iv line ratio observed during total eclipse to derive the ionization temperature. Unfortunately, the clearly visible C ii line eludes the diagnostic procedure, since the photospheric background profile is not known precisely. Furthermore, the loci of line formation may be quite different. We calculate a grid of theoretical flux ratios in the temperature range between 60 000 and $`\mathrm{90\hspace{0.17em}000}\mathrm{K}`$. The ionization problem is solved using the CLOUDY code as described in Sect. 3.2. To consider the influence of different wind velocities we have a closer look at four different models defined either by the $`\beta `$ power-law or the $`P\rho `$ wind according to Sect. 3.3.

As shown in Fig. 6 the theoretical flux ratios depend only slightly on the specific wind model. The observed line ratio suggests an electron temperature of $`T_\mathrm{e}=\mathrm{82\hspace{0.17em}500}\pm 3000\mathrm{K}`$ consistent with the mean temperature obtained on the basis of the absorption line analysis. We use the derived electron temperature to calculate integrated line fluxes of the C iv and Si iv emission lines. The observed values (Table 4) can be reconstructed using the parameters $`n_\beta =2.9\times 10^5`$ $`\mathrm{cm}^3`$ for the $`\beta `$ power-law and $`n_\mathrm{c}=8.3\times 10^5`$ $`\mathrm{cm}^3`$ for the $`P\rho `$ wind model. In both cases the density parameter differs only by a factor of $`2`$ from the results of the absorption line analysis. The discrepancy may be a result of the inadmissible extrapolation of the isothermal density distribution. Indeed, we would expect a decreasing temperature at large distances from the giant causing a reduced absorber density.

The presence of a macroscopic velocity field will influence the profile shapes and cause wavelength shifts of the emission lines. However, the low resolution IUE spectra ($`R6\mathrm{\AA }`$) does not allow to examine these effects more closely. To demonstrate the expected situation we present in Fig. 7 a selection of theoretical flux profiles. It is obvious that the asymptotic flow velocity determines the character of the line profiles. In combination with a semi-empirical density model the line positions and profile shapes give reliable information about the global wind structure. This allows us to predict that high-resolution UV observations will unravel the kinematic nature of the circumstellar envelope of HR 6902.

## 5 Summary and discussion

In the present paper we have analyzed IUE observations of the $`\zeta `$ Aurigae type binary system HR 6902. The hot secondary serves as a convenient probe for the extended envelope of the bright giant. By means of a least square profile-fit procedure we have deduced C iv and Si iv column densities and stochastic velocities. The density distribution of the inner envelope ($`3\mathrm{R}_\mathrm{g}`$) can be described by a quasi hydrostatic model. We have shown that pressure support by turbulence is sufficient to explain the empirical scale height. However, in order to match the empirical column densities adequately we had to introduce an appropriate outflow model. We have demonstrated that both the common $`\beta `$ power-law and a $`P\rho `$ wind yield appropriate density distributions and explain the absence of C iv and Si iv absorption at larger distances from the giant. Fig. 8 demonstrates that the hydrostatic solution as well as the different outflow models lead to similar density laws. Despite this similarity the hydrodynamic implications are completely different. The required driving force per unit mass $`f(r)`$ should be compared to theoretical models.

We have derived mass-loss rates in the range $`0.83.4\times 10^{11}\mathrm{M}_{}\mathrm{yr}^1`$. This result indicates that the mass-loss rate of HR 6902 scales roughly with the solar mass flux, i.e., $`\dot{M}\dot{\mathrm{M}}_{}(\mathrm{R}_\mathrm{g}/\mathrm{R}_{})^2`$. Finally, we have demonstrated that the emission line spectrum obtained during total eclipse confirms essentially the wind models derived from the absorption line analysis. This finding supports the picture of a steady and spherically symmetric flow without excessive deviations from the mean wind model.

It is shown that HR 6902 possesses warm ($`T_\mathrm{e}\mathrm{80\hspace{0.17em}000}\mathrm{K}`$) circumstellar material, observed in a range of impact parameters between 1.1 and $`3.3\mathrm{R}_\mathrm{g}`$. Recently, the innermost region immediately above the photosphere ($`p1.1\mathrm{R}_\mathrm{g}`$) has been examined by Schröder, Marshall, & Griffin (1996) using optical spectra. They derived a temperature of $`T_\mathrm{e}5000\mathrm{K}`$ and a turbulent velocity of $`v_{\mathrm{turb}}=15\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$. However, in order to fit the Ca ii K-line wing they postulated a second absorption component with a considerably larger turbulent velocity of $`45\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$ quite similar to the stochastic velocities derived in the present work. Combining these results we suspect a dramatic change of the physical conditions in the giant’s atmosphere at $`p1.1\mathrm{R}_\mathrm{g}`$ associated with a steep rise of the temperature from about 5000 to $`\mathrm{80\hspace{0.17em}000}\mathrm{K}`$.

The large nonthermal line broadening parameter and its relative constancy (apart from local fluctuations) may be a characteristic property of the wind of HR 6902. The simplistic identification of turbulence and the observed stochastic velocity cannot explain the large pressure required to explain the density distribution by a $`P\rho `$ wind. However, the true relation between the observed line width and turbulent motions associated with wave-driven winds depends on the specific driving mechanism, geometrical details, and the randomness of the absorbing structures (e.g., Judge (1992)).

