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# POLARIZED STRUCTURE FUNCTIONS IN QCD 11footnote 1Invited talk presented at the Workshop on Lepton Scattering, Hadrons and QCD, Adelaide, March 26 – April 6, 2001.

## 1 Introduction

In the last ten years, great progress has been made both theoretically and experimentally in hadron spin physics. Furthermore, in conjunction with new projects like the “RHIC spin project”, “polarized HERA”, etc., we are now in a position to obtain more information on the spin structure of nucleons. The spin dependent quantity is, in general, very sensitive to the structure of interactions among various particles. Therefore, we will be able to study the detailed structure of hadrons based on QCD. However the purpose of new experiments should not be limited to only the check of QCD. We also hope that we can find some clue to new physics beyond the standard model.

In this talk, we first review a systematic treatment of polarized structure functions and summarize the recent theoretical progress on the QCD evolutions . Secondly, we address a question of what we will be able to learn from the future polarized experiments by considering the phenomena called Radiation Zeros (RAZ)  as an example. We reanalyze this phenomena at the realistic RHIC polarized collider. We will point out that the polarization of colliding protons will emphasize the RAZ phenomena in the cross section and a “moderate energy” machine is better than the extremely high energy machines to find this phenomena.

## 2 Classification of structure functions

To describe a variety of high-energy processes to which the factorization theorem can be applied, it is desirable to have a formulation based on a universal language in QCD. The traditional approach relies on the operator product expansion (OPE), but it can be applied only to a limited class of processes. This calls for an approach based on the factorization as a generalization of the OPE. As a result of factorization, the structure functions (cross section) are given as convolution of the short- and long- distance parts. The former contains all the dependence on the hard scale and the latter is controlled by the nonperturbative dynamics of QCD.

For the long-distance part, the parton distribution functions (PDFs) are introduced and it is now standard to define them as the nucleon’s matrix elements of nonlocal light-cone operators in QCD . The momentum of nucleon (mass $`M`$) $`P`$ will be written in terms of two auxiliary light-like vectors $`p^\mu `$ and $`w^\mu `$ $`(p^2=w^2=0,pw=0)`$, $`P^\mu =p^\mu +\frac{M^2}{2}w^\mu `$. The (quark) PDF is defined by the Fourier transform of the nucleon’s matrix element of the nonlocal light-cone quark operator as,

$$_{\mathrm{}}^+\mathrm{}\frac{d\lambda }{2\pi }e^{i\lambda x}PS|\overline{\psi }(0)[0,\lambda w]\mathrm{\Gamma }\psi (\lambda w)|PS.$$
(1)
Here $`|PS`$ is the nucleon state with spin $`S`$ which is decomposed into the longitudinal and transverse parts with respect to $`p^\mu (w^\mu )`$ direction, $`S^\mu =S_{}^\mu +S_{}^\mu `$. The variable $`x`$ can be interpreted as the momentum fraction of parton (Bjorken $`x`$) since $`\lambda x=(xP)(\lambda w)`$. $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ is a generic Dirac matrix and the link operator $`[0,\lambda w]`$ which makes the operators gauge invariant is given by,

$$[y,z]=\mathrm{P}\mathrm{exp}\left(ig_0^1𝑑t(yz)_\mu A^\mu (ty+(1t)z)\right).$$

Possible choices for $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ and spin states which depend on the processes considered in Eq.(1) lead to various PDFs.

### 2.1 Quark distributions

Let us first consider the quark distributions. An important observation made in Ref. is that one can generate all quark distribution functions up to twist-4 by substituting all the possible $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$. By decomposing Eq.(1) into independent tensor structures, one finds nine independent quark distribution functions associating with each tensor structure . Their spin, twist and chiral classifications are listed in Table 1. The distributions in the first row are spin-independent, while those in the second and third rows correspond to the longitudinally ($`S_{}`$) and transversely ($`S_{}`$) polarized nucleons. Each column refers to the twist. The distributions marked with “$``$” are referred to as chiral-odd, because they correspond to chirality-violating Dirac matrix structures $`\mathrm{\Gamma }=\{\sigma _{\mu \nu }i\gamma _5,\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}1}\}`$. The other distributions are chiral-even, because of the chirality-conserving structures $`\mathrm{\Gamma }=\{\gamma _\mu ,\gamma _\mu \gamma _5\}`$. In the massless quark limit, chirality is conserved  Table 1: Spin,twist and chiral classification of quark distributions.    Twist 2 3 4    $`S`$ ave. $`q\left(x\right)`$ $`e\left(x\right)^{}`$ $`f_4\left(x\right)`$  $`S_{}`$ $`\mathrm{\Delta }q\left(x\right)`$ $`h_L\left(x\right)^{}`$ $`g_3\left(x\right)`$  $`S_{}`$ $`\delta q\left(x\right)^{}`$ $`g_T\left(x\right)`$ $`h_3\left(x\right)^{}`$     through the propagation of a quark. This means that in the DIS one can measure only the chiral-even distributions up to tiny quark mass corrections because the perturbative quark-gluon and quark-photon couplings conserve the chiralities. On the other hand, in the Drell-Yan and

certain other processes, both chiral-odd and chiral-even distribution functions can be measured  because the chiralities of the quark lines originating in a single nucleon are uncorrelated.

### 2.2 Gluon distributions

The gluon distribution functions can be defined in the similar way as for the quark distributions. The gauge-invariant definition of the gluon distribution functions is provided by ,

$$\frac{2}{x}\frac{d\lambda }{2\pi }e^{i\lambda x}PS|w_\alpha G^{\alpha \mu }(0)[0,\lambda w]w_\beta G^{\beta \nu }(\lambda w)|PS.$$

Corresponding to independent tensor structures, we have four gluon distribu-  Table 2: Spin and twist classification of gluon distribution functions.    Twist 2 3 4    $`S`$ ave. $`𝒢\left(x\right)`$  $`𝒢_4\left(x\right)`$  $`S_{}`$ $`\mathrm{\Delta }𝒢\left(x\right)`$    $`S_{}`$  $`𝒢_{3T}\left(x\right)`$      tion functions summarized in Table 2. The gluon distributions mix through renormalization with the flavor singlet chiral-even quark distributions. On the other hand, there exists no gluon distributions that mix with the chiral-odd quark distributions.

### 2.3 Twist-3 three particle distributions

Coherent many-particle contents of the nucleon are described by multi PDFs. In this talk, we mention only the twist-3 quark-gluon correlation functions,

$$\frac{d\lambda }{2\pi }\frac{d\zeta }{2\pi }e^{i\lambda x+i\zeta (x^{}x)}PS|\overline{\psi }(0)\mathrm{\Gamma }[0,\zeta w]gG^{\mu \nu }(\zeta w)[\zeta w,\lambda w]\psi (\lambda w)|PS.$$

Similarly to the quark distributions, one can define the multiparton distributions by considering possible Dirac matrices for $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ which are listed in Table 3.  Table 3: Spin and chiral classification of quark-gluon correlations at twist-3.    $`S`$ ave. $`\mathrm{\Phi }(x,x^{})^{}`$    $`S_{}`$ $`\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Phi }}(x,x^{})^{}`$  $`S_{}`$ $`\mathrm{\Psi }(x,x^{}),\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Psi }}(x,x^{})`$     The treatment here can be extended to the case of three-gluon correlation functions, which are relevant to the (singlet) quark distribution $`g_T(x)`$ and the gluon distribution $`𝒢_{3T}(x)`$. The details have been discussed in Refs..

## 3 QCD evolution

In the case of the lowest twist, their QCD evolution can be easily estimated using the standard techniques. The calculation for the higher twist terms is, however, generally very complicated due to the presence of multiparton distributions. Although it is possible to generalize the DGLAP approach to the three-body case, one is forced to use some particular techniques, e.g. the use of the light-like axial gauge etc.  On the other hand, it has been known that one can construct a set of “local composite operators” from the nonlocal one by taking the moment of PDFs. Therefore we can take an approach based on these local composite operators . The advantage of this approach is that all the relevant steps can be worked out based on the standard and familiar field theory techniques in any gauge.

