text:
# Thickness dependence of the ground-state properties in thin films of the heavy-fermion compound CeCu6

## Abstract

High-quality thin polycrystalline films of the heavy-fermion compound CeCu6 were prepared by sputter deposition. The thicker of these films (with thickness up to around 200 nm) reproduce the properties of the bulk compound CeCu6. As the thickness of the films is decreased, our measurements display strong deviations from the bulk properties, namely, a suppression of the heavy-fermion state. We show that possible “external” effects, like disorder, oxidation and morphology can be excluded and that this size effect is therefore an intrinsic property of CeCu6. In addition, we investigate possible scenarios explaining the size effect, and find that the proximity of CeCu6 to a quantum phase transition can account for this striking result.

## I Introduction

Strongly correlated electron systems have been studied extensively over the past two decades and produced a plethora of new and intriguing results. Among these systems are exotic heavy-fermion superconductors, heavy-fermion paramagnets, ferromagnets or antiferromagnets with tiny moments, spin glasses, Kondo insulators and non-Fermi liquids. Heavy-fermion compounds are often referred to as the “concentrated limit” of dilute Kondo alloys, because the local spin fluctuations arising from the hybridization of the $`f`$ electrons with conduction-band states have essentially the same origin as has the single impurity Kondo effect. The Kondo-lattice concept can consistently explain many of the bulk properties of Ce-based heavy-fermion compounds, in particular the formation of a narrow coherent heavy-fermion band with $`f`$ symmetry at low temperatures. It also provides a single scaling temperature $`T^{}`$ characterizing the properties of the system at low temperatures. Now an intriguing question arises: What length scales should be associated with (i) the coherent quasiparticle state and (ii) the correlations arising from the single impurity Kondo effect? In other words, will a heavy-fermion system keep its bulk properties when one of more dimensions are reduced?

In this paper, we address these queries by studying the transport properties of thin films of CeCu6 as a function of their thickness. CeCu6 is an archetypal heavy-fermion system with one of the largest known electronic specific heat coefficients and no magnetic or superconducting transition down to 20 mK. This makes it an ideal system to study the ground-state properties of the heavy-fermion state. Furthermore, it has attracted great attention in the past few years due its proximity to an antiferromagnetic quantum critical point (QCP). When doping with gold (CeCu6-xAux) non-Fermi liquid behavior is observed in CeCu5.9Au0.1 and an antiferromagnetic ground state is found for $`x>0.1`$. Our main result is that as the thickness of the films is decreased, the heavy Fermi-liquid state is suppressed, and the behavior becomes that of a dilute Kondo-impurity system. This result can best be explained with an increase of the characteristic temperature scale $`T^{}`$ as the thickness of the films is decreased. We argue that the proximity of CeCu6 to the QCP can account for a correlation length of the quantum fluctuations of ca. 10 nm, which leads to the increase of $`T^{}`$ as the thickness of the films approaches this length.

## II Experimental

The thin films of CeCu6, with thicknesses ranging from around 10 nm to around 200 nm, were prepared by co-sputtering under ultra-high vacuum conditions from two targets of pure Cu (99.99 %) and Ce (Ames Laboratory, 99.995 %). They were deposited onto Si(100) substrates with a Si3N4 buffer layer at a temperature of 350C, and subsequently covered in-situ at room temperature against oxidation with a Si layer. Thickness and composition of the films were determined by electron-probe microanalysis and Rutherford backscattering (RBS). The films are found to be homogeneous both in-plane and as a function of depth, and have sharp interfaces with substrate and protection layer. X-ray diffraction (XRD) measurements demonstrate that the films are polycrystalline (orthorhombic structure) with lattice parameters within 0.1 % of those found for bulk samples, and show a slightly preferred orientation of the $`b`$-axis in growth direction. As the thickness of the films is reduced, no variations of the lattice constants, nor of the preferred orientation, are observed. High resolution electron microscopy (HREM) has enabled us to prove that the grain size is the same in films of thickness 189 nm and 53 nm, and of the order of 10 nm, independent of film thickness. Also our RBS measurements have enabled us to put an upper limit of 2 at.% on oxygen content. Resistance measurements were performed on structured samples in a four-probe geometry (50–200 $`\mu `$m wide and 2–3 mm between the voltage contacts) in applied magnetic fields up to 8 T and at temperatures down to 20 mK. We have shown in an earlier publication that for a film of thickness 189 nm, the measurements of resistance versus temperature and those of the magnetoresistance mimic the properties of bulk samples, establishing the formation of a heavy Fermi-liquid state at low temperatures in such thick films.

The resistivity data in zero magnetic field as a function of temperature is shown for samples of various thickness in Fig. 1. The absolute values were normalized to those measured at room temperature. This allows a better comparison of the different samples, by removing uncertainties due to the determination of the thickness ($`\pm `$10 %). Moreover, we are not able to subtract non-magnetic contributions to the resistivity, such as phonon contributions—this would require the fabrication of LaCu6 thin films. At high temperatures, the logarithmic temperature scale enables us to compare these results to a dilute Kondo system, in which the temperature dependence of the resistivity is $`\mathrm{ln}T`$. There is no clear range of temperatures for the any sample in which this logarithmic behavior is clearly observed. Crystalline electric field (CEF) effects complicate the simple Kondo picture at temperatures of the order of 50 K, due to the occupancy of higher lying CEF levels. The general tendency at high temperatures is that the slope $`s=d\rho /d(\mathrm{ln}T)`$ is lower for thinner films than for thicker films.

At low temperatures, we see that large differences are found between the thick films and the thin films. Whereas for the thick films, there is a clear maximum of the resistivity $`\rho `$ at a temperature $`T_{\mathrm{max}}`$ followed by a large drop upon lowering the temperature, in contrast the resistivity just saturates for the thinnest films. The absolute values of the residual resistivity $`\rho _0`$ do not show any clear thickness dependence. They are shown as a function of film thickness $`d`$ in Fig. 2 (right axis). The black bar represents the approximate range of values found in literature—averaged over the three crystallographic directions for single crystals. Two remarks can be made based on these measurements: (i) The dependence of the residual resistivity on the thickness is very weak, proving that no additional disorder is induced when the samples are made thinner; (ii) The values of the residual resistivity clearly lie in a metallic regime, well below the Ioffe-Regel limit where the mean free path $`\mathrm{}`$ is equal to the interatomic distance, which for CeCu6 would give a maximum resistivity of 300 $`\mu \mathrm{\Omega }`$ cm for a metallic state. Also in Fig. 2 are shown the values of $`T_{\mathrm{max}}`$ as a function of thickness (grey symbols, left axis). The bulk values found in the literature are as high as 15 K for particular crystallographic directions. A clear tendency toward suppression of $`T_{\mathrm{max}}`$ is found as the thickness of the films is decreased.

For $`d>20`$ nm, Fermi-liquid behavior is found at very low temperatures ($`T<200`$ mK), $`\rho =\rho _0+AT^2`$, where $`A`$ is the Fermi-liquid coefficient related to the effective mass $`m^{}`$ of the quasiparticles by $`A(m^{})^2`$. The values obtained for $`A`$ are shown in Fig. 3 as a function of film thickness. For comparison, the values found in literature for bulk samples are symbolized by the grey bar on the right side of the figure. There is a dramatic decrease of $`A`$ as the thickness of the samples is reduced. Below 50 nm this drop is better viewed on a logarithmic scale, as seen in the inset.

Overall, the value of $`A`$ decreases by nearly four orders of magnitude, which should be contrasted with a maximum difference by a factor of five between the different bulk samples. For the thinnest films of 11 nm and 12 nm, the resistivity just saturates down to lowest temperatures, and no value of $`A`$ can be defined. Our results clearly demonstrate that the heavy Fermi liquid state is suppressed in our thinnest films.

The magnetoresistance (MR) is also strongly thickness dependent: The magnitude of the negative MR decreases as the thickness is decreased for all temperatures below 10 K. This is shown in Fig. 4 where measurements of the MR in an applied field of 4 T were performed. The MR is defined as $`\mathrm{MR}=(\rho (H)\rho (0))/\rho (0)`$. The thickest film (189 nm) shows the typical MR of a Kondo lattice system, with an increasingly negative MR as the temperature is lowered, followed by a minimum and an increase of the MR which is due to the onset of coherence and the HF state. In the thinnest films, the MR effect is much weaker, and there is no minimum, proving again that the coherent state is suppressed.

