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# Untitled Document

NMR in the quantum Hall effect
Keshav N. Shrivastava School of Physics, University of Hyderabad,
Hyderabad 500 046, India.

Abstract.

We report that the rate of field sweep is important for the observation of the zeroes in the transverse resistivity in the quantum Hall effect. The resistivity also shows resonances at the nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) frequencies when the r.f. coil is placed along the x direction. The relationship of the eigen values with the resistivity is pointed out which shows that even if the eigen values are largely corresponding to that of the single-particle, the plateau widths, shifts and shape require many-body interactions.

Recently, Kronmüller et al$`[1]`$ have found that the longitudinal resistivity shows maxima in samples of GaAs/AlxGa1-xAs which have small well thickness and when the field sweep rate is small, 0.002 T/min, instead of zeros at the same values of the magnetic field at which the transverse resistivity, $`\rho _{xy}`$ shows plateaus. Usually, at a large sweep rate in samples of large thickness, the longitudinal resistivity, $`\rho _{xx}`$, shows zeros at certain values of the field, $`B_z`$, at which $`\rho _{xy}`$ shows plateaus. The optically pumped$`[2]`$ NMR studies have been performed at the Landau level filling factor of $`\nu =1/2`$ which show that at the points where $`\rho _{xx}`$ shows zeros and $`\rho _{xy}`$ plateaus, the maxima in $`\rho _{xx}`$ occur instead of zeros and the existence of field is proved by performing the NMR of 71Ga. According to Maxwell equations, the zero in the resistivity is consistent with the zero in the magnetic field. However, in the quantum Hall effect $`\rho _{xx}=0`$ points have large finite fields, $`B_z`$ which requires that ordinary Maxwell equations may be modified to accomodate the experimentally observed fields when $`\rho _{xx}=0`$. The consistency in the Maxwell equations may be obtained by a suitable shift in the field. The entire field is subject to the flux quantization but it is not necessary to split it into two terms, one flux quantized and the other not quantized. It is also not necessary to attach fluxex even number or odd, to the electrons.

In the present letter, we find that both the electric as well as the magnetic fields require modification and not only the vector potential but also the scalar potential has to be corrected to understand the NMR at such points where $`\rho _{xy}`$ has plateaus and $`\rho _{xx}`$ has zeros. Since the NMR shows that the magnetic field is not zero, it is clear that $`\rho _{xx}`$ should also not be zero. Therefore, we report modifications in both the electric as well as the magnetic fields and hence in the scalar as well as the vector potential of the electromagnetic fields.

In quantum Hall effect, the magnetic field is applied along the $`z`$ direction, the electric field along the $`x`$ direction and the Hall voltage is measured along the $`y`$ direction, in a layered semiconductor with layers in the $`xz`$ plane. It is found that the longitudinal resistivity, $`\rho _{xx}`$, as a function of magnetic field, $`B_z`$, becomes zero at several values of $`B_z`$ and oscillates between zeros and maxima. The transverse resistivity in the $`xy`$ plane, $`\rho _{xy}`$, shows plateaus at the same values of field, $`B_z`$, at which $`\rho _{xx}`$ shows zero values. In the samples of GaAs/AlxGa1-xAs with reduced well thickness, 15 nm, as compared with the conventional ones, the transverse resistivity shows maxima, at the same values of the fields where zeros occur in the large well samples. At integer filling factors the resistance, $`\rho _{xx}`$ goes to zero and at filling factor $`\nu =2/3`$ there is a minimum but when the sweep rate of the magnetic field is reduced to 0.002 T/min a huge maximum (HLR) is found instead of a minimum or zero. Kronmüller et al$`[1]`$ have performed the nuclear magnetic resonance measurement of 75As at the same field as that at which $`\rho _{xx}`$ is a maximum. Thus it is proved that there is a field at which $`\rho _{xx}=0`$. We make an effort to understand the NMR at a field at which there is a huge longitudinal resistance (HLR). This is the same point at which $`\rho _{xx}`$ shows zero in thick well samples and $`\rho _{xy}`$ shows plateaus. In superconductors, the zero resistivity is consistent with zero field but in the present case there is always a field along $`z`$ direction. Therefore, we develop a theory which can give a zero resistivity at a finite magnetic field without superconductivity. Such a theory does not exist in the literature.

We assume that magnetic induction is independent of time so that $`dB/dt=0`$. According to a Maxwell equation,

$$\times E=\frac{B}{t}$$
(1)
so that $`\times E=0`$, which gives $`E=0`$. Since the current $`j=(1/\rho )E`$, the value $`E=0`$ is consistent with $`\rho =0`$. This is true in superconductivity where all components of $`B`$ are zero. In the quantum Hall effect, (QHE) when $`\rho _{xx}=0`$, there is a large magentic field along the $`z`$ direction. Therefore $`B=0`$ and $`\rho _{xx}=0`$ type theory is not applicable. In order to understand the QHE, we suggest that both $`E`$ and $`B`$ are shifted. The quasiparticles of charge $`\nu e`$ with a finite charge density, produce a field due to Maxwell equations

$`E_o`$ $`=`$ $`4\pi \rho _o`$
$`\times B_oc^1(E_o/t)`$ $`=`$ $`(4\pi /c)j`$ (2)
so that we can assume that there are fields $`E_o`$ and $`B_o`$ which shift the electric field and the magnetic induction. Now, $`B_z`$ is replaced by $`B_zB_o`$ and

$$\frac{d}{dt}(B_zB_o)=0$$
(3)
so that there is no field inside the semiconductor. Substituting this result into the Maxwell equation and replacing $`E_x`$ by $`E_xE_o`$, we find,

$$\times (E_xE_o)=0$$
(4)
so that $`E_xE_o=0`$. The Ohm’s law is

$$\rho _{xx}j=E_xE_o$$
(5)
which is consistant with $`\rho _{xx}=0`$ for $`E_xE_o=0`$. This result gives the usual QHE. The magnetic induction inside the semiconductor is

$$B_zB_o+4\pi M=0$$
(6)
because $`\rho _{xx}=0`$. Here $`M`$ is the magnetization of the sample. The above result shows that the points where $`\rho _{xx}=0`$ have diamagnetic magnetization,

$$\frac{M}{B_zB_o}=\frac{1}{4\pi }.$$
(7)
The $`\rho _{xx}=0`$ is thus consistant with a shift $`B_o`$ in the field. Since there is a sweep rate dependence, the above processes occur in a time $`\tau `$ such that the field shift is given by

$$B_o=\tau \frac{d}{dt}B_o=\tau \alpha _o$$
(8)
where $`\alpha _o`$ is the sweep rate. The effective field is thus given by

$$B_{eff}=B_z\tau \frac{d}{dt}B_o=B_z\tau \alpha _o.$$
(9)
For small values of $`\alpha _o`$, the condition

$$f(\alpha _o)=B_z\tau \alpha _o+4\pi M=0$$
(10)
is not satisfied so that $`\rho _{xx}=0`$ points do not occur. Thus the maximum value of $`\alpha _o`$ for which $`f(\alpha _o)=0`$ is

$$\alpha _{o,min}=(B_z+4\pi M)/\tau .$$
(11)
If $`\alpha _o`$ is less than $`\alpha _{o,min}`$, the value of $`f(\alpha _o)`$ is positive and $`\rho _{xx}=0`$ does not occur. Large values of $`\alpha _o`$ give negative $`f(\alpha _o)`$ while small values of $`\alpha _o`$ give positive $`f(\alpha _o)`$. Thus there is a particular value of $`\alpha _o`$ for which $`\rho _{xx}=0`$ points occur. For small values of $`\alpha _o`$ finite value of $`\rho _{xx}`$ occurs. Thus the quantum Hall effect requires an effective charge $`\nu e`$ of the quasiparticles which shifts both $`E`$ and $`B`$ and the sweep rate of the field is important for the observation of zeros in the $`\rho _{xx}`$ at certain finite values of the magnetic field along the $`z`$ direction. Since $`\stackrel{}{B}=\stackrel{}{}\times \stackrel{}{A}`$ a shift in $`\stackrel{}{B}`$ amounts to a shift in the vector potential $`\stackrel{}{A}`$, but there is a time dependent term in the above so that $`A/t`$ is not zero. Since the scalar potential $`\varphi `$ depends on $`E`$ as well as on $`A/t`$, by means of the relation $`E+(1/c)(A/t)=\varphi `$, it is clear that $`\varphi `$ also requires a correction due to shift $`E_o`$ in $`E`$ and the finite sweep rate dependence in $`B`$ and hence in $`A/t`$.

According to the Chern-Simons transformation$`[3,4]`$ in three dimensions, one can add a term $`ϵ_{ijk}A_iF_{jk}`$ to the vector potential $`\stackrel{}{A}`$ in the expression for the linear momentum $`p\frac{e}{c}\stackrel{}{A}`$ without disturbing the gauge and Lorentz invariance. Our calculation clearly shows that additional shift in the magnetic field is consistent with the Chern-Simons (CS) transformation and hence the vector potential is shifted. However, it is also clear that the scalar potential should also be corrected. Thus not only the vector potential (CS) but also the scalar potential is shifted.

