text:
# Two-Kaon Correlations in Central Pb + Pb Collisions at 158 A GeV/c

\[

Two-Kaon Correlations in Central Pb + Pb Collisions at 158 A GeV/c
I.G. Bearden,1 H. Bøggild,1 J. Boissevain,2 P.H.L. Christiansen,1 L. Conin,3 J. Dodd,4 B. Erazmus,3 S. Esumi,5 C.W. Fabjan,6 D. Ferenc,7 A. Franz,6 J.J. Gaardhøje,1 A.G. Hansen,1 O. Hansen,1 D. Hardtke,8 H. van Hecke,2 E.B. Holzer,6 T.J. Humanic,8 P. Hummel,6 B.V. Jacak,9 K. Kaimi,5∗ M. Kaneta,5 T. Kohama,5 M. Kopytine,9† M. Leltchouk,4 A. Ljubičić Jr.,7 B. Lörstad,10 N. Maeda,5 L. Martin,3 A. Medvedev,4 M. Murray,11 H. Ohnishi,5 G. Paić,6,8 S.U. Pandey,8 F. Piuz,6 J. Pluta,3 V. Polychronakos,12 M. Potekhin,4 G. Poulard,6 D. Reichhold,8 A. Sakaguchi,5 J. Schmidt-Sørensen,10 J. Simon-Gillo,2 W. Sondheim,2 T. Sugitate,5 J.P. Sullivan,2 Y. Sumi,5 W.J. Willis,4 K. Wolf,11∗ N. Xu,2 and D.S. Zachary8

(NA44 Collaboration)

1Niels Bohr Institute, DK-2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
2Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, NM 87545
3Nuclear Physics Laboratory of Nantes, 44072 Nantes, France
4Department of Physics, Columbia University, New York, NY 10027
5Hiroshima University, Higashi-Hiroshima 739-8526, Japan
6CERN, CH-1211 Geneva 23, Switzerland
7Rudjer Bošković Institute, Zagreb, Croatia
8Department of Physics, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210
9State University of New York, Stony Brook, NY 11794
10Department of Physics, University of Lund, S-22362 Lund, Sweden
11Cyclotron Institute, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843
12Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, NY 11973
(published in volume 87, issue 11 of Physical Review Letters with electronic identifier 112301)

Two-particle interferometry of positive kaons is studied in Pb + Pb collisions at mean transverse momenta $`<p_T>0.25`$ and 0.91 GeV/c. A three-dimensional analysis was applied to the lower $`p_T`$ data, while a two-dimensional analysis was used for the higher $`p_T`$ data. We find that the source-size parameters are consistent with the $`m_T`$ scaling curve observed in pion-correlation measurements in the same collisions, and that the duration time of kaon emission is consistent with zero within the experimental sensitivity.

PACS Numbers: 25.75.Gz

\]

Experimental studies of high-energy nuclear collisions at the BNL-AGS and CERN-SPS accelerators (beam energies from 10 to 200 GeV/nucleon) have revealed interesting features of hot and dense nuclear matter, and some characteristic signatures of a quark-gluon-plasma (QGP) phase have been reported . If the hadronic source is formed in a first-order phase transition from a QGP phase in the course of collision, the hadronic expansion may slow down due to a softening of the equation of state. In such a case, a long duration time of particle emission is anticipated. Since a finite duration of particle emission increases the effective source size in the direction of particle velocity, and since the shape of the two-particle correlation function is related to the effective source size, a difference between the widths of the peaks in the correlation functions in the direction of pair (“outward”) and perpendicular to it (“sideward”) might be a signature of QGP . At SPS energies, systematic studies of particle correlations have been performed from $`p+A`$ to Pb + Pb collisions . From the pion correlation studies in the Pb + Pb collisions, NA44  reported that the two transverse radius parameters in the outward and sideward directions in the longitudinal center of mass system (LCMS) frame (see below) are similar, implying no long duration time of emission. WA98  measured the correlation function with the generalized Yano-Koonin parametrization and found the $`R_0`$ parameter, which reflects the duration of emission, is compatible with zero. While NA49  observed a finite $`R_0`$ parameter in the Yano-Koonin-Podgoretskii parametrization to be approximately 3–4 fm/c, the value is small and not consistent with what would be expected from a strong first-order phase transition. All the experimental data support no long-lived intermediate hadron-parton mixed phase during the pion emission. There are discussions, however, that the pion correlation functions might be distorted due to a large amount of decays from long-lived resonances, while kaon measurements can serve as a more sensitive probe of the space-time evolution . The kaon duration time was measured in S + Pb collisions, but a long-lived mixed phase was also excluded by the data . In this letter, we present the first results of $`K^+K^+`$ correlations in central Pb + Pb collisions at the SPS energy and extract the duration time of the kaon emission.

The data were taken at the CERN-SPS with a 158 GeV/c per nucleon lead-ion beam incident on a lead target, using the NA44 spectrometer at two laboratory angles: 44 and 131 mrad with respect to the beam axis. A description of the NA44 apparatus can be found elsewhere . The lead beam was transported in vacuum up to a beam counter. The signal amplitude from the beam counter ensures a single lead ion impinging on the lead target at the entrance edge of the first dipole magnet. Behind the target, there were two multiplicity detectors characterizing each event. A set of scintillator bars was used primarily to generate a centrality trigger by measuring charged secondaries. A silicon pad detector with a full coverage in the azimuthal direction and segmented into 512 pads measured the $`dN/d\eta `$ distribution of charged particles in the pseudorapidity range between 1.5 and 3.3.

The secondary particles were transported to the tracking section through another dipole magnet and three quadrupole magnets. The quadrupole magnets control the three-dimensional momentum acceptance of the spectrometer. Two sets of quadrupole settings, referred to as the “horizontal” and “vertical” focus settings, were used. The horizontal (vertical) setting favors a wide momentum acceptance in the horizontal (vertical) space $`p_x`$ ($`p_y`$), and reduces the acceptance $`p_y`$ ($`p_x`$). In the discussion which follows, the direction with wide acceptance for a given mode (e.g., $`p_x`$ for the horizontal mode) is referred to as the “favored” direction and the direction with narrow acceptance (e.g., $`p_y`$ for the horizontal mode) is called “unfavored”. For the small angle measurements, collimators between the first dipole and the first quadrupole magnets further reduced the acceptance in the unfavored direction. These collimators reduced the number of particles in the acceptance without reducing the acceptance in the favored direction. The momentum settings of the spectrometer were 6 GeV/c for the small angle (low $`p_T`$) measurements and 7.5 GeV/c for the large angle (high $`p_T`$) measurements.

After the magnets, there were three tracking chambers (PC, SC1, SC2), three threshold-type gas Cherenkov counters (C1, C2, TIC) and three scintillator hodoscopes (H2, H3, H4). The pad chamber (PC) and the strip chambers (SC) provided precise hit position for the tracking algorithm. Although their position information was less precise, the hodoscopes were also used in track finding. C1 was the primary device for pion/kaon separation in the small angle measurements, while C2 and TIC were used for pion/kaon separation in the large angle measurements. Tracks were reconstructed by requiring hits in the tracking chambers and hodoscopes on straight lines. The three-dimensional momenta were calculated from the track information through a matrix, of which the elements were determined by a Monte Carlo simulation combined with the TURTLE code for the particle transportation through the magnetic field. Particle identification used time-of-flight information between the beam counter and the hodoscopes along with pulse height information from the Cherenkov counters. Figure 1 shows an example of such a plot in the small angle measurements and also the particle-identification (PID) selection adopted in this analysis. Contaminations of pion and proton tracks in the kaon-identified pair-samples were evaluated to be 0.15% and 3.9%, respectively. Therefore, contaminations of $`\pi \pi `$ and $`pp`$ pairs in the $`KK`$ samples were negligibly small.

At the small angle, the spectrometer covers the rapidity range of 2.9–3.3 with a $`p_T`$ window below 0.6 GeV/c ($`<p_T>0.25`$ GeV/c). The rapidity coverage in the large angle measurements is 2.4–2.9 with the $`p_T`$ window of 0.7–1.4 GeV/c ($`<p_T>0.91`$ GeV/c). Note that the colliding system is symmetric and the central rapidity is at 2.9, so the rapidity coverage in the high and low $`p_T`$ measurements overlap well. The trigger required a lead ion in the beam counter, a large number of secondary particles in the scintillator bars, and at least two hits in hodoscopes H2 and H3. Off-line we required at least two kaons in each event and found the centrality of the lower $`p_T`$ data set to be around 10% of the most central events while that of the high $`p_T`$ sample was 18%.

