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# From Q-Walls to Q-Balls

## 1 Introduction

Non-topological solitons were first described in the mid-70’s  in the context of scalar field models with two fields, symmetry breaking and a conserved charge. They reappeared in a somewhat different guise in the mid 80’s in theories without spontaneous symmetry breaking as considered by Coleman  and the name $`Q`$-balls was invented. In the mid 90’s they have re-surfaced in connection with models of scalar fields where the potential has flat or quasi-flat directions, which is generic in models of supersymmetry breaking, as described by Kusenko .

The original non-topological solitons and $`Q`$-balls had an energy which behaved as

$$E\mu Q$$
(1)
for large conserved charge $`Q`$. If $`\mu `$ is less than the mass of a perturbative, charged excitation of unit charge, then the $`Q`$-balls are clearly stable against decay into perturbative charged particles. Indeed, Coleman  defined $`Q`$ balls as the minimal energy classical configurations of fixed charge $`Q`$ and was able to show their absolute, classical stability. However, it was soon realized that linear terms induced via quantum corrections in the effective potential would lead to the decay of these $`Q`$-balls .

The recently-described $`Q`$-balls do not suffer this fate. They have an intriguing energy-charge dispersion, $`EQ^{(3/4)}`$ for large $`Q`$ in 3 spatial dimensions. Hence these $`Q`$-balls are arbitrarily tightly bound compared to the energy of an aggregate of perturbative quanta of equal charge. We note that such an asymptotic energy-charge dispersion with the non-integer power $`3/4`$ also arises in another context. For solitons in models with non-trivial topological Hopf windings , there is an energy bound, which is not attained, but behaves as $`Q^{(3/4)}`$. It would be interesting to find a model where a “Hopf soliton”, perhaps of the $`Q`$-ball, type can exactly saturate such a bound. Indeed, we will find below exactly solvable $`Q`$-balls which do saturate a similar bound in 1 spatial dimension.

In this paper we investigate extended objects of the $`Q`$-ball type. These are the solitons of one- and two-dimensional models embedded in three dimensions, forming $`Q`$-walls and $`Q`$-strings, respectively. Similar structures have been studied recently in  both analytically and using numerical simulations. The cases discussed concern $`Q`$-balls which have an energy-charge dispersion that grows linearly with the charge, $`E\mu Q`$. It is found that collisions of such $`Q`$-balls can give rise to $`Q`$-string like states. In  stable $`Q`$-ring solitons are described. Here stability is imbued via an additional topological twisting of the phase as one goes around the ring. We find our study is complementary to these studies.

In the next section, we study $`Q`$-solitons in arbitrary spatial dimension $`d`$. The energetics of these objects are interesting: the energy $`E_d`$ of a soliton in $`d`$ dimensions depends on its charge $`Q_d`$ as $`E_dQ_d^{d/(d+1)}`$. The lower the dimension, the more energetically favourable the $`Q`$-soliton over a conventional configuration of charge $`Q_d`$. At first glance, this would seem to indicate that extended objects in three dimension would be energetically preferred over $`Q`$-balls. However, as we shall see, this turns out not to be the case.

In Section 3, we consider embedded lower-dimensional $`Q`$-solitons in three dimensions. The energy $`E_2`$ and charge $`Q_2`$ of a two-dimensional soliton, for instance, are the energy and charge per unit length of the corresponding $`Q`$-string. The energy of a $`Q`$-string of length $`L`$ and of fixed three-dimensional charge varies as $`L^{1/3}`$. Thus the tension varies as $`L^{2/3}`$, reducing rapidly with length. However, the energy per unit length also varies as $`L^{2/3}`$, so the natural time scale for oscillations of $`Q`$-strings is equivalent to that of topological strings (whose energy per unit length and tension are independent of $`L`$).

In Section 4 we study the stability of $`Q`$-strings or walls against “beading”, i.e., the formation along the length of the string (or surface of the wall) of clumps of higher charge (and energy) per unit length (or surface) which would ultimately result in the formation of a one-dimensional chain (or two-dimensional sheet) of non-interacting balls.

We study the stability of walls, in particular, since there the analysis is much simpler, essentially because the one-dimensional soliton can be found analytically for certain potentials. In studying small oscillations about such a solution, the eigenvalue equation determining the frequency of these oscillations can be related to a Schrödinger equation in supersymmetric quantum mechanics. Applying known results from that theatre enables us to identify a single unstable mode for the fluctuation, two zero-modes (one of which corresponds to translation of the wall) and a spectrum of stable modes. The unstable mode can have an arbitrarily large characteristic time, so the wall can be extremely long-lived. We expect the same behaviour for strings, but have not yet done the analysis in that case.

## 2 $`Q`$-balls in any dimension

Consider a charged scalar field in $`d`$ spatial dimensions, the Lagrangian governing its behaviour is

$$=d^dx\left(\frac{1}{2}_\mu \varphi _a^\mu \varphi _aV(|\varphi |)\right)$$
(2)
where $`a=1,2`$, $`|\varphi |=\sqrt{\varphi _1^2+\varphi _2^2}`$ and we use a simple $`SO(2)`$ global gauge invariance whose conserved charge corresponds to $`Q`$. The conserved charge is normalized as

$$Q=d^dxϵ_{ab}\varphi _a_t\varphi _b.$$
(3)
The scalar potential, inspired by supersymmetric models, satisfies

$$V(|\varphi |)=\{\begin{array}{cc}\frac{1}{2}m^2|\varphi |^2\hfill & |\varphi |0\hfill \\ \mathrm{\Lambda }\hfill & |\varphi |\mathrm{}\hfill \end{array}$$
(4)
where $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ is a constant which is determined by the scale of supersymmetry breaking. The minimum of the potential occurs at $`|\varphi |=0`$ and the charge symmetry is unbroken. $`Q`$-ball solutions are found with the ansatz

$$\varphi _1+i\varphi _2=e^{i\omega t}\phi (r)$$
(5)
where $`\omega `$ is a constant, $`r`$ is the radial coordinate and $`\phi (r)`$ is real. We immediately obtain

$$Q=\omega d^dx\phi ^2(r).$$
(6)
The profile taken for $`\phi (r)`$ satisfies the asymptotic conditions

$$\phi (r)=\{\begin{array}{cc}\varphi _0\hfill & r0\hfill \\ 0\hfill & r\mathrm{}\hfill \end{array}$$
(7)
where $`\varphi _0`$ is taken large enough so that the asymptotic behaviour of the potential is valid. Hence the $`Q`$-ball interpolates from large non-vacuum values around $`\varphi _0`$ in its center to $`\phi =0`$, the perturbative vacuum, at infinity. The existence of stable solutions to the equations of motion for $`\phi (r)`$ in 3 spatial dimensions is the content of the previous papers  and is easiest seen by the classic continuity arguments of Coleman . Here we re-do the analysis in arbitrary spatial dimensions $`d`$.

The equations of motion for $`\phi (r)`$ are

$$^2\phi (r)V^{}(\phi (r))+\omega ^2\phi (r)=0$$
(8)
which, given the form of the potential, become

$`^2\phi (r)+\omega ^2\phi (r)`$ $`=`$ $`0r0`$ (9)
$`^2\phi (r)m^2\phi (r)`$ $`=`$ $`0r\mathrm{}`$ (10)
using the assumed asymptotics of the potential. The solutions of these equations are immediate, but dimension dependent. For small $`r`$ we get spherical Bessel functions of order 0 in 3 dimensions, ordinary Bessel functions of order 0 in 2 dimensions, and trigonometric functions in 1 dimension, with argument $`\omega r`$. For large $`r`$ the argument simply changes to $`imr`$, which is imaginary.

### 2.1 $`d=3`$

The asymptotic solutions are

$$\phi (r)=\{\begin{array}{cc}\varphi _0j_0(\omega r)\hfill & r0\hfill \\ \phi _0k_0(mr)\hfill & r\mathrm{}\hfill \end{array}$$
(11)
where $`\varphi _0`$ is a constant that is fixed by the total charge of the solution, $`\phi _0`$ is a dependent constant and $`j_0(\omega r)`$ and $`k_0(mr)`$ are the spherical Bessel function of order 0 of real and imaginary argument respectively. The asymptotic solutions interpolate from one to the other in a relatively small region, and it is difficult to obtain analytic solutions, except in the 1 dimensional case. However, the continuity argument of Coleman easily establishes the existence of a solution.

The idea is to first observe that the equation of motion 8 can be interpreted to describe the classical motion of a “particle” in one dimension of position $`\phi `$, in the potential $`V(\phi )+\frac{1}{2}\omega ^2\phi ^2`$ and in the presence of a specific frictional term that is time dependent coming from the Laplacian, and where $`r`$ plays the role of time. Indeed the equation of motion is equivalently written as

$$\ddot{\phi }(r)V^{}(\phi (r))+\omega ^2\phi (r)=\frac{2}{r}\dot{\phi }(r)$$
(12)
where $`\dot{\phi }(r)=_r\phi (r)`$. The potential is negative for small $`\phi `$, and is approximately a downward opening parabola of curvature $`m^2`$, whose maximum passes through the origin at $`\phi (r)=0`$. It turns over, after achieving a minimum (negative) value, into an upward opening parabola of curvature $`\omega ^2`$ for large enough values of $`\phi (r)`$. Clearly, eventually the potential becomes positive. Now if we start with an initial value $`\varphi _0`$ for which $`V(\varphi _0)`$ is negative, the “particle” will never rise up high enough to reach the origin, even in infinite time, and will perform damped oscillations till it settles down to the global minimum value of $`V(\phi )+\frac{1}{2}\omega ^2\phi ^2`$. On the other hand if we start with a large initial value of $`\varphi _0`$, then since the “motion” is governed arbitrarily well by the spherical Bessel function $`j_0(\omega r)`$, the “particle” will attain a given value close to the point where the full potential $`V(\phi )+\frac{1}{2}\omega ^2\phi ^2`$ vanishes, in a fixed time, independent of the initial value $`\varphi _0`$ which is of the order of $`1/\omega `$. The velocity at this point will be proportional to $`\varphi _0`$. Hence the subsequent evolution can be arranged to commence with an arbitrarily high initial velocity by choosing $`\varphi _0`$ larger and larger. It is clear then, that there exists an initial value for $`\varphi _0`$ so that the “particle”will arrive at this point with sufficient velocity that the subsequent motion will rise up and go over the maximum at $`\phi =0`$ in finite time. Hence, by continuity, there exists an initial value for $`\varphi _0`$ which will exactly achieve the maximum as time goes to infinity, i.e., for $`r\mathrm{}`$. Such a configuration is the solution and it will give the appropriate interpolation between the two asymptotic solutions 11. Clearly the value of $`\phi _0`$ will be governed by the value of $`\varphi _0`$ which in turn will be fixed by the value $`\omega `$. Hence the total charge $`Q`$ can be thought of as a function of $`\omega `$ alone, or conversely all of the parameters depend only on the total charge $`Q`$.