For $`\alpha _o<\alpha _{o,min}`$ the $`\rho _{xx}=0`$ point does not occur but the $`\rho _{xy}`$ has plateaus. The field $`B_z`$ at this point may be called $`B_{eff}`$ so that NMR may be used to measure this field. The radio-frequency coil is fixed such that the r.f. oscillating field is along the $`x`$ direction with $`B_z`$ along the $`z`$ direction. The NMR transition occurs when the resonance frequency matches with the effective field,

$$\omega =\gamma B_{eff}$$
(12)
where $`\gamma =g_N\mu _N/\mathrm{}`$ is the nuclear gyromagnetic ratio. Thus the NMR is shifted according to eq.(9). The quadrupole interaction is given by the hamiltonian,

$$=g_N\mu _NB_{eff}.I_z+Q^{}[I_z^2\frac{1}{3}I(I+1)]+Q^{\prime \prime }(I_x^2I_y^2)$$
(13)
where $`g_N`$ is the nuclear $`g`$ factor, $`\mu _N`$ is the nuclear magneton, $`I`$ is the nuclear spin and $`Q^{}`$ and $`Q^{\prime \prime }`$ are the nuclear quadrupole interaction constants. Usually, the transitions $`3/21/2,1/2+1/2`$ and $`1/23/2`$ are superimposed on each other so that only one spectral line occurs. However, in the present case $`3/21/2`$ and $`1/23/2`$ transitions are also quite strong. The separation between these two transitions is

$`E_{3/21/2}E_{1/23/2}`$ $`=`$ $`2[(Q^{}+g_N\mu _NB_{eff})^2+3Q^{\prime \prime 2}]^{1/2}`$ (14)
$`+[(Q^{}g_N\mu _NB_{eff})^2+3Q^{\prime \prime 2}]^{1/2}.`$
In addition $`3/2+3/2`$ is also possible so that there are four lines in the NMR spectrum of 75As with $`I=3/2`$ as clearly seen in the spectra of $`\rho _{xx}`$ as a function of r.f. frequency. In the NMR experiments, it is sufficient to have a large field along the $`z`$ direction and a small r.f. oscillating field along the $`x`$ direction. However, in the present case, there is a large electric field along the $`x`$ direction. Therefore, the theory of usual NMR requires correction for the electric field. The wave functions are mixed $`|a^{}>=a|3/2>+b|1/2>+c|1/2>+d|3/2>`$ due to interactions of the form $`_i_{jk}(\frac{1}{2})R_{ijk}E_i(I_jI_k+I_kI_j)`$ where $`E_i`$ are the components along the $`x,y`$ and $`z`$ axis which correct the nuclear quadrupole interaction as given in an analogous problem$`[5,6]`$. The relaxation at very low temperatures such as 0.3 K is caused by the absorption and emission of photons which gives rise to very long relaxation times, of the order of minutes. The details of the calculation of relaxation times were given long time ago. The relative change in resistivity is given by,

$$\frac{\delta R_{xx}}{R_{xx}}=\left(\frac{L_o\omega }{R_o}\right)4\pi \chi ^{\prime \prime }=4\pi \chi ^{\prime \prime }Q$$

where the $`\chi ^{\prime \prime }`$ is the imaginary part of the susceptibility, $`\chi =\chi ^{}(\omega )i\chi ^{\prime \prime }(\omega )`$, $`Q`$ is the quality factor of the coil and the inductance is $`L_o(1+4\pi \chi _o)`$. The coil of inductance $`L_o`$ is filled with the material of susceptibility, $`\chi _o`$. The imaginary part of the susceptibility is given by,

$$\chi ^{\prime \prime }=\frac{\chi _o}{2}\omega _oT_2\frac{1}{1+(\omega \omega _o)^2T_2^2}$$

where $`T_2`$ determines the life time which in this case is caused$`[7]`$ by the radiative process. At $`\omega =\omega _o`$ there is a resonance detected by the resistivity, $`\rho _{xx}`$. The hyperfine splitting has not been seen by Kronmüller et al$`[1]`$. However, in general the isotropic value of the hyperfine constant, $`A`$, in the hyperfine interaction A.I.S is determined by

$$A_s=\frac{8\pi }{3}gg_N\mu _B\mu _N|\psi (o)|^2.$$

If $`e`$ is changed to $`\nu e`$, the change may be introduced as in previous studies $`[8,9]`$. Hence it will be of interest to observe hyperfine interactions with fractional charge. Kronmüller et al have thus opened the doors to a whole variety of new NMR measurements.

It turns out that the values of the fractions given in Fig.18 of Störmer’s Nobel lecture  are the same as those given by Shrivastava in 1986. The equality of masses of some of the quasiparticles is also well explained  by the mechanism of Shrivastava . The high Landau levels are also understood by this mechanism . Considerable amount of the experimental data agrees very well with Shrivastava’s theory . It is found that there is a correction to the value of the Bohr magneton. From this study it is clear that as far as determining the centres of the plateus in the $`\rho _{xy}`$ and the zeroes in $`\rho _{xx}`$ is concerned, there is little role of the many-body theory. However, electrons interact with radiation and with phonons, so that many-body theory enters for the determination of the plateau length and shape of the minima curves.

In conclusion, we find that both the electric as well as the magnetic fields are subject to a shift in the quantum Hall effect so that a new mode is predicted. The NMR can be detected by measuring the resonances in the resistivity, $`\rho _{xx}`$.

1. S. Kronmüller, W. Dietsche, K. v. Klitzing, G. Denninger, W. Wegscheider W and M. Bichler,Phys. Rev. Lett. 82, 4070 (1999).
2. A. E. Dementyev, N. N. Kuzma, P. Khandelwal, S. E. Barrett, L. N. Pfeiffer and K. W. West, Phys. Rev. Lett. 83, 5074 (1999).
3. S. S. Chern and J. Simons, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. (U.S.A.) 68, 791 (1971).
4. A. Stern A, B. I. Halperin, F. v. Oppen F v and S. H. Simon S H, Phys. Rev. B59, 12547 (1999).
5. A. Kiel A and W. B. Mims, Phys. Rev. B5, 803 (1972)
6. A. B. Roitsin, Usp. Fiz. Nauk 105, 677 (1971); \[Sov. Phys. Uspekhi 14, 766 (1972)\].
7. K. N. Shrivastava, Phys. Stat. Solidi B115, K 37 (1983).
8. K. N. Shrivastava, Mod. Phys. Lett. B13, 1087 (1999).
9. K. N. Shrivastava, Superconductivity: Elementary Topics, World Scientific Pub. Co.: Singapore; River Edge, N. J., (2000).
10. H. L. Störmer, Rev. Mod. Phys. 71, 875 (1999).
11. K. N. Shrivastava, Phys. Lett. A 113, 435 (1986).
12. K. N. Shrivastava, Mod. Phys. Lett. 14, 1009 (2000).
13. K. N. Shrivastava, cond-mat/0103604.
14. K. N. Shrivastava, CERN SCAN-0103007.
15. K. N. Shrivastava, cond-mat/0104004.


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# Collapsing strange quark matter in Vaidya Geometry

## I Introduction

It is generally believed that strange quark matter, consisting of $`u,d`$ and $`s`$ quarks, is the most energetically favorable state of baryon matter. Witten  suggested that there are two ways of formation of the strange matter: the quark-hadron phase transition in the early universe and the conversion of neutron stars into strange ones at ultrahigh densities. Some theories of strong interactions, e.g. quark bag models, suppose that the breaking of physical vacuum takes place inside hadrons. As a result the vacuum energy densities inside and outside a hadron become essentially different and the vacuum pressure on a bag wall equilibrates the pressure of quarks thus stabilizing the system.

There are several proposed mechanisms for the formation of quark stars. Quark stars are expected to form during the collapse of the core of a massive star after the supernova explosion as a result of a first or second order phase transition, resulting in deconfined quark matter . The proto-neutron star core or the neutron star core is a favorable environment for the conversion of ordinary matter to strange quark matter . Another possibility for strange star formation is that some neutron stars in low-mass X-ray binaries can accrete sufficient mass to undergo a phase transition to become strange star . Such a possibility is also supported by an unusual hard X-ray burster . This mechanism has been proposed as a source of radiation emission for cosmological $`\gamma `$-ray bursts . Other possible astrophysical phenomena related to strange stars are discusssed in Ref. . Hence the problem of the collapse of the strange matter is of much interest in the study of strange quark star formation, dynamics and evolution. On the other hand the theoretical understanding of the collapse is of fundamental importance in general relativity.

