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# On the lack of cold dust in IRAS P09104+4109 and IRAS F15307+3252 – their spectral energy distributions and implications for finding dusty AGNs at high redshift

## 1 Introduction

Two extreme ultraluminous infrared galaxies (ULIGs) at redshifts $`z<1`$ that are thought to derive most of their bolometric luminosity from a dust-enshrouded active galactic nuclei (AGNs) are IRAS P09104+4109 and IRAS F15307+3252. These objects differ from optical quasars, even those with “infrared bumps” (e.g. Sanders et al. 1989), in that they are very faint at rest-frame optical wavelengths; their $`B`$-band luminosities are at least an order of magnitude lower than their 25-$`\mu `$m luminosities, for example. These kinds of objects have attracted much recent attention because of the possibility that much of the mass accretion in the Universe responsible for producing the high local density of supermassive black holes (Magorrian et al. 1998) might have occurred in high redshift analogues of these two galaxies (Haehnelt, Natarajan & Rees 1998; Fabian & Iwasawa 1999; Salucci et al. 1999).

The galaxy IRAS P09104+4109 was identified by Kleinmann et al. (1988) to be an ultraluminous IRAS galaxy at $`z=0.442`$. It was found in a follow-up survey of $`IRAS`$ 60-$`\mu `$m sources that had non-stellar colours and no optical counterparts on the Palomar Sky Survey. Its bolometric luminosity is $`1.4\times 10^{13}\mathrm{L}_{}`$, which is extremely high, even for a ULIG (it would be classed as a hyperluminous infrared galaxy by Sanders & Mirabel 1996). Radio, optical, near- and mid-infrared imaging, spectroscopy, and spectropolarimetry (Kleinmann et al. 1988, Hines & Wills 1993, Soifer et al. 1996, Green & Rowan-Robinson 1996; Taniguchi et al. 1997, Evans et al. 1998, Hines et al 1999) suggest that this galaxy is powered by an obscured AGN. A hard X-ray detection of IRAS P09104+4109 with BeppoSax (Franceschini et al. 2000) confirms that this object contains a powerful AGN.

The spectral energy distribution (SED) of IRAS P09104+4109 is unusual in that it peaks between 10 and 30 $`\mu `$m, implying that the dust responsible for reradiating the energy from the obscured AGN must be very hot, in excess of 100 K. This is very different from what is seen in other powerful (although lower in luminosity than IRAS P09104+4109) dust-enshrouded AGNs like the “warm” ULIGs Markarian 231 and IRAS 08572+3915 (Sanders et al. 1988a). These have dust temperatures closer to 50 K and SEDs which peak longward of 50 $`\mu `$m. The dust in IRAS P09104+4109 is also considerably hotter than the dust in many infrared QSOs, like Markarian 1014 (Sanders et al. 1988b). That the dust in IRAS P09104+4109 is so much hotter than the dust in other ULIGs hosting powerful AGNs is perhaps suggestive that the dust in IRAS P09104+4109 is being heated directly by the AGN whereas in the other ULIGs, much of the far-infrared luminosity comes from colder, more diffuse, dust heated by star formation (Rowan-Robinson & Crawford 1989, Rowan-Robinson & Efstathiou 1993, Rowan-Robinson 2000).

Additionally, IRAS P09104+4109 is a cD galaxy in a rich X-ray cluster that is undergoing a very substantial cooling flow, about 1000 M yr-1 (Fabian & Crawford 1995, Crawford & Vanderriest 1996). In this way it is very different from other ULIGs, which are normally isolated peculiar galaxies, often showing signs of a recent interaction (Sanders et al. 1988a, Clements et al. 1996, Murphy et al. 1996).

So IRAS P09104+4109 is a very unusual ULIG on three grounds: (i) its bolometric luminosity is very high; (ii) its SED is peaked at short wavelengths, implying a much higher dust temperature; and (iii) it is not a peculiar galaxy, but a cD galaxy in the center of a massive X-ray cluster that is undergoing a cooling flow.

It is interesting to speculate as to whether these properties are related; in particular one might ask whether or not the cooling flow can fuel the AGN and in doing so generate the high bolometric luminosity and dust temperature. A related question is: does IRAS P09104+4109 have any cold ($`T50\mathrm{K}`$) dust at all, or is all the dust in this galaxy extremely hot and directly associated with the AGN. Almost all other ULIGs (Sanders & Mirabel 1996) and some high-redshift quasars (McMahon et al. 1999) possess cold gas. Some cooling flow clusters do too, as inferred from their SCUBA submillimetre detections (Edge et al. 1999) and CO line measurements (e.g. Bridges & Irwin 1998). Cooling flow clusters also tend to have star-formation in progress at their centers (Cardiel et al. 1998, Crawford et al. 1999), which may be fuelled by this cold gas. This star formation could could directly produce the dust seen by Edge and collaborators. In IRAS P09104+4109, we have the additional evidence that there exists a high column density of X-ray absorbing gas (Iwasawa, Fabian & Ettori 2001) which is likely to be cold.

The galaxy IRAS F15307+3252 ($`z=0.926`$; Cutri et al. 1994) is another hyperluminous infrared galaxy thought to be powered by a luminous dusty AGN (Hines et al. 1995). It has somewhat cooler IRAS colours than IRAS P09104+4109 (but still warmer than the majority of ULIGs), suggesting its dust is at a lower temperature than that of IRAS P09104+4109. This object also differs from IRAS P09104+4109 in that it does not exist in an X-ray cluster. In fact, this object has yet to be detected in X-rays (Fabian et al. 1996, Ogasaka et al. 1997). It is presumably not associated with a substantial cooling flow. Unlike IRAS P09104+4109, there is no a priori reason to expect cold gas in this galaxy.

At high redshifts ($`z>2`$), objects which contain dusty AGNs are certainly known, such as IRAS F10214+4724 (Rowan-Robinson et al. 1991) and APM 08279+5255 (Irwin et al. 1998). However the discovery of both of these objects has been serindipitous, often helped by strong gravitational lensing (see Eisenhardt et al. 1996 and Lacy, Rawlings & Serjeant 1998 for IRAS F10214+4724 and Egami et al. 2000 and references therein for APM 08279+5255). More systematic searches are required if we are to address the issues highlighted in the opening paragraph of this section. Surveys done at X-ray wavelengths offer one approach, and have begun to uncover some hot dusty objects (Wilman, Fabian & Gandhi 2000). But these will not find X-ray-quiet dusty AGNs like IRAS F15307+3252. Submillimetre searches with current or future bolometer arrays offer another method, but these will not find dusty AGNs if all the dust is hot; unless there is some cold dust present, sources would then fall below the submillimetre confusion limit (Blain et al. 1998). The presence or absence of cold dust in such objects therefore has important implications for cosmological surveys.

We did not detect this cold gas in either object, despite taking very deep integrations. In Section 2, we descirbe the observations. In Section 3, we present the results, compute SEDs, compare IRAS P09104+4109 and IRAS F15307+3252 to other infrared-luminous AGNs, discuss the physical processes that may be responsible for generating a lack of cold gas in these objects, and outline the consequences for systematic surveys of high-redshift dust-enshrouded AGNs. In Section 4 we summarize. Throughout this work, we assume the following cosmological parameters: $`H_0=65\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1\mathrm{Mpc}^1`$, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{\mathrm{matter}}=0.3`$, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }=0.7`$.

## 2 Observations and Data Reduction

Both sources were observed with the Submillimetre Common User Bolometer Array (SCUBA; Holland et al. 1999) on the James Clerk Maxwell Telescope (JCMT) on Mauna Kea. This instrument consists of two bolometer arrays simultaneously viewing the same region of the sky through a dichroic beamsplitter, arranged in a hexagonal grid with approximately one telescope-beamwidth separating the detectors. We used standard filters: the “short-wavelength array” corresponded to an effective wavelength of observation of $`\lambda _0`$ = 450 $`\mu `$m and the “long-wavelength array” to $`\lambda _0`$ = 850 $`\mu `$m.

All observations were conducted in photometry mode, in which the source is positioned onto the central pixel of each array. The data takes the form of a time-dependent voltage reading from each bolometer while the telescope secondary mirror chops the source in and out of the beam, with a throw of 60 arcsec. In photometry mode, one “integration” is defined as a cycle of 9 on-off chopped-pairs positionally offset by 2 arcsec, for a total of 18 seconds of observation. Primary and secondary flux calibration sources were observerd to convert the bolometer voltages into fluxes. The details of the observations are summarized in Table 1, where we list integration times, the local atmospheric optical depth at the time of observation, and the measured fluxes.

The alternative positive-and-negative waveform of the chopping secondary was taken out of the voltage stream. Next, the time-dependent variations of the sky brightness were estimated using the signal variations in the bolometers at the periphery of each array, and then were subtracted from the data streams. Two methods of estimating the sky variations (based on using either the mean or the median of the outer bolometer readings) were employed, which proved mutually consistent to within 15% in all cases. We then subtracted the mean of these two sky brightness estimates from the values at the central (on-source) pixel. In all cases, this sky subtraction reduced the uncertainty on the mean source voltage while the improved value remained consistent with the non-sky-subtracted measurements within the latter’s larger uncertainties. For each dataset (observing run/source combination), the mean and the variance of the central pixel voltage over time was then determined.

This entire procedure was first performed on the observations of the secondary flux calibrators to determine the flux conversion factor (FCF), by which the mean voltage (in mV) is converted into the observed source flux (in mJy). The following sources were used as flux calibrators: Mars, CRL618, IRAS+16293, OH231.8, and IRC+10216. Their assumed fluxes were taken from the SCUBA calibration web page (http:www.jach.hawaii.edu/JACpublic/JCMT/ continuum-observing/SCUBA/). The FCFs were determined independently for each array (i.e. wavelength) and for each observing run. Most of the data were acquired in service mode under “Category 3” weather conditions, which are considered suitable for observations using the Long Wavelength Array but inadequate for use with the Short Wavelength Array. Appropriately, the 850-$`\mu `$m FCFs were measured to be more stable than the 450$`\mu `$m FCFs. During a single observing run, the 850$`\mu `$m FCFs typically varied by $``$10 $``$ 15%, and showed run-to-run variations of $``$30%. The 450-$`\mu `$m FCFs varied much more widely, up to a factor of two or more, both during a single observing run, and between runs. The variation of the calibrator FCFs was one of the most significant contributions to the (systematic) uncertainty in our results. Faint-object photometry at submillimetre wavelengths is a difficult and error-prone exercise, particularly under below-average weather conditions such as these, and the uncertainty in our final fluxes (see Table 1) is large. Neither IRAS P09104+4109 nor IRAS 15307+3252 were detected within our errors: only upper limits to the source fluxes were obtained.

