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# Inferring Initial Spin Periods for Neutron Stars in Composite Remnants

## 1. Introduction

Is a typical neutron star born spinning close to break-up ($`P_00.8`$ ms, Haensel et al. 1995A&A…296..745H (1995)). The answer to this question reveals much about the angular momentum evolution of neutron star progenitors (Heger et al. 2000ApJ…528..368H (2000)), as well as about the processes that occur during the supernova explosion (Spruit & Phinney 1998Natur.393..139S (1998), Lai & Goldreich 2000ApJ…535..402L (2000)). If the initial spin-rate is close to the break-up rate, the nascent neutron star may undergo a Rossby-wave instability (Lindblom, Owen & Morsink 1998PhRvL..80.4843L (1998)) and emit gravitational radiation. Moreover, a rapidly rotating neutron star can obtain a substantial kick velocity through the electromagnetic rocket effect (Harrison & Tademaru 1975ApJ…201..447H (1975)). This can provide a natural explanation for the apparent alignment between the spin axis and pulsar proper motion (Lai et al. 2001ApJ…549..1111 (2001)) in the Crab (Caraveo & Mignani 1999AA…344..367C (1999)) and Vela pulsar (Pavlov et al. 2000AAS…196.3704P (2000)).

A number of studies have been dedicated to the determination of initial spin-rates. Those few young pulsars which have measured braking indices and estimated ages seem to possess initial spin periods from $`19`$ ms (Crab, Lyne et al. 1993MNRAS.265.1003L (1993)) to $`63`$ ms (PSR B1509-58, Kaspi et al. 1994ApJ…422L..83K (1994)).111The LMC x-ray pulsar J0537-6910 ($`16`$ ms, Marshall et al. 1998ApJ…499L.179M (1998)) should be born at shorter than $`10`$ ms for reasonable values of the braking index. Since only rapidly rotating pulsars have measurable braking indicies, these values may not be representative for the general population. For these, Phinney & Blandford (1981MNRAS.194..137P (1981)) and Vivekanand & Narayan (1981JApA….2..315V (1981)) have developed the pulsar-current analysis. Unfortunately, this method is subject to small-number statistics (Lorimer et al. 1993MNRAS.263..403L (1993)). Analysis based on pulsar luminosity functions (Emmering & Chevalier 1989ApJ…345..931E (1989), Narayan 1987ApJ…319..162N (1987)) raised the possibility of ‘injection’: the majority of the pulsars may be born with periods as slow as several hundred milliseconds. This hypothesis is corroborated by the apparent paucity of plerions around neutron stars (Srinivasan et al. 1984JApA….5..403S (1984)). A plerion derives energy from the rotational energy of the central pulsar. The overall conclusion from pulsar studies seems to favour a slow initial spin rate.

In this article, we propose a new method for inferring the initial spin-rates of some neutron stars – the small population that reside within composite supernova remnants. A composite supernova remnant (SNR) includes both a plerionic (filled-centered) component (Weiler & Panagia Weiler (1978)) and a shell component. The first corresponds to the pulsar wind nebula (PWN), while the latter corresponds to the blastwave of the supernova remnant (SNR) propagating through the interstellar medium (ISM). They are observationally distinguished by a different spectral power-law index at radio frequencies. The dynamics of such a composite system has been extensively studied, e.g. Reynolds & Chevalier (1984); Chevalier & Fransson (1992).

Recently, van der Swaluw et al. (eric (2001)) presented hydrodynamical simulations and analytical arguments which explicitly relate the radius of the PWN to that of the SNR. These authors find that the two radii are roughly proportional some time after the initial explosion, with the proportionality constant determined by the ratio of the pulsar spin-down energy and the total mechanical energy of the supernova event. This relation forms the theoretical basis for the current paper. In this article, we follow van der Swaluw et al. (eric (2001)) in restricting ourselves to spherically symmetric systems.

## 2. Evolution of a PWN in a SNR

As a pulsar spins down, its rotational energy is largely deposited into the surrounding medium, driving a relativistic pulsar wind into the tenuous bubble of stellar debris left behind by the supernova blastwave. We approximate the spin-down luminosity of the pulsar wind by that of a rotating magnetic dipole:

$$L(t)=L_0/\left(1+t/\tau \right)^2.$$
(1)
The total spin-down energy is $`E_{\mathrm{sd}}=L_0\tau `$. We neglect the dynamical influence of the pulsar wind on the SNR, assuming that $`E_{\mathrm{sd}}`$ is well below the total mechanical energy of the supernova explosion, $`E_010^{51}`$ erg.

The evolution of a PWN inside a SNR can be divided into two stages (Reynolds & Chevalier 1984; Chevalier & Fransson 1992). In the first stage, the PWN expands supersonically within the bubble blown out by the SNR. The second stage commences at $`tt_{\mathrm{ST}}`$ when the PWN encounters the reverse shock of the SNR. The reverse shock heats the interior of the SNR and causes the expansion of the PWN to become subsonic. In this stage the expansion of the PWN is regulated by the expansion of the SNR, which is described by a self-similar Sedov-Taylor solution. In the following we summarize some relevant results from Chevalier & Fransson (1992) and van der Swaluw et al. (eric (2001)).

### 2.1. Analytical Relations

We focus on the subsonic expansion stage of the PWN which occurs when the SNR has relaxed to the Sedov solution. We assume that the pulsar wind has deposited most of its energy into the PWN ($`t\tau `$). We find that the radius of the PWN ($`R_{\mathrm{pwn}}`$) scales roughly linearly with the radius of the SNR ($`R_{\mathrm{snr}}`$). This scaling arises from the condition of pressure equillibrium between the PWN interior and the interior of the SNR. We approximate the pressure which confines the PWN by the central pressure of the SNR, using the Sedov solution (Sedov sedov1958 (1958)),

$$P_{\mathrm{snr}}0.074E_0/R_{\mathrm{snr}}^3,$$
(2)
where $`E_0`$ is the total mechanical energy of the SNR. Inside the PWN, pressure is quickly equilibrated due to the high sound speed $`c/\sqrt{3}`$ of the relativistic fluid. The interior pressure is related to the energy content of the PWN, $`E_{}`$, by

$$P_{\mathrm{pwn}}\frac{3(\gamma 1)}{4\pi }\frac{E_{}}{R_{\mathrm{pwn}}^3},$$
(3)
where $`\gamma `$ is the adiabatic index. Let $`E_{\mathrm{pwn}}`$ be the total amount of energy injected into the PWN by the central pulsar. Part of this energy is used to perform work on the surrounding medium as the PWN expands. Despite some compression of the PWN by the reverse shock around $`t=t_{\mathrm{ST}}`$, $`E_{}`$ falls below $`E_{\mathrm{pwn}}`$ (see Fig. 9 of van der Swaluw et al. (eric (2001))). We therefore write $`E_{}=\eta _2E_{\mathrm{pwn}}`$ with $`\eta _2<1`$ decreasing over time. Imposing pressure equilibrium, we find

$$R_{\mathrm{pwn}}=\overline{C}\left(E_{}/E_0\right)^{1/3}R_{\mathrm{snr}},$$
(4)
where $`\overline{C}1.02`$ for a relativistic fluid ($`\gamma =4/3`$) and $`\overline{C}1.29`$ for a non-relativistic fluid ($`\gamma =5/3`$).

In the absence of radiative losses, the subsonic expansion of the PWN is adiabatic, $`P_{\mathrm{pwn}}V_{\mathrm{pwn}}^\gamma `$ = constant, where $`V_{\mathrm{pwn}}R_{\mathrm{pwn}}^3`$ is the volume of the PWN. Combining this relation with equation (3), we find that $`E_{}`$ falls off with time as $`t^{3/10}`$ for a relativistic fluid. This yields an expansion law for the radius of the PWN, $`R_{\mathrm{pwn}}t^{3/10}`$, whereas the radius of the SNR scales as in a Sedov solution ($`R_{\mathrm{snr}}t^{2/5}`$). So, roughly, $`R_{\mathrm{pwn}}R_{\mathrm{snr}}`$.

