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# Um problema de três corpos analiticamente solúvel (An analytically solvable three-body problem)

## 1 Introdução

Apesar dos esforços dos físicos e matemáticos por mais que dois séculos de pesquisa, o problema geral de $`N`$ corpos interagindo mutuamente e movendo-se de acordo com as leis de Newton, para $`N>2`$, nunca foi resolvido exatamente. O problema de dois corpos sujeito a forças que dependem do vetor posição relativa pode ser reduzido a dois problemas de um corpo, um dos quais descreve o movimento do centro de massa e o outro o movimento relativo. $`N=3`$ é o menor valor de $`N`$ que torna o problema de $`N`$ corpos insolúvel no caso geral. Contudo, sob suposições especiais a respeito do tipo de movimento e interação, soluções analíticas para o problema de $`N`$ corpos podem ser encontradas.

No caso do problema de três corpos com interações gravitacionais algumas soluções especiais são normalmente apresentadas nos livros texto de mecânica clássica. No chamado problema restrito de três corpos, dois corpos pesados movem-se em torno do centro de massa comum enquanto um terceiro corpo leve move-se no mesmo plano -. No chamado caso de Lagrange os três corpos estão durante todo o movimento sobre os vértices de um triângulo equilátero, que gira em torno de um eixo perpendicular ao plano dos corpos enquanto troca de tamanho -. Existe ainda uma outra solução especial para o problema de três corpos interagindo gravitacionalmente conhecida como caso de Euler. Neste último caso os corpos movem-se ao longo da mesma linha reta durante todo o movimento -. Uma outra solução especial é essa de $`N`$ corpos de massas similares sujeita a forças similares movendo-se sobre os vértices de um polígono regular de $`N`$ lados . Todos estes movimentos especiais são de grande importância pedagógica tendo em vista que eles são soluções de um problema insolúvel no caso geral. Contudo, a resolução do caso de Lagrange, como apresentada pelos autores de livros-texto, recorre a um sistema de coordenadas em rotação requerendo desta forma um cálculo extenso e elaborado, e conseqüentemente a um enfraquecimento da atratividade pedagógica.

Recentemente o caso de Lagrange foi apresentado de modo alternativo e mais geral dentro do formalismo newtoniano, permitindo que ele possa ser facilmente abordado imediatamente depois da apresentação do problema de dois corpos . Nesse trabalho soluções de triângulo equilátero foram obtidas para interações que vão além do caso gravitacional. Essén, em um trabalho recente  (homônimo a esse da Ref. ), abordou o mesmo problema usando o formalismo lagrangiano, restringindo-se ao caso gravitacional e apresentando uma extensão ao problema de $`N`$ corpos. Encorajado pelos resultado obtidos em  e seguindo os mesmos passos da Ref. , foi realizada uma extensão do caso de Lagrange para um sistema de $`N`$ corpos  buscando uma solução para a qual a força sobre cada um dos $`N`$ corpos está na direção do centro de massa do sistema (a mesma imposição já usada em  e ). Isto realmente acontece para interações gravitacionais porque as forças são proporcionais as massas dos corpos, mas também pode acontecer para outras espécies de interações desde que certas condições sejam satisfeitas pelas massas dos corpos e constantes de força. Como subproduto obtivemos que os $`N`$ corpos estão sobre os vértices de uma figura geométrica regular durante todo o movimento. Para o caso de interações harmônicas chegou-se a conclusão que o problema de $`N`$ corpos reduz-se a $`N`$ problemas de um corpo, portanto os $`N`$ corpos movem-se independentemente, não necessitando estarem sobre os vértices de uma figura geométrica regular. A condição envolvendo as massas dos corpos e as constantes de força para as forças harmônicas obtida em  e  tem a mesma forma que essa já obtida em um trabalho anterior (usando o formalismo lagrangiano): condição necessária para as coordenadas de Jacobi conduzir à separação de variáveis no problema de três corpos com interações harmônicas .

No presente trabalho apresentamos o problema já abordado na Ref.  mas desta feita usamos o formalismo newtoniano. Veremos que este problema especial de três corpos pode ser abordado com facilidade suficiente para que possa ser apresentado aos estudantes de ciências exatas ainda no primeiro semestre dos cursos de graduação. A importância deste problema específico não é apenas pedagógica tendo em vista que o problema de três corpos, interagindo mutuamente via forças harmônicas, tem sido usado no cálculo da espectroscopia de bárions no modelo de quarks -. Começaremos revendo o problema geral de dois dois corpos e em seguida o problema de três corpos com interações harmônicas sem incluir a priori restrições sobre as massas dos corpos e constantes de força.

## 2 O problema de dois corpos

As equações de movimento para dois corpos de massas $`m_1`$ e $`m_2`$, localizadas pelos vetores posição $`\stackrel{}{r}_1`$ e $`\stackrel{}{r}_2`$, respectivamente, podem ser escritas como

$$\stackrel{}{F}_1(\stackrel{}{r}_1,\stackrel{}{r}_2)=m_1\ddot{\stackrel{}{r}_1}$$
(1)
$$\stackrel{}{F}_2(\stackrel{}{r}_1,\stackrel{}{r}_2)=m_2\ddot{\stackrel{}{r}_2}$$
(2)
onde $`\stackrel{}{F}_1`$ ($`\stackrel{}{F}_2`$) é a força que o corpo 2 (1) exerce sobre o corpo 1 (2), e cada ponto sobre os vetores posição $`\stackrel{}{r}_1`$ e $`\stackrel{}{r}_2`$ denota uma derivada temporal. Observe que as forças dependem dos vetores posição dos corpos de forma que as equações (1) e (2) são equações diferenciais acopladas. Introduzindo o vetor posição do centro de massa e o vetor coordenada relativa:

$$\stackrel{}{R}=\frac{m_1\stackrel{}{r}_1+m_2\stackrel{}{r}_2}{m_1+m_2}$$
(3)
$$\stackrel{}{r}=\stackrel{}{r}_1\stackrel{}{r}_2$$
(4)
os vetores $`\stackrel{}{r}_1`$ e $`\stackrel{}{r}_2`$ podem ser escritos como

$$\stackrel{}{r}_1=\stackrel{}{R}+\frac{m_2}{m_1+m_2}\stackrel{}{r}$$
(5)
$$\stackrel{}{r}_2=\stackrel{}{R}\frac{m_1}{m_1+m_2}\stackrel{}{r}$$
(6)
Quando (5) e (6) são introduzidos em (1) e (2) e considerando a forma fraca da terceira lei de Newton (não se exigindo que as forças tenham a mesma direção da linha que une os dois corpos), resulta que

$$M\ddot{\stackrel{}{R}}=\stackrel{}{0}$$
(7)
$$\stackrel{}{F}(\stackrel{}{r}_1,\stackrel{}{r}_2)=\mu \stackrel{}{r}$$
(8)
onde $`\stackrel{}{F}(\stackrel{}{r}_1,\stackrel{}{r}_2)=\stackrel{}{F}_1(\stackrel{}{r}_1,\stackrel{}{r}_2)`$, $`M`$ é a massa do sistema e

$$\frac{1}{\mu }=\frac{1}{m_1}+\frac{1}{m_2}$$
(9)
Considerando ainda que as forças dependem das posições dos corpos apenas pelo vetor posição relativa, chegamos finalmente a conclusão que

$$\stackrel{}{F}\left(\stackrel{}{r}\right)=\mu \ddot{\stackrel{}{r}}$$
(10)
Os resultados (7) e (10) mostram que o problema de dois corpos sob interação mútua foi finalmente reduzido a dois problemas de um corpo. Um dos problemas é aquele de um corpo livre de massa igual a massa total do sistema localizado pelo vetor posição do centro de massa. O outro problema é aquele de um corpo de massa $`\mu `$, chamada de massa reduzida, localizado pelo vetor posição relativa. Toda a dificuldade da solução do problema de dois corpos reside agora na busca de solução deste último problema de um corpo.

## 3 Um problema de três corpos

As equações de movimento para três corpos de massas $`m_i`$ ($`i=1\mathrm{}3`$), localizados pelos vetores posição $`\stackrel{}{r}_i`$ ($`i=1\mathrm{}3`$), respectivamente, podem ser escritas como

$$\stackrel{}{F}_1(\stackrel{}{r}_1,\stackrel{}{r}_2,\stackrel{}{r}_3)=m_1\ddot{\stackrel{}{r}_1}$$
(11)
$$\stackrel{}{F}_2(\stackrel{}{r}_1,\stackrel{}{r}_2,\stackrel{}{r}_3)=m_2\ddot{\stackrel{}{r}_2}$$
(12)
$$\stackrel{}{F}_3(\stackrel{}{r}_1,\stackrel{}{r}_2,\stackrel{}{r}_3)=m_3\ddot{\stackrel{}{r}_3}$$
(13)
Supomos que as interações mútuas são interações entre pares de corpos e que as forças são diretamente proporcionais à coordenada relativa (forças harmônicas):

$$\stackrel{}{F}_1=K_{12}\left(\stackrel{}{r}_1\stackrel{}{r}_2\right)K_{13}\left(\stackrel{}{r}_1\stackrel{}{r_3}\right)$$
(14)
$$\stackrel{}{F}_2=K_{21}\left(\stackrel{}{r}_2\stackrel{}{r}_1\right)K_{23}\left(\stackrel{}{r}_2\stackrel{}{r}_3\right)$$
(15)
$$\stackrel{}{F}_3=K_{31}\left(\stackrel{}{r}_3\stackrel{}{r}_1\right)K_{32}\left(\stackrel{}{r}_3\stackrel{}{r}_2\right)$$
(16)
$`K_{ij}>0`$ são as constantes de força obedecendo à relação $`K_{ij}=K_{ji}`$, em conformidade com a terceira lei de Newton na forma fraca. Observa-se aqui que a forma forte da terceira lei de Newton, estabelecendo que as forças mútuas além de terem os mesmos módulos e sentidos opostos têm que ter a direção da linha que une os corpos, é automaticamente obedecida. Aqui também, mais explicitamente que no caso de dois corpos tratado na seção anterior, é visto que as equações de movimento são equações diferenciais acopladas. As coordenadas de Jacobi são definidas como

$$\stackrel{}{R}=\frac{m_1\stackrel{}{r}_1+m_2\stackrel{}{r}_2+m_3\stackrel{}{r}_3}{m_1+m_2+m_3}$$
(17)
$$\stackrel{}{\rho }=\stackrel{}{r}_1\stackrel{}{r}_2$$
(18)
$$\stackrel{}{\lambda }=\stackrel{}{r}_3\frac{m_1\stackrel{}{r}_1+m_2\stackrel{}{r}_2}{m_1+m_2}$$
(19)
onde $`\stackrel{}{R}`$ é a coordenada do centro de massa do sistema de três corpos, $`\stackrel{}{\rho }`$ é a coordenada do corpo 1 relativa ao corpo 2, e $`\stackrel{}{\lambda }`$ é a coordenada do corpo 3 relativa ao centro de massa dos corpos 1 e 2. Em termos das coordenadas de Jacobi os vetores posição $`\stackrel{}{r}_i`$ podem ser escritos como

$$\stackrel{}{r}_1=\stackrel{}{R}\frac{m_3}{M}\stackrel{}{\lambda }+\frac{m_2}{M_{12}}\stackrel{}{\rho }$$
(20)
$$\stackrel{}{r}_2=\stackrel{}{R}\frac{m_3}{M}\stackrel{}{\lambda }\frac{m_1}{M_{12}}\stackrel{}{\rho }$$
(21)
$$\stackrel{}{r}_3=\stackrel{}{R}+\frac{M_{12}}{M}\stackrel{}{\lambda }$$
(22)
onde $`M`$ é a massa do sistema e $`M_{12}=m_1+m_2`$ é a massa do subsistema constituído pelos corpos 1 e 2. Quando (14)-(16) e (20)-(22) são introduzidas em (11)-(13) resulta que

$$\ddot{\stackrel{}{R}}=\stackrel{}{0}$$
(23)
$$\ddot{\stackrel{}{\rho }}+\omega _1^2\stackrel{}{\rho }=\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }}{M_1}\stackrel{}{\lambda }$$
(24)
$$\ddot{\stackrel{}{\lambda }}+\omega _2^2\stackrel{}{\lambda }=\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }}{M_2}\stackrel{}{\rho }$$
(25)
onde

$$\frac{1}{M_1}=\frac{1}{m_1}+\frac{1}{m_2}$$
(26)
$$\frac{1}{M_2}=\frac{1}{m_1+m_2}+\frac{1}{m_3}$$
(27)
$$\omega _1^2=\frac{1}{M_1}\left(K_{12}+\frac{K_{13}m_2^2+K_{23}m_1^2}{M_{12}^2}\right)$$
(28)
$$\omega _2^2=\frac{1}{M_2}\left(K_{13}+K_{23}\right)$$
(29)
$$\mathrm{\Gamma }=\frac{K_{13}m_2K_{23}m_1}{M_{12}}$$
(30)
Pode-se observar destes resultados que as coordenadas de Jacobi reduziram este problema de três corpos ao movimento livre do centro de massa (23), conseqüência da ausência de forças externas, e ao movimento de dois osciladores harmônicos acoplados pela constante $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$, que anula-se somente quando $`K_{13}m_2=K_{23}m_1`$.