The wind models suggest a rapid wind acceleration within $`0.5\mathrm{R}_\mathrm{g}`$ above the photosphere. This result is similar to the outflow characteristics of hybrid stars \[$`\alpha `$ Aqr (G2 Ib), $`\beta `$ Aqr (G0 Ib), $`\theta `$ Her (K1 IIa), $`\iota `$ Aur (K3 II), $`\gamma `$ Aql (K 3II), and $`\alpha `$ TrA (K3 II); Brosius & Mullan (1986); Dupree et al. (1992); Harper et al. (1995)\]. Furthermore, a recent analysis of ORFEUS II spectra of the hybrid stars $`\alpha `$ TrA and $`\alpha `$ Aqr (Dupree & Brickhouse (1998)) have revealed that the stellar winds are not confined to cool circumstellar material. They pointed out that ions like Si iii through O vi indicate expanding material up to a temperature of $`3\times 10^5\mathrm{K}`$ with wind velocities from 100 to $`200\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$. We argue that the wind properties of hybrid stars are comparable to the extended atmosphere of HR 6902.

With its location in the HR diagram HR 6902 represents the physically important connection between solar-like stars with hot coronae and late type supergiants with cool outer atmospheres. The binary technique provides spatially resolved information about the physical structure of the extended envelope and wind that are unobtainable by other means. With IUE we have gained a first insight, but additional high resolution UV observations are indispensable to construct a detailed model. With this unique opportunity HR 6902 may play a crucial role in the elucidation of atmospheric heating processes and mechanisms to drive winds of cool stars.

###### Acknowledgements.

This work is supported by the Verbundforschung of the Bundesministerium für Bildung, Wissenschaft, Forschung und Technologie under Grant No. 50 OR 96016. This research has made use of IUEFA data obtained through the ESA IUE data server. The authors would like to thank Graham Harper for discussions and useful suggestions. Gary Ferland is kindly acknowledged for providing his ionization code CLOUDY. We made use of the ViziR search engine, a joint effort of CDS (Strasbourg, France) and ESA-ESRIN.


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# Tunneling and Chaos

## I Introduction

Quantum mechanical tunneling encompasses a multitude of fascinating effects that violate classically forbidden processes. In spite of the opposing quantum and classical behaviors, it is possible, through the use of semiclassical methods, to construct a theory requiring only knowledge of the classical dynamics. For example, one of the most familiar problems is that of potential barrier penetration. For a one dimensional barrier and supposing that coupling to the environment can be neglected, a number of techniques are available that analytically continue the classical motion either into a complexified phase space or through the use of complexified time. However, attempts to generalize these techniques run into fundamental problems for systems with more degrees of freedom, even without adding in the complication of environmental coupling. A theory of multidimensional tunneling has thus resisted any single, universal treatment.

It turns out that the difficulties can be traced back to the broad variety of underlying classical dynamics that emerge from multidimensional systems, and which are absent from one-degree-of-freedom systems. With better identification of the difficulties has come a number of new and novel tunneling phenomena linked to the presence of at least some chaotic motion. An excellent and fairly recent overview of the subject has been published as a pedagogical course by Creagh .

As chaos is ubiquitous in the dynamics of simple systems, i.e. those possessing a few degrees of freedom, there has been a major shift in focus towards investigating non-integrable dynamics. Whereas integrability may be “pleasing” in that it is amenable to analytic analysis, i.e. action-angle variables exist that render the dynamics trivial, in some sense it is extremely rare or can be considered as special. A few other categories of dynamics need to be introduced. For systems regarded as near-integrable, the dynamical instability tends to be quite weak, and perturbation theories often apply. Systems possessing a globalized chaotic region in phase space and some stable motion are regarded as having a mixed phase space with a moderate level of instability. The extreme limit of fully chaotic dynamical systems often comes with highly unstable motion. Each of these dynamical possibilities creates the opportunity for unique tunneling behaviors.

After a short description of a couple essential concepts, the rest of the paper gives a cursory outline of several advances and organizes them loosely by dynamical system type. No attempt has been made to be complete. It is just intended to give the flavor of the new dynamical directions under study.

## II Preliminaries

With a few exceptions, we restrict our discussion mainly to the spectral properties of simple, environmentally isolated, bounded, few degrees-of-freedom (D) systems. In fact, paradigms of $`2`$-D and periodically kicked $`1`$-D systems have been invoked in the bulk of the recent work. The nature of eigenstates or the time evolution of initially localized states is an extremely interesting subject which ought to be included in such a discussion as this, but shall not be due to space constraints. More complete discourse and references can be found in Ref. .

### A Integrable Systems

An inherent signature of tunneling is the existence of almost degenerate multiplets in a spectrum. For systems with a single reflection symmetry, doublets would appear if some positive measure of the classical trajectories occupied distinct phase space regions from their reflection symmetric counterparts. A semiclassical quantization of the motion and its symmetric partner would lead to the expectation of a degeneracy. The energy splitting of the degeneracy, $`\mathrm{\Delta }E`$, would be a measure of the strength of the tunneling. For integrable systems, semiclassical formulae take the form

$$\mathrm{\Delta }E=A(𝐉)\mathrm{}\mathrm{exp}\left(S(𝐉)/\mathrm{}\right)$$
(1)
where $`𝐉`$ denotes the action variables of the system, and $`\{A(𝐉),S(𝐉)\}`$ are smooth scalar functions of their arguments. Typically, $`A(𝐉)`$ is closely related to angular frequencies, and $`S(𝐉)`$ to the action accumulated over a particular cyclical, classically forbidden path defined within the complexified dynamics.