The common feature for the higher twist operators is that the number of a set of local operators with the same quantum numbers increases with spin (moment) and these operators are related through the QCD equation of motion . However, once a complete set of operators is identified, the anomalous dimensions which derive QCD evolution is easily calculated following the theorem  explained now. This theorem tells us that in non-abelian gauge theory, three kinds of operators will mix under renormalization of gauge invariant operators. (I)the gauge invariant operator itself. (II)the BRST invariant operators. (III)the operators which are proportional to the equation of motion (EOM). The EOM operators involve both BRST “invariant” and “variant” ones . Although the physical matrix elements of the BRST invariant and EOM operators vanish , it is necessary to consider these operators to complete the renormalization. At the lowest twist level, these complexities do not come into play because there exists neither EOM nor BRST invariant operator of twist-2. The EOM as well as the BRST invariant operators always have smaller spin by at least one unit than the possible highest spin operators of the same dimension.

The explicit calculations at the one-loop level appear in Refs. for $`g_T`$ and in Ref. for $`h_L`$. Much more recent progress on the twist-3 parton densities can be found in Ref..

## 4 $`W^\pm \gamma `$ production at RHIC

The polarized PDFs will be measured precisely by the future polarized experiments and we will be able to check if the QCD predictions are consistent or not. However, we believe that the polarized experiments will provide us with a great store of knowledge on the structure of all interactions. From this point of view, the final part of this talk is devoted to a discussion on the radiative weak boson production $`ppW^\pm \gamma `$ at RHIC polarized experiment. We point out two reasons why we reanalyze this process. (1) Due to the $`VA`$ structure of the $`W`$ boson interaction, only the initial quarks which have definite helicities can participate in the process. Therefore, an experiment with the polarized beams will be more efficient to study this process  and an information on $`\mathrm{\Delta }q(x)`$ is relevant. (2) Many works so far assumed rather high energy collisions . However, a realistic experiment with the polarized beams becomes available at RHIC whose center of mass energy is around $`\sqrt{s}500\mathrm{GeV}`$.

### 4.1 RAZ at the partonic level

Radiative weak boson ($`W\gamma `$) production in hadronic collisions has been the subject of much theoretical interests since this process contains the gauge boson trilinear coupling and develops the so-called radiation zero (RAZ) . The RAZ is a typical example which is sensitive to the structure of electroweak interaction.

The RAZ is a phenomena that the cross section (amplitude) for some process develops zero in the some point of the phase space. To understand this phenomena in the simplest way, although not rigorous, let us use the soft photon approximation. Since the soft photon factorizes as the eikonal factor, the amplitude which contains one photon can be written as, $`M_\gamma eJϵ(k)M`$ where $`J^\mu =_iQ_i\eta _i\frac{p_i^\mu }{p_ik}`$ and $`ϵ^\mu (k)`$ is the polarization vector of photon. $`Q_i`$ is the charge of $`i`$-the particle and $`\eta _i=+()`$ for the incoming (outgoing) particle. The sum is taken over all external particles. If $`\frac{Q_i}{p_ik}=`$ const. for all $`i`$, the energy-momentum conservation $`_i\eta _ip_i^\mu =0`$ implies $`J^\mu =M_\gamma =0`$. The well-known example is the process, $`u(p_1)+\overline{d}(p_2)W^+(p_3)+\gamma (k)`$. In this case, the identity $`\frac{2}{3}\frac{1}{p_1k}=\frac{1}{3}\frac{1}{p_2k}=\frac{1}{p_3k}`$ is satisfied at $`\mathrm{cos}\theta _\gamma =\frac{1}{3}`$.

### 4.2 Hadronic cross section

To obtain a realistic (hadronic) cross section, we must convolute the partonic cross section with the PDFs . Fig.1 shows the cross section in $`Pb`$ for the various proton’s spin configurations at $`\sqrt{s}=500\mathrm{G}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{v}`$. Denoting the helicity of initial protons by $`p(\pm )`$, Figs.(1.a1),(1.a2),(1.b1) and (1.b2) correspond to $`p()p(+)`$, $`p(+)p()`$, $`p(+)p(+)`$ and $`p()p()`$ respectively. We have chosen the minimum cut-off energy for the photon to be $`5`$ Gev.

One can see a rather clear dip in the cross section when the initial proton’s helicities are parallel each other. This is because the helicity distributions of quarks depend on the spin of the parent protons. Note that if the proton contains the equal parton densities of both helicity states as for the unpolarized case, the convolution completely smears out the RAZ. How about is the energy dependence of this smearing effect coming from the convolution? It is easily supposed that the dip will be more smeared as the energy becomes higher. It is because the small $`x`$ partons start to participate in the process at higher energy and those sea partons carry less information of the parent proton’s spin. Namely the contribution from the small $`x`$ partons is almost the same for the polarized and unpolarized protons.

We also define an asymmetry by,

$$A=\frac{d\sigma (p()p(+)W^+\gamma )d\sigma (p(+)p()W^+\gamma )}{d\sigma (p()p(+)W^+\gamma )+d\sigma (p(+)p()W^+\gamma )},$$

and plot it in Fig.2. This asymmetry amounts to 40 %.

A comment is in order concerning the higher order corrections. Since the RAZ occurs only at the partonic tree level, the higher order (QCD) corrections might give an important effects and it is possible that RAZ is completely smeared out in the physical hadronic cross sections. There has been much effort to estimate higher order corrections in the standard mod-

el and phenomenological analyses . The QCD radiative corrections can be classified into three effects: (1) virtual corrections and soft gluon emissions (2) hard gluon emissions (3) gluon initiated processes $`q_1gV\gamma q_2`$ and $`g\overline{q}_2V\gamma \overline{q}_1`$. Among these effects, the first one leaves the RAZ intact. Its main effect is an almost constant $`K`$ factor. The second and third effects, on the other hand, will completely wash out the RAZ phenomena. These effects, however, have been known to be important at high energies. It is, therefore, expected that in the RHIC energy region, it is sufficient to include only the first effect which will not change the shape of the cross section from the tree level one except for some multiplicative enhancement. In particular, the asymmetry, Fig.2, remains the same.

## 5 Conclusions

We have surveyed the polarized structure functions from a viewpoint of gauge invariant nonlocal operators. We explained an approach to obtain the QCD evolution which preserves maximal (BRST and Lorentz) symmetries of the theory at every step of investigation. We also presented the radiative weak boson production at RHIC which strongly depends on the helicity distribution of quarks inside the proton. We have pointed out that the experiments in the RHIC energy region will be very efficient to study this process.

We hope that various kinds of new experiments and theoretical investigations will be able to clarify not only perturbative and nonperturbative aspects of QCD but also the full structure of all interactions in Nature.

## Acknowledgments

The author would like to thank the organizers for their hospitality and inviting him to this stimulating workshop. He also thanks H. Kawamura, K. Morii and K. Tanaka for collaborations. This work is supported in part by the Monbu-kagaku-sho Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research No. C-13640289.

## References


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# Keck Measurement of the XTE J2123–058 Radial Velocity Curve

## 1. Introduction

The X-ray transient XTE J2123–058 is a neutron star low mass X-ray binary (LMXB) that was discovered in 1998 (Levine, Swank & Smith, 1998). We optically identified the transient (Tomsick et al., 1998a) and determined the $`6`$ hour binary orbital period (Tomsick et al., 1998b). Type I X-ray bursts indicate that the system contains a neutron star, and the relatively short orbital period indicates that the companion is a late-type star on or close to the main sequence. A pair of high frequency quasi-periodic oscillations was detected, which may indicate a rapidly rotating neutron star (Homan et al., 1999; Tomsick et al., 1999). XTE J2123–058 distinguishes itself from other LMXBs by having high Galactic latitude ($`b=36^{}`$) and also a high binary inclination ($`i73^{}`$, Zurita et al. 2000). Both of these properties are advantageous for determining the mass of the neutron star from optical observations in quiescence, which is the primary goal of this work.

Such mass measurements are important for constraining neutron star equations of state and for understanding the evolution of neutron star systems. Precise mass measurements have been made for millisecond radio pulsars (MSPs, Thorsett & Chakrabarty 1999), but these measurements are lacking for LMXBs. Since it is theoretically possible to spin-up neutron stars in LMXBs to millisecond periods via accretion, a link between LMXBs and MSPs has long been suspected (Alpar et al., 1982). Although there is substantial evidence to support this picture, the prediction that rapidly rotating neutron stars in LMXBs should be more massive by 0.1 to 0.5$`\mathrm{M}_{\mathrm{}}`$ (Bhattacharya 1995) than those that have not been spun-up has not been tested.

