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# SCUBA Observations of NGC 1275

## 1 Introduction

Until recently, it was not thought that centrally-located cluster galaxies contained significant amounts of dust. However, recent observations have begun to reveal large amounts of dust in some central galaxies. The existence of dust is inferred from a diverse set of observations, including the ratios of emission lines in optical filaments (Hu 1992; Donahue & Voit 1993; Crawford et al. 1999), dust lanes in optical images (e.g. McNamara, O’Connell & Sarazin 1996; Pinkney et al. 1996), near infrared (NIR) imaging and spectroscopy (e.g. Krabbe et al. 2000; Donahue et al. 2000; Jaffe, Bremer, & van der Werf 2000), and X$``$ray absorption (e.g. White et al. 1991; Allen & Fabian 1997; Arnaud & Mushotzsky 1998; Allen 2000).

Searches at longer wavelengths have now also revealed emission from dust directly, especially cooler dust which may be much more plentiful than the warmer components. The Infrared Astronomical Satellite (IRAS) detected several central cluster galaxies at 60 and 100 $`\mu `$m; Cox, Bregman, & Schombert (1995) find that $``$ 10% of central galaxies have far infrared (FIR) emission, with dust masses of $``$ 107 M. More recently, Lester et al. (1995) have detected 100 $`\mu `$m emission from NGC 1275 with the Kuiper Airborne Observatory (KAO), and there have been Infrared Space Observatory (ISO) detections at 60$``$200 $`\mu `$m of a few central galaxies (e.g. Hansen et al. 2000). Annis & Jewitt (1993) carried out an unsuccessful search for dust emission in 11 cooling flow clusters using the UKT-14 bolometer system on the James Clerk Maxwell Telescope (JCMT). More recently, however, Edge et al. (1999) have detected dust emission at 850 $`\mu `$m in two cooling flow clusters using the more sensitive Submillimetre Common-User Bolometer Array (SCUBA) camera.

The origin of the dust in central cluster galaxies is a matter of some controversy. Central cluster galaxies live in complicated environments, with many at the centers of cluster cooling flows (e.g. Fabian 1994), and interactions/mergers may also be common. Dust in central cluster galaxies may thus originate in several ways: from the cooling flow itself or in cold, dense clouds condensed from the flow; from ongoing star formation, perhaps initiated by the cooling flow; or from the merger of a gas/dust rich galaxy. Direct detections of dust in central cluster galaxies, and good determinations of the dust properties (mass, temperature, and correlations with other components) will help enormously to decide between these alternatives. For example, the bulk of the dust in cooled gas clouds is expected to be quite cold with T $`<`$ 15K (e.g. Fabian, Johnstone, & Daines 1994; Johnstone, Fabian & Taylor 1998) \[However, this conclusion is disputed by O’Dea, Baum & Gallimore (1994) and Voit & Donahue (1995), who claim minimum dust temperatures of $``$ 20 K.\]

The very existence of dust in central cluster galaxies is in itself surprising, since any dust should be destroyed quickly by sputtering from X$``$rays from the hot cluster gas, on timescales $``$ 107 years (e.g. Draine & Salpeter 1979). Either the dust is shielded against sputtering (e.g. at the centers of cold, dense molecular clouds), or the dust is replenished on similar timescales. This issue is discussed in more detail in Sect. 4.2.

NGC 1275 is a complex and fascinating object. It has been studied in virtually every waveband, including the optical (e.g. Nørgaard-Nielsen et al. 1993; McNamara et al. 1996), NIR (e.g. Donahue et al. 2000; Krabbe et al. 2000) and far infrared (FIR) (Gear et al. 1985; Lester et al. 1995). It has been classified as a Seyfert (Seyfert 1943) and has an active galactic nucleus (AGN) in the form of the highly variable radio source 3C 84 (e.g. Pedlar et al. 1990). Minkowski (1957) discovered two distinct filamentary systems around NGC 1275. The low velocity system (LVS) has the same velocity ($``$ 5300 km s-1) as that of NGC 1275 itself, and has been studied in detail by several authors (e.g. Lynds 1970; Hu et al. 1983; Caulet et al. 1992). The high velocity system (HVS) has a velocity $``$ 3000 km s-1 higher than NGC 1275 and consists of giant HII regions to the North and North-West of the galaxy center; it has generally been concluded that the HVS is a late-type spiral galaxy. At least part of the HVS is in front of the nucleus, as determined from HI absorption against the nuclear radio source (De Young, Roberts, & Saslaw 1973) and Ly$`\alpha `$ absorption (Briggs, Snijders, & Boksenberg 1982). The HVS could be merely a chance projection onto NGC 1275, but several authors have argued that the HVS is in fact colliding with NGC 1275 (e.g. Hu et al. 1983; Unger et al. 1990; Caulet et al. 1992; Nørgaard-Nielsen et al. 1993). Recent observations of gas at velocities intermediate between the LVS and HVS also strongly argue for a physical connection between the two systems (Ferruit et al. 1998).

It has been known for some time that the Perseus cluster hosts a large cooling flow (e.g. Fabian et al. 1981); analysis of recent Advanced Satellite for Cosmology and Astrophysics (ASCA) data show that the mass infall rate is $``$ 300 M yr-1 (Allen et al. 1999). Röntgen Satellite (ROSAT) and Chandra X$``$ray observations of NGC 1275 and the Perseus cluster (Böhringer et al. 1993, and Fabian et al. 2000, respectively) have also revealed two holes in the NGC 1275 X$``$ray emission, thought to be caused by displacement of hot gas by the radio lobes. NGC 1275 is the only cooling flow central galaxy with detected CO emission, with an inferred molecular H2 mass of $``$ 1010M; see Bridges & Irwin (1998) for a summary of the many previous CO studies.

In this paper, we present new SCUBA 450/850 $`\mu `$m data for NGC 1275, in an attempt to study the cold dust in this galaxy in more detail. We are especially interested in such dust properties as: its spatial distribution and correlation with other components, total mass, temperature and ultimately, its origin. In Sect. 2, we present the observations and data reductions, unprocessed and processed images, Sect. 3 presents the results, including an analysis of the AGN and extended dust components, separately, and correlations with other wavebands, Sect. 4 discusses the origin of the dust and dust heating, and Sect. 5 presents the conclusions. For NGC 1275, we take D = 70 Mpc (H0 = 75 km s-1 Mpc-1, Bridges & Irwin 1998).

## 2 Observations and Data Reduction

### 2.1 Maps of NGC 1275

Table 1 lists the observing log of SCUBA jiggle maps obtained on July 15, October 31 and December 14 1998. The total observation time was 5.5 hours, half of which was spent on the source. Chopping was performed in Azimuth, with a chop thow of 120 arcseconds.

The standard reduction scheme for SCUBA jiggle maps was followed, consisting of flatfielding, correction for atmospheric extinction, removal of noisy bolometers, sky noise removal and despiking. These steps are described in detail in Sandell (1997). Flatfielding corrects for differences in sensitivity of the bolometers. The atmospheric opacity at 450 and 850 $`\mu \mathrm{m}`$ was determined from skydip observations. Noisy bolometers were identified from noise measurements performed in between observations, and visual inspection of the signal of all bolometers as a function of time during the observations.

Variations of the sky brightness are not canceled out completely by chopping because the atmosphere in the direction of the chopped beam is significantly different from the atmosphere in the direction of the source. This is a particular concern for observations of an extended source, where a large chop throw is required (Holland et al. 1999). Variations of the sky on short time scales were further eliminated by subtracting the median sky level measured by off-source bolometers for each 18 second integration. Although the sky level is determined with higher accuracy if more bolometers are considered, the likelihood that faint extended emission of the source is also subtracted, increases as well. A compromise must be sought between decreasing the sky noise and the possibility of subtracting source emission. The sky level was determined from the outer two rings of bolometers at 450 $`\mu \mathrm{m}`$, and the single outer ring of bolometers at 850 $`\mu \mathrm{m}`$. In this way a significant aperture around the centre of the field of view is excluded from the determination of the sky level. The radius of the aperture which is never covered by any of the “sky”-bolometers is $`28^{\prime \prime }`$ at 450 $`\mu \mathrm{m}`$ and $`46^{\prime \prime }`$ at 850 $`\mu \mathrm{m}`$. As the sky level at any time is taken to be the median of a ring of 54 (450 $`\mu \mathrm{m}`$) or 18 (850 $`\mu \mathrm{m}`$) bolometers surrounding the source, only a smooth symmetric component would be subtracted in this way.

Occasional spikes in the output of each bolometer were then removed by excluding signals deviating more than $`\pm 3\sigma `$ from the mean signal.

The data were averaged with weight factors $`w_i=(t_i/N_i)^2`$ where $`t_i`$ and $`N_i`$ are the integration time and noise level of observation $`i`$, to produce the maps shown in Fig. 1. These weight factors take into account both the different integration times and atmospheric opacities of the observations, since the noise in each map is dominated by the sky. The relative weights of the three nights are July:October:December=0.48:1:0.64.

Recently, a potential calibration problem resulting from erroneous values of the hot and cold load temperatures was identified (see http://www.jach.hawaii.edu/JACdocs/JCMT/SCD/SN/002/tau$`\mathrm{\_}`$analysis.html). This problem could affect the sky opacity derived from skydip observations. The calibration was repeated with opacities calculated from the CSO opacity and the revised relations for the opacities at $`450\mu \mathrm{m}`$ and 850$`\mu \mathrm{m}`$. We found that this procedure had no effect on our calibration.

Taking into account the repeatability of the flux determination over a variety of integration times as well as an assessment of the accuracy of the calibration factor including uncertainties in the calibrator fluxes, we estimate that the 450$`\mu \mathrm{m}`$ calibration error is $``$ 25% and the 850$`\mu \mathrm{m}`$ error is $``$ 10%. Typical pointing corrections were 1 to 2 arcseconds over the course of an hour and residual pointing errors will be smaller than this.

The corrected, calibrated maps are shown in Fig. 1a (450$`\mu \mathrm{m}`$) and Fig. 1c (850$`\mu \mathrm{m}`$).

### 2.2 Beam maps

Beam maps were constructed for each night from calibrator maps with the same chop throw that was applied to the observations of NGC 1275. These calibrator maps were reduced in the same way as the observations of NGC 1275, with one exception: noisy bolometers were not excluded from the analysis. This was done to avoid the occurrence of unsampled areas in the planet maps. However no significant noise was introduced, because at 850$`\mu \mathrm{m}`$ the primary calibrators Mars and Uranus are brighter than NGC 1275 by factors of 300 and 60 respectively. At 450$`\mu \mathrm{m}`$ these factors are even larger because the brightness of the planets rises, whereas the spectrum of NGC 1275 shows a decline with frequency. Therefore, it is safe to conclude that noisy bolometers in the beam maps do not affect our results.

