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# The first BritGrav meeting, Southampton, 27/28 March 2001

Many relativists now working in Britain have good memories of the Pacific Coast, Midwest or Nickel and Dime meetings from their postdocs in the US. So it seemed natural to establish a similar annual meeting in Britain, and the Southampton GR group gave it a try.

The two distinguishing features of the US regional meetings are very short talks, and keeping it simple and cheap. This concept proved a success east of the Atlantic too: 81 people attended, giving 47 10-minute plenary talks over the two days. 12 of the talks were by PhD students, and 8 by postdocs: a proportion we hope to increase in the future!

On the two days, talks were only roughly grouped by subject. The distribution of topics differed noticeably from those of recent US regional meetings. Below are the abstracts of all talks in the order in which they were given. (The electronic preprint references have been added by the organizers at the request of xxx admin, and are indicative only.)

The BritGrav02 meeting will be organised by Henk van Elst and Reza Tavakol at Queen Mary and Westfield College, London. All enquiries to them: H.van.Elst@qmw.ac.uk and r.tavakol@maths.qmw.ac.uk.

1. Carlos Sopuerta, U Portsmouth, carlos.sopuerta@port.ac.uk

Dynamics of irrotational dust matter in the long wavelength approximation

We report results on the long wavelength iteration of the general relativistic equations for irrotational dust matter in the covariant fluid approach. In particular, we discuss the dynamics of these models during the approach to any spacelike singularity where a BKL-type evolution is expected, studying the validity of this approximation scheme and the role of the magnetic part of the Weyl tensor.
2. Spyros S Kouris, U York, ssk101@york.ac.uk

Large-distance behavior of graviton two-point functions in de Sitter spacetime (gr-qc/0004097)

It has been observed that the graviton two-point functions in de Sitter spacetime in various gauges grow as the distance between the two points increases. We show that this behavior is a gauge artifact in a non-covariant gauge. We argue that it is also a gauge artifact in a two-parameter family of covariant gauges. In particular, we show that the two-point function of the linearized Weyl tensor is well-behaved at large distances.
3. Stanislav Babak, U Cardiff, Stanislav.Babak@astro.cf.ac.uk

Finite-range gravity and its role in cosmology, black holes and gravitational waves

The Field Theoretical approach to gravity provides us with a natural way to modify general relativity. In this paper we have considered a two parameter family of theories of a finite-range gravitational field. To give a proper physical interpretation, we have considered the exact solutions of linearised equations. They describe plane gravitational waves and static spherically symmetric gravitational field. A certain choice of sign of the free parameters allows us to associate these free parameters with the rest masses of longitudinal and transverse gravitons. In the static and spherically symmetric problem we have obtained Yukawa-type gravitational potentials instead of Coulomb-type and the gravitational field becomes finite ranged. Applying the theory of finite-range gravitational field to the homogeneous and isotropic Universe, we have shown that even a very small mass of longitudinal graviton can drastically alter the late-time evolution of the Universe. According to the sign of the free parameters, the expansion of the Universe either slows down or gains an additional acceleration. Numerical and semi-analytical solutions of the exact field equations for the static and spherically symmetric problem (Schwarzschild-like solution) were obtained. It has been demonstrated that the event horizon occurs at the location of the physical singularity. That is, a regular event horizon is unstable with respect to ascribing graviton with a non-zero rest mass.
4. Cristiano Germani, U Portsmouth, Cristiano.Germani@port.ac.uk

Gravitational collapse in the brane

Abstract: We discuss some aspects of gravitational collapse in the brane world scenario, focusing on the 4-D brane and new features arising from the modified Einstein equations. In particular we report results on collapse of a pure Weyl field and the possible formation of a pure Weyl-charged black hole whose metric is formally that of Reissner-Nordstrom, but with no mass and a negative charge term.
5. Jorma Louko, U Nottingham, jorma.louko@maths.nottingham.ac.uk

Brane worlds with bolts

We construct a brane-world model that has one compact extra dimension on the brane, two extra dimensions in the bulk, and a nonvanishing bulk magnetic field. The main new feature is that the bulk has no horizons that could develop singularities upon the addition of perturbations. The static scalar propagator is calculated on the brane and shown not to see the extra dimensions in the large distance limit. We argue, in part on grounds of an exact nonlinear gravitational wave solution on the brane-world background, that a similar result should hold for linearised gravity.
6. M.L. Fil’chenkov, Peoples’ Friendship University, Moscow, fil@agmar.ru

Tunnelling models of creation and collapse

The early Universe and late collapse are considered in terms of quantum tunnelling through some potential barrier constructed from Einstein’s equations. Wave functions, energy levels and a penetration factor are calculated for these quantum systems. Applications to creation of a universe in the laboratory, observational cosmology and miniholes are discussed. A possibility of the creation of open and flat models as well as a role of quintessence (de Sitter vacuum, domain walls and strings) in these processes are investigated.
7. Henk van Elst, Queen Mary and Westfield College, henk@gmunu.mth.uct.ac.za

Scale-invariant dynamics for Abelian G2 perfect fluid cosmologies

A dynamical formulation at a derivative level $`^2g`$ for Abelian G2 perfect fluid cosmologies is introduced that employs scale-invariant autonomous evolution systems of symmetric hyperbolic format. This allows for a transparent isolation of (i) the physical degrees of freedom in both the gravitational and the matter source fields and (ii) the gauge degrees of freedom associated with the time slicing. In addition, the self-similar (asymptotic) states can be determined systematically. Various applications are highlighted.
8. Sonny Khan, U Aberdeen, S.Khan@maths.abdn.ac.uk

Projective symmetries in space-times

The existence of proper projective vector fields is discussed in Einstein-Maxwell and spherically symmetric static space-times. The problem is resolved for null Einstein-Maxwell space-times (where none can exist) and under certain restrictions in the non-null case (where none have so far been found to exist). Examples of such vector fields are provided in spherically symmetric static space-times, where a general solution (under a loose restriction) is presented.
9. Ghulam Shabbir, U Aberdeen, shabbir@maths.abdn.ac.uk

Curvature collineations for certain space-time metrics

A approach is suggested using the 6x6 form of the curvature tensor to find the complete set of curvature collineations (CCs) in space- times which possess certain types of (metric) symmetry. This approach immediately rules out the possibilities where proper CCs cannot exist and suggests how to find CCs when they do. The space-times considered include those with plane and spherical symmetric, static symmetry.
10. Graham Hall, U Aberdeen, gsh@maths.abdn.ac.uk

Orbits of symmetries in space-times

The subject of the orbits of symmetries in general relativity is usually discussed in an ad-hoc way. The object of this talk is to try to clarify the position and to offer precise definitions and outline rigorous proofs. The questions to be answered (totally or partially) include

(i) exactly what are these symmetries, how are they and their orbits described and in what sense,if any, are they groups?

(ii) how do the standard geometrical invariants behave on an orbit?

(iii)what are ”fixed points” of symmetries, what happens there and where can they occur?

(iv) are there ”well behaved” and ”badly behaved” orbits and if so, how does one distinguish between them and do the well behaved ones behave as in the ”folklore” of the subject?

(v) what rules determine the dimension and type of an orbit once the symmetries are specified?
11. Raul Vera, Queen Mary and Westfield College, R.Vera@qmw.ac.uk

Matching preserving the symmetry

In the literature, the matchings between spacetimes have been most of the times implicitly assumed to preserve the symmetry. But no definition for such a kind of matching was given until very recently. Loosely speaking, the matching hypersurface is restricted to be tangent to the orbits of a desired group of isometries admitted at both sides of the matching and thus admitted by the whole matched spacetime. This restriction can lead to conditions on the properties of the preserved group of isometries, such as its algebraic type and the geometrical xproperties of the vector fields that generate that group.
12. Bill Bonnor, QMW, 100571.2247@compuserve.com

Equilibrium of classical spinning particles

Using an approximation method I investigate the stationary axisymmetric solution for two spinning mass particles. It contains, as expected, a conical singularity between the particles representing a strut preventing collapse. However, there is a second singularity which seems to represent a torque preserving the spins of the particles. For certain values of the spins no torque is needed.

It does not seem possible to explain this solution in terms of classical mechanics.
13. Alan Barnes, Aston University, barnes@aston.ac.uk

On some perfect fluid solutions of Stephani

Some years ago Stephani derived several solutions for a geodesic perfect fluid flow with constant pressure. In this paper Stephani’s solutions with non-zero rotation are generalised; all are of Petrov type D and the magnetic part of the Weyl tensor vanishes. In general the solutions admit no Killing vectors and the fluid flow is shearing, twisting and expanding. The solutions can all be matched across a time-like hypersurface of constant curvature to a de Sitter or Minkowski spacetime.

A generalisation of Stephani’s ansatz is also considered. The general solution in this case has not yet been derived, but some very simple exact solutions for a fluid with spherical symmetry have been obtained.
14. Brian Edgar, U Linkoping, bredg@mai.liu.se

Tetrads and symmetry

Two of the main successful tools in the search for exact solutions of Einstein’s equations are tetrad formalisms and symmetry groups. However, when these two methods are used together there is a lot of redundancy in the calculations, and the two methods do not complement each other. Chinea, Collinson and Held have in the past looked at the possibility of introducing symmetry conditions at tetrad level, and more recently Fayos and Sopuerto have proposed a new approach to integrating tetrads and symmetry. Building on the results of Chinea, Collinson and Held we propose and illustrate a method which analyses easily and efficiently the Killing vector structure of metrics as they are calculated in tetrad formalisms.
15. Fredrik Andersson, U Linkoping frand@mai.liu.se

Potentials and superpotentials of symmetric spinor fields

In 1988 Illge proved that an arbitrary symmetric (n,0)-spinor field always has an (n-1,1)-spinor potential, which is symmetric over its n-1 unprimed indices. In particular this gives an alternative proof for the existence of a Lanczos potential of the Weyl spinor. Illge also considered the problem of finding completely symmetric spinor potentials for completely symmetric spinor fields having both primed and unprimed indices. Because of algebraic inconsistencies it turned out to be impossible to prove a general existence theorem for these potentials. However, in one important special case it is possible to prove existence of completely symmetric spinor potentials. In an Einstein spacetime it turns out that if we look for potentials for spinors having only one primed index, the algebraic inconsistencies collapse into differential conditions which can be satisfied using gauge freedom. Thus, in Einstein spacetimes, completely symmetric (n,1)-spinor fields always has a completely symmetric (n-1,2)-spinor potential. This means that the Weyl spinor of an Einstein spacetime always has a completely symmetric (2,2)- spinor potential. This ’superpotential’ seems to be related to quasi-local momentum of the Einstein spacetime.
16. Annelies Gerber, Imperial College, annelies.gerber@ic.ac.uk, and Patrick Dolan, Imperial College, pdolan@inctech.com

The Lanczos curvature potential problems with applications

The Weyl- and Riemann curvature tensors have both been analysed in terms of a tensor potential $`L_{abc}`$. The Weyl-Lanczos system of PDE’s is always in involution but the Riemann-Lanczos system needs prolongation to be in involution in general. Examples to illustrate these problems are given.
17. Robin Tucker, U Lancaster, r.tucker@lancaster.ac.uk

On the detection of scalar field induced spacetime torsion (gr-qc/0104050)

