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# A TEXTBOOK EXAMPLE OF A BOW SHOCK IN THE MERGING GALAXY CLUSTER 1E0657–56

## 1. INTRODUCTION

Galaxy clusters form via mergers of smaller subunits. Such mergers dissipate a large fraction of the subclusters’ vast kinetic energy through gas dynamic shocks, heating the intracluster gas and probably accelerating high energy particles (e.g., Sarazin 2001 and references therein). Shocks contain information on the velocity and geometry of the merger. They also provide a unique laboratory for studying the intracluster plasma, including such processes as thermal conduction and electron-ion equilibration (e.g., Shafranov 1957; Takizawa 1999). Some exploratory uses of X-ray data on cluster shocks were described by Markevitch, Sarazin, & Vikhlinin (1999). While many merging clusters exhibit recently heated gas (e.g., Henry & Briel 1995; Markevitch et al. 1999, Furusho et al. 2001 and references in those works; Neumann et al. 2001), so far only two candidate merger shock fronts were observed. One is a mild X-ray brightness edge, apparently a shock with a Mach number near 1, preceding the prominent “cold front” in A3667 (Vikhlinin, Markevitch & Murray 2001). Another is a hot region in front of the A665 core (Markevitch & Vikhlinin 2001, hereafter MV) which shows no clear density jump perhaps because of an unfavorable viewing geometry.

The Chandra observation of 1E0657–56 presents the first clear example of a cluster bow shock. This $`z=0.296`$ cluster was discovered by Tucker, Tananbaum, & Remillard (1995) as an Einstein IPC extended source. From ASCA data, Tucker et al. (1998, hereafter T98) derived a temperature around 17 keV, making this system one of the hottest known (see also Yaqoob 1999; Liang et al. 2000, hereafter LHBA). ROSAT data showed that 1E0657–56 is a merger (T98). It also hosts the most luminous synchrotron radio halo (LHBA).

Below we present results from the Chandra observation of 1E0657–56 performed in October 2000. We use $`H_0=100h`$ km s$`^1`$Mpc-1 and $`\mathrm{\Omega }_0=0.3`$, $`\mathrm{\Lambda }=0`$; $`1^{}=0.172h^1`$ Mpc at the cluster redshift. Confidence intervals are 90% for one-parameter, unless specified otherwise.

## 2. DATA ANALYSIS

1E0657–56 was observed by ACIS-I at the focal plane temperature of $`120^{}`$C for a useful exposure of 24.3 ks. To derive the gas temperature for a given region of the cluster image, the telescope and detector response were modeled as described in MV. The ACIS background rate did not vary during the exposure, but was higher than expected by a factor of about 1.3, most likely due to anomalous “space weather”. This required special background modeling. To do this, we extracted a spectrum from the ACIS-I region outside an $`r=8.6^{}`$ ($`1.5h^1`$ Mpc) circle centered on the cluster, which should be free of cluster emission. Point sources were excluded. The observed excess over the nominal background222A combination of blank field observations normalized by the exposure time, see http://asc.harvard.edu/cal, click “ACIS”, then “ACIS Background” was well-modeled in the $`0.710`$ keV band by the sum of two power laws $`E^\alpha `$ with photon indices $`\alpha =0.6`$ and $`+3.0`$ (dominant below and above $`E5`$ keV, respectively) originating inside the detector, i.e., without applying mirror effective area and CCD efficiency to the model. Such a background anomaly in the ACIS-I chips is rare and not yet understood. We assumed that this component is distributed uniformly over the detector, and added it (normalized by solid angle) to the nominal background spectra. High-energy residuals in the overall cluster fit indicated that the normalization of the corrected background required an additional 10% increase (perhaps indicating some spatial nonuniformity of the excess), which we applied to the spectra from all cluster regions.

To make a $`0.55`$ keV image for the gas density analysis, we compared the observed background rate far from the cluster to the nominal model background (without the above additional component) and derived a correction factor of 1.35 for this wide band, which was applied to the model background image. This is of course consistent with the above spectral correction. A 10% background uncertainty was included in deriving the confidence intervals for all quantities. This approximate background modeling is adequate for our present qualitative study.

To minimize the effects of calibration uncertainties, the spectra were extracted in the $`0.99.5`$ keV energy band, excluding the $`1.82.2`$ keV interval around the mirror Ir edge.

## 3. RESULTS

The ACIS image of the cluster is shown in Fig. 1a. It shows a “bullet” apparently just exiting the cluster core and moving westward. This subcluster was previously seen in the ROSAT data (e.g., T98), but the high resolution Chandra image makes its nature and direction of motion clear. The bullet is preceded by an X-ray brightness edge that resembles a bow shock. To determine whether it is indeed a shock (and not a “cold front”, e.g., Markevitch et al. 2000; Vikhlinin et al. 2001), below we derive the gas temperatures on both sides of the feature (see §3.1). Figure 1b shows X-ray contours overlaid on an optical image. A subcluster of galaxies (e.g., Barrena et al. 2001) is seen leading the X-ray bullet, which is apparently swept back from the galaxies by the ram pressure of the ambient cluster gas.

### 3.1. Temperature Map

We first fit an overall cluster spectrum within $`r=3^{}`$ ($`0.5h^1`$ Mpc) as described in §2 using the Kaastra (1992) plasma model. We obtain $`T=14.8_{1.2}^{+1.7}`$ keV and an abundance of $`0.11\pm 0.11`$ solar, fixing the absorption at $`N_H=4.6\times 10^{20}`$ cm-2 as derived by LHBA from radio and ROSAT PSPC data. This temperature agrees with their ASCA \+ ROSAT fit of $`14.5_{1.7}^{+2.0}`$ keV and is consistent with the $`17.4\pm 2.5`$ keV ASCA fit by T98. If $`N_H=6.5\times 10^{20}`$ cm-2 from Dickey & Lockman (1990) is used instead, we obtain $`T=13.6`$ keV. When $`N_H`$ is fit as a free parameter, it is consistent with both those values; the present low-energy ACIS-I calibration is not reliable for measuring $`N_H`$ independently. Below we fix $`N_H=4.6\times 10^{20}`$ cm-2. Within the $`r=0.5h^1`$ Mpc aperture, the cluster’s 0.5–5 keV (rest-frame) luminosity is $`8.7\pm 0.5\times 10^{44}h^2`$ erg s-1 and $`L_{\mathrm{bol}}=2.3\pm 0.2\times 10^{45}h^2`$ erg s-1.

Figure 2 shows a temperature map made by dividing the cluster image into several regions and fitting their temperatures and abundances as above. Despite large uncertainties, the map shows that the gas outside the shock feature (region P) is cooler, or at least not hotter, than that inside (region S), confirming that it is indeed a shock front. The temperature at the tip of the bullet is low ($`7`$ keV) and is likely to have been the temperature of the subcluster. The hottest region of the cluster is its southeastern X-ray brightness elongation. The optical image shows several large galaxies in that area, suggesting that this is the main merger site. As seen in Fig. 3, this also is where the radio halo is enhanced (LHBA). The halo also extends to the western shock front. A spatial correlation between the halo brightness and the local gas temperature (in addition to the general similarity to the X-ray brightness, e.g., LHBA; Govoni et al. 2001) was noticed by MV in two other merging clusters and supports the merger shock origin for the relativistic halo electrons (e.g., Tribble 1993).

## 4. DISCUSSION

### 4.1. The shock front

The temperature map confirms that the western X-ray brightness edge is a shock front. We can derive its Mach number from either the temperature or density jump across the front using the Rankine-Hugoniot shock adiabat. Figure 4a shows an X-ray brightness profile in a 120 sector centered on the bullet’s center of curvature and directed along its apparent motion. There are two brightness edges whose shapes indicate spherical gas density discontinuities in projection. We fit this profile by the projection of a gas density model consisting of two power laws $`r^\alpha `$ centered on the bullet representing the bullet gas and the shock region, respectively. These are immersed in a $`\beta `$-model centered on the main cluster (region j) representing the outer, undisturbed gas. All components are spherically symmetric around their respective centers; it is an adequate assumption in the sector of interest. Free parameters are the three slopes, two jump amplitudes and two jump radii. A reasonable range of core radii and center positions for the $`\beta `$-model was explored (obviously, these cannot be restricted by the fit) and found to have a small effect on our main interesting parameter, the density jump at the shock. Its confidence interval includes this modeling uncertainty. The observed temperature difference has a negligible effect on the derived density.

The best-fit density model is shown in Fig. 4b; it describes the brightness profile in Fig. 4a well. The best-fit radial slopes are $`\alpha 0.15`$ for the bullet and $`\alpha 0.3`$ for the shock region; $`\beta 0.7`$ assuming a core-radius of $`125h^1`$ kpc. The density jumps by factors of $`3.8_{1.0}^{+1.3}`$ at the bullet edge and $`3.2\pm 0.8`$ at the shock front. Figure 4b also shows an approximate pressure profile (the density model times the temperatures from Fig. 2). The approximate pressure continuity at the first jump indicates that the bullet boundary is a “cold front”, or contact discontinuity, similar to those recently discovered in other clusters. As expected, there is a large pressure increase at the shock front. A density jump of $`3.2\pm 0.8`$ at the shock corresponds to a Mach number $`M=3.4`$ ($`>2.1`$ at 90%) for a $`\gamma =5/3`$ gas and a one-dimensional shock (strictly speaking, the latter approximation applies only along the direction of the motion, but we can use it as a qualitative estimate for our wide sector). The observed temperature jump from $`8_3^{+9}`$ keV to $`18_5^{+9}`$ keV corresponds to $`M=2.1\pm 1.1`$ (again, for a qualitative estimate, we assume constant temperatures in regions P and S). These two independent derivations for the Mach number agree within their 90% uncertainties, and we conclude that $`M=23`$. In the stationary regime, the subcluster should move with the shock velocity. Such Mach numbers and the observed gas temperatures correspond to $`v30004000`$ km s-1, implying that the bullet has passed the center of the main cluster ($`0.3h^1`$ Mpc away) just $`0.10.2`$ Gyr ago. In principle, $`M`$ could also be estimated from the Mach cone: the asymptotic angle $`\phi `$ of the shock w.r.t. the symmetry axis should satisfy $`\mathrm{sin}\phi =M^1`$. For $`M=23`$, $`\phi `$ should be $`2030^{}`$, whereas the image suggests $`\phi 45^{}`$. A deviation of the velocity vector from the sky plane could widen the Mach cone in projection; however, a sufficiently large inclination angle also would smear the observed sharp brightness edges. An optical measurement of the subcluster relative line of sight velocity in the comoving frame, $`800`$ km s-1 (Barrena et al.), combined with our value of $`M`$, also indicates only a small ($`1015^{}`$) deviation from the sky plane. The Mach cone relation assumes a uniform pre-shock medium and constant velocities, and the cone angle discrepancy is probably due to the cluster’s radially declining density profile and deceleration of the bullet.

