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# The Belle Silicon Vertex Detector

## 1 Introduction

The Silicon Vertex Detector (SVD) of the Belle experiment  at the KEKB accelerator  has been built to provide vertex information from precision measurements of charged tracks in the vicinity of the interaction point. Because the KEKB is an asymmetric $`e^+e^{}`$ collider with 8 GeV $`e^{}`$ and 3.5 GeV $`e^+`$ beams, a pair of $`B`$ and $`\overline{B}`$ mesons, produced nearly at rest at the center of mass system (CMS), is boosted along the $`e^{}`$ beam direction with a Lorentz boost factor of $`\beta \gamma =0.425`$. Therefore, in designing the SVD a special emphasis is placed on the precise measurement of the $`z`$ (boost direction) coordinate. The typical separation between $`B`$ and $`\overline{B}`$ decays at the KEKB is $`200\mu `$m and we find, based on the simulation, the $`z`$ resolution of $`100\mu `$m in $`B`$ meson decay vertex measurement is sufficient to detect a possible asymmetry in the proper time interval distribution for decays of $`B^0\overline{B^0}`$ pairs. This asymmetry signals $`CP`$-violation in the $`B`$ meson system when one of the neutral $`B`$ mesons decays to a $`CP`$ eigenstate.

The SVD consists of three concentric cylindrical layers of silicon sensors with two orthogonal-coordinate readouts. The vertex resolution for low momentum tracks is dominated by multiple scattering in a material before the SVD plus the first SVD layer. Figure 1 displays the geometrical layout of the SVD. The radii of the three layers are $`30`$ mm, $`45.5`$ mm and $`60.5`$ mm. The SVD covers the polar angle range of $`23^{}<\theta <139^{}`$ corresponding to $`86\%`$ of the solid angle in the CMS. There installed is a $`20.5`$ mm-radius beryllium beampipe with two $`0.5`$ mm-thick walls allowing helium gas flow to cool the beampipe. A 20 $`\mu `$m gold foil is glued on the inner concentric cover consisting of carbon-carbon material to protect the SVD from soft Xrays produced in the beampine. The material before the first SVD layer amounts to $`0.95\%`$ of 1 radiation length.

The first layer is formed from 8 “ladders”, each of which contains two double-sided silicon strip detectors (DSSDs) which are read out separately. The second layer is formed from 10 ladders, each containing 3 DSSDs. Two of 3 DSSDs are connected to make a single two-sensor unit, in which p-strips on one DSSD are wire-bonded to n-strips on the other DSSD to minimize a noise in a channel. The third layer is formed from 14 ladders, each containing 2 two-sensor units. A full ladder consists of DSSDs, aluminum nitride hybrids at each end, glued with an aluminum nitride heat sink containing two heat pipes and CFRP reinforced boron nitride ribs glued across DSSDs and the heat sink, as shown in Fig. 2. The DSSD, HPK S6936, was originally fabricated for the DELPHI vertex detector by Hamamatsu Photonics. It has an active area of $`54\times 32\mathrm{mm}^2`$ with a thickness of $`300\mu \mathrm{m}`$. The strip pitch for a p(n)-side is $`25(42)\mu `$m and the readout pitch is $`50(82)\mu `$m. This DSSD contains integrated coupling capacitors and, therefore, the strips are AC-coupled to preamplifiers. It utilizes a double metal structure to read out n-strips. The total number of readout channels of the SVD is 81920. A bias voltage of 75V is supplied on n-side.

Each hybrid is made by gluing two identical aluminum nitride boards, each containing five 128-channel VA1 chips  providing 640 readout channels per board. The VA1 chip fabricated by 1.2 $`\mu `$m feature size process contains preamplifiers, shapers and track-and-hold circuits that capture the analog pulse-height information of each channel. The peaking time of the shaper is set to $`1.0\mu `$s to match the trigger latency. When the system switched from track- to hold-mode the stored analog information for each channel is sequentially routed via an on-chip analog multiplexor to a system of fast analog-to-digital converters (FADCs) . Event buffering and zero data suppression are performed using Motorola Digital Signal Processors (DSPs) in the FADC module.

## 2 Basic Performance

The $`dE/dX`$ distributions of minimum ionizing particles for p-side and n-side, together with the correlation between signals from two sides are shown in Fig. 3. The $`dE/dX`$ values are calculated by summing all signals (above threshold) which belong to the same track and by normalizing to the same track length (i.e., 300 $`\mu `$m). The signal peaks at $`18,800e`$ and $`19,200e`$ for p-side and n-side, respectively, while the electronics noise is found to be $`550e`$ for p-side channels, $`1000e`$ for n-side channel and $`1100e`$ for p-n combined channels in which a p-strip and an n-strip are connected. Therefore, Signal-to-Noise (S/N) ratio is well above 10. The strip yield for each layer is found to be $`98.8\%`$, $`96.3\%`$ and $`93.5\%`$ for 1st, 2nd and 3rd layers, respectively. The loss of strips includes failure of hybrids and a few failed coupling capacitors. Since the installation in August 1999, the SVD has been functioning stably. The occupancy of the SVD is $`1\%`$ at the luminosity of $`1.2\times 10^{33}\mathrm{cm}^2\mathrm{s}^1`$. For hadronic events we find $`97\%`$ of tracks reconstructed by the Central Drift Chamber (CDC) have corresponding hits in the SVD. The internal alignment of the DSSDs and the SVD-CDC relative alignment have been performed using cosmic rays taken with and without beams in the KEKB. In order to illustrate the so-far achieved alignment we summarize in Table 1 resolutions of track helix parameters111 A charged particle track is expressed as: $`x=x_0+d\rho \mathrm{cos}\varphi _0+\frac{\alpha }{\kappa }[\mathrm{cos}\varphi _0\mathrm{cos}(\varphi _0+\varphi )]`$, $`y=y_0+d\rho \mathrm{sin}\varphi _0+\frac{\alpha }{\kappa }[\mathrm{sin}\varphi _0\mathrm{sin}(\varphi _0+\varphi )]`$, $`z=z_0+dz\frac{\alpha }{\kappa }(\mathrm{tan}\lambda )\varphi `$, $`\alpha 1/cB(\mathrm{Tesla})`$. compared with the values for the perfect alignment, predicted by Monte Carlo simulation. We note that the $`dz,\mathrm{tan}\lambda `$ resolutions are mostly determined by the SVD internal alignment performance, while the $`d\rho ,\varphi _0,\kappa `$ resolutions depend on the CDC track resolutions as well.

Figure 4 shows impact parameter resolutions, $`\sigma _{r\varphi },\sigma _z`$, for $`r\varphi `$ and $`z`$ directions measured using cosmic rays, Bhabha events and $`\gamma \gamma e^+e^{},\pi ^+\pi ^{}\pi ^+\pi ^{}`$ processes. We obtain

$$\sigma _{r\varphi }=\sqrt{(21)^2+\left(\frac{69}{p\beta \mathrm{sin}^{3/2}\theta }\right)^2}\mu \mathrm{m};\sigma _z=\sqrt{(39)^2+\left(\frac{51}{p\beta \mathrm{sin}^{5/2}\theta }\right)^2}\mu \mathrm{m},$$

where $`p`$ and $`\beta `$ are momentum in $`\mathrm{GeV}/c`$ and velocity divided by $`c`$ of the particle, and $`\theta `$ is the polar angle from the beam axis. The resolution in a measurement of the distance between two $`z`$ vertices of leptons originating from a $`J/\psi `$ particle can also infer the resolution of the $`z`$ coordinate measurement. Here, each $`z`$ vertex is calculated by finding an intersection between a lepton track and the beam axis. We find $`\sigma _{\mathrm{\Delta }z(\mathrm{}^+\mathrm{}^{})}=138\mu \mathrm{m}`$, while Monte Carlo predicts $`112\mu \mathrm{m}`$.

## 3 Physics Examples

In order to demonstrate the overall performance of the SVD, we present preliminary results of $`D`$ and $`B`$ meson lifetime measurements based on the first $`0.25\mathrm{fb}^1`$ data collected during the initial data taking period . We reconstruct $`D^0`$ mesons in the decay mode $`D^0K^{}\pi ^+`$. Charged tracks forming a $`D^0`$ candidate are required to be well-reconstructed in the tracking system and to originate from a common vertex. Kaons are positively identified in the particle ID system . In order to avoid bias due to $`B`$ meson lifetime, $`D^0`$ mesons originating from $`B`$ mesons are removed by requiring $`D^0`$ mesons have a minimum momentum of $`2.5\mathrm{GeV}/c`$ in the $`\mathrm{{\rm Y}}(4S)`$ rest frame. Figure 5(a) shows the invariant mass distribution of $`D^0K^{}\pi ^+`$ decays. By fitting the distribution with a Gaussian for the signal plus a linear function for the background, we find the width of the signal distribution to be $`7.6\pm 0.2\mathrm{MeV}/c`$ and the number of signal events to be $`1730\pm 50`$. The background fraction is calculated from the same fit and is about $`10\%`$ under a signal peak (the region within $`\pm 3\sigma `$).

