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# Radial Velocity Studies of Close Binary Stars. V1footnote 11footnote 1Based on the data obtained at the David Dunlap Observatory, University of Toronto.

## 1 INTRODUCTION

This paper is a continuation of the radial-velocity studies of close binary stars, Lu & Rucinski (1999, Paper I), Rucinski & Lu (1999, Paper II) and Rucinski et al. (2000, Paper III), Lu et al. (2001, Paper IV). The main goals and motivations are described in these papers. In short, we attempt to obtain radial-velocity data for close binary systems which are accessible to 1.8-m class telescopes at medium spectral resolution of about R = 10,000 – 15,000. Selection of the objects is quasi-random in the sense that we have started with short period (mostly contact) binaries and we attempt to slowly progress to longer periods as the project continues. We publish the results in groups of ten systems as soon as reasonable orbital elements are obtained from measurements evenly distributed in orbital phases.

This paper is structured in the same way as Papers I – IV in that most of the data for the observed binaries are in two tables with the radial-velocity measurements (Table Radial Velocity Studies of Close Binary Stars. V111Based on the data obtained at the David Dunlap Observatory, University of Toronto.) and their sine-curve solutions (Table Radial Velocity Studies of Close Binary Stars. V111Based on the data obtained at the David Dunlap Observatory, University of Toronto.). Section 2 of the paper contains brief summaries of previous studies for individual systems. The observations reported in this paper have been collected between October 1996 and February 2001; the ranges of dates for individual systems can be found in Table Radial Velocity Studies of Close Binary Stars. V111Based on the data obtained at the David Dunlap Observatory, University of Toronto.. All systems discussed in this paper have been observed for radial-velocity variations for the first time. We have derived the radial velocities in the same way as described in previous papers. See in particular Paper IV for a discussion of the broadening-function approach used in the derivation of the velocity amplitudes, $`K_i`$, and the center-of-mass velocity, $`V_0`$.

The data in Table Radial Velocity Studies of Close Binary Stars. V111Based on the data obtained at the David Dunlap Observatory, University of Toronto. are organized in the same manner as before. In addition to the parameters of spectroscopic orbits, the table provides information about the relation between the spectroscopically observed epoch of the primary-eclipse T0 and the recent photometric determinations in the form of the (O–C) deviations for the number of elapsed periods E. It also contains our new spectral classifications of the program objects.

For further technical details and conventions used in the paper, please refer to Papers I – IV of this series.

## 2 RESULTS FOR INDIVIDUAL SYSTEMS

### 2.1 V376 And

V376 And is one of the systems discovered by the Hipparcos satellite mission (ESA, 1997, HIP). The early spectral type of the binary is its distinguishing feature. Our estimate is A4V, not as early as the previous estimates (A0), yet early enough to point out that otherwise the system looks like a perfect contact binary of the W UMa-type. There are very few so early-type systems among W UMa-type binaries. The relatively long period, 0.799 days, is consistent with the spectral type.

The light curve shows two equally deep minima, so that the choice of the contact-binary type is somewhat arbitrary. We chose the original ESA (1997) ephemeris which then leads to the A-type system (the more massive star eclipsed at minimum corresponding to our $`T_0`$). Note, however, that $`T_0=`$2,451,510.5416, determined by Keskin et al. (2000) from photometric observations obtained during the span of our spectroscopic observations, must then refer to the secondary minimum. These observations are in perfect agreement with our observations in terms of the initial epoch, if allowance of a half-period is made.

The average $`BV=0.28`$ estimated from Tycho-2 project data Hog (2000, TYC2) agrees with our spectral type if some reddening of $`E_{BV}=0.1`$ is assumed. Then, the maximum-light magnitude444The maximum-light magnitude for this and subsequent stars has been estimated in two ways, with the average value adopted: (1) On the basis of maximum magnitude in HIP ($`Hp`$(5%)) using a correction, $`VHp=0.03+0.155(BV)`$, which is applicable in the range $`0.1<BV<0.8`$, (2) From the average $`V`$ in TYC2, corrected by one-half of the photometric amplitude. $`V_{max}7.63`$ and the HIP parallax $`p=5.07\pm 0.89`$ milli-arcsec (mas) lead to $`M_V=0.85\pm 0.40`$. The period–luminosity–color relation calibrated by Rucinski & Duerbeck (1997, RD97) gives $`M_V=1.1`$. At the large distance of almost 200 pc, the reddening of $`E_{BV}=0.1`$ is entirely possible. The system is apparently one of the intrinsically brightest and bluest contact binaries for which the RD97 calibration appears to apply; the nominal range of the calibration is $`0.26<(BV)_0<1.14`$.

Our radial velocity data are of good quality (Figure Radial Velocity Studies of Close Binary Stars. V111Based on the data obtained at the David Dunlap Observatory, University of Toronto.). The system deserves a combined spectroscopic and photometric analysis because of its rather rarely observed combination of an early-type and of an apparently very normal, unequal mass ($`q=0.305\pm 0.005`$), equal-effective-temperature, contact binary.

### 2.2 EL Aqr

EL Aqr was discovered as a variable star by Hoffmeister (1933) and then re-discovered by Stepien (1968) who correctly identified it as a contact binary system. He determined the period and gave $`V_{max}=10.35`$ and $`BV=0.40`$. While $`V_{max}`$ agrees estimates based on the HIP and TYC2 data, the latter suggest $`BV=0.55`$, which would not agree well with our estimate of the spectral type, F3V, unless the system suffers moderately large reddening of $`E_{BV}0.15`$. The HIP parallax is small and has large error, $`p=4.7\pm 1.9`$, so that the absolute magnitude is poorly determined.

Because of the relative faintness of EL Aqr and usually large zenith distance as seen from the DDO, our radial-velocity observations have relatively large scatter (Figure Radial Velocity Studies of Close Binary Stars. V111Based on the data obtained at the David Dunlap Observatory, University of Toronto.. The system is of the A-type and has a small mass-ratio, $`q=0.203\pm 0.009`$. The ephemeris of Agerer & Huebscher (1999) based on photometric observations obtained during our observations ($`T_0=`$2,451,080.4443) agrees very well with our determination of $`T_0`$.

### 2.3 EF Boo

EF Boo is one of the systems discovered by the Hipparcos satellite mission (ESA, 1997). Our solution is well defined (Figure Radial Velocity Studies of Close Binary Stars. V111Based on the data obtained at the David Dunlap Observatory, University of Toronto.) and shows a typical W-type system, albeit of a rather long orbital period of 0.4205 days. The mass ratio is large, $`q=0.512\pm 0.008`$, as is common for W-type systems. The only peculiarity is the spectral type which shows a complex spectrum consisting of a F5 component and of signatures of a late-G type. We have not been able to detect a third component in the broadening functions, so that the composite spectrum is a bit of a mystery. The mean $`BV=0.57`$ from TYC2 is in fact consistent with a spectral type half way between F5 and late-G. The HIP parallax $`p=6.00\pm 1.06`$ mas is rather small, but the resulting $`M_V=3.15\pm 0.40`$, based on $`V_{max}=9.26`$ agrees with the RD97 calibration, $`M_V=3.47`$, under an assumption of no reddening.

EF Boo was observed photometrically during our observations (Ozdemir et al., 2001). The closest primary eclipse time $`T_0=`$2,451,719.330 agrees perfectly with our determination.

### 2.4 DN Cam

DN Cam is the next system discovered by the Hipparcos satellite mission. It is similar to the one described above, but it is by one magnitude brighter, $`V_{max}=8.14`$. As the result, our observations show very little scatter (Figure Radial Velocity Studies of Close Binary Stars. V111Based on the data obtained at the David Dunlap Observatory, University of Toronto.). The system appears to be an uncomplicated W-type system, again of a rather long orbital period for W-type, 0.4983 days. Our spectral type, F2V, is based on only one spectrum, but it does agree with the TYC2 average $`BV=0.36`$ and no reddening. The parallax is small, $`p=4.49\pm 0.89`$ mas, so that the larger apparent brightness than for EF Boo must be due to a larger intrinsic luminosity. From the parallax, $`M_V=1.4\pm 0.4`$, while the RD97 calibration gives $`M_V(cal)=2.6`$, so that there appears some discrepancy here.

DN Cam has not been observed photometrically since the discovery by Hipparcos. Our determination of $`T_0`$ is fully consistent with the original ephemeris, $`T_0=`$2,448,500.488. It should be noted that the HIP light curve shows practically equally-deep eclipses, so that the matter of the type of the system (A or W) is open and awaits detailed modeling.

### 2.5 FN Cam

FN Cam is another Hipparcos discovery. This time it is an A-type system (Figure Radial Velocity Studies of Close Binary Stars. V111Based on the data obtained at the David Dunlap Observatory, University of Toronto.) with a well defined radial-velocity orbital solution and a moderately long period, 0.6771 days. The original HIP epoch $`T_0=`$2,448,500.427 agrees well with our determination of $`T_0`$. Again, the eclipses are almost equally deep in this case.

Our independent estimates of the spectral type are not entirely consistent, A9 and F2, but suggest at a definitely earlier spectral type than estimated before (G2). The TYC2 value of $`BV=0.41`$ would be consistent with the spectral type only if some reddening of about $`E_{BV}=0.05`$ was present. For $`V_{max}=8.47`$, $`p=3.62\pm 0.95`$ mas, $`M_V=1.1\pm 0.6`$, while $`M_V(cal)=2.0`$. FN Cam has the largest value of $`(M_1+M_2)\mathrm{sin}^3i=2.50\pm 0.07M_{}`$ among the binary systems of this group.

### 2.6 V776 Cas

V776 Cas was discovered by the Hipparcos mission. It appeared in Duerbeck (1997) as V778 Cas with the period two times longer than the actual period of the binary. The binary is a contact, A-type system of a very small mass ratio, $`q=0.130\pm 0.004`$. The HIP light curve has a small amplitude which is consistent with the relatively small $`(M_1+M_2)\mathrm{sin}^3i=0.975\pm 0.026M_{}`$, both most probably due to a low orbital inclination.

The star was observed photometrically after the HIP discovery by Gomez–Forrellad et al. (1999). They did not publish their original eclipse times, but reduced them to the HIP moments. The restored time for the time of their observations, as given in Table Radial Velocity Studies of Close Binary Stars. V111Based on the data obtained at the David Dunlap Observatory, University of Toronto., $`T_0=`$2,450,814.8957, very well agrees with our determination.

Our spectral type, F2V, would agree with the TYC2 average $`BV=0.47`$ if some reddening of about $`E_{BV}=0.1`$ were present. With $`V_{max}=8.92`$ and $`p=4.86\pm 1.56`$, $`M_V=2.0\pm 0.7`$, while the RD97 calibration predicts $`M_V(cal)=2.8`$.