We introduce two additional dimensionless parameters, $`\eta _1`$ and $`\eta _3`$, and rewrite equation (4) into a form that can be more easily compared with simulations,

$$R_{\mathrm{pwn}}(t)=\eta _3(t)\left(\eta _1E_{\mathrm{sd}}/E_0\right)^{1/3}R_{\mathrm{snr}}(t).$$
(5)
The parameter $`\eta _1`$ is a constant and relates the total energy input into the PWN, $`E_{\mathrm{pwn}}`$, to the total spin-down energy of the pulsar, $`E_{\mathrm{sd}}`$ as $`E_{\mathrm{pwn}}=\eta _1E_{\mathrm{sd}}`$. This takes into account possible radiative losses in the PWN, and other inefficiencies in the conversion of the spin-down energy into mechanical energy. For instance, a fraction of the neutron star spin-down energy may escape directly from the pulsar as high energy radiation. We set $`\eta _1=1`$ in this article, but discuss the case when it is much less than unity. The second parameter is defined as $`\eta _3(t)=\overline{C}\eta _2^{1/3}\overline{C}`$. The maximum value of $`\eta _3=\overline{C}`$ is used when we determine the initial spin periods of pulsars driving composite remnants.

The derivation leading up to equation (5) is invalid during the earlier supersonic evolution. We retain equation (5) with the sole purpose of defining $`\eta _3`$ during these stages. We proceed to demonstrate the behaviour of $`\eta _3`$ throughout the PWN evolution with results from hydrodynamical simulations.

### 2.2. Hydrodynamical Simulations

Van der Swaluw et al. (eric (2001)) have presented hydrodynamical simulations of a pulsar wind nebula inside a supernova remnant. In these simulations, the gasdynamical equations are integrated in a spherically symmetric configuration, using the Versatile Advection Code (VAC) developed by Gábor Tóth at the Astronomical Institute Utrecht (Tóth and Odstrčil Toth2 (1996)). Lacking the possibility of treating a relativistic fluid, the pulsar wind has been implemented as a cold non-relativistic wind ($`\gamma =5/3`$) with a terminal velocity equal to the speed of light, $`v_{\mathrm{}}=[2L(t)/\dot{M}_{\mathrm{pw}}(t)]^{1/2}c`$, where $`\dot{M}_{\mathrm{pw}}(t)`$ is the mass ejection rate into the pulsar wind bubble, and $`L(t)`$ is the pulsar spin-down luminosity as given by equation (1).

Figure 2.2 presents relevant results from one of these simulations. The numerical parameters adopted in this simulation are listed in the caption. Taking different parameters will not qualitatively change the overall behaviour of the system, but it will affect the early (supersonic) evolution and the moment when subsonic expansion commences ($`t_{\mathrm{ST}}`$). For example, $`t_{\mathrm{ST}}`$ is larger if the supernova explosion is more energetic, if the supernova ejecta mass is larger, or if the interstellar medium density is smaller ($`t_{\mathrm{ST}}E_0^{1/2}M_{\mathrm{ej}}^{5/6}\rho _{\mathrm{ism}}^{1/3}`$, e.g. McKee & Truelove (1995)). Since this is a non-relativistic simulation ($`\gamma =5/3`$), we expect $`\eta _3\overline{C}=1.29`$ in the subsonic expansion stage. This is indeed observed. Therefore in the following investigation we assume a maximum value for $`\eta _3`$ of $`1.02`$, as is appropriate for the subsonic expansion stage of a PWN in a SNR with $`\gamma =4/3`$.

## 3. Inferring Initial Spin Rates

Writing the spin-down energy as $`E_{\mathrm{sd}}=(\mathrm{\Omega }_0^2\mathrm{\Omega }_t^2)I/2`$, we obtain the following expression for the pulsar’s initial spin period,

$$P_0=2\pi \left(\frac{2E_0}{\eta _1I}\left(\frac{R_{\mathrm{pwn}}}{\eta _3R_{\mathrm{snr}}}\right)^3+\left(\frac{2\pi }{P_t}\right)^2\right)^{1/2},$$
(6)
where the spin-periods are $`P_02\pi /\mathrm{\Omega }_0`$, $`P_\mathrm{t}2\pi /\mathrm{\Omega }_t`$ and $`I`$ is the moment of inertia of the neutron star. The radius of a PWN relative to its associated SNR shell can be used to infer the initial spin-period of the pulsar, assuming $`\eta _1`$, $`\eta _3`$, $`E_0`$ and $`\mathrm{\Omega }_t`$ are known or can be estimated.

The radius of PWN should be taken from radio measurements. Synchrotron-radiating electrons in PWN have a typical life-time (Rybicki & Lightman rybicki (1979)):

$$\tau _{1/2}=\frac{6\pi m_\mathrm{e}c}{\sigma _\mathrm{T}B^2\mathrm{\Gamma }}10^5B_{m\mathrm{G}}^{3/2}\nu _{\mathrm{MHz}}^{1/2}\mathrm{yrs},$$
(7)
where $`\sigma _\mathrm{T}`$ is the Thomson cross-section, $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ is the electron Lorentz factor, $`\nu `$ is the typical synchrotron frequency scaled at the radio wavelength, and $`B`$ is the magnetic field strength scaled by a value appropriate for plerions. Such a long life-time implies that radio observations ‘see’ electrons that were accelerated during the early energetic stage when the pulsar deposits most of its rotational energy into the pulsar wind. They therefore delineates the true spatial extent of the plerion. In contrast, X-ray electrons loose their energy quickly. The X-ray plerion is produced by electrons recently accelerated near the pulsar, so one ecpects the plerion to be smaller in X-rays.

We have collected from the literature $`13`$ composite supernova remnants. We list the relevant properties of these systems in Table 1. The relative sizes of the plerions are taken from radio observations, with the exception of G$`11.20.3`$ and G$`320.41.2`$ (marked by asterisks), where only X-ray plerions have been observed. We apply equation (6) to determine the initial spin period for these systems, adopting $`\eta _1=1.0`$, $`\eta _3=1.02`$, $`E_0=1.0\times 10^{51}`$ erg, $`I=1.4\times 10^{45}`$ g cm2 (the value for Crab), and $`P_t=2\pi /\mathrm{\Omega }_t=\mathrm{}`$ in cases where it is unknown. The same results appear in Figure 3 as filled triangles. By taking the maximum value for $`\eta _3`$ we probably under-estimate the initial spin rate, but likely by no more than a factor of $`2`$ judging from Figure 2.2. In the same table we also list the initial spin periods ($`P_0^{}`$) derived for $`4`$ pulsars using braking index measurements.

## 4. Discussion

We have demonstrated a new method for inferring initial spin rates of pulsars residing in composite supernova remnants. This method uses the ratio of the plerion radius and the radius of the supernova shell, so we dub it as the ‘radius method’. Given that typical plerions and supernova remnants are expected to live for $`10^310^4`$ years, we expect that future observations will increase the population to which the radius method can be applied.

This method does not require a knowledge of parameters like the density and magnetic field strength of the ISM, or the distance and age of the SNR. However, for the method to apply, the observed PWN has to be in the subsonic stage of its evolution. If this is not the case, the method systematically over-estimates the initial spin rate (see below). Uncertainties in $`E_0`$, $`\eta _3`$ and $`\mathrm{\Omega }_t`$ introduce errors of order unity, as will a deviation from pure spherical symmetry. A more important uncertainty of this new method concerns the influence of synchrotron radiative losses in the plerion, as parametrized by $`\eta _1`$. We tend to under-estimate the initial spin-rate by ignoring these losses (setting $`\eta _1=1`$). We will illustrate the effect of these uncertainties by considering the $`4`$ systems in Table 1, which have known central pulsars, and independent estimates for their initial periods based on measurements of the pulsar breaking index.222G$`11.20.3`$ does not have a braking index measurement. But its inferred initial spin depends little on this index due to its small age.

Among these systems, Vela is the oldest and should have entered the subsonic expansion stage. Its associated pulsar being displaced from the center of the plerion also testifies in favor of an old age. Adopting $`\eta _3=1.02`$ and other parameters as stated, the radius method yields an initial spin-down energy for Vela that is a factor of $`2`$ above that inferred by Lyne et al. (1996Natur.381..497L (1996)) from pulsar braking index measurement. This is surprising as we have ignored radiative loss. We suggest three possibilities that will reconcile the two methods: (1) the supernova explosion is half as energetic as assumed here, (2) the pulsar is $`15`$ kyr old, and (3) the braking index is as high as $`2.4`$ (Lyne et al. 1996Natur.381..497L (1996) reported $`1.4`$). The first option will raise $`P_0`$ to $`52`$ ms while the latter two will reduce $`P_0^{}`$ to $`41`$ ms.