Usually it is considered that quark matter is formed from a Fermi gas of $`3A`$ quarks constituting a single color-singlet baryon with baryon number $`A`$. The theory of the equation of state of strange matter is directly based on the fundamental QCD Lagrangian

$$L_{QCD}=\frac{1}{4}\underset{a}{}F_{\mu \nu }^aF^{a\mu \nu }+\underset{f=1}{\overset{N_f}{}}\overline{\psi }\left(i\gamma ^\mu _\mu g\gamma ^\mu A_\mu ^a\frac{\lambda ^a}{2}m_f\right)\psi .$$
(1)
The subscript $`f`$ denotes the various quark flavors $`u,d,s`$ etc. and the nonlinear gluon field strength is given by

$$F_{\mu \nu }^a=_\mu A_\nu ^a_\nu A_\mu ^a+gf_{abc}A_\mu ^bA_\nu ^c.$$
(2)
QCD predicts a weakening of the quark-quark interaction at short distances (or high momenta $`Q^2`$), because the one-loop series for the gluon propagator yields a running coupling constant.

Neglecting quark masses in first order perturbation theory, the equation of state for zero temperature quark matter is

$$p=\frac{1}{3}\left(\rho 4B\right),$$
(3)
where $`B`$ is the difference between the energy density of the perturbative and non-perturbative QCD vacuum (the bag constant) and $`\rho ,p`$ are the energy density and thermodynamic pressure of the quark matter, respectively. Eq. (3) is essentially the equation of state of a gas of massless particles with corrections due to the QCD trace anomaly and perturbative interactions. The vacuum pressure $`B`$, which holds quark matter together, is a simple model for the long-range, confining interactions in QCD. At the surface of the star, as $`p0`$, we have $`\rho 4B`$. The typical value of the bag constant is of the order $`B=57MeV/fm^310^{15}g/cm^3`$ . After the neutron matter-quark matter phase transition (which is supposed to take place in the dense core of neutron stars) the energy density of strange matter is $`\rho 5\times 10^{14}g/cm^3`$ .Therefore quark matter always satisfy the condition $`p0`$.

It is the purpose of the present Letter to obtain an exact non-static solution of the Einstein field equations for a collapsing charged null strange fluid in a Vaidya space-time and to study some of its singularity properties. The Vaidya geometry permitting the incorporations of the effects of radiation offers a more realistic background than static geometries, where all back reaction is ignored. The exact solution obtained represents the generalization, for strange matter, of the collapsing solutions previously obtained by Vaidya , Bonnor and Vaidya , Lake and Zannias  and Husain . For a general method of obtaining spherically symmetric solutions in Vaidya geometry, see Ref. . The structure and properties of singularities in the gravitational collapse in Vaidya space-times have been analyzed in Refs. \[13-17\].

The present Letter is organized as follows. In Section II the gravitational field equations are written down and the general solution is obtained. The conditions of formation of a naked singularity are analyzed in Section III. In Section IV we discuss and conclude our results.

## II Spherical collapse of the strange quark null fluid

In ingoing Bondi coordinates ($`u,r,\theta ,\phi `$) and with advanced Eddington time coordinate $`u=t+r`$ (with $`r0`$ the radial coordinate and $`r`$ decreasing towards the future) the line element describing the radial collapse of a coherent stream of charged strange matter is

$$ds^2=\left[1\frac{2m(u,r)}{r}\right]du^2+2dudr+r^2\left(d\theta ^2+\mathrm{sin}^2\theta d\phi ^2\right).$$
(4)
$`m(u,r)`$ is the mass function and gives the gravitational mass within a given radius $`r`$.

Equilibrium configuration of masless strange quark matter has equal numbers of $`u,d`$ and $`s`$ quarks and is electrically neutral. If the mass of the strange quark is not zero, strange quarks are depleted and the system develops a net positive charge. Since stars in their lowest energy state are supposed to be charge neutral, electrons must balance the net positive quark charge in strange matter and the condition of charge neutrality requires $`\frac{2}{3}n_u\frac{1}{3}n_d\frac{1}{3}n_sn_e=0`$, where $`n`$ is the particle number density . Hence quark matter is usually neutral. In principle, rather extreme astrophysical conditions could lead to a charged strange quark matter astrophysical configuration and, for the sake of generality, we shall also consider this possibility.

We shall write the matter energy-momentum tensor in the form

$$T_{\mu \nu }=T_{\mu \nu }^{(n)}+T_{\mu \nu }^{(m)}+E_{\mu \nu },$$
(5)
where

$$T_{\mu \nu }^{(n)}=\mu (u,r)l_\mu l_\nu ,$$
(6)
is the component of the matter field that moves along the null hypersurfaces $`u=const.`$,

$$T_{\mu \nu }^{(m)}=\left(\rho +p\right)\left(l_\mu n_\nu +l_\nu n_\mu \right)+pg_{\mu \nu },$$
(7)
represents the energy-momentum tensor of the strange quark matter and

$$E_{\mu \nu }=\frac{1}{4\pi }\left(F_{\mu \alpha }F_\nu ^\alpha \frac{1}{4}g_{\mu \nu }F_{\alpha \beta }F^{\alpha \beta }\right),$$
(8)
is the electromagnetic contribution. $`l_\mu `$ and $`n_\mu `$ are two null-vectors given by $`l_\mu =\delta _{\left(\mu \right)}^{\left(\mu \right)}`$ and $`n_\mu =\frac{1}{2}\left[1\frac{2m(u,r)}{r}\right]\delta _{\left(\mu \right)}^{\left(\mu \right)}\delta _{\left(\mu \right)}^{\left(1\right)}`$, so that $`l_\alpha l^\alpha =n_\alpha n^\alpha =0`$ and $`l_\alpha n^\alpha =1`$  (with $`\delta _{\left(b\right)}^{\left(a\right)}`$ the Kronecker symbol). The energy density and pressure in Eq. (7) have been obtained by diagonalizing the energy-momentum tensor obtained from the metric . The electromagnetic tensor $`F_{\mu \nu }`$ obeys the Maxwell equations

$$\frac{F_{\mu \nu }}{x^\lambda }+\frac{F_{\lambda \mu }}{x^\nu }+\frac{F_{\nu \lambda }}{x^\mu }=0,$$
(9)
$$\frac{1}{\sqrt{g}}\frac{}{x^\mu }\left(\sqrt{g}F^{\mu \nu }\right)=4\pi j^\mu .$$
(10)
Without any loss of generality we take the vector potential to be

$$A_\mu =\frac{q\left(u\right)}{r}\delta _{\left(\mu \right)}^{\left(\mu \right)},$$
(11)
with $`q(u)`$ being an arbitrary function. From the Maxwell Eqs. (9), (10) it follows that the only non-vanishing components of $`F_{\mu \nu }`$ are $`F_{ru}=F_{ur}=\frac{q(u)}{r^2}`$ and

$$E_\mu ^\nu =\frac{q^2(u)}{r^4}diag(1,1,1,1).$$
(12)
For the energy-momentum tensor (5) the gravitational field equations take the form

$$\frac{1}{r^2}\frac{m(u,r)}{u}=4\pi \mu (u,r),$$
(13)
$$\frac{2}{r^2}\frac{m(u,r)}{r}=8\pi \rho (u,r)+\frac{q^2(u)}{r^4},$$
(14)
$$\frac{1}{r}\frac{^2m(u,r)}{r^2}=8\pi p(u,r)+\frac{q^2(u)}{r^4}.$$
(15)
By using the bag equation of state of strange matter given by Eq. (3), we obtain the following equation describing the dynamics of a mixture of null fluid, strange matter and electric field:

$$\frac{^2m(u,r)}{r^2}=\frac{2}{3r}\frac{m(u,r)}{r}\frac{2}{3}\frac{q^2(u)}{r^3}+\frac{32\pi B}{3}r.$$
(16)
By means of the substitution

$$m(u,r)=m_0(u,r)+\frac{4\pi B}{3}r^3\frac{q^2(u)}{2r},$$
(17)
we obtain a new unknown function $`m_0(u,r)`$, which satisfies the equation

$$\frac{^2m_0(u,r)}{r^2}=\frac{2}{3r}\frac{m_0(u,r)}{r},$$
(18)
having the general solution

$$m_0(u,r)=C\left(u\right)r^{1/3}+F(u),$$
(19)
with $`C\left(u\right)`$ and $`F(u)`$ being two arbitrary functions. Hence the general solution of the gravitational field equations for collapsing strange matter in the Vaidya metric (4) is given by

$$m(u,r)=F(u)+C\left(u\right)r^{1/3}+\frac{4\pi B}{3}r^3\frac{q^2(u)}{2r},$$
(20)
$$\mu (u,r)=\frac{1}{4\pi r^2}\left[\frac{dF(u)}{du}+\frac{dC(u)}{du}r^{1/3}q(u)\frac{dq(u)}{du}\frac{1}{r}\right],$$
(21)
$$\rho (u,r)=\frac{1}{4\pi r^2}\left[\frac{1}{3}C(u)r^{2/3}+\frac{q^2(u)}{2r^2}+4\pi Br^2\right],$$
(22)
$$p(u,r)=\frac{1}{12\pi r^2}\left[\frac{1}{3}C(u)r^{2/3}+\frac{q^2(u)}{2r^2}12\pi Br^2\right].$$
(23)
The electromagnetic current follows from the Maxwell Eq. (10) and is given by

$$j^\mu =\frac{1}{4\pi r^2}\frac{dq(u)}{du}l^\mu .$$
(24)
For $`B=0`$ and $`q(u)=0`$ we obtain the solution given by Husain  for the null fluid pressure satisfying $`p=\frac{1}{3}\rho `$.

