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# Stellar Populations in the Phoenix Dwarf (dIrr/dSph) Galaxy as Observed by HST/WFPC2 1footnote 11footnote 1Based on observations with the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope, obtained at the Space Telescope Science Institute, operated by AURA Inc under contract to NASA

## 1 Introduction

The Phoenix dwarf galaxy, discovered by Schuster & West (1976), has a morphological type of dIrr/dSph (Mateo 1998), meaning that although this galaxy has a low surface brightness and a mass and morphology like a dwarf spheroidal (dSph) galaxy, there is evidence of recent star formation (Canterna & Flower 1977). Color-magnitude diagrams obtained from ground-based images have been described by Ortolani & Gratton (1988), van de Rydt, Demers, & Kunkel (1991), Held, Saviane, & Momany (1999), and Martinez-Delgado, Gallart, & Aparicio (1999). These studies find a broadly distributed metal-poor population of evolved giants, as well as a concentration of young stars in the central region of the galaxy. Several studies have found H I in the direction of Phoenix (Carignan, Demers, & Cote 1991; Young & Lo 1997); most recently, St-Germain, Carignan, Cote, & Oosterloo (1999) have found that a mass of $`10^5`$ $`M_{}`$ of H I gas is likely associated with Phoenix.

Studying star formation in dwarf galaxies has the potential to provide clues about the mechanisms which govern star formation, and the relative formation epochs for different types of galaxies. Key questions include the age of the oldest stellar populations – are dwarf galaxies the oldest stellar systems and the building blocks for larger galaxies? – and the degree to which star formation is episodic. The latter issue has implications for the visibilities of different types of galaxies at high redshifts; if star formation is strongly episodic, then even small galaxies can appear bright when observed at redshifts for which star formation rates were greatest.

We initiated a HST/WFPC2 study of Phoenix to investigate its stellar population in greater detail. In particular, our project was motivated by the desire to determine whether an ancient population of stars exists by looking for a horizontal branch population. During the period between proposal submission and the time the observations were taken, however, several groups detected such a horizontal branch from ground-based observations (Held et al. 1999, Martinez-Delgado et al. 1999, Tolstoy et al. 2000). Nonetheless, the deeper HST data still provide several pieces of valuable information about the star formation history of Phoenix, which we discuss in this paper: 1) WFPC2 photometry of the horizontal branch is more precise than can be obtained from the ground, leading to the ability to study its morphology and determine its magnitude with higher precision, 2) the deeper observations allow us to observe stars down to the level of a turnoff for an ancient population, providing information on the distribution of ages of stars in Phoenix, and 3) accurate photometry of the younger main sequence stars allows us to assess the degree to which more recent star formation has been episodic and also to get some indication of the relative metallicities of the young population compared with the older one.

In section 2 we discuss our observations and data reduction. Section 3 discusses the morphology of the color-magnitude diagram. In Section 4 we use numerical simulations of the distribution of stars in the color-magnitude diagram to infer the star formation history of Phoenix, and discuss the uncertainties which attend such an analysis. Some implications of our Phoenix results for the evolution of dwarf galaxies in general are discussed in Section 5.

## 2 Observations and Reductions

One field in Phoenix centered on $`\alpha `$ (J2000) = 01:51:06.3, $`\delta `$ (J2000) = -44:26:40.9 was imaged with WFPC2 on HST on 15 January 1999. While appearing to be close to the center of the galaxy as seen on the digitized POSS, this field was chosen to avoid bright (field) stars. Our program was specifically intended to concentrate on the old background stellar population of Phoenix. However, given that various authors (Held et al. 1999, Martinez-Delgado et al. 1999, Ortolani & Gratton 1988, Canterna & Flowers 1977) find the youngest stars in Phoenix to be concentrated towards the center of the galaxy, our WFPC2 field does sample these stars as well. Table 1 shows the relevant parameters for the HST observations.

The WFPC2 observations were obtained over a total of 4 orbits. Six exposures were made through each of the F555W and F814W filters. Half of the exposures were made at one telescope pointing, while the remaining half were slightly offset by $`0.25`$ arcsec along the axes of the WFPC2 CCDs. Data were processed through the STScI pipeline. The combined exposures in F555W at one of the pointings are shown in Figure 1.

Photometry was obtained using simultaneous PSF-fitting on the entire stack of frames, as described in Holtzman et al. (1997), using custom software within the XVISTA data reduction package that was developed/modified based on the routines of Stetson (1987); this software has been extensively used to reduce HST/WFPC2 data. In brief, all frames were constrained to have the same lists of stars with the same relative positions (allowing for slight scale changes between the two different filters). The stars in different exposures through the same filter were constrained to have the same relative brightnesses, with frame-to-frame scaling constrained by the relative exposure times. Model PSFs were derived individually for each frame using phase retrieval of a few bright stars to derive the mean focus for each frame, individual exposure jitter information, and the most recent estimates for the variations of aberrations and pupil functions across the WFPC2 field of view. Prior to the PSF fitting, frames at each of the two pointings were compared with each other to flag cosmic rays in each frame, and these were ignored during the fitting process. Aperture corrections were determined by comparing the PSF magnitudes with measurements of stars through $`0.5\mathrm{}`$ radius apertures made on frames in which all neighbors had been subtracted using the PSF-fitting results. Both PSF-fitting and aperture photometry results were corrected for the effect of charge transfer efficiency problems in the WFPC2 detectors using the prescription of Dolphin (2000); results presented in this paper were largely unaffected by this correction, however.

Zeropoints from Holtzman et al. (1995) were used to place the instrumental magnitudes on the synthetic WFPC2 photometric system (which we use for comparison with isochrones), and transformations to Johnson/Cousins V and I from Holtzman et al. (1995) were used for comparison with previous results on the tip of the red giant branch and giant branch colors.

The V vs. (V-I) and I vs. (V-I) color-magnitude diagrams (CMDs) for the full WFPC2 field observed in Phoenix are shown in Figure 2. Photometric errors as estimated from the PSF-fitting are plotted versus $`V`$ magnitude in Figure 3 and demonstrate the high accuracy of the WFPC2 photometry; typical 1$`\sigma `$ photometric errors at the horizontal branch are $`\stackrel{<}{}\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0.02}`$ mag.

More detailed photometric errors were derived using a set of twenty artificial star tests. In each test, over a thousand simulated stars of a given brightness were added to images in a grid pattern (to prevent additional crowding) and photometry was rederived for all stars on the frame. The 20 tests covered brightnesses between $`20<V<28`$, with finer sampling at the faint end to measure the completeness of the photometry; at each brightness, the artificial stars were chosen to have the median color of the observed stars at that brightness. Photometry for the simulated stars at each magnitude were extracted to provide error histograms. These were used in the construction of artificial CMDs discussed below. In general, the true errors (difference between observed and simulated brightnesses) are comparable to those estimated from the PSF-fitting routines for the bulk of the simulated stars, but there is always a subset of stars which have significantly larger errors. These are generally the product of systematic errors caused by crowding, and as a result, are correlated in the two bandpasses. In addition, the errors for the artificial stars are smaller than those estimated by the PSF-fitting routines for the brighter stars, which is most likely a result of using the exact same PSF to create and reduce the artificial stars. An indication of these effects is shown in the bottom panel of Figure 3; the various vertical bands are the measured errors for the simulated stars. The distribution of these errors is non-Gaussian since a small subset of stars have relatively large errors; still, it is apparent that the bulk of the artificial stars have observed errors consistent with the rms errors which are output from the PSF-fitting routine (and shown as the continuous set of points). We emphasize, however, that we use the observed error distribution from the artifical star tests in our detailed comparison of simulated CMDs with the data discussed below.

Error bars plotted in Figure 2 show the rms errors from the artificial star tests as a function of magnitude. Since the true distribution of errors is non-Gaussian, these do not fully convey all the information we have used about the error distribution; the error bars shown in Figure 2 were computed by determining an rms from the measured error distribution with rejection of $`\pm 3\sigma `$ outliers.

## 3 The Color-Magnitude Diagram

The CMD of Phoenix provides examples of stars in many different stages of stellar evolution. The CMD exhibits the types of sequences, most notably the near-vertical blue and red “plumes,” which are typical of dwarf irregular galaxies (e.g., Cole et al. 1999). The main stellar sequences which constitute such plumes are illustrated by Dohm-Palmer et al. (1997) and Gallart et al. (1996).

The vertical blue sequence is the main sequence of a young stellar population in Phoenix. The red sequence is a combination of giant branch and asymptotic giant branch stars which can have a wide range of ages and metallicities. In addition, there is a clear detection of a horizontal branch in Phoenix, with both blue and red components. There is a red clump of stars found near the intersection of the horizontal branch and the giant branch that extends more than 0.5 mag in V and I brighter than the red horizontal branch (RHB). The stars in this clump that are brighter than the RHB are intermediate-age (1-10 Gyr) core helium-burning stars. Finally, there are indications of two sequences extending upwards from the red clump; the most populated one is nearly vertical, and is particularly pronounced in the magnitude range $`22<V<24`$, while a second very sparsely populated sequence gets bluer at brighter magnitudes; these (especially the bluer one) can perhaps be seen more clearly in the larger area ground-based observations of Held et al. (1999). These two sequences correspond to core helium burning stars at either end of the blue loops through which relatively young massive stars evolve.

### 3.1 Red giant branch

The red giant branch (RGB) is located between $`VI=0.7`$ and 1.6, and extends brightward to $`I19.1`$. The color of the RGB can be used to place constraints on the metallicity of stars in Phoenix, and the brightness of the tip can be used as a distance indicator.

If we adopt a distance modulus of $`(mM)_0=23.1`$ (Held et al. 1999, and see below), then the mean color of the red giant branch at $`M_I=3.0`$ ($`I=20.1`$) is $`VI1.22`$, or $`(VI)_01.19`$. Using the calibration of Da Costa & Armandroff (1990) between $`(VI)_0`$ at $`M_I=3.0`$ and \[Fe/H\], gives a mean metallicity for the Phoenix red giants of \[Fe/H\] $`1.87`$. Our estimate of the mean metallicity of Phoenix is in good agreement with the result of Held et al. (1999), $`0.5`$ dex lower than that of Martinez-Delgado et al. (1999), and 0.13 dex higher than that of van de Rydt et al. (1991). With an absolute visual magnitude of $`M_V=9.8`$ (Pritchett & van den Bergh 1999), Phoenix falls very close to the \[Fe/H\] versus $`M_V`$ relation obtained by Caldwell et al. (1992) for Local Group dwarf elliptical and spheroidal galaxies.