The remaining two systems, G$`11.20.3`$ and G$`320.41.2`$, are young ($`1.5`$ kyr). Their plerions could still be in supersonic expansion during which the value of $`\eta _3`$ (defined formally through equation (5) in the supersonic stage) can be higher than $`1.02`$, the theoretical maximum during the subsonic expansion stage (Fig. 2.2 and §2 of van der Swaluw et al. eric (2001)). For example, taking $`\eta _3=2`$ we find $`P_0=63`$ ms for $`G11.20.3`$. A similar correction may have to be applied to G$`29.70.3`$ (Kes 75).

In contrast to the systems discussed above, SNR $`054069.3`$ is the only case in which the spin-down energy is significantly under-estimated for our choice of parameters. The plerion in SNR $`054069.3`$ is too small if the pulsar was indeed born with an initial spin of $`39`$ ms. Manchester et al. (1993ApJ…411..756M (1993)) have argued that the radiative loss in this system has reduced the total energy stored in the plerionic magnetic field and relativistic electrons to a mere $`4\%`$ of the integrated spin-down luminosity of the pulsar. Taking $`\eta _1=0.04`$ we recover a $`39`$ ms initial period, with a value of $`\eta _3=1.3`$. This value of $`\eta _3`$ is reasonable because SNR $`054069.3`$ is only $`760`$ years old. None of the other $`3`$ systems discussed here requires strong synchrotron losses in the plerion, which makes SNR $`054069.3`$ unique. Among the $`4`$ pulsars, PSR $`054069`$ is not outstanding either in its surface magnetic field strength or in its spin-down rate. It is likely born the fastest, though not by a large margin.

Along the same line, Atoyan (1999AA…346L..49A (1999)) have argued that in Crab, strong synchrotron losses in its past can account for the observed flat spectra of the radio electrons in the plerion. If this applies to all PWNe, it would significantly change our inferred initial spin rates. This is illustrated in Fig. 3 for a strong synchrotron loss of $`\eta _1=0.05`$.

Although the effect of radiative losses on the reliability of our results remain unclear, we briefly explore the implications of these results. Our sample (table 1) is likely biased towards fast spinners, which produce plerions that are easier to detect. Even so, all pulsars in our sample seem to be born spinning much below the break-up rate. Moreover, their initial spin-periods do not cluster around $`510`$ ms, a signature of rapid spin-down by the gravitationally radiating Rossby-waves which occur immediately after the supernova collapse (Andersson et al. 2000ApJ…534L..75A (2000), Wu et al. wu2001 (2001)). The long initial periods we find imply an effective angular momentum coupling between the core and envelope of neutron star progenitors until late into their evolution. The scattering in the initial periods could either reflect a different decoupling time in different stars, or a stochastic process that gives rise to the final angular momentum in the neutron star, such as an off-centered kick during the collapse (Spruit & Phinney 1998Natur.393..139S (1998)).

We acknowledge discussions with Bram Achterberg, Armen Atoyan and an anonymous referee.


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# Caltech Faint Galaxy Redshift Survey XV: Classifications of Galaxies with 0.2<𝑧<1.1 in the Hubble Deep Field (North) and its Flanking Fields 1footnote 11footnote 1Based in part on observations obtained at the W.M. Keck Observatory, which is operated jointly by the California Institute of Technology and the University of California

## 1 Introduction

The Hubble Space Telescope has, for the first time, allowed us to undertake systematic imaging surveys (Williams et al., 1996) of galaxies at large redshifts. Furthermore, spectra obtained with the W. M. Keck 10-m telescope (Cohen et al., 2000) have made it possible to determine redshifts (and hence look-back times) for significant numbers of such distant galaxies. In recent papers (van den Bergh et al., 1996, 2000; Binchmann et al., 1998) 222Binchmann et al. (1998) classify galaxies with respect to nine fundamental type standards. One of us (SvdB) would have classified their Sbc standard as Sb, their Scd standard as Sc I and their Ir standard (which appears to have a central nucleus) as a spiral. it was found that disk galaxies at redshifts $``$0.3 have morphologies that appear to differ systematically from those of nearby galaxies. A question that presents itself quite insistently is: Could the decrease in linear resolution with increasing distance contribute significantly to these apparent systematic changes of morphology with redshift? In an attempt to answer this question we have degraded the images of all galaxies with redshifts 0.20 to 1.00 to the appearance that they would have had at $`z=1.00`$. (The images of 20 galaxies with $`1.0<z<1.1`$ were left unaltered.) As has already been discussed in van den Bergh et al. (2000) (henceforth vdB2000), all galaxies were classified at similar rest wavelengths by comparing $`R`$-band images of galaxies having $`0.20<z<0.60`$ with $`I`$-band images of objects having $`0.60<z<1.10`$. For statistical purposes the present data may be compared with the $`B`$-band images of galaxies with $`z0.0`$ that are seen on the Palomar Sky Survey. The redshifts for individual HST + FF galaxies in the present paper are from Cohen et al. (2000) and Cohen (2001). Since only a single redshift was available for five merging/interacting galaxies the total number of images of galaxies examined (233) is slightly larger than the total number of redshifts (228).

For more detailed references to previous work on the morphology and classification of distant galaxies the reader is referred to the excellent review by Abraham (1999).

## 2 Effects of Resolution and of Noise

“Postage stamp” images of every individual galaxy with $`0.20<z<1.00`$ were manipulated in both brightness and in angular scale to mimic the appearance that they would have had at $`z=1.00`$. The images of galaxies with $`1.00<z<1.10`$ were left untouched. For $`z<0.6`$ the HST F606W images were used, while the F814W images were employed for those galaxies in the sample with $`z>0.6`$. For many of the galaxies in the Flanking Fields, no F606W images were available. These objects were therefore omitted from the present study.

The angular scale for each galaxy with $`z<1.00`$ was compressed by a factor $`f`$ = (observed angular diameter) / (angular diameter at $`z=1.00`$), using a cosmology with H0 = 60 km s-1 Mpc-1 and $`\mathrm{\Omega }_M=0.3`$. We then corrected the intensity in the F606W images to take into account the wavelength dependence of the difference in photon detection efficiency between the WFPC2 instrument behind the F606W and F814 filters. Finally each image with $`z<1.00`$ was dimmed by a factor $`S=[D_L(z=1)/D_L(z)]^2`$. Furthermore we took into account the dependence on rest wavelength of the spectral energy distribution of a galaxy; such objects are typically much brighter at 7500 Å in the rest frame than they are at 4050 Å.

The procedure outlined above also suppresses the noise in the subimage arising from instrumental contributions and from the sky by the same factor $`S`$, which for low redshifts may be quite significant. At this point the contrast between the galaxy and the background is artificially enhanced. To restore the proper noise level, a set of images consisting of random realizations of the noise characteristics of the F606W images in the three WF CCDs and in the PC were generated. These were derived from the noise properties measured in the original HST images in regions apparently free of galaxies. Then, for galaxies with $`z<0.6`$, these were added appropriately to the compressed and rescaled images.333In principle this should have been done for the “postage stamps” with $`0.6<z<1.0`$ as well, but tests on the lower redshift subimages showed that restoring the correct noise level had no significant effect for our purposes. This then creates a set of “postage stamp” images in which each galaxy appears as it would if that object were situated at $`z=1.0`$ in the image in which it was originally observed.

Comparison of the new images with those used in vdB2000 showed no cases in which our original classifications had to be revised. The only (quite subtle) difference was that faint, possibly tidal, features in the outer parts of some images were more difficult to see than they had been in the original images. No significant differences were seen between the morphologies of the main bodies of our program galaxies before, and after, an appropriate amount of noise had been added. It is therefore concluded that the classifications of vdB2000 are robust with regard to reasonable changes in the noise level.

## 3 Classification of the Images

Table 1 lists the galaxies for which images degraded to $`z=1.00`$ were available from the survey of Cohen et al. (2000) augmented in Cohen (2001). In an attempt to search for weak bars these images were scrutinized over a larger dynamical range than had previously been explored for the classifications given in vdB2000. Classifications for all objects were made by SvdB and are given on the DDO system (van den Bergh, 1960a, b, c). This system is close to that adopted by Sandage & Tammann (1981). The main difficulty encountered during the classification process was that a significant fraction of the galaxies at large redshifts look “odd” and were therefore often difficult (or impossible) to shoehorn into the classification bins of the Hubble system. For such objects a “p” (peculiar) was added to their classifications. Since spiral structure in distant galaxies, which are viewed at large look-back times, is less developed than it is in nearby galaxies, the morphology of spiral arms often can not be used as a classification parameter. Central concentration of light was therefore often used as the primary classification criterion for determining where a spiral galaxy is located on the Sa – Sb – Sc sequence. Inspection of the present images that were degraded to their appearance at $`z=1.00`$ strengthens and confirms the previous conclusion (van den Bergh et al., 1996, 2000) that the morphology of late-type disk galaxies at large look-back times is more chaotic than that of nearer spirals of types Sbc – Sc. In distant early-type disk galaxies the spiral arms are seen to be less developed than they are in nearby Sa – Sb galaxies. As the images used to derive this conclusion had all been degraded to $`z=1.0`$, the observed decrease in the strength of spiral structure with increasing $`z`$ cannot be a resolution effect.

