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# Theory of the angular magnetoresistance in CPP spin valves

## Abstract

The resistance of CPP spin valve is a continuous function of the angle $`\theta `$ between the magnetizations of both ferromagnets. We use the cicuit theory for non-collinear magnetoelectronics to compute the angular magnetoresistance of CPP spin valves taking the spin accumulation in the ferromagnetic layers into account.

The magnetoresistance of multilayers in the so-called current perpendicular to the plane (CPP) configuration first studied by the Michigan State University and Philips groups , is still an active field of research. Most studies have been focused on collinear, parallel and antiparallel, magnetic configurations. There are several papers that have investigated also non-collinear transport . The circuit theory of mesoscopic transport  has been applied to describe transport in non-collinear magnetic structures . Interesting phenomena like spin precession effects on the induced spin accumulation have been found by solving the diffusion equation for CPP spin valves . An important concept in the theory of non-collinear spin transport is the so-called mixing conductance $`G^{}`$  which is closely related to the current-induced spin-torque . In this paper we extend our previous theoretical work on the total conductance of CPP ferromagnet-normal metal-ferromagnet (F$`|`$N$`|`$F) spin valves, taking into account the spin-accumulation in the ferromagnets .

In our model two ferromagnetic layers (F) are connected to a normal layer through metallic contact regions or interfaces (C). The system may split up into reservoirs, resistors and nodes (Fig.1) . Two fictitious nodes connect each F-layer with a contact region C, where F is represented by the spin-up and spin-down conductances and C is described by four spin-dependent conductances. We assume that no spin-flip processes occur neither at the interfaces nor in the bulk layers. The resistance in the normal metal node is also disregarded. Associated with each node is a 2$`\times `$2 distribution matrix in spin space which represents charge and spin-accumulation. The spin accumulation in the ferromagnetic (F-C) node is taken to be parallel to the magnetization $`\stackrel{}{𝐦}_{1/2}`$ of the ferromagnet. The spin and charge currents are then completely determined by the relative orientation of the magnetization directions in the ferromagnets ($`\stackrel{}{𝐦}_1\stackrel{}{𝐦}_2=\mathrm{cos}\theta `$), the spin-conductances associated with the ferromagnetic layers ($`G_F^{}`$, $`G_F^{}`$) and the contact conductances ($`G_c^{}`$, $`G_c^{}`$, $`G^{}`$). According to first-principles calculations $`ReG^{}ImG^{}`$ so in the following we disregard the imaginary part. For the symmetric case, in which the conductances are equal for both interfaces and also for both F-layers, the total conductance reads

$$G^T(\theta )=\frac{1}{2}\left\{\frac{\left[G_FG_c^{}G_c^{}+G_cG_F^{}G_F^{}\right]2ReG^{}\left(1+\mathrm{cos}\theta \right)+\left[4G_c^{}G_c^{}G_F^{}G_F^{}\right]\left(1\mathrm{cos}\theta \right)}{\left[G_c^{}G_c^{}+G_F^{}G_F^{}+G_F^{}G_c^{}+G_F^{}G_c^{}\right]2ReG^{}\left(1+\mathrm{cos}\theta \right)+\left[G_FG_c^{}G_c^{}+G_cG_F^{}G_F^{}\right]\left(1\mathrm{cos}\theta \right)}\right\}$$
(1)
Eq. (1) reduces to well-known collinear expressions for $`\theta =0`$ and $`\theta =\pi `$. When $`G_F\mathrm{}`$, Eq.(24) in Ref.  $`G^T(\theta )`$ is recovered. In the absence of a spin-dependent interface resistance, i.e. $`P_c=0`$ $`\left(G_c^{}=G_c^{}\right)`$, $`G^T(0)G^T(\pi )`$ is governed exclusively by the spin accumulation of the bulk F-layers.

Using Eq. (1), we obtain the following expression for the normalized angular-MR (NAMR)

$$NAMR(\theta )=\left(\frac{G^T(\theta )G^T(\theta =0)}{G^T(\theta =\pi )G^T(\theta =0)}\right)\left(\frac{G^T(\theta =\pi )}{G^T(\theta )}\right)=\frac{1\mathrm{cos}^2\theta /2}{\chi \mathrm{cos}^2\theta /2+1}$$
(3)
with

$$\chi =Re\eta \left[\frac{1}{1p_c^2}+\frac{\left(G_c/G_F\right)}{1p_F^2}\right]1.$$
(4)
From Eq. (3), we see that the NAMR depends on the angle $`\theta `$ between the magnetization of both ferromagnets and on the parameter $`\chi `$, which depends on the contact and F-layer conductance parameters. Similar expression for the NMAR have been obtained using the Kubo formalism . They use a different model that forbids the direct comparison of the results. In their case, no resistance was associated with the interfaces between layers. Rather, the effect arises from the finite resistance of the normal layer and spin-dependent resistance of the ferromagnets.

The parameters of the 2-channel series resistor model for collinear configurations have been accurately determined from CPP magnetoresistance experiments. For future comparison of our expression with NAMR experimental data, the quantities $`p_c,`$ $`p_F`$ and $`G_c/G_F`$ can be expressed in terms of these parameters $`\beta ,`$ $`\gamma ,`$ $`\rho _F,`$ $`AR^{}`$ as

$$p_c=P_c/G_c=\gamma ;p_F=P_F/G_F=\beta $$
(6)
$$G_c/G_F=\frac{\rho _F}{AR^{}}\frac{t_{[F]}}{1\gamma ^2}$$
(7)
such that

$$\chi =Re\eta \left[\frac{1}{1\gamma ^2}+\frac{\rho _F}{AR^{}}\frac{t_{[F]}}{\left(1\beta ^2\right)\left(1\gamma ^2\right)}\right]1,$$
(8)
which shows the explicit dependence of the NAMR on the thickness of the F-layer $`t[F]`$. From Eq. (8) we obtain the following expression for $`Re\eta `$

$$Re\eta =\left(1+\chi \right)\left(1\gamma ^2\right)\left[1+\frac{\rho _F}{AR^{}}\frac{t_{[F]}}{1\beta ^2}\right]^1.$$
(9)
So fitting NAMR data using Eq. (3) and Eq. (8), would provide a way to obtain experimentally the mixing conductance $`G^{}`$. The dependence on $`t_{[F]}`$ reflects the spin-accumulation in the bulk ferromagnet. In the presence of spin-flip scattering, $`t_{[F]}`$ should be taken as the minimum of the geometrical layer thickness and the spin-flip diffusion length. This extra parameter can be eliminated in favor of measurable quantities by expressing $`A\mathrm{\Delta }R^T=R^T(\theta =\pi )R^T(\theta =0)`$ in terms of $`\beta ,`$ $`\gamma ,`$ $`\rho _F,`$ $`AR^{}`$:

$$A\mathrm{\Delta }R^T=\frac{1}{G^T(\theta =\pi )}\frac{1}{G^T(\theta =0)}=2\text{ }AR^{}\text{ }\gamma ^2\frac{\left[1+\frac{\rho _F}{AR^{}}\frac{t_{[F]}}{1\beta ^2}\left(\frac{\beta }{\gamma }\right)\right]^2}{\left[1+\frac{\rho _F}{AR^{}}\frac{t_{[F]}}{1\beta ^2}\right]}$$
(10)
If we assume that $`\left(\beta /\gamma \right)=1`$ (For Py/Cu/Py: $`\beta _{\text{Py}}=0.76,`$ $`\gamma _{\text{Py/Cu}}=0.7,`$ $`\left(\beta /\gamma \right)=1.08`$ and for CoFe/Cu/CoFe $`\beta _{\text{CoFe}}=0.65,`$ $`\gamma _{\text{CoFe/Cu}}=0.75,`$ $`\left(\beta /\gamma \right)=0.86`$) we can write

$$\left[1+\frac{\rho _F}{AR^{}}\frac{t_{[F]}}{1\beta ^2}\right]^1=\frac{2\text{ }AR^{}\text{ }\gamma ^2}{\text{ }A\mathrm{\Delta }R^T}$$
(12)
and

$$Re\eta =\left(1+\chi \right)\left(1\gamma ^2\right)\frac{2\text{ }AR^{}\text{ }\gamma ^2}{\text{ }\mathrm{\Delta }R^T}$$
(13)
which gives an expression to determine Re$`G^{}`$ without reference to the thickness parameter $`t_{[F]}`$.

In conclusion, the normalized angular magnetoresistance (NAMR) for CPP spin valves depends on the spin accumulation in the F-layers. This effect should be included in order to obtain reliable values of the mixing conductance by fitting experimental NAMR data .

We thank W. P. Pratt for useful discussions. This work is part of the research program for the “Stichting voor Fundamenteel Onderzoek der Materie” (FOM).

Figure Caption

Fig. 1: Circuit model of a CPP spin valve, in term of reservoirs, resistors and nodes. Ferromagnetic layers (F) and metallic contact regions (C) are represented by resistors, characterized by spin conductance parameters. Two nodes connect each F-layer with a contact region C. The third node represents the normal layer. Associated with each node is a 2$`\times `$2 distribution matrix in spin space. The direction of the spin accumulation in each magnetic node (F-C node) is denoted by a unit vector $`\stackrel{}{𝐦}`$. The external reservoirs (R) are supposed to be in local equilibrium.


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# Hidden Topological Order in ²³𝑁𝑎 (𝐹=1) Bose-Einstein Condensates

## Abstract

We show the existence of a new hidden topological order in $`{}_{}{}^{23}Na`$ (F=1) Bose-Einstein condensates (BEC) with antiferromagnetic interactions. Occurrence of this order is due to the confinement of hedgehogs in spin ordered BEC where a spin Josephson effect takes place. However, a topological long range order is also argued to coexist with a short range spin correlation, as a result of topological order from disorder.

