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# References

1. Introduction

As known at muon colliders  Higgs bosons single production in resonance is possible :

$$\mu ^+\mu ^{}H^0(P^0)$$
(1)
with large cross section. However, mass of Higgs bosons is not fixed in the theory and, thus, we don’t know which energies are necessary for Higgs bosons production in resonance.

In this article we continue consideration of pseudoscalar and charged Higgs bosons production in association with gauge bosons in models with Higgs sector with several Higgs doublets and singlets (an examples of such models models see   e.g. in the context of Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model (MSSM) and also in the context of general two Higgs doublet model and also for supersymmetric models containing two doublets and one singlet of Higgs bosons) .

Previously in ,  has been considered Higgs bosons production in association with photon 111For standard and supersymmetric Higgs bosons production in association with photons in $`e^+e^{}`$-collisions see ,  ,  and references therein, scalar Higgs bosons production in association with Z-bosons (ZZH) couplings has been considered in ,  (see also references therein) . at muon colliders:

$$\mu ^+\mu ^{}H^0(P^0)\gamma $$
(2)
by model independent way and also has been obtained standard Higgs bosons case and enhancement in supersymmetric Higgs bosons case in comparison with standard Higgs bosons production in reaction (2) The process (2) (for standard Higgs bosons has been calculated also in   however authors of this papers do not consider enhancement in theories with extended Higgs sector and besides authors of  do not consider loop effects which as was shown in  and  are very important. It must be noted also that our analytical calculations are essentially differ from calculations of .

In  has been considered supersymmetric charged and pseudoscalar Higgs bosons production at muon colliders in association with $`W^\pm ,Z^0`$-bosons:

$$\mu ^+\mu ^{}H_3^0Z^0,$$
(3)
$$\mu ^+\mu ^{}H^\pm W^{}$$
(4)
This processes are similar to the processes calculated in theories with $`R`$-parity violation -:

$$l_i^+l_j^{}\stackrel{~}{\nu }_{kL}Z^0,$$
(5)
$$l_i^+l_j^{}\stackrel{~}{l}_{kL}^{}W^\pm .$$
(6)
also considered in  222Previously the processes $`e^+e^{}\stackrel{~}{\nu }_{kL}Z^0,\stackrel{~}{l}_{kL}^{}W^\pm `$ have been discussed in . However, our results  are essentially differ from results of the . For instance, formulas for cross section of the process $`e^+e^{}\stackrel{~}{\nu }_{kL}Z^0`$ in  do not contain $`a_{L,R}`$ in contrast to our result. Feynmann diagrams corresponding to the process $`e^+e^{}\stackrel{~}{\nu }_{kL}\gamma `$ has been also discussed in  however its cross section has not been calculated.Case of different flavors of colliding leptons in this paper also has not been considered .

In this article we consider by model independent way pseudoscalar (charged) Higgs bosons production at lepton antilepton colliders in association with $`Z^0(W^\pm )`$ bosons in model which contain many pseudoscalars and many scalars (such large number of scalars and pseudoscalars appear e.g. in models which Higgs sector consist of several doublets + several singlets ). Part of the scalars may have masses so that resonances in $`S`$ -channel diagram is possible( in contrast to MSSM) .I.e. condition $`m_j>m_P+m_Z`$ for some masses of scalars $`m_j`$ are possible.

From the Fig.2 of the paper  we see that after taking into account radiative corrections (for radiative corrections see references in ) situation $`m_P+m_Z<m_H`$ within the MSSM is possible.

Due to this possibility as was shown in this article resonant production (1) $`\mu ^+\mu ^{}H_1^0`$ with subsequent decay $`H_1^0Z^0+H_3^0`$ is possible ($`H_1^0`$ is heaviest scalar Higgs boson in the MSSM, $`H_3^0`$ is psudoscalar Higgs boson in the MSSM ).This situation take place at small $`tan\beta 1`$ and not heavy psudoscalar ($`m_P<50100`$ GeV depend on scalar quarks masses and $`tan\beta `$. For example at $`tan\beta 1`$, stop mass 1 TeV possible $`m_{H_3}=100`$ GeV $`m_{H_1}=200`$ GeV at stop mass 0.5 TeV $`m_{H_3}<50`$ GeV $`m_{H_1}=140`$ GeV ). I.e. studied situation is possible even in MSSM.

Situation which considered in this paper is similar to the consideration of the analogous process $`l_i^+l_j^{}\stackrel{~}{l}_{kL}^{}W^\pm `$ in which this phenomena (resonance enhancement via intermediate sneutrino exchange even far from resonance 333for sneutrino resonant production see \-  , scalar neutrino is scalar + pseudoscalar with same masses) also take place .There are many parallels between scalar neutrinos (scalars leptons) production in theories with R-parity violation and neutral (charged) Higgs bosons.

Also related phenomena has been found in  where in the framework of Two Higgs -doublet Model has been considered enhancement of the process (4) ( in comparison with previous consideration of the process (4) in the framework of MSSM in  ) which appear due to resonance of intermediate scalar and pseudoscalar Higgs bosons on $`S`$ -channel diagramm.

2. Results for $`\mu ^+\mu ^{}P_i^0Z^0`$

In our model independent calculations we suppose that the couplings of the scalar and pseudoscalar Higgs bosons couplings to leptons are following:

$$=ih_j\overline{l}l+h_P\overline{l}\gamma _5lP^0$$
(7)
Interaction $`Z^0H_j^0P^0`$ is following:

$$h_{jZ}(k_4\times Z)$$
(8)
Our results for differential cross section of the process $`\mu ^+\mu ^{}P_i^0Z^0,`$ are following:

$$\frac{d\sigma (\mu ^+\mu ^{}P_i^0Z^0)}{dt}=\frac{\alpha }{8\mathrm{sin}^2\theta _W\mathrm{cos}^2\theta _Ws^2}(B_1+B_2+B_3),$$
(9)
where:

$$B_1=\frac{s}{4m_Z^2}|b|^2m_P^2s|\underset{j}{}\frac{h_jh_{jZ}}{sm_j^2+i\mathrm{\Gamma }_jm_j}|^2,$$
(10)
$$B_2=\frac{sm_P^2}{2}(\frac{1}{t}+\frac{1}{u})h_P\underset{j}{}Re(\frac{h_jh_{jZ}}{sm_j^2+i\mathrm{\Gamma }_jm_j}),$$
(11)
$$B_3=h_P^2[(a_L^2+a_R^2)(\frac{1}{t^2}+\frac{1}{u^2})(tum_P^2m_Z^2)+\frac{4a_La_R(tm_P^2)(um_P^2)}{tu}],$$
(12)
$$b=h_P+(sm_P^2m_Z^2)\underset{j}{}\frac{h_jh_{jZ}}{sm_j^2+i\mathrm{\Gamma }_jm_j}$$
(13)
Requirement of unitarity lead to the condition:

$$0=h_P+\underset{j}{}h_jh_{jZ}$$
(14)
$$t_{}<t<t_+,$$
(15)
where

$$t_\pm =\frac{m_P^2+m_Z^2s\pm \sqrt{(m_P^2+m_Z^2s)^24m_P^2m_Z^2}}{2}.$$
(16)
After performing integration within the limits (13), (14) we obtain for the total cross sections the following result:

$$\sigma (\mu ^+\mu ^{}P_i^0Z^0)=\frac{\alpha }{4\mathrm{sin}^2\theta _W\mathrm{cos}^2\theta _Ws^2}(A_1\mathrm{log}(\frac{t_+}{t_{}})+A_2(t_+t_{})),$$
(17)
where:

$$A_1=h_P^2(a_L^2+a_R^2)(m_P^2+m_Z^2s)+2a_La_R\frac{m_P^2(sm_Z^2)}{m_P^2+m_Z^2s}+\frac{sm_P^2}{2}\underset{j}{}h_Ph_jh_{jZ}\frac{(sm_j^2)}{(sm_j^2)^2+\mathrm{\Gamma }_j^2m_j^2},$$
(18)
$$A_2=\frac{s}{8m_Z^2}|b|^2\frac{sm_P^2}{2}|\underset{j}{}\frac{h_jh_{jZ}}{(sm_j^2)+i\mathrm{\Gamma }_jm_j}|^2+2h_P^2(a_La_R(a_L^2+a_R^2)),$$
(19)
In the vicinity of resonance of the one of the scalar on the $`s`$-channel diagram ($`sm_j^2`$) we obtain Breit Wigner cross section (as in ) :

$$\sigma (\mu ^+\mu ^{}P_i^0Z^0)\frac{4\pi \mathrm{\Gamma }(H_j^0\mu ^+\mu ^{})\mathrm{\Gamma }(H_j^0Z^0P^0)}{(sm_j^2)^2+\mathrm{\Gamma }_j^2m_j^2}$$
(20)
as it must be.

In the limit $`s,m_j^2m_P^2`$ ($`m_j`$ -is arbitrary) the previous formulas are reduced and we have:

$$\sigma (\mu ^+\mu ^{}P_i^0Z^0)=\frac{\alpha }{4\mathrm{sin}^2\theta _W\mathrm{cos}^2\theta _Ws}(2h_P^2(a_L^2+a_R^2)s\mathrm{log}(\frac{s}{m_Pm_Z})+A_2),$$
(21)
In the MSSM at large $`tan\beta `$ it is necessary to put $`h_P=\frac{gm_\mu tan\beta }{\sqrt{2}m_W}`$ and besides mass of scalar is equal to the mass of pseudoscalar and we obtain formula (25) of  in the limit $`sm_j^2,m_P^2`$ .

We will present numerical results for specific models in our next article (for example for two Higgs doublet model). However it is obviously that even off resonance the cross section may be essentially enhanced. The situation is very similar to the (see Fig.4 ) where due to resonance of scalar neutrino exchange the process (2,3) essentially enhanced even far from resonance. Analogous enhancement in the process (4) has been obtained in  in the framework of two HDM model (see Fig.4 in this paper).