To summarize our experimental findings, we observe a dramatic suppression of the heavy-fermion state in the ground state of CeCu6 as the thickness of the films is reduced. Whereas the residual resistivity $`\rho _0`$ and the XRD measurements prove that the intrinsic disorder is not changed as the films are made thinner, characteristic signatures of the heavy-fermion ground state such as the high Fermi-liquid coefficient $`A`$ and the sharp minimum in the MR are reduced, and even completely suppressed in our thinnest films. As mentioned previously, the quality of the thin films was carefully analyzed, so that external effects such as preferred orientation changes, the grain structure or oxygen contamination can, as far as we can determine, be excluded as possible explanations for the observed thickness dependence. This striking effect is therefore an intrinsic property of CeCu6, and we will now consider possible scenarios for this thickness-dependence property of the correlated state.

## III Discussion

As we have seen, the most common model used to describe heavy-fermion systems is that of the Kondo lattice. Let us first take this model as a starting point in our discussion and see whether reducing the sample dimensions can lead to our results. We can approach this in two ways: The single impurity Kondo scattering is affected by a reduction of the size of the samples (scenario I), or the Kondo temperature itself is size dependent (scenario II), affecting the electron-electron interactions leading to the coherent state in the Kondo lattice.

Finally, in scenario III, we will also put forward an alternative way of looking at CeCu6, based on the fact that this system lies close to a quantum critical point.

Let us first remark that it is not simply the coherence that is lost when the thickness is reduced. If that were the case, CeCu6 would just cross over from a periodic Kondo system to a dense independent-impurity Kondo system. The resistivity would increase down to zero temperature, with no change at high temperatures, leading to a strong increase of the residual resistivity. Also the magnitude of the MR would not change at the minimum, as opposed to the large suppression we observe for thinner films.

### A Size dependence of single impurity Kondo scattering

It is generally accepted by now that the original picture of a “Kondo cloud” with finite spatial extension of spin-polarized electrons screening the magnetic moment of the Kondo impurity is not correct. This follows both from theoretical considerations and experimental results. However, a number of experimental observations were made on the size dependence of the Kondo effect, mostly using thin films or thin wires of very dilute Kondo alloys, e.g. AuFe or CuCr. No clear picture emerges from these experimental results, since in some cases a size effect is indeed observed and in other cases not. What these results have in common though, is that the Kondo temperature appears to be constant. The size effect on the transport properties, if any, shows a reduction of the Kondo scattering term in thinner films or wires—scenario I.

Two different theoretical models have been put forward to explain these results. The first, by Újsághy et al. considers the effect of spin-orbit interaction of the conduction electrons with the magnetic impurity. This interaction induces an impurity-spin anisotropy close to the surface of the sample, which reduces the effective thickness contributing to the Kondo scattering of the conduction electrons. While this may explain the observed reduction of the logarithmic slope of the resistivity of CeCu6 films as a function of temperature at high temperatures, such a scenario cannot explain our observation that at low temperatures, the Fermi-liquid coefficient is completely suppressed in films of 10 nm thickness. The second model, by Martin et al. describes how the interplay between spin scattering (Kondo) and weak localization (disorder) can modify the coefficient of the $`\mathrm{ln}T`$ dependence of the resistivity. However, their theory only applies in the very dilute case, in which normal impurity scattering leading to weak localization dominates over spin scattering. CeCu6 obviously does not belong to this category.

### B Size dependence of the Kondo temperature

Within the Kondo lattice model for heavy-fermions, the Kondo temperature $`T_\mathrm{K}`$ is the fundamental energy scale of the system. Other commonly used energy scales, such as the coherence temperature or the RKKY temperature, can be directly related to $`T_\mathrm{K}`$. Returning to the analogy with dilute Kondo systems, let us consider a thickness-dependent Kondo temperature as a possible cause of our results—scenario II. From Fermi-liquid theory, $`A`$ is proportional to $`N(E_\mathrm{F})^2`$, the density of states (DOS) at the Fermi level squared. Our measurements thus show that the DOS at the Fermi level is reduced in thinner films. The Kondo temperature is related to the DOS at the Fermi level via $`T_\mathrm{K}1/N(E_\mathrm{F})`$ provided the Kondo interaction is much greater than the RKKY interaction, i.e. $`JN(E_\mathrm{F})1`$ with $`J`$ the magnetic coupling. An increase of the Kondo temperature $`T_\mathrm{K}`$ with decreasing thickness is in qualitative agreement with our results: An increased $`T_\mathrm{K}`$ reduces the magnetic interactions at low temperature and therefore suppresses the heavy Fermi-liquid state.

Unfortunately, transport measurements do not allow us to determine unambiguously the Kondo temperature in our system. The maximum in the resistivity $`T_{\mathrm{max}}`$ results from the onset of coherence in the heavy Fermi-liquid state and is therefore not a good measure for $`T_\mathrm{K}`$. The MR results can provide better information about the Kondo temperature. The calculations by Kawakami and Okiji show that for decreasing $`H/T_\mathrm{K}`$, the amplitude of the MR decreases. The change of amplitude in the MR of a factor of 5 as we observe in Fig. 4 can be explained by an increase of $`T_\mathrm{K}`$ by about a factor of 4. As is the case for $`T_{\mathrm{max}}`$, we cannot use the position of the minimum of the MR as a measure for $`T_\mathrm{K}`$, since we cross over from a Kondo lattice to an independent Kondo impurity system.

To explain the observed size dependence of Kondo scattering in point-contact experiments also a variation of the Kondo temperature with size was put forward. The theoretical explanation, given by Zaránd and Udvardi, is not based on a decrease of the DOS but rather on fluctuations of the local DOS near the surface of the point contact. For very small point contacts, the contribution of strong fluctuations of the local DOS near the surface of the point contact leads to the observation of an enhanced “effective” Kondo temperature. The smaller the value of the bulk Kondo temperature, the larger the enhancement in small point contacts. We do not believe that such an explanation can hold for our thin films of CeCu6: Firstly, the effects we observe occur at very large film thickness as compared to the length scales over which one may expect fluctuations of the DOS. Second, the Kondo temperature of the compounds that were studied in the point contact experiments were one to two orders of magnitude smaller than that of CeCu6, which has a bulk Kondo temperature of the order of 1 K.

Whether scenario II can form the basis for explaining our results is highly debatable. This scenario is based on a comparison with a dilute Kondo model, with all its shortcomings when applying it to a Kondo lattice system: One of them lies in the assumption of no residual interactions or magnetic ordering appearing on the periodic Ce lattice. Indeed, even for large $`T_\mathrm{K}`$, interactions and antiferromagnetic order do remain a possibility at low temperatures and thereby the transport properties would be modified accordingly.

### C Dimensional crossover due to quantum criticality

In order to get a deeper physical feeling for the observed effects, let us take a step back, and attempt to describe CeCu6 in a more general manner, our scenario III. We already mentioned that CeCu6 lies very close to a magnetic instability. Whether or not it does actually order antiferromagnetically at very low temperatures is still debatable, but there is not much needed to trigger such a transition: doping the system with gold leads to an antiferromagnetic (AFM) ground state for CeCu$`{}_{6x}{}^{}Au_x`$ with $`x0.1`$ (Fig. 5). It is now believed that the non-Fermi liquid behavior observed at $`x=0.1`$ arises from the quantum critical point (QCP) at that doping concentration. The general picture is the following (see Fig. 5): When describing the thermodynamics of a quantum system in $`D`$ dimensions, the expression for its partition function maps onto a classical partition function for a system with $`D+1`$ dimensions; the extra dimension is finite in extent and has units of time: $`\mathrm{}/k_\mathrm{B}T`$. At $`T=0`$, the quantum system undergoes a quantum phase transition (QPT) when the strength $`K`$ of the quantum fluctuations is changed and becomes equal to a critical value $`K_\mathrm{c}`$: These fluctuations play the role of the thermal fluctuations in the classical system.

