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# First Results from the Heidelberg Dark Matter Search Experiment

## I Introduction

Weakly Interacting Massive Particles (WIMPs) are leading candidates for the dominant form of matter in our Galaxy. These hypothetical, relic particles from an early phase of the Universe are predicted independently from cosmological considerations by supersymmetric particle physics theories as neutralinos - the lightest supersymmetric particles.

Direct WIMP detection experiments exploit the elastic WIMP scattering off nuclei in a terrestrial detector . However, detecting WIMPs is not a simple task. As their name suggests, their interaction with matter is very feeble ($`\sigma \sigma _{weak}`$) and predicted rates in supersymmetric models range from 10 to 10-5 events per kilogram of detector material and day . Moreover, for WIMP masses between a few GeV and 1 TeV, the energy deposited by the recoil nucleus is less then 100 keV. Thus, in order to be able to detect a WIMP, an experiment with a low energy threshold and an extremely low radioactive background is required. Since the reward would be no less than discovering the dark matter in the Universe, a huge effort is put into direct detection experiments. More than a dozen of experiments are running at present and even more are planned for the future (for recent reviews see ).

The focus of this paper is to present first results of the Heidelberg Dark Matter Search (HDMS) prototype , which took data over a period of about 15 months in the Gran Sasso Underground Laboratory (LNGS) in Italy. After a description of the experimental setup, its performance is discussed in some detail. The last 49 days of data taking are analyzed in terms of WIMP-nucleon cross sections and a comparison to other running dark matter experiments is made. The status and the prospects of the full scale experiment are discussed and finally conclusions and an outlook are given.

## II Description of the experiment

HDMS operates two ionization HPGe detectors in a unique configuration . A small, p-type Ge crystal is surrounded by a well-type Ge crystal, both being mounted into a common cryostat system (see Figure 1 for a schematic view). To shield leakage currents on the surfaces, a 1 mm thin insulator made from vespel is placed between them. Two effects are expected to reduce the background of the inner, WIMP target detector with respect to our best measurements of the Heidelberg-Moscow experiment . First, the anticoincidence between the two detectors acts as an effective suppression for multiple scattered photons, second, the detection crystal is surrounded by Ge, which is one of the radio-purest known materials. From previous measurements we know that the main radioactive background of Ge detectors comes from materials situated in the immediate vicinity of the crystals, i.e. from the copper parts of the cryostats .

In order to house both Ge crystals, a special design of the copper crystal holder system was required. The idea was to construct a pyramidal structure made of copper on top of the crystals, allowing to establish the two HV and two signal contacts, which are fixed by springs made from vespel (see Figure 2) . In the prototype version three of the four contacts were unfortunately soldered by the manufacturer. The cryostat system was fabricated in Heidelberg from low radioactivity, electropolished copper. The FETs are placed 20 cm away from the crystals so that their effect on the background is minimized by a small solid angle and by 10 cm of copper shielding. For the prototype experiment both inner and outer detector are made of natural high-purity Germanium.

The data acquisition system of the HDMS experiment allows data sampling either in a calibration mode (filling a histogram in a memory module, fast data acquisition) or in an event-by-event mode where in addition the pulse-shape of an individual event can be recorded. The energy outputs of the preamplifiers are divided and amplified with two different shaping time constants (3 $`\mu `$s and 4 $`\mu `$s) and different gains at the spectroscopy amplifiers in order to record low energy (from threshold to 400 keV) and high energy (from 70 keV to 8 MeV) spectra. The spectra are measured with 13bit ADCs, which also release the trigger for an event by a peak detect signal. Further triggers are vetoed until the complete event information (arrival time with an accuracy of 100 $`\mu `$s, energy and eventually the pulse shape) has been recorded. The dead-time of 200 $`\mu `$s (without pulse shape) is negligible for a typical event rate of 1.4$`\times `$10-3 Hz in the outer detector. The anticoincidence between the two detectors is performed off-line.

## III Detector performance in Heidelberg

First tests of detector performance were done in the Heidelberg low level laboratory using standard calibration sources like 133Ba, 60Co, 214Am and 152Eu-228Th. The sensitivity of the detectors in their geometrical arrangement was tested by a scan measurement with a collimated 133Ba source. The achieved energy resolutions and thresholds are shown in Table I along with other detector properties.

The concentric configuration of the two Ge-crystals gives rise to cross-talk events . Using 133Ba and 228Th calibration sources, we recorded data in an event-by-event mode, to obtain two-dimensional scatter plots of deposited energies in each detector. These plots clearly visualize a linear correlation between energies in the inner and outer crystal, although in different strengths (see Figure 3).

The linear correlation between the energy depositions in the two crystals is corrected off-line. If Ei and Eo are the true ionization energies deposited in the inner and outer detector and E$`{}_{i}{}^{}{}_{}{}^{}`$, E$`{}_{o}{}^{}{}_{}{}^{}`$ the measured energies, then one can write:

$`E_i={\displaystyle \frac{E_i^{}k_{io}\times E_o^{}}{1k_{io}\times k_{oi}}},E_o={\displaystyle \frac{E_o^{}k_{oi}\times E_i^{}}{1k_{io}\times k_{oi}}},`$ (1)
where koi and kio are the slopes of the correlation lines. The width of the correlation lines is determined by the energy resolution of the detectors. The slopes are determined to be:

$`k_{io}=0.00375\pm 0.43\times 10^4`$ (2)
$`k_{oi}=0.12850\pm 0.27\times 10^3`$ (3)
The error in the energy determination arising from the cross-talk correction is a function of the error of the measured energy deposition and of the magnitude as well as the error of the slopes of the correlation lines. It can be inferred directly by comparing the widths of energy peaks in the two detectors after the cross-talk correction (for peaks with simultaneous energy deposition in the other detector, e.g. 511 keV or the 60Co lines) with the widths of the same peaks for energy depositions in a single detector only. While for the inner detector the effect is negligible (note that kio is much smaller than koi), for the outer detector the energy resolution worsens by 0.3% to 0.4% at 1332 keV. As we will see later, this has no influence on the anticoincidence spectrum between the two detectors. The cross-talk correction requires the stability of the slopes of the linear correlations. This stability has been monitored and confirmed. Another possibility to remove the cross-talk would be to introduce an extra grounded shield between the detectors. We refrained from applying this hardware solution because of strongly reduced Anti-Compton capability and the additional contamination risk.

## IV Detector performance at LNGS

The HDMS prototype was installed at LNGS in March 1998 and successfully took data over a period of about 15 month, until July 1999 . Figure 4 shows the detector in its open shield. The inner shield is made of 10 cm of electrolytic copper, the outer one of 20 cm of Boliden lead, both lead and copper having been stored for several years below ground at Gran Sasso. The whole setup is enclosed in an air tight steel box and flushed with gaseous nitrogen in order to suppress environmental radon diffusion. Finally a 15 cm thick borated polyethylene shield surrounds the steel box to minimize the influence of neutrons.

The individual runs were about 0.9 d long. The experiment was stopped daily and parameters such as leakage currents of the detectors, nitrogen flow, overall trigger rate and count rate of the individual detectors were checked.

Energy calibrations were done weekly with standard 133Ba and 152Eu-228Th sources, introduced through a Teflon tube. The energy resolution of both detectors (1.2 keV at 300 keV inner detector and 3.2 keV at 300 keV outer detector) were stable as a function of time. The zero energy resolutions, which are determined by extrapolating the full widths at half maximum (FWHM) to 0 keV, are (1.06$`\pm `$0.3) keV and (3.04$`\pm `$0.3) keV for the inner and outer detector, respectively. Another way to specify the zero energy resolution is given by the cross talk correction. The cross talk generates ‘fake’ events beyond the energy thresholds of both detectors, which are then shifted to 0 keV by the correction. This allows a direct measurement of the energy resolution at 0 keV (see Fig. 5) and a cross check of the quality of the cross-talk correction at the same time. The values of 0.94 keV and 3.34 keV are fully consistent with the ones obtained by the FWHM-extrapolation.

To determine the energy threshold, a reliable energy calibration at low energies is required. The lowest-energetic lines observed in the detectors in the calibration mode were the 133Ba line at 81 keV in the inner detector and the 121.8 keV line of 152Eu in the outer one (all lower energetic lines are absorbed in the copper of the crystal holder system). However, intrinsic radioactivity of the crystals and/or of the surrounding copper such as the 10.37 keV line of 68Ge and the 46.5 keV line of 210Pb allowed to check the calibration down to low energies. The energy thresholds are 2.0 keV and 7.5 keV for the inner and outer detector, respectively.

After correction for the cross talk and re-calibration to standard calibration values (according to the weekly determined calibration parameters), the spectra of the daily runs were summed up. Figures 6 and 7 show the sum spectra for the outer and inner detector, respectively. The most important identified lines are labeled.

In the outer detector the lines of the cosmogenic isotopes 68Ge, 57Co, 58Co, 54Mn, 60Co, 65Zn, of the natural decay chains 238U and 232Th, of the primordial 40K, of the anthropogenic radionuclide 137Cs and the annihilation line at 511 keV can be identified. The statistics in the inner detector is lower, however the following lines can be clearly seen: 68Ga Kβ at 10.37 keV, 210Pb at 46.5 keV, external 57Co at 122.1 keV and internal at 143.6 keV (+ X-ray), 511 keV annihilation, 54Mn at 834 keV, 60Co at 1173 keV and 1332 keV and 40K at 1460 keV. The region below 10 keV is dominated by the X-rays of 49Ti (5 keV) and 55Mn (6.5 keV). In addition to the outer detector, a structure centered at 32 keV with a FWHM of 2 keV is identified. Its origin is not yet fully understood, but could be a 210Pb contamination at the inner contact with incomplete charge collection. Figure 8 shows the energy depositions in the inner detector as a function of measuring time. No microphonic events (bursts) can be seen beyond 2.0 keV. The decreasing activity of 68Ge is nicely visualized.

After 363 days of pure measuring time the statistics in the inner detector was high enough in order to estimate the background reduction through the anticoincidence with the outer detector. In order to obtain true anticoincidence spectra, the energy thresholds for computing the anticoincidence must lie at least 3$`\sigma `$ away from zero, where FWHM0=2.35$`\sigma `$ is the zero energy resolution. Table II gives the energy thresholds and the zero energy resolutions for both detectors, after the cross talk correction. The energy thresholds lie in both cases about 5$`\sigma `$ away from zero, so they count as cuts for computing the anticoincidence between the crystals. Thus, the fact that the zero energy resolution of the outer detector is worsened by the cross-talk correction does not affect the anticoincidence spectra between the two detectors.

