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# Dynamics of electrostatically-driven granular media. Effects of Humidity

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## Abstract

We performed experimental studies of the effect of humidity on the dynamics of electrostatically-driven granular materials. Both conducting and dielectric particles undergo a phase transition from an immobile state (granular solid) to a fluidized state (granular gas) with increasing applied field. Spontaneous precipitation of solid clusters from the gas phase occurs as the external driving is decreased. The clustering dynamics in conducting particles is primarily controlled by screening of the electric field but is aided by cohesion due to humidity. It is shown that humidity effects dominate the clustering process with dielectric particles.

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Driven granular materials exhibit complex behavior that resembles some aspects of conventional solids, liquids, and gases, yet also demonstrate some considerable differences. A key distinction that separates granular phases from their conventional counterparts is the presence of dissipation of energy through inelasticity of collisions and friction. For the gas-like phase, dissipation may be responsible for non-Maxwellian velocity statistics, and may cause the fluidized state to collapse locally, forming clusters of particles at rest . There have been some studies of this spatial inhomogeneity where energy is added by mechanically vibrating the system. Environmental effects, such as humidity and surface coating are additional factors making the physics of granular systems especially complex.

Recent studies have explored humidity effects in static granular materials consisting of large particles (about 1 mm) , but little has been done to examine the effect on dynamic systems. This wetting effect intervenes in the dynamics causing agglomeration, charging, etc.

Dynamics of large ensembles of small (below 30 $`\mu m`$) particles is even more challenging. There is a trend in technology to operate with finer particles. Fascinating collective behavior appears when small particles acquire an electric charge and respond to competing long-range electromagnetic and short range contact forces, e.g. due to wetting. Unfortunately, traditional methods to probe the dynamics of granular materials through mechanical excitation become inefficient for very small particles. Fine particles are more sensitive to electrostatic forces which arise through particle friction or space charges in the particle environment. Their large surface to volume ratio also amplifies the effect of water or other surfactants. While dry grains interact only through repulsive contact forces, wet grains attract each other through adhesion of liquid bridges between grains.

Recently, we studied the dynamics of granular materials consisting of small conducting particles through the novel technique of of electrostatic excitation. Electrostatic driving makes use of these bulk forces, and allows control by long-range electric forces. This technique enables one to deal with extremely fine powders. In Ref.  we reported on the discovery of phase transitions in electrostatically-driven granular material consisting of less than a single layer of conducting particles.

In this Letter we focus on the effects of controlled humidity on the dynamics of electrostatically driven granular materials. Studies were performed on both conducting and dielectric particles. We show that humidity does not qualitatively change the phenomenology of conducting particles. In contrast, the behavior of dielectric particles changes drastically. In particular, the dielectric medium shows dendritic clusters at high humidity, whereas the conducting medium exhibits cluster coarsening irrespective of humidity.

Apparatus. Our experimental setup is similar to that in Ref. , although important modifications were made to control the moisture level inside the experimental cell (see Fig.1). Particles are placed between the plates of a large capacitor which is energized by a constant or alternating electric field. To provide optical access to the cell, the upper plate is made of glass with a clear conducting coating. We used $`11\times 11`$ cm capacitor plates with a spacing of 1.5 mm. The particles consisted of 165 $`\pm `$ 15 $`\mu `$m and 35 $`\pm `$ 5 $`\mu `$m conducting copper spheres and 165 $`\pm `$ 15 $`\mu `$m and 85 $`\pm `$ 5 $`\mu `$m glass spheres. The field amplitude varied from 0 to 10 kV/cm and the frequencies on the interval of 0 to 150 Hz. The number of particles in the cell varied between $`10^5`$ and $`10^6`$.

To control the humidity of the system, the amount of water vapor was held constant by placing the apparatus in a sealed chamber. Before starting the experiments, the chamber was evacuated to approximately $`10^6`$ torr. To maintain low humidity at atmospheric pressure, we backfilled the chamber with dry nitrogen. Higher humidity levels were set by feeding water vapor into the chamber, and allowing the system to equilibrate for $`24`$ hrs. We measured relative humidity with a capacitive sensor whose dielectric layer equilibrates with the surrounding gas . The sensor has a linear response from 0 to 90 percent humidity, and when calibrated with the local temperature, the accuracy of this measurement is $`2\%`$. Since humidity between the plates of the experimental cell can be somewhat different from the surrounding chamber, the sensor must be placed within the apparatus to acquire an accurate measure.

Conducting particles acquire a surface charge when they are in contact with the capacitor plate. As the magnitude of the electric field in the capacitor exceeds the critical value $`E_1`$ the resulting (upward) electric force overcomes gravity $`mg`$ ($`m`$ is the mass of the particle, $`g`$ is the acceleration due to gravity) and pushes the charged particles upward. When the grains hit the upper plate, they deposit their charge and fall back. By applying an alternating electric field $`E=E_0\mathrm{sin}(2\pi ft)`$, and adjusting its frequency $`f`$, one can control the vertical excursion of particles by effectively turning them back before they collide with the upper plate.

The phase diagram for 165 $`\mu `$m copper particles is shown in Fig. 1. At amplitudes of the electric field above a second threshold value, $`E_2>E_1`$, the granular medium forms a uniform gas-like phase (granular gas). This second field $`E_2`$ is 50-70% larger than $`E_1`$ in nearly the whole range of the parameters used. This effect is also seen in the finer 35 $`\mu `$m copper particles (see Ref.  and Fig. 2). In the field interval $`E_1<E<E_2`$, a phenomenon analogous to coalescence dynamics in systems exhibiting first order phase transitions  is observed. Upon decreasing the field below $`E_2`$, the gas phase loses its stability and small clusters of immobile particles surrounded by the granular gas form. These clusters then evolve via coarsening dynamics: small clusters disappear and large clusters grow. Eventually the clusters assume almost perfect circular form. A close-up image of one of the clusters is shown in Fig.4a. After a very large time ($`t30000`$ sec) a single cluster containing about $`10^5`$ grains survives. At the final stage, a dynamic equilibrium between the granular solid and the surrounding gas persists – not all the particles join the last cluster.

We observed a very sharp peak in $`E_{1,2}`$ for the frequency range from $`0<f<2`$ Hz. In this range, the typical time for cluster formation becomes smaller than the applied field frequency. In this frequency range coarsening is not well defined because the system follows the instantaneous value of the electric field and samples through both phases each cycle. Similar behavior was observed for small (35 $`\mu `$m particles, see Ref. ), with the difference that the peak occurred at $`f12`$ Hz. This can be attributed to higher mobility of small particles which results in a smaller time scale for cluster formation.

The mechanism that allows cluster formation involves screening of the electric field by groups of particles . If spheres are in contact with each other, the surface charge will redistribute: each sphere in the cluster acquires smaller charge than that of an individual sphere due to a screening of the field by its neighbors. Details about the necessary amplitude of the applied electric field and the coarsening dynamics for 35 $`\mu `$m particles are discussed elsewhere. Data taken using 165 $`\mu `$m particles was consistent with these previous calculations.

We are interested in how humidity affects dynamics in the system. Figs. 1,2 show the $`E_{1,2}`$ line response for different humidity levels and for different particle diameters. The difference between particles in vacuum and those at atmospheric pressure with very low humidities was negligible. As the amount of water vapor increases, the clustering starts for higher values of $`E_0`$ independent of the frequency. The same is true for the $`E_1`$ line. Our measurements indicate an almost linear increase of both critical fields $`E_{1,2}`$ for larger particles (165 $`\mu `$m) and a very abrupt increase followed by a linear regime for smaller particles (35 $`\mu `$m), see Insets to Fig. 2.

The most natural reason for this increase is the addition of a cohesive force due to humidity. Water clings to the particles and the plates forming a liquid layer on the plates and around each grain. When these layers interact they create liquid bridges, which increase both the particle-plate and the particle-particle cohesion. This extra force prevents particles from moving at lower fields. Since smaller particles have larger surface/volume ratios, one expects the effects of surfactants to be more pronounced with small particles.

Dielectric particles are by definition nonconducting, and therefore should not be affected by uniform electric fields. However, materials that we consider to be electric insulators in practice are never perfect, and therefore, have some small conductivity. The resistivity of silica glass, for example, is not infinite but $`10^{18}`$ higher than that of copper. The electric force $`F_e`$ necessary to move a dielectric particle is the same as that to move a conducting particle of the same weight, however the time it takes for a glass particle to gain enough charge for this force balance is determined by the time constant $`\tau RC`$, where $`R`$ and $`C`$ are the effective resistance and capacitance of the sphere. Following the method used in Ref., the dependence of the electric force between a conducting sphere and a plate is $`F_e=ca^2E^2`$, where $`a`$ is the radius of the sphere and $`E`$ is the field in the capacitor. The constant $`c=\zeta (3)+1/61.36`$ comes from summing of infinite series derived in . If we take into account the charging process of the sphere, the electric force assumes the form (compare to the charging of a capacitor):

$$F_e=ca^2E^2(1e^{t/\tau })$$
(1)
The electric force $`F_e`$ has to counterbalance the gravitational force $`G=4/3\pi \rho ga^3`$, where $`\rho `$ is the density of the material. Solving for $`\tau `$ one derives:

$$\tau =t_0/\mathrm{log}(1\frac{\stackrel{~}{E}^2}{E^2})$$
(2)
where $`t_0`$ is the time for first jump. Here $`\stackrel{~}{E}\sqrt{4\pi \rho ga/3c}`$ is in fact the first critical field for the conducting sphere. For 85 $`\mu `$m silica glass particles ($`\rho =2.55`$ $`g/cm^3`$) one has an estimate $`\stackrel{~}{E}=2.1`$ kV/cm. In general, we expect that the value of $`\stackrel{~}{E}`$ will be slightly larger due to additional cohesion forces. We find $`t_0`$ at low humidity and applied field of 6 kV/cm to be $`10^3`$ sec. The value of $`\tau `$ for different values of humidity is given in Fig. 3.

Fig. 3b indicates that the dependence of $`t_0`$ vs the humidity level $`h`$ is in fact exponential. Indeed, all the measurements of $`t_0`$ vs $`E_0`$ for different values of $`h`$ collapse on one line by scaling $`t_0^{}=t_0/\mathrm{exp}(\lambda h)`$ with $`\lambda =19`$. This exponential (as opposed to linear) dependence of the charging time vs humidity is a strong indication of a probabilistic nature of the charging process. It may resemble features of the “asperity” regime of Refs.  of cohesion between two grains. According to Refs.  the cohesion process is dominated by random surface roughness of the grains if the thickness of the fluid layer is smaller than the typical roughness scale. Since we are working at extremely small liquid fractions, we expect that the fluid does not cover the bead uniformly. In contrast, only a very small fraction of the grain surface contributes to the charging, and this rare event is described by an exponential distribution.

As in the case of conducting particles, a surface layer of water causes glass particles to become more cohesive, but also allows faster charging of the bead surface. At low humidities, the beads charge slowly, moving with a time near $`\tau `$ for a DC charge. Because of the slow build up and release of charge, subsequent AC driving moves the particles rapidly allowing some discharge every time the plate is touched. This transient AC-driven movement depends on charging time and the driving frequency. As the humidity is increased, a layer of water surrounds the particles allowing the particles to gain and lose charge more efficiently. Fig.3a shows time before the first movement $`t_0`$ vs. the applied field for different humidity levels. Fig.3b shows the decrease in this time for a specific field amplitude (6 kV/cm).