As illustrated in Fig. 5(b) the lifetime of the charmed meson is computed from the flight distance between the reconstructed $`D^0`$ vertex and the interaction point(IP) determined for each KEKB beam fill. The profile of the IP is known to have, from the machine optics and the beam size monitoring information, $`\sigma _z4\mathrm{mm}`$ along the beam direction $`(z)`$, and $`\sigma _x100\mu \mathrm{m}`$, and $`\sigma _y510\mu \mathrm{m}`$ in the direction perpendicular to the beam direction. The $`D^0`$ flight length is measured in the $`xy`$ plane to take advantage of the small IP size in the plane. The projected decay length $`\mathrm{}_{decay}^{xy}`$ of the $`D^0`$ meson is calculated from the $`D^0`$ momentum $`𝐩_{D^0}^{xy}`$, the $`D^0`$ decay vertex $`𝐫_{D^0}^{xy}`$, and the $`D^0`$ production point $`𝐫_{IP}^{xy}`$ reconstructed by extrapolating the $`D^0`$ momentum back to the IP profile: $`\mathrm{}_{decay}^{xy}=(𝐫_{D^0}^{xy}𝐫_{IP}^{xy})𝐩_{D^0}^{xy}/|𝐩_{D^0}^{xy}|`$. The proper time $`t`$ is, then, calculated using the $`D^0`$ mass, $`m`$, as $`t=(m/c)(\mathrm{}_{dec}^{xy}/|𝐩_{D^0}^{xy}|)`$. The $`D^0`$ meson lifetime is extracted from the proper-time distribution with an unbinned maximum likelihood method. The detector resolution is mostly described by a single Gaussian with a small correction for events which might have undergone a hard multiple Coulomb scattering and/or have wrong CDC-SVD hit associations in the track reconstruction program. Figure 6 shows the fit to the proper time distribution. The preliminary result for the lifetime of $`D^0`$ meson is $`405.3\pm 13.3\mathrm{fs},`$ where the error includes only the statistical error. This is in good agreement with the PDG value of $`415\pm 4`$ fs.

The $`B`$ meson lifetime is extracted from the measurement of the separation of $`B`$ and $`\overline{B}`$ decays, $`\mathrm{\Delta }z`$, in the $`z`$ direction. We first reconstruct $`B^0D^{}\mathrm{}^+\nu `$, where $`D^{}`$ decays to $`\overline{D^0}\pi ^{}`$ followed by either one of $`\overline{D^0}K^+\pi ^{}`$, $`K^+\pi ^{}\pi ^0`$, $`K^+\pi ^{}\pi ^{}\pi ^+`$ decays. The decay vertex of $`B^0`$ is determined using the reconstructed $`\overline{D^0}`$ momentum and the lepton $`(\mathrm{}^+)`$ track. We, then, determine the $`\overline{B^0}`$ decay vertex requiring all the remaining tracks in the same event, except for tracks originating from $`K_S`$ decays and tracks with large impact parameters, form a common vertex. Figure 7(a) illustrates the vertex reconstruction of $`B\overline{B}`$ events. The distribution of $`\mathrm{\Delta }z`$ with the fit result is shown in Fig. 7(b). The fitted function consists of the expected $`\mathrm{\Delta }z`$ distribution smeared with the detector resolution. We obtain the result of $`\tau _{B^0}=1.82\pm 0.28`$ ps, while the resolution in $`\mathrm{\Delta }z`$ is found to be $`\sigma =146\pm 47\mu \mathrm{m}`$. The result is consistent with the PDG value of $`\tau _{B^0}=1.56\pm 0.04`$ ps.

## 4 Upgrade Plans

The current SVD readout chips have limited radiation tolerance. The $`1.2\mu \mathrm{m}`$-technology VA1 chip is not based on a radiation-hard technology and stops functioning after a $`\gamma `$-ray dose of $`200`$ krad. With the current radiation level observed at the KEKB, this corresponds to an integrated luminosity of $`8\mathrm{fb}^1`$. We have been developing a frontend IC which stands radiation dose of more than 1Mrad by taking advantage of the thinner gate-oxide layers used in sub-micron CMOS processes. Because the threshold shift in a MOS transition scales as the square of the thickness of the gate oxide layer, which in turn is proportional to the FET channel width or equivalently to the feature size of the process being used, one expects the radiation tolerance of the IC scales as the inverse square of the feature size. One expects that a $`0.5\mu `$m process IC is four times more radiation-tolerant than a $`1.0\mu `$m process IC. We have fabricated two versions of VA1 chips, one with AMS $`0.8\mu `$m technology and the other with AMS $`0.35\mu `$m . Figure 8(a) shows gain versus radiation dose for AMS $`0.8\mu `$m technology VA1. The gain decrease rate is found to be $`0.06\%`$/krad. Figure 8(b) shows the equivalent noise count versus radiation dose. Based on these measurements we conclude the $`0.8\mu `$m VA1 chips are radiation tolerant up to $`1`$Mrad. The new SVD built with these VA1 chips is scheduled to be installed in summer 2000. The AMS $`0.35\mu `$m VA1 exhibits the excellent radiation hardness as shown in Fig. 9. It is tolerant up to 20 Mrad. The SVD based on this $`0.35\mu `$m VA1 chips is also being planned.

## 5 Conclusion

We have successfully built the SVD for the Belle experiment at the KEKB. Preliminary measurements of lifetimes of $`D^0`$ and $`B^0`$ mesons show it is performing as designed. We have developed radiation-hard VA1 chips, based on a sub-micron process technology, which will be applied to the immediate upgrade of the SVD.

## 6 Acknowledgments

The author is grateful to the conference organizers for their hospitality, and indebted to colleagues of the Belle SVD group for their help in preparing the talk. This work is supported by a Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research on Priority Areas (Physics of CP violation) from the Ministry of Education, Science and Culture of Japan, and by the Japan-Taiwan Cooperative Program of the Interchange Association.

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# Chandra Observations of Variable Embedded X-ray sources in Orion. Paper I: Resolving the Orion Trapezium

## 1 Introduction

The Trapezium Cluster of the Orion Nebula is one of the best studied star forming regions. At a distance of 440 pc, the Trapezium Cluster is embedded at the near rim of the giant dark molecular cloud L1641, lying just behind the Orion Nebula (NGC 1976). It is the core of the Orion Nebula Cluster (ONC), a loose association of more than 5000 mostly very young ($`<`$ 1-2 Myr) pre-main sequence stars of a wide range of stellar mass ($`0.150`$ $`M_{}`$ ) within a radius of about 1.3 pc (see Hillenbrand 1997 and references therein). A density of $`5\times 10^3`$ stars per pc3 within the central 0.1 pc makes the Trapezium Cluster the most dense stellar clustering known in our Galaxy (McCaughrean $`\&`$ Stauffer 1994) with about 3000 $`M_{}`$ pc-3.

The Orion Trapezium was discovered by Trumpler (1931) and its main stellar component, $`\theta ^1`$ Ori C, was identified as the main source of excitation of the Orion Nebula. Many observations of the Trapezium have been made at infrared wavelengths, mainly the K- and H-bands at 2.20 $`\mu `$m and 1.65 $`\mu `$m respectively. $`\theta ^1`$ Ori A - E are the brightest stars in the cluster, optically and at infrared wavelengths, and are early type O or B-stars. Three members of the Trapezium are multiple systems, some with separations much smaller than 90 AU (Petr et al. 1986). About 80 $`\%`$ of the stars are younger than 1 Myr with a median age of 3$`\times 10^5`$ yr. The present star formation rate is estimated at $`10^4`$ $`M_{}`$ yr-1 (Hillenbrand 1997).

The core of the Orion Nebula is one of the prime areas to observe and study very young stellar objects (YSOs). Laques $`\&`$ Vidal (1979) detected externally illuminated YSOs in the form of compact H$`\alpha `$ brightness knots, which are illuminated by the two optically brightest sources, $`\theta ^1`$ Ori C and $`\theta ^1`$ Ori A. Garay et al. 1987 measured free-free radio continua from most of these sources. Many so-called ’proplyd’ (externally illuminated protoplanetary disk) candidates have been discovered in the vicinity of the Trapezium (O’Dell et al. 1993), many of which correspond to radio and/or IR sources (Felli et al. 1993; McCaughrean and Stauffer 1994). Bally et al. (1998) studied over 40 proplyds with HST and discussed models for these illuminated YSOs involving a young star at the core with a circumstellar disk embedded in an outer wind shock region, as well as a wind driven tail pointing away from the illuminating star.

