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# Multi-shell gold nanowires under compression

## I Introduction

Carbon nanotubes are the subject of intensive research last several years . Their electrical and thermal conductivity, as well as mechanical properties are of great scientific and technological interest. Depending on the diameter and the helicity carbon nanotubes can be either metallic or semiconducting, and exhibit quantum wire properties. Therefore, they are important for nanoelectronic devices. Promising applications of carbon nanotubes are also based on their extraordinary mechanical properties. Investigations have shown that carbon nanotubes are among strongest materials . The effects of deformations and various defects are studied for single-wall and multi-wall tubes, as well as for ropes composed of carbon nanotubes . It was found that very distorted carbon nanotubes return to their original form when loading is released. As a consequence, carbon nanotubes are useful in applications, such as high-strength fibers, components of composite materials and tips in scanning-probe microscopy .

The property of carbon nanotubes to deform elastically is in part the outcome of the strength and rigidity of the graphitic bond. The cylindrical structure of nanotubes increases their elasticity and strength. It is important to investigate mechanical properties for cylindrical nanostructures made of other materials where a different type of bonding exists. These investigations may shed light onto the choice of optimal materials and structures for elements in nanomechanical devices. Metallic wires are important for applications. For example, gold wires are already used as interconnections in the chips. The miniaturization of electronic and mechanical devices requires investigations of very small wires whose diameters and lengths are in the range from $`1`$ nm to $`10`$ nm. Recently a technique for fabrication of metallic nanowires with diameters down to $`d=3`$ nm was invented . This method is based on the thickness resolution of molecular-beam epitaxy and formation of extremely precise templates for metal deposition. The mechanical properties of metallic nanowires till now were investigated because of the experiments dealing with the contact between two pieces of metal. For example, metallic nanobridges were obtained in Scanning Tunneling Microscopy (STM) experiments , mechanically controllable break-junctions , and macroscopic table top metallic contacts . In this context the stability of tip-suspended nanowires, their behavior under tensile strain, fracture properties, and conductance were investigated by Molecular Dynamics (MD) simulations and density functional theory calculations . Mechanical properties of metallic nanocontacts under compressive strain are less studied . However, compression of free single-wall carbon nanotubes was investigated by MD simulations .

Multi-shell structures were obtained in MD simulations of finite and infinite gold nanowires . Finite nanowires with radii around a nanometer and of a length/diameter ratio between $`1`$ and $`3`$ were studied . Cylindrical multi-shell structures were found for a length/diameter ratio between $`2`$ and $`3`$. Structures and melting of infinite gold nanowires with radii around a nanometer and an initial orientation along the (111), (110), and (100) directions were also investigated . The results have shown that a formation of cylindrical shells is the most pronounced for an initial fcc (111) orientation. Similar gold nanostructures were found in experiments . These studies are enabled by recent advances in microscopic techniques which now produce images of atomic scale resolution. Gold nanostructures were prepared by contacting a gold substrate with a STM tip, and they were simultaneously imaged using an ultrahigh-vacuum electron microscope . The conductance of these gold nanostructures was measured during retraction of the STM tip. It was found that the conductance is quantized in units of $`2e^2/h`$, where $`e`$ is the electron charge and $`h`$ is the Planck’s constant . Stable and regular strands of gold atoms that are from one nanometer to several nanometers in length were observed. The diameters of these wires were around one nanometer. In MD simulations of Pb and Al ultrathin infinite wires at $`T=0`$ K several exotic structures were found, for example icosahedral and helical forms . Similar simulation has been carried out for gold nanowires . Aluminum and copper infinite nanowires were also simulated at the room temperature and multi-shell and filled structures were obtained . Recently Zach and coworkers have developed a method for producing metallic wires with diameters ranging from $`15`$ nanometers to $`1.0`$ micrometers and lengths of up to half a millimeter . They were using the graphite substrate as a template for growing molybdenum wires. The mechanical strength of these nanowires was tested and it was found that they were able sometimes to bend at 90 degrees without breaking. In this work a MD simulation study of free multi-shell gold nanowires under axial compression at $`T=300`$ K is presented. Our results show that these gold nanostructures are able to sustain very large values of the strain and recover initial radii and lenghts even after severe deformations. In the following the interatomic potential, the wires preparation method, and simulation details are described in Sec. II. Results and discussion are presented in Sec. III. A summary and conclusions are given in Sec. IV.