Para desacoplar as equações de movimento no caso geral de massas e constantes de força devemos recorrer a um outro conjunto de coordenadas. Vamos considerar uma transformação de coordenadas que é uma mistura de uma transformação de escala e uma rotação , , definida por

$$\stackrel{}{\rho }=\left(\frac{M_E}{M_1}\right)^{1/2}\mathrm{cos}(\varphi )\stackrel{}{y}_1\left(\frac{M_E}{M_1}\right)^{1/2}\mathrm{sin}(\varphi )\stackrel{}{y}_2$$
(31)
$$\stackrel{}{\lambda }=\left(\frac{M_E}{M_2}\right)^{1/2}\mathrm{sin}(\varphi )\stackrel{}{y}_1+\left(\frac{M_E}{M_2}\right)^{1/2}\mathrm{cos}(\varphi )\stackrel{}{y}_2$$
(32)
onde $`M_E`$ é um parâmetro com dimensão de massa e $`\varphi `$ é um parâmetro de rotação. A princípio os parâmetros $`M_E`$ e $`\varphi `$ são arbitrários. Inserindo (31) e (32) em (24) e (25) encontramos novas equações diferenciais acopladas para as novas coordenadas:

$$\ddot{\stackrel{}{y}}_1+\alpha ^2\stackrel{}{y}_1=\gamma \stackrel{}{y}_2$$
(33)
$$\ddot{\stackrel{}{y}}_2+\beta ^2\stackrel{}{y}_2=\gamma \stackrel{}{y}_1$$
(34)
onde

$$\alpha ^2=\omega _1^2\mathrm{cos}^2(\varphi )+\omega _2^2\mathrm{sin}^2(\varphi )\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }}{\left(M_1M_2\right)^{1/2}}\mathrm{sin}\left(2\varphi \right)$$
(35)
$$\beta ^2=\omega _1^2\mathrm{sin}^2(\varphi )+\omega _2^2\mathrm{cos}^2(\varphi )+\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }}{\left(M_1M_2\right)^{1/2}}\mathrm{sin}\left(2\varphi \right)$$
(36)
$$\gamma =\frac{1}{2}\left(\omega _1^2\omega _2^2\right)\mathrm{sin}\left(2\varphi \right)+\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }}{\left(M_1M_2\right)^{1/2}}\mathrm{cos}\left(2\varphi \right)$$
(37)
A eliminação do acoplamento entre as equações diferenciais (33) e (34) pode ser obtida se pudermos tomar proveito da arbitrariedade do valor do parâmetro $`\varphi `$ impondo que $`\gamma =0`$. Isto realmente acontece quando

$$\mathrm{tan}\left(2\varphi \right)=\frac{2\mathrm{\Gamma }}{\left(\omega _1^2\omega _2^2\right)\left(M_1M_2\right)^{1/2}}$$
(38)
Com $`\varphi `$ dado por (38) finalmente obtemos as seguintes equações diferenciais desacopladas:

$$\ddot{\stackrel{}{y}}_1+\mathrm{\Omega }_1^2\stackrel{}{y}_1=\stackrel{}{0}$$
(39)
$$\ddot{\stackrel{}{y}}_2+\mathrm{\Omega }_2^2\stackrel{}{y}_2=\stackrel{}{0}$$
(40)
onde $`\mathrm{\Omega }_1=\mathrm{\Omega }_+,\mathrm{\Omega }_2=\mathrm{\Omega }_{}`$ e

$$\mathrm{\Omega }_\pm =\frac{1}{2}\left(\omega _1^2+\omega _2^2\right)\pm \frac{1}{2}\left[\left(\omega _1^2\omega _2^2\right)^2+\frac{4\mathrm{\Gamma }^2}{M_1M_2}\right]^{1/2}$$
(41)
As equações diferenciais (39) e (40) descrevem o movimento de dois osciladores harmônicos desacoplados, cujas soluções $`\stackrel{}{y}_1(t)`$ e $`\stackrel{}{y}_2(t)`$ são bem conhecidas. Usando as transformações (31)-(32), e em seguida (20)-(22), obteremos as soluções analíticas para $`\stackrel{}{r}_i(t)`$. Desnecessário mencionar a solução $`\stackrel{}{R}(t)`$ da equação diferencial (23).

## 4 Conclusão

Neste artigo abordamos o problema de três corpos interagindo mutuamente via forças harmônicas. O problema poderia ter sido abordado com muito maior simplicidade se considerássemos desde o início corpos com massas e constantes de forças similares no sistema de referência do centro de massa ($`\stackrel{}{R}=\stackrel{}{0}`$). Encontraríamos então que as coordenadas de Jacobi teriam tido o êxito procurado. Optamos por não impor tal severa restrição a priori, e mostramos que as coordenadas de Jacobi não desacoplam o problema no caso geral mas somente quando $`K_{13}m_2=K_{23}m_1`$, um resultado que contrasta com esse encontrado na literatura -, onde considera-se que o desacoplamento ocorre para massas genéricas e constantes de força similares. A assimetria apresentada por essa condição sine qua non para o desacoplamento surge em decorrência da assimetria na definição das coordenadas de Jacobi $`\stackrel{}{\rho }`$ e $`\stackrel{}{\lambda }`$. Em geral, as coordenadas de Jacobi conduzem o problema de três corpos interagindo mutuamente via forças harmônicas ao problema do movimento livre do centro de massa mais dois osciladores harmônicos acoplados, ainda que as constantes de força sejam idênticas. Também mostramos que existe um outro sistema de coordenadas que conduz à separabilidade no caso geral. Restringimos nossa atenção ao caso de três corpos mas pode-se verificar que extensões para o caso de $`N`$ corpos são também passíveis de soluções analíticas. Para o problema de quatro corpos, em particular, precisaríamos redefinir o vetor posição do centro de massa e acrescentar uma nova coordenada de Jacobi, essa nova coordenada descrevendo a posição do corpo 4 relativa ao centro de massa dos corpos 1, 2 e 3. Quando as massas e as constantes de força são similares as coordenadas de Jacobi per se conduzem à separabilidade deste problema de quatro corpos, em caso contrário deveremos recorrer a um sistema de coordenadas adicional, misturando transformação de escala e rotação no espaço tridimensional, quando então deveremos lidar com três parâmetros de rotação relacionados com os ângulos de Euler. Estas tarefas são deixadas para os leitores.

## 5 Agradecimentos

Os autores são gratos à FAPESP pelo apoio financeiro.


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# Thermopower and thermal conductivity of superconducting perovskite 𝑀𝑔𝐶𝑁𝑖₃

## introduction

Recently the discovery of two new intermetallic superconductors $`MgB_2`$ and $`MgCNi_3`$ has attracted great attention. $`MgB_2`$ has relatively high superconducting transition temperature ($`T_c`$ = 39 K) and the highly promising potential application. High frequency phonons induced by the light element, B, are believed to be essential in yielding the high $`T_c`$. Despite its low $`T_c`$ (about 8 K), $`MgCNi_3`$ is of interest because it is the first compound having the perovskite structure without any oxygen, also bacause of the high proportion of Ni in it.

$`MgCNi_3`$ forms a three-dimentional perovskite structure. Comparison to a familiar oxide perovskite such as $`CaTiO_3`$, for example, indicates the structural equivalencies between Ca and Mg, Ti and C, and O and Ni. Instead of Ti atom, C atom is located in the body-centered position surrounded by a $`Ni_6`$-octahedra cage. Such a large amount of nickel in $`MgCNi_3`$ make it an analog of the three-dimentional layered nickel borocarbides, typified by $`LuNi_2B_2C`$ with a $`T_c`$ near 16 K. One might expect nickel to give rise to possible magnetism in this compound, but no long range magnetic ordering transition was observed from 2 K to 295 K by neutron-diffraction measurements. Band calculations indicate predominantly Ni 3d character at the Fermi level of $`MgCNi_3`$, similar to $`LuNi_2B_2C`$ and $`YNi_2B_2C`$. Ni-derived 3d electrons are considered to be superconducting electrons in $`MgCNi_3`$, so the possibility of the existence of a localized moment on Ni atoms is not reasonable since it would lead to strong pair breaking if superconductivity is due to $`s`$-wave pairing. He et al. has determined the electron-phonon coupling constant $`\lambda _{ph}0.77`$ by specific heat measurement, which is in the range of conventional phonon. Tunneling measurements by Mao et al. detected a zero bias conductance peak below $`T_c`$ suggesting an uncoventional character of the superconducting pairing state. However, the recent $`{}_{}{}^{13}C`$ NMR data below $`T_c`$ are consistent with isotropic $`s`$-wave superconductivity.

There are some doping investigations on $`MgCNi_3`$, but only few transport properties have been reported. Our previous Hall effect measurement indicates that the carrier in $`MgCNi_3`$ is electron-type. The value of $`R_H`$ at 100 K agrees well with that calculated by Singh et al. However, their calculated thermopower is $`p`$-type except for that at very low $`T`$. They found that $`S`$ is very small (less than 1 $`\mu `$V/K) below 150 K, then rises more rapidly reaching 5 $`\mu `$V/K at 300 K. They contributed this unusual $`T`$-dependence of $`S`$ to the competition between the hole and electron pockets of comparable size in the Fermi surface.

Thermal conductivity $`\kappa `$ is one of those transport coefficients which exhibits non-zero values in both the normal and the superconducting state. The temperature dependence of $`\kappa `$ allows one to distinguish between the most important interactions in a superconductor. In particular, the interaction of electrons with phonons is recorded in the magnitude of $`\kappa (T)`$. Moreover, scattering of these particles by static imperfections like impurities, defects or grain boundaries is reflected.

In this paper, we report the first measurement of thermopower and thermal conductivity for superconducting perovskite $`MgCNi_3`$. The thermopower is negative from room temperature to 10 K. Combining with our previous Hall effect measurement, it definetly indicates that the carrier in $`MgCNi_3`$ is electron-type. The origin of the nonlinear temperature dependence of $`S(T)`$ below 150 K is discussed. The thermal conductivity is of the order for intermetallics, larger than that of borocarbides and smaller than $`MgB_2`$. In the normal state, the electronic contribution to the total thermal conductivity is slightly larger than the lattice contribution. The transverse magnetoresistance of $`MgCNi_3`$ is also measured. It is found that the classical Kohler’s rule is violated below 50 K. The abnormal behavior of resistivity, thermopower, and magnetoresistance below 50 K is attributed to an electronic crossover occuring at $`T^{}50K`$.

## experiment

Polycrystalline specimen of $`MgCNi_3`$ used for present measurements is the same one reported previously. Detailed preparation has been reported in Ref. 15. The thermopower was measured by a dc method in the temperature range 10 and 300 K. The temperature gradient ($`\mathrm{\Delta }T`$) in the sample was measured using the two pairs of Rh-Fe thermocouples. The sample was mounted on the top of two well separated copper blocks with silver paint. During the measurement, the temperature gradient $`\mathrm{\Delta }T`$ of two separated copper blocks was kept at 1 K. To eliminate the effects of the reference leads, the absolute thermopower of copper was subtracted from the measured thermoelectric voltage. The thermopower result displayed in this paper is the averaged value over five data measured at the same temperature.

The method of longitudinal steady-state thermal flow was used in measuring the thermal conductivity of the sample from 7 to 300 K. There is a resistive heater at one end of the sample, while the other end makes good heat exchange with a heat source whose temperature can be set freely. A Rh-Fe thermometer is used on the heat source, and the temperature gradient of the sample is measured by a NiCr-Constantan thermocouple. We use PID arithmetic to control the temperature by computer. The temperature stability is better than $`\pm `$2 mK, which is available to the precise requisition of thermal measurement.