## 2. Observations and Data Reduction

In 2000 August, we performed spectroscopy of XTE J2123–058 with the Echelle Spectrograph and Imager (ESI, Sheinis et al. 2000) at Keck Observatory. As shown in Table 1, we took eight exposures over two nights covering the 6 hour binary orbit. The cross-dispersed spectra were taken in Echelle mode with ten spectral orders falling on a 2048-by-4096 pixel CCD. We performed on-chip rebinning to 2048-by-2048 pixels to decrease read noise. Although this instrument is sensitive from 3900-11000Å, we only used the data in the 4700-6820Å band where the dispersion varies from 0.36 to 0.52Å per rebinned pixel. This is sufficient to over-sample the resolution of the spectrograph as we used a 1′′ slit, providing a spectral resolution of 1.0 to 1.5Å FWHM.

We obtained R and V-band photometry of XTE J2123–058 at MDM Observatory 10 days before the Keck observations, and found values for R and V consistent with the quiescent magnitudes reported in Tomsick et al. (1999). We measured $`V=22.68\pm 0.11`$ (corrected for atmospheric extinction but not reddening), and we use this value below to determine the source distance. Due to the faintness of the source, relatively long exposure times between 2340 and 2700 seconds were necessary for our spectroscopic observations. Even these exposures are a relatively small fraction of the orbital period. We obtained M, K and G dwarf comparison star spectra for the cross-correlations described below.

We extracted the spectra using the software package “makee” which was originally developed for the HIRES instrument at Keck, but has been adapted to extract ESI spectra. Using makee, we produced optimally extracted spectra for each of the ten spectral orders. We obtained CuAr line lamp exposures to determine the wavelength solution, and we checked this solution for each exposure using OI and NaI night sky lines. Averaging over all exposures and night sky lines, the difference between measured and actual wavelengths is 0.018Å. The calibration is also stable from exposure-to-exposure with a standard deviation of 0.027Å or less for all night sky lines, corresponding to a radial velocity measurement error of less than 1.5 km s-1. The data reduction procedure includes heliocentric velocity and atmospheric extinction corrections. We used IRAF routines to flux calibrate the spectra and obtained exposures of the spectrophotometric standard Hiltner 102 (Stone, 1977) on both nights for this purpose. We combined the spectral orders after flux calibration and rebinned the spectra to a logarithmic wavelength scale with 22.8 km s-1 pixels. Finally, we dereddened the XTE J2123–058 spectra using $`A_V=0.37`$ magnitudes (Hynes et al., 2001).

The quality of the XTE J2123–058 spectra varies significantly between exposures as indicated by the signal-to-noise ratios (SNR) given in Table 2. The mean SNR per pixel in the 5650-5850Å band is 1.66 in the worst case and 6.63 in the best case. One reason for this is that the source shows large orbital flux variations as can be seen from the fluxes given in Table 2. The flux variations show two peaks per orbit (exposures 5 and 8), which is expected if the variability is due to ellipsoidal modulations. XTE J2123–058 light curves from optical photometry show that ellipsoidal modulations are indeed present (Zurita et al., 2000). The SNR variations are also caused by variable seeing as shown in Table 1. The FWHM seeing for the exposure taken on the second night is $`0^{\prime \prime }.67`$ compared to an average of $`0^{\prime \prime }.93`$ for the exposures on the first night. It should be noted that the Table 2 fluxes are not corrected for seeing.

## 3. Results

### 3.1. Cross-Correlations

Our analysis of the spectra focuses on the region from 4700Å to 6820Å since the SNR becomes very poor below 4700Å and night sky lines dominate the spectrum above 6820Å. In this band, the spectra show features from the accretion disk (H$`\alpha `$ and H$`\beta `$ emission lines) and from the companion star. An examination of the spectra clearly shows the presence of a wide depression centered between 5100 and 5200Å. This is the signature of a K-type star and is due to the MgH feature at 5180Å, the TiO band at 4954-5200Å and a continuum discontinuity associated with the MgI triplet at 5168-5185Å (McClintock & Remillard 1990 and references therein). An absorption feature is seen near 5900Å due to the NaI doublet at 5891-5898Å. The strength of this feature indicates a late-K spectral type for the companion.

We used the IRAF routine “fxcor” (Tonry & Davis, 1979; Filippenko, Matheson & Ho, 1995) to cross-correlate the XTE J2123–058 spectra with the comparison stars. After masking night sky lines at 5205, 5579, 5891, 5898 and 6302Å and the H$`\alpha `$ and H$`\beta `$ emission lines from the source, we used the wavelength bands 4890-5190, 5210-5560, 5630-5860, 5985-6135 and 6640-6820Å for the cross-correlations. We also applied a bandpass filter from 30 to 800 cycles per spectrum in order to remove contributions due to spurious variations in the continuum and high frequency noise. We calculated cross-correlations for G0V, G5V, G9V, K0V, K2V, K4V, K7V, M0V and M1V with the exposure 8 spectrum. Highly significant peaks with Tonry & Davis (1979) R-values between 8.9 and 16.3 at roughly the same velocity occur, with the M-type and G0V stars giving the weakest correlations and the K7V star (HD 88230) giving the strongest correlation. For this reason and because of the strong NaI line, we used the K7V star for the radial velocity study.

We obtained unique and significant cross-correlation peaks at reasonable velocities ($`1000`$ to 1000 km s-1) for all eight exposures. The measured heliocentric velocities range from $`390`$ km s-1 to 192 km s-1 and are given in Table 2. The R-values vary significantly from 3.3 to 16.3 due to SNR differences. Figure 1 shows the radial velocity curve. First, we performed a least-squares fit to the data with a function consisting of a constant plus a sinusoid with four free parameters: the systemic velocity ($`\gamma `$), the epoch of inferior conjunction ($`T_0`$), the radial velocity semi-amplitude ($`K_2`$) and the orbital period ($`P_{orb}`$). This does not provide a formally acceptable fit ($`\chi ^2/\nu =12/4`$) so we increased the errors on the individual velocity measurements by 60% to give a reduced-$`\chi ^2`$ of 1.0. The fit gives a large range of possible values for $`P_{orb}`$ with a 90% confidence error region from 21125 to 22575 seconds. This range contains the photometric orbital period of $`21445.5\pm 2.3`$ seconds measured previously (Tomsick et al., 1999; Ilovaisky & Chevalier, 1998; Zurita et al., 2000), and we refitted the radial velocity curve after fixing $`P_{orb}`$ to this value. We expect that the photometric and spectroscopic orbital periods are the same since the photometric value is based on partial eclipses seen in the optical light curve during outburst (Tomsick et al., 1999; Zurita et al., 2000).

Table 3 shows the fit parameters with $`P_{orb}`$ fixed, and this fit is shown in Figure 1. Its semi-amplitude ($`K_2`$) of $`298.5\pm 6.9`$ km s-1 is the highest value that has been measured for any neutron star LMXB. The value of $`94.5\pm 5.5`$ km s-1 for $`\gamma `$ is consistent with the tentative value of $`90`$ km s-1 derived from emission lines (Hynes et al., 2001). We note that previous measurements of the photometric epoch are too uncertain to make a meaningful comparison to our spectroscopic epoch.

### 3.2. Average Spectrum and Source Distance

We produced an average, Doppler corrected spectrum using the eight XTE J2123–058 exposures. We first removed pixels contaminated by night sky lines. Next, we multiplied each spectrum by a constant based on the fluxes given in Table 2 to establish a common normalization. This is important because the wavelength bins near night sky lines do not have contributions from all eight exposures. We then Doppler corrected the spectra using the fitted radial velocity values given in Table 2. Finally, we interpolated the spectra to a common set of wavelength bins and calculated the weighted average for each wavelength bin.

The average spectrum is shown in Figure 2 along with the spectrum of HD 88230. Gaussian fits to the XTE J2123–058 emission lines give equivalent widths (EW) of 15.8 and 17.6Å and FWHM widths of $`1443\pm 64`$ and $`1729\pm 133`$ km s-1 for H$`\alpha `$ and H$`\beta `$, respectively. The FWHM widths are significantly less for the individual exposures. The continuum features near 5000-5300Å are similar to HD 88230, and narrow MgI absorption lines are seen in both spectra near the break in the continuum. Matching absorption lines are also present in several other parts of the spectrum, including the NaI doublet at 5891-5898Å.

