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# Untitled Document

New Developments on Gravitational Force

and Nonlinear Oscillations of Space

Behram N. Kursunoglu

Global Foundation, Inc.

P.O. Box 249055

Coral Gables, Florida 33124-9055

e-mail:kursun@globalfoundationinc.org

Abstract

This paper contains results obtained as solutions of the Unified Field Theory equations. It yields space nonlinear oscillations, a quartet of gravitational forces, quintessence, and replaces Einstein’s Cosmological Constant by an invariant parameter $`r_0`$ which prevails over the entire evolution of the Universe.

In the 1999 Coral Gables Conference I had reported on the latest observations, with regard to the expansion of the universe with increasing acceleration which theoretically was explained in terms of the existence of repulsive gravitational forces predicted in 1991 from the unified theory1 (see page 493 in this reference) and further that space itself was subjected to some nonlinear oscillations with variable frequencies. These predictions of the unified theory were published in the proceedings of the 1999 Coral Gables Conference2. Contrary to the existing paradigm amongst most cosmologists and physicists, I strongly agree with Einstein’s regret for his introduction of the cosmological constant into (though for different reasons) his general relativistic theory of gravitation. In the unified theory the 16 component non-symmetric tensor $`\widehat{g}_{\mu v}=g_{\mu v}+\epsilon q^1\mathrm{\Phi }_{\mu v}`$ where $`\epsilon =\pm 1,\pm i`$ contains the invariant parameter $`q`$, where $`q^2`$ is an energy density and is related to an intrinsic fundamental length parameter $`r_0`$ by the relation

$$r_0^2q^2=c^4/2G.$$
$`(1)`$
This relation was obtained3 in 1950 while a graduate student in Cambridge University and it is the condition for the non-symmetric theory to reduce to general relativity in the limit of $`r_o=0`$, the correspondence limit4. The parameter $`q`$ has the dimensions of an electric field and therefore the field tensor $`\widehat{g}_{\mu v}`$ is dimensionless. The relation (1) can also be regarded as an equation of state. The role of $`r_0`$, which varies between zero and infinity, in this theory is as important as the role of $`\mathrm{}`$ in quantum theory. This is the missing link in Einstein and Schrödinger versions5 of the non-symmetric theory. Both Einstein6 (see the Appendix II page 146) and Schrödinger1 (see the letter to me in the Appendix of this reference) have commented on the subject of constants in a physical theory.

The expansion of the universe is now linked up with the predicted existence of the quartet of gravitational forces. This multiplicity of the gravitational forces can be seen by studying the sign of the gravitational constant G in the equation of state (1). The four possible substitutions in the relation (1) for the two invariant parameters $`r_0`$ and $`q`$ are

$$G_1^+=[\pm r_0,\pm q],G_1^{}=[\pm ir_0,\pm q],G_2^{}=[\pm r_0,\pm iq],G_2^+=[\pm ir_0,\pm iq],$$
$`(2)`$
$`G^+=G`$ (attractive gravity), and $`G^{}=G`$ (repulsive gravity). Thus, the quartet of gravitational forces consists of two attractive $`G_1^+,G_2^+`$ and two repulsive $`G_1^{},G_2^{}`$ forces.

I would like, for the use of the field equations of unified theory, to introduce an invariant function $`f`$, which was already contained in the original field equation, and a new variable $`\beta `$ by the relation

$$dr=fd\beta .$$
$`(3)`$
In terms of the new variable $`\beta `$, the spherically symmetric field equations can be written as

$$\frac{1}{2}r_0^2\frac{d}{d\beta }(S\mathrm{exp}(\rho _{n\tau })\dot{\mathrm{\Phi }}_{ns\tau })=R^2\mathrm{cos}\mathrm{\Phi }_{ns\tau }+l_0^2\mathrm{sin}\mathrm{\Phi }_{ns\tau },$$
$`(4)`$
$$\frac{1}{2}r_0^2\frac{d}{d\beta }(S\mathrm{exp}(\rho _{n\tau })\dot{\rho }_{ns\tau })=R^2\mathrm{sin}\mathrm{\Phi }_{ns\tau }+l_0^2\mathrm{cos}\mathrm{\Phi }_{ns\tau }+\mathrm{exp}(\rho _{n\tau }),$$
$`(5)`$
$$\frac{1}{2}r_0^2\frac{d}{d\beta }(\dot{S}\mathrm{exp}(\rho _{n\tau }))=\mathrm{exp}(\rho _{n\tau })\left(1\frac{\mathrm{exp}(\rho _{n\tau })\mathrm{sin}\mathrm{\Phi }_{ns\tau }}{R^2+r_0^2}\right),$$
$`(6)`$
$$2\ddot{\rho }_{n\tau }+\dot{\rho }_{ns\tau }^2+\dot{\mathrm{\Phi }}_{ns\tau }^2=0,$$
$`(7)`$
where

$$\dot{\rho }=\frac{d\rho }{d\beta },$$
$`(8)`$
and where now $`S,\rho `$, and $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$ can be regarded as functions of the new variable $`\beta `$. The equation (7) is derivable from the three equations (4), (5), (6) which can be written as

$$(\frac{d^2}{d\beta ^2}+\omega ^2)\mathrm{exp}(\frac{1}{2}\rho )=0,\omega =\frac{1}{2}\dot{\mathrm{\Phi }},$$
$`(9)`$
implies nonlinear oscillations of the orbiton magnetic charge layers. Hence we see that the structure of an orbiton, in view of the variable frequency $`\omega `$, oscillates like a pendulum whose length is changing. An orbiton, which confines all the monopoles, is formed as a result of a condensation1 of infinite number of magnetic charges or monopoles into alternating and decreasing thickness of the layers of positive and negative charges (with zero sum). At distances large compared to $`r_0`$ the function $`\mathrm{exp}(\frac{1}{2}\rho )r`$. The functions S and R are defined by

$$f=\upsilon \mathrm{cosh}\mathrm{\Gamma },S=\frac{\mathrm{exp}(u)}{\mathrm{cosh}^2\mathrm{\Gamma }},$$
$`(10)`$
$$\mathrm{cosh}\mathrm{\Gamma }=(R^2+r_0^2)\mathrm{exp}(\rho ),[(\mathrm{exp}(2\rho )+\lambda _0^4)]^{1/2}=R^2+r_0^2,$$
$`(11)`$
$$\mathrm{}_0^2=q^1g,\lambda _0^2=q^1e,$$
$`(12)`$
where e and g represent electric and magnetic charges, respectively. If we assume $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$ is a constant then there are no oscillations and we can calculate $`r_0`$ in the form

$$r_0^2=(\mathrm{}_0^4+\lambda _0^4)^{1/2},\mathrm{where}\mathrm{}_0^2=(2G/c^4)N^2g(e^2+g^2)^{1/2},$$
$`(13)`$
$$\lambda _0^2=(2G/c^4)N^2e(e^2+g^2)^{1/2},$$
$`(14)`$
and $`\lambda _0`$ and $`\mathrm{}_0`$ are constants of integration.

The dynamics of space in the presence of matter is not simple. The existence of magnetic charge carrying quintessence with repulsive gravitational force versus ordinary matter with attractive gravitational force are in a state of competition which drives the expansion of the universe with increasing acceleration. The presence of the space oscillations in the vicinity of matter do provide regularity to the expansion of the universe. The oscillations are not confined to a point but, as in the case of superstrings theory, they behave like a patch where the oscillating system has, as in the general relativity, a Schwarzschild radius. The size of a patch can be of the order of $`r_0`$ and its mass can be defined as

$$M=(c^2/2G)r_0,$$
$`(15)`$
where $`r_0`$ is equal to the Schwarzschild radius of the mass M. If we treat a proton as a patch then its Schwarzschild radius is of the order of $`10^{54}`$cm. The largest oscillating patch is the universe itself with its Schwarzschild radius being equal to its size $`r_0=10^{28}`$cm. In this case i.e., $`r_0\mathrm{}`$ and the field equations (4)-(7) would yield flat space-time solutions which would indicate the fact that universe is flat.

In this paper I have thus shown that the fundamental parameter $`r_0`$ differs from Einstein’s concept of cosmological constant in a fundamental way since in this case a single parameter is part of the non-symmetric structure and prevails over the entire evolution of the universe. Why did Einstein not consider the necessity and highly visible existence of $`r_0`$? Was he mostly influenced by the disappointment with his own cosmological constant? Actually Einstein answers this question, presumably, based on my correspondence with him during 1950-1952 on the subject matter of constants in the field equations, in his famous book6, page 146, “all such additional terms bring a heterogeneity into the system of equations, and can be disregarded, provided that no strong physical argument is found to support them”. I must point out that without $`r_0`$ we can not even obtain the classical laws of motion of a charged particle in an electromagnetic field. I obtained many additional results to refute entirely Einstein’s claim quoted above. The most striking fact can be found in the definition of mass: elementary particles, the sun, the earth, a black hole, neutron star etc. obtained as

$$M=(c^2/2G)r_0=(1/2)(r_0/r_p)m_p,$$
$`(16)`$
where $`r_p`$ and $`m_p`$ represent Planck length and Planck mass, respectively.

Finally, with regard to nonlinear oscillations, there is the possibility that space itself consists of fluctuating bubbles as often referred to as quantum foam or in this case we may prefer a description like nonlinear foam.

References:

(1) Behram N. Kursunoglu, After Einstein and Schrödinger, A New Unified Field Theory Journal of Physics Essays, 4, pp439-518, (1991).

(2) Behram N. Kursunoglu, Coral Gables 1999 Conference Proceedings “Confluence of Cosmology, Massive Neutrinos, Elementary Particles, and Gravitation” pages 5-23, Edited by Behram N. Kursunoglu, Stephan L. Mintz, Arnold Perlmutter.

(3) Behram N. Kursunoglu, Phys.Rev.88, 1369 (1952); Phys. Rev. D9, 2723(1974).

(4) Behram N. Kursunoglu, Phys. Rev. D13, 1538 (1976).

(5) Abraham Pais, Subtle is the Lord…..Science and the Life of Albert Einstein, Oxford University Press, (1982).

(6) Albert Einstein, The Meaning of Relativity, Princeton University Press, (1953).


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# Vortex Lattices in Quantum Mechanics

## Abstract

Vortex lattices are constructed in terms of linear combinations of solutions for Scrödinger equation with a constant potential. The vortex lattices are mapped on the spaces with two-dimensional rotationally symmetric potentials by using conformal mappings and the differences of the mapped vortex-patterns are examined. The existence of vortex dipole and quadrupole is also pointed out.

Vortices play an interesting roles in various aspects of present-day physics such as vortex matters (vortex lattices) in condensed matters , quantum Hall effects \[3-7\], various vortex patterns of non-neutral plasma \[8-11\] and Bose-Einstein gases \[12-16\]. The vortices are well known objects in hydrodynamics and has been investigated in many aspects \[17-21\]. In quantum mechanics hydrodynamical approach was vigorously investigated in the early stage of the development of quantum mechanics \[22-29\]. The fundamental properties of vortices in quantum mechanics were extensively examined by Hirschfelder and others \[30-34\] and the motions of vortex lines were also studied . Recently an analysis of vortices has been carried out on the basis of non-linear Schrödinger equations . The vortex dynamics will hold an important position in quantum mechanical problems. In vortex dynamics, however, the construction of various vortex patterns from fundamental dynamics is still not very clear. Recently Kobayashi and Shimbori has proposed a way to investigate vortex patterns from the special solutions of Schrödinger equations . By using the conformal mappings the article has shown that the special solutions with zero energy eigenvalue in the two dimensional parabolic potential barriers (2D PPB) expressed by $`V=m\gamma ^2(x^2+y^2)/2`$  can be extended to all rotationally symmetric potentials and the solutions are infinitely degenerate as same as those in the 2D PPB . It has also been shown that the infinite degeneracy can be an origin of variety of vortex patterns which appear at nodal points of wave functions and this idea can be applied in three dimensions. In the article a few examples of simple vortex patterns are presented. In this letter some patterns of vortex lattices that are constructed from simple linear combinations of the infinitely degenerate states will be studied.

