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# DIRECT AND INDIRECT DETECTION OF WIMPS

## 1 Introduction

Recent astrophysical observations of the Cosmic Microwave Background and high-redshift Supernovae tend to favor a Universe where matter is mainly dark (that is to say, not emitting electromagnetic radiation). Dark Matter may be present at galactic scale under the form of a halo composed of weakly interacting, massive -more than 10 GeV/c2\- particles, the WIMPs. These hypothetical relic particles from an early phase of the Universe could be the Ligthest Supersymmetric Particles of SUSY models (probably the neutralino) under the hypothesis of R-parity conservation. Two techniques have been proposed to put WIMPs in evidence: indirect and direct detection. Indirect detection consists in looking for by-products of WIMP-pair annihilation in cosmic-rays, while direct search looks for an interaction of a WIMP from the galactic halo with a terrestrial target. We will present and compare principles and results of both techniques here. A more complete review of the subject is given elsewhere.

## 2 Indirect detection

In Minimum Supersymmetric Models, neutralinos are Majorana particles and therefore pair annihilations are possible and could be detected through their by-products: $`\gamma `$ rays, positrons, antiprotons or neutrinos, to list the ones of experimental interest. Here, we will focus on neutrinos, since it seems to be, at this point, the candidate for which the experimental signature would be the most telling.

### 2.1 Principle of neutrino detection

Muon neutrinos can be produced by WIMP-pair annihilation directly or through decay of a lepton or a hadron pair with a typical energy of the order of the third to the half of the mass of the WIMP, and thus in the tens to hundreds GeV/c2 range. Their most significant production sites would be the center of the Earth or of the Sun. Indeed, they are the only regions where the WIMP density -enhanced by gravitationnal capture- might be high enough to give consequent reaction rates, though Gondolo and Silk have shown that there may also be a significant amplification of the WIMP-annihilation rate at the center of our Galaxy.
A neutrino can be detected through the upward-going muon produced in the core of our planet in a charged-current reaction. Having the information on the neutrino’s source (the muon is pointing to it) and a lower limit on its energy (given by the energy of the muon), it is possible to select the high energy neutrinos from WIMP-pair annihilation originating from the Sun or the center of the Earth. A large part of the background noise is thus discarded (solar neutrino energies are for example typically of the order of 20 MeV/c2), and the only remaining sources of background are atmospheric neutrinos produced on the other side of our planet and neutrinos produced by cosmic-ray interaction in the corona of the Sun.

### 2.2 Results and perspectives

The first results on indirect WIMP search came in the eighties from detectors developed for other purposes, like the study of the proton decay (IMB), or the study of solar or atmospheric neutrinos (Baksan, Kamiokande, MACRO, etc). They were thus not totally adapted to WIMP detection (detection areas of the order of $`10^3`$ m2), but already provided limits on the upward-going muon flux interesting enough to reject the MSSM models for WIMPs yelding the largest neutralino rates.
High-energy neutrino telescopes (ANTARES or AMANDA for example) are now under development. Large sizes should be achievable (up to the km2, which corresponds to a factor $`10^4`$ improvement with regard to previous neutrinos detectors), since a natural medium is used as their detecting volume (water of the Mediterranean sea for ANTARES, ice of the Antarctic for AMANDA). Despite a higher energy threshold, their sensitivity to WIMP annihilation in the Sun or in the Earth is expected to be improved by the same $`10^4`$ factor, which corresponds to a muon flux of the order of 10 per km2 per year for an exposure of 10 km2.yr. This sensitivity should allow these experiments to test a large part of the domain allowed by MSSM models in the coming years.

## 3 Direct detection

### 3.1 Principle

Another possibility to put WIMPs in evidence consists in looking for the scattering of a WIMP from the galactic halo on a target detector placed on Earth, in which it would produce a nuclear recoil. This type of search can be readily extended to WIMP models beyond the MSSM since the only necessary condition for detection is a non-zero WIMP-nucleon cross-section. In the hypothesis where the WIMP is the MSSM neutralino, Goodman and Witten have shown that it could couple to a quark of the scattered nucleus via two mechanisms: spin-dependent (Z-boson or squark exchange) or spin-independent (Higgs bosons or squark exchange). It can be shown that the spin-dependent cross-section $`\sigma _{SD}`$ is proportional to the nucleus spin J of the target, while the spin-independent cross-section $`\sigma _{SI}`$ is grossly proportional to the square of the atomic number A of the nucleus. It follows that $`\sigma _{SI}>\sigma _{SD}`$ for $`A>30`$ (which corresponds to a large majority of the targets) and that the interaction rate per kg of matter varies between 1 event per day to one per decade, depending on model parameters and target nuclei. The two main requirements for direct search detectors are thus low radioactive background rates and, since WIMPs induced nuclear recoils are below 100 keV, low energy thresholds.
A positive signature could come from the annual modulation of the event rate in the detector. Indeed the relative velocity of the Earth with regard to the galactic halo varies annually with the rotation of the Earth around the Sun. Thus there should be a small variation of approximately 5% in the WIMP event rate in the detector. A significant experimental signature would nevertheless require large target masses ($``$ 100 kg) and an excellent stability of the detector performances -better than the percent-, even under the extremely favorable hypothesis of the absence of background and for the SUSY models yelding the largest neutralino rates.
Several different solutions have been proposed to fulfil the heavy constraints of direct detection. We will present here those giving at this point the best results, even if some other innovating techniques seem promising.

### 3.2 Classical detectors

Historically the first type of detectors used for direct detection were germanium ionisation detectors at liquid nitrogen temperature. The interaction is detected through the collection of the charge of the electron-hole pairs created in the crystal. Thanks to years of development in the fields of $`\gamma `$ and $`\beta `$ spectroscopy and high performance germanium purification technique, Ge diodes can reach excellent energy resolutions (typically 1 keV full width half maximum for 300 keV deposited) and the lowest total event rate of all direct search experiments (0.042 event/kg/keVee/day between 15 and 40 keV recoil). Nevertheless, it is not possible to discriminate nuclear recoils (induced by neutrons or WIMPs) from electron recoils (induced by $`\beta `$ and $`\gamma `$ radioactivity), which is the dominant background. Therefore, the experiments using this technique (HDMS, IGEX, etc.) after holding the most stringent limits on WIMP-nucleon cross-section for a long time, seem now to be limited by this absence of rejection, even if projects using this type of detectors could remain competitive in the future.
Scintillators are other classical detectors adaptated to WIMP direct detection. Large masses are achievable (730 kg for Elegant-V, 100 kg for DAMA). A statistical rejection of the $`\gamma `$ background is possible using the different scintillation time constants between electrons and nuclear recoils (pulse shape discrimination), but this cannot be applied at energies just above threshold (typically below 5 keV), which correspond to the most significant part of the data. The best spin-dependent limit on the WIMP-nucleon cross-section has been achieved by the DAMA experiment using NaI crystals, thanks to the non-zero spin of the sodium nuclei. Recently, the DAMA experiment also claimed an annual modulation signal which this group has attributed to a WIMP of mass $`52\pm _8^{10}`$ GeV and a spin-independent WIMP-nucleon cross-section of $`\sigma _n=(7.2\pm _{0.9}^{0.4})10^6`$ pb. If combined to their 1996 exclusion data based on pulse shape discrimination, the most likely WIMP mass and WIMP-nucleon cross-section values become respectively $`44\pm _8^{10}`$ GeV and $`\sigma _n=(5.4\pm 1.0)10^6`$ pb. This result remains controversial and is hardly compatible with the results of other experiments using a new type of detectors, bolometers.

### 3.3 Bolometers

#### 3.3.1 Principle and Performances

Bolometers measure the elevation of temperature due to an interaction of a particle in an absorber (Saphire, Germanium, or CaWO4 for example) by means of a thermometric sensor glued to its surface. In principle, energy deposits as small as 1 keV result in a measurable elevation of temperature -typically 1 $`\mu `$K- in a 100 g detector working at a temperature of 10 mK. The elevation of temperature due to an energy deposit in the absorber is indeed inversely proportionnal to its heat capacitance, which is very small at these temperatures. Furthermore the fundamental resolution of such bolometers, given by thermodynamic fluctuations in the energy of the absorber, is in the tens of electron-volt range.
In the field of Dark Matter Search, bolometers offer another very attractive feature, since it is possible to reject electron recoils with a high efficiency for certain types of absorber. The number of charges created in a semiconducting absorber (Germanium or Silicon) by nuclear recoils is indeed approximately three times lower than for an electron recoil of the same energy. By measuring simultaneously the ionisation and the heat signals for every interaction, the CDMS and EDELWEISS experiments can thus discriminate $`\gamma `$ and $`\beta `$ radioactive backgrounds from possible WIMP-induced events with a rejection factor higher than 99% (see fig.1). The ROSEBUD and CRESST experiments have shown that the measurement of the scintillation light emitted in CaWO4 absorbers also makes this discrimination possible. This active rejection of the background explains why bolometers have the lowest nuclear recoil rates of all direct search experiments. It is also the reason why they are already competitive with the optimized classical detectors mentioned above, although still in their development phases.