Since the time between jump events in a dielectric at low humidity is of order $`10^3`$ sec, the formation of clusters due to field screening takes a prohibitively long time to observe. As the humidity increases, the time between events decreases, allowing an observable gas phase, but the subsequent clustering is dominated by a different mechanism than in the conducting case. Added water vapor increases the probability that collisions between particles will result in cohesion. This leads to clusters of a different type than those observed with conducting grains. Fig.4 is a comparison between a typical screening charge-dominated metal cluster and a cohesion-dominated glass cluster, both consisting of 165 $`\mu `$m particles. The metal produces smooth circular shapes (“positive surface tension”), while the glass produces a tower-like structure with many observable branches which is an indication of “negative surface tension”. We believe that due to large charging time and strong cohesion, the dynamics of dielectric particles is similar to diffusion-limited aggregation . In contrast, fast charge redistribution enhances coarsening of clusters for conducting particles.

In conclusion, we have shown that humidity has a noticeable effect on dynamics of electrostatically driven granular media. In highly conducting materials, such as copper spheres, the dynamics is manifested by coarsening which is due to screening of the electric field in dense cluster. In this case humidity aids the process by creating cohesive liquid bridges between the particles and with the plate. In dielectric materials, both the dynamics and the coarsening are dominated by humidity effects. A water layer allows the particles to gain and lose charge more efficiently leading to movement, but also creates a cohesive force that creates clusters which behave quite differently from the conducting case.

We thank Dan Blair, Bob Behringer, Leo Kadanoff, Jerry Gollub and Sid Nagel. This research is supported by US DOE, contract # W-31-109-ENG-38.


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# Fixed Point SU(3) Gauge Actions: Scaling Properties and Glueballs Work supported in part by Schweizerischer Nationalfonds Talk presented by U. Wenger

## 1 Introduction

It is well known that on rather coarse lattices with lattice spacings $`a`$ 0.1 fm the Wilson gauge action produces quite large cut-off effects. On the other hand, decreasing the lattice spacing below 0.1 fm becomes increasingly difficult for simulations including fermions. Therefore using a better, i.e. improved gauge action might well be important.

One possible way of constructing non-perturbatively improved lattice gauge theories is provided by the fixed point (FP) action approach . FP actions are classically perfect, i.e. they have no lattice artefacts on classical configurations. In particular, they possess exactly scale invariant instanton solutions. Together with fermion FP actions they form appealing formulations of non-perturbatively improved lattice QCD .

Here we present a new parametrization for FP gauge actions which we apply to SU(3). The new parametrization is much more flexible and has a richer structure than the loop parametrizations studied so far  and therefore allows to better reproduce the classical properties of the theory. In order to check the scaling behaviour of the parametrized FP action we perform a series of simulations in which we determine the critical temperature of the deconfining phase transition, the static $`\overline{q}q`$ potential and glueball masses. This paper summarizes some of the results .

## 2 FP gauge actions

We consider SU($`3`$) pure gauge theory in four dimensional Euclidean space-time on a periodic lattice. For asymptotically free theories the determination of the FP action reduces to a saddle point problem encoded in the FP equation

$$𝒜^{\text{FP}}(V)=\underset{\{U\}}{\mathrm{min}}\left\{𝒜^{\text{FP}}(U)+T(U,V)\right\},$$
(1)
where $`𝒜^{\text{FP}}`$ is the FP action, $`T(U,V)`$ is the blocking kernel of a renormalization group (RG) transformation and $`U`$ and $`V`$ are the gauge fields on the fine and coarse lattice, respectively. We use the RG transformation of ref.  where the parameters of the transformation have been optimized for a short interaction range of the FP action and improved rotational invariance. Eq. (1) represents an implicit equation for the FP action which, in principle, contains infinitely many couplings. In order to use it in MC simulations one has to find an appropriate parametrization.

## 3 The new parametrization

The main novelty in the new parametrization of the FP gauge action is the use of smeared (“fat”) links which are used to build simple Wilson loop plaquettes . To build a plaquette in the $`\mu \nu `$-plane from smeared links we introduce asymmetrically smeared links: instead of summing up all staples contributing to a smeared link we are suppressing the staples lying in the $`\mu \nu `$-plane relative to those in the orthogonal planes $`\mu \lambda `$, $`\lambda \nu `$. In this way we are able to effectively generate long and complicated loops which, however, are still very compact.

From these “smeared” loops $`W_{\mu \nu }^{\text{pl}}`$ and from the unsmeared standard Wilson loop $`U_{\mu \nu }^{\text{pl}}`$ we construct smeared and unsmeared plaquette variables $`w_{\mu \nu }`$ and $`u_{\mu \nu }`$, respectively,

$`u_{\mu \nu }`$ $`=`$ $`\text{Re Tr}(1U_{\mu \nu }^{\text{pl}}),`$
$`w_{\mu \nu }`$ $`=`$ $`\text{Re Tr}(1W_{\mu \nu }^{\text{pl}}),`$
which in turn are used in a mixed polynomial ansatz for the FP action

$$𝒜[U]=\frac{1}{N_c}\underset{x,\mu <\nu }{}\underset{k,l}{}p_{kl}u_{\mu \nu }(x)^kw_{\mu \nu }(x)^l.$$
(2)
The linear parameters $`p_{kl}`$ and the non-linear ones entering the smearing are determined through eq. (1) which is used recursively connecting coarse configurations to smoother and smoother ones. On the smoothest configuration we use the analytically calculable quadratic approximation to the FP action as the starting point .

An additional novelty is the use of local information stored in the fine configurations minimizing the r.h.s. of eq. (1) for the fitting procedure. Obviously the minimizing configurations contain much more information than just the total value of the action. To explore this information we calculate the derivatives of the FP action with respect to the gauge links in a given colour direction at each site and, together with the action values, include them in the fitting procedure for determining the parameters.

The final parametrization  obtained in this way contains five non-linear parameters entering the smearing and 14 linear ones $`\{p_{kl},0<k+l4\}`$ describing the mixed polynomial in eq. (2).

## 4 Physical results

Using the parametrized FP action we perform a large number of simulations on coarse lattices with lattice spacings $`a`$ between 0.1 and 0.33 fm in order to explore the scaling behaviour of different physical quantities. In all simulations we generate independent gauge configurations using a mixture of Metropolis and overrelaxation updates. Wherever it is applicable we make use of smearing techniques and employ variational techniques to increase the overlap of wave functions with the ground state .

### 4.1 The critical temperature

We first measure the critical temperature of the deconfining phase transition using the Polyakov loop $`L`$ as an order parameter. To do so we determine the critical couplings on lattices with temporal extent $`N_\tau =2,3`$ and 4 and various spatial volumes from the location of the peak in the Polyakov loop susceptibility,

$$\chi _LV_\sigma \left(|L|^2|L|^2\right),V_\sigma =N_\sigma ^3.$$

The location of the peak can be determined very precisely by a spectral density reweighting  which combines the data of many simulations at values of the gauge coupling near the critical value. In order to perform the thermodynamic limit we resort to the finite scaling behaviour linear in $`V_\sigma `$ as expected for a first order phase transition. The results from these extrapolations are $`\beta _c^{N_\tau =2}=2.361(1),\beta _c^{N_\tau =3}=2.680(2)`$ and $`\beta _c^{N_\tau =4}=2.927(4)`$. Finally, the critical temperature is determined through $`a(\beta _c)T_c=1/N_\tau `$.

### 4.2 The static $`\overline{q}q`$ potential

One way of examining the scaling of the parametrized FP action is by measuring the static $`q\overline{q}`$ potential $`V(r)`$ in terms of the hadronic scale $`r_0`$ and comparing the quantity $`r_0\left(V(r)V(r_0)\right)`$ versus $`r/r_0`$ at several values of $`\beta `$ (see figure 1).

We would like to stress that on coarse lattices this a non-trivial scaling test. The quality of our measurements can be seen for example by comparing our fit (dashed line) of the form Coulomb plus linear term with the result (dotted line) from measurements with an anisotropic tadpole/tree level Symanzik improved action .

The hadronic scale used above is determined from the force $`F(r)`$ between two static quarks. We use

$$r_0^2V^{}(r_0)=r_0^2F(r_0)=1.65,$$
(3)
where $`r_00.49\text{fm}=(395\text{MeV})^1`$. However, since eq. (3) needs an interpolation of the force in between lattice sites, on coarse lattices this definition of the scale is plagued by ambiguities stemming from the discreteness of the lattice points.

Another physical quantity of interest is the string tension $`\sigma `$ which describes the asymptotic long range behaviour of the potential.

Note, that here we do not aim at testing the rotational invariance of the potential. For the RGT used here this has been done at finite temperature, however, using a different parametrization of the FP action .

### 4.3 Scaling behaviour

We are now in a position to investigate the scaling behaviour of the parametrized FP action by means of the RG invariant quantities $`r_0T_c,T_c/\sqrt{\sigma }`$ and $`r_0\sqrt{\sigma }`$.

We find that these quantities scale even on lattices as coarse as $`a0.33`$ fm . As an example we display the results for $`T_c/\sqrt{\sigma }`$ in figure 2 together with results obtained with different other actions .

### 4.4 Glueball masses

In the pure gauge glueball spectrum the lowest-lying $`0^{++}`$ state shows particularly large cut-off effects when measured with the Wilson action. It therefore provides an excellent candidate for sizing the improvements achieved with the parametrized FP action. To do so we perform simulations at three different lattice spacings in the range $`0.1\text{fm}a0.18\text{fm}`$ and spatial volumes between (1.4 fm)3 and (1.8 fm)3. The scale is set by $`r_0`$ as determined in the previous section. We measure all length eight loops on five smearing levels in order to construct a wave function with a large overlap to the ground state. In figure 3 we compare the results for the lowest lying $`0^{++}`$ glueball mass measured with the Wilson action , the anisotropic tadpole/tree level Symanzik improved action  and the FP action.

Performing the continuum limit and using $`r_00.49`$ fm we obtain a mass of $`m_{0^{++}}=1627(83)`$ MeV for the $`0^{++}`$ glueball. Finally, we also determine the $`2^{++}`$ glueball mass at a lattice spacing $`a=0.1`$ fm and obtain $`m_{2^{++}}=2354(95)`$ MeV .

Measuring glueball states on rather coarse lattices immediately calls for anisotropic gauge actions. The construction of such an action using the FP approach is under way .

## 5 Conclusions

The new parametrization presented here provides a method for approximating FP gauge actions which is very general and flexible but still simple. It is possible to describe the FP actions accurately enough so that their classical properties are preserved. However, it is necessary to check the range of validity of the parametrized FP action. In view of future applications of the action in connection with a parametrized FP Dirac operator  this is of crucial importance. In addition, one has to assure that no pathologies are introduced through the parametrization. For the quantities and lattice spacings investigated so far we find that this is indeed the case. In particular, we find that these physical quantities scale even on lattices as coarse as $`a=0.33`$ fm.

Acknowledgements: We would like to thank Peter Hasenfratz for useful suggestions and discussions.