The two-particle correlation function is defined by

$$C_{raw}(\stackrel{}{p}_1,\stackrel{}{p}_2)=\frac{P_2(\stackrel{}{p}_1,\stackrel{}{p}_2)}{P_1(\stackrel{}{p}_1)P_1(\stackrel{}{p}_2)}\frac{Real(\stackrel{}{p}_1,\stackrel{}{p}_2)}{Back(\stackrel{}{p}_1,\stackrel{}{p}_2)},$$
(1)
where the numerator is the joint probability of detecting two particles with momenta $`\stackrel{}{p}_1`$ and $`\stackrel{}{p}_2`$, while the denominator is the product of the probabilities of detecting single particles with momenta $`\stackrel{}{p}_1`$ and $`\stackrel{}{p}_2`$. The denominator was obtained by mixing two tracks picked up from two randomly selected different events. Ten mixed background pairs were generated for each real pair to reduce statistical uncertainties. There still remain several effects, which affect the true correlation function. The limited acceptance of the spectrometer distorts the real two-particle spectrum, and the finite momentum resolution smears the peak in the correlation function. The repulsive Coulomb force separates particles of a pair going out at $`\stackrel{}{p}_1\stackrel{}{p}_2`$ and strongly suppresses the yield at $`\stackrel{}{q}=\stackrel{}{p}_1\stackrel{}{p}_20`$. The background two-particle spectrum generated by the event mixing method still contains effects of two-particle correlations, since a particle in a real event is always accompanied by another particle nearby in phase space. Since the degree of these effects depends on the strength of particle correlations of interest in a source, these effects were corrected through a Monte Carlo (MC) based iteration method. A $`C_2`$ function (described in the next paragraph) was assumed for a given set of source-size parameters ($`R`$’s and $`\lambda `$), and MC events were generated taking the spectrometer response into account. The wave integration method  was employed to simulate Coulomb effects in the finite source volume. The MC events were analyzed using exactly the same procedure as was applied to the experimental data. The correction factors to the $`C_{raw}`$ function were evaluated by comparing the resultant MC correlation function with the given input $`C_2`$ function. The source size parameters were deduced from the experimental correlation function after applying the correction factors to the $`C_{raw}`$ function. The iteration ends when the extracted source-size parameters agree with the given parameters within an acceptable accuracy. The detailed procedure is described in the first article in Ref.  and more discussion can be found in Ref. .

After the PID selection and quality cuts, we have around $`20\times 10^3`$ pairs in both the horizontal and vertical modes at the lower $`p_T`$, while $`17\times 10^3`$ pairs in the horizontal mode at the higher $`p_T`$. A three-dimensional fit is applied to the lower $`p_T`$ data. The observed momenta of each kaon pair are transformed to the LCMS, in which the momentum sum of two particles along the beam axis is zero, $`\stackrel{}{p}_{z1}+\stackrel{}{p}_{z2}=0`$. The momentum variables of interest are defined in this system. The average momentum of the pair in the frame is $`\stackrel{}{k}_T`$ = $`(\stackrel{}{p}_{T1}+\stackrel{}{p}_{T2})`$/2. $`Q_L`$ is a projection of the momentum difference onto the beam axis, and $`Q_T`$ is the momentum difference perpendicular to the beam axis. $`Q_T`$ is further divided into two components. $`Q_{TO}`$ is the component of $`Q_T`$ along $`\stackrel{}{k}_T`$, and $`Q_{TS}`$ is the component of $`Q_T`$ perpendicular to both $`\stackrel{}{k}_T`$ and the beam axis. The momentum resolution of $`Q_L`$, $`Q_{TO}`$, and $`Q_{TS}`$, including effects of multiple scattering in the target, were around 10, 20, and 20 MeV/c, respectively. The correlation functions $`C_2`$ in both the horizontal and vertical modes are simultaneously fitted using the maximum likelihood method with

$$C_2(Q_{TO},Q_{TS},Q_L)=D(1+\lambda e^{Q_{TO}^2R_{TO}^2Q_{TS}^2R_{TS}^2Q_L^2R_L^2}),$$
(2)
where $`\lambda `$ is a factor introduced to express chaoticity of quantum states of the source and $`R`$’s are variables representing multidimensional radii of the system in question. $`D`$ is a free parameter for normalization in each mode. A two-dimensional equation replacing $`Q_{TO}^2R_{TO}^2Q_{TS}^2R_{TS}^2`$ in Eq. 2 with $`Q_T^2R_T^2`$ is employed to fit the correlation function in the horizontal mode at the higher $`p_T`$. The fit results are given in Table I, where the systematic uncertainties reflect the effect of (i) cut parameters to define a track, (ii) cut parameters to select pairs, (iii) momentum resolution, (iv) two-track resolution, (v) momentum distribution of particle production in MC, and (vi) fitting to finite bins. Figure 2 shows projections of the correlation function onto each axis of the momentum difference where the projection is over the lowest 40 MeV/c of the other directions in the momentum difference. In these plots, the solid lines show the results of fit projected in the same way as the data.

TABLE I. Fit results of Gaussian parametrizations of the $`K^+K^+`$ correlation functions at low and high $`p_T`$. The errors are statistical and systematical ones.    $`<p_T>`$ \[GeV/c\] 0.25 0.91  $`\lambda `$ 0.84 $`\pm `$ 0.06 $`\pm `$ 0.07 0.61 $`\pm `$ 0.20 $`\pm `$ 0.16  $`R_L`$ \[fm\] 4.36 $`\pm `$ 0.33 $`\pm `$ 0.32 3.20 $`\pm `$ 0.54 $`\pm `$ 0.45  $`R_T`$ \[fm\] n/a 3.59 $`\pm `$ 0.67 $`\pm `$ 0.97  $`R_{TS}`$ \[fm\] 4.04 $`\pm `$ 0.28 $`\pm `$ 0.32 n/a  $`R_{TO}`$ \[fm\] 4.12 $`\pm `$ 0.26 $`\pm `$ 0.31 n/a  $`\chi ^2`$/d.o.f. 5139 /2978 117 / 107

The three source-size parameters ($`R_L`$, $`R_{TO}`$, $`R_{TS}`$) in the three-dimensional fit are quite similar to each other — as was observed in pion correlation measurements in the same colliding system . Since $`R_{TS}`$ and $`R_L`$ represent the geometric information of the source most directly, they are compared in Fig. 3 with those of pions. The present data at $`m_T0.55`$ GeV/$`c^2`$ seems to stay on the $`m_T`$ scaling curve (dashed) which came from the pion correlation measurements. To confirm this tendency, we put $`R_T`$ and $`R_L`$ from the two-dimensional fit at the higher $`p_T`$ ($`m_T1.0`$ GeV/$`c^2`$) on the same plot. They also seem consistent with the scaling curve. A fit to the four data points in each plot with a single scaling curve, $`R=A/\sqrt{m_T}`$, gives $`A=3.0\pm 0.2\mathrm{fmGeV}^{1/2}c^1`$ in both cases as shown with solid curves.

The dependences on $`m_T`$ are predicted with models including hydrodynamical expansion in a source . The experimental radius parameters are interpreted as a length of homogeneity which is in turn dependent on a geometrical source size $`R_{geom}`$ and a thermal length $`R_{therm}`$. The “boost invariant expansion” along the longitudinal direction leads to an expression $`R_L=\tau \sqrt{T_0/m_T}`$, ignoring the contribution from $`R_{geom}`$. Assuming a freeze-out temperature $`T_0`$ of 100–140 MeV, we could extract the freeze-out time $`\tau `$ from the present $`A`$ parameter to be 7–10 fm/c, which is in good agreement with the WA98  and NA49  results. In a hydrodynamic model under certain conditions , one can derive an analytic expression for the radii $`R_TR_L\tau \sqrt{T_0/m_T}`$. Our data are consistent with such a scenario. The common $`m_T`$ scaling for pions and kaons may imply that thermal freeze-out occurs simultaneously for both pion and kaons and that therefore they receive a common Lorentz boost. This is consistent with the hydrodynamic hypothesis. A similar conclusion can be drawn from the linear increase of the single particle inverse slopes with mass .

We derived the duration time $`\mathrm{\Delta }\tau `$ of kaon emission from quadratic difference of $`R_{TO}`$ and $`R_{TS}`$ in Eq. (2) as $`\mathrm{\Delta }\tau =\sqrt{R_{TO}^2R_{TS}^2}/\beta `$, where $`\beta `$ is the transverse velocity of the kaon pair in the LCMS frame. We find $`\mathrm{\Delta }\tau =2.2\pm 5.2(stat)\pm 6.1(syst)`$ fm/c. The kaon duration time is short and similar to those observed for pions in the same colliding system and for kaons in the S + Pb collisions. The present result excludes simple scenarios of a prolonged mixed phase anticipated in a first-order phase transition from a QGP phase.

The NA44 collaboration wishes to thank the staff of the CERN PS-SPS accelerator complex for their excellent work. We are also grateful for support given by the Danish Natural Science Research Council; the Japanese Society for the Promotion of Science; the Ministry of Education, Science and Culture, Japan; the Swedish Science Research Council; the Austrian Fond für Förderung der Wissenschaftlichen Forschung; the National Science Foundation, and the US Department of Energy.


format: text

text:
# Electronic and magnetic structures of Sr2FeMoO6

## Abstract

We have investigated the electronic and magnetic structures of Sr2FeMoO6 employing site-specific direct probes, namely x-ray absorption spectroscopy with linearly and circularly polarized photons. In contrast to some previous suggestions, the results clearly establish that Fe is in the formal trivalent state in this compound. With the help of circularly polarized light, it is unambiguously shown that the moment at the Mo sites is below the limit of detection ($`<0.25\mu _B`$), resolving a previous controversy. We also show that the decrease of the observed moment in magnetization measurements from the theoretically expected value is driven by the presence of mis-site disorder between Fe and Mo sites.

