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# Radial Velocity Studies of Close Binary Stars. IV1footnote 11footnote 1Based on the data obtained at the David Dunlap Observatory, University of Toronto.

## 1 INTRODUCTION

This paper is a continuation of the radial-velocity studies of close binary stars, Lu & Rucinski (1999, Paper I), Rucinski & Lu (1999, Paper II) and Rucinski et al. (2000, Paper III). The main goals and motivations are described in these papers. In short, we attempt to obtain radial-velocity data for close binary systems which are accessible to 1.8-m class telescopes at medium spectral resolution of about R = 10,000 – 15,000. Selection of the objects is quasi-random in the sense that we have started with short period (mostly contact) binaries and we attempt to slowly progress to longer periods as the project continues. We publish the results in groups of ten systems as soon as reasonable orbital elements are obtained from measurements evenly distributed in orbital phases.

This paper is structured in the same way as Papers I – III in that most of the data for the observed binaries are in two tables with the radial-velocity measurements (Table Radial Velocity Studies of Close Binary Stars. IV111Based on the data obtained at the David Dunlap Observatory, University of Toronto.) and their sine-curve solutions (Table Radial Velocity Studies of Close Binary Stars. IV111Based on the data obtained at the David Dunlap Observatory, University of Toronto.). Section 2 of the paper contains brief summaries of previous studies for individual systems. The special feature of this paper which distinguishes it from the previous three papers is a discussion of close spectroscopic/visual companions to five close systems in Section 3. We found many similarities in these triple-lined systems and decided to publish them together in one installment of our series. Table Radial Velocity Studies of Close Binary Stars. IV111Based on the data obtained at the David Dunlap Observatory, University of Toronto. lists the radial-velocity data for the companions which we always call the “third components” of the systems. In this spirit, we will discuss their luminosities in relation to those of the close binaries, $`L_3/L_{12}`$. We utilize the conventional naming of such components in visual systems with A signifying the brighter component in a close visual pair (HT Vir turns out to be an exception).

The observations reported in this paper have been collected between February 1997 and October 2000; the ranges of dates for individual systems can be found in Table Radial Velocity Studies of Close Binary Stars. IV111Based on the data obtained at the David Dunlap Observatory, University of Toronto.. Eight systems discussed in this paper have been observed for radial-velocity variations for the first time. 44 Boo and SW Lyn have been observed before; for both, we are providing much improved radial-velocity orbits.

We derive the radial-velocity data using the broadening function (BF) approach of the linear Singular Value Decomposition (SVD), as described in Rucinski (1999)333Practical advice and detailed suggestions are available also in http://www.astro.utoronto.ca/$``$rucinski/.. The two peaks of the BF are fitted by Gaussians giving radial velocities of the components. Then, variations of the radial velocities are represented by sine curves giving the center-of-mass velocity, $`V_0`$, the two semi-amplitudes, $`K_1`$ and $`K_2`$, and the phase of the primary eclipse, $`T_0`$. Since our initial goals were the values of $`V_0`$ and of the mass-ratio $`q=K_1/K_2`$, this approach was deemed adequate when we started the program. We are aware that the amplitudes and hence the masses may be biased by the Gaussian approximation, but we are unable to do the full modeling (as was done for AW UMa, AH Vir and W UMa: Rucinski (1992); Lu & Rucinski (1993); Rucinski et al. (1993)), without knowledge of the degree-of-contact and of the orbital inclination which are derivable from light curves. Thus, we continue using the Gaussians recognizing that one day our values of the semi-amplitudes may have to be corrected for systematic inaccuracies of our measurements.

The data in Table Radial Velocity Studies of Close Binary Stars. IV111Based on the data obtained at the David Dunlap Observatory, University of Toronto. are organized in the same manner as before. In addition to the parameters of spectroscopic orbits, the table provides information about the relation between the spectroscopically observed epoch of the primary-eclipse T0 and the recent photometric determinations in the form of the (O–C) deviations for the number of elapsed periods E. It also contains our new spectral classifications of the program objects (unless taken in parentheses when we use other spectral type estimates).

For further technical details and conventions used in the paper, please refer to Papers I – III of this series.

## 2 RESULTS FOR INDIVIDUAL SYSTEMS

### 2.1 44 Boo B

With the large parallax of $`p=78.4\pm 1.0`$ milli-arcsec (mas) (ESA, 1997, HIP), 44 Boo B444The star 44 Boo has another name, i Boo. Frequently, these are combined, which is incorrect and makes electronic searches difficult. We use only the former name in this paper. is the nearest contact binary and one of the nearest close binaries. Because of its brightness, it has been one of the most frequently photometrically observed variable stars in the sky. 44 Boo B is the fainter component of a relatively close (currently 1.7 arcsec) visual double which is attracting vigorous observational activity in the fields of stellar interferometry and speckle-interferometry. We do not relate to these studies because our radial-velocity data have been obtained in a short interval of only 10 days so that they contribute only one radial-velocity data point of the long-period (225 year), visual orbit.

Several studies attempted to determine a radial-velocity orbit for 44 Boo B. These efforts are summarized in Hill et al. (1989). Here we present results far superior to any previous attempts. The success is mostly due to extraction of the component velocities using the broadening function approach (see Section 3) which permitted excellent separation of the three spectral components in the system. In particular, we provide an accurate estimate of the mass ratio for 44 Boo B, $`q_{sp}=0.487\pm 0.006`$, which should be of much help in future photometric studies of the contact system. The radial-velocity orbit is shown graphically in Figure Radial Velocity Studies of Close Binary Stars. IV111Based on the data obtained at the David Dunlap Observatory, University of Toronto..

Since the discovery (Schilt, 1926), the presence of the brighter companion created problems in studies of the close pair. The most extensive study of 44 Boo system by Hill et al. (1989) discussed efforts of de-coupling of the spectral and photometric signatures of the visual pair, but even such basic data as spectral types or color indices were difficult to derive. The re-analysis of the Hipparcos data for close visual binaries (Fabricius & Makarov, 2000), gave reliable magnitudes and color indices for both components, $`V^A=5.28`$, $`(BV)^A=0.65`$ and $`V^B=6.12`$, $`(BV)^B=0.94`$; the magnitudes are the average ones so that they do not take into account the variability of component B. The color index for component A agrees with the estimate of the spectral type by Hill et al. (1989) of G1V while the color index for component B points at a much later spectral type than was considered before, around K2V, in accordance with the well known high magnetic activity of the contact system.

The magnitude difference at maximum of 44 Boo B relative to component A was estimated by Hill et al. (1989) as $`\mathrm{\Delta }V=0.63`$, so that $`V^B(max)=5.91`$. For this brightness, the absolute magnitude predicted from the parallax is $`M_V^B=5.38\pm 0.04`$, whereas the prediction of the $`M_V(\mathrm{log}P,BV)`$ calibration (Rucinski & Duerbeck, 1997, RD97) is $`M_V^B(cal)=5.50`$. These estimates would agree at $`M_V^B=5.38`$ if we use $`(BV)=0.90`$ in the calibration, assuming that the maximum light $`(BV)`$ is slightly smaller (bluer) than the average value given by Fabricius & Makarov (2000). We note that 44 Boo B, in spite of its proximity, was used in the first $`M_V(\mathrm{log}P,BV)`$ with some reservations (Rucinski, 1994) because its color index was poorly know at that time. It is gratifying to see now a much better agreement of the directly determined $`M_V`$ for 44 Boo B with the calibration.

### 2.2 FI Boo

FI Boo is a new discovery from the Hipparcos satellite mission. Duerbeck (1997) included it in the list of possible contact binaries. The period reported in the Hipparcos Catalogue is equal to one half of the orbital period that we find and the zero epoch $`T_0`$ was given in the Catalogue for the maximum light. With our spectroscopic results, the contact system is of the W-type, with the less massive component eclipsed at the eclipse given by $`T_0`$, which has been selected to be one quarter of the orbit before the maximum given in HIP.

The radial-velocity orbit for FI Boo is very well determined (Figure Radial Velocity Studies of Close Binary Stars. IV111Based on the data obtained at the David Dunlap Observatory, University of Toronto.). The small value of $`(M_1+M_2)\mathrm{sin}^3i=0.343\pm 0.010M_{}`$ is consistent with the small photometric amplitude of about 0.15 mag. in suggesting a low orbital inclination.

Assuming $`V_{max}=9.57`$ on the basis of the average $`V`$ in Hog (2000, TYC2) and the amplitude in HIP, with the parallax of $`p=9.52\pm 2.10`$ mas, we obtain $`M_V=4.41\pm 0.49`$. The RD97 calibration gives $`M_V(cal)=4.17`$.

### 2.3 V2150 Cyg

V2150 Cyg has been discovered by the Hipparcos satellite mission. It shows a small photometric amplitude of 0.12 mag. suggesting a low orbital inclination. This is in accord with the low value of $`(M_1+M_2)\mathrm{sin}^3i=1.376\pm 0.018M_{}`$ for an early spectral type of the binary which suggests a rather massive system. Abt (1981) estimated the spectral type to be A5V; our independent estimate is A6V. The orbital period is 0.591 days and the HIP light curve looks like of a genuine contact binary, which is a rare occurrence among such early-type systems.

Although the system is a visual double (ADS 14835), its orientation relative to the spectrograph slit was such that we were able to avoid the faint ($`\mathrm{\Delta }m=3.4`$) companion at the separation of 3.7 arcsec.

Our radial-velocity orbit is very well determined (Figure Radial Velocity Studies of Close Binary Stars. IV111Based on the data obtained at the David Dunlap Observatory, University of Toronto.). The contact system consists of two very similar components with $`q=0.802\pm 0.006`$ with a more massive component eclipsed at the primary minimum (type A). The only previous radial-velocity measurements of V2150 Cyg, in a survey by Grenier et al. (1999), showed scatter among three measurements indicating radial-velocity variability: $`V=31.4\pm 16.8`$ km s-1. The nominal accuracy of this survey was 3.0 km s-1 on the basis of spectra with resolution about 8 times lower than ours.

In spite of a good solution of the radial-velocity orbit, we found one disturbing feature of the solution for V2150 Cyg: The radial-velocity amplitudes depend on the spectral type of the template star used to derive the broadening functions. This is unusual because for most W UMa-type systems we have not seen any dependence of the amplitudes on the spectral type. Normally, with some spectral-type mismatch of the template, the broadening function could change its intensity scale and its quality of determination, but the radial-velocity amplitudes would stay constant. We selected several sharp-line standards from the list of Dr. Frank Fekel (private communication). Over the range of the template spectral types within the A-type, we see a change of up to 7% in both semi-amplitudes $`K_i`$, with larger amplitudes obtained with templates of earlier spectral types. While the mass-ratio remained perfectly constant, the systematic uncertainty in the amplitudes would obviously affect the derived values of masses. We have no explanation of the effect, but note that V2150 Cyg is of the earliest spectral type among binary systems analyzed by us so far.