The energy of such a configuration can be approximated as

$`E`$ $``$ $`{\displaystyle _{r<1/\omega }}d^3x\left(\omega ^2\phi ^2(r)+|\phi (r)|^2+\mathrm{\Lambda }\right)`$ (13)
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle _{r<1/\omega }}d^3x\left(2\omega ^2\phi ^2(r)+\mathrm{\Lambda }\right)={\displaystyle \frac{\alpha \varphi _0^2}{\omega }}+{\displaystyle \frac{\beta \mathrm{\Lambda }}{\omega ^3}}`$ (14)
where we neglect the contributions from the surface and the exterior of the $`Q`$-ball, and where $`\alpha `$ and $`\beta `$ are positive constants. This expression is of course reasonable only for $`Q`$-balls with large charge $`Q`$. Using

$$Q=\omega d^3x\phi ^2(r)\omega _{r<1/\omega }d^3x\varphi _0^2j_0^2(\omega r)=\frac{\gamma \varphi _0^2}{\omega ^2}$$
(15)
where $`\gamma `$ is another positive constant, we get

$$E\frac{\alpha Q\omega }{\gamma }+\frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }\beta }{\omega ^3}$$
(16)
Imposing $`dE/d\omega =0`$ yields

$$\frac{\alpha Q}{\gamma }=\frac{3\mathrm{\Lambda }\beta }{\omega ^4}$$
(17)
which gives

$`\omega `$ $``$ $`Q^{1/4}`$ (18)
$`\varphi _0`$ $``$ $`Q^{1/4}`$ (19)
$`E`$ $``$ $`Q^{3/4}.`$ (20)
### 2.2 $`d=2`$

Here the solution for small $`r`$ is $`\varphi _0J_0(\omega r)`$ where $`J_0(\omega r)`$ is the ordinary Bessel function of order 0, and for large $`r`$ the solution is $`\phi _0K_0(mr)`$, where $`K_0(mr)`$ is the Bessel function of order zero of imaginary argument. The energy is then approximately given by

$`E_2`$ $``$ $`{\displaystyle _{r<1/\omega }}d^2x\left(\omega ^2\phi ^2(r)+|\phi (r)|^2+\mathrm{\Lambda }\right)`$ (21)
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\alpha Q_2\omega }{\gamma }}+{\displaystyle \frac{\beta \mathrm{\Lambda }}{\omega ^2}}`$ (22)
which yields upon imposing $`dE_2/d\omega =0`$

$`\omega `$ $``$ $`Q_2^{1/3}`$ (23)
$`\varphi _0`$ $``$ $`Q_2^{1/3}`$ (24)
$`E_2`$ $``$ $`Q_2^{2/3}.`$ (25)
Here $`E_2`$ and $`Q_2`$ are the appropriate 2 dimensional energy and charge respectively, which in terms of 3 dimensional energy and charge are the energy per unit length and the charge per unit length.

### 2.3 $`d=1`$

Here the equation of motion can be reduced to quadratures, and it can be integrated exactly in many cases. It is more convenient to use the normal spatial coordinate $`x[\mathrm{},\mathrm{}]`$ rather than the radial coordinate $`r`$. The equation of motion for $`\phi (x)`$ where $`\varphi _1(x)+i\varphi _2(x)=e^{i\omega t}\phi (x)`$ is

$$\frac{d^2\phi (x)}{dx^2}V^{}(\phi (x))+\omega ^2\phi (x)=0$$
(26)
which yields

$$_{\varphi _0}^{\phi (x)}\frac{d\phi }{\pm \sqrt{V(\phi )\omega ^2\phi ^2}}=_{x_0}^x𝑑x.$$
(27)
Here $`x_0`$ gives the position of the $`Q`$-ball and the $`\pm `$ is chosen depending on whether $`x>x_0`$ or $`x<x_0`$. The square root should not become imaginary thus we must have that $`V(\phi )>\omega ^2\phi ^2`$. Since for large values of $`\phi `$ the potential becomes flat and the required inequality is violated, there is a fixed maximum value for $`\varphi _0`$ given by the condition $`V(\varphi _0)=\omega ^2\varphi _0^2`$. There is no “friction” term coming from the Lapalcian in 1 dimension, hence conservation of energy dictates that this value of $`\varphi _0`$ is the starting point for $`\phi _0(x)`$. Small $`\omega `$ implies large values of $`\varphi _0`$ which gives approximately that $`\varphi _0^2\mathrm{\Lambda }/\omega ^2`$ that is $`\varphi _01/\omega `$. The quadrature 27 is not particularly useful in the case of a general potential $`V(\phi (x))`$. The solution for $`xx_0`$ is $`\phi (x)=\varphi _0\mathrm{cos}(\omega (xx_0))`$ while for $`|xx_0|>>\pi /2\omega `$ is $`\phi (\pm x)=\phi _0e^{mx}`$. The charge is given by

$$Q_1=\omega 𝑑x\phi ^2(x)\omega \varphi _0^2_{x_0(\pi /2\omega )}^{x_0+(\pi /2\omega )}𝑑x\mathrm{cos}^2(\omega (xx_0))=\frac{\varphi _0^2\pi }{2}$$
(28)
while the energy is

$`E_1`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle 𝑑x\left(\omega ^2\phi ^2(x)+(_x\phi (x))^2+V(\phi (x))\right)}`$ (29)
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle 𝑑x\left(2\omega ^2\phi ^2+V(\phi (x))\phi (x)V^{}(\phi (x))\right)}`$ (30)
$``$ $`{\displaystyle _{|xx_0|<(\pi /2\omega )}}𝑑x\left(2\omega ^2\phi ^2+\mathrm{\Lambda }\right)`$ (31)
$`=`$ $`2\omega ^2\varphi _0^2\left({\displaystyle _{|xx_0|<(\pi /2\omega )}}𝑑x\mathrm{cos}^2(\omega (xx_0))\right)+{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }\pi }{\omega }}`$ (32)
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{2\pi \omega \varphi _0^2}{2}}+{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }\pi }{\omega }}.`$ (33)
Imposing

$$\frac{dE_1}{d\omega }=0$$
(34)
yields

$$\varphi _0^2\frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }}{\omega ^2}=\frac{2Q_1}{\pi }\frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }}{\omega ^2}=0$$
(35)
implying

$$\omega ^2=\frac{\pi \mathrm{\Lambda }}{2Q_1}.$$
(36)
This gives,

$`\omega `$ $``$ $`Q_1^{1/2}`$ (37)
$`\varphi _0`$ $``$ $`Q_1^{1/2}`$ (38)
$`E_2`$ $``$ $`Q_1^{1/2}.`$ (39)
### 2.4 Arbitrary spatial dimension

Here we record the corresponding formulae in arbitrary spatial dimension $`d`$. The $`Q_d`$-ball solution will be to the appropriate generalization of the free spherical wave in its centre with argument $`\omega r`$ while from its edge it will evolve into the exponentially decaying type solution of mass $`m`$ outside, i.e., the same function but of imaginary argument $`imr`$. One easily finds

$`Q_d`$ $``$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\gamma _d\omega \varphi _0^2}{\omega ^d}}={\displaystyle \frac{\gamma _d\varphi _0^2}{\omega ^{(d1)}}}`$ (40)
$`E_d`$ $``$ $`\alpha _d\varphi _0^2\omega ^{(2d)}+{\displaystyle \frac{\beta _d\mathrm{\Lambda }}{\omega ^d}}`$ (41)
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\alpha _dQ_d\omega ^{(d1)}}{\gamma _d}}\omega ^{(2d)}+{\displaystyle \frac{\beta _d\mathrm{\Lambda }}{\omega ^d}}`$ (42)
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\alpha _dQ_d\omega }{\gamma _d}}+{\displaystyle \frac{\beta _d\mathrm{\Lambda }}{\omega ^d}}`$ (43)
where $`\alpha _d,\beta _d`$ and $`\gamma _d`$ are the corresponding constants in $`d`$ dimensions. Imposing $`dE_d/d\omega =0`$ yields in a straightforward manner

$`\omega `$ $``$ $`Q_d^{1/(d+1)}`$ (44)
$`\varphi _0`$ $``$ $`Q_d^{1/(d+1)}`$ (45)
$`E_d`$ $``$ $`Q_d^{d/(d+1)}.`$ (46)
## 3 Energetics of $`Q`$-strings and $`Q`$-walls

Suppose initial conditions have created a large $`Q`$-wall or $`Q`$-string in 3 dimensions. We will observe here that such structures have interesting energetics. We address the question of stability of such objects in the next section.

### 3.1 $`Q`$-strings

We define $`Q`$-strings as linear configurations in 3 dimensions whose cross section corresponds to a 2 dimensional $`Q_2`$-ball, with a fixed charge per unit length $`Q_2`$. Such a configuration will simply terminate at two end points or close on itself yielding a closed $`Q`$-string configuration. We will consider for convenience the second situation, of a closed $`Q`$-string of length $`L`$. We will assume that $`L`$ is sufficiently long so that gradient energies due to the gradual bending that is necessary to close the $`Q`$-string are negligible. The relevant conserved charge of a closed $`Q`$-string then is given by

$$Q=Q_2L$$
(47)
while the energy is given by

$$E=E_2L.$$
(48)
Replacing for $`E_2Q_2^{2/3}=(Q/L)^{2/3}`$ we get

$$EQ_2^{2/3}L=Q^{2/3}L^{1/3}.$$
(49)
Hence a $`Q`$-string of total charge $`Q`$ satisfies an energy-charge dispersion relation

$$E_{Q\mathrm{string}}Q^{2/3}.$$
(50)
This does not mean that the $`Q`$-string is even more tightly bound than a $`Q`$-ball with the same charge, which satisfies $`EQ^{3/4}`$. Overall scaling of the $`Q`$-string always lowers its energy. The energy-length dispersion is

$$E_{Q\mathrm{string}}L^{1/3}$$
(51)
so that as the length decreases, so does the energy. Indeed the $`Q`$-string will shrink and reduce its energy until its length is comparable to its width, at which point the description in terms of a $`Q`$-string is no longer valid.