V776 Cas is a brighter member of a visual binary ADS 1485. The companion, at a separation of 5.38 arcsec, is 2 magnitude fainter than the contact binary. We avoided the companion in our radial velocity observations of V776 Cas, but observed its velocity on two occasions, with the following results: HJD = 2451769.800, $`V_r=26.4`$ km/s and HJD = 2451806.715, $`V_r=27.4`$ km/s.

### 2.7 SX Crv

This is definitely the most interesting among this group of binaries because of the extremely small mass ratio that we found, $`q=0.066\pm 0.003`$. This is not only a new “record”, surpassing the well-known case of AW UMa with $`q=0.075`$, but also a bit of embarrassment for the theory which currently predicts a cut-off at about $`q=0.09`$ (Rasio, 1995). The binary is similar to AW UMa in being the extreme mass-ratio A-type system, but its spectral type is slightly later, F6/7V and the period is shorter, 0.3166 days, compared with F0/2V and 0.4387 for AW UMa.

The discovery of spectral signatures of the secondary component in SX Crv was not easy. In fact, without any new photometric data, we unnecessarily collected many observations during conjunctions, assigning our initial inability to detect the secondary to a possible problem with the initial epoch and/or to a variable period. Only later on did we realize that a weak signature of the secondary was detectable in our broadening functions, in spite of the large ratio of masses of 15:1. To calculate the orbital phases, we used the HIP data on the period and the initial epoch ($`T_0=`$2,448,500.1539).

The binary was discovered by Sunwal et al. (1974). Photometry of Scaltriti & Busso (1984) showed a shallow light curve with an amplitude of about 0.2 mag and $`V_{max}8.95`$. Our estimate is slightly fainter, $`V_{max}=8.99`$. The TYC2 color index, $`BV=0.52`$, agrees with our spectral type F6/7V. The HIP parallax is the largest for this group of binaries, $`p=10.90\pm 1.21`$ mas leading to $`M_V=4.18\pm 0.25`$, which is consistent with the RD97 calibration, $`M_V(cal)=3.91`$.

The HIP light curve is rather poorly covered so it is difficult to say if the secondary eclipse of SX Crv is total. It may be actually the case because – for a small $`q`$ – total eclipses take place over a wide range of the inclinations; also, an amplitude as “large” as the observed 0.2 mag. is not easy to obtain for such a small mass ratio without the inclination being sufficiently large to produce total eclipses. $`(M_1+M_2)\mathrm{sin}^3i=0.861\pm 0.028M_{}`$, when related to an expected mass for the spectral type of F6/7V, suggests a moderately low inclination angle, $`i6070`$ degrees. Figure 3 in Mochnacki & Doughty (1972) gives the angle of the internal contact for total eclipses. With $`q=0.066`$, no total secondary eclipses are expected for $`i<66.5`$ degrees, but for inclinations larger than this angle the internal contact angle sensitively depends on $`i`$. For $`i=70`$ degrees and $`q=0.066`$, the internal contact angle already reaches a rather easy to detect value of $`\psi _i14`$ degrees. Thus, detection of totality in the secondary eclipses will provide a powerful check on our spectroscopic determination and a very good opportunity to determine an accurate total mass of the system.

SX Crv deserves a full combined solution based on modern, accurate photometric observations. It is one of the most interesting close binary systems currently known and has a potential of increasing our knowledge of the critical, perhaps final stages in contact, of very close binary systems.

### 2.8 V351 Peg

V351 Peg was discovered by the Hipparcos mission. It is listed in the HIP catalog with the period equal one half of the actual one (0.5933 days), apparently due to the identical depths of the eclipses. We used the period two times longer than in the HIP catalogue, but kept the original initial epoch for consistency with these observations; then the system is of the W-type. The system was subsequently photometrically observed by Gomez–Forrellad et al. (1999). Their published value, advanced to the actual time of the observations, is $`T_0=`$2,450,722.3918. Our determination is fully consistent with this determination.

V351 Peg is a bright star, $`V_{max}=7.92`$, but its HIP parallax is only moderately large, $`p=7.34\pm 0.92`$ mas. The average TYC2 color index $`BV=0.32`$ requires some reddening of $`E_{BV}=0.05`$ to reconcile with our spectral type A8V (the previous spectral type was A9III). With these data, $`M_V=2.09\pm 0.28`$, while $`M_V(cal)=1.94`$. Thus, the star is not as blue and luminous as V376 And described at the beginning of this section, but is nevertheless one of the good examples of an early-type, genuine-contact, unequal component-mass system.

### 2.9 EQ Tau

EQ Tau is the only system in this group which was not observed by the Hipparcos satellite. It is best known for the fact that it is located in the area of Pleiades and sometimes is mentioned in this context (Popova & Kraicheva, 1984). However a note in the General Catalogue of Variable Stars (Kholopov et al., 1985–1988) specifically mentions that the system is not a member of Pleiades, probably on the basis that it is too faint to be located on or above the main sequence of the cluster.

The binary was discovered and observed by Tsesevich (1954). New photometric observations were obtained by Benbow & Mutel (1995) and Buckner et al. (1998). We have used the more recent of these eclipse time predictions, $`T_0=`$2,450,396.925 with $`P=0.3413471`$ days, which served our spectroscopic observations very well.

EQ Tau is too faint to be included in the HIP catalog, but appears in TYC2 with the average $`V=11.28`$, $`BV=0.98`$. The color index is much redder than implied by our spectral type, G2, although this estimate is uncertain. Possibly the star is reddened by the interstellar matter in the Pleiades cluster. The proper motion of the star is exceptionally large, in fact the largest among stars of this group, $`\mu _\alpha \mathrm{cos}(\delta )=+68.4\pm 1.4`$ mas, $`\mu _\delta =29.6\pm 1.5`$ mas. If we assume that the star is at the distance of Pleiades and use the Pleiades parallax following van Leeuwen (1999), $`p=8.45\pm 0.25`$ mas (118 pc), then $`V_\alpha =+38`$ km/s, $`V_\delta =17`$ km/s and $`M_V5.5`$. For an assumed larger, arbitrary, but plausible distance of 200 pc ($`p=5`$ mas), $`V_\alpha =+65`$ km/s, $`V_\delta =28`$ km/s and $`M_V4.3`$. The large spatial velocity is certainly strongly indicated by our center-of-mass velocity, $`V_0=+72`$ km/s. Thus, the star, even if not a member of Pleiades, is very interesting as a large spatial-motion object. Despite relative faintness of EQ Tau for our telescope, its spectroscopic orbit is relatively well defined (Figure Radial Velocity Studies of Close Binary Stars. V111Based on the data obtained at the David Dunlap Observatory, University of Toronto.).

### 2.10 KZ Vir

KZ Vir is another HIP discovery which, apparently, has not been observed photometrically since; for that reason we used $`T_0=`$2,448,500.3165 from the HIP catalog. KZ Vir has been included in our program mostly because of its large apparent brightness ($`V_{max}=8.36`$). It is an interesting object: If it is a contact binary, then it has a surprisingly late spectral type, F7, for its relatively long orbital period of 1.13 days. The mass ratio is not typical for majority of contact binaries, $`q=0.85`$, but such rare systems occasionally exist.

The average TYC2 value of $`BV=0.48`$ agrees with the spectral type of F7. The HIP parallax, $`p=6.53\pm 0.93`$, with assumed no reddening, gives $`M_V=2.43\pm 0.32`$. This luminosity estimate is in some conflict with the RD97 contact-binary calibration predicting a much larger brightness, $`M_V(cal)=1.33`$. This is a strong indication that the system has much less radiating area than a contact system and is a close, but detached binary.

The velocity amplitudes are relatively small, which would be consistent with the small photometric amplitude (0.07 mag.), both probably caused by a low orbital inclination. The small photometric amplitude could also result from a moderate distortion of its detached components.

## 3 SUMMARY

The paper presents radial-velocity data and orbital solutions for the fifth group of ten close binary systems that we observed at the David Dunlap Observatory. None was observed spectroscopically before. All systems are double-lined (SB2) binaries with visible spectral lines of both components. All, with the possible exception of KZ Vir with the period of 1.13 days, are contact binaries. The values of $`(M_1+M_2)\mathrm{sin}^3i=1.0385\times 10^7(K_1+K_2)^3P(\mathrm{day})M_{}`$ are given in Table Radial Velocity Studies of Close Binary Stars. V111Based on the data obtained at the David Dunlap Observatory, University of Toronto..

Although our selection of targets is quite unsystematic, we keep discovering very interesting objects. Seven of the systems are new photometric discoveries of the Hipparcos project. The magnitude-limited nature of the HIP survey has led to an emphasis on relatively luminous, massive, early-type (middle-A to early-F) systems. V376 And, DN Cam, FN Cam, V776 Cas, V351 Peg are such binaries; they have typical properties of contact systems, with the mass ratio far from unity.

The most interesting discovery of this series is undoubtedly the very small mass ratio of SX Crv, $`q=0.066\pm 0.003`$. This becomes now the smallest known mass ratio among contact binaries, taking the record from the well-known AW UMa. The detection of the low-mass companion was possible mostly thanks to the superior capabilities of the linear SVD broadening-function approach (Rucinski, 1999). Together with $`q=0.970\pm 0.003`$ determined in Paper III for V753 Mon, our spectroscopic observations have resulted in a widest opening up of the mass-ratio domain of contact binaries. The very small mass ratio for SX Crv strongly suggests that AW UMa is not an exception and that mass ratios smaller than the theoretically predicted lower limit of $`q_{min}0.09`$ (Rasio, 1995) certainly exist.

The authors would like to thank Jim Thomson, Mel Blake, Anita Chung, Chun Du and Chris Capobianco for participating in our program and Frank Fekel for providing us a list of early-type standard stars which we frequently use. Support from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Council of Canada to SMR is acknowledged with gratitude. The research has made use of the SIMBAD database, operated at the CDS, Strasbourg, France and accessible through the Canadian Astronomy Data Centre, which is operated by the Herzberg Institute of Astrophysics, National Research Council of Canada.

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# Evolution of Dusty Disks in Nearby Young Stellar Groups

## 1. Introduction

Planetary systems are thought to form out of circumstellar disks that are the remnants of star formation (Shu, Adams, & Lizano 1987). Observations of young pre-main-sequence (PMS) stars show that many of them are surrounded by optically-thick disks of solar system dimensions with masses comparable to or greater than the “minimum-mass solar nebula” of 0.01 $`M_{}`$ (see Beckwith 1999 for a review). Infrared emission in excess of stellar photospheric fluxes provides the most readily measurable signature of such disks. Excesses at $`\lambda `$ 10 $`\mu `$m are found in $``$50–90% of the low-mass stars in star-forming regions (Strom et al. 1993; Lada et al. 2000).