The system of V2150 Cyg is important because it may provide an crucial extension of the absolute magnitude calibration $`M_V(\mathrm{log}P,BV)`$ toward early spectral types. With $`V_{max}=8.06`$ estimated from the average data in TYC2 and the amplitude, and with the parallax $`p=4.7\pm 1.6`$ mas, we obtain $`M_V=1.43\pm 0.74`$ while the RD97 calibration, pushed to a color index as blue as $`(BV)=0.25`$, gives $`M_V(cal)=1.89`$. A big question is obviously the amount of reddening for this relatively distant (about 210 pc) system. The color index, when compared with the spectral type A5/6 V, suggests a moderate reddening of about $`E_{BV}=0.07`$. In this case, the absolute magnitude derived from the parallax is $`M_V=1.21\pm 0.74`$, while $`M_V(cal)=1.67`$.

### 2.4 V899 Her B

V899 Her is the next Hipparcos discovery. Although it is classified in the Hipparcos catalogue as an EB light-curve system (with unequal minima), it seems to be a genuine contact binary with a low-amplitude (0.14 mag.) EW light curve and practically equally deep eclipses. Apparently, the light curve classification was driven by one deviating point, possibly a photometric error. We have kept the Hipparcos ephemeris which leads to an A-type contact system.

We discovered that V899 Her is a spectroscopically triple system in which the contact binary is the fainter component, so that we designate the contact system as component B. The broadening function was an indispensable tool in separating the three spectral components; without it, the system would be probably unsolvable (see Section 3). The presence of the bright companion explains the inconsistency between large radial-velocity amplitudes of the components of V899 Her B, leading to a large value of $`(M_1+M_2)\mathrm{sin}^3i=2.33\pm 0.08M_{}`$ (and thus an indication of the orbital inclination close to $`90^{}`$) and the small photometric amplitude of the W UMa-type light curve which appears to be “diluted” in the total systemic light.

The spectral type that we estimated from our low-resolution classification spectra is F5V, with indications of a contribution from the fainter G-type component. Because of the dominance of the third component, there is no point to apply the RD97 calibration to this case. The maximum brightness and the color index, $`V_{max}=7.87`$, $`(BV)=0.48`$ almost certainly reflect the properties of the third star rather than that of the close binary.

Because of the presence of the bright companion, the radial-velocity orbit of V899 Her B is not as well defined as for other close binaries (Figure Radial Velocity Studies of Close Binary Stars. IV111Based on the data obtained at the David Dunlap Observatory, University of Toronto.). The bright companion A is itself a radial-velocity variable because we noticed well defined variations within the 250 day span of our observations (see Section 3). We do not see these variations in the systemic velocity of the close pair, so we assume that the visual companion is itself an independent spectroscopic binary.

### 2.5 EX Leo

EX Leo has been found by Hipparcos. Our solution (Figure Radial Velocity Studies of Close Binary Stars. IV111Based on the data obtained at the David Dunlap Observatory, University of Toronto.) describes a rather typical contact binary of the A-type with a small mass-ratio, $`q=0.199\pm 0.036`$. Our estimate of the spectral type, F6 V, agrees very well with $`(BV)=0.53`$ from TYC2. The light curve has an amplitude of about 0.25 mag. and is quite well defined, but perhaps a bit sparsely covered by the HIP data.

The parallax $`p=9.84\pm 1.11`$ mas with $`V_{max}=8.17`$ leads to $`M_V=3.13\pm 0.26`$ so that it agrees with the RD97 calibration, $`M_V(cal)=3.45`$.

### 2.6 VZ Lib A

VZ Lib has been known as a contact binary since the work of Tsesevich (1954). Claria & Lapasset (1981) published the last currently available photometric study of the system.

We have detected a spectroscopic companion to VZ Lib, about five times fainter than the contact binary. We discuss it in Section 3. Here we note that this component may have a slowly variable radial velocity, but these variations are not reflected in the systemic velocity of the close binary.

It is impossible to derive the correct $`V_{max}`$ for the contact binary value because of the poorly known contribution of the third component to the total systemic light. The observed combined brightness, $`V_{max}=10.36`$, $`(BV)=0.61`$ (Claria & Lapasset, 1981) is accord with our estimate of the spectral type, G0 (composite). These data, together with the HIP parallax $`p=4.92\pm 1.96`$ mas imply $`M_V=3.59\pm 0.88`$ for the whole system while the RD97 calibration for the contact system predicts $`M_V(cal)=3.94`$ which is in agreement with some contribution of the third star to the systemic brightness.

Because of the faintness of the system, presence of the third component, and difficulties of measuring velocities of the close binary, our radial-velocity solution is relatively poor (Figure Radial Velocity Studies of Close Binary Stars. IV111Based on the data obtained at the David Dunlap Observatory, University of Toronto.). The system appears to be a contact binary of the A-type with a moderately small mass-ratio of $`q=0.24\pm 0.07`$. The orbit is probably oriented close to edge-on because the sum of masses is relatively large, $`(M_1+M_2)\mathrm{sin}^3i=1.70\pm 0.12M_{}`$.

We note that our spectroscopically derived moment of the primary eclipse deviates by about 2 hours from the ephemeris of Claria & Lapasset (1981), either due to period changes or accumulated errors in the period over the long time since the last photometric observations.

### 2.7 SW Lyn A

The binary was discovered as a variable star by Hoffmeister (1949). Major photometric studies were done by Vetešnik (1968, 1977). Recently, Ogłoza et al. (1998) re-discussed the extant data; the discussion was to a large extent guided by the spectroscopic results of Vetešnik (1977) in that a mass-ratio was assumed to be around $`q0.35`$, in spite of photometric solutions which tended to converge to $`q0.50.6`$. In fact, our spectroscopic results do give $`q_{sp}=0.52\pm 0.03`$.

From the spectroscopic point of view, SW Lyn is quite complex: It appears to be a very close, short-period Algol system with a faint, but detectable secondary. We also clearly see a third component, about three times fainter than the close binary, which has not previously been detected spectroscopically (see Section 3). Possibly, it is the same star which is producing the 2128 day periodicity in the eclipse timing (Ogłoza et al., 1998).

Our radial-velocity orbit is entirely different from that of Vetešnik (1977) which was obtained at a very low spectral resolution. Thus, we do not confirm any manifestations of apparent eccentricity which were explained by gas streams. In view of our results, the detailed discussion of the physical properties of the system by Ogłoza et al. (1998) may have to be revised. We did experience difficulties in measuring velocities of the secondary component whose signal in the broadening function is very weak in comparison with the third star and the primary component (see Section 3). These difficulties were especially severe in the second half of the orbit. Thus, in order not to affect the systemic velocity $`V_0`$ in our combined orbital solution which takes into account the velocities of both stars, we assigned weights of one-half and one-quarter to all measurements of the secondary within the first and second halves of the orbit, respectively (Figure Radial Velocity Studies of Close Binary Stars. IV111Based on the data obtained at the David Dunlap Observatory, University of Toronto.).

Our observations were obtained in two groups (16 and 55 observations) separated by one year which – in view of the presence of the third star – poses a question whether the observations of the close binary could be combined in one solution. Accordingly, we obtained one solution based on all observations and one based only on the 55 observations of the second season (the phase distribution for the first season did not permit a separate solution). The results do not differ significantly, indicating that the center of mass of the close binary probably did not move much between the seasons. However, the conjunction times came out different, but within the combined errors of both solutions. For reference, we give here the results of the solution based only on the second season: $`V_0=+31.11(1.26)`$, $`K_1=116.09(1.52)`$, $`K_2=222.87(3.60)`$, $`T_0=2,451,400.1752(22)`$.

The photometric properties of SW Lyn are rather poorly known. Vetešnik (1968) estimated $`V_{max}=9.2`$ and $`(BV)=0.38`$. The color index corresponds to the spectral type of F2 V. However, TYC2 suggests the mean $`(BV)=0.23`$. With its period of 0.644 days, SW Lyn is of interest to studies of the short period Algol systems.

Our spectroscopic value of $`T_0`$ agrees very well with the recent photometric timing of Ogłoza et al. (2000).

### 2.8 V2377 Oph

The binary has been discovered by the Hipparcos satellite. It appears to be a fairly uncomplicated W-type contact binary and our solution is very well defined (Figure Radial Velocity Studies of Close Binary Stars. IV111Based on the data obtained at the David Dunlap Observatory, University of Toronto.). The small value of $`(M_1+M_2)\mathrm{sin}^3i=0.487\pm 0.009M_{}`$ is in accordance with the small amplitude of photometric variations (0.04 mag.), both resulting from a low inclination angle.

Our spectral type G0/1 V is in slight disagreement with the TYC2 color index of $`(BV)=0.67`$ so that some reddening of about $`E_{BV}0.07`$ is possible. The system is relatively distant (about 100 pc) and has a parallax $`p=10.09\pm 1.22`$ mas which implies $`M_V=3.53\pm 0.27`$ for the case of no reddening, while the RD97 calibration predicts $`M_V(cal)=3.79`$. For $`E_{BV}=0.07`$ the absolute magnitudes would be $`M_V=3.32`$ and $`M_V(cal)=3.58`$, respectively.

### 2.9 Anon Psc = GSC 8–324

This very interesting close binary has been discovered recently by Robb et al. (1999). It does not yet have a variable star name, so we are using here an abbreviated one, GSC 8–324555The name GSC 8–324 is in fact incorrect which may complicate electronic searches. It should be GSC 00008–00324. The notation used by Robb et al. (1999), who used a different numbers of leading zeros, is also incorrect..

The system appears to be a very close pair of two detached K-type dwarfs on tight orbit with the orbital period of $`P=0.3086`$ days. We included the system in our program soon after learning about its discovery, led by an expectation that this is a new case of V361 Lyr-like binary which is evolving rapidly into contact (Hilditch et al., 1997), but some 4 magnitudes brighter, therefore easier for detailed studies. Recent correspondence with Dr. Robb (private communication) indicated that the spots on the surface of GSC 8–324 have moved between the seasons so that the system is not similar to V361 Lyr where the high stability of the accretion region strongly suggests a stable flow of matter between components. However, because the system is so very tight and yet detached – as judged by short duration of eclipses – and also relatively nearby ($`14\pm 8`$ pc, see below), it is one of the most interesting among recently discovered close binaries.

Because of the late type of the components, K4-5V (see references in Robb et al. (1999)) we feared that the magnesium triplet lines would not be as well suited for radial velocity observations as for F–G stars. For that reason we made a change in our observational setup and, in addition to the observing the same region 5185 Å as for other stars, we also obtained observations in the region centered at 5303 Å. The results of independent solutions were identical so that we made a combined solution for both spectral regions. However, we list the two series of observations separately in Table Radial Velocity Studies of Close Binary Stars. IV111Based on the data obtained at the David Dunlap Observatory, University of Toronto.. The phased observations of the system are shown in Figure Radial Velocity Studies of Close Binary Stars. IV111Based on the data obtained at the David Dunlap Observatory, University of Toronto..

The radial-velocity data for the primary component are well defined for both spectral regions. In contrast, the secondary-component peaks in the broadening function are weak and the radial-velocity data are correspondingly poorer. Yet, the mass-ratio is very well determined, $`q_{sp}=0.702\pm 0.014`$. The value of $`(M_1+M_2)\mathrm{sin}^3i=1.04\pm 0.02M_{}`$ together with the presence of deep eclipses suggests a possibility of a reliable combined solution for absolute elements of the system. If not for the presence of large photospheric spots, the system could serve as one of the lower main sequence calibrators.