The giant branch at $`M_I=3.0`$ is $`0.15`$ mag wide in $`VI`$. If this is assumed to be entirely due to a metallicity spread within an ancient stellar population then the calibration of Da Costa & Armandroff (1990) indicates a metallicity spread within Phoenix of \[Fe/H\] $`1.45`$ to $`1.9.`$ However, two effects complicate the above determination of the mean metallicity and metallicity spread of Phoenix from giant branch colors. First, the blue edge of the giant branch is likely to include some asymptotic giant branch stars. Second, and probably more important, the giant branch color is a function of age as well as metallicity, in that younger giants are bluer than older ones. At fixed metallicity but mixed ages, the giant branch color derived from assuming an exclusively old population will underestimate the mean metallicity, and the giant branch width will overestimate the metallicity spread. However, if ages and metallicity are correlated, as would occur if younger populations are enhanced in metals, the true metallicity spread can be significantly larger than that inferred from the giant branch width assuming an exclusively old population.

Although there is some uncertainty about the metallicity depending on the age, there is still an upper limit which can be placed on the metallicity of any component of the population. Even if the entire population was young (less than a few Gyr), the color of the giant branch would still require a metallicity less than \[Fe/H\] $``$ -0.7 based on recent Padova isochrones (Girardi et al. 2000, Girardi et al. 1996). This is demonstrated in Figure 4, which shows the Phoenix CMD with isochrones for ages 1.6, 3.2, 6.4, and 12.8 Gyr at $`Z=0.0004`$ and $`Z=0.004`$. In order for the RGB to be consistent with a metallicity of Z=0.004 (\[Fe/H\] = -0.7), the Padova isochrones indicate that the ages of RGB stars would have to be less than 2 Gyr.

The deep HST data allow us to constrain the population further, since the red giant branch of Phoenix is found to be well populated right down to $`I25.8`$, i.e. , down to the luminosities expected for the base of the RGB of a 13 Gyr $`Z=0.0004`$ stellar population. This demonstrates conclusively that not all the stars are young. Within the allowed range of metallicity, giants which are this faint must be older than $``$ 6 Gyr, based on comparisons with the Padova isochrones; for such ages, the dependence of giant branch color on age is relatively weak. Since a significant fraction of the red giants must be relatively old, the isochrones indicate that they must also be relatively metal-poor, i.e. \[Fe/H\] $`\stackrel{<}{}`$ -1.7.

A more quantitative discussion of the metallicity spread within Phoenix requires analysis of the relative numbers of younger and older stars. This is discussed further below. However, in terms of both the mean metallicity and the extension to faint magnitudes, the RGB of Phoenix is consistent with this galaxy containing a substantial component of stars analogous to Population II of the Milky Way.

The magnitude of the tip of the red giant branch can be used as a distance indicator for metal-poor populations. The accuracy of this technique in the current data set may be limited by the relatively small number of stars; one might expect that the tip magnitude derived from the relatively smaller number of stars in the WFPC2 frame would be fainter than a true tip magnitude, since our tip is essentially defined by the single brightest red giant. Still, we find an apparent tip magnitude of $`I_{TRGB}=19.1`$, which is essentially identical to the tip magnitude derived by Held et al. (1999) and just $``$ 0.1 mag fainter than the RGB tip determined by Martinez-Delgado et al. (1999), both from ground-based photometry. We adopt an absolute magnitude of $`M_{I,TRGB}=4.05`$ for the tip (Lee et al. 1993) and a reddening of $`E(BV)=0.02`$ (Burstein & Heiles 1982), giving E(V-I) = 0.026 ($`A_V=0.062,A_I=0.036`$). This yields a distance modulus for Phoenix based on the tip of the RGB of $`(mM)_0=23.11`$; the error in this quantity is several percent based on uncertainties in the adopted extinction. If the true tip is brighter than our brightest star, the distance modulus would be smaller. Our distance provides additional support for the derived TRGB distances of Held et al. ($`(mM)_0=23.04`$) and Martinez-Delgado et al. ($`(mM)_0=23.0`$).

### 3.2 Horizontal branch

A horizontal branch (HB) can be discerned at $`V=23.9`$ and $`0.0<VI<0.8`$ which merges with the red giant branch at $`VI0.8`$. There are well-defined blue (BHB) and red (RHB) components of the horizontal branch, separated by a gap which likely contains RR Lyrae stars. At first glance the occurrence of a RHB in Phoenix, which has a mean metallicity as low as \[Fe/H\] $`1.8`$ (i.e. , comparable to Galactic globular clusters such as M13 and M3), might indicate that Phoenix is an example of a second-parameter stellar system. However, if there is a metallicity spread, at least some of these RHB stars may have evolved from the most metal-rich old red giants in Phoenix. Given that there is likely both an age and metallicity (see below) spread in Phoenix, interpreting the morphology of the horizontal branch is a complex problem. Nevertheless, the presence of a distinct blue HB clearly indicates that there is an ancient population of stars in Phoenix, as noted by Tolstoy et al. (2000).

The accurate WFPC2 photometry allows a measurement of the horizontal branch magnitude at $`V=23.9\pm 0.1`$. From ground-based photometry, Held et al. (1999) estimated the horizontal branch to be at $`V=23.78\pm 0.05`$. Using the Lee et al. (1990) relation between the absolute visual HB magnitude and metallicity, our measurement gives a distance of $`(mM)_0=23.3`$, larger than the TRGB method, but perhaps not in bad agreement given uncertainties in the HB calibration.

### 3.3 Main sequence

A young main sequence locus extends brightward to $`V21.5`$ (with a few even brighter stars) or $`M_V1.6`$. A similar blue plume with $`0.5<VI<0.2`$ was found by Martinez-Delgado et al. (1999) at magnitudes brighter than $`I23.5`$ (which corresponds to the faint limit of their photometry at $`VI0.0`$), and is evident in the region $`V<24.0`$ and $`0.2<BI<0.0`$ of Fig. 12 of Held et al. (1999). In these ground-based CMDs the main sequence population does not appear to be as prominent as seen in the WFPC2 CMD; this may be an effect of larger photometric errors smearing out the ground-based observations of the main sequence and increasing incompleteness for bluer stars in the ground-based observations. The accuracy of the WFPC2 photometry shows that the main sequence is well populated, and hence that the young star contribution to the total population of Phoenix is significant, as will be shown quantitatively below.

Figure 5 shows the Padova isochrones for two ages (100 Myr and 3.2 Gyr) and metallicities of $`Z=0.0004`$ and 0.004. The extension of the main sequence up to $`M_V2`$ suggests that stars as young as 100 Myr exist in Phoenix, in good agreement with previous works (Martinez-Delgado et al. 1999, Held et al. 1999). Main sequence turnoff stars this bright would have masses of $`5.0`$ $`M_{}`$.

Several points are apparent from Figure 5. First, there are many stars which fall significantly redward of any of the ZAMS isochrones. The observed width (in color) of the upper main sequence is significantly larger than expected from observational errors; from artificial star tests we find that magnitudes for the bulk of the stars are measured to an accuracy of a few percent down to $`M_V2`$. The color spread of main sequence stars almost certainly implies that stars with a range of ages exist in Phoenix; it is highly unlikely that the color spread results entirely from metallicity spread, since very metal-rich stars would be required. Such a metal-rich population would produce giants significantly redder than any that are observed. Stars which fall redward of the ZAMS are stars which are evolving off of the main sequence. Despite the accurate photometry, there are no pronounced main sequence turnoffs in the CMD between ages of 100 Myr and 4 Gyr, suggesting that the young population in Phoenix is not the result of one or several distinct bursts of star formation, but rather is the result of a more continuous star formation history over the past several Gyr. This is consistent with the analysis of Martinez-Delgado et al. (1999), who estimate that the recent ($`<1`$ Gyr) star formation rate is comparable to the average star formation rate for the age interval 1-15 Gyr.

It appears that the $`Z=0.0004`$ isochrone (\[Fe/H\] = $`1.7`$, i.e. the metallicity inferred for the giants) falls blueward of the main body of the main sequence, suggesting that the younger stars in Phoenix have significantly higher metallicities than the older population. This would imply that Phoenix has undergone chemical enrichment over its lifetime. This suggestion is supported by the giant branch colors as well; if all of the stars in Phoenix had \[Fe/H\] $``$ -1.7, the younger giants would be bluer than any of the observed giants.

### 3.4 Other core helium burning stars

A clear red clump of stars exists near the intersection of the horizontal branch with the red giant branch. These are intermediate age (several Gyr) core helium burning stars, and confirm the existence of an intermediate age population suggested by the width of the main sequence.

A sequence of red helium-burning stars (with ages of around 0.4-0.8 Gyr) extends vertically upwards from the red end of the horizontal branch to an $`I`$ magnitude comparable to the tip of the red giant branch. This sequence is located about 0.2 mag blueward of the $`Z=0.0004`$ RGB isochrones. These are younger stars in the reddest stage of the so-called “blue loops” of later stellar evolution. There is a hint of a sequence corresponding to the blue end of the blue loops; this sequence slopes towards the main sequence and although it has only a few stars, it is defined by the observation that there are gaps around it in the CMD, suggesting that these stars are not foreground stars. The exact details of the ages of these stars is difficult to ascertain without knowledge of their metallicities.

Intermediate-age (1-10 Gyr) asymptotic giant branch stars are seen in CMDs of dwarf irregular galaxies such as IC 1613 (Cole et al. 1999), Sextans A (Dohm-Palmer et al. 1997), and NGC 6822 (Gallart et al. 1996), where they extend redward of $`VI1.6`$ from the region of the tip of the first ascent giant branch. There are few such stars apparent in the Phoenix CMD of Figure 2. However, Held et al. (1999) found a significant number of such stars in their ground-based CMD and they concluded on this basis that intermediate-age stars constitute a substantial component of Phoenix; additional evidence for the presence of AGB stars is discussed by Martinez-Delgado et al. (1999).

## 4 The Star Formation History of Phoenix

Given that stars of many different ages are present in Phoenix, it is of interest to know the relative number of stars at different ages, or alternatively, the history of the star formation rate. To some extent, the answer to this question depends on where one looks in Phoenix, since it is apparent from larger field studies (Held et al. 1999, Martinez-Delgado et al. 1999) that the star formation history varies across the galaxy, with younger stars being more centrally concentrated. Here we consider somewhat more quantitatively the approximate star formation history that is required to match the populations seen in the central region of Phoenix imaged by HST/WFPC2. We can also try to quantitatively address the relative numbers of stars of different metallicities.

There are many complications to extracting star formation histories from the distribution of stars in a CMD, and several groups have developed different methods for doing so (e.g., Tolstoy & Saha 1996; Dolphin 1997; Hernandez, Valls-Gabaud, & Gilmore 1999; Ng 1998; Gallart et al. 1999; Holtzman et al. 1999). In the current paper, we analyze our CMD based on the methods of Holtzman et al. (1999), in which the number of stars in many regions of the CMD are fit using least-squares techniques to a combination of basis functions of stellar populations of different ages and metallicities. The best fit was derived using the $`\chi _\gamma ^2`$ estimator of Mighell (1999).