Because of its proximity, the Orion Trapezium came under early scrunity in X-rays and it was UHURU, the first X-ray satellite (Giacconi et al. 1971), that discovered X-rays from that region in 1972. The Einstein Observatory for the first time observed X-rays identified with main sequence O6 to B5 stars (Cassinelli et al. 1981). These early type stars do not have a stellar corona like late type stars, but exhibit a very hot stellar wind that ionizes its environment. Here X-rays are generally thought to originate from bow shocks surrounding radiatively driven blobs plowing through rarified wind material (Lucy and White 1980). Surprisingly, X-rays from some late-B and early A-type stars were discovered, where neither a corona nor an important stellar wind is thought to exist. The generally favored explanantion for these X-rays is that they originate not from the star itself but from an unresolved, otherwise invisible low-mass companion (Berghöfer and Schmitt 1994). On the other hand the ONC hosts a large sample of late type pre-main sequence (PMS) stars. Einstein and ROSAT established a large catalog of X-ray sources within an area of 5’x5’, of which over 200 objects were identified as PMS stars with spectral types of F to late G (Ku $`\&`$ Chanan 1979, Gagne et al. 1995, Geier et al. 1995). These stars generate X-rays through magnetic activity and a hot corona. It has also been suggested that the Trapezium Cluster itself features a faint diffuse X-ray component from ionized material in between the Trapezium stars (Ku $`\&`$ Chanan 1979).

With the launch of ROSAT in 1990, individual X-ray sources were resolved in the Trapezium (Caillault et al. 1994; Gagne et al. 1995), however the question of a diffuse X-ray component within the Trapezium remained (Geier et al. 1995). The ASCA observatory launched in 1993 observed the Orion Trapezium cluster with its until then unprecedented spectral resolving capacity up to 10 keV. The results showed that a high temperature plasma with kT $`25`$ keV exists in the Trapezium, and 2-temperature thin thermal plasmas are more likely than single temperatures (Yamauchi et al. 1996). This is in agreement with the observations of O-stars with ASCA (Corcoran et al. 1994), which obtained spectra of $`\delta `$ Ori and $`\lambda `$ Ori characterized by two-temperature models with additional absorption attributed to a warm wind. The hot components had temperatures of kT $``$ 0.6 and 2 keV. The ASCA observations also did not observe the large flares one expects from late type T Tauri stars, but the spectra showed the existence of a variable hard spectral component associated with the Trapezium.

The physical origin of highly energetic emission from young stars is still uncertain. So far only empirical relationships exist between this emission and stellar age, size and mass of the star, as well as stellar rotation (Feigelson et al. 1993, Kastner et al. 1997). We currently classify evolutionary traces simply by observability in the radio to X-ray band. Class 0 sources are considered to be still deeply embedded and merely gravitationally collapsing cores and the spectral energy distribution peaks in the far-IR/submm range. Class I sources are accreting from a protostellar cloud and are optically obscured. The slope of these spectra is known to rise from near-IR through far-IR. Class II sources or classical T Tauri stars (CTTS) are strongly visible in the optical in the H$`\alpha `$-line but also have a substantial IR excess. Class III sources or weak line T Tauri stars (WTTS) are optically bright with little or no IR excess; see the review by Feigelson $`\&`$ Montmerle (1999) and references therein. ASCA recently detected giant X-ray flares with variable hard X-ray emission from YSOs (Kamata et al. 1997, Tsuboi et al. 1998, Yamauchi $`\&`$ Kamimura 1999, Tsuboi et al. 2000). Spectral temperatures ranged from kT $``$ 4 - 6 keV, in extreme cases up to $`>`$ 10 keV. A recent modeling of these X-ray flares from two class I protostars relates this emission to strong magnetic shearing and reconnection between the central star and the sourrounding protostellar accretion disk (Montmerle et al. 2000).

The next steps toward a better understanding of the astrophysical processes underlying high energy emission at early stages of stellar evolution can be made with the Chandra X-ray Observatory. The Orion Nebula Cluster was observed early in the Chandra mission by Garmire et al. 2000, who detected about 1000 resolved X-ray sources, the richest field of sources ever imaged in X-rays. The observation was performed with a wide field of view and therefore was best suitable for studying the overall demographics of the X-ray emission in the whole Orion Nebula Cluster. From the placement of the identified sources in the Hertzsprung-Russell (HR) diagram it was concluded that a large fraction of the cluster members with masses above 1 $`M_{}`$ are detected in X-rays, whereas the detection rate decreases rapidly for lower mass stars.

In our observations we focus on a smaller field of view around the Trapezium, which suffers from saturation effects in the Garmire et al. (2000) data. Our objective is to resolve the Orion Trapezium cluster core in X-rays and to perform a detailed spectral analysis on the bright sources as well as to study the variability of the X-ray emission. We present the results from the zero order field analysis in three parts. Paper I gives an overview of these observations but focuses on the X-ray properties of the Orion Trapezium and its very close vicinity within a radius of 15”. Paper II (Kastner et al. 2000, in preparation) then discusses identifications within the whole available field of view around the Orion Trapezium with known infrared and radio catalogs as well as with newly obtained IR observations. In paper III (Schulz et al. 2000a, in preparation) we present X-ray spectroscopy on the whole field of view. Schulz et al. (2000) also present high resolution spectroscopy of $`\theta ^1`$ Ori C using the first order spectra of the HETGS.

## 2 Chandra Observations and Data Analysis

The Chandra X-ray Observatory (Weisskopf et al. 1996) was launched on the 23rd of July 1999 into a highly eccentric 72 h orbit to allow uninterrupted observations of up to 140 ks. Chandra has an unprecedented spatial resolution of 0.5 arcsec (225 AU at the distance of the Trapezium). Besides its spatial resolving capabilities, Chandra also allows for medium resolution spectroscopy ($`E/\mathrm{\Delta }E`$=6-60) in the 0.1 to 10.0 keV band using the Advanced CCD Imaging Spectrometer (ACIS) and high resolution spectroscopy with $`E/\mathrm{\Delta }E`$ of up to 1200 at 1 keV using gratings. For detailed descriptions of the spectroscopic instruments see Garmire et al. (2000, in preparation), Markert et al. (1994) and Canizares et al. (2000, in preparation).

We obtained two observations of the Trapezium Cluster using the High Resolution Transmission Grating Spectrometer (HETGS), the first on October 31st UT 05:47:21 1999, the second about three weeks later on November 24th UT 05:37:54 1999, for durations of 50 ks and 33 ks, respectively. In this paper we report on data obtained with the CCD camera in the 0th order of the HETGS with the aimpoint on the Orion Trapezium (RA $`5^h35^m14.5^s`$ and Dec $`5^o23^{}32^{\prime \prime }`$), which was positioned on the middle of the central back-illuminated CCD device S3 on node 0. This device was unaffected by the degradation of charge transfer inefficiency of the ACIS front illuminated CCDs due to high dosage of particle irradiation early into the mission as reported by Prigozhin et al. (2000). Because the zeroth order image contains roughly 30$`\%`$ of the flux that would be incident on ACIS if HETG were not inserted, it is less susceptible to the effects of photon pileup in the CCDs. There are no apparent image distortions due to pileup, and only the CCD spectrum of the brightest source, $`\theta ^1`$ Ori C, appears to be affected by pileup.

The Chandra X-ray Center (CXC) provided aspect corrected level 1 event lists via standard pipeline processing. We reprocessed these data using the most updated calibration data products and ACIS-S detector to sky transformations available to us. We also removed all events that resulted from either bad pixels or columns as well as from flaring background events that were not removed by the CXC standard processing. The aspect solution still contains a systematic uncertainty of the order of 1-2 arcseconds. We remove these systematics by applying SIMBAD positions of 3 very bright and identified stars in the field of view. With this technique we are able to reduce any systematic offsets between the 1999 Oct. and the 1999 Nov. observations to less than half a pixel or 0.2 arcsec. All currently available calibration products are normalized to a split grade selection of ASCA grades of 0, 2, 3, 4, and 6. For the data analysis we mainly used FTOOLS 4.2, XSPEC 10.0, and custom software. Errors of the spectral analysis are based on $`90\%`$ confidence. Errors in fluxes and luminosities are based on the current status of effective area calibration on the ACIS-S3 device, which predicts uncertainties of the order of 10$`\%`$ over the energy range between 0.6 and 8 keV.

For source detection we use the standard ‘celldetect’ algorithm offered by CXC with a signal to noise threshold set to 10 $`\sigma `$. However since we allow a lower detection limit of 7 counts above background within 0.7” radius, we added a few more fainter sources to the list by hand. The average background level within this selection radius was about 1 count. This correponds to a sensitivity limit of $`3\times 10^{15}`$ erg cm-2 s-1 or a lower limit in luminosity of $`6.6\times 10^{28}`$ erg s-1 (for these estimates we applied a 1 keV Raymond-Smith model with the column density determined in section 4). In the second observation this limit is slightly higher because of the shorter exposure, resulting in a limiting luminosity of $`1.0\times 10^{29}`$ erg s-1 . Because of the likelihood of source variability we ran source detection on the two single fields of view as well as the merged fields. The sensitivity limit of the latter is 4.0$`\times 10^{28}`$sec. For the search for diffuse emission we are not bound to the source detection radius of 0.7”, but applied the detection threshold to a unit area of one arcsec2, which translates into a sensitivity limit of 2.0$`\times 10^{28}`$ erg s-1 arcsec2.

## 3 Wide Field Observations

Figure 1 shows a 160”x160” area around the Trapezium , the October view in 1a, the November view 1b. This region is relatively free of photons dispersed into first and higher orders by the gratings.