$`{}_{}{}^{23}Na`$($`F=1`$) BEC with antiferromagnetic interactions turn out to have many extremely fascinating properties. One of them is the topology of the order parameter space. It was pointed out in previous works that $`{}_{}{}^{23}Na`$ BEC in optical traps are in Quantum Spin Nematic States, with the order parameter space being $`[S^1\times S^2]/Z_2`$. In this article we will report a new hidden long range order of pure topological nature and explore the possibility of having spin correlated states based on a topological consideration. To study spin correlated BEC of spin-$`1`$ interacting atoms, it is important to properly choose a set of collective coordinates. These variables are to completely characterize the nonlinear spin dynamics in the whole parameter space and to yield a simplest representation for two-body spin dependent scatterings. For this reason we employ a vector $`𝐧`$ living on a unit sphere for the description of the nonlinear spin dynamics in the presence of antiferromagnetic interactions. The low energy spin dynamics in the system can be mapped into an $`o(3)`$ nonlinear sigma model(NL$`\sigma `$M),

$`={\displaystyle \frac{1}{2f}}(_\mu 𝐧)^2,𝐧^2=1,`$ (1)
$`f=(16\pi )^{1/2}\left(\rho \mathrm{\Delta }a^3\right)^{1/6},\mathrm{\Delta }a={\displaystyle \frac{a_2a_0}{3}}`$ (2)
$`a_{0,2}`$ are the scattering lengths in $`F=0,2`$ channels and $`\rho `$ is the density. We also have introduced dimensionless length and time: $`𝐫𝐫/\rho ^{1/3}`$, $`it\tau /v_s\rho ^{1/3}`$, and $`v_s=\sqrt{16\pi \mathrm{}^2\mathrm{\Delta }a\rho /M^2}`$. Derivatives $`_\mu `$ are defined as $`(_\tau ,_x,_y,_z)`$. A reduction from $`[S^1\times S^2]/Z_2`$ to $`S^2`$ is possible when $`Z_2`$ fields discussed in  are effectively frozen, or $`Z_2`$ strings are gapped. Moreover, the local coupling between the $`U(1)`$ phase and spin order involves higher derivative terms and becomes important only at a rather high frequency $`\mathrm{}\rho ^{2/3}/2M`$.

Following Eq.1, the energy of the system consists of two parts: a) the potential energy $`\mathrm{}^2\rho (𝐧)^2/2M`$, which is the energy cost in the presence of a slow variation of $`𝐧`$, b) and the zero point kinetic(rotation) energy $`I_0(_t𝐧)^2/2`$, where $`I_0=(\mathrm{}^2\mathrm{\Delta }a\rho /M)^1`$ can be considered as the effective inertial of an individual atom. This inertial originates from two-body scatterings and is inversely proportional to scattering lengths. Zero point rotations tend to disrupt the order of $`𝐧`$ between different atoms. $`f`$ is a measure of the amplitude of quantum fluctuations in $`{}_{}{}^{23}Na`$ BEC.

In weakly interacting limit $`f`$ is much less than unity, the symmetry is broken in the ground state and the BEC have a spin order, with $`𝐧(𝐫,t)=𝐧_0`$. Just as the Josephson effect occurs in a superfluid where a phase long range order is established, a spin Josephson effect occurs in spin ordered BEC. A spinor condensate in a weak external magnetic field $`B𝐞_z`$ exhibits the following time dependence:

$$\mathrm{\Psi }(t)=\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}[\mathrm{exp}(i\mu _+t)|1,1>+\mathrm{exp}(i\mu _{}t)|1,1>],$$
(3)
and $`\mu _\pm =\mu _1\pm \omega _B`$, $`\omega _B=g\mu _BB`$ ($`g`$ is the Lande factor of atoms). Notice that in the presence of a spin stiffness, a well defined relative phase between two components of the condensates is developed. To observe the spin coherence, one introduces a reference condensate which is at a chemical potential $`\mu _2`$ but experiences no magnetic fields. The temporal dependence of the interference between these two condensates would be

$$\delta \rho (t)\mathrm{cos}\left((\mu _1\mu _2)t\right)\mathrm{cos}\left(\omega _Bt\right).$$
(4)
At $`\omega _B=0`$, Eq. 3 reflects to a usual AC Josephson effect and when $`\mu _1=\mu _2`$, one observes an AC spin Josephson effect due to a spin order in BEC, a sinusoidal-time dependence with frequency determined by $`\omega _B`$ instead of difference in chemical potentials. The alternative way to observe the spin coherence without introducing a reference condensate is to transform $`|1,1>`$ component into $`|1,1>`$ after the magnetic field is switched on for time $`t`$. This results in an interference between the induced $`|1,1>`$ component and the original $`|1,1>`$ component. The condensate density in the overlapped region exhibits a sinusoidal dependence on the waiting time $`t`$ with a frequency $`2\omega _B`$.

Quantum fluctuations of the nematic order can be estimated in a lowest order approximation. Introducing $`\delta 𝐧=𝐧𝐧_0`$ and assuming the fluctuations are weak, we obtain, $`<\left(\delta 𝐧^2\right)>f`$. As $`f`$ increases, spin wave excitations start to interact strongly and Eq.2 becomes invalid. The renormalization group (RG) equation of $`f`$ is determined by the interactions between collective modes. In $`3+1`$ dimension, the RG equation takes a form $`df/dl=\beta (f)`$, with the $`\beta `$-function given as $`\beta (f)=2f(f_cf)`$. Within the frame work of NL$`\sigma `$M, $`f_c=8\pi ^2`$ in $`d=3`$. $`f`$ characterizes spin correlations in the ground state of $`{}_{}{}^{23}Na`$ BEC.

At a high density limit $`f>f_c`$, zero point kinetic energy dominates and the spin stiffness is renormalized to zero at a long wave length limit. Especially, in an extremely quantum disordered phase, the potential energy at interatomic scale $`E_T=\mathrm{}^2\rho ^{2/3}/2M`$ is negligible compared with zero point rotation energy $`E_o=\mathrm{}^2/2I_0`$ of an individual atom. $`𝐧`$ of each atom fluctuates independently and spins of atoms only correlate at an interatomic distance. The excitation spectrum has a gap of order $`E_o`$. As the two-body scattering gets weaker, the inertial of each individual atom $`I_0`$ is higher and the motion of $`𝐧`$ on the unit sphere becomes slower. Thus, $`𝐧`$ of different atoms starts to correlate at a finite length $`\xi `$, which is a function of the parameter $`f`$, much longer than the interatomic distance. Under the current situation, $`\xi =\rho ^{1/3}f_c/[ff_c]`$. And the state is rotation invariant. The temporal correlation is characterized by $`\tau _\xi `$, the time needed for a spin wave to propagate over a distance $`\xi `$ with a velocity $`v_s`$. At a low density limit $`f<f_c`$, the potential energy dominates and the spin stiffness flows to a finite value under the renormalization group transformation. All spin-1 Bosons rotate as a rigid body with an effective inertial $`I(N)=NI_0`$. The energy gap in the excitation spectrum vanishes $`E_{gap}\mathrm{}^2/2NI_0`$ as the number of Bosons $`N`$ approaches infinity, signifying the existence of gapless Goldstone mode.

For $`{}_{}{}^{23}Na`$ BEC confined in highly anisotropic traps, zero point motions of collective variables are more prominent. Let us approximate highly anisotropic traps as $`1D`$ systems. The $`\beta `$-function RG equation in this case can be shown as $`\beta (f)=1/2\pi f^2`$, which always flows into a strong coupling point, i.e. a rotation invariant state. And the correlation length is given as $`\xi =\rho ^1\mathrm{exp}(4\pi /f)`$ ($`\rho `$ is the linear density). However, the length of traps has to be longer than $`\xi `$ in order for this spin liquid to be observed in experiments.

To study the topological long range order, we introduce a connection field to characterize all configurations of $`𝐧`$. The field strength is a gauge invariant Pontryagin density $`𝐅_{\mu \nu }=ϵ^{\mu \nu }ϵ^{\alpha \beta \gamma }𝐧_\alpha _\mu 𝐧_\beta `$$`_\nu 𝐧_\gamma `$. In $`(3+1)D`$, $`𝐅_{0i}`$, $`i=x,y,x`$ corresponds to an electric field and $`ϵ^{ijk}𝐅_{ij}=𝐇_k`$ represents three components of magnetic field; in $`2d`$, $`𝐅_{0i}`$, $`i=x,y`$ is an electric field with two components and the magnetic field has only $`z`$ component $`𝐇_z=𝐅_{xy}`$. Particularly, we will be interested in the fluctuations of a topological charge defined as

$$C_m=\frac{1}{4\pi }_s𝑑S𝐇𝐞_n,$$
(5)
where the integral is carried over the boundary of volume $`𝒱`$ and $`𝐞_n`$ is a unit vector normal to the boundary. We are going to show that at large $`𝒱,t`$ limit,

$$\underset{t,𝒱\mathrm{}}{lim}<\left(C_m(t)C_m(0)\right)^2>=0$$
(6)
in both spin ordered and spin weakly disordered BEC, as results of a topological long range order. However, in strongly disordered limit,

$$\underset{t,𝒱\mathrm{}}{lim}<\left(C_m(t)C_m(0)\right)^2>=\frac{t𝒱}{\tau _m}$$
(7)
where $`\tau _m`$ is finite depending on tunneling rate of magnetic monopoles(see below). Averages in Eqs.5,6 are taken over the many-spin wavefunction $`\mathrm{\Psi }(\{𝐧\})`$. In 2D, we define $`C_m=(4\pi )^1𝑑x𝑑y𝐇_z`$, the total number of Skyrmions living on the 2D sheet and Eqs.5,6 hold in spin ordered and spin disordered BEC respectively ($`𝒱`$ is replaced by an area $`𝒮`$). The topological long range order occurs when hedgehogs are confined, either due to the condensation of atoms or due to an order from disorder mechanism.

Let us start with 2D. First, we notice that in space $`𝐱=(\tau ,𝐫)`$, $`𝐇_\eta =ϵ^{\eta \mu \nu }𝐅_{\mu \nu }`$ is the solution of the Gauss equation

$$_\eta 𝐇_\eta (𝐱)=\underset{m}{}Q_m\delta (𝐱𝐱^m)$$
(8)
in the presence of space-time monopoles $`\{𝐱^m\}`$ in $`(2+1)d`$ Euclidean space.

The space-time monopoles represent instantons, which essentially connect a trivial vacuum to a Skyrmion configuration, as seen in Fig.1. In Euclidean space, a space-time monopole located at $`x=(\tau _0,𝐫_0)`$ terminates a Skyrmion centered at $`𝐫_0`$ at time $`\tau _0`$. Each monopole causes a change in topological charge $`C_m`$ by one unit; the topological density $`C_m=1`$ is conserved in the absence of space-time monopoles in $`(2+1)`$D. Indeed, following Eqs.4,7,

$$\frac{C_m(\tau )}{\tau }=Q_m\delta (\tau \tau _m),$$
(9)
where the surface contribution has been neglected since we will be interested in $`C_m`$ per unit volume.