### 4.2. The bullet subcluster

The 0.5–5 keV luminosity of the bullet subcluster is $`5\times 10^{43}h^2`$ erg s-1, $`1015`$% of the typical value for a cluster with the bullet’s temperature; this fraction would change little if adiabatic compression of the bullet by the surrounding hot gas is taken into account. The high gas density in the bullet (Fig. 4b) is of the order of that in the cooling flow clusters at comparable radii. This suggests that the bullet is a remnant of a density peak (cooling flow) that once was at the center of the merging subcluster, perhaps around its brightest galaxy (Fig. 1b). The subcluster’s less dense outer gas was probably shocked and ram pressure stripped to the radius where the pressures are balanced (see Fig. 4b). Most of the stripped gas may reside in the north-south bar-like structure near the center of the main cluster seen in Fig. 1a (which may be a pancake in projection), since that is where the ram pressure on the moving subcluster was the highest. Disruption of a cooling flow by a merger was considered theoretically by, e.g., Fabian & Daines (1991) and Gómez et al. (2000). The shuttlecock shape of the bullet clearly shows that it continues to be actively destroyed by gas dynamic instabilities (e.g., Jones, Ryu, & Tregillis 1996). The gas being swept back from the cool bullet appears to be quite hot (region a in Fig. 2) and clumpy (regions a, b), suggesting interesting physics at the interface of the two gases. This interface will be studied in detail using a longer Chandra observation planned for 2002.

### 4.3. High overall temperature

The existence of a few extremely hot clusters such as 1E0657–56 have been used in the past to derive cosmological constraints under the assumption that the high temperature indicates high virial mass. However, the results presented here show that the assumption of hydrostatic equilibrium in 1E0657–56 can easily overestimate the mass by a significant factor due to the ongoing merger and a temporary increase in temperature (see, e.g., simulations by Ricker & Sarazin 2001 and Ritchie & Thomas 2001). It is thus difficult to draw any strong cosmological conclusions without a better estimate of the cluster mass.

### 4.4. Possible future measurements

The unique shock and supersonic subcluster in 1E0657–56 enable several interesting measurements. Since the gas density and temperature jumps at the shock are related, their accurate measurement may give the equation of state for the intracluster plasma. Magnetic fields, a relativistic particle population with sufficient pressure, a significant lag between the electron and ion temperatures, and large nonthermal energy losses in a shock could all change the true or the apparent value of $`\gamma `$. From the velocity of the bullet and the density of the ambient gas, we can derive the ram pressure on the bullet. The gas bullet appears to be pushed away from the subcluster’s dark matter potential well just now, so the gravitational pull of the subcluster should equal the ram pressure. This may give an independent estimate of the subcluster’s total mass (Markevitch et al. 1999). The cluster also presents an interesting opportunity to constrain the collisional nature of dark matter (e.g., Spergel & Steinhardt 2000; Furlanetto & Loeb 2001). There is a clear offset between the centroid of the bullet subcluster’s galaxies and its gas. If one measures the location of the subcluster’s dark matter density peak (e.g., from weak lensing or detailed modeling of the gas distribution), one may determine whether the dark matter is collisionless, as are the galaxies, or if it experiences an analog of ram pressure, as does the gas.

## 5. SUMMARY

The Chandra observation of 1E0657–56 presents a prototypical example of a merger bow shock. The shock propagates in front of a cooler gas “bullet”, apparently a remnant of a dense central region of the merging subcluster whose outer gas was stripped by ram pressure. The subcluster Mach number is 2–3 and its velocity is 3000–4000 km s-1. Thus the subcluster traversed the main cluster core only 0.1–0.2 Gyr ago. The bullet is at the final stage of being destroyed by gas dynamic instabilities. Its gas lags behind the subcluster galaxies due to the ram pressure of the shocked gas. The hottest gas resides in a different region of 1E0657–56 where additional merging activity occurs. The overall high temperature of 1E0657–56 is unlikely to represent its virial temperature due to the ongoing merger.

We thank L. Grego, H. Tananbaum and the referee for useful comments. Support was provided by NASA contract NAS8-39073, grant NAG5-9217, the Smithsonian and the CfA fellowship program.


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# 1 Left panel: S- and p-wave pion-nucleon phase shifts. The single energy phase shifts are taken from []. Right panel: S- and p-wave 𝐾⁺-nucleon phase shifts. The solid lines represent the results of the 𝜒-BS(3) approach. The open circles are from the Hyslop analysis [] and the open triangles from the Hashimoto analysis []

The $`\chi `$-BS(3) approach

M.F.M. Lutza and E.E. Kolomeitsevb

a Gesellschaft für Schwerionenforschung (GSI), Planck Str. 1, D-64291 Darmstadt, Germany
bECT, Villa Tambosi, I-38050 Villazzano (Trento) and INFN, G.C. Trento, Italy

(Received: )
We present the results of the $`\chi `$-BS(3) approach demonstrating that a combined chiral and $`1/N_c`$ expansion of the Bethe-Salpeter interaction kernel leads to a good description of the kaon-nucleon, antikaon-nucleon and pion-nucleon scattering data typically up to laboratory momenta of $`p_{\mathrm{lab}}`$ 500 MeV. We solve the covariant on-shell reduced coupled channel Bethe-Salpeter equation with the interaction kernel truncated to chiral order $`Q^3`$ and to the leading order in the $`1/N_c`$ expansion

The main features and crucial arguments of our recent work on meson-baryon scattering  are briefly summarized. Within the $`\chi `$-BS(3) approach we consider the number of colors ($`N_c`$) in QCD as a large parameter relying on a systematic expansion of the interaction kernel in powers of $`1/N_c`$. The coupled-channel Bethe-Salpeter kernel is evaluated in a combined chiral and $`1/N_c`$ expansion including terms of chiral order $`Q^3`$.

We expect all baryon resonances, with the important exception of those resonances which belong to the large $`N_c`$ baryon ground states, to be generated by coupled channel dynamics. This conjecture is based on the observation that unitary (reducible) loop diagrams are typically enhanced by a factor of $`2\pi `$ close to threshold relatively to irreducible diagrams. That factor invalidates the perturbative evaluation of the scattering amplitudes and leads necessarily to a non-perturbative scheme with reducible diagrams summed to all orders. In our present scheme we consider an explicit s-channel baryon nonet term with $`J^P=\frac{3}{2}^{}`$ in the interaction kernel as a reminiscence of further inelastic channels not included like for example the $`K\mathrm{\Delta }_\mu `$ or $`K_\mu N`$ channel.

The scattering amplitudes for the meson-baryon scattering processes are obtained from the solution of the coupled channel Bethe-Salpeter scattering equation. Approximate crossing symmetry of the amplitudes is guaranteed by a renormalization program which leads to the matching of subthreshold amplitudes. A further important ingredient of our scheme is a systematic and covariant on-shell reduction of the Bethe-Salpeter equation. We point out that an on-shell reduction is mandatory as to avoid an unphysical and uncontrolled dependence on the choice of chiral coordinates or the choice of interpolating fields. In other words given our scheme the on-shell scattering amplitude will not change if we used a different representation of the chiral Lagrangian. In the $`\chi `$-BS(3) scheme the on-shell reduction is implied unambiguously by the existence of a unique and covariant projector algebra which solves the Bethe-Salpeter equation for any choice of quasi-local interaction terms.

At subleading order $`Q^2`$ the chiral $`SU(3)`$ Lagrangian predicts the relevance of 12 basically unknown parameters, which all need to be adjusted to the empirical scattering data. It is important to realize that chiral symmetry is largely predictive in the $`SU(3)`$ sector in the sense that it reduces the number of parameters beyond the static $`SU(3)`$ symmetry. For example one should compare the six tensors which result from decomposing $`88=18_S8_A10\overline{10}27`$ into its irreducible components with the subset of SU(3) structures selected by chiral symmetry in a given partial wave. Thus static $`SU(3)`$ symmetry alone would predict 18 independent terms for the s-wave and two p-wave channels rather than the 12 chiral $`Q^2`$ background parameters. In our work the number of parameters was further reduced significantly by insisting on the large $`N_c`$ sum rules for the symmetry conserving quasi-local two body interaction terms leaving only 5 parameters. All parameters are found to have natural size.

At chiral order $`Q^3`$ the number of parameters increases significantly unless further constraints from QCD are imposed. A systematic expansion of the interaction kernel in powers of $`1/N_c`$ leads to a much reduced parameter set. For example the $`1/N_c`$ expansion leads to only four further parameters describing the refined symmetry-conserving two-body interaction vertices. This is to be compared with the ten parameters we established to be relevant at order $`Q^3`$ if large $`N_c`$ sum rules are not imposed. Note that at order $`Q^3`$ there are no symmetry-breaking 2-body interaction vertices. To that order the only symmetry-breaking effects result from the refined 3-point vertices. Here a particularly rich picture emerges. At order $`Q^3`$ we established 23 parameters describing symmetry-breaking effects in the 3-point meson-baryon vertices. For instance, to that order the baryon-octet states may couple to the pseudo-scalar mesons also via pseudo-scalar vertices rather than only via the leading axial-vector vertices. Out of those 23 parameters 16 contribute at the same time to matrix elements of the axial-vector current. Thus in order to control the symmetry breaking effects, it is mandatory to include constraints from the weak decay widths of the baryon octet states also. A detailed analysis of the 3-point vertices in the $`1/N_c`$ expansion of QCD reveals that in fact only ten parameters, rather than the 23 parameters, are needed at leading order in that expansion. Since the leading parameters together with the symmetry-breaking parameters describe at the same time the weak decay widths of the baryon octet and decuplet ground states, the number of free parameters does not increase significantly at the $`Q^3`$ level if the large $`N_c`$ limit is applied.

In the left panel of Fig. 1 we confront the result of our global fit with the empirical $`\pi N`$ phase shifts. All s- and p-wave phase shifts are well reproduced up to $`\sqrt{s}1300`$ MeV with the exception of the $`S_{11}`$ phase for which our result agrees with the partial-wave analysis less accurately. We emphasize that one should not expect quantitative agreement for $`\sqrt{s}>m_N+2m_\pi 1215`$ MeV where the inelastic pion production process, not included in this work, starts. The missing higher order range terms in the $`S_{11}`$ phase are expected to be induced by additional inelastic channels or by the nucleon resonances $`N(1520)`$ and $`N(1650)`$. We confirm the findings of  that the coupled $`SU(3)`$ channels, if truncated at the Weinberg-Tomozawa level, predict considerable strength in the $`S_{11}`$ channel around $`\sqrt{s}1500`$ MeV where the phase shift shows a resonance-like structure. Note, however that it is expected that the nucleon resonances $`N(1520)`$ and $`N(1650)`$ couple strongly to each other and therefore one should not expect a quantitative description of the $`S_{11}`$ phase too far away from threshold. Similarly we observe considerable strength in the $`P_{11}`$ channel leading to a resonance-like structure around $`\sqrt{s}1500`$ MeV. We interpret this phenomenon as a precursor effect of the p-wave $`N(1440)`$ resonance. We stress that our approach differs significantly from the recent work  in which the coupled SU(3) channels are applied to pion induced $`\eta `$ and kaon production which require much larger energies $`\sqrt{s}m_\eta +m_N`$ 1486 MeV or $`\sqrt{s}m_K+m_\mathrm{\Sigma }`$ 1695 MeV. We believe that such high energies can be accessed reliably only by including more inelastic channels. It may be worth mentioning that the inclusion of the inelastic channels as required by the $`SU(3)`$ symmetry leaves the $`\pi N`$ phase shifts basically unchanged for $`\sqrt{s}<1200`$ MeV.