The energy-momentum tensor of the mixture of fluids under consideration belongs to the Type II fluids . The energy conditions are the weak, strong and dominant energy conditions $`\mu 0,\rho 0,p0,\rho p0`$ and can be satisfied by appropriately choosing the arbitrary functions $`F(u)`$ and $`C(u)`$ that characterize the injection and initial distribution of mass and $`q(u)`$ that describes the variation of the charge. The condition $`\mu 0`$ is equivalent to $`\frac{dm}{du}0`$ and leads to

$$\frac{dF(u)}{du}+\frac{dC(u)}{du}r^{1/3}q(u)\frac{dq(u)}{du}\frac{1}{r},$$
(25)
imposing a simultaneous constraint on all three functions $`F(u),C(u)`$ and $`q(u)`$. For small values of $`r`$ and for charged quark matter, the right hand side of Eq. (25) dominates and this energy condition could not hold. One possibility to satisfy Eq. (25) for all $`r`$ is to assume that the function $`q(u)`$ behaves so that $`\frac{dq^2(u)}{du}0`$ for $`r0`$. This means that the charge in the singular point $`r=0`$ is constant for all times. Alternatively, we may suppose that at extremely small radii matter is converted to strange quark matter so as to satisfy the energy condition. For neutral quark matter Eq. (25) is easily satisfyed by choosing $`\frac{dF(u)}{du}>0`$ and $`\frac{dC(u)}{du}>0`$. To satisfy the condition $`p0`$ for large $`r`$, we must impose on the function $`C(u)`$ the constraint $`C(u)36\pi Br^{7/2}0,u`$. With this choice the condition of the non-negative energy density is also automatically satisfied. Due to the bag equation of state (3) we always have $`\rho p0`$ and thus the dominant energy condition holds, too.

The radii of the apparent horizon of the metric (4) are given by the solution of the equation $`2m=r`$. If $`lim_u\mathrm{}F(u)=F_0=const.`$, $`lim_u\mathrm{}C(u)=C_0=const.`$ and $`lim_u\mathrm{}q(u)=q_0=const.`$ then the algebraic equation determining the radii of the apparent horizons is

$$2F_0+2C_0r^{1/3}+\frac{8\pi B}{3}r^3\frac{q_0^2}{r}=r,$$
(26)
which in general may have multiple solutions.

The singularities of the quark matter filled Vaidya space-time can be recognized from the behavior of the energy density and curvature scalars like e.g. $`R_{\alpha \beta }R^{\alpha \beta }`$ given by

$$R_{\alpha \beta }R^{\alpha \beta }=\frac{8}{r^4}\left[\frac{1}{3}C(u)r^{8/3}+\frac{q^2(u)}{r^4}+4\pi B\right]^2,$$
(27)
which diverges for $`r0`$.

## III Outgoing radial null geodesics equation

The central shell-focusing singularity (i.e. that occuring at $`r=0`$) is naked if the radial null-geodesic equation admits one or more positive real root $`X_0`$ . In the case of the pure Vaidya space-time it has been shown that for a linear mass function $`2m(u)=\lambda u`$ the singularity at $`r=0,u=0`$ is naked for $`\lambda \frac{1}{8}`$ . In order to simplify calculations we choose some particular expressions for the functions $`F(u),C(u)`$ and $`q(u)`$, e.g. $`F(u)=\alpha u/2`$, $`C(u)=\beta u^{2/3}`$ and $`q(u)=\gamma u`$, with $`\alpha >0,\beta >0`$ and $`\gamma 0`$ constants. With this choice the equation of the radially outgoing, future-directed null geodesic originating at the singularity is

$$\frac{du}{dr}=\frac{2}{1\frac{\alpha u}{r}\beta \left(\frac{u}{r}\right)^{2/3}\gamma \left(\frac{u}{r}\right)^2\frac{8\pi B}{3}r^2}.$$
(28)
For the geodesic tangent to be uniquely defined and to exist at the singular point $`r=0,u=0`$ of Eq. (28) the following condition must hold :

$$\underset{u,r0}{lim}\frac{u}{r}=\underset{u,r0}{lim}\frac{du}{dr}=X_0.$$
(29)
When the limit exists and $`X_0`$ is real and positive, there is a future directed, non-space=like geodesic originating from $`r=0,u=0`$. In this case the singularity will be, at least, locally naked. For the null geodesic Eq. (28) condition (29) leads to the follosing algebraic equation:

$$\gamma X_0^3+\alpha X_0^2+\beta X_0^{5/3}X_0+2=0.$$
(30)
With the help of the substitution $`X_0=y^3`$ Eq. (30) becomes a ninth order polynomial equation of the form $`f(y)=\gamma y^9+\alpha y^6+\beta y^5y^3+2=0`$. According to a theorem given by Poincare  the number of positive roots of a polynomial equation equals the number of changes in sign in the sequence of the non-negative coefficients of the polynomial $`g(y)=\left(1+y\right)^kf(y)`$. The Poincare criterion indicates that Eq. (30) has two positive roots. In order to give an estimate of the positive roots we shall consider the expression $`g(y)=\left(1+y\right)^kf(y)=_{\nu =0}^{k+9}b_k\left(\nu \right)y^\nu `$, with $`b_k(0)=\gamma >0`$ . Let $`\nu _k(1)`$ denote the smallest integer for which $`b_k\left(\nu _k(1)\right)0`$ and $`b_k\left(\nu _k(1)+1\right)<0`$. Then we obtain the numbers $`\nu _k(1)`$ and $`\nu _k(2)`$. These numbers satisfy the relations

$$\frac{\nu _k(s)}{k\nu _k(s)+1}\xi (k,\nu ,s)\frac{\nu _k(s)+1}{k\nu _k(s)},s=1,2,$$
(31)
$$\underset{k\mathrm{}}{lim}\frac{\nu _k(s)}{k\nu _k(s)+1}=\underset{k\mathrm{}}{lim}\xi (k,\nu ,s)=y_s>0,s=1,2,$$
(32)
$$f\left(y_s\right)=0,s=1,2.$$
(33)
Therefore it is always possible to construct a convergent sequence to obtain the positive roots of Eq.(30). In the case of the neutral quark fluid, $`q(u)0`$ and Eq. (30) is reduced to a sixth order algebraic equation also having two positive roots.

## IV Conclusions

In the present paper we considered the collapse of a strange quark fluid in Vaidya geometry. The possible occurence of a central naked singularity has also been investigated and it has been shown that, at least for a particular choice of the parameters, a naked singularity is formed. Depending on the initial distribution of density and velocity and on the constitutive nature of the collapsing matter either a black hole or a naked singularity is formed. The values of the parameters in the solution (20)-(23) determine which of these possibilities occurs. The solution describing the collapse of the quark matter is not asymptotically flat and this condition does not play any role in the formation of the naked singularity. Due to the presence of the bag constant $`B`$ (playing the role of a cosmological constant, from a formal mathematical point of view) the mass function (20) gives a cosmological type metric.

Quark matter, deconfined phase of hadronic matter at high temperatures or densities may reside as a permanent component of neutron stars core or to form stable compact stellar objects . In fact from a physical point of view it seems to be one of the best and more realistic candidates for the study of properties of collapsing objects. It also serves to ilustrate the much richer interplay that can occur among particle physics and general relativity when more involved quantum field theoretical models are considered.

## Acknowledgments

The authors are very grateful to the referee for many helpful comments, which helped to improve the manuscript. This paper is supported by a RGC grant of Hong Kong government.


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# Different Types of X-ray Variability Observed in Micro-Quasar GRS 1915+105 with the IXAE

## 1. INTRODUCTION

The galactic X-ray source GRS 1915$`+`$105 discovered in 1992 shows superluminal motion and other radio characteristics similar to those of quasars and hence has been termed as a ‘micro-quasar’. From resemblance of its spectral and temporal properties with that of superluminal Galactic radio source GRO J1655$``$40 (Zhang et al. 1997), GRS 1915$`+`$105 is believed to be a black hole. The source is very bright in X-ray, emitting at a luminosity of more than 1039 erg s-1. It exhibits strong variability over a wide range of time scales in X-ray, infrared and radio bands. The X-ray emission is characterized by chaotic variability as well as narrow quasi-periodic oscillations (QPOs) at centroid frequency in the range of 0.001 $``$ 67 Hz. It is found that the intensity dependent narrow QPOs are a characteristic property of the hard-state which is absent in the soft-state. Based on extensive X-ray studies the behaviour of the source can be classified in two distinct states: the spectrally hard-state, dominated by a power-law component when the QPOs are present and the soft-state, dominated by thermal emission when the QPOs are absent.