It has been suggested that circumstellar disks evolve from optically thick to optically thin structures in about 10 Myr (Strom et al. 1993). That transition may mark the assembly of grains into planetesimals, or clearing of the disk by planets. Indeed, low-mass debris disks have now been imaged around several main-sequence stars with ages ranging from 10 Myr to 500 Myr (e.g., Jayawardhana et al. 1998; Holland et al. 1998; Greaves et al. 1998). Since age estimates for early-type isolated main sequence stars are highly uncertain, however, the timescale for disk evolution and planet formation is poorly constrained, and may depend critically on the presence or absence of a close binary companion.

The nearby young stellar groups provide a unique opportunity to investigate the evolution of circumstellar disks into planetary systems. Because of their proximity, these groups are ideally suited for sensitive disk searches at near- and mid-infrared wavelengths. Furthermore, their age range of 1-50 Myrs provides a strong constraint on disk evolution timescales and fills a significant gap in the age sequence between $``$1-Myr-old T Tauri stars in molecular clouds like Taurus-Auriga and Chamaeleon and the $``$50-Myr-old open clusters such as IC 2602 and IC 2391 (Jayawardhana 2000).

## 2. TW Hydrae Association

The TW Hydrae Association (TWA) consists of $``$22 co-moving stellar systems (Webb 2001 and references therein) with estimated ages of $``$10 Myr at a distance of 47–67 pc and dispersed over some 20 degrees on the sky. The members are mostly late-type stars, typically K and M spectral types, and include several binary systems as well as one remarkable quadruple system (HD 98800). There is only one early-type star (HR 4796A).

Over the past three years, we have obtained mid-infrared observations of TW Hya stars using the OSCIR instrument on the Keck II and CTIO 4-meter telescopes. We found that many of the TWA stars have little or no disk emission at 10 $`\mu `$m. Even among the five stellar systems with 10$`\mu `$m excesses, most show some evidence of inner disk evolution. We imaged a spatially-resolved dust disk around the young A star HR 4796A (Jayawardhana et al. 1998; Telesco et al. 2000; Fig. 1). The surface brightness distribution of the disk is consistent with the presence of an inner disk hole of $``$50 AU radius, as was first suggested by Jura et al. (1993) based on the infrared spectrum. The SEDs of HD 98800 and Hen 3-600A also suggest possible inner disk holes (Jayawardhana et al. 1999a; 1999b). The excess we detected for CD -337795 is modest, and could well be due to a faint companion. Only TW Hya appears to harbor an optically-thick, actively accreting disk of the kind observed in $``$1-Myr-old classical T Tauri stars; it is the only one with a large H$`\alpha `$ equivalent width (-220 Å). Recent polarimetric images using the adaptive optics system on Gemini North confirm a nearly face-on disk around TW Hya (D. Potter, private communication), previously detected in scattered light by WFPC2 (Krist et al. 2000) and NICMOS (Weinberger et al. 1999) on HST and in millimeter emission by the VLA (Wilner 2001). However, even in TW Hya, there is evidence for dust settling in the inner disk (D’Alessio 2001) and lower accretion rates (Muzerolle et al. 2001) compared to classical T Tauri stars (CTTS) in Taurus.

If most TWA stars are $``$10 Myr old, the above results suggest that their inner disks have already depleted either through coagulation of dust or accretion on to the central star. The fact that only one (TW Hya) out of 16 systems we observed shows classical T Tauri characteristics (compared to $``$50–90% of $``$1-Myr-old stars in star-forming regions) argues for rapid evolution of inner disks in pre-main-sequence stars. However, it is unlikely that there is a universal evolutionary timescale for protoplanetary disks, especially when the influence of companion stars is taken into account. For example, we have detected thermal emission from a dusty disk around the primary, but not the secondary, in the Hen 3-600 binary system (Jayawardhana et al. 1999a). Comparison with the median spectral energy distribution of classical T Tauri stars suggests that the disk around Hen 3-600A may be truncated by the secondary. Sitko et al. (2000) find that the 10$`\mu `$m silicate emission feature in TW Hya is similar to that of other CTTS whereas it is weaker in HD 988000 and almost non-detectable in HR 4796A.

## 3. $`\eta `$ Chamaeleontis

$`\eta `$ Cha is a compact cluster of about a dozen stars at $``$97 pc, far from any obvious molecular material (Mamajek, Lawson & Feigelson 1999). Among the 12 previously known members of the $`\eta `$ Cha cluster, only 2 have H$`\alpha `$ equivalent widths larger than 10 Å , suggestive of disk accretion. Preliminary results of our February 2001 mid-infrared observations using the TIMMI2 instrument on the ESO 3.6-meter telescope confirm that none of these 12 stars have large excesses consistent with optically-thick disks. However, Lawson (2001) reports the identification of a new CTTS assciated with the cluster, and another member (RECX 11) is listed in the IRAS Faint Source Catalog as showing a far-infrared excess. Other $`\eta `$ Cha stars may have optically thin disks with central cavities, as is the case in several TWA stars, but our analysis is not yet complete.

## 4. MBM 12

Based on ROSAT detections and ground-based follow-up optical spectroscopy, Hearty et al. (2000) identified 8 late-type young stars in the high-latitude cloud MBM12 as well as two main-sequence stars in the same line-of-sight which may or may not be related. While there is some uncertainty in the distance to MBM 12 (Luhman 2001), it is likely to be a younger group than TW Hya and $`\eta `$ Cha, perhaps only 1-3 Myr in age.

Recently, we have conducted the first investigation of protoplanetary disks in the MBM 12 group, using mid-infrared imaging with Keck and UKIRT and optical spectroscopy with the Kitt Peak 4-meter telescope (Jayawardhana et al. 2001). The ($`KL`$) and ($`KN`$) colors we derived unambiguosly show significant mid-infrared excess from six MBM 12 stars –LkH$`\alpha `$ 262, LkH$`\alpha `$ 263, LkH$`\alpha `$ 264, E02553+2018, RXJ0258.3+1947 and S18. In all six cases, the colors are consistent with thermal emission from optically-thick inner disks. The other two PMS stars –RXJ0255.4+2005 and RXJ0306.5+1921– do not show a measurable mid-infrared excess within the photometric errors, allowing us to rule out such disks. HD 17332 and RXJ0255.3+1915, the two main-sequence stars in the line-of-sight to MBM 12, also lack evidence of warm circumstellar material. Four of the objects –LkH$`\alpha `$ 262, LkH$`\alpha `$ 263, LkH$`\alpha `$ 264 and E02553+2018– show two components in the H$`\alpha `$ line, and are probably close binaries (Fig. 2). An H$`\alpha `$ equivalent width greater than 10 Å is generally considered to be the accretion signature of a classical T Tauri star with a circumstellar disk (Herbig & Bell 1988). A smaller equivalent width signifies chromospheric activity, but no accretion. Therefore, mid-infrared excess we measure should be correlated with large H$`\alpha `$ line widths. Indeed, this generally holds true for MBM 12 stars with one notable exception: E02553+2018 has a large mid-infrared excess but weak H$`\alpha `$ line emission. We tentatively suggest that E02553+2018 is a candidate for harboring circumbinary dust.

The disk fraction we find in MBM 12 –75%– falls in the middle of the range reported for other star-forming regions like Taurus and Trapezium, but is significantly higher than in TWA and $`\eta `$ Cha. Preliminary results of recent 3mm OVRO observations of MBM 12 stars suggest that their disk masses fall in the low-mass tail of the Taurus CTTS distribution (Hogerheijde et al. 2001).

### Acknowledgments.

RJ holds a Miller Research Fellowship. This work was supported in part by a NASA grant administered by the AAS.

## References

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# CMB constraints on spatial variations of the vacuum energy density

## I Introduction

Recent Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB)  and type Ia supernovae  data have provided some reasonably strong evidence for an accelerating local universe, implying that most of the ‘missing mass’ of the universe should be in a non-clustered form, such as a cosmological constant or quintessence.

Yet it is well known that these measurements are mostly local, so one should be especially careful in the way they are used. In particular, it is almost always assumed that the equation of state of the dark matter is constant for low redshifts. However, this is by no means well justified, and a redshift dependence would arise if there are space and/or non-trivial time variations of the cosmological parameters.

Two ‘natural’ ways in which this would happen are quintessence models with a non-trivial equation of state, and models where a late-time phase transition  produces wall-like defects which separate regions with different values of the cosmological parameters, notably the matter and vacuum energy densities (and hence also the Hubble constant). Note that even though the motivations for the two types of models are quite different, their observational consequences can be fairly similar, and distinguishing between the two may be a non-trivial task.

In a recent paper , three of the present authors have introduced a very simple ‘toy model’ that aims to mimic this type of cosmological scenario with a minimal number of free parameters. It assumes that we live inside a spherical bubble with a given set of cosmological parameters, which is surrounded by a region where these parameters are different. In terms of redshift, there will be a single discrete jump on in these parameters as one goes through the wall. A perhaps more realistic, but also definitely more complicated toy model (in the sense of having more free parameters) would be one with various different ‘shells’, and hence several jumps in the cosmological parameters at various redshifts. Ultimately, one could get to the continuous limit where one has the cosmological parameters varying as continuous functions of redshift in a non-trivial way. Something along these lines is discussed in .

In our previous work , we have used the recent measurements of the luminosity versus redshift relation using Type Ia supernovae, which have now been observed out to $`z1.7`$ , to constrain the simplest models of this type. It was found that presently available observations are only constraining at very low redshifts $`z\text{ }<0.5`$ (as was to be expected), but it was also independently confirmed that the high red-shift supernovae data does prefer a relatively large positive cosmological constant.

Here we will discuss the constraints on this type of models coming from CMB data, while also allowing for a further effect. Indeed, we allow for the possibility that we are not at the centre of the inner domain or, in other words, that there is a further anisotropic component in the CMB. Obviously the observed near-isotropy of the CMB will impose quite strong constraints on our position, but it is still important to determine how much freedom is allowed if one considers that part of the observed anisotropy comes from such a displacement.

In the next section we briefly review our toy model and discuss the evolution of cosmological perturbations within its framework. In Sect. III we show, mainly as an amusing interlude, how one could design a ‘mimic model’ of this kind which would reproduce the CMB spectrum predicted by standard paradigms such as inflation. Our main results are presented and discussed in Sect. IV, and we conclude in Sect. V.

## II Cosmological perturbations in a spherical bubble model

We shall again consider a simplified model in which the universe consists of a spherically symmetric region (domain) with a given set of cosmological parameters, which is surrounded by another region where the values of the cosmological parameters (in particular, that of the vacuum energy density) are different. We shall refer to these two values of the vacuum energy density as $`V_{}`$ and $`V_+`$ respectively. Note that the cosmological parameters will in general be different in both regions, but their variations are not totally independent—they are such as to make the universe flat both inside and outside the domain (this point is discussed in detail in ).

As in our previous work , we assume that the red-shift of the domain wall, as measured by an observer at the centre of the inner spherical domain, is $`z_{}`$. However, we now allow for the possibility that we are not at the centre of the domain. Specifically, we assume that we live a red-shift $`z_\mathrm{\Delta }z_{}`$ away from this ‘central’ observer.