The epoch of the superior conjunction (the primary eclipse) indicates that the orbital period could be slightly adjusted relative to the value given by Robb et al. (1999), but we leave this matter open as we cannot exclude period changes in such a short-period system.

The system was included in the Tycho-1 catalogue (HIP). The parallax has a large error, but does suggest a relatively nearby system, $`p=72\pm 40`$ mas. With the data in Robb et al. (1999), $`M_V=9.9\pm 1.2`$. The system has a large and relatively well-defined proper motion, $`\mu _{RA}\mathrm{cos}\delta =108.2\pm 2.2`$ mas/yr and $`\mu _{dec}=201.1\pm 2.1`$ mas/yr (TYC2), undoubtedly due to the proximity of the system.

### 2.10 HT Vir B

HT Vir belongs to a very close visual binary, a situation somewhat similar to that of 44 Boo, except that the separation is smaller, below one arcsec, and the brightnesses of the visual components are similar, with the contact binary being fainter only during the eclipses. We retain the designation of B for the contact system, for consistency with the previous investigations. The close visual binary is currently the subject of numerous interferometric and speckle-interferometry studies.

The re-analysis of the Hipparcos data for visual binaries (Fabricius & Makarov, 2000), gave reliable magnitudes and color indices for both components at the time that the separation was only 0.56 arcsec: $`V^A=7.80`$, $`(BV)^A=0.64`$ and $`V^B=8.30`$ (average magnitude), $`(BV)^B=0.56`$. Our combined spectral type, with a strong contribution of the third component, is F8V; this does not very well agree with its color index which suggests a later-type star.

HT Vir was discovered by Walker (1984) and then studied photometrically by Walker & Chambliss (1985). The photometric solution suggested that the third component provides about as much light as the eclipsing system at its light maxima. Our broadening function results confirm the strong presence of the third component; we discuss this further in Section 3. We found that the third component is in fact a radial-velocity variable with a period of 32.45 days. Thus the system is really a quadruple one, with lines of three systems visible in the spectra. We give a preliminary solution for the single-lined (SB1) system HT Vir A in Section 3 and in Table Radial Velocity Studies of Close Binary Stars. IV111Based on the data obtained at the David Dunlap Observatory, University of Toronto..

Because we have been able to isolate the signatures of HT Vir A from those of the contact binary, the radial-velocity solution for HT Vir B is very well defined (Figure Radial Velocity Studies of Close Binary Stars. IV111Based on the data obtained at the David Dunlap Observatory, University of Toronto.). We note that the binary is of the A-type, yet has a surprisingly large mass ratio for such a system, $`q=0.812\pm 0.008`$. It is interesting to note that, although our determination of $`q`$ for HT Vir B is the first one, Walker & Chambliss (1985) postulated a value not far from unity on the basis of the ratio of radii derived from their photometric analysis. The large mass ratio would be in accord with the relatively large amplitude of light variations of HT Vir. Walker & Chambliss (1985) estimated that $`L_3/(L_{12}+L_3)0.44`$ and thus $`L_3/L_{12}0.79`$ at light maxima of the close binary; HT Vir A would be then the slightly fainter of the two visual components. The light variation amplitude observed by Walker & Chambliss (1985) of about 0.42 mag., when corrected for the contribution of HT Vir A to the total systemic brightness would be then about 0.92 mag. Such a large amplitude can be generated only by a contact system with the orbit seen edge-on, but also with a mass ratio close to unity. Integrations of the individual spectral features in our broadening functions (Section 3) suggest $`L_3/L_{12}0.52\pm 0.05`$ at the light maxima of the contact system so that HT Vir A was observed by us to be fainter relative to the contact binary than before; its spectral signature was always better defined in the spectra and in the broadening functions because of its slow rotation.

The parallax of the system is the largest in this group after that of 44 Boo, $`p=15.39\pm 2.72`$ mas. With $`V_{max}^B=8.1`$ and $`(BV)^B=0.56`$, this implies $`M_V^B=4.0\pm 0.4`$. The RD97 calibration predicts $`M_V^B(cal)=3.54`$.

Our spectroscopic determination of $`T_0`$ shows a relatively large O–C deviation, a result of using the ephemeris of Walker & Chambliss (1985). Similarly to VZ Lib, HT Vir has not been observed for eclipse timing for a long time.

## 3 BROADENING FUNCTION APPROACH AND SPECTROSCOPIC COMPANIONS

### 3.1 Broadening functions

The spectroscopic signatures of the visual/spectroscopic companions are particularly well defined in broadening functions (BF) which give projection of a system into the velocity space (Rucinski, 1999). While the close binaries of our program have short periods and thus have their rotation/revolution signatures spread over wide ranges of radial velocities, the third components – which rotate slowly – show sharp peaks in the BF. We can easily model these sharp peaks by applying the BF derivation to other sharp-line stars.

Figure Radial Velocity Studies of Close Binary Stars. IV111Based on the data obtained at the David Dunlap Observatory, University of Toronto. shows the BF’s for the five triple systems, 44 Boo, V899 Her, VZ Lib, SW Lyn and HT Vir, all at phases close to orbital quadratures of the close pairs. In one case of HT Vir, we show elements of the BF decomposition into the third component and the binary itself (the last panel of Figure Radial Velocity Studies of Close Binary Stars. IV111Based on the data obtained at the David Dunlap Observatory, University of Toronto.). Of particular importance is that the third component can be cleanly subtracted from the BF leaving a very well defined signature of the contact system. The success of the decomposition is due primarily to the linear properties of the BF derived through the SVD formalism (Rucinski, 1999), in contrast to the cross-correlation function which is non-linear. This permits subtraction of the third component from the BF which is simple and mathematically correct. Then, through separate integration of the sharp and broad components, we can determine the brightness of the companion in relation to that of the close binary, $`L_3/L_{12}`$. Thanks to the linear SVD–BF approach, we have been able to determine radial velocities for components in close binary systems which would present totally insurmountable challenge if handled with the cross-correlation function, such as V899 Her, VZ Lib or SW Lyn.

The linear deconvolution technique that we use to obtain the broadening functions is not the only one available for determination of accurate radial velocities from blended spectra showing lines of several components. In recent years, a powerful technique called TODCOR has been developed for close binaries by Zucker & Mazeh (1994) and then extended into the case of triple-lined systems by Zucker et al. (1995); the latter modification has been already successfully applied in some difficult cases of multi-lined systems (Jha et al., 2000). We did not use this technique for the several reasons. Not only that we feel more comfortable with a tool developed by ourselves, but (1) so far, TODCOR has not been demonstrated to work for very broad lines of contact binaries, and (2) our case of mixed very broad and narrow spectral signatures is even more difficult and would require even more extensive testing. We fear in particular that the non-linear nature of the cross-correlation would complicate derivation of relative brightnesses of components for systems with components showing very different degrees of rotational broadening.

In three (V899 Her, SW Lyn, HT Vir), possibly four (VZ Lib), among the triple-lined systems, the third component appears to be a radial-velocity variable. We will comment on each system in the separate subsections below.

### 3.2 44 Boo A

The observations lasted too short in the case of 44 Boo A to note any long-term radial-velocity changes. However, since we wanted to obtain the best radial-velocity data for the close binary 44 Boo B, the presence of the bright companion did require some additional precautions. In particular, an attempt was made during the observations to place the brighter component 44 Boo A as much outside the spectrograph slit as possible. The separation is currently about 1.7 arcsec so that it is comparable to the width of our slit (1.8 arcsec), which cannot be rotated. Because the component A is about 1.8 times brighter than B (Hill et al., 1989) and its lines are sharp and very well defined, its signature is always visible in the BF (first panel of Figure Radial Velocity Studies of Close Binary Stars. IV111Based on the data obtained at the David Dunlap Observatory, University of Toronto.). By attempting to place its image outside the slit, we partly succeeded in suppressing its contribution (to the level $`L_3/L_{12}0.40.7`$ depending on the seeing, as measured in the broadening functions), but we did not eliminate it totally achieving only modification of its relative intensity in the BF. Its radial velocity derived from the BF is also incorrect (by up to 12 km s-1) because the light was spilling over always from one side of our relatively wide slit. To derive an unbiased velocity of 44 Boo, we made three additional observations of this component at the slit center and measured the velocity of this component separately. Its average velocity for the epoch JD(hel) = 2,450,945.996 is $`V^A=34.93\pm 0.64`$. The detailed data are given in Table Radial Velocity Studies of Close Binary Stars. IV111Based on the data obtained at the David Dunlap Observatory, University of Toronto..

### 3.3 V899 Her A

There exist no earlier reports of the presence of a third component in this star which has been only recently discovered as a variable star. As we can see in the second top panel of Figure Radial Velocity Studies of Close Binary Stars. IV111Based on the data obtained at the David Dunlap Observatory, University of Toronto., the third component dominates the broadening function of V899 Her, so we call it the component A. The ratio of brightnesses at phases close to orbital quadratures is $`L_3/L_{12}=1.5\pm 0.1`$. The spectrum of the system, F5 V, is also dominated by this component and we see only weak signatures of the broadened G-type spectrum in the BF. Only thanks to the linearity of the broadening function determination we have been able to study this interesting system.

We found that V899 Her A slowly changes its radial velocity. These variations are not reflected in the systemic velocity of the close pair, so that the companion A itself is probably a wide spectroscopic binary. The radial-velocity data for V899 Her A are shown in Figure Radial Velocity Studies of Close Binary Stars. IV111Based on the data obtained at the David Dunlap Observatory, University of Toronto.. We had many observations for this star so that we could group them into nightly average values. These in turn permitted us to obtain independent estimates of measurement errors for individual observations, after all stages of the combined standard and broadening-function processing and component separation. For such a sharp-line star, the errors of the nightly averages are small at a level typically 0.5 to 1.0 km s-1.

### 3.4 VZ Lib B

We have detected a spectroscopic companion of VZ Lib. The broadening function (the left lower panel in Figure Radial Velocity Studies of Close Binary Stars. IV111Based on the data obtained at the David Dunlap Observatory, University of Toronto.) indicates that in this case the brightness of the companion is lower that that of the close binary, $`L_3/L_{12}=0.20\pm 0.04`$. Because the close binary has a relatively small mass ratio, the BF peak of the third star is usually merged with the broadening lobe of the primary, more massive component of the W UMa-type system of VZ Lib.

The radial velocities of the third component show a nightly spread of 2.6 to 4.3 km s-1, whereas errors for sharp line stars are typically $`1`$ km s-1. This may be an indication that the spectroscopic companion is itself a close binary although we found that derivation of the velocities for all three stars in this case was very difficult because of the relative faintness of the system and extensive blending of the components in the broadening function. The variations of the third component appear to be slow (Figure Radial Velocity Studies of Close Binary Stars. IV111Based on the data obtained at the David Dunlap Observatory, University of Toronto.), but may result from grouped sampling of more rapid changes. The system requires further radial-velocity observations to confirm that the companion has variable radial velocity and that the system is actually a quadruple one.