The micro-quasar GRS 1915$`+`$105 shows a variety of features in the X-ray light curve. Large, eclipse-like dips in the X-ray flux, called as brightness sputters, with a recurrence time of about 250 s, extremely large amplitude oscillations with an amplitude of $``$ 3 Crab and recurrence periods of 30-100 s, fast oscillations in the X-ray flux, brief flares (lasting for a few seconds) following the low level X-ray flux (lull) and several complex type of regular and quasi-regular variations in the X-ray flux are observed in the light curves at different times. Wide range of transient activity, including the regular and quasi-regular bursts with a secondary (and tertiary) weaker burst following the primary burst, are described as a result of thermal instability in the inner accretion disk producing short duration luminosity fluctuations which are observed as bursts. Belloni et al. (2000) have made an extensive study on the X-ray emission of the source and classified all the publicly available RXTE/PCA observations from 1996 January to 1997 December into 12 different classes on the basis of structure of the X-ray light curve and the nature of the color diagram. From the above study, they found that the source variability is restricted into three basic states, a hard-state with non-observability of the inner accretion disk and two soft-states with visible inner accretion disk and at different temperatures depending on the different values of mass accretion rate.

Attempts have been made to explain the observed X-ray properties of the source with the properties at longer wavelengths. Simultaneous observations at shorter and longer wavelengths have established the correlation between the X-ray variability and the emission at radio and infrared wavelengths (Fender et al. 1999 and reference therein). They showed that the emission at longer wavelengths is associated with the plasma ejection from the instabilities in the inner accretion disk. Naik & Rao (2000) examined the radio properties of the source during all the 12 different X-ray classes. They showed that the huge radio flares are associated with the soft-dips in X-ray light curve (classes $`\theta `$ and $`\beta `$) where as the higher flux density at radio wavelengths with flat spectrum is associated with the X-ray low-hard states referred as “plateau” state (classes $`\chi 1`$ and $`\chi 3`$). It is found that in all the other X-ray classes of Belloni et al. (2000) classification, the source remains in a radio-quiet state.

In this paper, we present a summary of the main variability characteristics of the source observed in different states with the Pointed mode Proportional Counters (PPCs) of IXAE. It was found to be in different brightness states during the five different epochs of observations.

## 2. OBSERVATIONS

The X-ray observations of GRS 1915$`+`$105 were carried out from 1996 July to 2000 June at five different epochs with the PPCs of the IXAE on board the Indian satellite IRS-P3. The IXAE includes three co-aligned and identical, multi-wire, multi-layer proportional counters, filled with a gas mixture of 90% Argon and 10% Methane at a pressure of 800 torr, with a total effective area of 1200 cm2, covering 2 to 18 keV energy range with an average detection efficiency of about 60% at 6 keV. For a detailed description of the PPCs refer to Agrawal (1998). A log of the observations of the source GRS 1915$`+`$105 from 1996 July to 2000 June is given in the Table. 1 with the useful period of observations at each epoch and important results obtained in each observation.

## 3. RESULTS

Following are the main results obtained from the IXAE observations of GRS 1915$`+`$105 from 1996 to 2000.

(i) Intense and erratic intensity variations, including sub-second flares, on time scales of 0.1 s $``$ 1 s were observed in the energy range of 2 $``$ 18 keV during 1996 July observations of the source. Strong and narrow QPOs in a frequency range of 0.62 $``$ 0.82 Hz with a rms fraction of about 9% were also detected as shown in Figures 1. Besides the low frequency QPOs (0.62 $``$ 0.82 Hz), a less prominent peak at $``$ 1.4 Hz which is the first harmonic of the main peak was also detected with the PPCs. The erratic intensity variations on sub-second time scale, low frequency QPOs and super-Eddington luminosity, which are also observed in other stellar black hole X-ray binaries, support the hypothesis that the compact object is most likely a black hole (Paul et al. 1997). Time lag of of 0.2 to 0.4 s of hard X-ray (6$``$18 keV) photons relative to that of the soft (2$``$6 keV) photons was also detected which supports the idea of the generation of hard X-ray photons by Compton up-scattering from the high energy clouds near the source of soft X-rays. The observed intensity variations in the light curves are described by a shot noise model (Paul et al. 1998a). Chaotic variability in the intensity is explained as resulting from randomly occurring shots with exponential rise and/or decay.

(ii) Different kinds of periodic and quasi-periodic bursts are observed with the PPCs during different epochs. These bursts are classified into four different classes on the basis of the different time scales such as (1) regular bursts having a slow rise and fast decay lasting for $``$ 15 s and recurring every 21 s; (2) regular bursts, having a slow rise and sharp decay lasting for $``$ 20 s and recurring every 46 s; (3) quasi-regular bursts of variable duration with slow rise and sharp decay; and (4) irregular bursts, with duration of a few tens to a few hundreds of seconds, followed by sharp decay. Figure 2 shows the structures of different types of regular and quasi-regular bursts, which were detected from the 1997 June observations of the source. These bursts are characterized by an exponential rise with a timescale of about 7$``$10 s and a sharp linear decay in 2$``$3 s. The slow rise time of the bursts is explained as the infall time of matter from the accretion disk and the fast decay is due to the disappearance of matter through the event horizon of the black hole (Paul et al. 1998b). The repetition of these regular bursts can be due to the material influx into the inner disk because of the oscillations of the shock front far away from the compact object. The transition from the quiescent state to the burst state and vice versa is explained by the appearance and disappearance of the advective disk over its viscous time scale.

(iii) A series of X-ray soft-dips of durations in the range of 20$``$160 s were detected in the X-ray light curves during the transition of the source from a low-hard state to high-state in 1999 June observations. The transition takes place within a few hours as indicated by the RXTE/ASM and IXAE light curves (Naik et al. 2001). The lower panel in Figure. 3 shows a huge radio flare at 2.25 GHz which was observed with the NSF-NRAO-NASA Green Bank Interferometer following the change of state in X-rays as observed with the PPCs (upper panel). Detailed analysis showed that this huge radio flare was associated with the occurance of a series of X-ray soft dips as shown in Figure 4. During the the dips, the low frequency QPOs were absent and the spectrum was soft with less variability compared to the non-dip regions. In contrast to this, during the non-dip regions, the light curve of the source is dominated by a pronounced variability with the presence of low-frequency ($``$ 4 Hz) QPOs. The spectrum of the source is also hard during the non-dip regions. These X-ray dips are suggested as the cause of mass ejection due to evacuation of matter from the accretion disk producing a huge radio jet.

(iv) A change of state of the source from a high-state (consisting of regular and periodic bursts) to a low-state was observed during the 2000 June observations. At the beginning of the observations, bursts with recurrence time of $``$ 40 s were detected which changed to $``$ 120 s towards the end of the observations. These regular and periodic bursts disappeared from the X-ray light curve within about 1.5 hours (one orbit of the satellite IRS-P3) and the source changed to a low-hard state as shown in the last panel of Figure 5. The spectrum of the source becomes harder as the burst proceeds and becomes hardest at the end of the decay. The bursts are marked by the presence of a secondary (tertiary) peak during their decay phase as seen in Figure 6. The secondary (tertiary) peak resolves gradually from the primary peak with the increase in the burst recurrence time and finally all the bursts disappear from the light curve when the state of the source is changed as shown in the last panel of Figure 6.

## 4. DISCUSSION

Though the X-ray states of the microquasar GRS 1915$`+`$105 are classified into the canonical low-hard state and high-soft states as seen in other stellar black hole sources, it does exhibit extended low-hard states (Morgan et al. 1997). After the extended low-hard state, the source switches into a high-soft state which can be divided into different types, such as bright state, chaotic state and flaring state (Rao et al. 2000). The low-hard states are characterized by low frequency QPOs at $``$ 2 $``$ 3 Hz which according to the model of Molteni et al. (1996) is due to the oscillations of the shock. The QPO frequency varies inversely with the shock radius. Muno et al. (1999) found that the QPO frequency increases with the disk temperature and decreases with the disk radius. The regular and periodic bursts seen in the X-ray light curves are explained by the periodic infall of matter onto the black hole from an oscillating shock front (Molteni et al. 1996). According to this model, a shock is produced in the sub-Keplerian component of the accretion disk because of the centrifugal barrier. The shock starts oscillating if the cooling time of the post shock halo matches with the material infall time. The oscillation period depends on the angular momentum and the viscosity of the accreted matter from the companion star. If the accreted matter has high angular momentum and low viscosity, then the oscillation period is higher. They tried to explain all the observed properties of the bursts by the above model. The bursts result from a catastrophic infall of matter, piled up behind the shock, onto the black hole which increases the temperature and hence the X-ray intensity. Paul et al. (1998b) and Yadav et al. (1999) have made a detailed study of such intensity variations using the data obtained with the IXAE. Yadav et al. (1999) concluded that the repeated intensity variation cannot be attributed to inner disk evacuation. This is due to the viscous time scale arguments as well due to the fact that the two intensity states are quite similar to the low-hard and high-soft state of the source. They invoked the two-component accretion-flow model (TCAF) of Chakrabarti & Titarchuk (1995) to conclude that the rapid changes are due to the appearance and disappearance of advective disk covering the standard thin disk without any requirements of mass ejection.