The interpretation of derived star formation histories, and in particular an understanding of the uncertainties in the results, is a complex issue. Detailed comparisons of results obtained by using different methods have not yet been performed, and the sensitivity of the results to systematic errors, e.g., in the input stellar models or assumed initial mass function (IMF), is difficult to assess. Consequently, the results presented here should be viewed as preliminary; we attempt to assess uncertainties by showing results not only for different parameters, but also using different subsets of the observed data to derive star formation histories.

For the current purpose, we derive a star formation history assuming an IMF with the Salpeter (1955) slope. Since we do not sample the lower main sequence of completely unevolved stars, independent constraints on the IMF slope are difficult. We also assume that unresolved binaries are not important in the observed CMD of Phoenix, which will be the case regardless of the true binary fraction in the galaxy if the masses of binary stars are drawn independently from the same initial mass function. This is because the most likely companion masses in this case are significantly lower than the masses of the stars which are observed and thus do not strongly affect the system luminosity or color. The issue of whether masses in binary star pairs are uncorrelated or not is still the matter of significant debate.

We derive star formation histories for different age bins, where the width of the age bins increases logarithmically with lookback time. This is necessitated by the fact that it becomes increasingly difficult to resolve (in a temporal sense) star formation events as one goes to older ages, since isochrones become more and more similar for older ages. As a result, the derived star formation histories cannot provide information about the variation of the star formation rate on time scales shorter than the width of the age bins, roughly 25% of the age of any given population. Within each age bin, the star formation rate is assumed to be constant.

Star formation histories were extracted from the Phoenix CMD for five different choices of distance modulus: $`(mM)_0=22.9`$, 23.0, 23.1, 23.2, and 23.3. Using $`(mM)_0=23.1`$, the distance as derived from our TRGB, gave the best fits (lowest $`\chi _\gamma ^2`$), although they were only marginally better than those using $`(mM)_0=23.0`$. For the reasons discussed above, it was not possible to find good fits to the CMD using an exclusively metal-poor population, or for that matter, using any star formation history in which the metallicity does not change over time. This is because the giant branch requires a metal-poor population, while the main sequence requires a population of higher metallicity. As a result, we imposed no constraints on an age-metallicity relation to fit the Phoenix population; the constituent basis stellar populations cover all combinations of age and metallicity, although only seven discrete metallicities (corresponding to those for which we have isochrones from the Padova group) were used.

Results for our best-fitting model are shown in Figure 6. The upper left panel gives the best fitting star formation rate as a function of lookback time. Since we only cover a small region of the galaxy, this star formation history is given in a relative sense only; the total number of stars formed is normalized to sum to unity. The quality of the fit can be judged by looking at the residual Hess diagram shown in the lower right. This panel shows the difference between the number of observed and the number of stars in the best-fitting model, in units of the expected $`1\sigma `$ errors from counting statistics; the diagram is scaled so that the range of black to white covers from $`3\sigma `$ to $`+3\sigma `$, where $`\sigma `$ is defined based on the suggestions made by Mighell (1999). Other panels show the derived cumulative age and metallicity distribution functions, and a comparison of the observed and model luminosity functions. In general, results are more uncertain for the youngest populations ($`<1`$ Gyr), since the stars that are uniquely contributed by these populations (upper main sequence stars) comprise a relatively small number of the stars in the color-magnitude diagram.

The lower left panel gives a representation of the “population box” (Hodge 1989) for the central regions of Phoenix. This combines information about the derived formation rate as a function of age and metallicity. Remarkably, without imposing any constraints on the age-metallicity relation, we recover a rough relation in which metallicity increases with time; a similar result also emerged from a similar analysis of several fields in the LMC (Holtzman et al. 1999). This lends quantitative support to our suggestion that the metallicity in Phoenix has evolved over time; the derived metallicity distribution is shown in the upper right panel. The population box may also highlight some problems with the models as well; the observed color-magnitude diagram appears to require a small population of young metal-poor stars. The presence of this feature comes from the existence of a few relatively blue upper main sequence stars, so it is difficult to know for sure how seriously to consider them; accurate photometry over a larger field is required.

A comprehensive understanding of the uncertainties in the results presented in Figure 6 is difficult. The formal errors on the derived star formation rates are relatively small, usually 5-10% for most of the age bins (larger for the youngest ages). However, the true uncertainties are probably significantly larger and systematic, depending on the choice of constituent basis stellar populations, distance, reddening, IMF, stellar models, the use of discrete metallicities, and the details of how the best fit is defined. Our experience with allowing these to vary suggests that while the star formation rate in individual age bins can vary significantly (factor of two), the variations are correlated such that changes in derived star formation rate for one stellar population are generally accompanied by nearly opposite changes in other similiar (i.e. , in age or metallicity) populations. As a result, the cumulative age distribution tends to be relatively robust against systematic errors. This is demonstrated in Figure 7, which shows cumulative age distributions for a variety of models. The solid curves all use the same distance modulus, but are determined using different subsets of the observed data: results were derived using two different faint magnitude cutoffs ($`M_V2.9`$ and $`M_V3.5`$) for the region of the CMD which was fit and using both the complete data set as well as using randomly selected subsamples of half the observed stars. The dotted curves show the systematic changes resulting from using different distance moduli, although the extremes of these choices ($`(mM)_0=22.9`$ and 23.3) provide noticeably poorer fits.

Our overall conclusion is that the CMD of Phoenix requires star formation to have been ongoing at a roughly constant rate over a Hubble time. The fits suggest that the bulk of the stars even in the central region of Phoenix are older than $``$ 5 Gyr.

The details of fluctuations in the overall star formation rate are significantly more uncertain. Although the fit in Figure 6 suggests some fluctuations in the star formation rate, we feel that the actual evidence for strong variations is weak, although they are certainly not ruled out. Different choices of population parameters (e.g., distance) or what regions of the CMD are fit can change the timing and amplitude of these fluctuations. As a result, it is less clear as to what the current results show about whether the star formation rate in Phoenix is episodic. However, it is clear from an inspection of the CMD that there are no distinct main sequence turnoffs as can be seen, for example, in the CMDs of the Carina dwarf spheroidal (Smecker-Hane et al. 1996).

One of the main reasons for uncertainties in the details of the star formation history comes from the age-metallicity degeneracy of the location of stars around the turnoff in a CMD; different combinations of age and metallicity can place stars at the same location in the CMD. Without the presence of the unevolved lower main sequence in the current data or independent measurement of metallicities, it becomes difficult to accurately separate these different populations. The situation would be improved with significantly deeper photometry and/or with the measurement of independent metallicities for individual stars in Phoenix.

## 5 Discussion

Deep HST/WFPC2 imaging has provided a color-magnitude diagram (CMD) of the central regions of the Phoenix dwarf galaxy at unprecedented accuracy. The presence of stars at all ages is apparent in this diagram. A distinct horizontal branch and the presence of a red giant branch which extends all the way down to a turnoff expected for an old population indicates that this system has a substantial component of metal-poor stars with metallicities comparable to the mean of the Galactic halo; Phoenix appears to have an underlying component of ancient Population II stars. In this respect it is similar to dwarf spheroidal galaxies like Ursa Minor, Draco, and Sculptor, as previously concluded by Held et al. (1999), Martinez-Delgado et al. (1999), and Tolstoy et al. (2000).

However, the existence of red clump stars and main sequence stars confirm that Phoenix has experienced considerable star formation over the past few Gyr, with star formation possibly as recent as 100 Myr ago. The location of the main sequence suggests that the metallicity in Phoenix has evolved with time; old blue horizontal branch stars and the giant branch stars require low metallicities, comparable to those in the halo of the Milky Way, while the younger main sequence stars suggest somewhat higher metallicities.

Fits to the observed CMD suggest that star formation has been roughly continuous over the lifetime of Phoenix. There is no obvious evidence for strongly episodic star formation, although the formal fits for the star formation history suggest that a mildly varying star formation rate can certainly fit the data. One caveat to this statement is that it applies only over relatively long (e.g., Gyr) timescales; burstiness on very short timescales would be essentially impossible to distinguish from the CMD for all but the most recent past. Another caveat is that the details of the derived star formation rate are suspect due to a variety of reasons including the age-metallicity degeneracy; independent measurements of metallicities of stars in Phoenix should improve the situation considerably.

The implications are that a dwarf galaxy can have star formation which extends over nearly a Hubble time. With roughly continuous star formation, Phoenix appears to resemble the Magellanic Clouds (e.g., Holtzman et al. 1999). However, Phoenix is a significantly less massive system in which it might be expected that the loss of interstellar gas and interruptions in star formation would be much more important. In fact, the apparent star formation history of Phoenix stands in contrast to the strongly episodic star formation of Carina (Smecker-Hane et al. 1994, 1996, Hurley-Keller et al. 1998), a dwarf galaxy that is only 0.8 mag fainter than Phoenix (Mateo 1998). It appears that the mechanisms governing star formation in dwarf galaxies may be rather complex.

The HST/WFPC2 data on Phoenix add support to the growing evidence in the literature that dwarf galaxies, both dIrrs and dSphs, can have very varied star formation histories, particularly in recent epochs. By contrast, it may be possible that there is at least some commonality between dwarf galaxies in regard to their early chemical evolution. As noted in Section 3.1, Phoenix appears to follow the same integrated-magnitude versus metallicity relation as dwarf spheroidal galaxies in the Local Group, some of which, like Draco and Ursa Minor, do not appear to have supported recent star formation such as that of Phoenix. Nonetheless the degree of chemical enrichment in these systems, as indicated by the color of the old giant branch, would appear to be correlated with the overall (luminous) mass of the galaxy. This suggests that the amount of metal enrichment during the earliest phases of star formation within dwarf galaxies (perhaps more than $`10`$ Gyr ago) does vary in a way that depends to some extent on basic galaxy properties such as mass. In classical closed box models of chemical evolution the average metallicity of all stars formed up to a given time is proportional to the fraction by mass of the galaxy that has turned into stars (e.g., Smith 1985). Within the context of such a model, the observations indicate that the fraction of a galaxy which is turned into old metal-poor stars, and the attendant early chemical evolution history, is governed by similar mechanisms in both dSph and dIrr galaxies.

Support for this work was provided by NASA through grant number GO-0698.02-95A from the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Incorporated, under NASA contract NAS5-26555.


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# Manipulation of Cold Atomic Collisions by Cavity QED Effects.

## Abstract

We show how the dynamics of collisions between cold atoms can be manipulated by a modification of spontaneous emission times. This is achieved by placing the atomic sample in a resonant optical cavity. Spontaneous emission is enhanced by a combination of multiparticle entanglement together with a higher density of modes of the modified vacuum field, in a situation akin to superradiance. A specific situation is considered and we show that this effect can be experimentally observed as a large suppression in trap-loss rates.