Again, we are assuming that the thin region separating the two domains considered (domain wall) does not generate relevant CMB fluctuations. This happens if the potential of the field is small enough at the origin . We shall also assume that the domain walls are frozen in comoving coordinates, which again will be a good approximation provided that friction is important .

We shall parametrize the vacuum energy density by

$$\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }\frac{V_{}}{\rho _c},$$
(1)
where $`\rho _c`$ is the critical density, and we define $`\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ as

$$\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }(r)=\frac{\delta \rho _\mathrm{\Lambda }(r)}{\rho _c}=\frac{\rho _\mathrm{\Lambda }(r)V_{}}{\rho _c},$$
(2)
where $`\rho _\mathrm{\Lambda }(r)`$ is the vacuum energy density at the point in question. Hence, this can have two possible values: $`0`$ if we are inside the inner region, and $`(V_+V_{})/\rho _c`$ in the outer domain.

In the conformal-Newtonian gauge, the line-element for a flat Friedmann-Robertson-Walker background and scalar metric perturbations can be written as

$$ds^2=a^2(\eta )\left[(1+2\mathrm{\Phi })c^2d\eta ^2(12\mathrm{\Phi })(dr^2+r^2d\theta ^2+r^2\mathrm{sin}^2\theta d\varphi ^2)\right],$$
(3)
assuming that the anisotropic stresses are small. Here, $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$ is the metric perturbation, $`c`$ is the speed of light in vacuum, $`a`$ is the scale factor, $`\eta `$ is the conformal time, and $`r`$, $`\theta `$ and $`\varphi `$ are spatial coordinates.

Given that the vacuum energy becomes dominant only for recent epochs we shall be concerned with the evolution of perturbations only in the matter-dominated era, thus neglecting the contribution of the radiation component. The evolution of the scale factor $`a`$ is governed by the Friedmann equation***A dot denotes a derivative with respect to conformal time, $`=\dot{a}/a`$, the index ‘0’ means that the quantities are to be evaluated at the present time and we have taken $`a_0=1`$ and $`_0=1`$ (so that the conformal time is measured in units of $`_0^1`$)., which can be written as

$$^2=\mathrm{\Omega }_m^0a^1+\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }^0a^2.$$
(4)
Note that the background matter and vacuum energy densities at an arbitrary epoch can be written as

$$\mathrm{\Omega }_m=\frac{\mathrm{\Omega }_m^0}{\mathrm{\Omega }_m^0+\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }^0a^3}$$
(5)
and $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }=1\mathrm{\Omega }_m`$.

The linear evolution equation of the scalar perturbations is given by (see for example )

$$\ddot{\mathrm{\Phi }}+3\dot{\mathrm{\Phi }}+[2\dot{}+^2]\mathrm{\Phi }=4\pi Ga^2\delta p=\frac{3}{2}a^2\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }^0,$$
(6)
where $`\delta p`$ is the pressure perturbation and

$$2\dot{}=\mathrm{\Omega }_m^0a^1+2\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }^0a^2.$$
(7)
Given that the source term in the outer domain ($`a^2\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }^0`$) is only important near the present time, we assume the following initial conditions for eq. (6):

$$\mathrm{\Phi }(0)=0,\dot{\mathrm{\Phi }}(0)=0,$$
(8)
both in the inner and the outer regions. We note that since the source term is absent in the inner region, the metric perturbation is always zero there.

The novel feature of this type of model is that in the presence of the scalar metric perturbations defined by eqn. (6) there is a shift in the CMB temperature given by

$$\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }T}{T}=2\mathrm{\Phi }_+.$$
(9)
where $`\mathrm{\Phi }_+`$ is the value of $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$ in the outer region at the time when the light crossed the domain wall (recall that here we are assuming that $`\mathrm{\Phi }=0`$ in the inner region). This temperature shift is due to the relative velocity between comoving observers on either side of the domain wall.

In order to compute the spectrum of CMB fluctuations generated in this model as a function of its parameters (given the values of $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m^0`$ and $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }^0`$) we need to calculate the time when the CMB radiation that reaches us today crossed the domain wall. This, of course, depends on the direction we are looking at if we’re not at the centre of the inner bubble.

We will parametrize this direction by the angle $`\theta =𝐧𝐧_{cl}`$ where the unit vector $`𝐧`$ defines an arbitrary direction on the sky and $`𝐧_{cl}𝐫/|𝐫|`$ where $`𝐫`$ is the vector that points from the observer on earth to the closest point on the domain wall. Using the Friedmann equation it is straightforward to compute the comoving distances $`d(z_{})`$ and $`d(z_\mathrm{\Delta })`$ corresponding to the red-shifts $`z_{}`$ and $`z_\mathrm{\Delta }`$,

$$d(z)=c_0^z\frac{dz^{}}{\left[\mathrm{\Omega }_m^0(1+z^{})^3+\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }^0\right]^{1/2}}.$$
(10)
We find it useful to parametrize our position within the bubble by

$$ϵ\frac{d(z_\mathrm{\Delta })}{d(z_{})},$$
(11)
that is, the ratio of our comoving distance to the bubble centre and the comoving bubble radius. On the other hand, the comoving distance to the domain wall as seen by us as a function of the angle $`\theta `$ is given by

$$D(\theta )=\sqrt{(d(z_{})\mathrm{cos}\theta d(z_\mathrm{\Delta }))^2+(d(z_{})\mathrm{sin}\theta )^2},$$
(12)
and the conformal time when the CMB radiation that reaches us today crossed the domain wall at that particular direction is then simply given by

$$\eta (\theta )=\eta _0\frac{D(\theta )}{c}.$$
(13)
The value of $`\mathrm{\Phi }_+(\theta )\mathrm{\Phi }(\eta )`$ can now be calculated using eqn. (6).

Before moving on to discuss the results of this analysis in Sect. IV, we make a brief detour to discuss an interesting property of this type of models.

## III A mimic model

Let us assume for the sake of simplicity that $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m=1`$ and $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }=0`$ such that eq. (6) becomes

$$\ddot{\mathrm{\Phi }}+\frac{6}{\eta }\dot{\mathrm{\Phi }}=\eta ^6\frac{(\eta ^6\dot{\mathrm{\Phi }})}{\eta }=\frac{3}{8}\eta ^2\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }^0,$$
(14)
where we have made use of the fact that with our conventions one has $`a=\eta ^2/\eta _0^2`$ and $`\eta _0=2_0^1=2`$. Solving this equation with the boundary conditions

$$\mathrm{\Phi }(0)=0,\dot{\mathrm{\Phi }}(0)=0,$$
(15)
in the outer region we obtain

$$\mathrm{\Phi }(\eta )=\frac{1}{96}\eta ^4\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }^0=\frac{1}{6}(1+z)^2\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }^0.$$
(16)
Let us consider a domain wall which is at a red-shift $`z`$ from us. Consider small spatial fluctuations in the red-shift of the domain wall parametrized by $`\mathrm{\Delta }z(\theta ,\varphi )`$ where $`\theta `$ and $`\varphi `$ are angular coordinates. These fluctuations will induce CMB perturbations with

$$\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }T}{T}=2\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Phi }_+=\frac{2}{3}\mathrm{\Delta }z(1+z)^3\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }^0.$$
(17)
where we have subtracted the multipole of order $`0`$ of the CMB fluctuations. This has been done for a flat matter dominated background but it is obvious to see that it can be done more generally.

This demonstrates that it would be possible in general to generate any spectrum of CMB fluctuations by an appropriate design of the domain wall. It would, of course, be extremely unlikely that a domain wall would have the precise shape necessary to produce the CMB spectrum predicted in popular models for the origin of CMB and large scale structure (e.g. inflation). However, it would not be so implausible that this model could have some kind of impact on the CMB fluctuations.

Irrespective of the likelihood of this model, we think it serves to highlight an important point, namely that a good test to the predictions of current models for structure formation consists in studying to what extent these could be produced by other models (even if they might seem unlikely in the light of our current theoretical prejudices).

## IV Results and discussion

Our results can be conveniently summarized by figs. 1 and 2. We have assumed that the present local universe is characterized by cosmological densities $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m^0=0.3`$ and $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }^0=0.7`$, and calculated the maximum value allowed by currently existing observations for $`\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }^0`$ in the outer domain ($`\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }^{\mathrm{max}}`$) as a function of the parameters $`ϵ`$ and $`z_{}`$. Figs. 1 and 2 show the result of this calculation for the dipole and quadrupole measured by COBE .

As expected, there are no direct CMB constraints, to first order, if we happen to be at the centre of the domain, and they become progressively tighter as we move away from this position. We note that if the observer is right at the centre of the spherical domain, a further (second-order) contribution would come from the integrated Sachs-Wolfe effect. Being second order, this would be subdominant everywhere except extremely close to the centre ($`ϵ0`$), and in this limit the supernovae constraints discussed in  are currently much stronger. For this reason we have ignored this effect in the present analysis, although it should be considered in the future when more precise data becomes available.

Also as expected, there are no constraints in the limits of an infinitely small ($`z_{}0`$) or infinitely large ($`z_{}\mathrm{}`$) inner region. This means that for any given $`ϵ`$ there will be some intermediate value of the redshift for which the the allowed variation in the vacuum energy density is minimal. In fact it turns out that, at least to a first approximation, this particular redshift is independent of our position within the bubble (which is measured by $`ϵ`$). For the currently favoured cosmological model, with $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m^0=0.3`$ and $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }^0=0.7`$, this redshift is found to be $`z2.2`$. We also point out that, the quadrupole constraints (Fig 2) are, in general, much stronger than the dipole constraints (Fig 1). This is due to the much larger amplitude of the observed dipole CMB anisotropy compared with the quadrupole.

Several models attempting to reconstruct the matter distribution from the observed velocity field have been proposed. However, even the best ones are left with an unexplained relatively high residual velocity of $`200kms^1`$, too large to be an unknown motion of our galaxy with respect to the Local Group reference frame (see for example ). The possibility that this discrepancy might be explained by a model such as the ‘bubble’ model presented in this paper is, however, unfavoured by our results. The relatively large values of $`\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }^{\mathrm{max}}`$ allowed by the COBE dipole make this possibility rather unlikely.

In any case, our analysis confirms the intuitive expectation that the CMB constraints on anisotropies of this kind are extremely tight, or in other words that if such a model is a realistic approximation to the evolution of the universe, then we must be very close to the centre of the domain. Still another way of saying it is that, if non-trivial variations of the cosmological parameters as a function of the redshift did occur in the past, they are more likely to result from scenarios where the redshift variations are the result of time variations which maintain spatial homogeneity or isotropy (such as quintessence models, for example), since in scenarios where there are also spatial variations we are forced by current observations to occupy a fairly privileged (and arguably unlikely) position.