Magnetoresistance was measured by a standard four-probe method. The magnetic field was applied by superconducting magnet system (Oxford Instruments) and the temperature was measured by a Cerox thermometer.

## results and discussion

Fig. 1 shows the X-ray diffraction (XRD) pattern and temperature dependence of resistivity under zero magnetic field for the $`MgCNi_3`$ sample. XRD pattern indicates that the sample is nearly single phase. Rietveld refinement has been performed based on the space group Pm-3m. It gave the cubic cell parameter $`a`$ = 3.81111 Å and actual C occupancy about 0.97, being consistent with previous report. The resistive superconducting transition is very sharp with the midpoint of the resistive transition $`T_c`$ = 8.0 K. The temperature dependence of resistivity, $`\rho (T)`$, is almost identical to that reported by He et al. A similar $`\rho (T)`$ behavior has been observed in $`(Ba,K)BiO_3`$ thin film and single crystal. Above 70 K, the normal state $`\rho (T)`$ behavior follows Bloch-Grüneisen theory consistently with electron-phonon scattering and the fitting curve is shown as solid line in Fig. 1.

### A. Thermopower

The absolute thermopower $`S(T)`$ of $`MgCNi_3`$ from room temperature (RT) to 10 K is shown in Fig. 2. The upper inset of Fig. 2 shows the temperature dependence of Hall coefficient reported by us. $`S(T)`$ is negative for the whole temperature range, which is in contrast to that predicted by Singh et al. The negative thermopower, combining with the negative Hall coefficient as seen in the upper inset of Fig. 2, definetly indicates that the charge carrier in this compound is electron-type. Room-temperature thermopower $`S(RT)`$ and $`[dS/dT]_{RT}`$ are -9.2 $`\mu `$V/K and -13.1 nV/K2, respectively. The magnitude of $`S(RT)`$ is somewhat larger than the typical value associated with free electron/conventional metals, i.e., -1.28 $`\mu `$V/K for lead and 1.94 $`\mu `$V/K for gold, but it is approximately the same as for palladium \[$`S(RT)`$ = -10 $`\mu `$V/K\] and $`Y(Lu)Ni_2B_2C`$ single crystals.

The thermopower of conventional nonmagnetic metals consists of two contributions, a diffusion contribution and a phonon-drag contribution resulting from the transfer of phonon momentum to the electron gas. The diffusion contribution is proportional to temperature, while the phonon-drag contribution falls at low temperature as the phonons freeze out, and at high temperatures as the excess phonon momentrum gets limited by phonon-phonon scattering. This usually results in a phonon-drag peak in conventional metals with $`T^3`$ dependence below 0.1$`\mathrm{\Theta }_D`$ and falls as $`T^1`$ above $``$0.3$`\mathrm{\Theta }_D`$. From Fig. 2, no obvious phonon-drag peak is present from RT down to 10 K in $`MgCNi_3`$.

The thermopower of $`MgCNi_3`$ is approximately linear in $`T`$ near room temperature within the measurement accuracy. The extrapolation of the $`S(T)`$ data, assuming a linear $`T`$ dependence of $`S`$, does not pass through $`S`$ = 0 at $`T`$ = 0 and gives large intercept. The data in the temperature region between 150 K and RT was fitted to a straight line, i.e., $`S(T)=a+bT`$, with $`a`$ = -5.2 $`\mu `$V/K and $`b`$ = -13.1 nV/$`K^2`$. The intercept value is slightly larger than that reported for single crystals of $`YNi_2B_2C`$ (-4.6 $`\mu `$V/K) and $`LuNi_2B_2C`$ (-4.3 $`\mu `$V/K). The thermopower of $`MgCNi_3`$ shows the change in slope at the ”knee” at about 150 K. Obviously, in addition to the diffusion thermopower, there is(are) additional contribution(s) to the thermalpower yielding the observed temperature dependence of $`S`$. Such a nonlinear temperature dependence of thermopower $`S(T)`$ is very similar to that of $`Y(Lu)Ni_2B_2C`$ single crystals. Rathnayaka et al. found that $`SbT`$, representing contributions to thermopower other than the diffusion thermopower, is negative and almost constant between 100 and 300 K, and varies approximately as $`T^1`$ below 100 K for both $`YNi_2B_2C`$ and $`LuNi_2B_2C`$ single crystals. They suggest that the observed slope change of $`S(T)`$ in $`Y(Lu)Ni_2B_2C`$ single crystals could be due to the phonon-drag effect as in high-$`T_c`$ cuprate supercondcutors. We plot $`(SbT)`$ vs $`T`$ for $`MgCNi_3`$ in the lower inset of Fig. 2. It is found that $`SbT`$ is almost constant above 150 K, approximately -5.2 $`\mu `$V/K. However the data of $`SbT`$ can not be fitted as $`T^1`$ between 10 and 150 K. This result indicates that the additional contribution(s) to the thermopower in $`MgCNi_3`$ may not be attributed to phonon-drag as in $`Y(Lu)Ni_2B_2C`$ single crystal and high-$`T_c`$ cuprate supercondcutors. It is believed that the particular thermopower behavior of high-$`T_c`$ cuprates and borocarbides relates to their layered nature. $`MgCNi_3`$ is a three-dimentional, not layered compound, hence a different contribution to the thermopower is reasonable.

A low temperature ”knee” in $`S(T)`$ would also be expected from electron-phonon interaction renormalization effects. Electron-phonon renormalization would lead to an enhanced thermopower that is given by

$$S=S_b[1+\lambda (T)]$$
(1)
where $`\lambda (T)`$ is the electron-phonon mass enhancement parameter and $`S_b`$ is the bare thermopower (without renormalization effects). In this expression certain other corrections have been ignored which are relatively small and can be ignored as a first approximation. Equation (1) can be rewritten as

$$\frac{S}{T}=\frac{S_b}{T}[1+\lambda (T)]$$
(2)
where $`\lambda (T)`$, the electron-phonon mass enhancement parameter, is maximum at $`T`$ = 0 K and becomes smaller as $`T`$ is raised, becoming almost negligible near RT and higher temperature in comparison with 1. A plot of $`S/T`$ vs $`T`$ should then give a measure of $`\lambda (T)`$, and $`[S/T]_{T0}/[S/T]_{RT}`$ should approximat $`1+\lambda (0)`$.

Fig. 3 shows the plot of $`S/T`$ vs $`T`$ from 10 K to RT for $`MgCNi_3`$. The magnitude of $`S/T`$ increases smoothly as temperature decreased above about 50 K, but shows a rapid increase at 50 K and a negative peak at 35 K. This nagative peak reflects the abnormal $`T`$-dependence of thermopower blow 50 K, as seen from Fig. 2. The electrical resistivity data of Fig. 1 also shows a change of curvature in the same temperature range, and satisfies $`\rho T^n`$ with $`n1.7`$ below 50 K. Singer et al. found that NMR Knight shift $`{}_{}{}^{13}K`$ saturates below about 50 K. They suggest that an electronic crossover takes place near $`T^{}50K`$ prior to the superconducting transition at $`T_c`$ = 7.0 K. This electronic crossover may be responsible for the abnormal behavior of thermopower and resistivity blow 50 K.

Due to the presence of the negtive peak at 35 K, it is difficult to determine the ratio $`[S/T]_{T0}/[S/T]_{RT}`$ precisely. However, to get some qualitative feeling as to the importance of these renormalization effects in $`S(T)`$ for $`MgCNi_3`$, the $`S/T`$ values at 10 K and the peak (35 K) are taken to be $`[S/T]_{T0}`$ as an approximation, respectively. Using these values of $`[S/T]_{T0}`$ and value of $`[S/T]_{RT}`$ from Fig. 3, estimated values of $`\lambda (0)`$ are 1.4 and 1.7, respectively. Such a range of $`\lambda (0)`$ values of $`MgCNi_3`$ are close to that of some strong-coupling $`A`$-15 superconductors, e.g., $`Nb_3Sn`$ ($`\lambda 1.8`$) and $`Nb_3Al`$ ($`\lambda 1.5`$). The value of $`\lambda (0)`$ for $`Y(Lu)Ni_2B_2C`$ single crystals obtained from a similar analysis of $`S/T`$ data is unrealistically high in comparison with the values of $`\lambda (0)`$ for conventional superconductors including strong-coupling ones. Consequently, electron-phonon renormalization effects do not explain the $`S(T)`$ data for $`Y(Lu)Ni_2B_2C`$ single crystals.

He et al. has determined the electron-phonon coupling constant $`\lambda _{ph}0.77`$ by specific heat measurement for $`MgCNi_3`$. This value of $`\lambda `$ seems much smaller than that of $`\lambda (0)`$ estimated from the $`S(T)`$ data. Therefore there are maybe some mechanisms other than electron-phonon coupling to induce mass enhancement. NMR measurements reveal that $`MgCNi_3`$ has a moderate strong ferromagnetic spin fluctuation and the spin fluctuations are nearly a factor 3 enhanced with decreasing temperature. In the presence of spin fluctuations, Eq. (2) is modified to

$$\frac{S}{T}=\frac{S_b}{T}[1+\lambda (T)+\lambda _{sf}]$$
(3)
where $`\lambda _{sf}`$ is the mass-enhancement parameter due to spin fluctuations. For our present study, the sum of $`\lambda `$ and $`\lambda _{sf}`$ is expected to explain the apparently large $`\lambda (0)`$ obtained from the \[$`S/T`$\] vs $`T`$ plot.

### B. Thermal Conductivity

Fig. 4 shows the temperature dependence of the thermal conductivity $`\kappa `$ of $`MgCNi_3`$. $`\kappa (T)`$ keeps nearly constant above 210 K. Below that temperature, the positive slope of $`\kappa (T)`$ indicates the limitation of the heat conductivity by crystal defects as in pure normal metals $`\kappa `$ exhibits a maximum at lower temperatures and then decreases with rising temperature. The magnitude of $`\kappa `$ is of the order for intermetallics, larger than that of borocarbides and smaller than $`MgB_2`$. As seen from the inset of Fig. 4, $`\kappa `$ shows a small but clear decrease at $`T_c`$ = 8 K, which agrees well with that determinded from the resistivity measurement.

Generally, the total thermal conductivity of metals consists of an electronic contribution $`\kappa _e`$ and a lattice contribution $`\kappa _l`$:

$$\kappa =\kappa _e+\kappa _l$$
(4)
In order to separate both contributions from the total measured effect, the Wiedemann-Franz law is applied, assumed to be valid, at least, in simple metals. This model relates the electrical resistivity $`\rho `$ with the electronic contribution to the thermal conductivity $`\kappa _e`$, and $`\kappa _e`$ can be expressed as

$$\kappa _e(T)=\frac{L_0T}{\rho (T)}$$
(5)
where $`L_0=2.44\times 10^8W\mathrm{\Omega }K^2`$ is the Lorenz number.

Using Eq. (4) and taking into account the appropriate values of the normal-state resistivity of $`MgCNi_3`$ allows to split $`\kappa `$ into $`\kappa _e`$ and $`\kappa _l`$ (dashed lines, Fig. 4). It is found that the electronic contribution to the total thermal conductivity is slightly larger than the lattice contribution in the normal state of $`MgCNi_3`$.

According to Matthiessen’s rule both $`\kappa _e`$ and $`\kappa _l`$ are limited owing to various scattering processes, which can be expressed in terms of a thermal resistivity $`W`$. In the case of non-magnetic materials, the following temperature dependence of the electronic contribution to the total measured quantity is assumed to be valid:

$$1/\kappa _e(T)W_e(T)=W_{e,0}(T)+W_{e,ph}(T)=\frac{\alpha }{T}+\beta T^2$$
(6)
where the subscripts (e,0) and (e,ph) refer to interactions of the conduction electrons with static imperfection and thermally excited phonons, respectively; $`\alpha `$ and $`\beta `$ are material constants.

Eq. (6) allows to detemine $`W_{e,0}`$ and $`W_{e,ph}`$. The electronic thermal resistivity $`W_e`$ is shown in Fig. 5 from 10 to 50 K. The solid line is the fitting curve according to Eq. (6). and the dashed lines represent $`W_{e,0}`$ and $`W_{e,ph}`$, respectively. Thus, the deduced parameters are $`\alpha =51.36`$ $`mK^2W^1`$ and $`\beta =1.2\times 10^4`$ $`mW^1K^1`$. Obviously from Fig. 5, the scattering of electrons with static imperfections of the crystal becomes dominant as the temperature approaches $`T_c`$.