The energy-length dispersion is however, remarkable. The restoring force which tends to cause the $`Q`$-string to shrink

$$F_{Q\mathrm{string}}=\frac{dE}{dL}\frac{1}{3}\frac{Q^{2/3}}{L^{2/3}}$$
(52)
disappears as $`L`$ gets very large. This is in contradistinction to the case of a topological string, such as a cosmic string or vortex loop, where the energy-length dispersion is $`E_{\mathrm{top}.\mathrm{string}}=\mu L`$, where $`\mu `$ is the mass per unit length, giving a constant restoring force. Nevertheless, the time scale for shrinking of a $`Q`$-string is not markedly different, for a large $`Q`$-string the mass per unit length also decreases accordingly with its length, compensating for the reduced restoring force.

The time scale for shrinking of a topological string is governed by the effective Lagrangian

$$_{\mathrm{top}.\mathrm{string}}=\frac{1}{2}\mu L\frac{\dot{L}^2}{4\pi ^2}\mu L=\mu \left(\frac{L\dot{L}^2}{8\pi ^2}L\right)$$
(53)
while for a $`Q`$-string we have

$$_{Q\mathrm{string}}=\frac{1}{2}\left(\frac{\alpha Q_2^{2/3}}{L^{2/3}}\right)L\frac{\dot{L}^2}{4\pi ^2}\left(\frac{\alpha Q_2^{2/3}}{L^{2/3}}\right)L=\alpha Q_2^{2/3}\left(\frac{L^{1/3}\dot{L}^2}{8\pi ^2}L^{1/3}\right).$$
(54)
We see that neither $`\mu `$ nor $`\alpha Q_2^{2/3}`$ play a role in the dynamics. Conservation of energy for the topological string gives

$$\frac{L\dot{L}^2}{8\pi ^2}+L=L_0$$
(55)
while for the $`Q`$-string

$$\frac{L^{1/3}\dot{L}^2}{8\pi ^2}L^{1/3}=L_0^{1/3},$$
(56)
where $`L_0`$ is the initial length in each case. With the change of variables $`L=v^2`$ for the topological string and $`L=u^6`$ for the $`Q`$-string the equations become easily integrable, yielding the time for contraction $`T_{\mathrm{top}.\mathrm{string}}=L_0/4\sqrt{2}`$ and $`T_{Q\mathrm{string}}=45L_0/32\sqrt{2}`$.

We will see in the next section that the $`Q`$-string and the $`Q`$-wall are both unstable to beading into arrays of smaller $`Q`$-balls. If the $`Q`$-string were to spontaneously decay into a linear array of $`N`$, $`Q`$-balls each of charge $`q`$, we have

$$Q=Nq$$
(57)
from conservation of charge, while the energy of such a final state is

$$E=\beta q^{3/4}N=\beta Q^{3/4}N^{1/4}.$$
(58)
Evidently such a state has higher energy than the absolute minimum of energy in the sector of charge $`Q`$, given by the $`Q`$-ball of charge $`Q`$, ($`N=1`$), which has energy $`E=\beta Q^{3/4}`$. But it will be an intermediate state with less energy than the $`Q`$-string if (adopting the notation of Section 2.4 to avoid confusion)

$$\beta _3Q^{3/4}N^{1/4}<\beta _2Q^{2/3}L^{1/3}.$$
(59)
This implies

$$N<\left(\frac{\beta _2}{\beta _3}\right)^4\frac{L^{4/3}}{Q^{1/3}}$$
(60)
which gives $`N/L<(\beta _2/\beta _3)^4Q_2^{1/3}`$. As the size of each smaller $`Q`$-ball is approximately $`RL/N`$ thus $`R>(\beta _3/\beta _2)^4Q_2^{1/3}`$, i.e., the $`Q`$-string will be stable against decay into a chain of $`N`$, $`Q`$-balls if the size of each $`Q`$-ball is smaller than $`Q_2^{1/3}1/\omega `$, which is just the width of the original $`Q`$-string.

### 3.2 $`Q`$-walls

We can repeat the above analysis for the case of a closed $`Q`$-wall of total 3 dimensional charge $`Q`$ and with a surface area $`L^2`$. Then

$$Q=L^2Q_1$$
(61)
and

$$E_{Q\mathrm{wall}}=L^2E_1=L^2\beta _1Q_1^{1/2}=\beta _1L^2(Q/L^2)^{(1/2)}=\beta _1Q^{(1/2)}L.$$
(62)
This is to be compared with the energy of a topological domain wall,

$$E_{\mathrm{top}.\mathrm{wall}}=\mu L^2$$
(63)
where $`\mu `$ is the mass per unit area. For a spherical surface the effective Lagrangian describing the dynamics of a spherical topological domain wall is

$$_{\mathrm{top}.\mathrm{wall}}=\frac{1}{2}\mu L^2\frac{\dot{L}^2}{4\pi }\mu L^2$$
(64)
while for a spherical $`Q`$-wall we get

$$_{Q\mathrm{wall}}=\frac{1}{2}\beta _1Q^{1/2}L\frac{\dot{L}^2}{4\pi }\beta _1Q^{1/2}L.$$
(65)
These yield the conservation law for the topological domain wall

$$\frac{1}{8\pi }L^2\dot{L}^2+L^2=L_0^2$$
(66)
while for the $`Q`$-wall

$$\frac{1}{8\pi }L\dot{L}^2+L=L_0,$$
(67)
where $`L_0`$ is the initial value of $`L`$. These are easily integrable and yield the time for contraction to be

$$T_{\mathrm{top}.\mathrm{wall}}=\frac{L_0}{2\sqrt{2\pi }}$$
(68)
and

$$T_{Q\mathrm{wall}}=\sqrt{\frac{\pi }{2}}\frac{L_0}{4}$$
(69)
for the topological domain wall and for the $`Q`$-wall respectively. Again we see that the time for contraction is about the same in the two cases.

If the $`Q`$-wall spontaneously beads up into a locally planar array of $`N`$ smaller $`Q`$-balls of charge $`q`$, we have

$$Q=Nq$$
(70)
and

$$E=N\beta _3q^{3/4}=\beta _3Q^{3/4}N^{1/4}.$$
(71)
Then energy considerations dictate

$$\beta _3N^{1/4}Q^{3/4}<\beta _1Q^{1/2}L,$$
(72)
i.e.,

$$\left(\frac{\beta _3}{\beta _1}\right)^4Q_1^{1/2}<\left(\frac{L^2}{N}\right)^{1/2}$$
(73)
which says the size of each small $`Q`$-ball must be greater than the width of the $`Q`$-wall.

## 4 Stability

The general rate of decay is governed by the stability analysis of the fluctuations about the $`Q`$-wall or $`Q`$-string configuration. The total Lagrangian is expanded to second order in the fluctuations about the soliton configuration. The first order terms vanish because the soliton is a solution of the full 3 dimensional equations of motion. The second order truncation yields a generalized normal mode problem. Real frequencies lead to oscillatory behaviour while imaginary frequencies yield exponential growth or decay. In the latter case, the lifetime is taken to the inverse of the magnitude of the imaginary frequency, which is the time scale for the instability leading to beading. We will analyze the problem of the stability of a $`Q`$-wall for a specific potential which leads to an analytically accessible problem.

### 4.1 Analytical $`Q`$-walls

As we have seen in section 2.3, the expression for a $`Q`$-ball in 1 dimension can be brought to quadrature. For many choices of the potential the resulting integral can be computed analytically . The stability analysis of the corresponding $`Q`$-wall is related to the elegant theory of exactly solvable quantum mechanical systems, supersymmetric quantum mechanics and shape invariant potentials . Consider the potential

$$V(\phi )=\omega ^2\left(\frac{5}{2}\phi ^22\frac{\phi ^3}{\varphi _0}\right).$$
(74)
Then

$$V(\phi )+\frac{1}{2}\omega ^2\phi ^2=0$$
(75)
implies

$$\phi ^2=0\mathrm{or}\phi =\varphi _0.$$
(76)
The non-trivial zero is fixed at $`\varphi _0`$ and the $`Q`$-ball solution will start from this value for $`\phi `$ at its centre. The equation of motion is

$$\phi _0^{\prime \prime }(x)\omega ^2\phi _0(x)+V^{}(\phi _0(x))=0$$
(77)
which becomes

$$\phi _0^{\prime \prime }(x)+\omega ^2\left(4\phi _0(x)6\frac{\phi _0^2(x)}{\varphi _0}\right)=0.$$
(78)
The quadrature 27 is integrable in this case, with solution

$$\phi _0(x)=\varphi _0\mathrm{sech}^2(\omega x).$$
(79)
It is remarkable that the stability problem around such a $`Q`$-wall is related to the corresponding suspersymmetric quantum mechanical system, as we will now show.