Therefore, using our knowledge of critical phenomena, a spatial correlation length $`\xi `$ diverges as $`KK_\mathrm{c}`$ with a critical exponent $`\nu `$. Similarly, there must be a correlation ‘length’ $`\xi _\tau `$ in temporal direction, which may have a different critical behavior than $`\xi `$ because of the possibly different nature of the correlations in space and in time, respectively. Quite generally, the relation between $`\xi `$ and $`\xi _\tau `$ is governed by the dynamical exponent $`z`$, $`\xi _\tau \xi ^z`$. The effect of finite temperatures is to cut-off the low-frequency fluctuations via $`k_\mathrm{B}T\mathrm{}/\tau `$. The characteristic temperature $`T^{}`$ of the system is the temperature at which the cut-off frequency $`1/\tau `$ is equal to the coherence frequency $`1/\xi _\tau `$. This temperature marks a crossover with increasing temperature from a $`(D+1)`$\- to a $`D`$-dimensional system. Now, when the thickness of the films is decreased, the spatial correlation length $`\xi `$ is cut-off at the thickness $`d`$ of the film for sufficiently small $`d`$. This leads to an effective increase of the coherence frequency, since now $`\xi _\tau d^z`$. For sufficiently small $`d`$, the coherence ‘length’ in temporal direction is now directly related to the thickness of the films, and therefore also the characteristic temperature $`T^{}`$ is related to $`d`$ for sufficiently small $`d`$:

$$T^{}d^z.$$
(1)
We have seen that it is difficult to determine the temperature scale of our system based on transport measurements only. We believe that the Fermi-liquid coefficient $`A`$ is the most physical quantity that we can extract. Without requiring any of the concepts of Kondo theory, we can still relate $`A`$ to $`T^{}`$. We know from Landau Fermi-liquid theory that $`AN(E_\mathrm{F})^2`$. Dimensional analysis requires that $`T^{}1/N(E_\mathrm{F})`$. Our experiments suggest a linear relationship between $`A`$ and the film thickness $`d`$. Putting these results in Eq. 1, we obtain $`z=0.5`$.

To explain our results within the framework of quantum criticallity, we sketched in Fig. 5 a phase diagram where $`d^1`$ is put on the horizontal axis, which normally measures the strength of the fluctuations. For, by decreasing the thickness of the films, we are increasing the characteristic temperature $`T^{}`$ thus moving away from the QCP. This suggests that moving away from the Neél ordered state enhances the quantum spin fluctuations and therefore suppresses the heavy fermion state, especially with a dimensionality reduction. In the phase diagram, this is equivalent to moving towards the left on the horizontal axis, or to stretching the $`T`$-axis and thereby pulling up the line describing $`T^{}`$. We do not observe a significant increase of the residual resistivity due to this enhancement of the quantum fluctuations. The relationship between $`A`$ and $`T^{}`$ was recently confirmed by measurements by Pfleiderer et al. They find that $`A`$ tends to diverge as $`T^{}`$ becomes zero at the QCP, proving that heavy-fermion behavior is enhanced as one approaches the QCP. The value of the dynamical exponent $`z=0.5`$ is quite unusual, since this would mean that the spatial correlation length diverges faster than the temporal correlation length as the QCP is approached. The expected value of $`z`$ for an antiferromagnetic system is 2, and is confirmed by the NFL behavior at the critical point, assuming 2-dimensional AFM fluctuations. We therefore wish to stress here that the arguments we used to determine $`z`$ were merely qualitative, and that in order to confirm this picture of the HF system CeCu6, measurements of thermodynamic quantities such as the specific heat or the susceptibility in these thin films would be more appropriate. They are unfortunately very difficult to perform in view of the small available volume in thin films.

A length scale $`\xi `$ of 10 nm might seem very large at first sight. However, we are dealing with particularly “slow” quasiparticles, with a typical velocity $`v_\mathrm{F}`$ that is a factor 1000 lower than free electrons in normal metals. Also we have a system with a low characteristic energy scale $`k_\mathrm{B}T^{}`$ of about 1 K, which can be estimated, e.g., from the temperature where the coherent state becomes important. This characteristic energy corresponds to a time scale, $`\xi _\tau =10^{11}`$ s, leading indeed to a characteristic length of $`v_\mathrm{F}\xi _\tau =10`$ nm. It is actually this very low value of $`T^{}`$ that is believed to make CeCu6 and other so-called “Kondo lattice” compounds heavy-fermion systems.

## IV Conclusions

Our measurements on thin films of CeCu6 have exhibited a dramatic change of the ground state properties upon approaching a thickness of the order of 10 nm.

Because CeCu6 is usually described as a Kondo lattice system, we have attempted to reconcile our results with the properties of a dilute Kondo system. A size effect of the Kondo effect itself (scenario I), as observed experimentally in dilute Kondo systems, does not account for the scaling of characteristic energies that we observe as a function of thickness ($`A`$ and $`T_{\mathrm{max}}`$). The characteristic energy of the Kondo lattice model is the Kondo temperature $`T_\mathrm{K}`$, and a thickness dependence of $`T_\mathrm{K}`$ can qualitatively explain our results (scenario II). However, it is not clear whether this scenario also applies to a Kondo lattice, and why fluctuations of the DOS should occur at the relatively large length scale of around 10 nm.

The proximity of CeCu6 to a quantum critical point has led us to seek an explanation in terms of another description of CeCu6 (scenario III) . The physics of a system near a QCP is governed by two correlation lengths, $`\xi _\tau `$ in the time direction, and $`\xi `$ in spatial direction, that diverge as one approaches the QCP. When, as is the case for CeCu6, the quantum fluctuations are so large that the system is not ordered at $`T=0`$, $`\xi _\tau `$ sets a characteristic temperature scale $`T^{}`$ above which the system “loses” one dimension. Because $`\xi _\tau `$ and $`\xi `$ are coupled through the dynamical critical exponent $`z`$, an effective reduction of one spatial dimension below $`\xi `$ has the effect of increasing the characteristic temperature scale $`T^{}`$. This leads on the one hand to a “stretching” of the temperature axis, i.e. a flattening of resistivity as a function of temperature. On the other hand, it leads to a lower DOS at the Fermi level, and hence to a weakening of the correlations (decrease of $`A`$). This scenario therefore provides a reasonable “starting point” for the length scale that was found in our experiments although we can not explain the very small values of $`A`$ for the thinnest films and the residual resistivity does not reflect the increase of the quantum fluctuations.

## Acknowledgements

We wish to thank L. Qin and H. W. Zandbergen from the National Centre for HREM in Delft, The Netherlands, for the HREM measurements on our films. Furthermore, we would like to acknowledge the enlighting discussions J. Zaanen on the theory of quantum phase transitions. This work was supported by the Dutch Foundation for Fundamental Research on Matter (FOM).


format: text

text:
# On the Possible Sources of D/H Dispersion at High Redshift

## 1 Introduction

One of the key parameters in the standard big bang model is the density of ordinary baryonic matter, expressed as a fraction of the critical density, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_B`$ (often quoted in combination with the Hubble parameter as $`\mathrm{\Omega }_Bh^2`$). Big bang nucleosynthesis (BBN) has traditionally been the primary theoretical tool for determining $`\mathrm{\Omega }_Bh^2`$, and has recently been complemented by detailed measurements of the cosmic microwave background anisotropy. These results are to be compared to direct surveys of cosmic baryonic matter. While baryons are readily observable in stars or stellar remnants, galaxies, X-ray-emitting hot gas, as well as intergalactic gas, the low-redshift baryonic budget (Fukugita, Hogan, & Peebles fhp (1998)) is uncertain, and leaves some room for dark baryonic objects. Conversely, at higher redshifts, ($`z=2`$ to 3) a new estimate of $`\mathrm{\Omega }_Bh^2`$ based on the measurement of Lyman alpha forest intergalactic H I absorption lines (and also He II lines) in the spectra of remote quasars has been done and is in good agreement with $`\mathrm{\Omega }_Bh^2`$ derived from BBN (in the range $`\mathrm{\Omega }_Bh^2=0.01`$ to $`0.03`$, Riedeger et al. rie (1998), Wadsley et al. wad (2000)). This is between 3 and 20 times the observed baryon density in the luminous parts of galaxies and their presumed precursors, the damped Lyman alpha intergalactic neutral hydrogen clouds, amounting to $`\mathrm{\Omega }_Bh^2=0.0015`$ to $`0.003`$ (Péroux et al. 2001).

At the local scale, MACHOS, with masses of about 0.5 $`M_{}`$ and detected by gravitational microlensing towards the LMC, are possible candidates for some of the dark baryons, and amount to $`\stackrel{<}{}20\%`$ of the dark halo (Alcock et al. 2000). Recently, old halo white dwarfs may have been detected in sufficient numbers to amount to $`\stackrel{>}{}2\%`$ of the dark halo. These white dwarfs, if halo members, represent a large increment, by a factor $`10`$, relative to disk white dwarfs, and hence would have a profound impact on Galactic chemical evolution. In this paper we discuss the implications of the discovery of dark baryons in the form of old halo white dwarfs for BBN, and in particular for the deuterium abundance.