3. Results for $`\mu ^+\mu ^{}H^\pm W^{}`$

In our model independent calculations we suppose that the couplings of the charged Higgs bosons to leptons are following:

$$=h\overline{l}P_L\nu H^{}+h.c.+\underset{j}{}h_j\overline{l}l+\underset{j}{}h_{Pj}\overline{l}\gamma _5l$$
(22)
Interactions $`W^+H_j^0H^{}`$ and $`W^+P_j^0H^{}`$ are following:

$$H_{jW}W^+H_j^0H^{},P_{jW}W^+H_j^0H^{}$$
(23)
Amplitude of the process (3) may be written as :

$$M=\frac{g}{\sqrt{2}}\overline{u}(k_1)[(h\frac{\widehat{k}_4\widehat{W}}{t}+(k_4W)a_+(j)H_{jW}h_j)P_L+((k_4W)\underset{j}{}a_{}(j)H_{jW}h_j)P_R]u(k_2).$$
(24)
where:

$$a_\pm (j)=\frac{1}{sm_j^2+i\mathrm{\Gamma }_jm_j}\pm \frac{1}{sM_j^2+i\mathrm{\Gamma }_j^{}M_j}$$
(25)
where $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_j,\mathrm{\Gamma }_j^{}`$ are widths of scalars and pseudoscalars , $`m_j,M_j`$ are masses of scalars and pseudoscalars.

Requirement of unitarity lead to the conditions:

$$0=h+\underset{j}{}\frac{1}{2}h_jH_{jW}$$
(26)
$$0=h+\underset{j}{}\frac{1}{2}h_{Pj}P_{jW}$$
(27)
Formulas presented in  for cross section of the process (4) jointly with formulas (26),(27) of this paper may be used in principle for any Higgs sector although in this paper has not been mentioned this possibility. In particularly in theories with more than two doublets and one or more singlets may exist several resonances of the scalars and several resonances of pseudoscalar which may very essentially to enhance the corosse section of the process (4).

4. Loop Diagrams

Besides tree diagrams also exist loop diagrams (Fig.2) which also contribute to the processes

$`l^+l^{}P^0Z^0`$,$`l^+l^{}H^\pm W^{}`$ .

Blocks $`H^+W^{}Z^0,Z^0Z^0P^0,H^+W^{}\gamma `$$`H^0Z^0\gamma `$, $`P^0Z^0\gamma `$, $`H^{}\mu ^+\nu `$, $`H_i^0\mu ^+\mu ^{}`$ on diagrams on the Fig.2 has been considered previously in (-, (see also refernces therein). For loop vertexes $`H^0Z^0\gamma `$, $`P^0Z^0\gamma `$ and full process process $`e^+e^{}H^0(P^0)+photon`$ see  and references therein. In papers  and  has been considered process $`e^+e^{}P^0Z^0`$ due to block $`Z^0Z^0P^0`$, all another diagrams of Fig.2 in this papers has not been considered.

In  , (and in  in the form presented in this article on the Fig.2) has been considered also box diagrams and diagrams containing $`H^{}\mu ^+\nu `$, $`H_i^0\mu ^+\mu ^{}`$ -vertexes (including supersymmetric particles contribution: charginos ,neutralinos, scalar neutrinos , charged scalar leptons…) with some estimates and conclusions where this diagrams may be important. Obviously this loop diagrams are dominant in $`e^+e^{}`$ annihilation where tree diagrams are nonimportant due to small mass of electron.

It is interesting to compare our tree results and estimates of loop contribution to the processes $`\mu ^+\mu ^{}P^0Z^0`$, $`\mu ^+\mu ^{}H^\pm W^{}`$ of the Fig.2 o with exact calcultions of the processes $`e^+e^{}P^0Z^0`$, $`e^+e^{}H^\pm W^{}`$ also based on diagrams of the Fig.2 which has been performed in the later papers ( ,,,,, and in paper  within MSSM with SUSY particles in loops).

For example from paper  we see that cross section of charged Higgs bosons production+W-bosons via loops in $`e^+e^{}`$-annihilation is less than 0.01 fb at $`\sqrt{s}=500GeV`$ and $`tan\beta >10`$ and decrease with $`tan\beta `$ growth. At $`\sqrt{s}=1000GeV`$ and $`tan\beta >10`$ the author of this paper obtain the cross section less than 0.003 fb.

From paper  we see that cross section of the process $`e^+e^{}H^\pm W^{}`$ is smaller than 0.003 fb in the MSSM case at $`tan\beta >10`$ .From Fig.5 of this paper we see that cross section is smaller than o.1 fb at $`tan\beta >10`$ in 2HDM case and essentially decrease with growth $`tan\beta `$.

From paper  we see that number of psedoscalars +$`Z^0`$-bosons produced via loop of Fig.2 (without SUSY contribution) at $`\sqrt{s}=500GeV`$ and $`10<tan\beta `$ the cross section $`<0.001fb`$.At $`6<tan\beta \beta `$ the cross section $`<0.01fb`$ has been obtained.

From paper  where has been considered process $`e^+e^{}Z^0P^0`$ (loop contribution with SUSY particles as our diagram 2) we see that again the cross section is smaller than 0.1 fb in most favorable cases in 2HDM model. In case of MSSM the cross section is smaller than 0,01 fb in most favorable range of parameters. However it very difficult to consider all ranges of parameters and probably in some area various SUSY contribution will even to cancel to each over (see discussion in ). The authors of  consider only several set of parameters and probably at another parameters the situation will be essentially differ. Such partial cancellation depend on SUSY parameters take place in the loop process $`e^+e^{}photon+P^0(H^0)`$.

In accordance with  total cross sections of processes (3), (4), may be obtained from cross section of the processes of scalar neutrinos and leptons ( $`l_i^+l_j^{}\stackrel{~}{\nu }_{kL}Z^0,l_i^+l_j^{}\stackrel{~}{l}_{kL}^{}W^\pm `$) by the following replacements (because scalar and pseudoscalar Higgs bosons interactions with leptons are similar to scalar leptons interaction with leptons ) :

$$h_{ijk}\frac{gm_\mu }{\sqrt{2}m_W}\mathrm{tan}\beta ,m_{\stackrel{~}{\nu }}m_3,m_{\stackrel{~}{l}}m_4and\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\stackrel{~}{\nu }}=0$$
(28)
where $`m_\mu `$ is $`\mu `$-meson mass. To value $`h_{ijk}=10^2`$ of Yukawa coplings of scalar neutrino and lepton to ordinary leptons correspond $`tan\beta =17.5`$ and we obtain form Fig.4,5 of  that about $`1200(\frac{\mathrm{tan}\beta }{17.5})^260(\frac{\mathrm{tan}\beta }{17.5})^2`$ events per year at $`L=1000`$ $`fb^1`$-$`50`$ $`fb^1`$, $`\sqrt{s}=1000`$ $`GeV`$, $`m_4=300700`$ $`GeV`$. About 1100 events per year at $`L=1000`$ $`fb^1`$-$`50`$ $`fb^1`$, $`\sqrt{s}=500`$ $`GeV`$, $`m_4=300`$ $`GeV`$.

For MSSM pseudoscalar Higgs production with $`Z^0`$-bosons in  has been obtained $`600(\frac{\mathrm{tan}\beta }{17.5})^230(\frac{\mathrm{tan}\beta }{17.5})^2`$ pseudoscalar Higgs bosons per year at .$`\sqrt{s}=5001000`$ $`GeV`$ and masses $`m_P=500700`$ GeV.At kinematical peak we have about $`1000`$ events per year at same $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$ and $`m_P=500`$ GeV. At smaller $`m_P`$ the cross section may be also enhanced.

In any cases we see that at $`tan\beta >10`$ ( and sometimes at smaller $`tan\beta `$ ) the tree contribution considered in  in the processes (3),(4) is much more significant than loop contributions considered in results of this papers ,,,.

Thus we confirm our previous result  in accordance with at $`tan\beta 7`$ or higher tree contribution is more essential than loop contribution.

However if resonances at third s-channel diagrams of the processes (3) is exist ( i.e. masses of some of the scalars is larger than $`m_P+m_Z`$) the cross section of the tree process (3) may be essential even at small Higgs bosons interactions with leptons.

The author express his sincere gratitude to G. K. Yeghiyan for helpful discussions.

Figures captions:

Fig. 1 Tree diagrams corresponding to the processes (2), (3).$`H^0`$ denoted scalars $`P_j^0`$-pseudoscalars.

Fig. 2 Loop diagrams corresponding to the processes (2), (3) within the MSSM.. Shaded ring corresponds to the diagrams with loop-induced $`\gamma W^{}H^\pm `$, $`Z^0W^{}H^\pm `$, $`\gamma Z^0H_i^0`$, $`Z^0Z^0H_i^0`$, $`H^{}\mu ^+\nu `$, $`H_i^0\mu ^+\mu ^{}`$ -vertexes.Diagrams with loop-induced virtual gauge bosons-Higgs bosons mixing are not shown.


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# Parsec-Scale Jet Polarization Properties of a Complete Sample of Active Galactic Nuclei at 43 GHz

## 1 Introduction

Studies of active galactic nuclei (AGNs) with polarization-sensitive VLBI currently provide us with one of the best means of investigating the magnetic field structures of outflows from the vicinity of supermassive black holes. Theoretical and numerical simulations of these outflows suggest that they are highly collimated and accelerated to relativistic speeds by magnetic fields generated in a rapidly rotating accretion disk (see recent review by Meier et al. 2001). Many of these outflows are believed to undergo strong shocks that significantly alter their observed polarization structure (e.g., Hughes et al. 1985).

Past VLBI polarization observations of large AGN samples (e.g., Cawthorne et al. 1993; Gabuzda, Pushkarev, & Cawthorne 2000) have led to important discoveries regarding relativistic shocks and the underlying magnetic fields of AGN jets. These surveys have generally been carried out at cm-wavelengths however, where Faraday effects can be important. At shorter observing wavelengths, it is possible to probe regions much closer to the base of the jet due to the $`\lambda ^1`$ improvement in angular resolution and lower source opacities. The higher resolution afforded at mm-wavelengths is especially important in alleviating the effects of blending within the synthesized beam, which can dramatically reduce the observed polarized emission from closely spaced, orthogonally-polarized regions. Faraday rotation and de-polarization effects are also greatly diminished in the mm-regime, enabling a more accurate determination of true magnetic field directions.