The colors in Figure 1 represent different energy bands. Red was selected for 0.1 to 1.0 keV, green for 1.0 to 1.5 keV, and blue for 1.5 to 10.0 keV. The energy boundaries were chosen to represent typical stellar spectra (Raymond-Smith models around 1 keV) for moderate galactic absorption. In this respect a star that appears red has either a very soft spectrum or appears in the foreground. On the other hand, if a star appears blue it is likely absorbed and has a hard spectrum; while if it appears white, it likely has a hard but less absorbed spectrum.

A comparison of the two star fields shows that the whole field is resolved into point sources. We detected 111 sources within a field of 160”x140”. These sources are listed in table 1 with count rates for each of the two observations, as well as the total number of detected counts in the combined (1999 Oct. plus 1999 Nov.) data set. The sources are labelled A-E for the main Trapezium stars and then by numbers and are sorted by RA (2000). So far we identified all but 6 sources in the field and we show the various references in table 1. A more thorough discussion of these identifications will follow in paper II. The central star of the Trapezium is also the brightest X-ray object in the field. Most sources, however, are very faint. Only 7 of the 111 detected sources show X-ray fluxes $`>10^{12}`$ erg cm-2 s-1 ($`>2\times 10^{31}`$ erg s-1 ). Many sources in Fig. 1 appear blueish in color. As a guideline, the central star $`\theta ^1`$ Ori C has the assumed column density (see Sec. 4) and appears more white and red in color in Fig. 1.

Clearly these blue sources are significantly more absorbed than $`\theta ^1`$ Ori C, which indicates that they either are intrinsically absorbed or lie deeply embedded in L1641. This is consistent with the earlier observation by Garmire et al. (2000). Sources in the northeastern part of the field appear more affected by this, which may indicate that many of them lie indeed embedded in L1641. There is also an indication that most X-ray sources are confined to within an 0.1 pc radius of the Trapezium, i.e the source density drops considerably to the south and west of the cluster.

A comparison of figures 1a and b show that most of the absorbed blue sources also appear to be the most variable, with flux changes of a factor 5 or more. About 15$`\%`$ of the sources in Table 1 show this behavior. However not all the blue X-ray sources are variable and it is not possible with these two observations to determine a proper variability time scale. Since most of these sources do not vary significantly within the observation intervals of 1999 Oct. and 1999 Nov., we conclude that we observe variability timescales on half a day and longer. Variability on shorter timescales may be possible (see Garmire et al. 2000), but in most cases the statistics per bin do not allow for a conclusive result. The two lower panels in figure 2 (source 78 and 65) show typical light curves obtained from these sources. In some cases we observe slightly enhanced, flare-like activity over 10 to 20 ks. Also a small fraction ($`<5\%`$) of the less absorbed sources show variability. In these sources we observe giant flares, in which the X-ray flux changes from the detection limit to about a factor 10 to 30 above within 1 to 3 ks, with decay times of 10 to 20 ks. The second panel in figure 2 (source 80) demonstrates such a behavior.

## 4 The Resolved Orion Trapezium

As a subset of the observed star field we focus in the following sections on the Orion Trapezium and its immediate environment. The positions in Table 1 for the five Trapezium stars agree well with the positions found recently by Simon et al. (1999). Figures 1c and 1d show a 30 arcsec blowup from figures 1a and 1b around the Trapezium. Some of the detected sources are too faint to accumulate a broadband spectrum and may not show well in the Figure. We mark some of the sources with circles in the field in which the detected number of counts is the larger of the two observations. Figure 3 shows a contour plot of the merged fields around the Trapezium. The results of the X-ray analysis are summarized in table 2. For the spectral fits as well as flux determinations we used one or, where applicable, two-temperature Raymond-Smith model spectra.

### 4.1 Diffuse Emission

We searched for diffuse emission within the Trapezium. This is actually very difficult because of the dominance of the point spread function (PSF, from CIAO 1.1 release) of $`\theta ^1Ori`$ C. Because of its proximity to Earth we do not anticipate a contribution from a scattering halo due to interstellar material. From the measured column density in section 4.2 we predict an 0.8$`\%`$ contribution to the surface brightness (Predehl $`\&`$ Schmitt 1995). In order to estimate the fraction of a possible diffuse emission component within the field shown in figure 1c, we removed all detected sources within a radius of 2” of the detected PSF centroid, except for $`\theta ^1Ori`$ C, A and E, which are the dominating PSFs, and summed all counts. The count fraction of the sum of $`\theta ^1Ori`$ A and E to $`\theta ^1Ori`$ C is 50.4$`\%`$. We then removed the counts within a 2” radius in $`\theta ^1Ori`$ C, A and E as well, and compared the remaining fraction to what one would expect from the modelled fractional encircled energy function of a PSF for a point source. A comparison of the measured to the modeled count fraction revealed equivalence within 1.5$`\%`$, which is within the statistical uncertainties involved. Thus with high confidence we do not detect any diffuse emission above our sensitivity limit.

### 4.2 The Early Type Stars $`\theta ^1Ori`$ A-E: Emission from Stellar Winds

The measured ACIS/HETGS zeroth-order count rates range from 0.21 cts/s for the brightest component $`\theta ^1Ori`$ C, to 0.002 cts/s for its faintest member $`\theta ^1Ori`$ D. The three brighest members, C, E, and A, appear persistently bright with X-ray luminosities (from table 1) between 1.85$`\times 10^{32}`$ erg s-1 and 2.08$`\times 10^{31}`$ erg s-1 . Their light curves (figure 2 top, for $`\theta ^1Ori`$ C) do not show variability. The ACIS spectra required more than one spectral component to give good fits. Here we applied a two-temperature Raymond-Smith model (fixed at solar abundances). The resulting fits are remarkably similar for the three stars, with all three showing a soft component between 0.80 and 0.89 keV and a hard component between 2.18 and 3.15 keV. The flux ratios of hard flux over soft flux in E and A are 0.26 and 0.40, respectively, while in C the same ratio is only 0.07. As a consequence of about 20$`\%`$ photon pileup in the CCD spectra, the results for $`\theta ^1Ori`$ C are somewhat uncertain. Here we refer to the detailed analysis of high resolution grating spectra from $`\theta ^1Ori`$ C (Schulz et al. 2000).

An important result of our analysis is the determination of the column density along the line of sight towards the Orion Trapezium. Here we make the assumption that $`\theta ^1Ori`$ A, C, and E are foreground objects projected onto L1641 and hence are not significantly intrinsically absorbed, such that they are good representatives of the column density towards the Trapezium stars. The measured column densities are very similar in all the sources and the average yields 1.93$`\pm 0.29\times 10^{21}`$ cm-2. Given the foregoing assumption, we consider that sources that show significantly higher absorption than this value are either intrinsically absorbed or lie behind the Trapezium, such that they are embedded within L1641.

The X-ray emission from $`\theta ^1Ori`$ B and D have quite different signatures compared with the other three stars. Their X-ray fluxes and luminosities are an order of magnitude lower and they appear persistent within each observation, with luminosities between 1.94 and 1.51$`\times 10^{30}`$ erg s-1 for $`\theta ^1Ori`$ B and 3.12 to 3.22$`\times 10^{29}`$ erg s-1 for $`\theta ^1Ori`$ D.

The spectral fit results of $`\theta ^1Ori`$ B and $`\theta ^1Ori`$ D are very different as well. $`\theta ^1Ori`$ B is probably the most peculiar system within the Trapezium since it is a quadruple system (Petr et al. 1998). With a separation of 0.97” from optical observations, we clearly see $`\theta ^1Ori`$ B as a double star (see figure 3), however with the dominating X-ray emission positioned on component B1. Some emission extends onto component B, however since the flux fraction of the extended emission is less than 5$`\%`$ we can only provide the peak position as a detected source in table 1. The spectral fit clearly rejects two components and the column density could not be constrained during the fit. We then fixed the absorbing column at 1.38 $`\times 10^{21}`$ $`cm^2`$, where the fit shows a very shallow minimium. To fix this parameter near the value measured for the other Trapezium stars is justified, since $`\theta ^1Ori`$ B is an identified member of the Trapezium. Independent of the column density we find that the spectral fits do not require a soft component $`\theta ^1Ori`$ A, C, and E.

$`\theta ^1Ori`$ D has the lowest observed flux of the five Trapezium stars. The fitted column density is slightly lower than observed in $`\theta ^1Ori`$ A, C, and E. The spectral fit shows that, in contrast to the other members, no hard component is present. The fit yields a temperature of kT = 0.7 keV. If we compare the flux of this spectrum to the soft flux fraction observed in $`\theta ^1Ori`$ A, C, and E, we find that it is an order of magnitude lower.

### 4.3 Young Stellar Objects and Proplyds

From the analysis of the of the two observations it is clear that the core of the Orion Trapezium Cluster harbours a large variety of hard, embedded, and variable sources. We detect several faint X-ray sources projected within the Trapezium, as well as in its close vicinity.