In the right panel of Fig. 1 we confront our s- and p-wave $`K^+`$-nucleon phase shifts with the most recent analyses by Hyslop et al.  and Hashimoto . We find that our partial-wave phase shifts are reasonably close to the single energy phase shifts of  and  except the $`P_{03}`$ phase for which we obtain much smaller strength. Note however, that at higher energies we smoothly reach the single energy phase shifts of Hashimoto .

In Fig. 2 we compare the empirical ratios $`A_1/A_0`$ and $`A_2/A_0`$ of the inelastic $`K^{}p`$ scattering with the results of the $`\chi `$-BS(3) approach. Note that for $`p_{\mathrm{lab}}<300`$ MeV the empirical ratios with $`n3`$ are compatible with zero within their given errors. A large $`A_1/A_0`$ ratio is found only in the $`K^{}p\pi ^0\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ channel demonstrating the importance of p-wave effects in the isospin one channel. The dashed lines of Fig. 2, which are obtained when switching off d-wave contributions, confirm the importance of this resonance for the angular distributions in the isospin zero channel.


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# Outbursts of Classical Symbiotics: Multi-Wavelength Observations of the 2000-2001 Outburst of Z Andromedae

1Harvard-Smithsonian CfA, 2U. Southampton, 3STScI, 4JHU, 5U. C. Berkeley, 6MRAO, Cambridge, 7Liverpool John Moores, 8UCO/Lick

The outbursts of classical symbiotic systems (SS) could be due to accretion or thermonuclear instabilities, expansion of a white-dwarf (WD) photosphere in response to a change in accretion rate, or a combination of these mechanisms. Since most classical SS are thought to be burning accreted material on the surface of a WD, they are closely related to the supersoft X-ray sources, and the causes of the outbursts may be similar. Furthermore, the mass loss during outbursts could play a role in determining whether SS can become Type Ia supernovae. We present here the first results from a program of multi-wavelength monitoring of SS in outburst designed to address the above issues.

The prototypical SS Z and was observed at radio through X-ray wavelengths during its 2000-2001 outburst. On the rise to maximum, the optical flux moved through two plateaus (observations began during the first plateau), and the $`U`$-band flux, which may reflect both nebular emission plus direct emission from the hot component, has a different pattern of variation than the $`BVR`$ fluxes. On longer time scales, the $`U`$-band and far-UV (FUV) fluxes are correlated. Significant variations may also be present on time scales as short as days (Fig. 1a), although the 28-minute oscillation that persisted through a smaller outburst (Sokoloki & Bildsten 1999, ApJ, 517, 919) disappeared near optical maximum.

In the radio, our first observation revealed Z And to be fainter than usual (Seaquist & Taylor 1990, ApJ, 349, 313). The flux therefore dropped very early in the outburst, probably indicating that the thermal radio nebula shrank as the ionizing flux from the WD was blocked by an optically thick shell. Z And was not resolved at 5 GHz with the MERLIN interferometer near the peak of the optical outburst. Once the source had brightened again 4 months later, however, spatial structure was marginally detected by the VLA, at 15 GHz (Fig. 1b).

P-Cygni profiles are apparent in the FUV spectra, and they evolve on a time scale of weeks (Fig. 1c). The first $`FUSE`$ observation shows a large amount of cool gas (e.g., singly and doubly ionized C, Fe, and Si), which only partially covers the source of FUV emission. Multiple line features evolve from absorption to emission as the outburst progresses, and there is evidence for hot gas moving at 100s of km/s, as well as for significant collisional excitation.

X-ray observations were made at three epochs during the outburst. The spectra from the first two observations could not be fit with simple supersoft black-body models. Emission is detected above 1 keV in both, and out to 10 keV in the data from XMM (Fig. 1d). The high energy emission provides evidence for shock heating of the red giant wind as the outburst ejecta collide with it.


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# Towards Resolving the Crab limit-from𝜎-Problem: A Linear Accelerator?

## 1 Introduction

The Crab nebula is certainly the best studied and possibly the most interesting of the supernova remnants. This is due to the fact that it has been detected at an extremely broad range of energies, from the radio to the TeV regime. What is of additional interest is that its expansion is powered by the energy input from the rapidly rotating pulsar PSR 0531+21 located at its center. As such it has been a laboratory for testing our models of pulsars, MHD winds, supernova remnants and radiation emission processes. The Crab is not unique in containing a pulsar at the center of a supernova remnant. However, it is unique in the efficiency of converting the power output associated with the pulsar spin-down to radiation, which reaches 20%, and to kinetic energy of the entire remnant which absorbs the remaining 80%.

Crucial in this efficient conversion of the pulsar power into radiation is thought to be the presence of a (reverse) strong shock at an angular distance of $`10^{\prime \prime }`$ (corresponding to a distance $`3\times 10^{17}`$ cm) from the location of the pulsar. This shock randomises the highly relativistic upstream MHD wind which is produced by the pulsar, thereby causing the wind to radiate away a major fraction of its available energy. The presence of this strong shock is predicated on the dominance of the relativistic MHD wind emanating from the pulsar by particles rather than magnetic field, i.e. that the magnetization parameter (defined below) at the shock distance has a value $`\sigma _s1`$.

The value of $`\sigma _s`$has been estimated in a variety of ways. Kennel & Coroniti (1984) (hereafter KC) have computed the detailed structure of the MHD flow downstream from the shock and concluded that matching the nebular expansion velocity at the nebular edge, using the low $`\sigma _s`$expansion of their solution, requires that $`\sigma _s3\times 10^3`$. De Jager & Harding (1992) estimated the value of $`\sigma _s`$by fitting the spectrum and surface brightness of the nebula, under the assumption that the emission above 10 GeV is due to inverse Compton scattering of lower frequency photons, which presumably represent the synchrotron emission from the same electron distribution. Their estimate of $`\sigma _s`$and the radial distribution of the magnetic field are consistent with those proposed by KC.

However, as shown in Rees & Gunn (1974; eq. 1), matching the expansion velocity $`v_{\mathrm{ex}}`$ of the nebula at its edge at $`R=R_N`$ is just a statement of conservation of the momentum flux injected by the pulsar wind through an MHD shock at $`R=R_s`$, leading to $`R_s/R_N(v_{\mathrm{ex}}/c)^{1/2}`$, independent of the value of $`\sigma _s`$. KC showed that, if in addition $`\sigma _s1`$, one obtains $`v_{\mathrm{ex}}/c\sigma _s`$; however, the latter is not a condition necessary for matching the nebular expansion velocity to that of the MHD wind at $`R_s`$.

One is therefore led to the conclusion that the small value of $`\sigma _s`$associated with the Crab remnant is not a generic property of all remnants of similar morphology but specific to the Crab. Indeed, the Vela pulsar, located near the center of the Vela supernova remnant, has properties not too different from those of the Crab pulsar (other than its age), however, its non-thermal nebular emission is a much smaller fraction of the pulsar spin-down luminosity than it is in the Crab. The corresponding estimate for $`\sigma _s`$in the case of Vela is $`\sigma _s1`$, suggesting that prominent (as a fraction of the pulsar spin-down) nebular emission is generally associated with small values of $`\sigma _s`$which allow for the possibility of a strong MHD shock in the pulsar wind.

The values of $`\sigma _s`$inferred for the Vela and (even more for) the Crab pulsar MHD winds raise the following problem for these winds: the value of this parameter near the pulsar light cylinder is estimated to be quite high $`\sigma 10^{45}`$ (Coroniti 1990 and references therein). Given that in a MHD wind $`B_\varphi 1/R`$ it is thought that both the magnetic and ram pressures should decrease like $`1/R^2`$, with their ratio thus remaining roughly constant at the value it attains near the light cylinder. Therefore, values $`\sigma _s1`$ (let alone $`\sigma _s10^3`$) are hard to understand and yet overwhelmingly favored by observation.

A possible way out of this conundrum is to assume that the inertial component of the MHD wind is due to ions rather than leptons (electrons – positrons), leading to much smaller values of $`\sigma `$even near the light cylinder (Ruderman 1981; Arons 1983). However, one would then have to find a way of converting $`20\%`$ of the relativistic proton energy into relativistic electrons at the MHD shock.

This problem led to the suggestion that annihilation of magnetic field energy and conversion of the resulting energy into that of the outflowing particles could indeed provide for the required reduction in $`\sigma _s`$with distance (Coroniti 1990; Michel 1994). Such a solution is in principle possible (see though Lyubarskii & Kirk 2001), however, this process would work only on the magnetic dipole field component perpendicular to the direction of the pulsar angular velocity $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$. The component of the magnetic dipole field which is parallel to $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ is simply advected away with no possibility of such an annihilation. Since the observations (Aschenbach & Brinkmann 1975) seem to suggest that, at least for the Crab, the magnetic dipole is closely aligned with the pulsar rotation axis, it appears unlikely that a large fraction of the available magnetic energy could in fact annhilate.

However, in MHD flows, issues such as the asymptotic (or more generally the position dependent) value of $`\sigma `$are coupled to the global geometry of the flow. As shown by Heyvaerts & Norman (1989) for the non-relativistic case and by Chieueh , Li & Begelman (1991; hereafter CLB91)(see also Eichler 1993) for the relativistic one, these flows tend to asymptotically collimate; the associated divergence of lines from conical geometry could then also affect the corresponding value of $`\sigma `$through the “magnetic nozzling” which would convert magnetic energy to directed motion. It has been argued in the above references though, that because these flows collimate logarithmically in $`R`$ such a “nozzling” is not observationally relevant for any plausible astrophysical situation. We also argue below, that the global geometry of the flow is indeed of consequence for the asymptotic value of $`\sigma `$, however our conclusions differ from those presently in the literature.

More recently, Chieueh, Li & Begelman (1998; hereafter CLB98) by an asymptotic analysis of the conservation and the perpendicular force balance (Grad-Safranov) equations, have argued for the implausibility of the transition of flows from high $`\sigma `$to low $`\sigma `$under axisymmetric, steady state conditions. To this end they considered a variety of plausible field geometries and argued for each of them that divergence of the magnetic field lines necessary to achieve a transition from $`\sigma 1`$ to $`\sigma 1`$ was incompatible with the balance of the corresponding pressures. While we believe their arguments to be sound we also think, as we argue later, that can also be circumvented.