We fitted the region of the spectrum near the NaI doublet with a constant plus two inverted Gaussians for the XTE J2123–058 average spectrum and also for the comparison stars in order to determine the total EW of the NaI doublet. For XTE J2123–058, we measure an EW of $`3.1\pm 0.6`$Å (after correcting for interstellar absorption using results from Hynes et al. 2001). For the K0V, K2V, K4V, K7V and M1V comparison stars, we measure EW of 1.1, 2.5, 3.6, 6.9 and 7.2Å, respectively. Since the H$`\alpha `$ and H$`\beta `$ emission lines indicate a significant disk contribution, these EW values indicate that the spectral type of the companion is later than K4V. However, based on the strengths of the cross-correlation peaks described above, the companion is a K rather than an M-type star. The range of possible spectral types is K5V-K9V.

We determined the source distance using the method described by McClintock et al. (2001). We assume a spectral type of K7V in the calculation and discuss possible associated uncertainties below. The strength of the NaI doublet indicates that the fraction of the light coming from the companion at 5900Å is 45%$`\pm `$ 8%. This, along with the MDM measurement (V = 22.68), gives an effective V-magnitude for the companion of 23.56. We calculated the absolute V-magnitude ($`M_V`$) of the companion using the expression given in Popper (1980), which depends on the spectral type and the radius of the companion. Since the companion fills its Roche lobe, its average density depends only on the orbital period (Faulkner, Flannery & Warner, 1972). From the density and assuming that the companion mass is 0.4$`\mathrm{M}_{\mathrm{}}`$, which is likely correct to within a factor of two (Barret, McClintock & Grindlay, 1996), we estimate a radius of 0.56$`\mathrm{R}_{\mathrm{}}`$ for the companion. This radius and the K7V spectral type gives $`M_V=8.42`$. After accounting for extinction, we obtained a source distance of 9.0 kpc. Recalculating with different spectral types indicates that the error associated with the K5V-K9V range is $`\pm 1`$ kpc. Also, the factor of two uncertainty in the companion’s mass translates to a 25% uncertainty in the distance (McClintock et al., 2001). Finally, there is a systematic error due to orbital variations in the V-magnitude. The MDM observations were made close to photometric minimum so that the average V-magnitude is somewhat less than 22.68. Based on the quiescent light curve shown in Zurita et al. (2000), we estimate that the average V-magnitude is close to 22.55, which decreases the distance by 0.5 kpc. We conclude that the distance is $`8.5\pm 2.5`$ kpc, indicating that XTE J2123–058 is $`5.0\pm 1.5`$ kpc from the Galactic plane.

## 4. Discussion and Conclusions

From $`K_2`$ and $`P_{orb}`$, we derive a mass function of $`f_2=0.684\pm 0.047`$$`\mathrm{M}_{\mathrm{}}`$, representing a lower limit on the neutron star mass ($`M_1`$). The binary inclination ($`i`$) and the mass ratio ($`q=M_1/M_2`$) are also necessary to obtain a precise measurement of $`M_1`$. For XTE J2123–058, $`i=73^{}\pm 4^{}`$ was determined via modeling of the outburst optical light curves (Zurita et al., 2000). Figure 3 shows $`M_1`$ vs. $`M_2`$ using the measured values of $`f_2`$ and $`i`$. From our constraint on the spectral type of the companion (K5V-K9V), it is very likely that $`M_2`$ lies between 0.4 and 0.7$`\mathrm{M}_{\mathrm{}}`$. For this range of companion masses, the range of neutron star masses is 1.2-1.8$`\mathrm{M}_{\mathrm{}}`$. Accurate determination of $`q`$, which may be possible via measurements of the rotational broadening of the secondary or light curve modeling, is critical to improve the mass constraint. Finding that the neutron star mass is near the upper end of the 1.2-1.8$`\mathrm{M}_{\mathrm{}}`$ mass range would have important implications for neutron star equations of state, and, in general, determining the mass has important implications for the evolution of neutron star systems.

The source distance we obtain is consistent with previous estimates (Homan et al., 1999; Tomsick et al., 1999), confirming that XTE J2123–058 is unusually far from the Galactic plane and implying a bolometric luminosity between $`3\times 10^{37}`$ and $`10^{38}`$ erg s-1 for the brightest X-ray bursts detected during the 1998 outburst (Tomsick et al., 1999). Given the distance and longitude ($`l=46.5^{}`$) of XTE J2123–058, the systemic radial velocity of $`94.5`$ km s-1 is significantly different from what would be observed for an object corotating with the disk of the Galaxy. This fact alone does not allow us to distinguish between a scenario where the source was ejected from the Galactic plane and the possibility that XTE J2123–058 has a halo origin.

We wish to thank John O’Meara for his help with observations and data reduction. We thank Tom Barlow for assistance with his makee software. We acknowledge Judith Cohen for obtaining a standard star exposure for us and Bob Goodrich for his help with ESI. We thank Gary Puniwai and Charles Sorenson for assistance. Data for this work were obtained at the W.M. Keck Observatory, which is operated as a scientific partnership among the University of California, Caltech and NASA.


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# A diagonalization property between Hurewicz and Menger

## 1. Introduction

The following property was introduced by Menger .

###### Definition 1.1.

A set of reals $`X`$ has the *Menger* property if for each sequence $`\{𝒰_n\}_n`$ of open covers of $`X`$ there exist finite subsets $`_n`$ of $`𝒰_n`$, $`n`$, such that the collection $`\{_n\}_n`$ is a cover of $`X`$.

For example, every compact, or even $`\sigma `$-compact, set of reals satisfies the Menger property.

Following Hurewicz , Scheepers introduced the following diagonalization procedure of a sequence of covers  (see Figure 1):

###### Definition 1.2.

Let $`𝔄`$ and $`𝔅`$ be collections of open covers of a space $`X`$. $`X`$ has *property $`𝖴_{fin}(𝔄,𝔅)`$* if for each sequence $`\{𝒰_n\}_n`$ of members of $`𝔄`$ there exist finite subsets $`_n`$ of $`𝒰_n`$, $`n`$, such that either $`_n=X`$ for some $`n`$, or else the collection $`\{_n\}_n𝔅`$.

We will consider sets of reals for which the usual induced topology has a subbase whose elements are *clopen* (both closed and open), that is, sets which are *zero-dimensional*. For convenience, we will also consider the Baire space $`{}_{}{}^{}`$ of infinite sequences of natural numbers (equipped with the product topology). The Baire space, as well as any separable and zero-dimensional metric space is homeomorphic to a set of reals; thus our results about sets of reals are actually results about this more general case.

Let $`X`$ be a set of reals. An $`\omega `$-cover of $`X`$ is a cover such that each finite subset of $`X`$ is contained in some member of the cover. It is a $`\gamma `$-cover if it is infinite, and each element of $`X`$ belongs to all but finitely many members of the cover. Let $`𝒪`$, $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$, and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ denote the collections of countable111There is no loss of generality in restricting attention to countable covers here, since the spaces in question are Lindelöf. open covers, $`\omega `$-covers, and $`\gamma `$-covers of $`X`$, respectively. In  Hurewicz studied the classes $`𝖴_{fin}(𝒪,𝒪)`$ (Menger property) and $`𝖴_{fin}(𝒪,\mathrm{\Gamma })`$ (*Hurewicz property*). These diagonalization principles as well as several other natural diagonalization principles (see Definition 2.2) were studied by Scheepers, et. al., in a long series of papers (, , , etc.).

For each of the diagonalization properties, it is desirable to have a simple description of its underlying combinatorial structure. For some of the properties this involves the quasiordering $`^{}`$ defined on the Baire space $`{}_{}{}^{}`$ by eventual dominance:

$$f^{}g\text{ if}f(n)g(n)\text{ for all but finitely many }n.$$

A subset $``$ of $`{}_{}{}^{}`$ is *dominating* if for each $`g`$ in $`{}_{}{}^{}`$ there exists $`f`$ such that $`g^{}f`$.

Hurewicz (, see also Recław ) has found the following elegant characterizations of the Menger and Hurewicz properties.

###### Theorem 1.3 (Hurewicz).

Let $`X`$ be a zero-dimensional set of reals.

1. $`X`$ satisfies $`𝖴_{fin}(𝒪,𝒪)`$ if, and only if, every continuous image of $`X`$ in $`{}_{}{}^{}`$ is not dominating.
2. $`X`$ satisfies $`𝖴_{fin}(𝒪,\mathrm{\Gamma })`$ if, and only if, every continuous image of $`X`$ in $`{}_{}{}^{}`$ is bounded (with respect to $`^{}`$).

Recław proved similar results for other important classes; see .

