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# The Parkes Multibeam Pulsar Survey: I. Observing and Data Analysis Systems, Discovery and Timing of 100 Pulsars

## 1 INTRODUCTION

Since the discovery of pulsars more than 30 years ago \[Hewish et al. 1968\], many different searches for these objects have contributed to the 730 or so pulsars known prior to mid-1997 when the survey described here commenced. Some efforts with a relatively narrow focus have resulted in the discovery of extremely important objects, for example, the Crab pulsar \[Staelin & Reifenstein 1968\] or the first millisecond pulsar \[Backer et al. 1982\]. However, the vast majority of known pulsars have been found in larger-scale searches. These searches generally have well-defined selection criteria and hence provide samples of the Galactic population which can be modeled to determine the properties of the parent population. Most of our knowledge about the Galactic distribution and the evolution of pulsars has come from such studies (e.g. Lyne, Manchester & Taylor 1985, Lorimer et al. 1993, Hartman et al. 1997, Cordes & Chernoff 1998, Lyne et al. 1998). Of particular significance are young pulsars. These are often associated with supernova remnants (e.g. Kaspi 2000), show significant period irregularities such as glitches \[Lyne, Shemar & Graham-Smith 2000\] and have pulsed emission at optical, X-ray and $`\gamma `$-ray wavelengths (e.g. Wallace et al. 1977, Thompson et al. 1999).

Of comparable importance though, are the serendipitous discovery of unusual and often unique objects by larger-scale surveys. Examples of this abound — for example, the first binary pulsar, PSR B1913+16 \[Hulse & Taylor 1974\], the first star with planetary-mass companions \[Wolszczan & Frail 1992\], the first pulsar with a massive stellar companion \[Johnston et al. 1992b\], and the first eclipsing pulsar \[Fruchter, Stinebring & Taylor 1988\]. Pulsars show an amazingly diverse range of properties and most major surveys turn up at least one object with new and unexpected characteristics. Some of these are of great significance. The prime example is of course PSR B1913+16, which has provided the first observational evidence for gravitational waves and the best evidence so far that general relativity is an accurate description of gravity in the strong-field regime \[Taylor & Weisberg 1989\].

Pulsars are relatively weak radio sources. Successful pulsar surveys therefore require a large radio telescope, low-noise receivers, a relatively wide bandwidth and long observation times. Pulsar signals suffer dispersion due to the presence of charged particles in the interstellar medium. The dispersion delay across a bandwidth of $`\mathrm{\Delta }\nu `$ centred at a frequency $`\nu `$ is

$$\tau _{\mathrm{DM}}=8.30\times 10^3\mathrm{DM}\mathrm{\Delta }\nu \nu ^3\mathrm{s},$$
(1)
where the dispersion measure, DM, is in units of cm-3 pc and the frequencies are in MHz. To retain sensitivity, especially for short-period, high-dispersion pulsars, the observing bandwidth must be sub-divided into many channels. In most pulsar searches to date, this has been achieved using a filterbank system.

The sensitivity of pulsar searches is also limited by the Galactic radio continuum background and by interstellar scattering, especially for low radio frequencies and at low Galactic latitudes. Interstellar scattering results in a one-sided broadening of the observed pulse profile with a frequency dependence $`\nu ^{4.4}`$ (e.g. Rickett 1977) which cannot be removed by using narrow bandwidths. Most pulsar searches along the Galactic plane have therefore been at higher radio frequencies, often around 1400 MHz (e.g. Clifton et al. 1992, Johnston et al. 1992).

The Clifton et al. 1400 MHz survey was carried out using the 76-m Lovell Telescope at Jodrell Bank Observatory, and covered a strip along the Galactic plane with $`|b|<1.1\mathrm{°}`$ between longitudes of $`355\mathrm{°}`$ and 95°, with a narrower extension to 105°. The limiting sensitivity to long-period pulsars away from the Galactic plane was about 1 mJy. A total of 61 pulsars was detected, of which 40 were not previously known. Johnston et al. carried out a complementary survey of the southern Galactic plane in the region $`|b|<4\mathrm{°}`$ and between $`l=270\mathrm{°}`$ and $`l=20\mathrm{°}`$, with a central frequency of 1500 MHz. The limiting sensitivity was very similar to that for the Clifton et al. survey. A total of 100 pulsars was detected of which 46 were previously unknown. These surveys found a sample of young and generally distant pulsars which are strongly concentrated at low Galactic longitudes, $`|l|40\mathrm{°}`$. They include a number of interesting objects, including the eclipsing high-mass binary system PSR B1259$``$63 \[Johnston et al. 1992b\] and many glitching pulsars \[Shemar & Lyne 1996, Wang et al. 2000\].

The Parkes multibeam receiver was conceived with the aim of undertaking large-scale and sensitive searches for relatively nearby galaxies ($`z0.04`$) by detection of their emission in the 21-cm line of neutral hydrogen. The receiver has 13 feeds with a central feed surrounded by two rings, each of six feeds, arranged in a hexagonal pattern \[Staveley-Smith et al. 1996\]. This arrangement permits the simultaneous observation of 13 regions of sky, increasing the speed of surveys by approximately the same factor. It was quickly realised that this system would make a powerful instrument for pulsar surveys, provided the bandwidth was increased above the original specification and the necessary large filterbank system could be constructed. A new data acquisition system capable of handling multibeam data sets was also a fundamental component of the system.

These requirements were met, and the Parkes multibeam pulsar survey commenced in August 1997. This survey aims to cover a strip with $`|b|<5\mathrm{°}`$ along the Galactic plane between Galactic longitudes of 260° and 50°. The filterbank system gives $`96\times 3`$ MHz channels of polarisation-summed data for each beam which are sampled every 250 $`\mu `$s. Observation times per pointing are 35 min, giving a very high sensitivity, about seven times better than those of the Clifton et al. (1992) and Johnston et al. (1992) surveys, at least for pulsars not in short-period binary systems. Although not yet complete, the survey has been outstandingly successful, with over 600 pulsars discovered so far.

Preliminary reports on the multibeam survey and its results have been given by Camilo et al. (2000a), Manchester et al. (2000), Lyne et al. (2000) and D’Amico et al. (2000). Also, papers on the discovery of several pulsars of particular interest have been published. Lyne et al. (2000) announced the discovery of PSR J1811$``$1736, a pulsar with a period of 104 ms in a highly eccentric orbit of period 18.8 d with a companion of minimum mass 0.7 M, most probably a neutron star, making this the fourth or fifth double-neutron-star system known in the Galactic disk. Camilo et al. (2000b) report the discovery of two young pulsars, J1119$``$6127 and J1814$``$1744, which have the highest surface dipole magnetic field strengths among known radio pulsars. PSR J1119$``$6127 has a characteristic age, $`\tau _c`$, of only 1600 years, a measured braking index, $`n=2.91\pm 0.05`$ and is associated with a previously unknown supernova remnant \[Crawford et al. 2001, Pivovaroff et al. 2001\]. PSR J1814$``$1744 has a much longer period, 3.975 s, and the highest inferred surface dipole field strength of any known radio pulsar, $`5.5\times 10^{13}`$ G, in the region of so-called “magnetars” \[Pivovaroff, Kaspi & Camilo 2000\]. PSR J1141$``$6545 is a relatively young pulsar ($`\tau _c1.4`$ Myr) in an eccentric 5-hour orbit for which the relativistic precession of periastron has been measured \[Kaspi et al. 2000\]. This implies that the total mass of the system is 2.30 M, indicating that the companion is probably a massive white dwarf formed before the neutron star we observe as the pulsar. Stairs et al. (2001) discuss the high-mass binary system PSR J1740$``$3052 which is in a highly eccentric 230-day orbit with a companion star of minimum mass 11 M. A possible companion is a late-type star identified on infrared images, but the absence of the expected eclipses and precession of periastron due to tidal interactions suggest that the actual companion may be a main-sequence B-star or a black hole hidden by the late-type star. Camilo et al. (2001) report the discovery of five circular-orbit binary systems with orbital periods in the range 1.3 – 15 days. Three of these pulsars, PSRs J1232$``$6501, J1435$``$6100 and J1454$``$5846, as well as PSR J1119$``$6127, were discovered early in the survey and hence are included in the pulsars described in this paper. Finally, D’Amico et al. (2001) report the discovery of two young pulsars, PSRs J1420$``$6048 and J1837$``$0604, which may be associated with EGRET $`\gamma `$-ray sources.

In the following section we describe the observing and analysis systems and the search strategy. Timing observations undertaken after the confirmation of a pulsar and our data release policy are described in Section 3. In Section 4, we give parameters for the first 100 pulsars discovered by the survey. Implications of these results are discussed in Section 5. Detailed information about the survey, observing instructions, data release policy, and results may be found under the pulsar multibeam web page.111 http://www.atnf.csiro.au/research/pulsar/pmsurv/.

## 2 OBSERVING AND SEARCH ANALYSIS SYSTEMS

In this section, we describe in detail the receiver system, data acquisition system, analysis procedures and search strategy being used for the Parkes multibeam pulsar survey.

### 2.1 The Receiver System

The Parkes multibeam receiver consists of a 13-feed system operating at a central frequency of 1374 MHz with a bandwidth of 288 MHz at the prime focus of the Parkes 64-m radio telescope. Orthogonal linear polarisations are received from each feed and fed to cryogenically cooled HEMT amplifiers, constructed under contract at Jodrell Bank Observatory. The horns are arranged in a double hexagon around a central horn with a spacing between horns of 1.2 wavelengths; the corresponding beam spacing on the sky is close to twice the nominal half-power beamwidth of 14.2 arcmin \[Staveley-Smith et al. 1996\]. Measured system parameters222From http://www.atnf.csiro.au/research/multibeam/lstavele/description.html. are listed in Table 1. System temperatures vary by a degree or so over the 26 receivers; the value of 21 K quoted in the table is an average value. For the central beam, this corresponds to an equivalent system flux density of 28.6 Jy. Outer feeds have a somewhat lower efficiency, reduced by about 0.27 db for the inner ring and 1.0 db for the outer ring. The outer beams are also somewhat elliptical, with the major axis in the radial direction, and have a significant coma lobe. Predicted beam patterns for the central and outer beams are given by Staveley-Smith et al. (1996); at least to the half-power point, the beam patterns are well represented by a two-dimensional Gaussian function.

After further amplification, all 26 signals are down-converted in the focus cabin to intermediate frequency using a local oscillator frequency of 1582 MHz. These signals are transferred to the tower receiver room via low-loss coaxial cables and pass through cable-equalising amplifiers and level setting attenuators to a down-conversion system. This splits the 288-MHz bandwidth of each signal into three equal parts with output between 64 and 160 MHz using an up-down conversion system with band-limiting filters centred at 1060 MHz. These signals are then fed to a very large filterbank system, designed and constructed at Jodrell Bank Observatory and Osservatorio Astronomico di Bologna, which gives 96 3-MHz channels for each polarisation of each feed. The output of each filter is detected and summed with its corresponding polarisation pair. These summed outputs are high-pass filtered with an effective time constant of approximately 0.9 s, integrated for the sampling interval of 250 $`\mu `$s and then one-bit digitised.

### 2.2 Data Acquisition and Analysis

Data acquisition is controlled by a multi-threaded C++ program, pmdaq, running on a Digital Alpha picmg processor. A custom-designed board with a programmable Xilinx device is installed on the computer’s PCI bus, and interfaces between the digitiser and an Ikon-10116 16-bit direct memory access card. Integration of the first sample of an observation is triggered by the Observatory 1-s pulse, allowing measurement of pulse arrival times. The first 16-bit word of every input sample is a counter which is checked by the data acquisition program and then discarded. Time synchronisation is further checked by using a 5-s pulse from the Observatory clock. Data can be output to disk, double-density Exabytes or digital linear tapes (DLTs). Each output block contains a 640-byte header giving telescope, receiver, source and observation parameters and 48 kbyte of one-bit data, all from a single beam. Successive blocks have data from successive beams. Survey-mode data are normally output to DLTs and timing data to Exabytes. For survey observations, the data rate is 640 kbyte s-1, which fills a DLT in approximately 15 hours of continuous observation.