The X-ray light curve of source $`\mathrm{\#}`$80 (figure 2) clearly shows a quite powerful X-ray flare in 1999 October, with a rise time of 2 ks and an exponential decay time of 20 ks. During the outburst the source shows an average X-ray luminosity of 2.2 $`\times 10^{31}`$ erg s-1 , with a peak luminosity of 5.5$`\times 10^{31}`$ erg s-1 . Before the flare as well as throughout the second observation its X-ray luminosity is about a factor 20 lower. We can only accumulate a spectrum during the flare. It shows a very high temperature of 4 keV. This outburst is quite reminiscent of recent observations of hard flares in the Orion region (Yamauchi $`\&`$ Kamimura 1999) as well as the $`\rho `$ Oph Dark Cloud (Kamata et al. 1997) with ASCA . The source is identified within 0.1” with the radio source GMR 25 (Garay et al. 1987) and was also seen at 2.2$`\mu m`$ by Simon et al. (1999). From the ASCA observations it remained still uncertain whether class 0 or class I protostars could be the origin of these flares. From the radio variability, Felli et al. 1993 classified the radio emission of this source as non-thermal, which excludes a class 0 object, which should emit thermal radio emission only (Carkner et al. 1998). Since no thermal radio emission has been reported so far, and the persistent X-ray luminosity of this source (1.1$`\times 10^{30}`$ erg s-1 ) is quite strong, we conclude that this flare is associated with a Class II or III T Tauri star.

GMR 3 is another radio source detected near the Trapezium, which coincides within 0.1” with source $`\mathrm{\#}`$78. The light curve in figure 2 shows that it is persistently bright, showing some enhanced X-ray activity at the end of the second observation. This source appears deeply embedded with a column density of up to 2.61$`\times 10^{22}`$ cm-2, which is a factor 10 higher than expected for the Trapezium. Its X-ray flux is relatively constant within the first observation, but shows some variability in the second observation. The spectrum can be fit by a similar single temperature spectrum in both observations with temperatures of kT = 1.65 and 1.85 keV, respectively. It shows constant but weak thermal radio emission, which indicates a young object. The star is visible in IR as well as optical and shows strong H$`\alpha `$ emission. O’Dell $`\&`$ Wen (1994) identified this object as a proplyd. In a survey of stellar properties of the ONC Hillenbrand derived an age for this star of 1.4$`\times 10^5`$ yr. Given the properties above we conclude that the absorbed X-ray emission is associated with a class II T Tauri star surrounded by a circumstellar disk.

Source $`\mathrm{\#}`$64 is detected at 2.1$`\mu m`$ (McCaughrean $`\&`$ Stauffer 1994). It is also listed in the SIMBAD catalog as \[OW94\]161-323, although O’Dell $`\&`$ Wen (1994) do not explicitly identify this position with a proplyd. In X-rays it is highly variable, with an X-ray luminosity of 7.7$`\times 10^{30}`$ erg s-1 in the first, but below the detection threshold of 1.1 $`\times 10^{29}`$ erg s-1 in the second observation. The source is clearly absorbed and hard, however we cannot properly determine a temperature. Source $`\mathrm{\#}`$65 has very similar X-ray properties. It is identified with the thermal radio source GMR 7. Bally et al. (1998) describe this object as an externally illuminated young star-disk system ( \[OW94\]163-317 ). The light curve of source $`\mathrm{\#}`$65 is shown in figure 2 at the bottom. It does not show much short term varibility, but it appears that the source changes in flux by more than an order of magnitude on timescales of at least one half day.

Sources $`\mathrm{\#}`$58, 70, 72, and 74 were too faint to accumulate significant spectra though they appeared well above the detection threshold at luminosities between 5$`\times 10^{29}`$ and 3$`\times 10^{30}`$ erg s-1 , assuming an absorbed spectrum similar to that determined for source $`\mathrm{\#}`$ 78. Source $`\mathrm{\#}`$58 is only identified with an IR position (McCaughrean $`\&`$ Stauffer 1994), the others with thermal radio sources GMR 21, 6, and 17 (Garay et al. 1987), respectively, as well as optical (O’Dell $`\&`$ Wen 1994), and IR (McCaughrean $`\&`$ Stauffer 1994) sources. Except for $`\mathrm{\#}`$58, they appear variable in our two observations, i.e are only detected in one of them, and O’Dell $`\&`$ Wen (1994) identify proplyds within 0.3” of these positions.

In order to emphasize the strong correlation of the X-ray emission in the Trapezium with the optical emission observed with the Hubble Planetary Camera in figure 3 we overlay our X-ray data onto data from Figure 2 in Bally et al. (1998), which is a composite image from narrow band filter observations of N II, H$`\alpha `$, and O I. $`\theta ^1Ori`$ B shows emission from both components, with B1 clearly dominating. The overlaid X-ray contours clearly show that many of the proplyds are X-ray sources (e.g., sources 65, 70, 72, 74); although source 64 clearly cannot be associated with 161-322. The overlay also shows that many of the other proplyds in the vicinity do not show X-rays; however, if we lower our threshold to 3$`\sigma `$, we find enhanced X-ray emission coincident with at least two more proplyds.

## 5 Summary and Discussion

Our two observations of the Orion Trapezium Cluster in 0th order of the Chandra HETGS with a spatial resolution of 0.5” thoughout almost the entire field of view reveal many new details about the X-ray properties of the Cluster. They allow us to resolve the Trapezium Cluster entirely into point sources, study their variability patterns and perform detailed X-ray spectroscopy. Here we report on the following results:

We resolved all the emission around the Trapezium into point sources, detecting 111 X-ray sources. The cluster shows no diffuse emission above the total (both observations merged) sensitivity limit of 2.0$`\times 10^{28}`$ erg s-1 per arcsec2. Besides the five main Trapezium stars we detected six additional X-ray point sources in the close vicinity of the Trapezium. Most sources are faint. Only 12 sources have persistent X-ray luminosities above $`10^{31}`$ erg s-1 ; four of these are part of the Trapezium and are identified with early type stars. The avarage luminosity of the fainter X-ray sources is around 3$`\times 10^{30}`$ erg s-1 , in agreement with the result from Garmire et al. (2000) for solar mass PMS stars.

The two observations showed considerable variability on timescales larger than 0.5 days. Fifteen percent of the sources vary by more than a factor 5 in luminosity; the largest excursion in luminosity was from 1.3$`\times 10^{31}`$ erg s-1 to 4.1$`\times 10^{29}`$ erg s-1 . Most of these variable sources appear absorbed with column densities between 1.7$`\times 10^{21}`$ cm-2 to 1.1$`\times 10^{24}`$ cm-2 with standard deviations of 5$`\%`$ and 10$`\%`$ respectively. The three bright Trapezium stars display very similar values of line of sight column density, with a mean value of $`N_H=`$ 1.93$`\pm 0.29\times 10^{21}cm^2`$.

The most luminous source is $`\theta ^1`$ Ori C with Lx = 1.85$`\pm 0.18\times 10^{32}`$ erg s-1 . This is an order of magnitude lower than the estimated luminosity from ASCA of $`10^{33}`$ erg s-1 . If we integrate the luminosities of all sources within the ASCA point spread function, however, we get a reasonably consistent result. Stahl et al. (1993) measured a period of 15.4 days in optical and UV data, which was also seen in the ROSAT HRI data (Caillault et al. 1994). From the ephemeris given by Stahl et al. we determine phases of 0.68 for our first, and 0.23 for our second observation. From the HRI peak luminosity of given in Caillault et al. we expect luminosites of 2.3$`\times 10^{32}`$ erg s-1 and 2.0$`\times 10^{32}`$ erg s-1 , respectively, for our observations. Although the results in Table 1 are slightly lower than these estimates, they are not inconsistent given the various systematic uncertainties.

### 5.1 Early Type Stars

Efforts to model X-ray spectra from stellar winds have been quite modest since the first observations with Einstein (Seward et al. 1979). The main reason is that the theory of line radiation-driven stellar winds, which explains successfully the mass loss from a hot luminous star from UV data, could never correctly predict observed X-ray fluxes. Therefore to date no definitive models for the production of X-rays in stellar winds exist. The X-ray emission is now thought to be produced by shocks forming from instabilities within a radiatively driven wind (Lucy $`\&`$ White 1980), where hot blobs plow through rarified cool wind material well into the terminal flow of the wind (Lucy 1982). This model produces X-rays of about 0.5 keV temperature. Hellier et al. (1993) fitted high signal-to-noise PSPC spectra of $`\zeta `$ Pup with detailed NLTE models under the assumption that the X-rays arise from shocks distributed throughout the wind and allowing for recombination in the outer regions of the stellar wind. The best fits predicted two temperatures of 1.6 and 5.0$`\times 10^6`$ K with shock velocities around 500 km s-1.