## 2. The new property $`𝖴_{fin}(𝒪,\mathrm{\Omega })`$

Using finite unions, one can turn any countable cover into a $`\gamma `$-cover. Thus, for each collection of covers $`𝔅`$, the properties $`𝖴_{fin}(𝒪,𝔅)`$, $`𝖴_{fin}(\mathrm{\Omega },𝔅)`$, and $`𝖴_{fin}(\mathrm{\Gamma },𝔅)`$ are equivalent . Therefore, the only (possibly) new property introduced by the general scheme of Definition 1.2 (when restricting attention to $`𝒪`$, $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$, and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$)222See  for another type of covers which can be smoothly incorporated into this framework. is $`𝖴_{fin}(𝒪,\mathrm{\Omega })`$. The property $`𝖴_{fin}(𝒪,\mathrm{\Omega })`$ is weaker than the Hurewicz property $`𝖴_{fin}(𝒪,\mathrm{\Gamma })`$ and stronger than the Menger property $`𝖴_{fin}(𝒪,𝒪)`$, and according to  it is indeed new, that is, it is not provably equivalent to any of the classical properties of Menger and Hurewicz. Unlike these classical properties, the combinatorial counterpart of the new property was less evident. In  it was proved that an analogous property (involving *Borel* instead of open covers) can be characterized in terms of the combinatorial structure of Borel images. In Remark 10 of  it was left open whether a similar result can be obtained for $`𝖴_{fin}(𝒪,\mathrm{\Omega })`$. We answer this question positively. The proof is essentially an application of Recław’s arguments from  to the proof of the corresponding Borel result from .

For a finite subset $`F`$ of $`{}_{}{}^{}`$, define $`\mathrm{max}(F){}_{}{}^{}`$ to be the function $`g`$ such that $`g(n)=\mathrm{max}\{f(n):fF\}`$ for each $`n`$. In  the following notion was introduced. For a subset $`Y`$ of $`{}_{}{}^{}`$,

$$\mathrm{maxfin}(Y):=\{\mathrm{max}(F):F\text{ is a finite subset of }Y\}.$$

We prove the following characterization of the new property $`𝖴_{fin}(𝒪,\mathrm{\Omega })`$.

###### Theorem 2.1.

For a zero-dimensional set $`X`$ of reals, the following are equivalent:

1. $`X`$ satisfies $`𝖴_{fin}(𝒪,\mathrm{\Omega })`$;
2. For each continuous function $`\mathrm{\Psi }`$ from $`X`$ to $`{}_{}{}^{}`$, $`\mathrm{maxfin}(\mathrm{\Psi }[X])`$ is not dominating.

###### Proof.

$`21`$: Assume that $`𝒰_n`$, $`n`$, are open covers of $`X`$. For each $`n`$, replacing each open member of $`𝒰_n`$ with all of its clopen subsets we may assume that all elements of $`𝒰_n`$ are clopen, and thus we may assume further that they are disjoint. For each $`n`$ enumerate $`𝒰_n=\{U_m^n\}_m`$. As we assume that the elements $`U_m^n`$, $`m`$, are disjoint, we can define a function $`\mathrm{\Psi }`$ from $`X`$ to $`{}_{}{}^{}`$ by

$$\mathrm{\Psi }(x)(n)=mxU_m^n.$$

Then $`\mathrm{\Psi }`$ is continuous. Therefore, $`\mathrm{maxfin}(\mathrm{\Psi }[X])`$ is not dominating. Let $`g`$ be a witness for that. Then for each finite $`FX`$, $`\mathrm{max}(\mathrm{\Psi }[F])(n)<g(n)`$ (i.e., $`F_{k<g(n)}U_k^n`$) for infinitely many $`n`$. Thus, $`\{_{k<g(n)}U_k^n\}_n`$ is an $`\omega `$-cover of $`X`$.

$`12`$: This was proved in . For completeness, we give a minor variation of the original proof. Since $`\mathrm{\Psi }`$ is continuous, $`Y=\mathrm{\Psi }[X]`$ also satisfies $`𝖴_{fin}(𝒪,\mathrm{\Omega })`$ . Consider the basic open covers $`𝒰_n=\{U_m^n\}_m`$ defined by $`U_m^n=\{f:f(n)=m\}`$. Then there exist finite $`_n𝒰_n`$, $`n`$, such that either $`Y=_n`$ for some $`n`$, or else $`𝒱=\{_n:n\}`$ is an $`\omega `$-cover of $`Y`$.

The first case can be split into two sub-cases: If $`Y=_n`$ for infinitely many $`n`$, then for these infinitely many $`n`$, the set $`\{f(n):fY\}`$ is finite. Thus $`\mathrm{maxfin}(Y)`$ cannot be dominating. Otherwise $`Y=_n`$ for only finitely many $`n`$, therefore we may replace each $`_n`$ satisfying $`Y=_n`$ with $`_n=\mathrm{}`$, so we are in the second case. In the second case, since $`Y𝒱`$ and $`𝒱`$ is an $`\omega `$-cover of $`Y`$, we have that each finite subset of $`Y`$ is contained in infinitely many elements of $`𝒱`$. Define $`g{}_{}{}^{}`$ by $`g(n)=\mathrm{max}\{m:U_m^n_n\}+1`$. For each finite $`FY`$, we have that $`F_n`$ and thus $`\mathrm{max}(F)(n)<g(n)`$ for infinitely many $`n`$. Then $`g`$ witnesses that $`\mathrm{maxfin}(Y)`$ is not dominating. ∎

The following diagonalization properties, which generalize some other classical notions, were introduced by Scheepers .

###### Definition 2.2.

For a set $`X`$ of reals, define the following diagonalization properties:

* For each sequence $`\{𝒰_n\}_n`$ of members of $`𝔄`$, there is a sequence $`\{U_n\}_n`$ such that for each $`n`$ $`U_n𝒰_n`$, and $`\{U_n\}_n𝔅`$.
* For each sequence $`\{𝒰_n\}_n`$ of members of $`𝔄`$, there is a sequence $`\{_n\}_n`$ such that each $`_n`$ is a finite subset of $`𝒰_n`$, and $`_n_n𝔅`$.

Let $``$, $`_\mathrm{\Omega }`$, and $`_\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ denote the collections of countable Borel covers, $`\omega `$-covers, and $`\gamma `$-covers of $`X`$, respectively. Using Theorem 2.1 and results from , we get the following corollary, which answers another question from . (Recall that $`𝖴_{fin}(𝒪,\mathrm{\Omega })=𝖴_{fin}(\mathrm{\Gamma },\mathrm{\Omega })`$.)

###### Corollary 2.3.

For a zero-dimensional set $`X`$ of reals, the following are equivalent:

1. $`X`$ satisfies $`𝖲_1(_\mathrm{\Gamma },_\mathrm{\Omega })`$,
2. Every Borel image of $`X`$ satisfies $`𝖲_1(\mathrm{\Gamma },\mathrm{\Omega })`$,
3. Every Borel image of $`X`$ satisfies $`𝖲_{fin}(\mathrm{\Gamma },\mathrm{\Omega })`$;
4. Every Borel image of $`X`$ satisfies $`𝖴_{fin}(\mathrm{\Gamma },\mathrm{\Omega })`$.

###### Proof.

This follows from Theorem 2.1, together with the equivalences $`𝖲_1(_\mathrm{\Gamma },_\mathrm{\Omega })=𝖲_{fin}(_\mathrm{\Gamma },_\mathrm{\Omega })=𝖴_{fin}(_\mathrm{\Gamma },_\mathrm{\Omega })`$, and the fact that $`𝖲_1(_\mathrm{\Gamma },_\mathrm{\Omega })`$ is closed under taking Borel images, see . ∎

## 3. Finite dominance

For a subset $`Y`$ of $`{}_{}{}^{}`$, the property that $`\mathrm{maxfin}(Y)`$ is not dominating can be stated in terms of finite dominance, a notion defined by Blass in a recent study .

###### Definition 3.1.

Let $`Y`$ be a subset of $`{}_{}{}^{}`$, and $`k`$. $`Y`$ is *$`k`$-dominating* if for each $`f{}_{}{}^{}`$ there exist $`g_1,\mathrm{},g_kY`$ such that $`f(n)\mathrm{max}\{g_1(n),\mathrm{},g_k(n)\}`$ for all but finitely many $`n`$.

In other words, $`Y`$ is $`k`$-dominating when the collection $`\{\mathrm{max}(F):FY\text{ and }|F|=k\}`$ is dominating.