Figure 9 shows the low-energy spectrum of the inner detector before and after the anticoincidence. The anticoincidence has no influence on the cosmogenic X-rays below 11 keV, as well as on the structure at 32 keV. The $`\beta ^{}`$spectrum from the cosmogenically produced 3H with endpoint at 18 keV is most likely present as well. If the Compton suppression is applied in the energy region between 40 keV and 100 keV, the background reduction factor is 4.3. The counting rate after the anticoincidence in this energy region is 0.07 events/kg d keV, thus very close to the value obtained in the Heidelberg-Moscow experiment with the enriched detector ANG2 . In the energy region between 11 keV and 40 keV the background index is a factor of 3 higher (0.2 events/kg d keV).

## V Dark Matter Limits

The evaluation for dark matter limits on the WIMP–nucleon cross section $`\sigma _{\mathrm{scalar}}^{\mathrm{W}\mathrm{N}}`$ follows the method described in . Because the cosmogenic radionuclides produced in the Ge crystals and in the surrounding copper have typical half-lives of 300 days, we consider only the last 49 d of measurement of the HDMS prototype. The total exposure corresponds to 9.9 kg d. The number of counts per 1 keV energy bin are listed in Table III. The background index in the energy region between 2–30 keV is 0.5 events/kg d keV. No background subtractions were applied. The parameters used in the calculation of expected WIMP spectra are given in Table IV.

The resulting upper limit exclusion plot in the $`\sigma _{\mathrm{scalar}}^{\mathrm{W}\mathrm{N}}`$ versus MWIMP plane is shown in Fig. 10. At this stage, the limit is not yet competitive with our limit from the Heidelberg-Moscow experiment for large WIMP masses. However, the cross section limits for WIMP masses below 40 GeV are considerably improved. This is mainly due to the lower energy threshold of 2 keV, compared to 9 keV in the Heidelberg-Moscow experiment. Also shown in the figure are limits from the Heidelberg-Moscow experiment , the Neuch$`\widehat{\mathrm{a}}`$tel-experiment , the DAMA experiment  and the most recent limits from the CDMS experiment . The filled contour represents the 2$`\sigma `$ evidence region of the DAMA experiment . The dashed line is the expectation for HDMS having a background index equal to the one of the Heidelberg-Moscow experiment  extended down to an energy threshold of 2 keV. The experimental limits are compared to expectations (scatter plot) for WIMP-neutralinos calculated in the MSSM parameter space at the weak scale (without any GUT constraints) under the assumption that all superpartner masses are lower than 300 GeV - 400 GeV .

## VI The full scale HDMS experiment

For the second phase of HDMS, important changes were already made. First, the inner crystal made of natural Germanium was replaced by an enriched 73Ge crystal. In this way, we will be sensitive also to spin-dependent WIMP-nucleon interactions, since 73Ge is the only Germanium isotope with spin. In addition, the 70Ge isotope, which is the source of 68Ge by the 70Ge(p,t)68Ge reaction, is now strongly depleted. Although the exact depletion is not measured yet, we expect at least a factor of 50 (we measured a factor of 60 depletion in 70Ge for the enriched 76Ge detectors in the Heidelberg-Moscow experiment ).

Second, the copper crystal holder system was replaced by a holder made of extremely radio-pure copper; soldering of the signal and the high-voltage contacts was not applied. We believe that both facts will have a large impact on the background of the HDMS detectors, since Monte Carlo simulations based on Geant3.21 showed , that besides the cosmogenic activation of the crystals, the U/Th contamination of the copper and solder were the main background sources of the prototype.

The 73Ge-HDMS detector has been assembled and transported by ship to Heidelberg, where its performance was tested in the low-level laboratory. Both inner and outer detector are working well, the (not optimized) energy resolutions being around 1.9 keV and 4.0 keV at 1332 keV. We will install the full scale experiment at LNGS in August 2000.

## VII Summary and Outlook

The prototype detector of the HDMS experiment successfully took data at LNGS over a period of about 15 months. Most of the dominant background sources were identified. However, the origin of a structure centred at 32 keV in the inner detector is still unclear. Due to its low energy and the fact that it is not removed by the anticoincidence with the outer detector, it is most probably located in the inner crystal itself or at the signal contact. The future measurement with the 73Ge-HDMS detector will hopefully help to clarify its nature.

The background reduction factor through anticoincidence in the inner detector in the energy region 40–100 keV is 4.3. It is less then previously expected , due to the smaller diameter of the outer, veto Ge-detector than originally planned. Nevertheless, the background in the energy region between 40 keV and 100 keV of the inner detector is with 0.07 events/kg d keV already now at the level of the Heidelberg-Moscow experiment. In the region between 2–30 keV it is with 0.5 events/kg d keV a factor of 7 higher, mainly due to the cosmogenic activation of the natural Ge crystals. However, due to the smaller energy threshold of 2 keV, the limits on WIMP-nucleon cross sections were improved for WIMP masses below 40 GeV with respect to the Heidelberg-Moscow experiment. They are currently the most stringent spin-independent limits at low WIMP masses for using raw data without any background subtraction.

The expectation for the 73Ge-HDMS detector is shown in Fig. 10. It is based on a background index of 0.07 events/kg d keV in the region between 2–30 keV. The aim of HDMS is to test the ‘evidence region’ singled out by the DAMA experiment  in the MSSM parameter space after about two years of measurement. It would be an independent test by using only raw data and a completely different detection technique.

## ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We would like to thank Dr. Gerd Heusser and Dr. Yorck Ramachers for valuable discussions.


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# Stability of the Ground State of a Harmonic Oscillator in a Monochromatic Wave

## I Introduction

One of the major difficulties in developing quantum technologies, such as quantum computers,  are different kinds of specifically quantum dynamical instabilities that can occur due to interactions between different degrees of freedom and resonant interaction with the external fields. Instabilities in quantum systems have different nature than instabilities in classical systems, in which such kind of phenomenon as dynamical chaos occurs as a result of exponential divergence of initially close trajectories. In quantum systems, the notion of a trajectory is not well defined. This is one of the main reasons why most of well-developed methods for stability analysis can not be directly applied to quantum systems.

In this paper the dynamics of a harmonic oscillator in a monochromatic wave field is studied. This system describes, in particular, a quantum dynamics of a cold ion trapped in a linear ion trap and interacting with two laser fields with close frequencies. Our attention is focused mainly on classical and quantum behavior in the region of parameters close to the quantum ground state (QGS) of the harmonic oscillator. This case corresponds to classical dynamics in the vicinity of the point ($`x=0,p=0`$) in the phase space. We shall call the corresponding region of parameters for the classical system a “classical ground state” (CGS) of a harmonic oscillator. The stability of the CGS and the QGS at stable and chaotic classical regimes is analyzed for different parameters of the model. In Sec. II, we consider classical dynamics in the vicinity of the CGS in the exact resonance case, $`\delta =0`$. In this situation the system we study is degenerate, and an infinitely small perturbation generates in the classical phase space an infinite number of the “resonance cells” separated by the infinite stochastic web. A classical dynamics inside the resonance cells at small $`ϵ`$ is described by using the resonance perturbation theory. It is shown, that in the vicinity of the CGS (the “central cell”), and for small enough $`ϵ`$, the dynamics in the case $`\delta =0`$ is unstable for resonance numbers $`\mathrm{}=1,2`$ and stable for $`\mathrm{}3`$.

We show that in spite of the “resonant Hamiltonian” describes many features of the dynamics inside the resonance cells, it can not be used for describing the stability of the system in the central cell, at $`\mathrm{}3`$. The classical dynamics in this region is determined, by the Mathieu equation. It is shown that at small enough value of $`ϵ`$ the area of the central cell increases with increasing the resonance number, $`\mathrm{}`$, and increasing the perturbation amplitude, $`ϵ`$.

The dynamics of the system near the CGS in the near resonance case, when $`\delta 0`$, is considered in Sec. III. It is shown that in this case at small $`ϵ`$ the classical dynamics near the CGS is stable at any value of the resonance number $`\mathrm{}`$. The cases $`\mathrm{}=1`$ and $`\mathrm{}=2`$ are considered in detail. It is shown that the CGS in these two cases becomes unstable at much less values of $`ϵ`$, than for large $`\mathrm{}`$ ($`\mathrm{}=4,5`$…).

A stability of the quantum system is considered in Sec. 4. In this case, an additional parameter, a dimensionless Planck constant, $`h`$, influences significantly the behavior of the system. Because the Hamiltonian is time-periodic, with the period $`2\pi /\mathrm{\Omega }`$, we use the Floquet theory to study localization properties of quantum system in the region of the QGS. For $`ϵ1`$, and small enough $`h`$, the quasienergy (QE) states can be conventionally divided into the following groups. The first group includes the QE states which belong to some particular “resonance cells” in the Hilbert space. These QE states are well-localized inside a given resonance cell. The second group includes the delocalized “separatrix” QE states which correspond to the classical stochastic web. Usually, these “separtrix” QE states are responsible for tunneling effects between different “resonance cells”, even for small $`ϵ`$.

We show that the QGS is stable when the following conditions are satisfied: (a) an existence of the QE state mainly localized in the QGS of the harmonic oscillator, (b) when $`ϵ1`$ and chaos is weak, (c) small enough $`h`$, when one can neglect the tunneling phenomenon. When $`h`$ is larger than the size of the central cell, no QE state localized in the QGS of the harmonic oscillator was found. We show, that at small enough values of $`ϵ`$, the stability of the QGS can be improved by choosing the non-resonant frequency of the wave, so that $`\delta =\mathrm{}\mathrm{\Omega }/\omega 0`$.

For small enough $`ϵ`$, a stability of the QGS is mainly determined by the structure of the QE state mostly localized at the QGS of the harmonic oscillator (QGS QE state). In the exact resonance case this particular QE state has a complicated structure. On the one hand, it is mostly localized on the QGS, but, on the other hand, it has the “separatrix” structure and provides a tunneling from the region of the QGS to other resonance cells. In order to improve stability of the QGS, the separatrix structure should be destroyed by choosing $`\delta 0`$.

In the exact and near resonance cases we study numerically the probability, $`P_0`$, for a particle to remain in the QGS, depending on $`ϵ`$ and for different values of $`h`$, $`\mathrm{}`$ and $`\delta `$. When $`\delta =0`$ and $`ϵ`$ is small, the dynamics depends on the value of the quantum parameter, $`h`$, which controls degree of delocalization of the QGS QE state. When $`h`$ is small, the probability of tunneling to other cells is small too, and $`P_0`$ decreases with $`ϵ`$ increasing, because chaos makes the QGS QE state more delocalized. For large enough values of $`h`$, the dependence of $`P_0`$ on $`ϵ`$ becomes more complicated because in this case we have two superimposing effects: the influence of chaos on the dynamics, and the effect of tunneling to the classically unacceptable cells. These two features make the dependence $`P_0=P_0(ϵ)`$ non-monotonic. In the region of small $`ϵ`$, $`P_0`$ increases with $`ϵ`$ increasing. This behavior of $`P_0`$ can be explained as a result of destroying the delocalized QE states with increasing $`ϵ`$. Further increase of $`ϵ`$ leads to decreasing $`P_0`$. This behavior of $`P_0`$ is connected with delocalization of QE states due to increasing of the chaotic component. At large enough values of $`ϵ`$, the dependence of $`P_0`$ on $`ϵ`$ becomes more complicated, and generally must be considered using many QE states. It is shown that the value of $`\delta `$ influence significantly the stability of the QGS only at small $`ϵ1`$. The stability of the QGS at $`\mathrm{}=1,\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2}`$ and $`\delta 0`$ is explored. It is shown that the QGS becomes unstable at much less values of the wave amplitude than in the case when $`\mathrm{}`$ is large. The derived in this paper results are important for understanding a stability of quantum dynamics in the vicinity of the ground state.