The surface density of galaxy images at the depth of the HST images of the HDF and FF is quite high. As a result, these fields contain many apparent close pairs of galaxies, several of which were shown in our previous paper to have widely discrepant redshifts, and hence are established as chance projections. Because of this high probability of finding chance pairs we have, whenever practicable, used tidal deformation of images as a criterion for assigning objects to the “merger” class. Because we have been more conservative in designating objects to this class the fraction of “mergers” is smaller than it was in vdB2000.

Our work provided many examples of late-type galaxies at high redshifts that appeared to be in a very early evolutionary state. With growing experience we have therefore become more confident in assigning objects to the “proto-Sc” class. This classification type is therefore now more common than it was in our previous paper. As a result some objects previously dubbed “Sc pec” have now been reclassified as “proto-Sc”.

The fact that galaxies at large redshifts appear so odd, and are difficult to fit into the Hubble scheme, adds significantly to the uncertainty of assigned Hubble types. It is therefore a source of satisfaction to find such good agreement between our original classifications of individual galaxies in vdB2000 and the present classifications of images of these same objects degraded to $`z=1.0`$. A blind comparison between the present new classifications of 99 objects that could be placed on the Hubble sequence E–Sa–Sb–Sc–Ir, and those which were previously published for these same objects in vdB2000 shows exact agreement for 49 objects, a difference of 0.5 Hubble class for 23 objects, a difference of 1.0 Hubble class for 23 objects and a difference $`>1.0`$ Hubble class for 4 objects. For three of these four discrepant classifications the cause appears to have been that a small fraction of the images classified in vdB2000 were not inspected over a sufficiently large dynamic range.

For this sample in common of 99 galaxies that could be placed on the Hubble sequence E–Sa–Sb–Sc–Ir there is thus no evidence for any systematic difference in Hubble type between the old classifications and the new classifications of images degraded to $`z=1.0`$. Furthermore, there is no evidence for any systematic dependence of the differences between the old and new classifications on redshift. Among 56 galaxies with $`0.20<z<0.80`$ the mean difference, in the sense old type minus new type, is found to be $`0.04\pm 0.11`$ Hubble classes. For the 41 galaxies on the Hubble sequence with $`0.80<z<1.10`$, the mean difference, in the sense old type minus new type, is $`0.08\pm 0.12`$ Hubble classes. Furthermore, the differences between old and new classification types does not appear to depend in a systematic way on Hubble type. On the basis of these results it is concluded that there are no significant differences between Hubble types assigned in vdB2000 and those of degraded images in the present study. A tabulation of the frequencies of various classification types of galaxies in Table 1 as a function of redshift is shown in Table 2.

## 4 Galaxy Statistics

### 4.1 Frequency of Barred Galaxies

It was first noted that barred spirals appear to be deficient among galaxies at high redshift by van den Bergh et al. (1996). Subsequently this shortage of barred objects at $`z>0.5`$ was confirmed (in both the northern and in the southern HDF) by Abraham et al. (1999). Bothun (2000) suspected that the absence of SB galaxies at high redshifts might have been due to bandshift effects that result from the fact that bars appear to be more frequent in the $`I`$-band (Eskridge et al., 2000) than they are in the $`B`$-band. However, the observations of bar frequencies at various redshifts by vdB2000, which were obtained at almost constant rest wavelength, appear to rule out this explanation.

In the present investigation special attention was paid to the possible presence of bars by inspecting each program galaxy over the widest possible dynamic range. Out of 233 images, only a single one was found to be a pure barred spiral of type SB, while one was an intermediate type object classified as S(B). Furthermore three galaxies were classified S(B?). The corresponding percentages are 0.4% SB, 0.4% S(B) and 1.3% S(B?), respectively. For comparison, Sandage & Tammann (1981) found that 22% of all Shapley-Ames galaxies, which have $`z0.0`$, are barred. These data suggest that the fraction of all galaxies that are barred is at least an order of magnitude lower in the distant HDF + FF sample than it is in the nearby Shapley-Ames sample. It is noted in passing that the only two certain barred galaxies in the present sample \[which were classified SB and S(B)\] have $`z<0.5`$. Nevertheless, it is puzzling that the fraction of barred spirals at all redshifts appears to be so much lower on HST images than it is on photographs of nearby galaxies. Simulations to investigate this problem are currently being undertaken by Abraham & van den Bergh (in preparation).

Since the Universe is expanding, galaxies were once closer together than they are at the present time. As a result, tidal interactions and mergers are expected to be more frequent at high redshifts than they are at the present time. Evidence based on galaxy morphology in favor of this view was first provided by observations of galaxies in the Hubble Deep Field (van den Bergh et al., 1996). Possibly the high frequency of tidal interactions in the early universe also contributed to the shortage of large well-developed disks in galaxies at $`z>>1`$, which was already noted above. Using the present (rather strict) definition of mergers, the data in Table 2 show that 11 out of 116 ( 9%) of all galaxies with $`0.70<z<1.00`$ are classified as either “Merger” or “Peculiar/merger”. From inspection of the entire data set, one of us (SvdB) has the impression that the rate of multiple mergers may be increasing faster with redshift that the rate of binary mergers.

### 4.2 Changes in the Relative Frequencies of Galaxy Types as a Function of Redshift

Table 2 shows the frequency distributions of different morphological types in the present sample as a function of redshift. The data in this table may be compared to those of the northern Shapley-Ames galaxies (van den Bergh, 1960c) given in vdB2000. The Shapley-Ames galaxies, which are located at $`z0.0`$, were classified on reproductions of the $`B`$ images of the Palomar Sky Survey. They have therefore been observed at approximately the same rest wavelength as the HST images of galaxies with $`z>0.20`$. Since galaxies of types E, Sa and Sb have rather similar luminosity functions their relative frequencies (as a function of redshift) should not be strongly affected by redshift-dependent selection effects. However, the present luminosities of late-type spirals are, on average, significantly lower than those of galaxies having earlier Hubble types \[see Fig. 1 of van den Bergh (1998)\]. In the absence of evolutionary effects, high-redshift samples of galaxies might therefore be biased against objects of types Sc and Ir. It should, however, be emphasized that this bias against late-type galaxies will be lessened (or might even be reversed) if such objects exhibit significant luminosity evolution. Lilly et al. (1995) and Cohen (2000) have, for example, demonstrated that galaxies with $`0.5<z<0.75`$ might have brightened by as much as 1 mag. On the other hand, Carollo & Lilly (2001) have more recently noted that the high metallicity of late-type galaxies with $`0.5<z<1.0`$ makes it improbable that these objects are luminosity-enhanced dwarfs.

The data in Table 2 suggest that the fraction of late-type (Sc + Sc/Ir + Ir) galaxies decreases with increasing redshift. For the redshift bins $`z=0.200.49`$, $`0.500.79`$ and $`0.801.09`$ the percentage of late-type galaxies is found to be 19%, 12% and 8%, respectively. Taken at face value, this trend suggests that the fraction of late-type galaxies decreases with increasing redshift. Such an effect could, if real, be explained by assuming that a large fraction of all Sc galaxies have not yet been fully assembled, or are still classified as “proto-Sc”, at $`z>0.5`$. Alternatively, if luminosity evolution is unimportant, this effect might be due to a distance-dependent selection effect which results from the fact that late-type galaxies are (on average) less luminous than early-type galaxies \[see Fig. 1 of van den Bergh (1998)\].

The present sample is so small that bins containing objects in a small range of redshifts and morphological types provide pitifully small statistical samples of galaxies. Furthermore the distribution of morphologies at a given redshift might be affected by density enhancements as the line of sight passes through sheets or clusters of galaxies. Intersection of the line of sight towards the HDF with a populous group of galaxies at $`z0.68`$ is, for example, responsible for an excess of E galaxies in the $`z=0.600.69`$ redshift bin. As a result of the vagaries of small-number statistics, and the effects of local density enhancements on galaxy morphology, it would be unwise to draw very strong conclusions from the present data about the morphological evolution of galaxies over time.

