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# On the state of low luminous accreting neutron stars

## 1 Introduction

As was first recognized by Shvartsman (sh70 (1970)), three states of a rotating, magnetized neutron star in a close binary system can be distinguished: ejector, propeller and accretor. This classification reflects three different evolutionary stages and three different mechanisms of energy release responsible for the neutron star emission. The sequence of states which a magnetized neutron star in a wind-fed mass-exchange binary system follows as it spins down from the initially very short periods can be expressed in the form of the following chain: ejector $``$ propeller $``$ accretor.

Neutron stars in the state of ejector are known as spin-powered pulsars, in which the spindown power,

$$L_{\mathrm{md}}=\frac{2\mu ^2\mathrm{sin}^2\beta }{3c^3}\omega ^4,$$
(1)
dominates the star energy budget and is spent predominantly on the generation of magneto-dipole waves and particle acceleration. Here $`\mu `$ is the neutron star magnetic moment, $`\beta `$ is the angle between the rotational and magnetic axes, $`\omega =2\pi /P_\mathrm{s}`$ is the star angular velocity, $`P_\mathrm{s}`$ is the neutron star spin period and $`c`$ is the speed of light.

The state of a neutron star is classified as accretor if the star luminosity is dominated by the accretion power,

$$L_\mathrm{a}=\dot{M}_\mathrm{a}\frac{GM_{\mathrm{ns}}}{R_{\mathrm{ns}}}.$$
(2)
Here $`M_{\mathrm{ns}}`$ and $`R_{\mathrm{ns}}`$ are the mass and the radius of the neutron star, respectively, and $`\dot{M}_\mathrm{a}`$ is the mass accretion rate onto the neutron star surface.

The intermediate state is called propeller. The necessity to introduce this state can be justified as follows. The pulsar-like spindown ceases when the pressure of the material being ejected by the neutron star,

$$p_{\mathrm{out}}=\frac{L_{\mathrm{md}}}{4\pi cR_\alpha ^2},$$
(3)
can no longer balance the pressure of the surrounding gas,

$$p_{\mathrm{}}=\frac{1}{2}\rho _{\mathrm{}}V_{\mathrm{rel}}^2.$$
(4)
Here $`\rho _{\mathrm{}}`$ is the density of the surrounding gas, $`V_{\mathrm{rel}}`$ is the relative velocity between the neutron star and the surrounding gas, and $`R_\alpha `$ is the accretion radius of the neutron star,

$$R_\alpha =\frac{2GM_{\mathrm{ns}}}{V_{\mathrm{rel}}^2}.$$
(5)
Combining Eqs. (3) and (4) one finds that this occurs when the neutron star spin period $`P_\mathrm{s}=P_{\mathrm{md}}`$, where

$$P_{\mathrm{md}}=0.3\mu _{30}^{1/2}V_8^{1/4}(\mathrm{sin}\beta )^{1/2}\left[\frac{\dot{M}_\mathrm{c}}{10^{15}\mathrm{g}\mathrm{s}^1}\right]^{1/4}\mathrm{s}.$$
(6)
Here $`\mu _{30}=\mu /10^{30}\mathrm{G}\mathrm{cm}^3`$, $`V_8=V_{\mathrm{rel}}/10^8\mathrm{cm}\mathrm{s}^1`$ and $`\dot{M}_\mathrm{c}`$ is the strength of the normal companion stellar wind which is parametrized in terms of the maximum possible accretion rate following111There should be no confusion between $`\dot{M}_\mathrm{c}`$, which is the mass of the surrounding material interacting with the neutron star moving through the wind in a time unit and $`\dot{M}_\mathrm{a}`$, which is the mass accretion rate onto its surface. In the general case $`\dot{M}_\mathrm{c}\dot{M}_\mathrm{a}`$. The case of $`\dot{M}_\mathrm{c}=\dot{M}_\mathrm{a}`$ corresponds to the steady accretion process, when all material captured by the neutron star reaches the star surface. In this particular case $`\dot{M}_\mathrm{c}`$ is called the rate of mass capture by the neutron star (Bondi & Hoyle bh44 (1944)). However, as it will be shown below, it has a different physical meaning if the neutron star is in the state of propeller Davies et al. (dfp79 (1979))

$$\dot{M}_\mathrm{c}=\pi R_\alpha ^2\rho _{\mathrm{}}V_{\mathrm{rel}}.$$
(7)
On the other hand, for the steady accretion onto the neutron star surface to realize the canonical magnetospheric radius, which is defined by equating the ram pressure of the inflowing material with the magnetic pressure due to the dipole field of the neutron star,

$$R_\mathrm{m}\left(\frac{\mu ^2}{\dot{M}_\mathrm{c}\sqrt{2GM_{\mathrm{ns}}}}\right)^{2/7},$$
(8)
should be smaller than the corotational radius222This is a necessary but not a sufficient condition,

$$R_{\mathrm{cor}}=\left(\frac{GM_{\mathrm{ns}}}{\omega ^2}\right)^{1/3}.$$
(9)
Otherwise the neutron star proves to be in the centrifugal inhibition regime (i.e. the centrifugal acceleration at the magnetospheric boundary, $`\omega ^2R_\mathrm{m}`$, dominates the gravitational acceleration, $`GM_{\mathrm{ns}}/R_\mathrm{m}^2`$) and hence, the plasma accretion onto the star surface is impossible. Putting Eq. (6) to (9) one finds that the condition $`r_\mathrm{m}R_{\mathrm{cor}}`$ is satisfied only if $`\dot{M}_\mathrm{c}\dot{M}_{\mathrm{ea}}`$, where

$$\dot{M}_{\mathrm{ea}}0.75\mu _{30}^2V_8^{7/5}m^4(\mathrm{sin}\beta )^{14/5}\mathrm{M}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{yr}^1.$$
(10)
Here $`m`$ is the mass of the neutron star expressed in units of $`M_{\mathrm{}}`$. However so huge a mass transfer rate can never be realized in a wind-fed mass-exchange close binary system ($`\dot{M}_{\mathrm{ea}}`$ exceeds the maximum possible rate of mass loss by O-type supergiants by more than five orders of magnitude !). That is why the direct ejector $``$ accretor state transition under the conditions of interest cannot be realized and the evolutionary track of the initially fast rotating magnetized neutron star must contain an additional spindown state which is traditionally called propeller.

A neutron star in the state of propeller is spinning down due to the interaction between its fast rotating magnetosphere and the surrounding material. The mechanism of this interaction has been investigated in detail by Davies et al. (dfp79 (1979)) and Davies & Pringle (dp81 (1981)) who have shown that during the propeller state the star magnetosphere is surrounded by a spherical quasi-static envelope in which the plasma temperature is of the order of the free-fall temperature,

$$T(R)T_{\mathrm{ff}}(R)=\frac{GM_{\mathrm{ns}}m_\mathrm{p}}{kR}.$$
(11)
Here $`m_\mathrm{p}`$ is the proton mass and $`k`$ is the Boltzmann constant. The rotational energy loss by the neutron star is convected up through the envelope by the turbulent motions and lost through its outer boundary. The structure of the envelope and the spindown rate of the star depend on the value of the ratio:

$$\kappa =\frac{\omega R_\mathrm{m}}{V_\mathrm{s}(R_\mathrm{m})},$$

where $`R_\mathrm{m}`$ is the magnetospheric radius of the neutron star and $`V_\mathrm{s}(R_\mathrm{m})`$ is the sound speed in the envelope plasma, which according to Eq. (11) is of the order of the free-fall velocity, $`V_{\mathrm{ff}}`$:

$$V_\mathrm{s}(R_\mathrm{m})V_{\mathrm{ff}}(R_\mathrm{m})=\sqrt{\frac{2GM_{\mathrm{ns}}}{R_\mathrm{m}}}.$$
(12)
On this basis, Davies et al. (dfp79 (1979)) distinguished three sub-states of the propeller state333According to their classification, case ‘a’ corresponds to the pulsar-like spindown, i.e. the ejector state.: (b) very rapid rotator ($`\kappa 1`$); (c) supersonic propeller ($`\kappa 1`$) and (d) subsonic propeller ($`\kappa <1`$).

In cases ‘b’ and ‘c’ the magnetospheric radius of the neutron star exceeds its corotational radius. The neutron star is in the centrifugal inhibition regime and no accretion onto its surface occurs. The spindown power dominates the energy budget and is comparable to the radiative losses of the envelope.

When the neutron star spin period decreases below the critical period,

$$P_{\mathrm{cd}}=23\mu _{30}^{6/7}m^{5/7}\left[\frac{\dot{M}_\mathrm{c}}{10^{15}\mathrm{g}\mathrm{s}^1}\right]^{3/7}\mathrm{s},$$
(13)
the corotational radius reaches the magnetospheric radius. Under the condition $`P_\mathrm{s}>P_{\mathrm{cd}}`$ the wind plasma, penetrating from the base of the envelope into the star magnetic field, is able to flow along the magnetic field lines and to accrete onto the star surface. However the rate of plasma penetration into the star magnetic field remains essentially smaller than $`\dot{M}_\mathrm{c}`$ if the magnetospheric boundary is stable with respect to interchange instabilities (e.g. Rayleigh-Taylor instability). According to Arons & Lea (1976a ) and Elsner & Lamb (el76 (1976)), the onset condition for the interchange instability of the magnetospheric boundary reads

$$T(R_\mathrm{m})<T_{\mathrm{cr}}0.3T_{\mathrm{ff}}.$$
(14)
This means that the steady accretion process under the condition $`P_\mathrm{s}>P_{\mathrm{cd}}`$ can be realized only if the cooling of the envelope plasma (due to the radiation and convective motions) dominates the energy input to the envelope due to the propeller action by the neutron star.