Observations are controlled using a Tcl-Tk interface to a control program, pmctrl, operating on a Sun Sparc workstation. The interface allows setting of observation parameters such as the receiver, filterbank system, sampling interval, observation time, output device, pointing centre and feed position angle and the logging of operator messages. pmctrl has socket interfaces to the Observatory clock, the telescope drive system and the receiver translator system and an RPC interface to PMDAQ. The program maintains a record of tape operations and handles status returns and error conditions from the telescope or data acquisition system. It also writes a summary observation file and a complete log file giving details of all observations. Details of the observing strategy for the multibeam survey are given in §2.4.

Observations can be monitored in real time using a program, pmmon, which runs on a networked workstation with user input via a Tcl-Tk interface. pmmon communicates with pmdaq via an RPC interface, obtaining either complete tape blocks or data streams summed across all filter channels for each beam. Several forms of output are provided, including mean digitiser levels for each beam, modulation spectra and time sequences for each beam, and modulation spectra for each filterbank channel of a given beam. The latter form of output is especially valuable for tracing narrow-band interference. For observations of known pulsars (normally with the centre beam), integrated pulse profiles for each frequency channel and a dedispersed mean pulse profile can be displayed and may be recorded to disk for later examination.

Offline processing runs on networked workstations at each of the collaborating institutions under the control of a Java program, pmproc. The processing consists of four main stages. Data are first examined for the presence of narrow-band radio-frequency interference by computing the modulation spectrum for each frequency channel, normally using a subset of each data file of length $`2^{19}`$ samples. Samples in channels containing strong interference are set to zero or one in alternate channels (to give a mean of 0.5) as the data are transferred to disk in subsequent stages.

The second stage of processing concerns identification of interfering signals in the modulation spectrum. Since most interference is undispersed, this analysis is performed on the ‘zero-DM’ spectrum. Data for each observation are summed across all frequency channels on reading from the tape to produce a zero-DM data stream of $`2^{23}`$ samples per beam. This is Fourier-transformed to give the modulation spectrum. Known signals which are present all or most of the time, such as the power line frequency (50 Hz) and its harmonics, are first identified and their bandwidth determined. The remaining spectrum is then searched for significant spectral features. This search is performed on the fundamental spectrum and on spectra obtained by summing 2, 4, 8 and 16 harmonics. Signals are identified and their bandwidth and harmonic content recorded. Any signal which appears in four or more beams of a given pointing is flagged as interference; that signal and its harmonics are deleted in subsequent processing steps for that pointing. Similarly, any signal which appears in a given beam in more than three pointings is marked for deletion in subsequent processing for that beam in all pointings on that tape, and any signal which appears more than seven times in any beam of a given tape is marked for deletion in all pointings on that tape. A summary output is produced for each tape (normally containing 20 – 25 pointings) which gives grey-scale images of the modulation spectra as a function of beam and pointing, and lists the frequency ranges identified as interference.

In the third and major stage of processing, the data are searched for periodic signals over a range of dispersion delays. The basic analysis procedure is very similar to that employed in the Parkes Southern pulsar survey and described in detail by Manchester et al. (1996). A ‘tree’ dedispersion algorithm \[Taylor 1974\] is used. Dispersion delays are proportional to $`\nu ^2`$, but the tree algorithm assumes that they are linear with frequency. This is approximately true for small fractional bandwidths, but the multibeam survey has a fractional bandwidth of about 20 per cent, and straightforward application of tree dedispersion would lead to excessive pulse smearing for short-period pulsars. Also, the tree algorithm requires a number of frequency channels which is a power of two. To overcome these problems, the delays are ‘linearised’ on reading from tape. The number of frequency channels is increased from 96 to 128, and channel data streams are reassigned in channel number to remove the second-order dispersion-delay term. These channel reassignments are independent of dispersion measure.

The linearised data are split into 8 sub-bands, each of 16 channels. A tree dedispersion is performed on each of these sub-bands to give dedispersed data streams for 16 dispersions between zero and the ‘diagonal DM’ (at which the dispersion smearing across one channel equals the sampling interval), approximately 35 cm-3 pc. These are subsequently added with varying delays to give a range of DMs about the central value. Another application of the tree algorithm to delayed data gives a further 16 data streams for dispersions from 35 to 70 cm-3 pc. Data samples are then summed in pairs to give an effective sampling interval of 0.5 ms and the tree algorithm is applied again to give 16 data streams for dispersions from 70 to 139 cm-3 pc. This process is repeated up to four more times, to an effective sampling interval of 8 ms, until a maximum DM of 2177 cm-3 pc or 42/$`\mathrm{sin}|b|`$ cm-3 pc, where $`b`$ is the Galactic latitude, whichever is less, is reached. The dedispersed data streams for each sub-band are then summed with a range of delays to give up to 325 dedispersed data streams with DM in the range 0 to 2203 cm-3 pc. The DM steps are 0.54 cm-3 pc for the first tree data set, 0.81 cm-3 pc for the second, and 26 cm-3 pc for the last, increasing by roughly a factor of two for each successive tree data set after the second.

For each DM, the summed data stream is high-pass filtered by subtracting a running mean of length 2.048 s and then Fourier-transformed using a fast Fourier transform (FFT) routine. After deletion of spectral channels affected by interference and interpolation to recover spectral features lying midway between Fourier bins, the resulting spectra are searched for significant peaks. This process is repeated for spectra in which 2, 4, 8 and 16 harmonics have been summed to give a set of 50 candidate periods (10 from the fundamental and from each harmonic sum) for each DM. A pulse profile is then formed for each candidate period by inverse transformation of the complex Fourier components for the fundamental and its harmonics, and the signal-to-noise ratio of this profile computed. All such profiles from the full analysis over all DMs for a given beam are then ordered by signal-to-noise ratio. For the top 66 candidates, the appropriate tree data streams are summed into 4 sub-bands and folded into 16 sub-integrations, each of duration a little over 2 min, using the nominal period and DM. These are then summed with a range of delays in frequency and time, up to one sample per sub-band and per sub-integration respectively, to search for the highest signal-to-noise ratio over a range of period and DM about the nominal values. The candidate parameters, including the maximum signal-to-noise ratios obtained from the harmonic summing, the reconstructed profile and results from the $`P`$–DM search are then recorded for later examination.

In the next stage of processing, candidates from all pointings on a given tape are collated and searched for common periods. Candidate periods seen in more than 6 beams are rejected as interference. Remaining candidates with a $`P`$–DM signal-to-noise ratio above a threshold (normally 8.0, corresponding to a random occurrence every few beams) are then examined using an interactive display and classified as Class 1 or Class 2 candidates or rejected as probable interference. Fig. 1 shows the display plot for a typical Class 1 candidate, later confirmed as a pulsar. The classification is necessarily somewhat subjective and is based on the similarity of the subplots to those for known pulsars. The most important criteria are final signal-to-noise ratio, continuity across sub-integrations and sub-bands of the pulse signal, and a well-defined peak in signal-to-noise ratio versus DM. The signal should also be linear or parabolic (indicating a constant acceleration) in the phase-time plot and linear in the phase-frequency plot. Most Class 1 candidates have a signal-to-noise ratio of 10 or more. For the early low-latitude phases of the survey, a Class 1 candidate was selected every one or two pointings. Each candidate is identified by a unique code based on the processing centre and a sequential number.

Candidates are then re-observed using the centre beam of the multibeam receiver in order to confirm their reality as pulsars. Observations are made at five grid positions, the nominal position and four positions offset in latitude and longitude by 9 arcmin, normally with 6 min integration per point. These observations are searched in period and DM about the nominal values and, if two or three detections are obtained, an improved position is computed from the relative signal-to-noise ratio. If there is no detection in the grid observations, a 35-min observation is made at the nominal position and searched for a significant signal. This search is usually made using Fourier techniques to detect pulsars whose period may have changed significantly from the nominal value, due to binary motion for example. Candidates which are not redetected in one or two such observations are down-graded or rejected. To date, all Class 1 candidates have been re-observed with about 80 per cent of them being confirmed as pulsars.

### 2.3 Survey Sensitivity

Survey parameters are summarised in Table 2. The system sensitivity for the centre beam has been modeled by Crawford (2000), assuming the parameters given in Tables 1 and 2. The raw limiting flux density is given by the radiometer equation

$$S_{lim}=\frac{\sigma \beta T_{sys}}{G\sqrt{BN_p\tau _{obs}}}$$
(2)
where $`\sigma `$ is a loss factor, taken to be 1.5,333One-bit sampling at the Nyquist rate introduces a loss of $`\sqrt{2/\pi }`$ relative to a fully sampled signal (cf. Van Vleck & Middleton 1966). The principal remaining loss results from the non-rectangular bandpass of the channel filters. $`\beta `$ is the detection signal-to-noise ratio threshold, taken to be 8.0, $`T_{sys}`$ is the system temperature, $`G`$ is the telescope gain, $`B`$ is the receiver bandwidth in Hz, $`N_p`$ is the number of polarisations and $`\tau _{obs}`$ is the time per observation in seconds.

An idealised pulse train of frequency $`f_1=P^1`$, where $`P`$ is the pulse period, is represented in the Fourier domain by its fundamental and 15 harmonics $`F(f_i)`$, where each of the harmonics has an amplitude $`y_0(f_i)=1/S_{lim}`$. These harmonics are then multiplied by a series of functions, representing the responses of the various filters in the system, to give a final set of Fourier amplitudes $`y(f_i)`$. The first filter function is the Fourier transform of the intrinsic pulse profile, assumed to be Gaussian with a half-power width of $`W_{50}=0.05P`$,

$$|g_1(f)|=\mathrm{exp}\left(\frac{\pi ^2f^2W_{50}^2}{4\mathrm{ln}2}\right)$$
(3)
and by a similar function $`g_2(f)`$ representing the Fourier transform of the smearing due to dispersion in each filter channel, also assumed to have a Gaussian response, with $`W_{50}`$ replaced by $`\tau _{\mathrm{DM}}`$ (Equation 1). Since the analysis is based on the amplitude spectrum and each of the filters is real, we only have to consider the amplitude response of each filter.

The harmonics are then multiplied by the Fourier response of each of the filters in the hardware and software system. These result from the finite sampling interval,

$$|g_3(f)|=\left|\frac{\mathrm{sin}(\pi f\tau _{samp})}{\pi f\tau _{samp}}\right|,$$
(4)
the digitiser high-pass filtering, a two-pole filter with amplitude response

$$|g_4(f)|=\frac{(2\pi f\tau _{\mathrm{HP}})^2}{[1+(2\pi f\tau _{\mathrm{HP}})^4]^{1/2}},$$
(5)
where $`\tau _{\mathrm{HP}}=0.9`$ s (see §4), and a software high-pass filter, implemented by subtracting a box-car average of length $`\tau _S=2.048`$ s from the dedispersed data stream, giving

$$|g_5(f)|=1\frac{\mathrm{sin}(\pi f\tau _S)}{\pi f\tau _S}.$$
(6)
The harmonic range is then limited to $`f>f_{min}`$, where $`f_{min}=0.2`$ Hz, a limit set mainly by the need to reject low-level interference and other red noise, and $`f<f_N=1/(2\tau _{samp})`$, the Nyquist frequency. Harmonics of the lowest valid signal frequency are then summed to give a final amplitude

$$Y(f_n)=\frac{_{i=1}^ny(f_i)}{\sqrt{n}}.$$
(7)
The final limiting sensitivity $`S_{min}`$ is then given by

$$S_{min}=\frac{1}{Y_{max}(f_n)},$$
(8)
where $`Y_{max}(f_n)`$ is the largest $`Y(f_n)`$ for $`n`$ = 1, 2, 4, 8 or 16.