The standard model of BBN has enjoyed great success in its ability to predict the primordial abundances of the light element isotopes, D, $`{}_{}{}^{3}\mathrm{He}`$, $`{}_{}{}^{4}\mathrm{He}`$ and $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}`$. Indeed, in the standard model, there remains only one remaining unknown parameter, the baryon-to-photon ratio, $`\eta =n_B/n_\gamma `$, which can be expressed as $`\eta _{10}=10^{10}\eta =274\mathrm{\Omega }_Bh^2`$. Roughly, for a value of $`\eta _{10}`$ between 1.7 and 7.4, (corresponding to $`\mathrm{\Omega }_Bh^2`$ between 0.006 and 0.027), we obtain concordance between the BBN predictions and the observational determination of the abundances (Nollett & Burles 2000; Vangioni-Flam, Coc, & Cassé 2001; Cyburt, Fields, & Olive 2001). In detail, however, there are small but perhaps not insignificant differences in the determination of $`\mathrm{\Omega }_Bh^2`$ from the different isotopes. $`{}_{}{}^{4}\mathrm{He}`$ and $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}`$ concordance is typically achieved for lower $`\eta _{10}`$ whereas D/H is best fit at higher values. To be sure, not every isotope serves as an equally good baryometer. In fact, because of the weak logarithmic dependence on $`\eta _{10}`$, $`{}_{}{}^{4}\mathrm{He}`$ is the worst element to use to fix the baryon density. While the $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}`$ abundance strongly depends on $`\eta _{10}`$, the theoretical uncertainties which stem from uncertainties in the input nuclear cross-section make it difficult to derive precise values of the baryon density. In addition, because of the functional dependence of $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}`$ on $`\eta _{10}`$, a given observational abundance of $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}`$ gives us two predictions for $`\eta _{10}`$. D/H, on the other hand, is both strongly dependent on $`\eta _{10}`$ and is relatively free from theoretical uncertainties. One should bear in mind however, that there are far more observational determinations of $`{}_{}{}^{4}\mathrm{He}`$ and $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}`$ at the present time than there are of D/H from quasar absorption systems. Nevertheless it is the range in D/H, reported to span up to a factor of 20, that has been the center of much controversy over the past decade because of the strong sensitivity to the baryon density. The reported D/H abundance has now converged towards the lower end of this range, but recent measurements reveal a spread by up to a factor of 3 that may reflect intrinsic variations in the D/H abundance. These variations would most plausibly arise from stellar processing of primordial gas, or possibly from non thermal processes such as photodisintegration by gamma rays, or spallation reactions induced by energetic particles.

The recent results BOOMERanG yield $`\mathrm{\Omega }_Bh^2=0.021_{0.003}^{+0.004}`$ (Netterfield et al. 2001), in very good agreement with the estimate from D/H. This is also in agreement with the recent results of DASI (Pryke et al. 2001), who find $`\mathrm{\Omega }_Bh^2=0.022_{0.003}^{+0.004}`$.

There have also been several new observations of D/H from quasar absorption systems. In addition to the earlier determinations by Burles and Tytler (1998a,b) in two Lyman limit systems of $`4.0\pm .65`$ and $`(3.25\pm 0.3)\times 10^5`$ and the upper limit in a third Lyman limit system by Kirkman et al. (1999) of 6.8 $`\times 10^5`$, there have been three new measurements of D/H in Damped Lyman $`\alpha `$ systems by O’Meara et al. (2001): $`2.5\pm 0.25`$, by D’Odorico et al. (2001): $`2.25\pm 0.65`$, and by Pettini and Bowen (2001): $`1.65\pm 0.35`$ all times $`10^5`$. This last value is uncertain due to the poorly defined level of the continuum and the possible blending of lines (P. Petitjean, private communication). We note that there is also a measurement of D/H in a relatively low redshift system with significantly higher D/H (Webb et al. 1997; Tytler et al. 1999). This system has recently been criticized (Kirkman et al. 2001) and we will not consider it further here.

Is there a real dispersion in D/H in these high redshift systems? We note two possible trends that go in a similar direction. The data may show an inverse correlation of D/H abundance with Si. This may be an artifact of poorly determined Si abundances, or (as yet unknown) systematics affecting the D/H determination in high-column density (damped Lyman-$`\alpha `$, hereafter DLA) or low-column density (Lyman limit systems) absorbers. On the other hand, if the dispersion in D/H is real, it has profound consequences, as it must indicate that some processing of D/H must have occurred even at high redshift. The second trend is that the data may show an inverse correlation of D/H abundance with HI column density. If real, this would suggest that in the high column density DLA systems, which are most likely to have undergone some star formation, some processing of D/H must similarly have occurred, likewise at high redshift.

It is interesting to note that local D values measured in the interstellar medium also appear to show a considerable dispersion. Linsky linsky (1998) summarized the observations then available and argued for a constant value in the local ISM of $`(1.5\pm 0.1)\times 10^5`$. Recent data (see Vidal-Madjar 2001, for a review) are consistent with this mean value, but suggest significant variations of the D/H ratio spanning the range $`5\times 10^6`$ to $`4\times 10^5`$. Thus, if D shows such variability, perhaps correlated to some unexpected physical processes leading to its destruction, one can, in turn, question the ability of cosmological clouds to represent the genuine primordial abundance.

Thus, a simple average of D/H abundance determinations does not make sense, at least without a proper enlargement of the error in the mean due to the poor $`\chi ^2`$ that such a mean would produce. Moreover, if deuterium destruction has occurred, we must question the extent to which any of these systems determine the value of $`\mathrm{\Omega }_B`$.

There is one obvious objection to the hypothesis that nucleosynthetic processing might have occurred in the high-redshift systems. The absorbing systems have low metallicity. We now point to seemingly unrelated observations that indicate that primordial processing may have occurred, and with substantially less enrichment than is associated with standard yields for a solar neighborhood initial mass function (IMF).

A substantial population of low luminosity white dwarfs has recently been discovered (Oppenheimer et al.  2001; Ibata et al.  2000). These objects were identified by their large proper motion, indicating halo kinematics. Oppenheimer et al.  find that if the objects are a halo population of white dwarfs, then they represent a fraction $`2.5\%`$ of the dark halo mass. There has been some question about whether these objects do reside in the halo (Hansen 2001; Reid, Sahu and Hawley 2001), but a recent re-analysis of the data by Koopmans & Blandford kb (2001) also concludes that these are halo objects, and finds a similar mass budget to that of Oppenheimer et al. We now address the potential implications of any observed dispersion in D/H in high redshift quasar absorption systems for a relationship between the possibility of D/H destruction in these systems by intermediate mass stars and the ensuing production of a population of halo white dwarfs.

We summarize the importance of D as a baryometer, and its relation to the other light element abundances, in §2. In §3 we argue that the observed dispersion in high-redshift D/H, if real, cannot be accounted for by standard chemical evolution models. Thus, an explanation of such a dispersion will necessarily involve nonstandard scenarios, involving, e.g., variations in the IMF, or outflows of material. We search for models which can explain this dispersion as well as the white dwarf observations. We find that such models can be constructed, assuming an initial burst of intermediate-mass star formation. It is also necessary that the C and N yields of zero metallicity stars are small, as suggested by some recent models. The prospects for testing this model and the implications for BBN are summarized in §4.

## 2 Determinations of $`\mathrm{\Omega }_B`$

As discussed above, each of the light elements can be individually used to determine $`\mathrm{\Omega }_Bh^2`$ with varying accuracy. For example, a helium mass fraction of Y = 0.238 corresponds to $`\eta _{10}=2.4`$ or $`\mathrm{\Omega }_Bh^2=0.009`$. However, the systematic uncertainties in the $`{}_{}{}^{4}\mathrm{He}`$ abundance make it difficult to exclude values of Y as high as 0.25 (see for example, Olive & Skillman 2001) which because of the weak dependence on $`\eta `$ corresponds to $`\eta _{10}=7.4`$ or $`\mathrm{\Omega }_Bh^2=0.027`$. With $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}`$ one can do much better. A plateau value of $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}`$/H = 1.2 $`\times 10^{10}`$ corresponds to $`\eta _{10}=2.4`$ and 3.1. However, the slightly higher value of $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}`$/H = 2 $`\times 10^{10}`$ (consistent within systematic uncertainties) yields $`\eta _{10}=1.7`$ and 4.5. While there are occasional attempts to further increase the $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}`$ abundance on the basis that some $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}`$ has been depleted (Vauclair & Charbonnel 1998; Pinsonneault et al. 1998,2001; Theado & Vauclair 2001), it is very hard to do so, due to recent $`{}_{}{}^{6}\mathrm{Li}`$ observations which leave little room, if any, for $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}`$ depletion (Fields & Olive 1999; Vangioni-Flam et al. 1999) and the lack of dispersion in the Li data (Bonifacio & Molaro 1997; Ryan, Norris, & Beers 1999; Ryan et al. 2000).