PACS number(s): 75.25.+z, 75.30.Vn, 75.20.Hr

The observation of colossal magnetoresistance (CMR) in the perovskite mixed valent manganites has led to a renewed interest in ferromagnetic oxides. It is believed that the double exchange mechanism in presence of strong electron-phonon couplings arising from Jahn-Teller distortions is responsible for the observed properties in the manganites . Recently, double perovskite Sr2FeMoO6 was established as a new CMR material . This compound, in contrast to the manganites, has certain technologically desirable properties, such as a substantial MR at a low applied field even at the room temperature. From a fundamental point of view, it is even more important to note that crystallographic data does not indicate any JT distortion and the lattice does not appear to play any significant role in this compound. Furthermore, the system is an undoped one in contrast to the manganites. Thus, Sr2FeMoO6 is in principle a simpler system to understand its properties in detailed theoretical terms. Inspite of this apparent simplicity, there are surprisingly many open issues concerning the basic electronic and magnetic structures of this compound.

In this compound, each of the Fe3+ ($`S`$ = 5/2) and Mo5+ ($`S`$ = 1/2) sublattices are believed to be arranged ferromagnetically, while the two sublattices are coupled to each other antiferromagnetically. It has been suggested  that the system is in a half metallic ferrimagnetic (HMFM) state leading to its fascinating CMR properties. However, there appears to be several controversies concerning the real nature of this compound. One neutron diffraction study  reported the absence of any moment at the Mo sites, suggesting Mo to be essentially nonmagnetic, whereas another study  suggested $`1\mu _B`$ at each Mo site. Moreover, analysis of Mössbauer results have been interpreted both in terms of Fe3+  and Fe2.5+  states. Thus, it is obvious that even the basic issues concerning the electronic and magnetic structures of this compound have not been settled so far. Since the analysis of neutron and Mössbauer data are model dependent, it is obviously necessary to obtain site-specific direct information concerning the electronic and magnetic properties of this compound. Additionally, in the originally proposed magnetic structure , the system is expected to have a moment of 4 $`\mu _B`$ per formula unit (f.u.) due to the ferrimagnetic coupling between the Fe3+ 3$`d^5`$ and Mo5+ 4$`d^1`$ configurations. However, the observed saturation magnetization (MS) is often found  to be about 3 $`\mu _B`$/f.u. The origin of this reduction in the magnetic moment is also not clear at present. We address all these issues combining linear and circularly polarized x-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS), with its ability to provide direct, site-specific electronic and magnetic informations. In addition to providing the magnetic structure of this compound and explaining the reduction in the observed moment, our results also suggest that this compound cannot be described within the conventional double exchange mechanism.

Sr2FeMoO6 can exist with varying extent of mis-site disorder between the Fe and Mo sublattices. Synthesis and characterization of highly ordered ($``$ 90%) and extensively disordered (ordering of $``$ 30%) Sr2FeMoO6 have been described in our earlier publication . The experiments were carried out at the 4.2R circularly polarized beamline at Elettra Synchrotron Radiation Facility. The measurements were performed at 77 K, which is well below the magnetic ordering temperature ($``$ 420 K) . The sample surface was cleaned in situ by scraping with a diamond file. The degree of circular polarization at the relevant photon energy was approximately 85%.

In order to address the valence state of Fe in such oxides, it is most suitable to probe the Fe 2$`p_{3/2}`$ ($`L_3`$) XAS which exhibits very clear differences between formal Fe2+ and Fe3+ states. Specifically, the 2$`p_{3/2}`$ absorption edge of all Fe2+ species in an octahedral crystal field exhibits a main peak at a lower energy, followed by a weaker peak or shoulder at a higher energy. The ordering of the peaks is reversed for Fe3+ species  providing an easy way to identify the formal Fe valence state independent of the extent of covalency. We have recorded a high resolution ($``$ 0.3 eV) Fe 2$`p_{3/2}`$ absorption spectrum of Sr2FeMoO6 with linearly polarized light (Fig. 1). From this figure, it is evident, even in absence of any detailed analysis that only a Fe3+ valence state is consistent with the experimental result, exhibiting a weaker lower energy shoulder and a higher energy main peak. However, in order to provide a quantitative description of the spectral features and, more importantly, of the ground state, it is important to carry out detailed calculations including hybridization effects with the ligands within a cluster model on an equal footing as core-valence and valence-valence multiplet interactions and crystal-field effects, as the participation of the ligand levels in determining the spectral features may be significant . In order to minimize the number of free parameters, we fix the multiplet interaction strengths, $`F_{dd}^2`$ (9.7 eV), $`F_{dd}^4`$ (6.1 eV), $`F_{pd}^2`$ (5.4 eV), $`G_{pd}^1`$ (3.9 eV), and $`G_{pd}^3`$ (2.2 eV) to 80% of the atomic Hartree-Fock values to account for the solid state screening. Additionally, the hopping parameter strengths, $`pd\sigma `$, $`pd\pi `$, and $`pp\sigma `$ of -1.7, 0.9 and 0.45 eV, respectively, are guided by a tight-binding fitting  of the spin-polarized ab initio band dispersions. Moreover, we fix the multiplet averaged 2$`p`$ core - 3$`d`$ valence Coulomb interaction strength, $`U_{pd}`$, to be 1.2 times that of $`U_{dd}`$ between the 3$`d`$ electrons, according to the usual practice. Thus, we are left with only two adjustable parameters, namely $`U_{dd}`$ and the O 2$`p`$ \- Fe 3$`d`$ charge transfer energy, $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$. Since the resulting many-body problem within a complete basis approach  involves nearly 30,000 basis states, the calculations were carried out within the Lanczos algorithm. We obtain a remarkably good description of the spectral features with $`U_{dd}`$ = 4 eV and $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ = 3 eV for the Fe3+ configuration, as shown in Fig. 1. $`U_{dd}`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ estimated here are consistent with those in other octahedral Fe3+ oxides. The many-body ground state has 60.2% $`d^5`$, 34.5% $`d^6`$$`\underset{¯}{L}^1`$ and 5.1% $`d^7`$$`\underset{¯}{L}^2`$ character, suggesting the system to be somewhat more ionic than even LaFeO3 . It should be noted here that it was not possible to describe the spectral features at all starting with a formal Fe2+ configuration and then including configuration interaction for any choice of parameter strengths, conclusively establishing the 3+ valence state of Fe in Sr2FeMoO6.

While the XAS with linearly polarized light at the Fe $`2p`$ edge provides a definitive description of the site-specific electronic structure, it is not as specific to the magnetic structure as x-ray magnetic circular dichroism (XMCD) results would be. In order to specifically investigate the magnetic structure, we have carried out XAS at the Fe $`2p`$ and Mo $`3p`$ edges with circularly polarized light. We use a lower resolution ($``$ 1.0 eV at the Fe 2$`p`$ edge) to improve substantially the signal-to-noise ratio, though this smoothens out the detailed spectral features which are very similar to those with linearly polarized light (Fig. 1). In Fig. 2(a), we show the photon-flux normalized polarization-dependent Fe 2p XAS spectra, $`\mu ^+`$ and $`\mu ^{}`$ for highly ordered Sr2FeMoO6, corresponding to the helicity parallel and anti-parallel to the Fe 3d majority-spin direction, respectively. The XMCD spectra, $`\mathrm{}`$$`\mu `$ = $`\mu ^+`$ \- $`\mu ^{}`$, also shown in the same panel, clearly shows a substantial magnetic signal, indicative of a large Fe moment. The corresponding experimental $`\mu ^+`$, $`\mu ^{}`$ and $`\mathrm{}`$$`\mu `$ spectra for Mo 3p edge are shown in Fig. 2(b). It is evident from the XMCD spectrum of Mo that any magnetic moment at these sites is below the detection limit ($`<0.25\mu _B`$). The present result is in clear contradiction with the suggestion of a measurable moment ($`1\mu _B`$) at the Mo sites , while it is in agreement with a previous neutron diffraction measurement  where no moment could be detected at the Mo sites.

The above results, in conjunction with already known properties of Sr2FeMoO6, provide an understanding of the magnetic structure. The XMCD spectra establish a large moment at the Fe site, while negating the possibility of a substantial moment at the Mo sites. However, the electronic structure of this compound with a formal Fe3+ state requires the existence of another electron, nominally associated with a Mo5+ 4$`d^1`$ configuration and being responsible for the metallic behavior. Our results establish that the spin density arising from this single electron is not substantially at the Mo site. Since this electron is delocalized, it is not unreasonable to expect that the wavefunction of the electron will be spread over several sites. Band structure results, based on spin-polarized LMTO-GGA calculations  in fact clearly show that the states at the $`E_F`$ are almost equally contributed by Fe 3$`d`$, Mo 4$`d`$ and O 2$`p`$ states, suggesting an average of $``$ 0.3 $`\mu _B`$ down-spin density at each Fe, Mo and six oxygen sites. The present experimental result at the Mo 3$`p`$ edge suggets that the spin-density is in reality further reduced ($`<0.25\mu _B`$) at the Mo sites, compared to the single particle calculations. Thus, it appears that the FeO6 octahedron carry more than 0.75 $`\mu _B`$ down-spin density, rather than $``$ 0.6 $`\mu _B`$ suggested by the band structure results. The suggestion of a substantial down-spin moment contribution at the Fe site is supported by our many-body cluster calculations (see Fig. 1), where the ground state wavefunction is found to have an average down-spin $`d`$ occupancy of 0.45, somewhat larger than that suggested by the band structure results. Combining all these evidences, it would appear that the delocalized electron spin density is transferred from the minority spin of the Mo-sites via hybridization to Fe ($``$ 45%) and O ($``$ 30%) with less than about 25% of spin-density at the Mo site, thereby spreading over several sites. Thus, it appears that the delocalized spin density, antiferromagnetically coupled to the localized up spins at the Fe sites, prefers to be spatially closer to the central Fe sites, thereby gaining a stronger antiferromagnetic coupling  between the localized and the delocalized spins rather than residing at the farther Mo sites. While the double exchange mechanism, applicable to the manganites, has often been invoked to describe these ordered double perovskite systems, the present results clearly suggest a new physics for this class of compounds compared to manganites. In the DE mechanism, the localized spin at the Mn site and the delocalized electrons, largely residing at the same atomic site, are coupled ferromagnetically. In contrast, the present system is reminiscent of previously discussed Zhang-Rice singlet formation in the context of high TC cuprates . In that case the localized moment at the central Cu site is coupled antiferromagnetically with the doped delocalized spin-density spread over the central Cu and the nearest neighbor oxygen sites to form a singlet state. In the present case, the localized Fe S = 5/2 state couples antiferromagnetically with the spin density of delocalized S = 1/2 state to form a S = 2 state.