### 4.2 Second-order Lagrangian

The stability analysis proceeds with the second-order expansion of the total Lagrangian about the $`Q`$-wall configuration. We will consider an infinite planar $`Q`$-wall, which then gives that 79 is an exact solution of the full 3 dimensional equations. This will be an arbitrarily close approximation for a large but finite closed $`Q`$-wall surface. The second-order Lagrangian for $`\varphi (\stackrel{}{x},t)=e^{i\omega t}\phi (\stackrel{}{x},t)=e^{i\omega t}(\phi _0(x)+\phi _1(\stackrel{}{x},t)+i\phi _2(\stackrel{}{x},t))`$ is

$$^{[2]}=d^3x\frac{1}{2}(_t\phi _a\omega ϵ_{ab}\phi _b)(_t\phi _a\omega ϵ_{ab}\phi _b)+\frac{1}{2}_i\phi _a_i\phi _a\frac{1}{2}V^{\prime \prime }(\phi _0)\phi _1^2\frac{1}{2}\frac{V^{}(\phi _0)}{\phi _0}\phi _2^2$$
(80)
where $`a,b=1,2`$. Arbitrary variations $`\phi _1`$ and $`\phi _2`$ are permitted from the point of view of charge conservation. All spatial Fourier components in the orthogonal directions will correspond to displacement of charge along the wall in a periodic fashion. Charge conservation constraints will only apply to the zero frequency Fourier component, that is constant along the wall, and here the variations will have to be constrained. But this component corresponds to fluctuations that are effectively 1 dimensional, depending only on the coordinate normal to the $`Q`$-wall configuration. We know that the $`Q`$-wall is by definition stable under such fluctuations, hence we will not be concerned with these fluctuations. The equations of motion for $`\phi _a`$ are

$`\ddot{\phi }_12\omega \dot{\phi }_2\omega ^2\phi _1^2\phi _1+V^{\prime \prime }(\phi _0)\phi _1`$ $`=`$ $`0`$ (81)
$`\ddot{\phi }_2+2\omega \dot{\phi }_1\omega ^2\phi _2^2\phi _2+{\displaystyle \frac{V^{}(\phi _0)}{\phi _0}}\phi _2`$ $`=`$ $`0.`$ (82)
Replacing $`\phi _a(\stackrel{}{x},t)e^{i(\mathrm{\Omega }t+k_1y+k_2z)}\phi _a(x)`$ and writing the resulting equations in matrix form yields

$$\left(\begin{array}{cc}\frac{d^2}{dx^2}+V^{\prime \prime }(\phi _0)\omega ^2& i2\omega \mathrm{\Omega }\\ i2\omega \mathrm{\Omega }& \frac{d^2}{dx^2}+\frac{V^{}(\phi _0)}{\phi _0}\omega ^2\end{array}\right)\left(\begin{array}{c}\phi _1\\ \phi _2\end{array}\right)=(\mathrm{\Omega }^2|\stackrel{}{k}|^2)\left(\begin{array}{c}\phi _1\\ \phi _2\end{array}\right)$$
(83)
which is a transcendental equation for $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$.

The operator on the LHS plays the role of a Hamiltonian whose eigenvalues determine if a mode is oscillatory or exponential. The Hamiltonian is a hermitean operator for real $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$, hence its spectrum is real. It is easy to see that all non-negative eigenvalues of the Hamiltonian at $`\mathrm{\Omega }=0`$ will give rise to oscillatory modes of the fluctuation spectrum. Only negative modes at $`\mathrm{\Omega }=0`$, for small enough values of $`|\stackrel{}{k}|`$ can yield exponential modes, but even these become oscillatory modes for large enough $`|\stackrel{}{k}|`$. The non-standard aspect of this stability problem is that the Hamiltonian also directly depends upon the fluctuation frequency $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$. We must find the spectral curves $`E(\mathrm{\Omega })`$ as functions of $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ and then look for solutions of the equation $`E(\mathrm{\Omega })=\mathrm{\Omega }^2|\stackrel{}{k}|^2`$. The RHS is an upward opening parabola for real $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ with intercept at $`|\stackrel{}{k}|^2`$. The spectral curve of any eigenvalue of the Hamiltonian that is non-negative at $`\mathrm{\Omega }=0`$ will intersect with the parabola at two distinct points. This is because for large enough $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ the spectral curves are simply asymptotic to the linear functions $`E(\mathrm{\Omega })=\pm 2\omega \mathrm{\Omega }`$. It is only the eigenvalues of the Hamiltonian that are negative at $`\mathrm{\Omega }=0`$ which can yield exponentially decaying solutions. We will see that there is exactly one such mode for this Hamiltonian with the choice of the scalar potential taken in 74.

### 4.3 Spectrum of the Hamiltonian and supersymmetric quantum mechanics

The Hamiltonian for $`\mathrm{\Omega }=0`$ is given by

$$=\left(\begin{array}{cc}_+& 0\\ 0& _{}\end{array}\right)=\left(\begin{array}{cc}\frac{d^2}{dx^2}+V^{\prime \prime }(\phi _0)\omega ^2& 0\\ 0& \frac{d^2}{dx^2}+\frac{V^{}(\phi _0)}{\phi _0}\omega ^2\end{array}\right).$$
(84)
There is an obvious exact zero energy level,

$$\psi ^{}=\left(\begin{array}{c}\phi _1\\ \phi _2\end{array}\right)=\left(\begin{array}{c}0\\ \phi _0(x)\end{array}\right)$$
(85)
since $`\phi _0`$ satisfies the equation 78. Remarkably the mode

$$\psi ^+=\left(\begin{array}{c}\phi _1\\ \phi _2\end{array}\right)=\left(\begin{array}{c}\phi _0^{}(x)\\ 0\end{array}\right)$$
(86)
is also an exact zero mode, essentially the corresponding eigenvalue equation is the derivative of the equation of motion for $`\phi _0(x)`$ given by equation 78. The notation will become clear below. This is, of course, not just a coincidence. The two sub-Hamiltonians which comprise $``$ are actually supersymmetric partners and their spectra are paired except for the lowest energy mode. Indeed since 86 is the derivative of $`\phi _0(x)`$ it has a node, hence it cannot be the lowest energy eigenvalue of $`_+`$, and there has to be a negative energy mode.

#### 4.3.1 Stability equations and supersymmetric quantum mechanics

Consider the class of supersymmetric quantum mechanics models determined by the super potential

$$𝒲=n\omega \mathrm{tanh}(\omega x).$$
(87)
Then the corresponding supersymmetric partner Hamiltonians are given by

$$_\pm =𝒲^2𝒲^{}=n^2\omega ^2n(n\pm n)\omega ^2\mathrm{sech}^2\omega x$$
(88)
The two Hamiltonians $`_\pm `$ are given in terms of

$$_+=A^{}A_{}=AA^{}.$$
(89)
where

$$A=\frac{d}{dx}+𝒲A^{}=\frac{d}{dx}+𝒲$$
(90)
which gives

$`_+`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{d^2}{dx^2}}+n^2\omega ^2n(n+1)\omega ^2\mathrm{sech}^2\omega x`$ (91)
$`_{}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{d^2}{dx^2}}+n^2\omega ^2n(n1)\omega ^2\mathrm{sech}^2\omega x.`$ (92)
The ground state is the wave function annihilated by $`A`$

$$A\phi _1=0$$
(93)
which integrates easily to

$$\phi _1(x)=\phi _1(0)\mathrm{sech}^n\omega x.$$
(94)
Then, if $`_+\psi _+=E_+\psi _+`$ then $`_{}(A\psi _+)=E_+(A\psi _+)`$ which shows that all energy levels are (supersymmetrically) paired except for the level annihilated by $`A`$. Equivalently if $`_{}\psi _{}=E_{}\psi _{}`$ the $`_+(A^{}\psi _{})=E_{}(A^{}\psi _{})`$. This pairing is equivalent to the former except that there is no state annihilated by $`A^{}`$. To find all the levels of $`_\pm `$ we proceed by changing the value of $`nn1`$. This process continues until we reach $`n=1`$ and the Hamiltonian $`_{}|_{n=1}=(d^2/dx^2)+\omega ^2`$ for which we know the spectrum to be free, plane waves. The ground states of all intermediate Hamiltonians are given by

$$\psi \mathrm{sech}^m\omega xm=1,2,\mathrm{},n.$$
(95)
Then applying the appropriate strings of $`A_m^{}`$ (using an obvious notation) generates all of the bound states of $`_\pm `$ as shown in detail in . The interesting point is that we can easily find the potential $`V(\phi _0)`$ that is necessary to generate this system of supersymmetric Hamiltonians for the stability problem of the $`Q`$-wall. Indeed, we impose that

$`{\displaystyle \frac{V^{}(\phi _0)}{\phi _0}}`$ $`=`$ $`\omega ^2n(n1)\mathrm{sech}^2\omega x+B`$ (96)
$`V^{\prime \prime }(\phi _0)`$ $`=`$ $`\omega ^2n(n+1)\mathrm{sech}^2\omega x+C`$ (97)
where $`B,C`$ are constants to be adjusted. This yields

$$\frac{1}{n1}\left(\frac{V^{}(\phi _0)}{\phi _0}B\right)=\omega ^2n\mathrm{sech}^2\omega x=\frac{1}{n+1}\left(V^{\prime \prime }(\phi _0)C\right).$$
(98)
This equation is equivalent to

$$\left(\frac{n+1}{n1}\right)\phi _0^{\left(\frac{n+1}{n1}\right)1}V^{}(\phi _0)+\phi _0^{\left(\frac{n+1}{n1}\right)}V^{\prime \prime }(\phi _0)+\left(\frac{B(n+1)C(n1)}{n1}\right)\phi _0^{\left(\frac{n+1}{n1}\right)}=0$$
(99)
after multiplying by an integrating factor. Then this equation is easily integrated to

$$V(\phi _0)=\frac{D\phi _0^{\left(\frac{n+1}{n1}\right)+1}}{\left(\frac{n+1}{n1}\right)+1}+\left(\frac{B(n+1)C(n1)}{4}\right)\phi _0^2+G$$
(100)
for some integration constants $`D,G`$. Now imposing consistency with equations 97 yields

$$\frac{V^{}(\phi _0)}{\phi _0}=D\phi _0^{\left(\frac{2}{n1}\right)}+\left(\frac{B(n+1)C(n1)}{2}\right)=\omega ^2n(n1)\mathrm{sech}^2\omega x+B.$$
(101)
Taking $`D=\omega ^2n(n1)`$ yields

$$\phi _0=\mathrm{sech}^{n1}\omega x\mathrm{and}\frac{B(n+1)C(n1)}{2}=B$$
(102)
On the other hand from 97

$$V^{\prime \prime }(\phi _0)=D\left(\frac{n+1}{n1}\right)\phi _0^{\left(\frac{n+1}{n1}\right)1}+\left(\frac{B(n+1)C(n1)}{2}\right)=\omega ^2n(n+1)\mathrm{sech}^2\omega x+C$$
(103)
hence taking $`D=\omega ^2n(n1)`$ as before is consistent since

$$D\left(\frac{n+1}{n1}\right)=\omega ^2n(n+1)$$
(104)
as required. The constants however must satisfy (along with the equation from before)

$`{\displaystyle \frac{B(n+1)C(n1)}{2}}`$ $`=`$ $`B`$ (105)
$`{\displaystyle \frac{B(n+1)C(n1)}{2}}`$ $`=`$ $`C.`$ (106)
These are two homogeneous linear equations for $`B,C`$ which only have the trivial solution except if the system is dependent. It is indeed, and we find the solution is simply $`B=C`$. We see that the potential is a polynomial for only the cases $`n=2,3`$.