Above discussions on thermal conductivity of $`MgCNi_3`$ did not take account of the effect of spin fluctuations, which have been greatly enhanced with decreasing temperature. In fact, the scattering of electrons with spin fluctuations will decrease the thermal conductivity, especially at low temperature. However, the exact temperature dependence of the electronic thermal resistivity caused by the interactions of the conduction electrons with spin fluctuations in $`MgCNi_3`$ is not clear for us so far. To clarify it, further experimental and theoretical works should be done.

### C. Magnetoresistance

To get further insight into the charge transport, the magnetoresistance (MR) measurement is a useful tool since it is more sensitive to the change in the charge carrier scattering rate 1/$`\tau `$, effective mass $`m^{}`$, and the geometry of the Fermi surface. In conventional metals, the electrical conductivity can be described in terms of the Boltzmann equation. In the presence of a magnetic field $`H`$, the change in the distribution function $`g(𝐯)`$ is described by

$$g(𝐯)=[1+(H\tau )\frac{e}{c}𝐯\times \widehat{𝐇}\frac{v}{\mathrm{}𝐤}\frac{}{v}]^1[\tau \mathrm{𝐞𝐄}𝐯\frac{f^0}{ϵ}]$$
(7)
The magnitude of the magnetic field contributes to Eq. (7) in a product of $`H`$ and $`\tau `$. Since 1/$`\tau `$ is generally proportional to the zero-field resistivity $`\rho _0`$, the MR $`\mathrm{\Delta }\rho /\rho _0`$ depends only on $`H/\rho _0`$. This results in a scaling law referred to as Kohler’s rule which holds in many conventional metals:

$$\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }\rho }{\rho _0}=f(H\tau )=F(\frac{H}{\rho _0})$$
(8)
in the low-field limit, the MR quadratically depends on $`H`$, and is therefore scaled as $`\mathrm{\Delta }\rho (T)=const\times (H/\rho _0)^2`$.

Fig. 6 shows the normal-state transverse ($`HI`$) magnetoresistance of $`MgCNi_3`$ as a function of magnetic field at various temperature. The magnetoresistance is defined as $`MR=\mathrm{\Delta }\rho /\rho _0=(\rho (H)\rho _0)/\rho _0`$. The inset of Fig. 6 is the magnetic field dependence of the resistance at 2.3 K. Above $`H_{c_2}(2.3K)`$ = 12.5 T, the resistance incresases with the magnetic field, showing a positive magnetoresistance. The change in the resistance at 12 T and 15 K is about 0.9% which is comparable with normal metals. A large in-plane MR ($`Hc`$) ($`7.3\%`$) has been observed in $`LuNi_2B_2C`$ single crystal for $`H`$ = 4.5 T at 20 K, and a similar amount of MR for $`YNi_2B_2C`$ single crystal. The value of MR for $`LuNi_2B_2C`$ polycrystalline sample is about 3.5 times higher than that of single crystal. Obviously the MR of $`MgCNi_3`$ is much smaller than that of borocarbides. As seen in Fig. 6, the normal-state transverse MR of $`MgCNi_3`$ is always positive and monotonically decreases with increasing temperature. The magnetic field dependence is essentially $`H^2`$ up to 12 T for all temperatures. The data in Fig. 6 are replotted as $`\mathrm{\Delta }\rho /\rho `$ vs $`(H/\rho )^2`$, Kohler’s plot, in Fig. 7. Above 50 K the data fall onto a single straight line, which implies that the MR is essentially scaled by $`H/\rho `$, i.e., that it follows the classical Kohler’s rule. The data below 50 K have a different slope, which means the deviation from Kohler’s rule. As mentioned above, an electronic crossover at $`T^{}50K`$ has been revealed by NMR measurements and affects the low temperature behavior of resistivity and thermopower. It is reasonable to contribute the deviation of MR from Kohler’s rule blow 50 K to this electronic crossover.

## conclusion

We have investigated the thermopower and thermal conductivity of superconducting perovskite $`MgCNi_3`$. Combining with the negative Hall coefficient reported previously, the negative thermopower definetly indicates the electron-type carrier in $`MgCNi_3`$. The nonlinear temperature dependence of thermopower below 150 K is explained by the electron-phonon interaction renormalization effects. The thermal conductivity is of the order for intermetallics, larger than that of borocarbides and smaller than $`MgB_2`$. A small but clear decrease of thermal conductivity is observed at $`T_c`$ = 8 K. In the normal state, the electronic contribution to the total thermal conductivity is slightly larger than the lattice contribution. The transverse magnetoresistance of $`MgCNi_3`$ is also measured. It is found that the classical Kohler’s rule is valid above 50 K. Abnormal behavior of resistivity, thermopower, and magnetoresistance below 50 K are observed, and may be related to an electronic crossover occuring at $`T^{}50K`$.

## acknowledgment

This work is supported by the Natural Science Foundation of China and by the Ministry of Science and Technology of China (NKBRSF-G19990646).

$``$ To whom all correspondence should be addressed. Email: chenxh@ustc.edu.cn

FIGURE CAPTIONS

FIG 1:

The temperature dependence of resistivity under zero magnetic field for $`MgCNi_3`$ sample. Inset: the XRD pattern.

FIG 2:

The temperature dependence of thermopower for $`MgCNi_3`$ sample. Upper inset: the temperature dependence of Hall coefficient adoped from Ref. 15. Lower insert: $`SbT`$ as a function of temperature.

FIG 3:

$`S/T`$ as a function of temperature for $`MgCNi_3`$.

FIG 4:

The temperature dependence of the thermal conductivity of $`MgCNi_3`$. The dash lines represent the electronic contribution $`\kappa _e`$ and lattice contribution $`\kappa _l`$, respectively. The inset shows the change of slope at $`T_c`$ = 8 K.

FIG 5:

The electronic thermal resistivity of $`MgCNi_3`$. The solid line is the fitting curve according to Eq. (6).

FIG 6:

The normal-state transverse ($`HI`$) magnetoresistance of $`MgCNi_3`$ as a function of magnetic field at various temperature. Inset: the magnetic field dependence of the resistance at 2.3 K.

FIG 7:

Kohler’s plot for $`MgCNi_3`$ at selected temperatures. Above 50 K the presence of a universal line implies that Kohler’s rule holds.


text:
# GRB Phenomenology, Shock Dynamo, and the First Magnetic Fields

## 1 GRB Afterglow Phenomenology

It appears that GRBs and GRB afterglows can be adequately described by synchrotron emission of relativistic shocks (eg. Waxman 1997, Sari et al 1997, Guetta et al 2000). These phenomenological models describe the shock by a set of adjustable parameters. One of these parameters, $`\xi _BB^2/(8\pi ϵ)`$, is the magnetic energy density divided by the proton energy density $`ϵ`$ downstream of the shock transition. It is thought that $`\xi _B`$ is close to unity, say $`\xi _B0.1`$ . Much smaller values, $`\xi _B0.001`$, were given by Panaitescu & Kumar (2000), but as we are about to show even 0.001 is a surprisingly large number.

For the sake of simplicity, consider a mildly relativistic stage of a GRB afterglow, when Lorentz factor is $``$few. Assume that unshocked plasma is at a typical ISM temperature, $`1eV`$. The unshocked magnetic energy per particle is $`1eV`$, because the field has to be confined by the plasma pressure. If hydrodynamics is applicable, then the blast wave is stable (Gruzinov 2000), and there is no magnetic field generation. Magnetic field is amplified only by compression. Then the shocked magnetic energy per particle is $``$ few eV, because the shock has a compression factor $``$few. But the proton temperature in the shocked plasma is $``$ few GeV, giving $`\xi _B10^9`$, which is at least 6 orders of magnitude smaller than required by the synchrotron phenomenological model of GRB afterglow.

In this work, we assume that the synchrotron GRB model is correct. Then the magnetic field should be somehow generated by the shock. For all practical purposes, the unshocked plasma is unmagnetized. The nature of this shock-generated magnetic field is an interesting unsolved problem. Here we try to guess an answer, but we have to acknowledge the speculative nature of our discussion. The right way to solve this problem is direct numerical simulations of a three dimensional collisionless (Vlasov) plasma.

## 2 Shock Dynamo

That collisionless shocks can generate strong, that is near equipartition, magnetic fields is well known (eg. Sagdeev, 1966). Low-dimensional numerical simulations illustrating this process are also available (eg. Kazimura et al 1998, Appendix). The mechanism of the magnetic field generation is the Weibel instability, which can be explained as follows. Within the shock transition region, the distribution function of charged particles is strongly anisotropic. Particles move predominantly perpendicular to the front. These particles might be thought of as straight currents. Currents of the same sign attract each other, leading to bunching of electrons moving in one direction and protons moving in the opposite direction. This current bunching generates magnetic fields.

The length and time scales characterizing the instability can be obtained from dimensional analysis. The instability is collisionless — it is described by the Vlasov system of equations (that is collisionless Boltzmann plus Maxwell). The Vlasov system contains the following dimensional quantities, $`nm`$, $`ne`$, and $`c`$. Here $`n`$ is the unshocked plasma density, $`m`$ is the proton mass, $`c`$ is the speed of light.111For the sake of simplicity, we will exclude a small dimensionless number $`m_e/m`$, where $`m_e`$ is the mass of electron, from the list of parameters. In reality this number might be important, for example, Sagdeev (1966) argues that non-relativistic Weibel saturates at $`\xi _Bm_e/m`$. We will assume that the shock is mildly relativistic, so it is not characterized by any large or small dimensionless numbers. Then there is only one time scale in the problem, the inverse plasma frequency, $`\omega _p^1`$, where $`\omega _p(4\pi ne^2/m)^{1/2}`$. The only length scale is the skin depth, $`\delta c/\omega _p`$.

Now the initial stage of the Weibel instability might be described as follows. The shock width is $`\delta `$. Within the shock, a near equipartition magnetic field is generated. The field isotropizes the distribution functions of charged particles. The characteristic length scale of the generated field is $`\delta `$.

But what happens many deltas downstream (Gruzinov and Waxman, 1998)? The standard plasma-physical answer would be: (i) Strong electromagnetic fields occupy a layer several $`\delta `$ wide. Within this layer, electromagnetic fields play a role of collisionality, bringing the plasma up the shock adiabatic. Many deltas downstream, there is only shocked plasma and virtually no fields. Electromagnetic fields are week, because they decay by phase space mixing (Landau damping). We have confirmed this magnetic field decay scenario, which is the common collisionless shock wisdom, by two-dimensional numerical simulations (Appendix).

But: the decaying field scenario is ruled out by astronomical observations, so long as we believe that GRBs and GRB afterglows are synchrotron emitting shocks. Synchrotron emission of a few-skin-deep layer would be negligible.

The two most natural possibilities consistent with the synchrotron GRB model are: (ii) strong small-scale fields (scale $`\delta `$) exist downstream, (iii) strong large-scale fields (scale $`l`$, $`l`$ is proper distance from the shock) exist downstream. Now (ii) is, in fact, impossible. Magnetic fields don’t live on length scales $`\delta `$. They can be born there, and then they decay there on a time scale $`\omega _p^1`$ due to phase space mixing. Our numerical simulation confirms that magnetic fields really die out on skin depth scales (Appendix), at least in 2D. We will assume that the decay of microscopic, skin-depth magnetic fields by the phase space mixing is a true phenomenon, not an artifact of two dimensions. In 3D the phase space mixing should be even easier.

Then we are left with the possibility (iii) – strong (but maybe $`\xi _Bm_e/m_p`$) large-scale (length scale of order distance from the shock) magnetic fields are somehow generated by a collisionless shock propagating into an initially unmagnetized plasma. We do not understand how this happens. We suspect that particle acceleration is an essential part of the process.222In 2D, we see no magnetic field generation on large scales and no particle acceleration. The presence of an energetically important population of accelerated particles invalidates the MHD approximation. And one does have to go beyond MHD, because MHD shocks are stable and therefore do not generate magnetic fields.