In addition to these observations, an upper limit to the 350-$`\mu `$m observed-frame (243-$`\mu `$m rest-frame) flux of IRAS P09104+4109 was obtained at the Caltech Submillimeter Observatory in October and December of 1997 using the SHARC camera (Hunter, Benford & Serabyn 1996). Although superior weather conditions were experienced, the collecting area, observing efficiency and stability of the SHARC camera are less than that of SCUBA. This is primarily because the SHARC detector array is one-dimensional and has several inoperative elements near the array center. The upper limit to the flux obtained ($``$300 mJy) does not contribute significantly to the 450 and 850 limits discussed here.

## 3 Results and Discussion

Combining data from all the runs listed in Table 1, we find the following fluxes: for IRAS P09104+4109, $`3.18\pm 2.12\mathrm{mJy}`$ (3$`\sigma `$ $`<`$ 9.54 mJy) at 850 $`\mu `$m and $`18.77\pm 24.25\mathrm{mJy}`$ (3$`\sigma `$ $`<`$ 72.75 mJy) at 450 $`\mu `$m, and for IRAS F15307+3252, $`2.46\pm 3.00\mathrm{mJy}`$ (3$`\sigma `$ $`<`$ 11.46 mJy) at 850 $`\mu `$m and $`6.59\pm 33.22\mathrm{mJy}`$ (3$`\sigma `$ $`<`$ 106.3 mJy) at 450 $`\mu `$m. For IRAS F15307+3252 the constraints from our results are comparable to those from Yun & Scoville (1998), although at shorter wavelengths. SEDs are plotted in Figures 1 and 2.

### 3.1 The lack of cold gas in IRAS P09104+4109

It is clear from Figure 1 that IRAS P09104+4109 has very little cold dust; reradiated energy from a cold dust component contributes a fraction below 3.0 % of the bolometric luminosity. The contribution to the 850-$`\mu `$m flux that we would expect from the hot dust responsible for the 25-$`\mu `$m $`IRAS`$ detection accounts for only 1/400 of our observed 2$`\sigma `$ upper limit; if this was the only dust in the galaxy, it would take several weeks to detect with SCUBA!

The absence of cold dust in a powerful AGN like this is certainly unusual. High-redshift optical quasars often have cold dust (McMahon et al. 1999), so one might expect an infrared quasar like IRAS P09104+4109 to have some too, particularly since the X-ray measurements (Iwasawa et al. 2001) tell us that plenty of cold gas is present.

The solution to this apparent paradox is presumably tied up in the way that gas condenses out of the hot X-ray phase in a cooling flow. If gas condenses in such a way that there is no new star formation, dust generation will be inefficient – carbon atoms associated with this cooling gas are more likely to interact with four hydrogen atoms and become methane rather than with numerous other carbon atoms and become dust grains. This could explain the presence of large amounts of cold X-ray absorbing gas (Iwasawa et al. 2001) and no cold dust. If the cooling flow is also responsible for fuelling the AGN, any star formation that happens along the way must be confined to regions very close to the AGN. Red giants and supernovae associated with this star formation could generate the hot dust seen by $`IRAS`$.

### 3.2 The lack of cold gas in IRAS F15307+3252

We also did not detect cold dust in IRAS 15307+3252. In this case the upper limit on the fraction of the bolometric luminosity that could come from a cold dust component is 0.3 %.

While we had no a priori reason to expect dust in thie galaxy, this is still a suprising result. High-redshift optical quasars often have cold dust (McMahon et al. 1999). Yet this galaxy, which is opically faint (presumably due to internal extinction) and is such a strong 60-$`\mu `$m emitter, has very little. This result is in some ways more perplexing than the non-detection for IRAS P09104+4109 since the $`IRAS`$ colours are cooler.

These two non-detections have implications for the discovery of hot, dusty AGNs at high-redshift using infrared and submillimetre surveys. We investiate these implications in the rest of this section.

### 3.3 Application to high redshift

In Figure 3, we plot an optical-infrared vs. infrared-submillimetre colour-colour diagram for the sample of dust-enshrouded AGNs presented in Table 1. In the rest of this section we will use this diagram to assess the efficacy of finding dusty AGNs at high redshift by a variety of methods. Some particular features worth noting are: (i) higher temperature sources are to be found near the top of this diagram, but this does not tell us immediately that all sources in this region of the diagram are AGN-powered. For example, IRAS F10214+4724 is to be found near the top of the diagram yet it may derive a substantial fraction of its total luminosity from an obscured starburst (Green & Rowan-Robinson 1996); (ii) how far to the right of this diagram is a measure of how optically bright an object is, which in turn has implications for our ability to infer the presence of a powerful AGN using optical spectroscopy. For example, the “Q1”, “Q2”, “CLOV”, and “APM” points all represent objects with AGNs so powerful that they likely are responsible for the high bolometric luminosities of the objects; (iii) this diagram gives no indication of the absolute luminosities of the objects, rather the relative luminosities at different wavelengths. This has implications for the detectability of the objects. For example, APM 08279+5255 is near the top of this diagram yet has been detected at submillimetre wavelengths with SCUBA (Lewis et al. 1998); this is becuase both its bolometric luminosity and gravitational magnification are so high that its submillimetre flux is still measurable. Conversely, IRAS P09104+4109, as we saw here, was not detected, although its spectral energy distribution is perhaps not all that different from that of APM 08279+5255 (note that the increased distance of APM 08279+5255 relative to IRAS P09104+4109 is compensated for by the negative K-correction (see Section 3.3.1); (iv) Radio and X-ray luminosities can be quite different for objects in similar regions on Fig. 3. This can also have implications regarding the detectability of the different objects.

#### 3.3.1 Submillimetre surveys

The main result of the present paper is that the hot dusty AGNs IRAS P09104+4109 and IRAS F15307+3252 have very little if any cold gas. So if all of the dust-enshrouded accretion in the Universe took place at high redshift in objects like these, we would not see them in submillimetre surveys like those carried out with SCUBA (e.g. Smail, Ivison & Blain 1997, Hughes et al. 1998, Cowie & Barger 2000). The only ones we would see in such surveys are (1) extremely luminous, possibly highly-magnified, objects like APM 08279+5255, and (2) the most distant objects at very high redshifts $`z>6`$: for sources with dust emissivity $`k_\nu \nu ^{1.5}`$ (e.g. Blain et al. 1999), the observed flux $`(1+z)^{4.5}d_L(z)^2`$ where $`d_L(z)`$ is the luminosity distance, so that the negative K-correction more than compensates for the dimming due to the increased distance by a significant amount (see Fig. 4). However, we do not expect the vast majority of sources to fall into either of these two categories.

#### 3.3.2 Infrared surveys

Mid- and far-infrared surveys, like those to be carried out with the $`SIRTF`$ satellite (http://ipac.caltech.edu/sirtf/) offer a far more productive strategy for finding hot dusty AGNs at high redshift: both IRAS P09104+4109 and IRAS F15307+3252 would be easily detected at redshifts $`z<4`$. The absence of submillimetre detections at the positions of bright mid-infrared sources would suggest the presence of hot dusty objects. Establishing that such objects are AGN-powered will be more difficult, particularly if they are optically too faint (as both IRAS P09104+4109 and IRAS F15307+3252 would be at high $`z`$) to permit spectroscopy with the largest ground-based telescopes. However, the analogy with the lower-redshift objects studied here in the context of the observations and models outlined in Section 1 would be suggestive.

#### 3.3.3 Optical, radio and X-ray surveys

Surveys at other wavelengths can also uncover hot dusty AGNs, but in each case the bias introduced by the selection technique is severe and complete samples cannot be obtained. The reason for this is that so little of the bolometric luminosity of hot, dusty sources emerges outside the far- and mid-infrared wavebands.

Optical surveys can uncover extreme objects like APM 08279+5255 (Irwin et al. 1998). But these represent the rare instances where the AGN is visible directly at rest-frame ultraviolet wavelenghts, possibly because it has burnt through its dust shroud. There still must be enough dust present, however, to allow it to be red enough to be identified in these surveys. It must also be extremely luminous, and in the case of APM 08279+5255, highly magnified. The majority of dusty AGNs at high redshift may well have properties very substantially different from this and would consequently be missed in optical surveys. Both IRAS P09104+4109 and IRAS F15307+3252 would be missed in optical surveys, for example; their optical colours and magnitudes are unremarkable.

Radio surveys can also reveal some dusty AGNs like 3C 318 (Willott, Rawlings & Jarvis 2000). But, as for optical AGNs (Goldschmidt et al. 1999), it seems likely that the majority of such objects are not radio-loud.

Addtionally X-ray surveys would certainly uncover some hot, dusty AGNs like IRAS P09104+4109 (although not IRAS F15307+3252). The presence of a population of sources seen by Chandra but not SCUBA (Fabian et al. 2000; see also the discussion of energy budgets and the relation to the local MDO density of Trentham & Blain 2001 and the more recent observations of Bautz et al. 2000, Hornschemeier et al. 2000, and Barger et al. 2001) may have revealed such a population already. Infrared observations of these sources with $`SIRTF`$ will tell us whether or not these objects contain substantial amounts of hot dust. If so, the analogy with the local objects IRAS P09104+4109 and IRAS F15307+3252 outlined in Section 3.2.2 would suggest that they might be AGN-powered. Two X-ray sources have already had $`ISO`$ mid-infrared counterparts identified (Wilman et al. 2000), but longer wavelengths are required to establish the dust temperatures.