We present here the results of the first VLBI polarization study of a complete sample of flat-spectrum AGNs at a wavelength of $`\lambda =7`$ mm ($`\nu =43`$ GHz). The synthesized beam in our images has a typical FWHM angular size of $`0.2`$ milliarcseconds, making this the highest resolution imaging survey of a complete AGN sample made to date. Our sample is drawn from the well-known Pearson-Readhead survey (Pearson & Readhead, 1988), which has been the subject of numerous studies at a variety of wavelengths and resolutions, including space-VLBI at 5 GHz (Lister et al., 2001a). The latter data have allowed us to trace weak steep-spectrum jet emission out to much larger distances from the core than is possible at 43 GHz alone.

The paper is laid out as follows. In § 2 we describe our sample selection criteria, followed by a discussion of our observations and data analysis methods in § 3. In § 4 we discuss various correlations between observed properties of our sample, and their implications for current jet and shock models. These include correlations involving VLBI core component luminosity and polarization, and the morphology and polarization properties of components located further down the jet. We also discuss a correlation between the apparent bending morphologies and speeds in AGN jets, and demonstrate how many of the bent jet morphologies in our sample are consistent with low-pitch helical jet trajectories. In § 5 we discuss apparent differences in the intrinsic magnetic field structures of BL Lacertae objects and quasars at 43 GHz that support previous findings at lower observing frequencies. We summarize our results in § 6.

Throughout this paper we use a Freidmann cosmology with $`H_o=100h\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1\mathrm{Mpc}^1`$, $`h=0.65`$, $`q_o=0.1`$, and zero cosmological constant. We give all position angles in degrees east of north, and define the spectral index according to $`S_\nu \nu ^\alpha `$. All fractional polarizations are quoted in per cent, and refer to linear polarization only.

## 2 Sample selection

Our sample is derived from the Pearson-Readhead (PR) survey (Pearson & Readhead, 1988), which consists of all northern ($`\delta >+35\mathrm{°}`$) AGNs with total 5 GHz flux density greater than 1.3 Jy and galactic latitude $`|b|>10\mathrm{°}`$. Since the steep-spectrum lobe emission can still make a significant contribution to the total flux of an AGN at 5 GHz, many of the arcsecond-scale core components in the PR sample are extremely radio weak ($`<1\mathrm{mJy}`$ at 43 GHz). In order to select a statistically complete core-selected sample that is suitable for snapshot imaging with the NRAO’s111The National Radio Astronomy Observatory is a facility of the National Science Foundation operated under cooperative agreement by Associated Universities, Inc. Very Long Baseline Array (VLBA), we used a spectral flatness criterion $`\overline{\alpha }_{515}>0.4`$, where $`\overline{\alpha }_{515}`$ is a time-averaged single dish spectral index between 5 and 15 GHz measured by Aller et al. (1992). This final flat-spectrum Pearson-Readhead sample (hereafter referred to as the FS-PR sample) was originally defined by us in a related paper (Lister et al., 2001b), and contains 21 quasars, 9 BL Lac objects and 2 radio galaxies (see Table 1).

## 3 Observations and data analysis

We obtained single-epoch 43 GHz VLBA polarization data on the entire FS-PR sample with the exception of 0954+556. This unusual flat-spectrum object has a weak core at high frequencies and an apparent compact symmetric morphology (e.g., Wilkinson et al. 1994) at 8.4 GHz (A. P. Marscher, private communication). We also observed four PR sources that did not make the flat-spectrum cut-off: 0153+744, 0538+498, 0711+356, and 1828+487. We include their images and data here, but do not consider them in the statistical analyses that follow. We carried out observations of 28 sources over three separate VLBA sessions, with approximately 60 minutes integration time devoted to each source. During the first observing session (1999 Apr 6) only right-hand circular polarization data were obtained at Owens Valley due to a receiver failure. No data were obtained with the Brewster antenna during the 2000 Sep 10 session, also due to a receiver failure. Data from all ten VLBA antennas were obtained during the 2000 Jan 3 session.

The data were recorded in eight baseband channels (IFs) of 8 MHz bandwidth using 1-bit sampling. Both right and left hand polarizations were recorded simultaneously in IF pairs, giving a total observing bandwidth of 32 MHz. Snapshot data on seven remaining FS-PR sources were made available to us from other VLBA programs that used identical observing parameters (see Table 2).

The data were correlated using the VLBA correlator in Socorro, NM, and subsequent data editing and calibration were performed at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory using the Astronomical Image Processing System (AIPS) software supplied by NRAO. Our calibration method followed that of Lister & Smith (2000). For each observing session we determined the antenna polarization leakage factors by running the AIPS task LPCAL on four program sources and averaging the resulting solutions. The antenna leakage factors ranged from approximately 1 to 7%, and had a typical scatter of $`0.7\%`$. Based on 37 GHz flux density measurements of 1803+794 from the Metsähovi observatory (H. Teräsranta, private communication), we estimate our absolute flux density scaling to be accurate to within $`20\%`$.

We determined the absolute electric vector position angle (EVPA) corrections using measurements of component C4 in 3C 279 at each observing epoch (see Taylor 2000). As an additional check on our calibration, we found good agreement between our integrated EVPA for our 2000 Sep 10 epoch of 3C 279 and the measured value from the NRAO’s Very Large Array (VLA)222http://www.aoc.nrao.edu/$``$smyers/calibration/ on the following day. Based on these comparisons, we estimate that our measured EVPAs are accurate to within $`5\mathrm{°}`$.

We used the Caltech Difmap package (Shepherd et al., 1994) to make Stokes $`I`$, $`Q`$, and $`U`$ images of our sources, which we then imported into AIPS to make our final contour images, shown in Figures 1-32. The images of 0923+392, 1633+382, and 1928+738 are presented in Lister & Smith (2000). In the interest of completeness we include unpublished images of 1652+398 from A. P. Marscher (private communication) and those of 1641+399, 1823+487, and 2200+420 from S. G. Jorstad (in preparation). The parameters for all of the images are summarized in Table 2.

We performed elliptical Gaussian model fits to each source in the (u,v) plane using the task “modelfit” in Difmap. In cases where elliptical Gaussians provided a poor fit to the visibilities, we used point ($`\delta `$-function) components. The results of these fits are given in Tables 3 and 4, and are intended as a general guideline for interpreting the source structure. We estimate the given positions of strong, isolated components to be accurate to within a quarter of a beam width, and their measured flux densities to an accuracy of $`<10\%`$. Our fits are less reliable for weak components and those located in regions of diffuse emission.

At the central position of each component we measured the electric vector position angle (EVPA) and the percentage linear polarization $`m=100\times P/I`$, where $`P=(Q^2+U^2)^{1/2}`$, and $`Q`$, $`U`$, and $`I`$ are Stokes flux densities. We note that in some cases the peak of polarized emission is offset from that of the $`I`$ emission, so that the values of $`m`$ given in Tables 3 and 4 may not represent the maximum percentage polarization associated with a particular component. For those components with a peak $`P`$ flux density smaller than five times the rms noise level in the P image, we quote an upper limit on $`m`$. We make no corrections for Ricean bias in the other components, since these are all negligible.

## 4  Discussion: Correlations among source properties

The Pearson-Readhead sample has been extensively studied at a variety of wavelengths and resolution levels, and has one of the largest collections of published data of any radio sample. Many of these data were tabulated by Lister et al. (2001b) and are summarized here in Tables 1 and 5.

We have extended the multi-dimensional analysis of Lister et al. (2001b) to look for trends between our measured polarization properties and various source quantities from the literature using Kendall’s tau tests. For those source properties that contain measured upper or lower limits (i.e., censored data), we used a version of Kendall’s tau test from the Astronomical Survival Analysis (ASURV) package (Lavalley et al., 1992). Many of the observed properties in flux-limited AGN samples (e.g., luminosity) have a strong redshift dependence, due to the lower flux cutoff and the steepness of the parent luminosity function (Padovani, 1992). We therefore calculated an additional partial correlation coefficient removing the effects of redshift (see Lister et al. 2001b) for each pair of variables. In the case of variables involving censored data, we used the algorithm of Akritas & Siebert (1996). Given the large number of tests performed, we rejected any correlations with a confidence level less than $`98\%`$. We also rejected any instances in which one or more outlying points artificially raised the correlation significance above this level. We give a list of significant correlations and their statistical confidence levels in Table 6.

We also performed a series of two-sample tests on the data to look for differences in properties among different source classes, such as quasars versus BL Lacertae objects. For the non-censored variables, we used a standard Kolmogorov-Smirnov test, while for the censored ones, we used Gehan’s generalized Wilcoxon two-sample test (Gehan, 1965) from the ASURV package. We again used a $`98\%`$ confidence level to determine whether any differences were significant. The results of these tests can be found in Table 7, and will be discussed in § 5. Here we discuss the individual correlations we have found using Kendall’s tau tests for the FS-PR sample.

### 4.1 Redshift

We find that all of the luminosity-related quantities of the FS-PR sample have a strong dependence on redshift due to the flux limited nature of the sample. This includes the variability brightness temperature (99.97% confidence; Table 6), which Lähteenmäki & Valtaoja (1999) calculated for 20 FS-PR objects by using the observed time scale of a well-defined flare at 37 GHz to estimate the size of the emitting region. The strong correlation with redshift is likely due to the fact that the variability brightness temperature is directly proportional to the observed flux density (and hence luminosity) of the flare.

### 4.2  Luminosity properties

At 43 GHz, nearly all of the FS-PR sources have radio morphologies that are dominated by a strong core component located near the base of an extended jet. Multi-frequency studies have shown that these cores have flat or inverted spectra, and likely represent the region where the jet becomes optically thick. The core in lower frequency VLBI images often turns out to be a blend of two or more components due to insufficient spatial resolution (Lister & Smith, 2000). For the majority of the FS-PR sources our 43 GHz observations represent the highest resolution images obtained to date, and are less subject to possible blending effects.