Calibrator sources are Uranus, Mars, CRL 618, and HL Tau. We used planet maps made with the same chop throw as the NGC 1275 maps, to define the shape of the beam for each night. Only for the 450$`\mu \mathrm{m}`$ map in December, we used the secondary calibrator CRL 618, as no 450$`\mu \mathrm{m}`$ planet map with the appropriate chop throw was available. The calibration factors adopted here are those determined for the October observations: 623.69 Jy/(Volt beam) at 450$`\mu \mathrm{m}`$ and 251.54 Jy/(Volt beam) at 850 $`\mu \mathrm{m}`$. Our largest calibrator was Mars which was smaller than 5′′ over the course of the observations. This broadens the beam by less than 0.3$`\mathrm{}`$ at 850$`\mu \mathrm{m}`$ and by less than 0.6$`\mathrm{}`$ at 450$`\mu \mathrm{m}`$, or $`<`$ 1.8% and $`<`$ 6.7% of the beam size, respectively (see caption to Figure 2 for the fitted beam size). Thus, the finite size of the calibrators will not significantly affect the beam, or its far sidelobes.

The coordinate system for the beam maps produced in this way was azimuth-elevation because chopping was done in azimuth, and the beam tends to be slightly elongated in the direction of chopping. For each observation of NGC 1275, the appropriate beam map was shifted to the position of the peak in the final map of NGC 1275, and rotated with the field rotation angle at the time of mid-observation. The resulting beam maps were coadded with the same weight factors as the data for NGC 1275 (see Sect. 2.1) to construct a map of the effective beam. The beam maps are shown in Fig. 1b and d. The most distinctive elongated feature in position angle $`40`$ degrees visible in the 850$`\mu \mathrm{m}`$ maps of NGC 1275 and the final beam map, can be identified with the chop direction of the October 31 observation, which received a relatively high weight due to the favourable atmospheric conditions.

The resulting beam maps (Fig. 1b and d) give the best possible representation of the JCMT beam applicable to the coadded maps of NGC 1275. As only one calibrator observation with the correct chop throw was made in a night, we cannot correct for variations of the error lobes during the night. The main source of such variations is the sensitivity of the structure of the telescope to temperature variations. Large changes in the structure of the error lobes have been reported in the early evening (until 9pm) and in late morning (after 8am). However, only one observation, the 850$`\mu \mathrm{m}`$ beam map of December 14, was made outside the relatively stable window between 9pm and 8am.

### 2.3 Processed Images

The beam shape begins to show irregular, non-gaussian patterns below the 5% level and it is desirable to remove such features from the total intensity image in order to see whether real residual emission remains. We attempted to do this by subtracting the scaled beam from the image; however, this assumes that the strong central source due to the AGN is strictly a point source and the result leaves some significant residual emission at the map center. We therefore treated the image like a typical radio map and applied deconvolution methods to remove the “dirty beam” and replace it with a “clean beam” with the same characteristics. The resulting maps retain the information from both the strong central source as well as any fainter extended emission, while removing the low level beam irregularities. Results using the CLEAN algorithm (Clark 1980), using the Astronomical Image Processing System (AIPS) routine, APCLN, are shown in Fig. 2a (450$`\mu \mathrm{m}`$) and Fig. 2d (850$`\mu \mathrm{m}`$) and results using the maximum entropy (ME) method (Cornwell & Evans 1985) using the AIPS routine, VTESS, are shown in Fig. 2b and Fig. 2e. A comparison of these maps provides an indication as to what emission is real. As the ME maps are well known to enhance faint, broad-scale structure but are less accurate than the clean maps in characterizing the emission quantitatively, we use the clean maps for all subsequent quantitative work.

Residual maps, i.e. after subtraction of all clean components, are shown in Fig. 2c and f. For these images, we show both negative and positive contours so that the noise is well illustrated. Since all subtracted clean components are associated with the central bright core, the residual maps represent core-subtracted emission. At 450 $`\mu \mathrm{m}`$, the core-subtracted map is dominated by noise which is about 10 times higher than that of the 850$`\mu \mathrm{m}`$ map (see figure caption). At 850$`\mu \mathrm{m}`$ (Fig. 2f), the noise is much lower, so some additional errors associated with subtracting the central source also show up, the largest of which are within the central 30′′ region. Since positive residual emission could be real, we take the negative residual emission in this region to represent the errors from the subtraction process. Applying a 2$`\sigma `$ cutoff to the core-subtracted and total intensity maps, we formed a ratio map to indicate the relative error in this region, finding an average error of 3.0% and a maximum error of 6.7%.

Is the resulting emission due to continuum alone? Bridges & Irwin (1998) have detected CO(J=3-2) emission in NGC 1275 at points within $`\pm `$ 7′′ of the core. Their CO(J=3-2) beam of 14′′ is similar to our SCUBA 850$`\mu \mathrm{m}`$ beam of 16$`\mathrm{}`$. The CO line occurs at a redshifted frequency of 339.9 GHz and is therefore within the 30 GHz-wide SCUBA band which is centered at 347 GHz. Bridges & Irwin find an integrated intensity of 12 K km s-1 which corresponds to 8.6 mJy beam-1 when diluted by the 30 GHz bandwidth (assuming constant response across the band). The value will be smaller when the bandpass response is considered (see Holland et al. 1999). This corresponds to only 0.6% of the SCUBA flux of 1.42 Jy within a 16′′ beam and is well within the noise. Thus, there is no contamination by the CO line at the core and we do not expect any contamination at locations away from the core, either, where no CO emission has been detected.

## 3 Results

The processed images (Fig. 2) show that the 450 $`\mu \mathrm{m}`$ and 850 $`\mu \mathrm{m}`$ emission is dominated by the bright AGN in NGC 1275. However, fainter extended emission is also observed and appears to be real. Since the core is quite prominent in the processed maps, it has been possible to separate it from the extended emission and results from this process, along with total fluxes and the spectral index, are given in Table 2.

### 3.1 The AGN

The bright AGN in NGC 1275 has shown a gradual decline of a factor 4 in brightness at 375 GHz (800 $`\mu \mathrm{m}`$) between 1988 and 1992 (Stevens et al. 1994), providing compelling evidence for the non-thermal nature of this emission. From our data, there is no indication for variability between the three epochs of the present SCUBA observations to the level of the calibration error, or about 6%. Moreover, our measured 1998 total flux at 850 $`\mu `$ of 1.6 Jy agrees closely with the 800$`\mu \mathrm{m}`$ flux of $``$ 1.6 Jy measured by Stevens et al. (from their Fig. 2) in 1994. Thus, the strong decline seen before 1994 does not appear to have continued over the 4 years between 1994 and 1998.

The core is 1.8 times brighter at 850$`\mu \mathrm{m}`$ than at 450$`\mu \mathrm{m}`$, resulting in a spectral index (Table 2) of $`\alpha `$ = -0.88 $`\pm `$ 0.09 (Sν $``$ $`\nu ^\alpha `$). This agrees with the value found by Stevens et al. (1994) of $`\alpha `$ = -0.92 $`\pm `$ 0.17 between 375 and 150 GHz over a 6 year monitoring period. Such a steep spectral index can be produced from synchrotron emission. Thus we are likely observing the high frequency extension of the synchrotron emission seen at lower frequencies. It is not possible to extrapolate the low frequency radio flux to the sum-mm because of the variability of the source over the different epochs of observation. However, since the low frequency (i.e. between $`\lambda `$90 cm and $`\lambda `$199 cm) spectral index within the central 1 arcminute region is dominated by a flat spectral index core (see Pedlar et al. 1990), the total synchrotron spectral index must turn over between the low frequency and sub-mm regimes. Given the steepness of the sub-mm spectrum, there is no need to postulate the presence of a dust component in the core at any significant level. A similar conclusion is reached by Leeuw, Samson & Robson (2000) for the elliptical galaxy, NGC 4374, in which sub-mm emission from the AGN core is detected. Note that this does not, by itself, rule out the possibility of some dust in the core. Indeed, the presence of CO emission at the position of the core (Bridges & Irwin 1998, Reuter et al. 1993) suggests that dust is also present there. However, the core is unlikely to be dominated by dust emission or else the core spectral index would be significantly flatter or inverted. The sub-mm core is unresolved at 850$`\mu \mathrm{m}`$ but has a (deconvolved) size of $``$ 4$`\mathrm{}`$ at 450$`\mu \mathrm{m}`$.

If we use the core spectral index and extrapolate the core flux to 100$`\mu \mathrm{m}`$, we find a 100$`\mu \mathrm{m}`$ core flux of 0.22 Jy. This is within the error bar of the total 100$`\mu \mathrm{m}`$ flux of 7.9 $`\pm `$ 1 Jy measured by Lester et al.(1995) and suggests that the nonthermal core is a negligible contributor to the total flux at 100$`\mu \mathrm{m}`$. Thus, the 100$`\mu \mathrm{m}`$ total flux (7.9 Jy) can be interpreted as being entirely due to dust emission. This agrees with Lester et al.’s conclusion that less than 20% of the total 100$`\mu \mathrm{m}`$ emission can be due to the nonthermal core based on the known variability of the core and the constancy of the 100$`\mu \mathrm{m}`$ flux. Thus, the total emission changes from being non-thermal core-dominated to dust-dominated between 450$`\mu \mathrm{m}`$ and 100$`\mu \mathrm{m}`$.

### 3.2 Extended Emission

The extended sub-mm emission is much fainter than that associated with the core, but is seen at both frequencies and appears to be real. The clean and maximum entropy maps also show good agreement although there are some differences at low contour levels in the 850$`\mu \mathrm{m}`$ maps. Single epoch maps were also cleaned to confirm that the extended emission is present at all epochs to a level that is consistent with the shorter integration time per epoch and higher atmospheric opacity in the July 15 observations. The extended emission constitutes $``$ 33% of the total flux at 450$`\mu \mathrm{m}`$ and $``$ 11% of the total flux at 850$`\mu \mathrm{m}`$.

The 450$`\mu \mathrm{m}`$ core-subtracted map (Fig. 2c) has a much higher noise level than the 850$`\mu \mathrm{m}`$ map, but does show several features which remain upon smoothing to lower resolution and which also have counterparts in the 850$`\mu \mathrm{m}`$ map. The principle one is an elongated feature to the west of the core extending northwards. This will be referred to as the NW extension. Secondly, there are some residual peaks about 45′′ to the south-east of the core which again have a counterpart in the 850$`\mu \mathrm{m}`$ map. We will refer to this region as the SE peak. Another peak about 1 to the south-west could possibly be real, but this is not certain given its offset from a nearby 850$`\mu \mathrm{m}`$ peak.

Extended emission is most readily seen in the lower noise 850$`\mu \mathrm{m}`$ maps (Fig. 2d, e, and f). These show further extensions to both the east and west and “disconnected” features elsewhere which appear to be real, given their presence in each frame. A fairly strong feature near the core is also seen to extend $``$ 30′′ to the south-west. This latter feature also appears to be real, though may contain a relatively larger error, given its proximity to the core.

The spectral index of the total emission (Table 2) is flatter than that of the dominant core alone, suggesting that the spectral index of the faint extended emission may have an inverted (positive) spectral index. Indeed, we could measure this spectral index in two positions, the NW extension and the SE peak, by first smoothing the 450$`\mu \mathrm{m}`$ map to the 850$`\mu \mathrm{m}`$ resolution. For the NW extension, flux measurements were made within a 6′′ diameter region centered at RA = 03h 19m 45s.79, DEC = 41 30 57′′.3, with the resulting spectral index found to be $`\alpha `$ = +2.6. For the SE peak, the measurement was made within a 6′′ diameter region centered at RA = 03h 19m 49s.17, DEC = 41 30 00′′.3, and found to be $`\alpha `$ = +2.8. Thus, where the spectral index could be measured, the values are strongly positive. These are clearly dust components.