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# Squeezing mode in nuclear collisions

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## Abstract

The time dependent Schroedinger equation is solved analytically for a simplified model of moving infinite walls. A new knock-out mode is described which might occur during heavy ion collisions. The outer shell-nucleons are ionised due to the increase of level energy when two nuclei are approaching fast enough. This is analogous to the Mott effect but in contrast occurs only if the reaction time is short enough that no common ionisation threshold in the compound system is established. To demonstrate this pure nonequilibrium effect a simulation of realistic heavy ion collision by a nonlocal Boltzmann equation is performed.

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When a system with bound states is exposed to a compression beyond certain values the bound states break off and decompose into their constituents. This pressure ionisation known as the Mott transition is well established in different fields of physics. Alternatively in a many body system the density could be increased. The theoretical treatments agree in that the ionisation threshold is lowered faster than the binding energy with increasing density which leads to a cross-over and ionisation at the Mott density. These treatments rely on the fact that one has a certain degree of equilibration in the system, at least that the system has one unique ionisation threshold.

This situation is however somewhat different when processes occur far from equilibrium. Then there might be not enough time to establish a common threshold in the system. In particular if two nuclei approach each other in a heavy ion collision it takes a certain time before a compound system is established or decomposition happens at higher energies. One can easily imagine that there will be no common ionisation threshold for the 2 nuclei at the early stage of reaction. Instead we will show that this leads to a new escaping mode by squeezing states which should lead to the nonequilibrium emission of particles. The principle phenomena has already been investigated in the past as light nonequilibrium particle emission . Here we will show that with the help of an exactly solvable model of time dependent Schroedinger equation a new effect arise not described so far. The different features are transversal angular distribution and a lower bound of projectile energy that this squeezing mode to happen. There are experimental signals for dynamical particle emission . In contrast to diabatic emission of particles  limited to beam energies much below the Fermi energy we consider here the case of faster processes around the Fermi energy. After presenting the exactly solvable model we will confirm this mode by realistic simulations which will show a transversal distribution and low energy of emitted particles while diabatic emitted particles are longitudinal peaked.

Another intuitive picture is the following. The Pauli principle will forbid over-occupation of states, which should result in a Fermi gap which is closed during dissipation. Before this quasi - equilibration happens one has essentially the situation that an outer nucleon feels a rapidly increasing force due to the other nuclei and the Pauli - forbidden areas in phase space. If the speed of nuclei is high there is no many - body equilibration or dissipation but rather a shrinking of phase space for the outer nucleons during the time after first touching of the two nuclei. Therefore it is reasonable to assume a picture where the boundary of the outer nucleons is shrinking with time. We will solve such a time dependent Schroedinger equation to show that indeed the level energy of the outer nucleons goes up and eventually leads to ionisation. Since this is opposite to the Mott transition described above where the threshold decreases we call this mode squeezing mode in the following. There are similarities to the elevator resonant activation mode  where a time dependent potential inside the wall creates resonant levels which trap the particles and lift them above the barrier. Here we merely squeeze the wall.

Let us assume that the outer shell nucleons are bound states which can be parameterised by a simple one-dimensional infinite wall model, i.e. a free particle inside an infinite wall of distance $`b`$ at the initial time $`t=0`$. Then the binding energy is \[$`k_n=\frac{\pi n}{b}`$\]

$`E_n^0={\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{}^2k_n^2}{2m}}`$ (1)
and the normalised wave function

$`\mathrm{\Psi }(0,x)=\sqrt{{\displaystyle \frac{2}{b}}}\mathrm{sin}(k_nx)\mathrm{e}^{i\varphi }`$ (2)
where we note that the physical state is undetermined up to a phase $`\varphi `$ which will be employed to find a solution of the time dependent Schroedinger equation. We now solve the time dependent Schroedinger equation with the boundary condition that the wall is moving inwards with the speed $`v`$. The mathematical problem is

$`(i\mathrm{}{\displaystyle \frac{}{t}}+{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{}^2}{2m}}{\displaystyle \frac{^2}{x^2}})\mathrm{\Psi }(t,x)`$ $`=`$ $`0`$ (3)
$`\mathrm{\Psi }(t,0)=\mathrm{\Psi }(t,bvt)`$ $`=`$ $`0`$ (4)
together with the initial state (2). Of course the moving wall can be equivalently formulated as a time dependent $`\delta `$\- or Hill-Wheeler potential. This case can be considered as a special case of . The normalised solution reads

$`\mathrm{\Psi }(t,x)=\sqrt{{\displaystyle \frac{2}{bvt}}}\mathrm{sin}{\displaystyle \frac{k_nxb}{bvt}}\mathrm{exp}\left(i{\displaystyle \frac{m^2vx^2+k_n^2\mathrm{}^2bt}{2m\mathrm{}(bvt)}}\right)`$ (5)
which determines the phase $`\varphi `$, especially it leads to the initial phase at $`t=0`$

$`\varphi ={\displaystyle \frac{x^2mv}{2b\mathrm{}}}.`$ (6)
Insertion into (4) verifies the solution. In  such classes of solutions have been used to expand any initial condition at $`t=0`$. Here we want to point out that already the basic solution (5) with the extra phase $`\varphi `$ at inital time $`t=0`$ bears a physical meaning in itself. The solution (5) represents a non-separable solution. Other classes of potentials which admit a separable solution can be found in .

The probability density $`\rho `$ and current $`s`$ are easily computed

$`\rho (x,t)`$ $`=`$ $`|\mathrm{\Psi }|^2={\displaystyle \frac{2}{bvt}}\mathrm{sin}^2{\displaystyle \frac{\pi nx}{bvt}}`$ (7)
$`s(x,t)`$ $`=`$ $`2\mathrm{Im}\mathrm{\Psi }^+_x\mathrm{\Psi }=\rho (x,t){\displaystyle \frac{xv}{vtb}}`$ (8)
with $`\dot{\rho }+_xs=0`$ as it should. The kinetic energy becomes

$`E_n(t)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle 𝑑x\mathrm{\Psi }\frac{\mathrm{}^2^2}{2m}\mathrm{\Psi }^+}`$ (9)
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{mv^2}{12n^2\pi ^2}}(2n^2\pi ^23)+{\displaystyle \frac{n^2\pi ^2\mathrm{}^2}{2m(bvt)^2}}`$ (10)
which shows that even at time $`t=0`$ the initial binding energy (1), $`E_n^0=\frac{\mathrm{}^2\pi ^2n^2}{2mb^2}`$, is shifted by

$`E_\varphi ={\displaystyle \frac{E_{\mathrm{proj}}}{3}}\left(1{\displaystyle \frac{3}{2n^2\pi ^2}}\right)`$ (11)
with the projectile energy $`E_{\mathrm{proj}}=mv^2/2`$ due to the finite velocity $`v`$ corresponding to the finite phase $`\varphi `$. This means that due to a finite velocity $`v`$ of the projectile, the target system gets a phase jump $`\varphi `$ and an energy $`E_\varphi `$ immediately when they touch each other. The kinetic energy of a level increases with time as

$`E_n(t)=E_\varphi +E_n^0{\displaystyle \frac{b^2}{(bvt)^2}}.`$ (12)
Ionisation happens when this energy becomes larger or equal a now introduced threshold $`E_c`$ such that the effective initial binding energy would be $`E_n^b=E_cE_n^0`$. Consequently we obtain for ionisation

$`{\displaystyle \frac{b^2}{(bvt)^2}}{\displaystyle \frac{E_cE_\varphi }{E_n^0}}.`$ (13)
Therefore we find immediate ionisation if the phase kinetic energy $`E_\varphi `$ exceeds the threshold $`E_c`$

$`E_{\mathrm{proj}}{\displaystyle \frac{3}{1\frac{3}{2n^2\pi ^2}}}E_c.`$ (14)
For projectile kinetic energies below we have to wait long enough to reach the threshold which leads to

$`{\displaystyle \frac{b}{v}}t{\displaystyle \frac{b}{v}}\left(1\sqrt{{\displaystyle \frac{E_n^0}{E_cE_\varphi }}}\right)`$ (15)
where the first inequality comes from the restriction of the model in that there should be space between the walls left at all.

Therefore we have two cases. If the projectile is fast enough (14), roughly larger than Fermi energy, we knock out particles at the first instant of touching. This can be seen in analogy to the observation of  where a model of instantly removed walls was studied. Due to the time dependent solution here we can give the velocity criterion where such effect should happen.

For slower projectiles and fast enough reaction time to prevent many - body equilibration and larger reaction time than the critical time (15) we will have a knock-out of the outer shell nuclei as well. Both cases should be considered as a nonequilibrium mode.

The latter condition for projectiles below or around Fermi energy, (15), can be translated into a geometrical condition. For the model we assume two approaching spherical nuclei with equal radii $`R`$. The case of different radii is straightforward. The impact parameter $`B`$ should then be smaller than the sum of radii of the two nuclei $`B<2R`$ in order to allow the necessary overlap. Assuming constant projectile velocity $`v_p`$, the time between the first touching of the nuclei and the closest approach is

$`t_m={\displaystyle \frac{\sqrt{(2R)^2B^2}}{v_p}}{\displaystyle \frac{RB/2}{v}}.`$ (16)
Here we approximate the relative velocity $`v`$ of the nuclei by a constant velocity such that at a time $`t=0`$ we have the distance $`R`$ and at the time of maximal overlap we have the distance $`B/2`$, and the effective velocity $`v=v_p(RB/2)/\sqrt{(2R)^2B^2}`$ which leads to (16).

The condition for reaction time (15) together with $`2R>B`$ translates now into a condition for the geometry

$`B2R\sqrt{{\displaystyle \frac{E_n^0}{E_cE_\varphi }}}2R.`$ (17)
In other words the condition (17) gives the simple restriction on the reaction geometry concerning radii and impact parameter for which an outer bound state characterised by the binding energy $`E_n^0`$ is ionised. Rewriting (17) the condition for the projectile velocity reads

$`{\displaystyle \frac{3}{1\frac{3}{2n^2\pi ^2}}}E_cE_{\mathrm{proj}}{\displaystyle \frac{3}{1\frac{3}{2n^2\pi ^2}}}\left(E_cE_n^0\left({\displaystyle \frac{2R}{B}}\right)^2\right).`$ (18)
(19)
Therefore we have two projectile energy ranges. Either (14) for which ionisation happens immediately or for lower projectile energies than (19) we have overlap and possible ionisation if the projectile energy is not too low (19). These lower boundary in projectile energy clearly distinguishes this model from the diabatic model .

In order to draw possible predictions to observable effects one would like to have the characteristic angular distribution of such emitted particles due to phase space squeezing. Since we do not have the exact solution of the two dimensional geometry we associate approximatively the emission angle with the ratio of impact parameter to the distance of nuclei $`\mathrm{sin}\alpha =B/(bvt)`$ which corresponds to the above geometrical model. The angular distribution will be according to the momentum of the Wigner function. The latter one can be given with (5)

$`f(p,R,t)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{(bvt)}{\overset{bvt}{}}}𝑑r\mathrm{e}^{irp}\mathrm{\Psi }^+(R{\displaystyle \frac{r}{2}},t)\mathrm{\Psi }(R+{\displaystyle \frac{r}{2}},t)`$ (20)
$`=`$ $`2{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{sin}\xi }{\xi }}\left({\displaystyle \frac{\xi ^2\mathrm{cos}(n\pi )}{\xi ^2n^2\pi ^2}}\mathrm{cos}({\displaystyle \frac{2\pi nR}{bvt}})\right)`$ (21)
and $`\mathrm{}\xi =p(bvt)+mvR`$. Integrating over all allowed spatial coordinates and using the angular relation as described above we obtain the angular distribution which is momentum and impact parameter dependent. In figure 1 we see that for small impact parameter indeed there is a longitudinal emission pattern in agreement with the finding of the diabatic model . But for specific impact parameter around $`68`$fm for a projectile energy around the Fermi energy we see a clear transversal distribution.