Of particular interest is the $`\mathrm{}`$-dependencies of both the amplitude and the argument of the exponential. Often it is possible to control a parameter, such as a wavevector, which effectively allows a tuning of the value of $`\mathrm{}`$. In a log plot versus $`\mathrm{}`$, the tunneling splitting should exhibit a smooth, linear slope. The prefactor shows up as a logarithmic correction, and may be rather difficult to establish, but leaves the $`\mathrm{}`$-dependence smooth. It is the contrast to this behavior that sets the new phenomena apart.

### B Dynamical Tunneling

Many of the recently discovered tunneling phenomena involve a counterpart to potential barrier penetration dubbed dynamical tunneling by Davis and Heller . It frequently arises in the models of the nuclear motions of small molecules . In dynamical tunneling, there is no energetic or potential barrier. Rather, the classically forbidden motions are dynamical in nature. In other words, constants of the motion other than energy are responsible for the forbidden features. The view from the underlying phase space structure can look indistinguishable between the two tunneling mechanisms. Separatrices, to which a potential barrier would give rise in phase space, or resonances can be responsible for isolating the symmetrically related motions. Unstable periodic orbits with their respective homoclinic tangles can also provide the barrier for dynamical tunneling. Curiously though, despite the phase space similarities, the spectral behavior can appear to vary in opposing directions. The potential barrier case leads to increasing tunneling splittings as energy is increased, and beyond the peak barrier energy the tunneling splittings vanish in the spectrum. On the other hand, many dynamical systems retain dynamical tunneling multiplets to infinite excitation energy with many of the splittings approaching zero in the limit. For example, homogeneous potentials lead to situations in which a constant fraction of the levels are involved with tunneling at all energies and the local energy average splitting decreases with increasing energy.

### C Chaotic eigenstates

For integrable systems, semiclassical theory gives a one-to-one correspondence between particular classical motion and the eigenstates. Through the D relations

$$J_i=2\pi \mathrm{}\left(n_i+\frac{\nu _i}{2}\right)$$
(2)
each energy level and eigenstate is related to a specific set of classical actions, $`\{𝐉\}`$. Topologically speaking, all the eigenstates are similar and can be considered to belong to a regular class. This association fundamentally breaks down once chaotic motion exists in the system . For near-integrable and mixed phase space systems a non-neglible fraction of the phase space continues to be covered by motion possessing good action variables locally. A roughly corresponding fraction of the eigenstates continues to satisfy the criteria for being regular .

The remainder of the eigenstates can be lumped into a single irregular or chaotic class defined as being other than regular, but this underemphasizes the range of eigenstate characteristics that become possible once released from the burden of having to reflect regular motion. We mention three important examples of distinct irregular behaviors; this is not an exhaustive scheme. Crudely speaking, the ergodic subclass behaves locally like random waves subject to the ergodic measure $`\delta (EH(p,q))`$ as it applies to wavefunctions . If a system is not fully chaotic, it is understood that the $`(p,q)`$ coordinates are restricted to a subset of points approaching arbitrarily closely to a single chaotic trajectory. For this class to exist, the classical exploration of the ergodic subset of phase points must take place on a time scale short compared to the Heisenberg time scale that derives from the mean quantum level spacing. A second possibility arises because it is often possible to identify a variable in which the dynamics is diffusive. In this case, the irregular class of eigenstates may be strongly localized in the Anderson sense . The kicked rotor provides the classic example . A third class has been dubbed as being hierarchical . They are associated with the hierarchy of time scales existing in the dynamics found at the boundaries between regular and chaotic motion. The states exhibit fractal character over some range of scales cutoff by $`\mathrm{}`$ at one end, and the nature of the regular-chaos boundary on the other.

## III Near-integrable systems

### A An integrable approximation

Our first example of a tunneling phenomenon requiring a serious look at the underlying dynamics is provided by a work of Ozorio de Almeida , and is exceptional in that it is the only topic discussed here in which the chaos is explicitly removed before treating the problem. However, it gives a theoretical approach to understanding dynamical tunneling in the presence of resonances, as are created by generic perturbations, and so it has been included. For small perturbations of an integrable system, motion in the neighborhood of low order rational ratios of angular frequency are replaced by resonances. The resonances may be enveloped by narrowly confined chaotic zones, however if the perturbation is weak enough, it is possible to average the Hamiltonian over the rapidly evolving angle variable of its unperturbed form. Effectively, through the combination of averaging and canonical transformations, the perturbed system is replaced by an integrable system whose phase space structure appears locally as a distorted pendulum. Two different tunneling processes emerge. The more familiar process is the tunneling between motion above and below the resonance leading to avoided crossings as a system parameter is varied. The other is a sort of tunneling of the state unto itself. If the resonance is large enough to quantize, its energy will be shifted from the standard semiclassical quantization because the wavefunction has “tails” that communicate directly and weakly from any lobe of the resonance to its neighboring lobes.