#### 3.2.1 Dust Temperature

Dust is expected to be optically thin at sub-mm wavelengths, and the temperature can, in principle, be determined via $`S_\nu =\mathrm{\Omega }B_\nu (T)Q(\nu )`$ (e.g. Stevens & Gear 2000), where $`S_\nu `$ is the flux density at frequency, $`\nu `$, $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ is the solid angle subtended by the dust, $`B_\nu (T)`$ is the Planck function applicable to a dust temperature, $`T`$, and $`Q(\nu )`$ is the frequency-dependent emissivity of the grains. In the optically thin limit, $`Q(\nu )`$ = $`(\frac{\nu }{\nu _0})^\beta `$, where $`\beta `$ is the index of the emissivity law and $`\nu _0`$ is the frequency at which the dust becomes optically thin. If we restrict the dust temperature determination for NGC 1275 to regions for which fluxes are available at both frequencies (here, taking the NW extension), and assume that the covering factor is the same at the two frequencies, we can estimate a temperature, adopting a value for the unknown emissivity index, $`\beta `$. Taking $`\beta `$ = 1.3 as was found for M 82 (Hughes, Gear, & Robson 1994; see also Leeuw et al. 2000), we find a dust temperature of 19 K. For $`\beta `$ = 2 (e.g. Domingue et al. 1999), we find T = 11 K and if $`\beta `$ = 1 (Lester et al. 1995), T = 29 K. Thus, for reasonable values of $`\beta `$, the dust temperature is constrained from these observations to be between 10 and 30 K.

While most other flux measurements of NGC 1275 have included the non-thermal core flux, we have noted (Sect. 3.1) that the core is a negligible contributor to the total 100$`\mu \mathrm{m}`$ flux. Thus, the 100$`\mu \mathrm{m}`$ point should represent dust emission and can also be used to constrain the dust temperature. If we include the 100$`\mu \mathrm{m}`$ flux (7.9 Jy, Lester et al. 1995) in this analysis, however, we find that the observed flux ratios cannot be reproduced within error bars using single values of $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$, $`\beta `$ and T. This suggests that (at least) a two component model is required. For $`\beta `$ = 1.3, the 100$`\mu \mathrm{m}`$/450$`\mu \mathrm{m}`$ ratio implies a temperature of 38 K in comparison to 19 K found from the 450$`\mu \mathrm{m}`$/850$`\mu \mathrm{m}`$ value. Differences in $`\beta `$ or $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ are also possible. However, we note that there is some evidence for a two-temperature model from a line ratio analysis of the molecular gas as well (Bridges & Irwin 1998). We suspect that dust that is near the non-thermal core may be warmer.

#### 3.2.2 Dust Mass and Gas-to-Dust Ratio

The dust mass is determined via $`M_d=S_\nu D^2/[k_{d}^{}{}_{\nu }{}^{}B_\nu (T)]`$, where $`D`$ is the distance to the galaxy and $`k_{d}^{}{}_{\nu }{}^{}`$ is the dust mass absorption coefficient. We will determine the dust mass using the 850$`\mu \mathrm{m}`$ flux. This is because it has typically been found (e.g. Alton et al. 2000) that over 90% of observed 850$`\mu \mathrm{m}`$ emission arises from cold ( $`<`$$``$ 20 K) dust, (consistent with our best temperature estimate of 19 K) and this cold component constitutes the bulk of galactic dust. Moreover, the lower noise in the 850$`\mu \mathrm{m}`$ images makes this a better choice for such a calculation. The value of $`k_{d}^{}{}_{\nu }{}^{}`$ is rather uncertain and has the same frequency dependence as $`Q(\nu )`$. Again, adopting $`\beta `$ = 1.3 and extrapolating the mass absorption coefficient from the 100$`\mu \mathrm{m}`$ value of 2.5 $`m^2kg^1`$ (Stevens & Gear 2000) yields $`k_{d}^{}{}_{\nu }{}^{}`$ = 0.15 $`m^2kg^1`$. (This is a factor of 2 higher than the value used by Dunne et al. 2000 for their determination of dust mass functions in the local universe.) Applying a dust temperature of 20 K and using $`S_\nu `$ = 0.18 Jy (after core subtraction, see Table 2), we find a dust mass of Md = 5.9$`\times \mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}10}^7`$M. A temperature of 40 K would lower this by a factor of 2.5, using $`\beta `$ = 2 would increase it by a factor of 4.5, and using the noisier 450$`\mu \mathrm{m}`$ (rather than 850$`\mu \mathrm{m}`$) data would lower it by a factor of 2.6. Thus our best estimate of the dust mass is 6 $`\times `$ 107 M to within a factor of a few. This is the first estimate of the dust mass in this galaxy from spatially resolved emission measurements which correct for the AGN.

This result can be compared with the much lower dust mass of 7.5 $`\times `$ 105 M (adjusted to our distance) found for NGC 1275 by Goudfrooij et al. (1994) using optical absorption measurements. The absorbing dust is confined to a much smaller patchy region to the north-west of the core (Fig. 3f) and constitutes only 1.3% of the total dust mass as determined from our 850$`\mu \mathrm{m}`$ measurements. Discrepancies between the absorbing and emitting dust masses have been noted by Goudfrooij & de Jong (1995) who suggested that the differences could be due to additional dust which is distributed more broadly than in front of the stellar light distribution alone. Our dust mass and the extended dust distribution seen at 850$`\mu \mathrm{m}`$ clearly support this view and indicate that there is much more dust in NGC 1275 seen in emission than previously determined from absorption measurements.

Goudfrooij & de Jong (1995) have determined dust masses for 56 Shapley-Ames elliptical galaxies from IRAS observations, finding dust masses in the range, 104 to 5 $`\times `$ 106 M. Bregman et al. (1998) have also found IRAS dust masses in the same range for E and S0 galaxies. NGC 1275, therefore, has a higher dust mass, by about an order of magnitude, than the other early-type galaxies studied by these authors. However, it is well known that IRAS observations sample somewhat warmer dust than SCUBA and may thereby overestimate the dust temperature, underestimating the resulting mass (Dunne et al. 2000). Therefore the discrepancy between the high dust mass in NGC 1275 and the lower dust masses in E and S0 galaxies may not be as high as an order of magnitude. Also, these galaxies are typically not in a cooling flow environment. Fewer previous measurements have been made of central cooling flow galaxies. Edge et al. (1999), however, find masses between 3 to 5 $`\times `$ 107 M for A1835 and A2390 (adjusting to H0 = 75 km s-1 Mpc-1), in closer agreement with our value for NGC 1275.

Armed with these data, we can compute a global gas/dust ratio. For the molecular gas mass, we use 1.6 $`\times `$ 1010 M (Bridges & Irwin 1998) which uses the Galactic CO to H2 conversion factor, and for the atomic hydrogen mass, we use the value found for the low velocity system by Jaffe (1990), i.e. 5 $`\times `$ 109 M assuming a spin temperature of 100 K. We find M(HI $`+`$ H2)/Md $``$ 360 with these assumptions. This is higher than typical Galactic values of 100 to 150 (Devereux & Young 1990) but is consistent with what has been found for radio quiet quasars, spiral galaxies, and ultraluminous infra-red galaxies ($``$ 260 to 540; Hughes et al. 1993).

### 3.3 Correlations with other Wavebands

Figure 3 shows overlays of the core-subtracted sub-mm maps (in greyscale, 450$`\mu \mathrm{m}`$ at top and 850$`\mu \mathrm{m}`$ at bottom) with emission at other wavebands. Note that by subtracting the core, we cannot compare emission features within the central $``$ 20$`\mathrm{}`$ diameter region. Overlays are with the 333 MHz radio continuum emission (Fig. 3a, c) which traces the non-thermal component, and with the H$`\alpha `$ low velocity system (Fig. 3b, d) which presumably traces condensing cooling flow gas. For comparison, the high velocity system, associated with the infalling galaxy (Sect. 1), is shown as greyscale with the LVS contours in Fig. 3e and the optical absorption is shown in Fig. 3f.

The dust emission shows some weak correlations with the 333 MHz map. For example, the sub-mm NW extension occurs along the outer ridge of the radio continuum emission. There is also weak sub-mm emission just where the radio continuum emission falls off about 1 arcminute SW of the nucleus. A ridge of weak radio continuum emission extending from RA = 3h 19m 52s, DEC = 41 30 55′′ to RA = 3h 19m 49s, DEC = 41 29 50′′ is also seen in the sub-mm.

There is no obvious correlation between the LVS H$`\alpha `$ emission and the sub-mm maps other than a possible one between the NW extension and an H$`\alpha `$ extension at 450$`\mu \mathrm{m}`$ (Fig. 3b). The HVS H$`\alpha `$ emission (Fig. 3e) occurs in a patchy distribution mainly to the NW of and near the nucleus. Again, there is no clear correlation between the sub-mm emission and high velocity H$`\alpha `$ system other than some correspondence in the same NW extension region. The optical extinction map (see Fig. 3f) does show several knots which correspond to enhanced 450$`\mu \mathrm{m}`$ or 850$`\mu \mathrm{m}`$ emission, suggesting that this dust is in the foreground. Nørgaard-Nielsen et al. (1993) and McNamara et al. (1996) have argued that some of the dust, as observed in optical extinction, corresponds to the intervening (HVS) galaxy.

We have also investigated whether the CO emission (not shown) resembles the sub-mm, since normally dust and molecular gas follow similar distributions. CO has been mapped with similar resolution as the sub-mm by Bridges & Irwin (1998) and Reuter et al. (1993); however, the most wide-scale mapping has been out to a radius of only $``$ 30$`\mathrm{}`$ and little structure is visible in existing CO maps. Bridges & Irwin do find a bend in the CO contours to the south-west, similar to the bright 850$`\mu \mathrm{m}`$ emission in that direction. Much higher resolution CO mapping, which cannot be directly compared to our sub-mm distribution due to the core subtraction and difference in resolution, shows an east-west structure similar to the LVS (see Inoue et al. 1996).

Figure 4 shows the 850$`\mu \mathrm{m}`$ core-subtracted map superimposed on a colour image of the ROSAT HRI X$``$ray emission which shows a deficit of X$``$ray flux at the positions of the radio lobes. This morphology has been interpreted as a displacement of the thermal gas by the outflowing radio lobes (Böhringer et al. 1993, Churazov et al. 2000). Fig. 4 shows the best correlation we have found with the sub-mm and helps to explain the partial correlation found between dust and the radio continuum (see above) since there is a relationship between the radio continuum and X$``$ray emission. The brightest X$``$ray emission occurs in a ridge which extends from the east of the nucleus and curves to the south. This is also roughly where a weak radio continuum ridge occurs (as pointed out above). The 850$`\mu \mathrm{m}`$ emission approximately follows this curved ridge (cf. the “filled in” emission in the ME map, Fig. 2e also) although the peaks don’t exactly coincide. For example, dust emission curves around the X$``$ray peak at RA = 3h 19m 50s.5, DEC = 41 30 15′′. The bright sub-mm extension to the SW of the nucleus truncates abruptly just where the X$``$ray emission also drops about 30′′ from the nucleus; this is where the SW radio lobe occurs. To the west of the nucleus, both X$``$ray and dust emission show an extension to $``$ 50 arcseconds, both ending at roughly the same position. The NW extension correlates well with an X$``$ray peak on the NW side of the galaxy with the sub-mm peak slightly displaced to the NW of the X$``$ray peak. Even some of the the very faint sub-mm emission which we at first considered to be noise bears some resemblance to the X$``$ray. For example, to the north of the nucleus, the northern X$``$ray arc has several 850$`\mu \mathrm{m}`$ peaks occurring along its northern edge about 45′′ from the nucleus. About 1 arcminute from the nucleus to the NNW, weaker X$``$ray emission falls off and again, weak peaks of 850$`\mu \mathrm{m}`$ emission can be seen there.