Experiments with cold and ultracold atoms have led to many recent achievements, such as Bose-Einstein condensation , atom optics and interferometry , and precision measurements . Atomic collisions at these very low temperatures  are of great importance in many of these applications. The density of atoms attainable in optical traps is usually limited by exoergic inelastic collisions, which lead to trap loss. The study of these processes presents several interesting features, since the dynamics is very distinct from collisions at higher temperatures. Because the atoms move so slowly, not only are they sensitive to long-range interaction potentials but, in the presence of light, they can also undergo changes of internal states during a collision (the interaction time can be larger than the typical spontaneous emission time). Therefore, these collisions can be manipulated with light, as demonstrated, for example, in experiments of optical shielding  of trapped atoms from collisional loss.

One parameter, however, has been overlooked for the optical manipulation of cold collisions. The final outcome of a two-body encounter depends strongly on the spontaneous emission time. In this Letter we show, for the first time, how to modify spontaneous emission times in the context of cold collisions, and thereby manipulate the collisional dynamics. This is done by a combination of multiparticle entanglement  together with a modified vacuum field in Cavity QED , in a situation akin to superradiance . We focus here on one specific collision process and analyze it in the presence of an optical cavity. Orders of magnitude of trap-loss probabilities show that this modification in collisional dynamics is within reach of current experimental techniques.

Let us describe briefly one of the first identified collisional loss processes, so-called radiative escape from a trap . One atom of a colliding pair is excited by a laser of frequency $`\omega _L`$ at a large internuclear separation $`R`$, and the atoms are accelerated towards each other by the strong long-range dipole-dipole attractive potential $`U=C_3/R^3`$, where $`C_3`$ is a constant that depends on the atom under consideration. If the spontaneous emission time is long, the pair may gain enough kinetic energy to escape from the trap (by emitting a photon with energy $`\mathrm{}\omega _\gamma `$ smaller than that of the absorbed photon, $`\mathrm{}\omega _L`$). The interaction potentials are sketched in Fig. 1 for the ground state $`nS`$ and the excited state $`nP`$ of an alkali atom. Two regions can be defined: $`R<R_e`$ and $`R_e<R<R_C`$, where $`R_C`$ (the so-called Condon point, chosen by tuning $`\omega _L`$) is the internuclear separation at which a weakly bound molecule is excited. The separation $`R_e`$ is the smallest one for which spontaneous emission does not lead to trap loss. If one can enhance spontaneous emission of this excited molecule, decay will happen earlier, in the region between $`R_C`$ and $`R_e`$ in Fig. 1, preventing atoms from being lost.

The modification of atomic radiative properties was one of the first effects to be demonstrated in Cavity QED . Spontaneous emission enhancement  and inhibition  were demonstrated in the 80’s. Radiative level shifts, such as a cavity-induced Lamb shift, were also demonstrated in this context . However, spontaneous emission for single atoms in the optical domain was not significantly enhanced, owing to the relatively small solid angle encompassed by a centimeter-sized Fabry-Perot cavity. It is, nevertheless, possible to achieve a large enhancement of spontaneous emission when we consider a sample of many identical weakly bound molecules (so-called quasimolecules ) coupled to the same cavity mode. The different excited quasimolecules are indistinguishable when interacting with the cavity field. Quantum interference will thence be important in the process of spontaneous emission into the cavity, in a way analogous to superradiance . Since, for most experiments in cold collisions, the typical separation between different quasimolecules is greater than an optical wavelength, this interference will only be constructive if the quasimolecules are excited into a multiparticle entangled state by a laser beam injected into the cavity mode . Cavity QED effects on cold atoms have been recently investigated for high-$`Q`$ cavities interacting with single pairs of atoms in the context of cold collisions , and with large numbers of atoms in the context of forces exerted on the atoms .

We consider a sample of cold atoms trapped near the center of a quasi-confocal optical resonator. In order to avoid optical pumping effects, atoms can be trapped in the ground state. This can be done, for instance, if the atoms are in a far-off resonance trap (FORT) , as sketched in Fig. 2, or in a magnetic trap . The experiment would require highly reflective mirror coatings with a sharp edge, in order to transmit the FORT beam (detuned by a few nanometers from the atomic transition). However, the whole setup would be far from trivial, since it is not straightforward to load a FORT (from a Magneto Optical Trap, MOT ) inside an optical cavity in view of alignment difficulties. The dipole-dipole potential $`U`$ is turned on by an excitation laser red detuned from the atomic transition (separation $`\mathrm{}\omega _A`$ between states $`nS_{1/2}`$ and $`nP_{1/2}`$). Our orders of magnitude will be calculated for 85Rb atoms, so the atomic ground and excited states in the following will be $`5S_{1/2}`$ and $`5P_{1/2}`$, respectively.

A colliding pair subject to a weak excitation field is likely to undergo just one-photon processes. The pairs are treated in the two-level approximation (which is justified later in the text) with a ground state $`|g`$ and an excited state $`|e`$ connected to the $`5S_{1/2}+5S_{1/2}`$ and $`5S_{1/2}+5P_{1/2}`$ asymptotic states, respectively. Here, the pair in state $`|g`$ is not bound but, in state $`|e`$, there is a weak binding force. For simplicity, we will refer to these pairs as quasimolecules, independent of their state ($`|e`$ or $`|g`$). For a given $`R`$, the energy separation between $`|g`$ and $`|e`$ is $`\mathrm{}\omega _R=\mathrm{}\omega _AC_3/R^3`$ (Fig. 1). Each quasimolecule interacts with the electromagnetic field with a dipole moment $`(\sigma _i+\sigma _i^{})𝐝_i`$, where $`\sigma _i`$ and $`\sigma _i^{}`$ are Pauli operators acting in the subspace spanned by $`|e`$ and $`|g`$. The dipole $`𝐝_i`$, determined by the molecular axis , is randomly oriented with respect to the cavity field polarization. Its magnitude is $`|𝐝_i|=\sqrt{2}d_A`$, where $`d_A`$ is the atomic dipole moment, with a resulting decay constant $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ which is twice that of the atomic excited state $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_A`$ .

When the quasimolecules are excited via the cavity mode, they end up in a multiparticle entangled state. We will only treat here the simplest entangled state, produced when a single excitation is injected into the cavity. In the ground state $`|G;1_{𝐤_L}|gg\mathrm{}g;1_{𝐤_L}`$ all quasimolecules are in state $`|g`$ and there is one laser photon in the cavity. The quasimolecule–field interaction couples this state to all singly-excited states $`|i;0`$ ($`|1;0|eg\mathrm{}g;0`$, $`|2;0|ge\mathrm{}g;0`$, and so on). Using the dipole and rotating-wave approximations , the matrix elements of the interaction hamiltonian $`H_{\text{int}}`$ are given by $`V_i=i;0|H_{\text{int}}|G;1_{𝐤_L}=(\omega _L)f^c(𝐫_i)\mathit{ϵ}_L\text{d}_i`$. They depend on the positions $`𝐫_i`$ of the quasimolecules along the cavity mode, characterized by a profile $`f^c(𝐫)`$, polarization $`\mathit{ϵ}_L`$ and field per photon $`(\omega )=(2\pi \mathrm{}\omega /𝒱)^{1/2}`$, where $`𝒱`$ is the effective mode volume. The entangled state produced is finally given by $`|E;0`$$`=_iV_i|i;0/\mathrm{}\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Omega }}`$, defining the collective Rabi frequency $`\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Omega }}`$$`=(_i|V_i|^2)^{1/2}/\mathrm{}`$. Note that although a single excitation is present, it is shared by all pairs.

We now calculate the spontaneous emission rate $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_c`$ for this entangled state. Summing over the final states $`|G;1_𝐤`$ and considering all possible wavevectors $`𝐤`$ for the emitted photon,

$$\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }_c}{2\pi }=𝑑\omega _𝐤𝑑\mathrm{\Omega }_𝐤\rho \delta (\omega _𝐤\omega _R)\frac{_\lambda |𝐗_𝐤\mathit{ϵ}_\lambda |^2}{\mathrm{}^2},$$
(1)
where $`𝐗_𝐤\left(_i(\omega _𝐤)f_𝐤(𝐫_i)V_i^{}𝐝_i/\mathrm{}\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Omega }}\right)`$ and $`f_𝐤(𝐫)`$ is the mode function for a given $`𝐤`$. The product $`|𝐗_𝐤\mathit{ϵ}_\lambda |`$ is the absolute value of the collective coupling between the quasimolecules and the field (matrix element of $`H_{\text{int}}`$). Taking into account that only emission into the solid angle $`\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Omega }_c`$ encompassed by the cavity mirrors is affected by the enhanced spectral density $`\rho (\omega )=\rho _0(\omega )\mathrm{\Lambda }(\omega )`$ (for the degenerate longitudinal modes), we separate its contribution from emission into the rest of free space. Here, $`\rho _0(\omega )`$ is the free space density and $`\mathrm{\Lambda }(\omega )`$ is the cavity line shape function . In view of the large number of degenerate transverse modes in the cavity, the integral over $`d\mathrm{\Omega }_𝐤`$ can be replaced by a summation over transverse TEMnm modes with profiles $`f_{nm}(𝐫)`$ . The solid-angles $`\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Omega }_{nm}`$ encompassed by them are determined by their transverse dimensions at the mirrors. Diffraction losses are also accounted for, by substituting effective $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_{nm}`$ values for each TEMnm mode. This correction is significant only for high-order modes, for which $`\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Omega }_{nm}\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Omega }_c`$. An effective solid angle can be defined by

$$\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Omega }_{eff}\underset{nm}{}\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Omega }_{nm}\frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }_{nm}}{\mathrm{\Lambda }_{00}}\frac{|\frac{1}{N}_i|\mathit{ϵ}_L𝐝_i|^2f_{nm}^{}(𝐫_i)f^c(𝐫_i)|^2}{\frac{1}{N}_i|\mathit{ϵ}_L𝐝_i|^2|f^c(𝐫_i)|^2},$$
(2)
where $`N`$ is the number of entangled quasimolecules. For typical optical cavities, this solid angle will be relatively small. Emission into the rest of free space will then be little affected by the presence of the cavity and it can be calculated to be approximately $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ . For resonant excitation $`\omega _R\omega _L`$ ($`|\omega _R\omega _L|\gamma _c/2`$, where $`\gamma _c/2\pi `$ is the cavity linewidth), and using $`\mathrm{\Gamma }=2\mathrm{\Gamma }_A=8d_A^2\omega _A^3/3\mathrm{}c^3`$, we obtain