Investigating this particular state, Davies & Pringle (dp81 (1981), hereafter DP81) have shown that the cooling processes in the envelope are effective if the spin period of the star exceeds a so-called break period $`P_{\mathrm{br}}`$, which according to Ikhsanov (2001a ) is

$$P_{\mathrm{br}}450\mu _{30}^{16/21}\dot{M}_{15}^{5/7}m^{4/21}\mathrm{s}.$$
(15)
DP81 have assumed that during the epoch when $`P_{\mathrm{cd}}<P_\mathrm{s}<P_{\mathrm{br}}`$, no accretion onto the star surface is realized (i.e. $`\dot{M}_\mathrm{a}=0`$) and the star energy budget is dominated by the spindown power, which in the case of this – subsonic propeller – state is

$$L_{\mathrm{ssp}}=6.4\times 10^{31}\mathrm{egr}\mathrm{s}^1\mu _{30}^2m^1P_{25}^3,$$
(16)
where $`P_{25}=P_\mathrm{s}/25`$ s.

At the same time, the assumption $`\dot{M}_\mathrm{a}=0`$ under the condition $`R_\mathrm{m}<R_{\mathrm{cor}}`$ is not obvious since the interchange instability is not the only mode by which the accreting plasma can enter the neutron star magnetic field. In this paper I show that the accretion luminosity of the neutron star in the subsonic propeller state can be comparable or even exceeds the spindown power if the plasma penetration into the magnetosphere is governed by the magnetic field lines reconnection process (section 2). In this case the star can be observed as a low luminous accretion-powered X-ray pulsar rather than the spin-powered propeller. The results are discussed and summarized in section 3.

## 2 Accretion luminosity of a neutron star in ‘subsonic propeller’ state

I consider a close binary system in which a rotating, magnetized neutron star is orbiting around a high-mass main sequence companion which underfills its Roche lobe and loses mass in the form of stellar wind. The neutron star, which moves through the wind of the normal companion, is assumed to be in the state of subsonic propeller. This means that the neutron star magnetosphere is surrounded by a hot plasma envelope ($`TT_{\mathrm{ff}}`$) which is extended from the magnetospheric boundary, $`R_\mathrm{m}R_{\mathrm{cor}}`$, up to the accretion radius of the neutron star, $`R_\alpha `$. The spin period of the neutron star lies within the interval $`P_{\mathrm{cd}}<P_\mathrm{s}<P_{\mathrm{br}}`$, and thus, the rate of energy input to the envelope due to the propeller action by the neutron star (expressed by Eq. 16) dominates the radiative losses from the envelope. Under this condition the envelope can be considered as a static adiabatic atmosphere in which the plasma pressure $`pR^{5/2}`$, the sound speed $`c_\mathrm{s}R^{1/2}`$ and the number density $`nR^{3/2}`$. The plasma pressure at the outer edge of the envelope is equal to the ram pressure of the surrounding gas. The formation of the envelope in the first approximation prevents the stellar wind from penetrating into the accretion lobe of the neutron star (i.e. the sphere with the radius $`R_\alpha `$). In this case stellar wind overflows the outer edge with the rate $`\dot{M}_\mathrm{c}`$ compressing and heating the envelope plasma (for discussion see DP81).

The equilibrium shape of a neutron star magnetosphere surrounded by a hot hydrogen envelope has been reconstructed by Arons & Lea (1976a ), Elsner &Lamb (el77 (1977)) and Michel (m77a (1977)). All these authors have argued that the magnetosphere in the considered case tends to be closed and its boundary is convex towards the accreting plasma, with two cusp points situated on the magnetic axis of the neutron star. It is rotationally symmetric about the magnetic axis and reflection symmetric about the equatorial plane.

### 2.1 The rate of plasma entry into the star magnetosphere

Formation of the magnetosphere, to a first approximation, prevents the envelope plasma from reaching the neutron star itself. That is why the rate of mass accretion onto the neutron star surface strongly depends on the rate of plasma penetration into the magnetosphere at its boundary. As was been mentioned in the introduction, under the condition $`P_\mathrm{s}<P_{\mathrm{br}}`$, the cooling of the envelope plasma is not effective and hence the magnetospheric boundary is interchange stable. Under this condition the modes by which the envelope plasma can enter the star magnetosphere are (i) turbulent diffusion and (ii) reconnection of the magnetic field lines.

#### 2.1.1 Diffusion

The conductivity of the envelope plasma can be approximated by that of a fully ionized gas: $`\sigma 10^7T_\mathrm{e}^{3/2}`$, where $`T_\mathrm{e}`$ is the electron temperature. In our case, the value of conductivity is very high but, nevertheless, finite ($`\sigma <\mathrm{}`$). That is why a diffusion skin layer (magnetopause) at the magnetospheric boundary is formed. The thickness of the magnetopause in the general case depends on the velocity and the time of plasma diffusion across the magnetic field lines, but in any case it is larger than the Larmor radius of ions. Under the condition $`P_{\mathrm{cd}}P_\mathrm{s}`$, the gravitation force applied to the plasma in the diffusion layer dominates the centrifugal force. Therefore the plasma penetrating the layer flows along the field lines toward the magnetic poles of the neutron star and accretes onto the star surface.

The rate of plasma flow into the magnetopause from the envelope due to diffusion is

$$\dot{M}_\mathrm{d}4\pi R_\mathrm{m}^2\rho (R_\mathrm{m})V_{\mathrm{diff}}.$$
(17)
$`\rho (R_\mathrm{m})`$ is the plasma density at the base of the envelope just over the magnetosphere boundary. It can be evaluated equating the plasma ram pressure and the magnetic field pressure at the boundary:

$$\rho (R_\mathrm{m})=\frac{\mu ^2}{4\pi GM_{\mathrm{ns}}R_\mathrm{m}^5}.$$
(18)
$`V_{\mathrm{diff}}`$ is the diffusion velocity which, according to Ikhsanov & Pustil’nik (ip96 (1996)), can be expressed in the following form

$$V_{\mathrm{diff}}=\sqrt{D_{\mathrm{eff}}/t_{\mathrm{ff}}}.$$
(19)
Here $`D_{\mathrm{eff}}`$ is the effective diffusion coefficient and $`t_{\mathrm{ff}}=R_\mathrm{m}^{3/2}/\sqrt{GM_{\mathrm{ns}}}`$ is the free-fall time, which is the characteristic time of the plasma flow from the layer to the star surface.

In the general case the value of $`D_{\mathrm{eff}}`$ is obviously limited by the following relation:

$$D_{\mathrm{cr}}D_{\mathrm{eff}}D_\mathrm{B},$$

where $`D_{\mathrm{cr}}=c^2/4\pi \sigma `$ and $`D_\mathrm{B}=\zeta V_{\mathrm{T}(\mathrm{i})}r_{\mathrm{h}(\mathrm{i})}`$ are the coefficients of the classical and Bohm diffusion, respectively, $`V_{\mathrm{T}(\mathrm{i})}`$ and $`r_{\mathrm{h}(\mathrm{i})}`$ are the thermal velocity and Larmor radius of ions, and $`\zeta `$ is the diffusion efficiency.

The minimum rate of plasma entry into the magnetosphere can be obtained putting $`D_{\mathrm{eff}}D_{\mathrm{cl}}`$. In this case one finds

$$\dot{M}_{\mathrm{cl}}10^6\mu _{30}^{2/7}m^{15/14}\left(\frac{\dot{M}_\mathrm{c}}{10^{15}\mathrm{g}\mathrm{s}^1}\right)^{6/7}\mathrm{g}\mathrm{s}^1.$$
(20)
The maximum inflow rate is realized if the diffusion process is governed by drift-dissipative instabilities (i.e. Bohm diffusion)

$$D_{\mathrm{eff}}D_\mathrm{B}=\frac{\zeta ckT_\mathrm{i}(R_\mathrm{m})}{16eB(R_\mathrm{m})},$$
(21)
where $`T_\mathrm{i}`$ is the ion plasma temperature at the base of the envelope. Combining Eqs. (1721) yields

$$\dot{M}_\mathrm{B}\mathrm{3\hspace{0.17em}10}^{10}\mathrm{g}\mathrm{s}^1\zeta _{0.1}^{1/2}\mu _{30}^{1/14}m^{1/7}\left(\frac{\dot{M}_\mathrm{c}}{10^{15}\mathrm{g}\mathrm{s}^1}\right)^{11/14}$$
(22)
where $`\zeta _{0.1}=\zeta /0.1`$. This normalization of the diffusion efficiency is adopted following the results of experiments on the nuclear fusion (e.g. Hamasaki et al. ham74 (1974)) and the measurements of the solar wind penetrating the magnetosphere of the Earth (Gosling et al. gosling91 (1991)).

Hence, the total rate of mass flow into the magnetosphere due to the diffusion process is $`\dot{M}_\mathrm{d}=\dot{M}_{\mathrm{cl}}+\dot{M}_\mathrm{B}`$.