## 5. Acknowledgments

We acknowledge the contributions of the scientific and technical staff of TIFR, ISAC and ISTRAC for the successful fabrication, launch and operation of the IXAE. It is a pleasure to acknowledge constant support of Dr. K. Kasturirangan, Chairman ISRO, Shri K. Thyagarajan, Project Director IRS$``$P3 satellite, Shri J. D. Rao and his team at ISTRAC, Shri P. S. Goel, Director ISAC and the Director of the ISTRAC. We thank the NSF-NRAO-NASA Green Bank Interferometer group for making the data publicly available.

## References

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Belloni, T., Klein-Wolt, M., Mendez, M., van der Klis, M., and van Paradijs, J. 2000, A&A, 355, 271
Chakrabarti, S. K., & Titarchuk, L. G. 1995, ApJ, 455, 623
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# High energy neutrino signals of four neutrino mixing

## I Introduction

The combined results of solar, atmospheric and laboratory experiments with neutrinos, taken at face value, require a fourth neutrino species. This follows from the observation that the results of the three categories of experiments require at least three mass-squared differences $`\delta m^2`$. The mass-squared difference for solar neutrino experiments is limited to $`\delta m_{solar}^2\stackrel{<}{}10^3`$ eV2 . The SuperKamiokande results  for atmospheric neutrinos require $`\delta m_{atm}^23\times 10^3`$ eV2, and the laboratory LSND experiment  limits $`\delta m_{LSND}^2>0.2`$ eV2. While precision measurements of the invisible decay width of the $`Z^0`$ boson constrain the addition of a fourth generation neutrino species with weak interactions, they do not constrain the possibility of a sterile neutrino species mixing with the ordinary electron, muon and tau neutrinos. Analyses of solar and atmospheric experiments assuming pure $`\nu _i\nu _s`$ oscillations indicate that the data do not support the hypothesis, however, combined fits to all of the experimental data do require a sterile neutrino species .

Recent SuperK data on atmospheric neutrinos indicate $`\nu _\mu \nu _\tau `$ oscillations with mixing being nearly bi-maximal . We have shown in Ref.  that for extragalactic sources of muon neutrinos, mixing with tau neutrinos in transit to the Earth leads to distinct signatures of oscillation which do not require explicit identification of a tau lepton in large underground experiments. In this paper, we investigate the signatures of neutrino oscillations in large underground experiments for models with three active neutrinos and one sterile neutrino whose mixing is constrained by lower energy experiments.

## II Mixing Models and Extragalactic Fluxes

Global fits to oscillation data fall into two distinct patterns of neutrino mixing. The first is a mass spectrum in which $`\nu _e\nu _s`$ with a mass splitting $`\delta m_{solar}^2`$, $`\nu _\mu \nu _\tau `$ with $`\delta m_{atm}^2`$ and a splitting between the two nearly degenerate pairs characterized by $`\delta m_{LSND}^2`$. The approximate mixing matrix in this scenario has the form

$$\left(\begin{array}{c}\nu _s\\ \nu _e\\ \nu _\mu \\ \nu _\tau \end{array}\right)=\left(\begin{array}{cccc}\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}& \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}& 0& 0\\ \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}& \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}& ϵ& ϵ\\ ϵ& ϵ& \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}& \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}\\ 0& 0& \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}& \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}\end{array}\right)\left(\begin{array}{c}\nu _0\\ \nu _2\\ \nu _2\\ \nu _3\end{array}\right),$$
(1)
where $`ϵ<0.1`$ . Following Ref. , we call this a $`2+2`$ scenario.

The second pattern of neutrino mass and mixing, allowed by the most recent analysis of the LSND experiment, has large mixing between the three ordinary neutrinos and a small mixing with the sterile neutrino, characterized by small parameters $`ϵ`$ and $`\delta `$. A characteristic mixing matrix has the form

$$\left(\begin{array}{c}\nu _s\\ \nu _e\\ \nu _\mu \\ \nu _\tau \end{array}\right)=\left(\begin{array}{cccc}1& \frac{\delta }{2}\frac{ϵ}{\sqrt{2}}& \frac{\delta }{2}\frac{ϵ}{\sqrt{2}}& \frac{\delta }{\sqrt{2}}\\ ϵ& \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}& \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}& 0\\ \delta & \frac{1}{2}& \frac{1}{2}& \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}\\ 0& \frac{1}{2}& \frac{1}{2}& \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}\end{array}\right)\left(\begin{array}{c}\nu _0\\ \nu _2\\ \nu _2\\ \nu _3\end{array}\right).$$
(2)
Following Ref. , we call this a $`1+3`$ scenario.

For extragalactic sources, because of the large distances involved, the oscillation flavor ratios are essentially independent of mass-squared differences and neutrino energy, since

$$\mathrm{sin}^2\left(\frac{1.27\delta m^2L}{E}\right)\frac{1}{2},$$
(3)
for $`\delta m^2`$ in eV2, $`L`$ in km, and $`E`$ in GeV. Consequently, the oscillation probabilities can be written as

$$P(\nu _{\mathrm{}}^{}\nu _{\mathrm{}})=\underset{j}{}U_\mathrm{}j^2U_\mathrm{}^{}j^2,$$
(4)
in terms of the elements of the neutrino mixing matrix $`U_\mathrm{}j`$. The $`\nu _{\mathrm{}}`$ flux in detectors $`F_{\mathrm{}}^D`$, in terms of the fluxes at the source $`F_{\mathrm{}}^S`$ are

$$F_\nu _{\mathrm{}}^D=\underset{\mathrm{}^{}}{}P(\nu _{\mathrm{}}^{}\nu _{\mathrm{}})F_\nu _{\mathrm{}^{}}^S.$$
(5)
As we discuss below, our “source” fluxes are actually summed over many sources to yield isotropic fluxes. We continue to denote these isotropic fluxes, unmodified by oscillations, as the source fluxes.

Given source ratios of fluxes $`\nu _s^S:\nu _e^S:\nu _\mu ^S:\nu _\tau ^S=0:1:2:0`$ yield different ratios of neutrino fluxes at the detector, depending on whether the $`2+2`$ or $`1+3`$ scenario describes four-neutrino mixing. In the $`1+3`$ case with small $`ϵ`$ and $`\delta `$, the detector ratios are approximately $`0:1:1:1`$, while for the $`2+2`$ case, sterile neutrinos make an important component of the flux at the Earth, with $`\nu _s^D:\nu _e^D:\nu _\mu ^D:\nu _\tau ^D0.5:0.5:1:1`$. With three neutrino species and bi-maximal mixing, one finds $`\nu _e^D:\nu _\mu ^D:\nu _\tau ^D1:1:1`$. Without mixing, the source fluxes and detector fluxes have the same flavor ratios of $`1:2:0`$. As a result, the $`1+3`$ scenarios essentially reproduce the three-flavor bi-maximal mixing scenario, while the $`2+2`$ scenarios lie between the 3-flavor bi-maximal mixing model and the no-mixing model.

There are a variety of predictions for isotropic neutrino fluxes from active galactic nuclei (AGN), gamma ray bursters (GRB) and models with topological defects. A sample of these predictions for muon neutrino plus antineutrino fluxes, in the absence of oscillations, are shown in Fig. 1. These include the AGN models of Stecker and Salamon (AGN\_SS)  and of Mannheim Model A (AGN\_M95) . Both of these models predict neutrinos fluxes that represent the upper bounds for their class of the models. In particular, the Stecker-Salamon flux is an upper bound for AGN core emission, while Mannheim Model A is an upper bound for AGN jet emission models. The Stecker-Salamon flux is bound by the the diffuse X-ray background, while Mannheim flux is bound by the extragalactic gamma ray background. GRB predictions are represented by the Waxman-Bahcall model of Ref.  (GRB\_WB). Two topological defect models, from Sigl, Lee, Schramm and Coppi (TD\_SLSC)  and Wichoski, MacGibbon and Brandenberger (TD\_WMB)  are also shown. We include fluxes with energy behaviors like $`1/E`$ and $`1/E^2`$ as well. We chose normalization for each of these fluxes consistent with the current limits , $`F_{\nu _\mu }^S=10^{12}(E/\mathrm{GeV})^1`$GeV-1cm-2sr-1s-1 and $`F_{\nu _\mu }^S=10^6(E/\mathrm{GeV})^2`$GeV-1cm-2sr-1s-1 (in which the fluxes include neutrinos and antineutrinos in equal amounts and correspond to the initial fluxes before accounting for oscillations). Our choice of normalization for $`E^2`$ flux is a factor of ten larger than recently proposed neutrino flux associated with GRB ( $`F_{\nu _\mu }^S=10^7(E/\mathrm{GeV})^2`$GeV-1cm-2sr-1s-1) , and a factor of 50 larger than the upper bound for strong source evolution previously discussed by Waxman and Bahcall . The $`E^1`$ flux is smoothly cut off at high energies, as indicated in Fig. 1.