It is argued that the geodesic hypothesis based on autoparallels of the Levi-Civita connection may need refinement in the Brans-Dicke theory of gravitation. Based on a reformulation of this theory in terms of a connection with torsion determined dynamically in terms of the gradient of the Brans-Dicke scalar field, we compute the perihelion shift in the orbit of Mercury on the alternative hypothesis that its worldline is an autoparallel of a connection with torsion. If the Brans-Dicke scalar field couples significantly to matter and test particles move on such worldlines, the current time keeping methods based on the conventional geodesic hypothesis may need refinement.
18. Julian Barbour, jbarbour@online.rednet.co.uk

Relativity without relativity (gr-qc/0012089)

I shall give a brief review of the above paper by myself and Brendan Foster and Niall Murchadha. We give a new derivation of general relativity based entirely on three dimensional principles. We start with a parametrisation invariant, Jacobi-type action on superspace. This will be the product of a square root of a potential times the square root of a kinetic energy term. All we demand is that the action have nontrivial solutions. We find that the only viable action is the Baierlein-Sharp-Wheeler Lagrangian and thus we recover G.R. We impose no spacetime conditions whatsoever. We extend this to include scalar and vector fields. We recover causality (everything travels at the same speed), Maxwellian electrodynamics, and the gauge principle. Thus we derive a large part of modern physics from a purely three dimensional point of view. (gr-qc/0012089)
19. Petros Florides, Trinity College Dublin, florides@maths.tcd.ie

The Sagnac effect and the special theory of relativity

Contrary to the recent claim by Dr A.G. Kelly and Professor J.P. Vigier, it is shown, in two distinct ways, that the Sagnac Effect and Special Relativity are in complete and perfect harmony.
20. John Barrett, U Nottingham, John.Barrett@nottingham.ac.uk

Quantum Gravity and the Lorentz group

I will give a brief summary of the state of progress of models of 4d quantum gravity based on the representation theory of the Lorentz group, and its future prospects.
21. Christopher Steele, U Nottingham, Christopher.Steele@maths.nottingham.ac.uk

Asymptotics of relativistic spin networks

I will discuss Relativistic Spin Networks based on the representation theory of the 4 dimensional rotation group. I will present asymptotic formulae for the evaluation of particular networks and provide a geometrical interpretation.
22. Robert Low, U Coventry, mtx014@coventry.ac.uk

Timelike foliations and the shape of space

What is the shape of space in a space-time? In the familar case of a globally hyperbolic space-time, one natural answer is to consider the topology of a Cauchy surface. However, there are other approaches which one might also consider. One is to consider edgeless spacelike submanifolds of the space-time; another is to foliate the space-time by timelike curves, and consider the quotient space obtained by identifying points lying on the same curve. I will describe conditions on the family of timelike curves, and on a vector field whose integral curves they are for this to give rise to a meaningful shape of space, and briefly discuss the relationship between this approach and that of considering edgeless spacelike submanifolds.
23. Jonathan Wilson, U Southampton, jpw@maths.soton.ac.uk

Generalised hyperbolicity in singular space-times (gr-qc/0001079, gr-qc/0101018)

A desirable property of any physically plausible space-time is global hyperbolicity. It is shown that a weaker form of hyperbolicity, defined according to whether the scalar wave equation admits a unique solution, is satisfied in certain space-times with weak singularities such as those containing thin cosmic strings or shells of matter. It therefore evident that such weak singularities may be regarded as internal points of space-time.
24. Rod Halburd, U Loughborough, R.G.Halburd@lboro.ac.uk

Painleve analysis in General Relativity Speaker: Rod Halburd, Dept Mathematical Sciences, Loughborough University

Painleve analysis uses the singularity structure of solutions of a differential equation in the complex domain as an indicator of the integrability (solvability) of a differential equation. A large class of charged spherically symmetric models will be identified and solved using this method.
25. Magnus Herberthson, U Link ping, maher@mai.liu.se

A nice differentiable structure at spacelike infinity (gr-qc/9712058)

By a conformal rescaling and compactification of the (asymptotically flat) physical space-time, spacelike infinity is represented by a single point. It it known that the regularity of the manifold at that point cannot be smooth, and various differentiable structures have been suggested. In this talk we report that in the case of a Kerr solution, the standard C¿1-structure can be extended to include both spacelike and null directions from spacelike infinity.
26. Jonathan Thornburg, U Vienna, jthorn@thp.univie.ac.at

Episodic self-similarity in critical gravitational collapse (gr-qc/0012043)

I report on a new behavior found in numerical simulations of spherically symmetric gravitational collapse in self-gravitating SU(2) $`\sigma `$ models at intermediate gravitational coupling constants: The critical solution (between black hole formation and dispersion) closely approximates the continuously self-similar (CSS) solution for a finite time interval, then departs from this, and then returns to CSS again. This cycle repeats several times, each with a different CSS accumulation point. The critical solution is also approximately discretely self-similar (DSS) throughout this whole process.
27. Jose Maria Martin Garcia, U Southampton, jmm@maths.soton.ac.uk

Stability of Choptuik spacetime in the presence of charge and angular momentum.

We show that Choptuik spacetime is a codimension-1 exact solution of the full Einstein - Maxwell - Klein-Gordon problem. That is, electromagnetic field perturbations, charged scalar perturbations and perturbations with angular momentum all decay. Only the well known spherical neutral perturbation linking Chopuik spacetime with Schwarzschild and Minkowski is unstable. We calculate critical exponents for charge and angular momentum for near critical collapse.
28. Elizabeth Winstanley, U Sheffield, e.winstanley@sheffield.ac.uk

Update on stable hairy black holes in AdS

Black holes in anti-de Sitter space can support gauge field hair which is stable under spherically symmetric perturbations. This talk discusses recent work showing that these black holes remain stable under non-spherically symmetric perturbations in the odd-parity sector.
29. VS Manko, CINVESTAV - IPN, VladimirS.Manko@fis.cinvestav.mx

Equilibrium configurations of aligned black holes

The existence of multi-black hole equilibrium configurations in different axisymmetric systems is discussed.
30. Colin Pendred, U Nottingham, Colin.Pendred@maths.nottingham.ac.uk

Black hole formation in (2+1)-dimensional relativity

The non-spinning BTZ black hole is introduced and shown that it can be formed by the collision of two point particles in (2+1)-dimensional spacetimes of negative cosmological constant. The more general, spinning BTZ black hole is then considered.
31. Atsushi Higuchi, U York, ah28@york.ac.uk

Low-energy absorption cross sections of stationary black holes (gr-qc/0011070)

We present a special-function free derivation of the fact shown first by Das, Gibbons and Mathur that the low-energy massless scalar absorption cross section of a spherically symmetric black hole is universally given by the horizon area. Our derivation seems to generalize to any stationary black holes.
32. Brien Nolan, Dublin City U, brien.nolan@dcu.ie

Stability of naked singularities in self-similar collapse (gr-qc/0010032)

We show that spherically symmetric self-similar space-times possessing naked singularities are stable in the class of spherically symmetric self-similar space-times obeying the strong and dominant energy conditions. The discussion is restricted to space-times obeying a ’no pure outgoing radiation’ condition.
33. Richard I Harrison, U Oxford, harrison@maths.ox.ac.uk

A numerical study of the Schroedinger-Newton equation

I wish to report on a numerical study of the Schroedinger-Newton equations, that is the set of nonlinear partial differential equations, consisting of the Schroedinger equation coupled with the Poisson equation. The nonlinearity arises from using as potential term in the Schroedinger equation the solution of the Poisson equation with source proportional to the probability density. Penrose  has suggested that the stationary solutions of the Schroedinger Newton equation might be the ’preferred basis’ of endpoints for the spontaneous reduction of the quantum-mechanical wave-function.

I have computed stationary solutions in the spherically symmetric and the axially symmetric cases, and then tested the linear stability of these solutions. All solutions are unstable except for the ground state. In the spherically symmetric case, I have considered the general time evolution which confirms the picture from linear theory and shows that the general evolution leaves a lump of probability in the ground-state, while the rest disperses to infinity. In the z-independent time evolution, initial indications are that lumps of probability orbit around each other before dispersing.

 R Penrose Phil.Trans.R.Soc.(Lond.)A 356 (1998) 1927
34. Paul Tod, U Oxford, tod@maths.ox.ac.uk

Causality and Legendrian-linking

A point $`p`$ in Minkowski space $`M`$ can be determined by its ’sky’, which is to say the set $`S_p`$ of null-geodesics through it in the space $`N`$ of all null-geodesics. It was suggested by Penrose, and proved in his thesis by Robert Low , that causal relations in $`M`$ are reflected by linking in $`N`$. Thus two points $`p`$ and $`q`$ are time-like separated in $`M`$ if their skies are linked in $`N`$, and space-like separated if their skies are unlinked (if they are null separated then evidently their skies meet). Penrose also suggested that this relationship should continue to hold for curved but, say, globally-hyperbolic space-times $``$. This is much harder. It was explored by Low and later by my student José Natario. It seems to be true in $`2+1`$-dimensions but is not true in $`3+1`$, where one has explicit counter-examples. Rather than give up, one can change the question: spaces of null geodesics are contact manifolds and skies are Legendrian submanifolds, so one can ask instead are points causally-related iff their skies are Legendrian-linked - that is, can they be unlinked while remaining Legendrian? There are partial answers and various interesting developments here, and I will describe progress on this programme.

 RJ Low Twistor linking and causal relations Class.Quant.Grav.7(1990) 177-187
35. Tim Sumner, Imperial College, t.sumner@ic.ac.uk

Fundamental physics experiments in space

There is a wide interest in the UK in carrying out, so-called, ’Fundamental Physics’ experiments in space. Earlier this year the space community produced a summary document for the PPARC SSAC. This talk will summarise that document, which contains suggestions for a number of experiments to do with gravity as this is one area in which the use of space is particularly beneficial.
36. Mike Plissi, U Glasgow, m.plissi@physics.gla.ac.uk

The GEO 600 gravitational wave detector

A number of interferometer-based gravitational wave detectors are currently being constructed in several countries. The GEO 600 detector, which is being built near Hannover, Germany, is a 600 m baseline instrument that utilises a Michelson interferometric scheme. The instrument will target the frequency band above about 50 Hz. A basic description of the detector will be given with a report of its current status.
37. Oliver Jennrich, U Glasgow, o.jennrich@physics.gla.ac.uk

LISA: A ESA Cornerstone mission to detect low frequency gravitational waves.

LISA, a space-borne interferometric gravitational wave detector has been recently approved as a ESA Cornerstone Mission. LISA makes use of interferometry very similar to the ground-based detectors (LIGO, VIRGO, GEO600, TAMA) but is designed to detect gravitational waves in a much lower frequency band of 0.1 mHz to 100 mHz.

The main objective of the LISA mission is to learn about the formation, growth, space density and surroundings of massive black holes for which there is a compelling evidence to be present in the centers of most galaxies, including our own.