When such ionisation due to phase space squeezing happens, one can expect small energies beyond the threshold. Therefore it should be possible to observe such a mode as emitted particles with small total energy and the angular distribution should be transversal symmetric for the emitted particles. A good plot to observe this mode would be the transverse energy versus the ratio of the transverse to total energy. The usual multifragmentation products are on a clear correlation line between these two observables. The described mode here should be visible as a correlation with small transverse energy but a large ratio between transverse and total energy.

In order to verify the existence of such a mode we solved the nonlocal kinetic equation (nonlocal BUU)  which leads to figure 2. We have used a soft parameterisation of the mean-field and realistic nuclear potentials, for details see . In the second panel we plotted the total kinetic energy of free particles including their Fermi motion. Calculating the current one could get rid of the latter motion  in order to come nearer to the experiments which leads of course to a main almost linear correlation starting from zero. An alternative way would be to use coalescence models which we want not to use here in order to maintain theoretical consistency. The particles are considered as free if their kinetic energy overcomes the binding mean field energy.

We see a separation of the energy distribution of emitted particles into two branches at $`60`$fm/c. The main line almost at $`E_{trans}/E=2/3`$ are the emitted particles due to thermal emission and multifragmentation. Besides this line we recognise some events in the right lower corner of this plot. These $`0.2\%`$ of emitted particles are due to the squeezing mode since they have distinctly smaller energy than the rest of emitted particles and are clearly transversal. Interestingly this mode is seen at the time of closest approach and again later at $`120`$fm/c where the neck structure appears. This can be understood since during the time in between this mode is shadowed and screened by the two nuclei and other emission channels.

From the right panels one sees that these emitted particles originate really from the surface and especially from the touching point. The number of indicated trajectory points is not representing the amount of emitted particles since it is only a cut in the $`(x,z)`$ plane. The total number is given in the middle panel as plot-label. From this we see that the homogeneous surface emitted particles at the beginning are very small and not due to the squeezing mode. At the time of remarkable amount of squeezed particles one sees that they come mainly from the region of overlap. Moreover the potential surface plot shows the deepening and squeezing of the potential at the touching point. Both observations suggest that these emitted particles are probably due to the squeezing mode described above.

Let us comment that the local Boltzmann equation (BUU) leads to an even more pronounced effect. Since we consider the nonlocal extension of the Boltzmann equation as more realistic we give here the smallest estimate of the effect. Moreover, the simplified picture given above neglects completely the rebinding mechanisms e.g. by mean fields which will limit the ionisation. This was a sacrifice for analytical solvability. However the realistic simulation shows that a small percentage of events might show this behaviour.

To summarise a new mode is predicted due to fast shrinking of available phase space for outer particles when two nuclei collide. The time in such collisions is too short to establish a common ionisation threshold. Instead the energy of the level increases and ionisation can occur. In opposition to the Mott transition, here the levels increase which gives rise to the name ”squeezing mode”. The characteristics of such a mode are that the emitted particles have very small total energy and are transversal. This feature and the fact that the mode appears at the beginning of the collision distinguishes it from the ”towing mode” . In a corresponding plot we could identify such events in nonlocal BUU simulations. In order to demonstrate this mode an analytical solution of the time dependent Schroedinger equation has been given.

The described mode is not restricted to nuclear collisions. Anytime when two clusters of particles collide fast enough to prevent the formation of a common threshold and long enough to squeeze the outer bound states this squeezing mode should be possible to observe.

The discussions with Jean Colin, Daniel Cussol and Jaques Normand are gratefully acknowledged which have convinced us that this mode is possible to observe experimentally. Especially to Victor Dodonov, Marco Ameduri and John Frankland we are indebted for valuable comments.


text:
# 1 Introduction

## 1 Introduction

The realization that even spin 2 excitations can be localized by a gravitating brane  suggests an alternative to compactification, since one has an infinite extra dimension but nonetheless sees four-dimensional gravity at low scales. However, it seemed a critical aspect of this proposal was the finite “volume” of the extra dimensional space since that is what permitted a normalizable zero-mode and a finite value of the four-dimensional Planck scale. However, it would be perplexing if this finite volume is truly essential, since we should expect physics to be local, so it would be strange if there were strong dependence on the warp factor far from the brane on which gravity potentially localizes.

For this reason, it is very interesting to study an AdS4 brane in AdS5, in which the tuning of cosmological terms required for a flat brane is modified. The metric is known in this case, and it is a warped geometry in which the warp factor blows up at large distance from the brane, rather than asymptoting to zero as it does in the flat brane case. Therefore, the geometry includes the boundary of AdS5 and the volume of the extra-dimensional space is infinite. Clearly, the zero mode, corresponding to a perturbation whose wavefunction in the 5th dimension is proportional to the warp factor, is nonnormalizable.

Nonetheless, since such a theory can be obtained from the flat brane scenario through an arbitrarily small reduction of the cosmological term on the brane, it is difficult to believe that there is no bound state graviton to generate four-dimensional physics. Indeed, we find that four-dimensional gravity is reproduced, due to a very light, but massive bound state Kaluza-Klein mode of the graviton. Of course the gravity we reproduce is AdS gravity, so the cosmological constant would have to be sufficiently small so that physics looks Minkowskian within the horizon size.

This is an important result, as it demonstrates that localization is a local phenomenon, as indeed it must be. A warped geometry in a local region can be sufficient to generate four-dimensional gravity independently of the behavior of the higher dimensional geometry far away. Although we explicitly analyze the AdS4 brane in AdS5, we expect this result is far more general.

For those familiar with the c-theorem in five dimensions, it might be surprising that we can have a warp factor that localizes gravity near the brane, but then rises again. However, we will show this is consistent in AdS space.

This theory probably has interesting implications from the AdS/CFT vantage point, since it includes both a Planck brane and the AdS5 boundary, which we briefly comment on here.

Furthermore, this theory gives rise to four-dimensional gravitational physics on a brane embedded into an AdS5 bulk that asymptotes to the boundary of AdS and not the interior as its Minkowski or dS cousin, thereby avoiding the no-go theorems about smooth RS branes and supergravity and possibly faciliating a realization of localized gravity in that context.

In Section 2, we review the background geometry for a single brane with a non-finetuned tension, that is with an effective cosmological constant. In Section 3 we will discuss the fluctuation spectrum around such a background. While in the dS case one still has a massless bound graviton, we will show that in the AdS case, the massless bound state is lost. However one does find an almost massless graviton bound on the brane, which we refer to as the almost zero mode. In Section 4, we argue that four-dimensional gravity is correctly reproduced. We conclude in the final section.

## 2 The Background

### 2.1 Action and Background Solution

As in the original setup , the action we consider is just that of 5d gravity with a negative cosmological constant $`\mathrm{\Lambda }^{5d}=3/L^2`$ coupled to a brane of tension $`\lambda `$:

$$S=d^5x\sqrt{g}\left[\frac{1}{4}R\mathrm{\Lambda }^{5d}\right]\lambda d^4x𝑑r\sqrt{|detg_{ij}|}\delta (r),$$
(1)
where $`g_{ij}`$ is the metric induced on the brane by the ambient metric $`g_{\mu \nu }`$.

We use the ansatz for the solution to be a warped product with warp factor $`A(r)`$,

$$ds^2=e^{2A(r)}\overline{g}_{ij}dx^idx^jdr^2,$$
(2)
allowing for the 4d metric to be Minkowski, de Sitter or anti-de Sitter with the 4d cosmological constant $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ being zero, positive or negative respectively following the conventions of .

The solutions to Einstein’s equations***Actually these solutions have been known and studied before, . It is in the references we give that they have been reconsidered in the context of localized gravity. are :

| $`dS_4:`$ | $`A=\mathrm{log}(\sqrt{\mathrm{\Lambda }}L\mathrm{sinh}{\displaystyle \frac{c|r|}{L}}),\lambda ={\displaystyle \frac{3}{L}}coth{\displaystyle \frac{c}{L}}`$ |
| --- | --- |
| $`M_4:`$ | $`A={\displaystyle \frac{c|r|}{L}},\lambda ={\displaystyle \frac{3}{L}}`$ |
| $`AdS_4:`$ | $`A=\mathrm{log}(\sqrt{\mathrm{\Lambda }}L\mathrm{cosh}{\displaystyle \frac{c|r|}{L}}),\lambda ={\displaystyle \frac{3}{L}}\mathrm{tanh}{\displaystyle \frac{c}{L}}.`$ |

(3)
The geometry of the curved solutions is characterized by a parameter $`c`$, which is determined in terms of the brane tension. In the dS case $`c`$ is the distance between the brane and the horizon, whereas in the AdS case $`c`$ is the distance to the turn around point in the warp factor. As is well known, in order to have a Minkowski solution, one has to fine-tune $`\lambda `$ relative to $`L`$; in our conventions $`\lambda =\frac{3}{L}`$. Since $`coth(x)>1`$ and $`\mathrm{tanh}(x)<1`$ for any $`x`$, we see that, $`\lambda >\frac{3}{L}`$ implies that the effective 4d cosmological constant is positive and $`\lambda <\frac{3}{L}`$ implies a negative 4d cosmological constant. The 4d cosmological constant in 4d Planck units is given by

$$4\pi 𝑑re^{2\left(A(r)\frac{1}{2}\mathrm{ln}|\mathrm{\Lambda }|\right)}$$
(4)
and is hence determined by $`c`$ alone, that is by the mismatch of brane tension and bulk cosmological constant. Since only the combination $`\mathrm{\Lambda }e^{2A}`$ appears in the equations of motion, not both, $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ and $`A`$, will be determined independently. One can use this freedom to set $`A(0)=0`$, as in . This way the cosmological constant becomes

$$\mathrm{\Lambda }_{dS}=\frac{1}{L^2\mathrm{sinh}^2\frac{c}{L}},\mathrm{\Lambda }_{AdS}=\frac{1}{L^2\mathrm{cosh}^2\frac{c}{L}}.$$
(5)
Using the value of $`c`$ determined by the jump equations one finds that the 4d cosmological constant is indeed only given by the detuning

$$M=\frac{\lambda L}{3}$$
(6)
of the brane tension without any exponential surpression:

$$\mathrm{\Lambda }_{dS}=\frac{1}{L^2}(M^21),\mathrm{\Lambda }_{AdS}=\frac{1}{L^2}(1M^2).$$
(7)
The general behavior of the three solutions is sketched in figure 1. In the fine-tuned Minkowski solution, the warp factor is just $`A=|r|`$ and the graviton is marginally bound on the brane; that is, it is a bound state at threshold. The onset of the continuum is not separated by a mass gap. Increasing the tension the backreaction on the warp factor is even stronger and even though $`A(r)`$ starts out linear in $`r`$, as in the Minkowski case, it goes to $`\mathrm{}`$ at a finite value of $`r`$, at $`r=c`$. $`A(r)`$ diverges as $`\mathrm{log}(c|r|)`$, but all components of the curvature tensor stay finite. Since the bulk solution is nothing but AdS5, the coordinate singularity we see in this particular coordinate system is just a horizon. Gravity is still trapped in the usual way. Since we increased the tension of the brane, one should expect that the marginal bound state becomes a true bound state. Formally one can even take the limit where the bulk cosmological constant vanishes altogether, $`L\mathrm{}`$, in which case one still traps gravity. The curvature vanishes identically in the bulk. The coordinate singularity reduces to the Rindler horizon of an accelerated observer in flat Minkowski space; see .