### 4.4 Stability analysis for analytical $`Q`$-walls

The system studied in section 4.1 uses

$$V^{}(\phi _0(x))=\left(6\omega ^2\frac{\phi _0(x)}{\varphi _0}+5\omega ^2\right)\phi _0(x)$$
(107)
hence replacing $`\phi _0(x)=\varphi _0\mathrm{sech}^2\omega x`$ yields

$$\frac{V^{}(\phi _0(x))}{\phi _0(x)}=\left(5\omega ^26\omega ^2\frac{\phi _0(x)}{\varphi _0}\right)=5\omega ^26\omega ^2\mathrm{sech}^2\omega x$$
(108)
while

$$V^{\prime \prime }(\phi _0(x))=\left(5\omega ^212\omega ^2\frac{\phi _0(x)}{\varphi _0}\right)=5\omega ^212\omega ^2\mathrm{sech}^2\omega x.$$
(109)
Thus the system corresponds to the case $`n=3`$ above with $`B=C=5\omega ^2`$. The corresponding stability equation is

$`\left(\begin{array}{cc}\frac{d^2}{dx^2}+4\omega ^212\omega ^2\mathrm{sech}^2\omega x& i2\omega \mathrm{\Omega }\\ i2\omega \mathrm{\Omega }& \frac{d^2}{dx^2}+4\omega ^26\omega ^2\mathrm{sech}^2\omega x\end{array}\right)\left(\begin{array}{c}\phi _1\\ \phi _2\end{array}\right)`$ $`=`$ (110)
$`(\mathrm{\Omega }^2|\stackrel{}{k}|^2)\left(\begin{array}{c}\phi _1\\ \phi _2\end{array}\right)`$ . (111)
The spectrum of this Hamiltonian at $`\mathrm{\Omega }=0`$ corresponds to a single negative energy bound state with $`E=5\omega ^2`$

$$\psi _{5\omega ^2}^+=\sqrt{\frac{15\omega }{16}}\left(\begin{array}{c}\mathrm{sech}^3\omega x\\ 0\end{array}\right)$$
(112)
two zero energy bound states with $`E=0`$

$$\psi _0^+=\sqrt{\frac{15\omega }{4}}\left(\begin{array}{c}\mathrm{sech}^2\omega x\mathrm{tanh}\omega x\\ 0\end{array}\right)\psi _0^{}=\sqrt{\frac{3\omega }{4}}\left(\begin{array}{c}0\\ \mathrm{sech}^2\omega x\end{array}\right)$$
(113)
and two positive energy bound states with $`E=3\omega ^2`$

$$\psi _{3\omega ^2}^+=\sqrt{24\omega }\left(\begin{array}{c}12\mathrm{s}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{c}\mathrm{h}\omega x15\mathrm{s}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{c}\mathrm{h}^3\omega x\\ 0\end{array}\right)\psi _{3\omega ^2}^{}=\sqrt{\frac{3\omega }{2}}\left(\begin{array}{c}0\\ \mathrm{sech}\omega x\mathrm{tanh}\omega x\end{array}\right)$$
(114)
and a continuum starting at $`E>4\omega ^2`$. All these modes are found in a straightforward manner using the general ideas schematized in section 4.3.1, for more details see .

The eigenvalue problem 111 has solutions that are best expressed graphically. The spectral curve $`E(\mathrm{\Omega })`$ of each eigenvalue of the Hamiltonian on the LHS of 111 must intersect the parabola $`\mathrm{\Omega }^2|\stackrel{}{k}|^2`$. The eigenvalue problem for this Hamiltonian can be written algebraically as

$$(H_0+H_1\sigma _3+2\omega \mathrm{\Omega }\sigma _2)\psi =E(\mathrm{\Omega })\psi $$
(115)
where $`\sigma _i`$ are the usual Pauli matrices. The spectrum is doubly degenerate for each non-negative mode at $`\mathrm{\Omega }=0`$ due to the underlying supersymmetry. Clearly

$$(H_0+H_1\sigma _32\omega \mathrm{\Omega }\sigma _2)\sigma _3\psi =E(\mathrm{\Omega })\sigma _3\psi $$
(116)
hence the spectrum is even in $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$. However we can without loss of generality restrict $`\mathrm{\Omega }>0`$ because $`\phi _i`$ are in principle real: reversing the sign of $`\mathrm{\Omega }\mathrm{\Omega }`$ does not generate an independent set of solutions.

We see clearly that the non-negative modes satisfy $`E(\mathrm{\Omega })>\mathrm{\Omega }^2|\stackrel{}{k}|^2`$ for $`\mathrm{\Omega }0`$, but as $`\mathrm{\Omega }\mathrm{}`$ these spectral curves asymptote to $`E(\mathrm{\Omega })\pm 2\omega \mathrm{\Omega }`$, the spectrum of the operator

$$2\omega \mathrm{\Omega }\sigma _2.$$
(117)
These are linear functions of $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ which for sufficiently large $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ always satisfy $`\mathrm{\Omega }^2|\stackrel{}{k}|^2>2\omega \mathrm{\Omega }`$. Hence by continuity each spectral curve must intersect at least once with the parabola, giving rise to a real solution for $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$, and hence an oscillatory mode in the fluctuation spectrum. We speculate that this occurs exactly once for the spectral curve of each non-negative eigenvalue.

Only the negative mode needs to be treated differently. Here, at $`\mathrm{\Omega }=0`$ and for $`|\stackrel{}{k}|^2`$ small enough, the negative mode is already below the parabola and hence there is generically no real solution for $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$. We cannot compute the solution analytically, but a perturbative approach is fruitful. We can compute the spectral curve to second order in perturbation theory (the first order change vanishes). We get

$`E(\mathrm{\Omega })`$ $`=`$ $`5\omega ^24\mathrm{\Omega }^2\omega ^2{\displaystyle \underset{n=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}{\displaystyle \frac{|<\psi _{5\omega ^2}^+|\sigma _2|\psi _n>|^2}{E_n+5\omega ^2}}+\mathrm{}`$ (118)
$`=`$ $`5\omega ^2\mathrm{\Omega }^2B^2+o(\mathrm{\Omega }^4)`$ (119)
where $`B^2`$ is a calculable positive real number that is independent of $`\omega `$. It is not illuminating to compute $`B^2`$, it is a number of order 1. Then the equation to be satisfied is

$$5\omega ^2\mathrm{\Omega }^2B^2=\mathrm{\Omega }^2|\stackrel{}{k}|^2$$
(120)
that is

$$\mathrm{\Omega }^2=\frac{5\omega ^2+|\stackrel{}{k}|^2}{1+B^2}.$$
(121)
For $`|\stackrel{}{k}|^2<5\omega ^2`$ this gives $`\mathrm{\Omega }^2<0`$, i.e., the solution for $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ is imaginary and the corresponding mode is unstable. Indeed

$$\mathrm{\Omega }=i\omega \sqrt{\frac{5(|\stackrel{}{k}|^2/\omega ^2)}{1+B^2}}$$
(122)
hence as $`|\stackrel{}{k}|^25\omega ^2`$ from above, we get $`\mathrm{\Omega }0`$. The lifetime is defined as $`T=1/|\mathrm{\Omega }|`$ hence for small values of $`|\stackrel{}{k}|`$ we get $`T(1/\omega )`$. But as $`|\stackrel{}{k}|^25\omega ^2`$ we get $`T\mathrm{}`$. Thus the very long wavelength spatial Fourier modes decay with lifetime of the order of $`1/\omega `$ while as the wavelength $`1/|\stackrel{}{k}|`$ approaches $`1/5\omega `$, which is of the order of the thickness of the $`Q`$-wall, the lifetime becomes arbitrarily long, the modes become quasi stable. For larger $`|\stackrel{}{k}|`$ (shorter wavelength) the modes are of course strictly stable. Analysis of related, exactly solvable simple models such as $`H(\mathrm{\Omega })\psi =(k^2+\alpha \sigma _3+\mathrm{\Omega }\sigma _2)\psi =\mathrm{\Omega }^2\psi `$ yields the same kind of behavior, generically. Hence we can conclude that the fluctuation spectrum corresponds to stable oscillatory modes except for one degree of freedom. The corresponding mode is unstable only if the wavelength of the spatial Fourier mode is larger than the width of the $`Q`$-wall. Furthermore, the lifetime of the unstable mode is larger than $`1/\omega Q_1^{(1/2)}=(Q/L^2)^{(1/2)}`$, which clearly can be taken to be arbitrarily large. Hence we conclude that $`Q`$-wall, or equally well a $`Q`$-string can be arbitrarily long-lived.

## 5 Discussion and conclusion

In this paper we have studied lower-dimensional $`Q`$-balls and extended objects based on them in models with a scalar field potential with a flat direction for large field values. The energy of a $`Q`$-ball of charge $`Q_d`$ in $`d`$ space dimensions varies as $`Q_d^{(d/d+1)}`$. Thus, as three-dimensional $`Q`$-balls become more and more energetically advantageous with increasing charge, the same is true (only more so) in two or in one dimension.

The extended configurations, called $`Q`$-strings and $`Q`$-walls, also have interesting energetics. A string of fixed charge and of varying length $`L`$, for example, has energy $`EL^{1/3}`$, indicating a rapidly decreasing tension as the length is increased. The time scale of oscillations turns out to be of the same order as that for a topological string.

These strings and walls have a different instability not shared by topological strings: namely, density fluctuations along the string or wall can form, causing a sort of beading: the extended object would evolve into a one- or two-dimensional array of smaller $`Q`$-balls.

This instability was examined in detail for $`Q`$-walls, where supersymmetric quantum mechanics enables a rather detailed analysis. Only modes corresponding to long-wavelength fluctuations are unstable, and the time scale of growth of these fluctuations can be rather large (compared to the characteristic time scale of the $`Q`$-wall).

It is not clear whether or why such objects would form in the early Universe. (Unlike conventional cosmic strings, there is no topological impetus for their formation.) But if they did form, they could be long-lived, and could help contribute to structure formation in the Universe. Such a possibility merits further investigation.

###### Acknowledgments.

We thank NSERC of Canada for financial support.