Let us start fom the arguments in two dimensions . In two dimensions the eigenvalue problems with the energy eigenvalue $``$ are explicitly written as

$$[\frac{\mathrm{}^2}{2m}\mathbf{}+V_a(\rho )]\psi (x,y)=\psi (x,y),$$
(1)
where $`\mathbf{}=^2/x^2+^2/y^2,`$ the rotationally symmetric potentials are generally given by

$$V_a(\rho )=a^2g_a\rho ^{2(a1)},$$

with $`\rho =\sqrt{x^2+y^2}`$, $`a`$ ($`a0`$), and $`m`$ and $`g_a`$ are, respectively, the mass of the particle and the coupling constant. Note here that the eigenvalues $``$ should generally be taken as complex numbers that are allowed only in conjugate spaces of Gel’fand triplets . Note also that $`V_a`$ represents repulsive potentials for $`(g_a>0,a>1)`$ and $`(g_a<0,a<1)`$ and attractive potentials for $`(g_a>0,a<1)`$ and $`(g_a<0,a>1)`$.

Let us consider the conformal mappings

$$\zeta _a=z^a,\mathrm{with}z=x+iy.$$
(2)
We use the notations $`u_a`$ and $`v_a`$ defined by $`\zeta _a=u_a+iv_a`$ that are written as

$$u_a=\rho ^a\mathrm{cos}a\phi ,v_a=\rho ^a\mathrm{sin}a\phi ,$$
(3)
where $`\phi =\mathrm{arctan}(y/x)`$. In the $`(u_a,v_a)`$ plane the equations (1) are written down as

$$a^2\rho _a^{2(a1)/a}[\frac{\mathrm{}^2}{2m}\mathbf{}_ag_a]\psi (u_a,v_a)=\psi (u_a,v_a),$$
(4)
where $`\mathbf{}_a=^2/u_a^2+^2/v_a^2.`$ We can rewrite the equations as

$$[\frac{\mathrm{}^2}{2m}\mathbf{}_ag_a]\psi (u_a,v_a)=a^2\rho _a^{2(1a)/a}\psi (u_a,v_a).$$
(5)
It is surprising that the equations become same for all $`a0`$ when the energy eigenvalue $``$ have zero value. That is to say, for $`=0`$ the equations have the same form as that for the free particle with the constant potentials $`g_a`$ as

$$[\frac{\mathrm{}^2}{2m}\mathbf{}_ag_a]\psi (u_a,v_a)=0.$$
(6)
It should be noticed that in the case of $`a=1`$ where the original potential is a constant $`g_1`$ the energy does not need to be zero but can take arbitrary real numbers, because the right-hand side of (5) has no $`\rho `$ dependence. In the $`a=1`$ case, therefore, we should take $`g_1+`$ instead of $`g_a`$. Here let us briefly comment on the conformal mappings $`\zeta _a=z^a`$. We see that the transformation maps the part of the $`(x,y)`$ plane described by $`0\rho <\mathrm{},0\phi <\pi /a`$ on the upper half-plane of the $`(u_a,v_a)`$ plane for $`a>1`$ and the lower half-plane for $`a<1`$. Note here that the maps on the part of the $`(u_a,v_a)`$ plane with the angle $`\phi _a=\phi +\alpha `$ can be carried out by using the conformal mappings

$$\zeta _a(\alpha )=z^ae^{i\alpha }.$$
(7)
In the maps the variables are given by

$$u_a(\alpha )=u_a\mathrm{cos}\alpha v_a\mathrm{sin}\alpha ,v_a(\alpha )=v_a\mathrm{cos}\alpha +u_a\mathrm{sin}\alpha .$$
(8)
The relations $`u_a(0)=u_a`$ and $`v_a(0)=v_a`$ are obvious.

It is trivial that the equations for all $`a`$ have the particular solutions

$`\psi _0^\pm (u_a)`$ $`=N_ae^{\pm ik_au_a}`$ (9)
$`\psi _0^\pm (v_a)`$ $`=N_ae^{\pm ik_av_a},\mathrm{for}g_a>0`$ (10)
and

$`\varphi _0^\pm (u_a)`$ $`=M_ae^{\pm k_au_a}`$ (11)
$`\varphi _0^\pm (v_a)`$ $`=M_ae^{\pm k_av_a},\mathrm{for}g_a<0`$ (12)
where $`k_a=\sqrt{2m|g_a|}/\mathrm{}`$, and $`N_a`$ and $`M_a`$ are in general complex numbers. General solutions should be written by the linear combinations of (9) and (10) for $`g_a>0`$ and those of (11) and (12) for $`g_a<0`$. Examples for the 2D PPB with $`g_a>0`$ are presented in ref. . In the following investigations we shall concentrate our attention on the solutions of (9) and (10) that are expressed in terms of plane waves. Hereafter we use the notations $`u_a(\alpha )`$ and $`v_a(\alpha )`$ with $`\pi \alpha <\pi `$, which are used in the conformal mappings of (7). We see that

$$e^{\pm ik_au_a(\alpha )}\mathrm{and}e^{\pm ik_av_a(\alpha )}$$

are the solutions of (6). (For details, see ref. .)

We have to comment on the degeneracy of the solutions. The origin of the infinite degeneracy can easily understand in the case of the 2D PPB . It is known that energy eigenvalues of 1D PPB are given by pure imaginary values $`i(n+1/2)\mathrm{}\gamma `$ with $`n=0,1,2,\mathrm{}`$ \[42-47\]. From this reult we see that the energy eigenvalues of the 2D PPB, which are composed of the sum of the 1D-PPB eigenvalues with the oposite signs such as $`i(n_xn_y)\mathrm{}\gamma `$ with $`n_x`$ and $`n_y=0,1,2,\mathrm{}`$, include the zero energy for $`n_x=n_y`$. It is apparent that all the states with the energy eigenvalues $`i(n_xn_y)\mathrm{}\gamma `$ are infinitely degenerate . This means that all the rotationally symmetric potentials have the same degeneracy for the zero energy states. By putting the wave function $`f^\pm (u_a;v_a)\psi _0^\pm (u_a)`$ into (6) where $`f^\pm (u_a;v_a)`$ is a polynomial function of $`u_a`$ and $`v_a`$, we obtain the equation

$$[\mathbf{}_a\pm 2ik_a\frac{}{u_a}]f^\pm (u_a;v_a)=0.$$
(13)
A few examples of the functions $`f`$ are given by

$`f_0^\pm (u_a;v_a)`$ $`=1,`$
$`f_1^\pm (u_a;v_a)`$ $`=4k_av_a,`$
$`f_2^\pm (u_a;v_a)`$ $`=4(4k_a^2v_a^2+1\pm 4ik_au_a).`$ (14)
We can obtain the general forms of the polynomials in the 2D PPB, which are generally written by the multiple of the polynomials of degree $`n`$, $`H_n^\pm (\sqrt{2k_2}x)`$, such that

$$f_n^\pm (u_2;v_2)=H_n^\pm (\sqrt{2k_2}x)H_n^{}(\sqrt{2k_2}y),$$
(15)
where $`x`$ and $`y`$ in the right-hand side should be considered as the functions of $`u_2`$ and $`v_2`$ . Since the form of the equations (6) is the same for all $`a`$, the solutions can be written by the same polynomial functions that are given in (15) for the PPB. That is to say, we can obtain the polynomials for arbitrary $`a`$ by replacing $`u_2`$ and $`v_2`$ with $`u_a`$ and $`v_a`$ in (15). Note that the polynomials $`H_n^\pm (\xi )`$ with $`\xi =\sqrt{m\gamma /\mathrm{}}x`$ are defined by the solutions for the eigenstates with $`=i(n+1/2)\mathrm{}\gamma `$ in 1D PPB of the type $`V(x)=m\gamma ^2x^2/2`$ and they are written in terms of the Hermite polynomials $`H_n(\xi )`$ as

$$H_n^\pm (\xi )=e^{\pm in\pi /4}H_n(e^{i\pi /4}\xi ).$$
(16)
(For details, see ref. .) The states expressed by these wave functions belong to the conjugate spaces of Gel’fand triplets of which nuclear space is given by Schwarz space. Actually we easily see that the wave functions cannot be normalized in terms of Dirac’s delta functions except the lowest polynomial solutions .

The extension to three dimensions can easily be carried out in the cases with potentials that are separable into the $`(x,y)`$ plane and the $`z`$ direction such that

$$V(x,y,z)=V_a(\rho )+V(z).$$

When the energy eigenvalues of the $`z`$ direction is given by $`E_z`$, we obtain the same equation as (6) for $`E_z=0`$. (For the $`a=1`$ case $`g_1+E_z>0`$ should be taken.) If we take the free motion with the momentum $`p_z`$ for the $`z`$ direction, $`E_z=p_z^2/2m`$ should be taken. It is important that the total energy $``$ is in general not equal to zero in the three dimensions. Note that wave functions for the separable potentials are written by the product such as $`\psi (x,y,z)=\psi (x,y)\psi (z)`$. Hereafter we shall not explicitly write $`\psi (z)`$ in the wave functions.

Let us study vortices that appear in the linear combinations composed of the solutions with the polynomials of (15). Before going into the details we briefly describe vortices in quantum mechanical hydrodynamics. The probability density $`\rho (t,x,y)`$ and the probability current $`𝒋(t,x,y)`$ of a wave function $`\psi (t,x,y)`$ in non-relativistic quantum mechanics are defined by

$`\rho (t,x,y)`$ $`\left|\psi (t,x,y)\right|^2,`$ (17)
$`𝒋(t,x,y)`$ $`\mathrm{Re}\left[\psi (t,x,y)^{}\left(i\mathrm{}\right)\psi (t,x,y)\right]/m.`$ (18)
They satisfy the equation of continuity $`\rho /t+𝒋=0.`$ Following the analogue of the hydrodynamical approach \[17-21\], the fluid can be represented by the density $`\rho `$ and the fluid velocity $`𝒗`$. They satisfy Euler’s equation of continuity

$$\frac{\rho }{t}+(\rho 𝒗)=0.$$
(19)
Comparing this equation with the continuity equation, we are thus led to the following definition for the quantum velocity of the state $`\psi (t,x,y)`$,

$$𝒗\frac{𝒋(t,x,y)}{\left|\psi (t,x,y)\right|^2},$$
(20)
in which $`𝒋(t,x,y)`$ is given by (17). Notice that $`\rho `$ and $`𝒋`$ in the present cases do not depend on time $`t`$. Now it is obvious that vortices appear at the zero points of the density, that is, the nodal points of the wave function, where the current $`𝒋`$ does not vanish . We should here remember that the solutions of (6) degenerate infinitely. This fact indicates that we can construct wave functions having the nodal points at arbitrary positions in terms of linear combinations of the infinitely degenerate solutions .

The strength of vortex is characterized by the circulation $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ that is represented by the integral round a closed contour $`C`$ encircling the vortex such that

$$\mathrm{\Gamma }=_C𝒗𝑑𝒔$$
(21)
and it is quantized as

$$\mathrm{\Gamma }=2\pi l\mathrm{}/m,$$
(22)
where the circulation number $`l`$ is an integer . It should be stressd that we can perform the investigation of vortices for all the cases with $`a0`$ in the $`(u_a,v_a)`$ plane, because fundamental properties of vortices such as the numbers of vortices in the original plane and the mapped plane and the strengths of vortices do not change by the conformal mappings. Vortex patterns in the $`(x,y)`$ plane can be obtained by the inverse transformations of the conformal mappings. Let us here show that vortex lines and vortex lattices can be constructed from simple linear combinations of the low lying polynomial solutions. And also the mapped patterns of those lines and lattices are investigated by the conformal mappings for the $`a=2`$ (PPB case; $`V_a\rho ^2`$) and for the $`a=1/2`$ (Coulomb type; $`V_a\rho ^1`$). In the following discussions the suffices $`a`$ of $`u_a`$, $`v_a`$ and $`k_a`$ are omitted.

(I) Vortex lines

Let us consider the linear combination of two degree 1 solutions such that

$$\mathrm{\Psi }(u,v)=ve^{iku}ue^{ikv},$$
(23)
where the complex constant corresponding to the overall factor of the wave function is ignored, because the wave function belongs to the conjugate space of Gel’fand triplet and it is not normalizable. This means that the wave function represents a stationary flow . The nodal points of the probability density

$$|\mathrm{\Psi }(u,v)|^2=u^2+v^22uv\mathrm{cos}k(u+v)$$

appear at points satisfying the conditions

$$u=\pm v,\mathrm{cos}k(u+v)=\pm 1.$$
(24)
We have the nodal points at

$$u=v=n\pi /k,\mathrm{for}n=\mathrm{integers}.$$
(25)
In the $`(u,v)`$ plane the positions of vortices can be on a line of $`u=v`$. After some elementary but tedious calculations we see that the circulation numbers of vortex strengths are given by $`l=1`$ for $`n=`$positive integers and $`l=1`$ for $`n=`$negative ones. Note that the origin at $`u=v=0`$ has no vortex. We can directly see the result by showing the fact that the strength of vortex $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ becomes zero for the closed circle around the origin. We can interpret this result as follows; at the origin there exist a pair of vortices having the opposite circulation numbers, that is, they, respectively, belong to the vortex line with $`l=1`$ and that with $`l=1`$. We may say that it is a vortex dipole.