We performed detailed spectroscopy on the Trapezium stars as well as for most of the nearby X-ray sources. $`\theta ^1`$ Ori A and E are the brightest sources besides C, with persistent X-ray luminosities above $`10^{31}`$ erg s-1 . None of these sources are observed to be variable by more than 10$`\%`$. All three sources are identified with massive, very early type stars: $`\theta ^1Ori`$ C is a massive ($`25`$ $`M_{}`$ ) O7V star with a recently discovered low-mass companion (Weigelt et al. 1999); $`\theta ^1Ori`$ A is identified with an eclipsing binary of 0.2” separation and a 63.43 day period; $`\theta ^1Ori`$ E is a massive early B0.5 type star, and so far no companion has been detected. The main component of $`\theta ^1Ori`$ A is not very well determined and speculations range from spectral type B0V to B1V (Lloyd $`\&`$ Strickland 1999). The nature of the companion is similarly unclear and identifications range from a low-mass pre-main sequence star (Strickland $`\&`$ Lloyd 2000) to a B8-AOV type star (Vitrichenko 1999). There are indications that $`\theta ^1Ori`$ A is even a triple system (Petr et al. 1998). The spectra of $`\theta ^1Ori`$ A, C, and E were fitted with a two-temperature Raymond-Smith spectrum of kT $``$ 0.8 keV and kT $``$ 2-3 keV. Since these sources are identified with very early type, massive stars we conclude that the X-ray spectra show X-ray emission characteristics of strong stellar winds. Specifically, in the case of $`\theta ^1Ori`$ A it is more likely that the X-rays originate from its very early type main component and not from any companion. In fact if the companion is a T Tauri star, its X-ray spectrum may only contribute a small fraction of the observed flux. If it is a late type B-star, we would not expect any X-rays at all (Berghöfer $`\&`$ Schmitt 1994). The spectral fits also agree with the results from previous ASCA observations (Corcoran et al. 1994, Cohen et al. 1996) that X-rays from early type stars have two or more temperature components.

The sources $`\theta ^1`$ Ori B and D have luminosities well below $`10^{31}`$ erg s-1 . The fainter one, $`\theta ^1`$ Ori D, shows only a soft component of 0.7 keV and we may speculate that here the wind lacks the hot component observed in $`\theta ^1`$ Ori A, C, and E, which are of earlier type. The ROSAT spectrum of $`\lambda `$Sco and $`\alpha `$ Vir, which are of similar spectral type (B1V), show similar luminosities and spectral temperatures. Here we may observe an effect, that with increasing spectral type not only the X-ray luminosity decreases but also the spectrum softens. $`\theta ^1`$ Ori B is brighter, lacks the soft component, and shows a hot component. The second member of $`\theta ^1`$ Ori B, $`\theta ^1`$ Ori B1, whose stellar type is not precisely known, seems to be the dominating source for the observed X-rays. Star B is identified with a spectral type of B3V (Abt et al. 1991), which may already be late enough to have such a weak wind that it cannot produce the X-ray luminosities observed. ROSAT observations indicate that in B-stars of later type, the luminosity decreases. Cassinelli et al. (1994) analysed several B-stars of this particular spectral type and found soft X-ray luminosities of the order of $`10^{28}`$ erg s-1 and lower, which is well below our sensitivity limit. On the other hand, star B1 is thought to be of earlier type (B1) and ROSAT observations predict X-ray luminosities of above $`10^{30}`$ erg s-1 , which we do not observe. It also remains unclear why we observe such hard spectrum.

The spectra of the early type stars in the Trapezium seem unusually hot compared to what stellar wind models currently predict. Four of the five main components, A, B, C, and E, show spectral temperatures between 2.4$`\times 10^7`$ K and 3.7$`\times 10^7`$ K, which is an order of magnitude hotter than current stellar wind models predict. In the case of $`\theta ^1`$ Ori C, Schulz et al. (2000) recently determined a temperature range of 0.5 to 6.1$`\times 10^7`$ K from X-ray emission lines. These temperatures were deduced from H-like ion species up to S XVI and Fe XXV, which rules out a significant inverse Compton continuum as suggested by Chen $`\&`$ White (1991). Babel $`\&`$ Montmerle (1997a) presented the hypothesis that in the case of $`\theta ^1`$ Ori C a dipolar magnetic field is embedded in the radiation-driven wind and X-rays are produced by a magnetically confined wind shock. In the case of the hot A0p star IQ Aur, Babel $`\&`$ Montmerle (1997b) modelled temperatures up to 9$`\times 10^6`$ K by including the effects of magnetic confinement. If in addition substantial stellar rotation was included, temperatures could be as high as 3 $`\times 10^7`$ K. Therefore it seems compelling to include magnetic field effects as well as centrifugal forces into stellar wind models for these hot stars. The fact that such high temperatures are present in $`\theta ^1`$ Ori A, B, and E, as well as in $`\tau `$Sco (Cohen et al. 1997), also shows that these effects may be more common in early type stars.

### 5.2 YSOs

Although it is now widely accepted that X-ray emission from young stars emerges from hot stellar coronae heated via a stellar dynamo, the underlying physics of this mechanism is still poorly understood. High levels of magnetic activity in connection with rotation, accretion, and/or outflows may play a key role (see Feigelson $`\&`$ Montmerle 1999 for a review). Recent imaging observations showed that the X-rays of most T Tauri stars vary on time scales of days and a substantial number of stars display high amplitude flares with time scales of hours. X-ray spectra show more than one temperature and are usually modelled with soft spectral components of 2-5$`\times 10^6`$ K and some hard components during flares of up to 3 $`\times 10^7`$ K. Montmerle et al. (2000) recently modelled the X-ray emission from a giant flare with a peak temperature of 7 $`\times 10^7`$ K in YLW 15 observed with ASCA (Tsuboi et al. 2000) with strong magnetic shearing and reconnection between the central star and the accretion disk. In the case of WL 6 (Kamata et al. (1997) the X-ray flaring is rotationally modulated (see also Stelzer et al. 1999). Montmerle et al. (2000) inferred a mass-rotation relation, in which higher mass stars are fast rotators and giant hard flares are generated through strong star-disk magnetic interactions, while lower mass stars are slower and and their X-ray emission is solely of stellar origin.

The vicinity of the Orion Trapezium harbours a large variety of YSOs. Most notable are the large number of proplyds detected with the Hubble Space Telescope (O’Dell et al. 1993). We detected 8 faint X-ray sources, where six sources are identified with radio objects, five sources with proplyds in the vicinity of $`\theta ^1`$ Ori C (i.e. proplyds 163-317, 166-316, 167-317, 168-328, and 171-334). One source is identified with a YSO in the the IR only. These X-ray sources show luminosity variations between a factor 3 and 10, and have spectra indicating that they are heavily absorbed. The X-ray emission, together with optical, IR and radio surveys (Bally et al. 1998, McCaughrean and Stauffer 1994, Felli et al. 1993) indicate that these sources are embedded Class I, Class II, or Class III protostars. We do not believe that the X-rays are generated through induced shocks by the wind $`\theta ^1`$ Ori C. First, the flux of these sources varies by large factors which we would not expect under constant illumination unless the density structure in the wind shock at the proplyds changes similarly. That would imply similar brightness variations in the optical, but no such variations have been reported so far. On the other hand, in source $`\mathrm{\#}`$78 we see variability timescales of the order of 10 min to 2 hours (figure 2). From this we deduce an upper limit of the size of the emitting region of the order of 1.0 - 12 AU, which is too small compared to size of the proplyds ($``$ 500 AU, Bally et al. 1998). Second, the spectra we analysed are intrinsically absorbed. Thus the emission likely originates from deep inside the dusty disks, rather than from the wind shock region.

In the context of recent observations of hard X-ray emission from YSOs, these results are quite remarkable; the light curves indicate that only one of the sources actually displays large flaring activity, and the others are persistent in flux with some minor activity. Very large flux variations occur only on time scales longer than 12 h. The spectra, however, indicate extremely high temperatures at quite modest luminosities, from which we conclude that the X-ray emission may not be related to star-disk magnetic interactions in connection with rapid rotation as proposed by Montmerle et al. (2000). The observed X-ray behavior of these proplyds seem more related to recent ASCA observations of SU Aurigae (Skinner $`\&`$ Walter 1998), which has been identified with a type G2 CTTS and where it was suggested that the X-ray emission arises from a magnetically confined stellar plasma. In this respect long term X-ray observations of these proplyds will not only enhance the significance of these hot spectra but also allow a search for rotational modulations and lead to better understanding of the magnetic properties and their role in the evolution of these protostars.