#### 3.3.2 Results

Recently, the Cryogenic Dark Matter Search (CDMS) experiment reported results obtained with three 165 g Ge heat-and-ionisation detectors. In 96 live days of data acquisition in their shallow site of Stanford (corresponding to 10.6 kg.days), they recorded 13 nuclear recoils in the 10-100keV recoil range. This rate is compatible with that expected from a WIMP of mass 52 GeV and a WIMP-nucleon cross-section of $`7.210^6`$pb. Nevertheless, the presence of 4 multiple-scatter nuclear recoils in the Germanium detectors and event rates measured with a 100 g Si cryogenic detector tend to favor the hypothesis where these 13 events are due to cosmic-ray induced neutrons. By making this assumption and subtracting the neutron background, CDMS then obtained a limit for the WIMP-nucleon cross section incompatible with the whole 3$`\sigma `$ region of the DAMA claim at 84% CL (see fig.3).
The French experiment EDELWEISS, based in the underground site of the Laboratoire Souterrain de Modane (LSM), is not limited by the cosmic-ray induced neutron background so far, and may resolve this discrepancy. More recently, EDELWEISS has accumulated an effective exposure of 4.53 kg.days (fiducial volume) with a 320 g heat-and-ionisation Ge detector and observed no nuclear recoils in the 30-200 keV energy range (see fig.2). This excludes at 90% CL the central value obtained for the WIMP signal reported by DAMA with a WIMP-nucleon cross-section $`\sigma _n=7.210^6`$ pb, but not the central value of $`\sigma _n=5.410^6`$ pb, when the 1996 DAMA-NaI0 exclusion limit is taken into account (see fig.3). More data is thus needed by EDELWEISS to test the whole DAMA zone. This should come with the installation of three 320 g bolometers in the LSM, scheduled at the end of this year.

## 4 Conclusion: indirect vs direct detection

It is of course very tempting to compare the sensitivities of direct and indirect WIMP searches. This will be done here in the MSSM framework used in refs in which no restriction is brought from supergravity other than gaugino mass unification.
The muon flux due to the annihilation of WIMPs in the Earth depends on the density of the WIMP halo, its kinematics and the accretion rate of WIMPs in the Sun or the Earth, which itself is determined by the way WIMPs scatter off the nuclei composing the core of the Earth (mainly iron or nickel). This scattering is mainly spin-independent (since iron and nickel are heavy elements) and it is thus quite similar to the interaction taking place in direct detection experiments. Furthermore, the local halo density plays the same role in both cases. Therefore similar assumptions can be made for indirect and direct detection, and it is possible to link a given muon flux due to WIMPs annihilation in the core of the Earth to a certain WIMP-nucleon cross-section. This was done elsewhere, and the result, shown in fig.4, is that the sensitivities for spin-independent interactions expected for the future high-energy neutrinos telescopes (10 muons/km2) are roughly equivalent to the present direct detection experiments limits on WIMPs-nucleon cross section ($`\sigma _{SI}10^6`$ pb).
For the case of muons coming from the Sun, the situation is quite different, since WIMPs interact with protons during the accretion phase. In the MSSM framework, it is thus the spin-dependent cross section which may become predominant, and the process is quite different from the one taking place in a direct detection detector. The comparison is thus more difficult. Nevertheless, calculations from ref. show that the future high-energy neutrinos telescopes may in this case give better results than the present direct detection experiments (fig.4). Indeed the direct detection best spin-dependent WIMPs-nucleon cross section ($`\sigma _{SD}10^1`$ pb) corresponds to a muon flux from the Sun that is several orders of magnitude higher than the 10 muons/km2 expected from high-energy neutrinos telescopes, and already much larger than the limits derived from the Kamiokande observations.
A similar study led in ref. comes to the same conclusion, which tends to prove that both methods are complementary and thus worth pursuing.


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# Temperature-dependent relaxation times in a trapped Bose-condensed gas

## Abstract

Explicit expressions for all the transport coefficients have recently been found for a trapped Bose condensed gas at finite temperatures. These transport coefficients are used to define the characteristic relaxation times, which determine the crossover between the mean-field collisionless and the two-fluid hydrodynamic regime. These relaxation times are evaluated as a function of the position in the trap potential. We show that all the relaxation times are dominated by the collisions between the condensate and the non-condensate atoms, and are much smaller than the standard classical collision time used in most of the current literature. The 1998 MIT study of the collective modes at finite temperature is shown to have been well within the two-fluid hydrodynamic regime.

Recently, the complete set of two-fluid hydrodynamic equations were derived starting from a microscopic model for a trapped Bose-condensed gas at finite temperatures . These included all the transport processes which arise in a Bose superfluid, namely the thermal conductivity, shear viscosity, and the four coefficients of second viscosity. Working within the Thmas-Fermi approximation, these two-fluid hydrodynamic equations can be written in the well-known Landau-Khalatnikov form  used to describe the hydrodynamic behavior of superfluid 4He. In the present paper, we use the explicit expressions for the transport coefficients obtained in Ref.  to define three characteristic relaxation times associated with distinct relaxation processes due to collisions between atoms. As with a classical gas, relaxation times which are associated with transport coefficients play a crucial role in understanding the dynamics of a Bose-condensed gas. For example, they determine how fast thermal equilibrium is reached when the gas is perturbed, the rate of evaporative cooling in the Bose-condensed phase, and the characteristic frequency dividing the collisionless from the collision-dominated hydrodynamic region.

We recall that the transport coefficients describe the deviations of the non-condensate distribution function $`f(𝐫,𝐩,t)`$ from the “local thermal equilibrium” form . Thus it is natural that they describe the rate at which such deviations relax. Ref.  gives all the various transport coefficients explicitly as functions of the local fugacity, or, effectively, the local static condensate density $`n_{c0}(𝐫)`$. However these expressions are quite complex and involve various integrals which must be done numerically. In the present paper, we evaluate the associated transport relaxation times as a function of position in the trap, for experimental parameters which have been used in recent experiments. In particular, we show that the pioneering MIT study  of collective modes at finite temperatures was well within the hydrodynamic region, contrary to what was originally estimated in that paper.

In the absence of a quantitative theory of the collision times in a Bose-condensed gas, most of the BEC literature up to now has used the Maxwell-Boltzmann elastic collision time

$$\frac{1}{\tau _{\mathrm{cl}}(𝐫)}=\sqrt{2}\stackrel{~}{n}_0(𝐫)\sigma \overline{v},$$
(1)
as an estimate of the relaxation rates in trapped Bose gases. In particular, $`\omega \tau _{\mathrm{cl}}=1`$ has been used  to estimate the “crossover” between collisionless modes ($`\omega \tau _{\mathrm{cl}}1`$) and the collision-dominated hydrodynamic modes ($`\omega \tau _{\mathrm{cl}}1`$). In (1), $`\stackrel{~}{n}_0(𝐫)`$ is the local density of the thermally excited atoms, $`\sigma =8\pi a^2`$ is the Bose atomic cross-section in the $`s`$-wave approximation. $`\overline{v}=\sqrt{8k_\mathrm{B}T/\pi m}`$ is the mean value of the velocity of the thermal atoms in a classical gas (which is very close to that in an ideal Bose gas). In the detailed solution of the Boltzmann equation for $`f(𝐫,𝐩,t)`$ for a trapped Bose condensed gas at finite temperatures , an important distinction is made between collisions between thermal atoms ($`C_{22}`$ collisions) and the collision integral involving atoms being scattered into/out the condensate ($`C_{12}`$ collisions). In the classical limit, the $`C_{22}`$ collisions give rise to the collision time given in (1). $`C_{12}`$ collisions only appear at temperatures below the Bose-Einstein transition temperature $`T_{\mathrm{BEC}}`$ and are thus a unique feature of a Bose-condensed gas. Our detailed calculations in Ref.  and in this paper include both the $`C_{22}`$ and $`C_{12}`$ collisions. However, we find that the various transport relaxation times for the thermal atoms are dominated by the $`C_{12}`$ collisions in a trapped Bose gas because of the high condensate density. A key feature about trapped gases is that the condensate is strongly peaked (high density) at the center of the trap while the thermal cloud (non-condensate distribution) is always spread out over a much larger region. Even at $`T=0.99T_{\mathrm{BEC}}`$, for example, the condensate density at the center of the trap is still comparable to the non-condensate density.