## 4 Conclusion

In summary, we have not detected cold, dusty gas in either IRAS P09104+4109 or IRAS F15307+3252. Dust with a temperature of 40 K, which is what dominates the bolometric luminosity in most local ULIGs and in the high-redshift SCUBA sources recently discovered in various surveys (e.g. Blain et al. 1999) contributes at most 3 % of the bolometric luminosity of these objects.

These results were somewhat surprising given that IRAS P09104+4109 is associated with a massive cooling flow in which there is independent evidence for cold gas (Iwasawa et al. 2001). Furthermore, cold dusty gas has been detected in a number of optically bright quasars (McMahon et al. 1999) so it was unexpected that it would not be detected in these two objects which are optically faint, presumably due to internal extinction. Some mass of cold dust may still be present, and may be responsible for some of this internal extinction, but it contributes negligibly to the bolometric luminosity.

These two hot dusty galaxies are thought to derive most of their bolometric luminosity from AGNs as opposed to starbursts, based on a number of detailed observational results and models. Dust-enshrouded AGNs that are not seen in optical surveys are thought to be responsible for much of the mass accretion in the Universe that produces the high local density of supermassive black holes seen in the centres of nearby galaxies. Our results suggest that the best way to find such obejcts is to look for powerful mid- and far-infrared emitters in $`SIRTF`$ surveys that have very low submillimtre SCUBA fluxes. Some such objects may have already been seen in joint Chandra-SCUBA surveys, but there could also exist a population of hot dusty AGNs (like IRAS F15307+3252) that are not X-ray-loud.

## Acknowledgments

We would like to thank Klaus Hodapp for obtaining the 1999 data, and Nick Tothill for assistance with SURF and calibration issues. We also thank Andrew Blain, Aaron Evans, Kazushi Iwasawa and the Cambridge X-ray group for many helpful discussions. This research has made use of the NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database (NED) which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Caltech, under agreement with the National Aeronautics and Space Association.


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# Chiral Anomaly in Toroidal Carbon Nanotubes

## Abstract

It is pointed out that the chiral anomaly in 1+1 dimensions should be observed in toroidal carbon nanotubes on a planar geometry with varying magnetic field. We show that the chiral anomaly is closely connected with the persistent current in a one-dimensional metallic ring.

preprint: TU-620

Recently carbon nanotubes(CNTs) Iijima  have attracted much attention from various points of view. Especially their unique mechanical and electrical properties have stimulated many people’s interest in the analysis of CNTs SDD ; Dekker . They have exceptional strength and stability, and they exhibit either metallic or semiconducting behavior depending on the diameter and helicity MDW ; Wildoer . Because of their small size, properties of CNTs should be governed by the law of quantum mechanics. Therefore it is quite important to understand the quantum behavior of electrons on CNTs. The bulk electric properties of (single-wall)CNTs are relatively simple, but the behavior of electrons at a metal-CNT junction is complicated and its understanding is necessary for building actual electrical devices. On the other hands, toroidal carbon nanotubes (Fullerence ‘Crop Circles’ Liu , hereafter we use ‘torus’ or ‘nanotorus’ instead of ‘toroidal carbon nanotube’ for simplicity) are clearly simple because of their no-boundary shape and they would also exhibit either metallic or semiconducting properties. Even in the torus case, quite important effect: ‘chiral anomaly’ BJ , which is of essentially quantum nature, might occur.

Low energy excitations in CNTs at half filling move along the tubule axis because the circumference degree of freedom(an excitation in the compactified direction) is frozen by a wide energy gap. Hence this system can be described as a 1+1 dimensional system. Furthermore in the case of metallic CNTs, the system describing small fluctuations around the Fermi point is equivalent to two components “massless” fermions in 1+1 dimensions. This situation can be modeled by the quantum field theory of massless fermion which couples to the gauge field through minimal coupling. This model realizes the chiral anomaly phenomenon Schwinger ; Manton ; IM .

The chiral anomaly is one of the most interesting phenomena in quantum field theory and has had an appreciable influence on the modern development of high energy physics Jackiw  and of condensed matter physics NN . The effect of the chiral anomaly on the electrons in a nanotorus appears directly as a current flow. On the other hand, it is known in solid state physics that a one-dimensional metallic ring shows the persistent current Cheung ; LC  in an appropriate experimental setting. The current originating from the chiral anomaly shows the same magnetic field dependence to the persistent current. Therefore, the chiral anomaly in 1+1 dimensions is closely connected with the persistent current.

In this letter, we examine the anomaly effect on toroidal carbon nanotubes and discuss how such an effect can be observed experimentally.

A CNT can be thought of as a layer of graphite sheet folded-up into a cylinder. A graphite sheet consists of many hexagons whose vertices are occupied by carbon atoms and each carbon supplies one conducting electron which determines the electric properties of the graphite sheet. The lattice structure of a two-dimensional graphite sheet is shown in Fig.1. There are two symmetry translation vectors on this planar honeycomb lattice, $`T_1=\sqrt{3}ae_x,T_2=\frac{\sqrt{3}}{2}ae_x+\frac{3}{2}ae_y`$. Here $`a`$ denotes the length of the nearest carbon vertex, $`e_x`$ and $`e_y`$ are unit vectors which are orthogonal to each other ($`e_xe_y=0`$).

If we neglect the spin degrees of freedom, because of these translation symmetries, the Hilbert space is spanned by the following two Bloch basis vectors,

$`|\mathrm{\Psi }_{}^k={\displaystyle \underset{i}{}}e^{ikr_i}a_i^{}|0,|\mathrm{\Psi }_{}^k={\displaystyle \underset{i}{}}e^{ikr_i}a_i^{}|0,`$ (1)
where the black($``$) and blank($``$) indices are indicated in Fig.1. $`r_i`$ labels the vector pointing each site $`i`$, and $`a_i,a_j^{}`$ are canonically annihilation-creation operators of the electrons of site $`i`$ and $`j`$ that satisfy $`\{a_i,a_j^{}\}=\delta _{ij}`$.

We construct a state vector which is an eigenvector of these symmetry translations as follows:

$$|\mathrm{\Psi }^k=C_{}^k|\mathrm{\Psi }_{}^k+C_{}^k|\mathrm{\Psi }_{}^k.$$
(2)
In order to define the unit cell of wave vector $`k`$, we act the symmetry translation operators on the state vector and obtain the Brillouin zone

$$\frac{\pi }{\sqrt{3}}ak_x<\frac{\pi }{\sqrt{3}},\pi \frac{\sqrt{3}}{2}ak_x+\frac{3}{2}ak_y<\pi ,$$
(3)
where $`k_x=ke_x`$ and $`k_y=ke_y`$. Now we compactify the sheet into a torus by imposing a boundary condition to the state vector. For example, we may consider a zigzag type torus which has the following boundary conditions

$`\widehat{G}(NT_1)|\mathrm{\Psi }^k=|\mathrm{\Psi }^k,`$
$`\widehat{G}(M(2T_2T_1))|\mathrm{\Psi }^k=|\mathrm{\Psi }^k.`$ (4)
$`\widehat{G}`$ denotes a symmetry translation operator. It is clear that there are many possibilities for the shape of the torus and each shape has its own boundary condition. So, some of them might have different properties from the above. Especially we can image a torus in which some twist exists along the tubule axis direction CBJ . This system has the following boundary condition in general,

$`\widehat{G}(M(2T_2T_1))|\mathrm{\Psi }^k=\widehat{G}(\stackrel{~}{N}T_1)|\mathrm{\Psi }^k,`$ (5)
where $`\stackrel{~}{N}`$ is determined by the twist at the junction of CNT ends. Let us focus on the simple untwisted case given by Eq.(4). The periodic condition yields the discrete wave vectors

$`ak_x={\displaystyle \frac{2\pi }{\sqrt{3}}}{\displaystyle \frac{n}{N}},ak_y={\displaystyle \frac{2\pi }{3}}{\displaystyle \frac{m}{M}}.`$ (6)
where $`n`$ and $`m`$ take an integer value.

Next we consider the Hamiltonian of this system KM . Each carbon atom has an electron which makes $`\pi `$-orbital. The electron transfers from any site to the nearest three sites through the quantum mechanical tunneling or thermal hopping in finite temperature. Therefore there is some probability amplitude for this process. In this case, the tight-binding Hamiltonian is most suitable.

$$=E_0\underset{i}{}a_i^{}a_i+\gamma \underset{i,j}{}a_i^{}a_j,$$
(7)
where the sum $`i,j`$ is over pairs of nearest-neighbors carbon atoms $`i,j`$ on the lattice. $`\gamma `$ is the transition amplitude from one site to the nearest sites and $`E_0`$ is the one from a site to the same site. The parameter $`E_0`$ only fixes the origin of the energy and therefore is irrelevant. Hereafter we set $`E_0=0`$.

It is an easy task to find the energy eigenstates and eigenvalues of this Hamiltonian. In the matrix representation, the energy eigenvalue equation reads

$$\left(\begin{array}{cc}0& \gamma _ie^{iku_i}\\ \gamma _ie^{iku_i}& 0\end{array}\right)\left(\begin{array}{c}C_{}^k\\ C_{}^k\end{array}\right)=E_k\left(\begin{array}{c}C_{}^k\\ C_{}^k\end{array}\right),$$
(8)
where $`|\mathrm{\Psi }_{}^k=(1,0)^t,|\mathrm{\Psi }_{}^k=(0,1)^t`$, and the vector $`u_i`$ is a triad of vectors pointing respectively in the direction of the nearest neighbors of a black($``$) cite shown in Fig.1. The energy eigenvalues and eigenvectors are as follows

$`E_k=\pm \mathrm{\Delta }(k),`$ (9)
$`\left(\begin{array}{c}C_{}^k\\ C_{}^k\end{array}\right)={\displaystyle \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}\mathrm{\Delta }(k)}}\left(\begin{array}{c}\gamma _ie^{iku_i}\\ \pm \mathrm{\Delta }(k)\end{array}\right),`$ (10)
where

$$\mathrm{\Delta }(k)=\gamma \sqrt{1+4\mathrm{cos}\frac{\sqrt{3}}{2}ak_x\mathrm{cos}\frac{3}{2}ak_y+4\mathrm{cos}^2\frac{\sqrt{3}}{2}ak_x}.$$

The structure of this energy band has striking properties when considered at half filling. This is the situation which is physically interesting. Since each level of the band may accommodate two states due to the spin degeneracy, the Fermi level turns out to be at midpoint of the band ($`E_k=0`$). Fermi points in the first Brillouin zone are located at $`\stackrel{~}{k}_{1,2}=(ak_x,ak_y)=(\pm \frac{2\pi }{3\sqrt{3}},\frac{2\pi }{3})`$. Hence, if $`N`$ in Eq.(6) is a multiple of 3 then the torus shows metallic properties.