Observations of signals from these sources would test General Relativity and particularly black-hole theory to unprecedented accuracy.
38. Mike Cruise, U Birmingham, amc@star.sr.bham.ac.uk

Very high frequency gravitational wave detectors

A number of theoretical models of the early Universe predict spectra of stochastic gravitational waves rising with frequency. Such spectra satisfy all the known observational upper limits. Detectors are needed in the Megahertz and Gigahertz ranges to detect this radiation. A prototype of one such detector is now in operation and the prospects of it achieving useful sensitivities will be discussed.
39. Edward Porter, U Cardiff, Edward.Porter@astro.cf.ac.uk

An improved model of the gravitational wave flux for inspiralling black holes

While the orbital energy for an inspiralling binary is known exactly for both the Schwarzchild and Kerr cases, an exact expression for the gravitational wave flux remains elusive. All current analytical models rely on a Post-Newtonian expansion. This has given us a Taylor expansion for the flux in the test-mass case to $`v^11`$ for the Schwarzchild case, and to $`v^8`$ for the Kerr case. The problem with the Taylor approximation is the slow rate of convergence at various approximations. It has been shown that using Pade Approximation gives a better convergence for the flux in the Schwarzchild case. In this work I propose a method for improving the convergence of the flux in the Schwarzchild case by using a modified Pade Approximation and extend the previous work to the Kerr case. The most interesting result from the Kerr case is that we may be able to closely model a Kerr system with some real value of the spin parameter ’a’ with a Pade Approximation using a ’wrong’ value of ’a’. We also provide scaling laws at various approximations to recover the true spin of the system from the Pade Approximation.
40. Anna Watts, U Southampton

Neutron stars as a source of gravitational waves

We examine the evolution of the r-mode instability for a magnetized neutron star accreting large amounts of remnant matter in the immediate aftermath of the supernova. We discuss the implications for neutron star spin rate and gravitational wave signal.
41. John Miller, SISSA / U Oxford, miller@sissa.it

Non-stationary accretion onto black holesx

Update on our project for using computer simulations to investigate different pictures for non-stationary accretion onto black holes. This has relevance for explaining observed time-varying behaviour of galactic X-ray sources and AGN and, possibly, the formation of jets.
42. Uli Sperhake, U Southampton, us@maths.soton.ac.uk

A new numerical approach to non-linear oscillations of neutron stars

Radial oscillations of neutron stars are studied by decomposing the fundamental variables into a background contribution (taken to be the static TOV-solution) and time dependent perturbations. The perturbations are not truncated at some finite order, but are evolved according to the fully nonlinear evolution equations, which can be written in quasi linear form in our case. The seperation of the background allows us to study oscillations over a wide range of amplitudes with high accuracy. We monitor the onset of nonlinear effects as the amplitude is gradually increased. Problems encountered at the surface in any Eulerian formulation, i.e. the singular behavior of the equations in the nonlinear as well as the linearised case and its impact on our results is briefly discussed.
43. Philippos Papadopoulos, U Portsmouth, philippos.papadopoulos@port.ac.uk

Non-linear black hole oscillations (gr-qc/0104024)

The dynamics of isolated black hole spacetimes is explored in the non-linear regime using numerical simulations. The geometric setup is based on ingoing light cone foliations centered on the black hole. The main features of the framework and the current status of the computations will be presented.
44. Felipe Mena, Queen Mary and Westfield College, F.Mena@qmw.ac.uk

Cosmic no hair: second order perturbations of de Sitter universe

We study the asymptotic behaviour of second order perturbations in a flat Friedmann-Roberstson-Walker universe with dust plus a cosmological constant, a model which is asymptotically de Sitter. We find that as in the case of linear perturbations, the nonlinear perturbations also tend to constants, asymptotically in time. This shows that the earlier results concerning the asymptotic behaviour of linear perturbations is stable to nonlinear (second order) perturbations. It also demonstrates the validity of the cosmic no-hair conjecture in such nonlinear inhomogenuous settings.
45. Kostas Glampedakis, U Cardiff, Costas.Glampedakis@astro.cf.ac.uk

Scattering of scalar waves by rotating black holes (gr-qc/0102100)

We study the scattering of massless scalar waves by a Kerr black hole, by letting plane monochromatic waves impinge on the black hole. We calculate the relevant scattering phase-shifts using the Prüfer phase-function method, which is computationally efficient and reliable also for high frequencies and/or large values for the angular multipole indices (l,m). We use the obtained phase-shifts and the partial-wave approach to determine differential cross sections and deflection functions. Results for off-axis scattering (waves incident along directions misaligned with the black hole’s rotation axis) are obtained for the first time. Inspection of the off-axis deflection functions reveals the same scattering phenomena as in Schwarzschild scattering. In particular, the cross sections are dominated by the glory effect and the forward (Coulomb) divergence due to to the long-range nature of the gravitational field. In the rotating case the overall diffraction pattern is “frame-dragged” and as a result the glory maximum is not observed in the exact backward direction. We discuss the physical reason for this behaviour, and explain it in terms of the distinction between prograde and retrograde motion in the Kerr gravitational field. Finally, we also discuss the possible influence of the so-called superradiance effect on the scattered waves.
46. Reinhard Prix, U Southampton, rp@maths.soton.ac.uk

Covariant multi-constituent hydrodynamics (gr-qc/0004076)

I will discuss the covariant formulation of hydrodynamics derived from a ”convective” variational principle by Carter. This approach allows a convenient generalisation to several interacting fluids (incorporating the effect known as ”entrainment”) and to superfluids. Such a framework is therefore very well suited to neutron star applications, some of which I will briefly describe here.
47. Ian Jones, U Southampton, dij@maths.soton.ac.uk

Gravitational waves from freely precessing neutron stars (gr-qc/0008021)

The free precession of neutron stars has long been cited as a possible source of detectable gravitational radiation. In this talk we will examine the problem of calculating the gravitational radiation reaction on a star, which we model as an elastic shell containing a fluid core. We will conclude by assessing the likely gravitational wave amplitudes of precessing neutron stars in our Galaxy.

The following talks were also scheduled, but the speakers had to cancel:
48. Bernard S. Kay, U York, bsk2@york.ac.uk

New paradigm for decoherence and for thermodynamics, new understanding of quantum black holes (hep-th/9802172, hep-th/9810077)

I outline my recent proposed new explanation for decoherence and for entropy increase based on my new postulate that the ”quantum gravitational field is unobservable” and on my related new postulate that ”physical entropy is matter-gravity entanglement entropy”. I also recall how this proposal offers a resolution to a number of black-hole puzzles, including the ”information loss puzzle”.
49. Alberto Vecchio, U Birmingham, vecchio@aei-potsdam.mpg.de

Searching for binary systems undergoing precession with GEO and LIGO (gr-qc/0011085)

The search for binary systems containing rapidly spinning black holes poses a tremendous computational challange for the data analysis of gravitational wave experiments. We present a short review of our present understanding of the key issues and discuss possible strategies to tackle efficiently the problem.


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# THE ORIGIN OF C IV ABSORPTION SYSTEMS AT REDSHIFTS 𝑧<1—DISCOVERY OF EXTENDED C IV ENVELOPES AROUND GALAXIESBased on observations with the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope, obtained at the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under NASA contract NAS5–26555.

## 1 INTRODUCTION

Metal-line absorption systems observed in the spectra of background QSOs provide a unique probe of the chemical content and dynamics of gas at large galactic distances. Comparison of galaxies and Mg II absorption systems along common lines of sight has demonstrated that (1) Mg II absorption systems arise in extended gaseous envelopes of galaxies and (2) the gaseous extent of galaxies (at very low column densities) stretches for many times the optical extent of galaxies (Bergeron & Boissé 1991; Lanzetta & Bowen 1990, 1992; Steidel 1993). But while occasional galaxies associated with $`\mathrm{C}\mathrm{IV}`$ absorption systems have been reported by various authors (Bergeron et al. 1994; Lanzetta et al. 1995; Steidel et al. 1997; Churchill et al. 1999), no uniform sample of galaxies and $`\mathrm{C}\mathrm{IV}`$ absorption systems has yet been applied to systematically investigate statistical properties of extended $`\mathrm{C}\mathrm{IV}`$-absorbing gas around galaxies. In contrast to Mg II absorption systems, C IV absorption systems probe highly-ionized, low-density regions (Wolfe 1983; Bergeron & Stasińska 1986), which suggests that gas traced by C IV is typically at much larger galactic distances than gas traced by Mg II. Hence C IV absorption systems may bear importantly on understanding the processes of galaxy formation and evolution that deposit chemically enriched material far from galaxies.

Over the past several years, we have been conducting an imaging and spectroscopic survey of faint galaxies in fields of Hubble Space Telescope (HST) spectroscopic target QSOs (Lanzetta et al. 1995; Chen et al. 1998, 2001, hereafter Papers I and II). The goal of the survey is to determine the gaseous extent of galaxies and the origin of QSO absorption systems by directly comparing galaxies and QSO absorption systems along common lines of sight. As a result of the survey, we have so far identified 352 galaxies of apparent magnitude $`m_R<23`$ and redshift $`z<1.2`$, 230 $`\mathrm{Ly}\alpha `$ absorption systems of redshift $`z<1.1`$, and 36 $`\mathrm{C}\mathrm{IV}`$ absorption systems of redshift $`z<0.9`$ in 24 QSO fields. Impact parameters of the galaxies to the QSO lines of sight range from $`\rho =10.9`$ to $`1576.7h^1`$ kpc. Our galaxy and absorber sample provides for the first time the opportunity to study statistical properties of $`\mathrm{C}\mathrm{IV}`$-absorbing gas around galaxies.

Here we present results of the study. First, we show that $`\mathrm{C}\mathrm{IV}`$ absorption systems are strongly clustered around galaxies on velocity scales of $`v250`$ km s-1 and impact parameter scales of $`\rho 100h^1`$ kpc but not on larger velocity or impact parameter scales. This demonstrates that C IV absorption systems are associated with galaxies and strongly suggests that C IV-absorbing gas generally arises in individual galaxies, rather than in a diffuse medium that is loosely associated with galaxy groups, clusters, or other large-scale structures. Next, adopting measurements of galaxy properties presented in Papers I and II (which include $`B`$-band luminosity, surface brightness, and disk-to-bulge ratio), we examine how properties of the $`\mathrm{C}\mathrm{IV}`$ absorption systems depend on properties of the galaxies. On the basis of 14 galaxy and absorber pairs and 36 galaxies that do not produce corresponding $`\mathrm{C}\mathrm{IV}`$ absorption lines to within sensitive upper limits, we find that: (1) Galaxies of a range of morphological type and luminosity appear to possess extended $`\mathrm{C}\mathrm{IV}`$ gaseous envelopes of radius $`R100h^1`$ kpc, with abrupt boundaries between the C IV absorbing and non-absorbing regions. (2) The extent of $`\mathrm{C}\mathrm{IV}`$-absorbing gas around galaxies scales with galaxy $`B`$-band luminosity as $`RL_B^{0.5\pm 0.1}`$ but does not depend strongly on galaxy surface brightness, redshift, or morphological type. And (3) the covering factor of $`\mathrm{C}\mathrm{IV}`$ clouds within $`100h^1`$ kpc of galaxies is nearly unity, but there is a large scatter in the mean number of clouds encountered along the line of sight. After scaling to the luminosity of an $`L_{}`$ galaxy, we find that 13 of 14 galaxies of impact parameter $`\rho <100h^1`$ kpc are associated with corresponding $`\mathrm{C}\mathrm{IV}`$ absorption lines, while only one of 36 galaxies of impact parameter $`\rho >100h^1`$ kpc are associated with corresponding $`\mathrm{C}\mathrm{IV}`$ absorption lines.