If we however decrease the tension of the brane as compared to the fine-tuned value, the backreaction on the warp factor becomes “weaker”. Even though it still starts out as $`A|r|`$ close to the brane it reaches a minimum at a $`r=c`$ and then turns around and runs toward $`+\mathrm{}`$ as $`A+|r|`$, approaching the boundary of AdS5 and not the interior. So even though close to the brane it still looks like we trap gravity in the standard way, much of the amplitude for the zero mode state is concentrated near the boundary of the bulk space. However, since the cause of losing the bound graviton arises only far from the brane, at what should correspond to low energies, one should expect localization. In the next section, we will show that four-dimensional gravity is reproduced, first by a propagator analysis, and subsequently, by showing the interesting mode analysis that gives the same result. The authors of  gave the warp factor but did not study this physics, presumably due to the absence of phenomenologists.

### 2.2 The Modified C-theorem

In the language of AdS flows the positive energy condition has been rephrased as the so called “c-theorem”  which asserts that $`A^{\prime \prime }0`$. This is one of the reasons that it was believed that localization of gravity on a positive tension brane goes together with a warpfactor that tends asymptotically to the AdS horizon, since it can not turn around. In the solution we are considering $`A^{\prime \prime }`$ is obviously positive even though our brane has positive tension, so it does not violate positivity of stress energy. Let us see how this is consistent with the c-theorem.

The derivation of the c-theorem required Lorentz invariance and hence is only valid for Minkowski solutions. Even the AdS4 brane violates $`A^{\prime \prime }0`$, since

$$A^{\prime \prime }(r)=\frac{1}{L^2}\frac{1}{\mathrm{cosh}^2\frac{c\pm |r|}{L}}$$
(8)
is positive everywhere in the bulk. Using the fact that the energy momentum tensor supporting our geometry has to be of the form

$$T_\beta ^\alpha =\text{diag}\{\rho ,p_1,p_2,p_3,p_4\}$$
(9)
what is called the ”weaker energy condition” in

$$T_{\alpha \beta }\xi ^\alpha \xi ^\beta 0$$
(10)
where $`\xi ^\alpha `$ is an arbitrary null vector translates into the condition

$$\rho +p_i0.$$
(11)
It is easy to see that energy momentum tensors supporting solutions of the general form of a warped product based on 4d Minkowski, de Sitter or anti-de Sitter space will automatically satisfy the conditions for $`i=1,2,3`$. Since

$$3A^{\prime \prime }3\mathrm{\Lambda }e^{2A}=R_0^0R_5^5=G_0^0G_5^5=(T_0^0T_5^5)0$$
(12)
the constraint on $`A^{\prime \prime }`$ from the weaker energy condition reads

$$A^{\prime \prime }\mathrm{\Lambda }e^{2A}.$$
(13)
For positive $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ this implies an even stronger version $`A^{\prime \prime }<0`$ of the standard c-theorem, $`A^{\prime \prime }0`$. However for negative $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ in general positive $`A^{\prime \prime }`$ is allowed. The solutions written down above actually saturate the bound.

## 3 Spectrum of Linearized Fluctuations

### 3.1 Gravity on the AdS brane

Despite the absence of a massless graviton, we expect physics to be continuous and to react smoothly to small changes in the input parameters, like the brane tension. If we were to lose localized gravity by going from zero to tiny negative cosmological constant, this would mean that by the very fact that four-dimensional gravity exists, we could rule out an AdS4 brane world. Similarly, one can argue that low energy physics on the brane should only probe the warp factor close to the brane, which is basically indistinguishable for the Minkowski and AdS cases, and hence should be insensitive to the eventual turn around in the warp factor. From a holographic perspective, if we probe sufficiently short distances on the brane, physics should not depend on the warp factor far away. This fact becomes even more striking when we heat up the brane universe to finite temperature. In this case a black hole will form in the bulk, and space time gets cut off at the black hole horizon, manifestly localizing gravity and hiding all the differences between the zero and negative cosmological constant scenario behind an event horizon.

Indeed, we argue that four-dimensional gravity is localized to the brane. We first argue that the propagator between two points that are sufficiently close relative to the scale set by the AdS4 curvature will reduce to the Minkowski brane propagator.

In Minkowski space, one finds  that in the conformal “z-coordinates” in which the metric reads $`ds^2=e^{2A(z)}(g_{ij}dx^idx^jdz^2)`$ the propagator can be written as

$$\mathrm{\Delta }_{d+1}(x,z;x^{},z^{})=\frac{d^4p}{(2\pi )^4}e^{ip(xx^{})}\mathrm{\Delta }_p(z,z^{})$$
(14)
where

$$e^{2A}(_z^2+3A^{}_zp^2)\mathrm{\Delta }_p(z,z^{})=e^{5A}\delta (zz^{}).$$
(15)
In the AdS case, the integral in the Fourier transform will be replaced by a sum over discrete modes, whose spacing is of order $`|\mathrm{\Lambda }|`$. So unless we want to study cosmological distance scales, the sum can still be approximated by an integral and then (15) tells us that the propagator for processes on the brane only depends on the warp factor in the vincinity of the brane.

Performing the coordinate change to the “z-coordinate”, as we will work out later, the warp factor reads

$$e^A=\frac{L\sqrt{|\mathrm{\Lambda }|}}{\mathrm{sin}\left((|z|+z_0)\sqrt{|\mathrm{\Lambda }|}\right)}.$$
(16)
For small $`|z|`$, the $`\mathrm{sin}`$ can be expanded and we obtain to leading order in $`|z|`$

$$e^A=\frac{1}{1+\mathrm{cos}\left(z_0\sqrt{|\mathrm{\Lambda }|}\right)|z|/L},$$
(17)
which is identical to the flat space form $`e^A=\frac{1}{|z|/L+1}`$ up to a rescaling in $`L`$, so that the form of the differential equation stays unchanged. The higher order corrections are accompanied with powers of $`|\mathrm{\Lambda }|e^{2c}`$ and hence are very small for near critical tension.

To complete this analysis, and demonstrate the correct polarization structure of the propagator, one would have to incorporate the effect of brane bending. This will be discussed in the mode analysis below. However, one can use the propagator analysis, as performed in Ref. , to see that the correct gravitational potential is reproduced.

In , one explicitly solves for the trace and the longitudinal components of the metric perturbation in terms of the sources (rather than changing coordinates so that the brane is bent). These solutions then set up an “effective source term” for the TT-components, which includes contributions from the trace and longitudinal components of the metric. In terms of the trace reversed metric perturbation $`\overline{h}_{\mu \nu }=h_{\mu \nu }\frac{1}{2}h\eta _{\mu \nu }`$ this effective source with stress energy only on the brane leads in flat space leads to a linearized response

$$\overline{h}_{\mu \nu }(x)=\frac{1}{16}d^4x^{}\left\{\mathrm{\Delta }_5(x,0;x^{},0)T_{\mu \nu }(x^{})\eta _{\mu \nu }\left[\mathrm{\Delta }_5(x,0;x^{},0)\frac{2}{L}\mathrm{\Delta }_4(x,x^{})\right]\frac{T_\lambda ^\lambda (x^{})}{4}\right\}$$
(18)
that contains an extra piece corresponding to the contribution of the extra scalar, that cancels the extra scalar contribution from the propagator of a massive mode. A similar analysis works in our AdS case with the scalar picking up a mass $`4\mathrm{\Lambda }`$, so that o ordinary gravity plus small corrections is reproduced.

It is important to see explicitly how the above propagator, which was treated approximately in the above, is reproduced in a mode analysis. In the next section, we solve for the modes of linearized fluctuations around the brane, so that one can explicitly construct the propagator.

### 3.2 Analog Quantum Mechanics for Transverse Traceless Modes

In this section, we study the spectrum of linearized gravity fluctuations around the dS4 and AdS4 solutions. We first consider the transverse-traceless (TT) modes, defined by

$$D^jh_{ij}=g^{ij}h_{ij}=0,$$
(19)
where the perturbed metric is

$$ds^2=e^{2A(r)}(g_{ij}+h_{ij})dx^idx^jdr^2,$$
(20)
and we have chosen axial gauge where

$$h_{\mu 5}=0,$$
(21)
with $`\mu =0,1,2,3,5`$. We will consider the non-TT modes in the next section, and in more detail in . As suggested in , the TT modes are best analyzed by transforming Einstein’s equations for the transverse traceless modes of the linearized fluctuations into the form of an analog quantum mechanics, where they satisfy a standard Schrödinger equation with a “volcano potential”, which can be derived for arbitrary warp factor, see e.g. .

Their linearized equation of motion reads, see e.g.

$$\left(_r^2+4A^{}_re^{2A}(\text{ }\text{ }\text{ }\text{ }\text{ }_{4d}+2\mathrm{\Lambda })\right)h_{ij}=0.$$
(22)
We are looking for a mode corresponding to a 4d graviton, or more generally, a spin 2 excitation of mass $`m`$; that is

$$(\text{ }\text{ }\text{ }\text{ }\text{ }_{4d}+2\mathrm{\Lambda })h_{ij}=m^2h_{ij}$$
(23)
where $`\text{ }\text{ }\text{ }\text{ }\text{ }_{4d}`$ is the 4-dimensional covariant d’Alembertian and $`m^2`$ the mass of the excitation. In the curved case, the constant shift by $`2\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ is precisely the one needed in order to recover the equation of motion for a massless graviton (defined via the reduced number of polarization states) for $`m^2=0`$. Following the by now standard procedure, going to the conformal “z-coordinate” in terms of which the metric reads

$$ds^2=e^{2A(z)}\left((g_{ij}+h_{ij})dx^idx^jdz^2\right).$$
(24)
and rescaling $`H_{ij}(z)=e^{3A(z)/2}h_{ij},`$ we obtain the Schrödinger equation of the analog quantum mechanics

$$\left(_z^2+\frac{9}{4}A^{}(z)^2+\frac{3}{2}A^{\prime \prime }(z)\right)H_{ij}(z)=m^2H_{ij}(z).$$
(25)
with the volcano potential

$$V(z)=\frac{9}{4}A^{}(z)^2+\frac{3}{2}A^{\prime \prime }(z).$$
(26)
### 3.3 The Volcano Potentials for dS and AdS

The change of coordinates to the conformally flat metric is given by

| $`dS_4:`$ | $`z(r)={\displaystyle \frac{1}{\sqrt{\mathrm{\Lambda }}}}sgn(r)\left\{arcsinh\left({\displaystyle \frac{1}{\mathrm{sinh}\left(\frac{c|r|}{L}\right)}}\right)z_0\sqrt{\mathrm{\Lambda }}\right\}`$ |
| --- | --- |
| $`AdS_4:`$ | $`z(r)={\displaystyle \frac{1}{\sqrt{\mathrm{\Lambda }}}}sgn(r)\left\{\mathrm{arcsin}\left({\displaystyle \frac{1}{\mathrm{cosh}\left(\frac{c|r|}{L}\right)}}\right)z_0\sqrt{\mathrm{\Lambda }}\right\}`$ |

(27)
where the parameter $`z_0`$ is defined as

| $`dS_4:`$ | $`z_0={\displaystyle \frac{1}{\sqrt{\mathrm{\Lambda }}}}arcsinh\left({\displaystyle \frac{1}{\mathrm{sinh}\left(\frac{c}{L}\right)}}\right)`$ |
| --- | --- |
| $`AdS_4:`$ | $`z_0={\displaystyle \frac{1}{\sqrt{\mathrm{\Lambda }}}}\mathrm{arcsin}\left({\displaystyle \frac{1}{\mathrm{cosh}\left(\frac{c}{L}\right)}}\right).`$ |

(28)
Note that while in the dS case the $`z`$ coordinate actually runs from $`\mathrm{}`$ to $`+\mathrm{}`$ in the AdS case it only runs from $`(\frac{\pi }{\sqrt{|\mathrm{\Lambda }|}}z_0)`$ to $`(\frac{\pi }{\sqrt{|\mathrm{\Lambda }|}}z_0)`$.