#### 2.1.2 Reconnections

According to Elsner & Lamb (el84 (1984)) the rate of plasma entry into the magnetosphere due to reconnection of the magnetic field lines can be expressed as

$$\dot{M}_{\mathrm{rec}}\alpha _\mathrm{r}\frac{\mu ^2}{GM_{\mathrm{ns}}R_\mathrm{m}^3}\frac{A_\mathrm{r}}{4\pi R_\mathrm{m}^2}V_\mathrm{a},$$
(23)
where $`\alpha _\mathrm{r}`$ is the efficiency of the reconnection process, $`A_\mathrm{r}=4\pi R_\mathrm{m}\lambda _\mathrm{m}`$ is the effective area of the reconnection region and $`V_\mathrm{a}=B/\sqrt{4\pi \rho }`$ is the Alfvén velocity, which in the boundary layer at the base of the hot envelope is of the order of $`V_{\mathrm{ff}}(R_\mathrm{m})`$.

The values of $`\alpha _\mathrm{r}`$ and $`A_\mathrm{r}`$ depend on the current sheet parameters and the magnetic field configuration in the accretion flow. Investigations of reconnection processes in solar flares and in the Earth’s magnetopause suggest the average value of $`\alpha _\mathrm{r}0.1`$ (see Priest & Forbes pf00 (2000) and references therein).

The effective area of the reconnection region depends of the scale of the magnetic field in the accreting plasma over the magnetospheric boundary. It is limited by the initial inhomogeneity of the accretion flow and/or by the fragmentation of plasma over the rotating magnetospheric boundary due to the Kelvin-Helmholtz instability. In the latter case the average scale of plasma vortices of the embedded field is $`\lambda _\mathrm{m}0.1R_\mathrm{m}`$ (see Arons & Lea 1976b ; Wang & Robertson wr85 (1985)). On the other hand, the scale of the plasma inhomogeneity at the base of the envelope can be evaluated by the size of the convective cell (i.e. by the height of the homogeneous atmosphere over the magnetospheric boundary, $`h_\mathrm{g}`$). In our case ($`T0.3T_{\mathrm{ff}}`$) one finds $`h_\mathrm{g}0.3R_\mathrm{m}`$ and, correspondingly, the ratio of the area of a convective cell to the total area of the magnetospheric boundary is $`(h_\mathrm{g}/R_\mathrm{m})^20.1`$. In this context the estimate $`\lambda _\mathrm{m}0.1R_\mathrm{m}`$ seems to be appropriate.

Under these conditions the rate of plasma penetration into the neutron star magnetic field due to the magnetic lines reconnection reads

$$\dot{M}_{\mathrm{rec}}10^{13}\mathrm{g}\mathrm{s}^1\left[\frac{\alpha _\mathrm{r}}{0.1}\right]\left[\frac{\lambda _\mathrm{m}}{0.1R_\mathrm{m}}\right]\left(\frac{\dot{M}_\mathrm{c}}{10^{15}\mathrm{g}\mathrm{s}^1}\right).$$
(24)
Thus, the rate of plasma penetration into the magnetosphere of the neutron star in the state of subsonic propeller can be expressed as

$$\dot{M}_\mathrm{a}=\dot{M}_\mathrm{d}+\dot{M}_{\mathrm{rec}}.$$
(25)
### 2.2 Accretion luminosity

Under the condition $`R_\mathrm{m}<R_{\mathrm{cor}}`$ plasma penetrating the magnetic field of the neutron star is accreted onto its surface. This indicates that the observed total luminosity of the neutron star in the state of subsonic propeller is

$$L_{\mathrm{bol}}=L_{\mathrm{ssp}}+L_\mathrm{a}.$$
(26)
The lower limit to the accretion luminosity, $`L_\mathrm{a}`$, can be estimated assuming the plasma entry in the stellar magnetic field from the base of the envelope due to diffusion (see Eq. 22):

$$L_{\mathrm{a},\mathrm{diff}}\mathrm{4\hspace{0.17em}10}^{30}\zeta _{0.1}^{1/2}\mu _{30}^{1/14}m^{8/7}R_6^1\dot{M}_{15}^{11/14}\mathrm{erg}\mathrm{s}^1,$$
(27)
where $`\dot{M}_{15}`$ is the strength of the stellar wind expressed in units of $`10^{15}\mathrm{g}\mathrm{s}^1`$.

Combining Eqs. (16) and (27) one finds that the accretion power $`L_{\mathrm{a},\mathrm{diff}}`$ dominates the star energy budget if $`P_\mathrm{s}P_{\mathrm{dda}}`$, where

$$P_{\mathrm{dda}}=63\zeta _{0.1}^{1/6}\mu _{30}^{29/42}m^{5/7}R_6^{1/3}\dot{M}_{15}^{11/42}\mathrm{s}.$$
(28)
If the plasma penetration the magnetosphere of a neutron star is governed by the reconnection of the magnetic field lines, the accretion luminosity of the star is

$$L_{\mathrm{a},\mathrm{rec}}10^{33}\alpha _{0.1}mR_6^1\lambda _{0.1}\dot{M}_{15}\mathrm{erg}\mathrm{s}^1,$$
(29)
where $`\alpha _{0.1}=\alpha _\mathrm{r}/0.1`$ and $`\lambda _{0.1}=\lambda _\mathrm{m}/0.1R_\mathrm{m}`$. In this case the accretion power already dominates the spindown power at $`P_{\mathrm{cd}}`$ if $`\dot{M}_\mathrm{c}>\dot{M}_{\mathrm{rda}}`$, where

$$\dot{M}_{\mathrm{rda}}\mathrm{6\hspace{0.17em}10}^{13}\mu _{30}^2m^2R_6\alpha _{0.1}^1\lambda _{0.1}^1P_{25}^3\mathrm{g}\mathrm{s}^1.$$
(30)
In both cases the neutron star will be recognized as a low luminous accretion-powered pulsar in which the radius and the temperature of polar caps are444The black body radiation is assumed

$$R_{\mathrm{pc}}=0.3\mu _{30}^{2/7}m^{1/14}R_6^{3/2}\left[\frac{\dot{M}_\mathrm{c}}{10^{15}\mathrm{g}\mathrm{s}^1}\right]^{1/7}\mathrm{km},$$

$$T_{\mathrm{pc}}8\times 10^6\left[\frac{R_{\mathrm{pc}}}{0.3\mathrm{km}}\right]^{1/2}\left[\frac{L_\mathrm{a}}{10^{33}\mathrm{erg}\mathrm{s}^1}\right]^{1/4}\mathrm{K}.$$

### 2.3 Quasi-static envelope approximation

The model of the envelope which is surrounding the magnetosphere of a neutron star in the subsonic propeller state has been constructed by DP81 under the assumption that no accretion onto the star surface occurs. In this case the envelope can be considered as quasi-static, i.e. the average rate of mass transfer through the envelope in the radial direction is assumed to be zero. Under this condition the plasma of the stellar wind does not penetrate into the accretion lobe of the neutron star but overflows the outer edge of the envelope with the rate $`\dot{M}_\mathrm{c}`$, compressing the envelope plasma.

One faces however a slightly different situation taking into account that the “magnetic gates” during the subsonic propeller state of the neutron star are not closed completely. As has been shown above, the rate of plasma inflow into the interchange stable magnetosphere due to diffusion and the magnetic field line reconnection is $`\dot{M}_\mathrm{a}0`$. In this case the envelope remains in an equilibrium state if the amount of material inflowing from the base of the envelope to the magnetosphere is compensated by the same amount of material coming into the envelope through its outer boundary. This means that the radial drift of plasma through the envelope with the rate $`\dot{M}_\mathrm{a}`$ is expected. Hence the question about the structure of this modified envelope arises.

The characteristic time of the accretion process in the envelope can be estimated as

$$t_{\mathrm{dr}}=R/V_{\mathrm{dr}},$$
(31)
where $`V_{\mathrm{dr}}`$ is the average velocity of plasma radial drift through the envelope, which under the condition $`\dot{M}_\mathrm{a}=`$ const, can be evaluated as

$$V_{\mathrm{dr}}=\frac{\dot{M}_\mathrm{a}}{\dot{M}_\mathrm{c}}V_{\mathrm{ff}}.$$
(32)
On the other hand, the time scale on which the incoming energy is redistributed within the envelope (i.e. the time of envelope relaxation to the equilibrium state) is determined by the characteristic turbulence time

$$t_\mathrm{t}=R/V_\mathrm{t}.$$
(33)
Hence the quasi-static approximation can be applied to the modified model of the envelope if $`t_\mathrm{t}t_{\mathrm{dr}}`$. Combining Eqs. (31) and (33) I find this condition to be satisfied if the spin period of the star is $`P_\mathrm{s}P_{\mathrm{qs}}`$, where

$$P_{\mathrm{qs}}\mathrm{1.6\hspace{0.17em}10}^3\mu _{30}^{6/7}m^{5/7}\left[\frac{\dot{M}_\mathrm{a}}{10^{13}\mathrm{g}\mathrm{s}^1}\right]^1\left[\frac{\dot{M}_\mathrm{c}}{10^{15}\mathrm{g}\mathrm{s}^1}\right]^{4/7}\mathrm{s}.$$

This indicates that under the conditions of interest the structure of the modified envelope (with the radial plasma drift) can be considered within the quasi-static approximation and thus, the model presented by DP81 can be applied.