### 3.5 SW Lyn B

We have detected a third star in the system of SW Lyn. It is well visible in the broadening function in Figure Radial Velocity Studies of Close Binary Stars. IV111Based on the data obtained at the David Dunlap Observatory, University of Toronto. (middle lower panel). As mentioned in the description of the close binary in Section 2, the presence of the signal from the third star as well as the dominant role of the massive and bright primary component of the Algol system resulted in difficulties with the radial-velocity measurements of the secondary star of the close system.

The third star in SW Lyn is moderately bright, $`L_3/L_{12}=0.33\pm 0.05`$ (for the contact system at the orbital quadrature), and is a radial-velocity variable so that the whole system is a quadruple one. The radial-velocity changes of the third component are slow and certainly compatible with the orbital period of 2128 day which is noticeable in the eclipse timing for the close pair (Ogłoza et al., 1998). However, we see no direct indication that this is the same star. Unfortunately, contrary to V899 Her or VZ Lib, we have been unable to check if seasonal data would give the complementary systemic velocity variation for the close pair; we could only solve the second season or all the data together. As we described in Section 2 the orbital solutions for the close pair based on all the observations from both seasons and, separately, on the observations from the second season, gave identical sets of orbital parameters (within the errors). This would suggest that the spectroscopic companion and the eclipse-timing perturber are not the same object.

### 3.6 HT Vir A

HT Vir has been known as a close visual binary with a separation of less than one arcsec (Walker, 1984; Walker & Chambliss, 1985). In terms of the overall properties, the system is somewhat similar to 44 Boo. Walker & Chambliss (1985) determined that the component A had brightness comparable to that of the close binary ($`L_3/L_{12}0.79`$) and was slightly fainter of the two even at light maxima of the contact system. By integration of the separate components of the broadening function (upper right panel in Figure Radial Velocity Studies of Close Binary Stars. IV111Based on the data obtained at the David Dunlap Observatory, University of Toronto.), we obtained $`L_3/L_{12}0.52\pm 0.05`$, so that we found that HT Vir A was about two times fainter than the contact binary at its light maxima. In fact, we derived the ratio of the luminosities to be about $`0.48\pm 0.03`$ for phases around 0.25 and about $`0.56\pm 0.03`$ for phases around 0.75; this may reflect either an asymmetry in the light maxima of HT Vir B or systematic errors in our estimates of $`L_3/L_{12}`$ for the mutually oppositely-orientated peaks in the broadening function. After subtraction of the scaled peak of the third component, we obtained an excellent radial-velocity orbit for HT Vir B (as described in Section 2).

We discovered that HT Vir A is a relatively close, single-lined (SB1) binary so that the HT Vir system is a quadruple one. The data for this star showed a scatter of about 20 km s-1 which we analyzed for periodicity. Solution of the radial-velocity data, using the program of Morbey (1975), with a preliminary orbital period of 32.45 days, leads to an eccentric orbit with parameters listed in Table Radial Velocity Studies of Close Binary Stars. IV111Based on the data obtained at the David Dunlap Observatory, University of Toronto.. We show the solution for HT Vir A in the last panel of Figure Radial Velocity Studies of Close Binary Stars. IV111Based on the data obtained at the David Dunlap Observatory, University of Toronto..

## 4 SUMMARY

The paper brings radial-velocity data and orbital solutions for the fourth group of ten close binary systems that we observed at the David Dunlap Observatory. Only 44 Boo and SW Lyn have been observed spectroscopically before; for both, we provide much improved spectroscopic orbits. All systems are double-lined (SB2) binaries with visible spectral lines of both components. We give the values of $`(M_1+M_2)\mathrm{sin}^3i=1.0385\times 10^7(K_1+K_2)^3P(\mathrm{day})M_{}`$ in Table Radial Velocity Studies of Close Binary Stars. IV111Based on the data obtained at the David Dunlap Observatory, University of Toronto.. As in the previous papers of this series, we have not been able to converted them into the sums of masses because in most cases the inclination angle is either unknown or not trustworthy. We note that the photometric discoveries of the Hipparcos project (FI Boo, V2150 Cyg, EX Leo, V2377 Oph) tend to have small values of $`(M_1+M_2)\mathrm{sin}^3i`$, in accord with their small photometric amplitudes, both features apparently due to low orbital inclinations. But we also found that some of the newly-discovered systems may have small photometric amplitudes because of the dilution of light in a triple system; the perfect example is V899 Her. By discovering low photometric amplitude binary systems, the Hipparcos mission has therefore contributed substantially to rectifying the statistics of bright contact binaries; this statistics had been known to be skewed toward large amplitude variables (Rucinski & Kałużny, 1994; Rucinski, 1997).

Five system in the current group are members of close visual and/or spectroscopic triple-lined systems (44 Boo, V899 Her, VZ Lib, SW Lyn, HT Vir); among them three and possibly four companions are themselves close binaries. We have been able to provide good data for these systems mostly because of the superior capabilities of the linear SVD broadening-function approach (Rucinski, 1999) in resolving individual components in the triple-lined spectra.

The authors would like to thank Jim Thomson for help with observations, Dr. Frank Fekel for providing us a list of early-type standard stars and Dr. Russ Robb for correspondence about GSC 8–324. We thank the referee for a careful and constructive review. The visit of WO to the David Dunlap Observatory was possible thanks to support from Professor Bohdan Paczynski, through the Polish Astronomical Foundation. Support from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Council of Canada to SMR is acknowledged with gratitude. The research has made use of the SIMBAD database, operated at the CDS, Strasbourg, France and accessible through the Canadian Astronomy Data Centre, which is operated by the Herzberg Institute of Astrophysics, National Research Council of Canada.
Errata to Paper II:

The residuals $`\mathrm{\Delta }V`$ listed in Table 1 for SV Equ are incorrect and do not agree with Figure 1 and the quoted value of the error per single observations, as given in Table 2. The correct residuals can be computed from the original data and the spectroscopic elements.

Captions to figures:


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# Sundays in a Quantum Engineer’s Life

## I I am a Quantum Engineer, but on Sundays I have principles

I am a Quantum Engineer, but on Sundays I have principles, John Bell opened his ”underground colloquium” in March 1983, words which I will never forget! What! John Bell, the great John Bell, presented himself as an engineer!?! one of those people who make things work without even understanding how they function?!? whereas I thought of John Bell as one of the greatest theoretician***today I would add: one of those people who are unable to make anything work, but think they know why it doesn’t function!.

In March 1983 the Association Vaudoise des Chercheurs en Physique organized their annual one-week course in Montana, an excellent combination of ski and physics, on the foundations of quantum mechanics. For one of these reasons peculiar to the community of people interested soleny in these foundations, John Bell was invited, but without any time slot for a presentation. With some friends we, i.e. the PhD students, managed to convince him to give us an evening lecture, after dinner, while the professors enjoyed the local wine. At first John declined, arguing that he had not his transparencies, but when we learned that his wife Mary was to join him during the week, we had the perfect counter-argument: Mary would bring the transparencies and we would organize a room and an overhead projector. The talk took place in the basement, the ceiling was too low and the students sat on the ground: a perfect underground atmosphere. When John Bell started you could ”hear the silence”: I am a Quantum Engineer, but on Sundays I have principles.

The next few pages are not supposed to be selfcontained, for the physics the reader is directed to existing literature. These pages simply contain an illustration of my understanding of John’s words.

## II Quantum cryptography on Sundays

Today, quantum engineers have many good professional opportunities and even more should be expected in the near future. Nowadays, for example, they work on quantum cryptography. For this purpose they develop techniques to send ”single photon pulses” through telecom optical fibers from a sender, conventionally called Alice, to a receiver called Bob. A convenient solution, according to the engineer, consists in mimicking the single photons by very weak laser pulses, so that the probability that a pulse contains more than a photon is neglectable. But on a sunny Sunday the physicist says: ”weak pulses are not good, because they may contain two photons”. So the engineer works out a better single-photon source, based on a photon pair source, using one photon as a trigger for the single photon pulse, see Fig. 1. The physicist, impressed by the engineer’s ability, likes the idea so much that a special issue of the journal of Pretty Rational Letters is edited. However, on the following Sunday, he realizes that there is no need, in principle, to set the source on Alice’s side: the source could as well be at the center! This is much more elegant, because of higher symmetry.

But then, in this symmetric configuration, there is no longer any physical object transmitted from Alice to Bob: where does the correlation then come from? and, what then guaranties the confidentiality? The engineer doesn’t care (it is not even clear whether he understands the problem). Actually, it is also unclear to the physicist whether there is a problem or not. Until he discovers the inequalityHow did John Bell mention his inequality? Very simple, he would just say the inequality!. This inequality doesn’t explain the correlation observed by the engineer, nor does it say anything about their fragility, hence about the security of quantum cryptography. The inequality, or more precisely, its violation, says that the correlation will never be explained by any theory based only on local variables (local beables in John’s word), i.e. that any description of the ”world out there” must incorporate some nonlocal influcences.

The quantum engineer enjoys his work. He develops better single photon sources (i.e. sources coming closer to the ideal case), he works on better detectors, higher bit rates, implements efficient error correction and privacy amplification algorithms, etc. During that time, the physicist writes things like $`U_1U_2\mathrm{\Phi }^{(+)}=\text{11}U_2U_1^t\mathrm{\Phi }^{(+)}`$ and concludes that the 1-photon and the 2-photon schemes are logically equivalent. He analyses the optimal eavesdropping attack, assuming Eve (the eavesdropper) is limited only by the laws of quantum physics. Thus, he finds that Alice and Bob are guaranteed to share a higher mutual (Shannon) information than Eve (with either Alice or Bob) if and only if the error rate between Alice and Bob (something the engineer calls QBER: Quantum Bit Error Rate) is smaller than $`\frac{1}{2}(11/\sqrt{2})15\%`$ . This result makes the engineer happy, his experimental results are well below this 15% threshold: he is on the safe side. The physicist, however, has mixed feelings: how can it be that this limit, obtained when comparing Shannon informations with their logarithms, defines precisely the noise limit above which the inequality can no longer be violatedThe error rate relates to the 2-photon interference visibility V as follows: QBER=(1-V)/2 (recall that ”outside the visibility” Bob still has one chance out of two to find the correct result). Hence the mentioned QBER threshold corresponds to a visibility of $`1/\sqrt{2}`$, wellknown as the threshold for the Bell-CHSH inequality.!?! Is it a coincidence? or is it deep? (This is still an open question!)

## III Let’s assume that the collapse is real

Several Sundays pass. The physicist is fascinated by the connection between the bound derived from the metaphysical assumption of local hidden variables and the security of his engineer friend’s quantum crypto device. Since a few weeks he got interested in the infamous wave packet collapse, as a possible interpretation the non local correlation. Suddenly he thinks: ”What if the collapse is real? Could it be that the collapse triggered by Alice’s measurement really prepares the state of the photon flying to Bob?”. The physicist knows, of course, that the collapse and the related measurement problem are notoriously bad questions, since their prediction are indistinguishable from those of quantum mechanics without any collapse. But, the metaphysical assumption of local hidden variables led to interesting physics (and interesting engineering), although the main result is that they do not exist. May be it is worth trying some metaphysical assumptions about the collapse and see what kind of experiments should be done to test the assumptions?