Our major finding in this paper is that the relaxation time $`\tau _\kappa `$ associated with the thermal conductivity is well approximated by a simple formula

$$\frac{1}{\tau _\kappa (𝐫)}\sqrt{2}n_{c0}(𝐫)\sigma \overline{v}\frac{1}{\tau _{\mathrm{BE}}(𝐫)},$$
(2)
as long as

$$n_{c0}(𝐫)\stackrel{~}{n}_0(𝐫).$$
(3)
Moreover, numerical results show that all three characteristic relaxation times ($`\tau _\mu ,\tau _\kappa `$ and $`\tau _\eta `$) are of the same magnitude, within a factor of two. Thus we conclude that to a good first approximation, the relaxation time $`\tau _{\mathrm{BE}}(𝐫)`$ as defined in (2) can be used as a simple “universal” collision time in trapped Bose gases, replacing the expression in (1). One immediately sees that since (3) is valid in the center of the trap at effectively all temperatures below $`T_{\mathrm{BEC}}`$, we obtain $`\tau _{\mathrm{BE}}(𝐫)\tau _{\mathrm{cl}}(𝐫)`$. For modes concentrated in the condensate core region, it is $`\tau _{\mathrm{BE}}(𝐫)`$ which determines the crossover frequency between the collisionless and hydrodynamic frequency regions. In the thermal gas outside the condensate core, $`\tau _{\mathrm{cl}}`$ in (1) gives a good estimate for the transport relaxation times.

We now turn to the detailed calculations which lead to the above conclusions. Referring to Appendix B of Ref. , we first summarize the formal expressions for the various relaxation times in a trapped Bose gas:

1. Thermal conductivity :

$$\kappa (𝐫)=\frac{5}{2}\tau _\kappa (𝐫)\frac{\stackrel{~}{n}_0(𝐫)k_\mathrm{B}^2T}{m}\left\{\frac{7g_{7/2}(z_0)}{2g_{3/2}(z_0)}\frac{5}{2}\left[\frac{g_{5/2}(z_0)}{g_{3/2}(z_0)}\right]^2\right\},$$
(4)
where $`z_0e^{\beta [\mu _{c0}U_0(𝐫)]}`$ is the local fugacity and $`g_n(z)`$ are the usual Bose-Einstein functions . The effective potential $`U_0(𝐫)U_{\mathrm{ext}}(𝐫)+2g[n_{c0}(𝐫)+\stackrel{~}{n}_0(𝐫)]`$ includes the external trap potential $`U_{\mathrm{ext}}(𝐫)`$ as well as the self-consistent Hartree-Fock mean field. The interaction between atoms is treated by the usual low energy $`s`$-wave scattering length approximation, with $`g=4\pi \mathrm{}^2a/m`$. The thermal relaxation time $`\tau _\kappa `$ in (4) is given by

$$\frac{1}{\tau _\kappa }=\frac{1}{\tau _{\kappa ,12}}+\frac{1}{\tau _{\kappa ,22}},$$
(5)
with

$$\tau _{\kappa ,12}=\tau _{\mathrm{BE}}\frac{15\sqrt{2}\pi ^{7/2}}{4}\frac{\frac{7}{2}g_{7/2}(z_0)g_{3/2}(z_0)\frac{5}{2}g_{5/2}^2(z_0)}{\stackrel{~}{n}_0\mathrm{\Lambda }_0^3I_{12}^\kappa (z_0)},$$
(6)
$$\tau _{\kappa ,22}=\tau _{\mathrm{cl}}\frac{15\sqrt{2}\pi ^{7/2}}{4}\frac{\frac{7}{2}g_{7/2}(z_0)g_{3/2}(z_0)\frac{5}{2}g_{5/2}^2(z_0)}{I_{22}^\kappa (z_0)},$$
(7)
where $`\tau _{\mathrm{cl}}`$ and $`\tau _{\mathrm{BE}}`$ are defined in (1) and (2) respectively. The equilibrium densities of the condensate and non-condensate are given by $`\stackrel{~}{n}_0(𝐫)=(1/\mathrm{\Lambda }_0^3)g_{3/2}(z_0)`$ and $`n_{c0}(𝐫)=[\mu _{c0}U_{\mathrm{ext}}(𝐫)]/g2\stackrel{~}{n}_0(𝐫)`$, where $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_0(2\pi \mathrm{}^2/mk_\mathrm{B}T)^{1/2}`$ is the thermal de Broglie wavelength. The dimensionless integrals $`I_{22}^\kappa `$ and $`I_{12}^\kappa `$ are defined in Ref.  and involve an integration over the $`C_{12}`$ and $`C_{22}`$ collision cross-sections (which involve products of the equilibrium Bose distributions describing the thermal atoms with an appropriate weighting function).

2. Shear viscosity :

$$\eta (𝐫)=\tau _\eta (𝐫)\stackrel{~}{n}_0(𝐫)k_\mathrm{B}T\left[\frac{g_{5/2}(z_0)}{g_{3/2}(z_0)}\right],$$
(8)
where the viscous relaxation time $`\tau _\eta `$ is given by

$$\frac{1}{\tau _\eta }\frac{1}{\tau _{\eta ,12}}+\frac{1}{\tau _{\eta ,22}},$$
(9)
with

$$\tau _{\eta ,12}=\tau _{\mathrm{BE}}\frac{5\sqrt{2}\pi ^{7/2}}{2}\left[\frac{g_{5/2}(z_0)g_{3/2}(z_0)}{\stackrel{~}{n}_0\mathrm{\Lambda }_0^3I_{12}^\eta (z_0)}\right],$$
(10)
$$\tau _{\eta ,22}=\tau _{\mathrm{cl}}\frac{5\sqrt{2}\pi ^{7/2}}{2}\left[\frac{g_{5/2}(z_0)g_{3/2}(z_0)}{I_{22}^\eta (z_0)}\right].$$
(11)
Again, the dimensionless integrals $`I_{12}^\eta `$ and $`I_{22}^\eta `$ are given by somewhat complicated expressions involving products of the equilibrium Bose distribution functions .

3. Coefficients of second viscosity :

From general considerations, Landau and Khalatnikov showed  that in a Bose superfluid, there are four coefficients of second viscosity. We find in our model that

$`\zeta _1`$ $`=`$ $`\zeta _4={\displaystyle \frac{gn_{c0}(𝐫)}{3m}}\sigma _H\tau _\mu ,`$ (12)
$`\zeta _2`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{gn_{c0}^2(𝐫)}{9}}\sigma _H\tau _\mu ,\zeta _3={\displaystyle \frac{g}{m^2}}\sigma _H\tau _\mu ,`$ (13)
where the relaxation time $`\tau _\mu `$ describes how fast the chemical potentials of the condensate and non-condensate components come to equilibrium.

The relaxation time $`\tau _\mu `$, which arises entirely from the $`C_{12}`$ collision integral in the kinetic equation, was first discussed in detail in Refs. . The hydrodynamic renormalization factor $`\sigma _H`$ in (13) only involves the static thermodynamic functions of the gas, and is defined in Refs. . More explicitly, one finds

$$\frac{1}{\tau _\mu }=\left(\frac{gn_{c0}}{k_\mathrm{B}T}\right)\frac{1}{\tau _{12}\sigma _H},$$
(14)
where $`\tau _{12}`$ is a collision time associated with the $`C_{12}`$ collisions . We note that in a Bose-condensed gas, the coefficients of second viscosity arise entirely from the $`C_{12}`$ collisions, in contrast to the $`\kappa `$ and $`\eta `$ transport coefficients, which also have a contribution from $`C_{22}`$ collisions (which, however, is very small in a trapped gas).