In order to understand the electric properties, we should take into account a small perturbation around the Fermi point. So we take $`k=\stackrel{~}{k}_1+\delta k`$ as a small fluctuation. Perturbation around the point $`\stackrel{~}{k}_2`$ is same as around the point $`k=\stackrel{~}{k}_1`$. So we may only consider one of the pairs. In this case the effective Hamiltonian which describes the system is given by $`_{pert}=v_F(\sigma p)`$ note  where $`v_F(\frac{3\gamma a}{2\mathrm{}})`$ is the Fermi velocity, $`p`$ is the momentum operator ($`p=i\mathrm{}`$) and $`\sigma _i`$ are the Pauli matrices. Hence the Schrödinger equation becomes

$$i\mathrm{}\frac{}{t}\psi =v_F\left(\sigma p\right)\psi .$$
(11)
We conclude that the low energy excitations of a metallic torus at half filling are described by an effective theory of two components spinor obeying the Weyl equation.

It should be noted that the characteristic properties of metallic CNTs are all reproduced quite well by analyzing this equation with external fields such as a magnetic and electronic field DM . In the following, we consider metallic tori that have small $`N`$ and large $`M`$ values($`M/N10^3`$). In this case, transitions between different $`k_x`$ are rarely happen because of their costed energy($`\gamma /N`$) as compared to that of $`k_y`$:($`\gamma /M`$). Hence, the only surviving degree is a motion in the $`y`$-direction, i.e. this system is 1+1 dimensional effectively.

One can obtain the quantum field theory by promoting the wave function($`\psi `$) to the field operator($`\mathrm{\Psi }`$) satisfying the canonical anticommutation relations. Because the Schrödinger equation is the Weyl equation it is appropriate to adopt the following Lagrangian density:

$`=\overline{\mathrm{\Psi }}\begin{array}{c}D\\ /\end{array}\mathrm{\Psi },`$ (14)
where $`\overline{\mathrm{\Psi }}=\mathrm{\Psi }^{}\gamma ^0`$ and   $`D`$  $`/`$  is the Feynman notation defined as $`\begin{array}{c}D\\ /\end{array}=_{\mu =0,1}\left(i\mathrm{}_\mu \frac{e}{c}A_\mu \right)\gamma ^\mu `$. Here $`A_\mu =(A_0,A_1)(A_t,v_FA_y)`$ are the gauge fields and we adopt the following relativistic notation: $`x^\mu =(x^0,x^1)(t,y/v_F),_\mu =(_0,_1)/x^\mu `$, $`\gamma ^0=\sigma _x,\gamma ^1=i\sigma _y,\gamma ^5=\gamma ^0\gamma ^1=\sigma _z`$. The Dirac matrices $`\gamma ^\mu `$ obey $`\{\gamma ^\mu ,\gamma ^\nu \}=2g^{\mu \nu }`$ and $`\gamma ^\mu \gamma ^5=ϵ^{\mu \nu }\gamma _\nu `$ with the metric $`g^{\mu \nu }=\mathrm{diag}(1,1)`$ and the antisymmetric tensor $`ϵ^{\mu \nu }`$, $`ϵ^{01}=ϵ_{01}=1`$. The electro-magnetic interaction is introduced according to the minimal coupling. The gauge fields propagate in four dimensional space-time so that the Coulomb potential is given by the standard long-range interaction. As a gauge fixing, we take the Weyl gauge $`A_0=0`$; in this case, the Hamiltonian of the fermion becomes

$$_F=\mathrm{\Psi }^{}h_F\mathrm{\Psi }=\mathrm{\Psi }^{}\left(\begin{array}{cc}i\mathrm{}_1\frac{e}{c}A_1& 0\\ 0& (i\mathrm{}_1\frac{e}{c}A_1)\end{array}\right)\mathrm{\Psi }.$$
(15)
We neglect the one-dimensional long-range Coulomb interaction EG  and regard the gauge field as a classical field here. Even in this case, it does not lose the nature of anomaly. We list some main results of the Hamiltonian; a detailed description of this system can be found in References Manton ; IM . The energy eigenvectors are given by (Hereafter let us use $`x`$ instead of $`y`$ as a label of the coordinate of a tubule axis direction)

$`h_F\psi _n\left(\begin{array}{c}1\\ 0\end{array}\right)=ϵ_n\psi _n\left(\begin{array}{c}1\\ 0\end{array}\right),h_F\psi _n\left(\begin{array}{c}0\\ 1\end{array}\right)=ϵ_n\psi _n\left(\begin{array}{c}0\\ 1\end{array}\right),`$
$`\psi _n(x)={\displaystyle \frac{1}{\sqrt{L}}}e^{i\frac{e}{\mathrm{}c}_0^xA_1(x^{})𝑑x^{}i\frac{ϵ_n}{\mathrm{}v_F}x},`$ (16)
where $`L`$ is the circumferential length of a torus $`L=3aM`$ and $`ϵ_n`$ are the energy eigenvalues. Because we take the periodic boundary condition, the following energy spectrum appears

$$ϵ_n=\frac{2\pi \mathrm{}v_F}{L}\left[n\frac{e}{2\pi \mathrm{}c}A_1𝑑x\right].$$
(17)
The gauge field in the spectrum can be controlled externally by the following experimental setup. On the planar geometry we put a nanotorus and penetrate some magnetic field inside the torus perpendicular to the plane as is shown in Fig.2.

In this case the gauge field that expresses this magnetic field is given by, in the vector notation, $`A=\frac{N_\mathrm{\Phi }\varphi _D}{2\pi }\theta `$. Therefore we get a component, $`A_1=\frac{N_\mathrm{\Phi }\varphi _D}{L}`$, where $`\varphi _D=\frac{2\pi \mathrm{}c}{e}`$ is the flux quanta. This vector potential expresses $`N_\mathrm{\Phi }`$ flux inside the torus and by tuning the magnetic field, $`N_\mathrm{\Phi }`$ can be taken as a real number.

We expand the fermion field using the energy eigenvectors as

$$\mathrm{\Psi }=\underset{nZ}{}\left[a_n\psi _n(x)e^{i\frac{ϵ_n}{\mathrm{}}t}\left(\begin{array}{c}1\\ 0\end{array}\right)+b_n\psi _n(x)e^{+i\frac{ϵ_n}{\mathrm{}}t}\left(\begin{array}{c}0\\ 1\end{array}\right)\right],$$
(18)
where $`a_n,b_n`$ are independent fermionic annihilation operators satisfying the anti-commutators

$$\{a_n,a_m^{}\}=\{b_n,b_m^{}\}=\delta _{nm}.$$
(19)
All the other anticommutators vanish. The dynamics of this field is governed by the Lagrangian density (14), which has two conserved currents that are electric current $`J^\mu `$ and chiral current $`J_5^\mu `$,

$`J^\mu (x)=\overline{\mathrm{\Psi }}(x)\gamma ^\mu \mathrm{\Psi }(x),`$ (20)
$`J_5^\mu (x)=\overline{\mathrm{\Psi }}(x)\gamma ^\mu \gamma ^5\mathrm{\Psi }(x)=ϵ^{\mu \nu }J_\nu (x).`$ (21)
Therefore, the following two charges conserve in the time evolution of the system,

$$Q=J^0(x)𝑑x,Q_5=J_5^0(x)𝑑x.$$
(22)
Conservation of the electric current $`_\mu J^\mu =0`$ ($`_0=_t,_1=v_F_x`$) is due to the gauge symmetry and the chiral current conservation $`_\mu J_5^\mu =0`$ is due to the global chiral symmetry $`\mathrm{\Psi }e^{i\gamma ^5\alpha }\mathrm{\Psi }`$. For unquantized fermion field the chiral invariance ensures conservation of the unquantized chiral current. However after the second quantization the chiral current ceases to be conserved even though the interaction appears to be chirally invariant. Because, different from classical mechanics, in the world of quantum mechanics, the chiral symmetry is broken BJ  by the vacuum. So the chiral anomaly is similar to the spontaneous symmetry breaking in the sense that in both phenomena physical asymmetry is attributed to the vacuum state and not to the dynamics.

In order to find what is happening, we need to analyze the vacuum structure $`|vac;N_L,N_R=|vac;N_L|vac;N_R`$, where

$$|vac;N_L=\underset{n=\mathrm{}}{\overset{N_L1}{}}a_n^{}|0,|vac;N_R=\underset{N_R}{\overset{n=\mathrm{}}{}}b_n^{}|0.$$
(23)
We define $`|vac;N_L(|vac;N_R)`$ such that the levels with energy lower than $`ϵ_{N_L}(ϵ_{N_R1})`$ are filled and the others are empty. On this vacuum, the expectation values of the charges and the energy become Manton ; IM

$`Q=N_LN_R,`$ (24)
$`Q_5=N_L+N_R2N_\mathrm{\Phi }1,`$ (25)
$`H_F={\displaystyle \frac{2\pi \mathrm{}v_F}{L}}\left({\displaystyle \frac{Q^2+Q_5^2}{4}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{12}}\right).`$ (26)
To obtain the above results, we have regularized the divergent eigenvalues on the vacuum by $`\zeta `$-function regularization. For example, the gauge charge is regularized as follows:

$$Q=\underset{s0}{lim}\left(\underset{nZ}{}a_n^{}a_n\frac{1}{|\lambda ϵ_n|^s}+\underset{nZ}{}b_n^{}b_n\frac{1}{|\lambda ϵ_n|^s}\right),$$
(27)
where $`\lambda `$ is an arbitrary constant with dimension of length which is necessary to make $`\lambda ϵ_n`$ dimensionless. This regularization respects gauge invariance because the energy of each level is a gauge invariant quantity.