Recent observations by the Chandra satellite (Fabian et al. 2000) confirm the general characteristics of the X$``$ray map shown in Figure 4. One improvement is in the clearer view of an X-ray absorption feature $``$ 40$`\mathrm{}`$ NW of the nucleus which is seen as a small arc just to the west of the brightest X-ray ridge on the NW side of the nucleus (see the low X-ray emission at RA $``$ 3h 19m 45s, DEC $``$ 41 30 47′′). This absorption feature appears to “wrap around” on the west side of the brightest X-ray/sub-mm peak NW of the nucleus and so suggests that there may be some relation between the dust and the infalling galaxy. However, we do not see enhanced sub-mm emission where the X-ray absorption occurs. This suggests that the feature which is producing the X-ray absorption includes some component other than dust and/or that the characteristics of the absorbing dust are such that we are not clearly detecting it at 450$`\mu \mathrm{m}`$ or 850$`\mu \mathrm{m}`$.

In summary, we find that the sub-mm dust emission correlates spatially with the X$``$ray emission, except that there may be offsets between the X-ray peaks and sub-mm peaks (for example, the strongest X$``$ray peak does not have a counterpart in the sub-mm).

## 4 Discussion

### 4.1 Source of Dust Heating

From these SCUBA data, we have estimated a dust temperature to be $``$ 20 K. What are the possible heating sources for this dust? The possibilities include heating by stellar photons, heating by hot electrons in X$``$ray emitting gas, direct heating by X$``$rays, and heating by the AGN.

Since dust emission is observed to a distance of $``$ 1 arcminute = 20 kpc from the AGN in NGC 1275, we can rule out AGN heating as a possible source for this extended dust. Rigopoulou, Lawrence, & Rowan-Robinson (1996) have also looked at the submillimetre and X$``$ray data from a number of ultraluminous infra-red galaxies and found that most are well-fitted by a standard model of stellar heating, even when there is evidence for an AGN. Also, since the 450$`\mu \mathrm{m}`$/850$`\mu \mathrm{m}`$ spectral index of the dust emission is the same for dust in the NW extension (measured $``$ 6 kpc from the nucleus) as for dust at 15 kpc, there is no need to postulate different heating sources for the extended dust at these frequencies.

Goudfrooij & de Jong (1995) have considered the other heating mechanisms for elliptical galaxies and conclude that direct heating by X$``$rays is not feasible. This leaves heating by stellar photons and heating by hot electrons as the remaining viable mechanisms. McNamara et al. (1996) have found a faint blue continuum extending out to $``$ 30 kpc (1.5 arcminutes) in NGC 1275 along the filamentary H$`\alpha `$ system, indicating that stars do indeed exist to large distances. However, the close resemblance of the sub-mm continuum in NGC 1275 to the X$``$ray structure and the apparent absence of a large population of stars more massive than $``$ 5 $`M_{}`$ (Sarazin & O’Connell 1983, Smith et al. 1992, McNamara et al. 1996) points to hot electrons as the source of dust heating in NGC 1275. Lester et al. (1995) have also shown quantitatively, that hot electrons in NGC 1275 are energetically capable of supplying the dust heating in this galaxy. The fact that the 850$`\mu \mathrm{m}`$ emission avoids the brightest X$``$ray peak suggests that dust may be more rapidly destroyed in this region.

### 4.2 Origin of the Dust

These observations have shown that extended dust exists in NGC 1275 to very large distances from the core ($``$ 20 kpc) and that the total dust mass is high, i.e. 6 $`\times `$ 107 $`M_{}`$, two orders of magnitude larger than that inferred from optical absorption studies. As indicated in Sect. 1, three possibilities for the origin of the dust present themselves: from the cooling flow or in dense clouds associated with the flow, from ongoing star formation, or from the merger of a gas/dust rich galaxy. Let us consider these possibilities.

If dust is mixed with the cooling flow gas, then its lifetime against destruction by sputtering is found from td = 2$`\times `$104 (cm-3/$`n`$)($`a`$/0.01$`\mu \mathrm{m}`$), where $`n`$ is the density of the hot cooling flow gas and $`a`$ is the grain radius (Draine & Salpeter 1979). The grain size is uncertain, but a reasonable upper limit is 0.1 micron (cf. Lester et al. 1995), and the hot gas density near the center of NGC 1275 is 0.05 - 0.1 cm-3 (e.g. Fabian et al. 2000). This gives td = 2 - 4$`\times `$106 years. Thus, dust will be destroyed on short timescales if it is mixed with the hot gas and there must be a source of dust replenishment. The alternative is that dust is somehow shielded from the X$``$ray environment, possibly in dense molecular clouds for which there is (as yet) no observational evidence.

If stellar mass loss is continuously replenishing the dust, we would expect this dust to be ejected and dispersed into the X$``$ray emitting environment, suggesting that the short lifetime determined above should be relevant. Determining a dust mass loss rate from stars is not straightforward and involves a knowledge of the initial mass function, the mass loss rates from stars, and the gas/dust ratio in the ejected material. For NGC 1275, there currently appear to be no stars more massive than 5 M and, if more massive stars have been produced in the past, this past massive star formation must have ceased 70 Myr ago or more (Smith et al. 1992). Since this is longer than the lifetime of dust in the X-ray emitting environment, we do not expect young, massive O type stars to contribute to the currently observed dust in NGC 1275. The next strongest source of mass loss, and that which will dominate in NGC 1275, comes from the older, more evolved stellar population. The remaining main sequence stars of 5 M or less contribute negligibly to global mass loss rates (see Snow 1982).

Both Faber & Gallagher (1976) and Knapp, Gunn & Wynn-Williams (1992) have estimated, through independent means, mass-loss rates for an evolved population of stars. Knapp et al. find $`\dot{M}=\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2.1}\times \mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}10}^{12}(L_{2.2\mu \mathrm{m}}/L_{})M_{}yr^1`$ and Faber & Gallagher find $`\dot{M}=\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}1.5}\times \mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}10}^{11}(L_B/L_{})M_{}yr^1`$, where $`L_{2.2\mu \mathrm{m}}`$ and $`L_B`$ are, respectively, the $`2.2\mu \mathrm{m}`$ and blue luminosities. Using (from the NASA Extragalactic Database) the total corrected blue magnitude of 12.15, we find $`\dot{M}=\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0.81}M_{}yr^1`$ and using the $`2.2\mu \mathrm{m}`$ flux density of 159 mJy, we find $`\dot{M}=\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0.62}M_{}yr^1`$. The former value should be an overestimate since it includes any contribution from the AGN and the latter should be an underestimate since the $`2.2\mu \mathrm{m}`$ flux density is measured only within a central 32′′ aperture. Taking a mass loss rate of $`0.7M_{}yr^1`$, then, over 2 - 4$`\times `$106 years, stars can contribute, at most, $`2.8\times \mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}10}^6M_{}`$ of gas to the ISM in NGC 1275. With a gas/dust ratio of 360 (Sect. 3.2.2), the dust mass generated by stars would be $`8\times \mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}10}^3M_{}`$, which is 4 orders of magnitude lower than observed. It is possible that 2 orders of magnitude could be gained by allowing dust to survive over a timescale one order of magnitude longer, since then there could be a contribution from hot massive stars which typically have higher mass loss rates than the older stars. However, it is unlikely that 4 orders of magnitude could be gained and a dust shielding mechanism would then also be required. Thus, we conclude that dust cannot be replenished by stellar mass loss. Lester et al. (1995) came to the same conclusion for NGC 1275 and Goudfrooij & de Jong (1995) have also found that most elliptical galaxies in which X$``$ray emission has been detected contain more dust than can be accounted for by stellar mass loss. Moreover, if the observed dust originated from stellar mass loss, we would expect the dust distribution to bear some resemblance to the stellar light distribution, which is not observed.

An obvious source of dust is the infalling galaxy. Goudfrooij et al. (1994), in fact, make a case for all dust in elliptical galaxies being supplied by external systems, and others (e.g. Pinkney et al. 1996, Koekemoer et al. 1999) have also supported the merger/accretion origin for dust in ellipticals. McNamara et al. (1996) and Nørgaard-Nielsen et al. (1993) have suggested, for NGC 1275, that two dust systems may be present, one associated with NGC 1275 and one associated with the the high velocity system. Martel et al. (1999) also find dust absorption at the north-west location of the HVS. These results find some support from our observations since the HVS is observed to the NW of the core of NGC 1275, as is the NW sub-mm extension. Thus, the infalling galaxy appears to contain dust and, one could argue, is a source of dust.

Several lines of argument support this view. There is accumulating evidence that the infalling galaxy is currently interacting with NGC 1275 (Hu et al. 1983; Unger et al. 1990; Caulet et al. 1992; Nørgaard-Nielsen et al. 1993; Ferruit et al. 1998). The HVS gas occurs in a patchy distribution over $``$ 20 kpc, in projection (Fig. 3e), arguing for a broad interaction region (though the region containing dust is larger still by about a factor of 2). The interaction timescale (impulsive approximation) is roughly ti $``$ d/v, where d is the size of the target galaxy and v is the relative velocity of the perturber. If we take the size to be the entire projected region over which dust emission is detected ($``$ 38 kpc) and v = 3000 km s-1, we find ti $``$ 1$`\times `$107 yrs. This is a factor of at least 2 higher than the dust destruction timescale, but this may not be largely discordant, given the approximation made. Finally, our dust mass ($`6\times \mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}10}^7M_{}`$) and gas-to-dust ratio (360) are quite typical of spiral and IRAS galaxies, and our dust temperature (20 K) is also typical of spiral galaxies though somewhat cooler than that observed in IRAS galaxies (Alton et al. 2000, Dunne et al. 2000), arguing for an infalling spiral galaxy as the origin of the dust. In this scenario, the dust distribution would resemble the X-ray gas distribution (Fig. 4) because the dust is widely distributed and is being collisionally heated as discussed in Sect. 4.1. The implication is that there should be additional cold dust, as yet undetected, which is widely distributed in NGC 1275. A difficulty with this scenario is that externally supplied dust, initially moving at 3000 km s-1 with respect to NGC 1275, must “settle” into the rest frame of NGC 1275 while the hot stars and associated H$`\alpha `$ emitting gas do not. A theoretical development involving an infalling spiral galaxy which also interacts with cooling flow gas should be brought to bear on this question.

A final interesting idea is that the dust forms directly in the cooling flow (Fabian et al. 1994, Hansen et al. 1995), which would explain the observed spatial correlation directly. Fabian et al. suggest that dust could form within clouds, even in the absence of dust in the cooling flow originally, and would be shielded against destruction, giving it a longer lifetime than the above-determined value. The temperature of the dust grains is expected to be is very low, with most of the dust at less than 6 K and some as high as 11 K. However, as the clouds become disturbed in the inner part of the cooling flow, external heating should make the dust more visible (and destroy the dust on short timescales again). Since the LVS is known to be associated with the cooling flow as well, however, we would also expect the dust (unless it is rapidly destroyed) to correlate with the LVS in this scenario, for which there is no strong evidence. Thus, this model seems less attractive, although should not be ruled out pending further work on disentangling density from temperature effects in the cooling flow region.