This was really a nice Sunday, and the physicist thought about testing the speed of what Einstein called the spooky action at a distance! If it is really Alice’s measurement that prepares Bob’s photon at a distance, says the physicist to the engineer, let’s carry out Bob’s measurement at precisely the same time as Alice’s, so that the nonlocal preparation has no time to operate. According to this assumption, the nonlocal correlation should disappear when proper timing is used. If the correlation remains, then either there is no collapse, or the speed of the spooky action is faster than the bound set by the timing accuracy.

The engineer likes the challenge of aligning his system such that both measurements take place ”really at the same time”. This is far from obvious, knowing that Alice and Bob are connected by almost 20 km of optical fibers over a straight line distance of more than 10 km! But, the engineer has heard of relativity and asks: ”In which reference frame should I align the experiment?”. ”Well, hum, I do not really know!, admits the physicists, let’s try the most obvious choices: the reference frame in which the Swiss Alps§§§i.e. the reference frame in which all the massive parts of the experiment are at rest (the lab frame, if you prefer). are at rest! And also the reference frame of the cosmic background radiation (center of mass of the Universe)!”. The engineer smiles, but since it is fun work he is willing to try the experiment (it gives him a break from the task of improving these photon counters that are so noisy that one needs to cool them, but if they are too cold then the dead time has to be increased because the after pulses take more time to resorb). Okay, says the engineer, but ”What exactly should be aligned? The beam splitters? The detectors? The computers? The observers?”.

The physicist is amazed. Now that he dared to consider the assumption that the collapse is real, so many questions arise! and each hypothetical answer can, in principle, be tested! How to continue? The following Sunday, our physicist goes for a walk, with his friend David BohmJohn Bell always insisted that Bohm’s pilot wave model being experimentally undistinguishable from standard quantum mechanics should be taught to students at the same level, but … who follows this advice?. They spoke about the engineer’s question: what should be aligned? Clearly, it should be the device that triggers the collapse. But what could one reasonably assume as the trigger? After a few minutes of silence, the physicist states: ”it must be the detector! That’s where the irreversible event happens!”. ”Possibly, replies Bohm, but I bet it is the beam splitters! Because it is there that the particle makes its choice”Indeed, in Bohm’s pilot wave model, the irreversible choice is made at the beam splitters, in this model the detectors merely reveal this choice. This influenced Antoine Suarez and Valerio Scarani when they developped their proposal..

On Monday, the engineer starts aligning the detectors. Indeed, for him aligning the beam splitters sounds even stranger than aligning the detectors.

This experiment has really been performed in 1999 in Geneva. The referee reports are interesting, ranging from fascination to desperation\**\**\**Notice that John Bell never published his papers on the foundation of quantum mechanics in regular physics journals! The reason being that he wanted to avoid these too often sterile discussions with more or less anonymous referees.! No doubt that the experiment was a performance (a better than 5 ps alignment over almost 20 km of fibers: $`10^7`$ precision). No doubt that for many physicists the collapse is taboo (but certainly not for John Bell††††††When asked for advice about a research direction on the foundation of quantum mechanics, John Bell always replied: ”Do you have a permanent position?”. If you have a chance to meet Alain Aspect, ask him about this!). No doubt also that much remains to be done, both on the theory side and experimentally (an experiment with moving beam splitters is under progress in Geneva).

The experimental result established impressive lower bounds on the speed of the spooky action: $`\frac{2}{3}10^7`$ and $`\frac{3}{2}10^4`$ times the speed of light in the ”Swiss Alps” and the Cosmic Background Radiation frames, respectively. These numbers are very large, about similar to the ratio between the speed of sound in air and that of light (for a long time the speed of sound was the fastest measurable speed, while light was assumed to be instantaneously everywhere).

## IV … and relativity?

Yet comes another sunny Sunday. The physicist rests in his armchair and thinks: ”All this is quite exciting! But what if we let relativity enter the game even deeper? What if the detectors are in relative motion such that each detector in its own reference frame analyses its photon before the other? It would seem then that each photon-detector pair must make their choice before the other?!?!?”.

”This renews the tension between quantum physics and relativity”, says the physicist to himself. Indeed the tension is not new. Abner Shimony, a good friend of John Bell, termed this tension as ”peaceful coexistence”, because the tension does not lead to any testable conflict. ”However, continues loudly the physicist although he is alone, once one assumes that the collapse is a real phenomena, and once one considers specific models, then the conflict is real and is testable‡‡‡‡‡‡This comes as a surprise because, until recently, all models were developed by people whose primary concern was to avoid any testable difference with quantum mechanics: they were proud that they couldn’t be wrong, apparently without realizing that this also implies that they couldn’t be right (i.e. be scientifically relevant). Very strange indeed!!”. His idea is that the reference frame in which the collapse propagates is not the Swiss Alps frame, nor the cosmic background radiation frame, nor any environmental or universal frame. The intuition is that the frame is determined by the ”trigger device”, i.e. by the inertial reference frame of the massive device which triggers the collapse. If all trigger devices are at rest in some frame, then it is this frame which is the relevant one\**\**\**If one further assumes that detectors are trigger devices, then the results recalled in the previous section provide a bound on the speed at which entangled objects get separated from a detected one.. This new assumption opens even clearer tests: if both measurements happen before the other, then the quantum correlation should disappear, however large the speed of the spooky action!

Very excited, the physicist starts to evaluate some orders of magnitude. Indeed, the experiment he just dreamt of requires that one purposely realizes events in moving reference frames such that the time ordering is altered by relativistic effects. A priori this requires relativistic speeds. But the formula actually leads to much more optimistic numbers: the relative speed $`v`$ should satisfy $`v>\frac{c^2\delta t}{\mathrm{}}`$. With $`\delta t5`$ ps and the distance $`\mathrm{}10`$ km, one gets $`v>50`$ m/s. A Ferrari can do it! So, my dear engineer, let’s perform the experiment!!

”But, complains the engineer again, do I really need to activate this bloody moving detector! This requires liquid nitrogen and is a real mess!”. The physicist tries to convince the engineer to use ”real detectors”. But he has to admit that he can’t explain why: if the assumed collapse happens on the first microns of the detector, it should make no difference whether the detector is activated or not\*†\*†\*†and if it takes place later in the detector, then the time jitter (tens or even hundreds of ps) makes the experiment not yet feasible.!?! Moreover, the effect could be seen anyway: let’s arrange the experiment such that one of Bob’s detectors is clearly the first one to interact with the photon. Either this detector detects the photon and then the second detector will not see the photon. Or the first detector triggers a collapse corresponding to ”no photon” and then the photon gets localized in the path to the second detector. Hence, the engineer and physicist compromise: a first experiment without active detectors is planned.

A week later the physicist realizes that the unactivated detector was even replaced by a simple absorber mounted on a rotating wheel. The engineer is happy: now the experiment is feasible! Well, thinks the physicist, this looks too simple. But what could be wrong?

This experiment was also performed in Geneva, in the spring of 1999. The 2-photon interferences were still visible, independently of the relative velocity between Alice and Bob’s reference frames (actually the magnitude of the velocity was constant at 100 m/s, but its orientation varied). What would John Bell have thought of this?

## V Conclusion

The main lesson I learned from John Bell led me, on the one side to become a quantum engineer, and, on the other side, not to forget about the principles. In this way one can make a (very) good living. Simultaneously one can keep ones fascination for the basic questions without loosing ground in endless metaphysical discussions: there is nothing wrong with metaphysical assumptions, but the good ones are those that can be tested. For example, wouldn’t it be nicer to dispute the collapse of the wave packet as a physical phenomenon by designing and performing experiments, rather than arguing that the collapse is a metaphysical assumption?

## Acknowledgments

Work supported by the ”Fondation Odier de psycho-physique” and the Swiss NSF. The author is grateful to Cheryl Dotti and Wolfgang Tittel for careful reading of the manuscript.

## Figure Captions

1. Schematics of the relation between the setups using faint laser pulses (top) and those used to test the inequality (bottom). In the upper scheme, each pulse has a mean photon number $`\mu 0.1`$. In the second scheme, the source is replaced by a 2-photon ($`2h\nu `$) source, one is used as a trigger, the other is prepared according to the setting $`\alpha `$ and sent to Bob. In the third scheme, Alice’s photon is used to prepare (at a distance) Bob’s photon. Finally, the last scheme is completely symmetric between Alice and Bob.
2. Schematic of the Geneva long-distance quantum correlation experiments. When the 4 APDs (photon counters) are connected, this establishes a quantum channel for key distribution (i.e. quantum cryptography). The same setup allows to test - and violate - the Bell inequality. When APD 1 and 2 are set precisely at the same optical distance from the source, bounds on the speed of the spooky action (nowadays called quantum information!) can be set, as discussed in section 3. When the APD 2 is replaced by the absorber on the fast rotating wheel, 2-photon interferences can be observed between APD 3 and 4. This realises the before-before experiment presented in section IV.
3. Quantum nonlocality is central to today’s physics! Logically it follows directly from the supperposition principle. This principle leads also to the measurement problem, a dead end since not testable (at least in the foreseeable future). Besides Quantum Nonlocality are Relativity and Information Theory, the two other main scientific achievements of the first half of the $`20^{th}`$ century. Relativity is characterized by determinism, information theory by classical probabilities. From quantum nonlocality and the relativistic no-signaling condition one can derive the linearity of quantum dynamics, hence the Schrödinger equation. From quantum nonlocality and information theory one derives quantum cryptography, whose security is intimately connected to Bell’s inequality (section II). Finally, the optimal quantum cloning machine can be defined as the eavesdropping strategy on a quantum cryptographic channel providing Eve with optimal Shannon information and can be derived from the no-signaling condition and the existence of distant entangled states.


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# Quantum tunneling and the principle of relativity.

## Abstract

It is shown that the results of Buttiker and Landauer on the traversal time of quantum tunneling through a potential barrier are in agreement with the principle of relativity. Also, they are consistent with the data on the life-time of nuclear particles that decay in flight.

PACS number: 03.30, Special Relativity

A tunneling of particles through a potential barrier is a quantum effect, which has been intensively studied during the last decade.. Many authors have studied the traversal time necessary the barrier to be passed, however the aim of this letter is to discuss the results obtained by Buttiker and Landauer . Landauer and Martin  considered different points of view  on the nature of the traversal time. Due to their analysis, it was shown that the Buttiker-Landauer traversal time $`\tau _{BL}`$ seams to correspond quite well to the interaction time between the tunneling paticle and the barrier and can be expressed by the following equation :

$$\tau _{BL}=_{x_1}^{x_2}\frac{m}{\mathrm{}k(x)}𝑑x=_{x_1}^{x_2}\sqrt{\frac{m}{2\mathrm{}[V_0(x)E]}}𝑑x$$
(1)
Here,$`m`$ and $`E`$ are the mass and the energy of the particle, $`V_0(x)`$-is the rectangular potential barrier with turning points $`x_1`$ and $`x_2`$. The eq. (1) is valid if $`V_0(x)>>E`$ .