For the case of $`a=1`$ (constant potential) we can take as $`u=x`$ and $`v=y`$.

In the case of $`a=2`$ (PPB) we have $`u=x^2y^2`$ and $`v=2xy`$. The relations for the nodal points are written down as

$`y`$ $`={\displaystyle \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}+1}}x,y=\pm {\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\sqrt{{\displaystyle \frac{n\pi }{(\sqrt{2}+1)k}}},\mathrm{for}n=\mathrm{positive}\mathrm{integers}`$
$`y`$ $`={\displaystyle \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}1}}x,y=\pm {\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\sqrt{{\displaystyle \frac{|n|\pi }{(\sqrt{2}1)k}}},\mathrm{for}n=\mathrm{negative}\mathrm{integers}.`$
We see that a vortex quadrupole composed of two vortex dipole appears at the origin.

In the case of $`a=1/2`$ (Coulomb type), by using the relations $`u^2v^2=x`$ and $`2uv=y`$, we obtain the conditions for the nodal points as follows;

$$x=0,y=2\frac{n^2\pi ^2}{k^2},\mathrm{for}n=\mathrm{non}\mathrm{zero}\mathrm{integers}.$$
(27)
Note that the origin is a singular point, where the source of the potential exists.

Figures for $`a=1,2`$ and $`1/2`$ are presented in figs.1, 2 and 3, which, respectively, represent the vortex pattern for the constant potential, that for the PPB, and that for the Coulomb type one. Note here that the differences of the potentials clearly appear not only in the vortex patterns but the properties of the singularities at the origin as well. In hydrodynamics it is known that vortex lines for the constant potential ($`a=1`$) are stationary but generally unstable for perturbations \[17-21\]. Note that the parallel vortex lines are constructed from the linear combinations of the lowest and the degree 1 polynomials .

(II) Vortex lattices

Let us consider the linear combination of a stationary wave and a plane wave such that

$$\mathrm{\Psi }(u,v)=\mathrm{cos}kue^{ikv}.$$
(28)
The nodal points of the probability density

$$|\mathrm{\Psi }(u,v)|^2=1+\mathrm{cos}^2ku2\mathrm{cos}ku\mathrm{cos}kv$$

appear at positions satisfying

$$u=m\pi /k,v=n\pi /k,$$
(29)
where both of $`m`$ and $`n`$ must be even or odd, that is, $`(1)^m=(1)^n`$ must be fulfilled. These conditions produce a vortex lattice presented in fig.4, which was suggested in ref..

In the cases of the PPB ($`a=2`$) and the Coulomb type ($`a=1/2`$) vortices appear at the cross points of the following two functions;

$`x^2y^2`$ $`=m\pi /k,xy=n\pi /2k,\mathrm{for}\mathrm{the}\mathrm{PPB},`$
$`x^2+y^2`$ $`=(m^2+n^2)^2\pi ^4/k^4,y=2mn\pi ^2/k^2,\mathrm{for}\mathrm{the}\mathrm{Coulomb}\mathrm{type}.`$ (30)
In these case we obtain the circulation number $`l=1`$ for the all vortices. Figures for $`a=2`$ and $`1/2`$ are given in figs.5 and 6, respectively.

In these arguments we see the following points: (1) The construction of vortex lattices in experiments seems to be not very difficult. In fact the vortex lattice of (II) can be produced from a stationary wave and a plane wave perpendicular to the stationary wave. (2) The differences of potentials can be clearly seen from the vortex patterns. Especially the distances between two neighbouring vortices are a good object to identify the type of the potentials. That is to say, the vortices appear in an equal distance $`\pi /k`$ in the case of the constant potential ($`a=1`$), whereas the distances become smaller in the regions far from the origin for $`a>1`$ and larger for $`a<1`$ in comparison with those near the origin. (3) The property of the singularity at the origin is also a good object to identify the potentials. Though it is at this moment difficult to categorize the present experimental vortex patterns \[8-16\], we shall be able to understand fundamental dynamics of vortex phenomena from vortex patterns.

It is also noticed that the present results can be applicable not only to quantum phenomena but also those in classical fluids by changing the parameters $`m`$, $`\mathrm{}`$ and $`g_a`$ in the original equation.

Up to now we have not discussed on the stability of the vortex lattices. In order to investigate the time development of the patterns we have to take account of the fact that the solutions used here belong to the conjugate spaces of Gel’fand triplets. In the spaces the eigenstates generally have complex energy eigenvalues such as resonances and the eigenvalues are expressed by pairs of complex conjugates such that $`=ϵ\pm i\gamma `$, where $`ϵ,\gamma `$ . It is known that the + and - signs of the imaginary part in the eigenvalues, respectively, represent resonance-formation and resonance-decay processes. We see that this pairing property is the origin of the infinite degeneracy of the solutions and the infinite degeneracy stems from the balance between the resonance-formation and resonance-decay processes. This fact seems to indicate that many vortex systems are possibly unstable for perturbations. Actually the existence of vortex lattices has already been pointed out and it has also been noticed that those systems will decay from their edges, where the balance between the formation and decay processes is broken . In such processes we have to discuss on dynamics in many vortex systems and statistical mechanics should be extended into the conjugate spaces of Gel’fand triplets, where the freedom of the imaginary energy eigenvalues must be introduced \[48-50\]. In the theory the infinite degeneracy plays another important role, that is, it becomes the origin of new entropy. The new entropy brings essentially new processes in thermal non-equilibrium . At present we still have many fundamental questions in the investigation of dynamics in the conjugate spaces of Gel’fand triplets. The study of vortex dynamics will brings us a new prospect and open a new dynamics for the systems essentially described by the states in Gel’fand triplets.

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text:
# The Tensor to Scalar Ratio of Phantom Dark Energy Models

## I Introduction

For many years , arguments have been made in favor of the $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$CDM model because of its desirable property of having spatial flatness while accommodating a low matter density; conditions which seem to be favored by current astrophysical observations. A few years ago, however, an old alternative  resurfaced and has been receiving considerable attention . This alternative, which we will refer to as $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$CDM, borrows from the literature on inflation and postulates a slowly rolling scalar field whose energy density has only recently become cosmologically relevant. This slowly rolling scalar field provides a constituent of the universe which is smooth below the horizon scale***The speed of sound for a scalar field is the speed of light. and whose evolution can be made arbitrarily slow. This is usually parameterized by the equation of state, $`wp/\rho `$, with the model becoming indistinguishable from the cosmological constant in the limit $`w1`$. Generically $`1>w>1`$ and $`w`$ is typically a function of time.

Of particular interest to us was a paper by Caldwell  which introduced a $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$CDM model with $`w<1`$. This form of dark energy, dubbed phantom energy also has the remarkable property of satisfying $`\rho _\varphi +p_\varphi <0`$, just as in the standard $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$CDM case. It was shown that this model is consistent with both recent observations and classical tests of cosmology, in some cases providing a better fit than the more familiar models with $`w>1`$.

There are several known ways to achieve $`w<1`$ e.g. Ref. , but Caldwell’s model makes use of a non-canonical kinetic term. There is no obvious motivation from particle physics for considering such a radical extension to the theory, and indeed the model has been criticized on these grounds . However we regard this as a useful toy model because it allows us to simply extend the equation of state parameter space continuously below $`w=1`$ without the additional complications inherent in modifications of the gravitational sector of the theory. (We shall discuss how our results depend on this detail later.) Observational constraints are often maximally likely at the value $`w=1`$ and for the purposes of maximum likelihood analysis it is better not to have the region of maximum likelihood bumping against the edge of the parameter space. Thus it is advantageous to extend the domain of the parameter $`w`$, even if one is primarily interested, on theoretical grounds, in values $`w1`$.

One aspect which was not studied in  was the effect of gravitational wave perturbations in the CMB, and in particular the dependence of the tensor-to-scalar ratio on the equation of state $`w`$. In this paper we study the tensor anisotropy spectrum in the phantom model. We show that the normalization of the tensor perturbations in the CMB is only weakly dependent on the equation of state. The behavior of the tensor-to-scalar ratio is therefore dominated by the $`w`$ dependence of the scalar perturbations.

We are interested in the tensor contribution to the anisotropy spectrum because it is, in principle, observable and directly connected to the energy scale of inflation, a fundamental parameter of considerable importance! Our calibration of the relation between the amplitude of the anisotropy in the CMB and this fundamental energy scale is clearly necessary to interpret any future observations of this signal.

## II The Model

Phenomenologically, the property of negative pressure and positive energy density can be achieved by considering the (unorthodox) Lagrangian density

$$=\frac{1}{2}g^{\mu \nu }_\mu \varphi _\nu \varphi V(\varphi )$$
(1)
for the phantom component $`\varphi `$. We are adopting the metric convention $`g_{\mu \nu }=\mathrm{diag}(a^2,a^2,a^2,a^2)`$ where $`a(t)`$ is the cosmological scale factor. To lowest order the non-canonical negative kinetic term in the Lagrangian produces the following expressions for the pressure and energy density of this dark energy:

$$\rho _\varphi =\frac{1}{2a^2}\dot{\varphi }^2+V(\varphi )$$
(2)
$$p_\varphi =\frac{1}{2a^2}\dot{\varphi }^2V(\varphi )$$
(3)
where over-dots represent derivatives with respect to conformal time $`\eta `$, and $`dt=ad\eta `$. Negating the kinetic term also alters the equation of motion of the field from that of a field with a canonical Lagrangian by switching the sign of the $`V/\varphi `$ term.

$$\ddot{\varphi }+2\frac{\dot{a}}{a}\dot{\varphi }\frac{1}{a^2}\frac{V}{\varphi }=0$$
(4)
Clearly the evolution of the scalar field is coupled into the evolution of the background Friedmann equations.

$$^2=\left(\frac{\dot{a}}{a}\right)^2=\frac{8\pi G}{3}a^2\underset{i}{}\rho _i$$
(5)
Here $`=aH=a(a^1da/dt)`$, taking into account that our derivatives are with respect to conformal time $`\eta `$. The effect of $`\varphi `$ on the evolution of the background cosmology can be implemented with only a slight modification to the CMBfast integration code  to include the new component’s pressure and energy density.

Once the expressions for $`\rho _\varphi `$ and $`p_\varphi `$ are obtained, it is simple to invert them to obtain the potential, $`V`$ in terms of the constant $`w`$ and derivatives of the scalar field. In order to prevent tachyonic modes of the scalar field from developing, we address only models with constant $`w`$ :

$$V=\frac{\dot{\varphi }^2}{2a^2}\left(\frac{1w}{1+w}\right)$$
(6)
Following , by treating the dark energy as a perfect fluid, we can obtain an explicit expression for $`\dot{\varphi }`$.

$$\dot{\varphi }=\sqrt{(1+w)\rho _{\mathrm{crit}}\mathrm{\Omega }_\varphi }a^{(1+3w)/2}$$
(7)
where $`\rho _{\mathrm{crit}}=3^2/8\pi Ga^2`$, and $`\mathrm{\Omega }=\rho _\varphi /\rho _{\mathrm{crit}}`$. Taking its derivatives we observe

$$\frac{V}{\varphi }=(1w)\frac{3\dot{\varphi }}{2a^2}$$
(8)
$$\frac{^2V}{\varphi ^2}=(1w)\frac{3}{2a^2}\left[\dot{}^2\left(\frac{5}{2}\frac{3w}{2}\right)\right]$$
(9)
Thus $`V`$ and its derivatives will be functions of $`a`$ and the parameters $`w`$, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\varphi ,`$ and $`\rho _0`$ only.