Having established the basic magnetic structure of Sr2FeMoO6, we now address the issue of consistently observing a lower $`M_S`$ value for this compound than is expected on the basis of the simple ionic picture, in all reported results. In this context, it is important to note that Sr2FeMoO6 always appears with a finite concentration of mis-site disorder where a pair of Fe and Mo exchange their crystallographic positions. The best compounds have been reported to have $``$ 90% ordering of the Fe and the Mo sites . In order to investigate whether such a mis-site disorder can be responsible for the observed reduction of the moment from the ideal value of 4 to about 3 $`\mu _B`$ and whether the reduction in the total magnetization is related to a corresponding loss in the local magnetic moment of Fe, we have also recorded the XAS at the Fe $`2p`$ edge of the extensively disordered Sr2FeMoO6 with circularly polarized light. These edges along with the XMCD result at Fe 2p edges for the disordered sample are shown in Fig. 3(a), while in Fig. 3(b), we compare the XMCD signals from the ordered and disordered Sr2FeMoO6. It is evident from the spectra that the magnetic moment on individual Fe ions decreases remarkably with decreasing ordering. In order to quantify our results, we have calculated the orbital, spin and total moments at the Fe sites from these spectra with the assumption of negligible magnetic-dipole moment, using the well established sum rules . All the individual spin, orbital and total moments of these two samples are shown in Table 1. In these cases, we find that $`m_{orb}`$ is very small, due to the approximately $`3d^5`$ configuration of Fe ions. The resulting total moments estimated from the XMCD signals are 1.68 and 1.36 $`\mu _B`$/Fe for the ordered and the disordered systems, respectively. It is to be noted that the magnetic moments obtained from the XMCD results are considerably smaller than the total magnetic moments obtained from bulk magnetization measurements . Such discrepancies are well known in the literature , and may arise from many factors. It has been variously attributed to uncertainties in data analysis, limitations of the applicability of the atomic sum rules arising from non-ideal geometry in real experiments and/or solid-state effects, and non-saturation of the magnetization at modest magnetic fields near the surface region. Thus, the absolute value of the moment estimated from the XMCD results is per se not a useful quantity, though the extensive XMCD literature shows that relative changes in the magnetic moments estimated from XMCD is a very reliable quantity. For our purpose, we first establish this point explicitly by comparing the XMCD results (Fig. 3 inset) of the ordered Sr2FeMoO6 with a bulk magnetic moment of $``$ 2.81 $`\mu _B`$/f.u. at 77 K and a closely related compound, Sr2FeMo0.3W0.7O6, with a bulk magnetic moment of 3.64 $`\mu _B`$/f.u. at 77 K. The XMCD results (Table 1) measured at the same temperature clearly suggest an approximately 42$`\pm `$2% drop in the XMCD moment compared to the bulk one for both the samples. Thus, having established the efficacy of probing the relative changes of magnetization in these and related systems employing XMCD, our results on the ordered and disordered Sr2FeMoO6, shown in Fig. 3 and Table 1, clearly establish a remarkable decrease in the magnetic moment at the Fe sites with increasing mis-site disorder. These experimental results are also consistent with the recent band structure calculations  within a supercell for mis-site disorders between the Fe and Mo occupancies. The band structure results suggest that a complete disorder would result in a 34% decrease in the moment at the Fe sites, while a 50% order would have a 21% decrease of the moment compared to the fully ordered sample. The present experimental result of a 23% decrease in the Fe moment for the “disordered” sample with about 30% ordering is consistent with these band structure results. Thus, it appears that the decrease in the magnetic moment invariably observed for the so-called ordered Sr2FeMoO6 is mainly due to the presence of finite ($`10\%`$) mis-site disorder. The origin of the decrease in the Fe moment in presence of mis-site disorder is essentially due to the destruction of the half-metallic ferromagnetic state of the fully-ordered ideal system, thereby transferring $`d`$-electrons from the up-spin to the down-spin bands .

In summary, site-specific x-ray absorption spectroscopy with linearly polarized light established the formal valency of Fe in Sr2FeMoO6 to be 3+. Detailed investigation of x-ray magnetic circular dichroism data confirms a large moment at the Fe site. Our results provide a direct evidence for a negligible ($`<0.25\mu _B`$) magnetic moment at the Mo site, thereby suggesting that the delocalized electron spin density, coupled antiferromagnetically to the localized Fe-spins, is delocalized over several sites including the neighboring FeO6 octahedra and indicating a novel origin of magnetism, different from the conventional double exchange mechanism. A comparison of XMCD results from the ordered and the disordered samples establishes that the presence of mis-site disorder between the Fe and Mo sites even in the so-called ordered samples is responsible for the observed drop in the magnetic moment from the expected value of 4 $`\mu _B`$/f.u. to experimentally observed value of about 3 $`\mu _B`$/f.u.

This project is supported by DST, Government of India and Italian Ministry of Science under the program of cooperation in Science and Technology. We thank C. Carbone and P. Mahadevan for useful discussions.


text:
# Gravo-inertial field theory

## I Historical

Well known models like ”steady state theory”, Einstein cosmos, Friedman cosmos are although the last expanding, ”static” models, strong determined by geometry or rigid attemptions. The gravitational field is given, but no created. The deforming of space and time is necessary because given at the beginning. This may be the analog and appropriate way with a mathematical method describe a physical problem. We tried to explain background with considering the results of the mechanics of H. Hertz, V. Fock and the the epistemological considerations of G. W. Leibniz We will outline in condensed summary our investigations about gravitation and inertia.

## II Axiomatic

1. Law of inertia mass
2. Conservation law
3. Special theory of relativity
4. Continuity principle
5. Creation of time and space by field and vice versa
6. Gravo-inertial field equations

The priciples 1, 2 and 3 are well proved. We outline 5 and 6 considering 3. Starting point are the existence of mass and inertia. Mass is existent by space (extent) and time (motion).M otion and density change is influenced by two fields, first ($`\stackrel{}{}K`$) arised by inertia, second ($`\stackrel{}{}G`$) by gravitation, the later conditioned by motion and density change (enlargement).

## III Experimental

The cosmos is at present expanding with definit velocity and accelleration. The equality of gravitational and inertial mass is assumed proved. The background radiation is a characteristic of an earlier state. The present state is a result of development. Gravitation can assumed as an effect of higher order. There is a strange numeric relation between electricity and gravitation of the electron. The repulsion of two electrons is 1040 times of the attraction as the result of gravitation, the rules are similar.

## IV Gravo-inertial field equations

The gravo-inertial field equations can be written in MKS-System as

$$\stackrel{}{}K=\frac{\varrho }{t}+\mathrm{}\text{+higher orders}$$
(1)
$$\stackrel{}{}G=0$$
(2)
$$c^2\times \stackrel{}{}G=\frac{\stackrel{}{}j}{t}+\mathrm{}\text{+higher orders}$$
(3)
$$\times \stackrel{}{}K=\frac{\stackrel{}{}G}{t}$$
(4)
where
$`\stackrel{}{j}`$ \[kg/$`m^2`$s\] mass flow (in an isotropic world radial to the reference system)
$`\rho `$ mass density \[kg/$`cm^3`$\]
$`\stackrel{}{}K\stackrel{}{}j`$ \[kg/$`m^2`$s\] inertial field strength
$`\stackrel{}{}G`$ \[kg/$`m^3`$\] gravic field strength

Equations (1)- (4) represents a linear partial differential equation system. The fields are created not by existence but by changing of mass density and mass flow by space and time.In this formal sense the gravo-inertial field equations have an analogy in electromagnetics (Maxwell equations).
The gravic field $`\stackrel{}{}G`$ and the gravitational force $`\stackrel{}{}F`$ of a test particle is proportional to its mass m. If we imaginate to stop the cosmos expansion, then the gravic field vanishes. Therefore there is a gravic field around the particle as result of changed density of the world by flow and there is a global attraction of all particles to each other.

$$\stackrel{}{}G(x)=\frac{1}{c^2}\underset{0}{\overset{c}{}}𝑑\stackrel{}{v}\times \stackrel{}{K}$$
(5)
From this force results the gravitational force (in analogy to Lorentz force) from the rotational field strength $`\stackrel{}{}G`$, which is proportional to the mass of the particle

$$d\stackrel{}{}F=m\tau (d\stackrel{}{}v\times \stackrel{}{}G)$$
(6)
with
$`\tau `$\[$`m^4`$/skg\] as an appropriate constant
$`\stackrel{}{}F`$ gravitational force
$`\stackrel{}{}v`$ the velocity of cosmical masses summed by all masses in all directions
$`\tau `$ a cosmological time dependent constant.