### B Analytic continuation

It is not always necessary nor correct to average away the weak chaos present in the dynamics, and a new tunneling dependence on $`\mathrm{}`$ was derived in the work of Wilkinson . He was able to evaluate, by saddle point methods, the tunneling splitting integrals with the help of an analytic continuation of the regular dynamical motion. The explicit expressions contain a different prefactor power of $`\mathrm{}`$

$$\mathrm{\Delta }E=\underset{k}{}A_k(𝐉)\mathrm{}^{3/2}\mathrm{exp}\left(S_k(𝐉)/\mathrm{}\right)$$
(3)
than found in Eq. (1), and multiple contributions are possible. In this case, the saddle points are isolated in distinction to the contour integrations necessary in integrable systems. Although, the original derivation required separation of the motions in configuration space, the canonical form suggested, and he conjectured, that the results apply to more general dynamical tunneling situations. A criterium was also given for the cross-over between the regimes of applicability of Eqs. (1) and (3). With increasing perturbation, the analytic continuations can become limited to such an extent that the saddle points cease to exist, and the procedure eventually breaks down.

## IV Mixed phase space systems

We turn now to tunneling phenomena where chaos is taking a direct role in the process.

### A Chaos-assisted tunneling

Consider a mixed phase space system whose parameters are such that each of its eigenstates fall mainly into a regular or ergodic class. Suppose further that there exists reflection symmetry leading to duplicate copies of regular trajectories that are well separated. One anticipates semiclassically degenerate doublets in the spectrum in proportion to the measure of regular motion. It turns out that these doublets are split by tunneling mechanisms completely different than discussed in Sect. III. Instead, the tunneling proceeds indirectly via a compound process of wave amplitude breaking off bit by bit from the initial state near one regular domain, transporting chaotically to the neighborhood of its symmetric regular domain, and there reassembling its reflection of the initial state . The fundamental process, and unsolved theoretical problem, is how the “phase space” tails of regular and ergodic wavefunctions join smoothly. The involvement of the ergodic eigenstates and spectrum create tunneling splitting fluctuations over several orders of magnitude  which overshadow any mean behavior similar to Eq. (1). Random matrix models have been introduced and shown to predict the observed splitting fluctuations successfully .

The first experimental evidence for chaos-assisted tunneling in a microwave cavity version of the annular billiard introduced by Bohigas et al.  has recently been reported by Dembowski et al. . Note that it had previously been argued that chaos-assisted tunneling is involved in the decay, to normal deformation, of superdeformed nuclear states , but the decay involves many-body physics that makes it a less straightforward interpretation. It nevertheless involves the coupling of regular and presumably ergodic states.

Several other important works have appeared, especially with regards to kicked systems or quantum maps . However, we briefly discuss just one more issue . The question arises whether symmetry is necessary; suppose that in a particular experimental situation it cannot be exactly maintained. Is there a possibility of seeing and confirming that chaos-assisted tunneling is occuring? In fact, symmetry is not required at all if two parameters can be controlled and independently varied. One parameter must force crossings between regular states that the tunneling will be splitting. The other parameter shifts the irregular levels with respect to the crossing levels. In direct tunneling, the tunneling splitting at the crossing is not influenced by the presence of other levels. In chaos-assisted tunneling, the splitting is completely determined by the whereabouts of the irregular levels, and the magnitudes of their avoided crossings with the regular levels. In the avoided crossings’ parametric dependence, these distinctions are unmistakable.

### B Chaos-assisted ionization

Chaos-assisted tunneling also arises in systems that are coupled to a continuum . In the first reference, the authors have investigated certain regimes of the hydrogen atom exposed to either linearly or circularly polarized microwaves where nondispersive electronic wave packets can be created. There regular classical motion exists embbedded in chaotic dynamical regions of phase space. Trajectories diffusively transport to ionization thresholds. It happens that the tails of the electronic wave packets are connected by quantum tunneling with ergodic states localized in the chaotic dynamical part of the phase space which are in turn connected to the continuum. The authors found peculiar fluctuations of energies and ionization rates and successfully modeled them with the same basic random matrix model approach as introduced in  extended to include continuum coupling.

In the second above reference, the authors investigate a quite different physical system, micro-optical cavities. These slightly deformed circular cavities have long-lived whispering gallery resonances created by total internal reflection. Qualitatively, certain parameter regimes of the system’s asymptotic ray limit are dynamically similar to the above nondispersing wave packets, i.e. mixed phase space dynamics. The authors  find a range of deformations where it appears that chaos-assisted tunneling must be invoked to explain larger than expected lifetimes for these meta-stable resonances.

## V Fully chaotic systems

For fully chaotic systems, recent works address tunneling between two ergodic states or between two localized states. We also give one last example reminiscent of Ozorio de Almeida’s tunneling of a state unto itself summarized in Sect. III A; although instead of involving a regular state, it involves an ergodic state.

### A Tunneling between chaotic states

In a series of works, Creagh and Whelan have studied the tunneling behavior of ergodic states separated by a potential barrier . They began by introducing a 2D double well for which the motion within each well was chaotic, and by giving a new approach to generating a trace formula directly for the splittings. A mean and fluctuating behavior could be separated and indentified with specific complex orbits. The fluctuations were controlled by orbits homoclinic to the real orbit connected to the optimal tunneling path through the barrier in a very similar way as a homoclinic orbit sum controls the autocorrelation function of chaotic wave packets . They also studied the statistical properties of the tunneling splittings which are given by a generalized Porter-Thomas distribution.