The gauge charge $`Q`$ remains a constant if no electron flows into the system. We now have $`N_L=N_R`$ for an isolated nanotorus. From the above equation (25), it can be seen that if $`N_L`$ and $`N_R`$ are conserved, then, by varying the magnetic field $`N_\mathrm{\Phi }`$, the chiral charge also changes. Therefore it is not a conserved quantity. We thus see that the vacuum is responsible for non-conservation of chirality even though the dynamics is chirally invariant. From Eq.(21) we see that the chiral current $`J_5^0`$ is proportional to the electric current($`ev_FJ^1(x)`$) in the tubule axis direction, then we have an average value of the electric current $`J`$ as

$$J\frac{ev_F}{L}J^1(x)𝑑x=\frac{ev_F}{L}J_5^0(x)𝑑x=\frac{ev_F}{L}Q_5.$$
(28)
Hence, in order to observe the anomaly, we should observe the electrical current in the torus.

It is clear from the above equations that there are two origins of the usual current flow along the torus. One is the $`N_L+N_R`$ term which can be induced in thermal bath or by a sudden change of the magnetic field. On the other hand, the magnetic field can change the quantum vacuum structure and lead to the anomaly. In order to avoid the unexpected changes of $`N_L(=N_R)`$, the magnetic field must be changed adiabatically at low temperature($`<\frac{2\pi \mathrm{}v_F}{L}`$). However, in an adiabatic process, when the strength of the magnetic field reaches the point that $`N_\mathrm{\Phi }`$ is an integer, then $`N_L(=N_R)`$ also have to change. The reason is that, when increasing $`N_\mathrm{\Phi }`$ starting from the point $`N_\mathrm{\Phi }=\frac{1}{2},N_L=0`$, the energy is going up as Eq(26). At $`N_\mathrm{\Phi }=0`$, the spectrum meets an another line of spectrum coming from the $`N_\mathrm{\Phi }=\frac{1}{2},N_L=1`$ as is shown in Fig.3. Therefore the circular current in the ring

$$J=\frac{ev_F}{L}\left[2\left(N_\mathrm{\Phi }N_L\right)+1\right]$$
(29)
follows the line shown in Fig.4. We should remark that there are two spin degrees of freedom at each Fermi point. Therefore the actual current is four times the $`J`$, that is, the amplitude of this total current is $`\frac{4ev_F}{L}`$. A numerical value of this amplitude is about $`0.5[\mu \mathrm{A}]`$ for a nanotorus with $`L=1[\mu \mathrm{m}]`$.

This current for an untwisted torus shows the same magnetic field dependence to the persistent current in ref. LC . Our results (29) are in agreement with the results of other papers.

Let us explain how to measure the current briefly. Some methods could be considered in order to detect the current in the torus. As an example, the current generates a magnetic field around torus, then one can observe the current via magnetic field which is generated by the current. However the current could not be observed by the standard electrical contact because the electrical perturbation can not affect the current flow. This means that we can not measure the current by an electrical contact.

In conclusion, low energy excitations in metallic toroidal carbon nanotubes can be described by the two components “massless” fermion which couples to a gauge field through minimal coupling. The anomaly effect should be observed by an adiabatic change of the vector potential, since this induces peculiar electrical current along the torus through the chiral anomaly. The chiral anomaly provides a deeper understanding for the persistent current.

The author would like to thank M. Hashimoto and K. Hasebe for fruitful discussion. This work is supported by a fellowship of the Japan Society of the Promotion of Science.


text:
# Faraday rotation spectra of bismuth-substituted ferrite garnet films with in-plane magnetization

## I Introduction

Bismuth-substituted ferrite garnets (Bi:FGs) are well known to have a giant magnetooptical response. For this reason, they have found widespread use as spatial light modulators, optical switchers and optical isolators. Recently it was realized that Bi:FG films with in-plane magnetization allow visualization and detection of magnetic fields. As basic sensors for magnetooptic imaging they have been used extensively in studies of magnetic flux in superconductors, domain formation in magnetic materials, currents in microelectronic circuits and recorded patterns in magnetic storage media. In spite of their successful applications, relatively few studies have been directed towards the understanding of the magnetooptical properties of Bi:FG films themselves. Of particular interest here is the behaviour and optimization of the Faraday rotation spectra.

The dodecahedral sites in garnet crystals can accept several rare-earth ions, and each substitution seems to introduce its own special modification in the properties. All of the $`Bi^{3+}`$, $`Ce^{3+}`$ and $`Pb^{2+}`$ have been shown to increase the Faraday rotation within certain wavelength intervals. With $`Bi^{3+}`$ a very strong Faraday rotation is obtained in the visible range, which together with the fact that the grown crystals are nearly transparent, make them by far the most frequently used material for magnetooptic imaging. For this application an important point is also that the films with in-plane magnetization are essentially free of magnetic domains.

The understanding of the magnetooptical spectra in garnets is based on the knowledge of the spin orbit interaction in these materials. The spin orbit interaction generally causes a splitting of both the ground and excited states. However, in many cases it is possible to assume splitting of one of the states. Then only two situations are possible, (i) A paramagnetic transition, which is due to a orbital degenerate ground state with a singlet excited state. (ii) A diamagnetic transition, which is due to a orbital singlet ground state with a spin orbit split excited state. Since the paramagnetic and diamagnetic transitions have quite different lineshapes, it should in principle be possible to distinguish between isolated diamagnetic and paramagnetic transitions, and therefore obtain a correct interpretation of the spectra. However, Bi:FG materials have several transitions within the UV and visible region, which complicates the interpretation considerably. This has lead to some controversy regarding the kind of transitions involved, and therefore how to reproduce the spectra theoretically.

Simsa $`et`$ $`al.`$ measured the Faraday rotation of liquid phase epitaxy (LPE) grown Bi:FG films with small substitutions of bismuth. To interprete the spectra, they introduced one diamagnetic and several paramagnetic transitions. In this way they were able to correctly predict the behaviour of the spectra in the visible and near-infrared region. However, there were still some deviations between experimental and theoretical data when the bismuth substitution increased. More recently, Matsumoto $`et`$ $`al.`$ measured the Faraday rotation for Bi:FG films made by the gel method. Here reasonable agreement between the experimental data and the theoretical predictions was obtained with four paramagnetic transitions in addition to the four diamagnetic ones. However, the inclusion of paramagnetic transitions was not explained. Actually, Dionne and Allen questioned whether paramagnetic transitions can account for the contribution from Bi, since the strong superexchange field of the spin degeneracy exclude Zeeman splitting of the ground state, thus leaving a spin singlet ground state.

In this paper we report experiments and modelling of the Faraday rotation spectra in Bi:FG films suitable for magnetooptic imaging. To that end we have grown a series of Bi:FG films using the LPE technique, and characterised their chemical composition. The Faraday rotation spectra have been measured for photon energies between $`1.77`$ and $`2.53`$ eV, corresponding to wavelengths between $`700`$ and $`490`$ nm. It is shown that the Faraday rotation changes significantly with the amount of substituted gallium and bismuth. Furthermore, the comparison of experimental and theoretical data confirms that the magnetooptic response changes linearly with the bismuth substitution.

## II Experimental

### A Sample preparation

Single crystal films of Bi:FG were grown by isothermal LPE from $`Bi_2O_3/PbO/B_2O_3`$ flux onto (100) oriented gadolinium gallium garnet (GGG) substrates. The growth takes place while the 30 mm diameter substrate is dipped into the melt contained in a Pt crucible. During the growth, the parameters could be controlled to create low magnetic coercivity and in-plane magnetization in the garnet films. The thickness of the films was measured using a Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM), and their composition determined with an Electron MicroProbe (EMP). Thicknesses and compositions of four selected samples are listed in Table 1. For sample 1, 2 and 4 the film was grown on only one side of the substrate, whereas sample 3 has a 2 $`\mu m`$ thick film on both sides of the substrate.

From Table 1 one sees that the films can be represented by the following general formula; $`\{Lu_{3xyz}Y_yBi_xPb_z\}[Fe_{2u_a}Ga_{u_a}](Fe_{3u_d}Ga_{u_d})O_{12}`$, where $`\{\}`$ indicates the dodecahedral site, \[ \] the octahedral site, and () the tetrahedral site. Note that only the total gallium content $`u=u_a+u_d`$ can be extracted from the EMP, and to determine $`u_a`$ and $`u_d`$ separately other techniques such as neutron spectroscopy must be applied. Usually, these techniques require bulk samples, and are not very useful for thin films. The films also contain small amounts of $`Pb`$, typically of the order of $`z=0.05`$. In the theoretical analysis of the Faraday spectra, we will neglect the contribution from Pb.

### B Faraday spectra measurements

The Faraday rotation as a function of wavelength at room temperature was measured using a setup consisting of a monochromatic light source, polarizer, two magnetic Helmholtz coils, sample, analyzer and detector. A schematic drawing is shown in Fig. 1. The Helmholtz coils produce a magnetic field up to 1.1 kOe along the optical axis, which makes it possible to saturate the Faraday rotation of the sample. In this work all the samples were brought into saturation during the measurements. The Faraday rotation angle was measured as,

$$\mathrm{\Theta }_F=\frac{\theta _{tot}\theta _{sub}}{t},$$
(1)
where $`\theta _{tot}`$ is the Faraday rotation measured for the combined film and substrate, $`\theta _{sub}`$ is the Faraday rotation of the bare substrate and $`t`$ is the thickness of the film. The substrates used in this study are 0.5 mm thick, and give only a small contribution of $`0.1`$ degrees. In the present study we found that interference effects due to finite thickness as well as the Faraday ellipticity could be neglected. The Faraday rotation has been measured across the useful visible wavelength range with an accuracy of $`0.05`$ degrees. The wavelength was determined within $`\pm 1`$ nm.