## V Conclusions

In an earlier work we have introduced a very simple ‘spherical bubble’ toy model for a spatially varying vacuum energy density, and type Ia supernovae data was used to constrain it. Here we have generalized this model, in order to account for the possibility that we may not be at the centre of a region with a given set of cosmological parameters. We have then discussed the constraints on this model coming from CMBR data. As expected, any significant deviations from isotropy are tightly constrained.

Ultimately, our toy model aims to be a simple mimic for non-trivial variations of cosmological parameters. As we have pointed out before, these variations as one probes higher redshifts could result either from genuine time-variations (an example of which would be quintessence models with a non-trivial equation of state) or from spatial variations (an example of which would be models where late-time phase transitions produce a domain-like structure).

The present work, together with  quantitatively confirms the intuitive expectation that models with spatial variations are much more constrained, in the sense that the near-isotropy of the CMBR imposes quite strong restrictions on our position within such a domain, whereas no such constraints exist in the case of genuine time variations. Obviously, our toy model is rather simplified, and a more detailed analysis is required to constrain specific models. We shall return to this interesting topic in a future publication.

###### Acknowledgements.

C. M. is grateful for the hospitality at IAP and DARC (Observatoire de Paris-Meudon), where this work was completed. A. C. and C. M. are funded by FCT (Portugal) under “Programa PRAXIS XXI” (grant nos. PRAXISXXI/BPD/18826/98 and FMRH/BPD/1600/2000 respectively). We thank “Centro de Astrofísica da Universidade do Porto” (CAUP) for the facilities provided.


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# Lattice animals on a staircase and generalized Fibonacci numbers

## 1 Introduction

A lattice animal is a connected cluster of occupied sites on a lattice or the corresponding cluster of occupied cells on the dual lattice, also called a polyomino. In two dimensions, animals can be enumerated either according to their area, the number of sites belonging to a cluster, or according to their perimeter, the number of vacant sites which are first neighbours of occupied sites.

The enumeration problem is quite difficult in general. Only some bounds on the asymptotic behaviour are known . For restricted classes of animals such as Ferrers graphs, convex and/or directed animals, some exact results have been obtained during the last two decades . A review of the state of the problem before 1996 can be found in .

In the present work, we consider lattice animals resulting from the stacking of squares on a staircase with step height $`p`$. Two square faces are connected when they share an edge as shown in figure 1. Such animals are called column-convex or vertically convex because the intersection of a vertical line with the perimeter generates at most two connected components. The enumeration problem and the morphology of the animals involve the generalized Fibonacci numbers $`F_p(k)`$. The case $`p=0`$, which corresponds to the stacking of squares on a line, is well known (see  for example). With $`p=1`$, a case recently considered in , one obtains a relation with the ordinary Fibonacci numbers $`F_k=F_1(k)`$. A similar connection has been noticed a long time ago between column-convex directed animals and ordinary Fibonacci numbers with odd indices

In section 2, the number of animals with area $`k`$ living on $`l`$ stairs is deduced from their generating function. Their total number is given by the generalized Fibonacci numbers $`F_p(k)`$. In sections 3 and 4, we obtain exact expressions for the mean length and mean height of an animal with area $`k`$. The asymptotic behaviour is discussed in section 5.

## 2 Number of animals

We consider animals with area $`k`$ living on $`l`$ stairs in a staircase with step height $`p`$ as shown in figure 1. In order to calculate their number $`F_p(k,l)`$, we introduce the generating function

$$F_p(z,t)=\underset{k,l=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}F_p(k,l)z^kt^l$$
(1)
which satisfies the following relation:

$`F_p(z,t)`$ $`=`$ $`t(z+z^2+\mathrm{}+z^p)+t{\displaystyle \frac{z^{p+1}}{1z}}[1+F_p(z,t)]`$ (2)
$`=`$ $`tz{\displaystyle \frac{1z^p}{1z}}+t{\displaystyle \frac{z^{p+1}}{1z}}[1+F_p(z,t)].`$
The first term corresponds to animals with up to $`p`$ squares stacked on a single stair. In the second term, the first factor corresponds to a column with more than $`p`$ squares on the lowest stair, such that the animal may or not continue to grow on the next stair, as indicated in the second factor.

Equation (2) leads to the generating function

$$F_p(z,t)=\frac{tz}{1ztz^{p+1}}$$
(3)
which can be expanded to give:

$`F_p(z,t)`$ $`=`$ $`tz{\displaystyle \underset{m=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}z^m(1+tz^p)^m={\displaystyle \underset{m=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}{\displaystyle \underset{n}{}}\left({\displaystyle \genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{m}{n}}\right)z^{m+pn+1}t^{n+1}`$ (4)
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{l1}{}}{\displaystyle \underset{k=(p+1)(l1)+1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}\left({\displaystyle \genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{kp(l1)1}{l1}}\right)z^kt^l.`$
Comparing equations (1) and (4), the number of animals with area $`k`$ living on $`l`$ stairs is given by

$$F_p(k,l)=\left(\genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{kp(l1)1}{l1}\right)$$
(5)
when $`k(p+1)(l1)+1`$ and vanishes otherwise. This expression can be rewritten as

$$F_p(k,l)=\left(\genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{l+m1}{l1}\right),m=kk_{min}=k[(l1)(p+1)+1],$$
(6)
where $`k_{min}`$ is the number of squares needed to cover $`l`$ successive stairs with a minimal connected cluster forming the basis of an animal, as shown in figure 1. Thus $`F_p(k,l)`$ is also the number of unconstrained configurations of the remaining $`m=kk_{min}`$ squares, placed on top of this basis, which is given by the binomial coefficient in (6).

From the addition/induction relation for the binomial coefficients,

$$\left(\genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{m+1}{n+1}\right)=\left(\genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{m}{n+1}\right)+\left(\genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{m}{n}\right)$$

we deduce the following recursion relation:

$$F_p(k+1,l+1)=F_p(k,l+1)+F_p(kp,l),kpl+1.$$
(7)
The total number of animals with area $`k`$ is given by:

$$F_p(k)=\underset{l=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}F_p(k,l)=\underset{0m\frac{k1}{p+1}}{}\left(\genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{kpm1}{m}\right).$$
(8)
Its generating function is obtained by setting $`t=1`$ in (3) and reads:

$$F_p(z)=\frac{z}{1zz^{p+1}}.$$
(9)
According to (7) and (8), $`F_p(k)`$ satistifies the recursion relation for the generalized Fibonacci numbers:

$$F_p(k+1)=F_p(k)+F_p(kp),F_p(1)=\mathrm{}=F_p(p+1)=1.$$

## 3 Mean length

We define the mean length of an animal with area $`k`$ as the mean number of successive stairs it occupies:

$$\overline{l_p}(k)=\frac{A_p(k)}{F_p(k)},A_p(k)=\underset{l=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}lF_p(k,l).$$
(10)
Introducing the generating function

$$A_p(z)=\underset{k=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}A_p(k)z^k$$

and making use of equations (1), (3) and (9), we obtain:

$`A_p(z)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{F_p(z,t)}{t}}|_{t=1}={\displaystyle \frac{z}{1zz^{p+1}}}+{\displaystyle \frac{z^{p+2}}{(1zz^{p+1})^2}}`$
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1z}{z}}\left({\displaystyle \frac{z}{1zz^{p+1}}}\right)^2=(z^11)F_p^2(z).`$
With $`F_p^2(z)=_{k=2}^{\mathrm{}}F_p^{(2)}(k)z^k`$, the last equation leads to:

$$A_p(k)=[z^k](z^11)F_p^2(z)=F_p^{(2)}(k+1)F_p^{(2)}(k)$$
(11)
where $`[z^k]f(z)`$ is the coefficient of $`z^k`$ in $`f(z)`$. According to (9) we have

$$(1zz^{p+1})F_p^2(z)=\frac{z^2}{1zz^{p+1}}=zF_p(z)$$

so that:

$`F_p(k)`$ $`=`$ $`[z^k]F_p(z)=[z^k](z^11z^p)F_p^2(z)`$ (12)
$`=`$ $`F_p^{(2)}(k+1)F_p^{(2)}(k)F_p^{(2)}(kp).`$
Hence, combining (10), (11) and (12), the mean length can be rewritten as:

$$\overline{l_p}(k)=1+\frac{F_p^{(2)}(kp)}{F_p(k)}.$$
(13)
$`F_p^{(2)}(k)`$ can be expressed in terms of $`F_p(k)`$ using the relation

$$z^2\frac{}{z}\left[\frac{F_p(z)}{z}\right]=[1+(p+1)z^p]F_p^2(z)$$

which follows from (9) and leads to:

$$(k1)F_p(k)=F_p^{(2)}(k)+(p+1)F_p^{(2)}(kp).$$

Replacing $`F_p^{(2)}(kp)`$ by its value taken from (12), one obtains:

$$(p+1)F_p^{(2)}(k+1)pF_p^{(2)}(k)=(k+p)F_p(k).$$

Thus we have the recursion relation

$$F_p^{(2)}(k)=\frac{k+p1}{p+1}F_p(k1)+\frac{p}{p+1}F_p^{(2)}(k1),F_p^{(2)}(1)=0,$$

which can be iterated to give:

$`F_p^{(2)}(k)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{n=1}{\overset{k1}{}}}\left({\displaystyle \frac{p}{p+1}}\right)^n{\displaystyle \frac{k+pn}{p}}F_p(kn)`$ (14)
$`=`$ $`\left({\displaystyle \frac{p}{p+1}}\right)^k{\displaystyle \underset{n=1}{\overset{k1}{}}}\left({\displaystyle \frac{p+1}{p}}\right)^n{\displaystyle \frac{p+n}{p}}F_p(n),k2.`$
Together with equation (13), this leads to the mean length in terms of generalized Fibonacci numbers.