## II Classical dynamics near the CGS in the case of exact resonance

The Hamiltonian of the harmonic oscillator in a monochromatic wave is,

$$H=\frac{p^2}{2M}+\frac{M\omega ^2x^2}{2}+v_0\mathrm{cos}(kx\mathrm{\Omega }t)=H_0+V(x,t),$$
(1)
where $`M`$ is the mass of the particle, $`p`$ is the momentum, $`k`$ is the wave vector, $`v_0`$ is the amplitude of the perturbation, and $`H_0`$ is the Hamiltonian of the harmonic oscillator. In the first part of this section we discuss the case of the resonance, when $`\mathrm{\Omega }=\mathrm{}\omega `$. It is known (see for example Ref. ) that under the resonance condition the infinitely small perturbation, $`v_0`$, is enough to generate in the classical phase space the infinite stochastic web. The web is inhomogeneous, and its width decays with decreasing the perturbation amplitude, $`v_0`$, and increasing $`|p|`$ and $`|x|`$. Inside the cells of the web a particle moves along stable closed trajectories.

To analyze the dynamics of the harmonic oscillator in a monochromatic wave, described by the Hamiltonian (1), it is convenient to use the resonance perturbation theory  discussed below. Let us perform a transformation from the variables ($`p,x`$) to the canonically conjugated variables ($`\overline{J}_\phi ,\phi `$),

$$x=(2\overline{J}_\phi /M\omega )^{1/2}\mathrm{sin}\phi =r(\overline{J}_\phi )\mathrm{sin}\phi ,$$
(2)
$$p_x=(2\overline{J}_\phi M\omega )^{1/2}\mathrm{cos}\phi =M\omega r(\overline{J}_\phi )\mathrm{cos}\phi ,$$
(3)
where $`r(\overline{J}_\phi )=(2\overline{J}_\phi /M\omega )^{1/2}`$ is the amplitude of oscillations. It is more convenient to work with the dimensionless coordinate, $`X=kx`$, and the dimensionless momentum, $`P=kp/M\omega `$, which are related to the variables ($`\overline{J}_\phi ,\phi `$) by the formulas,

$$X=\rho (\overline{J}_\phi )\mathrm{sin}\phi ,$$
(4)
$$P=\rho (\overline{J}_\phi )\mathrm{cos}\phi ,$$
(5)
where $`\rho (J_\phi )=\sqrt{X^2+P^2}=kr(J_\phi )`$. In order to treat the time on the same ground as the phase $`\phi `$ let us introduce the new pair of canonically conjugated variables, $`(\overline{J}_\beta ,\beta )`$, where $`\beta =\mathrm{\Omega }t`$. The initial Hamiltonian (1) expressed through the new variables takes the form,

$$H=\overline{J}_\phi \omega +\overline{J}_\beta \mathrm{\Omega }+v_0\mathrm{cos}\left(\rho \mathrm{sin}\phi \beta \right).$$
(6)
It is independent of time, but describes the motion in the two-dimensional space. The nonlinear perturbation in Eq. (6) can be expressed in a series,

$$v_0\mathrm{cos}\left(\rho \mathrm{sin}\phi \beta \right)=v_0\underset{m=\mathrm{}}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}J_m(\rho )\mathrm{cos}\left(m\phi \beta \right),$$
(7)
where $`J_m(\rho )`$ is the Bessel function. Under the resonance condition, $`\mathrm{\Omega }=\mathrm{}\omega `$, all terms in the sum (7) quickly oscillate and can be averaged out, except for one term with $`m=\mathrm{}`$. In this approximation, the Hamiltonian (6) is reduced to,

$$H=\overline{J}_\phi \omega +\overline{J}_\beta \mathrm{\Omega }+v_0J_{\mathrm{}}(\rho )\mathrm{cos}\left(\mathrm{}\phi \beta \right).$$
(8)
It is convenient to introduce new, resonance, variables, ($`\stackrel{~}{I},\theta `$), ($`\stackrel{~}{J},\stackrel{~}{\beta }`$), by using the generating function,

$$F=\stackrel{~}{I}\left(\mathrm{}\phi \beta \right)+\stackrel{~}{J}\beta ,$$

The new Hamiltonian,

$$H=\stackrel{~}{I}(\mathrm{}\omega \mathrm{\Omega })+\stackrel{~}{J}\omega +v_0J_{\mathrm{}}(\rho )\mathrm{cos}\theta ,$$
(9)
where $`\theta =\mathrm{}\phi \beta `$, is independent of the variable $`\stackrel{~}{\beta }`$. Hence, $`\stackrel{~}{J}=const`$. The resonance Hamiltonian,

$$H_{\mathrm{}}(\rho ,\theta )=H\stackrel{~}{J}\omega =v_0J_{\mathrm{}}(\rho )\mathrm{cos}\theta ,$$
(10)
(where we used the resonance condition $`\mathrm{}\omega =\mathrm{\Omega }`$) is independent of time, unlike the initial Hamiltonian (1).

The Poincarè surfaces of section of the system described by the Hamiltonian (1) in variables ($`X,P`$) are shown in Figs. 1 (a) - 1 (e), for the cases $`\mathrm{}=1,2,3,4,5`$. The phase

points are plotted at the moments $`t_j=2\pi j/\mathrm{\Omega }`$, where $`j=0,\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}1},\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2},\mathrm{}`$. One can see that the phase space has an axial symmetry of the order $`\mathrm{}`$. The phase space is divided into the cells. A particle moves along closed trajectories inside the cells. (In Figs. 1 (a) - 1 (e) only the boundaries of the cells are demonstrated.) At small values of $`v_0`$, the motion inside the resonant cells, illustrated in Figs. 1 (a) - 1 (e), can be considered in the resonance approximation. The next order approximation is required only for analysis of the motion inside the exponentially small chaotic regions near the separatrices. It is shown below that the resonance approximation also fails to describe the motion in the region near the point $`(X=0,P=0)`$.

The symmetry of the phase space in Figs. 1 (a) - 1 (e) follows from the form of the resonance Hamiltonian (10), which is invariant under the transformation,

$$\phi \phi +2\pi /\mathrm{}.$$
(11)
In the phase space there are $`\mathrm{}`$ cells connected by the transformation (11), and $`\mathrm{}`$ cells connected by the same transformation but described by the Hamiltonian $`H_{\mathrm{}}(\rho ,\theta +\pi )`$ in Eq. (10). The total number of cells at given $`\rho `$ is $`2\mathrm{}`$. Thus, in Fig. 1 (a) the upper cell corresponds to the Hamiltonian $`H_1(\rho ,\theta )`$, while the lower cell corresponds to the Hamiltonian $`H_1(\rho ,\theta +\pi )`$ in Eq. (10); the upper and lower cells in Fig. 1 (b) correspond to $`H_2(\rho ,\theta )`$, and the right and the left cells correspond to $`H_2(\rho ,\theta +\pi )`$, and so on.

It is easy to see, the resonance Hamiltonian (10) yields unstable solution near the CGS (the point ($`X=0,P=0`$)). To show this, we present the Hamiltonian (10) in the form,

$$H_{\mathrm{}}=v_0\frac{\rho ^{\mathrm{}}}{2^{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}!}\mathrm{cos}\mathrm{}\phi =E_{\mathrm{}},$$
(12)
where $`E_{\mathrm{}}=const`$ (because the resonance Hamiltonian is independent of time). Also, we took into account that at $`\rho 1`$ the Bessel function can be expressed in the form,

$$J_{\mathrm{}}(\rho )\rho ^{\mathrm{}}/2^{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}!,$$
(13)
and the fact that in the Poincarè surfaces of section the position of the particle is taken at the moments $`\mathrm{\Omega }t_k=2\pi k`$, $`k=0,\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}1},\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2},\mathrm{}`$. It follows from Eq. (12) that at the angles $`\phi _k=\frac{\pi }{2\mathrm{}}(2k1)`$, $`k=1,\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2},\mathrm{},\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2}\mathrm{}`$, the radius $`\rho `$ should sharply increase or decrease. It is seen from Figs. 1 (a) - 1 (e) that at angles $`\phi _k`$ the particle moves in the radial direction. The grows of $`\rho `$ is limited due to nonlinear effects.

However, the resonance perturbation theory does not adequately describe the motion of a particle in the vicinity of the point ($`X=0,P=0`$) at large values of the resonance number $`\mathrm{}`$, because the amplitude of the resonance term due to Eq. (13) quickly decays when the radius, $`\rho `$, decreases. Indeed, at $`\mathrm{}=4`$ and $`\rho =0.1`$ the amplitude of the resonance term with $`m=\mathrm{}=4`$ in Eq. (7) is $`80`$ times less than the amplitude of the non-resonant term with $`m=\mathrm{}1=3`$. In order to describe the motion in the region near the CGS, we consider the initial Hamiltonian (1) under the condition $`X1`$. The exact classical equation of motion reads,

$$\frac{d^2}{dt^2}X+\omega ^2X=\frac{v_0k^2}{M}\mathrm{sin}(X\mathrm{\Omega }t).$$
(14)
Up to the first order in $`X`$ Eq. (14) is,

$$\frac{d^2}{dt^2}X+\omega ^2(1ϵ\mathrm{cos}(\mathrm{\Omega }t))X=\frac{v_0k^2}{M}\mathrm{sin}(\mathrm{\Omega }t),$$
(15)
where $`ϵ=v_0k^2/M\omega ^2`$ is the dimensionless perturbation amplitude. If we introduce a new dimensionless time, $`2\tau =\mathrm{\Omega }t`$, then from Eq. (15) we obtain the Mathieu equation with the additional right-hand side term in the form,

$$\frac{d^2}{d\tau ^2}X+a_{\mathrm{}}(1ϵ\mathrm{cos}(2\tau ))X=a_{\mathrm{}}ϵ\mathrm{sin}(2\tau ),$$
(16)
where $`a_{\mathrm{}}=\left(2/\mathrm{}\right)^2`$. From the theory of Mathieu functions  it is known that for small $`ϵ`$, Eq. (16) has unstable general solutions at $`a_{\mathrm{}}=1`$ and $`a_{\mathrm{}}=4`$ which correspond to the resonance numbers, $`\mathrm{}=2`$ and $`\mathrm{}=1`$. The additional term in the right-hand side of Eq. (16) does not influence the stability of trajectories (see Ref. , §6.22). At $`a_{\mathrm{}}<1`$ and small enough values of $`ϵ`$, the Mathieu equation has periodic solutions which correspond to the stable dynamics for resonance numbers $`\mathrm{}>2`$. In Fig. 2 stable trajectories in the system described by the Hamiltonian (1) are shown for $`\mathrm{}=3,\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}4},\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}5}`$. Stable region in the vicinity of the CGS can be considered as additional “central cells” to those resonance cells shown in Figs. 1 (c) - 1 (e). The motion in the central cell is characterized by the following features: i) the size of the cell increases with increasing the resonance number, $`\mathrm{}`$; ii) trajectories in the cell have the axial symmetry of the order $`\mathrm{}`$; iii) as follows from numerical calculations, the period of the motion in the central cell along all trajectories in Figs. 2 (a) - 2 (c) is