In contrast, the strong dependence of D/H on $`\eta `$ makes deuterium a very good baryometer, provided we have an accurate determination of D/H. The values of D/H measured in the high redshift systems however cover the range $`\eta _{10}=4.8`$ for D/H = 4 $`\times 10^5`$ to $`\eta _{10}=8.5`$ for D/H = 1.65 $`\times 10^5`$. Thus if the dispersion in the D/H is real (beyond observational error as the quoted error bars imply), then one can question the extent that any of these determinations truly represent the primordial D/H abundance.

In the event that the dispersion is real, some amount of D/H must have been destroyed, presumably by stellar processing. Since $`\mathrm{D}/\mathrm{H}(t)`$ is monotonically decreasing in time, the primordial value should be greater than or equal to the maximum of the observed values.

Stellar processing must involve short-lived stars of intermediate or even larger mass. The intermediate mass stars are the proposed white dwarf precursors. However, even an IMF peaked near 2-8 $`M_{}`$ could include some massive stars above 10 $`M_{}`$ that would explode as SNII and produce the heavy element enriched observed in the absorption systems. An inverse correlation of D with Si abundance is a natural consequence. Since these enriched systems are preferentially the more massive and advanced with respect to disk formation, as we discuss below, they might also have higher gas column densities and account for the additional inverse correlation of D with HI column.

## 3 Destruction of D/H by galactic chemical evolution

The high column density quasar absorption systems are generally considered to be protogalactic disks. In particular DLAs have the kinematics and ionization characteristic of the interstellar medium of massive protodisks. Lyman limit systems have a greater extent and display higher ionization than the DLAs. Star formation with a normal IMF could not possibly have occurred in these systems to any substantial extent. Typical metallicities are 0.1 to 0.01 solar, and this is consistent with these systems being predominantly gaseous. However in order for there to be enough halo white dwarfs to account for the recent observations, the primordial IMF must have been very different from the present day IMF, and been dominated by intermediate mass stars. These stars would have formed during the protogalactic phase, and could have destroyed significant amounts of primordial deuterium.

Typical stellar D/H depletion mechanisms usually predict the production of heavy elements in closed box models. Indeed, by the time the metallicity reaches 0.1 solar abundance in a standard galactic evolution model, only a few percent of the initial D/H ratio has been affected. This is the main reason one is led to associate the observed D/H ratio to that of the primordial deuterium abundance. It is conceivable, however, that an early generation of stars was formed with masses only in the intermediate mass range of 2-8 $`M_{}`$. These stars would not be significant producers of heavy elements (oxygen and above) usually ascribed to Type II supernovae. Motivation for this suggestion comes from the discovery by Oppenheimer et al. (2001) of a population of old white dwarfs in the halo of the Galaxy (see also Ibata et al.  etal 2000; Chabrier 1999; Gates & Gyuk 2001).

Previous studies of white dwarf halos have examined the consequences when the entire halo consists of white dwarfs. There are many objections to this extreme hypothesis, ranging from overproduction of He, excessive halo Type Ia supernova rates, excessive light element production in the early (proto-)Galaxy, and excessive C and N production. Constraints on the high-redshift population, and possible observable signatures have been studied by several groups (Ryu, Olive, & Silk 1990; Fields, Freese & Graff 2000; and references therein). The principal refinement we make to these ideas is to note that the old white dwarf halo population is sub-dominant, possibly amounting to as little as 2 percent of the dark halo.111 It has been argued (Reid et al. 2001)) that the detected white dwarfs might be a thick disk population. If this is the case, the total mass of white dwarfs is difficult to determine precisely but is considerably smaller and would thus not have important consequences for deuterium. Nevertheless, the effects on galactic chemical evolution are profound.

To see this, let consider the mass budget for deuterium destruction. In order to achieve noticeable D depletion, one must process a significant amount of material though an early generation of stars. A typical galaxy may have $`M_B=10^{11}M_{}`$ of visible baryons, mostly in the form of stars, and about $`10^{12}M_{}`$ total, the balance being dark matter. We point out that a white dwarf halo mass fraction of even 2% can have significant consequences for D destruction in protodisk and disk gas. This yields about $`2\times 10^{10}M_{}`$ in white dwarfs, and hence $`10^{11}M_{}`$, comparable to the present disk mass, in precursor stars. All $`8\times 10^{10}M_{}`$ of the ejecta is totally astrated. Hence present-day astration factors of 2 or more are easily achievable with a white dwarf halo mass fraction of 1% or less, in an interstellar medium containing some $`6\times 10^9M_{}`$ in atomic and molecular gas.

The requirements of D astration and white dwarf production, all with little heavy element production, lead to very strong constraints on the required IMF. To avoid heavy element production through Type II supernovae, we must demand that the IMF is restricted to the 2-8 $`M_{}`$ range (Adams & Laughlin al (1996)). At the $`m<2M_{}`$ end, the constraint is that too many stars would be luminous today or would have been seen as a huge population of red giants at $`z3`$, as $`t2`$ Gyr at this redshift in an $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{m}=0.3`$ and $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }=0.7`$ universe. On the $`m>8M_{}`$ end, the problem is that we do not want to make a lot of metals (oxygen and up) from supernovae. This constraint is not as strong, and we need to add a few supernovae to get some metal production for the absorption systems.

A new result which independently demands an altered IMF at high redshift comes from the far IR background. Models of the FIRB (by ULIGs at high z) overproduce K light today (ie too many low mass stars) if a standard IMF is adopted (Cole et al. 2001). An IMF peaked at intermediate masses offers an attractive solution: it avoids the low mass stars and overproduction of heavy elements but gives the light. The FIRB requires $`\nu i_\nu `$ to be about equal to what is produced with a standard IMF for the optical/near-IR background, i.e., about $`1015\mathrm{nW}/\mathrm{m}^2`$ (and to be produced in dust-shrouded ULIGS; see, e.g., Hauser and Dwek 2001 for a recent review). The white dwarfs that the ULIGS (which are known to be merger-induced bursts of star formation) produce would then (possibly after another merger or if they formed in outflow-boosted star formation) be the halo white dwarfs. The kinematics are a weak point but the moral is striking: a peaked IMF may be needed for completely different reasons.

The obvious objection is that the hypothesised precursor stars will overproduce C and possibly N that would be observable in Galactic or extragalactic material (e.g., Fields, Freese, & Graff 2000). This is a serious issue due to the nature of the observed C and N abundances in primitive systems. For our purposes, the most constraining C and N values are those in the same QSO absorbers for which D has been detected. Namely, C has been detected in the best-measured Lyman limit systems (Burles & Tytler 1998a ; 1998b ; O’Meara et al.  omeara (2001)), and in all three cases $`[\mathrm{C}/\mathrm{H}]2`$, and $`[\mathrm{C}/\mathrm{O}]0`$ or $`[\mathrm{C}/\mathrm{Si}]0`$. Results for N are similar. Thus, the observations apparently demand that no significant C or N enrichment (over that of $`\alpha `$-elements) takes place.

These observations place key constraints on a putative intermediate-mass Population III. If the yields of zero-metallicity intermediate mass stars are comparable to those of their low-metallicity counterparts (e.g., van den Hoek & Groenewegen vdh (1997)), then indeed, the resulting enrichment is extremely large if most of the baryons are processed through white dwarfs. Although the enrichment is reduced when only a fraction of all baryons are processed, even here, to make a white dwarf halo at 10% of the total leads to C and N abundances at about $`[\mathrm{C},\mathrm{N}/\mathrm{H}]=1`$. As this violates the observational constraints, we conclude that a halo white dwarf population cannot be created at high redshift if $`Z=0`$ intermediate-mass stars create significant C and N. It then also follows that the dispersion in D due to chemical evolution is small; a similar conclusion was reached by Prantzos & Ishimaru pi (2001).

It is far from clear, however, that zero-metallicity intermediate-mass stars behave in this way. In fact, the nucleosynthetic yields for these stars are quite uncertain. In this mass range, at all metallicities, the yields depend sensitively on the details of several “dredge-up” events in which convective mixing brings nuclear burning products up to the envelope of the star. These have been studied in detail for solar metallicity stars and for moderately metal-poor stars, and the main results of different groups are in reasonable qualitative and quantitative agreement. However, there remain basic qualitative uncertainties in the post-main sequence evolution of zero-metallicity intermediate-mass stars.

Specifically, it is as yet unclear—i.e., model-dependent—whether the last and most important of these mixing events (the “third dredge-up”) occurs. There has been considerable effort recently to answer this question, but the studies have given conflicting results. Chieffi, Domínguez, Limongi, & Straniero (2001) do find such a phase, and conclude that zero-metallicity intermediate-mass stars should be important sources of C and N. The work of Marigo, Girardi, Chiosi, & Wood (2001) does not find a third dredge-up, but the authors are uncertain whether such a phase would have occurred had they run their models longer; what is clear is that the C and N envelope abundances prior to this phase are small ($`10^3`$ of solar) and so would not create a significantly signature. Finally, Fujimoto, Ikeda, & Iben (2000) argue that for stars with $`M4M_{}`$ and $`[\mathrm{Fe}/\mathrm{H}]5`$, there is no third-dredge up at all.