The probability of finding deconfined space-time monopoles depends on the energy of Skyrmions with $`C_m=1`$ with respect to $`C_m=0`$ configuration. In polar coordinates $`(r,\varphi )`$, a static Skyrmion is a configuration with $`𝐧(\rho ,\varphi )=(\mathrm{sin}\theta (r)\mathrm{cos}\varphi ,\mathrm{sin}\theta (r)\mathrm{sin}\varphi ,\mathrm{cos}(r))`$; $`\theta (r)`$ varies from $`0`$ at $`r=0`$ to $`\pi `$ at $`r\xi `$, with $`\xi `$ an arbitrary parameter. For spin ordered BEC where spin Josephson effects should be observed, the energy of the Skyrmion is proportional to $`8\pi \mathrm{}^2\rho /2M`$ and is scale invariant. For a Skyrmion of given $`\xi `$, the connection field is concentrated in a region of the size $`\xi `$, $`𝐇_z=r^1\mathrm{sin}\theta (r)\theta (r)/r`$, and gets screened at a length scale larger than $`\xi `$. In spin ordered BEC, a Skyrmion is nondegenerate with respect to a trivial vacuum. As we will see, this leads to the confinement of space-time monopoles.

To illustrate the point of confinement, we consider $`C_m`$ as a function of time at some discrete unit and find the following binary representation for monopoles.

Each bit shown in Fig.2 labeled as $`0`$, or $`1`$ represents the topological charge read out at certain moment; a $`1`$-bit corresponds to a Skyrmion while a $`0`$-bit is for a $`C_m=0`$ configuration. The a) string represents a trivial vacuum where $`C_m`$ remains zero at all time. In the second binary string b), a $`1`$-string stands for any scale invariant Skyrmion created at the time $`t_0`$ defined by the domain wall separating $`0`$-string and $`1`$-string. So a domain wall in our binary representation represents a monopole $`Q_m=1`$, terminating a Skyrmion configuration ($`C_m=1`$) at the interface and changing $`C_m`$ by one unit. A domain wall-anti domain wall pair in the c) line corresponds to a monopole-antimonopole pair with $`Q_m=\pm 1`$; a $`1`$-string here, or a Skyrmion, is terminated at a monopole at one end $`t_1`$ and at an antimonopole at the other end $`t_2`$.

Since the energy of a Skyrmion in spin ordered BEC is higher than that of a trivial configuration, the energy of a $`1`$-bit is positive with respect to a $`0`$-bit. The energy of a domain wall in Eq.1 which is the number of $`1`$-bits in the structure, defines the action of the monopole and is proportional to the length of the $`1`$-string. The action of an isolated space-time monopole, or creation of a Skyrmion therefore is proportional to $`L_t\mathrm{}^2\rho /2M`$, being infinity. ($`L_t`$ is the perimeter along a temporal direction.) The action of having monopole-anti-monopole pairs is proportional to $`(t_1t_2)`$, the time interval between creation and annihilation of Skyrmions, thus monopoles are confined. For this reason, Eq.8 vanishes and a topological long range order prevails.

The conclusion arrived so far can be extended to 3D straightforwardly. The change of the topological density is due to the quantum nucleation of monopoles instead of Skyrmions. In the binary representation in Fig.2, a $`1`$-bit stands for a static monopole and a $`0`$-bit for a trivial configuration. A domain-wall represents a termination of a static monopole at certain time. Since the energy of a monopole is proportional to the system size $`L`$ in spin ordered BEC, the monopole is nondegenerate with respect to the trivial vacuum. Following the same argument carried out in 2D, the action to have a monopole nucleated is proportional to $`LL_t\mathrm{}^2\rho /2M`$, and is infinity. This result has a profound impact on the monopole confinement. The interaction between a monopole and an antimonopole has to be linear in terms of distance between them. The action of a monopole pair nucleated at $`t_1`$ and annihilated at $`t_2`$ with largest spatial separation $`|r_1r_2|`$ is proportional to $`|r_1r_2|(t_1t_2)`$ and monopoles are confined because of spin stiffness. Therefore the right hand side of Eq.8 has to be zero because of the confinement, and topological charge $`C_m`$ is a conserved quantity. We once again arrive at Eq.5 in a spin ordered BEC and topological charge is conserved.

The situation in disordered limit is more delicate and depends on dimensionalities. In spin disordered BEC, the spin stiffness is renormalized to zero and spin fluctuations are gapped. In the absence of spin stiffness, the energy of a Skyrmion is determined by its interaction with spin fluctuations. Upon integration of spin wave excitations, based on a general consideration of the gauge invariance and the parity invariance, we conclude Eq.1 should be reduced to $`_s(𝐅_{\mu \nu })=𝐅_{\mu \nu }𝐅_{\mu \nu }/2g+\mathrm{}`$; $`g^1(\mathrm{\Delta }_s)`$ is a function of the spin gap $`\mathrm{\Delta }_s`$ measured in units of $`\left(E_TE_o\right)^{1/2}=\mathrm{}^2\left(\mathrm{\Delta }a\rho ^{5/3}\right)^{1/2}/2M`$. In a leading approximation, $`g^1(x)`$ is a logarithmic function of $`x`$, i.e. $`\mathrm{ln}x^1`$ in $`3D`$ and is a linear function of $`x`$ in 2D. We will analysis the topological order based on $`_s`$. The energy of $`C_m`$-configuration is $`\alpha (L)C_m^2`$ if quantum tunneling is neglected, with $`\alpha (L)`$ a function of the system size.

In 2D, with induced interactions, Skyrmion energy is no longer scale invariant and is minimized at $`\xi =\mathrm{}`$. The connection field of a Skyrmion spreads over the whole 2D sheet. The energy of a Skyrmion scales as $`L^2`$ and vanishes as the system size $`L`$ goes to infinity. This implies that skyrmion configurations become degenerate with a trivial vacuum and monopoles are deconfined. This mechanism of deconfinement resembles the liberation of fractionalized quasiparticles in one dimension polymers. In one dimensional polyacetylene, the ground state has twofold degeneracy because of the Peierls instability and domain wall solitons become free excitations.

When instantons are liberated, the energy of a configuration $`C_m`$ is ill-defined. A more serious consideration beyond the mean field approach outlined above involves the evaluation of monopole-like instantons action. In $`(2+1)d`$ the partition function of a monopole configuration $`\{𝐱^m\}`$, is $`_nP^n/n!\mathrm{exp}\left(S_{in}\right)`$. And $`P=L^2L_t\mathrm{exp}(\pi /g)`$ is the quantum tunneling amplitude; $`S_{in}=g^1_{m^{}m}\pi Q_mQ_m^{}/|𝐱^m^{}𝐱^m|`$ represents the Coulomb interaction between space-time monopoles. The above result suggests that Skyrmions always condense in the spin disordered BEC and topological charge $`C_m`$ is not a conserved quantity. It is important to realize that in the absence of $`Z_2`$ strings, $`\pm 1`$ Skyrmions can be physically and homotopically distinguished because of the coherence of quantum spin nematic BEC, unlike the situation in a classical nematic liquid crystal. By moving a Skyrmion around a $`\pi `$-disclination, the condensate acquires a $`\pi `$-phase with respect to the original one, which can manifest itself in a Josephson type of effect. One can also distinguish $`\pm 1`$ Skyrmions by looking at the local connection field. In a positive Skyrmion configuration, a spin-$`\frac{1}{2}`$ collective excitation, which carries half charge with respect of connection fields, experiences a connection field of an opposite sign compared to that of a negative Skyrmion.

So we are able to show that the change of $`C_m`$ has a short range temporal correlation because of instanton effects,

$$<\frac{C_m(\tau )}{\tau }\frac{C_m(0)}{\tau }>=\mathrm{exp}(\frac{t𝒮}{\tau _m}).$$
(10)
And $`\tau _m`$ is proportional to $`\xi ^2\tau _\xi \mathrm{exp}(\pi /g)`$. Immediately, one recognizes that Eq.9 simply indicates a random walk of $`C_m`$ as a function of time in spin disordered 2D BEC. Therefore , we conclude Eq.6 holds.

But in $`3D`$ weakly disordered BEC where stiffness has vanished, a static monopole still carries a finite energy because of spin fluctuations induced interactions. In $`3D`$, as illustrated in $`_s(𝐅_{\mu \nu })`$, spin fluctuations discriminate topologically different configurations. Particularly, the fluctuations are strongest in $`C_m=0`$ configuration so that the energy is lowest in the topological trivial configuration. The situation differs from 2D spin disordered limit where the energy of topological nontrivial configuration with $`C_m=1`$ is the same as that of $`C_m=0`$ one. For a monopole, each spherical shell of radius $`R`$ can be viewed to be a Skyrmion squeezed into a $`2D`$ sheet of size $`R`$. The smaller shells, or textures of a finite size, dominate the energy of a monopole. Spin fluctuations interacting with the singularity lift a degeneracy between the monopole configuration and a trivial vacuum in the absence of spin stiffness. It also appears to us that this is independent of the form of $`_s(𝐅_{\mu \nu })`$ we introduced. The energy of a monopole here is inversely proportional to $`g`$, i.e. $`\left(E_oE_T\right)^{1/2}\mathrm{ln}\mathrm{\Delta }_s^1`$. The action of having a monopole, which leads to a change in $`C_m`$ by one unit, is proportional to $`L_t`$ and is infinite for this reason.

So the monopoles remain confined even after spin correlation becomes short ranged, with the action to have a pair of monopoles being proportional to $`(t_1t_2)`$. Only pair production which conserves $`C_m`$ is allowed. The topological long range order thus coexists with a short range spin correlation in $`3D`$. This can be considered as a case of order from disorder phenomena. And, the confinement of monopoles in this case is driven purely by the spin fluctuations, instead of spin stiffness in spin ordered BEC. However, by increasing the spin disorder further, the degeneracy between $`C_m=1`$ and $`C_m=0`$ could be established, which signifies deconfinement of monopoles and breakdown of the long range topological order.

It is also possible to demonstrate the topological order/disorder in terms of space-time correlations of connection fields or Wilson loop integrals. The topological order is vital for the quantum number fractionalization of excitations. In 3D spin disordered BEC, where a topological long range order is established, spin-$`\frac{1}{2}`$ excitations are elementary ones. On the other hand, when hedgehogs are liberated or condense, only spin-1 excitations exist in the spectrum. Finally, quantum hidden orders in spin liquids of strongly correlated electrons are recently reviewed by Wen. Topological orders in spin triplet superconducting liquids are also investigated by Demler et al.. I would like to thank ASPEN center of Physics and Amsterdam summer workshop on ”Flux, charge, topology and statistics” for their hospitalities. Discussions with A. Abanov, Duncan Haldane, N. Read, T. Senthil, O. Starykh and Paul Wiegmann are greatly acknowledged.