Motivated by our recent exact solution of the axisymmetric pulsar magnetosphere (Contopoulos, Kazanas & Fendt 1999; hereafter CKF), we have decided to take a closer look at the problem of the entire MHD wind and its impact on the nebular morphology and dynamics. The solution of CKF provides the complete, global, magnetic field and associated electric current structure for an aligned rotator (Goldreich & Julian 1969) in the force free (i.e. with negligible inertia) MHD approximation, including their distribution across the crucial light cylinder surface. The main results of that paper are summarized below:

1. The magnetosphere consists of a region of closed field lines (dipole-like) extending up to the light cylinder, and a region of open field lines which cross the light cylinder and asymptote to a monopole-like geometry.
2. The magnetic field structure is continuous and smooth through the light cylinder, and thus, one cannot anymore invoque ‘dissipation zones’ at, or around, the light cylinder. In other words, one has to look elsewhere for the conversion of magnetic to particle energy and by consequence to the observed high energy radiation in pulsars.
3. A large scale electric current flows through the magnetosphere. The current distribution is uniquely determined by (a) the boundary condition at the origin (in our case a magnetic dipole), and (b) the requirement of no singularities at the light cylinder. The large scale electric circuit closes in an equatorial current sheet which connects to the edge of the polar cap111Note that this implies a discontinuity of the toroidal magnetic field component across the current sheet, which further leads to a discontinuity of the poloidal field component at the boundary of the closed field line region (‘dead zone’). This latter discontinuity might lead to magnetic field structure readjustments (as in the magnetar models of Duncan & Thompson 1992)..
4. Outside the light cylinder, the solution with a dipole at the origin does not differ much from the well known monopole solution of Michel (1991).
5. Finally, when we numerically checked whether the magnetic field structure obtained is capable to accelerate the flow of electrons and positrons from the polar cap, we obtained no significant acceleration. This last point merits special attention and will be revised, since, as we said, the observations suggest the presence of a hyper-relativistic wind of electrons and positrons at large distances.

In § 2 we outline in detail the so-called $`\sigma `$-problem using dimensional analysis of the corresponding MHD flow and indicate the arguments which could lead to its possible resolution. In § 3, using the MHD integrals of motion for the B-field geometry associated with the axisymmtric pulsar magnetosphere, we indicate the evolution of $`\sigma `$ with radius and the eventual values it attains, providing an explicit resolution to the issue of its magnitude. Finally, in § 4 we consider other pulsar nebulae for which the value of $`\sigma _s`$has been estimated and our conclusions are drawn.

## 2 The $`\sigma `$ problem

Since the Crab pulsar is believed to be an almost aligned rotator (Aschenbach & Brinkmann 1974), we will adopt the approximation of axisymmetry in our present discussion. Below, we provide a summary of our knowledge of axisymmetric pulsar magnetospheres based on CKF, using the Crab pulsar values as fiducial figures.

The field lines that cross the light cylinder emanate from a region near the pole, the polar cap, and are necessarily open. We calculate the polar cap radius222As is obtained in CKF, $`\mathrm{\Psi }_{\mathrm{open}}=1.36\mathrm{\Psi }_{\mathrm{pc}}`$, where $`\mathrm{\Psi }_{\mathrm{open}}`$ and $`\mathrm{\Psi }_{\mathrm{pc}}`$ are defined as the amount of magnetic flux crossing the distance to the light cylinder in the relativistic and nonrelativistic (i.e. undistorted) dipole solution respectively. to be equal to

$$R_{pc}=\sqrt{1.36}r_{}\left(\frac{r_{}}{R_{lc}}\right)^{1/2}=0.9\left(\frac{P}{33\mathrm{ms}}\right)^{1/2}\mathrm{km}$$
(1)
Here, $`r_{}=10\mathrm{km}`$ is the canonical radius of a neutron star, and

$$R_{lc}=\frac{cP}{2\pi }=1576\left(\frac{P}{33\mathrm{ms}}\right)\mathrm{km}$$
(2)
is the light cylinder radius ($`P`$ the period of the neutron star rotation)333Henceforth, we will denote cylindrical radii with capital $`R`$, and spherical radii with small $`r`$.. Obviously, $`R_{pc}r_{}R_{lc}`$. At the footpoints of the magnetic field lines on the polar cap, the magnitude of the magnetic field $`B_{}`$ is of the order of $`10^{12}`$ G, the number density $`n_{}`$ of electrons/positrons in the outlfowing wind is equal to

$$n_{}=\kappa n_{GJ}\kappa \frac{B_{}}{ePc}=2\times 10^{16}\left(\frac{\kappa }{10^4}\right)\left(\frac{B_{}}{10^{12}\mathrm{G}}\right)\left(\frac{P}{33\mathrm{ms}}\right)^1\mathrm{cm}^3,$$
(3)
and their Lorentz factor $`\gamma _{}`$ is of the order of 200 (see below). Here, $`e`$ is the electron charge. The multiplicity coefficient $`\kappa `$ expresses how many times the wind density surpasses the so called Goldreich-Julian density $`n_{GJ}`$ at the base of the wind. The physics that determine $`\kappa `$ and $`\gamma _{}`$ lie outside the context of ideal magnetohydrodynamics (CKF). In what follows, values of $`\kappa 10^{34}`$ and $`\gamma _{}200`$ are adopted from the cascade models of Daugherty & Harding (1982) who followed in detail cascades of high energy electrons in pulsar magnetospheres.

The open field lines contain an amount of magnetic flux

$$\mathrm{\Psi }_{\mathrm{open}}=\pi R_{pc}^2B_{}=2.7\times 10^{12}\left(\frac{P}{33\mathrm{ms}}\right)^1\left(\frac{B_{}}{10^{12}\mathrm{G}}\right)\mathrm{G}\mathrm{km}^2$$
(4)
and an electron/positron wind with mass loss rate

$$\dot{M}=\pi R_{pc}^2n_{}m_e=7.8\times 10^{31}\kappa \left(\frac{P}{33\mathrm{ms}}\right)^2\left(\frac{B_{}}{10^{12}\mathrm{G}}\right)\mathrm{M}_{}\mathrm{yr}^1$$
(5)
from each polar cap ($`m_e`$ is the electron rest mass). We have assumed here an almost uniform ‘loading’ of the polar cap field lines with matter. The wind carries a kinetic energy flux

$$W_{\mathrm{Kinetic}}=\gamma \dot{M}c^3=7\times 10^5\kappa \left(\frac{\gamma }{200}\right)\left(\frac{P}{33\mathrm{ms}}\right)^2\left(\frac{B_{}}{10^{12}\mathrm{G}}\right)L_{},$$
(6)
and the magnetic field carries a Poynting flux

$$W_{\mathrm{Poynting}}=\frac{\mathrm{\Omega }}{2\pi c}_0^{\mathrm{\Psi }_{\mathrm{open}}}I(\mathrm{\Psi })d\mathrm{\Psi }=\frac{\mathrm{\Omega }}{2\pi c}fI\mathrm{\Psi }_{\mathrm{open}}$$

$$=10^4f\left(\frac{I}{I_{}}\right)\left(\frac{P}{33\mathrm{ms}}\right)^4\left(\frac{B_{}}{10^{12}\mathrm{G}}\right)^2L_{}$$
(7)
from each polar cap (Okamoto 1974). Here,

$$I_{}\frac{\mathrm{\Omega }\mathrm{\Psi }_{\mathrm{open}}}{2}\frac{1}{4}en_{GJ}c\pi R_{pc}^2$$
(8)
and $`I`$ are the total amount of electric current flowing through the polar cap and the magnetosphere respectively. As we will see, contrary to $`\dot{M}`$ and $`\mathrm{\Psi }_{\mathrm{open}}`$, $`I`$ cannot be a conserved quantity along the wind. $`f`$ is a factor of order unity which depends on the distribution of the electric current $`I(\mathrm{\Psi })`$ across open field lines ($`f=0.67`$ for the exact monopole solution of Michel (1991), and the numerical solution of CKF). The energy reservoir is obviously the neutron star spindown energy loss rate

$$W_{\mathrm{Spindown}}=W_{\mathrm{Kinetic}}+W_{\mathrm{Poynting}}=W_{\mathrm{Kinetic}}+W_{\mathrm{Poynting}}$$
(9)
at all distances. The magnetization parameter $`\sigma `$ is thus defined as

$$\sigma \frac{W_{\mathrm{Poynting}}}{W_{\mathrm{Kinetic}}}=\frac{\mathrm{\Psi }_{\mathrm{open}}I}{Pc\gamma \dot{M}c^3}=\left(\frac{I}{I_{}}\right)\left(\frac{\gamma _{}}{\gamma }\right)\sigma _{}.$$
(10)
Here,

$$\sigma _{}\frac{W_{\mathrm{Poynting}}}{W_{\mathrm{Kinetic}}}=\frac{efI_{}}{\kappa \gamma _{}m_ec^3}=\frac{1.6\times 10^8}{\kappa }f\left(\frac{P}{33\mathrm{m}\mathrm{s}}\right)^2$$
(11)
is the value of the magnetization parameter near the surface of the neutron star.

As we discussed in the introduction, at a distance

$$r_s10^9R_{lc},$$
(12)
the pulsar wind slows down in a (reverse) shock, and approximately 20% of the neutron star spin-down luminosity is converted into optical to $`\gamma `$-ray radiation. The infered value of the magnetization parameter is

$$\sigma _s3\times 10^3.$$
(13)
Using eq. (9) divided through with $`W_{\mathrm{Kinetic}}`$

$$\sigma _{}+1=\frac{\gamma }{\gamma _{}}(\sigma +1),$$
(14)
And making use of eq. (10), it is straightforward to see that the dramatic decrease in $`\sigma `$ observed in the Crab could reasonably take place (based on whether the associated current is conserved or not) in two distinct regimes:

1. $`\sigma `$ decreases from $`\sigma _{}10^4`$ to $`\sigma _{\mathrm{trans}}=1`$. In that regime, the magnetospheric electric current is almost conserved, i.e.

$$\frac{I_{\mathrm{trans}}}{I_{}}=\frac{1}{2},$$
(15)
whereas the wind Lorentz factor increases by a factor

$$\frac{\gamma _{\mathrm{trans}}}{\gamma _{}}=\frac{\sigma _{}}{2},\mathrm{i}.\mathrm{e}.\gamma _{\mathrm{trans}}=3\times 10^6.$$
(16)
2. $`\sigma `$ decreases from $`\sigma _{\mathrm{trans}}=1`$ to $`\sigma _s=3\times 10^3`$. In that regime, the magnetospheric electric current decreases by a factor

$$\frac{I_s}{I_{\mathrm{trans}}}=\frac{2}{\sigma _{}},$$
(17)
whereas the wind Lorentz factor remains almost constant, i.e.

$$\frac{\gamma _s}{\gamma _{\mathrm{trans}}}=2,\mathrm{i}.\mathrm{e}.\gamma _s=6\times 10^6.$$
(18)

In fact, detailed modelling of the nebula’s spectrum yields a shock upstream wind Lorentz factor $`\gamma _s3\times 10^6`$, in agreement with the above (De Jager & Harding 1992).