It thus appears that the question of C and N abundances in $`Z=0`$ stars is both complex and unsettled. To simultaneously explain a halo white dwarf population and D depletion at high redshift requires that these stars do not eject significant C and N. For the moment, this amounts to an assumption, but one with some support from ongoing studies.

To make the proposed scenario concrete and quantitative, we have constructed chemical evolution models which lead to significant D astration at low metallicity and also have significant white dwarf production. We will present one such model; of course, given the freedom to adjust the IMF (and star formation history), a large class of models are allowed. However even with this freedom, the acceptable models share common traits and make similar predictions. We have explored the case of a closed-box model. The stellar creation or birth function $`C(m,t)`$ encodes the rate and mass spectrum of new star birth via

$$\mathrm{d}N_{}=C(m,t)\mathrm{d}m\mathrm{d}t$$
(1)
We adopt the “bimodal” form $`C(m,t)=\psi _1(t)\varphi _1(m)+\psi _2(t)\varphi _2(m)`$. We choose the star formation rate $`\psi _1=(M_1/\tau _1)e^{t/\tau _1}`$ to be a short-lived burst of star formation with $`\tau _1=100`$ Myr and $`M_1=0.75M_B`$, with an associated IMF which is sharply peaked at intermediate mass stars; this is the population which destroys deuterium and creates white dwarfs. Following Adams & Laughlin al (1996), we take the IMF to be lognormal

$$\varphi _1(m)m^1\mathrm{exp}[\mathrm{ln}^2(m/m_c)/2\sigma ^2]$$
(2)
The model we present here has a characteristic mass scale $`m_c=5M_{}`$ and a dimensionless width $`\sigma =0.07`$ (this is very similar to a gaussian with mean $`\mu =5M_{}`$ and width $`\sigma _G=\sigma m_c=0.35M_{}`$). Other parameter choices are possible; for higher $`m_c`$, the needed $`\sigma `$ is narrower. The other term in the creation function describes standard, quiescent star formation. We have $`\psi _2=\lambda g(t)M_{\mathrm{gas}}`$, where $`\lambda =0.3\mathrm{Gyr}^1`$, and the factor $`g(t)=1e^{t/0.5\mathrm{Gyr}}`$ allows for a smooth transition from the bursting to the quiescent star formation rate. The IMF $`\varphi _2`$ is a power law with slope 1.35 (Salpeter).

Results from the model appear in Figure 1. In panel (a) we see the evolution of D/H versus metallicity \[O/H\] (as O is an $`\alpha `$-element which is co-produced with Si, we take \[O/H\] = \[Si/H\]). Three models are plotted. The solid curve corresponds to a bimodal model in which we have taken a primordial value $`\mathrm{D}/\mathrm{H}=5.0\times 10^5`$. The two phases of star formation are clear, as each leads to a characteristic drop in D, the burst phase acting at low metallicity and the quiescent phase acting at high metallicity. The points are the observed data discussed earlier. The values from quasar absorption line systems have an arrow indicating the Si abundances are lower limits.222This arises because the Si abundances are measured in the gas phase, and do not include any Si which has been depleted onto dust grains. The presence of grain depletion complicates attempts to interpret measurements and trends in high-redshift abundances, and to make matters worse, the depletion levels found in the Milky Way (more than an order of magnitude) are apparently not always appropriate for high-redshift systems. As shown for the case of DLAs (e.g., Pettini, Ellison, Stidel, Shapley, & Bowen 2000; Molaro et al.  2000; Prochaska & Wolfe 1999; Lauroesch, Truran, Welty, & York) Si/Zn can be much higher than in the ISM. Si/Zn is typically about 1/3 (i.e., 0.5 dex), and varies from system to system, sometimes exceeding the solar ratio. The dashed curve in Figure 1 corresponds to a bimodal model with $`\mathrm{D}/\mathrm{H}=4.0\times 10^5`$. In this case, there is less astration needed at low metallicity, so the amount of gas processed in the Pop III burst is lower, i.e., $`M_1=0.5M_B`$ (as is the resulting mass of halo white dwarfs). Note that the two model curves join once the D has been destroyed in the Pop III phase, and follow the same quiescent evolution afterwards. We see that in both cases, the curves provide a reasonable fit to the data. Therefore, it is difficult to use the existing D/H data and chemical evolution to accurately predict the primordial D/H value and hence $`\mathrm{\Omega }_Bh^2`$. Finally, the dot-dashed curve corresponds to a model in which there is no Pop III and a primordial value $`\mathrm{D}/\mathrm{H}=3.0\times 10^5`$ as in O’Meara et al. omeara (2001). In this “standard” case there is essentially no D depletion at low metallicity and, as we have noted, the dispersion in D is unexplained.

The deaths of the Pop III intermediate-mass stars not only release D-free material, but also produce white dwarfs. This correlation is illustrated in Figure 1(b); we plot the D abundance versus the total mass in compact remnants, essentially all of which is in white dwarfs. The model used here is that shown in the solid curve of Figure 1(a). We see that the burst phase, during which D/H drops to about $`2.1\times 10^5`$, puts about 15% of the baryons (about $`1.5\times 10^{10}M_{}`$) into white dwarfs. The quiescent phase adds another $`10^{10}M_{}`$. Note well the distinction between this work and previous work. Previous work was centered on the possibility of a white dwarf halo. Here we are interested in D/H and producing a few white dwarfs. A halo population of a few percent would dramatically ease the previous constraints. Indeed, Figure 1(b) shows that the 2.5% observation of Oppenheimer is more than sufficient.

Note that by showing the extragalactic D vs. Si data on the same plot as the Galactic points, we implicitly assume that the Galaxy is a system representative of the quasar absorbers. It then would also follow that the white dwarf and carbon production also would apply to these systems. However, one need not take the model so literally as to demand that all baryonic matter–or even all the baryons in protogalaxies–follow this evolution. For example, in a hierarchical merging picture, one could instead imagine that this evolution is common to some but not all of the subsystems which form the Galaxy. Thus, D depletion (and carbon and white dwarf production) would be inhomogeneous within the protogalaxy, and across the observed quasar absorbers.

Figure 1(c) shows the predicted supernova rates, both for Type II as well as Type Ia events. The model use here is that shown in the solid curve of Figure 1(a) and in Figure 2. The Type II rate follows the assumed star formation rate, which has simply been taken to be $`\psi M_{\mathrm{gas}}`$ and which turns on sequentially after the bursting Pop III star formation ends. The Type Ia rate is calculated using the prescription of Matteucci & Greggio (1986), and assumes that the binarity properties of the Pop III stars are the same as those observed locally today. The Type Ia rate peaks sharply, echoing the rapid burst and small mass range that characterized the Pop III star formation. Note that while the peaked nature of the Ia rate is a generic feature of the model we propose, the peak redshift is model-dependent, reflecting the characterist mass (and thus the lifetime) of the Pop III stars. Figure 1(c) shows the results for a value $`m_c=5M_{}`$, which gives a Type Ia peak at $`z3`$. Had we chosen $`m_c=6M_{}`$ ($`4M_{}`$), we would find a peak at $`z5`$ (2). In any case, we predict that the Type Ia supernova rate is quite large at moderate redshift; this can be tested in ongoing high-$`z`$ supernova searches. Note that a suppression of Type Ia supernovae at low metallicities (Kobayashi et al. koba (1998)), if real, could alter this prediction.

A potential constraint on high-redshift Type Ia supernova activity also arises from the cosmic $`\gamma `$-ray background at MeV range. The dominant source of photons at these energies is mostly nuclear line emission due to the $`{}_{}{}^{56}\mathrm{Ni}{}_{}{}^{56}\mathrm{Co}{}_{}{}^{56}\mathrm{Fe}`$ decay chain (e.g., Ruiz-Lapuente, Cassé, & Vangioni-Flam rvc (2001)). The enhanced SN Ia production of our model increases the MeV background relative to the predictions expected from a constant-IMF cosmic star formation rate. However, most of the contribution is at high redshift and is thereby diluted. In fact, the background is not a good discriminant of these epochs, and the Type Ia rate proposed here is non inconsistent with the cosmic MeV background.