The resulting volcano potentials are

| $`dS_4:`$ | $`V(z)={\displaystyle \frac{9\mathrm{\Lambda }}{4}}+{\displaystyle \frac{15}{4}}{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }}{\mathrm{sinh}^2\left(\sqrt{\mathrm{\Lambda }}(|z|+z_0)\right)}}3coth(\sqrt{\mathrm{\Lambda }}z_0)\sqrt{\mathrm{\Lambda }}\delta (z)`$ |
| --- | --- |
| $`AdS_4:`$ | $`V(z)={\displaystyle \frac{9(\mathrm{\Lambda })}{4}}+{\displaystyle \frac{15}{4}}{\displaystyle \frac{(\mathrm{\Lambda })}{\mathrm{sin}^2\left(\sqrt{\mathrm{\Lambda }}(|z|+z_0)\right)}}3\mathrm{cot}(\sqrt{\mathrm{\Lambda }}z_0)\sqrt{\mathrm{\Lambda }}\delta (z).`$ |

(29)
### 3.4 The de Sitter Brane Spectrum

The volcano potential for the deSitter case is plotted in Figure 3. The general features of this potential are very similar to those of the flat space volcano of Figure 2. Both potentials have a normalizable zero mode trapped in the delta potential, whose wave function is given by the warp factor $`e^{\frac{3A(z)}{2}}`$ and decays like $`1/z^3`$. In the Minkowski case this massless graviton is a marginal bound state and the continuum of KK modes starts at $`m=0`$. In the dS case, since at infinity the potential approaches a constant value $`\frac{9}{4}\mathrm{\Lambda }`$, the onset of the continuum is only at $`m^2=\frac{9}{4}\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ and the graviton is separated by a finite mass gap from the continuum .

### 3.5 The Embedding of AdS4

The Anti-deSitter volcano potential, as shown in Figure 4, looks quite different. As remarked above, the z-coordinate only stretches over the finite range from $`(\frac{\pi }{\sqrt{|\mathrm{\Lambda }|}}z_0)`$ to $`(\frac{\pi }{\sqrt{|\mathrm{\Lambda }|}}z_0)`$. The potential diverges at the boundaries, so that we effectively create a box. As we tune the effective 4D cosmological constant from positive to negative values, the flanks of the volcano move down from $`\frac{9}{4}\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ to zero and then the potential “curls” in and we are left with a discrete spectrum of modes without a zero mode. The would be zero mode wavefunction diverges together with the warp factor $`e^{A(z)}`$ at the boundaries of the box.

Before we solve for the discrete spectrum of the quantum mechanics explicitly let us discuss why we see this behavior. The crucial point is that while the region of space bounded by the worldvolume of a single positive tension dS or Minkowski brane does not contain any part of the boundary of AdS5, for the AdS brane this is not the case.

Figures 56 summarize the difference between the flat and deSitter universes on the one hand and the AdS universe on the other hand. For the former the RS cutting and pasting procedure leads to a space that ends in a horizon on both sides. In the AdS4 case even though n the space-time we keep it looks close to the brane like we are moving towards the horizon (the warp factor decreases) eventually we have to go all the way out to the boundary. While for the flat brane, gravitons sent out from the brane never come back but fall through the horizon, for the AdS4 brane some eventually bounce back from the boundary and make it back to the brane. Effectively the 5d spacetime is a box and the gravity spectrum is discrete, at least when considered with respect to the Hamiltonian generating global time translations.

In  a coordinate transformation was given for the Poincare patch of AdS5 from written as a warped product with an AdS4 Poincare patch to the standard form. One can extend this coordinate transformation to the full global solution:

$$ds^2=L^2\mathrm{cosh}^2(\frac{cr}{L})ds_4^2dr^2$$
(30)
where

$$ds_4^2=\frac{1}{\mathrm{cos}^2(\rho )}\left(dt^2d\rho ^2\mathrm{sin}^2(\rho )d\mathrm{\Omega }_2^2\right).$$
(31)
Applying the following change of variables

$`\mathrm{tan}(\stackrel{~}{\rho })=coth({\displaystyle \frac{cr}{L}})\mathrm{tan}(\rho ),\mathrm{cosh}(\stackrel{~}{r})={\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{cosh}(\frac{cr}{L})}{\mathrm{cos}(\rho )}},`$  $`\stackrel{~}{t}=t,\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Omega }}_2=\mathrm{\Omega }_2`$   (32)
we end up with

$$ds^2=L^2\left(\mathrm{cosh}^2(\stackrel{~}{r})dt^2d\stackrel{~}{r}^2\mathrm{sinh}^2(\stackrel{~}{r})d\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Omega }}_3^2\right)$$
(33)
where $`\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Omega }}_3`$ is the 3-sphere metric on $`\stackrel{~}{\rho }`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Omega }}_2`$, $`d\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Omega }}_3^2=d\stackrel{~}{\rho }^2+\mathrm{sin}^2(\stackrel{~}{\rho })\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Omega }}_2^2`$. This can be recognized as global AdS5, see for example Note that while $`\rho `$ runs from 0 to $`\frac{\pi }{2}`$ and $`r`$ from $`\mathrm{}`$ to $`\mathrm{}`$, $`\stackrel{~}{\rho }`$ runs from 0 to $`\pi `$ and $`\stackrel{~}{r}`$ from 0 to $`+\mathrm{}`$. When we take $`r`$ to zero, $`\stackrel{~}{\rho }`$ has to go to $`\frac{\pi }{2}`$. As $`r`$ goes negative, on the other side $`\stackrel{~}{\rho }`$ now explores the region between $`\frac{\pi }{2}`$ and $`\pi `$. Using this change of variables, it is easy to see, that an $`r=const.`$ surface is embedded in global AdS5 as indicated in Figure 6.

Note that this implies an interesting realization of holography. Gravity in the bulk of our space should be dual to a theory living on the full boundary, which is composed of two pieces, the AdS4 brane and the $`S^3/Z_2`$ half-boundary of the original AdS5, with two different field theories living on them. They touch along their common boundary. According to AdS/CFT lore, any theory in AdS can be completely encoded in its boundary data, so that in the end all AdS4 bulk physics should be captured by the CFT on the disk with the brane physics encoded in the boundary data of the disk. Instead of a CFT with momentum somehow cutoff, we get a CFT with spatial cutoff (that is formulated on a disk). The reduction of the symmetry from $`SO(4,2)`$ to $`SO(3,2)`$ corresponds to the well known fact that this is the subgroup of conformal transformations that leaves a boundary invariant.

### 3.6 The Discrete Spectrum in the Volcano Potential

We now solve the quantum mechanics problem with the box-like volcano potential (29) . In order to solve the spectrum with a delta function at the bottom of a box, we first find the eigenfunctions in the box, and then look for the right linear combinations to satisfy the jump imposed on the first derivative of the wavefunction due to the delta function.

We first consider the zero tension case, where formally the delta contribution vanishesIf one actually wants to analyse the spectrum of an almost tensionless brane, the spectrum will be the same, but every other mode is projected out by the boundary condition at the brane. By just omitting the delta function we are really looking at ‘no brane’ instead of a zero tension brane.. The turn around point $`c`$ in the warp factor (3) goes to zero, the solution becomes just $`A=\mathrm{log}\left(L\sqrt{\mathrm{\Lambda }}\mathrm{cosh}\frac{r}{L}\right)`$, and we recover pure AdS5. The parameter $`z_0`$ in (29) becomes $`\sqrt{|\mathrm{\Lambda }|}z_0=\frac{\pi }{2}`$ and the resulting potential is just

(34)
with $`z`$ running from $`\frac{\pi }{2}`$ to $`\frac{\pi }{2}`$. Rescaling $`z\sqrt{\mathrm{\Lambda }}z`$, Schrödinger’s equation with energy eigenvalue $`\frac{E}{\mathrm{\Lambda }}`$ in the potential (34) can be solved explicitly and the resulting wavefunction is

$`\psi (z)=`$ $`c_1_2F_1({\displaystyle \frac{3}{4}}{\displaystyle \frac{\sqrt{9+4E}}{4}},{\displaystyle \frac{5}{4}}{\displaystyle \frac{\sqrt{9+4E}}{4}};1{\displaystyle \frac{\sqrt{9+4E}}{2}};{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\mathrm{cos}^2z}})\mathrm{cos}^{\frac{\sqrt{9+4E}}{2}}z+`$   $`c_2_2F_1({\displaystyle \frac{3}{4}}+{\displaystyle \frac{\sqrt{9+4E}}{4}},{\displaystyle \frac{5}{4}}+{\displaystyle \frac{\sqrt{9+4E}}{4}};1+{\displaystyle \frac{\sqrt{9+4E}}{2}};{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\mathrm{cos}^2z}})\mathrm{cos}^{\frac{\sqrt{9+4E}}{2}}z.`$   (35)
In order to not diverge on either side of the box we need $`c_2=0`$ and

$$E=n(n+3)\text{ where }n=1,2,3,\mathrm{}.$$
(36)
This spectrum indeed agrees with the spectrum of gravity fluctuations of pure AdS5, as can be seen to be the case by group-theoretic considerations. Unitary representations of the AdS5 group are classified (for a recent discussion see e.g. ) by the eigenvalue of the global time Hamiltonian $`E_0`$, which is the generator of the $`SO(2)`$ subgroup of $`SO(4)\times SO(2)SO(2,4)`$, and $`SO(4)`$ spins $`j_1`$ and $`j_2`$ for the groundstate from which the infinite dimensional representation is built by raising operators. The massless graviton (where masslessness is defined via the smaller number of polarization states) has $`E_0=4`$ and $`j_1=j_2=1`$. The analysis of the analog quantum mechanics amounts to decomposing the $`SO(4,2)`$ representation under the $`SO(3,2)`$ subgroup that is manifest in the warped product based on AdS4. As in 5d, these are classified by $`E_0`$ and $`s`$, where $`E_0`$ in 4d is identified with $`E`$ in 5d (the $`SO(2)`$ subgroup corresponding to global time translations of $`SO(4,2)`$ is the same as in $`SO(3,2)`$) and $`s`$ is the $`SO(3)`$ spin obtained by tensoring together $`j_1`$ and $`j_2`$. The Casimir now reads

$$C_2(E_0,s)=E_0(E_03)+s(s+1)$$
(37)
and a massless representation obeys

$$E_0=s+1.$$
(38)
So the apropriate definition of mass for a spin 2 representation is

$$m^2=C_2(E_0,2)C_2(3,2)=E_0(E_03)$$
(39)
The single massless graviton decomposes into a tower of spin 0,1 and 2 representations in four dimensions. The masses of the spin 2 excitations are

$$m^2=E_{0,n}(E_{0,n}3)\text{ with }E_{0,n}=4,5,6,\mathrm{}$$
(40)
which obviously agrees with the spectrum (36) found via the Schrödinger equation.