## 5 Conclusions

We have made SCUBA observations of the cD galaxy, NGC 1275, which is at the center of the Perseus Cluster cooling flow. Emission has been detected at both 850$`\mu \mathrm{m}`$ and 450$`\mu \mathrm{m}`$ and, applying standard radio astronomical techniques such as CLEAN and Maximum Entropy to these sub-mm maps, we have removed structures related to the beam shape in order to reveal real low level emission. The resulting sub-mm distribution can be easily separated into a bright central core and fainter extended emission, allowing us to determine the spectral indices of the core and extended emission separately.

The core has a steep spectral index (-0.88) suggesting that it can be explained primarily in terms of a high-frequency extension of the non-thermal AGN emission. The extended emission has a positive spectral index (+2.7), and is clearly due to dust which extends as far as 20 kpc from the nucleus. We estimate the dust temperature to be 20 K (though 10 K to 30 K is possible, depending on the assumed value of the dust emissivity index) and rule out the AGN as the main heating source, given the presence of dust far from the nucleus. The dust mass is 6 $`\times `$ 107 $`M_{}`$ (within a factor of a few); this dust mass is higher by 2 orders of magnitude than that inferred from optical extinction. Thus there is much more dust in this galaxy than previously realized. The gas-to-dust ratio is found to be 360. Note that the latter value is derived using an assumption of a Galactic CO to H2 conversion factor as well as a 100 K spin temperature for neutral hydrogen. Nevertheless, the derived dust mass, gas-to-dust ratio, and dust temperature are all typical of values being found for spiral galaxies.

A remarkable correlation between the sub-mm dust emission and the X$``$ray emission is observed in this galaxy, although there are some displacements in emission peaks. When the various sources of dust heating are considered, the strongest case can be made for collisional heating by hot X$``$ray emitting electrons. This would explain the spatial correlation between the two components. Since the grain destruction timescale is short ($``$ 4$`\times `$106 yrs), continuous dust replenishment is required to account for the sub-mm emission. We have ruled out stars as the source of dust and suggest instead that the infalling galaxy is the most likely candidate, given that the observed dust parameters are typical for spiral galaxies. Thus, we have a picture in which the infalling galaxy is interacting with NGC 1275 over a large region, supplying it with dust which is then heated most effectively by collisions with hot electrons in the cooling flow gas. If this scenario is correct, then more cold dust should be present in NGC 1275 than we have detected. The alternative is that dust forms directly in the cooling flow and is shielded from destruction. Further spatially resolved multi-wavelength observations should be able to distinguish between these scenarios by disentangling density from temperature effects.

## Acknowledgments

This research has made use of data obtained through the High Energy Astrophysics Science Archive Research Center Online Service, provided by the NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center.We are grateful to A. Pedlar and P. Goudfrooij for providing FITS images of their published data and also to Dr. A. Caulet for her assistance.


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# 2. THE LOWER BOUNDS

## 2. THE LOWER BOUNDS

We start with a very trivial bound which nonetheless improves upon some current best lower bounds.

Theorem 1. Let $`r3`$. For any $`k_i3`$, $`i=1,2,\mathrm{},r`$, we have

$$R(k_1,k_2,\mathrm{},k_r)>(k_11)(R(k_2,k_3,\mathrm{},k_r)1).$$

Proof. Let $`\varphi (G)`$ be a maximal Ramsey $`(r1)`$-coloring for $`R(k_2,k_3,\mathrm{},k_r)`$ with colors $`2,3,\mathrm{},r`$. Let $`k_13`$. Let $`G_i=G`$, for $`i=1,2,\mathrm{},k_11`$. Let $`v_iG_i`$, $`v_jG_j`$ and define $`\chi (H)`$ as follows:

$$\chi (v_i,v_j)=\{\begin{array}{cc}\varphi (v_i,v_j)\hfill & \text{if}i=j\hfill \\ 1\hfill & \text{if}ij.\hfill \end{array}$$

We now show that $`\chi (H)`$ is a Ramsey $`r`$-coloring for $`R(k_1,k_2,\mathrm{},k_r)`$. For $`j\{2,3,\mathrm{},r\}`$, $`\chi (H)`$ does not admit any monochromatic $`K_{k_j}`$ of color $`j`$ by the definition of $`\varphi `$. Hence, we need only consider color $`1`$. Since $`\varphi (G_i)`$, $`1ik_11`$, is void of color $`1`$, any monochromatic $`K_{k_1}`$ of color $`1`$ may only have one vertex in $`G_i`$ for each $`i\{1,2,\mathrm{},k_11\}`$. By the pigeonhole principle, however, there exists $`I\{1,2,\mathrm{},k_11\}`$ such that $`G_I`$ contains two vertices of $`K_{k_j}`$, a contradiction. $`\mathrm{}`$

Examples. Theorem 1 implies that $`R_5(4)1372,R_5(5)7329,R_4(6)5346,`$ and $`R_4(7)19261`$, all of which beat the current best known bounds given in \[Rad\].

We now look at an off-diagonal bound.

Theorem 2. Let $`r3`$. For any $`3k_1<k_2`$, and $`k_j3`$, $`j=3,4,\mathrm{},r`$ we have

$$R(k_1,k_2,\mathrm{},k_r)>(k_1+1)(R(k_2k_1+1,k_3,\mathrm{},k_r)1).$$

Before giving the proof of this theorem, we have need of the following definition.

Defintion. We say that the $`n\times n`$ symmetric matrix $`T=T(x_0,x_1,\mathrm{},x_r)`$ is a Ramsey incidence matrix if the $`r`$-coloring defined by $`\chi :E(K_n)\{x_1,x_2,\mathrm{},x_r\}`$, $`\chi (i,j)=(i,j)`$, is a Ramsey $`r`$-coloring. Furthermore, the color $`x_0`$ appears only on the diagonal of $`T`$ (which we will denote $`diag(T)`$). Note that $`T(x_0,x_2,x_1,x_3,\mathrm{},x_r)`$ defines the same graph as $`T(x_0,x_1,x_2,x_3,\mathrm{},x_r)`$ with colors $`x_1`$ and $`x_2`$ interchanged.

Proof of Theorem 2. We will construct an $`r`$-colored complete graph on $`(k_1+1)(R(k_2k_1+1,k_3,\mathrm{},k_r)1)`$ vertices which avoids monochromatic subgraphs $`K_{k_i}`$ of color $`i`$, $`i=1,2,\mathrm{},r`$, by means of Ramsey incidence matrices. We start the proof with $`R(t,k,l)`$ and then generalize to an arbitrary number of colors.

Consider a maximal Ramsey $`2`$-coloring for $`R(k,lt+1)`$. Let $`T=T(x_0,x_1,x_2)`$ denote the associated Ramsey incidence matrix. Define $`A:=T(,2,3)`$, $`B:=T(3,2,1)`$, and $`C:=T(1,2,3)`$ and consider the symmetric $`(t+1)\times (t+1)`$ block matrix, $`H`$, below.

$$\begin{array}{ccccccccc}& A& & & & & & & \\ & B& A& & & & & & \\ & C& C& A& & & & & \\ H=& C& C& B& A& & & & \\ & C& C& B& B& A& & & \\ & \mathrm{}& \mathrm{}& \mathrm{}& \mathrm{}& \mathrm{}& \mathrm{}& & \\ & C& C& B& B& \mathrm{}& B& A& \end{array}$$

We will show that $`H`$ contains no monochromatic $`K_t`$ of color $`1`$, no monochromatic $`K_k`$ of color $`2`$, and no monochromatic $`K_l`$ of color $`3`$, for $`lt+1`$, to show that $`R(t,k,l)>(t+1)(R(k,lt+1)1)`$. To this end, we first look at the stucture of the edges of $`K_s`$ in $`H`$. Without loss of generality we may assume that the entries in $`H`$ representing the edges of $`K_s`$ have the following structure, where $`j_1<i_1`$.

$$\begin{array}{cccccc}(i_1,j_1)\hfill & & & & & \\ (i_2,j_1)\hfill & (i_2,i_1)\hfill & & & & \\ (i_3,j_1)\hfill & (i_3,i_1)\hfill & (i_3,i_2)\hfill & & & \\ & \mathrm{}\hfill & \mathrm{}\mathrm{}\hfill & \mathrm{}\hfill & & \\ (i_{s1},j_1)\hfill & (i_{s1},i_1)\hfill & (i_s,i_2)\hfill & \mathrm{}\hfill & (i_{s1},i_{s2})\hfill & \end{array}$$

We will refer to two different types of rows below: entry rows and block rows. An entry row is a set $`\{(i_q,j_r):1rq\}`$ were $`q`$ is a fixed integer between $`1`$ and $`s1`$. A block row consists of one of the rows of $`H`$, for example the third block row is $`CCA`$. We will also use the term relative position of $`K_s`$ several times. To determine the relative position of $`K_s`$, take all of the corresponding coordinates of $`K_s`$ in H and reduce them modulo $`(R(t,k,l)1)`$. This reduction gives us entries only in the $`A(1,1)`$ block in $`H`$. (When confusion may arise, we will use the full notation $`A(i,j)`$ to clarify which $`A`$ (or $`B`$ or $`C`$) block is being considered).

We will now show that the graph defined by the Ramsey incidence matrix $`H`$ avoids the desired monochromatic subgraphs.

No monochromatic $`𝐊_𝐭`$ of color $`\mathrm{𝟏}`$. $`K_t`$ cannot have two entry rows in any block row containing a $`C`$ since $`1diag(C)`$ and $`1A`$. Further, if two block rows both containing a $`C`$ have entry rows in them, then since $`1diag(C)`$ we must have $`1diag(B)`$, a contradiction. Hence, $`B(2,1)`$ must have at least two entry rows. This implies that $`1A(2,2)`$, a contradiction. Thus, we cannot have a monochromatic $`K_t`$ of color 1.

No monochromatic $`𝐊_𝐤`$ of color $`\mathrm{𝟐}`$. If a monochromatic $`K_k`$ of color 2 exists in $`H`$, then by taking the relative position, we would have a monochromatic $`K_k`$ of color 2 in $`A(1,1)`$, contradicting the definition of $`A`$.

No monochromatic $`𝐊_𝐥`$ of color $`\mathrm{𝟑}`$. Assume, for a contradiction, that a monochromatic $`K_l`$ of color 3 exists. If there are no entries in any $`B`$, then taking the relative position of all entries will imply that $`A(1,1)`$ contains a monochromatic $`K_l`$ of color 3, a contradiction. Hence, we must have at least one entry in some $`B`$. However, each $`B`$ may contain at most one entry since $`3diag(B)`$. This implies that we can have at most one entry row in each block row $`4`$ through $`t+1`$, and at most one entry column in the first block column. We now delete the first entry column, and the bottom $`t2`$ entry rows. This deletion procedure assures us that none of the remaining entries lie in any $`B`$. Hence, we are left with $`lt`$ entry rows, which form a $`K_{lt+1}`$. By taking the relative position of these remaining entries, we have a monochromatic $`K_{lt+1}`$ of color 3 in $`A(1,1)`$, a contradiction.