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# Barkhausen-like conductance noise in polycrystalline high Tc superconductors immersed in a slowly varying magnetic field.

## Abstract

Analysis of the resistive transition of a polycristalline YBCO specimen produced by an a.c. magnetic field, reveals the presence of a large conductance noise signal which is repetitive over subsequent magnetization cycles. It is shown that the noise arises from avalanche effects produced by the simultaneous resistive transition of large groups of weak links. Owing to its repeatability, the noise signal may be considered a sort of signature of the weak links critical current distribution, making it an interesting new tool for the study of high Tc ceramic superconductors, as reported measurements of noise hysteresis show.

PACS: 72.70.+m, 74.40.+k

The resistive transition of polycrystalline high Tc superconductors is, in general, dominated by the intergrain layers, which behave as shunted Josephson junctions (weak links). The weak link ensemble, on the other side, is characterized by a distribution of critical currents which depends on the local value of the magnetic field. When the specimen is crossed by a d.c. current and immersed in a slowly increasing magnetic field, there are gradual transitions to the resistive state of the weak links and, above a given threshold, the whole specimen becomes increasingly resistive. As shown by the reported experiments, this process is not smooth, but is characterized by a large noise. It is very interesting to notice that the noise signal represents a sort of signature of the local distribution  of the weak-link critical currents, since it is repetitive over different magnetic field cycles, until a magnetic perturbation, strong enough to change such a distribution by effect of flux trapping within the superconducting grains, is applied.
Another important aspect of this noise, which has a completely different origin of the noise observed in stationary conditions $`[26]`$, concerns the fact that it is produced by strong correlations during the transition of the weak-links, giving rise to avalanche effects, similar to those observed in the Barkhausen noise of ferromagnets. As computer simulations show, these avalanches correspond to abrupt rearrangements of the internal current distribution, and thus of the distribution of superconducting and resistive weak-links, due to the need of satisfying Kirchoff equations in a network of highly non linear circuit elements. The step-like variation of the specimen conductance in correspondence to each weak-link transition avalanche gives rise, as reported in the following, to a $`1/f^2`$ power spectrum, as opposed to the $`1/f`$ spectrum observed in the stationary case . Also the amplitude of the noise, which is orders of magnitude larger than expected in the case of uncorrelated transition of the individual weak links, confirms the presence of these avalanche effects.
Another important aspect, also confirmed by computer simulations, concerns the fact that the position along the time axis and the amplitude of these steps, when the magnetic field is varied, is strongly dependent on the local distribution of the weak-link critical currents. Thus the detection and storing of the noise signal within a given field interval along the loop allows to observe very small variations of such a distribution, produced by external perturbations. For instance, as shown in the following, small hysteretic effects, invisible on the conductance vs. field plot, may be evidenced by comparing the noise signals detected in the same field interval along a loop when the field is increasing or decreasing. It should be noticed that the repeatability of the noise signal during cycling is a very rare property of a physical system, and reflects an intrinsic non-fluctuating aspect of the nature of the system itself. In the case of the Barkhausen noise, for instance, the noise signal is in general not repetitive over different cycles, since it is determined during each cycle by the domain configuration obtained in the preceding one .
Experiments were performed on a YBCO specimen suitably treated to lower the weak-links critical currents. This treatment made the specimen very sensitive to low magnetic fields and allowed to use small, noise free a.c. magnetic fields to perform the experiments. The use of small fields was also needed to avoid flux penetration within grains, such that only the weak-links were involved in the resistive transition of the specimen. Noise was detected by using a 4 contact technique on a small cylindrical specimen 1mm in diameter and 10mm in length. An extra low noise input transformer was used to match the input impedance of the preamplifier and to cut the d.c. component of the noise signal. It acted as a band-pass filter in the range between 5Hz and 10kHz. A standard electronic set-up was used to digitally storing the signal in a selected field interval during cycling.
Fig.1 shows three samples of the noise signal detected within the same field interval when looping and the background noise when the field is kept constant. The repeatability of the noise signal before the application of the magnetic perturbation is quite evident. Small changes are mainly due to the superimposed background noise.
In Fig.2 the power spectra of the noise obtained during field variation and in a steady state condition are reported. The near $`1/f^2`$ behaviour of the spectrum in the first case is consistent with the assumption that the noise is constituted by the superposition of random step-like variation of the specimen conductance. The cut-off frequencies of the input transformer had the effect of limiting the frequency range over which the noise spectrum could be detected. They had also the effect of transforming the voltage steps into exponential pulses, a fact that explains why the noise signals looks like those reported in Fig.1.
These results suggest that the presence of abrupt discontinuous conductance changes in a network of non linear resistors, having current-voltage characteristics similar to the ones of Josephson junctions, be a general property of this type of networks. This fact is confirmed by computer simulations, as reported in the following. Below the critical temperature of the grains, the polycrystalline superconductive sample is modelled as a rectangular three-dimensional array of intergranular weak links, fed with constant d.c. current flowing between two plane electrodes applied on the opposite faces. Any individual weak link is viewed as a nonlinear circuit element which is in a superconducting state for local currents below a certain critical value ic and in a normal resistive state for currents above this value (see Fig.3). Its critical current value depends in turn on the temperature and on the local intergranular magnetic field Bi. We used standard relations $`[912]`$ to determine the dependance of the weak-link critical current ic on the local field value Bi, which, owing to the screening effect of the superconducting grains, is always tangent to the weak-link surface and depends on the angle $`\theta `$ between the applied field B and the normal n to the weak-link surface. In the calculations, whose details will be given in another paper, the relation between the local intergranular field Bi and the applied field B was assumed to be of the form

$$B_i=KB|\mathrm{sin}\theta |$$
(1)
where K is a flux compression factor due to the flux exclusion within the superconducting grains. The large spread of the values of $`\theta `$ gives rise to a large distribution of critical currents ic, whose average value depends on the modulus of the applied field B. In the calculations the values of the local angle $`\theta `$ were set by cosidering an uniform solid angle distribution for the junction orientations.
Kirchoff’s equations for potentials and currents, together with the weak-link current-voltage characteristic, provided a set of coupled nonlinear equations for the electric potentials at the nodes of the network, which were solved by an iterative method. At each iterative step, from the previous set of node potentials, the junction conductances were actualized according to the nonlinear current-voltage characteristic described above. Considering then these conductances as constant, the linear equation system given by Kirchoff’s law is solved, so that a new set of node potential is found. The calculation technique, a modified algorithm based on the method of the conductance matrix, is described in ref. . The iterative cycle ends when the difference between two consecutive sets of node potentials becomes sufficiently small with respect to their actual values. We used in our simulations a relative tolerance of the order of 10-7. Results corresponding to two different actualization of the same distribution of junction critical currents in a cubic network of about 1000 junctions are reported in Fig.3. Several checks were made to ensure that the steps were not an artifact of the numerical calculations by increasing the point density and by reducing the relative tolerance for exiting the iteration loop. For what concerns this tolerance, it was observed that the position of the steps depends on this quantity when its value is not low enough, but that their position and amplitude becomes stable when it is assumed to be sufficiently small ($`<`$10-6). It was also observed that the position of the steps along the field axis is very sensitive to small changes in the assumed distribution of the critical currents, a fact that is typical of the presence of instabilities in a complex system. The high sensitivity of the noise signal to even small variations of the local distribution of the weak link critical currents allows to use this quantity as a test for evidencing effects that would not be detectable by other means. We present here some experimental results that clearly show the presence of magnetic hysteresis in the YBCO specimen described above, even when it is submitted to an a.c. magnetic field whose amplitude is so small that hysteresis cannot be detected by conventional means.
In this experiment the specimen was submitted to an a.c. field of a few Gauss of amplitude and crossed by a d.c. current of a few mA. Fig.4 represents the behaviour of the electrical resistance of the specimen vs. magnetic field. It appears to be completely reversible and without evident hysteresis. Fig.5 shows the noise signal detected in a small field interval during cycling. It is evident that the noise signal, which is repetitive over subsequent cycles, is quite different along the increasing or decreasing branch of the loop, even if the field interval where the signal is detected is the same. This fact proves the presence of hysteresis, probably due to some magnetic flux trapping along the cycle. This effect could also be related to an intrinsic hysteresis of the v-i characteristic of each individual weak link, a possibility which, however, was not taken into account in the computer simulations. In this case it was tested that a complete reversibility is obtained. From the experimental point of view, it should however be possible to distinguish between flux trapping and hysteresis of the individual weak link characteristics by performing experiments similar to the reported ones, but progressively reducing the field amplitude to see if noise tends to become reversible. It may be noticed that measurements performed on what could be considered a single weak link, i.e. the grain boundary junction of a bicrystal of BSCCO  and a submicron grain boundary junction in YBCO thin films  show Josephson like characteristics but no hysteretic effects were reported by the authors. In any case it seems clear that the noise could be used to investigate this and other aspects of the resistive transition of granular superconducting materials. A more complete analysis of the effect on the noise signal of field amplitude, frequency, temperature and d.c. current will be the argument of an extended paper. Here we want to stress that the noise signal, being an highly structured quantity, allows to evidence even very small changes of the weak link critical current distribution. Its repeatability over different magnetization cycles allows to depurate it from the background noise through a simple averaging procedure, making it an interesting new tool to analyze the physical properties of polycrystalline HTCS. Measurements on different materials, either bulk or thin films, might reveal important aspects of the physics of these superconductors, related to their granular structure. At the moment no checks were made to see what happens in monocrystalline bulk or thin films HTCS.


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# 1 Linking microwave and optical frequencies: signal processing scheme.

Kerr-lens mode-locked lasers as transfer oscillators for optical frequency measurements

Harald R. Telle, Burghard Lipphardt and Jörn Stenger

Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt, Bundesallee 100, 38116 Braunschweig, Germany

We introduce a novel concept for optical frequency measurement and division which employs a Kerr-lens mode-locked laser as a transfer oscillator whose noise properties do not enter the measurement process. We experimentally demonstrate, that this method opens up the route to phase-link signals with arbitrary frequencies in the optical or microwave range while their frequency stability is preserved.