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# H2 Formation in Low-Metallicity Galaxies

## 1 Introduction

How efficiently hydrogen molecules, H2, form is the most important topic for theories concerning the formation of first-generation stars and primeval galaxies (e.g., Matsuda et al. 1969). This is because hydrogen molecules should become an important coolant in a metal-deficient gas cloud. A review article for such topics by the Japanese group is very useful for understanding the fundamental process in the formation of the first luminous objects via the formation of hydrogen molecules (Nishi et al. 1998). As found in that review paper, there have been many theoretical research projects for primordial hydrogen formation and the resultant effect. The metallicity effect is also given in Omukai (2000). Observationally, there is little evidence for hydrogen formation in primordial or very low-metallicity gas. In this paper, we thus propose an idea to resolve this observational weak point for a theory concerning the formation of primordial hydrogen molecules on galactic and subgalactic scales.

It is widely accepted that H2 molecules are mainly formed on dust grains in metal-rich galaxies (e.g., Williams 1993; Herbst 1995; Takahashi et al. 1999). Low-metallicity galaxies, where only a little dust is expected to exist, are really important for our aim, since there is a chance for the formation of molecules via the so-called H--process (Lequeux, Viallefond 1980; Jenkins, Peimbert 1997). This process is the following: H2 formation starts with the formation of a negative ion, H + e $``$ H- \+ $`h\nu `$, where H is hydrogen, e is an electron, H- is negatively and singly charged hydrogen, $`h`$ is the Plank constant, and $`\nu `$ is the frequency of the photon emitted during H- formation. That reaction rate is $`1.0\times 10^{15}T_3\mathrm{exp}(T_3/7)`$ cm3 s-1, where $`T_3`$ is the temperature in units of $`10^3`$ K. This process is followed by the faster associative detachment reaction: H- \+ H $``$ H2 \+ e. Hence, the formation rate of H2 is mainly controlled by H- formation. In our estimate, hence, we regard the formation rate of H- as the formation rate of H2. Throughout this paper, we call this formation process of H2 the H- process.

While the reaction H- \+ H $``$ H2 \+ e occurs, the photodetachment of H- is also expected; H- \+ $`h\nu `$ $``$ H + e. Indeed, the H2 formation rate via the above process is $`2\times 10^9n(\mathrm{H})`$ s-1, while that detachment occurs with a rate of $`1.7\times 10^7`$ s-1 (Mathis et al. 1983). Thus, if the density of the interstellar medium is not very large ($`<100`$ cm-3), it is very difficult for H2 to form via the H--process. Furthermore, by mutual neutralization, the formation of H2 can also be suppressed. That reaction is described as H- \+ X+ $``$ H2 \+ X, where X is an arbitrary atom including hydrogen, and its reaction rate is 1.3$`\times 10^7T_3^{0.5}X_\mathrm{e}n(\mathrm{H})`$ s-1, where $`X_\mathrm{e}`$ is the ionization degree of the interstellar medium (ISM), $`n(\mathrm{H})`$ is the number density of neutral hydrogen, and $`T_3`$ is temperature in units of $`10^3`$ K. In the subsequent discussion, we can regard $`X_\mathrm{e}`$ as being much smaller than unity, and thus the latter process is slower than the photodetachment. Hence, we consider only the photodetachment process against the formation of a hydrogen molecule via the H--process.

In this paper, we discuss whether the H--process for H2 formation occurs in an observable low-metallicity galaxy. Our consideration will be useful for the theory of galaxy formation and first-generation stars when a metal-deficient galaxy is found to be a laboratory for H2 formation via the H--process. In section 2, we review an interesting observation of I Zw 18, which is the lowest known metallicity galaxy showing present star-forming activity. In section 3, we present an upper limit for the ionization degree, adopting the observational constraint of I Zw 18. If that upper limit is reached, the H--process is expected to be the dominant process of H2 formation in such a low-metallicity galaxy. In section 4, we give implications for future observations. Finally, we summarize this paper in section 5.

## 2 Observation of a Metal-Deficient Galaxy

Metal-deficient galaxies are suitable for our aim to find evidence of H2 formation via the H--process on galactic and subgalactic scales. The most typical and famous metal-deficient galaxy is I Zw 18. This is classified as a blue-compact dwarf (van Zee et al. 1998) and shows evident star formation. Importantly, I Zw 18 has the smallest abundance of heavy elements found in the ionized region in galaxies. Moreover, CO is not detected (e.g., Gondhalekar et al. 1998) in it. Although the latter does not always mean underabundance of C and O, it is just consistent with the metal-deficient property of I Zw 18. Hence, we regard this galaxy as being a typical metal-deficient galaxy. We note that I Zw 18 has another name, Mrk 116.

Recently, Vidal-Madjar et al. (2000) observed I Zw 18 by using the Far Ultraviolet Spectroscopic Explorer. Importantly, they did not succeed in detecting absorption feature of hydrogen molecules. Thus, the upper limit of the column density of hydrogen molecules is determined. That is, $`N(\mathrm{H}_2)<10^{15}`$ cm-2, where $`N(\mathrm{H}_2)`$ is the column density of hydrogen molecules. Assuming the distance to I Zw 18 to be 11.5 Mpc, we adopt a size of I Zw 18, $`R_{18}=1.7`$ kpc, which is proposed in van Zee et al. (1998). We can thus determine the upper limit of the number density of hydrogen molecules as being $`n(\mathrm{H}_2)<1.9\times 10^6`$ cm-3. In this paper, using this constraint for $`N(\mathrm{H}_2)`$ and $`n(\mathrm{H}_2)`$, we consider the formation mechanism of hydrogen molecules in a metal-deficient galaxy.

For our consideration in this paper, it is very important for us to estimate the strength of the radiation field of I Zw 18. According to figure 2 of Dufour et al. (1988), we find the observational flux at 1300 Å as being $`2\times 10^{14}`$ erg s-1 cm-2 Å-1, which was determined by means of the International Ultraviolet Explorer satellite. The distance to I Zw 18 is assumed to be $`10`$ Mpc and the size of of star-forming region of I Zw 18 to be $`1`$ kpc. Both quantities were applied to find a rough estimate of the mean radiation field of I Zw 18. Adopting them, we found that the mean radiation field at the same wavelength is about $`2\times 10^8`$ erg s-1 cm-2 Å-1, which is consistent to the radiation field adopted in Vidal-Madjar et al. (2000). In a recent work by Stasińska and Schaerer (1999), it has been confirmed. In addition, Stasińska and Schaerer have suggested that ISM in I Zw 18 can be clumpy, although the dense clumps have only a small volume filling factor. In the next section, we also consider a clumpy ISM whose clumps have a density of 100 cm-3 as suggested in Stasińska and Schaerer.

We can put a constraint on the star-formation history of I Zw 18 from the elemental abundance and ionization, both of which were measured in an H ii region. Importantly, the expansion of super-bubbles can also affect chemical evolution, because newly synthesized elements are expelled to inter-galactic space (Martin 1996). This consideration has been developed further to other metal-deficient galaxies (Martin 1997). The effect of the out-flow will be examined in a forthcoming paper. In the current paper, we try to connect the clumpiness of ISM and the intense radiation field, to reveal the formation processes of molecular hydrogens under the constraint given in Vidal-Madjar et al. (2000).

## 3 Upper Limit for the Ionization Degree

### 3.1 Assumptions

We consider the two branches for the formation of hydrogen molecules. As introduced in section 1, the first one is the H--process. The second one is expected on the surface of dust grains (Hollenbach et al. 1971). We call the latter case the dust-process in this paper. Since we are interested in the H--process, we examine the possibility of the H--process in I Zw 18, which is a typical metal-deficient galaxy.

Here, we present our assumptions. Two important assumptions are employed: (i) The interstellar medium (ISM) is clumpy. The size of a typical clump is about 1 pc and its gas-number density is about 100 cm-3. It is observationally believable for such a very small-scale structure to exist (e.g., Frail et al. 1994). To sum up, we are interested in a clumpy H i medium whose mean number density may be about 0.4 cm-3 (Vidal-Madjar et al. 2000). (ii) A steady state between the formation and destruction of hydrogen molecules is established. Hence, we estimate the number fraction of hydrogen molecules from an equilibrium condition. The number fraction of hydrogen molecules, $`f(\mathrm{H}_2)`$, is defined to be the ratio of the number of hydrogen molecules to the total number of hydrogen nuclei. Although it may not be so significantly important, we state a third assumption: (iii) $`f(\mathrm{H}_2)`$ is approximately $`n(\mathrm{H}_2)/n(\mathrm{H})`$. This is very reasonable if most of the hydrogens are in the form of neutral hydrogen.

The first assumption makes it possible that the photodetachment process is suppressed. If we considered the condition of only the diffuse ISM, it would be found that the H--process is not efficient owing to the photodetachment destruction of H-. However, in the assumed clumps, the formation process of H2 via the H--process can occur faster than the photodetachment. If we adopt the Galactic condition, in each clump, whose size is about 1 pc, its $`A_V`$ is estimated to be about 4. In such a condition, a standard PDR (photodissociation region) model predicts an ionization degree of $`10^4`$ (Hollenbach, Tielens 1999). Someone might think that the Galactic values are inadequate for I Zw 18 owing to its metal deficiency. Fortunately, however, the lower metallicity condition for a fixed $`A_V`$ is suitable for the larger size of the assumed clumps. When clumps with a fixed size of 1 pc exist in the low-metallicity condition, it is required that they have a large ionization degree. Then, our first assumption will be considered as a standard case when we consider whether the H--process works or not.

We also comment on the volume fraction of the small clumps, $`p_{\mathrm{fr}}`$. If we assume that the interstellar gas is composed of clumpy and diffuse components, and that the density of the diffuse component is 0.1 cm-3, we estimate $`p_{\mathrm{fr}}0.003`$ from the instant estimate of $`0.1\times (1p_{\mathrm{fr}})+100\times p_{\mathrm{fr}}=0.4`$. Thus, if the mean density of the H i medium is 0.4 cm-3, as given in Vidal-Madjar et al., the clump fraction is very small. Although our theoretical consideration is not altered as long as $`p_{\mathrm{fr}}`$ is much smaller than unity, the observational implications presented in section 4 are affected. Fortunately, I Zw 18 has a H i envelope, which is characteristic of blue compact dwarfs. In the H i envelope, $`p_{\mathrm{fr}}`$ could be on the order of 0.1. Then, the formation of H2 would be observable in the H i envelopes of the blue compact dwarfs with metal deficiency.