## II Computational method

The interaction between gold atoms was modeled by the well-tested embedded-atom potential . It is known that embedded-atom potentials provide a satisfactory description of metallic bonding in the bulk, for surfaces, and nanoparticles . In comparison with pair interactions, such as the Lennard-Jones and Morse potentials, the embedded-atom model takes an account of many-body effects in metals. The particular realization of the embedded-atom potential used here, the so-called glue model, has been shown to accurately reproduce experimental values for a wide range of physical properties of gold . The classical MD simulation method was carried out. The equations of motion were integrated using a time step of $`\mathrm{\Delta }t=7.14\times 10^{15}`$ s. In all simulations presented in this work the temperature control was realized through velocity rescaling of all active atoms.

It is known that bulk gold crystallizes in a face-centered cubic lattice. Initially, for nanowires at $`T=0`$ K, atoms were arranged in a fcc structure with the (111) direction parallel to the axis of the wire. The prepared nanowires were approximately cylindrical in cross-sections. All atoms further than a chosen value of the radius from the nanowire axis were removed. Several nanowires with the length $`L_0`$ between $`4`$ nm and $`12`$ nm, the number of atoms between $`540`$ and $`2067`$, and the radius $`R_0`$ between $`0.5`$ nm and $`1.2`$ nm were investigated. All wires were first relaxed at $`T=0`$ K. Then samples were heated to $`1000`$ K. This was followed by a quench to $`T=0`$ K, and heating to $`T=300`$ K. In previous simulations, where structural and vibrational properties of finite gold nanowires were investigated, MD boxes in the annealing cycles were heated to $`600`$ K . However, it was found here that even finite nanowires are robust, and preserve their cylindrical structures when heated up to $`0.75`$ of the bulk melting temperature. Properties of nanowires under compression were investigated after evolution of $`10^5`$ time steps at $`T=300`$ K. As in previous simulations for finite  and infinite gold nanowires , after a preparation procedure stable multi-shell cylindrical structures were obtained. In comparison with previous simulations of finite gold nanowires, a higher annealing temperature applied here produces more regular multi-shell structures. After equilibration, as in simulations of single-wall carbon nanotubes , the edge rings were fixed, and then compressive axial loading was applied. These simulations under compression most often were taken out to $`2\times 10^4`$ time steps. It was checked that typical deformation patterns formed during this time did not change up to $`10^5`$ time steps.

## III Results and discussion

Several structures of multi-shell wires at $`300`$ K and before compression was applied are presented in Fig. 1. Figure 1(a) shows a three-shell structure with the central core. This type of the multi-shell configuration with a single central strand of gold atoms forms most often. A nanowire with the smallest investigated radius forms a two-wall structure with a large empty core shown in Fig. 1(b). The core of two strands of atoms, as in the four-wall structure shown in Fig. 1(c), was also obtained.

Short and narrow nanowires (e.g., $`R_0=0.9`$ nm, $`L_0=4`$ nm) under compression exhibit only one morphological pattern. They progressively shorten when compression increases, but remain straight. As an exception, long and extremely narrow nanowires (e.g., $`R_0=0.5`$ nm, $`L_0=12`$ nm) under compression often crush into irregular ellipsoidal morphologies. Thicker short nanowires (e.g., $`R_0=1.2`$ nm, $`L_0=8`$ nm) show three morphological patterns. For small compressions these nanowires deform by rippling. However, rippling is less pronounced than in single-wall carbon nanotubes , and only isolated ripples appear. At $`16`$ GPa of the stress one end of the nanowire deforms more than the other. Such a deformation is shown in Fig. 2. For larger stress ($`32`$ GPa) these nanowires also deform by crushing, flatten and preserve their cylindrical shapes. Nanowires return to the configuration with approximately initial $`R_0`$ and $`L_0`$ when compression is released. The outer cylindrical surface of those straight wires is more rough than in initial ones.