We have searched for trends between the luminosity of the VLBI core at 43 GHz and luminosities at other wavelengths using the partial correlation coefficients described in § 4. We find that both the total VLBI luminosity of the source and the luminosity of the VLBI core are well-correlated with a) the VLBI core luminosity at 5 GHz and b) the x-ray luminosity at 1 keV ($`L_{xray}`$). Bloom et al. (1999) found a correlation between 22 GHz VLBI core luminosity and $`L_{xray}`$ using a different flat-spectrum AGN sample, and attributed it to a common synchrotron origin for these spectral components. We also detect a correlation between 43 GHz VLBI core luminosity and optical luminosity (see Table 6). Taken together, these findings suggest that there is a well-defined synchrotron component in these AGNs whose emission extends from millimeter wavelengths through optical to x-ray energies.

### 4.3 Core dominance

The highly core-dominated nature of the FS-PR sample is a reflection of its selection criteria and the dimming of steep-spectrum jet emission at high frequency. In order to investigate possible correlations between core dominance and other properties, we define a parameter $`R`$ (column 7 of Table 3) as the flux density of the core divided by the remaining (jet) flux density in the VLBI image. We correct the core dominance to the quasar rest frame by assuming typical spectral indices of 0 and $`0.8`$ for the core and jet emission, respectively. The $`R`$ values range from 0.02 to $`20`$, with a median of 0.75. This suggests that most bright, flat-spectrum AGNs should be excellent targets for next generation high frequency space-VLBI missions, since they are likely compact enough to have sufficient flux density for fringe detection on extremely long baselines.

Our $`R`$ parameter is somewhat analogous to the core dominance parameter $`F_c`$ of Pearson & Readhead (1988), which they defined as the ratio of VLBI core to total (single dish) flux density of the source at 5 GHz. The $`F_c`$ parameter is considered to be a good indicator of Doppler beaming, which causes a dramatic boosting of the jet and core fluxes in relativistic jets viewed nearly end-on. The extended radio lobes of AGNs are not as affected by beaming, since their bulk motions are non-relativistic. Therefore, the ratio of core-to-total flux density will increase as an AGN is viewed closer to the jet axis. This effect appears to be responsible for the well-known correlations between core dominance and a) optical polarization (Impey et al., 1991) and b) 5 GHz radio variability (Aller et al., 1992) seen in the full PR sample. The latter two quantities are correlated with our $`R`$ parameter at the 99.89% and 99.45% confidence level, respectively. We find a good correlation (98.93% confidence; Fig. 33) between $`R`$ and another quantity known to be influenced by beaming, namely the variability brightness temperature (Lähteenmäki & Valtaoja, 1999).

The number of correlations between our $`R`$ parameter and other known beaming indicators is somewhat surprising, since there is strong evidence (e.g., from rapid flux variability and superluminal motions) that both the core and jet emission on VLBI scales are beamed. Nevertheless we find evidence that the ratio of core-to-jet flux is higher in the more highly beamed sources. This runs contrary to the predictions of the standard jet model, which suggests that the core emission should be less boosted than that of the jet. Since the jet emission is dominated by components with finite lifetimes, its emission will be boosted by a factor $`\delta ^{3\alpha }`$, where $`\delta `$ is the Doppler factor of the bulk flow. The core on the other hand will only be boosted by a factor $`\delta ^{2\alpha }`$.

These apparent contradictions can be resolved by considering several other effects that can influence the $`R`$ values of beamed sources. First, we expect the high-energy electrons that are accelerated in the cores to experience inverse-Compton losses from scattering off of external photons. These losses will be larger for highly beamed sources, due to blue-shifting of the external photons in the rest frame of the jet (e.g., Dermer & Schlickeiser 1993). According to the shock-in-jet model of Marscher & Gear (1985), the lifetimes of components that evolve adiabatically as they move down the jet will be shortened accordingly, due to the steepening of their electron energy distribution and the shifting of the high-energy electron cutoff into the radio region. This will tend to reduce the jet flux relative to the core and increase $`R`$. Second, highly beamed sources will tend to have faster component motions, which will cause the jet components to fade out more rapidly, thereby reducing the total jet flux and lowering the number of components per unit length in the jet. Third, it is possible that the bulk speed of the flow is higher in the cores than further down the jet, which would lead to a higher amount of beaming in the core. Finally, the standard jet model predictions are based on the assumption that the core emission originates from a continuous jet, however, our VLBI “cores” may include emission from unresolved components very close to the base of the jet which have finite lifetimes.

### 4.4 Fractional polarization of core components

The fractional polarizations of the VLBI core components in our sample range up to 9%, with most being weakly polarized ($`<2\%`$). The integrated VLBI fractional polarization (defined as the ratio of $`(Q^2+U^2)^{1/2}`$ to I, where Q, U, and I represent the cleaned Stokes fluxes in the VLBI images) has a similar distribution to that of the cores (Figure 34). This is simply a reflection of the dominance of the core component and relatively weak contribution of the steep spectrum jet to the polarized flux at 43 GHz. Indeed, we find that the core and integrated VLBI polarization levels are correlated at the 99.995% confidence level.

We find that sources with flatter spectra between 5 and 15 GHz tend to have higher core and integrated VLBI fractional polarizations at 43 GHz (Figure 35). The simplest means of obtaining a flatter overall radio spectrum is to increase the dominance of the core component, since its spectrum is usually flatter than the jet. The correlations in Figure 35 may therefore be due to a separate correlation between polarization and core dominance. There is some indication that the 43 GHz core fractional polarization may be correlated with the 5 GHz core dominance ($`F_c`$) in our sample, but only at the 94.5% confidence level, which is below our significance cutoff. It is not clear whether such a trend, if it exists, could be the result of relativistic beaming effects or an intrinsic property of the cores.

We find the fractional polarization of the core component at 43 GHz is also related to the overall optical polarization of the source. Lister & Smith (2000) found such a trend in a sample of low- and high-optically polarized quasars which suggested a common (possibly co-spatial) origin for the emission at these frequencies. In Figure 36 we plot these two quantities for the FS-PR. The optical polarization data are tabulated in Table 1, and are taken from Impey et al. (1991) with the exception of 1954+513, whose data are taken from Wills et al. (1992). These authors attempted to reduce possible biases by taking the first reliable published optical polarization measurement for each source. We note that the optical polarization levels of flat-spectrum radio-loud AGNs are highly variable, which will introduce a large degree of scatter in the $`y`$-axis of Figure 36 due to the non-simultaneity of the radio and optical measurements. Nevertheless, there appears to be a positive trend present among objects with $`m_{opt}>1\%`$. There is no trend among the low-polarization objects however. In order for them to follow the main trend, their current optical polarization levels would have to be significantly higher than those measured by Impey et al. (1991). This appears to be the case for at least one FS-PR source: 1633+382, whose optical polarization had never exceeded 3% until recent observations showed variable $`m_{opt}`$ levels between $`1.5\%`$ and 7% (P. S. Smith 2001, private communication).

There has been a historical trend among optical astronomers to divide quasars into low- and high-optical polarization classes at $`m_{opt}3\%`$, since most optically-selected quasars rarely exceed this value (Berriman et al., 1990). This division is somewhat more problematic for flat-spectrum, radio-loud AGNs, since their optical polarizations are known to be highly variable. Following the standard convention, we classify any source having a single measurement of $`m_{opt}>3\%`$ as a “high-optical polarization quasar” (HPQ). In order to alleviate possible bias, we have only classified sources as “low-polarization radio quasars” (LPRQs) in Table 1 if they have had least three published optical polarization measurements, and have never had $`m_{opt}>3\%`$. Unfortunately, this leaves only five genuine LPRQs in the FS-PR, which is too small a sample for statistical comparisons. This underscores the need for more frequent optical polarization monitoring of larger samples of core-dominated AGNs to better understand the connection between the radio and optical regimes.

### 4.5 Electric vector orientation of core components

The electric vector orientation of a polarized jet component with respect to the local jet direction ($`|EVPAJPA|`$) is an important quantity for testing the predictions of shock models for AGNs (e.g., Laing 1980; Hughes et al. 1985). These models suggest that transverse planar shocks form in the flow and preferentially compress the perpendicular component of the magnetic field. At high frequencies where the emission is optically thin, this generally renders the observed electric vector parallel to the jet axis and raises the fractional polarization due to increased ordering of the magnetic field. We find evidence for such a scenario in the core components of our sample. Figure 37 shows that as the core polarization increases, the electric vectors tend to align with the jet as predicted. This trend was also found in the polarized jet components of another AGN sample at 43 GHz by Lister & Smith (2000). To our knowledge this marks the first such detection in the core components of AGNs.

The distribution of $`|EVPAJPA|`$ (top panel of Figure 37 is somewhat skewed towards low values, and has a 5% probability of being drawn from a uniform distribution, according to a K-S test. If strong transverse shocks were dominating the polarization of all the cores, we would expect the observed electric vectors to all lie parallel to the jet, with very few $`|EVPAJPA|`$ misalignments greater than ten degrees. Our measured misalignments range up to $`80\mathrm{°}`$ however. We do not expect the core EVPAs to be significantly affected by Faraday rotation at 43 GHz, since extremely high RMs of $`>25000\mathrm{rad}\mathrm{m}^2`$ would be required to produce a significant effect. Such values are much higher than than typical values seen in the nuclear regions of quasars ($`2000\mathrm{rad}\mathrm{m}^2`$; Taylor 2000). It is possible that the limited resolution of our images may have introduced errors in the measured $`|EVPAJPA|`$’s due to small-scale jet bending near the core, or the blending of unresolved components at the base of the jet. Alternatively, it may be the case that the inner jets of some sources contain only weak shocks that lie at oblique angles to the flow. Future high-frequency space-VLBI observations with higher resolution should enable us to distinguish between these possibilities.

### 4.6  Jet polarization properties

The modest dynamic range of our snapshot maps does not permit an overly detailed analysis of the faint steep-spectrum jet emission from our sample objects. In particular, the lowest fractional polarization we detected in any jet was approximately $`2\%`$. The properties of the jet components in our sample are tabulated in Table 4.

Despite these limitations, we have confirmed an important trend of increasing fractional polarization with distance down the jet found by Cawthorne et al. (1993) (hereafter CWRG) for the PR sample at 5 GHz, and by Lister & Smith (2000) for a different AGN sample at 43 GHz. In Figure 38 we plot fractional polarization versus distance for the jet components (excluding the cores) in our sample. Those components with polarized flux density greater than 5 times the rms noise level of the $`P`$ image are represented by the filled symbols in Figure 38, while the unfilled symbols represent upper limits. We will discuss the rising trend in this figure further in § 5.