$$\mathrm{\Gamma }_c\left(1+\frac{3}{2}\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Omega }_{eff}}{4\pi }N\mathrm{\Lambda }_{00}\frac{\omega _L^3}{\omega _A^3}\right)\mathrm{\Gamma }.$$
(3)
To verify whether this can be a significant enhancement of spontaneous emission, we introduce realistic experimental parameters. We consider a (quasi-)confocal cavity with mirrors of diameter $`2b=1.0`$ cm and reflectivities $`r=0.97`$ separated by $`\mathrm{}=2.9`$ cm. The excitation field, with circular polarization, matches a TEM00 mode. The cavity linewidth is then $`\gamma _c/2\pi 200`$ MHz and the line shape function is $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_{00}=66`$, with a corresponding finesse $`=103`$. We still need to determine the number $`N`$ of entangled quasimolecules and consider their distribution along the cavity mode. We assume that our sample of cold 85Rb atoms ($`\lambda _A=2\pi c/\omega _A=795`$ nm and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_A/2\pi =6`$ MHz) is trapped in a FORT (see Fig. 2), near the center of the cavity, in a cigar-shaped cloud with length $`L0.6`$ mm and radius $`a2.6\times 10^2`$ mm. The number $`N`$ of quasimolecules in the state $`|E;0`$, for a detuning $`\delta =\omega _L\omega _A=2\pi \times 100`$ MHz, can then be estimated by counting all pairs such that $`U(R_C)U(R)\mathrm{}\mathrm{\Gamma }`$, since the excitation laser linewidth ($`1`$ MHz) is negligible. With $`C_3=11.4\times 10^{11}`$ erg Å3, this gives a spread $`\mathrm{\Delta }R\mathrm{}\mathrm{\Gamma }/|U^{}(R_C)|22.4`$ Å about $`R_C556`$ Å. For $`N_A10^6`$ atoms at a density $`n_A10^{12}`$ cm-3 we have $`N\frac{1}{2}N_An_A4\pi R_C^2\mathrm{\Delta }R45`$ pairs. Even though this is a relatively crude approximation, attaining a number of this order should be feasible, since even larger numbers $`N_A`$ of atoms in a FORT were recently reported by Corwin et al. . Moreover, if the experiment were to be performed in a magnetic trap, $`N_A`$ could be larger by a few orders of magnitude. The distribution of quasimolecules in the cavity is simulated by sorting out 10 sets of 45 random positions $`𝐫_i`$ and dipole orientations $`𝐝_i`$. After averaging, we obtain $`\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Omega }_{eff}/4\pi =7.4\times 10^4`$ and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_c/\mathrm{\Gamma }4.3`$.

Such an enhancement of spontaneous emission would lead to observable consequences, as in the process of radiative escape of atoms from the trap. This process does not occur naturally in a FORT, since the atoms are trapped in the ground state. It has to be induced by a separate probe laser, as in the photoassociation experiments by Cline et al. . If this laser beam is sent via the cavity mode, an entangled state will be excited and the spontaneous emission rate will show collective enhancement. On the other hand, if it propagates perpendicular to the cavity axis (see Fig. 2), the interactions with individual quasimolecules will not be indistinguishable and the spontaneous emission rate will be at most cavity-enhanced, thus close to $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ . We can therefore compare directly these two situations and measure trap losses “with” and “without” cavity.

The trap-loss probability will be calculated using semi-classical models , for which the probability of excitation is treated independently from emission. These models have been shown to give good results in the regime of low excitation laser intensities (we consider only a single excitation in the cavity) and for detunings $`\delta 10\mathrm{\Gamma }_A`$ . We describe the specific transition chosen here ($`5S_{1/2}+5S_{1/2}5S_{1/2}+5P_{1/2}`$ asymptotic states) as a two-level system. As shown by Peters et al. , multi-level crossings are not important to this transition for our detuning range. The net result is an average over several similar hyperfine-splitted two-level systems, which would not lead to substantial modifications in the orders of magnitude we calculate. All these models deal only with the trap-loss probability of single quasimolecules but, as we show below, they can be adapted to consider an excited entangled state.

In order to estimate trap losses, we consider a trap depth $`V_0`$ of the FORT of the order of 5 mK ($`100`$ MHz). The kinetic energy gained has then to be greater than 10 mK for both atoms of the quasimolecule to escape from the trap. This places an upper bound for the cavity linewidth $`\gamma _c/2\pi 2V_0200`$ MHz, that defines the resonant region $`R_e<R<R_C`$ where emission does not lead to trap loss. As the atoms of a colliding pair accelerate towards each other, the decay rate of $`|E;0`$ shifts from $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_c`$ to the off-resonance value $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ , since $`R`$ for each component state $`|i;0`$ of $`|E;0`$ decreases below $`R_e`$. After this first passage in the region $`R<R_e`$, the probability that two atoms, from any quasimolecule $`i`$, escape from the trap is $`_i|V_i/\mathrm{}\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Omega }}|^2(1e^{2t_e\mathrm{\Gamma }})e^{t_c\mathrm{\Gamma }_c}`$, where $`t_c`$ ($`t_e`$) is the time interval spent between $`R_C`$ and $`R_e`$ ($`R_e`$ and $`R=0`$). Notice that $`_i|V_i/\mathrm{}\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Omega }}|^2=E;0|E;0=1`$, so the difference from the expression obtained “without cavity” is the existence of two radiative damping rates $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_c`$. The vibrational levels of $`U(R)`$ are accounted for by allowing multiple-passages across $`R_e`$  before emission occurs (for our detuning, these levels are not resolved and a wavepacket containing several levels is excited ). The overall loss-probability $`_c`$ is then

$`_c`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{i=1}{\overset{N}{}}}\left|{\displaystyle \frac{V_i}{\mathrm{}\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Omega }}}}\right|^2{\displaystyle \underset{n=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}(1e^{2\mathrm{\Gamma }t_e})e^{(2n1)\mathrm{\Gamma }_ct_c2(n1)\mathrm{\Gamma }t_e}`$ (4)
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{sinh}(t_0t_c)\mathrm{\Gamma }}{\mathrm{sinh}[t_0+(\mathrm{\Gamma }_c/\mathrm{\Gamma }1)t_c]\mathrm{\Gamma }}}p_0,`$ (5)
where $`_0\mathrm{sinh}(t_0t_c)\mathrm{\Gamma }/\mathrm{sinh}t_0\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ is the cavity-free loss-probability and $`t_0=t_c+t_e=3.0\times 10^8`$ s ($`\mathrm{\Gamma }_A^1`$) is the total time interval from $`R_C`$ to $`R=0`$, obtained from conservation of energy $`\mu \dot{R}^2/2+U(R)=`$ const , neglecting the initial velocity $`\dot{R}`$ at $`R_C`$. Here $`\mu `$ is the reduced mass of the colliding pair. Approximating $`\mathrm{sinh}(x)e^x/2`$ for $`xt_0\mathrm{\Gamma }2.3`$, we see that $`_c/_0=pe^{(\mathrm{\Gamma }_c\mathrm{\Gamma })t_c}`$ is simply limited by the ratio between the survival probabilities, in the first passage through the region $`R_e<R<R_C`$, with and without cavity. In order to measure $`_c/_0`$, we can adjust the laser intensities to have the same fraction of excited-state quasimolecules in both situations (excitation via cavity mode or excitation beam perpendicular to the cavity axis). The excitation probability factors out, and we obtain with our parameters ($`\mathrm{\Gamma }t_c1.7`$) $`_c/_03\times 10^3`$.

This large predicted trap loss suppression should encourage future attempts to observe it experimentally. Other experimental setups could have been considered, in which larger trap depths and numbers of atoms are obtained (such as magnetic traps), leading to even more encouraging orders of magnitude. Our results could also be extended to a situation with a larger fraction of excited molecules, closer to the superradiant regime . One must notice, however, that this is not a method directly applicable to suppressing trap loss in a MOT, for example. Quasimolecules must be excited via the cavity mode, which would not happen in most existing optical traps. On the other hand, trap loss may conceivably be prevented in novel traps using optical resonators, as proposed in .

In summary, we have shown, for the first time, that collisions between cold atoms can be manipulated by controlling the spontaneous emission time. This is achieved through multiparticle entanglement in a cavity-modified electromagnetic vacuum. Orders of magnitude of trap-loss probabilities show that this effect may be experimentally observed with present-day technology.

The authors acknowledge helpful discussions with K.L. Corwin, D. Kleppner, A. Lezama, R. Napolitano, H.M. Nussenzveig and M. Raizen, and financial support from FAPESP and CNPq.


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# 1 Introduction

## 1 Introduction

In view of mathematical elegance, laconicalness and predictive power Special Relativity (SR) is the fundamental theory of modern physics. Owing to this the mathematical postulates of the theory, possibility of their modification and generalization as well as of experimental test attract attention constantly. As examples one can be presented the well known Pauli monograph , containing the elements of the Abraham and Ritz theories; academician Logunov’s lectures on the foundations of Relativity Theory with the formulation of SR in the affine space ; Fushchich’s publication on the non-linear electrodynamics equations with the non-invariant speed of light ; Glashow’s work on the experimental consequences of the violation of the Lorentz-invariance in astrophysics .

To the present time SR is one of the most experimentally-justified theories (for example, Pauli and Landsberg monographies ; Strakhovsky and Uspensky , Basov and his co-authors , Møller  and Molchanov  reviews; the original publications of ). Here one can mention the experiments on detection of the ether wind in the experiments of the Michelson type ; determination of the angular light aberrations ; transversal Doppler effect measurement ; experiments on the proof of independence of the speed of light from the velocity of the source of light ; experiments on determination of the relativistic mass dependence of the velocity of a particle motion ; the relativistic retardation of time ; the g-2 experiments . The results of these experiments indicate the absence of the ether wind to closer and closer limits of accuracy, and argue for SR.

This raises the natural question, whether do exist at all any experiments different from SR predictions, even though they are ambiguously interpreted. It appears that there are a number of the publications on this theme. Let us consider those concerning the second postulate - the postulate of the constancy of the speed of light.

Giannetto, Maccarrone, Mignani and Recami  have been considered the possibility of the negative sign interpretation of the square of the neutrino 4 - momentum $`P^2=E^2𝐩^2c^2=M_{0}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}c^4=(0,166\pm 0,091)`$ $`MeV^2`$ in the experiments on $`\pi `$ \- decay $`\pi ^+\mu ^++\nu `$ as the fact of observation of a superluminal particle with imaging mass $`M_0=im`$ (tachyon). Khalfin  has established that negative sign of the square of the neutrino 4-momentum may be due to incorrectness of the observational data processing near upper bound of $`\beta `$ \- spectrum (in our own case near a upper bound of $`\mu `$ \- spectrum). Thus, the possibility of the interpretation of $`\pi `$\- neutrino as a particle of the tachyon nature is eliminated practically in the light of the contemporary explanation for the negative sign of the 4-momentum square.