## 4 Conclusions

The present work is motivated by the reports of a population of halo white dwarfs in our Galaxy, and of dispersion in the high redshift D/H values. In light of these recent observations, we have explored the consequences of a high redshift population of intermediate mass stars. This population leads to D destruction at low metallicity, as well as white dwarf production, and would add to the far-IR background without increasing the local near-IR background. For this scenario to remain viable, it is necessary that the C and N yields of zero-metallicity stars are small, as suggested by some recent stellar evolution models. We have constructed relatively simple models which fit the data reasonably well for primordial abundances of D/H = 4 and 5 $`\times 10^5`$. Other values are possible by merely adjusting the astration constant, $`M_1`$, in the POP III star formation rate. Thus, we conclude that it is difficult to use existing data to accurately predict either the primordial abundance of D/H or $`\mathrm{\Omega }_Bh^2`$.

An interesting prediction of a halo in which the white dwarf number exceeds that in the disk by an order of magnitude is that, binarity fractions being comparable, the number of Type Ia would be greatly boosted in the very early universe. Some may even be seen in the halos of nearby galaxies, (Smecker & Wyse 1991), though the spatial distribution of these events within galaxies will depend on the interplay between the formation and evolution of the Pop III stars and protogalaxies.

A potentially disturbing complication is raised by the work of Hansen (2001), who estimates the white dwarf ages from their luminosity and color distribution. He finds that they are relatively young and if true, this is inconsistent with our proposal. On the other hand, if the white dwarfs are real and in the halo, a young population is even more difficult to explain than an old one. Given this, and the difficulty of the age calculations (which also couple to the difficulty in determining yields accurately), we require that the Pop III white dwarf relics are old. However, further study of this issue is clearly warranted.

The recently reported observations of an intrinsic dispersion in high-redshift D, taken together with the observation of a new Galactic white dwarf population, demand a non-standard history of star formation and chemical evolution. If these observations persist, then an unconventional scenario of the kind we propose will be required. We note that standard scenarios of chemical evolution are unable to lead to significant dispersion at low metallicity. If these standard models prevail, then one must concur with Pettini & Bowen (2001) that the D dispersion at high redshift is an artifact, and that significant systematic errors are present. At present, the use of D/H as a precision baryometer must be called into question until these systematic errors are better understood. We expect that future analyses and observations will either show a convergence towards a unique observed D/H value, representative of the primordial one, or reveal the dependence of D/H on metallicity in high z absorbing clouds.

It is a pleasure to thank Robert Mochkovitch, Patrick Petitjean and Jim Truran for stimulating discussions. BDF acknowledges enlightening conversations with the participants of the “Deuterium in the Universe” workshop. The work of KAO was supported in part by DOE grant DE–FG02–94ER–40823 at the University of Minnesota. KAO also acknowledges support during a sabbatical at CERN where much of this work was done. This work has been supported in part by PICS 1076 from the CNRS.


text:
# Photoproduction of the 𝜌⁰ meson on the proton at large momentum transfer

## Abstract

The differential cross section, $`d\sigma /dt`$, for $`\rho ^0`$ meson photoproduction on the proton above the resonance region ($`2.6<W<2.9`$ GeV) was measured up to a momentum transfer $`t=5`$ GeV2 using the CLAS detector at the Thomas Jefferson National Accelerator Facility. The $`\rho ^0`$ channel was extracted from the measured two charged-pion cross section by fitting the $`\pi ^+\pi ^{}`$ and $`p\pi ^+`$ invariant masses. The low momentum transfer region shows the typical diffractive pattern expected from Reggeon-exchange. The flatter behavior at large $`t`$ cannot be explained solely in terms of QCD-inspired two-gluon exchange models. The data indicate that other processes, like quark interchange, are important to fully describe $`\rho `$ photoproduction.

\[

\]

We report the results of $`\rho ^0`$ meson photoproduction on protons for $`E_\gamma `$ between 3.19 and 3.91 GeV. Data have been measured over the $`t`$ range from $`0.15.0`$ GeV2 using the CEBAF Large Acceptance Spectrometer (CLAS) at the Thomas Jefferson National Accelerator Facility (TJNAF). The low momentum transfer region ($`t<1`$ GeV2), already measured in previous experiments  at similar energies, shows a diffractive behavior interpreted in the framework of the Vector Meson Dominance (VMD) model  as the elastic scattering of vector mesons off the proton target. In a more recent approach, this process is also described by the t-channel exchange of the Pomeron, scalar $`\sigma `$ meson , and $`f_2(1270)`$ Regge trajectories .

At high $`t`$, where the cross section is sensitive to the microscopic details of the interaction, the underlying physics can be described using parton degrees of freedom. In a QCD-inspired framework, the small impact parameter ($`1/\sqrt{t}`$) prevents the constituent gluons (quarks) of the exchange from interacting and forming a Pomeron (Reggeon). Within certain models  this means that the constituents can be resolved into two-gluon (two-quark) structures (Fig. 1-a). Moreover, small transverse sizes select configurations where each gluon couples to different quarks both in the vector meson  and the nucleon , giving access to the correlation function in the proton (Fig. 1-b) . The recent CLAS measurement of the $`\varphi `$ photoproduction cross section , where the quark exchange is strongly suppressed by the OZI rule, was able to isolate the contribution due to two-gluon exchange. In the $`\rho `$ case, its light quark composition also allows valence quarks to be exchanged between the baryon and the meson states (Fig. 1-c) .

A bremsstrahlung photon beam was produced by an $`E_0=4.1`$ GeV continuous electron beam hitting a gold radiator of $`10^4`$ radiation lengths. The Hall B tagging system , with a photon energy resolution of 0.1% E0, was used to tag photons in the energy range from $`3.193.91`$ GeV. The target cell, a mylar cylinder 6 cm in diameter and 18 cm long, was filled with liquid hydrogen at 20.4 K. During data taking at high intensity ($`410^6\gamma `$/s), the photon flux was continuously measured by an $`e^+e^{}`$ pair spectrometer located beyond the target. The efficiency of this device was determined during dedicated low intensity ($`10^5\gamma `$/s ) runs by comparison with a 100% efficient lead-glass total absorption counter. The systematic uncertainty on the photon flux has been estimated to be 3% .

The hadrons were detected in CLAS , a spectrometer with nearly 4$`\pi `$ coverage that is based on a toroidal magnetic field ($`1T`$) generated by six superconducting coils. The field was set to bend the positive particles away from the beam into the acceptance of the detector. Three drift chamber regions allowed tracking of charged particles  and time-of-flight scintillators (TOF) were used for hadron identification . The momentum resolution was of the order of a few percent, while the detector geometric acceptance was about 70% for protons and positive pions. Low energy negative particles, however, were mainly lost at forward angles because they were bent out of the acceptance. Coincidences between the photon tagger and the CLAS detector (TOFs) triggered the recording of hadronic interactions. From a total of 70M triggers, 0.8M events were identified as $`p\pi ^+\pi ^{}`$ candidates.

The five-fold differential cross section

$$\frac{d\sigma }{d\tau }\frac{d\sigma (\gamma pp\pi ^+\pi ^{})}{dM_{\pi ^+\pi ^{}}dM_{p\pi ^+}d\varphi _\rho ^{cm}d\varphi _{\pi ^+}^{decay}dt}$$
(1)
was measured by analyzing all possible event topologies of the reaction $`\gamma pp\pi ^+\pi ^{}`$ with at least two detected hadrons in the final state ($`p\pi ^+`$, $`p\pi ^{}`$, $`\pi ^+\pi ^{}`$, $`p\pi ^+\pi ^{}`$), using the missing mass and missing energy techniques to eliminate the underlying multi-pion background.

The CLAS acceptance and reconstruction efficiency were evaluated with Monte Carlo simulations. An event generator  was used that contained the three main contributions to the $`p\pi ^+\pi ^{}`$ final state ($`\gamma pp\rho ^0`$, $`\gamma p\mathrm{\Delta }^{++}\pi ^{}`$, and $`\gamma pp\pi ^+\pi ^{}`$ in $`s`$-wave), along with background reactions with three or more pions. The generated events were processed by a GEANT-based code simulating the CLAS detector that reconstructed the simulated data using the same analysis procedure applied to the raw data. To minimize the model dependence, the acceptance was derived as a function of six independent kinematic variables describing the full three-body reaction, namely, $`E_\gamma `$, the two invariant masses $`M_{p\pi ^+}`$ and $`M_{\pi ^+\pi ^{}}`$, the $`\rho ^0`$ center-of-mass azimuthal angle $`\varphi _\rho ^{cm}`$, the $`\pi ^+`$ azimuthal angle in the $`\rho ^0`$ helicity frame $`\varphi _{\pi ^+}^{decay}`$, and the momentum transfer $`t`$. For each detected topology, the data were binned in the six dimensional space and corrected, bin by bin, by the corresponding acceptance. Depending on the kinematics, the average acceptance of CLAS for these final states ranges from $`5\%`$ to $`15\%`$.