When $`p=1`$ the coefficients $`F_1^{(2)}(k)`$ can be obtained more directly than above for a general value of $`p`$ (see reference , p. 353). They are given by

$$F_1^{(2)}(k)=\frac{2kF_1(k+1)(k+1)F_1(k)}{5}$$

which, together with (14) for $`p=1`$, leads to the following identity for ordinary Fibonacci numbers:

$$\underset{n=1}{\overset{k1}{}}2^n(n+1)F_1(n)=2^k\frac{2kF_1(k+1)(k+1)F_1(k)}{5}.$$

## 4 Mean height

The mean height of an animal with area $`k`$, measured from the staircase, is defined as:

$$\overline{h_p}(k)=\frac{B_p(k)}{F_p(k)},B_p(k)=\underset{l=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\frac{k}{l}F_p(k,l)=\underset{l=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\frac{k}{l}\left(\genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{kp(l1)1}{l1}\right).$$

The absorption/extraction identity gives:

$$\left(\genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{kp(l1)}{l}\right)=\frac{kp(l1)}{l}\left(\genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{kp(l1)1}{l1}\right),l1.$$

Hence we have

$$B_p(k)=\frac{kp}{k+p}\underset{l}{}\left(\genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{kp(l1)1}{l1}\right)+\frac{k}{k+p}\underset{l1}{}\left(\genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{kp(l1)}{l}\right)$$
(15)
where the last sum can be rewritten as:

$`{\displaystyle \underset{l1}{}}\left({\displaystyle \genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{kp(l1)}{l}}\right)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{l}{}}\left({\displaystyle \genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{kp(l1)}{l}}\right)1`$ (16)
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{l}{}}\left({\displaystyle \genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{k+p+1p(l1)1}{l1}}\right)1.`$
Taking into account the combinatorial definition of the generalized Fibonacci numbers in (8), equations (15) and (16) yield

$$B_p(k)=\frac{k}{k+p}[F_p(k+p+1)+pF_p(k)1]$$

so that the mean height is finally given by:

$$\overline{h_p}(k)=\frac{k}{k+p}\frac{F_p(k+p+1)+pF_p(k)1}{F_p(k)}.$$
(17)
## 5 Asymptotic behaviour

In order to obtain the asymptotic behaviour of the generalized Fibonacci numbers, the generating function $`F_p(z)`$ in equation (9) can be written as the partial fraction expansion

$$F_p(z)=\frac{C_p}{1\varphi _pz}+r(z)=\underset{k=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}C_p(\varphi _pz)^k+r(z)$$
(18)
where $`\varphi _p`$ is the reciprocal of the smallest root in modulus of the denominator of $`F_p(z)`$, which is assumed to be a simple root. It satisfies the relations:

$$\varphi _p^{p+1}=1+\varphi _p^p=\frac{\varphi _p}{\varphi _p1}.$$
(19)
In equation (18), $`r(z)`$ gives the contribution of the $`p1`$ other roots to the partial fraction expansion. It remains finite at $`z=\varphi _p^1`$. At large $`k`$-values, the leading contribution to $`F_p(k)`$ comes from the first term so that

$$F_p(k)C_p\varphi _p^k,k1.$$
(20)
The calculation of the amplitude $`C_p`$ proceeds as follows. Taking the derivative of the inverse of $`F_p(z)`$, we have:

$$\frac{F_p^1(z)}{z}|_{z=\varphi _p^1}=\underset{z\varphi _p^1}{lim}\frac{F_p^1(z)}{z\varphi _p^1}=\frac{\varphi _p}{C_p}.$$
(21)
Thus, from (9), we deduce

$$C_p=\frac{1}{1+(p+1)\varphi _p^p}=\frac{1}{(p+1)\varphi _pp}$$

where the last expression is obtained using (19). It is easy to verify that a multiple smallest root would lead to a vanishing derivative in (21), which justifies our previous assumption.

Let us now study the behaviour of the mean length at large $`k`$-values. For this we need an asymptotic expression for $`F_p^{(2)}(k)`$. Equation (14) leads to:

$$F_p^{(2)}(k)C_p\left(\frac{p}{p+1}\right)^k\underset{n=1}{\overset{k1}{}}\frac{p+n}{p}\left(\frac{p+1}{p}\varphi _p\right)^n.$$

Summing the series, to leading order, one obtains:

$$F_p^{(2)}(k)\frac{C_p}{(p+1)\varphi _pp}k\varphi _p^k.$$
(22)
According to equations (13), (20) and (22), the mean length behaves asymptotically as

$$\overline{l_p}(k)=\frac{k}{p+\varphi _p^{p+1}}+O(1)=\frac{\varphi _p1}{(p+1)\varphi _pp}k+O(1)$$

where (19) has been used to reduce the denominator.

For the mean height in equation (17), we have the following asymptotic form:

$$\overline{h_p}(k)=p+\varphi _p^{p+1}+O(k^1)=p+\frac{\varphi _p}{\varphi _p1}+O(k^1).$$

These results can be recovered and extended by considering the behaviour when $`k1`$ of $`F_p(k,l)`$ in equation (5). It is obtained by expanding $`\mathrm{ln}F_p(k,l)`$ to second order near its maximum, making use of the Stirling approximation. The asymptotic distribution is Gaussian and reads:

$$F_p(k,l)\frac{C_p\varphi _p^k}{\sqrt{2\pi \overline{\mathrm{\Delta }l_p^2}}}\mathrm{exp}\left[\frac{(l\overline{l_p}(k))^2}{2\overline{\mathrm{\Delta }l_p^2}}\right].$$

Here $`\overline{l_p}(k)`$ and

$$\overline{\mathrm{\Delta }l_p^2}=\frac{\varphi _p(\varphi _p1)}{[(p+1)\varphi _pp]^3}k$$

are the leading contributions to the mean value of $`l_p(k)`$ and to its mean-square deviation. The prefactor follows from the normalization to $`F_p(k)`$.

Finally let us examine some special values of $`p`$.

The case $`p=0`$ corresponds to the staking of squares on a flat surface  for which

$$F_0(k)=2^{k1},F_0^{(2)}(k)=(k1)\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2}^{k2},\varphi _0=2.$$

The mean length in (13) and the mean height in (17) behave as:

$$\overline{l_0}(k)=\frac{k+1}{2}=\frac{k}{2}+O(1),\overline{h_0}(k)=\frac{2^k1}{2^{k1}}=2+O(2^k).$$

The statistics of animals on a staircase with $`p=1`$ is connected to the usual Fibonacci numbers, $`F_1(k)=1,1,2,3,5,8,\mathrm{}`$. Then, according to (19), $`\varphi _1=(1+\sqrt{5})/2`$ is the golden mean $`\varphi `$ and

$$\overline{l_1}(k)=\frac{k}{1+\varphi ^2}+O(1),\overline{h_1}(k)=1+\varphi ^2+O(k^1),$$

in agreement with the results of reference .


text:
# LIGHT VECTOR MESON SPECTROSCOPY

## 1 THE PROBLEM

It is now 15 years since it was first suggested  that the $`\rho ^{}(1600)`$, as it was then known, is in fact a composite structure, consisting of at least two states: the $`\rho (1450)`$ and $`\rho (1700)`$. Their existence, and that of their isoscalar counterparts, the $`\omega (1420)`$ and $`\omega (1650)`$, and of an associated hidden-strangeness state, the $`\varphi (1680)`$, is now well established . The key data in determining the existence of the two isovector states were $`e^+e^{}\pi ^+\pi ^{}`$  and $`e^+e^{}\omega \pi `$ . These original data sets have subsequently been augmented by data on the corresponding charged channels in $`\tau `$ decay , to which they are related by CVC. These new data confirm the earlier conclusions. The data on $`e^+e^{}\pi ^+\pi ^{}\pi ^+\pi ^{}`$  and $`e^+e^{}\pi ^+\pi ^{}\pi ^0\pi ^0`$  (excluding $`\omega \pi `$) and the corresponding charged channels in $`\tau `$ decay  are consistent with the two-resonance interpretation , although they do not provide such good discrimination. Itwas also found that the $`e^+e^{}\eta \pi ^+\pi ^{}`$ cross section is better fitted with two interfering resonances than with a single state . Independent evidence for two $`J^P=1^{}`$ states is provided in a high statistics study of the $`\eta \pi \pi `$ system in $`\pi ^{}p`$ charge exchange . Decisive evidence for both the $`\rho (1450)`$ and $`\rho (1700)`$ in their $`2\pi `$ and $`4\pi `$ decays has come from the study of $`\overline{p}p`$ and $`\overline{p}n`$ annihilation . The data initially available for the study of the $`\omega (1420)`$ and $`\omega (1600)`$ were $`e^+e^{}\pi ^+\pi ^{}\pi ^0`$  (which is dominated by $`\rho \pi `$) and $`e^+e^{}\omega \pi ^+\pi ^{}`$ . The latter cross section shows a clear peak which is apparently dominated by the $`\omega (1600)`$. The former cross section is more sensitive to the $`\omega (1420)`$. More recent and more precise data  on $`e^+e^{}\pi ^+\pi ^{}\pi ^0`$ below 1.4 GeV confirm  the $`\omega (1420)`$.

However, although there is general consensus on the existence of these states, there is considerable disparity on the masses and widths of these resonances. Information on the vector states comes principally from $`e^+e^{}`$ annihilation and $`\tau `$ decay, but there are problems with much of the data:

$``$ inconsistencies, even in recent high-statistics data

$``$ restricted energy ranges, e.g. Novosibirsk and CLEO

$``$ poor statistics in some channels and missing channels

$``$ inadequate knowledge of multiparticle final states

$``$ $`\sigma _{\mathrm{exclusive}}>\sigma _{\mathrm{inclusive}}`$

In fact the only channel with really consistent data sets over a wide energy range is the $`\pi \pi `$ channel, although even that runs out of statistics at the upper end of the energy range. The comparatively low statistics of the older data, the restricted energy range of the newer data with higher statistics, and persisting inconsistencies in data from different experiments rule out precision fits.

There are also theoretical uncertainties which affect the analysis of $`e^+e^{}`$ annihilation and $`\tau `$ decay, and which present data are insufficiently precise to resolve. Firstly there is the “tail-of-the-$`\rho `$” problem. In some channels, most notably $`\pi \pi `$ and $`\pi \omega `$, there is strong interference between the high-energy tail of the $`\rho `$ and the higher-mass resonances. The magnitude and shape of this tail are not known with any precision. They can only be specified in models and strictly should be part of the parametrisation. Different models yield different results for the masses and widths of the resonances. A related problem is the question of the relative phases. These can be specified in simple models, but we know that these models are not precise and leaving the phases as free parameters has a major effect.

Thus only the qualitative features emerge, and apparent precision is in reality the result of implicit, or explicit, theoretical assumptions.

Despite these difficulties, the existence of the higher-mass states is not in doubt, and a natural explanation for them is that they are the first radial, $`2^3S_1`$, and first orbital, $`1^3D_1`$, excitations of the $`\rho `$ and $`\omega `$ and the first radial excitation of the $`\varphi `$, as the generally-accepted masses  are close to those predicted by the quark model . However this interpretation faces a fundamental problem. The data on the $`4\pi `$ channels in $`e^+e^{}`$ annihilation are not compatible with the $`{}_{}{}^{3}P_{0}^{}`$ model , which is accepted as the most successful model of meson decay. The model works well for decays of established ground-state mesons:

$``$ widths predicted to be large, are found to be so

$``$ widths predicted to be small, are found to be so

$``$ calculated widths agree with data to $`2540\%`$

$``$ signs of amplitudes are correctly predicted

As far as one can ascertain the $`{}_{}{}^{3}P_{0}^{}`$ model is reliable, but it has not been seriously tested for the decays of excited states.