Unfortunately, our theoretical understanding is not up to date with the above observational facts. The problem is that there is no indication for growth in the Lorentz factor in the inner magnetosphere, and the electric current is a conserved quantity in a force-free magnetosphere. Acceleration models invoquing dissipation zones near the light cylinder are not convincing anymore after CKF (e.g. Beskin, Gurevich & Istomin 1993), and models showing MHD acceleration at large scales define a-priori the field geometry (e.g. Takahashi & Shibata 1998). There exist also MHD models showing no acceleration at large scales, but this might have to do with their numerical extrapolation from small to large scales (e.g. Bogovalov & Tsinganos 1999, Bogovalov 2001). Our understanding is that current MHD acceleration models are incomplete.

Is it possible to account for the large scale acceleration of the pulsar wind in the context of ideal axisymmetric special-relativistic steady-state magnetohydrodynamics? We believe that the answer is yes, so let us now study the basic equations of the problem, focusing our analysis on the energy flux conservation equation along open field lines. As we will see, in order to reveal the flow acceleration, one has to be particularly careful when one takes limits of that equation at large distances.

## 3 The linear accelerator

Energy flux conservation implies that

$$\gamma \left(1\frac{R}{R_{lc}}\frac{v_\varphi }{c}\right)=\gamma _{}$$
(19)
along any open field line (e.g. Okamoto 1978, Mestel & Shibata 1994, Contopoulos 1995), with $`\gamma _{}`$ the initial value of the electron Lorentz factor ($`\gamma _{}200`$ as discussed above). This is just the differential form of the energy flux conservation equation (9). The induction equation further gives that

$$\frac{v_\varphi }{c}=\frac{R}{R_{lc}}+\frac{v_p}{c}\frac{B_\varphi }{B_p}.$$
(20)
In order to simplify the notation, we will concentrate our discussion on the last open field line along the equator.

As we argued above, in order to determine the evolution of the flow Lorentz factor $`\gamma `$ with distance, it is reasonable to consider the two different distance regimes in the large scale pulsar magnetosphere we determined above (force-free, non force-free), and make different approximations in each of them. Let us first consider distances much larger than the light cylinder, where $`\sigma \stackrel{>}{}1`$ (and most likely $`\sigma 1`$). We show in the Appendix that, under force–free conditions (i.e. negligible inertia),

$$B_\varphi =\frac{R}{R_{lc}}B_p$$
(21)
when $`RR_{lc}`$ (e.g. Okamoto 1997). This is identically valid in the analytical monopole solution (Michel 1991). It is also identically valid in the asymptotic monopole-like part of the more realistic solution with a dipole at the origin (CKF). Eqs. (19) and (20) then yield

$$\gamma \left[1\left(\frac{R}{R_{lc}}\right)^2\left(1\frac{v_p}{c}\right)\right]=\gamma _{},$$

which further yields

$$\gamma =\left[\gamma _{}^2+\left(\frac{R}{R_{lc}}\right)^2\right]^{1/2}\frac{R}{R_{lc}}$$
(22)
for $`RR_{lc}`$. This is a very important result. In addition to providing for the radial dependence of the wind’s Lorentz factor, it also makes clear why CKF came (erroneously) to the conclusion that there is no acceleration across the light cylinder: as long as $`R/R_{lc}<\gamma _{}=200`$ (the value used by CKF based on the results of pair cascades in pulsars), the associated growth in $`\gamma `$ is imperceptible (they would have found the increase had they chosen say $`\gamma _{}1`$). The new result here is the linear growth of the Lorentz factor $`\gamma `$ with distance $`R`$, for $`R/R_{lc}\gamma _{}`$. The reader can check that the pure monopole solution (Michel 1991) also shows this effect! This dependence indicates that the conversion of the flow energy from magnetic to kinetic is gradual. In fact, the conversion almost to equipartition takes place while the flow is essentially force-free and therefore our solution can be trusted. The main difference of our analysis with that of CLB98 is that upstream of their transition region the flow is essentially non-relativistic while ours has already a Lorentz factor $`\gamma \stackrel{>}{}10^5`$. This constitutes the pivotal point in circuvmenting the analysis of CLB98, who argued against a transition from magnetic to inertial dominance of the flow at large distances.

The linear growth, however, cannot continue beyond a distance

$$\gamma _{}\sigma _{}R_{lc}=2R_{\mathrm{trans}}=3\times 10^6R_{lc}r_s,$$
(23)
at which the Lorentz factor reaches the asymptotic value implied by mass conservation and the observed spin-down luminosity. The problem we are presented with has arisen from our neglect of matter in our assumption of negligible inertia (i.e. force–free) conditions. Note that eq. (21) is not valid at the distance where inertial and magnetic forces become comparable444As we will see, eq. (21) becomes again asymptotically valid at the distances where inertial effects dominate. It is important to emphasize here that if we use eq. (21) in conjunction with eq. (19) in that latter regime, we will lose the effect of inertia, and will thus be led to the erroneous conclusion of unlimited linear growth in $`\gamma `$.. We must therefore proceed with caution through the energy conservation equation written as eq. (14). In the case of the Crab pulsar, we obtain

$$\frac{\sigma _s}{\sigma _{\mathrm{trans}}}=\sigma _s=\frac{I_s}{I_{\mathrm{trans}}}\frac{\gamma _{\mathrm{trans}}}{\gamma _s}=\frac{1}{2}\frac{I_s}{I_{\mathrm{trans}}}=\frac{1}{2}\frac{(RB_\varphi )|_s}{(RB_\varphi )|_{\mathrm{trans}}}=3\times 10^3$$
(24)
(see also Okamoto 1997 and references therein). The reader can check that the same result can also be obtained through the differential form of the Bernoulli equation \[eq. 19\]).

What does eq. (24) imply for the wind morphology at those distances? It is shown in the Appendix that, when $`\sigma 1`$, $`B_\varphi (R/R_{lc})B_p`$, and thus

$$\frac{(R^2B_p)|_s}{(R^2B_p)|_{\mathrm{trans}}}6\times 10^3.$$
(25)
In other words, beyond $`R_{\mathrm{trans}}5\times 10^5R_{lc}`$, $`B_pR^2`$ does not remain constant but decreases with distance, and consequently, field/flowlines should diverge away from monopolar geometry towards the axis of symmetry. $`R`$ in eq.(25) is the cylindrical radius, so assuming that $`B_p`$ evolves roughly as $`1/r^2`$, this implies that, along a field/flowline,

$$(R/r)|_s10\%(R/r)|_{\mathrm{trans}},$$
(26)
or equivalently, a collimation by a factor of 10 in the cylindrical radius (the cylindrical radius at the shock spherical radius $`r_s`$ will be about 10 times smaller than what it would be if the field/flow lines continued in the radial spherical direction from the transition distance).

The precise field geometry can only be determined through a full solution of the Grad-Shafranov equation, whose solution we defer to a future publication. The degree of collimation implied by eq. (25) is not unreasonable, if one considers the Hubble Space Telescope (HST) observations of the Crab nebula in the optical, and the Chandra observations in X-rays. One can clearly see there the presence of a collimated polar flow, within a distance from the axis of symmetry of the order of ten times smaller than the overall size of the Crab nebula. Finally, for a much more detailed matching of the theoretical results to observation one should also consider the effects of the remnant into which the MHD wind is plowing. It is not obvious to the authors that every detail can be accounted for in terms of MHD winds and their self-collimation while ignoring the effects of the outlying medium.

Let us summarize our results for the Crab pulsar wind. The wind Lorentz factor grows linearly with distance up to a distance of the order of $`10^6R_{lc}`$ where $`\sigma 1`$. The wind/field geometry remains almost monopolar up to that distance. Beyond that, the wind collimates drastically towards the direction of the axis of symmetry. Its Lorentz factor remains close to its asymptotic value, and $`\sigma `$ reaches its inferred value of $`3\times 10^3`$ at the shock distance $`10^9R_{lc}`$. Our present conclusion, namely the inevitable convergence of field/flowlines towards the axis of symmetry in order for the flow to accelerate to $`\sigma 1`$, is not original (see Okamoto 1997 and references therein). Nevertheless, we are now in a position to make definite predictions about the degree of field/flow collimation, without solving the full non-force-free problem.

## 4 Conclusions, Discussion

We have presented above the spatial evolution of the kinetic energy associated with the wind from an axisymmetric pulsar magnetosphere. By solving the energy equation in the regions in which our exact solution of the MHD equations (CKF), based on the force-free assumption, is valid we indicated how the gradual acceleration of the expanding wind can lead to an equipartition between the magnetic and particle fluxes thus effecting the efficient conversion of magnetic to particle energy. This provides a first (to our knowledge) concrete example which exhibits such a conversion from Poynting to particle energy flux. We further indicated that at distances larger than that at which equipatition is established, the inertial effects should become important leading to a collimation of the wind and a further decrease in the ratio of magnetic to particle fluxes in agreement with HST/Chandra/CGRO observations of the Crab pulsar/nebula. Our work thus provides a straightforward resolution of the long standing $`\sigma `$problem namely that of the particle over the magnetic flux dominance of this object.

As discussed by Mestel (1999), the issue of the precise magnetospheric geometry and the associated evolution of the electron Lorentz factor is a coupled problem; he then raises the question of whether there may indeed be solutions in which the wind achieves its asymptotic value close to the light cylinder with the entire solution collimating at that distance but at the cost of requiring a domain in which dissipation enforces a local departure from the perfect conductivity condition. The work of CKF and our present argumentation indicates that this is not necessary and it is, in addition, compatible with the observations which require very little emission at radii smaller than $`r_s`$.

While the entire magnetosperic solution (including the inertial and external medium effects) is desirable in order to assess their mutual interactions and their effects on the precise geometry and flow dynamics, we believe that near (i.e. at $`R\stackrel{<}{}10^4R_{lc}`$) the pulsar the flow geometry is so strongly dominated by its presence and the magnetic field, that the solution of CKF is essentially correct. As we argued earlier, we believe that important as the analysis of CLB98 is, its arguments could be circumvented simply because at the transition region the flow is almost in equipartition rather than magnetically dominated, as it is usually considered when analysing this situation (prior to our work the genenal assumption was that for a conical flow $`\rho \gamma ,B_\varphi ^2R^2,B_\varphi ^2\rho \gamma `$; efficient acceleration then required a very tightly wound-up $`B_\varphi ^2`$ which would convert to kinetic density in a short distance; this is not any more necessary).