The resultant sensitivity curves for four representative values of DM are shown in Fig. 2. These curves show that for low-DM pulsars with periods greater than about 10 ms, the limiting sensitivity is about 0.14 mJy. Steps in the zero-DM curve at short periods result from changes in the number of harmonics below the Nyquist frequency; at higher DMs, the higher harmonics are attenuated and the steps are not as evident. Steps between 100 ms and 1 s result from the software high-pass filtering. The Fourier cutoff at $`f_{min}`$ and the hardware and software high-pass filtering results in reduced sensitivity at longer periods.

Especially for distant pulsars near the Galactic plane, the sensitivity is degraded by two effects not included in the modeling: sky background temperature ($`T_{sky}`$) and pulse smearing due to scattering ($`\tau _{scatt}`$). Limiting sensitivities should be scaled by factors $`(T_{sys}+T_{sky})/T_{sys}`$ and $`[w/(Pw)]^{1/2}/[w_0/(Pw_0)]^{1/2}`$, where $`w=(W_{50}^2+\tau _{samp}^2+\tau _{\mathrm{DM}}^2+\tau _{scatt}^2)^{1/2}`$ is the effective pulse width, $`W_{50}`$ is the intrinsic pulse width, and $`w_0=[(0.05P)^2+\tau _{samp}^2+\tau _{\mathrm{DM}}^2]^{1/2}`$. Sky background temperatures are highest close to the Galactic plane and towards the Galactic Centre; for example at ($`l,b=300\mathrm{°},0\mathrm{°}`$), $`T_{sky}5`$ K and for ($`l,b=350\mathrm{°},0\mathrm{°}`$), $`T_{sky}18`$ K. Scattering parameters have not yet been measured for the multibeam pulsars, but a cursory examination of the mean pulse profiles shows that at least 15 per cent have scattering broadening of a few milliseconds or more.

It should also be emphasised that these sensitivity figures refer to centre of the central beam. As Table 1 shows, the outer beams are less sensitive. Averaged over the 13 beams, the limiting sensitivity is about 0.16 mJy. Also, of course, pulsars do not usually lie at the beam centre in the discovery observation. The limiting sensitivity is further degraded by the beam response at the position of the pulsar relative to that at the beam centre. The average beam gain over the hexagonal area covered by one beam (see Section 2.4 below) assuming a gaussian beamshape, is 0.70, giving an average limiting flux density for the survey as a whole of 0.22 mJy.

The sensitivity is also degraded by radio frequency interference, but this is much more difficult to quantify. There are many forms of interference, including both natural and man-made signals. Natural interference such as lightning is not a major problem as it is not periodic and some protection is afforded by the one-bit digitisation. Some of the man-made interference originates from within the Observatory and even from within the receiving system itself, but most sources are narrow-band transmissions such as radar beacons and communication links. Much of the interference is transient, which makes it difficult to trace. Typically 6 – 8 frequency channels are routinely rejected because they contain persistent modulated narrow-band signals. The sensitivity of the system to modulation at the power-line frequency (50 Hz) was minimised by choosing a sampling interval such that the Nyquist frequency is a harmonic of 50 Hz. Although not strictly interference, beam 8A has been disconnected since the start of the survey because of a quasi-periodic gain modulation occurring in the cryogenically cooled part of the receiver. Also, coupling within the one-bit digitiser results in periodic signals at frequencies of $`f_N/2^n`$, where $`n`$ is an integer, and their harmonics. These are rejected in the Fourier domain. After rejection of the known sources of interference, typically there are 20 – 30 narrow-band signals (‘birdies’) detected in the zero-DM modulation spectra for a full tape. These are flagged and deleted from the pointings in which they were detected. Typically, much less than one per cent of the modulation spectrum is rejected.

### 2.4 Search Strategy

The 13 beams of the multibeam receiver are spaced by approximately two beamwidths on the sky. Therefore interleaved pointings are required to cover a given region. As shown in Fig. 3, a cluster of four pointings covers a region about 1.5° across with adjacent beams touching at the half-power points. Clusters tessellate to fully cover a region. For this configuration, the multibeam receiver must be oriented at a Galactic position angle of 30°. Since the time per pointing is relatively long (35 min), the variation of parallactic angle is tracked during the observation. The range of parallactic angle is $`\pm 180\mathrm{°}`$ but the multibeam receiver has a feed-angle range limited to $`\pm 75\mathrm{°}`$, and so $`\pm 60\mathrm{°}`$ or $`\pm 120\mathrm{°}`$ may be added to the feed angle to keep it within the legal range throughout the observation. This changes the labels on the beams in Fig. 3 but not the pattern.

The survey region, $`100\mathrm{°}<l<50\mathrm{°}`$ and $`|b|<5\mathrm{°}`$, is covered by a grid of survey pointings, defined by

$`l`$ $`=`$ $`(i_l5000+0.5i_{b2})d_l\mathrm{and}`$ (9)
$`b`$ $`=`$ $`(i_b500)d_b,`$ (10)
where

$`i_l`$ $`=`$ $`4400+7n+2m+c_l,`$ (11)
$`i_b`$ $`=`$ $`5002n8m+c_b,`$ (12)
$`d_l=0.5\mathrm{\Delta }`$, $`d_b=0.5\mathrm{\Delta }`$sin 60°, $`\mathrm{\Delta }=0\stackrel{}{.}46667`$ is the beam separation, and $`i_{b2}`$ is 1 if $`i_b`$ is odd and 0 if $`i_b`$ is even. The pointings within a cluster are defined by $`(c_l,c_b)=`$ (0,0), (1,0), (0,1) and ($`1`$,1), and $`n`$ and $`m`$ are integers, the range of which is determined by the area to be covered. For example, the pointing closest to the Galactic Centre is at $`l=359\stackrel{}{.}767`$, $`b=0\stackrel{}{.}0`$, with $`i_l=4999`$ and $`i_b=500`$, corresponding to $`n=92`$, $`m=23`$ and $`(c_l,c_b)=(1,0)`$.

A record of the observational and processing status is maintained in a file, where each pointing is identified by a 7-digit number, $`1000i_l+i_b`$, known as the pointing ID. The inverse transformation, from $`(l,b)`$ to the nearest pointing ID is given by

$`i_b`$ $`=`$ $`500+b/d_b+0.5\mathrm{and}`$ (13)
$`i_l`$ $`=`$ $`5000+l/d_l0.5i_{b2}+0.5,`$ (14)
where $`180\mathrm{°}<l180\mathrm{°}`$. Each of the 13 beam positions has a unique ‘grid ID’ which, for a feed Galactic position angle of 30°, is offset from the pointing ID by $`\mathrm{\Delta }i_l`$ = 0, $``$1, 1, 2, 1, $``$1, $``$2, $``$3, 0, 3, 3, 0 and $``$3, and $`\mathrm{\Delta }i_b`$ = 0, 2, 2, 0, $``$2, $``$2, 0, 2, 4, 2, $``$2, $``$4 and $``$2 respectively.

An interactive program, hexview, is used to display the status of each pointing and to select pointings for observation. Consecutive pointings observed in one session are separated by about 5° to avoid the possibility of a strong pulsar appearing in more than one pointing and hence possibly being flagged as interference. As a system check, the strong pulsar PSR J1359$``$6038 is observed on most observing days for about 1 min, centred on each beam in turn.

Initially the survey region extended from $`l=220\mathrm{°}`$. However, a decision was made to limit it at $`l=260\mathrm{°}`$ after a few months because of the low pulsar density between these two longitudes. Observations began at low latitudes where the pulsar concentration is high. The discovery rate for the first year of observation was at the unprecedented rate of more than one pulsar per hour of observing time.

## 3 TIMING OBSERVATIONS AND ANALYSIS

Almost all follow-up investigations require a more precise pulsar position, pulsar period $`P`$, and/or period derivative $`\dot{P}`$ than those obtained from the discovery observation. Improved estimates of the DM, the mean pulsed flux density $`S_{1400}`$ and the pulse widths at the 50 per cent and 10 per cent levels, $`W_{50}`$ and $`W_{10}`$, are also valuable. All of these parameters are determined from a series of timing observations made over a span of at least one year. These observations also reveal binary motion if present, and enable the binary parameters to be determined.

Timing observations are made using either the Parkes 64-m telescope or the Lovell 76-m telescope at Jodrell Bank Observatory, with most of the detected pulsars north of declination $`35\mathrm{°}`$ being timed at Jodrell Bank. In this paper, we give results only from Parkes timing observations. The centre beam of the multibeam receiver is used, with the same filterbank and data acquisition system as is used for the survey. Typically, observations are of duration between 2 and 30 min, dependent upon the pulsar flux density, and are made at intervals of 2 – 6 weeks, with some more closely spaced observations to resolve pulse counting ambiguities.

The data for each observation are dedispersed and synchronously folded at the predicted topocentric pulsar period in off-line processing to form an ‘archive’ file. These files normally have 8 sub-bands across the observed bandwidth and a series of sub-integrations, typically of 1-min duration. These are summed over both frequency and time to form a mean pulse profile. This is then convolved with a ‘standard profile’ for the corresponding pulsar, producing a topocentric time-of-arrival (TOA). These are then processed using the tempo program444See http://pulsar.princeton.edu/tempo or http://www.atnf.csiro.au/research/pulsar/timing/tempo. which converts them to barycentric TOAs at infinite frequency and performs a multi-parameter fit for the pulsar parameters. Barycentric corrections are obtained using the Jet Propulsion Laboratory DE200 solar-system ephemeris \[Standish 1990\]. Initially, standard profiles are formed from a high signal-to-noise ratio observation. Once a valid timing solution is obtained, all or most of the observations are summed to form a ‘grand average’ profile. A new standard profile is then made from this average profile and the TOAs recomputed. This often reduces the final residuals for the timing solution by a factor of two or more.

As evidenced by the discovery that PSR J2144$``$3933 has an 8.5-s period \[Young, Manchester & Johnston 1999\], standard search software can sometimes mis-identify the pulse period by a factor of two or three. As mentioned above (§2.3) there is a software limit at a period of 5 s. Furthermore, interference can sometimes mask low-frequency spectral components. In such cases a pulsar may be detected by its 2nd or 3rd harmonic, leading to the assumption of an incorrect period. Such errors can be identified by folding the data at twice and three times the nominal period and examining the resulting mean pulse profiles. This check is routinely done for all pulsars discovered in this survey and has resulted in period correction for several pulsars.

In a few pulsars, at the confirmation stage or soon after, significant variations in solar-system barycentric period are observed. These may be due to an especially large period derivative, or to binary motion. In either case, an improved estimate of the barycentric period is obtained by summing the archive sub-integrations over a range of periods about the nominal value. Where the rate of period change is not too great, improved periods can be obtained by fitting TOAs for several observations over one or a few adjacent days. A series of these barycentric periods can then be fitted with either a period derivative term or a binary model. The parameters from this fit then form the basis for a coherent timing solution using tempo.

Improved estimates of the dispersion measure can also be obtained from individual archive files by summing the sub-bands with a range of delays corresponding to different DM values about the nominal value and searching for the highest signal-to-noise ratio. After a timing solution is available, a final DM value for each pulsar is obtained by summing each archive in time and forming four sub-bands across the 288 MHz observed bandwidth. TOAs are then obtained for all archives for each of the four sub-bands. Improved estimates of the DM and its error are then obtained using tempo, holding all parameters except DM fixed at the values from the final timing solution.

The grand average profile for each pulsar is also used as a basis for estimating the mean flux density and pulse width parameters. Flux densities were calibrated by observing a sample of 13 pulsars with previously catalogued 1400 MHz flux densities of moderate value (to give reasonable signal-to-noise ratio while avoiding digitiser saturation) and high DMs (to minimise variations due to scintillation). Table 3 lists the pulsars used, their DM and their assumed flux density \[Taylor, Manchester & Lyne 1993\]. This calibration is based on the accumulated digitiser counts with the multibeam system, and hence is relative to the system equivalent flux density. The effect of the varying sky background temperature was allowed for in the calculation by scaling values of sky background temperature at 408 MHz from the Haslam et al. (1982) all-sky survey to 1374 MHz assuming a spectral index of $`2.5`$. Based on the rms fluctuation of computed flux densities among the calibration pulsars and independently calibrated observations of these and other pulsars using the Australia Telescope Compact Array and the Caltech correlator \[Navarro et al. 1997\], we estimate that the flux scale is accurate at the 10 – 15 per cent level.