To generalize the above argument to an arbitrary number of colors we change the definitions of $`A`$, $`B`$, and $`C`$; $`A:=T(0,2,3,4,5,\mathrm{},r)`$, $`B:=T(3,2,1,4,5,\mathrm{},r)`$, $`C:=T(1,2,3,4,5,\mathrm{},r)`$. To see that there is no monochromatic $`K_{k_j}`$ of color $`j`$ for $`j=4,5,\mathrm{},r`$ see the argument for no monochromatic $`K_k`$ of color 2 above. $`\mathrm{}`$

Example. Theorem 2 implies that $`R(3,3,3,11)437`$, beating the previous best lower bound of $`433`$.

## REFERENCES

\[Rad\] S. Radziszowski, Small Ramsey numbers, El. J. Comb., DS1 (revision #7, 2000), 36pp.

\[Ram\] F. Ramsey, On a problem of formal logic, Proc. London Math. Soc. 30 (1930), 264-286.

\[Rob\] A. Robertson, Ph.D. thesis, Temple University, 1999.


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# Galactic Superwinds Circa 2001

## 1. Introduction

My interest in galactic winds was stimulated during the time I spent at Steward Observatory as a Bart Bok Fellow during the early 1980’s. At that time, Ray Weymann was working on a theoretical model for cosmic-ray-driven thermal winds in QSOs (see Weymann et al. 1982), and I recall discussing with Ray about how one might go about detecting the hydrodynamical consequences of such flows on the surrounding interstellar and intergalactic media.

These musings did not bear fruit until several years later (McCarthy, van Breugel, & Heckman 1987; Heckman, Armus, & Miley 1987, 1990) when my colleagues and I drew attention to evidence for global outflows from the class of powerful, dusty starbursts that had been discovered by IRAS. By now, it is well-established that galactic-scale outflows of gas (“superwinds”) are commonplace in the most actively star- forming galaxies in both the local universe (e.g. Lehnert & Heckman 1996; Dahlem, Weaver, & Heckman 1998; Veilleux et al. 1998) and at high redshift (e.g. Pettini et al. 2001).

In this contribution, I will review the dynamical evolution of superwinds (section 2), the nature and origin of their emission and absorption (section 3), their demographics (section 4), their estimated outflow rates (section 5), and their likely fate (section 5). Finally, I will describe their potential implications for the evolution of galaxies and the inter-galactic medium (section 6).

## 2. The Conceptual Framework

The engine that drives the observed outflows in starbursts is the mechanical energy supplied by massive stars in the form of supernovae and stellar winds (Leitherer & Heckman 1995). For typical starburst parameters, the rate of supply of mechanical energy is of-order 1% of the bolometric luminosity of the starburst and typically 10 to 20% of the Lyman continuum luminosity.

The dynamical evolution of a starburst-driven outflow has been extensively discussed (e.g. Chevalier & Clegg 1985; Suchkov et al. 1994; Wang 1995; Tenorio-Tagle & Munzo-Tunon 1998; Strickland & Stevens 2000). Briefly, the deposition of mechanical energy by supernovae and stellar winds results in an over-pressured cavity of hot gas inside the starburst. The temperature of this hot gas is given by:

$$T=0.4\mu m_H\dot{E}/k\dot{M}10^8^1K$$

for a mass (kinetic energy) deposition rate of $`\dot{M}`$ ($`\dot{E}`$). The “mass-loading” term $``$ represents the ratio of the total mass of gas that is heated to the mass that is directly ejected by supernovae and stellar winds (e.g. $``$ 1).

This hot gas will expand, sweep up ambient material and thus develop a bubble-like structure. The predicted expansion speed of the outer wall of such an adiabatic wind-blown superbubble is of-order 102 km s-1:

$$v_{Bubble}100\dot{E}_{42}^{1/5}n_0^{1/5}t_7^{2/5}km/s$$

for a bubble driven into an ambient medium with nucleon density $`n_0`$ (cm-3) by mechanical energy deposited at a rate $`\dot{E}_{42}`$ (units of 1042 erg s-1) for a time $`t_7`$ (units of 107 years).

If the ambient medium is stratified (like a disk), the superbubble will expand most rapidly in the direction of the vertical pressure gradient. After the superbubble size reaches several disk vertical scale heights, the expansion will accelerate, and it is believed that Raleigh-Taylor instabilities will then lead to the fragmentation of the bubble’s outer wall (e.g. MacLow, McCray, & Norman 1989). This allows the hot gas to “blow out” of the disk and into the galactic halo in the form of a weakly collimated bipolar outflow (i.e. the flow makes a transition from a superbubble to a superwind). The terminal velocity of this hot wind is expected to be in the range of one-to-a-few thousand km s-1:

$$v_{wind}=(2\dot{E}/\dot{M})^{1/2}3000^{1/2}km/s$$

The wind will carry entrained interstellar material out of the galactic disk and into the halo, and will also interact with ambient halo clouds (e.g. Suchkov et al. 1994; Strickland & Stevens 2000). This interstellar material will be accelerated by the wind‘s ram pressure to velocities of few hundred km s-1:

$$v_{cloud}600\dot{p_{34}}^{1/2}\mathrm{\Omega }_w^{1/2}r_{0,kpc}^{1/2}N_{cloud,21}^{1/2}km/s$$

for a cloud with a column density $`N_{cloud,21}`$ (units of 1021 cm-2) that - starting at an initial radius of $`r_0`$ (kpc) - is accelerated by a wind that carries a total momentum flux of $`\dot{p_{34}}`$ (units of 1034 dynes) into a solid angle $`\mathrm{\Omega }_w`$ (steradian).

## 3. The Observational Manifestations of Superwinds

Based on the above picture, we can broadly classify the gas in a superwind into two categories. The first is the ambient interstellar medium, and the second is the the volume-filling energetic fluid created by the thermalization of the starburst’s stellar eject. The thermal and kinetic energy of this fluid is the “piston” that drives the outflow and dominates its energy budget. The observed manifestations of superwinds arise when the primary wind fluid interacts hydrodynamically with relatively dense ambient interstellar gas.

This has long been known to apply to the optical emission-line gas. In the case of superbubbles, the limb-brightened morphology and the classic “Doppler ellipses” seen in long-slit spectroscopy of dwarf starburst galaxies (e.g. Meurer et al. 1992; Marlowe et al. 1995; Martin 1998) are consistent with the standard picture of emission from the shocked outer shell of a classic wind-blown bubble (e.g. Weaver et al. 1977). Typical expansion velocities are 50 to 100 km s-1. Similarly, the morphology and kinematics of the emission-line gas in the outflows in edge-on starbursts like M 82, NGC 253, NGC 3079, and NGC 4945 imply that this material is flowing outward on the surface of a hollow bi-polar structure whose apices correspond to the starburst (e.g. Heckman, Armus, & Miley 1990; Shopbell & Bland-Hawthorn 1998; Cecil et al. 2001). The deprojected outflow speeds range from a few hundred to a thousand km s-1. This material is presumably ambient gas that has been entrained into the boundary layers of the bipolar hot wind, or perhaps the side walls of a ruptured superbubble (e.g. Suchkov et al. 1994; Strickland & Stevens 2000). In both superbubbles and superwinds, the optical emission-line gas is excited by some combination of wind-driven shocks and photoionization by the starburst.

Prior to the deployment of the $`Chandra`$ X-ray observatory, it was sometimes assumed that the soft X-ray emission associated with superbubbles and superwinds represented the primary wind fluid that filled the volume bounded by the emission-line gas. If so, its relatively low temperature (typically 0.5 to 1 kev) and high luminosity ($`10^4`$ to $`10^3L_{bol}`$) required that substantial mass-loading had occurred inside the starburst ($``$ 10). The situation is actually more complex. The superb imaging capabilities of $`Chandra`$ demonstrate that the X-ray-emitting material bears a very strong morphological relationship to the optical emission-line gas (Strickland et al. 2000,2001; Martin, Kobulnicky, & Heckman 2001). The X-ray gas also shows a limb-brightened filamentary structure, and is either coincident with, or lies just to the “inside” of the emission-line filaments (Fig. 1). Thus, the soft X-rays could arise in regions in which hydrodynamical processes at the interface between the wind and interstellar medium have mixed a substantial amount of dense ambient gas into the wind fluid, greatly increasing the local X-ray emissivity. Alternatively, the filaments may represent the side walls of a ruptured superbubble left behind as the wind blows-out of a “thick-disk” component in the interstellar medium. In this case the H$`\alpha `$ emission might trace the forward shock driven into the halo gas and the X-rays the reverse shock in the wind fluid (see Lehnert, Heckman, & Weaver 1999)

Ambient interstellar material accelerated by the wind can also give rise to blueshifted interstellar absorption-lines in starbursts. Our (Heckman et al. 2000) survey of the NaI$`\lambda `$5893 feature in a sample of several dozen starbursts showed that the absorption-line profiles in the outflowing interstellar gas spanned the range from near the galaxy systemic velocity to a typical maximum blueshift of 400 to 600 km s-1. We argued this represented the terminal velocity reached by interstellar clouds accelerated by the wind’s ram pressure. Very similar kinematics are observed in vacuum-UV absorption-lines in local starbursts (Heckman & Leitherer 1997; Kunth et al. 1998; Gonzalez-Delgado et al. 1998). This material (Figure 2) ranges from neutral gas probed by species like OI and CII to coronal-phase gas probed by OVI (Heckman et al. 2001a; Martin et al. 2001). Heckman et al. (2000) showed that there are substantial amounts of outflowing dust associated with the neutral phase of the superwind. Radiation pressure may play an important role in accelerating this material (e.g. Aguirre 1999).

Extended radio-synchrotron halos around starbursts imply that there is a magnetized relativistic component of the outflow. In the well-studied case of M 82, this relativistic plasma has evidently been advected out of the starburst by the primary energy-carrying wind fluid (Seaquist & Odegard 1991). The situation in NGC 253 is less clear (Beck et al. 1994; Strickland et al. 2001)

## 4. Superwind Demographics

Lehnert & Heckman (1996) discussed the analysis of the optical emission-line properties of a sample of $``$50 disk galaxies selected to be bright and warm in the far-infrared (active star-formers) and to be viewed within $`30^{}`$ of edge-on. They defined several indicators of minor-axis outflows: 1) an excess of ionized gas along the minor axis (from H$`\alpha `$ images) 2) emission-line profiles that were broader along the galaxy minor axis than along the major axis 3) emission-line ratios that were more “shock-like” along the galaxy minor axis than the major axis. All these indicators became stronger in the galaxies with more intense star-formation (larger $`L_{FIR}`$, larger $`L_{FIR}/L_{OPT}`$, and warmer dust temperatures).

Dahlem, Weaver, & Heckman (1998) used $`ROSAT`$ and $`ASCA`$ to search for X-ray evidence for outflows from a complete sample of the seven nearest edge-on starburst galaxies (selected on the basis of far-IR flux, warm far-IR colors, edge-on orientation, and low Galactic HI column). Apart from the dwarf galaxy NGC 55, all the galaxies showed hot gas in their halos. The gas had temperatures of a few times 106 to 107 K, and could be traced out to distances of-order 10 kpc from the disk plane (see also Read, Ponman, & Strickland 1997).