To calculate the anisotropy in the CMB we must include the perturbations of $`\varphi `$ to first order. We work throughout in the synchronous gauge. Since we are solving linearized equations it is useful to Fourier transform the perturbations so that we can solve the differential equations for each $`k`$-mode independently. The equation of motion for a particular $`k`$-mode is

$$\ddot{\delta \varphi }_k+2\frac{\dot{a}}{a}\dot{\delta \varphi }_k+a^2\left(k^2\frac{^2V}{\varphi ^2}\right)\delta \varphi _k=\frac{1}{2}\dot{h}\dot{\varphi }$$
(10)
where $`h`$ is the trace of the metric perturbation in the synchronous gauge. The scalar field perturbation, being of spin-0, does not depend on the other metric perturbation directly. The $`\delta \varphi _k`$s produce the fluctuations in the energy density and pressure of the $`\varphi `$ field:

$$\delta \rho _\varphi =\left(\frac{2}{1w}\right)\frac{V}{\varphi }\delta \varphi _k$$
(11)
$$\delta p_\varphi =\left(\frac{2w}{1w}\right)\frac{V}{\varphi }\delta \varphi _k.$$
(12)
These stress-energy perturbations must be included in the evolution of the metric perturbations for a self-consistent solution. The $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$CDM component contributes a source term to the right hand side of the Einstein equations. To make these calculations, we have modified CMBfast by including the $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$CDM contribution to the evolution of the background cosmology in the Friedmann equations. We have also added the contribution of density and pressure perturbations of the $`\varphi `$ field to the total curvature perturbation, using the results derived above. Even though the background pressure is negative, we are certain that these perturbations are stable, because $`^2V/\varphi ^2`$ is a negative definite quantity in this case. Examining Eq. (10) we see that the square of the effective mass will never become negative, and exponentially growing tachyonic modes will not occur.

Note that $`\delta \varphi `$ cannot source gravitational wave modes because $`\varphi `$ is a scalar field, while a source of gravitational waves must have spin 2. Therefore, the only effect of $`\varphi `$ on the gravitational wave anisotropies is through the change in the evolution of the scale factor .

## III CMB Anisotropy Spectra

Figs 1 and 2 display the scalar and tensor components of the temperature anisotropy for several values of the equation of state parameter $`w`$. In each case we assumed that the cosmological parameters were $`h=.67`$, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m=0.3=1\mathrm{\Omega }_\varphi `$, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_b=0.04`$ and that the scalar spectral index $`n_s=1`$, and the tensor spectral index $`n_t=0`$. It is standard practice  to write the temperature field on the sky as a sum of spherical harmonics with coefficients $`a_\mathrm{}m`$. The multipole moments, $`C_{\mathrm{}}`$, are then defined as $`C_{\mathrm{}}|a_\mathrm{}m|^2`$ and the power spectrum, $`\mathrm{}(\mathrm{}+1)C_{\mathrm{}}/(2\pi )`$, is approximately the power per logarithmic interval in $`\mathrm{}`$.

Since we are working to linear order in perturbation theory both the scalar and tensor spectra have one free overall normalization (ignoring for a moment any constraints imposed by e.g. inflation). In our calculations we fixed the scalar normalization by requiring that the initial spatial curvature in the total matter gauge  $`\zeta =1`$. For the tensor normalizationThe tensor perturbation is gauge independent. we have chosen $`h=1`$ initially. This choice makes it easy to interprate the dependence on $`w`$, and also to calculate the cosmology dependent fitting function presented in §IV. However with such a normalization the curves are very similar beyond $`\mathrm{}100`$ for all values of $`w`$ so for plotting purposes we have normalized the curves at $`\mathrm{}=10`$ in Figs 1 and 2. In Fig. 3, the E-E and B-B (tensors only) polarization spectra are presented with $`\zeta =1`$ or $`h=1`$ normalization, which illustrates clearly that the height of the features is uniform with $`w`$.

Consider first the anisotropy spectrum in Fig. 1. There are three features exhibiting $`w`$ dependence: the height of the first peak, the height of the tail at low multipoles, and the location of the peaks. The change in the height of the first peak traces to our decision to re-normalize the spectra to fit the COBE data. In fact the first two effects are manifestations of the same physical property: the suppression of the late Integrated Sachs-Wolfe (ISW) effect for lower $`w`$. In models such as $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$CDM, a period of accelerated expansion begins in the universe when the scalar field $`\varphi `$ becomes the dominant form of energy density. For a fixed matter density $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m`$ (measured relative to the critical density) the value of the parameter $`w`$ determines how early matter-$`\varphi `$ equality occurs, and therefore how long the universe has been experiencing the current period of accelerated expansion. When an accelerated expansion is occurring, potential wells which had formed earlier as a result of gravitational collapse begin to decay. If the well is decaying, photons which fall into the well gain more energy than they lose climbing out, which generates an anisotropy. This is the dominant effect at low $`\mathrm{}`$. For $`w<1`$ models, equality happens even later than in the case of the cosmological constant, while for $`w>1`$, it happens earlier. For very negative values of $`w`$, there has been almost no acceleration in the recent history, so the potential wells have not decayed as dramatically as they do in $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$CDM models. As a result, the late Integrated Sachs-Wolfe (ISW) effect has been almost entirely turned off .

When normalized to $`\zeta =1`$, the effect on the spectrum is to enhance the amplitude at low multipoles as $`w`$ decreases. Re-normalizing to fit the COBE data at $`\mathrm{}=10`$, the enhanced low-$`\mathrm{}`$ tail translates into a change in the peak height. For energy density perturbations, the dependence of the spectrum normalization on the equation of state is principally due to the lack of late ISW effect as $`w`$ decreases.

The normalization of the tensor spectrum appears not to be affected by $`w`$ in any significant way (Fig. 2). This can be seen by noting that the peaks are all roughly at the same height, and the spectra between $`2<\mathrm{}<10`$ agree closely (compare with Fig. 1). The small $`w`$ dependence that can be seen occurs for the lowest multipoles, corresponding to largest angular scales, and is again due to the ISW effect on the tensor spectrum at late times.

For all the anisotropy spectra (both temperature and polarization anisotropies) there is a universal shift to the right for lower values of $`w`$. The reason for the shift is the same in all cases. The $`\mathrm{}`$ position of any feature in a spectrum depends upon the (comoving) angular diameter distance to the last scattering surface. This distance depends on $`w`$ as follows:

$$d_{\mathrm{lss}}=_{a_{\mathrm{lss}}}^1\frac{da}{a^2H}$$
(13)
where

$$H^2(a)=\mathrm{\Omega }_ra^4+\mathrm{\Omega }_ma^3+\mathrm{\Omega }_\varphi a^{3(1+w)}$$
(14)
One notes that if $`w`$ is more negative, this integral is larger, which implies that the last scattering surface is further away. A feature of a given physical size thus subtends a smaller angle, shifting the anisotropy spectra to higher values of $`\mathrm{}`$. In the case of the polarization anisotropies, this is the only dependence on $`w`$ (Fig. 3).

## IV dependence of $`T/S`$ on $`w`$ and $`n_S`$

For $`\mathrm{\Omega }_b=.04`$ and assuming a flat universe, we have explicitly calculated the evolution of the normalization of the spectrum from an initial curvature perturbation $`\zeta =1`$ and from $`h=1`$. The normalization at the tenth multipole is equal to the value just after primordial inflation, multiplied by a cosmology dependent “transfer function”, which we will call $`f_S`$ and $`f_T`$. Using the method described in  we have numerically determined this function for the ranges $`2.5<w<0.5`$, $`0.6<\mathrm{\Omega }_\varphi <0.8`$, and $`0.3<n_T<0.3`$ and provide fitting functions below. The tensor spectral index $`n_T`$, is related to the scalar spectral index $`n_T=n_S1`$ for power law models of primordial inflation. We have deliberately left a $`w`$ term in the evolution of the tensor normalization to illustrate how insignificant it it compared to the terms proportional to the spectral index and $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\varphi `$. A fit is presented below, where $`a=0.6156`$,$`b=1.6`$,and $`c=.2`$. The scalar transfer function has a mean accuracy of $`2\%`$ over the range indicated above, and at worst is off by $`10\%`$ near the edges of the parameter domains. This would correspond to a worst case $`5\%`$ error in the temperature. Since the fit begins to go bad near the edges of the parameter space, we do not recommend extrapolating these functions further. The tensor function has a mean accuracy of $`.8\%`$, with a worst case of $`6\%`$ for a few points at the very edge of the fit.

$`f_S(w,n_T,\mathrm{\Omega }_\varphi )=1.341+6.031\mathrm{\Omega }^an^b(w)^c+1.936\mathrm{\Omega }^a`$ (15)
$`+3.312n^b+4.584(w)^c5.148\mathrm{\Omega }^an^b9.375\mathrm{\Omega }^a(w)^c`$ (16)
$`1.946n^b(w)^c+5.172\mathrm{\Omega }(w)^c2.692n(w)^c`$ (17)
$`.072n^bw.211(n1)^2`$ (18)
$`f_T(w,n_T,\mathrm{\Omega }_\varphi )=0.358+0.001w+0.822n_T0.046\mathrm{\Omega }_\varphi `$ (19)
$`+0.337n_T^2+0.029\mathrm{\Omega }_\varphi ^20.487n_t\mathrm{\Omega }_\varphi .`$ (20)
The tensor to scalar ratio is given by

$$\frac{C_{10}^T}{C_{10}^S}=\frac{f_T(w,n_T,\mathrm{\Omega }_\varphi )}{f_S(w,n_T,\mathrm{\Omega }_\varphi )}\frac{A_T^2}{A_S^2}$$
(21)
Fig. 4 shows the dependence of both the scalar and tensor normalizations at $`C_{10}`$ on the equation of state $`w`$ for an even broader domain than was used in the fitting formulae above. Observe that even over this huge range in the equation of state, the tensor normalization changes by less than $`1\%`$.

## V Discussion

We have extended the work of  on the $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$CDM model by calculating the tensor component of the CMB anisotropies. We have shown that the normalization of the tensor component is essentially independent of the equation of state $`w`$ in this model. For a fixed value of the initial curvature perturbation after inflation $`\zeta =1`$ and a fixed initial gravity-wave amplitude, we have quantified the $`w`$, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\varphi `$ and $`n_T`$ dependence of both the tensor and scalar anisotropy normalizations at $`C_{10}`$ for a broad domain of $`w`$. We displayed the anisotropy spectra for several values of $`w`$ and discussed the features.

Most of the results we present for $`w<1`$ are only weakly sensitive to the particular model chosen . While truly general statements are not possible, we can make several points about model dependence. The fact that our acceleration is driven by a field of spin zero implies there is no source of gravitational waves as $`\varphi `$ begins to dominate. This would remain true for other scalar (or vector) driven theories, while more complicated assumptions (e.g. higher order gravity theories) may have explicit source terms. However, we would expect only the longest wavelength gravitational waves to differ due to this in any significant way. This is because the acceleration takes place very late in the history of the universe for $`w<1`$, so only the longest modes are affected. The longest wavelength modes contribute primarily to the very low-$`\mathrm{}`$ moments of the spectrum. A similar argument can be made for the scalar modes, where the overall growth rate should be independent of the detailed model, but the longest wavelength modes will depend on any fluctuations in the “phantom” component through their impact on the evolution of the metric perturbations. Finally, the angular shift with $`w`$ of features in the spectrum is robust.

We have quantified the dependence of the tensor to scalar ratio $`C_{10}^T/C_{10}^S`$ on $`w`$, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\varphi `$, and $`n_T`$. For the model of Ref. , Eq. (21) allows us to relate the (potentially) observable $`C_{10}^T/C_{10}^S`$ to the energy scale of inflation, in the event that a gravitational wave signal is actually observed from the CMB.

## Acknowledgments

Many thanks to J. D. Cohn for countless useful discussions on this work. We thank Douglas Scott for comments on the manuscript, Mattias Zaldarriaga for providing a hitherto unreleased version of the CMBfast code, and also Max Tegmark for his advice on resolving various gauge confusions.

This work was supported in part by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation and the National Science Foundation, through grant PHY-0096151.


text:
# THE DISTRIBUTION OF VALUES OF ANALYTIC FUNCTIONS ON CONVEX SETS

## 1 . Introduction.

1.1. In order to formulate the main result we first recall the definition of the Chebyshev degree for analytic functions.

Let $`B_c(0,1)B_c(0,r)C^n`$ be the pair of open complex Euclidean balls of radii 1 and $`r`$ centered at 0. Denote by $`𝒪_r`$ the set of holomorphic functions defined on $`B_c(0,r)`$. Our definition is motivated by the following result (see \[Br, Th. 1.1\]).

###### Theorem 1.1

Let $`f𝒪_r`$, $`r>1`$, and $`I`$ be a real interval situated in $`B_c(0,1)`$. (Hereafter we identify $`C^n`$ with $`R^{2n}`$.) There is a constant $`d=d(f,r)>0`$ such that for any $`I`$ and any measurable subset $`\omega I`$

$$\underset{I}{sup}|f|\left(\frac{4|I|}{|\omega |}\right)^d\underset{\omega }{sup}|f|.$$
(1.1)
The optimal constant in this inequality is called the Chebyshev degree of $`f𝒪_r`$ in $`B_c(0,1)`$ and is denoted by $`d_f(r)`$. According to the classical Remez inequality $`d_f(r)`$ does not exceed the (total) degree of $`f`$, provided $`f`$ is a polynomial. Example 1.14 in \[Br\] shows that even in this case it can be essentially smaller than degree.