Each topology predominantly covers complementary kinematic regions. Combining all event topologies together, we were able to measure almost the entire allowed phase space. For $`t<0.1`$ GeV2 the CLAS detector had no acceptance for the reaction. When multiple topologies were present in the same kinematic region, we considered each topology as an independent measurement of the two pion cross section. Their comparison gave an evaluation of the systematic uncertainty on the cross section ranging from 5% to 10%, depending on the kinematics.

To determine the relative weight of different channels that contribute to the $`p\pi ^+\pi ^{}`$ final state, the two differential cross sections $`d^2\sigma /dtdM_{\pi ^+\pi ^{}}`$ and $`d^2\sigma /dtdM_{p\pi ^+}`$ were simultaneously fit to a phenomenological model  that describes two-pion production as a superposition of three-body phase space and quasi-two-body channels ($`\gamma pp\rho ^0`$, $`\gamma ppf_2(1270)`$, $`\gamma p\mathrm{\Delta }^{++}\pi ^{}`$, $`\gamma p\mathrm{\Delta }^0\pi ^+`$) with subsequent decays. This model describes the cross section as the sum of six amplitudes:

$$\frac{d\sigma }{d\tau }=\left|\underset{i=1}{\overset{6}{}}a_iT_i\right|^2.$$
(2)
The complex reaction amplitudes $`T_i`$ correspond to: 1) diffractive processes in the $`\gamma pp\rho ^0`$ reaction (Pomeron and $`f_2(1270)`$ Regge trajectory exchanges); 2) u-channel exchange in $`\gamma pp\rho ^0`$ (nucleon trajectory); 3) Born terms in the $`\gamma p\mathrm{\Delta }^{++}\pi ^{}`$ and $`\gamma p\mathrm{\Delta }^0\pi ^+`$ reactions (contact and $`\pi `$-in-flight) treated in a Regge approach ; 4) $`\rho ^0`$ Regge trajectory exchange in the reaction $`\gamma ppf_2(1270)`$; 5) s-channel resonance excitation for $`p\rho ^0`$, $`\mathrm{\Delta }^{++}\pi ^{}`$, and $`\mathrm{\Delta }^0\pi ^+`$ (20 well-established resonances were included in the model even though the main contributions come from the $`F_{35}(1905)`$, $`F_{37}(1950)`$, and the $`G_{17}(2190)`$); 6) a phase space parameterized as a real constant number in each $`(W,t)`$ bin. The $`\rho ^0`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }^{++}`$ decay amplitudes were evaluated using an effective Lagrangian model with the form factors as given in Ref. .

Figure 2 shows typical invariant mass distributions in a low and a high $`t`$ bin, and the fitted decomposition into the two-body channels. The real fit parameters $`a_i`$, determined in each $`t`$ bin using MINUIT , show a smooth and small dependence on $`t`$, indicating that this model can provide a reasonable description of the data.

To evaluate the model dependence, the $`\rho `$ channel separation was also performed by means of a procedure similar to that used in the ZEUS data analysis , fitting the $`M_{\pi ^+\pi ^{}}`$ distribution with a third-order polynomial background plus Breit-Wigner-shaped lines and an interference term. The extracted $`\rho ^0`$ cross section agrees within 10% to 30% with the results obtained using the phenomenological model. A full description of the data analysis can be found in Ref. .

The extracted $`\rho ^0`$ photoproduction cross section as a function of $`t`$ is presented in Fig. 3 for $`E_\gamma =3.8`$ GeV. In the low momentum transfer region good agreement with the previous measurement of Ref.  is evident. Assuming an exponential $`Ae^{Bt}`$ behavior in the range $`0.1<t<0.5`$ GeV2, the coefficient resulting from this experiment, $`B=6.4\pm 0.3`$ GeV-2, is consistent with the value $`B=6.9\pm 0.4`$ GeV-2 quoted in Ref. . The existing data at large momentum transfer were taken at SLAC  with a bremsstrahlung photon beam and a single arm spectrometer; the signal was unfolded from the background using a Breit-Wigner fit but the incomplete detection of the final state did not allow separation of the $`\omega `$ channel from the $`\rho ^0`$ channel, the latter comprising 50-75% of the data set.

Predictions from presently available models are also shown in Fig. 3. The dashed line corresponds to the phenomenological model used for the channel separation assuming that the parameters $`a_i`$ of equation $`(2)`$ are independent of $`t`$. In this model, the Pomeron and $`f_2(1270)`$ Regge trajectory exchanges (dotted line) describe the low momentum transfer region, while the large $`t`$ flat behavior is reproduced by the tails of resonances having a sizeable branch in the $`\rho `$ channel. The overall resonance coupling was found to be compatible with what is expected by extrapolating from the low $`W`$ region by means of a Breit-Wigner shape with an energy-dependent width.

In the QCD-inspired model of Refs.  (dot-dashed line on Fig. 3), the Pomeron exchange has been replaced by the exchange of two non-perturbatively dressed gluons. At low $`t`$ the good agreement with the data is obtained adding the $`f_2(1270)`$ and the $`\sigma `$ Regge trajectories, while the rise at large $`t`$ is given by the Reggeized u-channel exchange ($`N`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ trajectories) . In this model the gluons can couple to any quark in the $`\rho `$ meson and in the baryon (see Fig. 1-a,b) and quark correlations in the proton are taken into account assuming the simplest form of its wave function with three valence quarks equally sharing the proton longitudinal momentum .

The QCD-inspired model describes $`\varphi `$ photoproduction over the entire $`t`$ range in our energy region , as well as the higher energy $`\rho ^0`$ SLAC results ($`E_\gamma `$ 6 GeV)  where two-gluon exchange is also expected to dominate. Instead, as shown in Fig. 3, the model underestimates the CLAS data, leaving room for quark-exchange processes (Fig. 1-c). As explained in Refs.  these hard-scattering mechanisms can be incorporated in an effective way by using the so called “saturated” trajectory. Regge trajectories are usually linear in $`t`$ but are expected to “saturate”, i.e. be $`t`$-independent, at large momentum transfer . The trajectory has been chosen as $`\alpha (t)=1`$ when $`t>3`$ GeV2  to be compatible with quark counting rules .

The solid line in Fig. 3 shows the full calculation, including such saturating trajectory. Quark exchange increases the cross section at large $`t`$ by a factor two.

Figure 4 shows the measured cross sections in different photon energy bins. From the three data sets, the $`\rho ^0`$ cross section at $`\theta _{cm}=90^{}`$ is extracted as a function of energy. The power law $`s^C`$ fit to $`d\sigma /dt`$ at $`90^{}`$ in the center of mass is performed using both SLAC  and CLAS data. The fit yields $`C=7.9\pm 0.3`$ ($`\chi ^2=0.6`$) showing a good agreement with $`s^8`$ behavior. The quark exchange diagrams of Fig. 1-c-left (point-like interaction) and 1-c-right (hadronic component of the photon) have a $`s^7`$ and $`s^8`$ power-law behavior respectively, both by dimensional counting  and by recent models . Note that also the saturated $`\sigma `$ Regge trajectory behaves like $`s^8`$. Like the differential cross section at fixed energy, the $`s`$ dependence suggests the presence of quark interchange hard mechanisms in addition to the two-gluon exchange process.

In conclusion, the full differential two charged-pion cross section was measured for the first time over a large angular range. The differential cross section for $`\gamma pp\rho ^0`$ was derived by fitting the $`M_{\pi ^+\pi ^{}}`$ and $`M_{p\pi ^+}`$ mass distributions with a realistic phenomenological model. The comparison with available models provides indications of the presence of hard processes. Adopting a QCD language in this energy region, the two-gluon exchange mechanisms (that fully describe the $`\varphi `$ photoproduction data) are not sufficient to reproduce the cross section at large momentum transfer and its energy dependence. Good agreement is achieved when quark interchange processes (suppressed in $`\varphi `$ production) are included in an effective way in the calculation for the $`\rho ^0`$ production.

We would like to acknowledge the outstanding efforts of the staff of the Accelerator and the Physics Divisions at JLab that made this experiment possible. This work was supported in part by the Italian Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare, the French Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique and Commissariat à l’Energie Atomique, the U.S. Department of Energy and National Science Foundation, and the Korea Science and Engineering Foundation. The Southeastern Universities Research Association (SURA) operates the Thomas Jefferson National Accelerator Facility for the United States Department of Energy under contract DE-AC05-84ER40150.