The $`{}_{}{}^{3}P_{0}^{}`$ model predicts that the decay of the isovector $`2^3S_1`$ to $`4\pi `$ is extremely small:

$$\mathrm{\Gamma }_{2Sa_1\pi }3\mathrm{MeV}\mathrm{\Gamma }_{2Sh_1\pi }1\mathrm{MeV}$$
(1)
and for the isovector $`1^3D_1`$ the $`a_1\pi `$ and $`h_1\pi `$ decays are large and equal:

$$\mathrm{\Gamma }_{1Da_1\pi }\mathrm{\Gamma }_{1Dh_1\pi }105\mathrm{MeV}$$
(2)
As $`h_1\pi `$ contributes only to the $`\pi ^+\pi ^{}\pi ^0\pi ^0`$ channel in $`e^+e^{}`$ annihilation, and $`a_1\pi `$ contributes to both $`\pi ^+\pi ^{}\pi ^+\pi ^{}`$ and $`\pi ^+\pi ^{}\pi ^0\pi ^0`$, then after subtraction of the $`\omega \pi `$ cross section from the total $`\pi ^+\pi ^{}\pi ^0\pi ^0`$ the $`{}_{}{}^{3}P_{0}^{}`$ model predicts:

$$\sigma (e^+e^{}\pi ^+\pi ^{}\pi ^0\pi ^0)>\sigma (e^+e^{}\pi ^+\pi ^{}\pi ^+\pi ^{})$$
(3)
This contradicts observation over much of the available energy range. Below $`1.6`$ GeV $`\sigma (\pi ^+\pi ^{}\pi ^+\pi ^{})2\sigma (\pi ^+\pi ^{}\pi ^0\pi ^0)`$, although at higher energies $`\sigma (\pi ^+\pi ^{}\pi ^0\pi ^0)`$ is the larger. Further, and more seriously, it has been shown recently by the CMD collaboration at Novosibirsk  and by CLEO  that the dominant channel by far in $`4\pi `$ (excluding $`\omega \pi `$) up to $`1.6`$ GeV is $`a_1\pi `$. This is quite inexplicable in terms of the $`{}_{}{}^{3}P_{0}^{}`$ model. So the standard picture is wrong for the isovectors, and there are serious inconsistencies in the isoscalar channels as well. One possibility is that the $`{}_{}{}^{3}P_{0}^{}`$ model is simply failing when applied to excited states, which is an intriguing question in itself. An alternative is that there is new physics involved.

## 2 A SOLUTION

A favoured hypothesis is to include vector hybrids , that is $`q\overline{q}g`$ states. The reason for this is that, firstly, hybrid states occur naturally in QCD, and secondly, that in the relevant mass range the dominant hadronic decay of the isovector vector hybrid $`\rho _H`$ is believed to be $`a_1\pi `$ . The masses of light-quark hybrids have been obtained in lattice-QCD calculations , although with quite large errors. Results from lattice QCD and other approaches, such as the bag model , flux-tube models , constituent gluon models  and QCD sum rules , show considerable variation from each other. So the absolute mass scale is somewhat imprecise, predictions for the lightest hybrid lying between 1.3 and 1.9 GeV. However it does seem generally agreed that the mass ordering is $`0^+<1^+<1^{}<2^+`$.

Evidence for the excitation of gluonic degrees of freedom has emerged in several processes. Two experiments  have evidence for an exotic $`J^{PC}=1^+`$ resonance, $`\widehat{\rho }(1600)`$ in the $`\rho ^0\pi ^{}`$ channel in the reaction $`\pi ^{}N(\pi ^+\pi ^{}\pi ^{})N`$. A peak in the $`\eta \pi `$ mass spectrum at $`1400`$ MeV with $`J^{PC}=1^+`$ in $`\pi ^{}N(\eta \pi ^{})N`$ has also been interpreted as a resonance . Supporting evidence for the 1400 state in the same mode comes from $`\overline{p}p\eta \pi ^{}\pi ^+`$ . There is evidence  for two isovector $`0^+`$ states in the mass region 1.4 to 1.9 GeV; $`\pi (1600)`$ and $`\pi (1800)`$. The quark model predicts only one. Taking the mass of the $`1^+1.4`$ GeV, then the $`0^+`$ is at $`1.3`$ GeV and the lightest $`1^{}`$ at $`1.65`$ GeV, which is in the range required for the mixing hypothesis to work. Of course if hybrids are comparatively heavy, that is the $`\widehat{\rho }(1600)`$ is the lightest $`1^+`$ state, and the $`\pi (1600)`$ presumably the corresponding $`0^+`$ hybrid (or at least with a significant hybrid component) then the vector hybrid mass $`2.0`$ GeV making strong mixing with the radial and orbital excitations unlikely.

Two specific models for the hadronic hybrids are the flux-tube model  and the constituent gluon model . There are some substantial differences in their predictions for hybrid decays. For the isovector $`1^{}`$ the flux-tube model predicts $`a_1\pi `$ as essentially the only hadronic mode, and a width of $`100`$ MeV. The constituent gluon model predicts dominant $`a_1\pi `$, but with significant $`\rho (\pi \pi )_S`$ and $`\omega \pi `$ components, and a larger width. For the isoscalar $`1^{}`$ the flux-tube model predicts $`\rho \pi `$ as essentially the only hadronic mode, with a width of $`20`$ MeV. The constituent gluon model predicts dominant $`\rho \pi `$, a significant $`\omega (\pi \pi )_S`$ component and a larger width.

The general conclusion is that the $`e^+e^{}`$ annihilation and $`\tau `$-decay data require the existence of a “hidden” vector hybrid in the isovector and isoscalar channels (assuming that the $`{}_{}{}^{3}P_{0}^{}`$ results are qualitatively reliable). The mixing required is non-trivial, although schemes can be devised which are qualitatively compatible with the data . The unseen physical states are “off-stage”, in the 1.9 to 2.1 GeV mass region. Nonetheless, it appears difficult to achieve quantitative agreement with data (within the constraint of specific models) unless the hybrids and the $`1^3D_1`$ states have direct electromagnetic coupling. At the simplest level they do not, but these couplings can be generated by relativistic corrections at the parton level  or via intermediate hadronic states, for example hybrid $``$ $`a_1\pi `$ $``$$`\rho `$$``$ $`e^+e^{}`$.

To extract the information will require excitation curves for a wide range of hadronic final states:

$$\pi \pi \omega \pi a_1\pi h_1\pi \rho \rho \rho (\pi \pi )_SK\overline{K}K^{}\overline{K}\mathrm{}$$
(4)
Note that the $`n\overline{n}`$ states can decay to $`K\overline{K}`$, $`K^{}\overline{K}`$ etc. with significant partial widths:

$$\mathrm{\Gamma }_{2SK\overline{K}}30MeV\mathrm{\Gamma }_{1DK\overline{K}}40MeV$$
(5)
so isospin separation is necessary in these channels, and there can be mixing between the isoscalar $`n\overline{n}`$ states and the $`s\overline{s}`$ states.

Radiative decays allow a clean separation of the 2S and 1D states. Preliminary widths in keV are :

|  | $`\mathrm{\Gamma }(\rho _S)`$ | $`\mathrm{\Gamma }(\omega _S)`$ | $`\mathrm{\Gamma }(\rho _D)`$ | $`\mathrm{\Gamma }(\omega _D)`$ |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| $`a_1\gamma `$ | $`80`$ | $`750`$ | $`200`$ | $`1800`$ |
| $`a_2\gamma `$ | $`100`$ | $`900`$ | $`10`$ | $`100`$ |
| $`f_1\gamma `$ | $`650`$ | $`70`$ | $`1700`$ | $`200`$ |
| $`f_2\gamma `$ | $`1200`$ | $`130`$ | $`120`$ | $`15`$ |

Obviously the $`f_2\gamma `$ channel selects the $`\rho _S`$ state uniquely. Additionally, these decays are a much more direct probe of wave functions, and hence of models, than are hadronic decay modes.

## 3 SUMMARY

Despite 15 years of work we do not yet understand the light-quark vectors. Present data raise tantalising questions which go to the heart of nonperturbative QCD but are incapable of answering them. These questions include:

$``$ How many light-quark vector mesons are there?

$``$ What are their masses, widths, decay channels?

$``$ Do standard models of hadronic decay fail?

$``$ What hybrid states are hiding in there?

$``$ What is the nature of hybrids: flux tube or constituent gluon?

$``$ Are the masses of hybrids compatible with lattice QCD?

High-statistics, comprehensive $`e^+e^{}`$ annihilation data provides by far the best way to answer these and related questions. The data are a unique $`J^{PC}=1^{}`$ laboratory.

Whatever the answers, new physics is guaranteed!


text:
# Observation of solar flares through the ART-P telescope side shield

## 1. Introduction

The X-ray imaging telescope ART-P was one of the two main instruments on board the Granat Observatory, which was launched in 1989. The telescope consists of four coaxial, completely independent modules; each module includes a coded mask, a collimator and a position-sensitive detector (energy band is $``$3-100 keV) with a geometric area of 625 cm2. The detector equipped with the vessel, window, the analog and digital electronics units. The vessel is made of 4 mm thickness of the titan, which covers a 1.5 mm of the tin as a shield. The collimator has a dual role, it acts as a support structure for the thin window against the internal pressure of the detector and it limits the field of view. The collimator cell geometry is chosen to be square with 6$`\times `$6 mm. The material of the collimator is a copper with thickness of 200 $`\mu `$m.

## 2. Observations

The analysis of the archive data obtained with ART-P in 1990-1992 has shown that more than 100 X-ray bursts and flares were detected during this period (Grebenev et al., 2001). Most of them were identified as type I X-ray bursts from low-mass X-ray binaries, but also we found six unusual events. Comparison of them with the PHEBUS/GRANAT instrument data, obtained in the 80-600 keV energy band (Terekhov et al., 1996), has allowed us to conclude that the telescope ART-P detected solar flares passed through its side shield. Time profiles of several of them were practically the same in a wide energy range (3-600 keV), whereas profiles of other flares in high and low energy bands differed considerably (Fig.1).

The solar flares observed by PHEBUS instrument and ART-P telescope on May 24, 1990 was of our special interest. This event is associated with a limb flare (N33 W78), where GeV protons were observed in interplanetary space and the largest increase due to solar neutrons was recorded at ground levels. The spectrum obtained with ART-P during this flare is shown in Fig.2 (left panel). As is obvious from the figure that the powerful emission feature near 9 keV is present in the flare spectrum. This feature was interpreted as the K-fluorescence line produced by the copper. Such point of view is supported by the right panel of Fig.2, in which the counts distribution along one of the detector axis are shown. The 6mm-collimator structure is obvious from this figure.

The detailed analysis of other solar flares detected by the ART-P telescope and the evaluating of possibility to detect solar flares or powerful gamma-ray bursts during the INTEGRAL and SRG missions now in progress.

## References

Grebenev, S., Lutovinov, A., Pavlinsky, M. et al. 2001, Astron. Lett., 27, in press.

Terekhov, O., Kuzmin, A., Sunyaev, R. et al. 1996, Astron. Lett., 22, 362.


text:
# Dissipative Dynamics of Inflation

## Abstract

Dissipative scalar quantum field theory is examined at zero temperature. Estimates of radiation production are given. Relevance of the results to supercooled and warm inflation are discussed.