Further, let us recall that a function $`h:R^kR_+`$ is $`\mathrm{l}\mathrm{o}\mathrm{g}\mathrm{c}\mathrm{o}\mathrm{n}\mathrm{c}\mathrm{a}\mathrm{v}\mathrm{e}`$ if its support

$$K=\{xR^k:h(x)>0\}$$

is convex and $`\mathrm{log}h`$ is a concave function on $`K`$.
Examples of log-concave functions. (a) A nonnegative function which is concave on a convex body in $`R^k`$ and is zero outside. In particular, the indicator function of a convex body is log-concave.
(b) Many density functions of statistics, e.g., $`e^{|x|^\alpha }`$, $`\alpha >0`$.
(c) $`\mathrm{max}(0,l^k)`$ where $`l`$ is linear and $`k`$ is a positive integer.

Let now $`\mu _h`$ be a measure on $`R^k`$ with density $`h`$. For a convex body $`VR^k`$ set

$$|V|:=\mu _h(V),f_V:=\mathrm{exp}\left(\frac{1}{|V|}_V\mathrm{log}|f|d\mu _h\right).$$

Clearly,

$$f_V\frac{1}{|V|}_V|f|𝑑\mu _h.$$

In the formulation of the main result we assume without loss of generality that

$$\mu _h(V)=1.$$

###### Theorem 1.2

Let $`R^kC^n(R^{2n})`$ be a $`k`$-dimensional affine subspace, $`VB_c(0,1)R^k`$ be a $`k`$-dimensional convex body and $`h:R^kR_+`$ be a log-concave function supported on $`V`$. There are absolute constants $`c,C>0`$ (i.e. independent of dimensions $`k,n`$) such that for every $`r>1`$ and $`f𝒪_r`$

$$\begin{array}{cc}(1)\mu _h\{xV:|f(x)|>\alpha f_V\}C\mathrm{exp}(c\alpha ^{1/d_f(r)})\hfill & \\ & \\ \mathrm{and}\hfill & \\ & \\ (2)\mu _h\{xV:|f(x)|\alpha f_V\}C(c\alpha )^{1/d_f(r)}\left(\mathrm{log}\alpha \right)^{1/2},\alpha e^1.\hfill & \end{array}$$
(1.2)
###### Corollary 1.3

Under the assumptions of Theorem 1.2

$$\frac{1}{|V|}_V|f|^p𝑑\mu _h(cpd_f(r))^{pd_f(r)}(f_V)^p(cpd_f(r))^{pd_f(r)}\left(\frac{1}{|V|}_V|f|𝑑\mu _h\right)^p(p>1)$$

with an absoulte constant $`c>0`$.

In particular, if $`f_V1`$, then the Orlicz norm of $`f`$ defined by the Orlicz function $`\mathrm{exp}(1/d_f(r))1`$ on $`(V,d\mu _h)`$ is bounded by an absolute constant.

###### Corollary 1.4

Under assumptions of Theorem 1.2

$$\frac{1}{|V|}_V|\mathrm{log}|f|C_V(f)|𝑑\mu _hCd_f(r).$$

Here $`C>0`$ is an absoulte constant and $`C_V(f):=\frac{1}{|V|}_V\mathrm{log}|f|d\mu _h`$.

A similar result for analytic functions compairing $`\mathrm{log}|f|`$ with $`sup_V\mathrm{log}|f|`$ was obtained in \[Br\]. In this case the constant in the inequality is equivalent to $`\mathrm{log}k`$ (for $`k=dimV`$). In the case of polynomials Corollary 1.3 implies the fundamental Bourgain inequality \[B\] (with $`h1`$) and its generalizations proved by Bobkov \[Bo\] and by the author in \[Br, Th.1.11\]. Inequality $`(2)`$ implies a similar inequality for plurisubharmonic functions on $`C^n`$ of a logarithmic growth recently proved in \[SV\]. This paper contains also Corollary 1.4 for such functions.

1.2. As in the above cited papers \[Bo\] and \[SV\] our main tool is a remarkable result of Kannan, Lovász and Simonovits (\[KLS, Cor. 2.2\]) which reduces estimation of a multidimensional integral to the corresponding one-dimensional ones. Using this we establish the following basic inequality which gives Theorem 1.2 as a simple consequence.

###### Theorem 1.5

Let $`f`$, $`V`$, $`r>1`$ and $`\mu _h`$ be as in Theorem 1.2. Then

$$\left(\frac{1}{|V|}_V|f|^m𝑑\mu _h\right)^n\left(\frac{1}{|V|}_V|f|^p𝑑\mu _h\right)^q(2e)^{n+q}4^{(mn+pq)d_f(r)}\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }(md_f(r)+1)^n}{(1pd_f(r))^q}$$

provided $`m,n,p,q>0`$ satisfy

$$mn=pq,p<\frac{1}{d_f(r)}.$$

Here, as usual, $`\mathrm{\Gamma }(x):=_0^{\mathrm{}}t^{x1}e^t𝑑t`$.

Aknowledgement. I would like to thank Prof. M.Sodin for sending me the preprint of his and Prof. A.Volberg unpublished paper \[SV\].

## 2 . Proof of Theorem 1.5.

2.1. In this section we collect the results used in the proof of the theorem. First introduce the following definition (see \[KLS\]).

By an exponential needle we mean a segment $`I=[a,b]`$ in $`R^n`$, together with a real constant $`\gamma `$. If $`(E,\gamma )`$ is an exponential needle and $`f`$ is an integrable function defined on $`I`$, then we set

$$_Ef=_0^{|ba|}f(a+tu)e^{\gamma t}𝑑t,$$

where $`u=(1/|ba|)(ba)`$.

###### Theorem 2.1

\[KLS\] Let $`f_1,f_2,f_3,f_4`$ be four nonnegative continuous functions defined on $`R^n`$, and $`\alpha ,\beta >0`$. Then the following are equivalent:

(a) For every log-concave function $`F`$ defined on $`R^n`$ with compact support,

$$\left(_{R^n}F(t)f_1(t)𝑑t\right)^\alpha \left(_{R^n}F(t)f_2(t)𝑑t\right)^\beta \left(_{R^n}F(t)f_3(t)𝑑t\right)^\alpha \left(_{R^n}F(t)f_4(t)𝑑t\right)^\beta .$$

(b) For every exponential needle $`E`$

$$\left(_Ef_1\right)^\alpha \left(_Ef_2\right)^\beta \left(_Ef_3\right)^\alpha \left(_Ef_4\right)^\beta .$$

###### Remark 2.2

The above theorem is also valid for nonnegative $`f_1,f_2,f_3,f_4`$ such that $`f_1,f_2`$ are the limits of monotone increasing sequences of continuous functions defined on $`R^n`$ and $`f_3,f_4`$ are the limits of monotone decreasing sequences of continuous functions defined on $`R^n`$ (see Remark 2.3 in \[KLS\]). In particular, we can apply this theorem in the case if $`K`$ is a closed convex body, $`f_1,f_2`$ are nonnegative continuous functions defined on $`K`$ which are 0 outside $`K`$ and $`f_3,f_4`$ are nonnegative functions which are constant on $`K`$ and 0 outside.

We also use the following distributional inequality that follows directly from inequality (1.1) (see \[Br\]).
Let $`IB_c(0,1)C^n`$ be a real segment and $`f𝒪_r`$. For the distribution function $`D_{f_I}(t):=|\{xI:|f(x)|t\}|`$ (with respect to the usual Lebesgue measure on $`I`$) define $`(f_I)_{}(t)=inf\{s:D_{f_I}(s)t\}`$. Then

$$(f_I)_{}(t)\left(\frac{t}{4|I|}\right)^{d_f(r)}\underset{V}{sup}|f|.$$
(2.1)
2.2. Proof of Theorem 1.5. Let $`f𝒪_r`$ and $`IB_c(0,1)`$ be a real interval. Then the functions $`f_ϵ:=(|f|+ϵ)|_I`$, $`ϵ>0`$, and $`f_{ϵ,a,b}(t)=f_ϵ(at+b)`$, $`tI,a,bR`$, also satisfy inequality (1.1). We must apply the KLS theorem to functions $`f_1:=(|f|+ϵ)^m`$, $`f_2:=(|f|+ϵ)^p`$ (continuous on $`V`$) and $`f_3:=2e4^{md_f(r)}\mathrm{\Gamma }(md_f(r)+1)`$, $`f_4:=2e4^{pd_f(r)}/(1pd_f(r))`$ on $`V`$ and 0 outside $`V`$ and then take the limit when $`ϵ0`$. To avoid abuse of notation and because our estimates below do not depend on $`ϵ`$ we may assume without loss of generality that $`|f|`$ itself has no zeros on $`B_c(0,1)`$.

According to the KLS theorem and Remark 2.2 the theorem follows from the inequality

$$\left(_E|f|^m\right)^n\left(_E|f|^p\right)^q(2e)^{n+q}4^{(mn+pq)d_f(r)}\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }(md_f(r)+1)^n}{(1pd_f(r))^q}\left(_E1\right)^{n+q}$$

for an exponential needle $`EV`$. Making an affine change of variables in the above integrals we reduce the problem to the following inequality

$$\begin{array}{c}\left(_0^s|\stackrel{~}{f}(x)|^me^x𝑑x\right)^n\left(_0^s|\stackrel{~}{f}(x)|^pe^x𝑑x\right)^q\hfill \\ \\ (2e)^{n+q}4^{(mn+pq)d_f(r)}\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }(md_f(r)+1)^n}{(1pd_f(r))^q}(1e^s)^{n+q}.\hfill \end{array}$$

Here $`\stackrel{~}{f}`$ is a function obtained from $`f`$ by this change of variables. As we already mentioned $`\stackrel{~}{f}`$ satisfies (1.1). Below we denote $`\stackrel{~}{f}_I:=sup_I|\stackrel{~}{f}|`$.

First, let $`0s1`$. Then

$$\begin{array}{c}\left(_0^s|\stackrel{~}{f}(x)|^me^x𝑑x\right)^n\left(_0^s|\stackrel{~}{f}(x)|^pe^x𝑑x\right)^q\left(_0^s\left(\frac{|\stackrel{~}{f}(x)|}{\stackrel{~}{f}_{[0,s]}}\right)^m𝑑x\right)^n\left(_0^s\left(\frac{\stackrel{~}{f}_{[0,s]}}{|\stackrel{~}{f}(x)|}\right)^p𝑑x\right)^q\\ s^n\left(_0^s\left(\frac{\stackrel{~}{f}_{[0,s]}}{\stackrel{~}{f}_{}(t)}\right)^p𝑑t\right)^qs^n\left(s_0^1\left(\frac{4}{t}\right)^{pd_f(r)}𝑑t\right)^q4^{pqd_f(r)}s^{n+q}\left(\frac{1}{1pd_f(r)}\right)^q\\ 4^{pqd_f(r)}(2(1e^s))^{n+q}\left(\frac{1}{1pd_f(r)}\right)^q.\end{array}$$

Here we applied inequality (2.1) to the lower distribution function $`\stackrel{~}{f}_{}`$ of $`\stackrel{~}{f}`$ and used the inequality $`1e^s>s/2`$ for $`0<s1`$. Observe that the obtaining constant is even less than the required one.