Mamaev  has analyzed the time-flight spectra of $`\pi ^{}`$, $`\mu ^{}`$, $`e^{}`$ particles from Joint Institute for Nuclear Research (Dubna) and concluded that the data from the article  may be interpreted as the result of superluminal motion of mesons and electrons. However, taking into account the presence in the signal processing electronic circuit of a threshold device (discriminator) with 2543 channels of the analyzer, it is possible to conclude that the velocities of these particles were $`0,92c`$, $`0,94c`$ and $`0,96c`$ respectively, where $`c`$ is the speed of light. The phenomenon of superluminal motion disappears, and mutual arrangement of the spectral lines from  may be explained in the framework of SR .

Nevertheless numerous examples are known in which the elimination of superluminal motion turns out to be more difficult and less convincing than in the considered cases. These are observations of superluminal motion of particles in broad atmospheric showers and the acts of antiproton birth, as well as on expansion of the shells of some extragalactic radiosources, for example .

Clay and Crouch has observed  impulses, preceding the signal induced by a broad atmospheric shower. Let us suppose that particles from the shower had the velocity equal to the speed of light (that is natural). Then it is not clear, what has preceded these particles. ”We conclude that we have observed non-random events preceding the arrival of an extensive air shower. Being unable to explain this result in a more conventional manner, we suggest that is the result of a particle traveling with an apparent velocity greater than of light ” . Further the authors  have assumed that the impulses were stipulated by the particles with imaginary masses (tachyons) traveling at the velocities exceeding the speed of light.

Cooper  has concluded that the time-flight experiments on observation of antiprotons admit the existence of superluminal particles (antimesons) connected with antiprotons. The calculated probability of the velocity of antimesons exceeding the speed of light, is equal 0.9972. The evaluation turn out to be tolerant to various experimental errors. The author writes: ” A reexamination of the Nobel-prize-winning experiment in which the antiproton was discovered reveals that associated antimesons might be traveling faster than light ” .

The numerous publications are known on the observation of superluminal expansion of extragalactic radiosources (for example ). It is an interesting phenomenon, and it is difficult to be explained in terms of modern astrophysics. The observation of the superluminal expansion became possible after the radio interferometers VLBI (Very Long Baseline Interferometry) for the centimetre spectral range were created. These possess a superlong trans-continental base $`L`$ (thousands and tens of thousands kilometers). The angular resolution of such telescopes $`\delta \lambda /L`$ is proportional to the ratio of a working wavelength $`\lambda `$ to the value of the base $`L`$. It is much higher than the one of the best optical devices. In the optical range $`L/\lambda `$ is equal $`610^7`$, while in the radio range it is equal $`1810^8`$. The radio interferometers allow one to study such thin structure of space objects ($`710^4`$ angle seconds) as was inaccessible to be observed by optical means. The studies have shown that many extragalactic radio sources have a complicated, bi-component structure. Among of them the substructure of six radio sources run away from each other at calculated velocities that are some times more than the speed of light. It is the radio galaxy 3C120 (z = 0.033), quasars 3C273 (z = 0.158), 3C279 (z = 0.538), 3C345 (z = 0.595), 3C179 (z = 0.846) and NRAO140 (z = 1.258) . (Here $`z`$ is the parameter of redshift). The transversal velocities calculated within the framework of the cosmological Friedmann model of the motion of the components are equal $`V_{}(220)c`$. It has been proposed over ten versions for interpretations of this phenomenon. It may be associated with more complicated multicomponent structure of the quasars; the random superposition of radio spots on the quasars; influence of intergalactic gravitational lens duplicating a visible image; Doppler effect; increase of Hubble’s constant that is accompanied by decreasing the distances to the quasars, which results in disappearing the superluminal expansion. Also, it may be due to the influence of interstellar magnetic fields; existence of tachyon matter; introduction of 5-space with an additional fifth coordinate such as the speed of light running the values from $`0`$ to $`\mathrm{}`$; model of the light echo; optical illusion not contradicting to SR . It is evident that the conventional explanation for the superluminal expansion is not offered yet, and various hypothesizes on the nature of this phenomenon may be discussed.

Loiseau  has paid attention to the little difference between the galaxy NGC 5668 redshift $`z^{}`$, measured by radioastronomical method at the frequency corresponding to the wavelength 21 cm, and the redshift $`z`$, measured in the optical range for this galaxy. This result, if it really is outside the limits of measurement errors, cannot be explained in the framework of SR, as $`z^{}=z`$ should be with $`c^{}=c`$. To explain this result, author  introduced 3-dimensional non-Euclidean space, inserted into 4-dimensional Riemannian space with some common time. In this case it may be obtained that the galaxy speed of light $`c^{}`$ and the speed of light $`c`$ on the Earth are connected by the ratio $`c^{}=c(1+z)/(1+z^{})`$, where $`z`$ is the redshift on a wave length in the optical range, and $`z^{}`$ is the redshift on a wave frequency in the radio range. In accordance with the observed data on the galaxy NGC 5668 $`z`$ is equal to 0.00580 in the optical range; $`z^{}`$ is equal to 0.00526 in the radio range on the frequency corresponding to the wavelength 21 cm. It follows from here that $`c^{}/c=(1+z)/(1+z^{})=1.00580/1.00526=1.0005372`$, and $`c^{}=c+182,04`$ km / sec ¿ $`c`$ . The estimation has shown that the speed of light from quasar QSO PKS 2134 with the optical redshift $`z=1.936`$ is equal to $`c^{}=440.000`$ km / sec . The relationship between $`c^{}`$, $`c`$ and the quasar velocity $`v`$ relative to the Earth is described by the formula $`c^{}=c\sqrt{1+v^2/c^2}`$ in the approximation of a weak gravitational field. The statistical significance of the hypothesis on the difference between the redshifts in the radio and optical ranges is naturally the deciding factor for the Loiseau work.

Thus, unambiguously interpreted experimental data distinct from SR predictions are apparently absent now. But there are vague indications that it is not improbable that they exist in particle physics and in astrophysics. Let us consider the hypothesis on the existence of the superluminal motion in terms of the violation of invariance of the speed of light in the expression for the second degree of 4-interval at the infinitesimal level.

## 2 Space - Time Metric, Differentials Coordinates Transformation Law

Let us start from the condition for the invariance of the 4 \- interval differential in Minkowski space with the metric:

$$\begin{array}{c}ds^2=(dx_{1}^{}{}_{}{}^{})^2(dx_{2}^{}{}_{}{}^{})^2(dx_{3}^{}{}_{}{}^{})^2(dx_{4}^{}{}_{}{}^{})^2=\\ (dx_1)^2(dx_2)^2(dx_3)^2(dx_4)^2inv.\end{array}$$
(1)
Here $`dx_{1,2,3}=(dx,dy,dz)`$, $`dx_4=icdt`$, it is not necessary for the speed of light $`c^{}`$ to be equal $`c`$. Corresponding infinitesimal space - time transformations, saving the invariance of the form (1), obviously contain the group locally isomorphic to the Lorentz group :

$$dx_a^{}=dx_a,dx_a^{}=L_{ab}dx_b,a,b=1,2,3,4,$$
(2)
where $`L_{ab}`$ is the matrix of the six-dimensional Lorentz group $`L_6`$  with local kinematics parameter $`\beta `$. The one-dimensional infinitesimal transformations corresponding to the given matrix, take the well known form:

$$dx_1^{}=\frac{dx_1+i\beta dx_4}{\sqrt{1\beta ^2}};dx_4^{}=\frac{dx_4i\beta dx_1}{\sqrt{1\beta ^2}};dx_2^{}=dx_2;dx_3^{}=dx_3$$
(3)
The reciprocal transformations may be obtained by the prime permutation. The group parameters are connected by the ratio $`\beta ^{}=\beta `$ . But contrary to the global Lorentz transformations , here the parameters $`\beta `$ and $`\beta ^{}`$ can depend explicitly or implicitly on a space - time point $`\beta =\beta (f(𝐱,t)),\beta ^{}=\beta ^{}(f^{}(𝐱^{},t^{}))`$. This is the important circumstance which will allow one to construct the theoretical model in which the existence of superluminal motion is possible. The integral space - time transformations induced by (3) are:

$$\begin{array}{c}x_1^{}=\frac{dx_1+i\beta dx_4}{\sqrt{1\beta ^2}}+d_1;x_4^{}=\frac{dx_4i\beta dx_1}{\sqrt{1\beta ^2}}+d_4;\\ x_2^{}=x_2+d_2;x_3^{}=x_3+d_3,\end{array}$$
(4)
where $`d_1d_4`$ are the translation parameters; the reciprocal transformations may be obtained by the prime permutation; $`d_a^{}=d_a`$, $`a=1,2,3,4`$. The transformations (4) go into the Poincaré ones if $`c`$ = cost, $`c^{}=c`$ be put into them and our consideration be restricted to inertial motions ($`\beta `$ = const). In this case on integration they go into the standard transformations from Poincaré group (inhomogeneous Lorentz group). Thus, Lorentz transformations are contained here as the particular case. The group properties of the integral transformations (4) are realized due to the group properties of the differential transformations (3) and due to the relativistic velocity addition theorem $`\beta \mathrm{"}=(\beta +\beta ^{})/(1+\beta \beta ^{})`$.

## 3 Integral of Operation, Energy, Momentum

Let us turn to the integral of operation in SR . It is not invariant with respect to the transformations with broken invariance of the speed of light. However this property may be corrected if we start from the invariant integral of operation :

$$\begin{array}{c}S^{}=cS=mc^2𝑑s+eA_a𝑑x_a+\frac{i}{16\pi }F_{ab}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}d^4x=\\ mc^2𝑑siA_aj_ad^4x+\frac{i}{16\pi }F_{ab}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}d^4x=\\ (mc^2\sqrt{1\beta ^2}+e𝐀\beta e\varphi )(cdt)+\frac{1}{8\pi }(E^2H^2)d^3x(cdt).\end{array}$$
(5)
Here $`S^{}`$ is the new integral of operation, which we name the generalized one; $`mc^2`$ is the invariant combination corresponding to the rest energy of a particle ($`m`$ is the rest-mass, $`c`$ is the speed of light); $`e`$ is the invariant electrical charge of a particle; $`A_a=(A_1,A_2,A_3,A_4)=(𝐀,i\varphi )`$ is the 4-potential ; $`j_a=(j_1,j_2,j_3,j_4)=(\rho 𝐯/c,i\rho )`$ is the 4-vector of current density  instead of $`j_a=(\rho 𝐯,ic\rho )`$ , $`\rho `$ is the charge density, $`𝐯`$ is the velocity of a charge; $`F_{ab}=A_b/x_aA_a/x_b`$ is the tensor of electromagnetic field; $`𝐄=(1/c)𝐀/t\varphi `$ is the electrical field; $`𝐇=\mathrm{X}𝐀`$ is the magnetic field; $`F_{ab}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}=2(H^2E^2)`$; $`d^4x=dx_1dx_2dx_3dx_4`$ is the element of the invariant 4-volume .