Because the masses are moved relatively to a particle on x it suffers a force perpendicular to the velocity $`\stackrel{}{}v`$. The system is rotational-symmetric, homogeneous and isotropic.
If all masses unmoved, then $`\stackrel{}{}G=0`$.
The inertial field $`\stackrel{}{}K`$ cause a gravitational field $`\stackrel{}{}G`$, on the other hand $`\stackrel{}{}G`$ arises $`\stackrel{}{}K`$.
We can introduce the common potentials $`\phi `$ and $`\stackrel{}{}A`$

$`\stackrel{}{}K=\phi \frac{\stackrel{}{A}}{t}`$

and build the wave equations

$$^2\phi \frac{1}{c^2}\frac{^2\phi }{t^2}=\frac{\varrho }{t}$$
(7)
$$^2\stackrel{}{}A\frac{1}{c^2}\frac{^2\stackrel{}{}A}{t^2}=\frac{\stackrel{}{}j}{t}$$
(8)
If the cosmos expands then there is the energy concentrated in the moved masses and give rise to the term on the right of equation 1. From the expanding space and time and the mass flow change by time follows the creation of a field that contradict the expansion (equation 3). Both fields are connectes by the equation 3 und 4. The analogy to Maxwell theory is obviously. In analog way we assume the separation in gravic and inertial part by four dimensional vector. We obtain a force action. The Lorentz force correspond the gravitational force $`\stackrel{}{}F`$ . We recognize the gravitational field as consequequence of relativiy principle. In this way the gravic field on point x is a relativistic effect and local transformable. In common sense the field can only removed by stopping (transforming) of all cosmic masses in rest reference system. If the cosmos contract then the gravitation is directed away from the masses. Corresponding principle of continuity the cosmos is oscillating. The expanding masses are creating space, time and gravitation. Gravitational and inertial mass are identically, one is the cause of the other.

## V Conclusion

The creation of space and time are connected with fields, only the masses and the rule of inertia are given. All processes in nature are determinded by interacting fields or particles, by two energy forms or in common in twofold way. This state of cosmos is an instantaneous value which is determined by interaction. Gravitation is not determined by masses but is in a sense the result of expanding and creating space and time. In this process is created inertial field strength $`\stackrel{}{}K`$ connected with a gravitational field strength $`\stackrel{}{}G`$. Because the density change is cause for creation of gravitational field, the force on particles is proportional to ist masses. The drifting masses produce a ”guiding field” which is with expansion or contraction radial directed.


text:
# The Influence of the Starburst on the ISM in NGC 1569

## 1 Introduction

The gas-rich dwarf irregular galaxy NGC 1569 (UGC 3056, Arp 210, VII Zw 16) is a member of the IC 342/Maffei galaxy group (Karachentsev et al. 1994) and lies near the galactic plane at a distance of about $`(2.2\pm 0.6)\mathrm{Mpc}`$ (Israel 1988). Its closest neighbor is UGCA 92 at a projected distance of about 40 kpc ($`1.2^{}`$). As can be expected of a dwarf galaxy, NGC 1569 is metal-poor ($`Z=0.23\mathrm{Z}_{}`$, González Delgado et al. 1997). There is much evidence that this galaxy currently is in a post-starburst phase (see next chapter). Therefore, it has been chosen as the target of a comprehensive study of the influence of a starburst on the ISM and the magnetic structure in a dwarf galaxy, which is the topic of S. Mühle’s Ph.D. thesis. Here we present our first results on the impact of the recent starburst on the neutral atomic and molecular gas.

## 2 Evidence for a Starburst

Among the most prominent features in NGC 1569 are two very luminous super-star clusters (e.g. O’Connell et al. 1994) that coincide with the centers of the distribution of the young stellar population. The star formation history as derived from photometric studies (e.g. Aloisi et al. 2001, Greggio et al. 1998, Vallenari & Bomans 1996) indicates a starburst, a phase with a very high star formation rate of $`0.5\mathrm{}3\mathrm{M}_{}/\mathrm{yr}`$ ($`4\mathrm{}20\mathrm{M}_{}/\mathrm{yr}\mathrm{kpc}^2`$), from about 100 million years until about 4 million years ago, with no quiescent periods that lasted longer than about 10 million years. Before the starburst, the overall star formation rate must have been quite low, as the large HI reservoir and the low metallicity of NGC 1569 indicate.

Independent evidence for a recent starburst has been found in the rather strong synchrotron emission of NGC 1569. With a delay of about $`10^7`$ years, a starburst leads to an increased rate of supernova explosions, each of them injecting a large amount of relativistic electrons into the ISM. These high-energy particles rapidly lose energy due to radiation losses. At the end of a starburst, when the supernova rate decreases, the synchrotron spectrum ages, visible as a distinct kink in the slope of the spectrum. In NGC 1569, Israel & de Bruyn (1988) have found such a kink in the non-thermal continuum emission at 8 GHz, corresponding to an end of the starburst about 5 million years before now.

The ionized gas also reveals signs of strong recent star formation: expanding H$`\alpha `$ shells (Tomita et al. 1994) have been detected in the disk of NGC 1569, and the H$`\alpha `$ image by Hunter et al. (1993) shows numerous filaments along the minor axis extending into the halo. In ROSAT observations, extended soft X-ray emission ($`T10^7\mathrm{K}`$) has been detected at the location of the super-star clusters (Heckman et al. 1995, Della Ceca et al. 1996). Comparing the pressure of this hot gas with the shallow gravitational potential, it becomes clear that this gas will most likely be blown away from the galaxy (Martin 1999).

## 3 The Impact on the Molecular Gas

In the course of this study, we have mapped the CO(3–2) emission of NGC 1569 near the super-star clusters with the Heinrich-Hertz Telescope (Figure 1). The map shows not only three giant molecular associations (GMAs), but also much extended emission. The depression in the CO emission at the position of the super-star cluster A hints at a hole in the distribution of the molecular gas, but might as well be caused by dissociation of the CO molecules in the strong radiation field near the super-star cluster. The GMA #2 in our map coincides nicely with the giant molecular clouds (GMCs) #1 and 2 found by Taylor et al. (1999) in maps of the CO(2–1) and CO(1–0) transitions obtained with the Plateau de Bure interferometer. Our northern GMA (#1) can be associated with the GMCs #4 and 5. The GMAs #1 and 2 also coincide with the rim of a high-density HI ridge. A comparison of the fluxes of the interferometric data with the few available single-dish spectra (Greve et al. 1996) shows that a substantial fraction of the total emission is missing in these maps (Taylor et al. 1999). A first analysis of the single-dish data at a position between the GMAs #1 and 2 using our CO(3–2) map as well as the data by Greve et al. (1996) results in rather high line ratios

$$\frac{I_{\mathrm{CO}(21)}}{I_{\mathrm{CO}(10)}}=1.1(\mathrm{Greve}\mathrm{et}\mathrm{al}\mathrm{.\; 1996})\mathrm{and}\frac{I_{\mathrm{CO}(32)}}{I_{\mathrm{CO}(21)}}=1.4,$$

indicating an unusually warm molecular gas phase. An in-depth non-LTE analysis of the physical properties of the giant molecular clouds has to wait for new single-dish observations of the CO emission to be performed in March and April 2001.

## 4 The Impact on the Atomic Gas

Dwarf galaxies with violent star formation usually have a complex HI distribution with a lot of holes and arcs (e.g. Walter & Brinks 1999). Surprisingly, the column density map of the high-resolution HI cube (Figure 2), that we have obtained from observations with the VLA B-, C- and D-arrays, shows a remarkably smooth distribution of the neutral gas, with only one prominent hole and two arm-like extensions in the west and in the south of the disk. Searching carefully for holes in the channel maps and position-velocity plots of this cube, we have found only two holes: The first hole is the one already detected in the HI column density map. Adopting the classification scheme of Brinks & Bajaja (1986), this is a type 1 hole with a diameter of about $`1\mathrm{kpc}`$ and an expansion velocity of about $`7\mathrm{km}/\mathrm{s}`$. It is associated with the two super-star clusters and an estimate of its kinematic age assuming a constant expansion velocity yields $`t=810^7\mathrm{yr}`$, supporting a causal connection between the starburst and the creation of this hole. The channel maps also show that the center of the hole is offset to the south of the position of the super-star clusters, suggesting different expansion velocities in the high-density HI ridge and in the thinner gas in the southern part of the disk. The other hole is classified as a type 2 hole and is located southeast of the first hole. With a diameter of about $`600\mathrm{pc}`$ and an estimated expansion velocity of about $`28\mathrm{km}/\mathrm{s}`$, it is kinematically younger ($`t=110^7\mathrm{yr}`$). We label this hole a candidate hole, since it is located outside the optical extent of the disk and might be a chance feature formed by the rim of the dense HI distribution and the low-mass HI arm described in the next paragraph.