Upon including the brane the solution in terms of the linear combination of hypergeometric functions becomes quite complicated and we chose to study it numerically§§§ For an analytic treatment see .. A more detailed analysis of the spectrum will appear elsewhere. Let us briefly exhibit the crucial features of the spectrum as obtained via a numerical solution of Schrödinger’s equation using the shooting method.

In order to find the eigenvalues and wavefunctions for non-zero tension, we use

$$\frac{\psi ^{}}{\psi }=3\mathrm{tan}(z_0)$$
(41)
as required by the delta function in the potential as the start condition for wavefunction on the brane and then numerically solve Schrödinger’s equation outwards. For generic energy values, the would-be wavefunction will diverge at the boundary. Eigenvalues are the values of the energy for which this expression goes to zero at the boundary. Of course, this is never really zero in any numerical approximation. The shooting method relies on the fact that (for any reasonable potential) the would be wavefunction diverges to (say) +infinity if you are below an eigenvalue and then will diverge to -infinity above the eigenvalue (and then vice versa for the next eigenvalue). If one plots the wavefunction at the boundary as a function of energy, the zeroes of this function are the eigenvalues.

Figures 789 show the spectrum of low lying modes as we increase the tension. For small tension, we keep every other mode of the pure AdS5 analysis. As we increase the tension, one mode comes down to mass A more detailed numerical analysis  or an analytic treatment relying on the factorization of the hamiltonian  both show that the actual behavior for the almost zero mode is $`m^2\frac{3}{2}\mathrm{\Lambda }^2`$. $`m^2<<\mathrm{\Lambda }`$, while all the other modes stay at $`m^2=𝒪(\mathrm{\Lambda })`$. As we approach the critical tension, the potential becomes “two copies” of the pure AdS5 potential pasted together along a delta function. Indeed we have all the heavy modes of the AdS5 analysis at $`m^2=(n3)n\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ and in addition a very light mode trapped in the delta function. In the critical limit the trapped very light mode becomes the trapped massless graviton, while the densely spaced excited modes become the continuum of KK modes.

Figures 1011 show the wavefunctions of the almost massless mode and of a highly excited mode. Comparision with the shape of the zero mode and the KK-modes in the RS scenario show indeed that in the flat space limit, the former approaches the zero mode localized on the brane, while the latter approaches a highly excited KK mode, oscillating without feeling the brane at all. The low KK modes also look as expected: oscillating in the bulk but suppressed on the brane.

As we decrease the tension, the wavefunction of the almost zero mode gets broader and loses its amplitude enhancement over the KK modes, as is studied in detail in . Therefore, we would never actually be able to see four-dimensional AdS gravity and at the same time a significant deviation due to the graviton mass. For small $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$, the mass is tiny, and by the time we reach distance scales of order $`1/m`$ where the mass of the graviton should become significant, all excitations have died off anyway due to the gravitational potential of AdS. When we go to $`\mathrm{\Lambda }\frac{1}{L^2}`$, which is the maximal value we can reach for very small tension branes, the mass of the almost zero mode goes like $`4\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ and hence one should now see it contributing on the same footing as the 4d curvature effects. However since in this limit, the wavefunction is no longer bound to the brane and the almost zero mode has a mass comparable to the other excited modes, it really becomes one of the KK-modes and one no longer has four-dimensional gravity at all.

## 4 The non-TT Modes

So far we have only analyzed the spectrum of TT fluctuations. We have seen that in the AdS case, we get a massive spin 2 almost zero mode and the usual massive KK tower. This naively seems inconsistent, since the massive mode has extra polarization states that should contribute to the propagator. However, we expect a smooth flat space limit. In order to complete the analysis, we have to study the non- transverse-traceless modes as well. We will argue that although the additional modes can be gauged away up to a brane bending effect, they nonetheless contribute to the propagator, effectively reducing the degrees of freedom from 5 to 2. This will be discussed further in Ref. .

We first analyze the general form of a solution to the equations of motion and then compare this with the residual gauge transformations. We still write the perturbed metric as

$$ds^2=e^{2A(r)}(g_{ij}+h_{ij})dx^idx^jdr^2,$$
(42)
in axial gauge

$$h_{\mu 5}=0,$$
(43)
where $`\mu =0,1,2,3,5`$, but do not restrict to TT components only. We first exhibit the general form of the solution to the bulk equations of motion.

The first order equations of motion require In the $`ij`$ equations we used the zeroth order equations of motion to eliminate the terms involving the stress energy tensor on the right hand side of Einstein’s equations as in . vanishing of (where $`h=g^{ij}h_{ij}`$):

| $`55:`$ | $`(e^{2A}h^{})^{}`$ |
| --- | --- |
| $`5i:`$ | $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}_ih^{}+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}^kh_{ik}^{}`$ |
| $`ij:`$ | $`e^{2A}({\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}h_{ij}^{\prime \prime }+2A^{}h_{ij}^{}){\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}^2h_{ij}+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}g_{ij}e^{2A}A^{}h^{}`$ |
|  | $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}_i_jh+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}(^k_ih_{jk}+^k_jh_{ik})+3\mathrm{\Lambda }h_{ij}.`$ |

(44)
In order to manipulate these expressions, the following identities for covariant derivatives in dS and AdS are useful:

| $`R_{ijkl}=`$ | $`\mathrm{\Lambda }(g_{il}g_{jk}g_{ik}g_{jl})`$ |
| --- | --- |
| $`R_{ij}=g^{jl}R_{ijkl}=`$ | $`3\mathrm{\Lambda }g_{ij}`$ |
| $`_i_j_kf_j_i_kf=`$ | $`\mathrm{\Lambda }(g_{jk}_ig_{ik}_j)f`$ |
| $`_i_k^kf^k_i_kf=`$ | $`3\mathrm{\Lambda }_if`$ |
| $`_i_j^k_kf^k_k_i_jf=`$ | $`(8\mathrm{\Lambda }_i_j2\mathrm{\Lambda }g_{ij}^2)f`$ |
| $`^k_i_j_kf^k_k_i_jf=`$ | $`(\mathrm{\Lambda }g_{ij}^2f+\mathrm{\Lambda }_i_jf).`$ |

(45)
From the 55 equations it follows immidiately that $`h_{ij}`$ can be written as

$$h_{ij}=h_{ij}^{TT}+Gf_{ij}+d_{ij}$$
(46)
where $`h_{ij}^{TT}`$ are the TT components of the fluctuation which we studied in great detail before, $`f_{ij}`$ and $`d_{ij}`$ are functions of the 4d space-time only and $`G`$ is defined as\**\**\**This of course only defines $`G`$ up to a constant, which can be absorbed into $`d_{ij}`$. To be precise, we will always choose 0 as the lower bound on the integral.

$$G=^re^{2A(\stackrel{~}{r})}𝑑\stackrel{~}{r}.$$
(47)
Now from the $`i5`$ we find

$$_if_k^k=^kf_{ik}.$$
(48)
Using as an ansatz

$$f_{ij}=_i_j\alpha g_{ij}\beta $$
(49)
we see that (48) implies

$$f_{ij}=(_i_j\mathrm{\Lambda }g_{ij})\mathrm{\Phi }.$$
(50)
$`\mathrm{\Phi }`$ is what we would like to identify as the radion field. Plugging this into the $`ij`$ equation, one finds after a tedious calculation using (45) and the following property of our warpfactors

$$A^{}+G\mathrm{\Lambda }=\frac{\lambda }{3}$$
(51)
that the full system is solved by

$$h_{ij}=h_{ij}^{TT}+2G(_i_j\mathrm{\Lambda }g_{ij})\mathrm{\Phi }\frac{2}{3}\lambda g_{ij}\mathrm{\Phi }$$
(52)
where $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$ has to satisfy the following equation of motion:

$$^2\mathrm{\Phi }=4\mathrm{\Lambda }\mathrm{\Phi }$$
(53)
and the TT modes $`h_{ij}^{TT}`$ are determined by the analog quantum mechanics we analyzed before. The boundary condition at the brane demands

$$h_{ij}^{}=0=h_{ij}^{TT^{}}+2e^{2A}(_i_j\mathrm{\Lambda }g_{ij})\mathrm{\Phi }.$$
(54)
Now let us proceed to analyze the residual gauge transformations that remain after fixing axial gauge. Under gauge transformations that take $`x^\mu x^\mu +\xi ^\mu `$, the fluctuations transform as

| $`h_{55}`$ | $`h_{55}2e^{2A}\xi ^5^{}`$ |
| --- | --- |
| $`h_{ij}`$ | $`h_{ij}+(_i\xi _j+_j\xi _i)+2A^{}g_{ij}\xi ^5`$ |
| $`h_{i5}`$ | $`h_{i5}e^{2A}_i\xi ^5+g_{ij}\xi ^j^{}`$ |

(55)
where we pulled out a factor of $`e^{2A}`$ from the $`h_{55}`$ and $`h_{i5}`$ component as we did for the $`h_{ij}`$ fluctuation in (42) and $`G`$ is defined as in (47) above. In order to preserve the axial gauge (43) we require that $`h_{55}`$ and $`h_{i5}`$ stay zero, leaving us with the residual gauge transformations given by

| $`\xi _5=`$ | $`ϵ^5(x)`$ |
| --- | --- |
| $`\xi _i=`$ | $`G_iϵ^5+ϵ_i(x).`$ |

(56)
As in , the $`ϵ^i`$ gauge transformations are needed in order to gauge away the longitudinal components of the graviton fluctuations, which we already neglected by our ansatz for $`h_{ij}`$. Using (51) one can see that the residual gauge transformations (56) preserving axial gauge can indeed be used to gauge away the radion component $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$ in the full solution (52) by choosing $`ϵ^5=\mathrm{\Phi }`$.