The most interesting behavior exhibit long and narrow nanowires \[e.g., $`R_0=0.9`$ nm, $`L_0=12`$ nm, shown in Fig. 3(a)\]. These slender nanowires under compression buckle and sometimes exhibit largely distorted configurations. Figure 3(b) shows deformation of the nanowire in Fig. 3(a) at $`4.81`$ GPa of the stress. The structure formed in this sideways deformation is almost symmetric. Figure 4(a) shows a configuration of the same nanowire at $`6.41`$ GPa of the stress. Although, deformed substantially \[Fig. 4(a)\], this structure immediately straightens \[Fig. 4(b)\] when compression is released. This structural change already takes place within $`7`$ ps of a time evolution after loading is released. The resulting configuration (shown in Fig. 4(b) after $`35`$ ps, i.e., $`5\times 10^3`$ time steps) is less regular than initial nanowire, but has the same average radius and length. In further simulations at the same temperature this nanowire does not change substantially up to $`0.7`$ ns. The same stress of $`6.41`$ GPa applied on the structure shown in Fig. 4(b) produces a buckled morphology similar to one shown in Fig. 4(a). When loading is released in this repeated compression, a nanowire again returns to the straight form similar to one shown in Fig. 4(b). Large buckling deformations \[as shown in Figs. 3(b) and 4(a)\] exist for average compressions. For the highest values of the stress slender nanowires deform by crushing and flattening, and remain straight.

These simulations show that a multi-shell structure disappears under compression. The density plots in Fig. 5 illustrate the changes in a multi-shell structure under compression. For the stress of $`3.2`$ GPa the shell structure is still present \[Fig. 5(b)\], whereas at $`4.81`$ GPa the shells are much less pronounced \[Fig. 5(c)\]. The shell structure is almost absent at $`6.41`$ GPa \[Fig. 5(d)\]. When compression is released nanowires straighten, but their internal multi-shell structure only partially recovers in the simulation of $`2\times 10^4`$ time steps. Disordering of a multi-shell structure is more pronounced in longer nanowires and for a higher applied stress. As in initial annealing cycles, it is possible to improve this partially ordered multi-shell structure by heating. In multi-shell gold nanowires atomic rearrangements occur for the smallest applied stress. In contrast, carbon nanotubes up to certain values of stress are in the elastic regime. There virtually no defects are found after compressive loading is released . Beyond the elastic regime carbon nanotubes deform plastically. In the plastic regime, as here for gold nanowires, compressed carbon nanotubes recover from severe structural deformations, but local atomic rearrangements exist.

A plot of the stress vs. the strain for several nanowires is presented in Fig. 6. All shells of multi-wall nanowires are stressed and it is assumed that the axial strain and stress are uniformly distributed over the cross section. Therefore, in calculation of the stress the whole cross-sectional area of the nanowire is used. These results show that multi-shell gold nanowires are able to sustain a large compressive stress. Multi-shell gold nanowires at large compressions behave in similar way as ropes of single-wall carbon nanotubes under pressure . These ropes of nanotubes act as a mechanical energy storage. This was attributed to crushing and flattening of the tube cross section. A flattening along the wire axis was found in this simulation for gold nanowires. Those morphological patterns correspond to the vertical portions of the curves in Fig. 6. Therefore, because of the property to recover their shapes even for large values of the strain, multi-shell gold nanowires also act as a mechanical energy storage. Although the chemical bonding in carbon nanotubes and gold nanowires is different, the packing effects at nanometre length scales are also important. Regular axially symmetrical distribution of carbon nanotubes in ropes and cylindrical gold shells in nanowires enable them to store a mechanical energy.

## IV Conclusions

Molecular dynamics simulation was carried out to study deformations of multi-shell gold nanowires under axial compressive loading at $`T=300`$ K. This simulation is based on a well-tested embedded-atom potential. It was found that multi-shell nanowires are able to sustain large values of the compressive strain. The most interesting behavior show long and narrow nanowires where large buckling distortions without a failure are possible when axial compression is applied and then released. The property of carbon nanotubes to recover without a damage after large deformations was explained as a consequence of the carbon bonding in the graphite layer and the cylindrical structure of the tube. The simulation presented here shows that multi-shell gold nanowires after large deformations recover their cylindrical forms, as well as initial radii and lenghts. A similar result (i.e, that large bending deformations without breaking are possible) was recently obtained experimentally for molybdenum nanowires . In contrast to carbon nanotubes, because of different type of chemical bonding in gold, atomic rearrangements occur even under small compressions. As a result, defects and local structural changes are always present in gold nanowires when loading is released. The property of multi-shell gold nanowires to store a mechanical energy is useful for applications. Mechanical properties of various metallic nanowires deserve further experimental and theoretical investigations.

###### Acknowledgements.

This work has been carried under the HR-MZT project 119206 “Dynamical Properties of Surfaces and Nanostructures” and the EC Research Action COST P3 “Simulation of Physical Phenomena in Technological Applications”.