## 3 Discussion

The basic conclusion of the investigation presented in this paper is that the observational appearance of a neutron star in the state of subsonic propeller strongly depends on the mode by which the envelope plasma enters the magnetosphere of the star. The canonical notion that the star in this state should be observed as a non-pulsating soft X-ray source of the luminosity $`L_{\mathrm{ssp}}`$ is valid only in the particular case of the classical (Coulomb) diffusion. If, however, the penetration process is governed by the Bohm diffusion or/and the reconnections of the magnetic field lines, the mass accretion rate onto the star surface proves to be high enough for the accretion power to dominate the energy budget of the star. In this case the neutron star is expected to be observed as a steady low luminous ($`L_\mathrm{x}=L_{\mathrm{a},\mathrm{diff}}+L_{\mathrm{a},\mathrm{rec}}`$) accretion-powered pulsar in which most of the X-ray emission comes from the hot ($`T_{\mathrm{cp}}`$) spots of the radius $`R_{\mathrm{cp}}`$ situated in the magnetic pole regions on the surface of the neutron star (see Sect. 2.2).

The entry of the accreting plasma into the interchange stable magnetosphere of a neutron star has been investigated by Elsner & Lamb (el84 (1984)). They have shown that there are no grounds for assuming that the Bohm diffusion or the field line reconnections modes of the plasma penetrating the magnetosphere are suppressed. They evaluated the efficiency of the penetration process due to these modes to be of about 1% of the efficiency of that due to the interchange instabilities. This is too small to explain the observed luminosities of the brightest X-ray pulsars ($`10^{37}÷10^{38}\mathrm{erg}\mathrm{s}^1`$) but is quite sufficient for the interpretation of the relatively low luminous X-ray sources ($`L_\mathrm{x}<10^{36}\mathrm{erg}\mathrm{s}^1`$). The efficiency of the plasma penetrating the magnetosphere of a neutron star evaluated by Elsner & Lamb is comparable to that obtained in laboratory experiments (e.g. Hamasaki et al. ham74 (1974)) and derived from the observations of the solar wind entering the magnetosphere of the Earth (e.g. Gosling et al. gosling91 (1991)). The same results were obtained in the simulations of the solar wind penetration of the Earth’s magnetic field due to diffusion (Winske & Omidi wo95 (1995)) and reconnection of the field lines (Usadi et al. usadi93 (1993)). Thus the values $`\zeta =0.1`$ and $`\alpha =0.1`$ used in this paper seem quite reasonable. The estimation of the parameter $`\lambda `$ is more complicated and requires detailed study of the convective process in the envelope. This investigation, however, is beyond the scope of the present paper. Here I would like only to note that the estimate of the magnetic field scale by the size of a convection element is frequently used in the simulations of the magnetic field generation in astrophysical objects (e.g. accretion disks, active regions of the Sun, etc.).

The last point I would like to address here is the determination of the state of a low luminous neutron star by the ratio between its magnetospheric and corotation radii, $`\mathrm{{\rm Y}}=R_\mathrm{m}/R_{\mathrm{cor}}`$. According to Eqs. (9) and (8) the value of $`\mathrm{{\rm Y}}`$ depends on the mass, the spin period and the dipole magnetic moment of the neutron star, and on the strength of the stellar wind in which the neutron star is situated, $`\dot{M}_\mathrm{c}`$. The parameters of the neutron star can be evaluated if it is a component of a binary system and is observed as a pulsar with the cyclotron line feature in the X-ray spectrum. In this case the value of $`\mathrm{{\rm Y}}`$ can be obtained combining Eqs. (2), (8) and (9):

$$\mathrm{{\rm Y}}=\frac{3\xi ^{2/7}\mu ^{4/7}}{L_\mathrm{a}^{2/7}R_{\mathrm{ns}}^{2/7}(GM_{\mathrm{ns}})^{4/21}P_\mathrm{s}^{2/3}}.$$
(34)
Here, $`\xi =\dot{M}_\mathrm{a}/\dot{M}_\mathrm{c}`$ is the efficiency of the accreting plasma penetrating the magnetic field of the star at the magnetospheric boundary.

As a rule, the value of $`\xi `$ is assumed to be equal to unity. This assumption is rather well justified if the neutron star undergoes disk accretion or/and if its X-ray luminosity exceeds the critical value,

$$L_{\mathrm{cr}}=\mathrm{3\hspace{0.17em}10}^{36}\mu _{30}^{1/4}m^{1/2}R_6^{1/8}\mathrm{erg}\mathrm{s}^1,$$

at which the cooling of the plasma over the magnetospheric boundary is effective and the boundary is interchange unstable (see Ghosh & Lamb gl79 (1979); Arons & Lea 1976a ).

If, however, the plasma penetration into the magnetosphere of a spherically accreting neutron star is governed by the diffusion or/and the field lines reconnection processes, the assumption $`\xi 1`$ is not valid. In particular, in the case of subsonic propeller $`\xi 0.01`$ and hence the value of $`\mathrm{{\rm Y}}`$ proves to be at least a factor of four smaller than that evaluated using the traditional method:

$$\mathrm{{\rm Y}}(\xi )=0.27\left(\frac{\xi }{0.01}\right)^{2/7}\mathrm{{\rm Y}}(\xi =1).$$

This indicates that the overestimation of the parameter $`\xi `$ may lead to the mistaken classification of an accretion-powered source as supersonic propeller. An example of such a situation in the analysis of the low luminous state of the neutron star in the Be/X-ray transient A0535+26 has been recently presented by the author (Ikhsanov 2001b ).

###### Acknowledgements.

I would like to thank the anonymous referee for suggested improvements. I acknowledge the support of the Follow-up program of the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation.


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# Observations of Galaxies with Future X-ray Observatories

## 1. Introduction: the X-ray emission of galaxies

Normal galaxies (i.e. those not dominated by an AGN) are relatively faint X-ray sources, in most cases fainter than the detection threshold attainable with non-imaging X-ray observatories. It is therefore not surprising that the study of their X-ray properties became possible only in the late 1970s-early 1980s, after the launch of the Einstein Observatory, the first imaging X-ray telescope (Giacconi et al 1979).

Strange as it seems now, at the time there was a fairly widespread misconception that galaxies would be ‘boring’ targets of X-ray observations, giving us information only on the collective emission of Milky-Way-like populations of accreting binaries and SNRs. Fortunately, the data soon proved this wrong.

We now know that X-ray sources in all types of galaxies include not only XRB and SNR (and these are very interesting on their own right as probes into extreme forms of matter), but also a diffuse hot gaseous interstellar medium, either gravitationally bound as in X-ray luminous E galaxies, or in partial outflow or winds, as for example in the starburst galaxy M82. Moreover, observations of galaxies are essential for studying the whole gamut of nuclear emission, extending from QSOs to low-luminosity nuclei. This includes starburst nuclear regions, LINERS and low-luminosity AGN (see reviews, Fabbiano 1989, 1996). With X-ray observations we can probe the physics of these components and their astrophysical implications for galaxy formation and evolution as well as cosmology.

All this knowledge was the result of the Einstein observations, followed by the higher angular resolution (but softer energy band) ROSAT, and by the wide-energy-band (but larger-beam) satellites ASCA and BeppoSAX.

Now, with Chandra and XMM-Newton, this field is being pushed to new heights. In what follows, I will summarize the principal scientific themes for which X-ray studies of galaxies are relevant, and I will then point out the implied requirements for future X-ray observatories. Previous papers discussing this type of requirements, which are still valid, are Fabbiano (1990) and Elvis & Fabbiano (1997).

## 2. Science Themes

Galaxies can be considered test particles tracing the large-scale distribution of matter in the Universe, but they are also complex ‘living’ organisms. They form, they age, they interact and merge, they rejuvenate, they interact with and modify their environment. X-ray observations can provide precious and unique insight into this life-cycle, and into the life-cycle of the galaxian components.

### 2.1. Populations of X-ray sources: formation and evolution

It is well known that strong X-ray emission may arise from stars in the final stages of their evolution, either from Supernova Remnants (SNR) or from binary systems (XRB) including a white dwarf, a neutron star, or a black hole. Galactic XRBs and SNRs were among the first types of X-ray source discovered in X-rays and have been studied intensely since the UHURU days (see Giacconi & Gursky 1974). The study of Galactic X-ray sources has provided a wealth of information on these systems and a good understanding of the nature of individual objects, but questions about their population properties, relations to their galaxian environment and stellar populations, and evolution can be answered only by observing a wide range of external galaxies.

While this type of work had been attempted with Einstein and ROSAT for M31 and a few other nearby galaxies (see Fabbiano 1995), it is only with Chandra that this field is starting to blossom. The reason is simple: angular resolution. Chandra’s sub-arcsecond resolution corresponds to physical sizes of $`70`$ pc at a distance of $`30`$ Mpc (and $`35`$ pc at the Virgo Cluster). Given the relative sparse distribution of luminous X-ray sources, in most cases this resolution allows the detection of individual bright X-ray sources at least out to these distances. Moreover, because of the very small Chandra beam, only a few photons are needed for a significant detection. As a result, X-ray luminosity functions (XLF) of galaxian sources have recently been derived with unprecedented sensitivity from Chandra observations. Early results include the XLF of NGC 4697 (Sarazin, Irwin & Bregman 2000) an X-ray-faint elliptical galaxy at a distance of 16 Mpc, where for the first time the XRB population was directly detected. In this XLF, a break near $`3\times 10^{38}`$ ergs/s was reported and interpreted as the signature of a population of black-hole binaries. In M81, at a distance of 3.5 Mpc, the XLF can be followed down to luminosities of $`3\times 10^{37}`$ergs/s, and different distributions are found for bulge and disk sources (Tennant et al 2001). The XLFs of the starburst galaxy M82 and of the merging galaxies NGC 4038/9 (Zezas et al 2001) show significant extensions to very high luminosities, well above those seen in Milky Way sources, suggesting the presence of a short-lived population of very luminous XRBs, possibly associated with black holes of masses surpassing those of Galactic black-hole binaries.