### B Tunneling between strongly localized states

Strong localization provides a quantum dynamical barrier that separates states as opposed to the classical dynamical barriers originally invoked in the definition of dynamical tunneling. For systems possessing an appropriate symmetry, multiplets of states that are further than a localization length from the “symmetry lines” will exist whose degeneracy is broken by tunneling . With a generalization of the kicked rotor , Casati et al.  found, not surprisingly, that pairs of “double-humped” states existed, and that their quasi-energies were split similar to the expectation for Mott states,

$$\mathrm{\Delta }\theta \mathrm{exp}(c_0n_0/l)$$
(4)
where $`l`$ is the localization length, $`n_0`$ the number of states away from the symmetry line, and $`c_0`$ a constant. The pairs did not exist too close to the momentum origin, and the localization length for states localized near the origin appeared to be a factor two different in their localization lengths.

### C Tunneling influence on band structure

The band structure of a periodic system that happens to be completely chaotic classically can be heavily influenced by tunneling. For strong enough kicking strength, the kicked Harper equation serves as an excellent example . Ergodic trajectories diffuse through the lattice. However, classically forbidden complex trajectories may hasten the process. LeBoeuf and Mouchet  have treated precisely this problem. As a function of kicking strength near integer values, allowed trajectories pass from the real to complex domains. With the use of the Gutzwiller trace formula in relations deriving from the spectral determinant, they compared results with and without the inclusion of these complex trajectories. They found that in some cases the inclusion of the complex trajectories significantly altered the spectrum as a function of the Bloch angle (quasi-momentum), and thus had an important impact on the band structure.

## VI Summary

The past ten or fifteen years have taught us that there exists a vastly richer collection of manifestations of tunneling than provided by the one degree-of-freedom double well. Despite several beautiful works, many, very basic, theoretical problems remain such as developing a theory for how regular and ergodic wavefunctions couple. In addition, new physical applications continue to surface. Given that tunneling impacts all domains of wave physics, not just quantum mechanics, the future of the subject promises to be very rewarding.

### Acknowledgments

We gratefully acknowledge the efforts of the organizers, S. Aberg, K.-F. Berggren, and P. Omling, of the Nobel Symposium entitled “Quantum Chaos Y2K” as well as the support of the Nobel Foundation. Our apologies to S. Adachi, K. Ikeda, and A. Shudo for not including their tunneling studies due to space constraints; see  for a summary and references to their works.


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# Modern Supernova Search

## Introduction

Ancient supernova (SN) searches(?) must have been based on random visual observations and discovered eight SNe all of which are in our Galaxy. It is almost 400 years since the last galactic supernova SN 1604 was observed. Korea has a rich record of old observations of transient objects including galactic supernovae which were called as ‘guest stars’ before (e.g. see Chu 1968). Fig. 1 illustrates a light curve of SN 1604 based on the old Korean and European observations (Clark & Stephensen 1977). A light curve of a Type Ia Supernova 1991T (Lira et al. 1998) is also overlayed in Fig. 1, arbitrarily shifted to match SN 1604 around the peak. The light curve of SN 1604 is approximately matched by that of the Type Ia, showing how remarkable the old visual photometry of SN 1604 was even at that time.

In 1885 the first extragalactic supernova (SN 1885) was discovered in M31 after 281 years passed since the last galactic supernova was discovered. However, it is only in 1934 that the concept of supernovae was first introduced by Baade & Zwicky (1934) and the first systematic supernova (SN) search was made by Zwicky (1938). Since then many supernova searches were conducted.

There are several reasons for doing SN search. First, it is a lot of fun to discover new objects in the sky (which is a very important motivation for amateur astronomers). Secondly, SN searches provide diverse informations of the astrophysics of stars and galaxies. Thirdly, SN searches can be also used for observational cosmology, especially to determine the cosmological parameters (see a recent review by Leibundghut (2000)).

However it is only in 1990’s that systematic SN searches using modern instruments were conducted, and it is about time for SN search to bloom today. As many as about 1750 extragalactic SNe were discovered as of July, 2000 (up to SN 2000cz).

## Recent Supernova Searches

Modern SN searches are characterized by either fast automatic search with small telescopes covering a wide field for nearby SNe and other transient objects such as gamma ray bursts (GRBs), or deep search in a small field with large (4m class) telescopes well scheduled for maximizing the SN discovery rate.

Recent professional SN searches can be divided into three kinds: the high-z SN searches, the low-z SN searches, and the cluster SN searches. Among the high-z SN searches are the High-z SN search team (HzSS; Garnavich etal. 1998) and the SN Cosmology Project (SCP; Perlmutter et al. 1999). Among the low-z SN searches are the Lick Observatory SN Search (LOSS; Filippenko et al. 2000), the Beijing Astronomical Observatory SN Survey (BAOSS; Li et al. 1996, 2000), the EROS Nearby SN Search (EROSNSS; Hardin etal. 2000), the Nearby Galaxies SN Search (NGSS; Strolger et al. 2000), the QUEST (Schafer et al. 1999, Schafer 2000), the European SN Cosmology Consortium (ESCC; Hardin et al. 1999), and the Super Livermore Optical Transient Imaging System (Super-LOTIS; Williams et al. 2000, Park 2000). Among the cluster SN searches are the Mount Stromlo Abell Cluster SN Search (MSACSS; Reiss etal. 1998), the Wise Observatory Optical Transients Search (WOOTS; Gal-Yam & Maoz 1998), and the Seoul National University SN Search (SNUSS; Lee et al. 1999a,b). Amateur astronomers also have played important roles in SN discovery (e.g. Evans (2000), the UK nova/SN patrol (Armstrong 2000), the Tenagra Observatories (Schwartz 2000), and the Pucket Observatory (Pucket 2000)).