Heckman et al. (2000) obtained spectra of 19 starbursts in which the NaI$`\lambda `$5893 (NaD) absorption feature was produced primarily by interstellar gas (rather than stars). In 12 of these (63%) the NaD centroid was blueshifted by $`10^2`$ to $`10^3`$ km/s relative to the galaxy systemic velocity, and this fraction rose to 79% in galaxies viewed from within 60 of face-on. No comparably redshifted absorption was seen in any galaxies.

At high-redshift, the only readily available tracers of superwinds are the interstellar absorption-lines in the rest-frame ultraviolet. As shown by Franx et al. (1997) and Pettini et al. (2001) the Lyman Break galaxies generically show interstellar absorption-lines that are blueshifted by a few hundred to over a thousand km s-1 relative to the estimated galaxy systemic velocity. These galaxies strongly resemble local starbursts in their high rate of star-formation per unit area (Meurer et al. 1997).

In summary, superwinds are ubiquitous in galaxies with star-formation-rates per unit area $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_{}`$ 10-1 M yr-1 kpc-2. Starbursts and the Lyman Break galaxies surpass this threshold, while the disks of ordinary present-day spiral galaxies do not (Kennicutt 1998).

## 5. Estimates of Outflow Rates

While it is relatively straightforward to demonstrate that a superwind is present, it is more difficult to robustly calculate the rates at which mass, metals, and energy are being transported out by the wind. Several different types of data can be used, each with its own limitations and required set of assumptions.

X-Ray Emission: X-ray imaging spectroscopy yields the superwind’s “emission integral”. Presuming that the X-ray spectra are fit with the correct model for the hot gas it follows that the mass and energy of the X-ray gas scale as follows: $`M_X(L_Xf)^{1/2}`$ and $`E_X(L_Xf)^{1/2}T_X(1+^2)`$. Here $`f`$ is the volume-filling-factor of the X-ray gas and $``$ is its Mach number. Numerical hydrodynamical simulations of superwinds suggest that $``$2 = 2 to 3 (Strickland & Stevens 2000). The associated outflow rates ($`\dot{M}_X`$ and $`\dot{E}_X`$) can then be estimated by dividing $`M_X`$ and $`E_X`$ by the crossing time of the observed region: $`t(R/c_s)`$, where $`c_s`$ is the speed-of-sound.

If the X-ray-emitting gas is assumed to be volume-filling ($`f`$ unity), the resulting values for $`\dot{E}_X`$ and $`\dot{M}_X`$ are then very similar to the starburst’s rates of kinetic energy deposition and star formation respectively. As described above, $`Chandra`$ images (Fig. 1) show that the X-ray-emitting gas does not have unit volume filling factor. On morphological and physical grounds we have argued that $`f`$ is of-order 10-1. This would mean that previous estimates of $`\dot{M}_X`$ and $`\dot{E}_X`$ are overestimated by a factor of $``$ 3.

Optical Emission: Optical data on the warm ($`T`$ 104 K) ionized gas can be used to determine the outflow rates $`\dot{M}`$ and $`\dot{E}`$ in a way that is quite analogous to the X-ray data. In this case, the outflow velocities can be directly measured kinematically from spectroscopy. Martin (1999) found the implied values for $`\dot{M}`$ are comparable to (and may even exceed) the star-formation rate.

In favorable cases, the densities and thermal pressures can be directly measured in the optical emission-line clouds using the appropriate ratios of emission lines. The thermal pressure in these clouds traces the ram-pressure in the faster outflowing wind that is accelerating them (hydrodynamical simulations suggest that $`P_{ram}=\mathrm{\Psi }P_{cloud}`$, where $`\mathrm{\Psi }`$ = 1 to 10). Thus, for a wind with a mass-flux $`\dot{M}`$ that freely flows at a velocity $`v`$ into a solid angle $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$, we have

$$\dot{M}=\mathrm{\Psi }P_{cloud}\mathrm{\Omega }r^2/v$$

$$\dot{E}=0.5\mathrm{\Psi }P_{cloud}\mathrm{\Omega }r^2v$$

Based on observations and numerical models, the values $`v`$ 103 km s-1, $`\mathrm{\Psi }`$ a few, and $`\mathrm{\Omega }/4\pi `$ a few tenths are reasonable. The radial pressure profiles $`P_{cloud}(r)`$ measured in superwinds by Heckman, Armus, & Miley (1990) and Lehnert & Heckman (1996) then imply that $`\dot{M}`$ is comparable to the star-formation rate and that $`\dot{E}`$ is comparable to the starburst kinetic-energy injection rate (implying that radiative losses are not severe).

Interstellar Absorption-Lines: The use of interstellar absorption-lines to determine outflows rates offer several distinct advantages. First, since the gas is seen in absorption against the background starlight, there is no possible ambiguity as to the sign (inwards or outwards) of any radial flow that is detected, and the outflow speed can be measured directly (e.g. Fig. 2). Second, the strength of the absorption will be related to the column density of the gas. In contrast, the X-ray or optical surface-brightness of the emitting gas is proportional to the emission-measure. Thus, the absorption-lines more fully probe the whole range of gas densities in the outflow, rather than being strongly weighted in favor of the densest material (which may contain relatively little mass).

The biggest obstacle to estimating outflows rates is that the strong absorption-lines are usually saturated, so that their equivalent width is determined primarily by the velocity dispersion and covering factor, rather than by the ionic column density. In the cases where the rest-UV region can be probed with adequate signal-to-noise (Pettini et al. 2000; Heckman & Leitherer 1997), the total HI column in the outflow can be measured by fitting the damping wings of the Ly$`\alpha `$ interstellar line, while ionic columns may be estimated from the weaker (less saturated) interstellar lines. In the Heckman et al. (2000) survey of the NaD line, we estimated NaI columns in the outflows based on the NaD doublet ratio (Spitzer 1968), and we then estimated the HI column assuming that the gas obeyed the same relation between $`N_{HI}`$ and $`N_{NaI}`$ as in the Milky Way. These HI columns agreed with columns estimated independently from the line-of-sight color excess $`E(BV)`$ toward the starburst, assuming a Galactic gas-to-dust ratio. From both the UV data and the NaD data, the typical inferred values for $`N_{HI}`$ are of-order 1021 cm-2.

We can then adopt a simple model of a superwind flowing into a solid angle $`\mathrm{\Omega }_w`$ at a velocity $`v`$ from a minimum radius $`r_{}`$ (taken to be the radius of the starburst within which the flow originates). This implies:

$$\dot{M}30(r_{}/kpc)(N_H/10^{21}cm^2)(v/300km/s)(\mathrm{\Omega }_w/4\pi )M_{}/yr$$

$$\dot{E}10^{42}(r_{}/kpc)(N_H/10^{21}cm^2)(v/300km/s)^3(\mathrm{\Omega }_w/4\pi )erg/s$$

Based on this simple model, Heckman et al. (2000) estimated that the implied outflow rates of cool atomic gas are comparable to the star-formation rates (e.g. several tens of solar masses per year in powerful starbursts). The flux of kinetic energy carried by this material is substantial (of-order 10-1 of the kinetic energy supplied by the starburst). We also estimated that $``$1% of the mass in the outflow is the form of dust grains.

Summary: The various techniques for estimating the outflow rates in superwinds rely on simplifying assumptions (not all of which may be warranted). On the other hand, it is gratifying that the different techniques do seem to roughly agree: the outflows carry mass out of the starburst at a rate comparable to the star-formation rate and kinetic/thermal energy out at a rate comparable to the rate supplied by the starburst.

## 6. The Fate of Superwinds

The outflow rates in superwinds should not be taken directly as the rates at which mass, metals, and energy escape from galaxies and are transported into the intergalactic medium. After all, the observable manifestations of the outflow are produced by material still relatively deep within the gravitational potential of the galaxy’s dark matter halo. We know very little about the gaseous halos of galaxies, and it is possible that this halo gas could confine a wind that has blown-out of a galactic disk (Silich & Tenorio-Tagle 2001).

A necessary condition for wind escape is that radiative losses are not severe enough to drain energy from the wind, causing it to stall (e.g. Wang 1995). The X-ray luminosity of the wind is typically on of-order 1% of the rate at which the starburst supplies kinetic energy. Thus, radiative losses from hot ($`T10^6`$ K) gas will not be dynamically significant. The radiative cooling curve peaks in the so-called “coronal” regime ($`T10^5`$ to $`10^6`$ K). The $`FUSE`$ mission has now provided the first probe of coronal-phase gas in starbursts and their winds via the OVI$`\lambda `$1032,1038 doublet (Figure 2). Our analysis of these data imply that in no case is radiative cooling by the coronal gas sufficient to quench the outflow (Heckman et al. 2001a; Martin et al. 2001).

In the absence of severe radiative cooling, one instructive way of assessing the likely fate of the superwind material is to compare the observed or estimated outflow velocity to the estimated escape velocity from the galaxy. For an isothermal gravitational potential that extends to a maximum radius $`r_{max}`$, and has a circular rotation velocity $`v_{rot}`$, the escape velocity at a radius $`r`$ is given by:

$$v_{esc}=[2v_{rot}(1+ln(r_{max}/r))]^{1/2}$$

In the case of the interstellar absorption-lines, Heckman et al. (2000) argued that the observed profiles were produced by material ablated off ambient clouds and accelerated by the wind up to a terminal velocity represented by the most-blueshifted part of the profile. In the case of the X-ray data, we do not measure a Doppler shift directly, but we can define a characteristic outflow speed $`v_X`$ corresponding to the observed temperature $`T_X`$, assuming an adiabatic wind with a mean mass per particle $`\mu `$ (Chevalier & Clegg 1985):

$$v_X(5kT_X/\mu )^{1/2}$$

This is a conservative assumption as it ignores the kinetic energy the X-ray-emitting gas already has (probably a factor typically 2 to 3 times its thermal energy - Strickland & Stevens 2000). Based on this approach, Heckman et al. (2000) and Martin (1999) found that the observed outflow speeds are independent of the galaxy rotation speed and have typical values of 400 to 800 km s-1. This suggests that the outflows can readily escape from dwarf galaxies, but possibly not from the more massive systems.

In all these discussions it is important to keep in mind the multiphase nature of galactic winds. It is possible (even likely) that the question of “escape” will have a phase-dependent answer. The relatively dense ambient interstellar material seen in absorption-lines, in optical line emission, and perhaps soft X-rays may be propelled only as far as the halo and then return to the disk. In contrast, the primary energy-carrying wind fluid (which could be flowing out at velocities of up to 3000 km s-1) could escape even the deepest galactic potentials and carry away much of the kinetic energy and metals supplied by the starburst. Moreover, for a realistic geometry, it is clearly much easier for a wind to blow-out of a galaxy’s interstellar medium than than to blow it away (e.g. De Young & Heckman 1994; MacLow & Ferrara 1999).