The apparent increase in the number of ellipticals with $`z>0.9`$ might be spurious, even if it is not due to the vagaries of small number statistics. This is so because any small compact high surface brightness object with regular oval isophotes will be classified as an “elliptical”. This includes the class of galaxies denoted as “blue compact galaxies” \[see, for example, Phillips et al. (1997), Guzmán et al. (1997)\], a local example of which might be NGC 6789. These two groups are not easily distinguished morphologically in this redshift regime. However, from the spectra and SEDs of the set of galaxies under consideration here given in earlier papers in this series, we are confident that many of these galaxies are not classical ellipticals, but are instead strongly star forming blue galaxies which are compact.

## 5 Morphological Evolution of Galaxies

Since the majority of elliptical galaxies are believed to have formed at $`z>1.0`$, the present galaxy sample is not expected to contain many proto-ellipticals. Nevertheless, some compact pairs and groupings of early-type galaxies might, in the fullness of time, merge into run-of-the-mill ellipticals. A few E and Sa galaxies in the present sample exhibit faint chaotic outer structures that might have resulted from such earlier mergers.

Many of the early-type (Sa, Sab) spirals in our sample exhibit morphological peculiarities. The most common of these are: (1) underdeveloped spiral structure, (2) warped disks and (3) off-center nuclear bulges. A large fraction of the late-type (Sbc, Sc, Sc/Ir) galaxies in our sample of high redshift galaxies exhibit morphological peculiarities that distinguish them from their nearby counterparts. The disks of distant Sc galaxies tend to be much more chaotic than those of nearby luminous galaxies which generally exhibit a well-ordered spiral structure. This effect is particularly significant because the sample of distant late-type galaxies is biased in favor of objects of above-average luminosity. Such galaxies are expected (van den Bergh 1960a) to exhibit particularly long and regular spiral arms. Distant single Sc spirals sometimes have one strongly dominant spiral arm. Among nearby galaxies such single-arm objects are usually objects that have been tidally perturbed. Furthermore, the disks of proto-Sc galaxies, in which spiral structure is not yet well developed, are often seen to contain luminous blue knots (super-associations). In other words, huge localized bursts of star formation appear to occur before a well-ordered spiral pattern develops. If the regions in which such super-associations occur have significant over densities they could experience strong dynamical friction and spiral towards the galactic center (Noguchi, 1998), where they might contribute to the formation of a galactic bulge.

Figure 1 shows a good example of an Sc I galaxy at $`z=1.01`$ that is just beginning to form well-ordered spiral structure. Note that the arms of this object are much patchier and more chaotic than those of typical nearby Sc I galaxies. The luminous patches (super- associations) in this object are seen to be much more luminous than those that occur in typical Sc I galaxies at $`z0.0`$. A color image of an even more primitive late-type galaxy is shown as Plate 9 of van den Bergh et al. (1996). This object exhibits what appears to be a disk, in which 10 bright blue knots (super-associations) are embedded. A single slightly off-center red knot may be the (slightly older) nuclear bulge of this probable protogalaxy. Figure 2 shows an example of an object at z = 1.06 that might be a proto-Sc with a single arm that contains a super-association. Alternatively this object might be interpreted as the final phase of a merger. Spectroscopic observations will be required to distinguish between these two alternatives. Finally, Figure 3 shows what may be another example of a proto-galactic disk in which a nucleus, and four other bright knots, appear to be embedded.

## 6 Conclusions

The present data have allowed us to study the evolution of galaxy morphology over the range $`0.2<z<1.1`$ at an effective wavelength that is insensitive to redshift, and at a spatial resolution that is independent of $`z`$. The main conclusion that can be drawn from this work is that the morphology of disk galaxies has evolved rapidly over the last 8 Gyr. At look-back times $`>4`$ Gyr, late-type spirals generally have a much more chaotic structure than do nearby galaxies of type Sbc and Sc. Furthermore, the arms of such distant spirals tend to be patchy and are also often asymmetric. At look-back times $`>4`$ Gyr, early-type spiral galaxies appear to have less well-developed spiral structure than do their counterparts that are viewed at look-back times of less than 3–4 Gyr. Apparently, insufficient time was available for spiral structure to develop in such early-type galaxies. Among distant galaxies in the Hubble Deep Field the intrinsic frequency of barred spirals appears to be at least an order of magnitude lower than it is for nearby galaxies at $`z0`$. It is concluded that the Hubble (1936) tuning fork scheme is only appropriate for the classification of galaxies at $`z<0.3`$ which are viewed at look-back times of less than 3–4 Gyr.

We are indebted to Roger Blandford and to David Hogg for their assistance and advice during the course of the present investigation. We also thank Bob Abraham for his help with the figures.


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# Mass–Metallicity Relation for the Local Group Dwarf Spheroidal Galaxies: A New Picture for the Chemical Enrichment of Galaxies in the Lowest Mass Range

## 1 INTRODUCTION

Dwarf spheroidal galaxies (dSphs) are faint galaxies, whose luminosity $`L`$ is $`10^5`$$`10^7L_{}`$. They are characterized by their low surface brightnesses (Gallagher & Wyse 1994 for a review). The studies of such low-luminosity objects are important for several reasons. For example, since lower-mass galaxies are considered to have formed earlier in a hierarchical structure formation scenario based on the cold dark matter (CDM) model (e.g., Blumenthal et al. 1984), dSphs are also expected to be a key to understand the physical properties of building blocks. Recently, the observational data for the Local Group dSphs have become available with relatively high quality and their observed velocity dispersions imply that dSphs generally have high ratios of virial mass to luminosity. Although a physical interpretation of this observational result has long been a matter of debate because tidal heating by the Galaxy could raise the velocity dispersions (Bellazzini, Fusi Pecci & Ferraro 1996; Kroupa 1997; Klessen & Kroupa 1998), now we have increasing evidence that dSphs have a large amount of DM (Aaronson 1983; Mateo et al. 1993; Hirashita, Kamaya & Takeuchi 1999) as predicted based on the CDM model.

Based on the observational data, Hirashita, Takeuchi, & Tamura (1998, hereafter HTT98) have discovered an interesting relation between the virial mass, $`M_{\mathrm{vir}}`$, and the mass-to-light ratio, $`M_{\mathrm{vir}}/L`$: there exists a prominent discontinuity at $`M_{\mathrm{vir}}10^8M_{}`$. Based on the assumption that a dSph is embedded in a DM-dominated potential well, HTT98 have given a physical interpretation to this queer relation and suggested a scenario for star formation in a dSph by considering an initial starburst and a subsequent feedback of energy from SNe to the ISM. Although their scenario succeeded in explaining the above relation, other kinds of properties of dSphs must be compared with it to confirm the interpretation. In particular, their metallicities should be involved in, since they reflect the star formation history (e.g., Tinsley 1980). Actually, the chemical enrichment history of dSphs remains to be tested along with the scenario in HTT98. Moreover, since the metallicities of the dSphs are very low (\[Fe/H\] $`=2.51.5`$; Mateo 1998), they provide us valuable opportunities to study the star formation that occurred in a low-metallicity gas cloud and to reveal the formation of first luminous objects in the early universe. In this Letter, therefore, we focus on the observed virial mass–metallicity ($`M_{\mathrm{vir}}`$–\[Fe/H\]) relation, and examine whether it can be consistently understood in the same theoretical framework that succeeded in explaining the mass–luminosity ($`M_{\mathrm{vir}}/L`$$`M_{\mathrm{vir}}`$) relation. The luminosity–metallicity relation among dSphs as well as dwarf elliptical galaxies (dEs) near the Galaxy and M31 has been investigated (Caldwell et al. 1992, 1998; Caldwell 1999; Mateo 1998). However, if a dSph has a large amount of DM and formed stars in the DM-dominated potential, virial mass should be more fundamental than stellar mass in determining the dynamical timescale.

The rest of this Letter is organized as follows. In the next section, we show the observed mass–metallicity relation for the dSphs after showing the sample and data. In § 3, the classical understanding of the relation is presented and the limitations on applying it to the dSphs are pointed out. In § 4, we will propose a new scenario for chemical enrichment of the dSphs and discuss whether the mass–metallicity and the mass–luminosity relations are understood consistently.