From Eqs. (6) and (7), one sees that $`\tau _{\mathrm{BE}}/\tau _{\kappa ,12}`$ and $`\tau _{\mathrm{cl}}/\tau _{\kappa ,22}`$ are given as universal functions of the local fugacity $`z_0(𝐫)`$. It turns out that $`\tau _{\mathrm{BE}}/\tau _{\kappa ,12}1`$ for $`z_00.3`$ and $`\tau _{\mathrm{cl}}/\tau _{\kappa ,22}8/15`$ for $`0z_01`$. Similarly, we see from Eqs. (10) and (11) that $`\tau _{\mathrm{BEC}}/\tau _{\eta ,12}`$ and $`\tau _{\mathrm{cl}}/\tau _{\eta ,22}`$ are also universal functions of $`z_0`$, but now have a more complicated dependence, increasing as $`z_0`$ increase. These analytical results are confirmed in Figs. 2 and 3. We emphasize that while $`\tau _{\mathrm{BE}}`$ in (2) gives a good estimate of $`\tau _{\kappa ,12}`$ in (6), it is an empirical formula.

We note that the transport relaxation rates involve integrations which suppress the weight of the low energy collisions. As a result, there is no Bose enhancement from these processes and no divergence in $`1/\tau _{\kappa ,\eta }`$ when $`z_0=e^{\beta gn_{c0}(𝐫)}`$ approaches unity (at the edge of the condensate or at $`T_{\mathrm{BEC}}`$). This is in contrast with the collision times $`\tau _{12}`$ and $`\tau _{22}`$ defined as in Refs. , in which $`1/\tau _{12}`$ and $`1/\tau _{22}`$ have an infrared divergence for $`z_0=1`$ due to the contribution from low momentum collisions. However, note that $`1/\tau _\mu `$ in (14) has no divergence at $`z_0=1`$ .

As a concrete illustration of the behavior of these various transport relaxation times, we consider the MIT study of collective modes at finite temperatures . The trap frequencies were $`\omega _x/2\pi =\omega _y/2\pi =230`$Hz and $`\omega _z/2\pi =18`$Hz, the scattering length $`a=2.75`$nm for 23Na, and the total number of atoms was $`N=4\times 10^7`$. Both the $`m=0`$ quadrupole oscillations and the out-of-phase dipole oscillations were studied in Ref. . In both cases, the condensate and the thermal cloud oscillate along the $`z`$-axis with the collective mode frequency of the order of the axial trap frequency $`\omega _z`$. It is therefore convenient to compare the various transport relaxation rates with the trap frequency $`\omega _z`$.

In Fig. 1, we plot the spatial dependence of both the condensate and non-condensate densities along the axial $`z`$-direction at $`T0.7T_{\mathrm{BEC}}`$. In Fig. 2, we plot the spatial dependence of the various relaxation rates. We find that all the relaxation rates are much larger than the trap frequency $`\omega _z`$, and thus the collective oscillations with the frequency $`\omega \omega _z`$ are hydrodynamic modes. In Fig. 2, we also show the approximate relaxation rates using the simple formula given by (2). This empirical expression is seen to be in excellent agreement with the thermal relaxation time $`\tau _\kappa `$. For comparison, we also plot the classical elastic collision time given by (1). Clearly this classical collision rate is much smaller than all the transport relaxation rates due to $`C_{12}`$ collisions. Outside the central condensate region, $`\tau _\mu ^1`$ vanishes and $`\tau _\kappa ^1`$ and $`\tau _\eta ^1`$ only have contributions from the $`C_{22}`$ collisions. They can be well approximated by the classical gas results $`\tau _\kappa (15/8)\tau _{\mathrm{cl}}`$ and $`\tau _\eta (5/4)\tau _{\mathrm{cl}}`$. To see the dependence on the total number of the atoms, we plot in Fig. 3 the relaxation times for $`N=10^5`$. In this case, all the relaxation rates are such that $`\omega _z\tau 1`$ and thus the collective modes would be in the transition region between the collisionless and hydrodynamic domains.

We might also note that the diffusive equilibrium relaxation time $`\tau _\mu `$ is always slightly smaller than the other relaxation times (see Figs. 2 and 3). As we have discussed in Ref. , in principle one could have $`\omega \tau _\mu 1`$ even in the hydrodynamic region where $`\omega \tau _\kappa ,\omega \tau _\eta 1`$. In a uniform Bose gas, this can occur in a fairy wide region near $`T_{\mathrm{BEC}}`$ where $`\tau _\mu `$ becomes very large . In this region, one expects to find a new zero-frequency relaxational mode . However, the high condensate density in the center of a trap (relative to the low density of the thermal cloud) precludes one from observing this diffusive relaxational mode - unless one works extremely close to $`T_{\mathrm{BEC}}`$.

One can evaluate the peak value of the approximate relaxation rate in (2) using the $`T=0`$ Thomas-Fermi expression for the peak density $`n_{c0}(0)`$ at the center of the trap. This gives the useful formula:

$$\frac{1}{\overline{\omega }\tau _{\mathrm{BE}}(0)}6.47\left(\frac{a}{a_{\mathrm{HO}}}\right)^{7/5}N^{17/30}\left(\frac{T}{T_c^0}\right)^{1/2}\left(\frac{N_c}{N}\right)^{2/5},$$
(15)
where $`a_{\mathrm{HO}}(\mathrm{}/m\overline{\omega })^{1/2}`$, $`\overline{\omega }(\omega _x\omega _y\omega _z)^{1/3}`$ is the averaged frequency of the anisotropic trap, $`N_c`$ is the total number of the atoms in the condensate, and $`T_c^0(\mathrm{}\overline{\omega }/k_\mathrm{B})[N/\zeta (3)]^{1/3}`$ is the transition temperature of an ideal trapped Bose gas. For a given value of $`N`$, this expression can be used to estimate at what temperature we pass from the collisionless to the hydrodynamic region for a given trap ($`\omega \tau _{\mathrm{BE}}(0)=1`$).

To be in the two-fluid hydrodynamic region ($`\omega \tau _{\mathrm{BE}}<1`$), one must work with a sample size with $`N10^6`$ atoms or more, when dealing with 87Rb or 23Na atoms. One can also make use of a highly anisotropic trap potential $`\omega _x,\omega _y\omega _z`$ to have low-frequency collective mode $`\omega \omega _z`$ while keeping the high density due to the tight confinement in the radial direction. We note that if one is already close to the hydrodynamic domain above $`T_{\mathrm{BEC}}`$ as estimated by using (1) , one will be deeply in the hydrodynamic region $`(\omega \tau _{\mathrm{BE}}1)`$ when the Bose-condensate forms. This is simply a result of the fact that in the condensate core region, $`\tau _{\mathrm{BE}}\tau _{\mathrm{cl}}`$.

The scattering length of metastable 4He  is estimated to be $`a16`$nm, much larger than in 87Rb or 23Na. Combined with the large sample size ($`N10^7`$), the recent Bose condensates observed in 4He are well within the hydrodynamic domain even above $`T_{\mathrm{BEC}}`$. Finally, the adjustable value of $`a`$ achievable near a Feshbach resonance (see Ref. ) could be used to study collective mode frequencies as one smoothly goes from the mean-field (small $`a`$) to the collision-dominated hydrodynamic (large $`a`$) region.

Detailed predictions for the collective mode frequencies in the two-fluid hydrodynamic region of superfluid trapped gases will be presented elsewhere, based on the theory given in Ref. . In trapped gases, one has the interesting situation that while the thermal cloud in the condensate region may be well in the hydrodynamic region, one eventually always enters the collisionless region in the low density tail of the thermal cloud. This has not been included in the derivation of the two-fluid hydrodynamic equations given in Ref. . While this has little effect on the frequency of a condensate mode, it may be important in the damping of certain modes. Such effects have been included above $`T_{\mathrm{BEC}}`$ by using a cutoff . The main point, however, is that the damping in the hydrodynamic region will be directly proportional to an appropriate spatial average of the transport relaxation times introduced in this paper.