Shown in Figs. 2-4 is the observed Faraday rotation as a function of energy for samples 1-4. Here $`\mathrm{\Theta }_F`$ is denoted by negative numbers since we follow the sign-convention of refs.. One sees that for sample 1-3, the magnitude of $`\mathrm{\Theta }_F`$ increases monotonically with the photon energy. The largest rotation was found in sample 3 at 2.43 eV where $`\mathrm{\Theta }_F=4.6`$ $`deg/\mu m`$. Since sample 4 is relatively thin, we were able to measure the spectrum up to 2.53 eV without reducing the accuracy of the measurement. This revealed a peak in the spectrum near 2.45 eV, where $`\mathrm{\Theta }_F=4.1`$ $`deg/\mu m`$.

## III Theory

Our analysis of the Faraday rotation spectra is based on the molecular-orbital energy-level diagram of Dionne and Allen, shown in Fig. 5. The basic mechanism behind the enhanced Faraday rotation is here the cooperative action of $`Fe^{3+}`$ ions with degenerate orbital terms that are split further by covalent interaction with $`Bi^{3+}`$. In fact, substitution of bismuth results in an overlap between the 6p orbit of $`Bi^{3+}`$, 2p orbit of $`O^2`$ and 3d orbit of $`Fe^{3+}`$. As discussed by Shinagawa, and later by Dionne and Allen, this overlap results in an spin orbit splitting $`2\mathrm{\Delta }_i`$ associated with the tetrahedral and octahedral sites, see also Fig. 5. In the model presented here we ignore the contribution from transitions other than those introduced by bismuth substitution. In fact, LuIG and YIG have very similar Faraday rotation spectra with a positive peak located near 2.8 eV, but with very low Faraday rotation below 2.6 eV. This makes our assumption reasonable.

In order to calculate the magnetooptic response, an expression which links the microscopic parameters to the Faraday rotation is needed. In magnetooptics, this is usually expressed through the complex permittivity tensor, which for Bi:FG has the form,

$$ϵ=\left(\begin{array}{ccc}ϵ_0& ϵ_1& 0\\ ϵ_1& ϵ_0& 0\\ 0& 0& ϵ_0\end{array}\right),$$

where $`ϵ_1=ϵ_1^{^{}}+jϵ_1^{^{\prime \prime }}`$ represents the magnetooptical response and $`ϵ_0`$ the non-magnetooptical part. In the visible region, the Faraday rotation can be written,

$$\mathrm{\Theta }_F\frac{\omega }{2nc}ϵ_1^{^{}},$$
(2)
where $`\omega `$ is the the frequency, or equivalently the energy of the light, c is the speed of light in vacuum and $`n`$ is the refractive index. Independent measurements show that it is reasonable to set $`n=2.5`$ in the visible range.

Assuming that the transitions are of electric dipole nature, the off-diagonal elements derived from first order time-dependent perturbation theory are given by,

$$ϵ_1=\frac{2\pi Ne^2}{m}\underset{i=a,d}{}\underset{+}{\overset{}{}}(\pm )f_{i\pm }\frac{\omega (\omega _{i\pm }^2\omega ^2\mathrm{\Gamma }_i^2)+j\mathrm{\Gamma }_i(\omega _{i\pm }^2+\omega ^2+\mathrm{\Gamma }_i^2)}{\omega _{i\pm }(\omega _{i\pm }^2\omega ^2+\mathrm{\Gamma }_i^2)^2+4\omega ^2\omega _{i\pm }\mathrm{\Gamma }_i^2}.$$
(3)
The inner sum is over the right- and left-hand circular polarized light, whereas the outer is over the optical transitions in the tetrahedral and octahedral sublattices. The prefactor $`(\pm )`$ denotes a substraction. The $`\omega _{i+}`$ and $`\omega _i`$ represent the resonance energy for right and left-hand circular polarized light, respectively. Similarly, $`f_{i+}`$ and $`f_i`$ are the respective oscillator strengths, while $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_i`$ is the half-linewidth of the transition. Furthermore, $`e`$ and $`m`$ are the electron charge and mass, respectively, whereas $`N`$ is the active ion density.

To first order, it is reasonable to assume that $`N`$ is directly proportional to the bismuth content $`x`$. This assumption has also been confirmed by experiments. Furthermore, it is known that the strong enhancement of Faraday rotation is caused by iron-pair transitions, involving both octahedral and tetrahedral transitions simultaneously. Therefore, iron dilution of either sublattice results in a reduction of the active ion density. For these reasons we propose that the active ion density can be written as,

$$N=N_0(1u_d/3)(1u_a/2)x.$$
(4)
$`N_0`$ is a constant, and may expected to be 1/3 of the density of rare-earth ions on the dodecahedral site, i.e. $`1.3\times 10^{22}`$ $`cm^3/3`$. When $`x=3`$, this interpretation implies that the dodecahedral site is fully occupied by bismuth.

The oscillator strength for right- and left-hand circular polarized light are given by,

$$f_{i\pm }=\frac{m\omega _{i\pm }}{2h}|<g_i|\widehat{X}|e_{i\pm }>|^2,$$
(5)
where $`h`$ is Planck’s constant, $`\widehat{X}`$ is the electric dipole operator, and $`|g_i>`$, $`|e_{i\pm }>`$ being the wavefunction of the ground state and excited state, respectively. Using that for the present case one has $`\omega _{i\pm }=\omega _i\pm \mathrm{\Delta }_i`$, we obtain from eq. (5),

$$f_{i\pm }=\frac{f_i}{2\omega _i}(\omega _i\pm \mathrm{\Delta }_i),$$
(6)
where $`f_i`$ is an effective oscillator strength. This expression is based on neglecting the difference between $`|e_{i+}>`$ and $`|e_i>`$.

In order to fully predict the Faraday spectra, one needs detailed knowledge about the quantum mechanical oscillator strengths. However, this is not easily accessible with so many ions involved, and we will instead treat them as adjustable parameters in the comparison with experimental data. With eq. (6) inserted in eqs. (2) and (3), one obtains

$`\mathrm{\Theta }_F`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\pi e^2\omega ^2}{nmc}}{\displaystyle \underset{i=a,d}{}}{\displaystyle \frac{Nf_i}{\omega _i}}`$ (8)
$`\times \left\{{\displaystyle \frac{(\omega _i+\mathrm{\Delta }_i)^2\omega ^2\mathrm{\Gamma }_i^2}{\left[(\omega _i+\mathrm{\Delta }_i)^2\omega ^2+\mathrm{\Gamma }_i^2\right]^2+4\omega ^2\mathrm{\Gamma }_i^2}}{\displaystyle \frac{(\omega _i\mathrm{\Delta }_i)^2\omega ^2\mathrm{\Gamma }_i^2}{\left[(\omega _i\mathrm{\Delta }_i)^2\omega ^2+\mathrm{\Gamma }_i^2\right]^2+4\omega ^2\mathrm{\Gamma }_i^2}}\right\},`$
which represents our model for the Faraday rotation.

## IV Discussion

To fit theoretical curves to the experimental data, the product $`Nf_i/x`$ was chosen as free parameter. According to eq. (4) $`N`$ depends on the gallium and bismuth content. On the other hand, $`f_i`$ is roughly independent on these two substitutions. Therefore, the product $`Nf_i/x`$ may be adjusted to any substitutions and transitions. The parameters $`\mathrm{\Delta }_i`$, $`\omega _i`$ and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_i`$ were chosen as sample independent, and the values suggested by Dionne and Allen were used as a starting point in the fitting. Table 2 presents the parameters we found to give the best fit between the theoretical curves and the experimental data. Note that our values for $`\omega _d`$, $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_d`$ and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_a`$ differs slightly from those of Dionne and Allen. A reason for this is that the minimum Faraday rotation seems to be shifted slightly towards lower energies as compared to the data analysed in ref.. Furthermore our values for $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_d`$ and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_a`$ are smaller to account for the narrow linewidth near 2.45 eV seen in Fig. 4.

In Fig. 2 and 3 the Faraday rotation calculated from eq. (8) is plotted as solid lines, and show an excellent agreement with experimental data. In Fig. 2 the dashed and dash-dotted lines represent the contribution to the total Faraday rotation from the tetrahedral and octahedral sites, respectively. Note that below 2.2 eV, the main contribution to $`\mathrm{\Theta }_F`$ comes from the transition related to the octahedral site.

Fig. 4 shows the theoretical curve (solid line) fitted to the experimental data for sample 4. Again there is excellent agreement at small photon energies, but some deviation appears above 2.4 eV, where both the experimental and theoretical curves show a peaked behaviour. In fact the experimental data indicate a stronger peak than the theoretical prediction. There may be several reasons for such a discrepancy. First, eq. (4) represents a simplification for the present type of FGs. In particular, we have not considered the canting of the spins or the temperature dependence of $`N`$. There is also a possibillity that $`\mathrm{\Delta }_i`$ and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_i`$ should be chosen differently to obtain a stronger peak around 2.45 eV. Finally, it must be noted that we have neglected the transitions associated with pure LuIG.

We have in Fig. 4 also plotted theoretical predictions for the case $`x=1.5`$ (dashed curve) and $`x=2`$ (dash-dotted curve) assuming that gallium content is identical to that of sample 4. When $`x=2`$ it seems possible to obtain a Faraday rotation exceeding 6 $`deg/\mu m`$ at 2.3 eV in this material.