How far out from the starburst can the effects of superwinds be observed? In general, such tenuous material will be better traced via absorption-lines against background QSOs than by its emission (since the emission-measure will drop much more rapidly with radius than will the column density). To date, the only such experiment that has been conducted is by Norman et al. (1996) who examined two sight-lines through the halo of the merger/starburst system NGC 520 using HST to observe the MgII$`\lambda `$2800 doublet. Absorption was definitely detected towards a QSO with an impact parameter of 35 $`h_{70}^1`$ kpc and possibly towards a second QSO with an impact parameter of 75 $`h_{70}^1`$ kpc. Since NGC 520 is immersed in tidal debris (as mapped in the HI 21cm line), it is unclear whether the MgII absorption is due to tidally-liberated or wind-ejected gas. We can expect the situation to improve in the next few years, as the $`Galex`$ mission and the $`SloanDigitalSkySurvey`$ provide us with $`10^5`$ new QSOs and starburst galaxies, and the $`CosmicOriginsSpectrograph`$ significantly improves the UV spectroscopic capabilities of HST.

While a wind’s X-ray surface brightness drops rapidly with radius due to expansion and adiabatic cooling, its presence at large radii can be inferred if it collides with an obstacle. In the case of M 82, Lehnert, Heckman, & Weaver (1999) show that a ridge of diffuse X-ray and H$`\alpha `$ emission at a projected distance of 12 kpc from the starburst is most likely due to a wind/cloud collision in the galaxy halo. An even more spectacular example (Irwin et al. 1987) is the peculiar tail of HI associated with the galaxy NGC 3073 which points directly away from the nucleus of its companion: the superwind galaxy NGC 3079 (50 $`h_{70}^1`$ kpc away from NGC 3073 in projection). Irwin et al. (1987) proposed that the HI tail is swept out of NGC 3073 by the ram pressure of NGC 3079’s superwind.

## 7. Implications of Superwinds

As discussed above, we now know that superwinds are ubiquitous in actively-star-forming galaxies in both the local universe, and at high-redshift. The outflows detected in the high-z Lyman Break galaxies are particularly significant, since these objects may plausibly represent the production sites of much of the stars and metals in today’s universe (Steidel el al. 1999). Even if the sub-mm $`SCUBA`$ sources turn out to be a distinct population at high-z, their apparent similarity to local “ultraluminous galaxies” suggests that they too will drive powerful outflows (Heckman et al. 1996,2000). With this in mind, let me briefly describe the implications of superwinds for the evolution of galaxies and the inter-galactic medium.

Martin (1999) and Heckman et al. (2000) showed that the estimated outflow speeds of the neutral, warm, and hot phases in superwinds are $``$ 400 to 800 km s-1, and are independent of the rotation speed of the “host galaxy” over the range $`v_{rot}`$ = 30 to 300 km s-1. This strongly suggests that the outflows selectively escape the potential wells of the less massive galaxies. This would provide a natural explanation for the strong mass-metallicity relation in present-day galaxies (e.g. Lynden-Bell 1992; Tremonti et al. 2001).

As summarized above, the mass-outflow rate in entrained interstellar matter in a superwind is similar to the star-formation rate in the starburst. The selective loss of gas-phase baryons from low-mass galaxies via supernova-driven winds is an important ingredient in semi-analytic models of galaxy formation (e.g. Somerville & Primack 1999). It is usually invoked to enable the models to reproduce the observed faint-end slope of the galaxy luminosity function by selectively suppressing star-formation in low-mass dark-matter halos.

A different approach is taken by Scannapieco, Ferrara, & Broadhurst (2000), who have argued that starburst-driven outflows can suppress the formation of dwarf galaxies by ram-pressure-stripping the gaseous baryons from out of the dark-matter halos of low-mass companion galaxies. The NGC 3073/3079 interaction (Irwin et al. 1987) may represent a local example.

A direct consequence of a galactic-wind origin for the mass-metallicity relation in galactic spheroids is that a substantial fraction of the metals today should reside in the inter-galactic medium. This has been confirmed by X-ray spectroscopy of the intra-cluster medium (e.g. Finoguenov, Arnaud, & David 2001). The mean metallicity of the present-day inter-galactic medium is not known, but the presence of warm/hot metal-enriched intergalactic gas is demonstrated by the abundant population of OVI absorption-line clouds (Tripp, Savage, & Jenkins 2000). If the ratio of ejected metals to stellar spheroid mass is the same globally as in clusters of galaxies, then the present-day mass-weighted metallicity of a general intergalactic medium will be of-order $`10^1`$ solar (e.g. Renzini 1997; Heckman et al. 2000). Early galactic winds have been invoked to account for the wide-spread presence of metals in the Ly$`\alpha `$ forest at high-redshift (e.g. Madau, Ferrara, & Rees 2001).

There is now a vigorous debate as to whether and by what means the inter-galactic medium might have been heated by non-gravitational sources at relatively early epochs (e.g. Ponman, Cannon, & Navarro 1999; Pen 1999; Tozzi & Norman 2001; Voit & Bryan 2001; Croft et al. 2001). As a benchmark, consider the maximum amount of energy per inter-galactic baryon that can be supplied by galactic winds. Star-formation with the local initial mass function (Kroupa 2001) produces about 1051 ergs of kinetic energy from supernovae per 30 $`M_{}`$ of low-mass stars ($``$ 1 $`M_{}`$). The present ratio of baryons in the intra-cluster medium to baryons in low-mass stars is $``$ 6 in clusters, so the amount of kinetic energy available in principle to heat the intra-cluster medium is then 1051 ergs per 180 $`M_{}`$, or $``$3 keV per baryon. A similar value would apply globally. While this upper bound is based on an assumption of unit efficiency for the delivery of supernova energy, I have emphasized above that the observed properties of superwinds demand high efficiency.

The physical state of much of the inter-galactic medium is regulated by the meta-galactic ionizing background. QSOs alone appear inadequate to produce the inferred background at the highest redshifts (e.g, Madau, Haardt, & Rees 1999). In principle, star-forming galaxies could make a significant contribution to the background, provided that a significant fraction of the ionizing radiation can escape the galaxy ISM. Steidel, Pettini, & Adelberger (2001) have have reported the detection of substantial amounts of escaping ionizing radiation in Lyman Break galaxies and have speculated that galactic superwinds clear out channels through which this radiation can escape. We (Heckman et al. 2001b) have considered the extant relevant data on present-day starbursts, and have concluded that galactic winds may be necessary but not sufficient for creating a globally porous interstellar medium.

Heckman et al. (2000) have summarized the evidence that starbursts are ejecting significant quantities of dust. If this dust can survive a trip into the intergalactic medium and remain intact for a Hubble time, they estimated that the upper bound on the global amount of intergalactic dust is $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{dust}`$ $``$ 10-4. While this is clearly an upper limit, it is a cosmologically interesting one (Aguirre 1999). Dust this abundant is probably ruled out by the recent results by Riess et al. (2001), but intergalactic dust could well complicate the interpretation of the Type Ia supernova Hubble diagram.

### Acknowledgments.

I would like to thank my principal collaborators on the work described in this contribution: L. Armus, D. Calzetti, M. Dahlem, R. Gonzalez-Delgado, M. Lehnert, C. Leitherer, A. Marlowe, C. Martin, G. Meurer, C. Norman, K. Sembach, D. Strickland, and K. Weaver. This work has been supported in part by grants from the NASA LTSA program and the $`HST`$, $`ROSAT`$, $`ASCA`$, and $`Chandra`$ GO programs.

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text:
# 1 Introduction

## 1 Introduction

In the Standard Model (SM), the branching fraction for $`\mathrm{h}^0`$$``$$`\gamma \gamma `$ is too small to permit its observation at LEP energies. However, in particular formulations of 2-Higgs Doublet Models (2HDM) and other models, the Higgs coupling to fermions can be small and the Higgs bosons therefore decay preferentially to pairs of bosons. These are the so-called “fermiophobic” Higgs bosons (see, e.g., references ).

The fermiophobic models are indeed parameter dependent, but a large class of the models has near-Standard Model production strength. Therefore, we establish a “benchmark” fermiophobic model defined to be the Standard Model production rates and channels, but with the fermionic channels closed. To model Higgs boson production the four LEP experiments are using the code HZHA  and/or HDECAY . The code HDECAY gives a slightly lower di-photon branching fraction than HZHA (the difference in mass limits near 100 GeV is about 0.6 GeV). In the interest of conservatism, we use the HDECAY branching fractions in this LEP-wide combination. The bosonic branching fractions obtained from HDECAY in the benchmark model are shown in Figure 1.

To obtain the limits, the LEP Higgs Working Group uses the frequentist confidence levels generated by the “ecl” package ; three of the LEP collaborations use different statistical methods, which have been shown to agree with the LHWG method to within 0.5 GeV on all mass limits. This technique includes the estimated systematic errors and the expected signal shape in setting test-mass dependent limits on Higgs boson decays to photon pairs.

The LEP limits on the fermiophobic Higgs boson mass will be shown to exceed 100 GeV, where Figure 1 indicates preferred decay into WW. One LEP experiment  has set limits on the WW mode, but this channel is not considered in the present combination.

## 2 Searches for $`𝐡^\mathrm{𝟎}`$$`𝐙^\mathrm{𝟎}`$ with $`𝐡^\mathrm{𝟎}`$$`\mathbf{}`$$`𝜸𝜸`$

The ALEPH , DELPHI , L3 , and OPAL  analyses are described in journal articles or CERN preprints. All of the LEP experiments search for hadronic, leptonic, and missing energy (neutrino) decay modes of the associated Z boson in the production channel $`\mathrm{e}^+\mathrm{e}^{}`$$``$$`\mathrm{h}^0`$$`\mathrm{Z}^0`$. The ALEPH experiment does not discriminate between Z decay modes; rather, it performs a “global” analysis which focusses on identifying the di-photon state. DELPHI, L3, and OPAL seek to identify the hadronic ($`\mathrm{Z}^0`$$``$$`\mathrm{q}\overline{\mathrm{q}}`$), leptonic ($`\mathrm{Z}^0`$$``$$`\mathrm{}^+\mathrm{}^{}`$), and missing energy ($`\mathrm{Z}^0`$$``$$`\nu \overline{\nu }`$) classes.

The LEP data from energies just below the Z resonance to the highest LEP-2 energy of 209 GeV can be used for this search. The energies and Z decay modes used by the 4 LEP experiments are summarized in Table 1.

The candidates passing the selection cuts for all three decay topologies are shown in Table 1; their rate is consistent with the background calculated from SM physics generators. The selected events are used to set an upper limit on the di-photon branching ratio of a Higgs particle having SM production rate. Figure 2 showns the di-photon mass for all candidate events. The distribution appears to be well modelled by the SM background processes.

Figures 3 and 4 show the 95% CL upper limit for the di-photon branching ratio obtained by combining the candidate events, where the SM $`\mathrm{h}^0\mathrm{Z}^{0()}`$ production cross-section is assumed at each centre-of-mass energy. Also shown in the Figures (and in Figure 1) is the $`\mathrm{h}^0`$$``$$`\gamma \gamma `$ branching ratio in the Standard Model computed using HDECAY  with the fermionic couplings switched off. Note that the limits only include the ALEPH data for $`\sqrt{s}`$ 192 GeV, and the L3 inputs to the LHWG only cover the mass range 50-120 GeV. A 95% CL lower mass limit for such benchmark fermiophobic Higgs bosons is set at 108.2 GeV, where the predicted branching ratio crosses the upper-limit curve. The median limit one would expect to obtain in an ensemble of experiments in the absence of a signal is 109.0 GeV; if HZHA is used instead of HDECAY to calculate the Higgs boson branching fractions, the lower mass limits are raised by 0.6 GeV.