The authors thank John Bally for generously providing us with the HST PC image of the Trapezium. We also thank all the members of the Chandra team for their enormous efforts. This research is funded in part by the Smithonian Astrophysical Observatory contract SV-61010 (CXC) and NAS8-39073 (HETG) under the Marshall Space Flight Center.


text:
# The Cosmic Background Radiation circa 𝜈2K

## 1 CMB Anisotropies & Distortions

### 1.1 What Was Revealed in 1999/2000

As we penetrate the CMB, we go from a nearly perfect blackbody of $`2.725\pm 0.002K`$ , to a $`3.372\pm 0.007mK`$ dipole pattern associated with the 300 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$ flow of the earth in the CMB, to the now familiar motley pattern of anisotropies associated with $`2<\mathrm{}\mathrm{}<20`$ multipoles at the $`30\mu K`$ level revealed by COBE at $`7^{}`$ resolution, then at higher $`\mathrm{}`$ in some 19 other experiments (though most with many fewer resolution elements than the 600 or so for COBE). The picture was dramatically improved this year, as results were announced first in summer 99 from the ground-based TOCO experiment in Chile , then in November 1999 from the North American balloon test flight of Boomerang , then in April 2000 from the first CMB long duration balloon (LDB) flight, of Boomerang , followed in May 2000 from the night flight of Maxima . Boomerang’s best resolution was $`10^{}`$, about 40 times better than that of COBE, with tens of thousands of resolution elements. Maxima had a similar resolution but covered an order of magnitude less sky. Both experiments were designed to reveal the primary anisotropies of the CMB, those which can be calculated using linear perturbation theory. What we see in Fig. 1 are two images of soundwave patterns that existed about 300,000 years after the Big Bang, when the photons were freed from the plasma. The visually evident structure on degree scales is even more apparent in the power spectra of the Fourier transform of the maps (Fig. 2), which show a dominant (first acoustic) peak, a less prominent (or non-existent) second one, and the hint of a third one from Maxima. In the following, we describe the implications of these results for cosmology. Space constraints preclude adequate referencing here, but these are given in .

We are only at the beginning of the high precision CMB era. HEMT-based interferometers are already in place taking data: the VSA (Very Small Array) in Tenerife, the CBI (Cosmic Background Imager) in Chile, DASI (Degree Angular Scale Interferometer) at the South Pole, where the bolometer-based single dish ACBAR experiment will operate this year. Other LDBs will be flying within the next few years: Arkeops, Tophat, Beast/Boost; and in 2001, Boomerang will fly again, this time concentrating on polarization. As well, MAXIMA will fly as the polarization-targeting MAXIPOL. In April 2001, NASA will launch the all-sky HEMT-based MAP satellite, with $`12^{}`$ resolution. Further downstream in 2007, ESA will launch the bolometer+HEMT-based Planck satellite, with $`5^{}`$ resolution.

### 1.2 Primary & Secondary Processes

As we peer back in time, we reach a fuzzy wall at redshift $`z1100`$, the photon decoupling ”surface”, through which the Universe passed from optically thick to thin to Thomson scattering over a physical distance $`10\mathrm{kpc}`$, i.e., $`10\mathrm{Mpc}`$ comoving. Prior to this, acoustic wave patterns in the tightly-coupled photon-baryon fluid on scales below the ”sound crossing distance” at decoupling, $`\mathrm{}<100\mathrm{kpc}`$ physical, $`\mathrm{}<100\mathrm{Mpc}`$ comoving, were viscously damped, strongly so on scales below the $`10\mathrm{kpc}`$ thickness over which decoupling occurred. After, photons freely-streamed along geodesics to us, mapping (through the angular diameter distance relation) the post-decoupling spatial structures in the temperature to the angular patterns we observe now as the primary CMB anisotropies. The maps are images projected through the fuzzy decoupling surface of the acoustic waves (photon bunching), the electron flow (Doppler effect) and the gravitational potential peaks and troughs (”naive” Sachs-Wolfe effect) back then. Free-streaming along our (linearly perturbed) past light cone leaves the pattern largely unaffected, except that temporal evolution in the gravitational potential wells as the photons propagate through them leaves a further $`\mathrm{\Delta }T`$ imprint, called the integrated Sachs-Wolfe effect. Intense theoretical work over three decades has put accurate calculations of this linear cosmological radiative transfer on a firm footing, and there is a speedy, publicly available and widely used code for evaluation of anisotropies in a wide variety of cosmological scenarios, “CMBfast” .

Secondary anisotropies associated with nonlinear effects also leave an imprint. The photons were weakly-lensed by intervening mass, were Thompson-scattered by the flowing gas once it became ”reionized” at $`z20`$, and were occasionally Compton-upscattered, with mean fractional energy shifts $`4T_{gas}/m_ec^2`$, by nonlinear hot gas (thermal Sunyaev-Zeldovich or Compton cooling effect); the flowing cluster induces a further kinetic SZ effect. Of these secondary processes, all have the same spectral signature of a perturbed blackbody, with a $`\lambda `$-independent thermodynamic temperature perturbation, $`\mathrm{\Delta }T(\lambda ,\widehat{q})`$ — except for the thermal SZ effect.

The SZ spectral distortion is related to the Compton $`y`$ parameter, which is proportional to the line of sight integral of the electron pressure: $`\mathrm{\Delta }T`$ is negative, $`2y`$, on the Rayleigh-Jeans side and positive on the Wien side, $`(E_\gamma /T_{cmb})y`$, passing through zero at $`1378\mu \mathrm{m}`$ or 218 GHz. The COBE FIRAS experiment limits the energy injection that leads to the thermal SZ pattern to be $`\delta E_{Comptoncool}/E_{cmb}=4y<6.0\times 10^5`$ (95% CL) . It is routine now to see the (concentrated) fluctuations in $`y`$ from clusters, though the sky-average $`y`$ is predicted to be $`\mathrm{}<10^5`$. SZ anisotropies have been probed by single dishes, the OVRO and BIMA mm arrays, and the Ryle interferometer. A number of HEMT-based interferometers being built are more ambitious: AMI (Britain), the JCA (Chicago), AMIBA (Taiwan), MINT (Princeton). As well, other kinds of bolometer-based experiments will be used to probe the SZ effect, including the CSO (Caltech submm observatory) with BOLOCAM on Mauna Kea, ACBAR at the South Pole, the LMT (large mm telescope) in Mexico, and the LDB BLAST.

A secondary anisotropy not associated with the CMB photons is stellar and accretion disk radiation reprocessed by dust into the infrared and redshifted into the submm, leading to a Wien tail distortion of the CMB blackbody. This has been found in the COBE FIRAS and shorter wavelength DIRBE data, with energy at a level about twice that in optical light. Anisotropies from dust emission from high redshift galaxies are being targeted by the JCMT with the SCUBA bolometer array, the CSO (soon with BOLOCAM), the OVRO mm interferometer, the SMA (submm array) on Mauna Kea, the LMT, the ambitious US/ESO ALMA array in Chile, the LDB BLAST, and ESA’s FIRST satellite. About $`50\%`$ of the submm background has so far been identified with sources that SCUBA has found.

$`𝒞_{\mathrm{}}`$’s from nonlinearities in the gas at high redshift are concentrated at high $`\mathrm{}`$, but for most viable models are expected to be a small contaminant. Similarly, Thomson scattering from gas in moving clusters also has a small effect on $`𝒞_{\mathrm{}}`$ (although it should be measurable in individual clusters, e.g., with BOLOCAM and with Planck). The effect of lensing is to smooth slightly the acoustic peaks and troughs of Fig. 2 and induce small scale non-Gaussian effects.

### 1.3 Boomerang & Maxima

Boomerang carried a 1.2m telescope with 16 bolometers cooled to 0.3K in the focal plane aloft from McMurdo Bay in Antarctica in late December 1998, circled the Pole for 10.6 days and landed just 50 km from the launch site, only slightly damaged. In , maps at 90, 150 and 220 GHz showed the same spatial features and the intensities were shown to fall precisely on the CMB blackbody curve. The fourth frequency channel at 400 GHz is dust-dominated. Fig. 1 shows the 150 GHz map derived using only one of the 16 bolometers. Although Boomerang altogether probed 1800 square degrees, only the region in the rectangle covering 440 square degrees was used in the analysis described in  and this paper. Fig. 1 also shows the 124 square degree region of the sky (in the Northern Hemisphere) that Maxima-1 probed. Though Maxima was not an LDB, it did so well because its bolometers were cooled even more than Boomerang’s, leading to higher sensitivity per unit observing time; further, all frequency channels were used in creating its map.

Analyzing Boomerang and other experiments involves a pipeline that takes (1) the timestream in each of the bolometer channels coming from the balloon plus information on where it is pointing and turns it into (2) spatial maps for each frequency characterized by average temperature fluctuation values in each pixel (Fig. 1) and a pixel-pixel correlation matrix characterizing the noise, from which various statistical quantities are derived, in particular (3) the temperature power spectrum as a function of multipole (Fig. 2), grouped into bands, and two band-band error matrices which together determine the full likelihood distribution of the bandpowers . Fundamental to the first step is the extraction of the sky signal from the noise, using the only information we have, the pointing matrix mapping a bit in time onto a pixel position on the sky.

There is generally another step in between (2) and (3), namely separating the multifrequency spatial maps into the physical components on the sky: the primary CMB, the thermal and kinematic Sunyaev-Zeldovich effects, the dust, synchrotron and bremsstrahlung Galactic signals, the extragalactic radio and submillimetre sources. The strong agreement among the Boomerang maps indicates that to first order we can ignore this step, but it has to be taken into account as the precision increases. The Fig. 2 map is consistent with a Gaussian distribution, thus fully characterized by just the power spectrum. Higher order (concentration) statistics (3,4-point functions, etc.) tell us of non-Gaussian aspects, necessarily expected from the Galactic foreground and extragalactic source signals, but possible even in the early Universe fluctuations. For example, though non-Gaussianity occurs only in the more baroque inflation models of quantum noise, it is a necessary outcome of defect-driven models of structure formation. (Peaks compatible with Fig. 2 do not appear in non-baroque defect models, which now appear unlikely.)