We thank Eugene Zaremba for extensive discussions as well as comments on the manuscript. T.N. is supported by JSPS of Japan and A.G. is supported by NSERC of Canada.


text:
# QSO HOSTS AND COMPANIONS AT HIGHER REDSHIFTS

## 1 Host galaxy detection

In the past decade we have made significant progress in detecting and measuring the host galaxies of QSOs at redshifts in the range 1 to 2.5, and even above 3 in a few instances. This is partly due to the fact that the hosts at higher redshifts are in very active star-forming stages of their lives, and are thus bright in the observed rest-frame UV. The first significant paper on high redshift host galaxies came from KPNO data with resolution only about 1.3 arcsec, showing dramatically that radio-loud hosts were both bright and large (Heckman et al 1991). Since then the availability of NIR imaging and higher resolution imaging (via HST or adaptive optics) have been responsible for the bulk of the higher z investigations to date, and which I attempt to review here (see e.g. Lowenthal et al 1995, Lehnert et al 1992, Hutchings 1995b, Aretxaga et al 1998, Hutchings 1998, Hutchings et al 1999, Lehnert et al 1999, Rix et al 2000, Kukula et al 2000, Ridgway et al 2001). It is clear that the use of 8-10m class telescopes will help us reach to fainter details and higher redshifts where redshift dimming dominates, and will be a key to future investigations in this field (Falomo et al 2000).

There are thus a number of investigations that have reported on high redshift host galaxies. Their interest as samples of high redshift galaxies in general has somewhat been overshadowed by the recent major progress in recognising and studying high redshift non-QSO galaxies, via photometric redshifts and 10m telescope spectroscopy. However, the QSO environment is still of considerable interest in the context of the general galaxy population at higher redshifts.

As well as the redshifts above 1, I have selected host galaxy measurements over the redshift range below 1 to cover the redshift range down to the well-studied low redshift QSOs (Kotilainen et al 1998, Kotilainen and Falomo 2000) . The diagrams show the result, attempting to be comprehensive at higher redshifts, while selecting quantities derived with reliable methods and good data. They also do not impose any interpretation on the results, such as K-corrections, evolutionary assumptions, or extinction estimates. Given the different instrumental and observational limitations between the NIR and traditional optical bands, I have compiled (or applied corrections to obtain) the data for H-band and I-band. These are shown in the plots.

In addition to the studies referenced, a number of these are from ongoing and unpublished work of my own at the time of writing. They include NIR and optical data from CFHT with AO correction, and some HST WFPC2 data. The plots also show for comparison, selected points for low redshift QSOs, which I think are representative, but not at all complete, since there are hundreds of low redshift QSO hosts in the literature. The plots also distinguish between radio-loud and radio-quiet objects, since this is likely to be a fundamental and diagnostic difference. All points shown are derived for H0=50 and q0=0 cosmology. This is for easiest comparison rather than to represent a preferred choice.

While the comparison of results for the same objects from different investigators are encouraging in the few available instances, it is likely that both scatter and systematic differences arise from the different methods of removing PSFs, and overall image quality differences. I have omitted data that are less reliable - usually from poor resolution, smaller telescopes, or more noisy detectors. As a rough guide, the table shown compares the ‘quality’ of data from different sources. There are two important criteria in data for host galaxy studies: detection of faint extended flux, and image resolution to minimise the nuclear point source spread. Different telescopes have different strengths in these two areas, and there are additional criteria of detector noise and PSF complexity. Adding error bars to the diagrams to take all these into account would be a large and unrewarding task, so I am assuming that the mix of different investigations in overlapping redshifts will show the overall trends without severe systematic errors.

Nothwithstanding these caveats, there are some clear points in the plots. Generally, the host galaxies are more luminous with increasing redshift. The increase is faster with redshift in visible wavelengths, and larger in the NIR in the radio-loud sources. However, the wavelength dependence is strongly affected by the redshift itself, as well as evolution in the SED. I have sketched in linear suggestions for the trends as observed. As noted by Falomo et al, at redshifts 1 and above, the radio-loud hosts are brighter than BCGs and L\* galaxies, while radio-quiet ones are comparable with BCGs. All are unusually bright galaxies, and there a few enough null detections that this is unlikely to be an observational issue.

What can we infer from these results? Given that the observed rest wavelength changes with redshift as shown along the X-axes, the host galaxies are bluer as well as brighter, consistent with passive evolution or declining star-formation as time proceeds, and the hosts at redshifts 2 and higher are starburst objects. This has been noted by various workers. However, since QSO episodes are short compared with the lifetimes of galaxies, we are not necessarily seeing the evolution of a population of galaxies, but may also be looking at a changing population of hosts with time. We come back to this below.

As galaxy luminosity can reflect star-formation activity, increased content by merging, or stripping by tidal events, we can remove some parameters by looking at the average colours indicated by the lines through the H and I band plots. The colour plot shows this evolution for the two QSO types. We show for comparison the colour expected for constant star-formation, and passive evolution from starburst for galaxy formed at redshift about 4, with the adopted cosmology timescale. Dust and increased metallicity move the plots vertically up the diagram.

The colour evolution is different for the two QSO types. At high redshift, both have colours of star-forming galaxies, but the radio-loud ones have an older population present. The radio-quiet hosts appear to evolve passively to redshift 1, and then are reddened by abundance changes and/or dust. The radio-loud hosts appear to have active star-formation at high levels down to redshift near 0.5, and then go the way of the radio-quiet.

The scale lengths are more subject to differences in PSF removal, but the plot shows what the best data indicate. Generally, the high redshift host galaxies are smaller, and become much smaller than present-day bright galaxies. There is a scatter of high values that may arise from tidal tails. If so, this is seen predominantly at redshifts 0.5 to 1. (when galaxy merging is generally known to be higher). This is consistent with heriarchical merging as galaxies evolve, as noted by other authors in the subject. It is also consistent with the evolution of non-active galaxies as seen by Lyman-break galaxy studies.

## 2 Cluster environment

There have been several studies of QSO galaxy companions. Many authors have noted the apparent connection between galaxy interactions and QSO activity, as well the signs of past tidal events in the profiles of QSO hosts at low redshift. These are much harder to see at high redshift, since tidal tails are old stars which are faint and close to the nuclear PSF. It is simpler to count and even get spectra for nearby companions, in order to characterise the galaxy environment of QSOs. However, such results are quite dependent on image quality, signal level, and detection threshold. The table again shows where we expect to do best in this regard.

The compendium of high redshift QSOs is shown in the Figure 5. The principal references for these are Hutchings et al 1995, Hutchings 1995a, Teplitz et al 1999, Wold et al 2000, 2001, Haines et al 2000, and some recent unpublished data of my own. The numbers plotted are estimated excess galaxies within 20 arcsec of the QSO in the sky, in some cases derived from different areas originally reported. The low-redshift values are means from many objects, and the vertical ‘error bar’ indicates the range among individual objects. A similar range is revealed at redshift 1.1, which is QSOs in the ‘supercluster’ region discussed by Hutchings et al (1995). The dotted lines sketch in suggested increases in the RL and RQ environments above z=1. Clearly these are very uncertain in view of the scatter where we have enough measures to know. However, it is generally accepted that QSOs do live in regions of enhanced galaxy populations, and that the number of galaxy companions probably increases at higher redshift. Several investigations show that the companion density on the sky falls quickly with radius, so that the plot is oversimplified in that respect.

Another caveat is that at high redshift, the companions seen are compact, so that their detection depends on good signal and high resolution. The deepest detection of companions comes from long CCD exposures with HST. The small size of the faint galaxies means that HST can detect more of them, to a magnitude fainter than CFHT, for example. However, at magnitude fainter than 24, most galaxies are high redshift star-forming objects, so that their association with the QSO needs more than just blue colour from 2 filters. I have not plotted any of these very faint ‘companions’ in the diagram.

In the NIR, HST has the advantage of dark sky, but 8m class telescopes have so much more light-gathering power that they win - not only for companions but also the faint parts of host galaxies that indicate tidal events and evolved populations. However, no major investigations have been done yet.

The galaxy companions we know about, are different at high redshift, and suggestive of environments which may evolve into small groups (or a single large galaxy) at present time. The environment that triggers QSO activity almost certainly changes with cosmic time, ranging from initial merging of protogalaxies to tidal triggers involving gas at present time. Radio-loud sources are likely the more massive black hole (= galaxy bulge mass, age of galaxy, merging history,..?). It is also known in some cases that the companions are a foreground group, which may be connected with the QSO only by lensing action that makes the QSO more visible. We need more complete and careful investigations to get the required statistics on these issues.

## 3 Line emission

The classic paper on line emission from AGN at high redshift is some years ago, by McCarthy et al (1991). This established the ‘alignment effect’ between radio and emission-line structure that seems to be accepted as the ionising effect of nuclear radiation and jet activity on a gas-rich environment. For low redshift QSOs, there is another famous paper by Stockton and MacKenty (1987) that investigates line emission, and finds extended and irregular emission line gas predominantly in extended radio-loud QSOs. This reveals the presence and complex dymanics of gas that lies well outside the stellar population and is presumably the result of tidal events that have fuelled the nucleus.