## 2 THE SAMPLE AND THE MASS–METALLICITY RELATION

For the two physical parameters, the virial mass ($`M_{\mathrm{vir}}`$) and the metallicity (here \[Fe/H\] is adopted), of the Local Group dSphs, we use the values and errors compiled by Mateo (1998). We adopt the data of Ursa Minor, Draco, Carina, Sextans, Sculptor, Fornax, Leo I, Leo II, NGC 147, NGC 185, NGC 205 (i.e., the same sample as that in HTT98). The values are renewed according to Mateo (1998), but this renewal does not affect the following discussions. The whole sample is divided into two groups at $`M_{\mathrm{vir}}10^8M_{}`$: the low-mass group includes Ursa Minor, Draco, Carina, Sextans, Sculptor, Leo I, and Leo II; the others belong to the high-mass group. This classification is based on the mass–luminosity relation and is the same as that adopted by HTT98.

We show the observational mass–metallicity relation of the dSphs in the present sample in Figure 1, where a shaded region is occupied by the low-mass dSphs. As the error bars of \[Fe/H\] in the figure, we adopt the intrinsic dispersions of \[Fe/H\] among stellar populations of each dSph, which are larger than the mean error of \[Fe/H\] (Mateo 1998). For virial masses, errors are calculated by considering those of the central stellar velocity dispersion of a dSph and the distance to it from the Galaxy. Since these two errors are on average $`20`$% and $`10`$%, respectively (Mateo 1998), the resulting error of a virial mass is evaluated to be a factor of 1.6, which is adopted in Figure 1. The vertical line ($`M_{\mathrm{vir}}=5\times 10^7M_{}`$) indicates the boundary of the two groups. To include Fornax in the high-mass group according to HTT98, the separating mass is smaller by a factor of 2 than that in HTT98. In the following, this separating virial mass ($`5\times 10^7M_{}`$) is shown as $`10^8M_{}`$ by adopting its order of magnitude. We believe this description to be reasonable because it has an error as mentioned above.

The relation between the initial gas mass $`M_\mathrm{G}`$ and \[Fe/H\] calculated in Yoshii & Arimoto (1987, hereafter YA87) is well represented by a single linear law. The solid line in Figure 1 is obtained by the least square fitting to the data of Table 1 in YA87, expressed as

$`[\mathrm{Fe}/\mathrm{H}]=0.745\mathrm{log}(M_\mathrm{G}/M_{})7.55,`$ (1)
where $`M_\mathrm{G}`$ is the initial mass of the system and the luminosity-weighted \[Fe/H\] is adopted. In Figure 1, we adopt $`M_\mathrm{G}`$ as the virial mass for the convenience in presentation. Since YA87 did not include the dark matter in their model, we may not be able to compare this relation directly with our $`M_{\mathrm{vir}}`$–\[Fe/H\] relation. However, it can be used as a reference for understanding the relation.

## 3 CLASSICAL PICTURE AND ITS LIMITATION

### 3.1 Binding Energy of the dSphs

Arimoto & Yoshii (1987) constructed a chemical and photometric evolution model for elliptical galaxies (see also Kodama & Arimoto 1997). Their scenario tells us that a more massive elliptical galaxy can retain the ISM longer than a less massive one, and will be chemically enriched further. Consequently their model predicts the mass–metallicity sequence among elliptical galaxies, and it successfully explains a number of the observational properties of nearby elliptical galaxies (e.g., Davies et al. 1987; Bower, Lucey & Ellis 1992) and provides a reasonable picture of their evolutions (e.g., Stanford, Eisenhardt, & Dickinson 1998; Kodama et al. 1998). YA87 suggested that the galactic wind model can be extended to the mass range ($`<10^9M_{}`$) of dEs and dSphs. The fitting to the prediction by YA87 (eq. ) is shown in Figure 1 (solid line). It is shown that YA87 roughly reproduced the overall trend in the observed mass–metallicity relation.

However, the above consideration overlooks a crucial piece in the physical processes of the galaxy formation, which is the fact that the binding energy of a dSph with $`M_{\mathrm{vir}}10^8M_{}`$ is roughly equal to or smaller than the energy released by several SNe (Saito 1979a). This indicates that once a dSph begins to form stars actively, it can no longer sustain gas and thus it has no time to proceed with chemical enrichment efficiently. Therefore, a strongly regulated phase of star formation with an extremely low rate is necessary to enrich a low-mass dSph. Nishi & Tashiro (2000) have recently shown that a star formation activity in a cloud whose metallicity is less than 1/100 times the solar value can be strongly regulated due to the lack of coolant. Since the observed metallicities of the low-mass dSphs are comparable to 1/100 times the solar value, such a regulation process is likely to have occurred in their formation epochs.

### 3.2 Division of the dSphs into Two Groups at $`M_{\mathrm{vir}}10^8M_{}`$

As considered above, a special care should be taken to understand the mass–metallicity relation, especially for the dSphs with $`M_{\mathrm{vir}}10^8M_{}`$. Here, we present another piece of evidence that motivates us to consider that a dSph in the low-mass range must be separated from a more massive one.

HTT98 have shown that there is a clear difference in the relation between $`M_{\mathrm{vir}}/L`$ and $`M_{\mathrm{vir}}`$ for the two groups (the low-mass group with $`M_{\mathrm{vir}}10^8M_{}`$ and the high-mass group with $`M_{\mathrm{vir}}10^8M_{}`$) of the Local Group dSphs. The $`M_{\mathrm{vir}}/L`$s of the low-mass dSphs are spread over a significantly wide range. HTT98 interpreted this to be a variation of the star formation efficiency (SFE). Here the SFE indicates the total mass of formed stars divided by the initial gas mass. A brief summary of HTT98 will be given in the following.

First, the discontinuity in the $`M_{\mathrm{vir}}/L`$$`M_{\mathrm{vir}}`$ relation at $`M_{\mathrm{vir}}10^8M_{}`$ appears at the threshold where the ISM in the dSphs is blown away efficiently by successive supernovae (SNe). The virial mass threshold of $`10^8M_{}`$ is derived from the blow-away condition calculated by Mac Low & Ferrara (1999). A proto-dwarf galaxy in the high-mass group would consume gas relatively completely in making stars because its large binding potential sustains gas. Its stellar mass is resultantly proportional to initial gas mass and leads to an almost constant $`M_{\mathrm{vir}}/L`$. Note that the ratio of initial gas mass and dark mass in a proto-galaxy is assumed to be constant over entire mass range of dSphs. For a galaxy in the low-mass group, the ISM is predicted to be blown away efficiently by the SN explosions after the initial burst of star formation. It is essential to emphasize here that this scenario is built up on the basis of the fact that the binding energy of a proto-dwarf galaxy is equal to the energy released by ten or less SNe. Therefore, if one OB association forms in a proto-dwarf galaxy, the galaxy can continue star formation until the heating by SNe affects the whole galaxy and cause a blowout of the ISM on a short timescale of $`10^6`$ yr. This implies that the resultant physical parameters of a proto-dwarf galaxy (mass, metallicity, etc) after a blow-away are determined by the specific conditions of star formation such as the spatial distribution of gas, or temperatures of the first OB stars. As a result, we expect some kinds of stochastic behavior to appear in a resulting stellar mass and metallicity of the galaxy. Such stochasticity can actually be found in the $`M_{\mathrm{vir}}/L`$$`M_{\mathrm{vir}}`$ relation of the low-mass dSphs. According to Figure 1 in HTT98, the mass-to-light ratio ($`M_{\mathrm{vir}}/L`$) ranges from $`10`$ to $`100`$ with an order-of-magnitude scatter.111Although HTT98 used a mass-to-light ratio of Leo I of $`1`$, Mateo (1998) showed that it is 4.6. We use the latter value here. As explained in § 4.2, this is suggested to be caused by a scatter of SFE with a similar order of magnitude.

Finally, it is worth mentioning that the high-mass dSphs are also located on the extension from the sequence of dEs in the mass–luminosity relation as well as the mass–metallicity relation. Actually, Mac Low & Ferrara (1999) suggested that the ISM in a high-mass dSph is not easily blown away by an initial burst, which implies that the classical picture holds for the high-mass dSphs. In contrast, it is suggested to be difficult for the low-mass dSphs to maintain star formation against the stellar feedback to proceed with chemical enrichment to the observed level because of their too small binding energy. Therefore, in the following, we focus on the dSphs in the low-mass group as a target to reconsider how their chemical enrichment has proceeded.