PACS numbers: 42.62.Eh, 06.20.Fn, 06.30.Ft

1. Introduction

Continuous-wave mode-locked lasers emit a periodic train of short pulses. The spectrum of this emission corresponds to a comb of distinct lines with well-defined spacing if the mode-coupling mechanism is sufficiently strong and fast. It has been shown that the non-resonant, electronic Kerr-lens mode-locking (KLM) process can satisfy this requirement , making such lasers highly suited for optical frequency measurements , , . The frequency of any line of the spectral comb emitted by such a KLM laser is given by an integer order number $`m`$, the pulse repetition frequency $`f_{rep}`$ and a so called carrier-envelope offset-frequency $`\nu _{ceo}`$, which accounts for the offset of the entire comb with respect to the frequency zero:

$$\nu _m=\nu _{ceo}+mf_{rep}.$$
(1)
When all three quantities are known, any unknown external optical frequency $`\nu _x`$ within the span of the comb can be absolutely measured by detection of its beat-note frequency $`\mathrm{\Delta }_x`$ with a suitable comb line.

Absolute frequency measurement means that $`f_{rep}`$ is measured and expressed in terms of SI-Hertz. This primary unit is realized by a Cs-clock controlled radio frequency (rf) source, which is a H-maser generating a standard frequency of 100 MHz in our case. Thus, no frequency measurement can be better in fractional frequency instability than that of the rf-reference. However, optical frequencies are measured in many cases with respect to an optical reference frequency by measurement of their frequency difference . Then, only a fraction of the H-maser noise enters the measurement process, given by the ratio between the frequency difference and the absolute frequency.

The limitation due to the H-maser noise can be overcome by measurement of frequency ratios rather than frequency differences whenever oscillators with better noise properties than the H-maser are to be compared. A frequency ratio is unitless, i.e. there is no need to refer to the unit Hertz, and thus the frequency noise properties of the oscillators involved can be preserved when building the ratio. We will demonstrate below, that, in fact, optical frequency ratios can be measured with much smaller instabilities than that of the H-maser.

An important issue for such measurements is the frequency noise of the KLM laser due to technical perturbations. Conventional approaches  attempt to stabilize both the group and phase delay of the laser resonator by piezo transducers. However, as a result of the finite response time of these elements, the servo bandwidth of such servo loops is typically not sufficient to reduce the frequency noise of the beat-note $`\mathrm{\Delta }_x`$ to a level below the noise of the optical signal at $`\nu _x`$. For the same reason, it is very difficult to reduce the fractional frequency noise of $`f_{rep}`$ to levels below that of the microwave reference, at least at high Fourier frequencies. As a consequence, the short-term instability of those measurements is limited by the mode-locked laser and long averaging times are required for measurements with low uncertainties.

Our novel approach completely differs in handling the technical frequency fluctuations of the KLM laser. We generalize the transfer oscillator concept , which relates signals with integer frequency ratios, to signals with rational frequency ratios. Here, the laser is only slowly frequency stabilized while all beat-notes are phase-tracked with fast phase-locked loops (PLL) and online processed with analog electronics. Thus, we are not any more limited by the inertia of the mirror transducers but can make use of the large signal-to-noise ratios of our beat notes which allow for wide servo bandwidths and thus small residual error signals. As a result, the additive noise of the measurement process becomes substantially smaller than the frequency noise of the signals involved and can be neglected. This novel concept, which compensates the noise of the mode-locked laser will be named transfer concept in the following. It will be applied to the measurement of frequency ratios between various frequency standards: a diode laser at 871 nm, a Nd:YAG laser at 1064 nm, a dye laser operating at 657 nm and a 100 MHz reference signal from a H-maser.

2. Elastic tape picture and transfer concept

We integrate Eqn. (1) to relate the instantaneous phases of all signals,

$$\phi _m(t)=\phi _{ceo}(t)+m\phi _{rep}(t)+\varphi (m),$$
(2)
where $`\phi _m`$, $`\phi _{ceo}`$, and $`\phi _{rep}`$ denote the instantaneous phase angles of $`\nu _m`$, $`\nu _{ceo}`$, and $`\nu _{rep}`$, respectively. The integration constant $`\varphi (m)`$ accounts for the dispersion properties of the optical components involved. It is assumed to be constant or only slowly time-varying. This ansatz is motivated by the fact, that the fast electronic Kerr effect in KLM lasers tightly couples almost instantaneously all modes of the comb. In other words, any individual mode is injection-locked by a strong input signal resulting from the superimposed modulation side-bands of the other modes. Thus, one expects that the quantum-limited carrier frequency noise is determined by almost the total laser power, similar to the Schawlow-Townes limit of a single frequency laser. In this sense, the KLM laser oscillation can be considered as one spectrally extended super-mode. Given the validity of Eqn. (2), frequency fluctuations of this super-mode resulting from technical perturbations can be expressed by various pairs of orthogonal components, e.g.

1. common mode fluctuations, i.e. fluctuations of the mean of the group- and phase delay of the laser resonator while the ratio of both quantities remains constant and
2. fluctuations of the difference of these quantities while one of them, e.g. the phase delay, is held constant.

This behaviour can be visualized as an elastic tape labelled with a scale of equidistant spectral lines which is randomly stretched while it is held fixed at a characteristic point $`\nu _{fix}`$ on the frequency scale. This fixed frequency characterizes the specific type of technical noise. In case A $`\nu _{fix}=0`$ whereas $`\nu _{fix}`$ is found in the optical carrier frequency region, $`\nu _{fix}=\nu _{car}`$, in case B. For acoustic vibrations of resonator mirrors, as an example, we find a fractional change of the phase delay $`\tau _p`$:

$$\left|\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }\tau _p}{\tau _p}\right|=\left|\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }\nu _{car}}{\nu _{car}}\right|=\left|\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }z}{z+n_pz_m}\right|,$$
(3)
where $`z`$ is the cavity length, $`z_m`$ the length of the gain medium and $`n_p`$ its phase-index of refraction. The refractive index of the air and possible other intra-cavity elements have been neglected in Eqn. (3). The corresponding expression for the fractional change of the group delay $`\tau _g`$ reads

$$\left|\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }\tau _g}{\tau _g}\right|=\left|\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }f_{rep}}{f_{rep}}\right|=\left|\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }z}{z+n_gz_m}\right|.$$
(4)
The fixed point frequency is found

$$\nu _{fix}=\nu _{car}\left(1\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }\nu _{car}/\nu _{car}}{\mathrm{\Delta }f_{rep}/f_{rep}}\right)\nu _{car}(n_pn_g)\frac{z_m}{z}.$$
(5)
For the parameters of our laser, we obtain

$$\nu _{fix}50\mathrm{GHz}\text{ (mirror vibration)}.$$
(6)
This frequency is small compared to the carrier frequency of a few hundred THz. Thus, cavity length fluctuations represent case A to good approximation. As a consequence the comb offset frequency $`\nu _{ceo}`$, which is by definition a frequency close to zero, is only weakly affected by such fluctuations. Fixed point frequencies of other types of fluctuations can be estimated in a similar manner. For example, temperature changes of the gain medium lead to a change of its physical length, a change of the phase index and a different change of the group index. We estimate a fixed point frequency of

$`\nu _{fix}20\mathrm{THz}.`$ (7)
(temperature variation of gain medium)
for the parameters of our laser.

As another specific perturbation, tilting of the cavity mirror behind the double-prism arrangement , is of particular interest. The cavity length is not affected for a specific carrier frequency but owing to the lateral spectral spread of the laser mode at this position, the group delay is strongly changed by such tilting. This type of fluctuation corresponds to case B. It can be used to actively control $`\nu _{ceo}`$, whereas cavity length control is suited to stabilize the optical carrier frequency. It follows from the elastic tape picture, that technical noise contributions from the frequency comb are completely known if the phase angles of two distinct comb lines are monitored as a function of time. Two candidates which naturally come to mind are $`\nu _{ceo}`$ and an arbitrary line at $`\nu _m`$ within the span of the comb. The latter has to be measured with respect to a stable optical reference frequency at $`\nu _x`$, i. e. by measurement of the beat-note frequency $`\mathrm{\Delta }_x(t)=\nu _x\nu _m(t)`$. We will assume that the signal-to-noise ratios of both the $`\mathrm{\Delta }_x`$ and $`\nu _{ceo}`$ beat-notes are sufficient to yield an rms-phase error of $`<0.1`$ radians within a bandwidth which is sufficient to track technical fluctuations of $`\mathrm{\Delta }_x`$ and $`\nu _{ceo}`$. Cycle-slipping can be excluded under such conditions. Then, both $`\phi _m`$ and $`\phi _{ceo}`$ are unambiguously known and so are the instantaneous phase angles of all other comb lines, according to Eqn. (2). This feed-forward technique for phase angles is the key element of the transfer concept. In the following, we present two applications of this method.

3. Linking optical and microwave frequencies

The first application deals with the frequency modulation (FM) noise analysis of a microwave signal if an optical signal with frequency $`\nu _x`$ is available which shows superior FM noise properties. The scheme is shown in Fig. 1. Here, three input signals are detected by photo diodes:

1. the beat note $`\mathrm{\Delta }_x`$ between the external signal at $`\nu _x`$ and the nearest comb line,
2. the pulse repetition frequency $`f_{rep}`$, and
3. the carrier-envelope-offset frequency $`\nu _{ceo}`$.

The detection of $`\nu _{ceo}`$ requires one or more additional nonlinear processes . The simplest case is applicable if the comb covers a frequency ratio of more than a factor of two, i.e. one octave. Then, the comb lines at the low frequency comb wing are frequency doubled to yield a beat note of their second harmonics with the lines at the high frequency comb wing. All comb lines contain one $`\nu _{ceo}`$ according to Eqn. (1) but the second harmonics contain two $`\nu _{ceo}`$. Thus, the beat note oscillates at $`\nu _{ceo}`$ providing the desired input signal. If all three signals are available, one has to select an order number $`m_x`$ which can be separated into three factors, each of the order of $`10^2:m_x=m_1\times m_2\times m_3`$. This can be accomplished choosing a proper value of $`f_{rep}`$. Then, the frequency $`f_{LO}`$ of the microwave local oscillator (LO) is mixed with a harmonic $`m_1`$ of the pulse repetition frequency as detected by a photo diode to yield an rf-signal at frequency $`f_{LO}m_1f_{rep}`$. This frequency is further multiplied by a factor of $`m_2`$ with the help of a harmonic PLL yielding

$$\nu _A=m_2f_{LO}m_1m_2f_{rep}.$$
(8)
In a second channel, the sum frequency of $`\nu _{ceo}`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }_x`$ is divided by $`m_3`$. This leads to a signal at frequency

$$\nu _B=\frac{1}{m_3}(\nu _{ceo}+\mathrm{\Delta }_x).$$
(9)
Subtracting both frequencies with the help of a mixer, as shown in Fig.1, results in

$$\nu _C=\nu _A\nu _B=m_2f_{LO}\left(m_1m_2f_{rep}+\frac{\nu _{ceo}+\mathrm{\Delta }_x}{m_3}\right).$$
(10)
However, the elastic tape formula (1) predicts for the expression in the bracket

$$m_1m_2f_{rep}+\frac{\nu _{ceo}+\mathrm{\Delta }_x}{m_3}=\frac{1}{m_3}\nu _x,$$
(11)
and thus

$$\nu _C=m_2f_{LO}\frac{\nu _x}{m_3}.$$
(12)
Note that the signal at $`\nu _C`$ is independent of the noise properties of the KLM laser, i.e. the laser acts as a true transfer oscillator, bridging a frequency ratio of $`f_{LO}/\nu _x`$. Since the phase angles of all signals are processed according to Eqn. (2), $`\nu _C`$ can be considered as the frequency of the beat-note between the $`m_2`$th harmonic of $`f_{LO}`$ and the $`m_3`$th sub-harmonic of $`\nu _x`$.