The transformational rest-mass properties is changed as the result from the introduction of the generalized integral (5). The mass is not any more scalar. The mass is transformed according to the law $`m^{}=(c^2/c_{}^{}{}_{}{}^{2})m=\gamma ^2m`$. The rest energy $`mc^2`$ has a scalar property. The transformational property of Plank constant $`\mathrm{}`$ is changed as well. The invariant is not the constant $`\mathrm{}`$, but the product $`\mathrm{}c`$. Due to the electrical charge property of invariance $`e`$, the thin structure constant remains invariant $`\alpha =e^2/\mathrm{}c`$ \- inv.

The generalized Lagrangian, energy and 4 - momentum of a particle correspond to the generalized integral of operation. We will label the generalized values with the symbol \*. We have:

$$L^{}=cL=mc^2\sqrt{1\beta ^2}+e𝐀\beta e\varphi ;$$
(6)
$$𝐏^{}=\frac{L^{}}{\beta }=\frac{cm𝐯}{\sqrt{1\beta ^2}}+e𝐀=c𝐩+e𝐀;$$
(7)
$$E^{}=𝐏^{}\beta cL=\frac{mc^2}{\sqrt{1\beta ^2}}+e\varphi =E.$$
(8)
It follows from here that the motion integrals are the energy $`E`$ and the product of the speed of light by the momentum from SR: $`c𝐏=c𝐩+e𝐀`$. The parameter $`\beta `$ has meaning as generalized velocity. The differential $`dx^0=cdt`$ plays a role of the time differential. It is essential that owing to the differentiation with respect to the parameter $`\beta `$, the results obtained do not depend on the particular assumptions concerning the properties of the speed of light, as the value $`c`$ enters into the parameter $`\beta =v/c`$.

Owing to the well known property of 4 - speed $`U^2=1`$, we have the following expression for the generalized 4 - momentum $`p_{a}^{}{}_{}{}^{}=mc^2u_a`$ of a free particle:

$$p_{a}^{}{}_{}{}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}=c^2p^2E^2=m^2c^4inv.$$
(9)
As in , in case of a particle in electromagnetic field we find:

$$P_{a}^{}{}_{}{}^{}=mc^2u_a+eA_a;$$
(10)
$$(P_{a}^{}{}_{}{}^{}eA_a)^2=(cP_aeA_a)^2=m^2c^4inv.$$
(11)
## 4 Equations of Motion for Charged Particle

Keeping in the mind expression (6), we shall start from Lagrange equations $`d(L^{}/\beta )/dx^0L^{}/𝐱=0`$ taking into account the vector equality $`(𝐚𝐛)=(𝐚)𝐛+(𝐛)𝐚+𝐚\mathrm{x}(\mathrm{x}𝐛)+𝐛\mathrm{x}(\mathrm{x}𝐚)`$ . We obtain the following equations for the motion of a charged particle in electromagnetic field:

$$\frac{d𝐩^{}}{dt}=\frac{d(c𝐩)}{dt}=ce𝐄+e𝐯\mathrm{x}𝐇;$$
(12)
$$\frac{dE^{}}{dt}=\frac{dE}{dt}=e𝐄𝐯;$$
(13)
## 5 Maxwell Equations

Let us start from the permutational ratios of the electromagnetic field tensor and the field Lagrange equations $`(^{}/A_{a,b})/x_b^{}/A_a=0`$  taking into account the expression $`F_{ab}^2/A_{a,b}=4F_{ab}`$  and the density of the Lagrange function $`^{}=c=iA_aj_a+(i/16\pi )F_{ab}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}`$. Here $`A_a(x)`$ is 4-potential; $`A_{a,b}=A_a/x_b`$; $`a,b=1,2,3,4`$; $`g_{ab}=diag(,,,)`$. In sum we have:

$$\begin{array}{cc}\mathrm{X}𝐄+\frac{1}{c}\frac{𝐇}{t}=0;\hfill & 𝐄=4\pi \rho ;\hfill \\ \mathrm{X}𝐇\frac{1}{c}\frac{𝐄}{t}=4\pi \frac{𝐣}{c};\hfill & 𝐇=0.\hfill \end{array}$$
(14)
Out of them the equation of motion (13) and the equations of electromagnetic field (14) coincide with the equations which are known from SR.

Let us note that according to the given scheme Maxwell equations turn out to be invariant not only in inertial frames (it is well known), but also in non-inertial frames in the flat pseudo - Euclidean space with the metric $`ds^2=c^2dt^2d𝐱^2`$. This property of Maxwell equations seems to be unusual, but it is known and has been noted by academician Logunov: ”… in the framework of SR it is possible to describe a physical phenomena in non-inertial frames as well. Fock understood this deeply … ” . The statement follows also from the general covariant formulation of Maxwell equations .

## 6 Local SR

Up to this point any constraint did not placed on the transformation properties of the speed of light in the theory. It turns out that it is possible to realize various theoretical considerations by appropriate postulation. In particular, if we postulate that $`c^{}=c`$, all the obtained equations will go into SR equations. If we state that the speed of light is constant and $`c^{}c`$, $`c^{}t^{}=ct`$ \- inv, the model may be realized which we name SR with non-invariant speed of light . It describes the same physical reality as SR and also contains additional classification capabilities due to the symmetry with respect to more general group of transformations. Besides Poincaré group, this group includes the group induced by the generators $`X_1=_tt_t/c,X_0=c_ct_t,X_{+1}=c^2_cct_t`$ . At last, the postulation is possible which permits one to construct a version of the theory compatible with the principle of relativity and the concept of superluminal motion. Let us consider this possibility at length.

According to Ritz  we assume that the speed of light is equal to $`c_o=310^{10}`$ cm/sec not in global meaning, but only relatively to an emitter. Let us add a new physical element to the infinitesimal transformations (2) and the model based on them with equations of motion (12), (13), ( 14). We assume that the state of motion (inertial, or non-inertial) does not influences on the proper value of the speed of light $`c_0`$, Plank constant $`\mathrm{}_0`$, the thin structure constant $`\alpha `$ and other physical proper values, for example, the proper length $`l_0`$, proper time $`t_0`$, proper frequency of oscillations $`\omega _0`$, rest-mass $`m_0`$, electrical charge $`e`$. (A proper value is the physical value in the frame $`K_0`$ relatively to which the object is immobile). These remain invariant in the process of motion:

$$\begin{array}{c}c_0^{}=c_0=c_o=310^{10}cm/sec;\\ \mathrm{}_0^{}=\mathrm{}_0=1,010^{27}gcm^2/sec;\\ l_0^{}=l_0;t_0^{}=t_0;\omega _0^{}=\omega ;m_0^{}=m_0;e^{}=e.\end{array}$$
(15)
The hypothesis on the independence of proper values of physical quantities from the state of a physical object motion we agree to name the local relativity principle.

Let us assume further that the time intervals measured by means of differently-placed clocks in any frames $`K,K^{},\mathrm{}`$ coincide with the local time in a proper frame $`K_o`$ on the trajectory of the motion of the object:

$$dt_o=dt=dt^{}.$$
(16)
We agree to name the theoretical model, realizing the local relativity principle in the flat space - time with the metric (1) in combination with the hypothetical property of time (16), as Local Special Relativity Theory (LSR) as distinct from the classical SR. We find the following expressions for infinitesimal space - time transformations in this case:

$$\begin{array}{c}dx=\frac{dx_ov_odt_o}{\sqrt{1v_{o}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}/c_{o}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}}};dy=dy_o;dz=dz_o;dt=dt_o\frac{v_odx_o}{c_{o}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}};\\ c=\frac{c_o}{\sqrt{1v_{o}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}/c_{o}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}}};\\ dx_o=\frac{dxvdt}{\sqrt{1v^2/c^2}};dy_o=dy;dz_o=dz;dt_o=\frac{dtvdx/c}{1v^2/c^2};\\ c_o=c\sqrt{1v^2/c^2},\end{array}$$
(17)
where $`v/c=v_o/c_o`$; $`(1v^2/c^2)(1+v^2/c_{o}^{}{}_{}{}^{2})=1`$. In this case the following relationship between the speed of light $`c`$ and the velocity of emitter $`v`$ is hold true as the result from the transformation properties of the speed of light in the formulae ( 17):

$$c=c_o\sqrt{1+\frac{v^2}{c_{o}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}}}.$$
(18)
Here $`c_o`$ is the speed of light in the proper frame associated with the emitter. (In the models admitting the existence of ether $`c_o`$ is the speed of light relatively to ether). The expressions for the speed of light in the form of (17) or (18) were obtained by Abraham (1910)  and Rapier (1961)  respectively in the framework of ether models; next they were obtained by the author of the present publication (1968)  and Loiseau (1968)  in the framework of the relativity principle. These formulae were reproduced further by many authors from various points of view, in particular by Marinov (1975) , by Hsu (1976) , by Sjödin (1977) , by Mamaev (1985) , by Nimbuev (1996) , by Klimez (1997) , by Russo (1998) .

### 6.1 Generalized Momentum and Energy

Let us put the expression for the speed of light (18) into the formulae for momentum (7) and energy (8) of a free particle. We have:

$$\begin{array}{c}𝐩^{}=c𝐩=\frac{cm𝐯}{\sqrt{1v^2/c^2}}=m_0c_0𝐯;\hfill \\ E=\frac{mc^2}{\sqrt{1v^2/c^2}}=m_0c_{0}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}\sqrt{1+v^2/c_{0}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}}=m_0c_0c.\hfill \end{array}$$
(19)
The relation has a view between the generalized momentum and energy by this:

$$E^2𝐏_{}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}=E^2c^2𝐩^2=m_{0}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}c_{0}^{}{}_{}{}^{4}(1+v^2/c_{0}^{}{}_{}{}^{2})m_{0}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}c_{0}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}𝐯^2=m_{0}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}c_{0}^{}{}_{}{}^{4}.$$
(20)
### 6.2 Energy and Superluminal Motion

Let us begin with the expression $`v=\sqrt{E^2m_{0}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}c_{0}^{}{}_{}{}^{4}}/m_0c_0c_0`$. It follows from here that in the framework of LSR a particle will move with superluminal velocity, if the particle energy will satisfy the equality:

$$E_{tr}\sqrt{2}E_0=\sqrt{2}m_0c_{0}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}.$$
(21)
This energy is equal $`720\mathrm{keV}`$ for electron and $`1330\mathrm{Mev}`$ for proton and neutron. We may conclude from here that neutron physics of nuclear reactors may be formulated in the non-relativistic approximation in LSR (as in SR). The electrons with the energy $`E>720keV`$ (for example, from radioactive decay) should be superluminal particles in LSR. Particle physics on modern accelerators such as Serpukhov one with the energy of protons 66 GeV (1 Gev = 1000 MeV) should be physics of superluminal motion in the framework of LSR, if it would be realized in reality.