Assume now that $`s>1`$. We estimate each of two factors of the given expression. Without loss of generality we may assume that $`s`$ is an integer. Then

$$\begin{array}{c}_0^s|\stackrel{~}{f}(x)|^me^x𝑑x=\underset{i=0}{\overset{s1}{}}_i^{i+1}|\stackrel{~}{f}(x)|^me^x𝑑x\underset{i=0}{\overset{s1}{}}\left(_i^{i+1}|\stackrel{~}{f}(x)|^m𝑑x\right)e^i\\ \underset{i=0}{\overset{s1}{}}\left(_i^{i+1}\left(\frac{|\stackrel{~}{f}(x)|}{\stackrel{~}{f}_{[i,i+1]}}\stackrel{~}{f}_{[i,i+1]}\right)^m𝑑x\right)e^i\underset{i=0}{\overset{s1}{}}\stackrel{~}{f}_{[0,i+1]}^me^i\\ \underset{i=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}(4(i+1))^{md_f(r)}e^i\stackrel{~}{f}_{[0,1]}^m4^{md_f(r)}e_0^{\mathrm{}}x^{md_f(r)}e^x𝑑x\stackrel{~}{f}_{[0,1]}^m=\\ 4^{md_f(r)}e\mathrm{\Gamma }(md_f(r)+1)\stackrel{~}{f}_{[0,1]}^m.\end{array}$$

We used here inequality (1.1) to estimate $`sup_{[0,i+1]}|\stackrel{~}{f}|`$ by $`sup_{[0,1]}|\stackrel{~}{f}|`$. Similarly,

$$\begin{array}{c}_0^s|\stackrel{~}{f}(x)|^pe^x𝑑x\underset{i=0}{\overset{s1}{}}\left(_i^{i+1}|\stackrel{~}{f}(x)|^p𝑑x\right)e^i\\ \underset{i=0}{\overset{s1}{}}\left(_0^{i+1}\left(\frac{\stackrel{~}{f}_{[0,i+1]}}{|\stackrel{~}{f}(x)|}\right)^p\frac{1}{\stackrel{~}{f}_{[0,i+1]}^p}𝑑x\right)e^i\\ \underset{i=0}{\overset{s1}{}}\left(_0^{i+1}\left(\frac{\stackrel{~}{f}_{[0,i+1]}}{\stackrel{~}{f}_{}(t)}\right)^p\frac{1}{\stackrel{~}{f}_{[0,1]}^p}𝑑t\right)e^i\\ \left(\underset{0}{\overset{s1}{}}_0^{i+1}\left(\frac{4(i+1)}{t}\right)^{pd_f(r)}\frac{1}{\stackrel{~}{f}_{[0,1]}^p}𝑑t\right)e^i\\ \underset{i=0}{\overset{s1}{}}\frac{4^{pd_f(r)}(i+1)}{1pd_f(r)}\frac{1}{\stackrel{~}{f}_{[0,1]}^p}e^i\frac{e4^{pd_f(r)}}{1pd_f(r)}\frac{1}{\stackrel{~}{f}_{[0,1]}^p}.\end{array}$$

Using that $`pq=mn`$ and $`1e^s1/2`$ for $`s1`$ we get from these inequalities

$$\begin{array}{c}\left(_0^s|\stackrel{~}{f}(x)|^me^x𝑑x\right)^n\left(_0^s|\stackrel{~}{f}(x)|^pe^x𝑑x\right)^q\\ 4^{(mn+pq)d_f(r)}(2e)^{n+q}\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }(md_f(r)+1)^n}{(1pd_f(r))^q}(1e^s)^{n+q}.\end{array}$$

This completes the proof of the theorem. $`\mathrm{}`$

## 3 . Proof of Theorem 1.2 and Corollaries.

Proof of Theorem 1.2. (1) We apply Theorem 1.5 to $`g:=|f|^{1/d_f(r)}`$ with $`n=1`$, $`p=1/2`$, $`q=2m`$ and $`m`$ a positive integer. Assume without loss of generality that $`g_V=1`$ and set $`E_\alpha :=\{xV:g(x)>\alpha \}`$, $`|E_\alpha |:=\mu _h(E_\alpha )`$. Then from Theorem 1.5 we obtain

$$\alpha ^m|E_\alpha |\left(_Vg^{1/2}𝑑\mu _h\right)^{2m}\left(_Vg^m𝑑\mu _h\right)\left(_Vg^{1/2}𝑑\mu _h\right)^{2m}4^{2m}(2e)^{2m+1}2^{2m}(m!)$$

which is equivalent to

$$\begin{array}{c}\alpha ^m|E_\alpha |\frac{2^{8m+1}e^{2m+1}(m!)}{(_Vg^{1/2}𝑑\mu _h)^{2m}}2^{8m+1}e^{2m+1}(m!)\mathrm{exp}\left(2m\mathrm{log}\left(_Vg^{1/2}𝑑\mu _h\right)\right)\\ \\ 2^{8m+1}e^{2m+1}(m!)(g_V)^m=2^{8m+1}e^{2m+1}(m!)e^{10m}(m!).\end{array}$$
(3.1)
We used here the Jensen inequality

$$_Vg^{1/2}𝑑\mu _h\mathrm{exp}\left(\frac{1}{2}_V\mathrm{log}gd\mu _h\right).$$

Since $`|V|=1`$, we also have

$$|E_\alpha |1.$$

Dividing both sides of (3.1) by $`e^{11m}(m!)`$ and summing by $`m`$ from $`0`$ to $`\mathrm{}`$ we get

$$\mathrm{exp}(\alpha /e^{11})|E_\alpha |2,$$

or

$$|E_\alpha |2\mathrm{exp}(\alpha /e^{11}).$$

Since $`g:=|f|^{1/d_f(r)}`$, the required inequality follows from here.

This proves part (1).

(2) Recall that $`C_V(f):=\frac{1}{|V|}_V\mathrm{log}|f|d\mu _h`$ . We will estimate the measure $`|F_\gamma |:=\mu _h(F_\gamma )`$ of the set $`F_\gamma :=\{xV:|\mathrm{log}|f|C_V(f)|\gamma \}`$, $`\gamma 1`$. We apply Theorem 1.5 to $`f`$ with $`m=p=(11/\gamma )/d_f(r)`$, $`n=q=1`$. Then we have

$$\begin{array}{c}e^{\frac{2\gamma (11/\gamma )}{d_f(r)}}|F_\gamma |^2\left(_Ve^{\frac{11/\gamma }{d_f(r)}(\mathrm{log}|f|C_V(f))}𝑑\mu _h\right)\left(_Ve^{\frac{(11/\gamma )}{d_f(r)}(\mathrm{log}|f|C_V(f))}𝑑\mu _h\right)\\ \\ 4^{2(11/\gamma )}(2e)^2\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }(21/\gamma )}{1(11/\gamma )}2^6e^2\gamma \end{array}$$

Hence

$$|F_\gamma |2^3e^{1+1/d_f(r)}e^{\gamma /d_f(r)}\gamma ^{1/2}.$$
(3.2)
This, in particular, gives an estimate of $`\mu _h\{xV:\mathrm{log}|f|C_V(f)\gamma \}`$ which, in turn, gives the required result

$$\mu _h\{xV:|f(x)|\alpha f_V\}2^3e(e\alpha )^{1/d_f(r)}\left(\mathrm{log}\alpha \right)^{1/2},\alpha e^1.$$

with $`\alpha =e^\gamma `$.

The proof of Theorem 1.5 is complete. $`\mathrm{}`$

Proofs of Corollaries. Corollary 1.3 follows directly by integration of inequality (1) of Theorem 1.2 and Corollary 1.4 is a simple consequence of inequality (3.2). $`\mathrm{}`$

## 4 . Concluding Remarks.

The basic point of the above proof is, together with the KLS theorem, the inequality (1.1). This type of inequalities hold for a more general class of functions introduced as follows.

Let $`B_c(0,1)B_c(0,r_1)B_c(0,r)C^n`$, $`1<r_1<r`$, be open complex Euclidean balls. Further, let $`lC^n`$ be a complex straight line which intersects all the balls and $`l_1:=lB_c(0,1),l_{r_1}:=lB_c(0,r_1)`$. Let $`f`$ be a plurisubharmonic function defined on $`B_c(0,r)`$. We set

$$b_f(l,r_1)=\underset{l_{r_1}}{sup}f\underset{l_1}{sup}f.$$

Then the Bernstein index $`b_f(r_1)`$ is defined as supremum of $`b_f(l,r_1)`$ taken over all lines $`l`$ (see also Definition 2.1 in \[Br\]). The argument for the proof of Th.1.1 in \[Br\] leads to the following result.

###### Theorem 4.1

Let $`f`$ be as above and $`b_f(r_1)<\mathrm{}`$. Then the function $`F:=e^f`$ satisfies inequality (1.1) with $`cb_f(r_1)`$ instead of $`d_f(r)`$ where $`c1`$ depends on $`r_1`$ and $`r`$ only.

###### Corollary 4.2

All results of the presents paper are valid for $`e^f`$ with $`cb_f(r)`$ instead of $`d_f(r)`$.

Examples. (a) Let $`f𝒪_r`$ then we proved in \[Br\] that $`b_{\mathrm{log}|f|}((1+r)/2)<\mathrm{}`$. This motivates our definition of the Chebyshev degree.

Note also that $`d_f(r)`$ can be estimated by the general valency of $`f`$ defined as maximum of valency of $`f`$ restricted to each complex disk $`l_{(1+r)/2}`$.
(b) Let $`f_1,\mathrm{},f_k(C^n)^{}`$ be complex linear functionals. A quasipolynomial with the spectrum $`f_1,\mathrm{},f_k`$ is a finite sum $`q(z)=_{i=1}^kp_i(z)e^{f_i(z)}`$ where $`p_iC[z_1,\mathrm{},z_n]`$ are holomorphic polynomials. Expression $`m=_{i=1}^k(1+degp_i)`$ is said to be degree of $`q`$. We set

$$a(q):=\underset{zB_c(0,1),1ik}{\mathrm{max}}|f_i(z)|.$$

From the results of \[Br1\] (see also \[Br, Prop. 1.4\]) it follows.

All results of the present paper are valid for $`q|_V`$ ($`VR^n`$ is a convex body) with $`c_1+mc_2+c_3a(q)diam(V)`$ instead of $`d_f(r)`$, where $`c_2,c_3`$ are absolute positive constants. The constant $`c_1(m+1)\mathrm{log}km+(2k1)a(q)`$ for generic $`q`$, and $`c_1(m+1)\mathrm{log}km+3a(q)`$ if restriction of functionals $`f_s`$ to any complex straight line passing through 0 generates a one-dimensional vector space over $`R`$.


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# 1/2 Law for Non-Radiative Accretion Flow

## 1 Introduction

Black holes in galactic centers might be so dim because the rate of mass accretion is much smaller than the Bondi rate (Blandford and Begelman 1999, Gruzinov 1998, 1999). At small gas densities, radiation is dynamically unimportant, and a quasi-spherical non-radiative accretion flow (NRAF) is formed near a compact object. A fundamental question regarding NRAFs is what is the mass accretion rate, or equivalently, how does the gas density $`n`$ depend on $`r`$, the distance from the compact object. Here we show that $`nr^{1/2}`$ is a logical possibility.

## 2 Self-similar NRAFs

We neglect radiation, relativistic effects, and the gas contribution to gravity. We assume that there is a point Newtonian mass (compact object) and an infinite stationary self-similar accretion flow surrounding this compact object. More precisely, the accretion flow is statistically stationary (it is most likely turbulent, eg. Hawley et al 2001 and references therein).

Self-similarity means that all velocities $`v`$ (including Alfven and sound) scale as $`r^{1/2}`$. The density obeys $`nr^p`$, with the exponent $`p`$ to be determined in what follows.

The fluxes of mass, energy, and angular momentum scale as

$$\dot{M}r^2nvr^{3/2p},$$
(1)
$$\dot{E}r^2nv^3r^{1/2p},$$
(2)
$$\dot{J}r^2nrv^2r^{2p}.$$
(3)
Since the flow is stationary, all the three fluxes must be constant. The fluxes have different exponents, and they can all be constant only in the following four cases:

* I. $`\dot{E}=0`$, $`\dot{J}=0`$, $`p=3/2`$, $`\dot{M}<0`$
* II$`\dot{M}=0`$, $`\dot{J}=0`$, $`p=1/2`$, $`\dot{E}>0`$,
* III. $`\dot{M}=0`$, $`\dot{E}=0`$, $`p=2`$
* IV$`\dot{M}=0`$, $`\dot{E}=0`$, $`\dot{J}=0`$, $`1/2<p<3/2`$

Are any of these cases realizable?

We know that I is realizable, at least under spherical symmetry. This is the Bondi (1952) flow. Bondi flow is ideal, unmagnetized, and non-rotating. We do not know if it is realizable in nature.

II is probably realizable. A particular case of II is CDAF (convection dominated accretion flow, Quataert & Gruzinov 2000a, Narayan et al 2000, Stone et al 1999, Igumenshchev & Abramowicz 1999).

III is probably not realizable because in our approximation a compact object cannot be a significant source of angular momentum. Note that at the same time the compact object can be a source of a finite energy flux (an object of a small size $`ϵ`$ can produce a finite energy flux by consuming mass at a small rate $`ϵ`$).

A particular case of IV was suggested by Blandford and Begelman (1999). These authors believe that an ADIOS (advection dominated inflow outflow solution) with an unknown $`p`$ might exist.