FIG.3. The trajectories obtained by solution of Eq. (14) when only the terms up to (a) the first order (Eq. (16)) and (b) the fourth order in $`X`$ are taken into account; $`\mathrm{}=5`$, $`\delta =0`$, $`ϵ=0.05`$.

approximately the same (in each figure), and very large. For example, the period of motion along the trajectories in Fig. 2 (b) for $`\mathrm{}=4`$ is $`(11.2)\times 10^5T`$, where $`T=2\pi /\mathrm{\Omega }`$, while the period of motion along the trajectories in Fig. 1 (d) is of the order $`5\times 10^3T`$. The property i) can be described by the fact that the resonance term, which leads to unstable solution near the point ($`X=0,P=0`$), for larger values of $`\mathrm{}`$ has less influence on the dynamics because its amplitude at $`\rho 1`$ quickly decreases with $`\mathrm{}`$ increasing, due to Eq. (13).

In order to treat the properties ii), iii), we have considered the influence of the terms of higher order in $`X`$ in Eq. (14) on the dynamics described by Mathieu equation (16). The results for the case $`\mathrm{}=5`$ are shown in Figs. 3 (a), 3 (b). From Figs. 3 (a), 3 (b) it is seen that the terms of high order in $`X`$ change the shape of trajectories, and make them symmetrical with the axial symmetry of the order $`\mathrm{}`$. This fact follows also from comparison of different trajectories in Fig. 2 (c). Indeed, internal trajectories with small values of $`\rho `$ have the round form, unlike external trajectories with larger values of $`\rho `$, which have the form of the pentagon. From comparison of Figs. 2 (c) and 3 (b) it is clear that the terms of high order in $`X`$ (the terms of the order $`X^i`$ where $`i>\mathrm{}1`$) in Eq.(14) do not influence significantly the dynamics, because the form of trajectories in Fig. 3 (b), computed for the approximate model, is practically the same as the form of trajectories in the exact model shown in Fig. 2 (c).

It was established numerically that slowness of the motion in the vicinity of the CGS is also result of influence of the terms of high order in $`X`$. Thus, the period of motion along the external trajectory described by the approximate equation (16) in Fig. 3 (a) is $`4\times 10^4T`$. Including into consideration the second order term in $`X`$ increases the period of motion up to $`3.3\times 10^5T`$. If we include, as well, the third order term, the period becomes $`3.6\times 10^5T`$. Finally, including the resonance term leads to increase of the period up to the value $`3.8\times 10^5T`$ shown in Figs. 2 (c) and 3 (b).

Next, we shall analyze the dynamics in the central cell depending on $`ϵ`$. Modification of trajectories at increasing the wave amplitude, $`ϵ`$, for the resonance number $`\mathrm{}=4`$ is shown in Figs. 4 (a) - 4 (d). Two features in the structure of the trajectories of the central cell can be observed. i) Increase in $`ϵ`$ shifts the central cell up. ii) The size of the cell increases considerably in Figs. 4 (a) - 4 (c) with increasing $`ϵ`$ in comparison with the case shown in Fig. 2 (b), when the value of $`ϵ`$ is very small. The cell shrinks when $`ϵ`$ increases, which is shown in Fig. 4 (d) for $`ϵ=10`$. Further increase of $`ϵ`$ destroys the central cell entirely.

Similar features were observed in dependence of the dynamics in the central cell on $`ϵ`$ for the case $`\mathrm{}=5`$, shown in Figs. 5 (a) - 5 (d). Comparison of the data for $`\mathrm{}=5`$ in Figs. 5 (a) - 5 (d) with those for $`\mathrm{}=4`$ in Figs. 4 (a) - 4 (d) allows us to conclude that the area of the central cell increases with increasing $`\mathrm{}`$, and chaotization of the motion in the central cell at

larger values of $`\mathrm{}`$ requires larger values of $`ϵ`$. In other words, the motion in the central cell becomes more stable with increasing the resonance number, $`\mathrm{}`$. In order to understand the observed dynamics, we again included into consideration only the first order terms in $`X`$ in Eq. (14), and computed the dynamics for large values of $`ϵ`$. The trajectories described by the approximate equation (16) for $`ϵ=5`$, $`\mathrm{}=4`$ and for $`ϵ=9.5`$, $`\mathrm{}=5`$ are shown in Figs. 6 (a), 6 (b). The following features can be observed. i) As follows from our calculations,

FIG. 6. The phase trajectories described by the approximate equation (16) for $`\delta =0`$ and (a) $`\mathrm{}=4`$, $`ϵ=5`$, (b) $`\mathrm{}=5`$, $`ϵ=9.5`$.

the phase portrait shifts up from the point $`(X=0,P=0)`$ under the influence of the term in the right-hand side of the approximate equation (16). ii) Comparison of Fig. 6 (a) with Fig. 4 (c) and Fig. 6 (b) with Fig. 5 (b) allows us to conclude that the terms of the high order in $`X`$ in Eq. (14) change the shape of trajectories and restrict the region of stable motion. iii) The motion described by the approximate equation (16) becomes unstable at values of $`ϵ>ϵ_{\mathrm{}}`$ where $`ϵ_{\mathrm{}}`$ lies in the interval $`2.3<ϵ_3<2.4`$ for $`\mathrm{}=3`$; $`5.5<ϵ_4<5.6`$ for $`\mathrm{}=4`$; and $`9.6<ϵ_5<9.7`$ for $`\mathrm{}=5`$. One can see from Fig. 4 (d) and Figs. 5 (c), 5 (d) that the motion described by exact equation (14) in the region $`ϵ>ϵ_{\mathrm{}}`$ remains stable. Thus, the high order terms in $`X`$ in Eq. (14) stabilize the dynamics at large values of the perturbation amplitude, $`ϵ`$.

Let us compare the classical dynamics in the central cell with the dynamics in the other cells when the perturbation parameter $`ϵ`$ is not small. The results of calculation of the dynamics in several cells are shown in Figs. 7 (a) - 7 (d). From comparison Fig. 7 (b) with Figs. 4 (c), 4 (d) and Fig. 7 (d) with Figs. 5 (a) - 5 (d) one can see that the trajectories in the central cell remain stable, while other nearest cells are completely destroyed by chaos. The extremely high stability of trajectories in the central cell can be explained by relatively small influence on the dynamics of the terms of high order in $`X`$, oscillating with different frequencies, because their amplitudes are small at small $`X`$ (or $`\rho `$).

## III The classical dynamics near the CGS in the near resonance case

Now, let us consider the CGS in the near resonance case, when $`\delta 0`$. The resonant Hamiltonian (9) takes form

$$H_{\mathrm{}}=\stackrel{~}{I}(\delta \omega )+v_0J_{\mathrm{}}(\rho )\mathrm{cos}\theta .$$
(17)
The stationary points for the dynamics generated by the Hamiltonian (17) are defined by the conditions,

$$\dot{\theta }=H_{\mathrm{}}/\stackrel{~}{I}=0,\dot{\stackrel{~}{I}}=H_{\mathrm{}}/\theta =0.$$

Positions of the elliptic stationary points are given by the expressions,

$$v_0\frac{J_{\mathrm{}}[kr(\stackrel{~}{I}_e)]}{\stackrel{~}{I}}=\delta \omega ,\theta _e=0,\pi ,$$
(18)
where the sing $`\mathrm{`}\mathrm{`}^{\prime \prime }`$ corresponds to the stable point, with the angle $`\theta _e=0`$ with the $`P`$-axis, and the sing $`\mathrm{`}\mathrm{`}+^{\prime \prime }`$ corresponds to the stable point with the angle $`\theta _e=\pi `$. In the dimensionless form Eq. (18) is,

$$\frac{1}{\rho _e}\frac{J_{\mathrm{}}(\rho _e)}{\rho }=\frac{\delta }{\mathrm{}ϵ},$$
(19)
where $`\rho _e=kr(\stackrel{~}{I}_e)`$. For the positions of the hyperbolic stationary points one has,

$$J_{\mathrm{}}\left[kr(\stackrel{~}{I}_h)\right]=0,\theta _h=\pm \frac{\pi }{2}.$$
(20)
As one can see from Eq. (19), the number of the elliptic stable points in the near resonance case, when $`\delta 0`$, is finite because the right-hand side of Eq. (19) is constant while the left-hand side oscillates, and decreases on average. As a consequence, there is a finite number of the resonance cells.

The motion near the CGS can be described by the approximate equation (16) with the parameter $`a_{\mathrm{}}`$ equal to: $`a_{\mathrm{}}=[2/(\mathrm{}\delta )]^2`$. It is known  that at small $`ϵ`$ and $`\delta 0`$ the Mathieu equations have the stable solutions at any $`\mathrm{}`$ including the cases $`\mathrm{}=1`$ and $`\mathrm{}=2`$.

Let us consider the cases $`\mathrm{}=1`$ and $`\mathrm{}=2`$ at $`\delta 0`$ in detail. In the case $`\mathrm{}=1`$, one may use the results of the resonance theory at arbitrary small $`X`$ and $`P`$, because the term of the lowest order in $`X`$ (proportional to $`X`$) in the Hamiltonian (1) is resonant. Let us suppose that the dimensionless radius $`\rho _e`$ in Eq. (19) is small, $`\rho _e1`$. Then $`J_1^{}(\rho _e)1/2`$, and Eq. (19) yields,

$$\rho _e=ϵ/(2\delta \mathrm{}).$$
(21)
Thus, shift of the stable elliptic point from the CGS is small, $`\rho _e1`$, when the condition $`ϵ2|\delta |\mathrm{}`$ is satisfied. At small values of the wave amplitude, $`ϵ`$, shift of the elliptic stable point from the point $`X=0,P=0`$ is proportional to $`ϵ`$. One can see from Eq. (21) that at $`\mathrm{}=1`$ one elliptic stable point exists at arbitrary small value of $`ϵ`$ (which follows also from the theory of Mathieu functions).