We have also compared the EVPA values of the jet components to the local jet direction for our sample. Since many of our sources undergo bends at the position of polarized components, we define the local direction in two ways: $`JPA_{in}`$ as the position angle of the jet ridge line upstream of the component, and $`JPA_{out}`$ as the jet position angle downstream. In those cases where the ridge line was impossible to trace in the image due to low signal-to-noise, we used the angle to the nearest up- or downstream component. In the upper panel of Figure 39 we plot the distribution of $`|EVPAJPA_{in}|`$ for the polarized jet components (excluding the cores) in the FS-PR. The distribution of $`|EVPAJPA_{out}|`$ is shown in the lower panel. Both distributions are peaked at zero, with the majority of components having EVPAs aligned to within $`40\mathrm{°}`$ of the local jet direction.

This result contrasts dramatically with that of Lister et al. (1998), who found a uniform distribution of $`|EVPAJPA|`$ for a collection of quasars and BL Lacs that had been observed at 22 GHz and higher at that time. Their sample did not have well-defined selection criteria, however, and may have suffered from unknown observational biases.

A family of purely transverse (i.e., non-oblique) shocks cannot reproduce our data, since their electric vectors will always be parallel to the jet, irrespective of beaming and orientation effects (Cawthorne & Cobb, 1990). CWRG have suggested that quasar jets contain a strong underlying longitudinal component to their magnetic field that increases with distance down the jet. At the sites of shocks, the longitudinal and transverse fields are superimposed on one another, causing a decrease in the observed polarization. At some distance down the jet, the underlying longitudinal field becomes strong enough to dominate the observed polarization and flip the electric vectors perpendicular to the jet axis. In order to account for the intermediate values of $`|EVPAJPA|`$ in Figure 39 that lie between these two extremes, some other mechanism is required.

Lister et al. (1998) examined the predicted distribution of $`|EVPAJPA|`$ for two possible scenarios: one in which the polarized emission originates in moving, oblique shocks, and the other in which the polarized components are simply enhanced jet regions with fixed magnetic field configurations that are drawn from a random orientation distribution. In the case of oblique shocks, they found that the distribution of $`|EVPAJPA|`$ should be highly peaked at zero, and will taper off sharply at high $`|EVPAJPA|`$ values. The non-oblique model also predicts a peak near zero, but its distribution is expected to be flatter and more uniform over the range $`5\mathrm{°}<|EVPAJPA|<90\mathrm{°}`$.

The distribution of $`|EVPA_{in}JPA|`$ in the upper panel in Figure 39 is similar in shape to the oblique shock model prediction of Lister et al. (1998) for jets with upstream Lorentz factors equal to 5. There still remain too many uncertainties in the parameters of their model to permit detailed fitting to our data, however. These include the intrinsic distributions of shock obliqueness, shock speed, viewing angle, and upstream jet speed, upon which there are currently few observational constraints.

There are also uncertainties regarding the true jet position angles near the locations of polarized jet components. For example, if we instead compare the component EVPAs to the downstream jet position angles (lower panel of Fig. 39), we cannot completely rule out the non-oblique scenario of Lister et al. (1998). Higher-resolution polarization images will be helpful in addressing this issue.

### 4.7 Jet bending

The combination of previous space-VLBI images of the FS-PR sample at 5 GHz (Lister et al., 2001b) with our high-resolution 43 GHz images has enabled us to trace the parsec-scale morphologies of these sources with unprecedented detail. The majority of jets in the FS-PR appear distorted by projection effects since they are likely viewed nearly end-on. Any slight bends in the jet axis can be greatly amplified, causing apparent bends of $`90\mathrm{°}`$ or more in some cases. For example, the the jet of 1739+522 displays a rotation of nearly $`270\mathrm{°}`$ in its apparent flow direction in the space of only a few milliarcseconds (see Figure 23 and additional images in Lister et al. 2001a).

We use two measures to quantify the degree of bending in our sample, which we tabulate in Table 1. We measure both the number of significant bends and their angular sum out to $`100h^1`$ pc from the core using a combination of our 43 GHz images, the 5 GHz ground and space-VLBI images from Lister et al. (2001a), and other VLBI images in the literature. We define a significant bend as any change in direction of the jet greater than $`10\mathrm{°}`$. In order to reduce possible cosmological bias, prior to our measurements we convolved the lower redshift sources with a larger beam in order to simulate the effects of poorer resolution at the median redshift of the sample ($`z1`$). We did not make any corrections for $`(1+z)^4`$ surface brightness dimming in the VLBI images. This may cause the number of bends to be overestimated in low redshift sources, since more of their jets should be visible at a given image sensitivity level. We find no significant difference in the bending quantities of low ($`z<1`$) and high ($`z>1`$) redshift sources, however. We also find no difference in the bending properties of quasars versus BL Lac objects, even though the latter are located at significantly closer cosmological distances. We attribute this to the fact that most bends tend to occur in the brightest part of the jet near the core where the signal-to-noise ratio in the VLBI images is high.

#### 4.7.1 Correlations with apparent speed

We have compared the bending statistics of the jets in our sample to their maximum apparent speeds as tabulated in Lister et al. (2001b), and find that in general, the straighter jets in the FS-PR tend to have slower jet speeds. This is apparent in Figure 40, where we plot the number of significant bends against $`\beta _{app}`$. Our Kendall’s tau test shows that these quantities are correlated at the 99.39% confidence level. A similar test of $`\beta _{app}`$ versus the angular sum of the jet bends gives $`97.04\%`$ confidence for a correlation. We have repeated these tests adding recent unpublished apparent velocity data on several FS-PR objects that are part of the VLBA 2 cm survey (K. I. Kellermann, private communication), and find that the confidence levels increase to $`99.98\%`$ and $`99.81\%`$, respectively.

It is not clear whether these trends may merely be due to orientation effects that generally cause jets seen more nearly end-on to have larger apparent bends and faster superluminal speeds. Lister et al. (2001b) did not find apparent jet speed to be well-correlated with jet orientation for the FS-PR sample, however. They attributed this to a) the narrow predicted range of viewing angle for the sample, and b) the likelihood that some sources are viewed inside the critical angle at which apparent velocity is maximized. It is not obvious what intrinsic processes could lead to an intrinsic connection between jet speed and bending. Current theory suggests that jet bends can arise from Kelvin-Helmholtz instabilities that are driven by an external periodic process (Hardee, 1984). Although the evolution of these instabilities is highly dependent on the jet Mach number, it is not well-known how the latter quantity is related to the observed VLBI component speeds. More theoretical work is needed to determine how jet speed influences the observed polarization of shocked relativistic jets with intrinsic bends. Detailed three-dimensional magnetohydrodynamical computer simulations should be extremely useful in this regard.

#### 4.7.2  Bending morphology

A large fraction of the jets in the FS-PR sample exhibit a peculiar morphology in which the jet starts out with a particular flow direction, undergoes a bend, and then resumes with nearly exactly the original flow direction. Approximately half of the sources (16 of 36) we observed at 43 GHz display this “bend and re-align” (BAR) morphology, which we indicate in column 10 of Table 1. A good example in our survey can be found in the jet of 1828+487 (Figure 28), where the position angle between components D and E is very similar to that between A and B, despite a large bend in between these regions. Our two-sample tests do not reveal any strong differences in the overall properties of the BAR versus non-BAR sources in our sample.

The BAR morphology is highly reminiscent of a jet in which the streamlines follow a low-pitch helical pattern, once relativistic beaming effects have been taken into account. Gómez, Alberdi & Marcaide (1994) have demonstrated that the emission is maximized in regions of the jet that have small angles to the line of sight. We illustrate this in Figure 41, where the thin line shows the projection of a damped low-pitch helix onto the sky plane (denoted by primes). The axis of the helix lies along the $`\widehat{z}`$ direction in a right-handed coordinate system. The observer is located at a viewing angle of $`6\mathrm{°}`$ from the $`\widehat{z}`$ axis, and an azimuth direction of $`45\mathrm{°}`$ from the $`\widehat{y}\widehat{z}`$ plane, measured counterclockwise looking down the $`+\widehat{z}`$ axis toward the origin. The helix itself has a half-opening angle of $`1\mathrm{°}`$, and an increasing wavelength of the form $`\lambda =\lambda _oz^ϵ`$, where we have chosen $`\lambda _o=0.2`$ and $`ϵ=0.3`$ in arbitrary units. The regions marked in bold have smaller viewing angles than the rest of the jet, and thus will appear much brighter and more beamed. In VLBI images of limited sensitivity, it is possible that these may be the only jet regions that are detected.

We have chosen this particular model merely to illustrate how beaming and orientation effects can conspire to produce BAR morphologies in AGN jets. We note that our model assumes that the bulk motions of the jet plasma follow helical streamlines, and are not merely ballistic. Evidence for this can be found in several sources (0859+470, 1641+399, 1642+390, 1803+784, and 2200+420) in which the polarization vectors tend to follow changes in the jet ridge line direction.

## 5 Comparison of BL Lac object and quasar polarization properties

A major unresolved issue in AGN research is the relation of high-optical polarization quasars to their weak-lined cousins, the BL Lacertae objects. The separation of these two classes is still a matter of some debate, as the original classification criterion for BL Lacs (strongest rest frame emission line width narrower than 5 Å; e.g., Stickel et al. 1991) does not appear to reflect any natural division in the observed line width distribution of blazars (Scarpa & Falomo, 1997). A further complication arises in that the emission line widths of many blazars (including BL Lac itself; Vermeulen et al. 1995) are known to vary with time. Nevertheless, several studies have shown marked differences in the properties of broad- and narrow-lined blazars. These include their spectral properties in the sub-mm (Gear et al., 1994) and x-ray (Padovani, 1992) bands, and their jet polarization characteristics on parsec scales (CWRG).