Our results indicate that galaxies of a wide range of luminosity and morphological type are surrounded by chemically enriched gas that extends for at least $`100h^1`$ kpc. Given such a large extent, we consider it unlikely that the absorbing clouds were ejected from the primary galaxies by stellar winds or galactic fountains. Rather, we conclude that the absorbing clouds were probably produced at large galactic radii by either Population III stars or by progressive accretion of gas from surrounding satellite galaxies. If the clouds were formed by satellite accretion, then the abrupt boundaries between the $`\mathrm{C}\mathrm{IV}`$ absorbing and non-absorbing regions suggest that galaxies form through dissipational accretion, and the lack of a strong redshift dependence of the extent of $`\mathrm{C}\mathrm{IV}`$-absorbing gas around galaxies suggests that the typical separation between satellites and primary galaxies is larger than 100 $`h^1`$ kpc. We adopt a standard Friedmann cosmology of dimensionless Hubble constant $`h=H_0/(100\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1\mathrm{Mpc}^1)`$ and deceleration parameter $`q_0=0.5`$ throughout.

## 2 DATA

The analysis is based on observations of our ongoing imaging and spectroscopic survey of faint galaxies in fields of HST spectroscopic target QSOs (Lanzetta et al. 1995; Papers I and II; Lanzetta et al. 2001 in preparation). As a result of the survey, we have so far identified 352 galaxies of apparent magnitude $`m_R<23`$ and redshift $`z<1.2`$, 230 $`\mathrm{Ly}\alpha `$ absorption systems of redshift $`z<1.1`$, and 36 $`\mathrm{C}\mathrm{IV}`$ absorption systems of redshift $`z<0.9`$ in 24 QSO fields. Impact parameters of the galaxies to the QSO lines of sight range from $`\rho =10.9`$ to $`1576.7h^1`$ kpc.

Using the Hubble Space Telescope with the Wide Field and Planetary Camera 2, we have also obtained high-quality optical-wavelength images of 142 of the galaxies in 19 fields, which we have used to measure galaxy $`B`$-band luminosity, effective radius, surface brightness, inclination and orientation of the disk component, axial ratio of the bulge component, and disk-to-bulge ratio by means of a two-dimensional surface brightness profile analysis. These measurements are described and presented in Papers I and II.

## 3 ANALYSIS

In this section, we examine how properties of the $`\mathrm{C}\mathrm{IV}`$ absorption systems depend on properties of the galaxies.

### 3.1 The Galaxy–C IV Absorber Cross-Correlation Function

To establish the statistical relationship between galaxies and $`\mathrm{C}\mathrm{IV}`$ absorption systems, we measured the galaxy–$`\mathrm{C}\mathrm{IV}`$ absorber cross-correlation function $`\xi _{\mathrm{ga}}(v,\rho )`$ as it depends on line-of-sight velocity separation $`v`$ and impact parameter separation $`\rho `$. Figure 1 shows $`\xi _{\mathrm{ga}}(v,\rho )`$ determined from 352 galaxies and 36 $`\mathrm{C}\mathrm{IV}`$ absorption systems. The bin size in velocity separation is 250 km s-1, and the bin size in impact parameter separation is indicated in each panel. A total of 563 galaxy and absorber pairs enter into the analysis, of which 153 are of impact parameter separation $`\rho <100h^1`$ kpc, 148 are of $`100<\rho <200h^1`$ kpc, and 262 are of $`\rho >200h^1`$ kpc. Error bars indicate 1 $`\sigma `$ Poisson counting fluctuations.

Figure 1 indicates a statistically significant excess of galaxy and $`\mathrm{C}\mathrm{IV}`$ absorber pairs at velocity separations $`v250`$ km s-1 and impact parameter separations $`\rho 100h^1`$ kpc, but no excess at larger velocities or impact parameters. Specifically, the bin spanning $`v<250`$ km s-1 and $`\rho <100h^1`$ kpc is expected to contain $`0.82\pm 1.34`$ pairs but is observed to contain 9 pairs, which indicates that the excess is established at the $`6.1\sigma `$ level of significance. The strong signal on small velocity and impact parameter scales demonstrates that $`\mathrm{C}\mathrm{IV}`$ absorption systems are associated with galaxies. Further, the lack of signal on larger velocity and impact parameter scales strongly suggests that $`\mathrm{C}\mathrm{IV}`$-absorbing gas generally arises in individual galaxies, rather than in a diffuse medium that is loosely associated with galaxy groups, clusters, or other large-scale structures.

### 3.2 Galaxy and C IV Absorber Pair Sample

To identify galaxy and absorber pairs that are likely to be physically associated with each other, we followed procedures similar to those described in Paper I. First, we considered a galaxy and absorber pair of velocity separation $`v`$ and impact parameter separation $`\rho `$ to be physically associated if $`\xi _{\mathrm{ga}}(v,\rho )>1`$. In cases where more than one galaxy could be paired with one absorber under this criterion, we chose the galaxy of smallest impact parameter to form the pair. Next, we excluded galaxy and absorber pairs within 3000 km s-1 of the background QSOs (because such galaxies and absorbers are likely to be associated with the QSOs). Finally, we measured $`3\sigma `$ upper limits to absorption equivalent widths of galaxies that are not paired with corresponding absorbers, retaining only those measurements with $`3\sigma `$ upper limits satisfying $`W<0.3`$ Å. Following these procedures, we identified 14 galaxy and $`\mathrm{C}\mathrm{IV}`$ absorber pairs and 36 galaxies that do not produce corresponding $`\mathrm{C}\mathrm{IV}`$ absorption to within sensitive upper limits. Redshifts of the galaxy and absorber pairs range from $`z=0.1242`$ to 0.8920 with a median of $`\mathrm{med}(z)=0.3905`$, and impact parameters of the galaxy and absorber pairs range from $`\rho =12.4`$ to $`142.9h^1`$ kpc with a median of $`\mathrm{med}(\rho )=52.6h^1`$ kpc. The $`B`$-band luminosities of the galaxies range from $`L_B=0.03`$ to $`2.5L_B_{}`$. A complete list of the measured properties of the galaxies and $`\mathrm{C}\mathrm{IV}`$ absorbers is presented in Paper II.

### 3.3 The Extent of C IV-Absorbing Gas Around Galaxies

To determine the extent of $`\mathrm{C}\mathrm{IV}`$-absorbing gas around galaxies, we examined the relationship between rest-frame $`\mathrm{C}\mathrm{IV}`$ $`\lambda 1548`$ equivalent width $`W`$ and galaxy impact parameter $`\rho `$. Figure 2 shows $`W`$ versus $`\rho `$ for the 14 galaxy and absorber pairs and the 36 galaxies that do not produce corresponding $`\mathrm{C}\mathrm{IV}`$ absorption to within sensitive upper limits. Circles represent early-type elliptical or S0 galaxies, triangles represent early-type spiral galaxies, and squares represent late-type spiral galaxies. Galaxy morphology is determined on the basis of the integrated light ratio of the disk and bulge surface brightness profiles, as described in Papers I and II. Open points with arrows indicate 3 $`\sigma `$ upper limits to $`W`$ for galaxies that do not produce corresponding $`\mathrm{C}\mathrm{IV}`$ absorption lines.

Figure 2 exhibits three interesting points: First, 12 of 18 galaxies (67%) of impact parameter $`\rho <70h^1`$ kpc are associated with corresponding $`\mathrm{C}\mathrm{IV}`$ absorption lines, while only two of 32 galaxies (6%) of impact parameter $`\rho >70h^1`$ kpc are associated with corresponding $`\mathrm{C}\mathrm{IV}`$ absorption lines. Evidently, there are abrupt boundaries between the $`\mathrm{C}\mathrm{IV}`$ absorbing and non-absorbing regions of galaxies. Second, unlike the situation for Mg II- and $`\mathrm{Ly}\alpha `$-absorbing gas around galaxies, there is no clear trend for rest-frame equivalent width $`W`$ to be progressively stronger at smaller impact parameter $`\rho `$. Third, galaxies associated with corresponding $`\mathrm{C}\mathrm{IV}`$ absorption lines span a wide range of morphological type and luminosity. Specifically, two of the 14 absorbing galaxies are elliptical or S0 galaxies and 12 are spiral galaxies, and three of the 14 absorbing galaxies are of luminosity $`L_B>L_B_{}`$, seven are of $`0.5L_B_{}<L_B<L_B_{}`$, and four are of $`L_B<0.5L_B_{}`$. Apparently, galaxies of a range of morphological type and luminosity possess extended $`\mathrm{C}\mathrm{IV}`$ gaseous envelopes of radius $`R100h^1`$ kpc, with abrupt boundaries between the $`\mathrm{C}\mathrm{IV}`$ absorbing and non-absorbing regions.

### 3.4 The Relationship between Properties of C IV Absorption Systems and Properties of Galaxies

To determine how properties of the $`\mathrm{C}\mathrm{IV}`$ absorption systems depend on properties of the galaxies, we examined the relationship between rest-frame $`\mathrm{C}\mathrm{IV}`$ $`\lambda 1548`$ equivalent width $`W`$ and galaxy impact parameter $`\rho `$ scaling for various properties (luminosity, surface brightness, and redshift) of the galaxies. Motivated by the apparent abrupt boundary between the $`\mathrm{C}\mathrm{IV}`$ absorbing and non-absorbing regions and the apparent lack of a $`W`$ versus $`\rho `$ anti-correlation described in § 2.3, we modeled the distribution of $`\mathrm{C}\mathrm{IV}`$ clouds in the extended gaseous envelopes of galaxies by uniform spheres of radius that depends on some property of the galaxy. Then the number $`n`$ of $`\mathrm{C}\mathrm{IV}`$-absorbing clouds intercepted along the line of sight is proportional to the path length through the sphere:

$$n=2l_0[R^2(x)\rho ^2]^{1/2},$$
(1)
where $`l_0`$ is the number density per unit length of the clouds, $`R`$ is the radius of the sphere, and $`x`$ is some property of the galaxy. Because $`\mathrm{C}\mathrm{IV}`$ equivalent width is correlated with the number of individual absorbing components intercepted along the line of sight (Wolfe 1986; York et al. 1986; Petitjean & Bergeron 1994), we take $`W=nk`$, where $`k`$ is the equivalent width of a typical absorbing component. Combining equations (1) and (2), the $`\mathrm{C}\mathrm{IV}`$ equivalent width $`W`$ expected at impact parameter $`\rho `$ is given by

$$W=\{\begin{array}{cc}2kl_0[R^2(x)\rho ^2]^{1/2}\hfill & \rho R(x)\hfill \\ 0\hfill & \rho R(x),\hfill \end{array}$$
(2)
as a function of some property of the galaxy $`x`$.

First, we established a fiducial fit of the model described by equation (2) to the observations for the case in which the radius of the sphere does not depend on any property of the galaxy, i.e. for $`R=R_{}`$, where $`R_{}`$ is the absorbing radius of the galaxy. Following procedures described in Paper I and substituting $`W`$ for the dependent variable (instead of $`\mathrm{log}W`$ as in Paper I), we solved for $`kl_0`$, $`R_{}`$, and the “cosmic scatter” $`\sigma _c`$ using a likelihood analysis. The results are summarized in row 1 of Table 1, which lists $`kl_0`$, $`R_{}`$, $`\sigma _c`$, and an estimate of goodness of fit $`\chi _\nu ^2`$ that is equivalent to a reduced $`\chi ^2`$ with upper limits properly taken into account.