An attempt to estimate the value of the $`V_0(x)`$ for strong interacting particles has been done in . It was shown that the value of such barrier seams to be very high, since $`V_0^{si}(x)`$” 10$`{}_{}{}^{20}m`$ , where m is the mass of a particle. If so, then one can assume that the barrier can be passed when $`E=\frac{mv_b^2}{2}`$. It is expected that the velocity vb is very high. However, to satisfy the principle of relativity it is necessary that always $`v_b<C`$, where $`C`$ is the velocity of light. If $`v_b>`$ $`C`$, then one can transform the eq.(1) to the following equation:

$$\tau _{BL}=\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }x}{C\sqrt{1\frac{v^2}{C^2}}}$$
(2)
No doubts that the eq. (2) has fundamental significance. However, due to the lack of space we limit comments of eq. (2) giving only one clear example. Since the eq. (1) contains a relativistic multiplier, the decay in flight of particles and their larger life-time $`\tau `$ relative to the life-time in rest $`\tau _0`$ are consistent with the principle of relativity. Assuming that $`\tau _{BL}`$ $`\tau `$ one can reach the following simple relationship:

$$\tau _0=\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }x}{C}$$
(3)
The eq. (3) shows that the value of the width $`\mathrm{\Delta }x`$ of the potential barrier is equal to the ”characteristic length” ($`\tau _0C`$) of elementary particles. Estimated values of $`\mathrm{\Delta }x`$ for $`\tau _0`$ $``$ $`2,2.10^6`$ s ($`\mu ^\pm `$ \- mesons); $`2,6.10^8s`$ ($`\pi ^\pm `$ \- mesons) and $`0,8.10^{16}`$s ($`\pi ^0`$-meson) are as follow: $`6,6.10^4cm`$, $`7,8.10^2cm`$ and $`2,4.10^6cm`$. These surprising results lead us to the conclusion that the decay in flight of particles could have been associated with a tunneling of particles through a potential barrier.

If the potential barrier is time-dependent, i.e. if the barrier $`V(x,t)=V_0(x)+V_1(x)Cos(\omega t)`$, then one can find some other important consequences from the results of Buttiker and Landauer’s work .

To derive them, one should consider the results and numerical evaluations obtained in . It was assumed that the time associated with a given particle or body depends from the relative changes of their masses, i.e. - $`mdt=\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }m}{m}`$ . An estimation of the value of $`\mu _n`$ for strong interacting particles was found to be $`10^{23}s^1`$. A phenomenological approach based on the assumption that the strong interacting field ”vibrates” with a frequency mn was considered in . One could assume that the potential barrier $`V(x,t)`$  is modulated with a frequency $`\varpi `$ $`\mu _n`$. Then the tunneling particles are expected to have energies with values of $`E\pm n\mathrm{}\varpi `$ that form two ”sidebands” . An estimation of the change of $`E`$ at $`n=1`$ gives a value of $`\mathrm{\Delta }E`$ $`\mathrm{}`$.$`\mu _n`$ $``$ $`66MeV`$. It is important to note that both charged and neutral particles are expected to change their energies. This important result might be a physical basis for acceleration of strong interacting particles that are tunneling through a time-dependent, i.e. modulated, potential barrier.

One should note that an experimental study of the energy spectra of tunneling nuclear particles that pass through a modulated potential barrier could check all assumptions mentioned above. Also, one could obtain unique information about some of the properties of strongly interacting field.

In conclusion, one should note that it would be interesting further consideration of some of the properties of nuclear matter to be done from the point of view of quantum tunneling with dissipation  and a resonant interaction between particles and barriers .

References

 M.Buttiker and R.Landauer, Phys.Rev.Letters 49(1982)1739

 R.Landauer, Th.Martin, Rev.Mod.Phys. 66(1994)217

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# Untitled Document

SELF-DUAL VORTICES IN CHERN-SIMONS HYDRODYNAMICS

Oktay K. PASHAEV1,2 and Jyh-Hao LEE3

1Department of Mathematics, Izmir Institute of Technology, Cankaya-Izmir, Turkey

2Joint Institute for Nuclear Research, Dubna (Moscow), Russian Federation

3Institute of Mathematics, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan

Abstract

The classical theory of non-relativistic charged particle interacting with $`U(1)`$ gauge field is reformulated as the Schrödinger wave equation modified by the de-Broglie-Bohm quantum potential nonlinearity. For, (1 - $`\mathrm{}^2`$) deformed strength of quantum potential the model is gauge equivalent to the standard Schrödinger equation with Planck constant $`\mathrm{}`$, while for the strength (1 + $`\mathrm{}^2`$), to the pair of diffusion-anti-diffusion equations. Specifying the gauge field as Abelian Chern-Simons (CS) one in 2+1 dimensions interacting with the Nonlinear Schrödinger field (the Jackiw-Pi model), we represent the theory as a planar Madelung fluid, where the Chern-Simons Gauss law has simple physical meaning of creation the local vorticity for the fluid flow. For the static flow, when velocity of the center-of-mass motion (the classical velocity) is equal to the quantum one (generated by quantum potential velocity of the internal motion), the fluid admits N-vortex solution. Applying the Auberson-Sabatier type gauge transform to phase of the vortex wave function we show that deformation parameter $`\mathrm{}`$, the CS coupling constant and the quantum potential strength are quantized. Reductions of the model to 1+1 dimensions, leading to modified NLS and DNLS equations with resonance soliton interactions are discussed.

1. Introduction

Nonlinear extension of the Schrödinger equation by the ”quantum potential” non-linear term has been considered long time ago in connection with a stochastic quantization problem , and corrections to quantum mechanics from quantum gravity . It appears also in the wave theoretical formulation of classical mechanics , and the dispersionless limit of nonlinear wave dynamics . As was shown by Sabatier  this extension preserves the Lagrangian structure. Moreover, by proper transformation of the wave function’s phase, Auberson and Sabatier  obtained linearization of the model, which depending on the strength of the quantum potential, has to appear in the form of the Schrödinger equation with rescaled potential or as the pair of the time-reversed diffusion equations. Due to this linearization no soliton type solutions were found . Meanwhile, recently we have been considering the nonlinear version of the Bohm’s formulation of the quantum mechanics , namely the problem of the Nonlinear Schrodinger (NLS) soliton under the influence of the quantum potential . Application of the Auberson-Sabatier type phase transform to this problem with over-critical strength of the quantum potential, allowed us reduce the problem to the pair of time-reversed reaction-diffusion equations, representing an imaginary time version of the real q-r NLS type system  (SL(2,R) reduction of the Zhakharov-Shabat problem). Then, constructing two soliton solution we found a resonance character of their mutual interaction .

In the present paper we consider the influence of quantum potential on the planar vortex in 2+1 dimensional problem for the Nonlinear Schrödinger equation interacting with the Chern-Simons gauge field. Application of the Auberson-Sabatier type transform, affecting the phase of the wave function, dramatically changes parameters of the vortex configurations. In the Madelung representation we reformulate the model as a rotational planar hydrodynamics. Then, the self-dual limit, admitting N-vortex solutions, has simple physical interpretation as a condition of equality between ”classical velocity” (velocity of the center-of-mass) and the ”quantum” one (velocity of the motion in the center-of-mass frame associated with the internal ”spin motion” or zitterbewegung).

In Section 2 we reformulate the classical dynamics of charged particle interacting with Abelian gauge field as a nonlinear Schrödinger type wave equation. Deforming properly the strength of quantum potential we recover the standard Schrödinger equation, where the deformation parameter plays role of the Planck constant. In Section 3 we specify the gauge field as an Abelian Chern-Simons one, interacting with the Nonlinear Schrödinger equation (NLS), and derive corresponding rotational Madelung type hydrodynamics, its dispersionless limit and deformations. Section 4 devoted to the quantum velocity and its properties. For the static flow moving with a velocity equal to the quantum one we reduce the problem to the Liouville equation and describe corresponding vortex configurations. From conditions of non-singularity and single valuedness we find quantization condition for coupling constants. Dimensional reduction to one dimensional NLS equation and its modification by quantum potential are considered in Section 5. In Conclusions we briefly discuss our results.

2. Nonlinear Wave Equation of Classical Dynamics

The classical dynamics of charged non-relativistic particle in U(1) gauge field $`A_\mu =(A_0,𝐀)`$, with the Hamiltonian function

$$H=\frac{𝐩^2}{2m}+\frac{e}{c}A_0+U,$$
$`(2.1)`$
is described by the Hamilton-Jacobi equation

$$\frac{S}{t}+H(S,A_0,𝐀,U)=0,$$
$`(2.2)`$
where for the momentum $`𝐩`$ we substitute

$$𝐩=S+\frac{e}{c}𝐀.$$
$`(2.3)`$
Combining (2.2) with the Liouville equation

$$\frac{\rho }{t}+(\rho 𝐕)=0,$$
$`(2.4)`$
for the density $`\rho `$ of integral invariant in the gradient dynamical system

$$\dot{𝐱}=𝐕=\frac{1}{m}𝐩=\frac{1}{m}[S+\frac{e}{c}𝐀],$$
$`(2.5)`$
we have the system of equations

$$\{\begin{array}{cc}\frac{S}{t}+\frac{1}{2m}(S+\frac{e}{c}𝐀)^2+\frac{e}{c}A_0+U=0,\hfill & \\ & \\ \frac{\rho }{t}+(\rho 𝐕)=0.\hfill & \end{array}$$
$`(2.6)`$
This classical system is representable in the wave form. Introducing the complex wave function (”order parameter”)

$$\psi =\sqrt{\rho }e^{iS},$$
$`(2.7)`$
we rewrite equations (2.6) as the single nonlinear wave equation

$$iD_0\psi +\frac{1}{2m}𝐃^2\psi U\psi =\frac{1}{2m}\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }|\psi |}{|\psi |}\psi ,$$
$`(2.8)`$
where $`D_0=_t+\frac{e}{c}A_0`$, $`𝐃=+\frac{e}{c}𝐀`$. The last equation has form of the Schrödinger equation (without any Planck constant) modified by the so called ”quantum potential” term in the right hand side. It admits all the usual solutions of classical mechanics but does not allow superpositions of these solutions. Since the system (2.6) describes the formal semiclassical limit of the quantum mechanical Schrödinger equation, Eq. (2.8) can be considered as its dispersionless limit. In fact, the wave equation (2.8) is covariant under the gauge transformations

$$\psi \psi e^{i\alpha },𝐀𝐀\frac{c}{e}\alpha ,$$
$`(2.9)`$
generating shift of the classical action

$$SS+\alpha .$$

Then, being U(1) gauge invariant, the additional term on the r.h.s. of (2.8) completely compensates the corresponding gauge invariant contribution from dispersion in the l.h.s.