The second assumption holds if the time-scale of gas consumption into stars is sufficient long. That is, the changing time-scale of the amount of heavy metal and dust is assumed to be longer than the interesting time-scale needed to establish equilibrium between the destruction and formation of molecular hydrogens. Since we are interested in the evolution of present-day galaxies, the time-scale of the variation of heavy metals and dust is approximately equal to the duration of star formation on a galactic scale. The variation time-scale for the star-formation rate may be about 109 yr (e.g., Legrand et al. 2000). Thus, the destruction time-scale and the formation time-scale of molecular hydrogens should be shorter than 109 yr. We confirm this point in the last paragraph of this section, since we need a quantitative definition for the formation and destruction of hydrogen molecules.

### 3.2 H--Process

Here, we pay attention to the formation process via the H--process. First of all, we examine the physical condition of clumps in which H2 forms via the H--process. The density and temperature are assumed to be 100 cm-3 and 100 K, respectively. Those parameters are taken from the observational indication of the cold atomic gas in the Galaxy (see Kulkarni, Heiles 1988; Dickey, Lockman 1990 for reviews). As long as the realistic condition of H i medium in I Zw 18 is in unclear, the adopted condition for the clumps is just the assumptions. By the way, that density is very interesting. This is because we can safely expect that H2-formation via the H--process against photodetachment occurs above a density of 100 cm-3. That is, that density is also estimated from the reaction rates of the both processes presented in the third paragraph of section 1. Hence, we adopt a typical density of the clumps as being 100 cm-3 for a critical density.

Defining $`R_\mathrm{H}^{}`$ to be the formation rate of hydrogen molecules in the dimension of cm3 s-1, we can estimate the formation rate of hydrogen molecules to be $`2R_\mathrm{H}^{}n(\mathrm{H})n_\mathrm{e}`$, where $`n_\mathrm{e}`$ is the number density of electrons. For the convenience of subsequent sections, we rewrite the formation rate in terms of the ionization degree, $`X_\mathrm{e}=n_\mathrm{e}/n(\mathrm{H})`$; it then becomes $`2R_\mathrm{H}^{}n(\mathrm{H})^2X_\mathrm{e}`$. In terms of the ionization degree, we can discuss a general condition of interstellar clouds, as found in the next section.

The destruction of hydrogen molecules is considered to occur efficiently owing to photodissociation. We thus estimate the destruction rate in the dimension of cm-3 s-1 as $`I\times n(\mathrm{H}_2)`$, where $`I`$ is the photodissociation rate. As a result, we adopt the following equilibrium condition for the above quantities:

$`I\times n(\mathrm{H}_2)=2R_\mathrm{H}^{}n(\mathrm{H})^2X_\mathrm{e},`$ (1)
that is,

$`f(\mathrm{H}_2)={\displaystyle \frac{2R_\mathrm{H}^{}n(\mathrm{H})X_\mathrm{e}}{I}}.`$ (2)
As a destruction mechanism of molecular hydrogen, we assume photodissociation owing to massive stars. Since I Zw 18 shows evident star-forming activity, our assumption is reasonable. To make our presentation clear, moreover, we adopt the same radiation field of Vidal-Madjar et al. (2000). That is, $`I=4\times 10^{11}`$ s-1 is employed. Importantly, the assumed clumps have an extinction of about $`A_V4`$. Then, the adopted $`I`$ is rather overestimated for the destruction of H2. In other words, the determined $`f(\mathrm{H}_2)`$ is underestimated. Hence, even if our $`f(\mathrm{H}_2)`$ is comparable to the limit for the H--process to be active, we still expect that H2 forms via the H--process. Finally, we present only the conclusions with this constraint.

We should note that this photodissociation rate is expected near the O9.5 V star, i.e., $`\zeta `$ Oph (Jura 1974). This corresponds to the strength of the radiation field with an intensity of $`G=3\times 10^8`$ photons cm-2 s-1 Hz-1 (i.e. $`2\times 10^6`$ erg cm-2 s-1 Å-1) at 1000 Å. We want to insist that since such an intense radiation field exists, hydrogens are partially ionized in the H i medium (e.g., Reynolds et al. 1998). If electrons originate from hydrogens, the electron number density is not so significantly small as that in the case of ionization of only the heavy elements (e.g., carbon). Therefore, if we considered the origin of electrons as only carbon, we would underestimate the number density of electrons. The formation rate of hydrogen molecules is estimated to be

$`R_\mathrm{H}^{}=1.0\times 10^{15}T_3\mathrm{exp}(T_3/7)\mathrm{cm}^3\mathrm{s}^1,`$ (3)
where $`T_3`$ is the temperature in units of $`10^3`$ K. For 100-K clumps, $`R_\mathrm{H}^{}=1.0\times 10^{16}\mathrm{cm}^3\mathrm{s}^1`$.

From the above estimate, we can determine the fraction of molecular hydrogen, $`f(\mathrm{H}_2)`$, assuming the temperature of the gas clumps to be 100 K. Adopting the upper limit of the column density of hydrogen molecules and the typical column density of neutral hydrogen \[$`N(\mathrm{H})=2\times 10^{21}`$ cm-2; Vidal-Madjar et al. 2000\], $`f(\mathrm{H}_2)<10^6`$ is obtained. We thus find $`X_\mathrm{e}`$ to satisfy the following condition via equation (2):

$`X_\mathrm{e}<2\times 10^3\times \left[{\displaystyle \frac{10^2\mathrm{cm}^3}{n(\mathrm{H})}}\right].`$ (4)
Since the upper limit of the left-hand side of equation (2) is provided by Vidal-Madjar et al. (2000) and section 2, we obtain the resultant upper limit for $`X_\mathrm{e}`$ for a given $`n(\mathrm{H})`$, which is estimated to be 100 cm-3 in inequality (4). This upper limit is allowed as long as the clumps are not very large.

We stress again that such partial ionization of hydrogens is possible, since there are ionizing stars in I Zw 18. By the way, we still do not judge whether the H--process works well in such a metal-deficient galaxy. Even if the ionization degree of I Zw 18 is estimated to be about the upper limit of the right-hand side of inequality (4), the dust process may be dominant over the H- process. Thus, we should examine whether the H- process really dominates over the dust process. We consider this topic in the next subsection.

### 3.3 Dust-Process

We know the formation rate of molecular hydrogen via the dust-process,

$`R_{\mathrm{dust}}=10^{17}\mathrm{cm}^3\mathrm{s}^1.`$ (5)
This is the mean value expected in our Galaxy and found by Jura (1974) to be an upper limit. The equilibrium state becomes

$`I\times n(\mathrm{H}_2)=2R_{\mathrm{dust}}n(\mathrm{H})^2{\displaystyle \frac{𝒟}{6\times 10^3}},`$ (6)
that is,

$`f_{\mathrm{dust}}(\mathrm{H}_2)={\displaystyle \frac{2R_{\mathrm{dust}}n(\mathrm{H})}{I}}{\displaystyle \frac{𝒟}{6\times 10^3}}.`$ (7)
Here, $`𝒟`$ is the dust gas ratio in mass and the displayed quantity of $`𝒟`$ in equations (6) and (7) is the Galactic value (Spitzer 1978).

We wish to note that $`f_{\mathrm{dust}}(\mathrm{H}_2)`$ depends on the dust-gas ratio. That is, if there were no dust in interstellar space, $`f_{\mathrm{dust}}(\mathrm{H}_2)`$ would always be zero. Considering the dust-process, Vidal-Madjar et al. (2000) have estimated another upper limit of the column density of hydrogen molecules that satisfies their own observational constraint. In this meaning, their discussion is consistent. In this paper, we undertake another discussion by using the same observational constraint.

Here, we examine the condition that the H--process is dominant over the dust process. Equating the left-hand sides of equations (1) and (6), we determine a critical ionization degree of $`X_{\mathrm{ec}}`$ with values of $`R_\mathrm{H}^{}`$ and $`R_{\mathrm{dust}}`$,

$`X_{\mathrm{ec}}=1\times 10^1\times \left({\displaystyle \frac{𝒟}{6\times 10^3}}\right).`$ (8)
If $`X_\mathrm{e}>X_{\mathrm{ec}}`$, the H--process dominates over the dust-process for a given radiation field. If not, the dust-process is the dominant formation process of hydrogen molecules. Thus, we present the first conclusion as follows. Assuming $`𝒟`$ to be about $`10^4`$ in I Zw 18 (about 1/50 of the Galactic value), $`X_{\mathrm{ec}}`$ is estimated to be $`2\times 10^3`$. We have already obtained the upper limit of $`X_\mathrm{e}`$ of I Zw 18 in equation (4) as $`2\times 10^3`$ for $`n(\mathrm{H})=100`$ cm-3. This upper limit is comparable to $`X_{\mathrm{ec}}`$. This means that the H--process is expected to occur in the small H i clumps in I Zw 18 if the upper limit of $`X_\mathrm{e}`$ is reached.

Before closing this section, we examine whether an equilibrium state is established well on a typical time-scale of galaxy evolution. The destruction time-scale of H2 is about $`I^110^3`$ yr. As long as equations (1) and (6) are adopted, the formation time-scale should also be of the same order of magnitude due to the definition of equilibrium. Fortunately, the evolution time-scale (i.e., time-scale of metal enrichment) of star-forming galaxies is $`>10^9`$ yr (e.g., Legrand et al. 2000). Thus, our steady state assumption is reasonable for our research.

## 4 Observational Implication

### 4.1 H2 Emission Line in the Near Infrared

Observations of the H2 rotational and vibrational line emissions are important to show the formation of molecules in clumps, as assumed in section 3. Here, we adopt the model of photodissociation regions by Black and van Dishoeck (1987). To be consistent with the density and temperature adopted in section 3, we adopt Model 1, whose physical parameters are listed in their table 1. \[It is assumed that $`n(H)=1.0\times 10^2`$ cm-3 and $`T=100`$ K. For the ultraviolet flux, $`G2\times 10^6`$ erg cm-2 s-1 Å-1, which is comparable to that at $`\zeta `$ Oph, is adopted (section 3.2).\] From their tables 1 and 2, we see that the intensity of the line at 2.406 $`\mu `$m is $`I_{2.4}=9.0\times 10^8`$ erg s-1 cm-2 sr-1. We have chosen this line because it is the strongest.

We estimate the flux detected on the earth, $`f_{2.4}`$ (erg s-1 cm-2 Hz-1). This is estimated to be

$`f_{2.4}={\displaystyle \frac{I_{2.4}\mathrm{\Omega }}{\mathrm{\Delta }\nu }},`$ (9)
where $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }\nu `$ are the solid angle of the object and the typical width of the wavelength band. For a particular interest in metal-deficient galaxies, we estimate the flux for I Zw 18, whose distance is assumed to be 11.5 Mpc and the typical radius for the gas envelope is 1 kpc (i.e., $`\mathrm{\Omega }=2.5\times 10^9`$).