We think that the problem of magnetic field generation in shocks will be solved by direct numerical simulations. Our amateur numerical program seems to be sufficient for a 2D case. A carefully designed code should solve the 3D problem. The advocated 3D simulation of a collisionless shock propagating into an unmagnetized medium should be performed regardless of our arguments.333Such simulation is needed to understand particle acceleration. Postulating “scattering clouds” is not good enough. This simulation might prove our scenario wrong, but any result should be of great interest. Say, one discovers that magnetic fields are not produced. Then, what is the nature of the GRB afterglows?

## 3 The First Magnetic Fields

We have suggested that relativistic collisionless shocks generate strong large scale magnetic fields. However we do not see how the relativistic effects might be important. We therefore hypothesize that non-relativistic shocks also generate strong large scale magnetic fields.

This means, in particular, that the first cosmic magnetic fields could appear together with the first virialized objects. The magnetic fields are generated in virialization shocks, and they are born strong and large-scale. The primordial magnetic field theories are not needed to explain “the seed fields” for galactic dynamo.

## Appendix A Weibel instability in 2D3V

Here we show that magnetic field generated by a 2D3V (two-dimensional in space and three-dimensional in velocity space) Weibel instability decays due to phase space mixing after a few plasma times. We perform a simplified numerical simulation to illustrate this effect.

We use dimensionless units $`e=m=c=1`$. Electromagnetic field is

$$𝐄=(0,0,_tA),𝐁=(_yA,_xA,0),$$
(A1)
where the z-component of the vector potential is $`A=A(x,y,t)`$. The absence of the electrostatic field is explained below. Non-relativistic charges move in a 2D space, $`𝐫=(x,y)`$, with 3D velocities $`(𝐯,u)=(v_x,v_y,u)`$. This means that charges are rigid rods elongated along the z-coordinate. The equations of motion for positive charges are

$$\dot{𝐫}=𝐯,\dot{𝐯}=uA,\dot{u}=_tA𝐯A.$$
(A2)
To simplify our basic system, we will assume that at t=0, and therefore at all later times, each positive charge $`(𝐫,𝐯,u)`$ is matched by a negative charge $`(𝐫,𝐯,u)`$. Under this symmetry, there is no electrostatic component of the field. The only field equation is

$$^2A+_t^2A=j,j=\mathrm{\Omega }^2d^2v𝑑ufu.$$
(A3)
Here $`\mathrm{\Omega }^2=8\pi ne^2/m`$, $`n`$ is the density (the unperturbed distribution function $`f=F(𝐯,u)`$ is normalized $`d^2v𝑑uF=1`$).

### A.1 Linear Theory

To analyze the linear Weibel instability, we follow the standard Vlasov route (eg. Lifshitz & Pitaevskii 1981). We represent the equations of motion by the Boltzmann equation:

$$_tf+𝐯_𝐫f+uA_𝐯f(_tA+𝐯A)_uf=0.$$
(A4)
For a perturbation $`e^{i\omega t+i𝐤𝐫}`$, the perturbed part of the distribution function is

$$\delta f=A((\omega 𝐤𝐯)^1u𝐤_𝐯+_u)F.$$
(A5)
We use this in (A3), and after integrating the current density by parts, we get the dispersion law (that is relation between $`\omega `$ and $`𝐤`$):

$$\frac{\omega ^2k^2}{\mathrm{\Omega }^2}=1+<\frac{u^2}{(\omega 𝐤𝐯)^2}>k^2,$$
(A6)
where $`<\mathrm{}>`$ is the average over the unperturbed distribution function.

If, as in our numerical simulation, at the initial time all velocities are parallel to z, (A6) gives the instability growth rate

$$\omega ^2\frac{k^2}{1+k^2/\mathrm{\Omega }^2}.$$
(A7)
This means that the fastest growing modes are small-scale, with wavelength $`\lambda \mathrm{\Omega }^1`$. The characteristic growth rate is $`u\mathrm{\Omega }`$.

### A.2 Nonlinear Theory

As the instability develops, magnetic field turns the particles’ trajectories, and a non-zero velocity dispersion in the (x,y) plane appears. This stabilizes the short wavelengths first, because in the first non-vanishing order in $`v`$, (A6) gives, for $`k\mathrm{\Omega }`$,

$$\omega ^2\mathrm{\Omega }^2\frac{3}{2}\frac{}{}k^2.$$
(A8)
One expects maximal convertion of kinetic into magnetic energy at about the time when one Larmor circle in the generated magnetic field has been completed by a typical particle. This should occur at length scales somewhat larger than $`1/\mathrm{\Omega }`$, because the generated field has to be somewhat subequipartition, that is less than $`\mathrm{\Omega }u`$.

Further evolution is governed by conservation of the mean squared potential. As follows from translation invariance along z, the generalized momentum, $`p=u(t)+A(x(t),y(t))`$ is conserved for each particle. In particular, $`I=p^2/N`$, where the sum is over all $`N`$ particles, is conserved. $`I`$ has dimensions of the squared potential, that is $`B^2L^2`$, where $`B`$ is the magnetic field and $`L`$ is the length. One may then suggest the following scenario for the magnetic field evolution. The length scale $`L`$ grows, $`I`$ is conserved, therefore the magnetic energy $`<B^2>`$ decreases as $`I/L^2`$. To determine $`L`$ as a function of the evolution time $`t`$, we assume that $`L/t`$ is close to the Alfven velocity, which is $`B`$. It follows that $`<B^2>t^1`$.

### A.3 Numerical Simulations

In our simulations, we integrated the particle trajectories (A2), and solved the electrodynamics equations $`_tA=E`$, $`_tE=^2Aj`$ on a grid. Space was a periodic square of size 1. We used the simplest straightforward numerical algorithm. With a 100x100 grid for an electromagnetic field, we needed N=2,000,000 particles to compensate for the discreetness effects. For $`\mathrm{\Omega }=100`$, with the time step of 0.0005, energy is conserved to 0.3% , and the mean squared potential (see §A.2) is conserved to 3%.

Initial conditions are as follows. Electromagnetic field is zero. Particles are at random spatial positions, with $`𝐯=0`$, and $`u`$ randomly chosen from an interval $`(0.2,0.2)`$. This velocity might seem to be too high for a non-relativistic approximation to apply, since in our units the speed of light is 1. However, as we have checked, even the fastest particle in our run does not get faster than about 0.5. Results are shown in figures 1-3.

At $`t=1`$, 16% of energy is converted into magnetic energy. The mean magnetic field is $`B3`$. Since velocity is $`v0.1`$, the corresponding Larmor radius is $`0.03`$, close to the length scale seen in Fig.1. As seen from Fig.2, the length scale of the field grows. As we have said, this is accompanied by the magnetic energy decay. As seen from Fig.3, magnetic energy is indeed described by the $`t^1`$ law.


text:
# An Inner Molecular Bar or Disk in NGC 5195

## 1. Introduction

NGC 5195, the intriguing SBa/0 companion of M51, shows exceptionally bright 15 $`\mu `$m emission from a central point source suggesting intense nuclear activity (Boulade et al. 1996). Warm IR colours and a respectable FIR luminosity points towards a starburst scenario, while the lack of bright H$`\alpha `$ emission seems to contradict this notion. Boulade et al. suggest that the activity is powered by an evolved starburst, but the possibility of LINER activity or ongoing star formation is also considered. High resolution CO observations help us address both the nature of the central activity as well as the mechanisms responsible for feeding the nucleus with molecular gas. Secondary features, such as bars within bars, have been proposed as a possible mechanism of gas fueling nuclear activity (e.g. Shlosman et al. 1990). The proximity of NGC 5195 allows detailed studies of gas transport processes that are likely to feed the activity also within more distant, luminous systems. Below we present a preliminary analysis of our high resolution OVRO CO 1-0 observations.

## 2. Molecular gas distribution and kinematics

In Figure 1 we see the CO distribution in the eastern and central part of NGC 5195 overlayed on a DSS optical image. Even though we have not mapped the whole of NGC 5195 it is clear that the gas is very concentrated towards the center. The eastern CO emission is well correlated with the foreground dust absorption in the M51 northern arm which covers part of the galaxy. The inner 500 pc of NGC 5195 is in rough solid body rotation with a position angle of $`95^{}`$. The projected maximum velocity is 80 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$, and the dynamical mass inside a radius of 250 pc is $`7\times 10^8`$ M (for $`i=45^{}`$). Figure 2 shows higher resolution images of the central region of NGC 5195. The CO emission is double peaked and appears to be part of a ring-like structure. The kinematic center is however not at the center of this ring, but rather on the brighter of the two peaks, which also coincides with the NIR peak emission. The peak brightness temperature is 5 K (for a linear resolution of $`100`$ pc). This suggests that the brightness temperature of each cloud is rather moderate, or that there is an ensemble of warm clouds of low filling factor. The morphology of the CO emission suggest that the gas clouds could be travelling along the x2 orbits of the bar. The possibility of an inclined disk with spiral arms cannot, however, be excluded at this stage. Disturbances in the velocity field indicate the presence of gas streaming in the inner kpc.

### 2.1. Molecular gas mass

The total recovered flux in NGC 5195 is 320 Jy $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$, corresponding to $`2.7\times 10^8`$ M for $`D`$=9.6 Mpc (for a conversion factor of $`X`$ = N(H2)/I(12CO) = $`2.3\times 10^{20}`$ $`\mathrm{cm}^2`$ (K $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$)-1)). Half of this gas mass is found within a radius of 250 pc. This results in an average gas surface density close to $`10^3`$ M pc-2 in the inner 500 pc, and 20% of the dynamical mass is molecular. For the M51 arm we find 81 Jy $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$ corresponding to a mass of $`6.8\times 10^7`$ M. We recover 60% $`\pm `$ 20% of the OSO 20m single dish flux in the same area.

## 3. Discussion

### 3.1. The starburst

The highly concentrated CO emission of NGC 5195 is fairly typical of interacting systems, where the central molecular gas fuels starburst activity and/or an AGN. NGC 5195 is, however, classified as an old starburst where star formation ceased some $`10^7`$ years ago, and the absence of bright H$`\alpha `$ emission supports this notion. Diffuse, shell-like H$`\alpha `$ features may indicate a nuclear outflow similar to that of M 82 (Greenawalt 1998). It is interesting, therefore, to ponder why the previous starburst left a considerable amount of gas behind in the center. What mechanism made the star formation processes grind to a halt before the gas was consumed? The inner region of the galaxy is in an apparent solid body rotation, which should be favourable for star formation. The surface density of gas left behind is typical of that found in starburst galaxies, again offering no direct solutions to the cessation of star formation. It is of course possible that gas has been transported to the center after the previous burst of star formation, but that still leaves us with the question of what is preventing the gas from forming stars.

A possible clue may lie in the excitation of the molecular gas itself. From our single dish study of NGC 5195 we find that the emission from 13CO 1-0 is unusually faint with respect to the 12CO emission. The 12CO/13CO 1–0 intensity ratio is $`\genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{_>}{^{}}20`$, while the more typical value for galaxies is 10-15 (e.g. Aalto et al. 1995). The elevated ratio is caused by an overall reduction in the optical depth of the 12CO line which would likely be caused either by a) high temperatures in the gas or b) presence of diffuse unbound molecular gas. To distinguish between the two scenarios it is necessary to observe higher transitions of both 12CO and 13CO. Both scenarios may lead to an overestimate of the amount of molecular gas present by factors of 5-10. In this case, the starburst may simply have ceased because of the gas surface density being below threshold values. Smith (1982) find a high dust temperature ($`T_\mathrm{d}65`$ K) for NGC 5195 which is comparable to the warmest of the luminous starburst galaxies. If indeed the activity in NGC 5195 is dominated by an evolved starburst, then the question is how it is capable of heating the dust to such high temperatures.

### 3.2. The inner bar or disk

The inner elongated structure is oriented roughly at right angles to the larger scale optical bar. This feature has not been seen before in NIR or optical, even if a $`J`$-band elongation at lower resolution (Smith et al. 1990) may well be associated with it. The discontinuities in the velocity field (see Figure 2) suggest the presence of gas streaming in the inner kpc of NGC 5195. Such regions are often associated with dust lanes and downstream H$`\alpha `$ emission, but only very faint and diffuse H$`\alpha `$ emission can be found in NGC 5195 and the shock may be too weak to produce sharp dust lanes. Kenney et al. 1992 discuss “twin peaks” features perpendicular to optical bars as resulting from orbit crowding near the ILR (Inner Lindblad Resonance). We speculate that the molecular feature in NGC 5195 shows that the gas has passed beyond the ILR to the nucleus of the galaxy. Further study, of both the overall kinematics of NGC 5195 as well as higher resolution observations of CO and NIR, is necessary to establish the true nature of the central molecular concentration.