###### Proposition 3.2.

For $`Y{}_{}{}^{}`$, $`\mathrm{maxfin}(Y)`$ is dominating if, and only if, there exists a natural number $`k`$ such that $`Y`$ is $`k`$-dominating.

###### Proof.

We will prove the less trivial implication. Assume that for each $`k`$, $`Y`$ is not $`k`$-dominating. For each $`k`$, let $`g_k{}_{}{}^{}`$ witness that $`Y`$ is not $`k`$-dominating. Since the collection $`\{g_k:k\}`$ is countable, there exists $`f{}_{}{}^{}`$ bounding it with respect to eventual dominance $`^{}`$. Then $`f`$ witnesses that $`\mathrm{maxfin}(Y)`$ is not dominating. ∎

###### Corollary 3.3.

For a zero-dimensional set $`X`$ of reals, the following are equivalent:

1. $`X`$ satisfies $`𝖴_{fin}(𝒪,\mathrm{\Omega })`$;
2. For each continuous function $`\mathrm{\Psi }`$ from $`X`$ to $`{}_{}{}^{}`$ and for each natural number $`k`$, $`\mathrm{\Psi }[X]`$ is not $`k`$-dominating.

## 4. Reduced products

The characterization in Theorem 2.1 has an elegant statement in the language of filters. Let $``$ be a filter over $``$. An equivalence relation $`_{}`$ is defined on $`{}_{}{}^{}`$ by

$$f_{}g\{n:f(n)=g(n)\}.$$

The equivalence class of $`f`$ is denoted $`[f]_{}`$, and the set of these equivalence classes is denoted $`{}_{}{}^{}/`$. Using this terminology, $`[f]_{}<[g]_{}`$ means

$$\{n:f(n)<g(n)\}.$$

###### Lemma 4.1 ().

Let $`Y{}_{}{}^{}`$ be such that for each $`n`$ the set $`\{h(n):hY\}`$ is infinite. Then the following are equivalent:

1. $`\mathrm{maxfin}(Y)`$ is not a dominating family.
2. There is a non-principal filter $``$ on $``$ such that the subset $`\{[f]_{}:fY\}`$ of the reduced product $`{}_{}{}^{}/`$ is bounded.

###### Corollary 4.2.

For a zero-dimensional set $`X`$ of reals, the following are equivalent:

1. $`X`$ satisfies $`𝖴_{fin}(𝒪,\mathrm{\Omega })`$;
2. For each continuous function $`\mathrm{\Psi }`$ from $`X`$ to $`{}_{}{}^{}`$, either there is a principal filter $`𝒢`$ for which $`\mathrm{\Psi }[X]/𝒢`$ is finite, or else there is a nonprincipal filter $``$ on $``$ such that the subset $`\mathrm{\Psi }[X]/`$ of the reduced product $`{}_{}{}^{}/`$ is bounded.

###### Proof.

This follows from Theorem 2.1 and Lemma 4.1, see  for the proof of the corresponding Borel version. ∎

Acknowledgments. I wish to thank Ireneusz Recław for reading this paper and detecting some typos. I also thank Andreas Blass for the observation 3.2.


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# Possible Signatures of Quark-Hadron Phase Transitions inside Neutron Stars

## 1 Introduction

The sky has long been a successful test ground and discovery site for fundamental physics. Examples include the discovery of Helium from the solar spectrum in 1868, evidence for gravity waves from binary pulsars  in 1978, and more recently in 1985, the discovery of Bucky Balls (C60), though not directly in the sky, through experiments designed to simulate environments near stars in favor of forming long chain carbon molecules .

Quark–hadron phase transitions are being pursued in accelerators in the high temperature regime. Meanwhile, the densities inside neutron stars may be high enough to allow the existence of deconfined quark matter.

### 1.1 A Neutron Star with a Quark Core

The structure of a neutron star with a quark core can be solved using standard equations of stellar structure  together with the equations of state (EOSs) of quark matter and normal neutron matter. The EOS of quark matter is much softer than that of neutron matter because of QCD asymptotic freedom. A neutron star containing a quark core is thus more compact than a normal neutron star. Consequently, the star has a larger maximum spin frequency. However, submillisecond pulsars have not been discovered and hence quark stars have not been identified this way.

### 1.2 Rotating Relativistic Stars

To solve the structure of a rotating relativistic star, Hartle developed  a perturbation solution based on the Schwarzschild metric of a static, spherically symmetric object. Rotation distorts the star away from spherical symmetry, and its perturbed metric has the form

$$ds^2=e^{2\nu }dt^2+e^{2\lambda }dr^2+e^{2\mu }d\theta ^2+e^{2\varphi }(d\varphi \omega dt)^2+O(\mathrm{\Omega }^3).$$
(1)
In this line element, $`\omega `$ is the angular frequency of the star’s fluid in a local inertial frame and depends on the radial coordinate $`r`$. It is related to $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$, the rotational frequency seen by a distant observer. In this way, the mass–central density relation can be solved for rotating compact stars . We note that, the mass “increase”, which is a main result in these works, represents the mass difference between two stars at different angular velocities with the same central density. Hence, these theoretical results are about star families relating to observations through pulsar statistics, and are difficult to be tested.

## 2 Predictions on Quark-Core Neutron Star Spin-Down Behavior

### 2.1 Another Way to Apply Hartle’s Perturbation Method

Instead of deriving mass–central density relations for a set of neutron stars, we have suggested to trace the evolution of an isolated neutron star during its spin-down process . Associated with the central density increase, neutron matter is continuously converted to quark matter. The overall structure and spin-down behaviors of the star are modified. In Hartle’s perturbation method, the central density is fixed as an input parameter, then stellar masses are solved as a function of angular frequency. In principle, we can derive a set of equations parallel to those of Hartle, with a fixed mass as an input and central density as a perturbation, and solve the central density and stellar structure as a function of angular velocities. In practice, it is more convenient to apply Hartle’s method in a different way to solve the change of central density of an isolated star.

An isolated neutron star has approximately constant gravitational mass during its spin–down process. The binding energy of a typical neutron star $`W10^{53}`$ erg, and the ratio of rotational energy to gravitational energy is less than $`0.1`$ for the most rapidly rotating neutron star . Since $`M_{}10^{54}`$ erg, the rotational energy is only $`1\%`$ of the stellar mass. In calculating the stellar configurations at different angular velocities, we need first to plot the mass–central density relation at different angular velocities using Hartle’s method as in previous work . Under our approximation, we cross these curves with a line of constant mass, and the corresponding central densities are those of a rotating star at different angular velocities.

### 2.2 Pulsar Glitches

The quarks inside the star are charged particles and are coupled with the solid crust through magnetic fields. They rotate at a different velocity from superfluid neutrons. During the spin–down process, the central density and the quark core grow and so does the fractional moment of inertia of quark matter as compared to the whole star ($`I_q/I`$). In a simple starquake model, the post–glitch behavior of a pulsar can be described approximately as ,

$$\mathrm{\Omega }(t)=\mathrm{\Omega }_0(t)+\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Omega }_0[Qe^{t/\tau }+1Q],$$
(2)
where $`Q`$ is the healing parameter of the pulsar. $`Q=\tau \mathrm{\Delta }\dot{\mathrm{\Omega }}(t=0)/\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Omega }`$, and $`\tau =\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Omega }/\mathrm{\Delta }\ddot{\mathrm{\Omega }}(t=0)`$. It has been shown that $`QI_n/I`$ (ref. 3), where $`I=I_n+I_c`$ is the total moment of inertia of the star, $`I_n`$ is the moment of inertia carried by neutral particles, and $`I_c`$ is that of charged particles. Hence, a decreasing $`Q`$ over a long term may indicate continuous conversion from neutron matter to quark matter inside the pulsar.

### 2.3 Spin-Down History

The pulsar spin-down can be described as

$$\dot{\mathrm{\Omega }}=k\mathrm{\Omega }^n,$$
(3)
and the braking index $`n`$ increases as the moment of inertia decreases,

$$\mathrm{\Delta }n/n\mathrm{\Delta }I/I.$$
(4)
As a result, $`|\dot{\mathrm{\Omega }}|`$ is larger because the quark-core neutron star has a smaller $`I`$ and thus is easier to brake. At the same time, the star tends to “spin–up” during the early stages of the phase transitions causing a higher $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ than in the normal neutron star case. Consequently, the “characteristic age”

$$\tau =\mathrm{\Omega }/2|\dot{\mathrm{\Omega }}|=k^1\mathrm{\Omega }^{1n}$$
(5)
may underestimate the true age of the neutron star with a quark core , while for a normal neutron star $`\tau `$ is an upper limit.