The distribution of gallium on the tetrahedral and octahedral sites have been examined by Czerlinsky and Scott $`et`$ $`al.`$ for various garnet-compositions with and without bismuth. Their results indicated that gallium will replace $`Fe^{3+}`$ in both tetrahedral and octahedral sublattices, but with the strongest dilution of tetrahedrally coordinated $`Fe^{3+}`$. In fact, Czerlinsky found that for $`Y_3Fe_4Ga_1O_{12}`$ the distribution is 0.9 Ga on tetrahedral sites and only 0.1 on octahedral sites. Although the samples investigated in this study have somewhat different composition, we will assume that the gallium distribution is the same. Then, based on eq. (4) the gallium dependence can be removed resulting in a Faraday rotation associated only with the Bi-content given by,

$$\mathrm{\Theta }_F^{Bi}=\frac{\mathrm{\Theta }_F}{(1u_d/3)(1u_a/2)},$$
(9)
where $`u_d=0.9u`$ and $`u_a=0.1u`$. In Fig. 6 the $`\mathrm{\Theta }_F^{Bi}`$ is displayed as a function of the bismuth substitution. The experimental data have the same notation as in the previous figures, and are shown for two different energies, 1.97 eV (630nm) and 2.3 eV (540nm), corresponding also to the theoretical curves drawn as solid and dashed lines, respectively. To obtain the theoretical curves we used $`N_0f_a=2.77\times 10^{23}`$ $`cm^3`$ and $`N_0f_d=6.30\times 10^{22}`$ $`cm^3`$, which are the average values of the four samples as calculated from Table 2 and the assumed gallium distribution. The experimental points are located very close to the straight lines, thus indicating that our linear approximation is valid. However, the linear approximation may not hold for large x, since saturation phenomena could change the behaviour. In fact, experimental studies by Matsumoto $`et`$ $`al.`$ indicated breakdown of the linear approximation when $`x>2`$.

## V Conclusion

We have synthesized single crystals of bismuth-substituted ferrite garnets by the liquid phase epitaxy method where GGG substrates are dipped into the flux. The growth parameters are controlled to obtain films with in-plane magnetization and virtually no domain activity, which makes them ideally suited for magnetooptic imaging. The Faraday rotation spectra were measured across the visible range of wavelengths. To interprete the spectra we have presented a simple model based on the existence of two optical transitions of diamagnetic character, one tetrahedral and one octahedral. We find excellent agreement with our experimental results within the visible range. It is shown that the Faraday rotation changes significantly with the amount of substituted gallium and bismuth. Furthermore, the experimental results confirm that the magnetooptic response changes linearly with the bismuth substitution.

It would be of considerable interest to observe the behaviour at low and high temperatures, which will be a topic of future investigations.

###### Acknowledgements.

We thank Dr. Alexander Solovyev for help to grow samples 1, 2 and 4, and Dr. Muriel Erambert at the Mineral-Geological Museum for assisting in the EMP-measurements. This research has been financially supported by the Norwegian Research Council and Tandberg Data ASA.

| Sample nr. | Lu | Y | Bi | Pb | Fe | Ga | t ($`\mu m`$) |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1 | 1.619 | 0.625 | 0.683 | 0.064 | 3.842 | 1.144 | 7.5 |
| 2 | 2.141 | 0 | 0.796 | 0.065 | 3.887 | 1.088 | 4.0 |
| 3 | 2.166 | 0 | 0.874 | 0.037 | 3.937 | 0.969 | 4.0 |
| 4 | 2.186 | 0 | 0.818 | 0.062 | 3.744 | 1.170 | 2.6 |

$`\mathrm{𝐓𝐚𝐛𝐥𝐞}`$ $`\mathrm{𝟏}`$: The thickness and chemical composition of the four samples.

| site |  |  | $`Nf_i/x`$ |  | $`\mathrm{\Delta }_i`$ | $`\omega _i`$ | $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_i`$ |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|  | Sample 1 | Sample 2 | Sample 3 | Sample 4 |  |  |  |
| a | $`1.7210^{23}`$ | $`1.7610^{23}`$ | $`1.8810^{23}`$ | $`1.6910^{23}`$ | 0.27 | 3.15 | 0.47 |
| d | $`3.9010^{22}`$ | $`4.0010^{22}`$ | $`4.2610^{22}`$ | $`3.8510^{22}`$ | 0.11 | 2.51 | 0.38 |

$`\mathrm{𝐓𝐚𝐛𝐥𝐞}`$ $`\mathrm{𝟐}`$: The parameters found to give the best fit between eq. (8) and the experimental data. $`Nf_i/x`$ is measured in $`[cm^3]`$, whereas $`\mathrm{\Delta }_i`$, $`\omega _i`$ and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_i`$ are given in $`[eV]`$. Note that the tetrahedral and octahedral sites are given different signs, since they contribute oppositely to the Faraday rotation.

Figure 1

Figure 2

Figure 3

Figure 4

Figure 5

Figure 6


text:
# Ginzburg-Landau Description of Vortex Nucleation in Rotating Superfluid.

## I Introduction.

There are two major ways to generate vorticity in rotating superfluid: to spin-up a bucket with superfluid helium from initially steady state without any vortices to a state with a rotation velocity $`\mathrm{\Omega }\mathrm{\Omega }_c`$, where $`\mathrm{\Omega }_c`$ is the critical rotation speed for a vortex nucleation, and to quench it thermally from temperature, $`T`$, above the superfluid transition temperature, $`T_\lambda `$, to temperature below it. These two different scenaria can be described by the same model, namely time-dependent Ginzburg–Landau equation (TDGLE) for the superfluid order parameter corrected for presence of normal component. This equation for superfluid helium was first suggested by L. Pitaevskii.

Further we review our results based on the stability analysis of the TDGLE for the rotating superfluid. The vortex nucleation in a rotating superfluid was a rather hot topic during 60th and 70th. Remnant vorticity did not permit to define correctly the critical rotational velocity for vortex nucleation at that time. We believe that next generation of experiments will overcome this problem, e.g., in the way suggested about 25 years ago. Together with new experimental methods of vortex detection suggested recently, it can provide experimental test of the theory.

Formation of vortices under a rapid quench is recognized as a fundamental problem of contemporary physics . Superfluid 3He offers a unique “testing ground” for rapid phase transitions . Recent experiments where a rotating superfluid 3He was locally heated well above the critical temperature by absorption of neutrons  revealed vortex formation under a rapid second–order phase transition. We will discuss the dynamics of vortex nucleation under a rapid quench in the framework of the TDGLE.

## II Spin-up and nucleation of vortices in superfluid helium

Let us consider a cell containing a superfluid helium rather close to the superfluid transition temperature $`T_\lambda `$. When the cell is rotated with an angular velocity $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$, the normal component is involved into a solid body rotation with $`\stackrel{}{V_n}=\stackrel{}{\mathrm{\Omega }}\times \stackrel{}{r}`$. The superfluid component cannot participate in the uniform rotation up to the point where the potential flow condition is satisfied, i.e. $`\stackrel{}{}\times \stackrel{}{V_s}=0`$.

A conventional approach to the spin-up problem is to describe it by a two-fluid hydrodynamic model corrected by an equation for the vortex line dynamics . The vortex lines interact with the normal component that leads to mutual friction. It is evident that this hydrodynamic description does not catch the key point of the spin-up problem, namely, the vortex nucleation which actually causes the spin-up of the superfluid component, the primary superfluid relaxation mechanism toward a steady rotation.

Another approach to the spin-up problem, which can describe both the dynamics and the nucleation of quantized vortices in a superfluid helium, is to use TDGLE together with a two-fluid hydrodynamic model. Outside the vortex core which is normal, one gets the superfluid velocity circulation around a single quantum vortex $`\kappa =2\pi \mathrm{}/m`$ . Corresponding set of equations, which describe the dynamics of the complex order parameter of the superfluid condensate, $`\mathrm{\Psi }=|\mathrm{\Psi }|\mathrm{exp}(i\chi )`$, in a rigid steady rotation of the normal component, looks in the scaled variables as follows ( see for details ):

$`_t\mathrm{\Psi }={\displaystyle \frac{i}{2}}\left(\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Psi }+\mathrm{\Psi }|\mathrm{\Psi }|^2\mathrm{\Psi }\right)+{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }}{2}}\left((i𝐕_𝐧)^2\mathrm{\Psi }+\mathrm{\Psi }|\mathrm{\Psi }|^2\mathrm{\Psi }\right)`$ (1)
where $`V_n=\mathrm{\Omega }r`$, $`𝐕_𝐬=\chi `$, and $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ is a temperature-dependent parameter.

Equation (1) is reminiscent of that of the Ginzburg–Landau equation for superconductors in the London limit . The role of an external magnetic field is played by the angular velocity, and of the corresponding vector-potential by the velocity of the normal component. Then by analogy one expects that at $`\mathrm{\Omega }\mathrm{\Omega }_{c1}`$, there exists a motionless superfluid component with no vortices. At $`\mathrm{\Omega }>\mathrm{\Omega }_{c1}`$ vortices will be nucleated and penetrate into the fluid producing a vortex lattice in the interior of a helium container. As follows from the experiments on the superfluid 4 He, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{c1}`$ is too low to be detected . On the other hand, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{c2}`$ (which is analogous to $`H_{c2}`$ in superconductors and at which superfluidity will be completely destroyed in the sample) is too high to be reached experimentally.

Equation (1) describes the spin-up of the superfluid part in a rigidly rotating flow of the normal component.

This equation is asymptotically correct in the vicinity of the $`\lambda `$ point. Moreover, one can speculate that the equation qualitatively describes some aspects of spin-up for $`{}_{}{}^{4}He`$ near zero temperature with $`\mathrm{\Lambda }0`$. Therefore, we will consider Eq. (1) for all temperatures with $`\mathrm{\Lambda }0`$ for $`T0`$ and $`\mathrm{\Lambda }(T_\lambda T)^{1/3}`$ for $`TT_\lambda `$.