## References

Aalto, S., Booth, R.S., Black, J.H., Johansson, L.E.B. 1995, A&A, 300, 369

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Greenawalt, B., Walterbos, R.A.M., Thilket, D., & Hoopes, C.G. 1998, ApJ, 506, 135

Kenney, J.D.P., Wilson, C.D., Scoville, N.Z., Devereux, N.A., Young, J.S. 1995, ApJ, 395, 79

Shlosman I., Begelmann, M.C., Frank, J. 1990 Nat 345, 679

Smith, J. 1982, ApJ, 261, 463

Smith, J., et al., 1990, ApJ, 362, 455


text:
# Cosmology studies with GRB afterglows

## 1. Introduction

Soon after the $`\gamma `$-ray flash, optical and X-ray afterglows of GRBs are among the brightest sources in the sky at cosmological redshifts. Eighteen GRB redshifts have been measured to date, in the range 0.0085–4.5. Follow-up observations of the three brightest GRB localized by BeppoSAX (GRB990123, GRB990510 and GRB010222) show that tens of minutes after the GRB the optical afterglow can be as bright as 14-16 mag.; a few hours later it can still be as bright as 17-19 mag. The X-rays afterglow can be as bright as the Crab Nebula a few minutes after the GRB, while 5-8 hours later it can be as bright as a bright AGN, i.e. $``$mCrabs. (see Fiore et al. 2000 for an estimate of the GRB afterglows 0.5-2 keV logN-logF, when fluxes are integrated from minutes up to hours after the GRB event). This opens up a new perspective for gathering spectra of unprecedent quality of sources at cosmological redshift, provided that the afterglow can be observed in such short timescales. Afterglows can then be used as probes of the high z Universe through the detection of absorption line systems along the line of sight, both intervening and associated with the host galaxies. Absorption lines are more difficult to study than emission lines, but carry with them unbeatable information because they probe matter along a single beam, i.e. along the line of sight to the background beacon. This greatly reduces the complications related to the matter geometry and dynamics, which strongly affects emission line studies. At least two fundamental issues can be addressed through absorption line studies: (1) The enrichment history of the Universe, through the study of the inter-stellar matter (ISM) of the GRB host galaxies; (2) the heating history of the Universe, through the study of the so called “X-ray forest” (high ionization resonant lines of O, Ne, C, etc.) associated with the warm-hot phase of the inter-galactic matter (IGM) in filaments and the outskirts of clusters of galaxies along the line of sight (Fiore et al. 2001).

## 2. Enrichment in high redshift galaxies

The study of z$`\genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{_>}{^{}}1`$ galaxies available so far relies on the Lyman-break galaxies at z$`=34`$ (see e.g. Steidel et al. 1999) and on galaxies which happens to be along the line of sight to bright background quasars (see e.g. Churchill et al. 2000). Some of these systems are associated with Damped Ly$`\alpha `$ systems (DLA) (see e.g. Pettini et al., 1997, 1999). However, Lyman-break galaxies are characterized by pronounced star-formation and their inferred chemical abundances may be related to these regions rather than being representative of typical high z galaxies. Metal line systems in galaxies along the line of sight to quasars probe mainly the ISM of outer haloes, rather than that in the bulge or in the disc. Finally, it is not clear if galaxies associated with DLAs are truly representative of the whole high z galaxy population. GRB afterglows can provide new, independent and less biased tools to study the ISM of high z galaxies.

Figure 1a compares the equivalent width (EW) of the MgII2796Å and FeII2600Å lines detected in the spectra of four GRB afterglows, and probably associated with the host galaxies, with those in the samples of Churchill et al. (2000), Lu et al. (1996) and Pettini et al. (1999). The EW of both lines is consistent or slightly higher (a factor of 2 at most) than those of the strongest metal lines associated with DLAs. Figure 1b compares the ZnII2062Å to FeII2600Å EW line ratios of three DLAs to those of three GRB host galaxies. Since the low resolution GRB afterglow observations cannot resolve the ZnII2062.0 line from the nearby CrII2061.6 line we have evaluated the relative contribution of the two lines to the observed EW. The oscillator strength of the ZnII line is 3.3 times that of the CrII line. If the Zn/Cr ratio in the GRB host galaxies is $`0.2`$, the mean Zn/Cr ratio in DLAs (Pettini et al. 1997), we expect that the ZnII EW is $`40\%`$ of the measured ZnII+CrII blend. If this is the case GRB ZnII/FeII line rations could still be a factor of 2-3 higher than DLA ones. This may imply a different dust depletion pattern (Fe tends to be heavily locked in dust grain, while Zn is almost unaffected by dust). It is clear that only high resolution spectra (R$`\genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{_>}{^{}}10000`$) can provide unambiguous information on the interstellar gas metallicity. Fe locked in dust grains may leave a signature in the X-ray spectrum of GRB afterglows. Neutral Fe L edges have recently been detected in a high resolution spectrum (R$`1000`$) of an AGN (Lee et al. 2001). The simultaneous absence of strong low ionization O and Ne edges can be explained if most neutral Fe is locked in dust grains. This suggests that high resolution X-ray spectra of GRB afterglows can be used to search for the signatures of Fe locked in dust in the host galaxy ISM. X-ray spectroscopy may then represent a powerful tool, complementing high resolution O-UV observations, in depicting the chemical evolutionary history of galaxy ISM. This can then be compared to the cosmic history of the metal enrichment derived through different techniques (e.g. DLA studies) and to theoretical models (see e.g. Cen & Ostriker 1999). The ISM of GRB host galaxies may have already been detected in X-rays. Absorption at a level of a few$`\times 10^{21}`$ cm-2 (rest frame) has been discovered in the X-ray spectra of GRB010222 (in ’t Zand et al. 2001, Stratta et al. 2001 in preparation). Unfortunately the low resolution (R=10) BeppoSAX spectra cannot detect individual absorption edges and therefore the detailed study of GRB host galaxies ISM must await for XMM-Newton, Chandra (see e.g. Piro et al. 2000), or future missions R$`\genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{_>}{^{}}1000`$ spectra.

Strong lines from $`\alpha `$process elements like S and Si are considered a signature of TypeII supernova enrichment. A SiII1526.7 line has been measured for the first time in the spectrum of a GRB afterglow only recently (GRB010222, Masetti et al. 2001) with EW=$`1.2\pm `$0.3Å . This is in the ballpark of the EW of the SiII lines associated with DLAs.

## 3. The warm intergalactic matter

According to current cosmological scenarios (see e.g. Davè et al. 2001) the warm ($`10^5`$ K$`<`$T$`<10^7`$ K) IGM may comprise $`3040\%`$ of the baryons in the Universe at z$`<1`$. Observations of the warm IGM predicted to be found far from the high density virialized regions have yielded so far only limited information. Gas with T$`10^5`$ K has been revealed through OVI absorption at 1032, 1038Å at z=0.1–0.3 (e.g. Tripp et al. 2000). In collisional equilibrium OVI is the dominant O ion only for a very narrow temperature range (T=$`13\times 10^5`$ K). At higher temperatures the dominant ions are OVII and OVIII, whose K$`\alpha `$ and K$`\beta `$ lines are in the range 0.5-0.7 keV. X-ray spectroscopy of these lines (and of the high ionization C,Ne, S and Si lines) is therefore a powerful tool to probe such a warm, low density gas. The expected EW for warm intergalactic clouds of H column density between $`10^{19}`$ and $`10^{20}`$ cm-2 and metal abundance 0.2-0.3 solar are $`\genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{_<}{^{}}1`$ eV, calling for high resolution (R=$`>1000`$) spectroscopy. This is feasible today only with dispersive spectrometers (Elvis, these proceedings). One interesting property of gratings is that their resolution is about constant in wavelengths and therefore it improves as $`E^1`$ going toward low energies. The minimum detectable EW scales as the square root of the resolving power $`\mathrm{\Delta }E`$. Since the rest frame line EW scales as (1+z)$`\times EW_{obs}`$, using gratings the minimum detectable rest frame EW is about constant with z. This means that similar O column densities can be probed up to the z when the O features go out of the observing band (0.2 keV for CCDs, corresponding to z$`2`$ for OVIII).

Thermal broadening of O lines is $`50`$ km s-1 at T=$`4\times 10^6`$ K. A resolution of R$`\genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{_>}{^{}}6000`$ is needed to resolve these lines. Reasonable warm intergalactic gas turbulence may be of 100-200 km s-1. In these cases a resolution of 1500-3000 may still be enough to resolve the lines and measure the Doppler term $`b`$. If the temperature of the gas can be constrained through OVI, OVII and OVIII line ratios the measure of $`b`$ can provide information on the heating history of the gas. For example, if the gas was shock heated during the collapse of density perturbation one would expect that the gas temperature is proportional to the square of the gas sound speed, which in turn should be proportional to the gas turbulence. By measuring $`b`$ and T it would be possible to perform a self-consistency check of this idea and to provide tests and constraints to hydrodynamic models for the collapse of density perturbation and their evolution.

We thank A. Antonelli, E. Branchini, M. Elvis, A. Fontana, E. Giallongo, N. Menci, F. Nicastro, C. Norman, S. Savaglio, L. Stella, G. Stratta and M. Vietri, for useful discussions.

## References

Cen, R. & Ostriker, J.P. 1999, ApJL, 519, L109

Churchill, C.W., et al. 2000, ApJS, 130, 91

Davè, R. et al. 2001, ApJ, 552, 473

Fiore, F., Nicastro, F., Savaglio, S., Stella, L. & Vietri, M. 2000 ApJL, 544, L7

Frontera, F. et al. 2000, ApJS, 127, 59

Kulkarni, S.R. et al. 1999, Nat, 398, 389

in ’t Zand, J.J.M. et al. 2001, ApJL, submitted, astro-ph/0104362

Jha, S. et al. 2001, ApJ, submitted, astro-ph/0103081

Lee, J., et al. 2001, ApJL, in press, astro-ph/0101065

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text:
# A G1–like globular cluster in NGC 1023 1footnote 11footnote 1Based on observations obtained with the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope, obtained at the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc. under NASA contract No. NAS5-26555.

## 1 Introduction

A very bright globular cluster in the nearby lenticular galaxy NGC 1023 was recently identified by Larsen, Brodie and Kissler-Patig (2001). At a distance of $`9.9\pm 0.6`$ Mpc (Ciardullo, Jacoby and Harris, 1991), NGC 1023 is close enough that images taken with the *Hubble Space Telescope* (HST) will show globular clusters (GCs) as spatially extended objects, and the structure of individual clusters with sufficient S/N can be studied in considerable detail. It is of interest to compare the structural parameters (size, ellipticity etc.) of globular clusters in different galaxies because significant differences are known to exist even among GCs in the Local Group. For example, clusters in the Large Magellanic Cloud (LMC) are more flattened than those in the Milky Way (Geisler & Hodge, 1980). It has also been noted that the *brightest* GCs in the Milky Way and M31 ($`\omega `$ Cen and G1 = Mayall II, respectively), as well as in the Magellanic Clouds, are the most flattened in their respective host galaxies (van den Bergh, 1984), and van den Bergh (1996) has suggested using the HST to test if the brightest globular clusters around other galaxies are also flattened. In the present paper the structure of the bright globular cluster in NGC 1023 is analyzed using archive HST images, and it is then compared with $`\omega `$ Cen and G1.

## 2 The bright cluster n1023-13

Larsen, Brodie and Kissler-Patig (2001) presented spectroscopy of 11 old globular clusters in NGC 1023, most of which were selected from WFPC2 exposures obtained as part of Program 6554 (PI: Brodie) and discussed in Larsen and Brodie (2000). However, a few additional objects were selected from ground-based images, one of which (n1023-13) turned out to be a very bright globular cluster. The 2000.0 coordinates are $`\alpha `$ = 2:40:27.84 and $`\delta `$ = 39:04:40.2. Although this object is close to the saturation limit on the Brodie dataset and located near the edge of one of the WF chips, it is also included on a shorter WFPC2 exposure of NGC 1023, obtained for D. Richstone (HST Program ID 6587). This dataset consists of 5 integrations of 260 sec each in the F555W band and 2 integrations of 900 sec in the F814W band, short enough that the cluster is well below the saturation limit.