Work on radio-quiet high redshift QSOs has occured only recently, again with the help of larger telescopes, NIR detectors, and AO. Ohta et al (2000) have detected \[O II\] emission in a z=4.7 QSO, and Hutchings et al (2000) find \[O III\] and H$`\alpha `$ in a sample of radio-quiet or compact radio source QSOs. These all have line emission that lies within the host galaxy and thus corresponds to the NLR gas that has been mapped in low redshift Seyferts and QSOs. Where there is radio structure in these objects. the line emission is aligned with it. The emission line images indicate line equivalent widths typically 200 - 300Å in the redshifted frame, of which about half is typically from the nucleus.

More detailed work will extend this work to a more statistically significant sample and perhaps lead to an understanding of the internal dynamics of the high redshift host galaxies.

## 4 Summary

This review cannot do justice to the details of the different investigations. Other papers in this volume deal with individual programs, which are included in my summary plots.

Overall, the work of the past decade has established a credible set of investigations of high redshift QSO hosts and environments. This should become more detailed and extend to higher redshift with 8m class telescopes with AO, and advanced HST (and NGST) instrumentation. It seems well established that host galaxies at high redshift are luminous, with active star-formation, and generally are very compact for their luminosities. They also live in dense galaxy companion environments. The hosts and their companions must undergo significant merging and evolution, as the much less common present-epoch QSOs are found in larger hosts with less crowded environments. We are on the brink of studying the formation and evolution of the central black holes, which can be measured by the host spheroid morphology, and the nuclear BLR profiles. It is clear that the formation and triggering of QSOs is an integral part of the formation of galaxies, and that QSOs at high redshift offer a wealth of cosmological information for the years to come.

References

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Falomo R., Kotilainen J.K., Treves A., 2001, ApJ, (astro-ph 0009181)

Hutchings J.B., 1995a, AJ, 109, 928

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Haines C.P., Clowes R.G., Campusano L.E., 2001 (astro-ph 0012236)

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Ohta K., et al, 2000, PASJ (astro-ph 0003107)

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text:
# Generalized heat kernel coefficients

## Acknowledgments

I would like to thank C. García Recio for comments on the manuscript. This work was supported in part by funds provided by the Spanish DGICYT grant no. PB98-1367 and Junta de Andalucía grant no. FQM-225.


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# Enhancement of parametric pumping due to Andreev reflection

## Abstract

We report properties of parametric electron pumping in the presence of a superconducting lead. Due to a constructive interference between the direct reflection and the multiple Andreev reflection, the pumped current is greatly enhanced. For both quantum point contacts and double barrier structures at resonance, we obtain exact solutions in the weak pumping regime showing that $`I_p^{NS}=4I_p^N`$, which should be compared with the result of conductance $`G_{NS}=2G_N`$. Numerical results are also provided for the strong pumping regime showing interesting Andreev assisted pumping behaviour.

Current can flow under zero bias when two system parameters of a nanostructure are varied in a cyclic fashion. The physics of this parametric electron pump has been analyzed by several authors. Recently, it has been realized experimentally by switkes et. al. confirming many of the theoretical predictions. So far, investigations on parametric pumping are focused on normal nanostructures. It will be interesting to study a hybrid structure where a superconducting lead is present. In the presence of normal conductor-superconductor (NS) interface, an incoming electron-like excitation can be Andreev reflected as a hole-like excitation. This current doubling effect gives rise to the relation for conductance $`G_{NS}=2G_N`$ for hybrid quantum point contacts and quantum dots at resonance. For dirty NS contacts, de Jong and Beenakker found that the shot noise at subgap voltages is also doubled with respect to its value in normal state which has been confirmed experimentally. To further explore how does Andreev reflection modify quantum interference in the normal state, we have investigated the parametric pumping phenomenon in the presence of a superconducting lead. We find that due to quantum interference of the direct reflection and the multiple Andreev reflection, the pumped current is greatly enhanced. For quantum point contact and quantum dot at resonance, we obtained a relation for the pumped current, $`I_p^{NS}=4I_p^N`$ in the weak pumping regime. Numerical results are presented in the strong pumping regime showing interesting Andreev assisted pumping behaviour which can be verified experimentally.

We consider a parametric pump which consists of a double barrier tunneling structure attached to a normal left lead and a superconducting right lead. The double barrier structure is modeled by potential $`V(x)=V_1\delta (x+a)+V_2\delta (xa)`$ where $`V_1=V_0+V_p\mathrm{sin}(\omega t)`$ and $`V_2=V_0+V_p\mathrm{sin}(\omega t+\varphi )`$ and $`V_p`$ is the pumping amplitude. We further apply a gate voltage $`v_g`$ to control the energy level of the structure. The units are fixed by setting $`\mathrm{}=2m=q=1`$ in the following analysis. At low frequencies, the adiabatic pumped current in the presence of superconducting leads is

$$I_p^{NS}=\frac{\omega }{\pi }_0^\tau 𝑑\tau [\frac{dN_L}{dV_1}\frac{dV_1}{dt}+\frac{dN_L}{dV_2}\frac{dV_2}{dt}]$$
(1)
where the quantity $`dN_L/dV`$ is the injectivity given, at zero temperature, by

$`{\displaystyle \frac{dN_L}{dV_j}}={\displaystyle \frac{1}{2\pi }}Im[S_{ee}^{}_{V_j}S_{ee}S_{he}^{}_{V_j}S_{he}]`$ (2)
where the first term is the injectivity of electron due to the external parameter, i.e. the partial density of states (DOS) for an electron coming from left lead and exiting the system as an electron, and the second term is the injectivity of a hole, i.e. the DOS for a hole coming from left lead and exiting the system as an electron.

For the hybrid nanostructure, the scattering matrix $`S_{ee}`$ and $`S_{he}`$ are given by

$$\widehat{S}=\widehat{S}_{11}+\widehat{S}_{12}(1\widehat{R}_I\widehat{S}_{22})^1\widehat{R}_I\widehat{S}_{21}$$
(3)
where $`\widehat{S}`$ is a $`2\times 2`$ scattering matrix for NS structure with matrix element $`S_{\mu \nu }`$ ($`\mu ,\nu =e,h`$) and $`\widehat{S}_{ij}(E)`$ ($`i,j=1,2`$) is a diagonal $`2\times 2`$ scattering matrix for double barrier structure with matrix element $`S_{ij}(E)`$ and $`S_{ij}^{}(E)`$. $`\widehat{R}_I=\alpha \sigma _x`$ is the $`2\times 2`$ scattering matrix at NS interface with off diagonal matrix element $`\alpha `$. Here $`\alpha =(Ei\nu \sqrt{\mathrm{\Delta }^2E^2})/\mathrm{\Delta }`$ with $`\nu =1`$ when $`E>\mathrm{\Delta }`$ and $`\nu =1`$ when $`E<\mathrm{\Delta }`$. In Eq.(3), the energy $`E`$ is measured relative to the chemical potential $`\mu `$ of the superconducting lead. Eq.(3) has clear physical meaning. The first term is the direct reflection from the normal scattering structure and the second term can be expanded as $`\widehat{S}_{12}\widehat{R}_I\widehat{S}_{21}+\widehat{S}_{12}\widehat{R}_I\widehat{S}_{22}\widehat{R}_I\widehat{S}_{21}+\mathrm{}`$ which is clearly the multiple Andreev reflection in the hybrid structure. From Eq.(3) we obtain the well known expressions for the scattering matrix $`S_{ee}`$ and $`S_{he}`$

$$S_{ee}(E)=S_{11}(E)+\alpha ^2S_{12}(E)S_{22}^{}(E)M_eS_{21}(E)$$
(4)
and

$$S_{he}(E)=\alpha S_{12}^{}(E)M_eS_{21}(E)$$
(5)
with $`M_e=[1\alpha ^2S_{22}(E)S_{22}^{}(E)]^1`$. In the following, we first present the exact result for the pumped current in the weak pumping regime and then study the general situation numerically. In the weak pumping regime, Eq.(1) can be expanded to the lowest order in $`V_p`$,