Next, we repeated the fitting allowing the radius $`R`$ to scale with galaxy $`B`$-band luminosity $`L_B`$ as

$$R=R_{}\left(\frac{L_B}{L_B_{}}\right)^\alpha ,$$
(3)
where $`R_{}`$ is the characteristic absorbing radius of an $`L_{}`$ galaxy. The results are summarized in row 2 of Table 1. After accounting for galaxy $`B`$-band luminosity, $`\chi _\nu ^2`$ is significantly improved with respect to the fiducial fit, and

$$\alpha =0.5\pm 0.1,$$
(4)
which indicates that the dependence between $`R`$ and $`L_B`$ is established at the 5 $`\sigma `$ level of significance. The characteristic radius is

$$R_{}=95.9\pm 7.0h^1\mathrm{kpc}.$$
(5)
This result applies over the $`B`$-band luminosities $`0.03L_B2.5L_B_{}`$ spanned by the observations.

Figure 3 shows $`W`$ versus $`\rho `$ for the 14 galaxy and absorber pairs and the 36 galaxies that do not produce corresponding $`\mathrm{C}\mathrm{IV}`$ absorption to within sensitive upper limits after scaling for galaxy $`B`$-band luminosity. The abrupt boundary between the $`\mathrm{C}\mathrm{IV}`$ absorbing and non-absorbing regions is more evident in Figure 3 than in Figure 2. Specifically, after scaling for galaxy $`B`$-band luminosity, 14 of 15 (93%) of galaxies of impact parameter $`\rho <112h^1`$ kpc are associated with corresponding $`\mathrm{C}\mathrm{IV}`$ absorption lines, while no galaxies of impact parameter $`\rho >112h^1`$ kpc produce corresponding $`\mathrm{C}\mathrm{IV}`$ absorption to within sensitive upper limits. A likelihood analysis indicates that the covering factor $`\kappa `$ of C IV-absorbing gas around galaxies approaches unity at impact parameters $`\rho <112h^1`$ kpc, with a $`1\sigma `$ lower bound of $`ϵ\kappa =0.91`$. The solid curve in Figure 3 shows the best-fit uniform sphere model.

Next, we repeated the fitting substituting galaxy surface brightness (at the half-light radius) $`\mu _e`$ and redshift $`(1+z)`$, respectively, for galaxy $`B`$-band luminosity. The results are summarized in rows 3 and 4 of Table 1. After accounting for surface brightness or redshift, the scaling exponent $`\alpha `$ is indistinguishable from zero, and there is no significant improvement in $`\chi _\nu ^2`$. We conclude that the C IV extent of galaxies does not depend strongly on galaxy mean surface brightness or redshift. This result applies over surface brightnesses $`18.2\mu _e25.4`$ mag arcsec-2 and redshifts $`0.09z0.83`$ spanned by the observations.

Results of the likelihood analysis can also be used to estimate the mean number of $`\mathrm{C}\mathrm{IV}`$ clouds intercepted along a line of sight through a galaxy. Given our estimates of the cosmic scatter $`\sigma _c`$ and the typical absorption equivalent width per absorbing component per unit length $`kl_0`$ and assuming Poisson counting statistics, so that $`\sigma _c`$ is related to $`k`$ by

$$\sigma _c=k(W/k+1)^{1/2},$$
(6)
we find based on the results presented in row 2 of Table 1 that a line of sight through the center of an $`L_{}`$ galaxy encounters on average

$$n_0=8.2\pm 3.0$$
(7)
$`\mathrm{C}\mathrm{IV}`$ absorbing clouds of equivalent width $`k=0.13`$ Å.

## 4 DISCUSSION

The primary results of the analysis are as follows: (1) Galaxies of a range of morphological type and luminosity appear to possess extended $`\mathrm{C}\mathrm{IV}`$ gaseous envelopes of radius $`R100h^1`$ kpc, with abrupt boundaries between the C IV absorbing and non-absorbing regions. (2) The extent of $`\mathrm{C}\mathrm{IV}`$-absorbing gas around galaxies scales with galaxy $`B`$-band luminosity as $`RL_B^{0.5\pm 0.1}`$ but does not depend strongly on galaxy surface brightness, redshift, or morphological type. And (3) the covering factor of $`\mathrm{C}\mathrm{IV}`$ clouds within $`100h^1`$ kpc of galaxies is nearly unity, but there is a large scatter in the mean number of clouds encountered along the line of sight. Apparently, galaxies of a wide range of luminosity and morphological type are surrounded by chemically-enriched gas111It is, however, not clear whether or not the extended gas contains abundant metals. There has been a lack of chemical abundance measurements for low-redshift QSO absorption systems, because such analysis requires high resolution, high sensitivity QSO spectroscopy in the ultraviolet spectral range. The only two existing chemical abundance analyses at redshifts $`z<1`$ are both for absorbers of neutral hydrogen column density $`\mathrm{log}N(\mathrm{H}\mathrm{I})(\mathrm{cm}^2)16.0`$ and both systems exhibit chemical abundance that approaches the typical solar values (Bergeron et al. 1994; Chen & Prochaska 2000). These measurements, however, cannot be considered representative of the majority of QSO absorption systems at low redshifts, because of an apparent selection bias. Because observations of QSO absorption systems at high redshifts show a wide range of metallicity, we believe that QSO absorption systems at low redshifts also have a range of metallicity. The absorbers in our sample have been identified from random lines of sight. We therefore expect that statistical properties of the absorbers in our sample are comparable to statistical properties of all low-redshift QSO absorption systems. Namely, there exists a range of chemical abundance in our absorber sample. that extends for at least $`100h^1`$ kpc.

By combining results of previous studies of extended Mg II, $`\mathrm{C}\mathrm{IV}`$, and $`\mathrm{Ly}\alpha `$ gas around galaxies (derived by analysis of QSO absorption systems), we can establish a schematic picture of the structure of extended gas around galaxies: A typical $`L_{}`$ galaxy is surrounded by high column density gas of radius a few tens kpc (e.g. van Gorkom 1993), which, because of its high density, remains mostly neutral. The gas becomes gradually ionized as the gas density decreases with increasing galactic radius. Low-ionization species, such as singly ionized magnesium Mg II, become the dominant observational signature out to $``$ 50 $`h^1`$ kpc (e.g. Bergeron & Boissè 1991). As the density continues to decline at larger galactic radii, the gas becomes still more highly ionized. High-ionization species, such as triply ionized carbon $`\mathrm{C}\mathrm{IV}`$, become the dominant observational signature out to $``$ 100 $`h^1`$ kpc, at neutral hydrogen column densities $`N(\mathrm{H}\mathrm{I})10^{16}`$ $`\mathrm{cm}^2`$ (this paper). The tenuous gas continues to extend to at least $``$ 180 $`h^1`$ kpc, at neutral hydrogen column densities at least as low as $`N(\mathrm{H}\mathrm{I})3\times 10^{14}`$ $`\mathrm{cm}^2`$ (Papers I and II). This picture applies to galaxies of a wide range of luminosity and morphological type.

Establishing the origin of the chemically enriched gas at large galactic radii is important for understanding the processes of galaxy formation and evolution that deposit chemically enriched material far from galaxies. Here we consider two possible scenarios for the origin of this gas: (1) that the gas is driven out of the galaxies by strong galactic winds and (2) that the gas was produced at large galactic radii.

In the first scenario (which is known as the galactic fountain model), hot gas is brought to large galactic distances by violent supernova explosions, forms cold clouds through subsequent radiative cooling, and falls back to the center of the galaxy (Corbelli & Salpeter 1988). Comparing with the results of our analysis, we find that the galactic fountain model is unlikely to account for extended $`\mathrm{C}\mathrm{IV}`$ gas around galaxies for the following reasons: First, hot gas driven by supernova explosion can reach to at most $``$ 20 kpc (e.g. Corbelli & Salpeter 1988) before it completely escapes the galaxy, but our analysis indicates that $`\mathrm{C}\mathrm{IV}`$-absorbing gas extends to $``$ 100 $`h^1`$ kpc. Second, the supernova explosion rate varies significantly between galaxies of different morphological types, but our analysis suggests that galaxies of all morphological types possess extended $`\mathrm{C}\mathrm{IV}`$-absorbing gas to large radii. Third, given a fixed initial flow speed, the ejected gas may reach larger galactic radii from within smaller galaxies, which is at odds with the scaling relation of our analysis that the $`\mathrm{C}\mathrm{IV}`$ gaseous extent increases with galaxy luminosity.

In the second scenario, chemically enriched gas is deposited at large radii either by the first generation stars (Population III) or through progressive accretion of gas from surrounding satellite galaxies. But because the pregalactic enrichment due to Population III stars is strongly constrained by the metallicity of Population II stars to be less than $`Z10^3`$ (Carr, Bond, & Arnett 1984) and because observations show that there is already a wide range of metallicity in high-redshift QSO absorption systems (e.g. Rauch 1998), we conclude that Population III stars cannot explain all of the $`\mathrm{C}\mathrm{IV}`$ absorbing clouds at large radii, although they may contribute to some of them. On the other hand, theoretical analysis of an accreting satellite model has shown that chemically enriched gas may be stripped out of the surrounding satellites through tidal interaction or may be ejected from the satellites due to supernova explosions to form absorbing clouds at large radii of the primary galaxy (Wang 1993). Supporting evidence is found from observations of nearby spiral galaxies, which shows that there exists at least one satellite around each Milky Way type galaxy (Zaritsky et al. 1993). In addition, $`\mathrm{H}\mathrm{I}`$ 21 cm analysis of local dwarf spheroidals suggests that the presence of satellite galaxies may contribute to extended gas in galactic halos (Blitz & Robishaw 2000).

We believe that it is therefore likely that accreting satellites may account for chemically enriched gas at large galactic distances, which has implications for the dynamics of absorbing gas clouds as follows:

First, for an isothermal sphere, the density of accreted gas decreases with radius $`R^2`$. But because of dissipational collisions, absorbing clouds may gradually lose angular momentum during the cooling process and spiral down to the primary galaxies, causing the density of accreted gas to fall off more rapidly than $`R^2`$ (Silk & Norman 1981). It appears that the abrupt boundary between the C IV absorbing and non-absorbing regions apparent in Figure 3 supports a sharp steepening in the number density of $`\mathrm{C}\mathrm{IV}`$-absorbing clouds in the outer gaseous envelopes of galaxies. Fitting $`W`$ versus $`\rho `$ of Figure 3 with a single power-law model $`W\rho ^\alpha `$ yields $`\alpha =1.45\pm 0.18`$, which implies a density distribution $`R^{2.45\pm 0.18}`$ (see Lanzetta & Bowen 1990). The dotted line in Figure 3 shows the best-fit power-law model. We conclude that the abrupt boundaries the C IV absorbing and non-absorbing regions of galaxies is indicative of dissipational formation processes of galaxies.