When $`ϵ`$ is small, the phase trajectories are the circles with the center located near the CGS. Figuratively speaking, in the case $`\delta 0`$ and $`ϵ1`$ there is only one resonant (central) cell with an infinite area, because at small enough value of $`ϵ`$ the equation (19) has no other solutions, except for Eq. (21), and in the phase space there are no other cells, except for the central one. When $`ϵ`$ increases (we suppose $`ϵ>0`$) and $`\delta >0`$, the stable point shifts down, as shown in Fig. 8 (a), because the left-hand side of Eq. (19) is positive and we should take the sign “$`+`$” in the right-hand side, which corresponds to the shift in the direction $`\theta =\pi `$.

When $`ϵ`$ increases (see Fig. 8 (b), 8 (c)), the dynamical chaos appears, and the area of the central cell decreases. As before, we have considered the influence of the high order terms in $`X`$ in the exact equation of motion (14) on the dynamics described by the approximate equation (16). The approximate equation (16) yields unstable solutions when $`ϵ>ϵ_1`$, where $`|ϵ_1|=\sqrt{24|\delta |/5}`$ if $`\delta >0`$, and $`ϵ_1=\sqrt{24|\delta |}`$ if $`\delta <0`$. The parameter $`\delta =0.1`$ yields $`ϵ_1=0.69`$.We also checked these criterion numerically. As one can see from Figs. 8 (b), 8 (c) the central cell remains undestroyed. Thus, the nonlinear terms stabilize the dynamics in the near resonance case, similar to the case of exact resonance. At $`ϵ=1.2`$ in Fig. 8 (c) one more cell is generated, because the condition (19) is satisfied for two values of $`kr`$.

Unlike the case $`\mathrm{}=1`$, when $`\mathrm{}=2`$ and $`ϵ`$ is small enough (see Figs. 9 (a)), the stable point does not shift from the point $`(X=0,P=0)`$. Instead, in Fig. 9 (b) we observe bifurcation at the value $`ϵ=ϵ_2`$, where $`ϵ_2`$ can be estimated from the solution of the approximate equation (16). Namely, up to the second order in $`\delta `$, the dynamics becomes unstable at $`ϵ_2=2\delta \delta ^2/2`$. Our computed value of $`ϵ_2`$ lies in the interval $`0.185<ϵ_2<0.186`$ which is slightly less than the estimated quantity due to the influence of nonlinear in $`X`$ terms, which are neglected in the approximate equation (16).

As shown in Fig. 10, at further increase of $`ϵ`$, two stable points, formed after bifurcation, diverge at larger distance from each other, the chaotic area increases, and additional cells appear because the condition (19) is satisfied for more number of points ($`kr(\stackrel{~}{I}_e)`$).

## IV Stability of the quantum ground state

Now we consider a stability of the ground state of the quantum harmonic oscillator (QGS) under the same conditions as in the classical model. The quantum Hamiltonian is,

$$\widehat{H}=\frac{\widehat{p}^2}{2M}+\frac{M\omega ^2}{2}x^2+v_0\mathrm{cos}(kx\mathrm{\Omega }t)=\widehat{H}_0+\widehat{V}(x,t),$$
(22)
where $`\widehat{p}=i\mathrm{}/x`$, and the same notation as in Eq. (1) where used. Since the Hamiltonian (22) is periodic in time, we can use the Floquet theorem, and write the solution of the Schrödinger equation in the form,

$$\psi _q(x,t)=\mathrm{exp}(iE_qt/\mathrm{})u_q(x,t),$$
(23)
where $`E_q`$ is the quasienergy, $`\psi _q(x,t)`$ is the quasienergy (QE) eigenfunction, and the function $`u_q(x,t)`$ is periodic in time, $`u_q(x,t)=u_q(x,t+T)`$, where $`T=2\pi /\mathrm{\Omega }`$. We expand $`u_q(x,t)`$ in the basis of the unperturbed harmonic oscillator,

$$u_q(x,t)=\underset{n=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}C_n^q(t)\psi _n(x),$$
(24)
where coefficients, $`C_n^q(t)`$, are periodic in time, $`C_n^q(t)=C_n^q(t+T)`$. Due to periodicity of $`C_n^q(t)`$, the approach based on Floquet states is very convenient for investigation of localization properties of the quantum system. Namely, if some initial state coincides with the quasienergy function localized in some region of the Hilbert space, $`C_n(0)=C_n^q(0)`$, then it will remain localized in this region for any time.

We used the following numerical procedure to calculate the QE states.  The QE states are the eigenstates of the evolution operator for one period of the wave field, $`\widehat{U}(T)`$. In order to build the matrix $`U_{nm}`$ of the operator $`\widehat{U}(T)`$ we choose the representation of the Hamiltonian $`\widehat{H}_0`$. Let us act with the evolution operator on the wave function $`\psi (x,0)`$,

$$\widehat{U}(T)\psi (x,0)=\psi (x,T),$$
(25)
and choose the initial state in the form $`C_n(0)=\delta _{n,n_0}`$. In this way we obtain a column in the evolution operator matrix,

$$U_{n,n_0}=C_n^{(n_0)}(T),$$
(26)
where the coefficients, $`C_n^{(n_0)}(T)`$, can be obtained by numerical solution of the Schrödinger equation (for more detailed discussion see Ref. ). After diagonalization of $`U_{n,m}`$, we obtain the QE functions, $`C_n^qC_n^q(mT)`$, $`m=0,\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}1},\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2},\mathrm{}`$ and the quasienergies, $`E_q`$. The values of matrix elements, $`U_{n,m}`$, depend on three dimensionless parameters: the wave amplitude, $`ϵ`$, the quantum parameter, $`h=k^2\mathrm{}/M\omega `$, which can be treated as a dimensionless Planck constant, and from the ratio $`\mathrm{\Omega }/\omega =\mathrm{}\delta `$.

When $`\delta =0`$ and the amplitude of the wave is small, $`ϵ1`$, most of the QE states are divided into almost independent groups, each located in one resonance cell of the Hilbert space.  In order to show this let us characterize each QE state by its average, $`n_q=_nn|C_n^q|^2`$, and a dispersion, $`\sigma _q=\left[_n(nn_q)^2|C_n^q|^2\right]^{1/2}`$ and plot $`n_q`$ versus $`\sigma _q`$ (see also Ref.). Such plots for different values of the resonance number, $`\mathrm{}`$, and for small value of the wave amplitude, $`ϵ`$, are shown in Figs. 11 (a) - 11 (e). The boundaries of the cells are marked by arrows. The radius of the external boundary of classical cells in Figs. 1 (a) - 1 (e) corresponds to the position of the boundary of the first quantum cell, respectively, in Figs. 11 (a) - 11 (e) with the quantized radius, $`\rho _n=\sqrt{2nh}`$. One can see from Figs. 11 (a) - 11 (e) that the QE states are mostly located within the quantum resonance cells, because their averages, $`n_q`$, are situated inside the cells, and their widths, $`\sigma _q`$, do not exceed the width of the corresponding resonance cell. Such states form rows in Figs. 11 (a) - 11 (e). Each cell in the Hilbert space in the quasiclassical limit corresponds to $`2\mathrm{}`$ classical cells.  There also exist the QE states which do not belong to a particular resonance cell, but rather they belong to the stochastic web. These QE states have a “separatrix” structure, i.e. they delocalized over several resonance cells and have large dispersion, $`\sigma `$. Such states are represented by scattered points on the diagrams $`n_q=n_q(\sigma _q)`$ in Figs. 11 (a) - 11 (e). The structure of these QE states was in details discussed in Refs. .

In this paper, we focus on the QE states which belong to the central resonance cell (QGS QE states), because these states are mainly responsible for stability properties of the QGS. Such QGS QE states are characterized by small average, $`n_q`$, and are located in the low part of the plots, $`n_q(\sigma _q)`$, in Figs. 11 (d), 11 (e). In the cases $`\mathrm{}=1,2`$ in Figs. 11 (a) - 11 (b) these states are absent, which corresponds to unstable dynamics near the CGS in the phase classical space, shown, respectively, in Figs. 1 (a) - 1 (b). In the case $`\mathrm{}=3`$, the area of the stable island in Fig. 2 (a) is much less than the value of the dimensionless Planck constant $`h`$ ($`h=0.5`$). So, in this case, the QGS QE state is absent, too.

The plots of the probability distribution for the QGS QE states $`q^{}`$ with the smallest average, $`n_q^{}`$, marked in Figs. 11 (d), 11 (e) by arrows, are shown in Figs. 12 (a), 12 (b), for the cases $`\mathrm{}=4`$ and $`\mathrm{}=5`$. In the logarithmic scale, these states are illustrated in Figs. 13 (a), 13 (b). The Husimi functions of these states are shown in Figs. 14 (a) ($`\mathrm{}=4`$) and 14 (b) ($`\mathrm{}=5`$). As one can see from Figs. 12 (a), 12 (b) the QGS QE state is mainly localized in the CGS of the harmonic oscillator. One can see from Figs. 12 (a), 12 (b) and 13 (a), 13 (b) that the small part of the probability distribution is located at the levels with the numbers $`n=\mathrm{}m`$, where $`m=1,\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2},\mathrm{}`$. This can be explained by influence of the resonance terms in the quantum equations of motion. In the resonance approximation the QE states can be defined from the set of algebraic equations which in the dimensionless form can be written as,

$$\left(\frac{E_q}{\mathrm{}\omega }\delta n\right)C_n^q=\frac{ϵ}{h}(V_{n,n+\mathrm{}}C_{n+\mathrm{}}^q+V_{n,n\mathrm{}}C_n\mathrm{}^q).$$
(27)
The matrix elements for $`n1`$ can be approximated by the Bessel functions $`J_m`$,More precise form of matrix elements see in Ref.

$$V_{n,n+2m+1}=\frac{1}{2}\frac{(1)^mn^{m+1/2}e^{\frac{h}{4}}}{\sqrt{(n+1)\mathrm{}(n+2m+1)}}J_{2m+1}(\sqrt{2nh}),$$
(29)
$$V_{n,n+2m}=\frac{1}{2}\frac{(1)^mn^me^{\frac{h}{4}}}{\sqrt{(n+1)\mathrm{}(n+2m)}}J_{2m}(\sqrt{2nh}).$$
(30)
As one can see from Eq. (27), in the resonance approximation the QE functions have the form $`C_n^q=C_\mathrm{}m^q`$ with $`m=1,\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2},\mathrm{}`$. In this case, the particle is allowed to move only between the states with the numbers $`n=\mathrm{}m`$. As shown in Ref. , a particular form of the QE function, $`C_n^q=C_\mathrm{}m^q`$, makes the Husimi functions, illustrated in Figs. 14 (a) and 14 (b), symmetric with the axial symmetry of the order $`\mathrm{}`$. One can see that the width of the Husimi distribution in Figs. 14 (a) and 14 (b), is, $`\mathrm{\Delta }P\mathrm{\Delta }X\sqrt{h}0.7`$.