Regardless of the ADIOS realizability, it should be clear that II and IV are separate classes. It is incorrect to think of II as just one possible case, $`p=1/2`$, of a continuum of possible cases $`1/2<p<3/2`$. The very existence of CDAFs (solutions with $`\dot{M}=0`$, $`\dot{J}=0`$, $`p=1/2`$, $`\dot{E}>0`$) would be improbable if II did not form a separate class.

II is a self-similar solution of the first kind, meaning that the exponent $`p`$ is determined from dimensional analysis, while $`\dot{E}`$ can be obtained only from a detailed solution. IV is a self-similar solution of the second kind, the exponent $`p`$ should be thought of as an eigenvalue, and can be obtained only together with the detailed solution. These matters are explained in a very interesting book of Barenblatt (1978).

## 3 The 1/2 Law

Consider the following thought experiment. There is a Newtonian black hole of mass $`1`$ (with $`G=c=1`$, a Newtonian black hole is an object of radius $`1`$ and escape velocity $`1`$). At the initial moment there is some gas at radius $`R`$, the gas mass is $`m`$, the gas energy is $`mR^1`$. A transient accretion flow will develop, and after a time $`tR^{3/2}`$ there will be some changes of order unity. Consider predictions of II and IV.

According to II, gas density near the hole is $`\rho mR^{5/2}`$, and the energy output of the hole, that is the power $`P`$, should be $`PmR^{5/2}`$. The total energy ejected is $`PtmR^1`$. This is comparable to a characteristic energy at $`R`$, and indeed will change the state of the gas at $`R`$ “by order unity”.

According to IV, gas density near the hole is $`\rho mR^{3+p}`$, and the energy output of the hole should be $`PmR^{3+p}`$. The total energy ejected is $`PtmR^{3/2+p}`$. But if $`p>1/2`$, this is much greater than the characteristic energy at $`R`$. Only a precise cancellation of positive and negative energy fluxes can reduce the energy output, and this cancellation might be impossible in real flows.

The above argument is just a way of saying that a self-similar solution of the first kind is more natural than a self-similar solution of the second kind. This argument is certainly not rigorous. Barenblatt (1978) gives a large collection of self-similar solutions of the second kind. However, the most basic problems (diffusion, Kolmogorov turbulence, strong explosion, Bondi flow) are solved by the self-similarity of the first kind. One feels that self-similar solutions of the first kind are to be tried first.

## 4 Discussion

We predict that future simulations, and maybe even observations (Quataert & Gruzinov 2000 b, c), might confirm the 1/2 Law for NRAFs.

Our prediction is based on two different arguments. A rigorous argument of §2: 1/2 Law describes a realizable class of self-similar NRAFs, and therefore this NRAF can be found under different circumstances. A non-rigorous argument of §3: 1/2 Law flows are simpler than generic ADIOS.

Numerical simulation of a 3D NRAF was performed by Hawley et al (2001). As seen from the pressure map (their Fig. 1), relativistic effects limit a possible self-similar range to $`r30`$ Schwarzschild radii. The simulation starts at $`r100`$, but the results between between 30 and 100, are not inconsistent with the 1/2 Law (their Fig. 2, the mass inflow=outflow$`r`$). In order to check the 1/2 Law numerically, one needs a larger radial span. This should be possible to achieve by ignoring the small radii with their relativistic effects.

###### Acknowledgements.


text:
# CHEMICAL ENRICHMENT AT HIGH REDSHIFTS: UNDERSTANDING THE NATURE OF DAMPED Ly𝛼 SYSTEMS IN HIERARCHICAL MODELS

## 1. INTRODUCTION

Studies of DLA absorbers have provided hints on the properties of structure at high redshift, from both kinematical and chemical points of view (Lu et al. (1996); Pettini et al. (1997); Wolfe et al. (1995); Haehnelt, Steinmetz & Rauch 1998; Pettini et al. (1999); Prochaska & Wolfe (1999)). Analysis of the absorbers at low $`z`$ show that these systems have diverse morphologies (e.g., Rao & Briggs (1993); Le Brun et al. (1997)) while at high $`z`$ their nature remains unclear. First kinematical studies suggested that high redshift DLAs were large disks similar to those in present-day spiral galaxies (e.g., Wolfe et al. (1995); Prochaska & Wolfe (1997)). However, Haehnelt et al. (1998) show that they are also consistent with being the building blocks of local typical galaxies, as predicted by hierarchical clustering scenarios (HCSs). The metallicity properties of DLAs support the idea that they are chemically young objects (e.g., Pettini et al. (1999), Prochaska et al. 2000). However, the dependence of their metallicities on $`z`$ is a controversial point since, until recently, only very weak or non-evolution at all has been reported from the analysis of the mean metallicity of the neutral hydrogen with the abundance ratios weighted by the HI column density ($`N_{\mathrm{HI}}`$) (Prochaska & Wolfe (2000); Pettini et al. (1999); Vladilo et al. (2000)) in contrast with some theoretical models which predict substantial evolution of the neutral hydrogen abundances (e.g., Edmunds & Phillips (1997); Pei et al. (1999); see Cen & Ostriker 1999 for a different result). However, the unweighted mean metallicities and linear regressions through the individual data show stronger evolution signals as reported in recent works (i.e., Prochaska & Wolfe (2000); Vladilo et al. 2000; Hou et al. 2001). Detecting evolution in chemical abundances of HI gas mass may be difficult due to several biasing factors. Among them, dust depletion and obscuration have been probed to be a source of uncertainties for some element measurements (e.g., Vladilo 1998; Hou et al. (2001)), while the limited redshift coverage with the known DLAs may not be adequate for detecting the presence of evolution. As first pointed out by Boissé et al. (1998), DLAs with high $`N_{\mathrm{HI}}`$ and high metallicity might be missing from the data as a consequence of dust extinction which would imply a biased determination of evolution. For the $`\alpha `$elements, dust-corrected data show mild enhancement or near solar values for most observed elements in contrast to the metallicity pattern of metal-poor Galactic stars (e.g., Vladilo (1998); Pettini et al. (2000)). This might imply a different SF history than that of the Milky Way, although Prochaska et al. (2000) found an agreement between the properties of the Galactic thick disk and the DLAs.

In HCSs, where galaxies are formed by aggregation of smaller substructures, mergers and continuous gas infall play an important role, contributing to regulate the star formation (SF; Tissera (2000)) and chemical histories (e.g., Cora et al. (2000)) of the galactic objects. As suggested by Haehnelt et al. (1998) from a kinematical study of numerical simulations, DLAs could be the progenitor substructures of today galaxies that merge to form galactic objects in a hierarchical clustering scenario. The variety of morphological types together with the fact that they tend to be chemically young seem to support this hypothesis. With the aim at understanding the possible link between the structure in a HCS and the nature of DLAs, in this letter, we assess the chemical properties of today-galaxy building blocks as a function of the redshift. For this purpose, we focus our study on the analysis of the unweighted mean metallicities of the neutral hydrogen as a function of $`z`$ since they are more sensitive to the properties of the individual objects. We also comment on the mass-weighted mean metallicities that are related to the chemical content of the Universe. We use hydrodynamical cosmological models that treat the non-linear evolution of both baryons and dark matter in a self-consistent way, providing a well-described history of formation, and include star formation and chemical evolution. Results of the simulations are compared with available observational data on chemical abundances of DLAs. We discuss implications for galaxy formation.

## 2. CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF GALACTIC OBJECTS

Our hydrodynamical chemical simulations follow the joint evolution of the dark matter and baryons within a cosmological context (Tissera et al. (1997)) including SF and chemical evolution. Stars are formed from cold and dense gas in a convergent flow according to the Schmidt law. Gaseous particles are gradually transformed into stars in different SF episodes. The contribution of type I (SNI) and type II (SNII) supernovas from each of these SF episodes to the chemical enrichment of the gas component are taken into account according to stellar evolution models and metallicity enrichment yields. Chemical elements generated in a given particle are distributed among gas particles within its neighboring area, weighting each contribution with a kernel function that depends on the distance (i.e., by using the smooth particle hydrodynamics technique).

We adopt the yields given by Woosley & Weaver (1995) for SNII and those given by Thielemann, Nomoto & Hashimoto (1993) for SNI. A time delay of $`10^8`$ yrs is assumed for binary star systems to explode as SNI. We adopt a fixed Salpeter Initial Mass Function with lower and upper mass cut-offs of $`0.1\mathrm{M}_{\mathrm{}}`$ and $`120\mathrm{M}_{\mathrm{}}`$, respectively. In this work the effects of energy injection into the interstellar medium due to supernova explosions have not been included. For a detailed discussion of the chemical model see Mosconi et al. (2000).

We analyze cosmological simulations of a typical 10 Mpc cube volume represented by $`64^3`$ equal mass particles ($`\mathrm{\Omega }_b=0.1`$). Initial conditions are consistent with a Standard Cold Dark Matter Universe ($`H=50\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1\mathrm{Mpc}^1`$) with cluster abundance normalization, $`\sigma _8=0.67`$. We have run a set of three simulations with different realizations of the power spectrum, estimating averaged results over them. The SN parameters adopted in these simulations correspond to those giving the best agreement with observations of galaxies at $`z=0`$ (Mosconi et al. (2000)) and the \[O/Fe\] abundance pattern in the Milky Way (Cora et al. (2000)).

We identified galactic objects at their virial radius at different stages of evolution of the simulated volume. Galactic objects are formed by a dark matter halo and a baryonic component in the form of gas and stars. To diminish numerical resolution problems, we analyze galactic objects with more than 200 baryonic particles within their virial radius and in the range $`0.25<z<2.35`$. Consequently, the analyzed objects have virial velocities within $`100250\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$. We study a total number of 380 galactic objects satisfying the above conditions which are all considered as possible absorbers.

It is likely that DLAs observations map the chemical properties of the gaseous disks not expected to be good tracers of the metal content at the central regions (e.g., Jimenez et al. (1999); Somerville et al. (2001); Savaglio (2000)). Hence, in order to carry out a suitable comparison between the simulated galactic objects and DLAs observations, we use a Monte Carlo technique to simulate line-of-sights (LOS) and estimate the chemical properties of the neutral hydrogen component with $`N_{\mathrm{HI}}>2\times 10^{20}\mathrm{atoms}/\mathrm{cm}^2`$ (Wolfe et al. (1986)) along the LOS. We assume that the hydrogen mass in a gas particle remains neutral if no SF activity has ever occured within that particle.

As a combined result of dynamical evolution, mergers and interactions, the SF rate history of each galactic object can be described as a contribution of an ambient SF rate and a series of starbursts (e.g., Tissera (2000)). The timings between starbursts are not ad hoc, but given naturally by the evolution of the objects in the HCS adopted. Thus, we have a consistent description of the chemical enrichment of the stellar populations and gaseous component due to the fact that the different ejecta times of SNI and SNII can be properly taken into account. Note that the simulated sample is not affected by dust depletion or obscuration. These facts make our simulations powerful tools to explore the nature of DLAs.

For each galactic object selected at a given redshift we define the HI mass-weighted mean of abundance ratio of elements K and J, \[K/J\] in the column of HI along a LOS, as:

$$[\mathrm{K}/\mathrm{J}]=\mathrm{log}\frac{_{i=1}^{n_\mathrm{p}}\mathrm{K}_iM_i^{\mathrm{gas}}}{_{i=1}^{n_\mathrm{p}}\mathrm{J}_iM_i^{\mathrm{gas}}}\mathrm{log}(\mathrm{K}/\mathrm{J})_{},$$
(1)
where $`n_\mathrm{p}`$ is the total number of gas particles belonging to a galactic object along a certain LOS, $`M_i^{\mathrm{gas}}`$ the neutral hydrogen mass of the $`i^{th}`$ particle, $`\mathrm{K}_i`$ and $`\mathrm{J}_i`$ their chemical abundances, and $`(\mathrm{K}/\mathrm{J})_{}`$ the corresponding solar abundance ratio. Similarly, we can define the mean abundance ratios for the stellar populations. This point will be discussed in a separate paper.

In order to study the metallicity evolution of DLAs, we consider the abundance ratios of \[Zn/H\] and \[Fe/H\]. In our sample both elements can be measured without introducing biases such as those produced by dust extinction and depletion, or, in the case of zinc by the fact that this element is difficult to detect at low metallicities. Note that the zinc is usually considered a reliable tracer of metallicity because it is weakly depleted onto dust grains, however, its nucleosynthesis remains to be fully understood (Prochaska & Wolfe (2000); Prantzos & Bossier (2000)). Current models for the production of this element (Woosley & Weaver (1995)) have problem in reproducing the observational fact that, regardless of metallicity, stars in the halo and thin disk of the Galaxy have nearly solar \[Zn/Fe\] values (see also Hou et al. 2001). Nevertheless, recent results suggest that Zn is enhanced relative to Fe in the stars of the Galactic thick disk (Prochaska et al. (2000)) These make results from Zn analysis more difficult to interpret. For the purpose of carrying out a reliable comparison between observations and simulations, we gathered the available observations from the literature (see Figure 1) and estimated the same parameters calculated for the simulations within the same redshift range.