Second, our results indicate that the extent of $`\mathrm{C}\mathrm{IV}`$-absorbing gas does not depend strongly on galaxy redshift, which implies that $`\mathrm{C}\mathrm{IV}`$ gaseous envelopes of galaxies are essentially static over a large cosmic time interval. Given our estimate in Equation (7) of the average number of clouds along a line of sight through the center of an $`L_{}`$ galaxy and adopting a velocity dispersion $`v200`$ km s-1 of a typical $`L_{}`$ galaxy, we estimate that the collision time between $`\mathrm{C}\mathrm{IV}`$-absorbing clouds is $`t_{\mathrm{coll}}2R_{}/(n_0v)1.1\times 10^8`$ yr. In comparison, the dynamical time for the clouds to fall through the gravitational potential of a galaxy is $`t_{\mathrm{dyn}}\pi R_{}/2v7.4\times 10^8`$ yr. Unless the gaseous envelopes of galaxies are continually supplied with matter or energy, it is clear that the accreted gas clouds will rapidly decay to lower orbits, resulting in smaller gaseous cross sections with time. This directly contradicts our observations. A solution to this problem may be that satellites at large galactic radii provide a constant supply of fresh gas. We therefore conclude that if $`\mathrm{C}\mathrm{IV}`$-absorbing clouds are formed through dissipational accretion of gas from surrounding satellites, the mean separation between the satellites and the primary galaxies may be larger than 100 $`h^1`$ kpc.

###### Acknowledgements.

This work was supported by STScI grant GO-07290.01-96A and NSF grant AST-9624216.


text:
# On the Formation of Cluster Radio Relics

## 1 Introduction

In the current picture of hierarchical structure formation clusters of galaxies grow mainly by the merging of smaller and moderately sized sub-clusters. During such merger events a significant fraction of the kinetic energy of the inter galactic medium (IGM) is dissipated in Mpc-sized shock waves. The shock waves are responsible for heating the IGM to temperatures of several keV. Moreover, they are likely to inject and accelerate relativistic particle populations on cluster scales.

Cluster-wide relativistic electron populations are indeed observed in several merging or post-merging clusters. These electrons reveal their presence by emitting synchrotron emission in the magnetic fields of the IGM to form the so-called cluster radio halos. Cluster radio halos have steep radio spectra (spectral index $`\alpha 11.5`$); they are unpolarised, and their diffuse morphologies are often similar to those of the thermal X-ray emission of the cluster gas (Govoni et al. 2001). A comparison of the typical radiative lifetime of the radio emitting electrons, which is of the order of 0.1 Gyr, to the typical dynamical timescale of the cluster merger, which is of the order of 1 Gyr, shows that the electron population of a halo cannot be produced directly by a merger shock. Either these electrons have been re-accelerated more recently, or they have been injected by a long-lived shock-accelerated proton population via the hadronic charged pion production. For reviews on recent observations of diffuse cluster radio sources see Feretti (1999), Giovannini, Tordi, Feretti (1999), and Kempner & Sarazin (2001) .

Unlike the radio halos, the so-called cluster radio relics111The name ‘cluster radio relic’ was originally chosen in order to reflect the similarities of these sources with ‘relic radio galaxies’. The latter are dying radio cocoons that are no longer supplied with fresh radio plasma from the central parent galaxy. In cluster relics, usually no parent galaxy can be identified. Moreover, they have only been found in clusters of galaxies, and therefore they were named ‘cluster radio relics’. Recently, the connection between cluster radio relics and radio galaxies has been debated. Alternative, possibly less misleading names have been proposed, e.g. ‘radio flotsam’ by R. Ekers. Here, we use the original terminology a) in order to be consistent with the former literature and b) since our work provides support for a scenario, in which these objects consist of re-illuminated fossil radio plasma, so that they are indeed shock processed relic radio galaxies. are more directly related to cluster mergers (Enßlin et al. 1998, Roettiger et al. 1999, Venturi et al. 1999, Enßlin & Gopal-Krishna 2001). They are also extended radio sources with a steep spectrum. In the literature radio relics are often confused with radio halos even though several distinctive properties exist. Cluster radio relics are typically located near the periphery of the cluster; they often exhibit sharp emission edges and many of them show strong radio polarisation.

In several cases it could be shown that shock waves are present at the locations of the relics. In Abell 2256 and Abell 1367 temperature substructures of the hot IGM could be detected (Briel & Henry 1994, Donnelly et al. 1998) which points towards the presence of shock waves at the location of the cluster relics in these clusters. For Abell 754 (Roettiger at al. 1998; Kassim et al. 2001), Abell 2256 (Roettiger et al. 1995), Abell 3667 (Roettiger et al. 1999) and also the Coma cluster (Burns et al. 1994) numerical simulations of mergers were fitted to the X-ray data. These simulations predict shock waves at locations of observed cluster radio relics.

The cluster radio relic 1253+275 in the Coma cluster shows a morphological connection to the nearby radio galaxy NGC 4789 (Giovannini, Feretti & Stanghellini 1991). This suggests that radio relics may be fossil radio plasma that has been revived by a shock. Fossil radio plasma is the former outflow of a radio galaxy in which the high-energy radio emitting electrons have lost their energy. Due to their invisibility in the radio these cocoons are also called radio ghosts (Enßlin 1999).

The first relic formation models considered diffusive shock acceleration (Fermi I) as the process producing the radio emitting electrons (Enßlin et al. 1998, Roettiger et al. 1999, Venturi et al. 1999). However, when a fossil radio cocoon is passed by a cluster merger shock wave, with a typical velocity of a few 1000 km/s, the cocoon is compressed adiabatically and not shocked because of the much higher sound speed within it. Therefore, shock acceleration cannot be the mechanism that re-energises the relativistic electron population. But the energy gained during the adiabatic compression combined with the increase in the magnetic fields strength can cause the fossil radio cocoon to emit radio waves again. One prerequisite for this is that the electron population is not older than 0.2 - 2 Gyr (Enßlin & Gopal-Krishna 2001). The timescale depends on the conditions in the surroundings, mainly the external pressure. In high-pressure environments, such as in cluster cores, the synchrotron losses are expected to be much higher due to the higher internal magnetic fields of pressure-confined radio plasma. This leads to a shorter maximum age for the fossil radio plasma if it is to be revived. Therefore, relics are found preferentially at the periphery of clusters where the pressure is lower. Moreover, numerical simulations show that merger shocks are found more frequently in peripheral cluster regions than in the denser cores (Quilis, Ibanez, & Saez 1998; Miniati et al. 2000). Both effects, the longer time for radio plasma to be revivable, and the higher frequency of shock waves could explain why cluster radio relics are more frequently observed at the outskirts of clusters than in more central regions.

Enßlin & Gopal-Krishna (2001) showed that the spectral properties of cluster radio relics are well reproduced by this scenario. Here, we demonstrate that the observed morphologies and polarisation patterns are reproduced by this model as well. This is done with the help of the first 3-dimensional magneto-hydrodynamical (MHD) simulations of a fossil radio cocoon that is passed by a shock wave. We produce artifical radio maps that can be compared directly to high-resolution radio maps of relics.

## 2 Method

### 2.1 3D MHD Simulation

The magneto-hydrodynamical simulations were obtained using the ZEUS-3D code which was developed especially for problems in astrophysical hydrodynamics (Stone & Norman 1992a, b). The code uses finite differencing on a Eulerian grid and is fully explicit in time. It is based on an operator-split scheme with piecewise linear functions for the fundamental variables. The fluid is advected through a mesh using the upwind, monotonic interpolation scheme of van Leer. The magnetic field is evolved using a modified constrained transport technique which ensures that the field remains divergence-free to machine precision. The electromotive forces are computed via upwind differencing along Alfvén characteristics. For a detailed description of the algorithms and their numerical implementation see Stone & Norman (1992a, b).

The simulations were computed on a Cartesian grid with 1003 and 2003 equally spaced zones. The fluid flows in the $`x`$-direction with inflow boundary conditions at the lower boundary and outflow conditions at the outer boundary. The boundary conditions in the $`y`$\- and $`z`$-directions were chosen to be reflecting. The simulation was set up such that a stationary shock formed at the centre of the simulation box that is perpendicular to the direction of the flow.

In the pre-shock region a spherical bubble of radius $`R`$ was set up, in which the density was lowered by a factor of 10 with respect to the environment. In turn, the temperature in the bubble was raised such that the bubble remained in pressure equilibrium with its surroundings. Inside the bubble a magnetic field was set up as follows: The magnetic vector potential $`\stackrel{~}{𝐀}`$ was composed of 125 Fourier modes with random phases and amplitudes. $`\stackrel{~}{𝐀}`$ was then scaled as $`k^3`$, where $`k`$ is the wavenumber of the mode. This leads to a magnetic power spectrum of $`P_B(k)dkk^1dk`$. To avoid leakage of the magnetic field into the surroundings of the bubble, we employed the projection:

$$𝐀=[𝐈g(r)(𝐈\widehat{𝐫}\widehat{𝐫})]\stackrel{~}{𝐀},$$
(1)
where $`𝐈`$ is the identity, $`r`$ the radius measured from the centre of the bubble, $`\widehat{𝐫}`$ the corresponding unit vector and $`g(r)=(r/R)^2`$ if $`r<R`$ and $`g(r)=1`$ if $`rR`$.

The bubble was filled with around $`10^4`$ uniformly distributed tracer particles that are advected with the flow. We employed a polytropic equation of state with an adiabatic index of $`\gamma =5/3`$. The simulations with the serial version of the code were performed on a SUN ULTRA 10 workstation and the parallel version of the code was run on 8 processors on an SGI ORIGIN 3000.

Finally, we should address some issues related to the accuracy of these kinds of finite-difference hydrodynamical simulations. First, one can note that the gas density in the bubble increases with time. Any observed diffusion is entirely numerical. The boundary between the bubble and the ambient medium also becomes less sharp as the simulation proceeds due to discretisation errors in the advection scheme. For a test of the advection algorithm in the ZEUS code see Stone & Norman (1992a,b). Simple tests showed that during the advection of a sharp discontinuity over a grid of 200 zones the discontinuity is spread over 3-4 grid cells. Therefore, the smaller features in our simulation are more susceptible to advection errors than the larger ones.

Second, numerical viscosity is responsible for suppressing small-scale instabilities at the interface between the bubble and the cooler, surrounding gas. To assess the effects of numerical viscosity, we have repeated our simulations in 2D on grids with 3002 and 5002 grid points. Finally, we found that numerical resistivity destroys the magnetic field upon compression by the shock. With the affordable numerical resolution the magnetic field orientation reversals are pressed in very nearby computational cells. This is discussed further in Sec. 3.2.

### 2.2 Radio Maps

The radio maps are constructed using around $`10^4`$ passively advected tracer particles. Initially, each tracer particle is located inside the radio plasma cocoon and is associated with the same initial relativistic electron population. Then the electron spectrum for each tracer particle is evolved in time taking into account synchrotron, inverse Compton, and adiabatic energy losses and gains. In the formalism of Enßlin & Gopal-Krishna (2001)222Equivalent formalisms were derived and applied to numerical simulations by other authors, e.g. Matthews & Scheuer (1990a,b) , and Churazov et al. (2001) . this spectral evolution requires two quantities to be tracked as a function of time. The first is the compression history, i.e.

$$C(t)=V_0/V(t),$$
(2)
where $`V_0`$ and $`V(t)`$ are the initial and present specific volumes of the tracer particles. In our calculations we use the pressure $`P(t)`$ at the location of the tracer particles to work out the compression via the equation of state:

$$C(t)=(P(t)/P_0)^{1/\gamma _{\mathrm{rp}}},$$
(3)
where $`\gamma _{\mathrm{rp}}`$ is the adiabatic index of radio plasma. Even though our MHD simulations have a constant adiabatic index of $`5/3`$, we use $`\gamma _{\mathrm{rp}}=4/3`$ in Eq. 3 in order to simulate the higher energy gains of the electrons in the more compressible relativistic radio plasma.