Fig. A G1–like globular cluster in NGC 1023 111Based on observations obtained with the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope, obtained at the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc. under NASA contract No. NAS5-26555. shows a close-up of the Richstone WFPC2 image of the cluster, compared to a star of similar brightness. The cluster is clearly resolved and appears to be significantly elongated. At a distance of 9.9 Mpc, one WFPC2 pixels spans 4.8 pc, comparable to or somewhat larger than the typical half-light radius of a globular cluster (e.g. Kundu and Whitmore, 2001), so special care must be taken when analyzing the light profile of clusters at this distance. Nevertheless, the S/N of n1023-13 is sufficient to allow a relatively detailed analysis of its structure and compare with other bright globular clusters like $`\omega `$ Centauri in the Milky Way and G1 = Mayall II in M31.

### 2.1 Modeling of the light profile

Of the 5 available F555W exposures in the Richstone dataset, only two were used for the analysis presented here. The two selected exposures required no shifts in the $`x`$ and $`y`$ directions, and consequently no resampling of the Point Spread Function (PSF), before combination. Addition of the individual images, including elimination of cosmic ray hits, was done with the IMCOMBINE task in IRAF222IRAF is distributed by the National Optical Astronomical Observatories, which are operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc. under contract with the National Science Foundation. Inspection of the data quality files for the Brodie WFPC2 image showed that the image of n1023-13 was, in fact, not saturated, so we are in the fortunate situation of having two WFPC2 images of the same cluster, allowing for a useful consistency check of the results. The cluster is located on two different WF chips (WF2 on the Richstone and WF4 on the Brodie dataset), and at very different positions within the chips ($`(x,y)=210,560`$ versus $`(x,y)=740,79`$) in the two pointings.

The F555W images of the cluster were modeled using the ishape algorithm (Larsen, 1999), assuming various analytical models for the intrinsic luminosity profile of the cluster and then convolving with the HST PSF, generated by the TinyTim software (Krist and Hook, 1997). A convolution with the WFPC2 “diffusion kernel” was also included. The ellipticity, Full Width At Half Maximum (FWHM) and orientation of the model profiles were iteratively adjusted until the best match with the observed image was obtained. As the TinyTim manual and *WFPC2 handbook* give two slightly different diffusion kernels, fits were done for both of them. Because the diffusion kernel is wavelength dependent but only given for the F555W filter in the manuals, no fits to the F814W images were attempted.

Two different types of analytical profiles were assumed: King (1962) profiles of the form

$$\mu (r)=k\left[\frac{1}{\sqrt{1+r^2/r_c^2}}\frac{1}{\sqrt{1+r_t^2/r_c^2}}\right]^2,r<r_t$$
(1)
and “Moffat” profiles given as

$$\mu (r)=\mu _0\left[1+(r/r_c)^2\right]^\alpha .$$
(2)
The King profiles are characterized by a core radius $`r_c`$ and a tidal radius $`r_t`$ and are known to provide excellent fits to globular cluster luminosity profiles. The Moffat profiles are similar to the profiles used by Elson, Fall, & Freeman (1987) to fit young LMC clusters, but note that the $`\alpha `$ in Eq. (2) is equivalent to their $`\gamma /2`$. In the limiting case of $`\alpha =1`$, Eq. (2) is identical to a King profile with infinite tidal radius.

The version of ishape used here allows the concentration parameter $`c=r_t/r_c`$ of the King profiles and the exponent $`\alpha `$ of the Moffat profiles to be kept at a fixed value, or to vary these parameters during the fitting process. The $`c`$ parameter is the most uncertain of the fitted parameters, and the exact value returned by ishape was quite dependent on the initial guesses. Generally, the fitted $`c`$ values were between 100 and 300. In order to ensure better stability in the fits and assess the effect of variations in $`c`$, the remaining shape parameters (ellipticity, FWHM, orientation) were thus determined for fixed $`c`$ values of 100, 200 and 300. The Moffat fits, on the other hand, were quite stable and consistently returned $`\alpha `$ values around $`1.20\pm 0.05`$.

The fitting radius was set to 15 pixels or $`1\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}5`$, corresponding to a radius of 72 pc for a distance of 9.9 Mpc. A number of fits were also done for a fitting radius of 25 pixels, but for this larger radius the background gradient becomes noticeable, although the results of the fits remained essentially identical to those done with the smaller radius.

Figure A G1–like globular cluster in NGC 1023 111Based on observations obtained with the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope, obtained at the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc. under NASA contract No. NAS5-26555. shows the results of various fits to the Richstone image. From the left: King profiles with $`c=10,30,100,300`$ and $`\mathrm{}`$ and the best-fitting Moffat profile with $`\alpha =1.20`$. The top row shows the best-fitting model images generated by convolution of the King/Moffat profiles with the TinyTim PSF and diffusion kernel, and the bottom row shows the residuals when the model images are subtracted from the observed image. The King profiles with $`c<100`$ or $`c=\mathrm{}`$ are clearly unable to reproduce the observed cluster image, while the $`c=100`$ and $`c=300`$ profiles show little structure in the residuals beyond the photon noise. Formally, the best fit (lowest $`\chi ^2`$) was obtained for $`c200`$. Increased S/N could potentially help in constraining the King profile $`c`$ parameter and for this purpose a number of fits were carried out on all 5 Richstone images combined. These tended to converge towards $`c150`$. It thus seems reasonable to adopt $`c=200\pm 100`$ for the concentration parameter. The $`\alpha =1.2`$ Moffat profile also provides a very good fit, but the King profile fits which are physically better motivated will be used for most of the discussion in this paper.

The various King and Moffat profiles are plotted in Fig. A G1–like globular cluster in NGC 1023 111Based on observations obtained with the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope, obtained at the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc. under NASA contract No. NAS5-26555., scaled to the same luminosity within 1$`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}`$5 and computed for the actual fitted core radii. Note that Fig. A G1–like globular cluster in NGC 1023 111Based on observations obtained with the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope, obtained at the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc. under NASA contract No. NAS5-26555. shows the *intrinsic* cluster profiles, not the observed ones (which are obtained by convolving the profiles in Fig. A G1–like globular cluster in NGC 1023 111Based on observations obtained with the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope, obtained at the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc. under NASA contract No. NAS5-26555. with the HST PSF and diffusion kernel). Since 1 WF pixel spans 0$`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}`$1, it is clear that the central parts of the profiles are unresolved and the differences in the fits rely mainly on the behaviour in the wings.

### 2.2 Shape parameters for best fitting King profiles

The best fit parameters are given in Table 1 for each of the two WFPC2 datasets. Each value in the Table is an average of 6 individual fits, for King profiles with $`c=100,200`$ and 300, and for the two different diffusion kernels. The quoted errors are simply the standard deviation of these individual measurements, which is probably a better estimate of the true uncertainty than the standard error on the mean.

The first rows in the Table give the photometry in a 0$`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}`$5 (5 pixels) aperture, corrected for reddening towards NGC 1023. The photometry was done with the PHOT task in DAOPHOT directly on the images, measuring the background as the mode of all pixels in an annulus starting at 20 pixels and 10 pixels wide. Calibration to standard $`V`$ and $`I`$ magnitudes was done following Holtzman et al. (1995) and using the Schlegel et al. (1998) extinction value of $`A_B=0.262`$ mag. The distance modulus of $`29.97\pm 0.14`$ derived by Ciardullo, Jacoby and Harris (1991) was based on Burstein and Heiles (1984) extinctions, which often tend to be somewhat lower than the Schlegel et al. (1998) values. However, for NGC 1023 the two happen to agree to within 0.01 mag in $`A_B`$.

For an extended object like n1023-13, the $`0\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}5`$ aperture slightly underestimates the total brightness. According to Holtzman et al. (1995), the WFPC2 PSF itself scatters about 10% of the light to radii beyond their $`0\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}5`$ reference aperture, while measurements of n1023-13 through an $`r=20`$ pixels aperture gave total $`V`$ magnitudes brighter by about 0.2 mag compared to the $`r=5`$ pixels measurements. Thus, the $`V`$ magnitudes in Table 1 are probably too faint by $`0.1`$ mag, and after applying this correction the absolute magnitude becomes $`M_V=10.9`$. Likewise, direct integration of the King profiles also yields a correction of about 0.1 mag from $`r=0\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}5`$ to $`r=\mathrm{}`$.

There is excellent agreement between the photometry from the two pointings, as well as between the ishape profile fits. The two sets of fits give FWHM values of $`0\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}027\pm 0\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}006`$ and $`0\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}029\pm 0\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}007`$, minor/major axis ratios of $`0.62\pm 0.02`$ and $`0.64\pm 0.01`$, and the position angles on the sky agree to within 3 degrees. Note that the relatively large range in the $`c`$ parameter does not lead to correspondingly large uncertainties on the fitted FWHM.

The FWHM and concentration parameter returned by ishape can be converted to more familiar quantities such as the core radius ($`r_c`$) and half-light (effective) radius ($`R_e`$). For a King profile the FWHM and $`r_c`$ are related as

$$\text{FWHM}=2\left[\left(\sqrt{1/2}+\frac{1\sqrt{1/2}}{\sqrt{1+c^2}}\right)^21\right]^{1/2}r_c,$$
(3)
i.e. FWHM $`2r_c`$ for $`c1`$. A similar simple analytical relation between the FWHM or $`r_c`$ and $`R_e`$ does not exist, but can be approximated by a power-law of the form

$$R_e/r_c0.547c^{0.486}$$
(4)
For $`c>4`$ this approximation is good to $`\pm 2`$%.

These relations assume that the profiles are circularly symmetric, while the FWHM values returned by ishape are measured along the major axis of the fitted profiles. In order to compute the core and effective radii in Table 1, an average of the major and minor axis FWHM has been used. This results in core radii of $`r_c=0.52\pm 0.12`$ pc and $`r_c=0.57\pm 0.13`$ pc for the two datasets, and effective radii of $`R_e=3.47\pm 0.33`$ pc and $`R_e=3.85\pm 0.34`$ pc, respectively, at the assumed distance of NGC 1023.

### 2.3 Ellipticity

The minor/major axis ratio returned by the fits is quite stable at around $`0.63\pm 0.01`$, corresponding to a very large ellipticity of $`ϵ=0.37\pm 0.01`$. An independent estimate can be obtained by using the ELLIPSE task in the STSDAS package to fit elliptical isophotes directly to the cluster image, although these will tend to underestimate the ellipticity because the true shape is blurred by the HST PSF. This effect will be worse closer to the center, while ellipse fits at large radii are uncertain because of low S/N. At $`r=5`$ pixels, the ELLIPSE task returns ellipticities of $`ϵ=0.24`$ on both the Richstone F555W and F814W exposures, and 0.14 and 0.20 on the Brodie F555W and F814W exposures. Irregularities in the background due to the proximity to the edge of the image are clearly visible in the Brodie exposures and the ELLIPSE fits are probably less accurate for these data.

ELLIPSE fits were also done on the model images generated by ishape (Figure A G1–like globular cluster in NGC 1023 111Based on observations obtained with the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope, obtained at the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc. under NASA contract No. NAS5-26555.). These fits returned an ellipticity of $`ϵ=0.25`$ at $`r=5`$ pixels, in nearly perfect agreement with the fits to the actual science images. Thus, it is clear that the blurring of the cluster image by the HST PSF leads to an underestimation of $`ϵ`$ when measured directly on the images, and the true answer probably lies closer to the $`ϵ0.37`$ value from the King profile fits.