## 4 DISCUSSIONS

### 4.1 What Determines the Metallicity Level of the Low-Mass dSphs ?

If a formation of a dSph started from a proto-galactic gas cloud, the subsequent star formation after a massive star forms is suggested to be self-regulated as long as the metallicity is $`1/100`$ times the solar value (Nishi & Tashiro 2000). This is explained as follows. Since the metal-line cooling is extremely inefficient in such a low-metallicity environment, the coolant is $`\mathrm{H}_2`$. However, the UV radiation from a central massive star dissociates the H2 molecules, causing a strong regulation of star formation. This process avoids forming stars efficiently in a dSph belonging to the low-mass group and enables a dSph to continue star formation without blowing away the ISM and allow chemical enrichment to proceed. Since several SNe release energy comparable to the binding energy of the ISM, a star formation rate of a dSph in this phase should be considerably low and thus chemical enrichment would also proceed gradually. If the metallicity finally reaches to $`\text{[Fe/H]}2`$, with which the metal cooling becomes effective, a starburst may occur and a following galactic wind would blow away the ISM. Nishi & Tashiro (2000) discussed how many SNe are required for a primordial gas cloud with $`10^6M_{}`$ to have $`\text{[Fe/H]}2`$. If their discussion is extended to the mass range for the dSphs in the low-mass group, it is found that about 500 SNe are necessary, and thus a timescale of $`1`$ Gyr is required. Here we assumed that SN explosions caused by a massive star whose lifetime is $`10^6`$ yr subsequently occurs one-by-one in a proto-galactic gas cloud with the gas mass of $`10^7M_{}`$.

The mass of stars formed in the regulation phase can be estimated as follows. Adopting the Salpeter’s initial mass function (IMF) with the lower and upper cutoffs $`0.1M_{}`$ and $`100M_{}`$, respectively, it is shown that the averaged mass of SN progenitors (stars whose mass is larger than $`10M_{}`$) is $`20M_{}`$. The total mass of the high-mass stars (i.e., SN progenitors) is $`10^4M_{}`$. Applying the same IMF, the total stellar mass is calculated to be $`8\times 10^4M_{}`$. This is clearly much smaller than the present stellar mass of dSphs. Thus, the majority of stars in the dSphs must be formed in the starburst after the regulation becomes ineffective. Consequently, if further significant chemical enrichment does not occur because of an instantaneous blow-out after the burst, a dSph with $`M_{\mathrm{vir}}10^8M_{}`$ would have an \[Fe/H\] $`2`$ at the present epoch, which is consistent with the observed metallicity as shown in Figure 1.

### 4.2 Origin of the Scatter in the Mass–Metallicity Relation among the Low-Mass dSphs

In the previous subsection, the origin of the observed metallicity levels of the dSphs in the low-mass group was explored. As shown in Figure 1, it should also be emphasized that the mass–metallicity relation among the low-mass dSphs is characterized by a significant scatter of metallicity. We are now in a position to consider the origin of this metallicity variation.

According to Pagel (1997, p. 219), the metallicity ($`Z`$) of a galaxy as a closed system is expressed as

$`Z=p_{\mathrm{eff}}\mathrm{ln}{\displaystyle \frac{s+g}{g}}|_{t=t_{\mathrm{gw}}},`$ (2)
where $`p_{\mathrm{eff}}`$ is the yield of the chemical enrichment effective in the lifetime of the galaxy, and $`s`$ and $`g`$ are the masses of the stars and the gas, respectively. The metallicity is evaluated at the galactic wind era, $`t_{\mathrm{gw}}`$, since the chemical enrichment of the interstellar gas can proceed only up to $`t_{\mathrm{gw}}`$. Since dSphs lost a significant fraction of their gas at $`t_{\mathrm{gw}}`$ (Saito 1979b), $`sg`$ is adopted. Then we obtain

$`Zp_{\mathrm{eff}}{\displaystyle \frac{s}{g}}|_{t=t_{\mathrm{gw}}}p_{\mathrm{eff}}\mathrm{SFE},`$ (3)
where we have defined the star formation efficiency (SFE) as $`s/g`$ at $`t_{\mathrm{gw}}`$, that is, the stellar mass normalized by the gas mass at $`t_{\mathrm{gw}}`$.

As stated in § 3.2, if the initial gas mass is proportional to the virial mass, $`M_{\mathrm{vir}}/L`$ of a dSph in the low-mass group is approximately proportional to 1/SFE. Following this context, the SFEs of the dSphs in the low-mass group are expected to spread over an order of magnitude because their $`M_{\mathrm{vir}}/L`$s are distributed over a wide range with the similar magnitude. Since we see from equation (3) that the metallicity varies with SFE and, indeed, the \[Fe/H\] for the low-mass dSphs has about 1 order of magnitude scatter, it is suggested that the scatter of \[Fe/H\] in the low-mass dSphs is consistent with the variation of $`M_{\mathrm{vir}}/L`$.

Finally, we discuss the physical origin of the scatter of SFE among the low-mass dSphs. As mentioned in § 3.2, this is likely to originate from that of initial condition in the formation of low-mass dSphs. Mac Low & Ferrara (1999) suggested that a blow-away condition depends on the ellipticity of initial gas density distribution. This indicates that a star formation in a proto-dwarf galaxy also depends on the initial ellipticity, which is presumably determined at random (e.g. Bardeen et al. 1986). One of the other possibilities for the scatter of SFE is a variation in temperatures of OB stars formed in a starburst. Since their ionizing photons dissociate a surrounding H i region and suppress star formation, an SFE in a forming dSph is considered to be affected by their temperatures. For a low-mass dSph, this effect can be severe because only a small number of OB stars form at one time and thus temperatures that he stars have are considered to be determined stochastically. In order to evaluate quantitatively to what extent the observed scatter is reproduced by a reasonable range of variations of initial conditions, further theoretical studies with stochastic processes are needed. It might be found from such studies that some external factors like environmental effects are required.

It may be noticed that in some dSphs (e.g., Draco, Andromeda II), large internal dispersions of metallicity among the stars are observed. If we consider the inhomogeneity of the distribution of gas density in a proto-galactic cloud, chemical enrichment in the galaxy can also proceed inhomogeneously because the outflow efficiency of gas differs from place to place. As a result, internal dispersions of metallicity can be produced. Such an inhomogeneity could affect a measurement of an average \[Fe/H\] in a dSph because \[Fe/H\] of each dSph has been determined mainly by examining only a small number of giant stars especially for the Local Group dSphs. It may be hence implied that an intrinsic dispersion of metallicity among the dSphs is difficult to find based on the observed scatter of \[Fe/H\].

We are grateful to the anonymous referee for useful comments to improve the paper. We are grateful to R. Nishi and M. Tashiro for discussions and K. Ohta, S. Mineshige, and H. Shibai for continuous encouragement. One of us (H.H.) acknowledges the Research Fellowship of the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science for Young Scientists.


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# Deflection of jets induced by jet–cloud interactions

## 1. Introduction

The standard model for Fanaroff-Riley type II radio sources is described as a pair of relativistic jets of electrons which is ejected in opposite directions from a very compact region in the nucleus of an elliptical galaxy \[(Blandford 1990)\]. The jets expand adiabatically through the interstellar medium of the host galaxy and the surrounding intergalactic medium. Collimation of the jets is provided by the presence of a cavity or “cocoon” surrounding the jet, which maintains the pressure of the intergalactic medium in balance with that of the relativistic gas within the jet. In this model, the jets maintain a straight trajectory. However, observations have shown that jets often bent.

Typical examples of bending in radio sources appear in *radio trail* sources, *mirror symmetric* sources and radio galaxies which present *inversion symmetry* \[(Begelman, Blandford, & Rees 1984)\]. Another way of inducing deflections in radio jets is if the beam passes through a region of interstellar or intergalactic gas in which there is a significant pressure gradient. This can occur if the jets pass through the interstellar medium of a large galaxy or diffuse intergalactic cloud. Observations of this might be present in the radio galaxy 3C31 \[(Best, Longair, & Röttgering 1997)\], but the quasar PKS 1318 + 113 \[(Lehnert, et al.)\] is an extremely good evidence of a deflection induced by a jet–cloud interaction.

## 2. Jet–cloud interactions

The interaction of an astrophysical jet with a cloud, in which the characteristic size of the cloud is much greater than the jet radius, has been studied in its initial stages by Raga & Cantó (1995). Their results show that initially the jet slowly begins to bore a passage into the cloud. Eventually a stationary situation is achieved in which the jet penetrates the cloud and escapes from it in a direction which is different from the original jet trajectory.

Once the steady state in this interaction is reached, the trajectory is determined by maintaining pressure equilibrium with the surrounding environment. Since the expansion of the jet is adiabatic and a steady state has been reached, Bernoulli’s equation in its relativistic and non–relativistic form \[(Landau & Lifshitz 1987)\] can be used to describe the path of the jet \[(Mendoza, & Longair 2000)\].