The second quantity that has to be tracked in order to evolve the electron spectrum is the energy (or momentum) of an electron that was initially injected with infinite energy. This cutoff momentum $`p_{}`$ of the electron spectrum (here and in the following dimensionless units for electron momenta $`p=P_\mathrm{e}/(m_\mathrm{e}c)`$ are used, where $`m_\mathrm{e}`$ is the electron rest-mass, and $`c`$ the speed of light) is given by

$$\frac{1}{p_{}(t)}=a_0_{t_0}^t𝑑t^{}(u_B(t^{})+u_C(t^{}))\left(\frac{C(t^{})}{C(t)}\right)^{\frac{1}{3}}.$$
(4)
Here $`a_0=\frac{4}{3}\sigma _\mathrm{T}/(m_\mathrm{e}c)`$ with $`\sigma _\mathrm{T}`$ the Thomson cross-section, and $`u_B`$ and $`u_C`$ are the magnetic and cosmic microwave background energy densities, respectively. Hence the energy evolution of any electron can be calculated using

$$p(p_0,t)=\frac{p_0}{C(t)^{\frac{1}{3}}+p_0/p_{}(t)}.$$
(5)
The electron spectrum per dimensionless momentum of a tracer particle $`f(p,t)dp`$ for $`p<p_{}(t)`$ is given by

$$f(p,t)=f_0(p_0(p,t))\frac{p_0(p,t)}{p},$$
(6)
where

$$p_0(p,t)=pC(t)^{\frac{1}{3}}/(1p/p_{}(t)).$$
(7)
If the original distribution function is a power-law

$$f_0(p_0)=g_0p_0^{\alpha _\mathrm{e}}$$
(8)
for $`p_{\mathrm{min}\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0}}<p_0<p_{\mathrm{max}\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0}}`$ the resulting spectrum is

$$f(p,t)=g_0C(t)^{\frac{\alpha _\mathrm{e}1}{3}}p^{\alpha _\mathrm{e}}\left(1p/p_{}(t)\right)^{\alpha _\mathrm{e}2}$$
(9)
for $`p_{\mathrm{min}}(t)=p(p_{\mathrm{min}\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0}},t)<p<p_{\mathrm{max}}(t)=p(p_{\mathrm{max}\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0}},t)`$.

At fixed intervals during the simulation (up to 100) the positions of the tracer particles as well as the gas and magnetic field properties were written out. These were then used to tabulate $`C(t)`$ and $`p_{}(t)`$ interpolating linearly in the integration in Eq. 4. A second programme read in these tables to calculate the Stokes I-, Q-, and U-polarisation radio maps using the standard integration kernels of synchrotron radiation theory (Rybicki & Lightman 1979). At this step we have specified the parameters of the initial electron spectrum, viewing angle, distance and observing frequency. The maps were stored in the FITS format, and visualised with the radio-astronomical data reduction package AIPS.

## 3 Results

In the following, results from four simulation runs are presented: two simulations with a weak shock (external compression factor $`C_{\mathrm{gas}}=2`$), and two with a stronger shock ($`C_{\mathrm{gas}}=3.3`$). For each shock strength, simulations with dynamically unimportant (‘weak’) and dynamically important (‘strong’) field strengths are discussed. In those simulations with strong magnetic fields, the magnetic pressure initially exceeds the thermal pre-shock pressure. But a short violent expansion quickly establishes approximate pressure equilibrium. In the following, we name the simulation with the weak shock and the weak field strength ‘wSwB’, with the weak shock and the strong field strength ’wSsB’, and likewise.

Physical units are assumed such that the simulated radio relic resembles one which is located in the denser regions of a small galaxy cluster. In principle, we could assume physical units that correspond to more peripheral relics that reside in lower pressure environments. But in this case the artificially decaying magnetic fields (see Sec. 3.2) have a greater effect on the radio luminosity because the inverse Compton losses are bigger than the synchrotron losses.

The pre-shock external gas density is set to about $`510^4\mathrm{electrons}/\mathrm{cm}^3`$ and the temperature to 1-2 keV. The simulation box is assumed to have a size of 1 Mpc3 and to be located at a distance of 100 Mpc from the observer.

### 3.1 Torus Formation

The passage of a radio cocoon through a shock wave can be seen in Fig. 2. The formation of a torus can be explained as follows: At a shock wave, the ram-pressure of the pre-shock gas (plus its small thermal pressure) and the thermal pressure of the post-shock gas are in balance. But when the lighter radio plasma comes into contact with the shock surface, the ram pressure is reduced at the point of contact. The post-shock gas starts to expand into the volume occupied by the still low pressure radio plasma. This can be seen in the second and third displayed panel of Fig. 2. Finally, the radio plasma is disrupted and a torus forms.

A possible evolutionary scenario of the radio morphology of the cocoon could be similar to what is shown in Fig. 2. In the early stages of the compression the torus has not formed and one expects a sheet like radio relic to be visible. The relic should get more and more edge brightened while the radio plasma accumulates in the torus. Finally, when the thin sheet is disrupted, only a torus-like object should be visible.

Thus we expect that the early, sheet-like radio relics have a ‘younger’, less steepened spectrum, while the later-stage, filamentary or toroidal relics have a much higher spectral age with a bent, steep radio spectrum.

These predictions are supported by the fact that the relatively sheet-like relics in the cluster Abell 2256 have a flat spectrum (Röttgering et al. 1994) whereas all the filamentary relics in the sample observed by Slee et al. (2001) exhibit steep, bent and therefore ‘aged’ spectra. We note that this statement needs additional observational confirmation.

### 3.2 Global Properties

In Fig. 3 the evolution of the average magnetic field strength, the thermal pressure and the electron number density at the location of the tracer particles are shown for one simulation. The bubble reaches its maximal compression after 75-200 Myr. The associated increase in the thermal electron density is somewhat higher than predicted by simple adiabatic compression. This is probably due to gas electrons that have diffused numerically into the radio plasma volume. However, this does not affect our radio maps. The spatial distribution of the relativistic particles is solely determined by the locations of tracer particles. The compressional state of the relativistic electrons is calculated from the fluid pressure and not from the density in order to be less sensitive to numerical diffusion.

Moreover, the decline of the magnetic field strength is caused by the numerical resistivity (or magnetic diffusivity) of the code. The reason for the strong impact of the numerical diffusion of the magnetic field on our results lies in the thin morphology the radio plasma after the shock passage. This brings low density and high density regions, and also regions with differently oriented magnetic fields close together, producing strong gradients which are sensitive to numerical diffusion. Since the radio plasma is compressed into filaments that are only a few cells wide, magnetic diffusion leads to strong artificial annilihation (or reconnection) of magnetic fields.

Two-dimensional resolution studies indicate that this artificial decrease of the magnetic field strength should become small for a $`500^3`$ cell simulation. Since such a simulation is at present not feasible for us we will try to focus on robust conclusions that are not severely affected by this inaccuracy. However, we have made experiments with low resolution and large-scale fields in two dimensions. These experiments revealed that the magnetic field strength increases drastically upon compression and, subsequently, remains strong – as is expected in the absence of numerical diffusivity.

### 3.3 Spectral Aging

An increase of a factor $`5`$ in the radio luminosity during the compression between 70 to 140 Myr can be seen in Fig. 4. However, the greater increase expected from the analytical model of Enßlin & Gopal-Krishna (2001) could not be reproduced in our simulations. This is a result of the decaying magnetic fields due to numerical resistivity, and not a failure of the model. In order not to be too much affected by the rapidly evolving spectral cutoff we restrict our analysis in the following to a low radio frequency, namely 100 MHz.

### 3.4 Radio Morphology

As the shock wave passes the initially spherical radio cocoon (Fig. 5), the cocoon is torn into a filamentary structure (Figs. 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10). In the simulations with weak magnetic fields the final morphology is toroidal for the strong shock (simulation sSwB, Fig. 9) and shows two tori in the case of a weak shock wave (wSwB, Fig. 6). Such a double torus seems to be observed in the relic in Abell 85 (Slee et al. 2001, and Fig. 1). The degree of polarisation is relatively high everywhere. The electric polarisation vectors tend to be perpendicular to the radio filaments indicating aligned magnetic field structures within them. The reason for this is that the compression is mostly perpendicular to the filaments since this is how they formed. Therefore, the parallel field component is preferentially enhanced.

But in some few spots (see Fig. 9) the polarisation E-vectors are aligned with the radio filaments. We presume that these spots coincide with regions where the initial magnetic component parallel to the shock was too weak to be amplified above the perpendicular components. Such reversals are indeed observed in polarisation maps of relics but multi-frequency observations still have to confirm that they are intrinsic, and not induced by foreground Faraday rotation (R. Slee, private communications).

In those simulations where the magnetic fields are dynamically important nearly always a more complicated morphology is produced. In the weak shock simulation (wSsB, Figs. 7 and 8) the cocoon does not show any toroidal structure after shock passage. But filamentary structures can still be identified and the E-polarisation vectors seem to be approximately perpendicular to the filaments. The edge-on projection shows that the radio emitting volume is not restricted to the shock plane but also shows kinks and extentions in the flow direction. Similar looking kinks are observed in the radio relics in the cluster Abell 3667. These relics are also likely to be seen edge-on as the merger shock lies within or close to the plane of the sky (Roettiger 1999).

In the simulation with a strong shock and strong fields (sSsB) a large torus still appears, but a second smaller one is dominating the total radio emission (Fig. 10). The extreme brightness of this feature is likely to be an artifact of an unlucky realization of the initial random magnetic field configuration than a typical feature of a real radio relic, since a corresponding bright spot already appeared in the initial radio cocoon.

### 3.5 Radio Polarisation

Our simulations indicate that for a sufficiently turbulent initial magnetic field geometry the total integrated polarisation of a radio relic observed face-on should be small. It is of the order of the total initial fractional polarisation of the source. In the case of a simulated toroidal relic all polarisation orientations are roughly equally present and therefore cancel each other out in the surface integration. But even in a more complex relic, as shown Fig. 7, the integrated polarisation cancels out in the face-on view.

In the edge-on view this is different. Now a preferential direction exists: E-vectors tend to be aligned with the projected shock normal.

It is interesting to study how reliably the overall polarisation strength and direction can be used as a measure of the 3-dimensional shock orientation.