Although the normalizations of the fluxes of neutrinos from astrophysical sources are uncertain, we evaluate event rates quantitatively for these representative energy behaviors of the fluxes which, as models improve, can be rescaled to accommodate different normalizations.

For comparison, the hatched curve shows the angle dependent atmospheric flux (ATM)  from kaon and pion decays (conventional flux). We have extrapolated this flux beyond the 10 TeV range given in Ref.  using an angular dependent power law. This does not account for the change in the input cosmic ray spectrum, the so-called “knee” at energies of $`10^6`$ GeV , which translates to a reduced conventional neutrino flux at high energies. Thus, we overestimate the conventional neutrino event rates, especially at our highest threshold of 100 TeV, however, at that threshold, the atmospheric rates are small. Our evaluation does not include the prompt neutrino flux from semileptonic decays of charmed particles produced in the atmosphere, which result in neutrino fluxes with a power law increased by one factor of energy. Recent evaluations of the prompt neutrino flux suggest that it is important only above 100 TeV , although it has been emphasized that there are large theoretical uncertainties in the evaluation .

In our previous work , we have evaluated how neutrino interactions in the Earth modify these representative neutrino fluxes with the regeneration attributed to the neutral current interactions. In addition, for tau neutrinos, we described the extent to which neutral current interactions and charged current production of $`\tau `$ followed by its decay, regenerate neutrinos. There, we made a detailed numerical evaluation of the “pile-up” of tau neutrinos that was discussed by Halzen and Saltzberg in Ref. . In the next section, we use the neutrino fluxes of Fig. 1 modified due to their passage through the Earth  in the appropriate flavor proportions for the $`1+3`$ and $`2+2`$ scenarios.

## III Underground Signatures

Backgrounds from atmospheric muons make downward event rates difficult to extract, so our focus is on upward events. Two types of events will be produced: muon events and shower events. The muon events come from upward muons from $`\nu _\mu \mu `$ charged current events and from charged current production of taus followed by a muonic decay, $`\nu _\tau \tau \mu X`$. In spite of the pile-up in the tau neutrino flux, the net effect of oscillations is to reduce the muonic event rate by approximately a factor of two relative to the no-oscillation rate, whether in the $`1+3`$ or $`2+2`$ mixing scenario. Given the uncertainties in the normalizations of the extragalactic fluxes (unlike the atmospheric flux), the muon event rate is not enough to distinguish oscillation scenarios from no-oscillation scenarios.

The distinction between oscillation and no-oscillation scenarios comes by comparing the muon rate with the shower rate. The principle of this procedure is very similar to what some experiments will be able to do with low energy neutrinos: namely, to compare the neutral current rate to the charge current interaction rate. In large neutrino telescopes, tau identification is difficult, and we assume that showers of hadronic and electromagnetic origin cannot be distinguished. Consequently, the shower rate comes from the following processes from neutrino-nucleon ($`N`$) interactions:

$$\begin{array}{c}\nu _\tau N\tau +\mathrm{hadrons},\tau \nu _\tau +\mathrm{hadrons},\\ \nu _\tau N\tau +\mathrm{hadrons},\tau \nu _\tau +e+\nu _e,\\ \nu _\tau N\nu _\tau +\mathrm{hadrons},\\ \nu _{e,\mu }N\nu _{e,\mu }+\mathrm{hadrons},\\ \nu _eNe+\mathrm{hadrons}.\end{array}$$
(6)
The shower energy is taken as the sum of hadronic and electron energies including both the production vertex and the decay vertex, where applicable.

The upward muon rates are determined from an evaluation of the quantity

$`\mathrm{Rate}`$ $`=AN_A{\displaystyle _{E_\mu ^{\mathrm{min}}}}𝑑E_\nu {\displaystyle 𝑑y𝑑zR_\mu (E_\mu ,E_\mu ^{\mathrm{min}})\frac{d\sigma _{cc}}{dy}}`$ (8)
$`\times F_\nu (E_\nu ,X)\mathrm{\Theta }(E_\mu E_\mu ^{\mathrm{min}})f_\mu (E_\nu ,y,z)`$
where $`E_\mu =E_\nu (1y)z`$. The function $`f`$ depends whether the source of the muons is muon neutrino charged current interactions or tau neutrino charged current interactions followed by the muonic decay of the tau:

$`f_\mu (E_\nu ,y,z)`$ $`=\delta (1z)\mathrm{for}\nu _\mu \mu ,`$ (9)
$`f_\mu (E_\nu ,y,z)`$ $`={\displaystyle \frac{dn(E_\mu )}{dz}}\mathrm{for}\nu _\tau \tau \mu ,`$ (10)
where the decay formula appears in the appendix of Ref. . The quantity $`A`$ is the effective area (taken as 1 km2 here), $`N_A`$ is Avogadro’s number and the differential cross section is for neutrino-interactions. The average range of the muon $`R`$ , for initial energy $`E_\mu `$ and final energy $`E_\mu ^{\mathrm{min}}`$ is the additional space dimension that makes up the target volume. The column depth ($`X`$) dependence of the neutrino flux represents the angular dependence of the flux due to the attenuation of the flux after passage through the Earth, and in the case of atmospheric neutrinos, includes the angular dependence of the flux at the surface of the Earth.

For the shower rate, one does not have the benefit of the muon range, so the full instrumented volume $`V`$ enters into the calculation of the event rate, here taken to be 1 km3:

$`\mathrm{Rate}`$ $`=VN_A{\displaystyle _{E_{\mathrm{shr}}^{\mathrm{min}}}}𝑑E_\nu {\displaystyle 𝑑y𝑑z\frac{d\sigma }{dy}}`$ (12)
$`\times F_\nu (E_\nu ,X)\mathrm{\Theta }(E_{\mathrm{shr}}E_{\mathrm{shr}}^{\mathrm{min}})f_s(E_\nu ,y,z),`$
where $`f_s`$ has a similar form to $`f_\mu `$. Details of the differential decay distribution of the tau used in the evaluation, as well as the specific dependence of $`E_{\mathrm{shr}}`$ on $`E_\nu ,y`$ and $`z`$ appear in . The differential cross section is either charged current or neutral current, depending on which process in Eq. (6) is being considered.

The neutrino and antineutrino cross sections  are evaluated using the CTEQ5 parton distribution functions , and the attenuation of the fluxes assume Earth densities of the Preliminary Earth model described in Ref. . As in Ref. , our upper bound of integration is $`10^6`$ GeV because the attenuation of $`\nu _\tau `$ fluxes at higher energies have not been evaluated, due to the complication of including tau energy loss at high energies . Our results for the 100 TeV threshold are therefore conservative.

The ratio of the shower rate to the muon rate for the extragalactic flux models of Fig. 1 are used to bracket the theoretical expectations for the ratio in $`2+2`$ and $`1+3`$ mixing models, and compared with the standard model expectations. As in Ref. , we separate the flux models into two categories: more steeply falling fluxes ($`E^2`$, ATM and the Mannheim AGN flux) and the less steep behavior of the other five sample fluxes of Fig. 1. Experimentally, the steeply falling fluxes and the models with a weaker energy dependence are characterized by distinct muon event rate nadir angle dependence and the threshold energy dependence. The two separate categories of fluxes, for threshold energies of 1, 10 and 100 TeV are shown in Figs. 2 (a-f). The $`1+3`$ models are bracketed by the black lines, the $`2+2`$ models are represented by the shaded area and the standard model with the dark band.

For the 1 TeV threshold, the $`1+3`$ and $`2+2`$ event rates as a function of nadir angle overlap for both energy behaviors of the input fluxes. The no-oscillation band lies below the oscillation bands with the exception of the near horizontal rates in the steeply falling flux category (labeled $`E^2`$). The separation between the oscillation and no-oscillation scenarios is better for higher thresholds, looking only in terms of the theoretical ratio of shower to muon event rates. However, the higher thresholds have lower event rates overall.

The bands in Fig. 2 indicate the different ratios for oscillation models relative to no-oscillation models, however, statistical errors from the signal as well as from the atmospheric background need to be included in order to interpret whether or not oscillation scenarios are distinguishable. In the next section, we include a discussion of statistical errors.