CWRG obtained 5 GHz VLBI polarization data on 24 sources in the Pearson-Readhead sample, 20 of which are members of the FS-PR. They found that the overall jet EVPAs of BL Lacs tended to be much more aligned with the jet than those of quasars. Compared to our 43 GHz observations, their data were more sensitive to weakly polarized emission further down the jet, but had significantly poorer spatial resolution and were more influenced by Faraday rotation and de-polarization effects. Our data are more sensitive to polarization structure closer to the base of the jet. In this section we compare the 43 GHz VLBI polarization properties of the BL Lacs and quasars in the FS-PR sample to those obtained by CWRG at 5 GHz. Our BL Lac classifications are based on the catalog of Padovani & Giommi (1995), and are identical to those of CWRG.

### 5.1 Core components

CWRG found that at 5 GHz, the VLBI core components of quasars tended to have smaller fractional polarizations than those of BL Lacs. The $`|EVPA_{core}JPA|`$ distributions of both classes were randomly distributed, indicating no preferred orientation of the core magnetic field with respect to the jet. We find a similar result at 43 GHz regarding the core EVPAs (see Figure 37), but find no significant differences in the core polarization levels of the two classes (top panel of Figure 34). It is possible that CWRG observed a blend of polarization from components located near the core. This may have reduced the observed polarization of the quasar cores, which are generally located at larger cosmological distances than the BL Lacs. Higher resolution mm- or space-VLBI observations are required to determine whether this is also the case for our 43 GHz observations.

### 5.2 Jet components

CWRG also found significant differences in the magnetic field properties of BL Lacs and quasar jets. They showed that BL Lacs tend to have electric polarization vectors that line up parallel to the jet, while quasars have predominantly perpendicular EVPA orientations. We note that CWRG used a vector-averaged EVPA for the jet and compared it to the position angle of the component with the largest flux density. This method is not appropriate for our data, due to the large number of small scale jet bends present in many sources. We have instead plotted the distribution for all polarized components, compared to the local upstream and downstream jet directions (Figure 39, upper and lower panels respectively).

There do appear to be differences in the $`|EVPAJPA|`$ distributions for BL Lacs and quasars at 43 GHz, but not as strong a level as reported by CWRG. A Kolmogorov-Smirnov (K-S) test on the BL Lac and quasar distributions in the lower panel of Figure 39 shows that they differ at the 98.88% confidence level, while in the upper panel, the confidence level is only 83.53%. These lower confidence levels are a result of a much stronger tendency for quasar jets to have electric vectors aligned with the jet at 43 GHz than at lower frequencies.

We confirm CWRG’s finding that BL Lac jet EVPAs are preferentially aligned with the local jet direction. There are no BL Lac jet components with $`|EVPAJPA|>40\mathrm{°}`$, irrespective of whether we use the upstream or downstream JPAs. If the intrinsic distribution of $`|EVPAJPA|`$ were in fact uniform between 0 and $`90\mathrm{°}`$, the binomial probability of finding all nine BL Lac components in the first four bins of Figure 39 by chance is only $`(4/9)^9=0.068\%`$.

The connection between jet magnetic field properties and optical line emission is also apparent in Figure 42, in which we plot the EVPA offset of each jet component against the rest frame equivalent width of the broadest permitted line in the source’s optical spectrum. The latter data were tabulated by Lawrence et al. (1996) and Lister et al. (2001b). It is evident that all of the components with $`|EVPAJPA|>40\mathrm{°}`$ are found in sources having emission lines broader than $`8`$ Å.

Despite finding apparent differences in electric field orientation of BL Lac and quasar jets, CWRG did not find any significant differences in their degree of polarization. A K-S test on our 43 GHz data (Figure 43) gives a 97.04% probability that the $`m_{cpt}`$ distributions of the two classes are different, which is slightly below our cut-off level of $`98\%`$ at which we call a correlation significant. Evidence of a difference in 43 GHz fractional polarization levels can, however, be found in the plot of $`m_{cpt}`$ versus projected distance from the core (Figure 38). This plot shows that at a given projected distance from the core, the fractional polarizations of BL Lac components are generally higher than those of quasars.

### 5.3  Longitudinal magnetic field model

CWRG interpreted their polarization findings at 5 GHz in terms of a model that incorporates a longitudinal magnetic field component present in the jets of quasars, but not in those of BL Lacs. They claimed that the underlying jet polarization in quasars is very strong and increases down the jet due to shear with the external medium. The observational signatures of this model are a general tendency in quasars for the fractional polarization to increase and the EVPAs to become more perpendicular to the jet axis as you move downstream from the core.

Although the longitudinal field model does appear valid at large distances downstream, several difficulties arise when we attempt to apply it to regions closer to the core. First, we find that at 43 GHz, quasars in fact contain many polarized components with electric vectors parallel to the jet, suggesting that shocks dominate any underlying longitudinal field in these regions. Second, we find no tendency for the EVPAs to become more perpendicular to the jet with increasing distance from the core. Indeed, the four quasar components with perpendicular EVPA alignments ($`>60\mathrm{°}`$ from the upstream jet direction) are all located within 2 parsecs (projected) of the core, and not far downstream. It would appear likely then that in the jet regions within several milliarcseconds of the core, the longitudinal shear component of the magnetic field has not yet fully developed. In this case the trend of increasing polarization may instead result from some other mechanism, such as an increase in shock strength or viewing angle with core distance. Lister & Smith (2000) point out that a jet which is bending away from the observer can create an increasing trend of fractional polarization with distance, given the right geometry. Since apparent velocities are also dependent on viewing angle, it should be possible to distinguish between an increase in shock strength versus an increase in viewing angle by monitoring the superluminal speeds and polarization properties of components as they move down the jet.

In summary, we find evidence for fundamental differences in the inner jet properties of BL Lac and quasars that need to be investigated in more detail using higher-sensitivity images taken at multiple epochs. Such data can yield good constraints on the strengths and viewing angles of relativistic shocks (e.g., Wardle et al. 1994), and would clarify considerably our observational picture of the magnetic field structures in AGN jets.

## 6 Conclusions

We have carried out the first 43 GHz VLBI polarization survey of a complete sample of active galactic nuclei at a resolution of $`0.2`$ milliarcseconds, making this the highest resolution imaging survey of a complete AGN sample made to date. Our sample consists of a flat-spectrum subset of the well-known Pearson-Readhead survey (FS-PR), which has been thoroughly studied at a variety of wavelengths and resolution levels. We have investigated the jet magnetic field properties of these objects on parsec-scales close to the central engine. The main results of our study are as follows:

1. The morphologies of bright, flat-spectrum AGNs at 43 GHz generally consist of a bright core component located at the base of a faint one-sided jet. On average, the core component accounts for $`60\%`$ of the total VLBI flux at this frequency. Its luminosity is well-correlated with numerous other luminosity parameters, including the total source luminosity in soft x-rays, in the optical, and at 5 GHz.

2. The ratio $`R`$ of VLBI core-to-remaining VLBI flux is well-correlated with several statistical indicators of relativistic beaming, namely optical polarization, 5 GHz radio variability amplitude, and variability brightness temperature.

4. The linear polarizations of the core components in the FS-PR sample range up to $`9\%`$, with typical values of $`1.5\%`$. Although the jets generally show higher fractional polarization levels than the cores, the bulk of the polarized emission on parsec-scales comes from the core component. In contrast to previous 5 GHz VLBI measurements, we find the cores of BL Lacertae objects and quasars to have similar polarization levels at 43 GHz. Also, sources with more highly polarized cores tend to have flatter spectral indices measured between 5 and 15 GHz.

5. There is a tendency for the more highly polarized cores to have electric field vectors that lie preferentially along the jet axis. This behavior is consistent with shocks in the inner jet flow that preferentially compress the perpendicular component of the magnetic field.

6. Among the sources with optical polarizations ($`m_{opt}`$) exceeding $`1\%`$, there is a positive trend of $`m_{opt}`$ with 43 GHz core polarization, which suggests a common origin for the emission at these two frequencies. We find no such trend among the lower-optically polarized objects.

7. The fractional polarization of jet components tends to increase with projected distance down the jet in a similar manner for both BL Lacs and quasars. However, at a given distance from the core, the jet components of BL Lacs are more polarized, and have magnetic fields preferentially aligned perpendicular to the jet.

8. The vast majority of polarized components located in the jets of both BL Lac objects and quasars have electric field vectors that lie within $`40\mathrm{°}`$ of the local jet direction. The distribution of electric vector offsets with respect to the jets in the entire sample is consistent with theoretical predictions for an ensemble of moving oblique shocks.

9. We find that straighter jets tend to have smaller apparent jet speeds than sources that display significant jet bending. Nearly half of the jets in the FS-PR sample display a “bend-and-realign” (BAR) morphology that is a predicted feature of jet plasma streaming relativistically along a helical path. We find support for such streaming motions in several objects whose electric vectors closely follow significant changes in the jet direction.

The author thanks Bob Preston, Glenn Piner, and Steven Tingay for helpful discussions during the planning stages of this project, and to Alan Marscher and an anonymous referee for comments on the manuscript. Thanks also go to Harri Teräsranta for providing flux-density data, and Tim Cawthorne, Alan Marscher, Svetlana Jorstad, and Ken Kellermann for providing VLBI data in advance of publication. This research was performed in part at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract to NASA, and has made use of data from the following sources: The NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database (NED), which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. The University of Michigan Radio Astronomy Observatory, which is supported by the National Science Foundation and by funds from the University of Michigan.


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# The Evolution of Adiabatic Supernova Remnants in a Turbulent, Magnetized Medium

## 1 Introduction

The morphology and emission of supernova remnants (SNRs) is in large part determined by the nature of the surrounding circumstellar and interstellar medium. Young SNRs from massive stars interact with a significant mass of former wind material expelled by the star, sometimes knotty and irregular, sometimes with significant preshaping by the complex wind history. Older SNRs in the halo of the Galaxy will have low X-ray surface brightness (Shelton et al 1998). SNRs in dense molecular clouds will eventually be elongated in the direction of the density gradient (Cox et al 1999). SNRs at the edges of clouds will develop offsets between the morphological and kinematic centers (Dohm-Palmer et al 1996). Barrel-shaped remnants may probe the global magnetic field structure (Gaensler 1998), and so on.