The results presented above are fairly general and could be applied to the case of other less well studied pulsar magnetospheres. Important parameters of our problem which are expected vary from pulsar to pulsar are the period $`P`$, the multiplicity coefficient $`\kappa `$, the initial flow Lorentz factor $`\gamma _{}`$. Knowing $`P,\kappa ,\gamma _{}`$, one can estimate $`\sigma _{}`$, and from it the characteristic distance

$$R_{\mathrm{trans}}\gamma _{}\sigma _{}R_{lc}R_{lc}/\kappa $$
(27)
of the problem. Fortunately, not all these parameters are indepedent. The Lorentz factor of the pair resulting from the magnetospheric cascade $`\gamma _{}`$ as well as the multiplicity $`\kappa `$ depend on the magnetic field $`B`$ and the pulsar period $`P`$ (Zhang & Harding 2000), with the multiplicity generally decreasing with decreasing $`B`$ and increasing $`P`$, implying that there is in reality much less freedom in the problem. It would be of interest to compare the expected values of $`R_{\mathrm{trans}}`$ with the distance to the synchrotron nebula reverse shock $`R_s`$ obtained from observations in other such nebulae. If $`R_{\mathrm{trans}}`$ is found to be $`R_s`$, then our previous analysis applies, the flow should, like in the Crab, collimate towards the axis of symmetry, and at the same time $`\sigma `$ should decrease to values $`1`$.

However, the Crab remnant seems to be a singular example, in that the neutron star has remained very close to the center of the associated supernova remnant, and the synchrotron nebula has had enough time to grow to substantial distances. Furthermore, the entire nebula is powered exclusively by the pulsar, a fact not necessarily true with other remnants. The rather large peculiar velocities of these pulsars lead to geometries which are significantly affected by the pulsar motion and make similar comparisons difficult. The closest other remnant is that associated with the Vela pulsar for which the value of the magnetization parameter $`\sigma `$ was estimated from detailed spectral fitting to be $`\sigma 1`$ (de Jager et al. 1996). Similar conclusion was reached by Helfand et al. (2001) who analyzed the spatially resolved Chandra images of this source. It may therefore be that the low value of $`\sigma `$ associated with the Crab nebula is specific to the conditions prevailing in this remnant.

The specific radial dependence of the pulsar wind’s Lorentz factor is expected to have additional observational consequences concerning the emission of high energy radiation in systems containing pulsar winds. For example, Bogovalov & Aharonian (2000) computed the upComptonization of soft photons to TeV energies in the Crab through their interaction with the expanding MHD wind while Tavani & Arons (1997) and Ball & Kirk (2000) computed the corresponding radiation expected by the radio-pulsar Be star binary system PSR B1259-63 through the interaction of the relativistic wind with the photon field of the companion. We expect these predictions to be modified considerably in view of our present results. For example the above works assume that the wind achieves its asymptotic Lorentz factor shortly beyond the light cylinder, with the IC luminosity given by $`L_{IC}\tau (\gamma )L_s`$ where $`L_s`$ is the soft photon luminosity and $`\tau (\gamma )`$ is the optical depth for scattering by electrons of Lorentz factor $`\gamma `$. Clearly, our proposed linear evolution of the wind Lorentz factor $`\gamma `$ would lead to a very different dependence for the optical depth of electrons with a given Lorentz factor in the expanding wind. This in turn should lead to a high energy gamma ray spectrum of very different form than that obtained under the assumption of constant electron Lorentz factor used in the aforementioned works. We expect that careful modeling of the resulting spectra and comparison to (future) high energy $`\gamma `$ray observations will allow to confirm or disprove the proposed linear with $`r`$ evolution of the wind Lorentz factor.

We would like to acknowledge useful discussions with Alice Harding and Okkie de Jager.

## Appendix

We derive here simple relations between the toroidal and poloidal magnetic field components at large distances from the light cylinder.

We will first consider the regime where force-free conditions are valid ($`\sigma 1`$), and according to CKF, the field has attained a monopolar distribution, where all physical quantities become functions of the spherical angle $`\theta `$. In that regime, the pulsar equation takes the simple form (eq. 15 in CKF)

$$\frac{\mathrm{d}^2\mathrm{\Psi }}{\mathrm{d}t^2}=\frac{\mathrm{d}\mathrm{\Psi }}{\mathrm{d}t}\frac{1+2t^2}{t(1+t^2)}+\frac{4R_{lc}^2I\frac{\mathrm{d}I}{\mathrm{d}\mathrm{\Psi }}}{c^2t^2(1+t^2)},$$
(28)
where, $`t\mathrm{tan}\theta `$, with boundary conditions $`\mathrm{\Psi }(t=0)=0`$, and $`\mathrm{\Psi }(t=\mathrm{})=\mathrm{\Psi }_{\mathrm{open}}`$. Bearing in mind that $`I(\mathrm{\Psi }=0)=0`$ (i.e. no singular current along the axis of symmetry), eq. (28) can be integrated to yield

$$I=\frac{c}{2R_{lc}}\frac{\mathrm{d}\mathrm{\Psi }}{\mathrm{d}\theta }\mathrm{sin}\theta $$
(29)
(the reader can check that $`I`$ and $`B_p`$ point in opposite directions, thus the minus sign). It is now straightforward to see that

$$\frac{B_\varphi }{B_p}\frac{\frac{cI}{2R}}{\frac{1}{r^2\mathrm{sin}\theta }\frac{\mathrm{d}\mathrm{\Psi }}{\mathrm{d}\theta }}=\frac{R}{R_{lc}}.$$
(30)
This is a very general result, which does not depend on whether we have a dipole or a (split) monopole at the center (the reader can check that eq. (30) is directly satisfied for the Michel 1991 split monopole solution).

We will next consider the symptotic regime where force-free conditions are not valid anymore ($`\sigma 1`$, or $`4\pi \rho \gamma v_p^2/B_p^21`$, where $`\rho `$ is the matter density in the observer’s fixed frame). In that regime, we need to keep all the terms in the expression for $`B_\varphi `$ (e.g. Contopoulos 1994)

$$B_\varphi =\frac{\frac{cI}{2R}\frac{4\pi \rho \gamma v_p}{B_p}R\mathrm{\Omega }}{1\frac{4\pi \rho \gamma v_p^2}{B_p^2}}\frac{\frac{cI}{2R}\frac{4\pi \rho \gamma c}{B_p}R\mathrm{\Omega }}{\frac{4\pi \rho \gamma c^2}{B_p^2}}\frac{R}{R_{lc}}B_p.$$
(31)
The reader should keep in mind that, in order to obtain eq. (31), we have taken a limit, which is not the case for eq. (30).


text:
# RNCP-Th01026 HU-EP-01/44 Classical solutions with nontrivial holonomy in 𝑆𝑈(2) LGT at 𝑇≠0Poster presented by A.I. Veselov at LATTICE 2001, Berlin; extended hep-lat version of the proceedings contribution.

## 1 INTRODUCTION

There is one scenario of confinement which envisions the ground state of QCD as a dual superconductor formed by the condensation of abelian magnetic monopoles. Nowadays links are established to a vortex condensation picture of confinement. Still, one might be puzzled by the question which role the carrier of topological charge (easily associated with chiral symmetry breaking) could play for confinement. Dealing with dilute, uncorrelated gases of instantons  or - at finite temperature - of calorons  cannot explain confinement. Abandoning the tacit assumption of trivial holonomy at spatial infinity has opened the door to a larger class of selfdual solutions at finite temperature . The new calorons with nontrivial holonomy boundary conditions are interesting in the light of the riddle because, generically, they are composed of magnetic monopoles (dyons). Configurations of this type have been studied both analytically (in continuum) and numerically (in $`SU(2)`$ lattice gauge theory). The fixed holonomy conditions  have been mimicked on the lattice by fixing the temporal links everywhere on the spatial surface ($`i_x=L_x`$ etc.) to a constant $`U_4`$ such that the Polyakov line $`L(\stackrel{}{x})`$, the trace of the holonomy $`𝒫(\stackrel{}{x})=_{t=1}^{L_4}U_{\stackrel{}{x},t,4}`$, is put equal to the statistical average $`L`$ at the given temperature (see ). For the $`SU(2)`$ case a clear correspondence between analytical solutions and lattice configurations has been established . These lattice studies have copiously produced also (approximate) solutions, composed of opposite sign approximately half-integer topological charges ($`D\overline{D}`$ pairs) . They do not correspond to any known analytical solution. In this paper we report on results showing that approximately $`O(4)`$ symmetric calorons (denoted $`CAL`$) as well as static $`DD`$ and $`D\overline{D}`$ pairs are statistically significant in the confinement phase ($`0<TT_c`$). In this case, fixed holononomy would require to put $`L=0`$ on the boundary. However, our observations show no qualitative difference to periodic boundary conditions without this constraint.

## 2 CLASSICAL CONFIGURATIONS

We consider again pure $`SU(2)`$ gluodynamics with Wilson action at finite temperature, but this time comparing two types of spatial boundary conditions, (i) periodic b.c. with time-like link variables being fixed on the spatial surface and (ii) standard periodic b.c. without constraints. We mostly used a lattice of size $`16^3\times 4`$, in a few cases also $`32^3\times 4`$. We took coupling values $`\beta `$ below and above the deconfinement transition ($`\beta _c2.29`$) to create equilibrium configurations to start with. The same b.c. are applied for the Monte Carlo process and for cooling.

In a first stage we have searched for topologically non-trivial objects with lowest possible action late in the cooling history in order to find systematic dependences on the phase and the boundary conditions. Cooling was stopped at the $`n`$-th cooling step when the following criteria were fulfilled: action $`S_n<2S_{\mathrm{inst}}`$, change of action $`|S_nS_{n1}|<0`$ and concavity $`S_n2S_{n1}+S_{n2}<0`$, i.e. cooling just passed a point of inflection.111$`S_{\mathrm{inst}}=2\pi ^2\beta `$ is the action of a single instanton. For each $`\beta `$ we have scanned the topological content of $`O(200)`$ configurations. In this late stage we find approximate classical solutions, more or less static. We define the ”non-staticity” in (Euclidean) time by

$$T_s=\underset{i}{}|S_iS_{i1}|/\underset{i}{}S_i,$$

where $`S_i`$ denotes the action in the $`i`$-th timeslice. According to Refs. , the almost-classical configurations can be classified as $`DD`$, $`CAL`$, $`D\overline{D}`$, and purely magnetic (Dirac) single and double sheets - $`M`$ and $`2M`$. Some configurations undergoing cooling do not match the stopping criteria. They turn into trivial vacuum states.