Except for a few especially interesting cases, timing observations cease 12 – 18 months after confirmation. By this time a coherent timing solution has normally been obtained, giving an accurate pulsar position, pulse period, period derivative, dispersion measure and, if applicable, binary parameters. Pulsars are renamed at this stage, based on the accurate J2000 position. The parameters are then entered into the pulsar catalogue, allowing accurate predictions for future observations, and listed on the Parkes multibeam pulsar survey New Pulsars web page. The multibeam pulsar survey web pages also specify policy for release of raw data tapes. On request, these are made available for copying two years after the date of recording. The Data Release web page lists all available observations sorted by date, Parkes project identification, observed position and tape label. We will provide documentation specifying the data format and software to read and copy data tapes on request.

## 4 DISCOVERY AND TIMING OF THE FIRST 100 PULSARS

In this paper we report the discovery of 100 pulsars by the Parkes multibeam pulsar survey. These pulsars were selected as the first 100 from the list of pulsars being timed at Parkes, ordered by the date at which regular Parkes timing observations commenced. All are south of declination $`35\mathrm{°}`$. Table 4 lists the pulsar name, the J2000 right ascension and declination from the timing solution, the corresponding Galactic coordinates, the beam in which the pulsar was detected, the radial distance of the pulsar from the beam centre in units of the beam radius (cf. Table 1), the signal-to-noise ratio of the discovery observation from the final time-domain folding in the search process, the mean flux density averaged over all observations included in the timing solution, and pulse widths at 50 per cent and 10 per cent of the peak of the mean pulse profile. Flux densities have been corrected for off-centre pointing during the timing observations. Many of these pulsars were detected more than once by the survey. Beam and signal-to-noise details refer to the detection having the highest signal-to-noise ratio. The 10 per cent width is not measurable for pulsars with mean profiles having poor signal-to-noise ratio. Estimated uncertainties are given in parentheses where relevant and refer to the last quoted digit. Flux densities may be somewhat over estimated for very weak pulsars or those which have extended null periods, since non-detections are not included in the timing solution.

Table 5 gives solar-system barycentric pulse periods, period derivatives, epoch of the period, the number of TOAs in the timing solution, the MJD range covered by the timing observations, the final rms timing residual and the dispersion measure.

Three of the pulsars in Tables 4 and 5 are members of binary systems. As mentioned in §1, all three of these pulsars have been previously published by Camilo et al. (2001); details are repeated here for completeness. Table 6 gives the binary parameters for these pulsars obtained from the timing solutions. Two of these pulsars are in low-eccentricity orbits, for which the longitude and time of periastron are not well determined. For these pulsars the reference epoch is the time of passage through the ascending node. PSR J1454$``$5846 has a larger (although still small) eccentricity and the longitude and epoch of periastron could be determined with precision.

Mean pulse profiles at 1374 MHz for the 100 pulsars are given in Fig. 4. As mentioned in §3, these profiles were formed by adding all data used for the timing solution. They typically have several hours of effective integration time. For display purposes, these profiles have been corrected for the effects of the high-pass filter in the digitiser. To apply this correction, the profile is first given zero mean. The corrected profile $`b_n`$, where $`n`$ is the bin number and $`N`$ is the number of bins in the profile, is then given by

$`b_n`$ $`=`$ $`a_n,(n=0)`$
$`b_n`$ $`=`$ $`a_n+(t_{bin}/\tau _{\mathrm{HP}}){\displaystyle \underset{m=0}{\overset{n1}{}}}a_m,(0<n<N)`$ (15)
where $`a_n`$ is the uncorrected zero-mean profile, $`t_{bin}`$ is the length of each profile bin in seconds and $`\tau _{\mathrm{HP}}`$ is the high-pass filter time constant in seconds. The value of $`\tau _{\mathrm{HP}}=0.9`$ s was empirically determined by requiring a flat corrected baseline on several long-period pulsars.

Prior to the commencement of the Parkes multibeam survey, there were 731 known radio pulsars, of which 693 are in the Galactic disk. (Five are in the Magellanic Clouds and 33 are in globular clusters.) Of the 693 disk pulsars, 247 lie within the nominal search area of the multibeam survey. Since the current survey is much more sensitive than any previous survey of this region, we would expect to redetect essentially all of these pulsars. Because of the current incompleteness of the survey, a definitive list of detected previously known pulsars is deferred to a later paper.

## 5 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

In this paper we have described in some detail the Parkes multibeam pulsar survey, currently being conducted using a 13-beam receiver operating at a central frequency of 1374 MHz on the Parkes 64-m radio telescope. Data acquisition and analysis techniques are described and a detailed discussion of the survey sensitivity and observing strategy is given. After confirmation of a candidate, timing data are obtained, typically over a 12 – 18 month period, giving an accurate position, pulse period, period derivative and DM. The pulse width and mean flux density are estimated from the mean pulse profile. We give the principal observed properties of the first 100 pulsars discovered in the survey.

Table 7 gives derived parameters for these 100 pulsars. After the name, the first three columns give the log10 of the characteristic age, $`\tau _c=P/(2\dot{P})`$, in years, the surface dipole magnetic field, $`B_s=3.2\times 10^{19}(P\dot{P})^{1/2}`$, in Gauss, and the rate of loss of rotational energy, $`\dot{E}=4\pi ^2I\dot{P}P^3`$, in erg s-1, where a neutron-star moment of inertia $`I=10^{45}`$ g cm2 is assumed. The next two columns give the pulsar distance, $`d`$, computed from the DM assuming the Taylor & Cordes (1993) model for the Galactic distribution of free electrons, and the implied Galactic $`z`$-distance. Although distances are quoted to 0.1 kpc, in fact they are generally more uncertain than that owing to uncertainties in the electron density model. This is especially so for pulsars with very large DMs, indicating large distances from the Sun. The final column gives the radio luminosity $`L_{1400}=S_{1400}d^2`$. Pulsars discovered at relatively high radio frequencies, for example, at 1400 MHz, tend to have a flatter spectrum than those discovered at lower frequencies. For example, the sample of pulsars discovered by Johnston et al. (1992) has a mean spectral index of $`1.0`$ compared to the value of $`1.7`$ found for pulsars detected in the Parkes 70-cm survey\[Toscano et al. 1998\]. However, the Johnston et al. and Clifton et al. surveys were the first extensive surveys at these higher frequencies. Most of the previously discovered pulsars had been found in lower-frequency searches, which selected the steeper-spectrum pulsars. The present survey is much more sensitive than any previous survey of this region, and hence the discovered pulsars are a largely unbiased sample. Adopting a compromise mean spectral index of $`1.3`$ for the multibeam discoveries, the $`L_{1400}`$ values may be converted to the more commonly quoted 400 MHz luminosity by multiplying by 5.0.

Fig. 5 gives histograms of the distributions in pulse period for the 100 multibeam pulsars and previously known disk pulsars, i.e., excluding those in globular clusters and the Magellanic Clouds. For the so-called ‘normal’ or non-millisecond pulsars, the distribution of the multibeam pulsars is similar to that of previously known pulsars, except for a larger number of pulsars with periods of just less than 100 ms. As shown by Table 7, three of these, PSRs J0940$``$5428, J1112$``$6103 and J1718$``$3825, are relatively young pulsars with ages between 30,000 and 100,000 years and spin-down luminosities in excess of $`10^{36}`$ erg s-1. The other two, PSRs J1232$``$6501 and J1454$``$5846, have very small period derivatives and are members of binary systems (Table 6). As discussed by Camilo et al. (2001), both of these systems have unusual properties. The first is atypical of low-mass binary pulsars, having a relatively long spin period, while the second is unusual in that it has a larger companion mass and higher eccentricity than most pulsar – white-dwarf binaries. Eleven of these first 100 pulsars have characteristic ages of less than 100 kyr; this is a much higher proportion than that for the previously known population.

Only one millisecond pulsar, PSR J1435$``$6100, which has a period of 9.3 ms and is a member of a binary system (Table 6), is included in first 100 pulsars discovered by the Parkes multibeam survey (although several more have subsequently been discovered). As Fig. 5 shows, this is a much smaller proportion than that for previously known pulsars, although it is worth noting that there are no previously known disk millisecond pulsars within the area currently searched ($`|b|1\stackrel{}{.}5`$). There are several factors which contribute to this low detection rate for millisecond pulsars. This paper reports the earliest multibeam survey observations which were made along and adjacent to the Galactic equator — the vast majority of the discovered pulsars have Galactic latitudes of $`1\mathrm{°}`$ (Table 4). At these latitudes, the volume searched for millisecond pulsars is greatly reduced by dispersion broadening. Fig. 2 shows that the sensitivity is halved for a 10-ms pulsar with DM of 100 cm-3 pc, corresponding to a distance of 3 kpc or less in the Galactic plane. The generally lower luminosity of millisecond pulsars results in a flux-density-limited distribution which extends to high Galactic latitudes \[Lyne et al. 1998\], so the expected number in our search volume is small. Furthermore, most radio-frequency interference produces spurious signals at millisecond periods. At the early stage at which most of these data were processed, techniques for eliminating the effects of interference were not optimised. Consequently, real pulsars tended to be lost in a forest of spurious candidates. Finally, many millisecond pulsars are members of binary systems. The long observation time of this survey tends to discriminate against detection of short-period binary systems. All of these factors have been or will be largely overcome in subsequent observations and analyses.

At the other end of the period range, PSR J1307$``$6318 has a pulse period of 4.96 s, the third longest known. Unlike PSR J2144$``$3933, the 8.5-s pulsar \[Young, Manchester & Johnston 1999\], PSR J1307$``$6318 has a relatively wide double pulse (Fig. 4) with a 50 per cent width of 505 ms, more than 10 per cent of the period.

Fig. 6 shows that the DM distribution of the multibeam pulsars is very different from that of previously known pulsars, peaking at a DM of 300 cm-3 pc or so. This is readily explained by the low Galactic latitude and very high sensitivity of the multibeam survey. Most of the pulsars are distant and of relatively high luminosity (Table 7). The Taylor & Cordes (1993) distance model puts many of them at distances greater than that of the Galactic Centre, and several are beyond the limit of the model (those with a distance of 30 kpc in Table 7) and certainly over-estimated. Fig. 4 shows that a significant number of these distant pulsars have highly scattered profiles. However, there is not a close relationship between DM and the width of the scattering tail, with several pulsars of similar period and dispersion measure (e.g. PSRs J1609$``$5158 and J1616$``$5109) having quite different scattering times \[Manchester 2000\]. We expect that the pulsars discovered in this survey will make a major contribution to improving our knowledge of the Galactic electron density model and the distribution of the fluctuations responsible for interstellar scattering, especially in the central regions of the Galaxy.

Finally, in Fig. 7 we show the distribution of mean 1400 MHz flux densities for the multibeam pulsars. Of the two-thirds of known pulsars with a published 1400 MHz flux density, only about 10 per cent have a value of less than 1 mJy. Values above 1 mJy are generally only quoted to the nearest mJy, so they are not well suited to display in Fig. 7. Ten or so newly discovered pulsars have $`S_{1400}0.2`$ mJy, lower than the nominal survey limiting flux density. Interstellar scintillation is not normally observed for the pulsars discovered in this survey, as diffractive scintillation bandwidths are much less than the observed bandwidth of 288 MHz and refractive scintillations are weak for high-DM pulsars \[Rickett 1977, Kaspi & Stinebring 1992\]. The principal reason for the low observed flux densities is the dependence of effective survey sensitivity on pulse width (§2.3). With only a few exceptions, observed flux densities are greater than the nominal limiting flux density scaled by $`[W_{50}/(PW_{50})/0.05]^{1/2}`$. Another factor is that many pulsars show intrinsic intensity variations such as nulling, and it is likely that some of these pulsars were detected when they had a greater than average flux density. As expected, most of the detected pulsars are relatively weak, with mean flux densities in the range 0.2 to 0.5 mJy. However, because of the large distances of most of these pulsars, their luminosities are typically large (Table 7). All have $`L_{1400}>1`$ mJy kpc2, corresponding to $`L_{400}5`$ mJy kpc2 and most are above the low-luminosity cutoff in the luminosity distribution which, at 400 MHz, begins at about 10 mJy kpc2 \[Lyne et al. 1998\].