$$I_p^{NS}=\frac{\omega \mathrm{sin}\varphi V_p^2}{\pi }Im[_{V_1}S_{ee}^{}_{V_2}S_{ee}_{V_1}S_{he}^{}_{V_2}S_{he}]$$
(6)
as compared with the expression for the normal structure,

$$I_p^N=\frac{\omega \mathrm{sin}\varphi V_p^2}{\pi }Im[_{V_1}S_{11}^{}_{V_2}S_{11}+_{V_1}S_{21}^{}_{V_2}S_{21}]$$
(7)
where we set $`V_p=0`$ in $`S_{\nu \mu }`$ and $`S_{ij}`$ after the partial derivatives. We further assume that the Fermi energy is close to the chemical potential of superconducting lead, so $`E0`$ and $`\alpha i`$. Under this condition, $`S_{he}`$ and hence $`_{V_j}S_{he}`$ are pure imaginary numbers for general $`V_j(t)`$. As a result, $`S_{he}`$ does not contribute to $`I_p^{NS}`$ in Eq.(1) as long as $`E=0`$. The only contribution comes from $`S_{ee}`$ which is the superposition of the direct reflection and the multiple Andreev reflection. We will consider two cases: (a) a quantum point contact, e.g. $`V_0=0`$; and (b) the double barrier quantum dot at resonance. For both cases, $`S_{11}=0`$ in the absence of pumping voltage. Therefore, from Eqs.(4) we have

$$_{V_{1/2}}S_{ee}=_{V_{1/2}}S_{11}S_{12}^2_{V_{2/1}}S_{11}^{}$$
(8)
where we have used the fact that $`_{V_1}S_{22}=_{V_2}S_{11}`$. Using Fisher-Lee relation $`S_{\alpha \beta }=\delta _{\alpha \beta }+i\sqrt{v_\alpha v_\beta }G_{\alpha \beta }^r`$ and the Dyson equation $`_{V_j}G_{\alpha \beta }^r=G_{\alpha j}^rG_{j\beta }^r`$, we have $`_{V_1}S_{11}=ivG_{11}^rG_{11}^r=i/(2k)`$ and $`_{V_2}S_{11}=ivG_{12}^rG_{21}^r=i/(2k)S_{12}^2`$ with the velocity $`v=2k`$. So for both cases (a) and (b) we have constructive interference between direct reflection and the multiple Andreev reflection $`_{V_j}S_{ee}=2_{V_j}S_{11}`$ which gives a pumped current $`I_p^{NS}=4I_p^N`$ with $`I_p^N=\pm \omega V_p^2\mathrm{sin}(4ka)/(4\pi k^2)`$, where the plus sign is for quantum point contact since $`S_{12}=e^{2ika}`$, and the minus sign corresponds to resonant tunneling since $`S_{12}=e^{2ika}`$.

In the general situation, the pumped current can be calculated numerically using Eq.(1). Since the pumped current is proportional to $`\omega `$, we set $`\omega =1`$ for convenience. In the left inset of Fig.1, we plot the ratio $`I_p^{NS}/I_p^N`$ as a function of pumping strength $`V_p/V_0`$ for $`V_0=79.2`$ at the resonant point. We see that as the pumping amplitude increases, the constructive interference effect is suppressed. At small pumping strength, the ratio is about four which agrees with our theoretical analysis. At larger pumping strength, this ratio decreases to the value below two. Similar behaviour is seen for the quantum point contact. Fig.1 shows the pumped current as a function of Fermi energy $`E_F`$ for different pumping amplitudes. For $`V_0=79.2`$, we have chosen $`v_g=9.39`$ so that one resonant level in the quantum dot is aligned with the chemical potential $`\mu _s`$ of the superconducting lead in the absence of pumping voltage $`V_p`$. For comparison, we also plot the Andreev reflection coefficient when $`V_p=0`$. Several observations are in order: (1). the pumped current is peaked near the resonant level showing clearly a resonant behaviour. This is because the pumped current (Eq.(1) is proportional to DOS of the system which reaches its maximum near the resonance. (2) As the pumping amplitude $`V_p`$ increases, the pumped current increases. (3). The pumped current has two asymmetric peaks. To understand this, we plot in the right inset of Fig.1 the Andreev reflection coefficient versus $`E_F`$ at different moments in one pumping cycle. From this inset, we observe that the Andreev reflection coefficient gives one or two peaks depending on the configuration of the system. This behaviour can be understood from the Breit-Wigner form of the resonant Anfreev reflection $`T_A`$ through a single level $`E_0=0`$ (measured relative to $`\mu _s`$):

$$T_A=\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }_L^2\mathrm{\Gamma }_R^2}{4(E^2+\mathrm{\Gamma }\mathrm{\Delta }_\mathrm{\Gamma }/4)^2+\mathrm{\Gamma }_L^2\mathrm{\Gamma }_R^2}$$
(9)
where $`\mathrm{\Delta }_\mathrm{\Gamma }=\mathrm{\Gamma }_L\mathrm{\Gamma }_R`$ and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }=\mathrm{\Gamma }_L+\mathrm{\Gamma }_R`$. We see that $`T_A`$ shows two peaks when $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_L<\mathrm{\Gamma }_R`$ and just one peak otherwise. Note that in one pumping cycle half of the configurations corresponds to $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_L<\mathrm{\Gamma }_R`$, therefore two pumped current peaks show up in Fig.1 because from Eq.(1) the pumped current is obtained through integral over all the configurations in one pumping cycle. Finally, the reason that two peaks are asymmetric is mainly due to the energy dependence of the self energy. If $`\mu _s`$ is right in the middle of two resonant levels ($`E_1`$ and $`E_2`$), i.e., $`\mu =(E_1+E_2)/2`$, then electron coming from normal lead with incident energy $`E_1`$ tunnels into the structure through the resonant level $`E_1`$ and Andreev reflected as a hole back to the quantum dot through the resonant level $`E_2`$ with a Copper pair created in the superconducting lead. We now examine the Andreev assisted pumping through two levels. For $`V_0=79.2`$ and $`v_g=23.48`$, there are two resonant levels inside the subgap ($`\mu _s=0`$) at $`E_1=14.09`$ and $`E_2=14.09`$. Hence, strong Andreev reflections can occur near $`E_F=E_1`$. Fig.2 shows the two level pumped current versus Fermi energy (solid line). For comparison we also plot the corresponding Andreev reflection coefficient versus Fermi energy when the $`V_p`$ is switched off (see inset of Fig.2). Similar to Fig.1, the pumped current also shows strong resonant behaviour with smaller amplitude (compare Fig.1 dot-dashed line). We found two peaks of pumped current around $`E_1`$, one is near the resonant energy and the other one is shifted to a smaller energy with larger current. Although it is similar to Fig.1 but has different origin. This is due to the fact that when the pumping gate is turned on, the barrier heights and hence the resonant level change with time. To confirm this, we also plot the Andreev reflection coefficients $`T_A`$ at several instants of one pumping cycle in the same figure. The peaks of $`T_A`$ shift around the energy level at different pumping time and give the behaviour of pumped current. We have also calculated the pumped current for other system parameters and confirmed that the behaviour of pumped current shown here is generic.

In summary, in the presence of superconducting lead, the pumped current is greatly enhanced due to the quantum interference of direct reflection and multiple Andreev reflection. In the weak pumping regime, we have the relation $`I_p^{NS}=4I_p^N`$ for both quantum point contact and the resonant tunneling structure. Interesting Andreev assisted pumping behaviours are revealed as well.

We gratefully acknowledge support by a RGC grant from the SAR Government of Hong Kong under grant number HKU 7215/99P. H.G. is supported by NSERC of Canada and FCAR of Québec.


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# Tuning the Tadpole Improved Clover Wilson Action on Coarse Anisotropic Lattices

## 1 Introduction

It has become clear that anisotropic, coarse lattices and improved lattice actions are the ideal candidates for lattice QCD calculations on small computers . They are particularly advantageous for heavy objects like the glueballs, one meson states with nonzero three momenta and multi-meson states with or without three momenta. The gauge action employed is the tadpole improved gluonic action on asymmetric lattices:

$`S=`$ $``$ $`\beta {\displaystyle \underset{i>j}{}}\left[{\displaystyle \frac{5}{9}}{\displaystyle \frac{TrP_{ij}}{\xi u_s^4}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{36}}{\displaystyle \frac{TrR_{ij}}{\xi u_s^6}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{36}}{\displaystyle \frac{TrR_{ji}}{\xi u_s^6}}\right]`$ (1)
$``$ $`\beta {\displaystyle \underset{i}{}}\left[{\displaystyle \frac{4}{9}}{\displaystyle \frac{\xi TrP_{0i}}{u_s^2}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{36}}{\displaystyle \frac{\xi TrR_{i0}}{u_s^4}}\right]`$
where $`P_{ij}`$ is the usual plaquette variable and $`R_{ij}`$ is the $`2\times 1`$ Wilson loop on the lattice. The parameter $`u_s`$, which we take to be the $`4`$-th root of the average spatial plaquette value, incorporates the so-called tadpole improvement and $`\xi `$ designates the (bare) aspect ratio of the anisotropic lattice.