These results are exciting, because they provide a very poweful new tool for studying the population of X-ray sources and from this inferring constraints either on their formation history as it relates to intense star formation episodes in the mother galaxy (e.g. Wu 2001), or on the nature of some of these sources.

However, we must remember that Chandra is a small telescope, so that prohibitive observing times will be needed to obtain XLFs from a large enough sample of galaxies, extending down to luminosities well in the range of normal XRBs. Moreover, while 10 photons make a very significant source, they cannot give us any useful information on the spectral signature of the emission. The latter is needed to identify different types of X-ray sources, and in particular to separate SNRs from XRBs. XMM, with its larger collecting area, will allow a systematic spectral study of the populations of X-ray sources in the very nearby universe, but source confusion (comparable or worse than that of the ROSAT HRI) will be the limiting factor for distances larger than a few megaparsecs.

If we want to continue populations studies in the future, and extend them to a large number of galaxies and to the spectral dimension, we need to consider an X-ray telescope that retains Chandra’s imaging and spectral capabilities, while providing a significantly larger collecting area.

### 2.2. Small to Humongous Black Holes

Studying Black Holes and the range of phenomena associated with the interaction of matter with Black Holes is certainly an exciting field, and a field to which X-ray observations can give unique contributions. It is generally believed that luminous AGN are the result of accretion onto massive ($`10^{78}M_{}`$) nuclear black holes, and dynamical evidence now points to the widespread association of such black holes with galaxian bulges (Magorrian et al 1998). At the other end of the spectrum of black hole masses, black holes of a few solar masses have been identified as the compact source in some Galactic XRBs (see Tanaka & Lewin 1995). These two categories of black holes may have different origins (albeit always involving gravitational collapse): the massive nuclear black holes may either be primordial, or be the result of accretion onto a nuclear seed black hole during the life time of the host galaxy; the few-solar-mass black holes in XRBs are the likely product of the evolution and final collapse of a star too massive to end up as a neutron star.

But is this the entire spectrum of black hole masses? Are there any intermediate mass black holes (in the $`100M_{}`$ range)? This type of object had been hypothesized as the accretor in exceptionally luminous sources first discovered in external galaxies with Einstein, and named ‘Super-Eddington sources’, because their X-ray luminosity was well in excess of that of accretion onto a solar-mass neutron star (see Fabbiano 1995). ASCA monitoring revealed spectral and spectral/temporal characteristics reminiscent of black hole Galactic XRBs (e.g. Makishima et al 2000; Kubota et al 2001) in a few of these sources, but for most of them, even with Einstein’s and ROSAT’s 5” resolution, it could not be excluded that the emission arose from extended regions or clumps of more normal sources.

With Chandra, the census of ‘Super-Eddington sources’ is increasing dramatically. These sources have been separated out and detected in large numbers in previously confused bright emission regions associated with intense star formation activity (e.g. in M82, Matsumoto et al 2001, Kaaret et al 2001; the Antennae galaxies, Fabbiano, Zezas & Murray 2001; NGC 253, Weaver, Strickland & Heckman 2001), and what previously appeared as an interesting but relatively rare occurrence is now a widespread phenomenon. Moreover, the luminosities of some of these sources would imply black holes in the $`100M_{}`$ range if spherical accretion applies. Are these sources really this massive? And if so, how did they form? A single stellar progenitor may require an unrealistically high mass. Could these objects result from direct collapse of massive molecular clouds, or from accretion onto seed black holes in compact star clusters? Or perhaps these sources are not that massive after all and beaming in a fraction of ‘normal’ XRBs could explain their very high luminosities (King et al 2001). Clearly this is an exciting field, that requires follow-up and in-depth study, both from the point of view of deriving ‘deep’ XLFs of galaxies to model different X-ray source populations, and for constraining spectral and time variability signatures.

Other examples, also related to the physics of accretion on black holes, which are now opening up with Chandra, include: (1) the search for the X-ray-faint conterparts of quiescent nuclear massive black holes (e.g. Di Matteo, Carilli & Fabian 2001); (2) the study of circumnuclear regions, and of the interplay between starburst and AGN phenomena (Ogle et al 2000).

These are all examples of requirements for a large area telescope, that otherwise preserves Chandra’s angular resolution. High angular resolution and sensitivity are needed to detect faint sources in crowded regions; collecting power is needed so that spectral and timing data can be obtained and used for constraining emission models.

### 2.3. Galaxy Formation and Evolution

X-ray observations give us a unique way to explore phenomena occurring during galaxy formation, that are important for the evolution of both galaxies and their surrounding medium.

Besides the populations of luminous X-ray sources discussed in the previous sections, star formation activity in nearby galaxies produces a hot ISM, that in most extreme cases escapes from the parent galaxy with galactic-scale superwinds (e.g Fabbiano 1988; Lehnert & Heckman 1996). It is not difficult to imagine that if these winds occur in relatively minor local examples of this phenomenon, they must have been much more powerful and widespread at the epoch of the collapse of the primordial pre-galaxian cloud and the ensuing violent formation of early generations of stars. Vestigial evidence of these winds exists in the presence of metals in the intracluster medium, that was revealed by X-ray spectroscopy (e.g. Fukazawa et al 2000). Superwinds are also now being detected with the Keck telescope in the optical spectra of high redshift galaxies (Shapley et al 2000). In addition to star formation, nuclear activity may also trigger superwinds in elliptical galaxies (Ciotti & Ostriker 2001), and galaxy interaction and merging may also be a factor (D’Ercole, Recchi & Ciotti 2000).

Thanks to the results of X-ray observations, the old concept of ‘closed-box’ models for galaxy evolution, where the evolution could be traced only in terms of stellar evolution in a defined volume of space, is not longer viable. More complex ‘feedback’ models and hydrodynamical simulations connecting galaxy and cluster (ambient) evolution are being developed (Cavaliere, Giacconi & Menci 2000). Since the hot superwinds are the main vector by which energy - and metals - are transferred from galaxies to the surrounding medium, direct X-ray observations provide unique constraints to these models. In particular, detailed spatial/spectral X-ray observations of relatively nearby galaxies can be used as a way to calibrate these simulations. By themselves and in comparison with similarly resolved multiwavelength data, X-ray observations are needed for understanding the detailed and complex astrophysical phenomena affecting all the phases of the ISM, and its interaction with stellar evolution and magnetic fields (e.g. McKee & Ostriker 1977; Cox & Anderson 1982).

A detailed study requires spatial and energy resolution, and collecting power, such that individual features (clouds, superbubbles) of the hot ISM can be mapped both spatially and spectrally. Given that Chandra images of nearby systems reveal typical scales of hundreds of pc for some of these features (Fabbiano, Zezas & Murray 2001), a lesser angular resolution would not allow this type of comparisons. As already remarked, however, the number of photons required for a spatial/spectral mapping is above what a reasonably long Chandra observation can provide in most cases, requiring a significantly larger collecting area.

## 3. The Future: building upon Chandra

In science we should always strive to go forward and to explore new aspects of the observable universe. Because of their sub-arcsecond angular resolution, joined with spectral resolution, Chandra observations are resulting in an impressive leap forward in our understanding of the X-ray properties of galaxies and their components. Moreover, this angular resolution makes possible a direct comparison with optical-UV Hubble data and high resolution radio data, opening up a truly panchromatic understanding of the processes and of the nature of the X-ray sources. Future comparison with SIRTF results will expand this to the IR as well. With Chandra there is definitely the feeling that X-ray astronomy has fully come of age as a way to explore the astrophysical properties of the universe, rather than being an exploratory discipline for a small congress of devotees.

How can we improve on this? We must preserve sub-arcsecond angular resolution, while retaining or improving the spectral resolution and substantially improving the telescope collecting area.

This work was partially supported under NASA contract NAS8-39073 (CXC).

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# Non-Linear Evolution and Parton Distributions at Low 𝑥.

## 1 Introduction

In the present talk we present a new approach for extrapolation of the parton densities to low $`x`$. By low $`x`$ we mean values up to $`10^7`$, which correspond to the energy range potentially covered by the THERA and LHC.

A conventional approach to parton density evolution is based on the linear DGLAP equation which describes the gluon radiation leading to an increase in the number of partons. However, at low $`x`$ the parton cascade become dense and the recombination processes start to be important. We are convinced that such system cannot be described by a linear evolution any more.

Our motivation is based on two main problems of the DGLAP evolution. First, it predicts a very steep growth of parton distributions at low $`x`$ violating the unitarity constraints. The second problem is common for all perturbative series which are asymptotic. In application to DIS processes it leads to twist OPE break down at low $`x`$, when the high twists become of the same order as the leading one. We believe that a non-linear evolution is a solution to both problems! The non-linear evolution accounts for the saturation effects due to high parton density and it sums high twist contributions.