## 3 Onset of the Phase Transition: Catastrophic or Continuous?

### 3.1 Event Rate

In the previous section we considered the neutron star with a developed quark core in it. What if the central density of a normal neutron star happens to increase from sub-critical density to critical density? Apparently the chance for this to happen is low, and we can estimate the event rate as

$$R10^5\left(\frac{P_i}{20\mathrm{ms}}\right)^2\left(\frac{R_{\mathrm{NS}}}{10^2}\right)\mathrm{yr}^1\mathrm{galaxy}^1,$$
(6)
where $`R_{\mathrm{NS}}`$ is the average neutron star birth rate in units of per year per galaxy and $`P_i`$ is the initial spin period. $`R`$ does not strongly depend on the exact critical density. The event rate is low because the central density increase is small if the initial spin is slow. However, equation (6) suggest that these types of events happen at a finite rate, especially when we have millions of galaxies in our view. While the accretion power in astrophysics has been stressed in many astronomical environments, equation (6) suggest that the “spin-down power” is not negligible. The spin-down power can apply to any rotating systems with a critical point, not limited to quark-hadron phase transitions, but include Kion or Pion condensations inside neutron stars. Even for a rotating white dwarf the spin-down power alone may trigger a type Ia supernova as the Chandraseckhar mass limit depends on the rotational velocity.

### 3.2 Catastrophic

If the phase transition is catastrophic, it may happen on a time scale of seconds. In such a short time the star contracts from a radius of $``$15 km to $``$10 km, associated with a sudden spin up. Most importantly, the gravitational energy released

$$E\frac{GM^2}{R}\left(\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }R}{R}\right)10^{53}\left(\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }R}{R}\right)\mathrm{ergs}$$
(7)
may be large enough to power a cosmological gamma-ray burst (GRB) .

### 3.3 Non-Catastrophic

Even though quark-hadron phase transition is likely to be first order, it is different from water–vapor phase transition in that the former has an additional freedom of whether a proton deconfines to $`uud`$ quarks or a neutron becomes $`udd`$ quarks, which does not conserve electric charges in the two phases although the overall charge neutrality is conserved with the help from leptons. Hence, the two phases are not necessarily separated by gravity . In this case, the phase transition may happen slowly on a time scale of $`10^5`$ years and the energy is released at an average rate of $`10^{40}`$ ergs s-1. The majority of this energy is released via neutrino emission, and only a tiny fraction is used to heat the star up to a surface temperature of $`3\times 10^6`$ K, yielding a soft X-ray luminosity of $`10^{35}`$ ergs s-1. Note that it is 25 times more luminous than the sun, and it is not necessarily in a binary system . While the fluid core of the star is contracting, the solid crust may have stress built up in it, and the cracking of the crust can release bursts of energy .

## 4 Observations

In this section we confront theoretical predictions with observations. Radio pulsars constitute only a small fraction of all neutron stars because of the beaming nature of their radio emissions, and hence are not the best place to look for the signatures of the phase transition. So far only 3 pulsars have reliably measured $`n`$. Five glitches for Crab pulsar, and 7 for Vela are recorded with measured $`Q`$. Many more are needed to see the continuous phase transition in radio pulsars.

### 4.1 Soft Gamma Repeaters

Soft Gamma Repeaters (SGRs) are X-ray transient sources (with $``$20 keV photons) associated with young ($`10^4`$ yr) supernova remnants (SNRs). They are usually also quiescent X-ray emitters (with $`kT`$1 keV, $`L_\mathrm{X}10^{35}`$ ergs s-1). So far 4 SGRs have been discovered in the Galaxy, and 1 in the Large Magellanic Cloud. Two SGRs show $`\mathrm{\Omega }/2|\dot{\mathrm{\Omega }}|`$ ($`10^3`$ yrs) $`<`$ SNR age ($`10^4`$ yrs) . Since many more Anomalous X-ray Pulsars (AXPs) share some properties of SGRs, it seems that our prediction in previous section that we should be able to see one at a time in our Galaxy is an underestimate. Note however that if the initial spin of a neutron star is 2 ms rather than 20 ms (that of the Crab pulsar), we get 100 times more event rate of phase transition. Fast initial spin has indeed been suggested to produce strong magnetic fields  and slow down neutron stars much faster than Crab-type pulsars. Radio astronomers may have been biased toward Crab-type pulsars when picking up neutron stars.

### 4.2 Gamma-Ray Bursts

GRBs are energetic explosions with total energy $`10^{51}10^{54}`$ erg (if isotropic), most of which is released with 100 keV to a few MeV photons. The time scales range from milliseconds to minutes. The event rate is estimated to be $`10^5`$ yr-1 galaxy-1 if the emission is isotropic, and can be much higher if the emission is highly beamed. We note that the event rate in equation (6) can still account for the GRBs even if they are beamed, and the faster initial spins of the neutron stars naturally offer large angular momentum for the sake of beaming the electromagnetic radiations.

Gravity wave detectors such as LIGO may be able to observe gravity waves associated GRBs, and tell which is the correct model. However, the gravity wave is emitted more or less isotropically while the electromagnetic radiation is likely to be highly beamed (with a beaming factor 100–1000) in the angular momentum direction. Hence, LIGO may need to accumulate 100–1000 events before seeing a gravity wave signal at the same time of a GRB.

## 5 Conclusions

The accretion power in astrophysics has been stressed over decades, while the “spin–down power” is often neglected. Here we show that, in any astrophysical systems with angular momentum and a critical point, the spin–down power can drive the system to the critical point at a small but finite probability. If the transition to critical state is energetic enough to be seen from distant galaxies, we can observe these events regularly, as in the case for the signatures of quark deconfinement phase transitions in radio pulsars, SGRs, and GRBs.

## Acknowledgments

I thank Peter Williams for help with the manuscript.


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# A physically consistent model for X-ray emission by Seyfert 2 galaxies demonstrated on NGC 1068

## 1. Introduction

Recent high-resolution X-ray observations of Seyfert 2 galaxies with the grating spectrometers on board XMM-Newton and Chandra reveal an emission spectrum rich in discrete features. This finding supports the unified AGN model, according to which the continuum nuclear source in Seyfert 2 galaxies is completely blocked from our line of sight and we can see only the reprocessed light. To date, discrete emission has been detected in Markarian 3 (Sako et al. 2000), NGC 4151 (Ogle et al. 2000), and the Circinus Galaxy (Sambruna et al. 2001). NGC 1068, which is the brightest Seyfert 2 and therefore best suited for detailed spectroscopic studies, has been observed by all X-ray grating spectrometers: LETGS (Brinkman et al. 2001), HETGS (Ogle et al. 2001), and RGS (Kinkhabwala et al. 2001 and the present work). The conspicuous radiative recombination continuum (RRC) features observed in all Seyfert 2 galaxies verify the photoionized nature and low-temperature ($`kT_e`$ few eV) of the X-ray emitting plasma.

Spectra emitted by photoionized plasmas have been occasionally modeled assuming that the spectral lines and RRC’s are solely produced by recombination and subsequent radiative cascades (e.g., Liedahl et al. 1990, Sako et al. 1999, Porquet & Dubau 2001). When comparing these pure-recombination models to the Seyfert 2 X-ray spectra, significant residuals are found, which are mostly in lines with high oscillator strengths that are also among the strongest lines in hot collisional plasmas. Sako et al. (2000) were the first to suggest that these lines arise from photoexcitation (resonant scattering), while Ogle et al. (2000, 2001) interpret them as evidence for hot ($``$keV) plasma confining the much colder photoionized gas. Neither explanation has been tested with a detailed model yet. It is only natural that in a strong radiation field environment, the same flux that ionizes the atoms (bound-free transitions) will also excite them (bound-bound). In fact, emission by recombination and subsequent cascades without photoexcitation would be possible only if the plasma is in a transient phase of cooling and recombining. However, as a general rule in ionization balance, both of these processes contribute appreciably to the emitted spectrum. The relative importance of photoexcitation, recombination, and collisional excitation can be assessed only through careful modeling of the various line (and RRC) intensities, while correctly accounting for the atomic state kinetics. The model suggested in this paper is similar in spirit to the models that have been employed to interpret the spectra emitted by laboratory laser-produced plasma (Doron et al. 1998) and stellar coronae (Behar, Cottam, & Kahn 2001). Only here, we add the transitions induced by the radiation field, namely photoionization and photoexcitation. We focus on the unique spectroscopic signatures of photoexcitation and point out their importance in the NGC 1068 spectrum obtained with the Reflection Grating Spectrometer (RGS) on board XMM-Newton. The full analysis of the NGC 1068 RGS observation will be presented elsewhere (Kinkhabwala et al. 2001).