As we mentioned above, Eq.(2.8) does not contain the Planck constant. But if we consider contribution from quantum potential in the r.h.s. of Eq. (2.8) deformed by a constant $`\mathrm{}^2`$

$$iD_0\psi +\frac{1}{2m}𝐃^2\psi U\psi =\frac{1}{2m}(1\mathrm{}^2)\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }|\psi |}{|\psi |}\psi ,$$
$`(2.10)`$
then in terms of the new wave function

$$\chi =\sqrt{\rho }e^{\frac{i}{\mathrm{}}S},$$
$`(2.11)`$
we recover the standard linear Schrödinger equation

$$i\mathrm{}D_0\chi +\frac{\mathrm{}^2}{2m}𝐃^2\chi U\chi =0,$$
$`(2.12)`$
where $`\mathrm{}`$ plays the role of the Planck constant. Thus for $`\mathrm{}0`$ Eq.(2.10) is gauge equivalent to the Schrödinger equation and for $`\mathrm{}=0`$ reduces to the nonlinear wave equation of classical mechanics (2.8). Moreover, for $`\mathrm{}=\pm 1`$ it reduces directly to the linear Schrödinger equation and its complex conjugation. From another site if the deformation of Eq.(2.8) appears with an opposite sign as

$$iD_0\psi +\frac{1}{2m}𝐃^2\psi U\psi =\frac{1}{2m}(1+\mathrm{}^2)\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }|\psi |}{|\psi |}\psi ,$$
$`(2.13)`$
nevertheless to the same classical limit $`\mathrm{}=0`$ as for Eq.(2.10), it cannot be linearized in the form of the Schrödinger equation by transformation (2.11). However, if we notice that Eq.(2.13) can be reduced to Eq.(2.10) by formal analytical substitution for the Planck constant to the pure imaginary value $`\mathrm{}i\mathrm{}`$ (in quantum mechanics similar continuation to the classically inaccessible region leads to the exponentially decaying (growing) wave function). Then, written in terms of two real functions

$$Q^\pm =\sqrt{\rho }e^{\pm \frac{1}{\mathrm{}}S},$$
$`(2.14)`$
Eq.(2.13) and its complex conjugation become the pair of decoupled diffusion-antidiffusion equations

$$\pm \mathrm{}D_0Q^\pm +\frac{\mathrm{}^2}{2m}𝐃^2Q^\pm UQ^\pm =0,$$
$`(2.15)`$
similar to the one considered by Schrödinger in 1931 . From the above consideration we see that Schrödinger equation perturbed by quantum potential includes as a particular cases the classical mechanics ($`\mathrm{}=0`$), the quantum mechanics ($`\mathrm{}=\pm |\mathrm{}|`$) and the pair of diffusion-antidiffusion equations ($`\mathrm{}=i|\mathrm{}|`$).

3. Chern-Simons Hydrodynamics

The semiclassical limit has been applied recently to defocusing Nonlinear Schrödinger (NLS) equation

$$i\mathrm{}_t\chi +\frac{\mathrm{}^2}{2m}\mathrm{\Delta }\chi +2g|\chi |^2\chi =0,$$
$`(3.1)`$
($`g<0`$) in one  and two space dimensions  and provides an analytical tool to describe shock waves in nonlinear optics and vortices in superfluid. Decomposing the wave function like in (2.11) one derives quantum deformation of the Hamilton-Jacobi equation by quantum potential, or after differentiation according to space coordinates, the Madelung fluid. In the formal semiclassical limit $`\mathrm{}0`$ (before shocks appear), one neglects contribution from the quantum potential and fluid becomes the Euler system. Then in terms of the wave function (2.7) we have dispersionless NLS equation

$$i_t\psi +\frac{1}{2m}\mathrm{\Delta }\psi +2g|\psi |^2\psi =\frac{1}{2m}\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }|\psi |}{|\psi |}\psi .$$
$`(3.2)`$
The quantum deformation of the last equation in the form

$$i_t\psi +\frac{1}{2m}\mathrm{\Delta }\psi +2g|\psi |^2\psi =(1\mathrm{}^2)\frac{1}{2m}\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }|\psi |}{|\psi |}\psi ,$$
$`(3.3)`$
reformulated for the wave function (2.11), leads us again to the original equation (3.1).

The NLS model (3.1) interacting with Chern-Simons gauge field in 2+1 dimensions is called the Jackiw-Pi (JP) model and describes anyonic phenomena . The semiclassical limit of anyons requires to study this model in the limit when $`\mathrm{}0`$, or similarly to the case of Eq. (3.2), its perturbations by quantum potential.

To describe the deformed theory we consider the Lagrangian

$$L=\frac{\kappa }{2}ϵ^{\mu \nu \lambda }A_\mu _\nu A_\lambda +\frac{i}{2}(\overline{\psi }D_0\psi \psi \overline{D}_0\overline{\psi })\frac{1}{2m}|𝐃\psi |^2+(1\mathrm{}^2)\frac{1}{2m}(|\psi |)^2+g|\psi |^4,$$
$`(3.4)`$
where $`D_\mu =_\mu +\frac{ie}{c}A_\mu `$, leading to the system of equations of motion

$$iD_0\psi +\frac{1}{2m}𝐃^2\psi +2g|\psi |^2\psi =(1\mathrm{}^2)\frac{1}{2m}\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }|\psi |}{|\psi |}\psi ,$$
$`(3.5a)`$
$$_1A_2_2A_1=\frac{e}{\kappa c}\overline{\psi }\psi ,$$
$`(3.5b)`$
$$_0A_j_jA_0=\frac{ie}{2mc\kappa }ϵ_{jk}(\overline{\psi }D_k\psi \psi \overline{D}_k\overline{\psi }).$$
$`(3.5c)`$
Decomposing the wave function $`\psi =\sqrt{\rho }\mathrm{exp}(iS)`$ as in Eq.(2.7), and introducing the new function $`\chi =\sqrt{\rho }\mathrm{exp}(iS/\mathrm{})`$ as in Eq.(2.11), we have the Jackiw-Pi model

$$i\mathrm{}(_0+\frac{ie}{\mathrm{}c}A_0)\chi +\frac{\mathrm{}^2}{2m}(+\frac{ie}{\mathrm{}c}𝐀)^2\chi +2g|\chi |^2\chi =0,$$
$`(3.6a)`$
$$_1A_2_2A_1=\frac{e}{\kappa c}\overline{\chi }\chi ,$$
$`(3.6b)`$
$$_0A_j_jA_0=\frac{ie\mathrm{}}{2mc\kappa }ϵ_{jk}[\overline{\chi }(_k+\frac{ie}{\mathrm{}c}A_k)\chi \chi (_k\frac{ie}{\mathrm{}c}A_k)\overline{\chi }].$$
$`(3.6c)`$
Corresponding Lagrangian follows from (3.4) as

$$L=\frac{\kappa }{2}ϵ^{\mu \nu \lambda }A_\mu _\nu A_\lambda +$$

$$\frac{i\mathrm{}}{2}[\overline{\chi }(_0+\frac{ie}{\mathrm{}c}A_0)\chi \chi (_0\frac{ie}{\mathrm{}c}A_0)\overline{\chi }]\frac{\mathrm{}^2}{2m}(\frac{ie}{\mathrm{}c}𝐀)\overline{\chi }(+\frac{ie}{\mathrm{}c}𝐀)\chi +g|\chi |^4.$$
$`(3.7)`$
In the above system of equations (3.6) the deformation parameter $`\mathrm{}`$ plays the role similar to the Planck constant. Both of the systems (3.5) and (3.6) admit the same hydrodynamical (Madelung type) representation. From equation (3.5a) we obtain the quantum Hamilton-Jacobi equation

$$\frac{S}{t}+[\frac{mV^2}{2}+\frac{e}{c}A_02g\rho \frac{\mathrm{}^2}{2m}\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }\sqrt{\rho }}{\sqrt{\rho }}]=0,$$
$`(3.8)`$
and the continuity one

$$\frac{\rho }{t}+(\rho 𝐕)=0,$$
$`(3.9)`$
where like in Eq.(2.5) we introduced the local velocity field

$$𝐕=\frac{1}{m}[S+\frac{e}{c}𝐀].$$
$`(3.10)`$
Then equations (3.6b,c) become of the form

$$_1A_2_2A_1=\frac{e}{\kappa c}\rho ,$$
$`(3.11)`$
$$_0A_j_jA_0=\frac{e}{\kappa c}ϵ_{jk}\rho V_k.$$
$`(3.12)`$
Now we can completely exclude from consideration the vector potentials $`𝐀`$ in favor of the velocity field (3.10). It is worth to note that the last one is an explicitly gauge invariant variable. Thus from Eqs.(3.12) and (3.8) we derive the Euler equation for velocity $`𝐕`$,

$$\frac{𝐕}{t}+(𝐕)𝐕=\frac{1}{m}P,$$
$`(3.13)`$
with the pressure

$$P=2g\rho \frac{\mathrm{}^2}{2m}\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }\sqrt{\rho }}{\sqrt{\rho }}.$$
$`(3.14)`$
The Chern-Simons Gauss law (3.11) in terms of our hydrodynamical variables becomes

$$\times 𝐕=\frac{e^2}{m\kappa c^2}\rho .$$
$`(3.15)`$
The last condition has simple meaning of a rotational fluid, such that at any point of the fluid with nonvanishing density $`\rho `$ the local vorticity is nonzero. The system of equations (3.9),(3.13-15) determines the Madelung fluid for our model. As well as the velocity field mentioned above in (3.10) it is explicitly $`U(1)`$ gauge invariant. Moreover the continuity equation (3.9) from this system is not independent. It appears as a consistency condition for the Chern-Simons Gauss law (3.15) during the time evolution. To check this it is sufficient simply differentiate (3.15) according to the time variable and use Eq.(3.13). Thus we have hydrodynamical model defined by two equations

$$\{\begin{array}{cc}\frac{𝐕}{t}+(𝐕)𝐕=\frac{1}{m}(2g\rho \frac{\mathrm{}^2}{2m}\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }\sqrt{\rho }}{\sqrt{\rho }}),\hfill & \\ \times 𝐕=\frac{e^2}{m\kappa c^2}\rho .\hfill & \end{array}$$
$`(3.16)`$
The semiclassical or dispersionless limit of this model when $`\mathrm{}0`$, is given by

$$\{\begin{array}{cc}\frac{𝐕}{t}+(𝐕)𝐕=\frac{1}{m}(2g\rho ),\hfill & \\ \times 𝐕=\frac{e^2}{m\kappa c^2}\rho .\hfill & \end{array}$$
$`(3.17)`$
The nonlinear wave form of these equations follows directly from the system (3.5) and Lagrangian from Eq.(3.4) with $`\mathrm{}=0`$.