Now, let us consider influence of dynamical chaos on the QE states, when $`ϵ`$ increases. There are several QE states localized near the QGS of the harmonic oscillator. Some of them are shifted from the level with the number $`n=0`$. They can be associated with shifted up classical central resonance cell, when $`ϵ`$ increases. In this case, the Husimi function in Fig. 15 (a) of the QE state with the probability distribution illustrated in Fig. 15 (b) (for $`\mathrm{}=5`$ and $`ϵ=5`$) has a similar form to the form of the trajectories in the classical phase space shown in Fig. 5 (a). At large enough values of the wave amplitude, ($`ϵ=5`$ in Fig. 15 (a)), there are no QE states localized in the nearest quantum cells, except for the QE states localized in the central cell. This corresponds to the chaotic classical dynamics shown in Figs. 7 (b), 7 (d) with the stable island in the center of the phase space.

The QGS QE states, mostly localized at the CGS of the harmonic oscillator, are of the most interest for us, because they mainly define the dynamics of the quantum state initially located at the level with $`n=0`$. The time-evolution of the system with the initial state $`C_n(0)=\delta _{n,n_0}`$ is defined by the equation,

$$C_n(mT)=\underset{q}{}C_n^qC_{n_0}^q\mathrm{exp}(iE_qmT/\mathrm{}),$$
(31)
where $`m=0,\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}1},\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2},\mathrm{}`$. The amplitude of probability to find the system in the initial state, $`n_0`$, is,

$$C_{n_0}(mT)=\underset{q}{}|C_{n_0}^q|^2\mathrm{exp}(iE_qmT/\mathrm{}).$$
(32)
Suppose that some QE state with the number $`q^{}`$ is mostly localized at the level $`n=n_0`$, i.e. $`|C_{n_0}^q^{}|^2|C_{n_0}^q|^2`$ for all $`qq^{}`$. Then, the term with $`q=q^{}`$ dominates in the sum in the right-hand side of Eq. (32), and we can write,

$$C_{n_0}(mT)|C_{n_0}^q^{}|^2\mathrm{exp}(iE_q^{}mT/\mathrm{}).$$
(33)
The probability, $`P_{n_0}(mT)`$, to find the system at the moments $`t_m=mT`$ in the state with $`n=n_0`$ is given by,

$$P_{n_0}(mT)=|C_{n_0}(mT)|^2|C_{n_0}^q^{}|^4.$$
(34)
The value of $`P_{n_0}(mT)`$ in this approximation is independent of the number of periods passed, $`P_{n_0}(mT)P_{n_0}`$. In the next approximation, the neglected terms in Eq. (32) cause the probability $`P_{n_0}`$ slightly oscillate with time.

In Fig. 16, we present a plot of the probability, $`P_0=|C_{n_0=0}^q|^4`$, to find the system in the QGS as a function of the wave amplitude, $`ϵ`$, if the initial state is the QGS of the harmonic oscillator. One can see that the dynamical chaos (the range of large enough $`ϵ`$) decreases this probability. However, the process of delocalization of the QGS QE state is extremely slow when $`ϵ`$ increases, in comparison with that in other nearest cells. For example, at $`ϵ=5`$ all QE states in the nearest cells are chaotic (delocalized) which corresponds to the chaotic classical dynamics in Fig. 7 (d), while the QE state located at the QGS remains localized with the probability $`P_00.56`$ when $`h=0.5`$, and $`P_00.6`$ when $`h=1.0`$. From comparison

of different curves, for h=0.1, $`h=0.5`$ and $`h=1.0`$, one can note the following features. i) At small values of $`ϵ`$, increase of $`h`$ leads, on average, to decrease of stability of the QGS. ii) The QGS, at large values of $`h`$ ($`h=1`$), is more stable under the influence of chaos (the range of large enough $`ϵ`$) than that at small values of $`h`$ ($`h=0.1`$). We should note, that oscillations of $`P_0(mT)`$ in time should increase when $`P_0(mT)`$ decreases. This happens in the region of large enough $`ϵ`$ in Fig. 16, because in this case the influence of neglected terms in Eq. (32) becomes more significant.

More information about the stability of the QGS can be extracted from the analysis of the structure of QE states located at the QGS at different values of the wave amplitude, $`ϵ`$, shown in Fig. 17 (a) - 17 (f) (for $`h=0.5`$). The QGS QE state shown in Fig. 17 (a) for small value of $`ϵ`$ ($`ϵ=0.05`$) is similar to the separatrix QE states,  because it has the regular structure (compare, for example, with Fig. 17 (c)), and its maxima are located near the quantum separatrices, indicated in Fig. 17 (a) by arrows. Thus, the QGS QE state also possesses the properties of the “separatrix” QE states, considered in Ref. .

The separatrix QE states are of the quantum nature  because they are delocalized over several resonance cells. These QE states provide the tunneling between the cells when chaotic regions in the phase space are negligible small, and the classical particle can not practically penetrate from one resonance cell to another. The separatrix QE function mostly localized in the QGS is a particular one, and it is different from other separatrix states studied before. On the one hand, it is delocalized over several resonance cells (see Fig. 17 (a)) as other separatrix QE functions. On the other hand, this particular QE function is mostly concentrated on the QGS of the harmonic oscillator, unlike the other separatrix QE functions. These “contradictory” features of the QGS QE state define the dynamics: on the one hand, the system mainly remains localized in the QGS, but on the other hand, a small part of the probability distribution can tunnel to the states with large $`n`$, located in the other resonant cells. When we increase the parameter $`h`$, the separatrix QE states become more delocalized, and the probability to tunnel to other cells increases, which explain decrease of $`P_0`$ with increasing $`h`$ in Fig. 16 (compare the different curves in the region of small $`ϵ`$).

At intermediate values of $`ϵ`$, when $`1<ϵ<7`$, a stability of the QGS increases with increasing $`h`$. However, we can not increase $`h`$ indefinitely because when $`h`$ becomes larger than the resonance area in the phase space, the QGS becomes unstable. Thus, at $`h=5`$, $`\mathrm{}=4`$, $`ϵ=2`$ (see the classical phase space in Fig. 4 (b)) and at $`h=5`$, $`\mathrm{}=5`$, $`ϵ=5`$ (Fig. 5 (a)) no localized QGS was found.

An increase of $`P_0`$ with increasing the wave amplitude, $`ϵ`$, when $`ϵ`$ is small ($`ϵ<0.5`$ for $`h=0.5`$ and $`ϵ<1.0`$ for $`h=1.0`$), shown in Fig. 16, is a consequence of a partial localization of the separatrix QE state (see Fig. 17 (b)) under the influence of chaos explored in Ref.  In this case, the QGS QE function, shown in Fig. 17 (b), loses its “separatrix” features. Further increase of $`ϵ`$, makes the QGS QE state more delocalized. However, as one can see from Figs. 17 (c) ($`ϵ=5.5,h=0.5`$) and 17 (d) ($`ϵ=6.0,h=0.5`$) delocalization takes place mainly over the nearest oscillator states with small numbers, $`n`$. At $`ϵ>5.5`$ ($`h=0.5`$) the oscillations appear in the dependence $`P_0=P_0(ϵ)`$, in Fig. 16. Thus, the QE function at $`ϵ=6`$ in Fig. 17 (c) is less localized than the QE function at $`ϵ=7.6`$ shown in Fig. 17 (d). At large values of $`ϵ`$ ($`ϵ>7.6`$), practically all QE states are delocalized, which is the quantum manifestation of chaotization of the classical central cell in the phase space.

In order to illustrate a non-monotonic character of localization of the QGS as a function of the wave amplitude at small $`ϵ`$, we computed the dynamics of the quantum state initially concentrated on the ground state of the harmonic oscillator, $`C_n(0)=\delta _{n,0}`$, using Eq (31). Time-evolution of the dispersion,

$$\sigma (mT)=\sqrt{\underset{n}{}|C_n(mT)|^2(n\overline{n}(mT))^2},$$
(35)
where $`\overline{n}(mT)=_n|C_n(mT)|^2n`$ is the average, is presented in Figs. 18 (a) - 18 (c), for three values of $`ϵ`$. When the wave amplitude, $`ϵ`$, is small (Fig. 18 (a)), a small part of the wave packet can propagate to large values of $`n`$ due to effect of diffusion via the separatrices as shown in Fig. 19 (a). Similar tunneling effect of the wave packet between the resonance cells via the separatrices was explored in Ref.  In spite of a small probability of tunneling to other cells, contribution of this part to the dispersion, $`\sigma `$, is significant because it is proportional to $`(n\overline{n})^2`$, where $`n\overline{n}1`$. At $`ϵ=0.5`$ the separatrix QE states are destroyed by chaos, as shown in Fig. 17 (b), and QGS becomes more localized (see Fig. 19 (b)). This leads to a significant decrease of $`\sigma `$ in Fig. 18 (b) in comparison with the case of small $`ϵ`$, shown in Fig. 18 (a). Further increase of $`ϵ`$, up to the value $`ϵ=7.6`$, results in delocalization of the QGS, as shown in Fig. 19 (c), and the dispersion, $`\sigma =\sigma (mT)`$, in Fig. 18 (c) becomes large again.

Comparison of Figs. 19 (a) and 19 (c) allows us to conclude that delocalization of the QGS at very small, and at large values of $`ϵ`$ is of a different nature. In the former case, the diffusion is caused by the separatrix QE states. These states are the quantum objects because they are delocalized, and provide tunneling between the resonant cells.  As a consequence of the quantum nature of the separatrix QE states, increase of the dimensionless Planck constant, $`h`$, leads to delocalization of the separatrix QE states and decrease of localization of QGS at small $`ϵ`$, shown in Fig. 16. On the other hand, when $`ϵ`$ is large we observe delocalization caused by chaos, which is manifested in the irregular form of the probability distribution, shown in Fig. 19 (c).

As follows from Fig. 16, in order to make the QGS more stable at small $`ϵ`$ one should decrease the Planck constant, $`h`$. A plot of the dispersion, $`\sigma `$, versus time for $`h=0.1`$ is presented in Fig. 20 (a). The system remains in the ground state with the probability $`P_0=0.996`$. However the dispersion is still large enough because the particle can propagate with small probability to the levels with large $`n1`$, due to the diffusion via the separatrices which can be seen from the plot of the probability distribution presented in Fig. 20 (b).

Another way to increase the stability of the ground state at small $`ϵ`$, is to destroy the separatrix QE functions by choosing the non-resonant value of the wave frequency, so that $`\delta =\mathrm{}\mathrm{\Omega }/\omega 0`$. For a non-resonant case ($`\delta =0.01`$), the plot of the dispersion as a function of time is presented in Fig. 21 (a), and the probability distribution at time $`m=t/T=3\times 10^6`$ is illustrated in Fig. 21 (b). One can see from Fig 21 (a) that introducing a detuning, $`\delta 0`$, results in considerable improvement of the stability of the QGS in comparison with the case of the exact resonance, illustrated in Fig. 18 (a). Thus, in order to make the ground state more stable at small values of $`ϵ`$ one must detune the system from the exact resonance.