4. Linking two optical frequencies

The second application of the transfer concept deals with the FM-noise measurement of an optical signal with frequency $`\nu _y`$ if an optical reference is available which has superior noise properties but oscillates at a very different frequency $`\nu _z`$, as shown in Fig. 2.

As before, we apply the elastic tape picture, which leads to

$$\nu _y=m_yf_{rep}+\nu _{ceo}+\mathrm{\Delta }_y$$
(13)
and

$$\nu _z=m_zf_{rep}+\nu _{ceo}+\mathrm{\Delta }_z.$$
(14)
The beat signal at $`\mathrm{\Delta }_y`$ is mixed with the $`\nu _{ceo}`$-beat signal which leads to

$$\nu _A=\nu _{ceo}+\mathrm{\Delta }_y$$
(15)
if we neglect the optional frequency divider for the moment. The sum frequency of $`\mathrm{\Delta }_z`$ and $`\nu _{ceo}`$, on the other hand, is processed with a direct-digital-synthesis IC (DDS). Such a device is capable of generating an output signal from an input clock signal with a frequency ratio given by a long digital tuning word while the input-to-output frequency agility is preserved. The latency time of these devices, i.e. the time required to set a new tuning word, is not a problem in our case, since the tuning word is chosen once and then held fixed. The DDS numerically approximates the ratio of two integers $`m_y/m_z`$ by $`j/2^n`$, where $`j`$ is an integer and $`n`$ the bit-length of the tuning word. As discussed below, the resulting error is negligible for $`n=32`$ bit or 48 bit in our case, where the integers $`m_y`$ and $`m_z`$ are of the order of $`10^6`$. As a result of this signal processing, one obtains

$$\nu _B=\frac{m_y}{m_z}(\nu _{ceo}+\mathrm{\Delta }_z).$$
(16)
Generating the difference frequency between both signals as before and using Eqns. (13) and (14), we find

$$\nu _C=\nu _A\nu _B=\nu _y\frac{m_y}{m_z}\nu _z,$$
(17)
which is again independent of the properties of the KLM laser. Since the phase angles of all signals are processed according to Eqn. (2) as above, $`\nu _C`$ can be considered as the frequency of the beat-note between $`\nu _y`$ and $`\nu _z`$ as projected to the vicinity of $`\nu _y`$.

5. Experimental

The setup of our Kerr-lens mode-locked Ti:Sapphire-laser is similar to , employing a combination of prisms and double chirped mirrors for compensation of group velocity dispersion. A similar, external prism pair is used for pulse re-compression. The pulse duration is $`<20`$ fs (FWHM) while the output spectrum typically spans 70 THz (FWHM), centred at about 790 nm. The pulse repetition frequency is about 100 MHz. Approximately 30 mW of the laser output is coupled into a 10 cm long piece of air-silica microstructure (MS) fiber with a core diameter of 1.7 $`\mu `$m and a zero-GVD wavelength of 780 nm . The output spectrum of the fiber extends from about 500 nm to about 1100 nm. The carrier-envelope-offset frequency $`\nu _{ceo}`$ is measured by second-harmonic-generation of the comb’s infrared portion around 1070 nm in a nonlinear-optical crystal (LBO). The beat-note between the resulting green SHG signal and the green output of the MS fiber is detected by a photo multiplier (PM) after spectral and spatial filtering both fields with a single mode fiber and a 600 l/mm grating, respectively.

As frequency references in the optical range, we use three different signals,

1. the sub-harmonic at 344 179 449 MHz (871 nm) of the output of a single Yb+-ion frequency standard ,
2. the output of a Nd:Yag laser at 281 606 335 MHz (1064 nm) which is frequency-stabilized via saturated absorption of its second harmonic in I2 vapour, and
3. the output of a dye-laser that is frequency-stabilized to the Ca intercombination line at 455 986 240 MHz (657 nm) .

All three frequencies have been previously measured with respect to a Cs atomic clock , , , , . However, these absolute values are not important for the purpose of this paper, which aims to demonstrate a novel measurement and synthesis principle. The sources of the signals at 344 THz, 281 THz and 455 THz will be referred to as Yb-, Iodine- an Ca-standard in the following (index Yb, Iod and Ca).

The Yb-standard was employed both for the microwave-to-optical and the optical-to-optical link. The pulse repetition frequency of the laser was set to a value close to 100 MHz which resulted in a mode number $`m_{Yb}`$ = 3 441 024 for the mode closest to $`\nu _{Yb}`$. As discussed above, this number must be divisible by 3 factors of the order of $`10^2`$ such as $`m_{Yb}=m_1\times m_2\times m_3=103\times 96\times 348=3441024`$. The pulse repetition frequency was measured with a fast InGaAs photo diode (PD) at 10.3 GHz, i.e. at a harmonic order of $`m_1=103`$. For the sake of dynamic range of the PD we restricted the number of detected harmonic orders to a few using optical pre-filtering in a Fabry-Perot interferometer with a free spectral range of about 10.3 GHz (10 mm thick fused silica etalon). The output signal of the microwave PD was down-converted with the help of a double-balanced mixer and a microwave synthesizer (LO) controlled by a 100 MHz standard frequency from a H-maser. The LO frequency at $`f_{LO}10.3`$ GHz was tuned to yield a down-converted signal of about 500 kHz. This frequency was multiplied by a factor of $`m_2=96`$ with the help of a harmonic PLL. Hence, its output signal at $`f_148`$ MHz carried the frequency noise of the $`(m_1m_2)`$th harmonic of the pulse repetition frequency and that of the H-maser as multiplied to a virtual frequency of $`m_2f_{LO}989`$ GHz. As described above, the frequency noise of the pulse repetition frequency can independently be deduced from $`\nu _{ceo}`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }_{Yb}`$. Both signals were pre-filtered with PLLs with a servo bandwidth of $`>1`$ MHz. As a result of choice of signs, the sum frequency of both ($``$ 70 MHz) carried the desired information. This signal was frequency divided by $`m_3=348`$ leading to a signal at $`\nu _B200`$ kHz which carried the noise of the $`(m_{Yb}/m_3)`$th harmonic of the pulse repetition frequency and that of the Yb standard as divided to a virtual frequency of $`\nu _{Yb}/m_3989`$ THz.

Since $`m_1m_2=m_{Yb}/m_3`$, the noise of the pulse repetition frequency was exactly the same in both paths and cancelled out if the frequency difference between $`\nu _A`$ and $`\nu _B`$ was generated with the help of the last mixer, as shown in Fig. 1, thus realising the transfer principle. As mentioned above, the output of this mixer at $`\nu _C=\nu _B\nu _B47.8`$ MHz can be considered as the beat-note between the H-maser signal as multiplied to 989 GHz and the output of the Yb standard, as divided by 348 to 989 GHz. The signal at $`\nu _C`$ was down-converted to about 40 Hz with the help of an rf-synthesizer and a mixer, analog-to-digital converted, digitally recorded and subsequently Fourier-transformed.

A spectrum of such a 120 s long record is shown in Fig. 3. One finds a 40 mHz wide carrier on top of a much broader line which can not be seen in Fig. 3. Note that this line with a sub-Hertz width was generated from two signals whose frequencies fluctuated by many kHz which demonstrates the effect of the transfer concept. The control bandwidth of the harmonic PLL was set to a few tens of kHz. This resulted, together with the second order characteristic of its loop filter, to a loop gain of $`>100`$ dB in the Fourier frequency range shown in Fig. 3. The loop gains were even higher ($`>130`$ dB) for the PLLs which phase-tracked the signals at $`\nu _{ceo}`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }_{Yb}`$. Thus, the sum of the residual servo errors, i.e. the total error of the frequency transfer process, was negligible and Fig. 3 can be considered to represent the true line shape of the H-maser harmonic at 989 GHz since the frequency noise of the Yb signal was also negligible as shown below.

The shape of the spectrum, a narrow line on top of a broad pedestal, was expected from the phase-noise specifications of the H-maser. This broad pedestal becomes dominant and submerges the narrow carrier, if the H-maser signal is further frequency multiplied, e.g. to the optical range. Thus, the short-term instability of a frequency ratio measurement between a H-maser and a quiet optical frequency standard, such as our Yb- or Iodine standards, is expected to be limited by the H-maser noise.

For comparison, the open circles in Fig. 3 show the corresponding beat note spectrum of the outputs of two H-maser as multiplied to a frequency of 989 GHz. It was calculated from a 1000 s record of readings of the timing jitter between 10 MHz standard frequencies generated by both masers. The close agreement with the Yb/H-beat at 989 GHz demonstrates that the frequency multiplication process by a factor of $`10^6`$ performed by the KLM laser does not deteriorate the H-maser noise properties at Fourier frequencies below 0.1 Hz.