To appear in Proceeding, PASCOS-01, 2001

The basic picture of inflationary dynamics centers around a scalar field often called the inflaton. During the inflationary period, the potential energy of this field is pictured to dominate the energy density of the universe, thereby driving inflation-like accelerated expansion of the scale factor. The inflaton field also is required to interact with other fields, so as to allow transfer of energy from potential energy into radiation. Eventually the radiation energy density must dominate so that inflation can terminate into a standard hot big-bang radiation dominated regime. Although ultimately for inflationary dynamics to fit into a realistic particle physics scheme, the final models may be more elaborate, it is believed that these simple inflaton models contain all the essential features that must be found in any more realistic model.

The most nontrivial aspect of the inflaton models is understanding the energy transfer dynamics from potential energy to radiation. A commonly followed picture is that dissipative effects of the inflaton field can be ignored throughout the inflation period, thus leading to a supercooled inflationary regime. However, from a thermodynamic perspective, this picture appears very restrictive. The point being, even if the inflaton were to allow a minuscule fraction of the energy to be released, say one part in $`10^{20}`$, it still would constitute a significant radiation energy density component in the universe. For example, for inflation with vacuum (i.e. potential) energy at the GUT scale $`10^{1516}\mathrm{GeV}`$, leaking one part in $`10^{20}`$ of this energy into radiation corresponds to a temperature of $`10^{11}\mathrm{GeV}`$, which is nonnegligible. In fact, the most relevant lower bound that cosmology places on the temperature after inflation comes from the success of hot Big-Bang nucleosynthesis, which thus requires the universe to be within the radiation dominated regime by $`T\stackrel{>}{}1\mathrm{G}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{V}`$. This limit can be met in the above example by dissipating as little as one part in $`10^{60}`$ of the vacuum energy into radiation. Thus, from the perspective of both interacting field theory and basic notions of equipartition, it appears to be a highly tuned requirement of supercooled inflation to prohibit the inflaton from even such tiny amounts of dissipation.

These considerations have led to examining the possibility of warm inflation, an inflationary regime in which radiation also is present. Warm inflation is comprised of non-isentropic expansion in the background cosmology  and thermal seeds of density perturbations  (see also ). During warm inflation, interactions between the inflaton and other fields cause the radiation energy density to remain substantial due to its constant production from conversion of vacuum energy. This expansion regime is intrinsically different from the supercooled inflation regime, since warm inflation smoothly terminates into a subsequent radiation dominated regime, without a reheating period.

The warm inflation picture has one immediate conceptual advantage in that the dynamics is completely free of questions about quantum-to-classical transition. The scalar inflaton field is in a classical state, thus immediately justifying the application of a classical evolution equation. Also, the fluctuations of the inflaton, which induce the metric perturbations, are classical. Furthermore, warm inflation dynamics offers interesting solutions to the initial condition problem of inflation , as well as possibilities for generating cosmic magnetic fields .

However despite the conceptual clarity and despite the suggestive thermodynamic considerations, deriving this dynamics from first principles quantum field theory is nontrivial. The key reasons primarily are technical. To clarify this point, a comparison with supercooled inflationary dynamics is useful. In supercooled inflation, the process of inflation and radiation production are neatly divided into two different epochs, whereas in warm inflation dynamics, both processes occur concurrently. As such, for warm inflation dynamics there is considerable and nontrivial interplay between the equations of background inflationary expansion and quantum field theory dynamics, making it technically more difficult to solve than supercooled inflation. In effect, warm inflation solutions are of an “all-or-nothing” type in that if a solution works, it solves everything and if something fails, the whole solution becomes useless. On the other hand, supercooled inflation solutions are of a “pick-and-choose” type, in that every aspect of the problem is compartmentalized, i.e. inflation, reheating, quantum-to-classical transition, and there is little continuity amongst the different problems.

Statements have been made about the impossibility of warm inflation dynamics . However the dynamical considerations leading up to these conclusions were limited in their scope, as had been noted previous to this work . In particular, these works looked for high temperature warm inflation solutions, under rigid adiabatic, equilibrium conditions. Nevertheless, within this limited framework, one type of warm inflation solution was obtained , and due to the ”all-or-nothing” nature mentioned above, this solutions can not be discarded as a serious contender in any more complete theory of inflation . Moreover, these early works  have explicated one very important point, that warm inflation dynamics is not trivial and before it can be directly solved, several missing gaps in the knowledge of dissipative dynamics must be clarified.

As one step in this direction to fill the missing gaps, recently we studied the zero temperature dissipative dynamics of interacting scalar field systems in Minkowski spacetime . This is useful to understand, since the zero temperature limit constitutes a baseline effect that will be prevalent in any general statistical state. What our results show is that for a broad range of cases, involving interaction with as few as one or two fields, dissipative regimes are found for the scalar field system. This is important for inflationary cosmology, since it suggests that dissipation may be the norm not exception for an interacting scalar field system, thus suggesting that warm inflation could be a natural dynamics once proper treatment of interactions is done.

Our analysis of dissipative dynamics starts with the general Lagrangian,

$`[\mathrm{\Phi },\chi _j,\overline{\psi }_k,\psi _k]`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}(_\mu \mathrm{\Phi })^2{\displaystyle \frac{m_\varphi ^2}{2}}\mathrm{\Phi }^2{\displaystyle \frac{\lambda }{4!}}\mathrm{\Phi }^4+{\displaystyle \underset{j=1}{\overset{N_\chi }{}}}\left\{{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}(_\mu \chi _j)^2{\displaystyle \frac{m_{\chi _j}^2}{2}}\chi _j^2{\displaystyle \frac{f_j}{4!}}\chi _j^4{\displaystyle \frac{g_j^2}{2}}\mathrm{\Phi }^2\chi _j^2\right\}`$ (1)
$`+`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{k=1}{\overset{N_\psi }{}}}\overline{\psi }_k\left[i\overline{)}m_{\psi _k}h_{k,\varphi }\mathrm{\Phi }{\displaystyle \underset{j=1}{\overset{N_\chi }{}}}h_{kj,\chi }\chi _j\right]\psi _k,`$ (2)
with $`\mathrm{\Phi }\phi +\varphi `$ such that $`\mathrm{\Phi }=\phi `$. Our aim is to obtain the effective equation of motion for $`\phi (t)`$ and from that determine the energy dissipated from the $`\phi (t)`$ system into radiation.

Using the tadpole method , which requires $`\varphi =0`$, the effective equation of motion for $`\phi (t)`$ emerges

$`\ddot{\phi }(t)+m_\varphi ^2\phi (t)+{\displaystyle \frac{\lambda }{6}}\phi ^3(t)+{\displaystyle \frac{\lambda }{2}}\phi (t)\varphi ^2+{\displaystyle \frac{\lambda }{6}}\varphi ^3+{\displaystyle \underset{k=1}{\overset{N_\psi }{}}}h_k\overline{\psi _k}\psi _k=0.`$ (3)
The field expectation values in this equation are obtained by solving the coupled set of field equations. In our calculation, we have evaluated them in a perturbative expansion using dressed Green’s functions . One general feature of these expectation values is they will depend of the causal history of $`\phi (t)`$, so that Eq. (3) is a temporally nonlocal equation of motion for $`\phi (t)`$.

Formally, we can examine Eq. (3) within a Markovian-adiabatic approximation, in which the equation of motion is local in time and the motion of $`\phi (t)`$ is slow. At $`T=0`$, such an approximation is not rigorously valid. Nevertheless, this approximation allows understanding the magnitude of dissipative effects. Furthermore, we have shown in  that the nonlocal effects tend to filter only increasingly higher frequency components of $`\phi (t)`$ from nonlocal effects increasingly further back in time. Thus for low frequency components of $`\phi (t)`$, memory only is retained to some short interval in the past. Since within the adiabatic approximation, $`\phi (t)`$ only has low frequency components, we believe the Markovian-adiabatic approximation is legitimate at least for order of magnitude estimates. Within this approximation, the effective equation of motion for $`\phi (t)`$ has the general form

$`\ddot{\phi }(t)+m_\varphi ^2\phi (t)+{\displaystyle \frac{\lambda }{6}}\phi ^3(t)+\eta (\phi )\dot{\phi }(t)=0,`$ (4)
where explicit expressions for the dissipative coefficient $`\eta `$ for various cases are given in .

Based on this equation, energy production will be estimated here with full details given in . Our primary interest is in the overdamped regime

$$m^2(\varphi )=m_\varphi ^2+\lambda \phi ^2/2<\eta ^2,$$
(5)
since this is the regime ultimately of interest to warm inflation. In this regime, the energy dissipated by the scalar field goes into radiation energy density $`\rho _r`$ at the rate

$$\dot{\rho }_r=\frac{dE_\varphi }{dt}=\eta (\phi )\dot{\phi }^2.$$
(6)
In  we have determined radiation production for two cases

$`(\mathrm{a}).`$ $`m(\phi )>m_\chi >2m_\psi `$ (7)
$`(\mathrm{b}).`$ $`m_\chi >2m_\psi >m(\phi ).`$ (8)
To focus on a case typical for inflation, suppose the potential energy is at the GUT scale $`V(\phi )^{1/4}10^{15}\mathrm{GeV}`$ and we consider the other parameters in a regime consistent with the e-fold and density fluctuation requirements of inflation. Note, although this is a flat nonexpanding spacetime analysis, since the dissipative effects will be at subhorizon scale, one expects these estimates to give a reasonable idea of what to expect from a similar calculation done in expanding spacetime. Expressing the radiation in terms of a temperature scale as $`T\rho _r^{1/4}`$, we find for case (a) $`1\mathrm{G}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{V}<T<10^7\mathrm{GeV}<H`$ and for case (b) $`T\stackrel{>}{}10^{14}\mathrm{GeV}>H`$, where $`H=\sqrt{8\pi V/(3m_p^2)}`$.

It should be clarified that the results found in this paper in no way require supersymmetry, although they easily could be applied in SUSY models. For such models, the low $`T`$ warm inflation solutions suggested by case (a) could be useful in avoiding gravitino overproduction . On the other hand, case (b) in general seems more interesting, since it offers a very robust possibility for radiation production. Although this is what the formal calculation indicates, we believe at this point a deeper understanding of radiation production is necessary.

In regards the potential implications of the results discussed in this talk to inflationary cosmology, we infer that under generic circumstances the scalar inflaton field will dissipate a nonnegligible amount of radiation during inflation. In particular, the lower bound suggested by the above estimates already are sufficiently high to preclude a mandatory requirement for a reheating period. Moreover, the high temperature results of case (b) suggest that warm inflation could be very robust. Verification of these expectations requires a proper extension of these calculations to expanding spacetime, and within a nonequilibrium formulation , which we plan to examine.

Acknowledgments

This work was supported by a PPARC Advanced Fellowship.