### 6.3 Equations of Motion for Charged Particle in LSR

After putting the expression for the speed of light (18) into the equations of motion (12), we obtain :

$$\begin{array}{cc}\frac{d(c𝐩)}{dt}=ce𝐄+e𝐯\mathrm{x}𝐇\hfill & m_o\frac{d𝐯}{dt}=\frac{c}{c_o}e𝐄+\frac{e}{c_o}𝐯\mathrm{x}𝐇;\hfill \\ \frac{dE}{dt}=e𝐯𝐄\hfill & m_o\frac{dc}{dt}=\frac{e}{c_o}𝐯𝐄.\hfill \end{array}$$
(22)
From here it can be seen that the integrals of motion are either the generalized momentum $`c𝐩`$ and energy $`E`$, or the associated velocity of a particle $`𝐯`$ and the speed of light $`c`$ in the absence of external forces.

### 6.4 Maxwell Equations in LSR

Taking into account the expression for the speed of light (18), we obtain the following form of Maxwell equations :

$$\begin{array}{cc}\mathrm{X}𝐄+\frac{1}{c_0\sqrt{1+\frac{v^2}{c_{0}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}}}}\frac{𝐇}{t}=0;\hfill & 𝐄=4\pi \rho ;\hfill \\ \mathrm{X}𝐇\frac{1}{c_0\sqrt{1+\frac{v^2}{c_{0}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}}}}\frac{𝐄}{t}=4\pi \rho \frac{𝐯}{c_0\sqrt{1+\frac{v^2}{c_{0}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}}}};\hfill & 𝐇=0.\hfill \end{array}$$
(23)
Here $`𝐯`$ is the electrical charge velocity; $`c=c_0\sqrt{1+v^2/c_{0}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}}`$ is the charge coordinate on the axis $`c`$ ($`c`$ is the speed of light in the laboratory frame $`K`$); $`c_0`$ is the proper value of the speed of light in the frame $`K`$.

### 6.5 LSR and Experiment

Let us consider the examples of experiments, the interpretation of which is close to or coincides with their interpretation in SR.

The Michelson Experiment . For the case of a terrestrial light source the negative result of the experiment may be explained by space isotropy (the speed of light is the same in all directions). Owing to this circumstance the interference pattern will not be changed for a terrestrial observer at rotation of the interferometer. In the case of a extraterrestrial light source the negative result may be explained by two factors: the space isotropy and the square dependence of the speed of light from the velocity $`V`$ of a light source $`c=c_o\sqrt{1+V^2/c_{o}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}}`$ .

The Fizeau Experiment . The explanation is similar to the one accepted in SR. The arising little correction is the the order of $`V^2/c_{0}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}1`$ and does not influence on the experimental result in linear approximation . (Here $`V`$ is the velocity of fluid).

The Bonch-Bruevich and Molchanov Experiment . The authors compared the speeds of the light radiated by the eastern and western equatorial edge of the solar disk. In the framework of LSR the speed of light $`c=c_0\sqrt{1+V^2/c_{0}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}}`$ does not depend on the direction of the light source motion $`V`$. Therefore the speed of light will be the same for both the western and eastern edges of the solar disk. As in SR it is in accord with the negative result of the experiment .

The Sadeh Experiment . In the experiment the distinction between the speeds of the gamma - quanta, arising as a result of the electron - positron annihilation in flight, has been observed depending on the angle between the gamma - quanta. By virtue of the independence of the speed of light $`c`$ from the direction of the velocity of the source $`𝐕`$, the result of the experiment should be negative in LSR as well as in SR .

Let us consider also the experiments, which interpretation in LSR is different from their the interpretations in SR.

The Doppler Effect . In LSR the change of a wavelength $`\lambda `$ is described by the formula $`\lambda =\lambda _0(1Vn_x/c)/\sqrt{1V^2/c^2}=\lambda _0[\sqrt{1+V^2/c_{0}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}}Vn_x/c_0]`$. The change of a frequency is described by the formula $`\omega =\omega _0(c/c_0)\sqrt{1V^2/c^2}/(1Vn_x/c)=\omega _0/(1Vn_x/c_0)`$ . Here $`\theta =arccosn_x`$ is the angle of the observation; $`V`$ is the emitter velocity. It is follows from here that in LSR there is no Doppler transversal frequent shift because with $`n_x=0`$, $`\omega =\omega _o`$. For a wavelength the Doppler transversal shift is retained. Hence in LSR the parameters of redshifts $`z_\lambda `$ and $`z_\omega `$ do not coincide with each other and are equal $`z_\lambda =(\lambda \lambda _0)/\lambda _02V/c_0`$ at $`n_x=1,V\mathrm{}`$; $`z_\omega =(\omega _0\omega )/\omega _01`$ at $`n_x=1,V\mathrm{}`$. In non - relativistic approximation they coincide with each other $`z_\lambda Vn_x/c_o`$, $`z_\omega Vn_x/c_o`$. When the emitters move with significant velocities, the distinction begins to show itself with the shifts $`z_\lambda 0.6`$. The fulfillment of the inequality $`z_\lambda \sqrt{2}`$ = 1.41 is the criterion for longitudinal ($`n_x=1`$) superluminal motion. The fulfillment of the inequality $`z_\lambda \sqrt{2}1`$ = 0.41 is the criterion for transversal ($`n_x=0`$) superluminal motion . The superluminal quasars 3C279 ($`z_\lambda `$ = 0.536), 3C345 ($`z_\lambda `$ = 0.595), 3C179 ($`z_\lambda `$ = 0.846), NRAO 140 ( $`z_\lambda `$ = 1.258)  satisfy the letter criterion. In particular, the calculated transversal velocity of the QSO NRAO 140 expansion is $`V_{}2c_o`$. It is surprising that this velocity is close to the low bound of these velocities $`3c_o`$ within the Friedmann cosmological model . It is important for LSR to determine the frequent redshifts $`z_\omega `$ of these superluminal objects and compare them with the lambda redshifts $`z_\lambda `$ as well as to solve the problem of the existence of the limit $`z_\omega 1`$. It will permit one to distinguish between LSR and SR because in SR the ratio $`z_\lambda =z_\omega `$ is true. The redshift of the radio emission from neutral hydrogen $`H_I`$ on the frequency corresponding to the line 21 cm is attractive for this purpose. However in this frequency range the experimental data on superluminal quasars are not avallable. Therefore to reject LSR is not possible now.

Let us also pay attention to the relationship between the speeds of light $`c`$ and $`c_o`$ and the parameters of redshifts $`c=c_0(1+z_\lambda )/(1+z_\omega )c_0(1+z_\lambda )/2`$ in LSR. (The latter formula is true with $`z_\omega 1`$). We can conclude that it is the Loiseau formula . Its application to the observational interpretation was considered in Introduction. According to , the speed of light from the galaxy NGC 5668 with the parameters of redshifts $`z_\lambda =0.00580`$ and $`z_\omega =0.00526`$, is equal $`c=c_0+182.04`$ km / sec. In the light of the present work this result, however, is not of statistical significance, as the redshift parameter $`z_\lambda =0.00580<<1.41`$. Therefore the conclusion that the NGC 5668 galaxy is superluminal fail. It also holds for the quasar PKS 2134 with parameter of redshift $`z_\lambda =1.935`$. After putting this value and frequency shift $`z_\omega =1`$ into above \- mentioned formula we can conclude that the speed of light from the PKS 2134 quasar is $`c=300.0002.936/2=440.400440.000`$ km / sec. Thus, the Loiseau estimation has theoretical character. This circumstance indicates once more that it is necessary to obtain experimental data concerning the redshifts for superluminal quasars in the radio-frequency and optical ranges .

Aberration of light . By analogy with SR we have for one - half of the aberration angle: $`sin\alpha =V/c;\alpha (V/c_0)(c_0/c)=10^4(c_0/c)10^4(2/(1+z_\lambda ))=(2/(1+z_\lambda ))20,5`$ seconds of arc. (The latter is true with large $`z_\lambda `$). It follows from here that, for example, $`c=2,86c_0,\alpha =7.2`$ seconds of arc for the Q 1158 + 4635 quasar with the redshift $`z_\lambda `$ = 4.73 . The 7.2 seconds of arc value should be checked in the experiment .

Superluminal motion of nuclear reaction products. Such phenomenon is impossible in SR. But it is possible in LSR, if the energy of a particle will be greater than $`\sqrt{2}E_0`$. It is 150 MeV for $`\mu `$ \- mesons. Therefore in LSR (if it is realized in reality) the appearance of atmospheric $`\mu `$ \- mesons near the surface of the Earth may be explained by superluminal motion of the mesons with the velocity of the order of $`610^6/2,210^6310^{12}`$ cm/sec, or $`100c_0`$ . The energy $`E_\mu =m_{0,\mu }c_0c100m_{0,\mu }c_{0}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}10.6`$ GeV corresponds to the given velocity in LSR. In virtue of the absence of the limitation on the upper value of the speed of light, faster particles explaining the results of Clay, Crouch  and Cooper experiments , may be observed in front of the particles from nuclear reactions.

Motion of a charged particle in electromagnetic field. By integrating (12), we find that in the case a particle moves in constant homogeneous electrical field, its velocity tends to infinity $`v_x(t)=c_0\sqrt{1+v_{y}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}(0)/c_{0}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}}sh(e\mathrm{E}t/m_0c_0)\mathrm{}`$ . In SR the particle velocity is limited by value $`c_o`$ as is known . For the case of constant homogeneous magnetic field $`𝐇=(0,0,\mathrm{H}_\mathrm{z})`$ the frequency of rotation of a particle is constant and does not depend on the energy of a particle $`\omega =e\mathrm{H}_\mathrm{z}/m_0c_0`$ = const in LSR ($`\omega 1/E`$ in SR ). However if the particle energy is great, the radius of particle rotation is connected with the particle energy by the ratio $`rE/eH_z`$ as in SR. The differences in the radiuses of rotation is observed in the intermediate range of particle energies, when $`M_0c_{0}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}<E<m_0c_0v`$ at $`v>>c_o`$. The considered properties of particle motions in electrical and magnetic fields may be essential in the theory of linear and cyclical accelerators .

## 7 Conclusion

Summing we shall note that the validity of LSR or the proper field of its application are not clear yet now. In any case the problem arises which concerns the reason of the choice of preferable symmetry in the nature. Local SR transforms into SR, if $`c^{}=c`$.