In the presence of sources on the brane, the $`ϵ_5`$ gauge transformation leads, as in , to a bent brane in the new gauge and to a brane bending contribution to the propagator, proportional to the propagator of a scalar field of mass $`4\mathrm{\Lambda }`$. This scalar is clearly not one of the physical modes, since we can gauge it away everywhere where there is no stress energy. Hence it does not correspond to a propagating ghost. In this respect our setup differs crucially from the quasilocalized gravity model of  that was analyzed in a very similar fashion in . There, due to the additional boundary condition on the second brane the radion cannot be gauged away  and represents a real ghost. In the critical tension limit, the bending contribution is precisely what is needed to smoothly match on to the standard massless 4d graviton propagator. The absence of a Veltman Van Dam discontinuity , as the mass of the graviton goes to zero is consistent with the findings of  ††††††After completing this work, we became aware of , which obtains a similar result to . that states that no such discontinuity exists in AdS space as long as the mass $`m^2`$ goes to zero faster than $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$. This shouldn’t come as a surprise, since we preserved the gauge invariance corresponding to 4d diffeomorphisms despite the fact that we are dealing with a massive graviton. As will be explained in , these additional gauge invariances can still be used to eliminate 3 of the polarization modes.

## 5 Conclusions

In this paper, we have demonstrated that localization of gravity applies, even for the $`AdS_4`$ brane for which there is no normalizable zero mode. Although expected from the vantage point of locality and holography, it is interesting that a massive graviton generates four-dimensional gravity.

Our result differs substantially from quasi-localization models, that also had a turn-around in the warp factor that modifies gravity on long distance scales. In the existing theories, there was a ghost when four-dimensional gravity is reproduced. Furthermore, those theories required unphysical matter in order to violate the C-theorem.

Our theory should have interesting implications for holography. A complete holographic description of the setup can be given in terms of a CFT living on the disk that is the left over part of the true AdS5 boundary. In this description, all of the physics on the brane is reduced to correlators on the common boundary of the disk and AdS4. This description is however not appropriate to study local physics on the brane. For latter purpose it should be more useful to split the bulk excitations into two sets, one dual to a CFT on the true boundary, the other one to a CFT on the brane, but the precise procedure is unclear. The mass of the almost zero mode is attributable to the long distance behavior of the warp factor which is sensitive to boundary physics; presumably the mass can be understood as a consequence of the boundary CFT. Understanding how the theory on the brane is reproduced by CFT physics remains a challenge.

The much more general phenomenon of localization demonstrated in this paper might have other implications. Compactification of extra dimensional spaces is not essential to reproduce four-dimensional physics; a region of space which localizes gravity is sufficient. Furthermore, the current no-go theorems about localization in supergravity theories e.g.  relying on the asymptotic behavior of the geometry do not necessarily apply. It is important to know whether this physics can be realized in string theory.

## Acknowledgements

We want to thank M. Aganagic, O. Aharony, N. Arkani-Hamed, A. Chamblin, O. DeWolfe, D. Freedman, M. Gremm, A. Katz, A. Miemiec, A. Naqvi, L. Rastelli, M. Schwartz, and B. Wald for useful discussions. We especially thank M. Porrati, both for discussions and for sharing his results . We are also grateful to the organizers of the conferences at which much of this work has been previously reported . Our work was supported by the U.S. Department of Energy under contracts # DE-FC02-94ER40818 and # DE-FG02-91ER4071.


text:
# Lessons from lensed Lyman break galaxies: can dusty Lyman break galaxies produce the submillimetre counts and background?

## 1 Submillimetre emission of Lyman break galaxies

Measurements of the cosmic star formation density (SFD) based on surveys for Lyman break galaxies (LBGs) are affected by extinction, and attempts to correct for this effect lead to a substantial upwards revision of the SFD (Meurer et al., 1999). Since the light absorbed in the ultraviolet (UV) is reradiated in the far-infrared (FIR), LBGs affected by extinction must emit FIR radiation, which will contribute to the submillimetre background.

However, the lack of plausible counterpart LBGs in deep submillimetre surveys with SCUBA at $`850\mu \text{m}`$ (Hughes et al., 1998) has given rise to the view that the submillimetre galaxies form a separate population which is not represented in LBG samples in the first place, a point of view which has been the subject of considerable debate. We here discuss the relation between the LBGs and the submillimetre galaxies in the light of existing data on submillimetre source counts and background radiation, and recent measurements of submillimetre emission from LBGs, including lensed LBGs.

The expected submillimetre emission from the population of LBGs has recently been estimated based on the observed (if not entirely understood) correlation between the spectral index $`\beta `$ in the UV (defined by the relation $`f_\lambda \lambda ^\beta `$) and the ratio of FIR to UV flux in a sample of local galaxies observed with the IUE satellite (Meurer et al., 1999). Applying this relation to the LBG population, Adelberger and Steidel (2000) found that the submillimetre counts and integrated background can be accounted for. As noted by these authors, these estimates are still uncertain, since the validity of the $`\beta `$-FIR/UV correlation at high redshift has not been established, and important ingredients in the analysis such as the distribution of $`\beta `$ values and its dependence on magnitude, and the luminosity function at faint magnitudes are poorly constrained. It is therefore necessary to verify this analysis by direct submillimetre observations of LBGs.

The predicted $`850\mu \text{m}`$ fluxes for most LBGs based on their UV properties (Adelberger and Steidel, 2000) are $`1\text{mJy}`$ or less, which is too faint for current instrumentation. However, some of the reddest LBGs are predicted to produce detectable $`850\mu \text{m}`$ emission and a sample of such LBGs can be selected based on their observed rest-frame UV color and magnitude. However, a deep search for $`850\mu \text{m}`$ emission from a sample of 8 LBGs predicted to have $`S_{850}>1\text{mJy}`$ produced only one detection; it was concluded that the $`\beta `$-FIR/UV correlation overpredicted the FIR emission by at least a factor of two (Chapman et al., 2000). Recently, it has been argued, based on an analysis of structure in the faint $`850\mu \text{m}`$ emission of the Hubble Deep Field (HDF), that the LBGs contribute at least 25% but at most 50% of the submillimetre background (Peacock et al., 2000). These results indicate that the LBGs do contribute to the submillimetre background in a significant way, but that they do not produce a dominant contribution.

## 2 Lessons from strongly lensed Lyman break galaxies

Submillimetre observations of LBGs are significantly easier if strongly lensed LBGs are targeted. We have used SCUBA on the JCMT to observe two strongly lensed LBGs: the object cB58 at $`z=2.72`$ lensed by the cluster $`\mathrm{MS}\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}1512}+36`$ (Yee et al., 1996) and the object G1 at $`z=4.92`$ lensed by the cluster $`\mathrm{MS}\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}1358}+62`$ (Franx et al., 1997). Rest-frame UV colors indicate significant reddening in both of these objects (Ellingson et al., 1996; Soifer et al., 1998). In cB58, the Balmer decrement also indicates the presence of extinction (Teplitz et al., 2000) and in fact cB58 is among the reddest quartile of LBGs (Steidel et al., 1999). For both galaxies, the method of predicting the FIR emission based on the UV spectral slopes $`\beta `$ (Bechtold et al., 1997; Pettini et al., 2000; Soifer et al., 1998) combined with the flux densities at $`1600\text{Å}`$ in the rest frame implies strong $`850\mu \text{m}`$ emission (Table 1). The results of our SCUBA measurements are given in Table 1. The object cB58 is detected at the $`4.7\sigma `$ level; this detection is confirmed by independent measurements at $`250\text{GHz}`$ with the MAMBO instrument at the IRAM $`30\text{m}`$ telescope (Baker, 2001). The object G1 was not detected; the quoted upper limit comes from a combination of SCUBA photometry at the position of the brightest knot and SCUBA mapping of the lensing cluster. In both cases the procedure of predicting the submillimetre flux from the observed color and magnitude in the rest-frame UV (Adelberger and Steidel, 2000) overpredicts the submillimetre emission. The magnitude of the discrepancies is illustrated in Fig. 1. While for G1 the discrepancy is not significant, given the scatter in the $`\beta `$-FIR/UV relation, the discrepancy of a factor 14 for cB58 is highly significant. These estimates should be independent of gravitational lensing if the UV and FIR radiation originate from the same region, which is a requirement for a meaningful prediction of FIR radiation fom UV properties.

Since for cB58 the discrepancy is so large, it cannot be attributed to uncertainties, whether in the observations or in the analysis. For instance, photometric errors (which would affect the determination of $`\beta `$) are of minor importance, since this galaxy is lensed and therefore relatively bright. The largest uncertainty in the predicted $`850\mu \text{m}`$ flux comes from converting the derived FIR luminosity into a monochromatic flux density at the observing wavelength, which involves the adoption of a FIR spectral energy distribution (SED). For instance, exceptionally hot dust emission would produce a relatively small $`850\mu \text{m}`$ flux. However, the range of plausible SEDs based on data of local galaxies introduces at most a factor 2 uncertainty in the predicted $`850\mu \text{m}`$ flux density (Adelberger and Steidel, 2000).

A final cause of uncertainty in the analysis is introduced by differential lensing, if the effective amplification factor of cB58 in the UV is a factor 14 higher than that in the FIR. A large discrepancy can only be introduced if most of the UV emission comes from the most strongly amplified portions of the source near the caustic, while most of the FIR emission comes from more weakly lensed regions. This situation would require a very different distribution of FIR and UV emission, which is not impossible, as shown by the example of the nearby starburst merger $`\mathrm{NGC}\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}4048}4039`$ where the dominant region of obscured star formation as revealed by SCUBA mapping at $`850\mu \text{m}`$ (Van der Werf et al., 2001) is spatially separated from the light dominating the blue and ultraviolet fluxes. However, an extinction correction based on UV properties of one region of a galaxy will not be able to predict the submillimetre emission in a completely different region of the system. Therefore, if differential lensing plays a major role, the physical basis of using the $`\beta `$-FIR/UV correlation disappears. For cB58, a lensing model based on new HST data shows that the amplification factor is at least a factor of 5 at every position, and that the intensity-weighted amplification factor in the UV is about a factor of 25 (on both sides of the fold in the arc, so that the total amplification is approximately a factor 50). Thus differential lensing can account for a discrepancy of at most a factor of 5, but probably a lot less, since UV and FIR emission should have a similar morphology for the $`\beta `$-FIR/UV correlation to work.

## 3 Discussion and conclusions

These results demonstrate that attempts to produce the submillimetre counts and background based on an extinction correction applied to the LBG population (Adelberger and Steidel, 2000) are fraught with considerable uncertainty, and fail in the case of the two lensed LBGs discussed here. While our sample is small, the results argue against the validity of the low redshift $`\beta `$-FIR/UV correlation in the case of LBGs. Even if the local correlation were valid for high redshift galaxies as well, it still would not be able to produce the brighter submillimetre galaxies. These objects have luminosities putting them in the class of the ultraluminous infrared galaxies (ULIGs), which do not follow the $`\beta `$-FIR/UV correlation, as shown by recent HST-STIS data of a sample of nearby ULIGs. Since these galaxies already account for $`50\%`$ of the submillimetre background, it is not possible for the LBGs to produce a dominant fraction (let alone all) of the submillimetre background. A more likely situation is that the LBGs account for 25 to 50% of the submillimetre background as indicated by the faint structure in the HDF at $`850\mu \text{m}`$ (Peacock et al., 2000), but that the dominant part of the submillimetre background is made by a small number of ULIGs, which are either not detected in LBG surveys, or if they are detected, cannot be reliably corrected for extinction, in the same way that local ULIGs cannot be extinction corrected based on UV data.

In summary therefore, these results support the view that the brighter $`850\mu \text{m}`$ galaxies making at least 50% of the submillimetre background, form a population which cannot be reliably reproduced by extinction corrections applied to the LBG population.