Calorons ($`CAL`$) are a limiting case of $`DD`$ configurations . The latter have opposite sign peaks of $`L(\stackrel{}{x})`$ near the centers of the lumps of action and topological charge. If the peaks of topological charge are too close to be separated in $`3D`$ space, these objects happen to be non-static as well. For the confinement phase we have monitored how frequently objects with given $`T_s`$ are found. The histograms are rather similar for both types of b.c. They have a peak at $`T_s=0.020.04`$ and have a long tail of widely varying $`T_s`$. To enable an easy distinction between $`DD`$ and (non-ideal) $`CAL`$ events we have searched and verified a cut in $`T_s`$. For $`T_s<0.17`$ we may classify the objects as $`DD`$ (static with two well-separated maxima of the densities of topological charge $`q(\stackrel{}{x})`$ and action $`s(\stackrel{}{x})`$). For $`T_s>0.17`$ the objects can be classified as $`CAL`$ (non-static, approximately $`O(4)`$ symmetric solutions, with a single maximum of the $`3D`$ projected $`q(\stackrel{}{x})`$ and $`s(\stackrel{}{x})`$). $`D\overline{D}`$ have been found always to consist of two well-separated static objects with nearly vanishing $`T_s=0.004\pm 0.002`$, much smaller than for $`DD`$’s ! Purely magnetic sheets - $`M`$ have $`S_{\mathrm{magnetic}}>>S_{\mathrm{electric}}`$, with an action quantized in units of $`S_{\mathrm{inst}}/4`$. They are also perfectly static with $`T_s=0.003\pm 0.002`$.

As can be seen from Table 1, the relative frequency to obtain different types of nearly classical configurations ($`DD`$, $`CAL`$, $`D\overline{D}`$, $`M`$ and $`2M`$) is quite different, depending on whether cooling starts from Monte Carlo configurations in the confinement phase or the deconfinement phase.

For the confinement phase we find that the relative probabilities for all objects are approximately independent of the type of b.c. For the deconfinement phase we see that the strong enhancement of $`D\overline{D}`$ configurations earlier found for fixed holonomy b.c.  (which would be compatible with the suppression of the topological susceptibility) is not reproduced for standard periodic b.c. In the standard case, the probability to obtain any topologically non-trivial object drops sharply with $`\beta `$. As for the deconfinement phase as such, the latter observation must be considered with caution since the physical 3-volume is very small. The independence of the boundary conditions, however, in the confinement phase must be taken seriously: the enforcement of $`L=0`$ boundary conditions seems to be equivalent with the conditions under normal (thermal) boundary conditions.

## 3 DILUTE GASES AT HIGHER ACTION

Applying the $`L=0`$ fixed holonomy b.c. we have studied in more detail the configurations closer to equilibrium in the confinement phase which represent snapshots of the early cooling history. The stopping criterion above (however, without limitation of action) has been applied and the configurations have been automatically stored. This gives a series of subsequent ”plateaux” of the action, while the cooling history in between is always reproducible. In terms of the objects classified above, we have scanned the topological content of subsequent plateau configurations. In the first plateau we find an uncorrelated gas of dyons $`D`$ and antidyons $`\overline{D}`$ carrying roughly half-integer topological charges. We identified the dyons simultaneously by various measurable quantities: extrema of the Polyakov line $`L(\stackrel{}{x})`$, of the topological charge and action density and of the non-Abelianicity (after the maximal Abelian gauge has been fixed) and finally by the static Abelian monopoles (defined in Abelian projection). Their world lines coincide with the world lines of dyons. If the signs of the monopole charge of an Abelian monopole and of $`L(\stackrel{}{x})`$ (measured in the dyon center $`\stackrel{}{x}`$) are the same (opposite), the topological charge of the dyon is approximately equal to $`+\frac{1}{2}`$ (or $`\frac{1}{2}`$).

The cooling trajectory between this stage and the final stage discussed in the previous section is a series of annihilations. Between subsequent plateaux only such annihilation events of topological lumps have been observed which are monopole-antimonopole annihilations (conservation of magnetic charge). Depending on the relative sign of $`L(\stackrel{}{x})`$ in the center, these are $`DD`$ or $`D\overline{D}`$ annihilations. The two cases are shown in the Figure. Neither electric nor topological charge is conserved under (Wilson) cooling. In $`D\overline{D}`$ annihilations a sharp drop of the topological charge density can be seen while the action density and Polyakov line slowly relax to zero. $`DD`$ annihilations resemble how $`T=0`$ lattice instantons disappear under cooling with Wilson action: topological charge density and action density increase, turning everything into a singular ”dislocation” which finally collapses. At the end of the cooling process, when $`S=O(1)S_{\mathrm{inst}}`$, we find either $`DD`$ (incl. $`CAL`$) or $`D\overline{D}`$ configurations. The first ones (with $`Q=\pm 1`$) can decay as described, while $`D\overline{D}`$ annihilate into $`M`$, $`2M`$ configurations or to the trivial vacuum.

## 4 SUMMARY

Calorons with non-trivial holonomy have motivated us to reconsider the topological content of the vacuum at finite temperature by careful cooling. We cannot claim, that finite temperature gauge fields can be understood semiclassically with the new calorons as the only background. First, with cooling also nearly classical configurations of dyon-antidyon type are obtained. Secondly, closer to the equilibrium, cooling with fixed holonomy boundary conditions produces a dilute gas of dyons and antidyons. For the confinement phase we have found that fixed holonomy and usual periodic b.c. have less influence on cooling and the detection of a semiclasical topological background.

The authors are grateful to P. van Baal, S.V. Molodtsov, M.I. Polikarpov, and Yu.A. Simonov for useful discussions.


text:
# Dynamics at 𝑇→0 in the half-integer isotropic high spin molecules

High spin molecules (HSM) consist of clusters of metal ions, they are ordered in a crystal lattice, and coupled by Heisenberg ferromagnetic or antiferromagnetic interactions with coupling constant $`J`$, only between spins $`\stackrel{}{S}_i`$ in the molecule. At low temperatures $`k_BT<J`$ these spins lie parallel or anti-parallel to each other, and the molecule is in its ground spin state, where $`\stackrel{}{S}=_i\stackrel{}{S}_i`$ is high, with quantum number $`S`$, and $`2S+1`$ degeneracy. At even lower temperatures, $`k_BTJ`$ the degeneracy can be removed by additional anisotropic interactions such as the uniaxial term $`DS_z^2`$, or rhombic term $`E[S_x^2S_y^2]`$ etc. Experiments on the two most famous high spin molecules Mn12  and Fe8  show that at low $`T`$ the main interaction is, indeed, the uniaxial anisotropy, where up and down spin states $`S_z=\pm S=\pm 10`$ are degenerate, and tunneling is induced between these states by an additional term in the Hamiltonian that does not commute with $`S_z`$. This quantum tunneling of the magnetization (QTM) phenomenon has received considerable attention in recent years, focusing mainly on the additional terms in the Hamiltonian which are responsible for the tunneling . Nevertheless, the theoretical picture is far from being clear and existing models are controversial, and often contradict each other . In some cases, even qualitative understanding of the observed experimental data is absent .

In this paper we investigate three simple HSM systems, which are isotropic $`(D,E=0)`$. In these systems no tunneling is observed due to the absence of the uniaxial term $`DS_z^2`$. However, spin dynamics is observed even at very low temperatures ($`T=50`$ mK). Therefore, the additional terms in the spin Hamiltonian could be probed directly in these systems. Such a study can highlight the role of phonons , dipolar interactions, and nuclear fluctuations  in a simple setup. In addition, it could serve as a large $`S`$ limit for isotropic models usually applied only for the $`S=1/2`$ case , or it could serve as a $`D0`$ test case for anisotropic HSM models .

We present an experimental investigation using three types of measurements: magnetization, spin lattice relaxation ($`T_1^1`$) of muon spin ($`\mu `$SR), and of proton spin (NMR). Our molecules are \[Cr{(CN)Cu(tren)}6 \](ClO4)21 , \[Cr{(CN)Ni(tetren)}6 \](ClO4 )9  and \[Cr{(CN)Mn(tetren)}6\](ClO4)9  which we label as CrCu6, CrNi6 and CrMn6 respectively. In these molecules a Cr(III) ion is surrounded by six cyanide ions, each bonded to a Cu(II), Ni(II) or Mn(II) ion. The coordination sphere of Cr and Cu/Ni/Mn can be described as a slightly distorted octahedral. The objective in this work is to find the spin-spin correlation time $`\tau (T)`$ in the three systems, and to compare them. Our main findings are: (I) $`\tau `$ is nearly $`T`$ independent at low temperatures, and (II) at very low temperature $`\tau `$ does not depend on $`S`$ or $`J`$ in this isotropic case.

In Fig. 1 we show the magnetization $`M`$ per molecule in units of $`\mu _B`$ as a function of applied field $`H`$ for the three molecules. The data are taken at $`T=2`$ K. In all cases $`M`$ increases as the applied field is increased. The magnetization reaches a saturation value of $`\frac{9}{2}`$ $`g\mu _B`$, $`\frac{15}{2}`$ $`g\mu _B`$ and $`\frac{27}{2}`$ $`g\mu _B`$ in CrCu6, CrNi6 and CrMn6 respectively. These saturation values are consistent with $`6`$ Cu ($`S=1/2`$), Ni ($`S=1`$) or Mn ($`S=5/2`$) ions ferromagnetically (or anti-ferromagnetically in the case of CrMn6) coupled only to a Cr ion of spin $`3/2`$. The solid lines are Brillouin functions of the respective $`S`$. In Refs  the susceptibility was fitted to the one expected from the Heisenberg Hamiltonian and the values $`J_{\mathrm{CrCu}_6}=77`$ K, $`J_{\mathrm{CrNi}_6}=24`$ K and $`J_{\mathrm{CrMn}_6}=11`$ K where found. Therefore, the highest spin value of each molecule is well seperated from other spin states (a few tens of degrees K). High field ESR measurements (on CrNi6)  and susceptibility measurements (on CrCu6, CrNi6 and CrMn6) found no evidence for anisotropy, namely, $`D0`$. This is consistent with the octahedral character of the molecules.

In our $`\mu `$SR experiments we measure the polarization $`P(t,H)`$ of a positive muon spin implanted in the sample, as a function of time $`t`$ and magnetic field $`H`$, where $`P(0,H)=1`$. The field is applied in the direction of the initial muon polarization. The positive muon decays to a positron which is emitted in the direction of the muon spin, and the polarization as a function of time is reconstructed by the detection of the emitted positrons.

The measurements in all molecules are done at temperatures ranging from 25 mK up to 300 K, and in fields ranging between zero and $`20`$ kG. These experiments were performed at both ISIS and PSI, exploiting the long time window in the first facility for slow relaxation (high $`T`$), and the high time resolution in the second facility for fast relaxation (low $`T`$).

In Fig. 2(a) and (b) we present the muon spin polarization as a function of time and for different temperatures in CrNi6 in zero field, and in $`H=20`$ kG, respectively. In zero field, the relaxation rate increases, as the temperature is decreased, and saturates at $`5`$ K. The increase at high temperatures is caused by thermally activated tarnsitions between excited spin states. However, at low temperatures, only the ground spin state is populated, and only transitions within the degenerate ground state are possible. In contrast, at $`H=20`$ kG, and temperatures lower than $`17`$ K, the relaxation rate decreases as the temperature is decreased, and does not saturate.