Analytic predictions for the polarisation strength of shock compressed random magnetic fields were already derived in Laing (1980) and Enßlin et al. (1998). In these derivations it was assumed that the compression is linear along the flow axis and that the fields follow completely passively. The resulting percentage radio polarisation is then given by:

$$<P_{\mathrm{weak}}>=\frac{s+1}{s+\frac{7}{3}}\frac{\mathrm{sin}^2\delta }{\frac{2C_{\mathrm{gas}}^2}{C_{\mathrm{gas}}^21}\mathrm{sin}^2\delta }.$$
(10)
The term $`C_{\mathrm{gas}}`$ denotes the shock compression factor, $`s`$ the spectral index of the electron population, and $`\delta `$ the viewing angle. If the magnetic fields dominate the total pressure one can allow them to expand to pressure equilibrium after shock passage. In this case the polarisation

$$<P_{\mathrm{strong}}>=\frac{s+1}{s+\frac{7}{3}}\frac{\mathrm{sin}^2\delta }{\frac{2}{15}\frac{13C_{\mathrm{gas}}7}{C_{\mathrm{gas}}1}\mathrm{sin}^2\delta }$$
(11)
is surprisingly similar to that expected in the weak field case (Enßlin et al. 1998). This can be seen from the reference curves in Fig. 11 and 12.

Also shown in these figures are viewing angle scans of the total polarisation of the radio emission in the simulation wSsB before (Fig. 11) and after (Fig. 12) shock passage. These figures show that, in addition to the intrinsic polarisation pattern of the turbulent fields, the shock passage imprints a strong polarisation signature onto the radio plasma.

It is remarkable that the characteristics of the simulated radio polarisation are similar to the analytic models of shocked magnetic fields. If the amplitude of the polarisation curves in our simulations are not too strongly affected by artifacts, such as the decaying field strength, or the incorrect adiabatic index of the radio plasma, we can conclude that the shock acceleration and the revived fossil radio plasma are not distinguishable by this. Alternatively, the simplistic analytic theory of shocked fields seems to be a good guide in relating viewing angle and radio polarisation.

The reason for the similar polarisation pattern in the different models is likely that the magnetic fields in all cases are nearly completely aligned with the shock plane. In the extreme case of completely shock plane aligned fields, but with randomly distributed orientations within that plane, the polarisation is given by

$$<P_{\mathrm{max}}>=\frac{s+1}{s+\frac{7}{3}}\frac{\mathrm{sin}^2\delta }{2\mathrm{sin}^2\delta }.$$
(12)
This is not too far from the other models.

Whenever the imprinted polarisation dominates over the initial intrinsic one, the direction of the E-vector can be used relatively reliably to infer the shock normal projected onto the plane of the sky (Fig. 13). The angle with respect to this plane can be estimated roughly from the total polarisation.

Thus, in principle, the 3-dimensional orientation (modulo a mirror ambiguity) can be derived from the polarisation data only. However, these points will need additional investigations before it is applicable to real data. Especially the role of the initial field geometry has to be investigated. Our simulated radio ghosts showed deviations from the analytic predictions on the order of the total initial polarisation of the source. Such deviations may significantly reduce the accuracy of any polarisation based viewing angle estimate. However, we think that according to our model there should be a correlation between total polarisation and the viewing angle due to the field ordering action of the shock wave. See Enßlin et al. (1998) for an early attempt to compare these quantities for a small smaple of cluster radio relics.

### 3.6 Shock Properties

On the basis of our simulations we speculate that the observed dimensions of a cluster radio relic with a toroidal shape may be used to get a rough estimate of the shock strength. This is based on the observation that in the numerical simulations the radius $`R`$ of the spherical cocoon and the major radius of the torus after the passage of the shock are approximately equal. Since the major ($`R`$) and minor ($`r`$) radii of the torus can be read off approximately from a sensitive high-resolution radio map, the compression of the radio plasma by the shock can be estimated. In the idealised case of an initially spherical and finally toroidal radio cocoon, the compression factor is given by

$$C=\frac{V_{\mathrm{sphere}}}{V_{\mathrm{torus}}}=\frac{4\pi R^3/3}{2\pi ^2Rr^2}=\frac{2R^2}{3\pi r^2}.$$
(13)
Assuming the radio cocoon to be in pressure equilibrium with its environment before and after the shock passage, the pressure jump in the shock is given by $`P_2/P_1=C^{\gamma _{\mathrm{rp}}}`$. If the adiabatic index of the radio plasma $`\gamma _{\mathrm{rp}}`$ is assumed to be known, e.g $`\gamma _{\mathrm{rp}}=4/3`$ for an ultra-relativistic equation of state, the shock strength can be estimated. But even if this assumption is not justified and the geometry deviates from the idealised geometries assumed here, the strength of the shock wave should be correlated to the ratio of the global diameter of a toroidal relic and the thickness of its filaments. Unfortunately, the quality of the best current radio maps of relics do not yet allow a quantitative comparison of the shock strength by comparing the $`R/r`$ ratios of toroidal relics. But these maps demonstrate that the necessary sensitivity and resolution might be reached soon.

If, furthermore, the strength of the shock wave of well resolved cluster radio relics can be estimated independently from X-ray maps of the IGM, it would be possible to directly measure the adiabatic index of radio plasma. This can be done by estimating the slope of a $`\mathrm{log}(P_2/P_1)`$ versus $`\mathrm{log}(R/r)`$ plot for a sample of well observed radio relics and their shock waves:

$$\mathrm{log}(P_2/P_1)=2\gamma _{\mathrm{rp}}\mathrm{log}(R/r)\mathrm{log}(3\pi \epsilon /2).$$
(14)
Here $`\epsilon `$ parametrises the influence of the deviation from the above assumed ideal geometry. The values of $`\epsilon `$ should scatter from relic to relic, but any systematic correlation of $`\epsilon `$ with the shock strength should be weak. Even though the present radio and X-ray data do not have the required accuracy yet, at some point in the future this method may enable us to measure the unknown equation of state of radio plasma.

In our simulations the adiabatic index of the simulated fluid ($`\gamma _{\mathrm{rp},\mathrm{sim}}=\gamma _{\mathrm{gas}}=5/3`$) and the shock strength are known ($`P_2/P_1=3.5`$ and $`P_2/P_1=17.4`$ for the shock compression factor $`C_{\mathrm{shock}}=2`$ and $`C_{\mathrm{shock}}=3.3`$ respectively). Thus we find that the ratio of the length scales $`R/r3`$ for $`C_{\mathrm{shock}}=2`$ and $`R/r5`$ for $`C_{\mathrm{shock}}=3.3`$. This is roughly consistent with our synthetic radio maps. At least the qualitative correlation of shock strength and diameter ratio is clearly observed, as can be seen in Figs. 6, 9, and 10. Even in the non-toroidal, filamentary case wSsB the ratio of the typical filament diameter to the relic diameter seems to be similar to that in the toroidal case, as a comparison of Fig. 7 with Fig. 6 shows.

## 4 Conclusion

We have presented 3-D MHD simulations of a hot, magnetised bubble that traverses a shock wave in a much colder and denser environment. This is assumed to be a fair model for a blob of radio plasma in the IGM which is passed by a cluster merger shock wave. We have calculated radio polarisation maps for the relativistic electron population and computed the spectrum subject to synchrotron-, inverse Compton- and adiabatic energy losses and gains. These maps show that the shock wave produces filamentary radio emitting structures and, in many cases, toroidal structures. Such filaments and tori appear to be observed by very recent high-resolution radio maps of cluster radio relics (Slee et al. 2001). Our simulations find polarisation patterns which indicate that the magnetic fields are mostly aligned with the direction of the filaments. This also seems to be the case for the observed cluster radio relics.

We argued that the formation of filaments and tori is a generic feature of a shock processed hot bubble of plasma whose internal sound speed well above the shock speed. We expect this to be a robust result that will also be found in more realistic simulations, e.g. with the proper equation of state, or more realistic initial magnetic field configurations.

Therefore, we conclude that we have found support for the hypothesis that cluster radio relics indeed consist of fossil radio plasma that has been compressed adiabatically by a shock wave, as proposed by Enßlin & Gopal-Krishna (2001). Thus, the historical name ‘cluster radio relic’ seems to be, accidentally or intuitively, an appropriate choice.

From our simulations several predictions about the properties of cluster radio relics can be made – if our scenario is correct :

The formation of the tori and filaments is not instantaneous. First, the simulations show a phase in which the radio plasma is strongly flattened by the shock. During this phase a sheet-like radio relic with a flat spectrum is observed. Later, the radio plasma moves towards the edges of this sheet and finally becomes a torus (or a more complicated, filamentary structure). Since spectral ageing is likely to have affected these later stages, we expect that the filamentary relics have a steeper, more bent radio spectrum than the sheet-like ones.

Our simulations indicate that the diameter $`D`$ of the bubble of radio plasma remains approximately constant during the passage of the shock. It was also found that the final structure consists of radio filaments of small diameter $`d`$ that are distributed (often in form of a torus) in an area of diameter $`D`$. The compression factor of the radio plasma is proportional to $`(D/d)^2`$, and this ratio is a measure of the shock strength. Thus, the approximate compression factor of the radio plasma can in principle be read off a sensitive high-resolution radio map. If this number can be estimated for a sufficient number of late-stage relics, and if the pressure jump $`P_2/P_1`$ of the shock wave can be obtained from detailed X-ray observations, the unknown adiabatic index $`\gamma _{\mathrm{rp}}`$ of the radio plasma can be computed using the relation:

$$\frac{P_2}{P_1}\left(\frac{D}{d}\right)^{2\gamma _{\mathrm{rp}}}.$$
(15)
The local radio polarisation reflects the complicated magnetic field structures. But for sufficiently turbulent initial magnetic fields (as in our simulations) the total integrated polarisation of a relic reveals the 3-dimensional orientation of the shock wave. Since the compression aligns the fields with the shock plane, the sky-projected field distribution is aligned with the intersection of the shock plane and the sky plane. Thus, the direction of the total E-polarisation vector yields the sky-projected normal of the shock wave. In principle the angle between the normal of the shock and the plane of the sky can be estimated from the fractional polarisation of the integrated flux. Our simulations indicate that the viewing angle dependence is similar to that which one would expect if the magnetic fields were embedded in the external gas and passively compressed by a shock, even if this may not be the physical mechanism. But this statement should be treated with some caution since the simulated polarisation may be sensitive to artifacts such as the high numerical magnetic diffusivity and the incorrect adiabatic index of the simulated radio plasma ($`\gamma _{\mathrm{rp},\mathrm{sim}}=5/3`$ instead of the more likely $`\gamma _{\mathrm{rp}}=4/3`$). Furthermore, any initial global field orientation may survive the compression and distort this relation between viewing angle and polarisation strength. However, even in this case one expects still a statistical correlation between these quantities. These points need further investigation.

We conclude that this work supports the hypothesis that cluster radio relics are revived bubbles of fossil radio plasma, the so called radio ghosts. Spectral aging arguments (Enßlin & Gopal-Krishna 2001) predict the existence of a sizable population of yet undetected cluster radio relics which are only observable with sensitive low frequency radio telescopes.

## Acknowledgements

We thank O.B. Slee, A.L. Roy, M. Murgia, H. Andernach, M. Ehle for providing us with their observational data prior to publication, and allowing us to display their 1.4 GHz map of the relic in Abell 85. We also thank G. Giovannini and L. Feretti for access to their 330 MHz data of the same relic. We acknowledge A. Kercek’s contributions to a very early stage of this simulation project and E. Müller’s comments on the manuscript. Some of the computations reported here were performed using the UK Astrophysical Fluids Facility (UKAFF). This work was supported by the European Community Research and Training Network ‘The Physics of the Intergalactic Medium’.