The newly discovered pulsars reported in this paper represent only a small fraction of the total sample which will be discovered by the Parkes multibeam pulsar survey when it is complete. We therefore defer a more detailed analysis of the properties of the multibeam sample, its relation to previously known pulsars and its implications for the Galactic distribution and evolution of pulsars to later publications.

## Acknowledgements

We gratefully acknowledge the technical assistance provided by George Loone, Tim Ikin, Mike Kesteven, Mark Leach and all of the staff at the Parkes Observatory toward the development of the Parkes multibeam pulsar system. We also thank Russell Edwards for providing the program for detecting narrow-band radio-frequency interference and the Swinburne University of Technology group led by Matthew Bailes for assistance with development of the timing analysis software. At various times many people have assisted with the observing — we especially thank Paulo Freire, Dominic Morris and Russell Edwards. FC gratefully acknowledges support from NASA grant NAG 5-9095 and the European Commission through a Marie Curie fellowship under contract no. ERB FMBI CT961700. VMK is an Alfred P. Sloan Research Fellow and was supported in part by a US National Science Foundation Career Award (AST-9875897) and by a Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada grant (RGPIN 228738-00). IHS received support from NSERC and Jansky postdoctoral Fellowships. The Parkes radio telescope is part of the Australia Telescope which is funded by the Commonwealth of Australia for operation as a National Facility managed by CSIRO.


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# Reconstruction of Fractional Quantum Hall Edges

\[

## Abstract

We study the interplay of interaction, confining potential and effects of finite temperature at the edge of a quantum Hall liquid. Our exact diagonalization calculation indicates that edge reconstruction occurs in the fractional quantum Hall regime for a variety of confining potential, including ones that correspond to a “sharp” edge. Our finite temperature Hartree-Fock calculation for integer quantum Hall edges indicates that reconstruction is suppressed above certain temperature. We discuss the implication of our results on recent edge tunneling and microwave absorption experiments.

\]

The physics of the quantum Hall edge states is important for a number of reasons. When the system is in a quantum Hall state, the bulk is incompressible and the edge carries the dissipationless current. In addition, the edge states also provide a unique arena to study correlated electrons in one-dimension, where the Fermi liquid theory breaks down. Indeed, the edge electrons have been argued to form the so-called chiral Luttinger liquid (CLL) in this case, with many properties determined solely by the robust bulk topological order of the system, and independent of the details of the edge potential. For example it was predicted that in the tunneling between a Fermi liquid and a quantum Hall edge, the current-voltage relation follows a power-law $`IV^\alpha `$, with universal exponents $`\alpha `$ for simple edges like that of bulk filling $`\nu =1/3`$. While such power-law behavior has been observed in experiments indicating non-Fermi liquid behavior, detailed studies of the bulk filling factor as well as sample dependence of $`\alpha `$ have found important differences from the predictions of CLL theory.

In the CLL theory, one assumes that there is a single boundary separating the incompressible quantum Hall liquid from the electron vacuum, and for simple edges like those of $`\nu =1`$ and $`\nu =1/3`$, the only low-energy excitations are the shape fluctuations of the boundary, which form a single branch of chiral bosons. On the other hand it is known that for integer quantum Hall edges, the competition between electron-electron Coulomb interaction and edge confining potential can lead to edge reconstruction, when the edge confining potential is smooth enough. At the reconstructed edge, the electron density oscillates and there are more than one chiral boson modes, which do not propagate in the same direction. Thus edge reconstruction can change the physics at the edge qualitatively.

Motivated by the edge tunneling puzzle, as well as a recent microwave absorption measurement in which the presence of artificial edge channels leads to absorption enhancement, we examine in this work the possibility of edge reconstruction when the bulk filling is fractional. We find numerical evidence from exact diagonalization studies suggesting that edge reconstruction can occur when the bulk filling is fractional as well, for a variety of edge confining potentials (including those we believe properly describe a sharp cleaved edge), and filling factors. We also study the effect of finite temperature on edge reconstruction using Hartree-Fock approximation on a $`\nu =1`$ edge, where we find thermal fluctuations tend to suppress edge reconstruction. We argue that our results are highly relevant to and shed considerable light on both the edge tunneling and the microwave absorption experiments. We also comment on the differences and similarity between our results and those of a recent numerical study of the $`\nu =1/3`$ edge.

Exact Diagonalization Study —- In this work we diagonalize the following Hamiltonian exactly, which describes electrons confined to the lowest Landau level, using the symmetric gauge:

$$H=\frac{1}{2}\underset{mnl}{}V_{mn}^lc_{m+l}^{}c_n^{}c_{n+l}c_m+\underset{m}{}U_mc_m^{}c_m,$$
(1)
where $`c_m^{}`$ is the electron creation operator for the lowest Landau level single electron state with angular momentum $`m`$, $`V_{mn}^l`$ is the matrix element of Coulomb interaction, and $`U_m`$ is the matrix element of a rotationally invariant confining potential due to the positive background charge. We have studied systems with $`N=4`$ to $`12`$ electrons, at a number of filling factors. Figure 1(a) shows the ground state energy $`E_0(M)`$ of a given subspace with a fixed total angular momentum $`M`$ as a function of $`M`$, for $`N=6`$ electrons. The confining potential $`U_m`$ is calculated from a disc of uniformly distributed positive background charge placed at a distance $`d`$ from the electron layer, and the radius of the disc $`a`$ is chosen such that the disc encloses 18 flux quanta. The charge of the disc is always chosen to be the same as that of the electrons so that the system is neutral. Furthermore, we restrict the electrons to 18 orbitals, from $`m=0`$ to $`m_{max}=17`$; we believe this properly describes a sharp cleaved edge where the electrons cannot move beyond where the confining charge ends. Thus in this case our model describes a 6 electron system at $`\nu =1/3`$, confined by both the background charge and a sharp edge. Fig. 2 is an illustration of our model. As we change the confining potential by increasing $`d`$ from $`d=0.1`$ to 5, in units of the magnetic length $`l_B`$, the total angular momentum $`M`$ of the global ground state increases from $`M=45`$ to 65. We note that the Laughlin state for 6 electrons has total angular momentum $`M=45`$. This indicates that while the global ground state of the system is well described by the Laughlin state for $`d<1.6`$, edge reconstruction occurs for $`d1.6`$, as indicated by the increase of $`M`$.

The presence of edge reconstruction can also be seen in the electron density profile near the edge, as we plot in Fig. 1(b)-(e), and compare them with the Laughlin state. Despite the Coulomb interaction and the confining potential, the electron density for $`d=0.1`$ closely resembles the Laughlin state, with slightly stronger oscillation which is characteristic of the Coulomb interaction. Our calculations show that the critical $`d`$ above which the total angular momentum $`M`$ of the global ground state differs from the Laughlin state is between 1.5 and 1.6 for this system. The corresponding electron density for $`d=1.6`$ (Fig. 1(c)) shows much larger oscillation than that of the Laughlin state. The critical $`d`$ fluctuates around $`d_c=1.6\pm 0.1`$ for system as large as 9 electrons in 27 orbitals (Fig. 1(a) inset). It is thus reasonable to expect that the critical $`d`$ for edge reconstruction at $`\nu =1/3`$ lies between 1 and $`2l_B`$ in the thermodynamic limit, considerably smaller than the typical $`d`$ in experiments ($`510l_B`$). The change of $`M`$ at $`d=d_c`$ increases with $`N`$ as expected. As $`d`$ further increases, the oscillation becomes stronger so that the electron density gradually separates into an edge piece and a center piece. The edge piece is almost detached from the center piece for $`d=5.0`$, providing further evidence of edge reconstruction at fractional fillings.

Edge reconstruction is the result of competition between Coulomb interaction and confining potential. In our model the confining potential is controled by $`d`$; the larger $`d`$ is, the weaker the confinement is at the edge due to the backgroud charge, thus edge reconstruction occurs above certain $`d_c`$. Another way to understand this fact is that without edge reconstruction, the electron density is approximately uniform all the way to the edge, thus the electron gas layer and the background charge layer form a capacitor (see Fig. 2). In such a capacitor the electrostatic potential is a constant in the bulk of the electron layer, but a gradient (or fringe electric field with in-plane component) develops at the edge, which tends to pull the electrons toward the edge. The larger $`d`$ is, the larger the area is affected by this fringe field, and eventually reconstruction occurs. Since in the systems we study the linear size of the system is much larger than $`d_c`$, the finite size effects are weak (as also indicated by the weak dependence of $`d_c`$ on $`N`$); a detailed analysis of the finite size effects will be presented elsewhere. We also note an important difference bewteen the integer and fractional edge reconstruction; in the former the presence of a sharp boundary alone eliminates the possibility of reconstruction due to Pauli principle; it is no longer the case for the fractional edge.

Besides the single chiral mode predicted by the CLL theory, additional edge modes are expected for reconstructed edges. We find evidence for this in the spectra. Figs. 1(f) and 1(g) are the low-energy spectra for $`N=9`$ systems at $`\nu =1/3`$, before and after edge reconstruction. We find before reconstruction low-lying states only exist for $`M>M_{ground}=108`$, consistent with the presence of a single chiral mode; while after reconstruction there are low-lying states with $`M`$ both above and below $`M_{ground}=115`$, indicating that there are modes propagating in both directions.

Indication of edge reconstruction persists when we increase the average filling factor from $`\nu =1/3`$ to $`2/3`$. Figure 3(a)-(f) show the electron densities of the global ground states for up to 12 electrons in 18 orbitals. The background charge is confined within the same radius $`a`$ as above, at a distance of $`3l_B`$ above the electron layer, with appropriate charge density to ensure charge neutrality. In all cases, we find indication of edge reconstruction as for $`N=6`$. As $`N`$ increases, the electron density in the edge piece increases accordingly, while its peak location remains almost unchanged. It should be noted however, that in these cases the filling factor for the bulk is less well-defined, as the “bulk” area is too small and the electron density still oscillates at $`r=0`$. Nevertheless, we believe that the tendency for electron density to reconstruct at the edge is a generic feature for appropriately confined electrons at any fractional filling.

While a sharp cutoff (at $`m_{max}`$) where the background charge ends properly describes a cleaved edge, it is not present for other edges. Not surprisingly, we find that removing this sharp cutoff further favor edge reconstruction. Evidence for edge reconstruction in a system with a smooth edge will be presented elsewhere.