In Ref.  we demonstrated that the magnetic field experienced by the muon in all molecules is dynamically fluctuating even at $`T=50`$ mK. We therefore analyze our data using spin lattice relaxation theory. In this theory, the polarization of a local probe (muon or nucleus), in the fast fluctuation limit, is given by

$$P(H,t)=\left(P_0P_{\mathrm{}}\right)\mathrm{exp}\left[t/T_1\right]+P_{\mathrm{}}$$
(1)
where $`P_0`$ is the initial polarization, $`P_{\mathrm{}}`$ is the equilibrium polarization ,

$`T_1(H)`$ $`=`$ $`A+BH^2,`$ (3)
$`A`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\mathrm{\Delta }^2\tau }},`$ (4)
$`B`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\gamma ^2\tau }{\mathrm{\Delta }^2}},`$ (5)
and $`\gamma `$ is the probe gyromagnetic ratio. The correlation time $`\tau `$ and mean square of the transverse field distribution at the probe site in frequency units $`\mathrm{\Delta }^2`$ are defined by

$$\gamma ^2𝐁_{}(t)𝐁(0)=\mathrm{\Delta }^2\mathrm{exp}\left(t/\tau \right).$$
(6)
The fast fluctuation limit is obeyed when $`\tau \mathrm{\Delta }1`$.

In $`\mu `$SR $`P_{\mathrm{}}=0`$, and the muon could occupy many different sites in the sample, because the molecules are fairly large ($`15`$ Å diameter) and are embedded in an organic surrounding. As a result one must average over $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$. Using the distribution

$$\rho (\mathrm{\Delta })=\sqrt{\frac{1}{2\pi }}\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }^{}}{\mathrm{\Delta }^2}\mathrm{exp}\left(\frac{1}{8}\left[\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }^{}}{\mathrm{\Delta }}\right]^2\right),$$
(7)
and allowing for a constant background ($`B_g`$) due to muons stopping outside the sample one obtains

$$P(t)=P_0\mathrm{exp}\left(\sqrt{t/T_1^\mu }\right)+B_g,$$
(8)
where $`1/T_1^\mu `$ is the muon spin relaxation rate. This form is in agreement with the experimental results (see below). In addition, Eq. 3 still holds, while in Eq. 4 and 5, $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ is replaced by $`\mathrm{\Delta }^{}`$.

The solid lines in Fig. 2 are fits of the data to Eq. 8 where $`P_0`$ is a global parameter. The parameter $`B_g`$ is free within 10% of its mean value since the high fields affect the positron trajectory in a manner that is reflected in $`B_g`$. The fit is satisfactory in all cases apart from the highest $`H`$ and lowest $`T`$ in CrNi6. The relaxation rate $`1/T_1^\mu `$ in the different compounds, obtained from the fits is presented in Fig. 3 as a function of temperature for different values of $`H`$. As pointed out above, at low fields $`1/T_1^\mu `$ increases with decreasing temperatures, and saturates at low temperatures. In addition the value of $`1/T_1^\mu `$ increases as the spin of the compound is higher, as expected from Eqs. 1 and 6, and the saturation temperature increases as the coupling constant $`J`$ increases. This is in strong contrast to Mn12  and Fe8  where in zero field $`1/T_1^\mu `$ increases continuously upon cooling until the correlation time $`\tau `$ becomes so long that the molecule appears static in the muon dynamical window, and no $`T_1`$ saturation is observed at low temperatures.

In Fig. 4 we plot the average relaxation time $`T_1^\mu (H)`$ at $`T0`$ as a function of $`H^2`$ for all compounds, for fields up to $`2`$ kG (note the axis break). We find that $`T_1^\mu `$ obeys Eq. 1. This implies that the muon spin relaxation is indeed due to dynamical field fluctuations, and that at low $`T`$ the field autocorrelation can be described by a single correlation time as long as the applied field is not too strong. At high fields ($`>`$ 2 kG) we find deviations (not shown) from the linear relation between $`T_1`$ and $`H^2`$. The deviation might be due to the impact of the field on the spin dynamics, i.e. the correlation function given by Eq. 6. From the linear fits in Fig. 4, and taking $`(\mathrm{\Delta }^{})^2=\gamma _\mu (AB)^{1/2}`$ from Eq. 4 and 5, where $`\gamma _\mu =85.162`$ MHz/kG, we find that for CrCu6 $`\mathrm{\Delta }_0^{}=4.9\pm 0.9`$ MHz ($`57\pm 10`$ G), for CrNi6 $`\mathrm{\Delta }_0^{}=26\pm 2`$ MHz ($`305\pm 25`$ G), and for CrMn6 $`\mathrm{\Delta }_0^{}=38\pm 2`$ MHz ($`446\pm 24`$ G); the subscript $`0`$ stands for $`T0`$. Using $`\tau =(B/A\gamma _\mu ^2)^{1/2}`$ from the same equation we find $`\tau _0=7\pm 1`$ nsec for CrCu6, $`\tau _0=10\pm 1`$ nsec for CrNi6 and $`\tau _0=11\pm 1`$ nsec for CrMn6. These values of $`\mathrm{\Delta }_0^{}`$ and $`\tau _0`$ are self consistent with the fast fluctuation limit. Most striking is the fact that all $`\tau _0`$ values are nearly equal.

Although our data support a picture where the muon spin relaxes due to dynamically fluctuating magnetic fields, they leave open the interpretation of these fluctuations. Are they due to the fluctuations of the molecular spins or a result of muon diffusion, muonium formation, etc.? In order to address this question we performed proton NMR $`T_1`$ measurements. We find that in all applied fields smaller than $`20`$ kG the proton $`T_1`$ is shorter than the experimental window around the peak in $`1/T_1^\mu `$. Only in a field of $`20`$ kG were we able to perform the experiment at all temperatures. We measure $`T_1`$ using a saturation$`t\pi /2\pi `$ pulse sequence. The proton polarization recovery follows Eq. 1 with $`P_0=0`$ from which we obtained $`T_1^H`$.

Since the proton gyromagnetic ratio $`\gamma _H=42.57`$ MHz/kG is very different from that of the muon, we scale the NMR results and plot them together with the $`\mu `$SR results in Fig. 3, for CrNi6 (b) and CrMn6 (c). The scaling factor $`C`$ used in Fig. 3 is $`0.6`$ for CrNi6 and $`8.8`$ for CrMn6. It was chosen so that the scaled NMR relaxation rates will agree with the $`\mu `$SR rates at high $`T`$. After this scaling, we find a good agreement between the $`\mu `$SR and NMR data at all temperatures. In fields lower than $`20`$ kG, where the NMR $`T_1`$ was measurable only at high $`T`$, we obtained the same agreement between the two techniques.

The scaling factor provides information on the ratio of the field experienced by a muon and by a proton. At high temperatures where $`T_1`$ shows no field dependence one can assume that $`ABH^2`$ in Eq. 1, and therefore $`1/T_1=\mathrm{\Delta }^2\tau `$. Using the definition of $`\mathrm{\Delta }^2`$ given in Eq. 6 we can write $`C\left(\gamma _H/\gamma _\mu \right)^2\left(T_1^H/T_1^\mu \right)=𝐁_{}^2^\mu /𝐁_{}^2^H`$ where $`𝐁_{}^2^H`$ is the RMS of the transverse field at the proton site, and $`𝐁_{}^2^\mu `$ is the RMS of the field at the muon site in its general sense given by Eq. 7. The proximity of $`C`$ to 1 especially in the CrNi6 is very encouraging and suggests that the muon sites are close to a proton in this system. Thus, we prove that in both techniques we are measuring the probe’s spin lattice relaxation time due to the molecular spin fluctuations.

Finally, we would like to obtain the correlation time at all temperatures. This could be calculated from $`T_1^\mu `$ combined with magnetization measurements, at zero (or very low) fields. In zero order approximation we assume that $`𝐁_{}^2`$ is proportional to $`𝐒^2`$ which is different from $`S(S+1)`$ since at temperatures $`k_BTJ`$, states other than the ground state $`S`$ can be populated. Therefore in zero field

$$\frac{1}{T_1}(T)=\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }_0^2S^2(T)\tau (T)}{S(S+1)}.$$
(9)
Taking

$$S^2(T)=\frac{3k_BT\chi (T)}{N(g\mu _B)^2},$$
(10)
where $`N`$ is the number of molecules, $`\mu _B`$ is Bohr magneton, $`k_B`$ is the Boltzman factor, and $`g=2`$, we find

$$\tau (T)=\frac{(g\mu _B)^2}{3k_B}\frac{S(S+1)}{T_1(T)T\chi (T)\mathrm{\Delta }_0^2}.$$
(11)
In the insets of Fig. 5 we present $`S^2(T)`$, obtained from $`H0`$ DC-susceptibility measurements and Eq. 10, as a function of temperature for CrCu6, CrNi6 and CrMn6. In Fig. 5 we present $`\tau (T)`$ as calculated using Eq. 11 for the different compounds. The $`T`$ dependence of the correlation time $`\tau (T)`$, unlike the muon spin lattice relaxation rate, reflects the dynamics of the molecular spin without the $`T`$ dependence of the field at the muon site. At $`T100`$ K there is more than an order of magnitude difference in $`\tau `$ between the different molecules. As the temperature is lowered the correlation time in all compounds increases as the temperature is decreased, but reaches a common saturation value of $`10`$ nsec (within experimental error) at $`T10`$ K. At this temperature only the ground state $`S`$ is populated. In other words, when the HSM are formed they all have the same correlation time at low $`T`$.

At very low temperatures one can interpret the correlation time $`\tau `$ in terms of a broadening of the spin levels, due to interactions between a molecular spins and other molecular spins, or the enviroment. This interaction is considered as a purturbation, the strength of which should be of the order of $`h\tau ^1`$. Therefore, our results have two major indications. First, the broadening in the $`T0`$ limit is not due to phonons since these die out exponentially with temperature at $`0.051`$ K. Second, the broadening cannot be explained by interactions which are quadratic in $`S`$ or have higher $`S`$ dependence. This rules out the dipolar interaction between neighboring molecules since in the three compounds the nearest neighbor distance is $`15`$ Å. Similarly, crystal field terms which are allowed by the octahedral symmetry ($`S^4`$ or higher ) are unlikely.

The only mechanisem suggested to date for level broadening of HSM, which is weakly (linear) $`S`$ dependent is the hyperfine interaction between nuclear and electronic spins. This mechanism can account for the finite spin lattice relaxation rate at very low temperatures . The hyperfine interactions in unisotropic high spin molecules were studied recently , and their effect on QTM is becoming clearer . We believe that this interaction also governs the fluctuations of the isotropic molecules at very low temperatures ($`T<3`$ K). However, at high temperature ($`T>10`$ K) the fluctuations are governed by spin-phonon interactions .

We would like to thank the ISIS and PSI muon facilities for their kind hospitality and B. Barbara for helpful discussion. These experiments were supported by the European Union through its TMR Program for Large Scale Facilities, the French Israeli cooperation program AFIRST, and the Israeli Ministry of Science.