## 2. The Atomic-State Kinetic Model

For each ion, we use a steady-state model, which includes all of the excited levels of the emitting ion in addition to the ground level of the next charge state. For the simple case of H-like ions, that would be the $`nl`$ configurations in addition to the bare nuclei state. The atomic processes included in the model are radiative decays, radiative recombination (RR), photoexcitation (PE), and photoionization (PI). Additional processes, such as collisional excitations, de-excitations, or dielectronic recombination processes can be easily incorporated, but their effect in typical Seyfert 2 plasmas is negligibly small. Self absorption of the reprocessed light can be included, but has been found not to be important for NGC 1068. The electron energy distribution is assumed to be Maxwellian, corresponding to an electron temperature $`T_e`$. The set of rate equations for the density $`n_i^{+q}`$ in cm-3 of an ion with positive charge $`q`$ in a level $`i`$ can be written as:

$`{\displaystyle \frac{d}{dt}}n_i^{+q}={\displaystyle \underset{j>i}{}}n_j^{+q}A_{ji}+n_e{\displaystyle \underset{k>i}{}}n_k^{+(q+1)}\alpha _{ki}^{RR}(T_e)+{\displaystyle \underset{j<i}{}}n_j^{+q}R_{ji}^{PE}`$
$`n_i^{+q}\left({\displaystyle \underset{j<i}{}}A_{ij}+{\displaystyle \underset{j>i}{}}R_{ij}^{PE}+{\displaystyle \underset{k>i}{}}R_{ik}^{PI}\right)=0`$ (1)
The electron density is denoted by $`n_e`$ and $`A`$ represents the Einstein coefficient for spontaneous radiative emission. $`\alpha ^{RR}(T_e)`$ is the rate coefficient for RR. The rates $`R^{PE}`$ for PE are calculated from the illuminating photon flux $`F(E)`$, which is a function of the photon energy $`E`$ and is expressed in photons sec-1 cm-2 keV-1,

$$R_{ji}^{PE}=F(E)\sigma _{ji}^{PE}(E)𝑑E$$
(2)
The cross section for PE from level $`j`$ to level $`i`$ is:

$$\sigma _{ji}^{PE}(E)=\frac{\pi e^2}{m_ec}f_{ij}\varphi (E)$$
(3)
Here, $`e`$ and $`m_e`$ are the electron charge and mass, $`c`$ is the speed of light, $`f_{ji}`$ is the oscillator strength of the line, and $`\varphi (E)`$ is the line profile. Analogously, the rates $`R^{PI}`$ for PI are calculated using the PI cross section and the same flux $`F(E)`$. $`F(E)`$ is taken to be a power law $`[F_0(E)]`$ absorbed along the ionization cone. The optical depth $`\tau (E)`$ is calculated taking both line (PE) and edge (PI) absorption into account. Since with the RGS, we measure the spectrum integrated over the entire ionization cone of NGC 1068, we use for Eq. (1) the effective flux :

$$F(E)=F_0(E)\frac{1exp[\tau (E)]}{\tau (E)}$$
(4)
For spatially resolved spectra obtained with the Chandra gratings, a different flux needs to be used for each region. We will present a more detailed description of the model in Kinkhabwala et al. (2001).

Level-by-level calculations are carried out for each ion that appears in the spectrum. High lying levels with $`n`$-values up to 7 are included explicitly in the model. The contribution of higher levels, both via RR and via PE towards these levels, is included by extrapolation. The set of Eqs. (1) is solved by normalizing the sum of all level populations to unity. The power law normalization (or, alternatively, the electron density) is tuned to give the appropriate ionization balance between the two adjacent ions, which reproduces the observed RRC to line ratios. The line intensities in number of photons emitted per second and per cm3 are finally given by $`n_i^{+q}A_{ij}`$. The elementary atomic quantities used in this work, namely level energies, radiative decay rates, and photoionization cross sections, were obtained by means of the multi-configuration, relativistic HULLAC (Hebrew University Lawrence Livermore Atomic Code) computer package developed by Bar-Shalom et al. (2001).

## 3. Signature of Photoexcitation in the High Rydberg Series Lines

Looking at a Rydberg series of lines, for instance the Lyman series, the ratios of high-$`n`$ lines to that of, say, Ly$`\alpha `$ provide a probe for PE. At high ionic column density, beyond that in which the absorption of Ly$`\alpha `$ is saturated, the high-order lines can still be enhanced by PE resulting in the increase of their intensity ratio to Ly$`\alpha `$. This effect is illustrated in the left panel of Fig. 1 for C+5. At the point where Ly$`\alpha `$ saturates ($`10^{16}cm^2`$), the ratios rise, eventually reaching values of up to a few times higher than the low column-density values. As the column density increases further, the other members of the series progressively saturate as well. The actual column densities for which all of these saturations occur depend on $`\varphi (E)`$ (essentially the turbulent velocity, taken here to be 800 km/sec), but the intensity ratio trend seen in Fig. 1 is generic to the Seyfert 2 scenario, in which photons from a power law source are reprocessed by means of PE and PI. Next to the theoretical ratio curves in Fig. 1, still in the left panel, the ratios measured for NGC 1068 are shown (asterisks). These ratios are clearly in the high ionic column density regime at about 1018 cm-2. On the right hand side of the left panel in Fig. 1, the same ratios are indicated for collisional conditions where C+5 forms ($`kT_e`$ = 100 eV). Clearly, these are lower than the ratios for photoionized conditions, even at their low column-density limit. Hence, an additional collisional component will only worsen the agreement of the model with the observed ratios.

Indeed, the current, rather simple model for 1018 cm-2 fits the measured spectrum of NGC 1068 fairly well, as can be readily seen in the right panel of Fig. 1. The small remaining discrepancies could be due to the approximate line profiles used here. The complete analysis of the NGC 1068 spectrum, which includes all of the observed ions as well as the corrections for the line profiles and outflow velocity shifts will be presented in Kinkhabwala et al. (2001). Here, the slight velocity shifts actually come in handy and assist the comparison between the data and the model.

## 4. He-like species

The He-like species feature, in addition to the leading 1s - $`n`$p Rydberg series, the so-called forbidden ($`f`$) and intercombination ($`i`$) lines that together with the resonance ($`r`$) 1s - 2p line form the ($`n`$= 2 - 1; $`J`$ = 1 - 0) He-like triplet. For O+6, these lines fall at 22.097, 21.804, and 21.602 Å, respectively. Among these three, $`r`$ has the highest oscillator-strength by far and, thus, is most affected by PE. The intensity ratios of the various O+6 lines to the $`r`$-line as a function of column density are plotted in the left panel of Fig. 2. An effect similar to that for the H-like species is seen for the high order lines ($`\beta ,\gamma ,\delta `$, etc.), where their intensity with respect to the $`r`$-line increases when the latter saturates, and reaching a plateau when they saturate as well.

The line ratios for O+6 measured from the NGC 1068 spectrum are also plotted in Fig. 2 (asterisks). The same as for C+5, the measured O+6 ratios are found to be higher than the collisional ratios, reducing the likelihood of hot collisional gas. The measured ratios of O+6 imply a column density of $`3\times 10^{18}`$ cm-2. The O+6 model at this column density is plotted versus the data in the right panel of Fig. 2 and, evidently, the agreement is fairly good.

## 5. Conclusions

We have shown that a physically consistent model for reprocessing of the nuclear continuum and subsequent emission from Seyfert 2 galaxies, which includes all of the important atomic processes and particularly PE, reproduces the high-resolution RGS X-ray spectrum of NGC 1068 very well. A more complete analysis of this spectrum is soon to appear in Kinkhabwala et al. (2001). Moreover, the traditional models, which did not include PE, clearly produce erroneous spectra and line ratios. This, in turn, could possibly lead to wrong astrophysical interpretation, such as the invoking of hot collisional gas, which to the best of our understanding is not evident from the X-rays emitted by Seyfert 2 galaxies.

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