Hartree-Fock Calculation —- We now turn to a discussion of the effect of a finite temperature $`T`$ on a reconstructed edge. To this end we will use a finite-temperature Hartree-Fock (HF) approximation to study the $`\nu =1`$ edge. Laying the background charge right on top of the electron layer, Chamon and Wen  demonstrated that a lump of electron density can move $`2l_B`$ away from the $`\nu =1`$ bulk for smooth enough background charge distribution. In their model the smoothness of the edge potential is controlled by the width $`W`$ over which the positive background charge density decreases from the bulk value to zero. They have also shown that the results of HF approximation agree well with those of exact diagonalization at $`T=0`$. Here we use the finite-temperature Hartree-Fock approximation for the interacting electron system, with cylindrical geometry similar to the one studied by Chamon and Wen , with an extra parameter $`d`$ which is the distance the background charge lies above the electron gas. In Fig. 4(a)-(d) we show results of the average electron occupation numbers at very low temperature $`T=0.001`$, in units of $`e^2/ϵl_B`$, for 20 edge electrons in 40 single particle states on a strip of length $`L=20l_B`$ with periodic boundary conditions, background charge $`W=10l_B`$, and $`d`$ varying from $`d=0`$ to $`1.5l_B`$. We find that the edge reconstruction pattern depends on the detail of the edge confining potential. States with linear momentum $`K<0`$ (“bulk”) and $`K40`$ are assumed to be inert, with occupation number $`n_K`$ fixed to be 1 and 0, respectively. Fig. 4(a) essentially reproduces the $`T=0`$ results by Chamon and Wen. As $`d`$ increases (so that the confining potential gets even smoother), the detached piece becomes wider and an extra piece appears for $`d=1.0`$ and 1.5. The size of the reconstructed region increases rapidly with $`d`$, and goes beyond what we can handle numerically for $`d2.0l_B`$.

The edge reconstruction disappears as we increase the temperature. Figure 5(a)-(d) show the occupation numbers for background charge with $`W=10l_B`$ and $`d=0`$ (Fig. 4(a)) at higher temperatures. We double the number of active single particle states to 80, as well as the number of edge electrons to $`N=40`$, to ensure that the bulk states ($`K<0`$) are fully occupied (within 99% percent), a posteriori condition for separating the electrons into “edge” and “bulk” ones. The length of the strip remains at $`L=20l_B`$. The detached edge piece at $`T0.01`$ mixes with the bulk at $`T=0.04`$, although a well-defined peak can still be resolved. The peak evolves to a shoulder at $`T=0.06`$, disappearing before $`T`$ reaches 0.1, where the occupation number decreases smoothly from 1 to 0, mirroring the smoothed background charge profile. Although extra pieces can emerge for finite $`d`$, we find that all edge pieces merge with the bulk and disappear at $`T0.05`$. We thus conclude that, within the Hartree-Fock approximation, edge reconstruction disappears above $`T0.05e^2/ϵl_B`$ at $`\nu =1`$. We have obtained a very similar temperature scale above which edge reconstruction disappears for the $`\nu =1/3`$ edge, using results of exact diagonalization (that generates all eigenstates), in systems with up to 7 electrons; details will be presented elsewhere.

Discussions —- When the edge reconstructs, there are multiple edge modes even for the simplest quantum Hall states like $`\nu =1`$ and $`\nu =1/3`$. In particular, these modes do not propagate in the same direction, and as a consequence the tunneling exponent $`\alpha `$ depends on the interaction among these modes and is thus no longer universal, even for these bulk fillings. Thus the edge reconstruction can very well be the reason why $`\alpha `$ is always found to be slightly less than the CLL prediction of $`\alpha =3`$ at $`\nu =1/3`$, and why it varies continuously with bulk filling and other sample parameters, while CLL predicts plateau behavior. On the other hand experiments find a very simple (but approximate) relation $`\alpha 1/\nu `$ (see, however, Refs. ), for which we do not have an explanation here. Nevertheless we believe edge reconstruction is likely to be an important piece of the edge tunneling puzzle, and should be included as part of the complete theory for the fractional quantum Hall edge.

In a recent microwave absorption experiment, it was found that the conductivity at microwave frequency is strongly enhanced in samples with antidots in the fractional quantum Hall regime at very low temperatures, while no such enhancement was found in similar samples with no antidots. It is thus natural to associate the enhancement with the edge channels of the antidots. On the other hand, the dots are so small that it is easy to convince oneself that the frequency of the edge magneto plasma (EMP) is much higher than the microwave frequency used in the experiments (by about an order of magnitude). It thus appears unlikely that the enhancement is due to the microwave frequency approaching that of EMP. On the other hand, a reconstructed edge can support softer acoustic modes, which may well be accessible in the experimental frequency range. Another important experimental finding is that the enhancement disappears above temperature $`T^{}0.5K`$. This is qualitatively consistent with our finding that edge reconstruction disappears at higher $`T`$. While the Hartree-Fock estimate of this temperature scale: $`T0.05e^2/ϵl_B6K`$, is higher than $`T^{}`$, we note that our calculations tend to overestimate this temperature due to finite size effects as well as the fact that we have not included factors such as finite layer thickness, Landau level mixing and disorder not included in our calculations; they all tend to lower this scale. We thus conclude that the results of Ref.  can be explained as due to edge reconstruction at low temperatures.

In a recent study, Tsiper and Goldman found electron density oscillation near the edge of a electron droplet at $`\nu =1/3`$, which they interpret as formation of edge density wave. In their study the confining potential due to the background charge is totally neglected, while we believe it is extremely important for a proper understanding of the physics at the edge. Moreover, they have focused only on states that have the same quantum number as the Laughlin state; as we demonstrated this is often not the case for the global ground state, a fact which is precisely the indication of edge reconstruction. On the other hand the edge density oscillation they find is quite similar to those of reconstructed edges reported here.

The authors thank Lloyd Engel and Dan Tsui for stimulating discussions that motivated the present work and useful comments on the manuscript, and Claudio Chamon, Allan MacDonald, and Shivaji Sondhi for helpful conversations. EHR gratefully acknowledges the hospitality of the NHMFL where part of this work was performed. This work was supported by NSF grants DMR-9971541 (XW and KY), DMR-0086191 (EHR), the State of Florida (XW), and the Sloan Foundation (KY).


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# References

Exclusion Statistics of Composite Fermions

Piotr Sitko

Institute of Physics, Wrocław University of Technology,

Wybrzeże Wyspiańskiego 27, 50-370 Wrocław, Poland.

Abstract

The exclusion statistics parameter of composite fermions is determined as an odd number ($`\alpha =3`$, $`5`$, …). The statistics of composite fermion excitations at $`\nu =\frac{n}{2pn+1}`$ is rederived as $`\alpha _{qe}^{CF}=1+\frac{2p}{2pn+1}`$, $`\alpha _{qh}^{CF}=1\frac{2p}{2pn+1}`$. The duality $`\frac{1}{\alpha _{qe}(n,2p)}=\alpha _{qh}(n+1,2p)`$ is found. The distribution function for $`\alpha =3`$ is obtained.

Introduction

The exclusion statistics was proposed by Haldane  as generalization of Pauli exclusion principle. The idea of Haldane is to define the change in the available particle space when particles are added to the system (or removed):

$$\mathrm{\Delta }d_i=\underset{j}{}\alpha _{ij}\mathrm{\Delta }N_j.$$
(1)
The generalization of the Haldane exclusion statistics was proposed by Wu  and others . The idea of generalization is to divide the available particle space for smaller cells (let us say with $`k`$ states). The number of many-particle states is given by:

$$\underset{i}{}\left(\genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{d_{N_i}+N_i1}{N_i}\right)$$
(2)
where $`d_{N_i}=k\alpha (N_i1)`$, $`\alpha =\alpha _{ii}`$.

Johnson and Canright used the spherical geometry to find the statistics of Laughlin quasiparticles . Analyzing numerical results they found the number of many-particle states of quasiholes (of the Laughlin $`1/m`$ state, $`m`$ – odd number):

$$\left(\genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{N_e+N_{qh}}{N_{qh}}\right)$$
(3)
where $`N_{qh}`$ is the number of quasiholes, $`2S+1=m(N_e1)+1N_{qh}`$, $`2S`$ is the number of flux quanta piercing the sphere. According to the definition (2) $`\alpha _{qh}=\frac{1}{m}`$ . The corresponding statistics parameter of Laughlin quasielectrons is $`\alpha _{qe}=2\frac{1}{m}`$. Here, we perform similar analysis in order to determine the exclusion statistics of composite fermions.

Composite fermions

The exact diagonalization results for the sphere can be interpreted in terms of composite fermions  if the effective field $`2S^{}=2S2p(N_e1)`$ is introduced. The composite fermion approach predicts the same angular momentum shell for quasiparticles , however, the main role play composite fermions (the number of composite fermions equals the number of electrons $`N_{CF}=N_e`$). The Eq. (3) is:

$$\left(\genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{2S^{}+1}{N_{qh}}\right)$$
(4)
and equals

$$\left(\genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{N_{CF}+2Sm(N_{CF}1)}{N_{CF}}\right)$$

$$=\left(\genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{2S+1+(1m)(N_{CF}1)}{N_{CF}}\right).$$
(5)
According to the definition (2) the statistics parameter of composite fermions $`\alpha _{CF}=m`$ (odd number $`\alpha _{CF}=3`$, $`5`$, … , for $`\alpha =1`$ one has fermions).

Wu et al.  found the distribution function of $`\alpha `$-particles. The duality between $`\alpha `$-particles of $`\alpha =1/m`$ (holes) and $`\alpha =m`$ was noticed by Nayak and Wilczek . Our analysis reflects the duality between Laughlin quasiholes and composite fermions.

The distribution function is given by the set of equations :

$$n_i=\frac{1}{w+\alpha }$$
(6)
$$w^\alpha (1+w)^{1\alpha }=\xi $$
(7)
$$\xi =e^{\frac{ϵ_i\mu }{kT}}.$$
(8)
For example, for $`\alpha =3`$ the solution is

$$w=\frac{1}{s_++s_{}\frac{2}{3}}$$
(9)
where

$$s_\pm =[\frac{1}{2\xi }+\frac{1}{27}\pm \sqrt{\frac{1}{\xi }(\frac{1}{\xi }+\frac{1}{27})}]^{\frac{1}{3}}.$$
(10)
It is interesting to consider also the composite fermion excitations. Let us consider the filling $`\nu =\frac{n}{2pn+1}`$, then one gets $`n`$ filled shells (in the field $`2S^{}=2S2p(N_e1)`$ the degeneration of the $`nth`$ effective shell is $`2S^{}+2n1`$). When one creates $`N_{qe}`$ quasielectrons (of the state $`\nu =\frac{n}{2pn+1}`$) in the $`(n+1)`$-th level, the number of many-particle states is

$$\left(\genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{2S_{qe}^{}+2n+1}{N_{qe}}\right)$$
(11)
and

$$2S_{qe}^{}=\frac{2p}{1+2pn}N_{qe}+\frac{2S2pn^2+2p}{1+2pn}.$$
(12)
If quasiholes are present in the $`n`$-th level then

$$\left(\genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{2S_{qh}^{}+2n1}{N_{qh}}\right)$$
(13)
and

$$2S_{qh}^{}=\frac{2p}{1+2pn}N_{qh}+\frac{2S2pn^2+2p}{1+2pn}.$$
(14)
Hence, according to the definition (2)

$$\alpha _{qe}=1+\frac{2p}{1+2pn},$$
(15)
$$\alpha _{qh}=1\frac{2p}{1+2pn}$$
(16)
as was first obtained in Ref. . For $`n=1`$ one gets the Laughlin states $`\frac{1}{m}=\frac{1}{2p+1}`$. One can notice the duality between quasielectrons of the state $`\frac{n}{2pn+1}`$ and quasiholes of the state $`\frac{n+1}{2p(n+1)+1}`$:

$$\frac{1}{\alpha _{qe}(n,2p)}=\alpha _{qh}(n+1,2p).$$
(17)
For example, consider quasielectrons at $`1/3`$ and quasiholes at $`2/5`$.

Conclusions

It is found that composite fermions can be described within the generalized exclusion statistics as particles with statistics parameter $`\alpha `$ being an odd number. Also, the exclusion statistics of composite fermion excitations is rederived as $`\alpha _{qe}=1+\frac{2p}{1+2pn},\alpha _{qh}=1\frac{2p}{1+2pn}`$. The duality $`\frac{1}{\alpha _{qe}(n,2p)}=\alpha _{qh}(n+1,2p)`$ is found.

This work was supported by KBN grant No. 2 P03B 111 18.