## 2 New approach for extrapolating the parton distributions

In the colour dipole picture the evolution is applied to the imaginary part of the dipole elastic scattering amplitude $`N(r_{},x;b)`$ for the dipole of the size $`r_{}`$ elastically scattered at the impact parameter $`b`$. The amplitude $`N`$ is the major unknown to be determined. Our approach to the problem is based on two steps in which we obtain $`N`$ as a sum of two terms: $`N=\stackrel{~}{N}+\mathrm{\Delta }N`$. As the first step, the function $`\stackrel{~}{N}`$ is found as a solution of the non-linear evolution equation (1). This equation is valid in the leading $`\mathrm{ln}(x)`$ approximation of QCD. Moreover, it does not describe correctly the evolution at very short distances. In order to improve we perform the second step of our program: the correcting function $`\mathrm{\Delta }N`$ is introduced to incorporate the correct DGLAP kernel at short distances. For $`\mathrm{\Delta }N`$ we write down a DGLAP-type linear evolution equation.

The non-linear evolution equation for the function $`\stackrel{~}{N}`$ has the form:

$`{\displaystyle \frac{d\stackrel{~}{N}(r_{01},x)}{d\mathrm{ln}x}}={\displaystyle \frac{C_F\alpha _s}{\pi ^2}}{\displaystyle d^2r_2\frac{r_{01}^2}{r_{02}^2r_{12}^2}\left(2\stackrel{~}{N}(r_{02},x)\stackrel{~}{N}(r_{02},x)\stackrel{~}{N}(r_{12},x)\right)}`$ (1)
The above equation was derived in quite different approaches to high density QCD and hence we believe it to be a very reliable tool. The equation (1) is derived for the large number of colors $`N_c`$ and for a constant $`\alpha _s`$. We have dropped the $`b`$-dependence implying the large $`b`$ limit. Having assumed $`b`$ to be large we will allow to ourselves to extrapolate back to $`b=0`$. The non-linear equation (1) is a subject to certain initial conditions, which we set at $`x_0=10^2`$. The initial conditions are taken in the Glauber-Mueller form.

## 3 Numerical solution

The equation (1) is solved numerically by the method of iterations for $`b=0`$. The solutions are obtained for the fixed $`\alpha _s=0.25`$ and for the one loop running $`\alpha _s`$. The figure 1 presents examples of the solutions as a function of distance. The solutions display a step like behavior consistent with all theoretical predictions. At short distances the function $`\stackrel{~}{N}`$ tends to zero, while at large distances it approaches unity, which is the unitarity bound.

## 4 Results

Basing on the above solutions several physical quantities can be determined.

$``$ The saturation scale $`Q_s(x)`$ is estimated as a typical scale where the function $`\stackrel{~}{N}`$ undergoes the step like transition shown above. Though no exact mathematical definition of the saturation scale is known we proposed several reasonable definitions which in average produce our predictions depicted in the figure 2.

$``$ The solutions found display the scaling phenomena. Namely, the function $`\stackrel{~}{N}`$ is not a function of two independent variables $`x`$ and $`r_{}`$, but a function of a single variable $`\tau =r_{}Q_s(x)`$: $`\stackrel{~}{N}(x,r_{})\stackrel{~}{N}(r_{}Q_s(x)).`$ The scaling holds with a few percent accuracy in a broad kinematic domain below $`x=10^2`$.

$``$ The gluon density was defined according to the Mueller formula, which relates the gluon density to the dipole elastic scattering amplitude. Examples of our predictions are shown in the Fig. 3. At small $`x`$ the gluon density is damped by a factor 2-3 comparing to the DGLAP predictions.

$``$ The structure function $`F_2`$ is computed. The experimental data below $`x=10^2`$ is reproduced with less than 20% error for $`Q^250`$ GeV2. It is important that the data is reproduced without use of the full DGLAP kernel.

$``$ The LO BFKL equation, which is the linear part of the equation (1), is solved numerically by the same method of iterations. The obtained results are compared in the Fig. 4 with the corresponding solutions of the non-linear equation (1). The solution of the BFKL equation rapidly diverges from the solution of the non-linear equation. We conclude that the shadowing effects become important before the BFKL dynamics actually takes place.

## 5 Summary and plans for the future

A new method for extrapolating the parton densities to high energies was proposed. As the first step in our program we solved (numerically) the non-linear evolution equation (1). From the solutions obtained we estimated the saturation scale as a function of $`x`$. We found an approximate scaling behavior of the solutions. Both $`xG`$ and $`F_2`$ are found to be significantly damped at high energies. We predicted the LO BFKL dynamics unlikely to be ever seen. We work currently on single diffractive dissociation from the non-linear evolution.

## Acknowledgments

I am especially grateful to Eugene Levin for his cooperation in the presented work. Part of the above is a collaborating effort with E. Gotsman and U. Maor and I wish to thank them for helpful discussions.


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# Stochastic resonance as a collective property of ion channel assemblies

## Abstract

By use of a stochastic generalization of the Hodgkin-Huxley model we investigate both the phenomena of stochastic resonance (SR) and coherence resonance (CR) in variable size patches of an excitable cell membrane. Our focus is on the challenge how internal noise stemming from individual ion channels does affect collective properties of the whole ensemble. We investigate both an unperturbed situation with no applied stimuli and one in which the membrane is stimulated externally by a periodic signal and additional external noise. For the nondriven case, we demonstrate the existence of an optimal size of the membrane patch for which the internal noise causes a most regular spike activity. This phenomenon shall be termed intrinsic CR. In presence of an applied periodic stimulus we demonstrate that the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) exhibits SR vs. decreasing patch size, or vs. increasing internal noise strength, respectively. Moreover, we demonstrate that conventional SR vs. the external noise intensity occurs only for sufficiently large membrane patches, when the intensity of internal noise is below its optimal level. Thus, biological SR seemingly is rooted in the collective properties of large ion channel ensembles rather than in the individual stochastic dynamics of single ion channels.

PACS number(s): 87.10.+e, 87.16.-b, 05.40.-a

During the last decade, the effect of stochastic resonance (SR) – a cooperative phenomenon wherein the addition of external noise improves the detection and transduction of signals in nonlinear systems (for a comprehensive survey and prominent references, see Ref. ) – has been studied experimentally and theoretically in various biological systems . For example, SR has been experimentally demonstrated within the mechanoreceptive system in crayfish , in the cricket cercal sensory system , for human tactile sensation , visual perception , and response behavior of the arterial baroreflex system of humans . The importance of this SR-phenomenon for sensory biology is by now well established; yet, it is presently not known to which minimal level of the biological organization the stochastic resonance effect can ultimately be traced down. Presumably, SR has its origin in the stochastic properties of the ion channel clusters located in a receptor cell membrane. Indeed, for an artificial model system Bezrukov and Vodyanoy have demonstrated experimentally that a large parallel ensemble of the alamethicin ion channels does exhibit stochastic resonance . This in turn provokes the question whether a single ion channel is able to exhibit SR, or whether stochastic resonance is the result of a collective response from a finite assembly of channels. Stochastic resonance in single, biological potassium ion channels has also been investigated both theoretically  and experimentally . This very experiment did not convincingly exhibit SR in single voltage-sensitive ion channels. Nevertheless, the SR phenomenon can occur in a single ion channel if only the parameters are within a regime where the channel is predominantly dwelled in the closed state, as demonstrated within a theoretical modeling for a potassium Shaker channel . This prominent result, i.e. the manifestation of SR on the single-molecular level, is not only of academic interest, but is relevant also for potential nanotechnological applications, such as the design of single-molecular biosensors. The origin and biological relevance of SR in single ion channels, however, remains still open. Indeed, biological SR can be a manifestation of collective properties of large assemblies of ion channels of different sorts. To display the phenomenon of excitability these assemblies must contain a collection of ion channels of at least two different kinds – such as, e.g., potassium- and sodium-channels. The corresponding mean-field type model has been put forward by Hodgkin and Huxley in 1952  by neglecting the mesoscopic fluctuations which originate from the stochastic opening and closing of channels. SR due to external noise in this primary model and related models of excitable dynamics has extensively been addressed . These models further display another interesting effect in the presence of noise, namely so termed coherence resonance (CR) : even in absence of an external periodic signal the stochastic dynamics exhibits a surprisingly more regular behavior solely due to an optimally applied external noise intensity. A challenge though still remains: Does internal noise play a constructive role for SR and CR? Internal noise is produced by fluctuations of individual channels within the assembly, and diminishes with increasing number. For a large, macroscopic number of channels this noise becomes negligible. Under the realistic biological conditions, however, it may play a crucial role.