## IV Discussion

In Tables I-III we present our results for the shower and muon event rates integrated over the nadir angle for energy thresholds of 1 TeV, 10 TeV and 100 TeV and for a kilometer-size detector. The no-oscillation results agree with evaluations in Ref.  for fluxes in common, modulo corrections due to different parton distribution functions, a more precise evaluation of neutrino attenuation in the Earth  and the upper limit of energy integration. We do not include the topological defect models in these tables because the event rates are so low. For the 1 TeV threshold, only $`0.10.2`$ upward muon events are predicted per year for a km2 instrumented area for the TD\_WMB model. In all cases, we have considered shower rates in a km3 volume, and muon rates/km2. The two oscillation scenarios give the same muon event rates but very different shower rates. From Table I, we note that for 1 TeV energy threshold, atmospheric background is large.

In Figs. 3-5, we show the ratio $`R`$ of the shower to muon event rates integrated over nadir angles ($`RN_{shr}/N_\mu `$) for energy thresholds of 1 TeV, 10 TeV and 100 TeV for a variety of fluxes and for different oscillation scenarios. The ratio of event rates in Figs. 3-5 have the atmospheric flux subtracted. The errors in the shower and muon rates ($`\sigma _{shr}`$ and $`\sigma _\mu `$) are evaluated with the assumption of a Poisson distribution, including the statistical error on the number of background events from the atmospheric flux. The error in the ratio of event rates is then given by,

$$\sigma _R=R\sqrt{\frac{\sigma _{shr}}{N_{shr}}+\frac{\sigma _\mu }{N_\mu }}.$$
(13)
The event rates $`N_{shr}`$ and $`N_\mu `$ are from Tables I-III, scaled by $`n`$ years as indicated in Figs. 3-5.

From Fig. 3 and Table I, we note that AGN fluxes, as well as $`E^2`$ and $`E^1`$ fluxes, would have the best possibility of separating different oscillation scenarios by detecting the showers and muons in kilometer-size detector over the period of one to six years, assuming a good understanding of the atmospheric muon neutrino and electron neutrino fluxes and normalizations near their current upper bounds. After one to six years of data taking, one would be able to separate oscillation from no oscillation scenario for the fluxes in Fig. 3. The GRB\_WB flux would require more than twenty years of data to reduce statistical errors so that the error bars do not overlap for the two oscillation scenarios.

The ratio of shower to muon event rates for an energy threshold of 10 TeV are shown in Fig. 4. As seen in Table II, the AGN model of Stecker and Salamon predicts large shower and muon rates, an order of magnitude larger than the atmospheric background. The AGN model of Mannheim and the GRB model of Waxman and Bahcall predict rates to be about 15-40$`\%`$ of the background, while $`E^2`$ and $`E^1`$ fluxes give significantly more events than the atmospheric background when oscillations are taken into account, assuming that the fluxes occur with a normalization at their current upper limit. Thus, there is a possibility of detecting extragalactic neutrinos by imposing a 10 TeV energy threshold . We note that for the AGN\_SS flux, as well as for $`E^1`$, $`E^2`$ fluxes, one to three years would be sufficient to separate different oscillation scenarios. For the AGN\_M95 and GRB\_WB fluxes, it would be necessary to take data for seven to nine years respectively. The 10 TeV threshold is generally more favorable than the 1 TeV threshold because of the reduction of the atmospheric background and a sufficiently large signal.

If the energy threshold is increased to 100 TeV, the atmospheric background is small. The shower and muon event rates are several hundreds for AGN\_SS model, while for all other models the rates are much smaller, but still significant, for kilometer-size detector in a time period of one year. Furthermore, the ratio of the shower and muon events can clearly separate oscillation and no-oscillation scenarios, as well as distinguish two oscillations scenarios that we consider. In Fig. 5 we show this ratio including statistical errors. We find that even with error bars it still seems possible to distinguish between different oscillation scenarios. However, in order to reduce statistical errors, the GRB\_WB and AGN\_M95 flux predictions would require collecting data for more than a decade. On the other hand, one year is sufficient for the AGN\_SS flux. In the case of an $`E^1`$ flux, we expect several hundreds of showers and muons over the period of three years, which is necessary in order to reduce error bars to the point of being able to distinguish oscillation scenarios. For a steeper flux, $`E^2`$, one year is sufficient to get enough events as well as to reduce the statistical errors at the current AMANDA limit on the isotropic flux normalization.

Figs. 3-5 show the feature illustrated by Fig. 2, when specific fluxes are integrated over nadir angle. Fluxes with similar spectra cluster with the same ratio, here, the Stecker-Salamon flux and $`E^1`$ have similar energy behaviors and similar ratios. Therefore, by using muon event energy and nadir angle dependence to characterize the energy spectrum of the incident flux, even without a detailed knowledge of the source of neutrinos, the ratio $`R`$ will point to whether or not muon neutrinos mix with tau neutrinos in one of the two schemes described here.

The ratios in Figs. 3-5 differ for the different energy dependences of the fluxes for several reasons. The muon range increases with energy, so the muon event rates are sensitive to the energy dependence in a different way than the shower rates which have a constant volume factor. For less steep fluxes, e.g., $`E^1`$ and AGN\_SS, the high energy part of the spectrum gives a larger contribution to the muon rate than for fluxes with a steeper energy behavior, e.g., $`E^2`$. The ratio $`R`$ of shower to muon event rates tends to increase with the steeper fluxes, and tends to increase with energy threshold. For all except the atmospheric flux, the electron neutrino contribution to the shower rate is substantial. The electron neutrino component of the atmospheric flux is small because of the high energies considered here, so the atmospheric ratio is not directly comparable to the ratios for other fluxes.

## V Conclusion

We have shown that measurements of the upward showers and muons, and considering their ratio, with the kilometer-size detector, could provide very good test of different oscillation scenarios. Taking into account statistical errors, we find that generic fluxes, such as $`F_{\nu _\mu }^S=10^{12}(E/\mathrm{GeV})^1`$GeV-1cm-2sr-1s-1 and $`F_{\nu _\mu }^S=10^6(E/\mathrm{GeV})^2`$GeV-1cm-2sr-1s-1, with energy threshold of 10 TeV and 100 TeV, would have enough statistics in one to four years of data taking to distinguish not only between oscillation and no oscillation scenario, but also whether it is 2+2 or 1+3 model. The AGN model of Stecker-Salamon , with a 10 TeV energy threshold predicts between 1200 and 2000 muons/km2 per year and between 500 and 800 shower events/km3 per year, with clear separation between different oscillation scenarios. The other AGN model, proposed by Mannheim , predicts less events and would require seven years to reduce statistical errors in the ratio of shower to muon event rates such that there is clear distinction between not only the no oscillation and oscillation cases, but also different oscillation models. If we want to use GRB\_WB flux  to test these models, it would take nine years with the kilometer-size detector to get sufficient statistics. A higher energy threshold of 100 TeV makes the atmospheric neutrino background small, but event rates for extragalactic neutrinos are also reduced. Still, the AGN\_SS model would be able to provide valuable information about the oscillation scenario, as well as $`E^2`$ flux in just one year of data, while an $`E^1`$ flux with our normalization would need four years. Other fluxes, such as GRB\_WB and AGN\_M95 flux would require much longer time.

The assumption of the existence of sterile neutrino is necessary to explain the solar, atmospheric, reactor and accelerator data. The MiniBooNE experiment  will search for $`\nu _\mu \nu _e`$ oscillations and test the LSND results. The presence of the sterile neutrino in the 2+2 model can be tested by the measurement of the suppression of NC/CC ratio of the solar neutrinos by the SNO experiment  whereas 1+3 model can be tested by searches from small amplitude oscillations at short baseline experiment such as ORLaND . Since the 1+3 scenario at high neutrino energy mimics the three flavor bi-maximal mixing between $`\nu _\mu \nu _\tau `$, the results here can also be applied to three-flavor models.

Observation of the flavor ratio of extragalactic neutrinos could serve as a complementary test for oscillation models that incorporate sterile neutrinos. Oscillations of neutrinos from astronomical sources are averaged over very long baseline and thus cannot provide any direct information about the neutrino mass. However, we have shown that extragalactic neutrinos could be used to distinguish between different oscillation scenarios. The observed muon and shower event distributions as a function of angle and energy threshold will help determine the energy behavior of the incident extragalactic neutrino flux and point to a model or class of models for their sources. Combined measurements of the upward showers and muons and, in particular, their ratio provides a basic test of the oscillation scenario.

Acknowledgments

The work of S.I.D. and I.S. has been supported in part by the DOE under Contracts DE-FG02-95ER40906 and DE-FG03-93ER40792. The work of M.H.R. has been supported in part by National Science Foundation Grant No. PHY-9802403.

Note added:

After the submission of our paper, the SNO collaboration has reported their first results  which together with the SuperKamiokande results  favor oscillation into active flavors, however, given the theoretical and experimental uncertainties, oscillations into sterile neutrinos are still a possibility.