### 2.4 Central surface brightness

Although the central parts of the King profiles are unresolved on the WFPC2 images, the central surface brightness for the cluster can still be computed, assuming that the King profile continues all the way to the center. The central surface brightness $`\mu _0`$ of a King (1962) profile and the total luminosity $`L(R)`$ within a radius $`R<r_t`$ are related as

$$\mu _0=k\left[1\frac{1}{\sqrt{1+c^2}}\right]^2$$
(5)
and

$$L(R)=\pi k\left[r_c^2\mathrm{ln}\left(1+\frac{R^2}{r_c^2}\right)+\frac{R^2}{1+c^2}\frac{4r_c^2}{\sqrt{1+c^2}}\left(\sqrt{1+\frac{R^2}{r_c^2}}1\right)\right]$$
(6)
For reddening-corrected $`V=19.19`$ and $`V=19.17`$ within a radius of $`R=0\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}5`$, this results in $`\mu _0=12.8\pm 0.4`$ mag arcsec-2 and $`\mu _0=13.0\pm 0.4`$ mag arcsec-2 for the two fits. Again, the errors are computed as the standard deviation of the 6 values based on the individual fits. The computed $`\mu _0`$ values are not very sensitive to the exact concentration parameter and most of the uncertainty comes from the core radius. Alternatively, one can also compute the central surface brightness for the Moffat profile fit. This yields $`\mu _0=13.6`$ mag arcsec-2, somewhat fainter than for the King profile. However, a King profile is probably a better approximation to the true light profile of the cluster and a value around $`\mu _0=12.9\pm 0.5`$ mag arcsec-2 may be a reasonable estimate of the central surface brightness and its associated error.

## 3 Comparison with G1 and $`\omega `$ Cen

Table 1 also lists a number of properties for two other bright globular clusters: $`\omega `$ Cen, the brightest GC in the Milky Way, and G1 = Mayall II, the brightest known GC in M31 (Mayall and Eggen, 1953). Pritchet & van den Bergh (1984) first noted a significant flattening of G1 and estimated an ellipticity of $`ϵ=0.22`$. Using HST images of G1, Rich et al. (1996) measured a core radius of $`r_c=0\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}170\pm 0\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}011`$ or $`0.63\pm 0.04`$ pc for a distance modulus of 24.42 (Freedman & Madore, 1990) and found a tidal radius of $`28\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}2`$ = 105 pc, corresponding to a concentration parameter $`c=166`$ and an effective radius of 4.1 pc. They obtained a central surface brightness of 13.5 mag arcsec-2 in $`V`$ and a slightly higher ellipticity ($`ϵ=0.25\pm 0.02`$) than the one reported by Pritchet & van den Bergh (1984). Also using HST images, Meylan et al. (2001) measured a somewhat smaller core radius of $`r_c=0.52`$ pc, but a larger tidal radius of 200 pc for G1. They quote a *half-mass* radius of $`r_h=14`$ pc, corresponding to an effective radius of 10 pc (Spitzer, 1987, p. 16) if light traces mass, but their Table 3 indicates an effective radius closer to $`1\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}18`$ or 4.4 pc, in better agreement with Equation (4) which gives $`R_e=0.52\mathrm{pc}\times 0.547(200/0.52)^{0.486}`$ = 5.1 pc. Contrary to Rich et al. (1996), Meylan et al. (2001) found a variation in ellipticity with radius, ranging from $`ϵ=0.1`$ in the innermost and outermost parts, to $`ϵ=0.3`$ at a radius of $`2\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}1`$ or 8 pc, with a mean of $`ϵ0.2`$. All of the above studies agree on an integrated $`V`$ magnitude of $`M_V=10.9`$.

Most of the relevant parameters for $`\omega `$ Cen are listed in the McMaster catalogue (Harris, 1996). This cluster has $`M_V=10.24`$ and is also quite elongated with $`ϵ=0.19`$ (Frenk & Fall, 1982). It is, however, more extended than G1 and has a core radius of 3.8 pc. The effective radius is 6.2 pc, somewhat larger than the typical $`34`$ pc for globular clusters.

Compared to these two bright globular clusters in the Local Group, n1023-13 appears to be nearly an identical twin of G1. Both clusters are of comparable luminosity and their effective radii are quite similar to those for globular clusters of much lower luminosities. This is consistent with the lack of correlation between effective radius and cluster luminosity observed in the Milky Way (Djorgovski & Meylan, 1994). Both G1 and n1023-13 have very compact cores and, as a result, very high central surface brightnesses. In fact, the highest central surface brightness for any Galactic globular cluster is $`\mu _0=14.15`$ (NGC 1851, from the McMaster catalog) and $`\omega `$ Cen itself has a much lower $`\mu _0=16.8`$ mag arcsec-2.

From the core radius and central surface brightness, the central density $`\rho _0`$ can be estimated from the relation

$$\rho _0=\frac{3.44\times 10^{10}}{Pr_c}10^{0.4\mu _0(V)}(M/L)\text{M}\text{}\text{pc}^3$$
(7)
with $`P2`$ and $`r_c`$ in pc (Peterson & King, 1975; Williams & Bahcall, 1979). For G1 and n1023-13 this leads to $`\rho _0=2.0\times 10^5`$ M pc-3 and $`\rho _0=(4.1\pm 2.4)\times 10^5`$ M pc-3, respectively, assuming a M/L ratio of 1.6 (Illingworth, 1976). Here we have used the average of the two estimates of $`\rho _0`$ for n1023-13 listed in Table 1. From King-Michie models, Meylan et al. (2001) obtain a central density of $`\rho _0=4.7\times 10^5`$ M pc-3 for G1, in fair agreement with the estimate obtained from Eq. (7). Again, n1023-13 has a similar high central density to G1, while $`\omega `$ Cen has a central density of only $`1400`$ M pc-3.

The metallicity of $`\omega `$ Cen is given as \[Fe/H\] = $`1.62`$ in the McMaster catalogue. Metallicity estimates for G1 range between $`1.19\pm 0.25`$ (Brodie and Huchra, 1990) and $`0.7`$ (Rich et al., 1996), while Meylan et al. (2001) find an intermediate value of \[Fe/H\] = $`0.95\pm 0.09`$. For n1023-13, Larsen, Brodie and Kissler-Patig (2001) found \[Fe/H\] = $`1.15\pm 0.22`$ from Keck spectroscopy, and a very similar value of \[Fe/H\] = $`1.11`$ from the $`VI`$ color. n1023-13 thus seems to be somewhat more metal-rich than $`\omega `$ Cen, but of comparable metallicity to (or maybe slightly lower than) G1. It is also worth noting that – unlike most globular clusters – both $`\omega `$ Cen and G1 have quite a large internal scatter in their metallicity distributions. Whether or not this is the case for n1023-13 is, however, impossible to tell from the current data.

One common property of all these bright globular clusters is their high ellipticities. The ishape fits indicate an ellipticity as high as $`ϵ0.37`$ for n1023-13. $`\omega `$ Cen has an ellipticity of $`ϵ=0.19`$, while G1 appears to display a range of ellipticities as a function of radius, reaching a maximum of $`ϵ=0.30`$ at intermediate radii. The present data do not permit an analysis of internal variations in the shape parameters (ellipticity, orientation) of n1023-13, but from the mean values it seems that the cluster may be even more flattened than $`\omega `$ Cen and G1. Is an ellipticity $`ϵ=0.37`$ unrealistically large? Although most globular clusters in the Milky Way have low ellipticities, clusters in the Large Magellanic Cloud tend to be much more elongated. One of the more striking examples is the intermediate-age ($`2`$ Gyr) cluster NGC 1978 with an ellipticity of $`ϵ=0.30`$ (Fischer, Welch, & Mateo, 1992). After correction for projection effects, Geisler & Hodge (1980) find that very few LMC clusters are likely to be spherical, most having true ellipticities in the range 0.2 – 0.4. Thus, the high ellipticity for n1023-13 might not be unreasonable, especially if the cluster is seen nearly edge-on, but it would definitely rank it as one of the most elliptical clusters known.

Which mechanism might be responsible for the high ellipticities of massive globular clusters? In a recent paper, Cen (2001) has argued that many globular clusters may initially possess significant amounts of angular momentum, which should cause flattening of their initial shapes (King, 1961). Some evidence has been presented that rotation might indeed be a dominant mechanism in causing flattening of globular clusters (Davoust, 1986; White & Shawl, 1987) and of $`\omega `$ Cen in particular (Meylan & Mayor, 1986; Merritt, Meylan, & Mayor, 1997). On the other hand, Fischer, Welch, & Mateo (1992) found no evidence for rotation in the highly flattened cluster NGC 1978, although they could not rule it out. However, it is not quite clear why this effect should affect the most massive clusters more strongly. Perhaps the tendency for more massive clusters to have longer relaxation times (Spitzer, 1987, p. 40) can cause an initial flattening to persist for a longer period of time in these systems, or maybe the more massive clusters tend to be born with larger angular momenta. Detailed dynamical calculations and a better understanding of globular cluster formation will be required before these questions can be definitively answered.

Another mechanism which could produce elongated clusters with high angular momenta is merging of binary clusters (Sugimoto & Makino, 1989). If the two clusters have different metallicities then the result might be an elongated cluster with a metallicity spread, as observed in $`\omega `$ Cen and G1, although it seems unlikely that two clusters born near each other (in time and space) would exhibit such large metallicity differences. Alternatively, the merger might result from a later chance encounter between two clusters (Icke & Alcaino, 1988), but this clearly makes the mechanism less attractive as a general explanation.

Finally, Meylan et al. (2001) have discussed the possibility that G1 and $`\omega `$ Cen are the remnants of nucleated dwarf galaxies. This might make the metallicity spread and elongated morphology of these two clusters more understandable, but does not appear to be a likely explanation for the high ellipticities of most LMC clusters.

### 3.1 Sources of errors

Comparison of the two independent fits gives a good estimate of the random errors involved in the fitting process. However, because the characteristic sizes involved are on the same order of magnitude as the resolution of the images, the fitted parameters are strongly dependent on correct modeling of the WFPC2 PSF. One critical component is the “diffusion kernel”, which takes into account charge diffusion between neighboring pixels in the CCDs. The diffusion kernel given in the TinyTim manual scatters less light to the surrounding pixels than the one in the *WFPC2 handbook*, and this difference also influences the fits. By comparison of the fits with the two different diffusion kernels, it was found that the kernel given in the WFPC2 handbook generally gave smaller FWHM values by about 0.02 – 0.04 pixels or $`0\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}0020\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}004`$. This is consistent with this kernel scattering more light into surrounding pixels, thus causing ishape to fit a slightly narrower intrinsic profile.

We also fitted the star shown in Fig. A G1–like globular cluster in NGC 1023 111Based on observations obtained with the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope, obtained at the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc. under NASA contract No. NAS5-26555. with and without the diffusion kernel. When using the diffusion kernel, ishape was unable to improve the King model fits relative to comparison fits obtained by using a delta function, as expected for an unresolved stellar image. In contrast, if the diffusion kernel was omitted then ishape clearly recognized the star as an “extended” object with an effective radius of about 0.2 pixels, confirming that the “raw” TinyTim PSF underrepresents the size of a point source and that the diffusion kernel needs to be taken into account.

Errors in the distance to NGC 1023 are not included in the uncertainty estimates in Table 1. The $`9.9\pm 0.6`$ Mpc value from Ciardullo, Jacoby and Harris (1991) is based on the planetary nebula luminosity function, and agrees well with the 10.2 Mpc distance estimate given by Faber et al. (1997). Size parameters (FWHM, $`r_c`$, $`R_e`$ and $`r_t`$) scale linearly with the distance, while the central surface brightness $`\mu _0`$ is distance-independent. Thus, from Eq. 7, the central density is inversely proportional to the distance. Compared to the measurement errors, the uncertainty on the distance to NGC 1023 has only a minor effect on the results, even if the $`\pm 6`$% error estimate by Ciardullo, Jacoby and Harris (1991) might be somewhat optimistic.

## 4 Summary

Based on a detailed analysis of its spatial structure, the bright globular cluster n1023-13 is found to be very similar to the G1 cluster in M31. Both have an absolute $`V`$ band magnitude of $`M_V=10.9`$. Using the average values from Table 1, the spatial profile of n1023-13 is well fitted by a King model with core radius $`0.55\pm 0.1`$ pc, effective radius $`3.7\pm 0.3`$ pc and concentration parameter $`c200`$. The cluster appears to be very flattened with an ellipticity around $`ϵ0.37`$, making it one of the flattest star clusters known, and providing another example of the van den Bergh (1984) observation that the brightest GCs in galaxies also tend to be the most flattened. Assuming that the King profile continues all the way to the cluster center, a very high central surface brightness of $`\mu _0(V)=12.9\pm 0.5`$ mag arcsec-2 is derived, implying a central density of $`(4.1\pm 2.4)\times 10^5`$ M pc-3. This is comparable to G1, but two orders of magnitude higher than for $`\omega `$ Centauri.

This work was supported by National Science Foundation grant number AST9900732. I thank Jean Brodie and Sidney van den Bergh for comments on the paper and enlightening discussions, and the referee for useful suggestions.