References


text:
# Axiomatic theory of nonequilibrium system

## 1 Introduction

Nowadays, complex phenomena type of nonequilibrium phase transformations, synergetics, self-organized criticality, etc. attract very much attention , . That is stipulated not only applications to a vast variety of concrete problems, among which are pattern formation, morphgenesis, traffic flows at so one, but also due to lack of a general theory of nonequilibrium systems, in contrast to equilibrium statisical physics based on well-established concepts and tools (see ). The latter are known to be stated on introduction of thermodynamic potentials and extremum principle . It is quite clear that, within framework of the theory of nonequilibrium systems, these ingredients must keep in relations respected to equilibrium limit, along with Onsager-type relations between gradient of thermodynamic state parameters and conjugated fluxes. This paper contains an attempt to build up such a scheme originated from synergetic concept.

As is known, synergetics deals with far-from-equilibrium systems in a variety of fields, ranging from physics over chemistry and biology to sociology, where external driven affects arrive at a self-organization . Formally, the latter is appeared as entropy decrease with the subsystem moving off equilibrium – in contrast to the second law of thermodynamics that is applicable to whole system, which keeps in equilibrium as rule. Being metastable in nature, such ordered state tends to a local minimum of synergetic potential, where it may be located during very long time intervals. Main difference of such states is to be further stationary, than equilibrium one.

In general case, two types of stable states are possible: (i) with nonzeroth magnitude of an order parameter and (ii) with the same of a conjugated flux. It is appeared that the only first state is essential in the case when relevant order parameter is nonconserving. In this case, the synergetic approach addresses kinetic of nonequilibrium phase transition. However, in much more complicated case of a conserving order parameter a flux state could appear spontaneously. In this connection, a problem arise to treat this state in analogy with synergetic theory of phase transition . A method adopted in this work is stated on a generalization of such approach to a general theory of nonequilibrium systems based on axiomatic field theory.

The paper is organized in the following manner. In Section 2, a synergetic scheme based on the famous Lorenz system is assumed to address evolution of self-organizing system parameterized by a conserving order parameter, a conjugate field, reducing to gradient of related flux, and a control parameter, whose externally driven magnitude fixes stationary state of the system under consideration. We show, within adiabatic approximation, that in the case of nonequilibrium thermodynamic system so-introduced conjugate field and control parameter are relevant to the entropy and the internal energy, respectively. As a result, self-organization effect is expressed in appearance of a negative temperature, which magnitude decreases monotonically with growth of driven control parameter. Section 3 is devoted to study of flux state, whose parameterization is achieved by introducing, apart from a flux, of gradients of both chemical potential and temperature to play role of the conjugate field and the control parameter, respectively. With growth of the latter, relevant value of the entropy shows to increase monotonically in subcritical regime and decrease in supercritical one related to spontaneous flux-state. Principle particularity of self-consistent equations used in Sections 2 and 3 is that these are postulated to be reduced to the form of familiar Lorenz scheme. The only justification of such a choice is that relevant steady state relations lead to the standard equalities of the equilibrium thermodynamics. Section 4 proofs that both approach stated on using density and conjugated flux as order parameters are followed from unified field theory for a set of pseudo-vectors composed of: (i) density and flux; (ii) entropy and gradient of chemical potential; (iii) internal energy and temperature gradient. It is appeared that Lagrangian and dissipative function related to the Lorenz scheme are the simplest ones: the former contains quadratic and cubic terms only, whereas the latter – quadratic time derivative contributions, whose prolonging accounts dissipation processes.

## 2 Density as order parameter

We address a system with density $`\rho =\rho (𝐫)`$ and velocity $`𝐕=𝐕(𝐫)`$ distributed over space according to the following decompositions:

$`\rho \rho _0\left[1+\eta (𝐫)\right];𝐕V_0\left[\mathrm{𝟏}+𝐯(𝐫)\right],\mathrm{𝟏}{\displaystyle \frac{𝐕_0}{V_0}}.`$ (1)
Here $`\rho _0,𝐕_0=\mathrm{const}`$ are volume averaged values, $`\eta (𝐫)`$, $`𝐯(𝐫)`$ are space-dependent dimensionless components. Relevant flux and energy

$`𝐐\rho 𝐕,E{\displaystyle \frac{\rho }{2}}𝐕^2`$ (2)
are determined by these components as follows:

$`𝐐Q_0[(1+\eta )\mathrm{𝟏}+𝐪(𝐫)],EE_0[(1+\eta )+2q(𝐫)+ϵ(𝐫)];`$
(3)
$`Q_0\rho _0V_0,E_0{\displaystyle \frac{Q_0^2}{2\rho _0}}.`$
Statistical state is fixed by internal components

$`𝐪(1+\eta )𝐯,ϵ{\displaystyle \frac{𝐪^2}{1+\eta }}.`$ (4)
A conserved value of density $`\rho `$ is governed by the continuity equation

$`{\displaystyle \frac{\rho }{t}}+𝐐=0,{\displaystyle \frac{}{𝐫}},`$ (5)
where $`𝐫`$, $`t`$ are coordinate and time. With switching a dissipative sink $`\eta /\tau `$ characterized with a relaxation time $`\tau `$, the continuity equation (5) takes the form

$`{\displaystyle \frac{\eta }{t}}+V_0𝐪={\displaystyle \frac{\eta }{\tau }},V_0{\displaystyle \frac{Q_0}{\rho _0}}.`$ (6)
Introducing source term

$`s\lambda 𝐪,\lambda V_0\tau ,`$ (7)
one reduces this equation to the simplest form

$$\tau \dot{\eta }=\eta +s,$$
(8)
where dot stands for time derivative. At stationary state ($`\dot{\eta }=0`$) this equation shows coincidence of the source $`s`$ and the density deviation $`\eta `$.

Let us find now an evolution equation for the source (7) related to the dimensionless flux $`𝐪`$. This equation should be obviously reduced to Onsager relation

$`𝐪=\lambda \eta `$ (9)
at stationary state, where the source takes the form

$`s=\lambda ^2^2\eta .`$ (10)
On the other hand, here $`s=\eta `$, so that the dependence $`\eta (𝐫)`$ is governed by the Poisson equation

$`\lambda ^2^2\eta =\eta .`$ (11)
To be subjected to above conditions, we postulate the evolution equation found in the following form:

$`\tau _s\dot{s}=s+\eta ϵ.`$ (12)
Here, the first term in right-hand side is addressed relaxation process characterized with time $`\tau _s`$, the second term is non-linear in the form due to a parameter $`ϵ`$, being introduced to take magnitude $`ϵ=1`$ at stationary conditions. Time evolution of this parameter is supposed to be of relaxational type also, but if the autonomously evolving values $`\eta (t)`$, $`s(t)`$ go to zero with time $`t\mathrm{}`$, the parameter $`ϵ(t)`$ is supposed to tend to a finite magnitude $`ϵ_00`$, within an autonomous regime. We postulate the evolution equation for time-dependence $`ϵ(t)`$ of such a parameter as follows:

$`\tau _ϵ\dot{ϵ}=(ϵ_0ϵ)\eta s,`$ (13)
where $`\tau _ϵ`$ is relevant relaxation time.

Being equivivalent to the Lorenz form (see Section 4), equations (8), (12), (13) obtained constitute the basis for self-consistent description of the evolving system with driven control parameter $`ϵ_0`$ and relaxation times $`\tau _\eta `$, $`\tau _s`$, $`\tau _ϵ`$. The distinguishing feature of these equations is that nonlinear terms, that enter Eqs. (12), (13), are of opposite signs, while Eq. (8) is linear. Physically, the latter means that on the early stage of the process under consideration, the dimensionless density deviation $`\eta `$ is reduced to the source $`s`$ defined Eq. (7). The negative sign of the last term in Eq. (13) can be regarded as a manifestation of Le Chatelier principle. Indeed, as we convince below, supercritical $`ϵ`$-increase results in self-organization process, whereas the density deviation $`\eta `$ and the source $`s`$ in Eq. (13) tend to suppress the growth of this parameter. The positive feedback of $`\eta `$ and $`ϵ`$ on $`s`$ in Eq. (12) plays a fundamental part in the problem. As we shall see later, it is precisely the reason behind the self-organization that brings about the self-organization.

In general case, the system (8), (12), (13) cannot be solved analytically, but in the simplest case, where $`\tau _s,\tau _ϵ\tau _\eta `$, the source $`s`$ and the control parameter $`ϵ`$ can be eliminated by making use of the adiabatic approximation that implies neglecting of the left-hand sides of Eqs. (12), (13). As a result, the dependencies of $`ϵ`$ and $`s`$ on $`\eta `$ are given by

$$s=\frac{ϵ_0\eta }{1+\eta ^2},ϵ=\frac{ϵ_0}{1+\eta ^2}.$$
(14)
Note that, under $`\eta `$ is within the physically meaningful range between $`0`$ and $`1`$, the parameter $`ϵ`$ is a monotonically decreasing function of the density deviation $`\eta `$, whereas the source $`s`$ increases with $`\eta `$ (at $`\eta >1`$ we have $`\mathrm{d}s/\mathrm{d}\eta <0`$ and the self-organization process becomes unstable). Such type behaviour permit to assume that the source $`s`$ can be meant as the entropy increase caused by the density deviation during self-organization, whereas the parameter $`ϵ`$ is a related energy. Within the framework of such supposition, the dependence

$$s=\sqrt{ϵ(ϵ_0ϵ)}$$
(15)
following from Eqs. (14), arrives at the temperature

$$T\frac{ϵ}{s}$$
(16)
as follows:

$`T=\left(1{\displaystyle \frac{ϵ_0}{2ϵ}}\right)^1\sqrt{{\displaystyle \frac{ϵ_0}{ϵ}}1}.`$ (17)
So defined temperature increases monotonically with energy growth from magnitude $`T=0`$ at $`ϵ=0`$ to infinity at the point $`ϵ=ϵ_0/2`$. Here, the temperature $`T`$ breaks abruptly to negative infinity and then increases monotonically again to initial magnitude $`T=0`$ at $`ϵ=ϵ_0`$. This means that inside domain $`0ϵ<ϵ_0/2`$ the self-organization process is dissipative to behave in usual manner; contrary, within domain $`ϵ_0/2<ϵϵ_0`$ self-organization process evolves so, that an energy increase derives to entropy decrease, in accordance with negative value of temperature.

Substitution of the first Eq. (14) into Eq. (8) yields the Landau-Khalatnikov equation

$$\dot{\eta }=\frac{W}{\eta }$$
(18)
with synergetic potential

$$W=\frac{1}{2}\eta ^2\frac{ϵ_0}{2}\mathrm{ln}\left(1+\eta ^2\right).$$
(19)
For $`ϵ_0<1`$, the $`\eta `$-dependence of $`W`$ is monotonically increasing and the only stationary value of $`\eta `$ equals zero, $`\eta _e=0`$. If externally driven energy $`ϵ_0`$ exceeds the critical value, $`ϵ_c=1`$, the synergetic potential assumes the minimum with nonzero steady state magnitudes of density deviation and entropy $`\eta _e=s_e=\sqrt{ϵ_01}`$ to be dependent on the driven energy $`ϵ_0`$ and constant value of the stationary energy $`ϵ_e=1`$. The temperature (17) takes the stationary magnitude

$`T_0={\displaystyle \frac{\sqrt{ϵ_01}}{1ϵ_0/2}}`$ (20)
being negative within supercritical domain $`1ϵ_0<2`$. Thus, the stationary temperature $`T_0`$ decreases monotonically with the driven energy increase from the zeroth magnitude at $`ϵ_0=1`$ to negative infinity at $`ϵ_0=2`$. This means that self-organization stimulus increases with growth of nonequilibrium power.