Our starting point is due to the model of Hodgkin and Huxley , i.e. the ion current across the biological membrane is carried mainly by the motion of sodium, Na+, and potassium, K+, ions through selective and voltage-gated ion channels embedded across the membrane. Besides, there is also a leakage current present which is induced by chloride and remaining other ions. The ion channels are formed by special membrane proteins which undergo spontaneous, but voltage-sensitive conformational transitions between open and closed states . Moreover, the conductance of the membrane is directly proportional to the number of the open ion channels. This number depends on the potential difference across the membrane, $`V`$. The different concentrations of the ions inside and outside the cell are encoded by corresponding reversal potentials $`E_{\mathrm{Na}}=50\mathrm{m}\mathrm{V}`$, $`E_K=77\mathrm{m}\mathrm{V}`$ and $`E_\mathrm{L}=54.4\mathrm{mV}`$, respectively, which give the voltage values at which the direction of partial ion currents is reversed . Taking into account that the membrane possesses a capacitance $`C=1\mu \mathrm{F}/\mathrm{cm}^2`$, Kirchhoff’s first law reads in presence of an external current $`I_{\mathrm{ext}}(t)`$ stimulus:

$`C{\displaystyle \frac{d}{dt}}V+G_\mathrm{K}(n)(VE_\mathrm{K})+G_{\mathrm{Na}}(m,h)(VE_{\mathrm{Na}})+G_\mathrm{L}(VE_L)=I_{\mathrm{ext}}(t).`$ (1)
Here, $`G_{\mathrm{Na}}(m,h)`$, $`G_\mathrm{K}(n)`$ and $`G_\mathrm{L}`$ denote the conductances of sodium, potassium, and the remaining other ion channels, respectively. The leakage conductance is assumed to be constant, $`G_\mathrm{L}=0.3\mathrm{mS}/\mathrm{cm}^2`$; in contrast, those of sodium and potassium depend on the probability to find the ion channels in their open conformation. To explain the experimental data, Hodgkin and Huxley did assume that the conductance of a potassium channel is gated by four independent and identical gates. Thus, if $`n`$ is the probability of one gate to be open, the probability of the K+ channel to stay open is $`P_\mathrm{K}=n^4`$. Moreover, the gating dynamics of sodium channel is assumed to be governed by three independent, identical gates with opening probability $`m`$ and an additional one, being different, possessing the opening probability $`h`$. Accordingly, the opening probability of Na+ channel (or the fraction of open channels) reads $`P_{\mathrm{Na}}=m^3h`$. The conductances for potassium and sodium thus read

$`G_\mathrm{K}(n)`$ $`=g_\mathrm{K}^{\mathrm{max}}n^4,G_{\mathrm{Na}}(m,h)=g_{\mathrm{Na}}^{\mathrm{max}}m^3h,`$ (2)
where $`g_{\mathrm{Na}}^{\mathrm{max}}=120\mathrm{m}\mathrm{S}/\mathrm{cm}^2`$ and $`g_\mathrm{K}^{\mathrm{max}}=36\mathrm{m}\mathrm{S}/\mathrm{cm}^2`$ are the maximal conductances. Furthermore, the gating variables (probabilities) $`m`$, $`h`$ and $`n`$ obey the two-state, ”opening-closing” dynamics,

$`\dot{m}`$ $`=\alpha _m(V)(1m)\beta _m(V)m,`$
$`\dot{h}`$ $`=\alpha _h(V)(1h)\beta _h(V)h,`$ (3)
$`\dot{n}`$ $`=\alpha _n(V)(1n)\beta _n(V)n,`$
with the experimentally determined voltage-dependent transition rates, reading

$`\alpha _m(V)={\displaystyle \frac{0.1(V+40)}{1\mathrm{exp}[(V+40)/10]}},`$ $`\beta _m(V)=4\mathrm{exp}[(V+65)/18],`$
$`\alpha _h(V)=0.07\mathrm{exp}[(V+65)/20],`$ $`\beta _h(V)=\{1+\mathrm{exp}[(V+35)/10]\}^1,`$ (4)
$`\alpha _n(V)={\displaystyle \frac{0.01(V+55)}{1\mathrm{exp}[(V+55)/10]}},`$ $`\beta _n(V)=0.125\mathrm{exp}[(V+65)/80].`$
These nonlinear Hodgkin-Huxley equations (1)-(Stochastic resonance as a collective property of ion channel assemblies) present a cornerstone model in neurophysiology. Within the same line of reasoning this model can be generalized to a mixture of different ion channels with various gating properties . An essential drawback of this model, however, is that it operates with the average number of open channels, thereby disregarding corresponding number fluctuations (or, the so-called channel noise ). Thus, it can strictly be valid only within the limit of very large system size. We emphasize, however, that the size of an excitable membrane patch within a receptor cell is realistically finite. As a consequence, the role of internal fluctuations cannot be a priori neglected; as a matter of fact, as shown below, they do play a key role for SR and CR.

The role of channel noise for the neuron firing has been studied by Lecar and Nossal as early as in 1971 . The corresponding stochastic generalizations of Hodgkin-Huxley model (within a kinetic model which corresponds to the above given description) has been put forward by DeFelice et al.  and others; see  for a review and further references therein. The main conclusion of these previous studies is that the channel noise can be functionally important for neuron dynamics. It particular, it has been demonstrated that channel noise alone can give rise to a spiking activity even in the absence of any stimulus .

The stochastic kinetic scheme , however, necessitates extensive numerical simulations . To aim at a less cumbersome numerical scheme we use a short-cut procedure that starts from Eq. (Stochastic resonance as a collective property of ion channel assemblies) in order to derive a corresponding set of Langevin equations for a stochastic generalization of the Hodgkin-Huxley equations of the type put forward by Fox and Lu . Following their reasoning we substitute the equations (Stochastic resonance as a collective property of ion channel assemblies) with the corresponding Langevin generalization:

$`\dot{m}`$ $`=\alpha _m(V)(1m)\beta _m(V)m+\xi _m(t),`$
$`\dot{h}`$ $`=\alpha _h(V)(1h)\beta _h(V)h+\xi _h(t),`$ (5)
$`\dot{n}`$ $`=\alpha _n(V)(1n)\beta _n(V)n+\xi _n(t),`$
with independent Gaussian white noise sources of vanishing mean. The noise autocorrelation functions depend on the stochastic voltage and the corresponding total number of ion channels as follows:

$`\xi _m(t)\xi _m(t^{})`$ $`={\displaystyle \frac{2}{N_{\mathrm{Na}}}}{\displaystyle \frac{\alpha _m\beta _m}{(\alpha _m+\beta _m)}}\delta (tt^{}),`$
$`\xi _h(t)\xi _h(t^{})`$ $`={\displaystyle \frac{2}{N_{\mathrm{Na}}}}{\displaystyle \frac{\alpha _h\beta _h}{(\alpha _h+\beta _h)}}\delta (tt^{}),`$ (6)
$`\xi _n(t)\xi _n(t^{})`$ $`={\displaystyle \frac{2}{N_\mathrm{K}}}{\displaystyle \frac{\alpha _n\beta _n}{(\alpha _n+\beta _n)}}\delta (tt^{}).`$
In order to confine the conductances between the physically allowed values between $`0`$ (all channels closed) and $`g^{\mathrm{max}}`$ (all channels open) we have implemented numerically the constraint of reflecting boundaries so that $`m(t)`$, $`h(t)`$ and $`n(t)`$ are always located between zero and one .

Moreover, the numbers $`N_{\mathrm{Na}}`$ and $`N_\mathrm{K}`$ depend on the actual area $`S`$ of the membrane patch. With the assumption of homogeneous ion channels densities, $`\rho _{\mathrm{Na}}=60\mu \mathrm{m}^2`$ and $`\rho _\mathrm{K}=18\mu \mathrm{m}^2`$, the following scaling behavior follows:

$`N_{\mathrm{Na}}=\rho _{\mathrm{Na}}S,N_\mathrm{K}=\rho _\mathrm{K}S.`$ (7)
Upon decreasing the system size $`S`$, the fluctuations and, hence, the internal noise increases.

Before integrating the system of stochastic equations (1), (Stochastic resonance as a collective property of ion channel assemblies), (Stochastic resonance as a collective property of ion channel assemblies) numerically, the external stimulus $`I_{\mathrm{ext}}(t)`$ must be specified. We take a periodic stimulus of the form

$`I_{\mathrm{ext}}(t)=A\mathrm{sin}(\mathrm{\Omega }t)+\eta (t),`$ (8)
where the sinusoidal signal with amplitude $`A`$ and frequency $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ is contaminated by the Gaussian white noise $`\eta (t)`$ with the autocorrelation function

$`\eta (t)\eta (t^{})=2D_{\mathrm{ext}}\delta (tt^{}),`$ (9)
and noise strength $`D_{\mathrm{ext}}`$. The numerical integration is carried out by the standard Euler algorithm with the step size $`\mathrm{\Delta }t210^3\mathrm{ms}`$. The ”Numerical Recipes” routine ran2 is used for the generation of independent random numbers  with the Box-Muller algorithm providing the Gaussian distributed random numbers. The total integration time is chosen to be a multiple of the driving period $`T_\mathrm{\Omega }=2\pi /\mathrm{\Omega }`$, as to ensure that the spectral line of the driving signal is centered on a computed value of the power spectral densities. From the stochastic voltage signal $`V(t)`$ we extract a point process of spike occurrences $`\{t_i\}`$:

$`u(t):={\displaystyle \underset{i=1}{\overset{N}{}}}\delta (tt_i),`$ (10)
where $`N`$ is the total number of spikes occurring during the elapsed time interval. The occurrence of a spike in the voltage signal $`V(t)`$ is obtained by upward-crossing a certain detection threshold value $`V_0`$. It turns out that the threshold can be varied over a wide range with no effect on the resulting spike train dynamics. However, to account for the typical spike duration a time interval of $`2\mathrm{m}\mathrm{s}`$ has been used. The power spectral density of the spike train (PSDu), the interspike interval histogram (ISIH) and the coefficient of variation (CV) have been analyzed. The coefficient of variation CV, which presents a measure of the spike coherence, reads:

$`\mathrm{CV}:={\displaystyle \frac{\sqrt{T^2T^2}}{T}},`$ (11)
where $`T:=lim_N\mathrm{}\frac{1}{N}(t_{i+1}t_i)`$ and $`T^2:=lim_N\mathrm{}\frac{1}{N}(t_{i+1}t_i)^2`$ are the mean and mean-squared interspike intervals, respectively. From the PSDu we obtain the height of the spectral line of the periodic stimulus as the difference between the peak value and its background offset. The signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) is then given by the ratio of signal peak height to the background height (in the units of spectral resolution of signals).