Trading the high-resolution of our cube for increased sensitivity in our low-resolution HI column density map (Figure 3), we have detected a low-mass HI cloud (“companion”) east of the HI distribution of NGC 1569 as well as an HI bridge connecting the cloud with the main HI disk. The measured column densities translate to mass estimates of $`2.410^7\mathrm{M}_{}`$ for the companion and $`2.410^8\mathrm{M}_{}`$ for the disk of NGC 1569. This is in good agreement with the findings of Stil & Israel (1998). As to the origin of the companion, that has no known optical counterpart (Stil & Israel 1998), and the associated bridge, we have investigated different possibilities: In the velocity field (Figure 4), we see a clear offset of the radial velocities of arm and companion from the velocity structure of the disk. Thus, it is very unlikely that these features form an outer part of the main HI distribution. The nearest neighbor to NGC 1569, UGCA 92 is a dwarf galaxy at a similar radial velocity, but less massive than NGC 1569. Comparing the gravitational force that NGC 1569 exerts on the companion with that of the far-away neighbor, we can discard the scenario that the companion and the bridge are tidal features pulled out of the disk of NGC 1569. Another hypothesis is that these features are part of an HI cloud falling into the disk of NGC 1569 and being tidally disrupted in this process. Since the potential energy of the companion is of the same order of magnitude as its kinetic energy, we consider this a possible explanation for the origin of the HI features southeast of the main disk of NGC 1569 and worth further investigation.

The sensitive low-resolution column density map and velocity field also reveal other interesting details: Apart from a radio continuum source northwest of NGC 1569, especially the velocity field clearly shows the remnants of a huge HI shell reaching from the center of the disk out into the halo in the southwest. The western arm detected in the high-resolution column density map seems to be part of this huge shell. The southern feature found in the same map may be interpreted as the continuation of the HI bridge.

## 5 Summary & Work in Progress

In the nearby dwarf galaxy NGC 1569, evidence for a recent strong starburst has been found in the star formation history as well as in the synchrotron spectrum and in the distribution of the ionized gas. We propose that the starburst has had a strong impact on the neutral atomic and molecular gas, too: The distribution of both the HI and the CO emission show a depression at the location of the two super-star clusters. The surrounding molecular gas seems to be unusually warm. In the HI column density map, we have detected an extended feature that might be an infalling HI cloud, a possible trigger for the starburst.
A next step will be the combination of our VLA data with single-dish HI observations in order to get the complete picture of the distribution of neutral hydrogen in NGC 1569. For a thorough non-LTE investigation of the physical properties of the giant molecular clouds near the super-star clusters, we will map the starburst region in the CO(2–1) and CO(1–0) transitions with a single-dish telescope and observe the 13CO(2–1) and 13CO(1–0) emission of selected areas. Another project that has just been started in the context of this Ph.D. work is the determination of the polarization, the magnetic structure and field strength in the halo of NGC 1569. This will allow us to include the effect of a magnetic field in the feedback processes of a starburst.

References

Aloisi, A., Clampin, M., Diolaiti, E., et al. 2001, AJ in press (March 2001)

Brinks, E., & Bajaja, E. 1986, A&A 169, 14

Della Ceca, R., Griffiths, R.E., Heckman, T.M., & Mac Kenty, J.W. 1996, ApJ 469, 662

González Delgado, R.M., Leitherer, C., Heckman, T., & Cerviño, M. 1997, ApJ 483, 705

Greggio, L., Tosi, M., Clampin, M., et al. 1998, ApJ 504, 725

Greve, A., Becker, R., Johansson, L.E.B., & Mc Keith, C.D. 1996, A&A 312, 391

Heckman, T.M., Dahlem, M., Lehnert, M.D., Fabbiano, G., Gilmore, D., & Waller, W.H. 1995, ApJ 448, 98

Hunter, D.A., Hawley, W.N., & Gallagher, J.S. 1993, AJ 106, 1797

Israel, F.P. 1988, A&A 194, 24

Israel, F.P., & de Bruyn, A.G. 1988, A&A 198, 109

Karachentsev, I.D., Tikhonov, N.A., & Sazonova, L.N. 1994, AstL 20, 84

Martin, C.L. 1999, ApJ 513, 156

O’Connell, R.W., Gallagher, J.S., & Hunter, D.A. 1994, ApJ 433, 65

Stil, J.M., & Israel, F.P. 1998, A&A 337, 64

Taylor, C.L., Hüttemeister, S., Klein, U., & Greve, A. 1999, A&A 349, 424

Tomita, A., Ohta, K., & Saito, M. 1994, PASJ 46, 335

Vallenari, A., & Bomans, D.J. 1996, A&A 313, 713

Walter, F., & Brinks, E. 1999, AJ 118, 273


text:
# A Braneworld Universe From Colliding Bubbles

## I Introduction

We propose a cosmogony based on collisions of true anti-de Sitter (AdS) vacuum bubbles in $`(4+1)`$ dimensions expanding at nearly the speed of light within a surrounding $`(4+1)`$-dimensional de Sitter (dS) or Minkowski (M) space false vacuum. The bubble collisions produce a braneworld universe very similar to the cosmogony with a $`(3+1)`$-dimensional, positive-tension brane surrounded by $`(4+1)`$-dimensional AdS space proposed by Randall and Sundrum.

Initially a $`(4+1)`$-dimensional spacetime consisting of either de Sitter space or Minkowski space is supposed. In the former case an initial epoch of $`(4+1)`$-dimensional ‘old’ inflation ensures a very nearly $`SO(5,1)`$ symmetric state prior to bubble nucleation, regardless of whatever departures from de Sitter space may have initially existed. The homogeneity and isotropy of the resulting $`(3+1)`$-dimensional braneworld universe is thus assured, as we shall explain in more detail. In the latter case, a metastable $`(4+1)`$-dimensional Minkowski state vacuum must be postulated at the outset; however, it is not at all implausible that some as yet unknown theory of the initial conditions of the universe prefers empty Minkowski space.

The false de Sitter or Minkowski vacuum decays through the nucleation by quantum tunnelling of bubbles filled with the lower energy true AdS vacuum . The bubble wall separating the two phases may take the form of either a brane or an accelerating domain wall. We postulate that the AdS vacuum is discretely degenerate, so that the energy from the collision of two bubbles is not entirely transformed into energy dispersed into the $`(4+1)`$ dimensions. In the case of a degenerate AdS vacuum, when the two colliding bubbles contain differing AdS phases, after the collision at least part of the energy is transferred to a brane (or domain wall) that must mediate between the two phases. This is energy that remains localized in the fifth dimension. In this paper we shall call this brane (or domain wall) our local brane because this is where the $`(3+1)`$-dimensional universe familiar to us resides.

To the extent that our universe has a violent beginning resulting from the collision of branes, the scenario presented here has much in common with the brane inflation proposed by Dvali and Tye and the ekpyrotic universe recently proposed by Khoury et al.; however, the physics by which preferred initial conditions are determined is quite different. The scenario proposed here also bears some similarities to the work of Gorsky and Selivanov. Perkins considered a braneworld scenario in which our universe is situated on a bubble wall. However, in his scenario bubble collisions are regarded as catastrophic. The dynamics of bubble collisions have been studied by Guth and Weinberg, Hawking, Moss and Stewart, and Wu.

Before embarking on a detailed description of the colliding bubble scenario, we first highlight some of the problems arising from the assumption of a bulk with a negative cosmological constant. These difficulties, which render many braneworld cosmogonies problematic, are avoided in the scenario proposed here because of the presence of a prior epoch of de Sitter or Minkowski space. Most braneworld models, including those with inflation on the brane, are plagued by the same horizon and smoothness problems present in non-inflationary cosmogonies but in $`(4+1)`$ rather than $`(3+1)`$ dimensions. The persistence of very near spatial homogeneity and isotropy on the brane requires that the bulk at the outset be so very nearly three-dimensionally homogeneous and isotropic. Otherwise, through gravity an inhomogeneous bulk inevitably induces inhomogeneities on the brane. A successful braneworld cosmology must therefore explain why the bulk was very nearly homogeneous and isotropic at the beginning. A mechanism that merely smooths an initially inhomogeneous brane embedded in pristine AdS space, such as brane inflation, does not suffice because the necessary bulk homogeneity and isotropy must be put in by hand.

Anti de Sitter space, or more broadly any spacetime with the stress-energy of a negative cosmological constant, lacks the ability to erase small initial perturbations from homogeneity and isotropy. For the case of a positive cosmological constant departures from homogeneity and isotropy rapidly disappear as the universe expands. This is what provides the magic of inflation, by which perturbations are rapidly stretched to scales too large to be observed so that after a rather modest amount of expansion one is left with essentially stretched vacuum. One could perversely attempt to postulate some sort of fractal state for which no amount of inflationary expansion would yield a homogeneous and isotropic state on the scales of interest, but such an initial state would entail an infinite energy density and thus can be excluded, even under the most generous restrictions on admissible initial states.

The differing evolution of dS and AdS space is readily illustrated by considering the family of timelike geodesics emanating from an arbitrary point $`P`$ in the spacetime, as indicated in Fig. 1. One might for example interpret these geodesics as the worldlines of the shrapnel from an exploding bomb! In both cases the trajectories initially diverge in proportion to their relative velocities, just as in a Milne universe (which is but another coordinatization of flat Minkowski space). However, after a proper time comparable to the curvature radius, the trajectories in AdS start to converge, eventually refocusing to a point (where the bomb momentarily re-assembles itself!). This sequence of divergence and reconvergence repeats itself ad infinitum. In de Sitter space, however, the nonvanishing spacetime curvature has precisely the opposite effect. Rather than re-converging, the initial linear divergence of the trajectories accelerates, so that eventually the pieces of shrapnel lose causal contact with each other. Exponentially inflating spacetime inserts itself between the fragments. In summary, de Sitter space loses its “hair”, while anti de-Sitter space does not.