Using this action, glueball and hadron spectrum has been studied within the quenched approximation . The next step would be to extend the calculation to more complex physical quantities. However, in order to utilize the improved fermionic action  on anisotropic lattices, some parameters in the action have to be determined, either perturbatively or non-perturbatively, in order to obtain as much improvement as possible. In this letter, we will discuss the tuning of these parameters in a quenched calculation using clover-improved Wilson fermions on anisotropic lattices. This paper is organized in the following manner. In Section 2, the clover-improved Wilson fermion action on anisotropic lattices is introduced. In Section 3, we focus on the non-perturbative tuning of the bare velocity of light, using the dispersion relations of pseudo-scalar and vector mesons. The optimal values of the bare velocity of light are obtained for various values of $`\beta `$ and $`\kappa `$ on different lattices. In Section 4, we will conclude with some general remarks.

## 2  Improved Wilson Fermions on Asymmetric Lattices

Consider a finite four-dimensional lattice with lattice spacing $`a_\mu `$ along the $`\mu `$ direction for $`\mu =0,1,2,3`$. For definiteness, we also denote $`a_0=a_t`$ and $`a_i=a_s`$ for $`i=1,2,3`$. We will use $`\xi =a_s/a_t`$ to denote the bare aspect ratio of the asymmetric lattice. The un-improved Dirac-Wilson operator on asymmetric lattices is given by:

$$D_0=\frac{1}{2}\underset{\mu }{}\nu _\mu [(_\mu +_\mu ^{})\gamma _\mu a_\mu _\mu _\mu ^{}],$$
(2)
where $`_\mu `$ and $`_\mu ^{}`$ are the usual lattice forward and backward derivatives. The parameter $`\nu _\mu `$ enters the Dirac-Wilson operator since the hyper-cubic symmetry is broken. In particular, we have $`\nu _0=1`$ and $`\nu _i\nu `$ which we call the “bare” velocity of light. The clover-improved Dirac-Wilson operator is obtained by adding a Scheikholeslami-Wohlert, or clover, term to the usual Wilson fermion action . To implement the tadpole improvement, one replaces each spatial link $`U_i(x)`$ by $`U_i(x)/u_s`$ while keeping the temporal link unchanged. In quenched calculations, one usually needs to calculate the quark propagators at various valance quark masses. This amounts to different values of $`m_0`$ or $`\kappa `$ for the same gauge field configuration. In this case, it is convenient to use the following fermion matrix:

$`_{xy}`$ $`=`$ $`\delta _{xy}\sigma +𝒜_{xy}`$
$`𝒜_{xy}`$ $`=`$ $`\delta _{xy}\left[1/(2\kappa _{max})+\rho _t{\displaystyle \underset{i=1}{\overset{3}{}}}\sigma _{0i}_{0i}+\rho _s(\sigma _{12}_{12}+\sigma _{23}_{23}+\sigma _{31}_{31})\right]`$ (3)
$``$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{\mu }{}}\eta _\mu \left[(1\gamma _\mu )U_\mu (x)\delta _{x+\mu ,y}+(1+\gamma _\mu )U_\mu ^{}(x\mu )\delta _{x\mu ,y}\right],`$
where the coefficients are given by:

$`\eta _i`$ $`=`$ $`\nu /(2u_s),\eta _0=\xi /2,\sigma =1/(2\kappa )1/(1\kappa _{max}),`$
$`\rho _t`$ $`=`$ $`c_{SW}(1+\xi )/(4u_s^2),\rho _s=c_{SW}/(2u_s^4).`$ (4)
In this notation, the bare quark mass dependence is singled out into the parameter $`\sigma `$ and the matrix $`𝒜`$ remains unchanged if the bare quark mass is varied. Therefore, one could utilize the shifted structure of the matrix $``$ to solve for quark propagators at various values of $`m_0`$ (or equivalently $`\kappa `$) at the cost of solving only one value of $`\kappa =\kappa _{max}`$, using the so-called Multi-Mass Minimal Residual ($`M^3R`$) algorithm .

## 3 Tuning of the parameters

Tuning the bare parameters of the fermion matrix to obtain the best improvement is a rather delicate issue . In a quenched calculation, the matter is simplified since the anisotropy $`\xi `$ can be determined from the pure gauge sector. In fact, with the tadpole improvement, the renormalization effects of the aspect ratio can be ignored . The parameter $`c_{SW}`$ is the hardest to be tuned. In principle, one could utilize the Schrödinger representation of the QCD path integral to determine this parameter non-perturbatively. This has been done for the clover-improved Wilson fermion action on symmetric lattices . In this work, the tadpole improved tree-level value is used. In what follows, we will focus on the tuning of the parameter $`\nu `$. Since this parameter has rather weak dependence on the quark mass on anisotropic lattices , it can be determined non-perturbatively by the pseudo-scalar meson dispersion relation for a rather heavy pion.

Results of this tuning process for various values of $`\beta `$, together with the corresponding simulation parameters

are given in Table 1 to Table 5. The value of $`\beta `$ in our simulations ranges between $`1.7`$ and $`3.0`$, which roughly corresponds to physical spatial lattice spacing $`a_s`$ in the range $`0.120.4fm`$. The aspect ratios of these lattices are fixed at $`\xi _0=5`$. The spatial sizes of the lattices range from $`L=4`$ to $`L=8`$, which in physical units lie in the range $`0.53.2fm`$, depending on the value of $`\beta `$. For simplicity, only the results for $`6^340`$ lattices that are close to the optimal value of $`\nu `$ are shown.

Quark propagators with various three momenta are obtained using the $`M^3R`$ algorithm with wall sources. In this work, only the meson energy for zero and the following three non-zero lattice momenta are measured, namely $`(100)`$, $`(110)`$ and $`(111)`$ with Dirichlet boundary conditions applied in the temporal direction. Then the pseudo-scalar correlation functions and the vector meson correlation functions are constructed, from which the single pion energy and the single rho energy are extracted in lattice units. Due to the advantage of the anisotropic lattices, the meson energy levels can be measured with good accuracy. Errors are obtained using the standard jack-knife method. The mass of the pion and rho, are also listed in Table 3. The single meson energy levels are fitted according to the expected dispersion relation:

$$\omega _\pi ^2(𝐤)=m_\pi ^2+Z_\pi 𝐤^2,\omega _\rho ^2(𝐤)=m_\rho ^2+Z_\rho 𝐤^2.$$
(5)
In Fig. 1, the dispersion relations of the pseudo-scalar (the lower plot) and the vector meson (the upper plot) are shown for $`\beta =2.2`$, $`\nu =0.95`$ and five different values of $`\kappa `$ on $`6^340`$ lattices. The straight lines represent the fits using the first three lowest momentum points (including the zero-momentum point) according to Eq. (5). It is seen that the above dispersion relations fit the simulation data well for lattice momenta that are not too large. Fitting qualities are similar for other parameter sets. The results of the slope obtained from the fitting are also included in Table 3. By tuning the bare velocity of light parameter $`\nu `$, we obtain a value of $`Z_\pi `$ which is consistent with unity.

The same tuning procedure is also applied to smaller ($`4^340`$) and larger ($`8^340`$) lattices. The outcome of the procedure is quite similar. No significant dependence of the parameter $`\nu `$ on the volume of the lattice has been observed.

## 4 Conclusions

In this letter, we outline the method on the non-perturbative determination of the bare velocity of light parameter $`\nu `$ in the anisotropic Wilson quark action 111We have just noticed that, in a recent work, similar tuning process has been studied by H. Matsufuru et al. .. The optimal values of $`\nu `$ are obtained for various values of $`\beta `$ and $`\kappa `$. These values can then be utilized in a quenched calculation using the improved anisotropic Wilson action. Some of these calculations are in progress and we hope to report the results soon.