Table 1 lists the number of SNe discovered by some of these SN search teams for the last three years (1998 - July 29, 2000). It shows that the recent SN searches have been very successful. Outstanding examples are SCP and HzSS for high-z SNe, and LOSS, EROSNSS and QUEST for low-z SNe.

Fig. 2 shows an example of SNe in the Abell clusters discovered by the SNUSS (Lee et al. 1999a, b), SN 1999dm in Abell 2065.

Nearby clusters of galaxies are ideal places for SN search, because there are included many galaxies in a single field covered by a telescope. It is expected that many more SNe in the clusters of galaxies will be discovered soon. Saini et al. (2000) suggested an interesting idea of searching for SNe in the gravitationally lensed arclets in distant clusters, because those SNe are expected to be magnified by up to 3-4 magnitudes.

## Supernova Statistics

A recent SN catalog was given by Barbon et al. (1999), and updated SN catalogs are provided in CBAT (http://cfa-www.harvard.edu/iau/lists /Supernovae.html) and http://merlino.pd.astro.it/ supern/. Various informations of SNe are also available in the International Supernova Network (http://www.supernovae.net/isn.htm). The recent SN catalogs show that there are 1747 SNe discovered until July 29, 2000 (up to SN 2000cz).

Fig. 3 displays the number distribution of SNe discovered for 1885 – July 29, 2000. It shows that the number of discovered SNe started increasing steeply in 1990’s. 100 SNe per year was broken in 1997 and 200 SNe per year was broken in 1999. It is expected that this trend of increasing may continue for a while in the beginning of 21th century.

The SN types are known for about 1080 SNe: 540 Ia+Iap (50%), 291 II+IIp (27%), 95 I+Ip (10%), 71 Ib+Ic+Ib/c (6%), 48 IIn+IIb (4%), 36 IIn+IIb (3%). Most of host galaxies are spiral galaxies. Only I+Ip and Ia+Iap are discovered in elliptical galaxies, while no I+Ip and Ia+Iap are discovered in irregular galaxies.

There are several galaxies with multiple SNe. Two of them (NGC 5236 and NGC 6946) have six SNe each, and three (NGC 2276, NGC 3690, NGC 4321) have four SNe each. The faintest SN is SN 1999FF with $`I27`$ mag in the Hubble Deep Field (Gilliland et al. 1999) and the most distant SNe is at z=1.2 (SN 1999fv) or 1.3 (SN 1997ff).

## Highlights of Recent Supernova Searches

There are many important new results emerged from recent SN searches, a few of which are listed below (but see also the remaining problems pointed out by Suntzeff (2000)).

(1) The most exciting news among the recent results in the SN searches may be a discovery by two high-z SN search teams that the universe may be accelerating, with $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }0.7`$ and $`\mathrm{\Omega }_M0.3`$ (Perlmutter et al. 1999; Garnavich et al. 1998). Fig. 4 (Riess 2000) illustrates the Hubble diagram of distant SNe Ia discovered by the SCP and the HzSS as well as nearby SNe Ia discovered by the Cálan/Tololo Survey (Hamuy et al. 1996). Although the present data provide reasonable evidence for the acceleration universe, better data for the high-z SNe are still needed to derive a definitive conclusion on the linear systematic effect due to evolution or grey extinction.

(2) Two SNe (SN 1997ff, SN 1997fg) were discovered in the Hubble Deep Field North from the images taken with an interval of two years (Gilliland et al. 1999). The redshift of SN 1997ff determined photometrically is z = 1.32 ($`I=27.0`$ mag). This is the most distant SN among the known SNe, if confirmed spectroscopically.

(3) The Hubble constant was determined with improved accuracy using the SN Ia in the galaxies to which Cepheid distances were measured with the Hubble Space Telescope (HST). The HST $`H_0`$ team presented a value of $`H_0=68\pm 7`$ km s-1 Mpc-1 (Gibson et al. 2000), and the HST SN team presented a value of $`H_0=59\pm 6`$ km s-1 Mpc-1 (Parodi e al. 2000). There is still some difference between the two estimates, but they are much closer than before.

(4) Recently it has been suggested that SN Ib/c may be linked with the Gamma-Ray Burst (GRB): SN 1998bw/GRB980425 and SN 1997cy/GRB970514, but it needs further studies to confirm it (Galama et al. 1998, Iwamoto et al. 1998, Paczyński 1999, Brown et al. 2000).