To determine $`\mathrm{\Delta }\nu `$, we specify the observational facility if the wavelength resolution is larger than the typical broadening of the line. Here, we estimate the detectability by ASTRO-F. ASTRO-F is planned to conduct deep imaging in the near-to-mid infrared range by the infrared camera (IRC; http://www.ir.isas.ac.jp/ASTRO-F/index.html; Shibai 2000; Onaka 2000).111ASTRO-F will also make an all-sky survey in the far infrared. The wavelength resolution at near infrared (NIR) is $`\nu /\mathrm{\Delta }\nu 40`$. Thus, at 2.4 $`\mu `$m, $`\mathrm{\Delta }\nu 3\times 10^{12}`$ Hz. Since this is much larger than the typical broadening ($`4\times 10^9`$ Hz for the velocity dispersion of 10 km s-1), the line width is determined by the resolving power. Adopting $`\mathrm{\Delta }\nu 3\times 10^{12}`$ Hz, we obtain $`f_{2.4}8\mu `$Jy (1 $`\mathrm{Jy}=10^{23}`$ erg s-1 cm-2 Hz-1). Since the detection limit of IRC is $`10\mu `$Jy, it may be marginally possible to detect the NIR line of H2 molecules. The molecules may suffer stronger ultraviolet (UV) radiation if they exist near star-forming regions. If Model 2 of Black and van Dishoeck (1987) is adopted, where the UV intensity is 30-times larger than that in Model 1, we obtain $`f_{2.4}50\mu `$Jy ($`I_{2.4}=5.7\times 10^7`$ erg s-1 cm-2 sr-1). In this case, the line will be easily detected by future observations. However, we should note that if the covering factor of the H2 molecule is much smaller than unity, the detection becomes difficult. In summary, the detection of the H2 molecular line from I Zw 18 by ASTRO-F indicates that the covering factor of the molecule is not much smaller than unity and that the UV radiation field is stronger than the value for $`\zeta `$ Oph. As already commented in subsection 3.1, we predict that such H2 emission is observed in the H i envelopes of metal-deficient blue compact dwarf galaxies around the periphery of the star-forming region and/or at the inner edge of the H i envelope.

However, if the line-to-continuum ratio might be so distinct, greater spectroscopic resolution will be needed to find the line emission of molecular hydrogen in I Zw 18. In this meaning, the IRCS instrument on board the SUBARU telescope may be useful, while if the expected surface brightness is very small ($``$ 0.5 $`\mu `$Jy arcsec-2), the current observational facility will have difficulty to observe it. If it is observed, the hydrogen formation will be enhanced by the dust. This will constrain the dust evolution model of dwarfs (Hirashita 1999).

### 4.2 Radio Continuum

If the ionization degree is large (e.g., $`X_\mathrm{e}>X_{\mathrm{ec}}`$), we may expect the radio free free emission from H i envelopes of the metal deficient galaxies. Someone might think that the contamination of electrons in the star-forming region of I Zw 18 exists. We admit that difficulty. Fortunately, however, I Zw 18 is a blue compact dwarf galaxy, which is often associated with an extended H i envelope. Indeed, such an envelope is observed around I Zw 18 (Lequeux, Viallefond 1980). Thus, we pay attention to the free free radiation from the H i envelope of I Zw 18. Of course, it is only partially ionized owing to its central radiation field and stars in the H i envelope, itself, although we do not know the exact ionization degree of the H i envelope at this moment.

The emissivity of the free free emission is

$$ϵ_\nu ^{\mathrm{ff}}=6.8\times 10^{38}\mathrm{erg}\mathrm{cm}^3\mathrm{s}^1\mathrm{Hz}^1$$

$`\times n_\mathrm{e}n_\mathrm{i}T^{0.5}\mathrm{exp}\left({\displaystyle \frac{h\nu }{k_\mathrm{B}T}}\right),`$ (10)
where $`n_\mathrm{i}`$ is the ion number density, and $`k_\mathrm{B}`$ is the Boltzmann constant (Rybicki, Lightman 1979). The Gaunt factor is estimated to be of order unity. First, we treat a diffuse media. Since the ionization of hydrogen is assumed to be dominant over the other species in the supply of electrons, $`n_\mathrm{i}`$ is estimated to be about $`n_\mathrm{e}`$. We adopt $`n_\mathrm{e}`$ as being about $`n(\mathrm{H})X_{\mathrm{ec}}=8\times 10^4`$ cm-3 for $`n(\mathrm{H})0.4`$ cm-3, we find it for a radio wavelength ($`h\nu k_\mathrm{B}T`$),

$`F_\nu ^{\mathrm{ff}}1\times 10^{10}\mathrm{Jy},`$ (11)
where $`F_\nu ^{\mathrm{ff}}`$ is the flux of free free emission in the electron temperature of 7000 K. We assume the size of the H i envelope to be 2 kpc (i.e., $`>R_{18}`$) and the distance to I Zw 18 to be 11.5 Mpc. The flux level is impossible to detect it, since at most mJy flux will be observable by means of observational facilities in the near future.

The above estimate has been applied to a diffuse medium. Next, we consider the clumpy H i medium in a consistent way with the previous sections. Interestingly, such dense clouds can form in the H i envelope (e.g., Saitō et al. 2000). That is, there may be a significant amount of dense clouds in the H i envelope. To make the situation simple, almost all hydrogens are hypothesized to become dense clouds in the H i envelope. In such a case, we expect the free free radiation in a radio band to be on the order of 10 mJy, adopting $`n(\mathrm{H})=10^2`$ cm-3, $`X_\mathrm{e}2\times 10^3`$, and $`T=100`$ K. Thus, we suggest that if intense free-free emission is observed in the Hi envelope, we can expect that hydrogen molecules form in clumps in that envelope via the H- process. To justify this, of course, we should determine the amount of dust in the H i envelope, since it is necessary for $`𝒟`$ to be very small. We then discuss the observational feasibility in the far-infrared (FIR) band, where the thermal emission of dust has a peak intensity, in order to constrain the effectiveness of the H- process in metal-deficient galaxies.

### 4.3 Far-Infrared Band

Here, we examine the observational feasibility in the FIR band. To be consistent with the above sections, we set the dust-to-gas ratio in I Zw 18 as $`𝒟=10^4`$. If the FIR radiation is not detected with the level of the result later, the dust-to-gas ratio should be less than $`10^4`$. In such a case, $`X_{\mathrm{ec}}`$ becomes lower, and the possibility that the H--process is dominated over the dust-process becomes higher. Other parameters are selected as follows: the mean number density of hydrogen is $`0.4`$ cm-3, and the typical radius of the H i envelope is 1 kpc. We note that both of the parameters are consistent with the above discussions.

Adopting the above parameters, we estimate the total mass of dust in I Zw 18 to be $`M_{\mathrm{dust}}8\times 10^3M_{}`$. Lonsdale Persson and Helou (1987) related $`M_{\mathrm{dust}}`$ and $`f_\nu `$ (the flux of the dust emission at the frequency of $`\nu `$) as

$`f_\nu ={\displaystyle \frac{K_\nu M_{\mathrm{dust}}B_\nu (T)}{D^2}},`$ (12)
where $`K_\nu `$ is the emissivity of dust per mass, $`B_\nu (T)`$ is the Planck function, and $`D`$ is the distance to I Zw 18. They also estimated $`K_\nu `$ at a wavelength of 100 $`\mu `$m as 90 cm2 g-1 based on Draine and Lee (1984). The dust temperature and the distance are assumed to be $`16`$ K and $`D=11.5`$ Mpc, respectively (Vidal-Madjar et al. 2000). With these values, we obtain $`f_\nu `$ at 100 $`\mu `$m as 7 mJy. This flux level will be marginally observable with future space missions, such as ASTRO-F (in the pointing mode; detailed information of this mission is available in http://www.ir.isas.ac.jp/ASTRO-F/index-e.html.) and SIRTF (Bicay, Werner 1998). The future infrared facilities are summarized in Appendix of Takeuchi et al. (1999).

The temperature of 16 K is a conservative value based on the assumption that dust is heated by the mean interstellar UV radiation field (Vidal-Madjar et al. 2000). If dust exists near star-forming regions, the temperature should be higher. If the radiation field is 30-times larger than that estimated in Vidal-Madjar et al. (2000), the dust temperature becomes $`T=23`$ K. In this case, we obtain $`f_\nu `$ at 100 $`\mu `$m as 100 mJy and the detection becomes easier. Thus, the flux is strongly sensitive to the dust temperature. The temperature should also be determined from multi-band photometry by ASTRO-F.

## 5 Summary

We have examined the expected upper limit of the ionization degree in the most metal-deficient galaxy, I Zw 18, while adopting the recent data provided by Vidal-Madjar et al. (2000). Moreover, we present a critical ionization degree above which the H--process can be dominant over the formation process on the grain surfaces. This critical ionization degree is comparable to the upper limit of the ionization degree ($`2\times 10^3`$). We thus expect that the H--process works for the formation of H2. At least, both the H--process and the dust-process can work together. In order to obtain further constraint on the formation process of H2, we estimated the flux of the NIR H2 emission line, free-free radio emission, and a FIR dust continuum. The flux level of the H2 line emission is 10 $`\mu `$Jy, which is detectable by ASTRO-F. If there are many Hi clumps in the H i envelope, we may detect the free-free emission of the free electrons in the radio bands. Furthermore, the FIR continuum emission is also detected by ASTRO-F with a 10 mJy level if the dust-to-gas ratio is about 1/50 of the Galactic value. If the FIR flux is below this level, the dust-to-gas ratio may be smaller than 1/50 of the Galactic value and the lower bound of the ionization degree for the dominant H--process is lowered (i.e., the possibility that H--process is the dominant process for the H2 formation becomes higher).

We wish to thank the referee, Prof. J.H.Black, for invaluable comments that substantially improved the discussion of the paper. We are grateful to S. Mineshige for continuous encouragement. We also thank A.K. Inoue for useful discussions. One of us (HH) acknowledges the Research Fellowship of the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science for Young Scientists. We fully utilized the NASA’s Astrophysics Data System Abstract Service (ADS).

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