### 1.4 Parameters of Structure Formation

For this paper, we adopt the restricted set of 7 cosmological parameters used in . Among these, we have 2 characterizing the early universe primordial power spectrum of gravitational potential fluctuations $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$, one giving the overall power spectrum amplitude $`𝒫_\mathrm{\Phi }(k_n)`$, and one defining the shape, a spectral tilt $`n_s(k_n)1+d\mathrm{ln}𝒫_\mathrm{\Phi }/d\mathrm{ln}k`$, at some (comoving) normalization wavenumber $`k_n`$. We really need another 2, $`𝒫_{GW}(k_n)`$ and $`n_t(k_n)`$, associated with the gravitational wave component. In inflation, the amplitude ratio is related to $`n_t`$ to lowest order, with $`𝒪(n_sn_t)`$ corrections at higher order, e.g., . There are also useful limiting cases for the $`n_sn_t`$ relation. However, as one allows the baroqueness of the inflation models to increase, one can entertain essentially any power spectrum (fully $`k`$-dependent $`n_s(k)`$ and $`n_t(k)`$) if one is artful enough in designing inflaton potential surfaces. As well, one can have more types of modes present, e.g., scalar isocurvature modes ($`𝒫_{is}(k_n),n_{is}(k)`$) in addition to, or in place of, the scalar curvature modes ($`𝒫_\mathrm{\Phi }(k_n),n_s(k)`$). However, our philosophy is consider minimal models first, then see how progressive relaxation of the constraints on the inflation models, at the expense of increasing baroqueness, causes the parameter errors to open up. For example, with COBE-DMR and Boomerang, we can probe the GW contribution, but the data are not powerful enough to determine much. Planck can in principle probe the gravity wave contribution reasonably well.

We use another 2 parameters to characterize the transport of the radiation through the era of photon decoupling, which is sensitive to the physical density of the various species of particles present then, $`\omega _j\mathrm{\Omega }_j\mathrm{h}^2`$. We really need 4: $`\omega _b`$ for the baryons, $`\omega _{cdm}`$ for the cold dark matter, $`\omega _{hdm}`$ for the hot dark matter (massive but light neutrinos), and $`\omega _{er}`$ for the relativistic particles present at that time (photons, very light neutrinos, and possibly weakly interacting products of late time particle decays). For simplicity, though, we restrict ourselves to the conventional 3 species of relativistic neutrinos plus photons, with $`\omega _{er}`$ therefore fixed by the CMB temperature and the relationship between the neutrino and photon temperatures determined by the extra photon entropy accompanying $`e^+e^{}`$ annihilation. Rather than be exhaustive when the data does not warrant it, the effect of massive neutrinos is shown in Fig. 4 for a few values of $`\omega _{hdm}/\omega _m`$, where $`\omega _m\omega _{hdm}+\omega _{cdm}+\omega _b`$.

The angular diameter distance relation adds dependence upon $`(1\mathrm{\Omega }_{tot})`$ and $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ as well as on $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m\omega _m/\mathrm{h}^2`$ . This defines a functional relationship between $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{tot}`$ and $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }`$, a degeneracy  that would be exact except for the integrated Sachs-Wolfe effect, associated with the change of $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$ with time if $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ or $`\mathrm{\Omega }_k`$ is nonzero. (If $`\dot{\mathrm{\Phi }}`$ vanishes, the energy of photons coming into potential wells is the same as that coming out, and there is no net impact of the rippled light cone upon the observed $`\mathrm{\Delta }T`$.)

Our 7th parameter is an astrophysical one, the Compton ”optical depth” $`\tau _C`$ from a reionization redshift $`z_{reh}`$ to the present. It lowers $`𝒞_{\mathrm{}}`$ by $`\mathrm{exp}(2\tau _C)`$ at the high $`\mathrm{}`$’s probed by Boomerang. For typical models of hierarchical structure formation, we expect $`\tau _C\mathrm{}<0.2`$. It is partly degenerate with $`\sigma _8`$ and cannot be determined at this precision by CMB data now.

The LSS also depends upon our parameter set: the most important combination is the wavenumber of the horizon when the energy density in relativistic particles equals the energy density in nonrelativistic particles: $`k_{Heq}^15\mathrm{\Gamma }^1\mathrm{h}^1\mathrm{Mpc}`$, where $`\mathrm{\Gamma }\mathrm{\Omega }_m\mathrm{h}\mathrm{\Omega }_{er}^{1/2}`$. Instead of $`𝒫_\mathrm{\Phi }(k_n)`$ for the amplitude parameter, we often use $`𝒞_{10}`$ at $`\mathrm{}=10`$ for CMB only, and $`\sigma _8^2`$ when LSS is added; $`\sigma _8^2`$ is a bandpower for density fluctuations at $`8\mathrm{h}^1\mathrm{Mpc}`$, a scale associated with rare clusters of galaxies. When LSS is considered in this paper, it refers to constraints on $`\mathrm{\Gamma }+(n_s1)/2`$ and $`\mathrm{ln}\sigma _8^2`$ that are obtained by comparison with the data on galaxy clustering and cluster abundances .

When we allow for freedom in $`\omega _{er}`$, the abundance of primordial helium, tilts of tilts ($`dn_{\{s,is,t\}}(k_n)/d\mathrm{ln}k,\mathrm{}`$) for 3 types of perturbations, the parameter count would be 17, and many more if we open up full theoretical freedom in spectral shapes. However, as we shall see, as of now only 3 or 4 combinations can be determined with 10% accuracy with the CMB.

Table 1 shows there are strong detections with only the CMB data for $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{tot}`$, $`\omega _b`$ and $`n_s`$ in the minimal inflation-based 7 parameter set. The ranges quoted are Bayesian 50% values and the errors are 1-sigma, obtained after projecting (marginalizing) over all other parameters. With Maxima, $`\omega _{cdm}`$ begins to localize, but much more so when LSS information is added. Indeed, even with just the COBE-DMR+LSS data, the 2-sigma contours shown in Fig. 3 are already localized in $`\omega _{cdm}`$. That $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ is not well determined is a manifestation of the $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{tot}`$$`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ near-degeneracy discussed above, which is broken when LSS is added because the CMB-normalized $`\sigma _8`$ is quite different for open cf. $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ models. Supernova at high redshift give complementary information to the CMB, but with CMB+LSS (and the inflation-based paradigm) we do not need it: the CMB+SN1 and CMB+LSS numbers are quite compatible. In our space, the Hubble parameter, $`\mathrm{h}=(_j(\mathrm{\Omega }_j\mathrm{h}^2))^{1/2}`$, and the age of the Universe, $`t_0`$, are derived functions of the $`\mathrm{\Omega }_j\mathrm{h}^2`$: representative values are given in the Table caption.

Since this is a conference devoted to neutrinos, Fig. 4 is included to show what happens as we let the fraction of the matter in massive neutrinos vary, from 0 to 0.3. Until Planck precision, the CMB data by itself will not be able to strongly discriminate this ratio. Adding HDM does have a strong impact on the CMB-normalized $`\sigma _8`$ and the shape of the density power spectrum (effective $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ parameter), both of which mean that adding some HDM to CDM is strongly preferred in the absence of $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }`$. However a nonzero (though smaller) $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ is still preferred.

We can also forecast dramatically improved precision with further analysis of Boomerang and Maxima, other future LDBs, MAP and Planck. Because there are correlations among the physical variables we wish to determine, including a number of near-degeneracies beyond that for $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{tot}`$$`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ , it is useful to disentangle them, by making combinations which diagonalize the error correlation matrix, ”parameter eigenmodes” . For this exercise, we will add $`\omega _{hdm}`$ and $`n_t`$ to our parameter mix, making 9. (The ratio $`𝒫_{GW}(k_n)/𝒫_\mathrm{\Phi }(k_n)`$ is treated as fixed by $`n_t`$, a reasonably accurate inflation theory result.) The forecast for Boomerang based on the 440 sq. deg. patch with a single 150 GHz bolometer used in the published data is 3 out of 9 linear combinations should be determined to $`\pm 0.1`$ accuracy. This is indeed what we get in the full analysis of the Table and Boomerang+DMR only. If 4 of the 6 150 GHz channels are used and the region is doubled in size, we predict 4/9 could be determined to $`\pm 0.1`$ accuracy. And if the optimistic case for all the proposed LDBs is assumed, 6/9 parameter combinations could be determined to $`\pm 0.1`$ accuracy, 2/9 to $`\pm 0.01`$ accuracy. The situation improves for the satellite experiments: for MAP, we forecast 6/9 combos to $`\pm 0.1`$ accuracy, 3/9 to $`\pm 0.01`$ accuracy; for Planck, 7/9 to $`\pm 0.1`$ accuracy, 5/9 to $`\pm 0.01`$ accuracy. While we can expect systematic errors to loom as the real arbiter of accuracy, the clear forecast is for a very rosy decade of high precision CMB cosmology that we are now fully into.