## Future

It is only a decade that modern supernova searches started. It is very impressive and encouraging that recent supernova searches made a great progress in such a short period of time. However, even more impressive and revolutionary results may come from the supernova searches in the 21th century. There are two directions in the future for the supernova search: all-sky search and deep-sky search. All-sky search is to search for nearby SNe in the entire sky using fast wide field equipments, and deep-sky search is to search for distant SNe in a small field using ground-based large telescopes or space telescopes (e.g. see a supernova pencil beam survey suggested by Wang (2000)).

One space mission to be exclusively used for supernova search is being planned by Perlmutter et al. (2000): SN Acceleration Probe Satellite (SNAP). SNAP will use a wide-field 2m class telescope, covering one degree2 field of view, with a primary aim of pinning down the cosmological parameters with Type Ia SNe. It is expected that about 2000 SNe Ia at $`z<1.7`$ will be discovered every year for three years using the SNAP. With these data, the linear effect as shown in the lower panel of Fig. 4 can be tested. More distant supernovae at $`z<58`$ in a small field will be searched in the space using the Next Generation Space Telescope (NGST) with an 8m aperture, which is scheduled to be launched in 2009. Even more distant supernovae at $`z<10`$, if any, will be discovered using the 100m-class ground-based optical telescopes. For example, a conceptual study of the OverWhelmingly Large Telescope (OWL) with the 100m aperture is being done now (Gilmozzi & Dierickx 2000). With the results to come, the theoretical predictions of the cosmic SN rate history (Kobayashi et al. 2000, Dahlén, & Fransson 2000) can be tested. A new golden age era is coming soon in the supernova search.


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# Hierarchical clustering and formation of power-law correlation in 1-dimensional self-gravitating system

## 1 Introduction

1-dimensional self-gravitating system has long been used to study systems interacting through self-gravity \[Oor32, HF67, RM88, YGS92, TGK94\]. The model helped us to understand various properties, such as motion of starts normal to the galactic plane, relaxation properties of elliptical galaxies, and so on.

Recently we have found that fractal structure dynamically emerges in the system \[KK00\]. It is surprising that the fractal structure is created from non-fractal initial conditions.

The emergence of fractal structure has several important meanings. First, there are many fractal (or power-law type) structure in nature. In astrophysics the distribution of young stars, galaxies and cluster of galaxies are known to obey power-law \[Lar95, NTHN98, DCGE+94\]. However there is no universal explanation about the origin of power-law behavior in general. Since the dynamical emergence of fractal structure arises in self-gravitational model, there can be a relation between the origin of these fractal structures.

Second. There are many studies about the relaxation process of 1-dimensional self-gravitating system and it is reported that relaxation is quite slow (\[RM88, TGK94\], and references therein). It is interesting if there is any relation between the slow relaxation in the model and the dynamical emergence of fractal structure.

Since the system is Hamiltonian system with many particles, one may expect that most initial condition lead the system to thermal equilibrium. It is interesting that some initial conditions, e.g., uniformly random in spatial distribution, evolves to form fractal spatial structure, instead of just become thermalized. Hence to study the origin of the dynamical emergence of fractal structure may give unique insight to non-thermal behavior and structure formation in many-body systems in general \[KK92, KK94\].

Therefore it is quite interesting to investigate the reason why the fractal structure emerges from non-fractal initial conditions in 1-dimensional self-gravitating system. In order to do that, it is essentially important to know in detail the process how the fractal structure is created, not just to observe the grown-up fractal structure.

In this letter we continue the study to investigate the process how the fractal structure is developed through time evolution.

The model is presented in section 2. In section 3 we will examine in detail how the power-law correlation is formed, and the final section is for summary and discussions.

## 2 Model

The model we use in this letter is the same as the one used in our previous letter \[KK00\], that is, the one-dimensional self-gravitating system. The Hamiltonian is

$`H`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{i=1}{\overset{N}{}}}{\displaystyle \frac{p_i^2}{2m}}+2\pi Gm^2{\displaystyle \underset{i>j}{}}\left|x_ix_j\right|,\mathrm{}<x_i<\mathrm{}.`$ (1)
This model represents one-dimensional motion of parallel sheets of infinite extent interacting through Newtonian gravity.

The model is simple and tractable, and yet it also contains essential feature of gravitational interaction.

Throughout this paper we set

$$m1/N\text{and}4\pi G1.$$
(2)
## 3 Formation of power-law correlation

In the previous letter \[KK00\] we showed that fractal structure emerges from non-fractal initial conditions. Typical initial conditons we used are those of virial ratio $`2E_{kin}/E_{pot}=0`$. (Spatial distribution is set to be random.) These state of zero velocity dispersion corresponds to the limiting case of zero thermal fluctuation.

To analyze the spatial structure we use two-point correlation function $`\xi (r)`$, which is defined as

$$dP=ndV(1+\xi (r))$$
(3)
where $`dP`$ stands for probability to find another particle in volume $`dV`$ at distance $`r`$ from a particle. $`n`$ is the average number density. If particles are distributed independently and no spatial structure is formed, then $`dP`$ does not depend on $`r`$ and $`\xi (r)=0`$. If, on the other hand, $`\xi (r)`$ increases as $`r`$ decreases, the probability that we find another particle near one particle gets large, and we can understand cluster-like structures are formed. If the $`\xi (r)`$ does not have characteristic length, then we can understand that the cluster system does not have characteristic length scale.