In the following, we describe a second application of the transfer concept, the measurement of an optical frequency ratio. Here, an additional photo diode was used to detect the beat-note at $`\mathrm{\Delta }_{Iod}`$ ($`44`$ MHz) between the comb line with order number $`m_{Iod}=2815433`$ and the output of the Iodine-standard. As mentioned above, the sum frequency $`\mathrm{\Delta }_{Iod}+\nu _{ceo}`$ was processed by the DDS after pre-filtering both signals with fast PLL tracking oscillators (bandwidth $`>1`$ MHz) . Since the required multiplication factor $`m_{Yb}/m_{Iod}`$ was of the order of one, which can not be generated by a DDS chip according to the sampling theory, we used an additional division factor of $`k_{Iod}=8`$ in both signal paths in Fig. 2. The divider in the Yb-signal path was a conventional TTL divider while in the other path the DDS tuning word was corrected for this value. The DDS (AD9851) was programmed within the resolution of its 32 bit tuning word to generate an output frequency $`f_{out}=0.152775079245\times f_{in}`$. This was 8.4 mHz lower than the required value $`(m_{Yb}/m_{Iod})/8=0.152775079357\mathrm{}`$. However, multiplication of this amount by 8 and division by 344 THz leads to an relative error of $`210^{16}`$ which is negligible compared to other uncertainties. However, for future applications which might require higher precision, this error can be reduced by at least 4 orders of magnitude with a proper correction or with a DDS with 48 bit tuning word.

The output of the last mixer in Fig. 2, which was equivalent to the beat signal between the Iodine- and Yb- signals at a virtual frequency of 344/8 THz = 43 THz, was down-converted to the kHz range, analog-to-digital converted and digitally recorded. The Fourier transform of a typical 30 s record is shown in Fig 4. One finds a $`11.5`$ Hz wide line on top of a pedestal of white additive noise. As in Fig. 3, the PLL’s bandwidths of $`>1`$ MHz ensured a negligible residual servo error. Thus, Fig. 4 shows the true power spectrum of a non-integer sub-harmonic of the Iodine signal at 43 THz since the contribution of the Yb signal to the spectrum was not significant, as discussed below.

Finally, we describe a third frequency ratio measurement employing the Yb- and Ca-standards. The mode order of comb line nearest to the Ca frequency was $`m_{Ca}=4558841`$ while $`m_{Yb}=3441024`$ during all experiments. Here, the Ca frequency was down-converted as opposed to the experiment described above, in which the Iodine-frequency of 281 THz was up-converted to $`m_{Yb}=344`$ THz. For this reason, the pre-division factor could be reduced to $`k_{Ca}=4`$. Consequently, the output of the last mixer in Fig. 2 corresponded to the beat-note between the Yb and Ca signals at a frequency of 344/4 THz = 86 THz.

The spectrum in Fig. 5, however, shows the 4th harmonic of this signal as generated by a frequency-quadrupling PLL. Thus, it represent the beat-note at the Yb-frequency which means that the frequency transfer was carried out over a frequency gap of ($`455344`$) THz = 111 THz. The width of 1300 Hz found in Fig. 5 was mainly due to low-frequency jitter of the Ca frequency while the line width of the Yb-signal was much smaller. This was proved by resolving a 30 Hz wide resonance line at its second harmonic .

As mentioned above, the frequency noise of the beat-note between the Yb- and Iodine-signals is substantially smaller than that of the H-Maser, at least at Fourier frequencies $`f>0.1`$ Hz. Thus, a frequency ratio measurement of these two optical signals can be carried out with smaller instabilites than that of an Yb/H-maser frequency ratio measurement, at least for short averaging times. This is demonstrated in Fig. 6.

The dashed curve shows the sqare root of the Allan variance $`\sigma _y(\tau )`$ (SRAV) of our H-maser. The data of the frequency measurements of the Iodine and the Yb-standard with respect to this H-maser are shown as triangles and squares, respectively. The SRAV of the Yb-laser qualitatively follows that of the H-maser, which limits the measurement for averaging times from 1 to 100 s. The SRAV of the Iodine -signal is larger than that of the H-maser for $`\tau >20`$ s. In fact, frequency comparisons of two of such Iodine standards showed a SRAV of about $`210^{14}`$ in this range and thus larger than of the H-maser. The SRAV of a frequency ratio measurement of two optical standards, on the other hand, is not limited by H-maser noise, as shown by circles in Fig. 6. The data depicted by solid circles have been derived from the Yb/Iodine beat signal as obtained from the last mixer in Fig. 2 whereas the open circles have been calculated from $`\nu _{ceo},\mathrm{\Delta }_{Yb}`$, and $`\mathrm{\Delta }_{Iod}`$ as counted by totalizing counters (1 s averages). Both data sets reasonably agree in the overlapping range between 1 and 8 s. The SRAV values of this frequency ratio measurement are substantially smaller than the H-maser frequency instability for $`\tau <10`$ s. The $`1/\sqrt{\tau }`$-dependency of this SRAV function indicates a white frequency noise level of $`S_\nu 150`$ Hz2/Hz at 344 THz which would result in a spectral line width of $`\delta \nu =\pi S_\nu 500`$ Hz (FWHM) in good agreement with the direct beat-note measurement as shown in Fig. 4. From $`\delta \nu 11.5`$ Hz at (344/8=43) THz one calculates $`\delta \nu =8^211.5\mathrm{Hz}730`$ Hz at 344 THz under the assumption of white frequency noise. This indicates, that the Yb/Iodine-frequency ratio measurement in Fig. 6 was limited by noise of the Iodine-standard whereas contributions from the Yb-signal were negligible due to its narrow line width of $`<30`$ Hz.

6. Conclusion

We have demonstrated a novel concept for frequency measurement and synthesis which is capable of phase-coherently linking signals from very different spectral regions in the optical and microwave ranges without introducing additional noise. We have carried out frequency ratio measurements between optical frequencies with short-term instabilities superior to that of a microwave reference. Since the measurement uncertainties were clearly limited by the noise properties of the frequency standards, one may expect an even lower limitation due to noise contributions of the KLM laser if better optical frequency standards become available. The transfer concept opens up new perspectives for future ultra-high precision applications, e.g. measurement of time variations of fundamental constants as soon as appropriate optical frequency standards are available.

We gratefully acknowledge financial support from the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft through SFB407 and contributions by Andreas Bauch, Tomas Binnewies, Nils Haverkamp, Ursula Keller, Harald Schnatz, Günter Steinmeyer, Christian Tamm, and Guido Wilpers in different stages of the experiments. We are also indebted to Robert Windeler of Lucent Technologies for providing us with the microstructure fiber.

6. References

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# Pion Interferometry of √𝑠_{𝑁𝑁}=130 GeV Au+Au Collisions at RHIC

## Abstract

Two-pion correlation functions in Au+Au collisions at $`\sqrt{s_{NN}}=130`$ GeV have been measured by the STAR (Solenoidal Tracker at RHIC) detector. The source size extracted by fitting the correlations grows with event multiplicity and decreases with transverse momentum. Anomalously large sizes or emission durations, which have been suggested as signals of quark-gluon plasma formation and rehadronization, are not observed. The HBT parameters display a weak energy dependence over a broad range in $`\sqrt{s_{NN}}`$.

Two-particle intensity interferometry techniques (HBT) have been used extensively to probe the space-time structure of heavy ion collisions . At midrapidity ($`y=0`$) and low transverse momentum ($`p_T`$), two-pion correlation functions reflect the space-time geometry of the emitting source, while dynamical information (e.g. collective flow) is contained in the momentum dependence of the apparent source size .

In this Letter we study two-pion correlation functions in Au+Au collisions at nucleon-nucleon center-of-mass energy $`\sqrt{s_{NN}}=130`$ GeV produced by the RHIC facility at Brookhaven National Laboratory, and compare our results to similar studies at lower energy. Such systematic comparisons may reveal the onset of new phenomena, as $`\sqrt{s_{NN}}`$ increases. We are particularly interested in possible indications that a quark gluon plasma (QGP) has been formed in the collision. Several authors  have proposed HBT studies to probe for a significant increase in the pion emission timescale associated with QGP formation.

Experimentally, the two-particle correlation function is obtained from the ratio $`C_2(𝐪)=A(𝐪)/B(𝐪)`$ (normalized to unity at large $`𝐪`$), where $`A(𝐪)`$ is the measured two-pion distribution of pair momentum difference $`𝐪=𝐩_\mathrm{𝟐}𝐩_\mathrm{𝟏}`$, and $`B(𝐪)`$ is the mixed background distribution , calculated in the same way using pairs of particles taken from different events.

The STAR time projection chamber (TPC)  was used to record charged particle tracks as they crossed up to 45 padrows of the detector. For P-10 gas in the 0.25 T solenoidal magnetic field, transverse and longitudinal diffusion were both about 350$`\mu \mathrm{m}`$ times the square root of the drift length. The TPC was read out with 138,000 waveform digitizer channels ; the signal shaping width was comparable to the diffusion. For a typical 1.5-meter drift, two-track resolution was limited by the resulting 6 mm signal spread, in addition to geometric spreading due to tracks traversing the padrows at finite crossing angles. This analysis used tracks with $`0.125<p_T<0.45`$ GeV/c and $`|y|<0.5`$, for which the reconstruction and $`\pi `$ identification efficiencies are high. We present results for three $`p_T`$ ranges: $`0.1250.225`$ GeV/c, $`0.2250.325`$ GeV/c, and $`0.3250.45`$ GeV/c.

We select events with a collision position that is within 75 cm of the mid-plane of the 4-m long TPC. An important feature of two-particle correlation functions is that single-particle phase space and acceptance effects cancel to first order. To preserve this feature in the collider environment (in which the collision vertex– and hence the single-particle acceptance– varies event-to-event), we only mix events which have a primary vertex longitudinal location within 15 cm of each other; however, mixing events over the full $`\pm 75`$ cm range introduces no significant distortion in the correlation fit parameters, in the present analysis.

Starting with a minimum-bias trigger , we characterize the centrality of collisions off-line according to the measured multiplicity of negatively-charged particles with pseudorapidity $`|\eta |<0.5`$. After accounting for event reconstruction inefficiency for low-multiplicity events, we estimate that the minimum-bias distribution contains $``$90% of the hadronic Au+Au cross section . We analyze $`10^5`$ events in each of three bins; bin 3 contains the 12% most central of the measured collisions, bin 2 the next 20%, and bin 1 the next 40%.

Particle identification was achieved by correlating the magnetic rigidity of a track with its specific ionization ($`dE/dx`$) in the gas of the TPC. In the momentum region of interest, $`\pi `$, $`K`$, and $`p/\overline{p}`$ are well-separated; contamination of the pion sample by electrons is the primary concern. Based on simulations and on extrapolation from regions of clear $`e^{}/\pi ^{}`$ separation, we estimate that electrons comprise about 10% (4%) of the selected tracks in our lowest (highest) $`p_T`$ bin. Tracks used in the correlations are required to project back to the primary interaction vertex within 3 cm, thereby selecting primarily pions emitted directly from the collision. Contamination from non-pions and pions originating from long-lived decays (e.g. $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$, $`\omega `$) reduces the strength of the correlation, characterized by the parameter $`\lambda `$, while leaving the extracted source radii unchanged .