There have been several calls by observers, see Dickel, van Breugel & Strom (1991), Reynolds & Gilmore (1993), Reed et al (1995) and others, to introduce a realistic representation of interstellar turbulence in SNR simulations. This need has been mirrored in the work of theorists, see for example Jun & Jones (1999), who claim that without the inclusion of turbulence several observed effects are difficult to match. In particular, Jun & Jones (1999) find their simulated synchrotron indices to be too smooth and uniform and not in line with the patchy observations of Anderson & Rudnick (1996). The problem of including MHD turbulence in such simulations is daunting because of the high demands on resolution and dynamic range. It is now feasible to do these simulations.

We have carried out the first 3D MHD simulations of a supernova going off in a turbulent, magnetized ISM. For comparison we have also carried out a simulation of an identical SNR going off in a uniform but magnetized, non-turbulent ISM. The model includes no pre-supernova wind, no radiative cooling, no thermal conduction and no activity of a central pulsar. It is thus most relevant to the history of Type 1a remnants prior to shell formation, exclusive of the characteristics of the hot interior which would be altered by thermal conduction. More significantly, however, it enlarges our intuition with regard to analytic models, giving us some new insights into the significant effects that interaction with turbulence can have.

## 2 The Calculations

The simulations presented here are calculated using the RIEMANN framework for parallel, self-adaptive computational astrophysics described in Roe & Balsara (1996), Balsara (1998a,b), Balsara (1999a,b,c,d,e), Balsara & Spicer (1999a,b), Balsara & Shu (2000), Balsara (2001a,b) and Balsara & Norton (2001). This framework uses some of the most accurate higher order Godunov methods for non-relativistic and relativistic MHD and radiative transfer that have been devised. The advantages of this method, particularly in modeling turbulent flows, is described in the above references. The RIEMANN framework has been applied and tested on numerous computational astrophysics problems that require numerical 3D-MHD. It has been used to study the inverse cascade of magnetic helicity (Balsara & Pouquet 1999), star formation studies including the effects of turbulence (Balsara, Crutcher & Pouquet 2001; Balsara, Ward-Thompson & Crutcher 2001), numerical MHD dynamos (Balsara 2000), and AMR-MHD simulations of SNRs and shock-cloud interaction (Balsara 2001c).

We present the results of two high-resolution runs, $`(256)^3`$ zones, comparing the results of evolution in a medium with a uniform and turbulent medium. In both calculations, the physical length of the computational domain is $`L=60`$ pc. The results presented here were obtained using a uniform mesh and do not utilize the adaptive mesh capability of RIEMANN. In the case of the uniform medium, the initial hydrogen particle density is $`1\mathrm{cm}^3`$; the initial temperature is 8000 K ($`c_s=9.8\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$), the initial velocities are zero and there is a uniform magnetic field with strength $`3.57\mu G`$ parallel to the x-axis. The energy input of the supernova is introduced by increasing the thermal energy of all the zones within 2 pc of the center of the computation grid so that the total thermal energy integrated over a spherical volume is $`10^{51}`$ ergs. The particle density in this volume is also increased to $`4\mathrm{cm}^3`$ , corresponding to an ejecta mass of $`5M_{\mathrm{}}`$. The simulations are evolved to the point when the shock reaches the computational boundary. Since there is no cooling or other physical effects that set a physical scale, these parameters may be rescaled without requiring additional simulations.

In the case of the turbulent ISM, the initial conditions are the same as above. The uniform magnetic field is still retained, as described in the previous paragraph. However, we introduce random Gaussian fluctuations in the velocity and magnetic fields, corresponding to $`v_A(rms)/c_s=2`$ \[$`B(rms)=8.94\mu G`$\] and $`v(rms)/c_s=2`$. (See Balsara & Pouquet 1999 for more details). As a result of the set up we have a uniform mean field as well as a random magnetic field superposed on it. The fluctuating field component is $`2.5`$ times larger than the uniform field component as a result of the trans-Alfvenic initial conditions. These initial conditions are consistent with the observations of Lee & Jokipii (1976), Beck (1991), and Beck et al. (1996), who find that the Galactic magnetic field has a uniform component as well as a fluctuating component with the two components being in rough equipartition. The Galaxy’s ISM has Mach numbers in the range of one to two and our use of $`v_A(rms)/c_s=2`$ would be considered a rather strong turbulence. We made this choice because we seek to study the evolution of supernova remnants in strong interstellar turbulence as a counterpoint to the quiescent medium in the previous simulation. As the blast wave sweeps outward, there is some evolution in the preshock medium, with growing density fluctuations and decaying magnetic and velocity fluctuations. These fluctuations quickly establish an energy power spectrum of $`E(k)k^{5/3}`$ in the surrounding medium well before the blast wave propagates a large distance. Thus almost all of the SNR evolution takes place in a fully developed interstellar turbulence. In the present simulations it is not possible to drive the turbulence in order to sustain it at its originally imposed level. This is because such driving mechanisms entail imparting momentum fluctuations to the ISM gas and would, therefore, interfere with the SNR shock propagation. However, the largest energy-bearing length scales have an eddy turnover time of $`2.35\times 10^5`$ years which ensures that there is always sufficient turbulent energy available at the smaller length scales to ensure that the SNR shock interacts with a realistic turbulence during the entire course of the simulation. The rms magnetic field decays less than 15% during our calculated evolution.

## 3 Results

Despite the presence of a magnetic field, the pressure jump associated with the shock is sufficiently strong that the explosion evolution agrees quite well with the analytical Sedov solution. We find that the position of the shell is given by $`R_{Sedov}t^{2/5}`$. The density profile is found to be self-similar and is also in good agreement with the Sedov solution. However, limited resolution prevents us from getting the full factor of four density jump right at the shock front. At early times, the postshock density is 2.6 times greater than the preshock density, increasing with age to 3.3 as more zones are overtaken by the outward-propagating shock wave. The final timestep shown in Figure 1 at $`t=57,700`$ years, has the following Sedov characteristics, $`R=25.5`$ pc, $`v_{shock}=174\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$, $`T_2=4.2\times 10^5`$ K and $`p_2=5.2\times 10^{10}\mathrm{dynes}\mathrm{cm}^2`$. The calculated values agree with these analytical estimates. This is just about the oldest this remnant could get without radiative cooling playing a significant role, although with the turbulence there may be some over-dense spots in which cooling might not be negligible. We intend to incorporate this effect in future work.

The most notable feature of the uniform ISM simulation is that the uniform magnetic field, initially parallel to the x-axis, is swept up into a compressed shell in the XZ plane (See Figure 1). Using an estimated synchrotron emissivity of $`pB^{1.5}`$ , this produces a bilateral (or barrel-like) morphology for the SNR. Our assumption of a synchrotron emissivity that scales as $`pB^{1.5}`$ is based on the work of Jun & Jones (1999) who show that it is a natural result of a momentum distribution of accelerated particles with a power law index of 4.

Several differences result for the case of a remnant evolving in a turbulent medium. We have verified that the azimuthally averaged density profile evolves self-similarly and agrees with the Sedov solution. However, in any given radial shell, there are significant azimuthal variations in density just behind the blast wave. The ambient medium is characterized by fluctuations which grow from $`\delta \rho /\rho 0.1`$ to 0.4 over the course of the simulation. At the shock front, the level of density fluctuations, defined as $`\frac{<\delta \rho >}{\rho }_{postshock}/\frac{<\delta \rho >}{\rho }_{preshock}`$, jumps by a factor of 4 at early times. At late times, this value declines to $`20`$% , presumably because as the surface area of the remnant increases, individual lumps become less important. Behind the shock front, $`\delta \rho /\rho `$ decreases as the increased thermal pressure works to smooth out the density fluctuations. This behavior is also consistent with one dimensional shock-turbulence interaction studies reported in Balsara & Shu (2000) and has also been observed by several other authors cited in that work.

The variation in the magnetic field is shown in Figure 1 and is especially noteworthy. The overall shape of the remnant is again spherical, but with large azimuthal variations. The mean magnetic field jumps by a factor of 2.4 across the shock front. This value is about what one would expect with a factor of four jump in the two components of field perpendicular to the shock front, i.e. $`B_{postshock}=\sqrt{(16B_{x,o}^2+16B_{y,o}^2+B_{z,o}^2)/3}=3.3B_{preshock}`$. The difference is due to the fact that resolution prevents us from getting the full compressional effect. The random component of the magnetic field in the ambient medium is 2.5 times larger than the uniform component, so the barrel-like morphology noted in the uniform case is absent. Kesteven & Caswell (1987) have argued that a barrel morphology would result from the circumstellar medium shaping the SNR. Bisnovati-Kogan & Silich (1995) and Gaensler (1998) considered the possibility that a uniform magnetic field could give rise to a bilateral morphology. Our results suggest that in order for an explanation that is based on magnetic fields to work, the level of interstellar turbulence in the vicinity of the remnant should be lower than the values we have considered. We have also carried out a simulation with a turbulent Mach number of $`1.5`$ and we found that it has the same trends as the Mach 2 simulation reported here.

A cross-section of the resulting synchrotron shell, shown in Figure 2, is very patchy and shows no evidence of the initial uniform magnetic field orientation. While the magnetic pressure dominates in the ambient medium, the pressure behind the blast wave is dominated by thermal pressure for most of the evolution of the model remnant. However, at late times, there are some spots in which the magnetic pressure is approximately equal to the thermal pressure. In these regions, the remnant can be synchrotron bright and relatively X-ray faint.

These regions of unusually high field in the post-shock region tend to be short lived in the absence of radiative cooling. This may be due in part to dispersal by the enhanced thermal and magnetic pressures behind the shock, but is almost certainly part of the natural evolution of the turbulence. The result is visible in flickering in the brightest knots of synchrotron emission, as in Figure 2, with flickering timescales that may be related to knot intensity, a subject which we will be exploring in the future. Such flickering, with 5-10 year timescales, has in fact been reported for Cas A by Anderson & Rudnick (1996), a remnant in which the ejecta are apparently interacting with material from a presupernova wind. Although this is very different from the model we have explored, the overall structure is extremely knotty and it is possible that irregularities (which must certainly be present in the magnetic field within Cas A in order for the remnant to have such a knotty structure in the synchrotron emission) behave similarly to those in our turbulent medium. In our simulations, the timescale of this flickering is limited by the lower size scale of the input spectrum of velocity and density fluctuations, which in this case is about 10 grid cells. Higher resolution simulations would yield much shorter timescale flickering.