The minimal value of detuning, $`\delta `$, required to destroy the separatrix structure, and to make the ground state more stable, can be estimated from the quantum equations of motions in the resonance approximation (27). The term, proportional to $`\delta n`$ destroys the separatrix QE states as shown in Ref. This term becomes significant when it becomes of the order of the relation, $`ϵ/h`$. On the other hand, the separatrix QE function must, at least, occupy the two separatrices. Thus, we can estimate the number, $`n=n_\delta `$, of the oscillator’s state at which the separatrix structure is destroyed, namely $`n_\delta =ϵ/\delta h`$. The separatrix QE functions decay exponentially with increasing $`n`$ in the region $`n>n_\delta `$. For the parameters in Fig. 21, $`n_\delta =50`$, which is much less than the position of the first separatrix $`n_1=385`$ shown in Fig. 20 (b) by arrow. So, the separatrix QE states at these parameters do not exist, and we do not observe tunneling from the QGS to other resonance cells.

Decreasing the value of $`ϵ`$, in the near resonance case, makes the QGS more stable. Unlike the near resonance case, in the case of the exact resonance, a stability of the QGS at $`ϵ1`$ is independent of the wave amplitude, because in this case the localization properties of the QGS are defined by the structure of separatrix QE function, which in the resonance approximation (when $`ϵ`$ is small) is independent of $`ϵ`$. One can see from a comparison of Fig. 21 (a) with Fig. 20 (a) ($`h=0.1`$, $`ϵ=0.05`$) that the dispersion in the near resonance case (Fig. 21 (a)) is much less than that in the exact resonance case (Fig. 20 (a)), in spite of the probability to stay in the ground state, $`P_0`$, for these two cases does not differ significantly ($`P_0=0.99897`$ at $`\delta =0.01`$ and $`P_0=0.996`$ at $`\delta =0`$). The reason is that the dynamics in the exact resonance case is mainly determined by the separatrix QE function, and in this case there is a small probability for particle to tunnel to the high oscillator levels with $`n1`$, as shown in Fig. 20 (b).

When the wave amplitude $`ϵ`$ increases, the condition $`\delta 0`$ becomes less significant. This can be explained by less influence of the term proportional to $`\delta `$ on the dynamics in comparison with influence of the wave with the amplitude $`ϵ`$ in the region where the value of $`kr`$ is relatively small (see the classical Hamiltonian in Eqs. (6), (7), (9) and quantum Eq. (27)). In Fig. 22 we plot the function $`P_0=P_0(ϵ)`$ for the near resonance case. In Figs. 23 (a) - 23 (c) we compare the results for the exact resonance case ($`\delta =0`$) with those for the near resonance case, when $`\delta =0.01`$ and $`\delta =0.1`$. One can see from these figures that the dynamics in the vicinity of the QGS in the near resonance case is similar to that in the exact resonance case, except for the region of small $`ϵ`$, which was discussed above.

In the quantum case, similar to the classical one, at very small $`ϵ`$ and finite $`\delta `$, there always exists the QGS QE state at any $`\mathrm{}`$ including the cases $`\mathrm{}=1`$ and $`\mathrm{}=2`$. In Fig. 24 we present a plot $`P_0=P_0(ϵ)`$ for the cases $`\mathrm{}=1`$ and $`\mathrm{}=2`$ when $`\delta =0.1`$ and $`h=0.5`$. As one can see from Fig. 24 the QGS QE state in these two cases becomes unstable at considerably less values of $`ϵ`$ than that in the case $`\mathrm{}=5`$ in Fig. 23, which corresponds to the classical dynamics in Figs. 8 - 10. In the case $`\mathrm{}=1`$ the stable point shifts down from the region $`X=0,P=0`$ in Figs. 8 (a)- 8 (c), and in the case $`\mathrm{}=2`$ the stable point at $`ϵ0.2`$ becomes unstable (see Figs. 9 (a), 9 (b)) and 10). The quantum manifestation of this process is a rapid decay of the value of $`P_0`$ in the region $`ϵ0.2`$ in Fig. 24.

In conclusion, the classical dynamics in the vicinity of the point ($`x=0,p=0`$) in the classical phase space and quantum dynamics in the vicinity of the ground state of the harmonic oscillator in a field of a monochromatic wave, is explored. Both resonance and near resonance cases are analyzed. It is shown that at small $`ϵ`$ and finite detuning from the resonance, $`\delta `$, the quantum ground state is always stable. In the case $`\delta =0`$, the dynamics is unstable for the resonance numbers $`\mathrm{}=1,2`$. Stability of the classical dynamics in the central cell and stability of the quantum dynamics near the ground state of the harmonic oscillator under the influence of chaos is analyzed. It is shown, that under certain conditions ($`\mathrm{}>2,\delta =0,ϵ1,h1`$) the presence of chaos makes the quantum ground state more localized. Increase of the quantum parameter, $`h`$, at intermediate values of $`ϵ`$, enhances localization of the QGS considerably. Experimental observation of discussed results in the system of an ion trapped in a linear ion trap and interacting with laser fields represents a significant interest for understanding the stability properties of this system.

## V Acknowledgments

We are thankful to R.J. Hughes and G.D. Doolen for useful discussions. This work was supported by the National Security Agency, and by the Department of Energy under the contract W-7405-ENG-36. Work of D.I.K. was partly supported by Russian Foundation for Basic Research (Grants No. 98-02-16412 and 98-02-16237).


text:
# Fractal statistics, fractal index and fractons

## Abstract

The concept of fractal index is introduced in connection with the idea of universal class $`h`$ of particles or quasiparticles, termed fractons, which obey fractal statistics. We show the relation between fractons and conformal field theory(CFT)-quasiparticles taking into account the central charge $`c[\nu ]`$ and the particle-hole duality $`\nu \frac{1}{\nu }`$, for integer-value $`\nu `$ of the statistical parameter. The Hausdorff dimension $`h`$ which labelled the universal classes of particles and the conformal anomaly are therefore related. We also establish a connection between Rogers dilogarithm function, Farey series of rational numbers and the Hausdorff dimension.

We consider the conformal field theory(CFT)-quasiparticles ( edge excitations ) in connection with the concept of fractons introduced in. These excitations have been considered at the edge of the quantum Hall systems which in the fractional regime assume the form of a chiral Luttinger liquid. Beyond this, conformal field theories have been exploited in a variety of contexts, including statistical mechanics at the critical point, field theories, string theory, and in various branches of mathematics.

In this Letter, we suppose that the fractal statistics obeyed by fractons are shared by CFT-quasiparticles. Thus, the central charge, a model dependent constant is related to the universal class $`h`$ of the fractons. We define the fractal index associated with these classes as

$$i_f[h]=\frac{6}{\pi ^2}_{\mathrm{}(T=0)}^{1(T=\mathrm{})}\frac{d\xi }{\xi }\mathrm{ln}\left\{\mathrm{\Theta }[𝒴(\xi )]\right\}$$
(1)
where

$`\mathrm{\Theta }[𝒴]={\displaystyle \frac{𝒴[\xi ]2}{𝒴[\xi ]1}}`$ (2)
is the single-particle partition function of the universal class $`h`$ and $`\xi =\mathrm{exp}\left\{(ϵ\mu )/KT\right\}`$, has the usual definition. The function $`𝒴[\xi ]`$ satisfies the equation

$`\xi =\left\{𝒴[\xi ]1\right\}^{h1}\left\{𝒴[\xi ]2\right\}^{2h}.`$ (3)
We note that the general solution of the algebraic equation derived from this last one is of the form

$`𝒴_h[\xi ]=f[\xi ]+\stackrel{~}{h}`$

or

$`𝒴_{\stackrel{~}{h}}[\xi ]=g[\xi ]+h,`$

where $`\stackrel{~}{h}=3h`$, is a duality symmetryThis means that fermions($`h=1`$) and bosons($`h=2`$) are dual objects. As a result we have a fractal supersymmetry, since for the particle with spin $`s`$ within the class $`h`$, its dual $`s+\frac{1}{2}`$ is within the class $`\stackrel{~}{h}`$. between the classes. The functions $`f[\xi ]`$ and $`g[\xi ]`$ at least for third, fourth degrees algebraic equation differ by plus and minus signs in some terms of their expressions.

The particles within each class $`h`$ satisfy specific fractal statisticsIn fact, we have here fractal functions.

$`n`$ $`=`$ $`\xi {\displaystyle \frac{}{\xi }}\mathrm{ln}\mathrm{\Theta }[𝒴]`$ (4)
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{𝒴[\xi ]h}}`$ (5)
and the fractal parameter §§§This parameter describes the properties of the path (fractal curve) of the quantum-mechanical particle. (or Hausdorff dimension) $`h`$ defined in the interval $`1`$$`<`$$`h`$$`<`$$`2`$ is related to the spin-statistics relation $`\nu =2s`$ through the fractal spectrum

$`h1=1\nu ,\mathrm{\hspace{0.33em}\hspace{0.33em}\hspace{0.33em}\hspace{0.33em}0}<\nu <1;h1=\nu 1,\mathrm{\hspace{0.33em}\hspace{0.33em}\hspace{0.33em}\hspace{0.33em}\hspace{0.33em}\hspace{0.33em}\hspace{0.33em}1}<\nu <2;`$ (6)
$`etc.`$ (7)
For $`h=1`$ we have fermions, with $`𝒴[\xi ]=\xi +2`$, $`\mathrm{\Theta }[1]=\frac{\xi }{\xi +1}`$ and $`i_f[1]=\frac{6}{\pi ^2}_{\mathrm{}}^1\frac{d\xi }{\xi }\mathrm{ln}\left\{\frac{\xi }{\xi +1}\right\}=\frac{1}{2}`$. For $`h=2`$ we have bosons, with $`𝒴[\xi ]=\xi +1`$, $`\mathrm{\Theta }[2]=\frac{\xi 1}{\xi }`$ and $`i_f[2]=\frac{6}{\pi ^2}_{\mathrm{}}^1\frac{d\xi }{\xi }\mathrm{ln}\left\{\frac{\xi 1}{\xi }\right\}=1`$. On the other hand, for the universal class $`h=\frac{3}{2}`$, we have fractons with $`𝒴[\xi ]=\frac{3}{2}+\sqrt{\frac{1}{4}+\xi ^2}`$, $`\mathrm{\Theta }\left[\frac{3}{2}\right]=\frac{\sqrt{1+4\xi ^2}1}{\sqrt{1+4\xi ^2}+1}`$ and $`i_f\left[\frac{3}{2}\right]=\frac{6}{\pi ^2}_{\mathrm{}}^1\frac{d\xi }{\xi }\mathrm{ln}\left\{\frac{\sqrt{1+4\xi ^2}1}{\sqrt{1+4\xi ^2}+1}\right\}=\frac{3}{5}`$.