We have analyzed the spike coherence in the autonomous, nondriven regime (i.e., we use $`I_{\mathrm{ext}}=0`$) as a function of the decreasing cluster size. Our simulation reveals, cf. fig. 1(a), the novel phenomenon of intrinsic coherence resonance , where the order in the spike sequence increases; i.e. the CV is decreasing, solely due to the presence of internal noise. The fully disordered sequence (which corresponds to a Poissonian spike train) would assume the value $`\mathrm{CV}=1`$. We note, however, that near $`S=1\mu \mathrm{m}^2`$ (optimal dose of internal noise), $`\mathrm{CV}0.44`$, i.e. the spike train becomes distinctly more ordered! For $`S<1\mu \mathrm{m}^2`$, the internal noise increases further beyond the optimal value and destroys the order in spiking again. It is worth noting that for $`S<1\mu \mathrm{m}^2`$ the model reaches limiting validity; in that regime the kinetic scheme  should be used instead. Such a corresponding study, however, has been put forward independently by Jung and Shuai ; their results are in qualitative agreement with our findings. Next we switch on an external sinusoidal driving: Interestingly enough the interspike intervals distribution is not affected for small patch sizes, cf. fig. 1(b) for $`S=1\mu \mathrm{m}^2`$. In this case, the spike-activity possesses an internal rhythm which dominates over the external disturbances. For larger patch sizes the internal noise decreases and the periodic drive induces a reduction of the CV as compared to the undriven case, note the right arrow in fig. 1(a). In this latter regime the external driving rules the spiking activity as depicted with the characteristic peaks in the ISIH in fig. 1(c) at multiple driving periods.

Next, the focus is on the SNR in absence of external noise, see fig. 2(a). Here we discover the novel effect of genuine intrinsic stochastic resonance, where the response of the system to the external stimulus is optimized solely due to internal, omnipresent noise. For the given parameters it occurs at $`S32\mu \mathrm{m}^2`$. For $`S<32\mu \mathrm{m}^2`$ growing internal noise monotonically deteriorates the system response. Under such circumstances, one would predict that the addition of an external noise (which corresponds to the conventional situation in biological SR studies) cannot improve SNR further, i.e. conventional SR will not be exhibited. Our numerical simulations, fig. 2(b), fully confirms this prediction. Conventional stochastic resonance therefore occurs only for large membrane patches beyond optimal size, and reaches saturation in the limit $`S\mathrm{}`$ (limit of the deterministic Hodgkin-Huxley model). Thus, the observed biological SR  is rooted in the collective properties of large ion channels arrays, where ion channels are globally coupled via the common membrane potential $`V(t)`$.

In conclusion, we have investigated stochastic and coherence resonance in a noisy generalization of the Hodgkin-Huxley model for excitable biological cell membrane patches. The spontaneous fluctuations of the membrane conductivity due to the individual channel dynamics has systematically been taken into account. We have shown that the excitable membrane patches with an observation area around $`S1\mu \mathrm{m}^2`$ exhibit a rhythmic spiking activity optimized by everpresent internal noise. In other words, the collective dynamics of globally coupled ion channels become more ordered solely due to internal noise. This new effect can be regarded as the intrinsic coherence resonance phenomenon; it presents a first important result of our work. This very finding has also been confirmed independently within a different approach by Jung and Shuai  (see the accompanying paper). A second main result of this study refers to the phenomenon of intrinsic SR; thereby the internal noise alone gives rise to a SR behavior, see fig. 2(a). Conventional SR versus the external noise intensity takes place as well for sufficiently large membrane patches where the internal noise strength alone is not yet at its optimal value. We hence conclude that observed biological SR likely is rooted in the collective properties of globally coupled ion channel assemblies.

The authors gratefully acknowledge the support of this work by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeischaft, SFB 486 Manipulation of matter on the nanoscale, Project A10. Moreover, we acknowledge most helpful and constructive discussions with Peter Jung.


text:
# Ultra-compact dwarf galaxies: a new class of compact stellar system discovered in the Fornax Cluster

## 1. The Fornax Cluster Spectroscopic Survey

Our 2dF Fornax Cluster Spectroscopic Survey (FCSS; Drinkwater et al. 2000a) was designed to make the most complete census possible of low-luminosity galaxies in the Fornax Cluster. Having shown (Drinkwater & Gregg 1998) that compact, high surface brightness dwarf cluster galaxies were missed in previous work, we took the unusual step of observing all objects in each 2dF field, both resolved (“galaxies”) and unresolved (“stars”). In this way we avoided any morphological bias as to what a cluster galaxy should look like. Observing the “stars” in each field greatly increases the number of targets: over 50% of objects with $`16.5<b_J<19.8`$ are stars. However the flexibility of 2dF means this only led to a small increase in total observing time as we scheduled the stars at times when we could not usefully observe galaxies, such as twilight or through cloud.

## 2. Properties of Ultra-compact Dwarfs

The highlight of our results to date has been the discovery of a new population of Fornax Cluster dwarf galaxies so compact they were previously mistaken for Galactic stars (Drinkwater et al. 2000b). The locations of these objects in the cluster is shown in Fig. 1. The 2dF discovery spectra of these compact objects show them to be old stellar systems—no Balmer lines are detected—but we await higher resolution spectra for more detailed classifications. These “ultra-compact dwarf” (UCD) galaxies are unlike any known type of stellar system. They are smaller and more concentrated than any known dwarf galaxy, but are 2-3 magnitudes more luminous than the largest Galactic globular clusters. Their luminosities are compared with other stellar systems in Fig. 2(a). The only known objects they resemble both in luminosity and morphology are the nuclei of nucleated dwarf elliptical galaxies, but without any surrounding low surface brightness envelope. The radial distribution of the UCDs given in Fig. 2(b) shows that they are concentrated to the centre of the cluster, much more than the general population of cluster galaxies or even the nucleated dwarfs. The only distribution on the Figure that resembles that of the UCDs is that proposed for globular clusters formed in situ in the intra-cluster medium as suggested by West et al. (1995).

We have obtained high-resolution images of the UCDs with the STIS instrument on the Hubble Space Telescope (HST) to measure their sizes. From a preliminary analysis of our HST data we have calculated radial profiles of the UCDs shown in Fig. 3. Four of the UCDs and a dE,N nucleus we observed for comparison all have very similar profiles: they are resolved by STIS with FWHM=11–16 pc and de Vaucouleurs effective radii of $`R_e10`$ pc. One of the UCDs (number 3; see Fig. 1) is larger than the rest (FWHM=17 pc, $`R_e300`$ pc). The UCDs are all significantly larger than globular clusters, but they do have similar physical sizes and profiles to the dwarf elliptical nucleus we observed (except for number 3).

## 3. What are Ultra-compact Dwarf galaxies?

We are considering three hypotheses to explain the nature and origin of the UCDs. First they may simply be very massive star clusters, such as the intra-cluster globular clusters proposed by West et al. (1995), although their luminosities remain very high, well beyond those of galactic globular clusters. Perhaps we are seeing the very high-luminosity tail of the globular cluster population associated with NGC 1399.

Our second hypothesis is that these are the stripped nuclei of dwarf galaxies. Previous studies of the very large globular cluster population associated with central cluster galaxies like NCG 1399 in the Fornax Cluster have invoked tidal stripping of dwarf galaxies to explain the globular cluster populations. This process was simulated in some detail by Bassino et al. (1994) who predicted the formation of even larger remnants that might resemble the UCDs. We have performed numerical simulations of tidal stripping of nucleated dwarf galaxies in close orbits around the central galaxy of the cluster, NGC 1399 (Bekki, Couch & Drinkwater 2001). The simulations show that this process is a feasible mechanism for the formation of UCDs. The result of one simulation is shown in Fig. 4. The simulations show that dwarfs in close orbits around NGC 1399 can have their outer stellar envelopes removed in a few orbits (a few Gyr), leaving just the nuclei which we have shown are of similar size to the UCDs.

Finally they may represent an entirely new type of compact galaxy. In this case they mmight be miniature compact ellipticals (like M32). The main test we plan of these different hypotheses is to measure the internal dynamics of the UCDs using high-resolution VLT spectra to measure their velocity dispersions. We will combine these with our HST measurements of their sizes to make estimates of their virial masses and hence their mass-to-light ratios (M/L). We would expect star clusters to have low M/L values, whereas compact galaxies would have higher M/L values, if we assume that they have some dark matter content—there is still no clear prediction on the existence of dark matter halos at these low mass limits.

### Acknowledgments.

This project has only been possible thanks to the superb performance of the 2dF facility, for which we wish to thank the many staff of the Anglo-Australian Observatory involved in its support. We also acknowledge the assistance of our colleagues in the FCSS team. Their names can be found on our web site at http://astro.ph.unimelb.edu.au/data/ where we also provide public access to the data from our first field.

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