The critical rotational velocity, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_c`$, for the onset of the vortex nucleation for $`TT_\lambda `$ can be found from linear stability analysis of a stationary solution. Then for this solution $`\chi =0`$, and $`F=|\mathrm{\Psi }|`$ is defined by the following equation:

$$_r^2F+\frac{_rF}{r}+FF^3\mathrm{\Omega }^2r^2F=0.$$
(2)
Equation (2) has to be complimented by the conditions at the $`r=0`$ and the condition at the outer wall $`r=R`$, where $`R`$ is the radius of the container. As a boundary condition at the wall we take a condition of finite suppression of the superfluid density by the wall, i.e., $`_r\mathrm{\Psi }+\gamma \mathrm{\Psi }=0`$ for $`r=R`$ where $`\gamma `$ characterizes the suppression of the order parameter. For $`\gamma 0`$ we have no-flux boundary condition ($`_r\mathrm{\Psi }=0`$). Solution of Eq. (2) for arbitrary $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ and $`R`$ is accessible only numerically. Selected results are presented in Fig.1 of Ref.

The stationary solution is stable for $`\mathrm{\Omega }<\mathrm{\Omega }_c`$ and looses its stability above the critical angular velocity $`\mathrm{\Omega }_c`$. Instability of the stationary solution leads to nucleation of vortices and the corresponding spin-up of superfluid. By substitution of a solution of the form $`\mathrm{\Psi }=F(r)+W(r,\theta ,t)`$, where $`W`$ is a small generic perturbation, one obtains a linear equation for $`W`$. $`\mathrm{\Omega }_c`$ is found from the existence condition of the first nontrivial eigenmode satisfying the boundary conditions . In the limit of $`R1`$ the solution is found by matching of the bulk solution with the solution near the wall. The analysis shows that the most unstable eigenmodes are localized in the narrow layer of the width $`r_b`$ near the container wall. We obtained $`r_b\sqrt{R}R`$ for large $`R`$. The value of most unstable azimuthal number $`n`$ and the critical frequency $`\mathrm{\Omega }_c`$ for the container radius $`R`$ is given by the expressions:

$$n=Q(\gamma )R^{3/4},\mathrm{\Omega }_c=\frac{1}{R}\sqrt{\frac{1}{3}+\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }(\gamma )}{R^{1/2}}}.$$
(3)
The dimensionless parameters $`Q(\gamma ),\mathrm{\Delta }(\gamma )`$ are the functions of the suppression rate $`\gamma `$, are obtained by the matching of outer and inner expansions, and are shown in Fig. 2 of Ref . One can make estimates of $`\mathrm{\Omega }_c`$ based on Eq.(3). Indeed, in dimensional variables one gets $`\mathrm{\Omega }_c=(\mathrm{}/mR_d)[ϵ^{2/3}/(\sqrt{3}\xi _0)]=3.3\times 10^3ϵ^{2/3}/R_d`$ 1/sec, where $`ϵ=(T_\lambda T)/T_\lambda `$, $`\xi _0=2.74\times 10^8`$ cm is the correlation length far from $`T_\lambda `$, and the power 2/3 is introduced to assure correct scaling of the superfluid density near the $`\lambda `$ point . The conventional Feynman equation  has different scaling with $`R`$ and no temperature dependence. On the other hand, as we discussed in Ref., the temperature dependence of $`\mathrm{\Omega }_c`$ found is the same as in the theory of thermal nucleation of quantized rings . However, the nucleation rate in our case was calculated up to prefactor (see Ref.), while in the former theory it was obtained from heuristic arguments. Moreover, we consider non-uniform distribution of $`\rho _s`$ due to $`V_n`$ that is impossible task for the equilibrium theory. The latter can become significant at small values of $`ϵ`$ and $`R`$. Thus, at $`ϵ=10^6`$ and $`R_d=0.1cm`$ scaled $`R`$ is of the order $`10^3`$, and the correction to the frequency from Eq.(3) can be of the order of several percent.

We performed numerical simulations of Eq.(1), which details are presented in Ref. We observed nucleation and consequent tearing off of the vortices for $`\mathrm{\Omega }\mathrm{\Omega }_c`$ irrespective of $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$. However, the character of the nucleation and asymptotic states depends on $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$. For $`\mathrm{\Lambda }\mathrm{}`$ and slightly above $`\mathrm{\Omega }_c`$ we observed nucleation of several vortices. Nucleation occurs at nonlinear stage of the instability when a set of single zeros (four zeros for $`R=65`$) is torn off at the radius $`R`$. These zeros are the seeds for the vortex cores. The vortices propagate into the interior of the container and finally form a perfect vortex lattice, reminiscent of that of the Abrikosov lattice  (see Fig. 1). Further increase of $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ results in formation of additional vortices.

## III Stability of multicharged vortices

As we pointed out above, Eq.(1) can describe qualitatively the spin-up of superfluid helium also at $`T0`$ with $`\mathrm{\Lambda }0`$. Then the TDGLE becomes the nonlinear Schödinger equation (NLSE). Numerical simulations show the character of the vortex nucleation is drastically different for $`\mathrm{\Lambda }0`$. Typically whole clusters of vortices are torn off. These clusters can be considered as a perturbed multicharged vortex. The multicharged vortex is unstable and breaks down into single charged vortices. However, the lifetime happens to be proportional to $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ and diverges for $`\mathrm{\Lambda }0`$. The multicharged vortices with the topological charge $`\pm n`$ are known to have higher energy and decay into $`n`$ single-charged, or elementary vortices. Since in the NLSE with small dissipation the decay time of the multicharged vortices can be arbitrarily large, one can expect to detect them in experiments at very low $`T`$. Some indirect indications of the multicharged vortices can be found in several experiments on vortex nucleation .

We consider the perturbative solution $`\mathrm{\Psi }=[F(r)+\eta (x,y,t)]\mathrm{exp}[in\theta ]`$ of the NLSE with dissipation

$$_t\mathrm{\Psi }=(\epsilon +i)\left(\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Psi }+\mathrm{\Psi }|\mathrm{\Psi }|^2\mathrm{\Psi }\right),$$
(4)
Here $`\eta `$ is the complex function, and $`\epsilon 1`$ is the phenomenological parameter which describes the bulk dissipation of superflow towards the condensate. We assume that the only channel for the bulk dissipation at $`T0`$ is the absorption of acoustic excitations of superflow by the normal component which presents, e.g., due to normal 3He atoms. This assumption is based on consideration that the excess energy of $`n`$-charged vortex can decay at $`T0`$ only by acoustic radiation of the bounding energy of $`n`$ single charges. In the presence of the energy conservation and other integrals of motion in the NLSE this transformation of the bounding energy into acoustic field is a very slow process, i.e. multiple vortex can be long-lived. Numerical analysis of the stability problem reveals that the lifetime of the multicharged vortex diverges as $`\tau (\epsilon \lambda _1)^1`$ and is formally infinite for NLSE. However, one has slower (non-exponential) instability mode at $`ϵ=0`$. In particularly, generic perturbations grow linearly in time. In this sense the multicharged vortex is metastable and may exist for a very long time. The instability has a nonlinear nature and originates from the interaction between localized eigenmodes and the continuous spectrum of the vortex radiation. The crucial point here is that the simultaneous existence of the localized eigenmodes with $`n2`$ and extended excitations does not contradict to the energy conservation of the Hamiltonian NLSE, since they contribute to the energy with opposite signs. This process is similar to the growth of waves with negative energy . In Fig.2 one clearly sees that a rotating double-charged and triple-charged vortices radiate away the acoustic waves. Thus, the decaying multicharged vortices are effective source of the acoustic radiation.

## IV Nucleation of vortices by rapid thermal quench

Nucleation of vortices by neutron irradiation in 3He-B in the presence of rotation was studied experimentally in Ref. . Ignoring non-relevant complexity of the 3He-B specific multicomponent order parameter, we will use the TDGLE for a scalar order parameter $`\psi `$ :

$$_t\psi =\mathrm{\Delta }\psi +(1f(𝐫,t))\psi |\psi |^2\psi +\zeta (𝐫,t).$$
(5)
Close to $`T_\lambda `$ the local temperature is controlled by normal-state heat diffusion and evolves as $`f(𝐫,t)=E_0\mathrm{exp}(r^2/\sigma t)t^{3/2}`$, where $`\sigma `$ is the normalized diffusion coefficient. $`E_01`$ determines the initial temperature of the hot bubble $`T^{}`$ due to the nuclear reaction between the neutron and 3He atom and is proportional to the deposited energy $`_0`$. The Langevin force $`\zeta `$ with the correlator $`\zeta \zeta ^{}=2T_f\delta (𝐫𝐫^{})\delta (tt^{})`$ describes thermal fluctuations with a strength $`T_f`$.

Numerical simulations of Eq. (5) in 2D and 3D shows that without fluctuations ($`T_f=0`$) the vortex rings nucleate upon the passage of the thermal front, Fig. 3a,b. Not all of the rings survive: the small ones collapse and only the big ones grow. Although the vortex lines are centered around the point of the quench, they exhibit a certain degree of entanglement. After a long transient period, most of the vortex rings reconnect and form the almost axisymmetric configuration. We find that the fluctuations have a strong effect at early stages: the vortices nucleate not only at the normal-superfluid interface, but also in the bulk of the supercooled region (Fig. 3c), according to the Kibble-Zurek “cosmological” mechanism . However, later on, small vortex rings in the interior collapse, and only larger rings (primary vortices) survive and expand (Fig. 3d).

We conclude that the primary source of vortices in our numerical simulations is the instability of normal-superfluid interface in the presence of flow. The analysis results in the following expression for the number of survived vortices

$$N\sqrt{\sigma }E_0^{1/3}\sqrt{\left(v_s/v_c\right)^2\beta ^2\mathrm{log}(T_f^1)/E_0^{2/3}}$$
(6)
where $`\beta =const`$, while $`v_s`$ and $`v_c`$ are the imposed and critical GL superflow velocity, respectively. This estimate is in agreement with simulations, see Ref. . Eq. (6) exhibits a slow logarithmic dependence of the number of vortices on the level of fluctuations. For the experimental values of the parameters our analysis results in about 10 surviving vortices per heating event. It is consistent with Ref.  where as many as 6-20 vortices per neutron were detected.

This research is supported by US DOE, grant W-31-109-ENG-38 (I.A.), and by the Minerva Center for Nonlinear Physics of Complex Systems (V.S.).