The distribution function for each class $`h`$ above are given by

$`n[1]`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\xi +1}},`$ (8)
$`n[2]`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\xi 1}},`$ (9)
$`n\left[{\displaystyle \frac{3}{2}}\right]`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\sqrt{\frac{1}{4}+\xi ^2}}},`$ (10)
i.e. we have the Fermi-Dirac distribution, the Bose-Einstein distribution and the fracton distribution of the universal class $`h=\frac{3}{2}`$, respectively . Thus, our formulation generalizes in a natural way the fermionic and bosonic distributions for particles assuming rational or irrational values for the spin quantum number $`s`$. In this way, our approach can be understood as a quantum-geometrical description of the statistical laws of Nature. This means that the (Eq.4) captures the observation about the fractal characteristic of the quantum-mechanical path, which reflects the Heisenberg uncertainty principle.

The fractal index as defined has a connection with the central charge or conformal anomaly $`c[\nu ]`$, a dimensionless number which characterizes conformal field theories in two dimensions. This way, we verify that the conformal anomaly is associated with universality classes, i.e. universal classes $`h`$ of particles. Now, we consider the particle-hole duality $`\nu \frac{1}{\nu }`$ for integer-value $`\nu `$ of the statistical parameter in connection with the universal class $`h`$. For bosons and fermions, we have

$`\{0,2,4,6,\mathrm{}\}_{h=2}`$

and

$`\{1,3,5,7,\mathrm{}\}_{h=1}`$

such that, the central charge for $`\nu `$ even is defined by

$`c[\nu ]=i_f[h,\nu ]i_f[h,{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\nu }}]`$ (11)
and for $`\nu `$ odd is defined by

$`c[\nu ]=2\times i_f[h,\nu ]i_f[h,{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\nu }}],`$ (12)
where $`i_f[h,\nu ]`$ means the fractal index of the universal class $`h`$ which contains the particles with distinct spin values which obey specific fractal statistics. We assume that the fractal index $`i_f[h,\mathrm{}]=0`$ and we obtain, for example, the results

$`c[0]=i_f[2,0]i_f[h,\mathrm{}]=1;`$ (13)
$`c[1]=2\times i_f[1,1]i_f[1,1]={\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}};`$ (14)
$`c[2]=i_f[2,2]i_f[{\displaystyle \frac{3}{2}},{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}]=1{\displaystyle \frac{3}{5}}={\displaystyle \frac{2}{5}};`$ (15)
$`c[3]=2\times i_f[1,3]i_f[{\displaystyle \frac{5}{3}},{\displaystyle \frac{1}{3}}]=10.656=0.344;`$ (16)
$`etc,`$ (17)
where the fractal index for $`h=\frac{5}{3}`$ is obtained from

$`i_f\left[{\displaystyle \frac{5}{3}}\right]={\displaystyle \frac{6}{\pi ^2}}{\displaystyle _{\mathrm{}}^1}{\displaystyle \frac{d\xi }{\xi }}`$ (18)
$`\times \mathrm{ln}\left\{{\displaystyle \frac{\sqrt[3]{\frac{1}{27}+\frac{\xi ^3}{2}+\frac{1}{18}\sqrt{12\xi ^3+81\xi ^6}}+\frac{1}{9\sqrt[3]{\frac{1}{27}+\frac{\xi ^3}{2}+\frac{1}{18}\sqrt{12\xi ^3+81\xi ^6}}}\frac{2}{3}}{\sqrt[3]{\frac{1}{27}+\frac{\xi ^3}{2}+\frac{1}{18}\sqrt{12\xi ^3+81\xi ^6}}+\frac{1}{9\sqrt[3]{\frac{1}{27}+\frac{\xi ^3}{2}+\frac{1}{18}\sqrt{12\xi ^3+81\xi ^6}}}+\frac{1}{3}}}\right\}`$ (19)
$`=0.656`$ (20)
and for its dual we have

$`i_f\left[{\displaystyle \frac{4}{3}}\right]={\displaystyle \frac{6}{\pi ^2}}{\displaystyle _{\mathrm{}}^1}{\displaystyle \frac{d\xi }{\xi }}`$ (21)
$`\times \mathrm{ln}\left\{{\displaystyle \frac{\sqrt[3]{\frac{1}{27}+\frac{\xi ^3}{2}+\frac{1}{18}\sqrt{12\xi ^3+81\xi ^6}}+\frac{1}{9\sqrt[3]{\frac{1}{27}+\frac{\xi ^3}{2}+\frac{1}{18}\sqrt{12\xi ^3+81\xi ^6}}}\frac{1}{3}}{\sqrt[3]{\frac{1}{27}+\frac{\xi ^3}{2}+\frac{1}{18}\sqrt{12\xi ^3+81\xi ^6}}+\frac{1}{9\sqrt[3]{\frac{1}{27}+\frac{\xi ^3}{2}+\frac{1}{18}\sqrt{12\xi ^3+81\xi ^6}}}+\frac{2}{3}}}\right\}`$ (22)
$`=0.56.`$ (23)
The correlation between the classes $`h`$ of particles and their fractal index, show us a robust consistence in accordance with the unitary $`c[\nu ]`$$`<`$$`1`$ representations. Therefore, since $`h`$ is defined within the interval $`1`$$`<`$$`h`$$`<`$$`2`$, the corresponding fractal index is into the interval $`0.5`$$`<`$$`i_f[h]`$$`<`$$`1`$. Howewer, the central charge $`c[\nu ]`$ can assumes values less than $`0.5`$. Thus, we distinguish two concepts of central charge, one is related to the universal classes $`h`$ and the other is related to the particles which belong to these classes.

For the statistical parameter in the interval $`0`$$`<`$$`\nu `$$`<`$$`1`$ (the first elements of each class $`h`$), $`c[\nu ]=i_f[h,\nu ]`$, as otherwise we obtain different values. In another way, the central charge $`c[\nu ]`$ can be obtained using the Rogers dilogarithm function, i.e.

$$c[\nu ]=\frac{L[x^\nu ]}{L[1]},$$
(24)
with $`x^\nu =1x`$, $`\nu =0,1,2,3,etc.`$ and

$$L[x]=\frac{1}{2}_0^x\left\{\frac{\mathrm{ln}(1y)}{y}+\frac{\mathrm{ln}y}{1y}\right\}𝑑y,\mathrm{\hspace{0.33em}0}<x<1.$$
(25)
This way, we observe that our formulation to the universal class $`h`$ of particles with any values of spin $`s`$ establishes a connection between Hausdorff dimension $`h`$ and the central charge $`c[\nu ]`$, in a manner unsuspected till now. Besides this, we have obtained a connection between $`h`$ and the Rogers dilogarithm function, through the fractal index defined in terms of the partition function associated with the universal class $`h`$ of particles. Thus, considering the Eqs.(11, 12) and the Eq.(24), we have

$`{\displaystyle \frac{L[x^\nu ]}{L[1]}}`$ $`=`$ $`i_f[h,\nu ]i_f[h,{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\nu }}],\nu =0,2,4,etc.`$ (26)
$`{\displaystyle \frac{L[x^\nu ]}{L[1]}}`$ $`=`$ $`2\times i_f[h,\nu ]i_f[h,{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\nu }}],\nu =1,3,5,etc.`$ (27)
Also in we have established a connection between the fractal parameter $`h`$ and the Farey series of rational numbers, therefore once the classes $`h`$ satisfy all the properties of these series we have an infinity collection of them. In this sense, we clearly establish a connection between number theory and the Rogers dilogarithm function. Given that the fractal parameter is an irreducible number $`h=\frac{p}{q}`$, the classes satisfy the properties

P1. If $`h_1=\frac{p_1}{q_1}`$ and $`h_2=\frac{p_2}{q_2}`$ are two consecutive fractions $`\frac{p_1}{q_1}`$$`>`$$`\frac{p_2}{q_2}`$, then $`|p_2q_1q_2p_1|=1`$.

P2. If $`\frac{p_1}{q_1}`$, $`\frac{p_2}{q_2}`$, $`\frac{p_3}{q_3}`$ are three consecutive fractions $`\frac{p_1}{q_1}`$$`>`$$`\frac{p_2}{q_2}`$$`>`$$`\frac{p_3}{q_3}`$, then $`\frac{p_2}{q_2}=\frac{p_1+p_3}{q_1+q_3}`$.

P3. If $`\frac{p_1}{q_1}`$ and $`\frac{p_2}{q_2}`$ are consecutive fractions in the same sequence, then among all fractions
between the two, $`\frac{p_1+p_2}{q_1+q_2}`$ is the unique reduced fraction with the smallest denominator.

For example, consider the Farey series of order 6, denoted by the $`\nu `$ sequence

$`(h,\nu )`$ $`=`$ $`({\displaystyle \frac{11}{6}},{\displaystyle \frac{1}{6}})({\displaystyle \frac{9}{5}},{\displaystyle \frac{1}{5}})({\displaystyle \frac{7}{4}},{\displaystyle \frac{1}{4}})({\displaystyle \frac{5}{3}},{\displaystyle \frac{1}{3}})`$ (30)
$`({\displaystyle \frac{8}{5}},{\displaystyle \frac{2}{5}})({\displaystyle \frac{3}{2}},{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}})({\displaystyle \frac{7}{5}},{\displaystyle \frac{3}{5}})({\displaystyle \frac{4}{3}},{\displaystyle \frac{2}{3}})`$
$`({\displaystyle \frac{5}{4}},{\displaystyle \frac{3}{4}})({\displaystyle \frac{6}{5}},{\displaystyle \frac{4}{5}})({\displaystyle \frac{7}{6}},{\displaystyle \frac{5}{6}})\mathrm{}.`$
Using the fractal spectrum ( Eq.6 ), we can obtain other sequences which satisfy the Farey properties and for the classes

$`h={\displaystyle \frac{11}{6}},{\displaystyle \frac{9}{5}},{\displaystyle \frac{7}{4}},{\displaystyle \frac{5}{3}},{\displaystyle \frac{8}{5}},{\displaystyle \frac{3}{2}},{\displaystyle \frac{7}{5}},{\displaystyle \frac{4}{3}},{\displaystyle \frac{5}{4}},{\displaystyle \frac{6}{5}},{\displaystyle \frac{7}{6}},\mathrm{},`$

and ( note that these ones are dual classes, $`\stackrel{~}{h}=3h`$ ) we can calculate the fractal index taking into account the Rogers dilogarithm function or the partition function associated with each $`h`$.

In summary, we have obtained a connection between fractons and CFT-quasiparticles. This was implemented with the notion of the fractal index associated with the universal class $`h`$ of the fractons. This way, fractons and CFT-quasiparticles satisfy a specific fractal statistics. A connection between Rogers dilogarithm function, Farey series of rational numbers and Hausdorff dimension $`h`$, also was established. The idea of fractons as quasiparticles has been explored in the contexts of the fractional quantum Hall effect, high-$`T_c`$ superconductivity and Luttinger liquids. A connection between fractal statistics and black hole entropy also was exploited in. Finally, a fractal-deformed Heisenberg algebra for each class of fractons was introduced in.