In Figure 1a, we show the unweighted mean $`<[\mathrm{Zn}/\mathrm{H}]>=1/n_n[\mathrm{Zn}/\mathrm{H}]`$ ratios (where $`n`$ is the number of galactic objects in the total simulated sample that are located at a certain $`z`$) for the HI component along the LOS of galactic objects in the three simulations as a function of redshift. Error bars correspond to the dispersion of the ratios of the galactic objects at each analyzed $`z`$. As it can be seen, the simulated neutral gas abundance ratios are within the observed range for DLAs. In order to quantify their evolution with $`z`$, we compute the unweighted mean $`<[\mathrm{Zn}/\mathrm{H}]>`$ in two redshift intervals, $`z_{\mathrm{low}}=[0.26,1.5]`$ and $`z_{\mathrm{inter}}=(1.5,2.35]`$. We obtain $`<[\mathrm{Zn}/\mathrm{H}]_{\mathrm{low}}>=0.53\pm 0.06`$ and $`<[\mathrm{Zn}/\mathrm{H}]_{\mathrm{inter}}>=1.12\pm 0.17`$ 111 Standard deviations have been calculated by using the resampling bootstrap technique with 500 random samples.. These results imply an evolution of $`0.58\pm 0.13`$ dex between the low and intermediate redshift bins in the models, while DLAs observations show a variation of $`0.22\pm 0.09`$ for the same redshift bins. The observed mean values are $`<[\mathrm{Zn}/\mathrm{H}]_{\mathrm{low}}>=0.89\pm 0.10`$ and $`<[\mathrm{Zn}/\mathrm{H}]_{\mathrm{inter}}>=1.11\pm 0.07`$. Hence, at high $`z`$ the simulated and observational values agree very well. However, the low-$`z`$ values differ in $`0.40`$ dex. This difference in the lower $`z`$ interval could be attributed to the observational bias first discussed by Boissé et al. (1998) that would prevent high $`N_{\mathrm{HI}}`$ systems with high metallicities to be detected (see also Prantzos & Bossier (2000); Savaglio 2000). By analyzing the chemical properties of the individual DLAs, Vladilo et al. (2000) found an anticorrelation signal for the \[Zn/H\] data which yields a linear regression with a slope of $`d\mathrm{logZn}/dz=0.32\pm 0.13`$, detecting intrinsic evolution for $`z<3.5`$. A similar analysis applied to our set of observational data within our $`z`$-range yields $`d\mathrm{logZn}/dz=0.24\pm 0.11`$. For the simulated DLAs, we obtained a slope of $`d\mathrm{logZn}/dz=0.42\pm 0.08`$ which, albeit larger, is statistically consistent with observations.

Figure 1b shows the unweighted $`<[\mathrm{Fe}/\mathrm{H}]>`$ versus $`z`$ for the same galactic objects plotted in Figure 1a. This element suffers strong gas depletion but can be observed over a larger $`z`$ interval, its nucleosynthesis is better understood and can be easily detected at low metallicities. ¿From Figure1b we see that the estimated ratios for the HI along the LOS in the simulations match the observational range of DLAs. Estimates of their unweighted $`<[\mathrm{Fe}/\mathrm{H}]>`$ at $`z_{\mathrm{low}}`$ and $`z_{\mathrm{inter}}`$ give a 0.67 $`\pm `$ 0.13 dex evolution in the simulations. Calculations for the available DLAs observations in the range $`0.25<z<2.35`$ show, in this case, a signal for evolution of $`0.48\pm 0.13`$ dex. A linear regression through the observed \[Fe/H\] data within the same $`z`$-range shows a slope of $`0.50\pm 0.17`$ (see also Savaglio 2000; Hou et al. 2001). The linear correlation of the simulated \[Fe/H\] ratios gives $`d\mathrm{logFe}/dz=0.50\pm 0.09`$. All these values are in suitable agreement within the statistical uncertainties.

The mass-weighted mean metallicities of HI assess the evolution of the chemical properties of the population as a whole and, consequently, of the chemical history of the Universe. As previously reported, both the observed $`N_{\mathrm{HI}}`$-weighted mean \[Zn/H\] and \[Fe/H\] ratios show mild or no evolution for $`z3.5`$ (Pettini et al. (1999); Prochaska & Wolfe (2000)), while most theoretical models predict substantial change of the metallicity of neutral gas with redshift. Estimates of the corresponding ratios in our model at low and intermediate $`z`$ intervals also yield a signal of evolution: $`0.33\pm 0.08`$ and $`0.47\pm 0.09`$ for the \[Zn/H\] and \[Fe/H\], respectively.

We would like to stress that the conclusions about the evolution of the observed \[Zn/H\] and \[Fe/H\] by using mean values at low and intermediate $`z`$ should be taken with caution because of the small number statistics in the low $`z`$-bin. More observations of DLAs at low $`z`$ are needed to draw final conclusion on this point. But, mainly, more observations of DLAs with high $`N_{\mathrm{HI}}`$ and high metallicity are required to properly assess the presence of evolution. In fact, if DLAs with these characteristics were missing from the data then the presence of evolution could be difficult to detect. In order to mimic this effect, Prantzos & Boissier (2000) applied a filter to their model by selecting the DLAs according to the observationally determined constraint $`18.8<[\mathrm{Zn}/\mathrm{H}]+\mathrm{log}N_{\mathrm{HI}}<21`$. Following their work, we estimate the evolution of the filtered simulated DLAs, using the \[Zn/H\] ratios. For the unweighted means we obtained an evolution signal of $`0.46\pm 0.10`$ while the weighted ratios show a weaker change consistent with mild evolution: $`0.24\pm 0.12`$. Clearly, selection biases could have strong implications when estimating changes with redshift.

The standard dispersions shown in Figure 1 for both elements in the simulated sample reproduce fairly well the observed dispersions of DLAs: for the \[Zn/H\] the building blocks show a dispersion of $`\sigma _{\mathrm{z}_{\mathrm{low}}}=0.68`$ and $`\sigma _{\mathrm{z}_{\mathrm{inter}}}=0.78`$ while observations have $`\sigma _{\mathrm{z}_{\mathrm{low}}}=0.42`$ and $`\sigma _{\mathrm{z}_{\mathrm{inter}}}=0.86`$. The simulated \[Fe/H\] ratios have $`\sigma _{\mathrm{z}_{\mathrm{low}}}=0.60`$ and $`\sigma _{\mathrm{z}_{\mathrm{inter}}}=0.77`$ compared to the observed ones of $`\sigma _{\mathrm{z}_{\mathrm{low}}}=0.45`$ and $`\sigma _{\mathrm{z}_{\mathrm{inter}}}=1.24`$. In our models this dispersion arises as the results of the variety of galactic objects with diverse evolutionary histories: merger tree, star formation, chemical enrichment, etc., at different $`z`$, supporting a similar origin for the large dispersion observed in DLAs.

We estimate the unweighted mean \[Si/Fe\] and \[S/Fe\] ratios in order to analyze the behavior of the $`\alpha `$-elements in the HI gas mass of the simulated galactic objects. ¿From Figure 2a we can appreciate that the mean \[Si/Fe\] ratios have nearly solar values and show no dependence on metallicity, consistent with the dust-corrected observations reported by Vladilo (1998) and Pettini et al. (2000) who assumed that Zn is undepleted and traces Fe. A similar behavior was found for mean \[S/Fe\] ratios.

In Figure 2b we show the unweighted $`<[\mathrm{Zn}/\mathrm{Fe}]>`$ abundances versus $`<[\mathrm{Fe}/\mathrm{H}]>`$ . We find that the HI component of the simulated DLAs tend to exhibit \[Zn/Fe\] values around a mean of $`0.27\pm 0.28`$ (1$`\sigma `$ deviation). It should be noted that these values are consistent with the observed range for DLAs with no dust corrections (with a mean of $`0.47\pm 0.31`$) while dust-corrected ratios show nearly solar values. As more extensively discussed by Prantzos & Boissier (2000; see also Lu et al. (1996) and Prochaska & Wolfe (2000)) current nucleosynthesis models of the zinc have problem in reproducing the observed abundance pattern of the Milky-Way. If we had assumed that Zn traces Fe for all metallicites (e.g., Pettini et al. (2000)), our models would have produced mean ratios in agreement with those of Vladilo (1998) corrected by dust-depletion.

## 3. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

Observational studies of the chemical properties of DLAs have provided unvaluable information on galaxy evolution up to $`z4`$. This letter aims to provide a theoretical frame to understand these observations within HCSs. The chemical hydrodynamical cosmological models analyzed take into account different physical mechanisms controlling the formation and evolution of galaxies: gravitational collapse, tidal torques, mergers, interactions, gas infall, gradient pressure, radiative cooling, SF and chemical enrichment by SNI and SNII explosions. In this scenario we follow the formation and evolution of galaxy-like objects, analyzing the chemical properties of the different substructures that merge hierarchically.

In order to properly compare the galactic objects in the simulations with the observed DLAs, we estimated the abundances of HI along LOS randomly distributed. We found that the simulated galactic objects have gaseous components that, when randomly sampled, have \[Zn/H\] and \[Fe/H\] abundances within the observed range for DLAs. In the simulations, the unweighted \[Zn/H\] and \[Fe/H\] ratios show evolution with $`z`$ in statistical agreement with results obtained from similar analysis of the available observations (see also Vladilo et al. 2000; Prochaska & Wolfe (2000); Hou et al. 2001). However, the mass-weighted metallicities of the simulated and observed $`N_{\mathrm{HI}}`$ show opposite trends; while the former show evolution, the later do not. Part of this discrepancy can be attributed to observational biases that might prevent low-density metal-poor and very metal-rich and dense zones to be detected by current observations. In fact, taking into account these effects by applying a filter to the simulated \[Zn/H\], we found, on one hand, that the unweighted means still show a clear evolution, and, on the other, that the filtered weighted abundances yield a weaker dependence with $`z`$ in agreement with corresponding observations (e.g., Pettini et al. 1999). Accordingly to our results, this observational bias seems to affect more strongly the weighted means suggesting that the interpretation of the evolution of the chemical content of the Universe by using DLAs should be taken with extra caution. More observations, principally of high density and high metallicity HI column densities, are needed to draw a final conclusion.

The lack of $`\alpha `$enhancements in the mean abundances of simulated galactic objects shows that, in the redshift range analyzed, there are already significant contributions from both types of SNs, so that the mean unweighted metallicities of the $`N_{\mathrm{HI}}`$ are nearly solar, in agreement with DLAs observations after dust corrections. We detect no evolution of \[$`\alpha `$/Fe\] with metallicity implying that, for our galactic objects, their SF histories are the result of the superposition of different starbursts occuring at different epochs. Moreover, the starbursts could have been triggered in different substructures that merge to form the galactic objects analyzed at a given z. In the case of Zn we found enhancement with respect to the Fe but no dependence on metallicity. A lower Zn nucleosynthesis production in the models (or assuming that Zn traces Fe) would have produced \[Zn/Fe\] values in agreement with the dust-corrected observed DLAs (Vladilo (1998)). This lower Zn production does not affect the agreement found between the observed and simulated \[Zn/H\] at low $`z`$ shown in Figure 1a. At high z, models and observations can be reconciled if one takes into account that several high $`z`$ estimations of \[Zn/H\] in observed DLAs are upper limits instead of accurate values. The zinc remains a controversial element as pointed out by several authors (Lu et al. (1996); Pettini et al. (1999); Pettini et al. (2000); Prantzos & Bossier (2000); Savaglio (2000)) whose production and evolution are not fully understood.

To sum up, the chemical properties of galactic objects in our models at a given z are the result of their past evolution: collapse, mergers, interactions, SF history, etc. Since we do not impose any particular constraint to select the galactic objects in the models, the results of our chemical analysis seem to support that DLAs could be the building blocks of today normal galaxies within a hierarchical context.

We thank the anonymous Referee for a careful reading and thoughtful comments that helped to improve this letter. This work was partially supported by the Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Agencia de Promoción de Ciencia y Tecnología, Fundación Antorchas and Secretaria de Ciencia y Técnica de la Universidad Nacional de Córdoba. P. Tissera thanks the hospitality of Observatorio Astronómico de Córdoba during her visits.