Although track-splitting (incorrect reconstruction of a single particle as two particles) in the STAR TPC is a small effect in general ($`1\%`$), it may have a strong impact on correlation studies at low $`|q|`$. False pairs generated by track-splitting are removed by a topological cut which requires valid and distinct signals of both tracks on several TPC padrows. For the present analysis, residual effects of track-splitting are negligible.

To eliminate the effect of track-merging (in which two tracks with similar momenta are reconstructed as a single track), we require the tracks in a pair to be well separated ($`>2.5`$ cm at the radius of the TPC inner field cage, 50 cm). In applying this cut also to the mixed-pair background, the effect of event-to-event variation in primary vertex position is taken into account. The anti-merging cut removes significant detector effects, but also discriminates against low-$`|q|`$ pairs, which carry the correlation signal. This leads to an artificial reduction in the HBT parameters, which we estimate, based on simulations , to be 3-6% for the radii and 6-14% for $`\lambda `$, depending on $`p_T`$. We correct for this effect in the results presented.

We apply to each background pair a Coulomb correction  corresponding to a spherical Gaussian source of 5 fm radius; this correction is identical to that used by several other groups . In principle, this procedure over-corrects the correlation function for realistic sources (e.g. in which some pions originate far from the core source). We find that the HBT radii change smoothly by $`10\%`$ as the strength of the Coulomb correction is varied from the standard correction to no correction. Here, we restrict ourselves to the standard Coulomb correction, allowing for a uniform extension of existing interferometry systematics from lower energy.

One-dimensional correlation functions constructed in the invariant quantity $`Q_{inv}=\sqrt{(𝐩_1𝐩_2)^2(E_1E_2)^2}`$ are fit to the functional form

$$C(Q_{inv})=1+\lambda \mathrm{exp}(Q_{inv}^2R_{inv}^2).$$
(1)
The 1-D correlation function (and fit) corresponding to our highest multiplicity class is shown in Fig. 1a for low-$`p_T`$ $`\pi ^{}`$. The 1-dimensional fit fails in lowest $`Q_{inv}`$ bins, as has been observed in previous measurements . Hence, the extracted radius $`R_{inv}6.3`$ fm is only a rough indication of the space-time extent of the source.

A more detailed characterization of the emitting source is obtained through multidimensional correlation functions. We decompose the momentum difference $`𝐪`$ according to the Pratt-Bertsch  “out-side-long” (indicated by $`o`$, $`s`$, and $`l`$ subscripts) parameterization. Here, $`q_l`$ is parallel to the beam, $`q_s`$ is perpendicular to the beam and to the total momentum of the pair, and $`q_o`$ is perpendicular to $`q_l`$ and $`q_s`$. Data are analyzed in the longitudinally co-moving system (LCMS) frame, in which the longitudinal component of the pair momentum vanishes. Figs. 1b-d show one-dimensional projections of the correlation function $`C(q_o,q_s,q_l)`$ onto the $`q_o`$, $`q_s`$, and $`q_l`$ axes, for $`\pi ^{}`$ from the most central collisions.

The 3-dimensional correlation functions are fit with the standard Gaussian form

$$C(q_o,q_s,q_l)=1+\lambda \mathrm{exp}(R_o^2q_o^2R_s^2q_s^2R_l^2q_l^2),$$
(2)
where $`R_i`$ is the homogeneity length in the $`i`$ direction . Projections of the fit to the central collisions, weighted according to the mixed-pair background, are shown as curves in Fig. 1.

Systematic errors on the HBT fit parameters have two sources of roughly equal magnitude: (1) the uncertainty on the correction for the anti-merging cut, estimated equal to the correction itself, and (2) the uncertainty associated with the Coulomb correction, $``$0.1-0.2 fm in the radii, determined by varying the Coulomb radius by $`\pm `$1 fm.

The effect of the single-particle momentum resolution ($`\delta p/p`$ 2% in the TPC for the particles under study) is known to induce systematic underestimates of HBT parameters. For our lowest $`p_T`$ bin, $`\delta q_o4.5`$ MeV/c, and $`\delta q_s\delta q_l3`$ MeV/c. While $`\delta q_s`$ and $`\delta q_l`$ change little, in our highest $`p_T`$ bin, $`\delta q_o11`$ MeV/c. Using an iterative procedure similar to that used at lower energies , we have corrected our correlation functions for finite resolution effects. The correction had no effect on the HBT parameters for our lowest $`p_T`$ cut; for the highest $`p_T`$ cut, it resulted in a 5% increase in $`\lambda `$ and a 8% increase in $`R_o`$, while $`R_s`$ and $`R_l`$ were unaffected.

The multiplicity dependence of the source parameters is presented in the left panels of Fig. 2, for low-$`p_T`$, midrapidity $`\pi ^{}\pi ^{}`$ and $`\pi ^+\pi ^+`$ correlations. The parameters for positive and negative pions are similar; the $`\lambda `$ parameter is constant, and all three radii increase monotonically with multiplicity. The increase of the transverse radii $`R_o`$ and $`R_s`$ with multiplicity is interpreted as a geometrical effect, and is also observed in lower energy measurements . The multiplicity dependence of $`R_l`$ differs from observations at lower energies; E895  and NA49  observe no dependence of $`R_l`$ over a wide range of multiplicity at the AGS and SPS, while NA44  reports a sharp increase for the very highest multiplicity collisions at the SPS.

The right panels of Fig. 2 show, for the events in multiplicity bin 3, the dependence of the HBT parameters on $`m_T=\sqrt{p_T^2+m^2}`$. $`\lambda `$ increases with $`m_T`$, consistent with studies at lower energy , in which the increase was attributed to decreased contributions of pions from long-lived resonances at higher $`p_T`$.

The radius parameters decrease significantly with $`m_T`$. This $`m_T`$-dependence, weak at $`\sqrt{s_{NN}}`$ 2 GeV  and growing stronger with collision energy , reflects pion emission from a radially expanding source . The $`m_T`$-dependence at RHIC is similar, but not identical, to that observed in central Pb+Pb collisions at the CERN SPS . The significant decrease of $`R_o`$ with $`m_T`$ contrasts with the $`m_T`$-independence of $`R_o`$ measured at midrapidity in collisions at SPS energy . For our highest $`m_T`$ data, $`R_o<R_s`$, possibly indicating significant source opacity resulting from the high particle densities generated in RHIC collisions .

To place our results in context, Fig. 3 shows the world’s dataset of correlation parameters for midrapidity, low-$`p_T`$ ($`170`$ MeV/c) $`\pi ^{}`$ from central Au+Au or Pb+Pb collisions. The parameter $`\lambda `$ falls smoothly and rapidly from unity (the expected value from naïve assumptions) at $`\sqrt{s_{NN}}`$2 GeV, to about 0.5 at RHIC; this decrease is attributed partially to an increased fraction of $`\pi ^{}`$ arising from long-lived decays as $`\sqrt{s_{NN}}`$ increases . Since $`\lambda `$ is also affected by several experiment-specific effects (e.g. $`e^{}`$ rejection efficiency), we do not focus on the details of its excitation function.

The radius parameter $`R_s`$ correlates most directly with source geometry . After an initial decrease at AGS energies, attributed to increasing space-momentum correlations , $`R_s`$ appears to rise slightly with collision energy, reflecting a larger freeze-out volume with increasing pion multiplicity. Similarly, $`R_l`$ does not exhibit a large increase with collision energy, after the initial increase between AGS and SPS energies.

The parameter $`R_o`$ encodes both geometry and timescale information; in the absence of flow and opacity effects, the emission timescale (duration of freeze-out) is given by $`\tau =\sqrt{R_o^2R_s^2}/\beta _T`$, where $`\beta _T`$ is the average transverse velocity of a pion pair. Both $`R_o`$ and $`\sqrt{R_o^2R_s^2}`$ are relatively independent of energy; we see no evidence for a large increase in emission timescale (e.g. due to QGP formation ).

In hydrodynamic models , the ratio $`R_o/R_s`$ is a sensitive probe of the Equation of State (EOS). In a purely hadronic (non-QGP) scenario, $`R_o/R_s1.01.2`$, while formation of QGP is predicted to produce $`R_o/R_s1.510`$. This ratio, plotted in the bottom panel of Fig. 3 for low-$`p_T`$ pions, does not show a significant rise at RHIC. Furthermore, at RHIC $`R_o/R_s`$ is observed to decrease (from 1.07 to 0.89) with $`p_T`$, in contrast to recent transport calculations  which include effects of hadronic rescattering after a hydrodynamic stage with a QGP phase. We note, however, that the long emission duration QGP signature is expected  to vanish again at energies higher than its onset, due to rapid expansion of the system. Because of the large energy difference between SPS and RHIC, without intervening measurements, we cannot rule out an increase in the emission timescale at some lower, intermediate energy.

In conclusion, STAR has measured two-pion correlation functions in Au+Au collisions at $`\sqrt{s_{NN}}`$ = 130 GeV. Transverse HBT radii grow with event multiplicity, reflecting the evolution of source geometry with centrality. In contrast to studies at lower energies, $`R_l`$ also increases steadily over a large range of multiplicities; more study is required to understand the origin of this effect. The $`m_T`$-dependence of the HBT radii is stronger than at lower energies, suggesting emission from a more rapidly expanding source at RHIC, and in particular the much stronger decrease in $`R_o`$ at high $`m_T`$ may indicate the onset of opaqueness in the dense system. The pion interferometry excitation function for the heaviest ions now spans nearly two decades in $`\sqrt{s_{NN}}`$. No sudden jumps in HBT radii are observed, but lower energy RHIC measurements are needed to complete the search for a predicted increase in emission timescale related to the possible onset of QGP formation.

We wish to thank the RHIC Operations Group at Brookhaven National Laboratory for their tremendous support and for providing collisions for the experiment. This work was supported by the Division of Nuclear Physics and the Division of High Energy Physics of the Office of Science of the U.S.Department of Energy, the United States National Science Foundation, the Bundesministerium fuer Bildung und Forschung of Germany, the Institut National de la Physique Nucleaire et de la Physique des Particules of France, the United Kingdom Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council, Fundacao de Amparo a Pesquisa do Estado de Sao Paulo, Brazil, and the Russian Ministry of Science and Technology.