In addition to the persistence of the irregularities in the manner just described, anti-de Sitter space is plagued with a bizarre causal structure. As indicated in Fig. 1(a), maximally extended AdS space is bounded by timelike boundaries at infinity from which and to which information flows. It does not make sense to postulate eternal AdS without some theory of appropriate boundary conditions on these edges or on the Cauchy horizons that result when one attempts to limit consideration to a subspace of the maximally extended spacetime. In the original Randall-Sundrum proposal (whose causal structure is indicated in Fig. 2), the usual Randall-Sundrum coordinates

$$ds^2=dy^2+\mathrm{exp}[2y]\left[dx_{0}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}+dx_{1}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}+dx_{2}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}+dx_{3}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}\right]$$
(1)
cover only a minute portion of maximally extended AdS space. The coordinate patch covered by (1) forms a globally hyperbolic subspace of maximally extended anti de Sitter space—that is, initial data on a slice of constant cosmic time in the Randall-Sundrum coordinates is not constrained by any consistency conditions and completely suffices to determine the fields in the triangular region covered by these coordinates. But the lower light-like boundary constitutes a Cauchy horizon, and one may legitimately inquire, what principle determines the initial conditions on this boundary? And if they are trivial, as is often assumed, why is this so? Although Fig. 2 illustrates the special case of a static Randall-Sundrum universe, the lower Cauchy horizon persists in Randall-Sundrum cosmological models of an expanding universe.

In the present proposal AdS bubbles arise through the decay of a false de Sitter space or Minkowski space vacuum. The AdS space that emanates inside the bubble is produced in a precise and predictable way, with quantum fluctuations that are predictable and calculable. The problems described above are avoided. In the next section, we describe the geometry and dynamics of the production and collisions of AdS bubbles, explaining why in the semi-classical $`(\mathrm{}0)`$ limit the resulting brane universe is homogeneous and isotropic. In section III we turn to the leading quantum corrections to this picture, presenting a simplified calculation of the quantum fluctuations, which in our universe translate into a spectrum of Gaussian linearized cosmological perturbations. In the final section we present some concluding remarks.

## II AdS From Colliding Bubbles

The possibility has been previously advanced that the true vacuum might not coincide with what we commonly perceive as the true vacuum. That is, rather than being either empty Minkowski space or de Sitter space with a remarkably small positive cosmological constant, the true vacuum might take the form of some lower energy state with a negative cosmological constant. If this were true, we would live in a metastable false vacuum state susceptible to decay to the true vacuum through bubble nucleation. Phenomenologically, given the observed persistence of our universe, an approximate upper bound on the rate $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ at which bubbles of true AdS vacuum spontaneously nucleate can be established, but it is not possible to reject this possibility altogether.

A manifestly covariant description of the dynamics of false vacuum was given by Sidney Coleman, first ignoring gravity  and then extended to include the gravitational corrections in work with F. de Luccia . Important prior work is contained in . This process is illustrated in Fig. 3. We summarize below the principal results of these papers to the extent that they are needed here and refer the reader to the original papers for a more detailed and rigorous discussion.

False vacuum decay takes place at zero temperature, or said another way, from an initial state no preferred time direction. The consequences of the lack of a preferred time direction are profound. They render false vacuum decay qualitatively different from the more familiar thermal tunnelling, which enjoys considerably less symmetry due to the fact that a thermal state singles out a preferred time direction. For false vacuum decay in $`(d+1)`$ dimensions, the resulting classical expanding bubble solution possesses an $`SO(d,1)`$ symmetry. The symmetry group in the absence of any bubbles \[which in the case of de Sitter space would be $`SO(d+1,1)`$\] is broken by the presence of a single bubble to $`SO(d,1)`$, the subgroup of transformations that leaves invariant a spacetime point known as the nucleation center.

For a spacetime with two bubbles, the resulting symmetry is further reduced, but considerable residual symmetry remains. Suppose that two bubbles nucleate at spacelike separated nucleation centers $`N_L`$ and $`N_R,`$ where $`L`$ and $`R`$ denote left and right. This separation must be spacelike, for otherwise one bubble would nucleate within the other. For two bubbles the solution remains symmetric under the subgroup of those transformations that leave invariant the line (or spacelike geodesic) passing through $`N_L`$ and $`N_R.`$ For a pair of colliding bubbles nucleating in (4+1)-dimensional dS space, the $`SO(5,1)`$ symmetry breaks to $`SO(3,1).`$ This residual symmetry has the following consequences. First, one may always choose a coordinate system in which the two bubbles nucleate at the same time. Hence, unlike for thermal tunnelling, here it is not meaningful to ask which of the two bubbles is the bigger one. Moreover, once a coordinate choice is made in which the bubbles nucleate simultaneously, substantial residual symmetry remains. While in a particular coordinate system the bubbles first collide at a given spacetime point $`P,`$ for any other point $`P^{}`$ of the locus of points where the bubbles collide, a coordinate transformation exists such that the bubbles first collide at $`P^{}.`$ It is this symmetry mapping $`P`$ into $`P^{}`$ that is responsible for the three-dimensional spatial homogeneity and isotropy of the universe on the local brane.

We now turn to a more detailed consideration of what happens during the bubble collision. For vacuum decay with a single scalar field where the AdS vacuum is nondegenerate, the energy of the colliding bubble walls, absent some good reason to the contrary, dissipates in the fifth dimension (the direction parallel to the line connecting the two nucleation centers) but in an $`SO(3,1)`$ symmetric way, much as in the initial stages of thermalization first envisaged for ‘old’ or ‘extended’ inflation. However, if the AdS vacuum is finitely degenerate (in the simplest case with two such AdS vacua related by a $`Z_2`$ symmetry), topology demands that a domain wall form after the bubble collision to separate the two distinct AdS domains when the colliding bubbles contain differing AdS phases. While energy that disperses in the fifth dimension could as well be produced in the collision, topology requires that a domain wall form to mediate between the two AdS states. This wall, which we call our local brane (on which we live) is at rest in the center of mass frame of the colliding bubble. Of the kinetic energy left over after this domain wall has been formed, a part is expected to stick to the brane (and to be confined to it, as is typically assumed in the Randall-Sundrum scenario) and another part is expected to disperse into the bulk. The energy dispersed into the bulk, however, is $`SO(3,1)`$ symmetric, and therefore does not induce any irregularities on the brane. Moreover, this energy does not fall back onto the brane, because when the gravitation of the brane is taken into account, the brane accelerates away from this symmetric, dispersive debris.

Fig. 4 shows schematically first a (2+1)-dimensional representation of the colliding bubble geometry in the left panel and then in the right panel a cut-away of the surface of equal proper distance from the two nucleation centers. The point $`M`$ is the midpoint of $`N_L`$ and $`N_R.`$ The curve labeled $`C`$ indicates the line along which the two bubbles collide. In the section on the right, several hyperbolic coordinate patches are generated by the $`SO(3,1)`$ symmetry separated by the backward and forward lightcones on $`M.`$ Points along the solid curves are rendered equivalent by this symmetry. These are lines of constant cosmic temperature on our local brane, which cools as the universe expands. In the full (3+1)-dimensional case, these curves are three-dimensional spacelike hyperboloids of constant negative spatial curvature.

It has been suggested by Coleman that isolated AdS bubbles generically collapse into black holes because of the $`SO(4,1)`$ symmetry of the perfect classical expanding bubble solution. The argument, which is closely related to the perfect refocusing of timelike geodesics emanating from a point described above, is as follows. The universe inside an AdS bubble is a hyperbolic universe that recollapses after a finite amount of time. If the background stress-energy inside the bubble were that of a perfect negative cosmological constant, this would pose no problem. The resulting ‘Big Crunch’ would be nothing but a coordinate artifact, as indicated in Fig. 5. However, if the scalar field undergoing tunnelling has not reached the true vacuum by the light cone $`L`$ (which it never does), a singularity in the evolution of the scalar field on the light cone $`L^{}`$ generally results. In both cases the behavior of the scalar field near the lightcones is described by a second-order, Bessel-like ordinary differential equation having one regular and one singular solution. On $`L`$ it is clearly correct to choose the regular solution. This is the initial condition that results from the Euclidean instanton. But unless the potential is extremely finely tuned, upon propagating to $`L^{},`$ at least a small admixture of the divergent, irregular solution will be present, causing the scalar field kinetic energy to diverge. In the case of colliding bubbles, however, the underlying symmetry that led to the divergence is broken because the collision generically sends out a wave that spoils the finely tuned convergence of the scalar field that led to black hole formation. Thus the AdS space inside the bubbles is allowed to persist.

To simplify the analysis, we idealize the bubble walls as infinitely thin and assume that upon colliding the bubbles transfer all their available energy onto an infinitely thin brane, with all excess energy converted into radiation and matter confined to the brane. The collision geometry is indicated in Fig. 6. The subsequent evolution of the brane depend on the equation of state on our brane, which we take to be arbitrary, since the considerations presented in this paper do not depend on its details.

Since bubbles nucleate stochastically, at a rate $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ with the dimension of inverse volume inverse time, the proper distance between nucleation centers is a random variable. Consequently, the spatial curvature of the resulting intermediate brane universe varies between bubble pairs. In this scenario it is essential that bubble collisions are rare. A collision with a third bubble would be catastrophic; a wave of energy would move toward us at very nearly the speed of light striking us with essentially no warning. That this has not yet happened is a most trivial application of the anthropic principle. In the case of bubbles expanding in Minkowski space $`(M^5),`$ if the nucleation rate $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ does not vary with time, the bubbles will all eventually percolate. Therefore the exterior $`M^5`$ space could not have persisted infinitely far into the past unless some mechanism, such as a variant of that of extended inflation, is postulated to render $`M^5`$ eternal into the past by making $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ vanish in limit of the infinite past. This percolation, however, does not occur for bubbles expanding in $`dS^5`$ for the small nucleation rates of interest here.