With all these considerations, once the distribution of the gas inside the cloud is known, it is possible to integrate Bernoulli’s equation numerically with the use of a Runge–Kutta method. Analitic solutions are possible for the case in which the jet penetrates the cloud at a position $`𝐫_0`$ with a high supersonic motion \[(Mendoza, & Longair 2000)\].

Let us first discuss the case in which the cloud is an isothermal sphere for which it’s density, and hence its pressure, is inversely proportional to the square of the radius vector. Under these circumstances, the problem is characterised by the gravitational constant $`G`$, a “characteristic length$`r_0`$ and the values of the velocity of the jet and the density at this point which are $`v_0`$ and $`\rho _0`$ respectively. Three independent dimensions (length, time and mass) describe the whole hydrodynamical problem. Since four independent physical quantities ($`G,\rho _0,v_0,\text{and}r_0`$) are fundamental for the problem we are interested, the Buckingham $`\mathrm{\Pi }`$–Theorem \[(Sedov 1993)\] of dimensional analysis demands the existence of only one dimensionless parameter $`\mathrm{\Lambda }G\rho _0r_0^2/v_0^2`$. This parameter is obtained naturally from the full analytic solution \[(Mendoza, & Longair 2000)\]. The other obvious dimensionless number that parametrises the solutions is the Mach number $`M_0`$ evaluated at position $`r_0`$.

The deflection of non–relativitic jets in isothermal clouds might be important for interstellar molecular clouds and the jets associated with Herbig–Haro objects. If we adopt a particle number density of $`n_\mathrm{H}10^2\text{cm}^3`$, and a temperature $`T10\text{K}`$ for a cloud with radius $`r_01\text{pc}`$ \[(Spitzer 1998), (Hartmann 1998)\], then $`\mathrm{\Lambda }10^2/M_0^2`$. The same calculation can be made for the cases of radio jets interacting with the gas inside a cluster of galaxies. For this case, typical values are $`n_\mathrm{H}10^2\text{cm}^3,T10^7\text{K}\text{ and }r_0100\text{Kpc}`$ (\[Longair 1992, Longair 1998\]). With these values, the parameter $`\mathrm{\Lambda }10^2/M_0^2`$, which is the same value as the one obtained for Herbig–Haro objects. The fact that jets are formed in various environments such as giant molecular clouds and the gaseous haloes of clusters of galaxies with the same values of the dimensionless parameter $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ provides a clue as to why the jets look the same in such widely different environments.

From its definition, the parameter $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ can be rewritten as $`\mathrm{\Lambda }=(3/4\pi )\times (G𝖬/r)(1/v_0^2)`$, where $`𝖬`$ is the mass within a sphere of radius $`r_0`$. This quantity is roughly the ratio of the gravitational potential energy from the cloud acting on a fluid element of the jet, to its kinetic energy at the initial position $`r_0`$. The parameter $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ is thus an indicator of how large the deflections due to gravity are going to affect the trajectory of the jet. The bigger the number $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$, the more important the deflection caused by gravity will be. In other words, when the parameter $`\mathrm{\Lambda }1`$ the jet becomes ballistic and bends towards the centre of the cloud. When $`\mathrm{\Lambda }1`$ the deflections are dominated by the pressure gradients in the cloud and the jets bend away from the centre of the cloud.

Let us consider next the case of a galaxy dominated by a dark matter halo for which the mass density is given by the relation \[(Binney & Tremaine 1987)\]: $`\rho _d=\rho _d_{}/\left(1+\left(r/a\right)^2\right)`$, in which $`a`$ is the core radius and quantities with a star refer to the value at the centre of the galaxy. The gas in the galaxy is in hydrostatic equilibrium with the dark matter halo, so that $`\mathrm{𝐠𝐫𝐚𝐝}p=\rho \mathrm{𝐠𝐫𝐚𝐝}\varphi _d`$. In exactly the same form as it was done above, the important parameters in the problem are the gravitational constant $`G`$, the characteristic length $`a`$ and the sound speed $`c_{}`$, together with the gas density $`\rho _{}`$ evaluated at the centre of the cloud. Since three independent dimensions (length, time and mass) describe the whole hydrodynamical problem, dimensional analysis demands the existence of only one dimensionless parameter $`k4\pi G\rho _\mathrm{d}_{}a^2/c_{}^2`$. The unimportant proportionality factor of $`4\pi `$ is introduced here since it appears naturally in the analytic solution \[(Mendoza, & Longair 2000)\]. The Mach number $`M_0`$, evaluated at the point where the jet enters the cloud is another dimensionless number which parametrises the solution of this problem. Using typical values \[(Binney & Tremaine 1987)\] for galaxies then $`\rho _{}0.1M_{}\text{pc}^3`$, $`𝖺1\text{Kpc}`$ . Taking central values for the gas in the galaxy as $`n_{}1\text{cm}^3`$ and $`T_{}10^5\text{K}`$ then $`k10`$.

The number $`k`$ can be rewritten as $`k=\left(4/(4\pi )\right)(G𝖬/𝖺)(1/c_{}^2)`$, where $`𝖬`$ is the mass of a sphere with radius $`𝖺`$. This quantity is proportional to the gravitational energy of the cloud evaluated at the core radius divided by the sonic kinetic energy that a fluid element in the jet has. In other words, in the same way as it was done above, the dimensionless number $`k`$ is an indicator as to how big deflections produced by gravity are.

Consider now the case in which relativistic effects are included in the interaction of a relativistic jet and a stratified high density region. To simplify the problem, the self gravity of the cloud acting on the jet is ignored. Bernoulli’s equation in its non–relativistic form can be integrated numerically under this considerations and it is possible to find out analytic solutions when the Mach number of the flow inside the jet is much greater than unity. This was done for the case in which the cloud is an isothermal sphere and for the case in which the interaction is between the jet and gas in pressure equilibrium with a dark matter halo \[(Mendoza, & Longair 2000)\].

## 3. Discussion

When a jet bends it is in direct contact with its surroundings and entrainment from the external gas might cause disruption to its structure \[(Icke 1991)\]. However, if this situation is bypassed for example by an efficient cooling, then there remains a high Mach number collimated flow inside a curved jet. When supersonic flow bends, the characteristics emanating from it intersect at a certain point in space \[(Landau & Lifshitz 1987)\]. Since the hydrodynamical values of the flow in a characteristic line have constant values, the intersection causes the different values of these quantities to be multivalued. This situation can not occur in nature and a shock wave is formed.

The formation of internal shocks inside the jet gives rise to subsonic flow inside it and collimation may no longer be achieved. If the characteristic lines produced by the flow inside the jet intersect outside it, then a shock wave is not formed and the jet remains collimated as it bends. However, two important points have to be considered in the discussion. The first is that the Mach number decreases in a bend as the flow moves. The second is that the rate of change of the Mach angle with respect to the angle the jet makes with its original straight trajectory (the bending angle) increases without bound as the velocity of the flow tends to that of the local velocity of sound. This was first proved by Icke (1991) for the case in which no relativistic effects were taken into account. We have made a relativistic generalisation to these two points \[(Mendoza 2000)\].

The fact that two shocks might form inside a jet, one of them at the end of the bending when the Mach number is near one, enables us to find an upper limit to the bending angle \[(Icke 1991)\]. For example, a non–relativitic jet with a polytropic index $`\kappa =5/3`$ cannot be deflected more than $`60.8^{}`$. Under the same non–relativitic conditions, but by assuming a polytropic index $`\kappa =4/3`$, non–relativitic jets with a relativistic equation of state cannot be deflected more than $`148.12^{}`$ \[(Icke 1991)\].

When a full relativistic analysis is introduced in this description, this upper limit can not be greater than its non–relativitic counterpart. This is because characteristic lines emanating from a relativistic flow are closer to the streamlines as compared to their non–relativitic counterparts \[(Königl 1980)\]. As a result, a relativistic jet with a polytropic index $`\kappa =4/3`$ can not bend more than $`47.94^{}`$. The precise conditions under which an internal shock is produced for a given jet depend on the shape of the curve that the jet makes as it bends and the radius of the jet.

The most important consequence of the calculations described above is the sensitivity of the deflection angles to variations in velocity. This sensitivity is due to the fact that the force applied to a given fluid element in the jet (due to pressure and gravitational potential gradients) is the same independent of the velocity of the flow in the jet. However, as the velocity of the flow in the jet increases, there is not enough time for this force to change the curvature of the jet soon enough, giving rise to very straight jets.