## 3 Flux as order parameter

The above consideration shows that the dissipative dynamics of the conserved system can be represented within the framework of the Lorenz model, where the density deviation $`\eta `$ plays a role of the order parameter, the source (7) is reduced to the entropy $`s`$ being conjugated field to the order parameter and the internal energy $`ϵ`$ is the control parameter. The key point of this approach is that one postulates to address the density deviation $`\eta (𝐫,t)`$ as fundamental field. However, a variety of the physical systems are known as well , where the flux deviation $`𝐪`$ takes a fundamental part of the order parameter. To study relevant systems, we postulate the Lorenz system in the following form (cf. Eqs. (8), (12), (13))

$$\tau _𝐪\dot{𝐪}=𝐪+𝐟,$$
(21)
$$\tau _𝐟\dot{𝐟}=𝐟+\mathrm{𝟏}_𝐟(\mathrm{𝐪𝐠}),$$
(22)
$$\tau _𝐠\dot{𝐠}=(𝐠_0𝐠)\mathrm{𝟏}_𝐠(\mathrm{𝐪𝐟}).$$
(23)
Here, $`\tau _𝐪`$, $`\tau _𝐟`$, $`\tau _𝐠`$ are relaxation times, $`\mathrm{𝟏}_𝐟`$, $`\mathrm{𝟏}_𝐠`$ are unit vectors along related directions and we introduce a constant vector $`𝐠_0g_0\mathrm{𝟏}_0`$, which physical meaning will be determined. At the stationary state, when $`\dot{𝐪}=0`$, a force $`𝐟`$ reduces to the flux $`𝐪`$. This means that in non-stationary case $`\dot{𝐪}0`$ this force takes the form of generalized Onsager equality (cf. Eq. (9))

$`𝐟=\lambda \mu ,`$ (24)
where a specific thermodynamic potential $`\mu `$ is introduced to be the chemical potential in usual case. Thus, we can conclude that the vector $`𝐟`$ is reduced to the thermodynamic force.

To state a physical meaning of the third vector $`𝐠`$, let us suppose, as above, that relaxation times are subjected to conditions $`\tau _𝐟,\tau _𝐠\tau _𝐪`$. Then, within the adiabatic approximation one obtains:

$`𝐟={\displaystyle \frac{g_0(\mathrm{𝟏}_0\mathrm{𝟏}_𝐪)\mathrm{𝟏}_𝐟q}{1+(\mathrm{𝟏}_𝐠\mathrm{𝟏}_𝐪)(\mathrm{𝟏}_𝐟\mathrm{𝟏}_𝐪)𝐪^2}},𝐠={\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{𝟏}_0+g_0(\mathrm{𝟏}_𝐠\mathrm{𝟏}_𝐟)[[\mathrm{𝟏}_𝐠\mathrm{𝟏}_0]\mathrm{𝟏}_𝐪]𝐪^2}{1+(\mathrm{𝟏}_𝐠\mathrm{𝟏}_𝐪)(\mathrm{𝟏}_𝐟\mathrm{𝟏}_𝐪)𝐪^2}},`$ (25)
where parentheses and square brackets denote scalar and vector productions, respectively. These equalities are reduced to form of the relations (14) if the vector $`𝐠`$ do not varies its direction, i. e., $`\left[\mathrm{𝟏}_𝐠\mathrm{𝟏}_0\right]=0`$. Moreover, it is enough for our aims to restrict ourselves addressing the simplest one-dimensional case. Here, the expressions (25) give the following state equation (cf. Eq. (15))

$$f=\sqrt{g(g_0g)}.$$
(26)
Then, a derivative

$$\frac{f}{g}s$$
(27)
takes the form (cf. Eq. (17)):

$`s=\left(1{\displaystyle \frac{g_0}{2g}}\right)\left({\displaystyle \frac{g_0}{g}}1\right)^{\frac{1}{2}}.`$ (28)
With $`g`$-growth within the domain $`0<g<g_0`$, this derivative increases monotonically from $`\mathrm{}`$ to $`\mathrm{}`$ taking the magnitude $`s=0`$ at $`g=g_0/2`$. This means physically that the quantity defined by equality (27) could be recognized as a specific entropy infinitely increasing with tending the control parameter $`g_0/2g<g_0`$ to externally driven value $`g_0`$. Respectively, the control parameter $`𝐠`$ gets meaning of the temperature gradient taken with inverted sign:

$$𝐠\lambda T.$$
(29)
At the stationary condition, when $`\dot{𝐪}=0`$, one obtains the steady-state magnitudes of flux, thermodynamic force and temperature gradient as follows:

$$q_e=f_e=\sqrt{g_01},g_e=1.$$
(30)
On the other hand, steady-state specific entropy (cf. Eq. (20))

$`s_0={\displaystyle \frac{1g_0/2}{\sqrt{g_01}}}`$ (31)
decreases monotonically from infinity to zero with the temperature gradient growth within supercritical domain $`1<g_0<2`$. Thus, in accordance with above supposition, self-consistent evolution of flux $`𝐪`$, thermodynamic force $`𝐟`$ and sign inverted temperature gradient $`𝐠`$ arrives at entropy decrease that means self-organization process at supercritical magnitudes of the control parameter $`g_0>1`$.

## 4 Field theory of self-organizing system

According to our previous contribution , the Lorenz system is relevant microscopically to the bozon-fermion Hamiltonian of Dicke type. Phenomenologically, its consideration is possible only within supersymmetry field theory . To take into account quite different commutation rules related to different freedom degrees, let us introduce some pseudo-vectors

$`\stackrel{}{\varphi }=\left(\begin{array}{cc}\eta \hfill & \\ 𝐪\hfill & \end{array}\right),\stackrel{}{}=\left(\begin{array}{cc}s\hfill & \\ 𝐟\hfill & \end{array}\right),\stackrel{}{𝒞}=\left(\begin{array}{cc}\epsilon \hfill & \\ \delta \hfill & \end{array}\right);\stackrel{}{}\stackrel{}{𝒞}\stackrel{}{𝒞}\stackrel{}{},𝐟\lambda \mu ,`$ (38)
to yield material fields $`\stackrel{}{\varphi }`$, as well as mutually anticommuting components of conjugate fields $`\stackrel{}{}`$ and state parameters $`\stackrel{}{𝒞}`$ (here, parameters $`\delta `$, $`\epsilon `$ have to be defined). The system behaviour is postulated to be governed by Lagrangian

$`=_0+_{int}`$ (39)
that comprises of a bare part

$`_0=\stackrel{}{\varphi }\stackrel{}{}\stackrel{}{𝒞}_0,\stackrel{}{𝒞}_0\left(\begin{array}{cc}ϵ_0\hfill & \\ 𝐠_0\hfill & \end{array}\right),`$ (42)
and an interaction contribution

$`_{int}=\stackrel{}{\varphi }\stackrel{}{}\stackrel{}{𝒞}.`$ (43)
In analogy, dissipative function

$`=_m+_f`$ (44)
consists of a material component

$`_m={\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}(\stackrel{}{𝒞}_0\stackrel{}{𝒟}_\varphi \stackrel{}{\varphi })^2`$ (45)
and field gradient terms

$`_f={\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}(\stackrel{}{𝒟}_{}\stackrel{}{})^2+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}(\stackrel{}{𝒟}_𝒞\stackrel{}{𝒞})^2,`$ (46)
where the notions are introduced as follows:

$`\stackrel{}{𝒟}_z\stackrel{}{\tau }_z{\displaystyle \frac{}{t}}+\stackrel{}{1};\stackrel{}{\tau }_\varphi \left(\begin{array}{cc}\tau \hfill & \\ \tau _𝐪\hfill & \end{array}\right),\stackrel{}{\tau }_{}\left(\begin{array}{cc}\tau _s\hfill & \\ \tau _𝐟\hfill & \end{array}\right),\stackrel{}{\tau }_𝒞\left(\begin{array}{cc}\tau _ϵ\hfill & \\ \tau _𝐠\hfill & \end{array}\right),\stackrel{}{1}\left(\begin{array}{cc}1\hfill & \\ 1\hfill & \end{array}\right),`$ (55)
which are determined by prolonging derivatives $`\stackrel{}{𝒟}_z`$ to take into account Debay-type relaxation given by times $`\stackrel{}{\tau }_z`$ with $`z=\stackrel{}{\varphi },\stackrel{}{𝒞},\stackrel{}{}`$. Then, Euler equations

$$\frac{}{\mathrm{z}}𝒟_z\frac{}{(𝒟_z\mathrm{z})}=\frac{}{(𝒟_z\mathrm{z})},\mathrm{z}\stackrel{}{\varphi },\stackrel{}{},\stackrel{}{𝒞},$$
(56)
arrive at basic system of differential equations for pseudo-vectors (38):

$`\stackrel{}{𝒞}_0\stackrel{}{𝒟}_\varphi \stackrel{}{\varphi }`$ $`=`$ $`\stackrel{}{}\stackrel{}{𝒞}_0\stackrel{}{}\stackrel{}{𝒞},`$
$`\stackrel{}{𝒟}_{}\stackrel{}{}`$ $`=`$ $`\stackrel{}{𝒞}_0\stackrel{}{\varphi }\stackrel{}{\varphi }\stackrel{}{𝒞},`$ (57)
$`\stackrel{}{𝒟}_𝒞\stackrel{}{𝒞}`$ $`=`$ $`\stackrel{}{\varphi }\stackrel{}{},`$
where the second equality takes into account anticommutation relation for pseudo-vectors $`\stackrel{}{}`$ and $`\stackrel{}{𝒞}`$. Equations (57) are reduced to the form

$`\tau \dot{\eta }`$ $`=`$ $`\eta +(1\epsilon /ϵ_0)s,`$
$`\tau _s\dot{s}`$ $`=`$ $`s+ϵ_0\eta \eta \epsilon ,`$ (58)
$`\tau _ϵ\dot{\epsilon }`$ $`=`$ $`\epsilon +\eta s;`$
$`\tau _𝐪\dot{𝐪}`$ $`=`$ $`𝐪+(1\delta /g_0)𝐟,`$
$`\tau _𝐟\dot{𝐟}`$ $`=`$ $`𝐟+\mathrm{𝟏}_𝐟(𝐠_0𝐪)\mathrm{𝟏}_𝐟(\delta 𝐪),`$ (59)
$`\tau _𝐠\dot{\delta }`$ $`=`$ $`\delta +\mathrm{𝟏}_\delta (\mathrm{𝐪𝐟})`$
that takes the standard appearance  if one takes into account determinations (38) and keeps the linear terms only in equations for $`\dot{\eta }`$ and $`\dot{𝐪}`$. To reduce these systems to the form of equations (8), (12), (13) and (21) – (23), respectively, one needs moreover to account relations

$`\epsilon ϵ_0ϵ,\delta 𝐠_0𝐠;𝐠\lambda T.`$ (60)
Formally, the systems (58), (59) differ from corresponding equations (8), (12), (13) and (21) – (23) to arrive at the synergetic potential

$$W=\frac{1}{2}\eta ^2+\frac{ϵ_0}{2}\frac{1}{1+\eta ^2}$$
(61)
instead of the dependence (19). At supercritical driven energy $`ϵ_0>1`$ this dependence takes the minimum at the point $`\eta _e^2=\sqrt{ϵ_0}1`$ related to stationary synergetic potential $`W(\eta _e)=\sqrt{ϵ_0}1/2`$, whose value is lower than initial magnitude $`W(0)=ϵ_0/2`$. However, one keeps in mind that, within a phenomenological ideology, the expressions obtained have an asymptotic character to coincide only in vicinity of the critical magnitude $`ϵ_0=1`$. As a result, we may use the simplest of approaches suppressing nonlinear terms in the first equations of the systems (58), (59).

## Acknowledgments

Author is grateful to Professor A.A. Katsnelson for collaboration and illuminating conversations, which promote this activity.

FIGURE CAPTIONS

Fig. 1. The energy dependencies of the system temperatures: (a) nonstationary magnitude $`T`$ versus ratio $`ϵ/ϵ_0`$; (b) stationary temperature $`T_0`$ versus $`ϵ_0`$.

Fig. 2. The entropy dependencies on the temperature gradient: (a) nonstationary magnitude $`s`$ versus ratio $`g/g_0`$; (b) stationary entropy $`s_0`$ versus $`g_0`$.