We have also calculated the X-ray and estimated synchrotron emissivities of the final time step for a three dimensional projection onto each of the three principal planes of the turbulent simulation. The X-ray emission is calculated assuming a plasma in ionization equilibrium with a thermal spectrum as calculated by Raymond & Smith (1977) folded through the ROSAT response function for the $`\frac{1}{4}`$ keV and $`\frac{3}{4}`$ keV emission bands. It is assumed that all three bands are optically thin so that the total emission may be obtained by summing the emissivities along each axis, without any optical depth effects. The results for the emission in the XY plane are shown in Figure 3. We found that the fluctuations are equally strong along all three projections both for the thermal and non-thermal emission maps. As a result, the presence of the additional uniform magnetic field leaves no imprint on the synchrotron emissivity. The $`\frac{1}{4}`$ keV emission has a fluctuating but fairly thin shell of emission, while the $`\frac{3}{4}`$ keV emission, while fainter, is much more distributed in projected radius. At this final timestep, the postshock temperature is sufficiently low that the X-ray emission comes primarily from a region somewhat back from the shock where the temperature is higher. This is truer yet for the 3/4 keV band. Inclusion of thermal conduction may fill the center further as in the study of W44 by Shelton et al (1999).

We have also calculated the polarization of the synchrotron emission as viewed along the three principal axes. We have assumed an electron energy spectrum with power-law index $`p=2.5`$, which implies a maximum linear polarization of 72% (Longair 1994). Figure 4 shows the result along all three axes for a frequency of $`\nu =1`$ GHz and includes Faraday rotation arising in both the remnant and the surrounding medium. We experimented with different frequencies and different levels of Faraday rotation in the surrounding medium. In all cases, we found that the level of turbulence we considered was large enough the signature of the initially uniform field component does not reveal itself in the polarization map that was made at a late time in the simulation. Comparing Figures 3 and 4, it is very interesting to note that the brightest emission features are also the most strongly polarized.

Several interesting points may be made about the interaction of turbulence with strong shocks. We focus here on one of the most interesting results, the generation of helicity at shocks. Figure 5 shows the fluid helicity in a cut in the XZ plane for the simulation where the SNR evolves in a turbulent medium. The lower right panel in Figure 1 shows the magnetic field strength in the same plane and at the same time. The propagation of the SNR shock through the interstellar turbulence has excited strong positive and negative helicity fluctuations in the post-shock region. An examination of the magnetic field strength shows that the field is strongest either in the regions with the highest helicity or in the regions where helicities of opposite signs closely abut one another. This positive correlation between helicity and magnetic field is consistent with the stretch, twist, fold scenario for magnetic field amplification that has been detailed in Childress & Gilbert (1995). Ferriere (1998) has presented a scenario in which supernovae interacting with galactic shear in a quiescent, stratified ISM could produce the helicity that is needed in dynamo theories. The present simulations suggest that interaction of strong supernova shocks with interstellar turbulence might be an additional and highly dynamic source of helicity generation and might, therefore, have relevance for fast dynamo theories.

## 4 Discussion

Supernova remnants serve as useful “test explosions” that can be used to probe the parameters characterizing the surrounding circumstellar and interstellar medium. These calculations inject an element of realism into the modelling of the pre-SNR environment that has heretofore been lacking, although much remains to be done. In a quiescent medium, we find that the remnant sweeps up the uniform field, and yields a bilateral morphology. The introduction of realistic, strongly turbulent fluctuations in the uniform medium, however, erases this asymmetry, and produces remnants that are (on average) spherical. The resulting projected X-ray and synchrotron maps show a range of fluctuation in the emission characteristics of the remnant.

We find that time variability and the angular variations in emission in the shell are associated with the nature of the magnetic fluctuations in the unshocked interstellar medium. We suggest, therefore, that it should be possible to use the variation in emission in the remnant as a probe of the turbulence in the pre-supernova environment. A grid of models like these will be needed to determine how the nature of the turbulence is related to the emission characteristics of the remnant.

Finally, we note that the interaction of SNR blastwave with a region of supersonic MHD turbulence gives an opportunity to investigate the degree to which magnetic fluctuations affect the effective equation of state of magnetized plasmas. The importance of understanding the nature of this behavior in interstellar conditions has been emphasized by McKee & Zweibel (1995). In future explorations, we will check to see how this effective equation of state varies over time with the parameters characterizing the MHD turbulence.

This work was supported by NASA Astrophysical Theory Grant NAG5-8417 to the University of Wisconsin-Madison. DB acknowledges support from NSF grant 1-5-29014. We also thank NCSA and SDSC for use of their supercomputers. We also wish to thank J.Dickel and E. Zweibel for useful discussions.


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# Spectrophotometric Evolution of Old Stellar Systems

galaxies: formation, galaxies: star clusters, stars: horizontal-branch

Dissertation Summary

Electronic mail: hclee@csa.yonsei.ac.kr

Thesis work conducted at: Department of Astronomy, Yonsei University

Ph.D. Thesis directed by: Young-Wook Lee ; Ph.D. Degree awarded: 2001(February)

Received

Theoretical integrated spectrophotometric quantities, such as spectral line indices in the Lick system (H$`\beta `$, Mg2, Mg $`b`$, Fe5270, Fe5335), broadband color indices (in the $`UBVRIHK`$ and Washington $`CMT_1`$ bandpasses), and surface brightness fluctuation (SBF) magnitudes and colors, ranging from far-UV to near-IR have been consistently computed for simple stellar populations from our evolutionary population synthesis code. The age range of $``$ 4 Gyr $``$ $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$t $``$ \+ 4 Gyr is explored, where $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$t = 0 Gyr is the currently favored mean age of inner halo Galacitc globular clusters (GCs) (Galactocentric radius $``$ 8 kpc), $``$ 12Gyr. The main aim of this dissertation is to investigate the effects of post-red giant branch (post-RGB) stars on the integrated spectrophotometric quantities after employing detailed systematic variation of horizontal-branch (HB) morphology with age and metallicity.

H.-C. Lee, S.-J. Yoon, & Y.-W. Lee (2000, AJ, 120, 998) showed that the popularly used age indicator H$`\beta `$ index is significantly affected by the presence of blue HB stars. As a matter of fact, because of the systematic HB morphology variation, it is found that H$`\beta `$ does not monotonically decrease as metallicity increases at given ages but shows a kind of wavy feature. This is because there is a H$`\beta `$ enhancement due to blue HB stars reaching a maximum strength when the distribution of HB stars is centered around 9500 K, the temperature at which the H$`\beta `$ index becomes strongest. Comparison of Keck observations of the globular cluster systems (GCSs) in the Milky Way, NGC 1399, and M87 with our new models shows that a systematic shift in the H$`\beta `$ versus metallicity plane is explained if the mean age of GCSs in giant elliptical galaxies is, on average, a couple of billion years older than the Galactic counterpart. If our age estimation is confirmed, this would imply that star formation in denser environments proceeded much more rapidly and efficiently, so that the initial epoch of star formation in more massive (and denser) systems took place a couple of billion years earlier than in the Milky Way.

Investigation of integrated broadband colors also shows that similar wavy features appear among temperature-sensitive colors, such as $`B`$ $``$ $`V`$. Calibration of these model results, especially $`B`$ $``$ $`V`$, $`V`$ $``$ $`I`$, $`C`$ $``$ $`T_1`$, and $`M`$ $``$ $`T_1`$, using carefully selected Galactic GCs (i.e., $`E`$($`B`$ $``$ $`V`$) $`<`$ 0.2) is quite remarkable in the sense that the inner halo Galactic GCs do appear older than the outer halo counterparts. It is also noted that $`C`$ $``$ $`T_1`$, the well-known highly metallicity sensitive color index, should be used with great caution as a color-metallicity transformation relation if there are age variations within a globular cluster system. Along with H$`\beta `$ and some temperature-sensitive optical broadband colors, the use of far-UV to optical colors is proposed as the best probe of age for old stellar systems using their HB morphology variation.

SBF colors, such as $`\overline{V}`$ $``$ $`\overline{I}`$ or $`\overline{V}`$ $``$ $`\overline{K}`$ are found to be almost unaffected by the HB morphology variation because their RGB stars are much brighter than HB stars. However, because HB stars are fairly bright sources compared to RGB stars in the shorter wavelength range, $`\overline{U}`$ $``$ $`\overline{B}`$ and $`\overline{U}`$ $``$ $`\overline{V}`$ are severely influenced by blue, hot HB stars and differ by $``$ 2 mag in our investigated age ranges near \[Fe/H\] = $``$ 0.5. Therefore, well-calibrated $`UBV`$-band SBF magnitudes for old stellar systems can be a useful stellar population probe as well as a distance indicator. In order for this system to be used for stellar population studies, more observations are clearly needed. It is especially important to obtain a $`U`$-band Galactic GC dataset to constrain the effects of post-RGB stars.

Deriving relative ages from photometry alone is complicated by the fact that broadband colors suffer from age-metallicity degeneracy (e.g., G. Worthey 1994, ApJS, 95, 107). Our new models, which come from a consistent code, provide the tools to directly estimate ages of extragalactic GCSs using a variety of theoretical spectrophotometric quantities from far-UV to near-IR. Their use would clearly benefit this field of study. Well-calibrated separate metallicity information from spectroscopy, accompanied by precise spectrophotometry, is neccesary to extract the accurate age information for extragalactic GCSs. When the upcoming spectrophotometric observational data of GCSs in various morphological types of external galaxies from large ground-based telescopes and space-based UV telescopes are compared with our new models, we expect better determinations of the ages and metallicities. This accurate age information will be the most valuable for sorting out the several proposed present day galaxy formation scenarios (merger, accretion, in-situ, etc.). Furthermore, with the best available knowledge of star formation histories and chemical enrichment in galaxies, our models will become the building blocks of composite stellar population models. In the case of galaxy modeling, SBFs could be used as another constraint on stellar population studies in old stellar systems.