Fig.1 shows temporal evolution of $`\xi (r)`$ for early stage of time. We can clearly see how the power-law behavior of correlation function grows up. That is, power-law structure is first created in small scale, then gradually grows up to larger scale.

The graphs are aligned from bottom to top as time proceeds because we are looking at small-sized scale here ($`r<0.002`$ ) and particles initially separated are coming near, which increase $`\xi (r)`$ for small $`r`$.

The time dependence of two point correlation function $`\xi (r)`$ tells us when and where the power-law structure is created and how it grows up. However $`\xi (r)`$ does not tell what kind of structure is actually formed. So we need another quantity to understand the detail of the structure formation.

Since we are dealing with a gravitational system, interaction is attractive. Each particle, initially distributed in the 1-dimensional space, attracts each other by gravitational force, and small clusters are formed here and there. These clusters attracts and moves around each other, as well as their internal oscillation (rotation, in 3D). While these processes go on, the order of particles given at initial condition is exchanged, and initial distribution, aligned on the $`x`$-axis as seen in the $`(x,v)`$ phase space ($`\mu `$-space), get folded many times. Hence the degree of folding is a good quantity to understand how the cluster structure is formed.

We can measure the number of folding as follows. Since we are considering the case where initial conditions have zero velocity dispersion, distribution of particles in $`(x,v)`$ space ($`\mu `$-space) in each initial condition is on a curve, and we can label particles along the curve. For example, if we take the initial conditon as

$$v_i(t=0)=0,i=1,2,\mathrm{},N,$$

we can label the particles as

$$x_1(0)<x_2(0)<\mathrm{}<x_N(0).$$
(4)
Then we can count $`f(t)`$, the number of folding at time $`t`$, as

$`f(t)`$ $`\text{ number of }i\text{ }(1<i<N)\text{ which satisfies}`$
$`\left(x_{i+1}(t)x_i(t)\right)\left(x_i(t)x_{i1}(t)\right)<0`$ (5)
Fig. 2 shows how the initial distribution becomes folded. Time dependence of number of folding $`f(t)`$ shown in this figure and time dependence of the two point correlation function $`\xi (r)`$ shown in Fig. 1 corresponds well. That is, power-law behavior of $`\xi (r)`$ develops from small scale as the number of folding increases, and become most clear when $`f(t)`$ is at a maximum at $`t=t_{16}`$.

The process of structure formation, as seen in two quantities $`\xi (r)`$ and $`f(t)`$, can also be understood in the real space of particle distribution. Fig. 3, represents time evolution of particle distribution of particles $`(x_i(t),v_i(t))`$ , $`8200<i<8300`$ for $`t=t_8,t_{13},t_{15}`$, and $`t_{16}`$, where $`t_{\mathrm{}}`$ are time steps defined as

$$t_{\mathrm{}}\frac{5}{64}\mathrm{}.$$
(6)
(These time steps are defined just for practical purpose.)

In these figures we connect each particles on $`(x,v)`$ space according to the order defined at the initial condition (4) so as to enhance the structure of folding. Vertical steps on the graphs represent the location where particles are clustered.

At $`t=t_8`$ we can see several small clusters are formed. These clusters gradually approach each other to form larger clusters, as seen in $`t=t_{13}`$, $`t_{15}`$ and $`t_{16}`$ in the figure. Through this process power-law correlaion is developed.

In later time the clusters get together and larger clusters are developed. In the left of Fig. 4 we show a snapshot of the distribution of particles shown in the previous figure Fig.3. This cluster itself is a part of a larger cluster system shown in the right of the figure.

## 4 Summary and discussions

In this letter we clarified the process of formation of power-law correlation in one-dimensional self-gravitating system, found in our previous letter \[KK00\]. Power-law behavior of two-point correlation function begins in small spatial scale, then grows up to larger scale. Number of foldings in the order of particles gets large when the power-law behavior is clearly seen. These results and phase space portraits represents the process of formation of fractal structure as follows: tiny clusters are formed first, then the clusters get together to form larger clusters, and so on.

The process we showed is quite similar to the “hierarchical clustering scenario” \[Pee80, Man77\], which is used for descibe the large-scale structure of universe. It is known that two-point correlation function of galaxies and cluster of galaxies obey power-law \[DCGE+94\]. An explanation for the origin of the power-law structure is that density fluctuation of small scale is created first to become some structure of small scale (bottom-up), and, according to the “hierarchical clustering scenario” the structure made in small scale attract each other through gravitational interaction and merge into larger structure, and so on. The initial state is now considered to be of small temperature fluctuation.

In this letter we have shown one example which obeys this “hierarchical clustering scenario” by purely gravitational interaction. An important fact is that our result shows that power-law correlation emerges through hierarchical clustering. Also the initial condition we found for fractal structure to be created is the zero velocity dispersion, which coinsides with zero temperature fluctuation considered in the cosmology.

The clustering process is developed by gravitational interaction. Hence similar process can be actually occuring in nature where the dynamics of the system is governed by gravity. One candidate is the power-law distribution of yound stars in star-forming regions \[Lar95, NTHN98\].

The emergence of power-law correlation can be considered as a subject of structure formation in general, Our result shows a process of generating fractal structure by purely dynamical interaction.

In this letter we have clarified how the fractal structure is formed from non-fractal initial conditions in one-dimensional self-gravitating system. We hope that this result helps us to understand why the structure is created.