## III  Quantum Corrections: Generation of Gaussian Cosmological Perturbations

In the previous section we demonstrated how a homogeneous and isotropic universe can arise from the collision of two expanding AdS bubbles. We employed the semi-classical $`(\mathrm{}0)`$ limit in which prior to colliding each bubble possesses an exact $`SO(4,1)`$ symmetry about its nucleation center, because in the semi-classical limit fluctuations about the configuration of least Euclidean action describing the bubble nucleation process are suppressed as well as the quantum fluctuations of the wall and of the surrounding fields afterward. In this limit one obtains an absolutely homogeneous and isotropic universe, quite unlike the one that we observe. Quantum corrections, however, alter this picture. The leading order corrections in $`\mathrm{}`$ yield a calculable spectrum of linearized Gaussian fluctuations. These are the usual Gaussian cosmological perturbations.

For calculating the cosmological perturbations, the Bunch-Davies vacuum of de Sitter space (or the Minkowski space vacuum for the case of bubbles nucleating in Minkowski space) define a natural set of initial conditions. The Bunch-Davies vacuum is an attractor, so an initial state deviating from this state evolves to become successively better approximated by the Bunch-Davies vacuum. A full calculation of the perturbations is postponed until a later paper. Here we limit ourselves to a simplified qualitative description ignoring gravitational back reaction and assuming infinitely thin bubbles to illustrate the underlying physical processes.

The quantum state for the fluctuations of a thin wall bubble about the perfect $`SO(4,1)`$ expanding bubble solution for a bubble arising from false vacuum decay was first elucidated by J. Garriga and A. Vilenkin. In the thin wall approximation, with the gravitational back reaction of the perturbations ignored, the only available degree of freedom consists of normal displacements of the bubble wall, which may be described as a scalar field localized on the bubble wall itself. We consider the perfect $`SO(4,1)`$ symmetric expanding bubble (which has the geometry of de Sitter space). Displacements along the outward normal are described by a free scalar field of mass $`m^2=4H^2.`$ The quantum state of this field must obey the same $`SO(4,1)`$ symmetry as the classical expanding bubble solution. One might at first sight admit the possibility that bubble nucleation could somehow spontaneously single out a preferred time direction. That this is not possible can be demonstrated by contradiction. Suppose that such a choice of preferred time direction were in fact made. Then all such choices must be equally weighted, according to a Lorentz invariant measure. The calculation of the vacuum decay rate would contain a factor consisting of an integration over the infinite hyperbolic domain (with the geometry of $`H^3`$) of all such possible choices, thus implying an infinite false vacuum decay rate, a conclusion which is clearly absurd. The $`SO(4,1)`$ invariance of the quantum state of the fluctuations suffices to completely fix this state. It is described by the Bunch-Davies vacuum of the de Sitter space of the expanding bubble wall.

Let $`\chi _L`$ and $`\chi _R`$ be the scalar fields just described for the two colliding bubbles, using the sign convention that $`\chi `$ is positive for outward displacements. To analyse how these displacements translate into perturbations of the brane that arises from the bubble collision, it is convenient to consider the linear combinations

$`\chi _+`$ $`=`$ $`(\chi _L+\chi _R)/\sqrt{2},`$ (2)
$`\chi _{}`$ $`=`$ $`(\chi _L\chi _R)/\sqrt{2}`$ (3)
at the instant of collision. The mode $`\chi _+`$ temporally advances (or retards) the surface on which the bubbles collide leading to under and overdensities. The hyperboloids of constant cosmic temperature are thus warped. This mode translates into scalar density perturbations of the cosmology on the local brane. The mode $`\chi _{},`$ on the other hand, displaces the surface of collision in the normal direction—that is, spatially toward the one or the other bubble.

Although the geometry of the background solution is $`Z_2`$ symmetric, as in the Randall-Sundrum scenario, the $`Z_2`$ symmetry here is qualitatively different from the orbifold $`Z_2`$ symmetry postulated in the Randall-Sundrum proposal. In our proposal, both $`Z_2`$ even and $`Z_2`$ odd perturbations are allowed because the degrees of freedom on one side of the brane do not coincide with those on the other side. In the Randall-Sundrum scenario with a single brane there is no bending mode because the relevant degrees of freedom have been decreed not to exist through the orbifold construction. In our case, this mode does in fact exist. The extrinsic curvature (relative to the outward normal) on the two sides need not coincide because twice as many degrees of freedom are present.

## IV Concluding Remarks

We have demonstrated how the collision of two bubbles filled with AdS space expanding in de Sitter space or Minkowski space can give birth to a braneworld cosmology surrounded by infinite anti de Sitter space, very similar to the single-brane Randall-Sundrun model. In this colliding bubble scenario well-defined initial conditions naturally arise. The smoothness and horizon problems in $`(4+1)`$ dimensions are absent in this scenario. Although the considerations presented in this paper apply equally well regardless of the equation of state on the local brane produced after the bubble collision, the fact that inflation on the resulting (3+1) dimensional spatially hyperbolic universe can altogether be avoided is intriguing. If sufficient energy is deposited on this brane after sufficient expansion of the initially nucleated bubble, $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ today can be very close to one.

We now consider some orders of magnitude. In the Randall-Sundrum scenario (just as in compact five-dimensional Kaluza-Klein models), an effective four-dimensional Planck mass $`m_4`$ large compared to the five-dimensional Planck mass $`m_5`$ may be obtained by making the size of the extra dimension $`\mathrm{}`$ large. Here we set $`\mathrm{}=c=1.`$ In the Randall-Sundrum case $`\mathrm{}`$ is the curvature radius of the AdS bulk. Since $`m_{4}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}=m_{5}^{}{}_{}{}^{3}\mathrm{},`$ $`m_4=m_5(m_5\mathrm{})^{1/2}.`$

The five-dimensional Einstein equation and Israel matching condition give $`\mathrm{\Lambda }=m_{5}^{}{}_{}{}^{3}\mathrm{}^2`$ and $`\sigma =m_{5}^{}{}_{}{}^{3}\mathrm{}^1,`$ respectively, where $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ is the five-dimensional negative cosmological constant in the bulk and $`\sigma `$ is the four-dimensional cosmological constant that would be required on the brane for it to have the geometry of four-dimensional Minkowski space $`(M^4).`$ The tension of the wall separating the AdS from the dS phase and that of the local brane in general differ, but for the order-of-magnitude analysis here we take them to coincide. It follows that the approximate size of the critical bubble is $`r\sigma /\mathrm{\Lambda }\mathrm{}.`$ The vacuum decay rate is approximately $`\mathrm{\Gamma }=\mathrm{}^5\mathrm{exp}[S_E]`$ where $`S_E\sigma r^4(m_5\mathrm{})^3=(m_4\mathrm{})^2.`$ An extra dimension large compared to the Planck scales makes the dimensionless Euclidean action large, leading to an exponentially small bubble nucleation rate. Therefore, a very substantial amount of expansion takes place before bubble pairs collide, and three bubble collisions are rare. The perturbations are of order $`1/\sqrt{S_E}.`$

We now consider the spatial curvature of the universe on the local brane. The energy density on the brane produced at the bubble collision is approximately $`E_C=(R/r)\sigma `$ where $`\sigma m_{5}^{}{}_{}{}^{4}(m_5\mathrm{})^1`$ and $`R`$ is the distance between the nucleation centers of the two bubbles. As long as $`(R/r)(\mathrm{}/\mathrm{}_5)`$ where $`m_{5}^{}{}_{}{}^{1}`$ is the five-dimensional Planck length, this energy density is sub-Planckian from the five-dimensional point of view.<sup>*</sup><sup>*</sup>*The case of trans-Planckian energy densities immediately after the brane collision, however, need not necessarily be discarded, because the analysis of what happens afterward depends little on the details of how the universe cools after the collision. One might regard a brief trans-Planckian epoch after the collision as a sort of black box, much as re-heating at the end of inflation is commonly regarded. One is able to compute the perturbations from inflation with confidence despite our almost total ignorance of how re-heating occurs. At the collision $`(1\mathrm{\Omega }_c)(\mathrm{}/R)^3,`$ which is exponentially small. The bubble pair separation $`R`$ is a random variable differing from pair to pair. The average bubble pair separation $`\overline{R},`$ however, may be estimated by setting $`\mathrm{\Gamma }\overline{R}^51`$ assuming bubbles expanding in $`M^5.`$ A more detailed discussion of the probability distribution will appear elsewhere. The factor $`e^{S_E}`$ provides a natural mechanism to adjust $`\mathrm{\Omega }_c`$ so close to one that $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ today remains very close to one without resort to unnatural fine tuning.

Acknowledgements: The author would like to thank John Barrow, Carla Carvalho, Gary Gibbons, David Langlois, Takahiro Tanaka, Neil Turok, and especially Jaume Garriga for useful discussions. MB was supported by Dennis Avery. The author would also like to thank the IAP in Paris and IFAE in Barcelona for their hospitality and the British Council in Madrid for a travel grant.