4. Quantum velocity and stationary flow

Recently in the set of papers, an interpretation of quantum potential in terms of velocity of internal motion or the zitterbewegung was given . In that approach starting from the Pauli current a decomposition of the nonrelativistic local velocity in two parts, one parallel and the other orthogonal to the impulse has been obtained. The first part, determined by $`S`$, is recognized as the ”classical” part, corresponding to the velocity of the center-of-mass. While the second one, called the ”quantum” one, is the velocity of motion in the center-of-mass frame (the internal ”spin motion” or Schrödinger’s zitterbewegung). Then the contribution of the quantum potential to the Lagrangian (3.7) has simple physical meaning of the kinetic energy for this last motion

$$\frac{\mathrm{}^2}{2m}(|\chi |)^2=\frac{\mathrm{}^2}{8m}(\frac{\rho }{\rho })^2=\frac{m𝐕_q^2}{2},$$
$`(4.1)`$
where the ”quantum” velocity is defined by

$$𝐕_q=\frac{\rho \times 𝐬}{m\rho }.$$
$`(4.2)`$
For the planar motion in the $`xy`$ plane, $`_z=0`$ and $`s_x=s_y=0`$, so that $`s_z=\frac{\mathrm{}}{2}`$, and we have for components of quantum velocity

$$(V_q)_x=\frac{\mathrm{}}{2m}\frac{_y\rho }{\rho },(V_q)_y=\frac{\mathrm{}}{2m}\frac{_x\rho }{\rho },$$
$`(4.3)`$
or

$$(𝐕_q)_i=\frac{\mathrm{}}{2m}ϵ_{ij}\frac{_j\rho }{\rho }.$$
$`(4.4)`$
Differentiating in time the last equation and using the continuity equation (3.9) we obtain

$$_0𝐕_q+(𝐕)𝐕_q=0,$$
$`(4.5)`$
which means that $`𝐕_q`$ is propagating with the main flow velocity $`𝐕`$, i.e. it is a velocity of the inner motion. Moreover, by direct computation from Eq.(4.4) we have divergenceless condition for the quantum velocity flow

$$(\rho 𝐕_q)=0.$$
$`(4.6)`$
This condition applied to the continuity equation (3.9) for a flow propagating with quantum velocity

$$𝐕=\pm 𝐕_q,$$
$`(4.7)`$
having meaning of a special planar motion when velocities of classical (center-of-mass) motion and quantum (internal) motion coincide, leads to the stationary flow

$$_0\rho =0.$$
$`(4.8).`$
But from another site for the stationary flow when

$$_0𝐕=0,$$
$`(4.9)`$
and

$$\frac{\kappa g}{e^2}=\pm \frac{\mathrm{}}{2mc^2},$$
$`(4.10)`$
the Madelung fluid equation (3.16) can be rewritten as

$$\frac{m}{2}_j(𝐕𝐕_q)(𝐕+𝐕_q)\frac{e^2}{\kappa c^2}\rho ϵ_{jk}(𝐕𝐕_q)_k\frac{\mathrm{}}{2}_j[\times (𝐕𝐕_q)]=0,$$
$`(4.11)`$
which is identically satisfied by Eq.(4.7). Deriving this equation we explored the identity

$$\frac{\mathrm{}^2}{2m}\frac{\sqrt{\rho }}{\sqrt{\rho }}=\frac{m𝐕_q^2}{2}\frac{\mathrm{}}{2}[_1(𝐕_q)_2_2(𝐕_q)_1],$$

and the Chern-Simons Gauss law (3.15). Thus, under condition (4.7) it remains to satisfy only the vorticity condition (3.16) for the quantum velocity

$$\times 𝐕_q=\pm \frac{e^2}{\kappa mc^2}\rho ,$$
$`(4.12)`$
acquiring by definition (4.4) Liouville’s equation form

$$\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{ln}\rho =\frac{2e^2}{\kappa \mathrm{}c^2}\rho .$$
$`(4.13)`$
We stress again that the Liouville equation in our model has meaning of the vorticity condition for quantum flow. Solutions of the model are well known . We just mention the polar symmetric case (for the sign minus)

$$\rho =4\frac{\kappa \mathrm{}c^2N^2}{e^2r^2}[(\frac{r}{r_0})^N+(\frac{r_0}{r})^N]^2,$$
$`(4.14)`$
which is regular for $`N1`$ and appears from the general solution

$$\rho =\alpha \frac{|\zeta ^{}(z)|^2}{(1+|\zeta (z)|^2)^2},$$
$`(4.15)`$
when

$$\zeta (z)=\frac{c_N}{(zz_0)^N},z=x+iy.$$
$`(4.16)`$
Now there are two physical conditions in the original ($`\psi `$, $`𝐀`$) formulation, restricting our solution. From regularity of the gauge potential $`𝐀`$ we fix the phase of $`\chi =\sqrt{\rho }\mathrm{exp}(iS/\mathrm{})`$ (see Eqs.(3.6)) as $`S/\mathrm{}=(N1)\theta `$, $`\theta =\mathrm{tan}^1(x_2/x_1)`$, and restrict $`N`$ to be an integer for single-valued $`\chi `$. But single-valuedness of the original function $`\psi =\sqrt{\rho }\mathrm{exp}(iS)`$ in (3.5) requires integer valuedness for the product

$$(N1)\mathrm{}=integer,$$
$`(4.17)`$
valuedness of which for any integer $`N`$ leads to an integer valuedness of deformation parameter

$$\mathrm{}=n,$$
$`(4.18)`$
and as a consequence of (4.10), we find the quantization condition

$$\frac{\kappa g}{e^2}=\pm \frac{n}{2mc^2},(n=1,2,3,\mathrm{}).$$
$`(4.19)`$
The last relation means that the Chern-Simons coupling constant and the quantum potential strength must be quantized

$$\kappa =n\frac{e^2}{2gmc^2},\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}\hspace{0.17em}\hspace{0.17em}\hspace{0.17em}\hspace{0.17em}\hspace{0.17em}1}\mathrm{}^2=1n^2=(1n)(1+n).$$
$`(4.20)`$
At the end of this section we present the Lagrangian formulation of our fluid model (3.16). After excluding the vector potentials $`A_\mu `$ from (3.7) we get

$$L=\frac{\kappa m^2c^2}{2e^2}ϵ_{\mu \nu \lambda }V_\mu _\nu V_\lambda \rho V_0\rho \frac{m𝐕^2}{2}\rho \frac{m𝐕_{𝐪}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}}{2}+g\rho ^2,$$
$`(4.21)`$
where $`V_0`$ plays the role of Lagrange multiplier. The Hamiltonian (constrained by Chern-Simons Gauss law)

$$H=\rho \frac{m𝐕^2}{2}+\rho \frac{m𝐕_{𝐪}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}}{2}g\rho ^2,$$
$`(4.22)`$
has simple interpretation as the sum of kinetic energies of the classical and quantum motions, plus self-interaction energy. As easy to check it vanishes for the self-dual flow (4.7) with fixed constants (4.10).

5. 1+1 dimensional reduction

For the one directional flow, assume in the $`x`$ direction when $`_2=0`$, the system (3.16) reduces to

$$_0V_1+V_1_1V_1=\frac{1}{m}_1(2g\rho +\frac{\mathrm{}^2}{2m}\frac{_1^2\sqrt{\rho }}{\sqrt{\rho }}),$$
$`(5.1a)`$
$$_0V_2+V_1_1V_2=0,$$
$`(5.1b)`$
$$_1V_2=\frac{e^2}{\kappa mc^2}\rho .$$
$`(5.1c)`$
Substituting $`_1V_2`$ from the last equation to the second one we find that velocity field component $`V_2`$ is decoupled completely from Eq.(5.1a) and is determined by the first order system of equations

$$_1V_2=\frac{e^2}{\kappa mc^2}\rho ,_0V_2=\frac{e^2}{\kappa mc^2}\rho V_1.$$
$`(5.2)`$
Then compatibility condition for the last system is just the continuity equation for one dimensional flow

$$_0\rho +_1(\rho V_1)=0.$$
$`(5.3)`$
Equations (5.1a) and (5.3) determine the Madelung fluid in one space dimension. Rewriting them for the wave function

$$\chi =\sqrt{\rho }e^{\frac{i}{\mathrm{}}_{\mathrm{}}^xV_1},$$
$`(5.4)`$
we obtain the NLS model

$$i\mathrm{}_0\chi +\frac{\mathrm{}^2}{2m}_1^2\chi +2g|\chi |^2\chi =0.$$
$`(5.5)`$
We note that for the negative sign of the quantum deformation in the system (3.5), corresponding to the replacement $`\mathrm{}^2\mathrm{}^2`$, the one dimensional reduction of the fluid is given by the system (5.3), (5.1a), where in the last equation we must change the sign of the quantum potential contribution. The result is that for the wave function

$$\psi =\sqrt{\rho }e^{i_{\mathrm{}}^xV_1},$$
$`(5.6)`$
we get NLS modified by quantum potential

$$i_0\psi +\frac{1}{2m}_1^2\psi +2g|\psi |^2\psi =(1+\mathrm{}^2)\frac{1}{2m}\frac{_1^2|\psi |}{|\psi |}\psi .$$
$`(5.7)`$
At the same time in terms of two real functions

$$Q^\pm =\sqrt{\rho }e^{\pm \frac{1}{\mathrm{}}_{\mathrm{}}^xV_1},$$
$`(5.8)`$
we have ”dissipative” (reaction-diffusion) version of NLS

$$\pm \mathrm{}_0Q^\pm +\frac{\mathrm{}^2}{2m}_1^2Q^\pm +2gQ^+Q^{}Q^\pm =0.$$
$`(5.9)`$
This analogy allow us derive bilinear representation for (5.7). Solution for the wave function $`\psi `$ is represented in terms of three real functions $`G^\pm ,F`$,

$$\psi =\frac{(G^+)^{\frac{1i\mathrm{}}{2}}(G^{})^{\frac{1+i\mathrm{}}{2}}}{F},\overline{\psi }=\frac{(G^+)^{\frac{1+i\mathrm{}}{2}}(G^{})^{\frac{1i\mathrm{}}{2}}}{F}$$
$`(5.9)`$
satisfying bilinear system of equations

$$(\pm \mathrm{}D_t\frac{\mathrm{}^2}{2m}D_x^2)(G^\pm F)=0,$$
$`(5.11a)`$
$$\frac{\mathrm{}^2}{2m}D_x^2(FF)=2gG^+G^{}.$$
$`(5.11b)`$
Then, hydrodynamical variables are given by formulae

$$V_1=\frac{\mathrm{}}{2m}_1\mathrm{ln}\frac{G^{}}{G^+},\rho =\frac{\mathrm{}^2}{2mg}_1^2(\mathrm{ln}F).$$
$`(5.12)`$
Constructing one and two-soliton solutions we find that in contrast to the NLS case, soliton dynamics of Eq.(5.7) have a reach resonance phenomenology . Another reduction of 2+1 dimensional model (3.5) leads to the DNLS type equation and its reaction-diffusion analog. Details of reduction procedure and resonance soliton interactions would be published elsewhere.

6. Conclusions

We reformulated the classical dynamics of non-relativistic particle interacting with Abelian gauge field as a nonlinear wave equation with quantum potential. Then we considered deformations of this equation and found two cases depending of the sign of deformation. For one of the signs the standard Schrödinger model with deformation parameter playing the role of the Planck constant was obtained. While for the second sign we got diffusion-anti-diffusion equation. Specifying the gauge field as Chern-Simons one and including cubic nonlinear term to the Schrödinger equation we found the dispersionless limit of the Jackiw-Pi model which could be useful descriptive of the anyon’s semiclassical limit. The deformation of this model is equivalent to the standard JP model which we represented as a rotational hydrodynamics of Madelung type fluid. Special flow in this fluid, when velocities of the classical and quantum motion coincide, lead to the Liouville equation admitting vortex configurations. The similar equation, as we found before , defines the event horizon for black hole type solution in the one dimensional NLS with quantum potential (5.7). Moreover, in terms of the wave function it is exactly the Chern-Simons self-(anti-self)duality condition . In fact the self-duality equations are first order equations why they can be interpreted in terms of velocity fields and we hope that our interpretation could be applied to other models as well.

Acknowledgments

One of the authors would like to thank Professor Pierre Sabatier for useful discussion and Professor Fon-Che Liu and Institute of Mathematics, Academia Sinica, Taipei for warm hospitality. This work was supported in part by the Izmir Institute of Technology, Turkey and the Institute of Mathematics, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan.

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