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# Similarity between Grover’s quantum search algorithm and classical two-body collisions

Abstract

By studying the diffusion operator in Grover’s quantum search algorithm, we find a mathematical analogy between quantum searching and classical, elastic two-body collisions. We exploit this analogy using a thought experiment involving multiple collisions between two-bodies to help illuminate why Grover’s quantum search algorithm works. Related issues are discussed.

PACS numbers: 03.67.

Quantum computation is based on qubits. A qubit, literally a quantum bit of information, can be represented as a unit vector in a two-dimensional complex vector space. A typical vector can be written as $`|\psi >=\alpha |0>+\beta |1>`$, with $`|\alpha |^2+|\beta |^2=1`$. Measurement of a qubit yields $`|\alpha |^2`$ and $`|\beta |^2`$, the probabilities of the system being in states $`|0>`$ and $`|1>`$. Unlike a classical bit, a qubit represents a superposition of the two states. This property leads to quantum parallel computation, which has been widely used in quantum algorithms . Grover proposed a quantum search algorithm which can realize fast searching, such as finding an object in unsorted data consisting of $`N`$ items . This algorithm can be described as follows. Initially, an $`n`$ qubit system is set in an equal superposition of all basis states expressed as

$$|\mathrm{\Psi }_0>=\frac{1}{\sqrt{N}}\underset{i=0}{\overset{N1}{}}|i>,$$
(1)
where the set $`\{|i>\}`$ is orthonormal, and $`N`$ is usually far greater than 1. Each basis state corresponds to an item in the data. The problem is how to find the very basis state that corresponds to the object. This particular state is defined as the marked state, and the other states are defined as the collective state . $`C`$ and $`D`$ are used to denote suitable inversion and diffusion operators, respectively. If $`C`$ is applied to a superposition of states, it only inverts (i.e., changes the algebraic sign of) the amplitude in the marked state, and leaves the states in the collective state unaltered. $`D`$ is defined as $`D2PI`$, where $`P(1/N)_{i,j=0}^{N1}|i><j|`$. In matrix notation, $`P`$ is an $`N\times N`$ matrix whose entries are all $`1/N`$, and $`I`$ is an $`N\times N`$ unit matrix. A compound operator is defined as $`UDC`$. Each operation of $`U`$ is called an iteration. After $`U`$ is repeated $`O(\sqrt{N})`$ times, the amplitude in the marked state can approach 1. When a measurement is made, the probability of getting this state approaches 1 . The algorithm can be generalized to the case where the marked state contains multiple basis states. The search algorithm has become a hot topic in quantum information -. Grover outlined the steps that led to his algorithm, and proposed a classical analog of quantum search using a coupled pendulum model. R. Josza provided another path toward understanding the nature of Grover’s algorithm. In this paper, we discuss the similarity between quantum searching and classical two-body collisions and some related problems such as the limits on the algorithm. The similarity helps to understand why the algorithm works.

We now examine some properties of $`D`$. If $`D`$ is applied to a system in state $`_{i=0}^{N1}c_i|i>`$, it transforms the system into state $`_{i=0}^{N1}d_i|i>`$. The relation between $`c_i`$ and $`d_i`$ is

$$d_i=2Ac_i,$$
(2)
where $`A`$ is the average of all amplitudes of the system, namely, $`A=(1/N)_{i=0}^{N1}c_i`$. Through easy computations, we find that

$$\underset{i=0}{\overset{N1}{}}d_i=\underset{i=0}{\overset{N1}{}}c_i$$
(3)
and

$$\underset{i=0}{\overset{N1}{}}d_id_i^{}=\underset{i=0}{\overset{N1}{}}c_ic_i^{},$$
(4)
where $`c_i^{}`$ denotes the complex conjugation of $`c_i`$. Eq.(3) shows that the transformation by $`D`$ preserves the sum of all amplitudes. Eq.(4) results from normalization of the wave function.

We suppose that the collective state contains $`N_1`$ basis states with equal amplitude $`a_0`$ and the marked state contains $`N_2`$ basis states with equal amplitude $`b_0`$ before $`U`$ is applied. From now on, we assume that all amplitudes are real numbers. $`C`$ transforms $`b_0`$ to $`b_0`$, and leaves $`a_0`$ unaltered; $`D`$ transforms $`b_0`$ to $`b_1`$, and $`a_0`$ to $`a_1`$. According to Eqs. (3) and (4), two equations

$$N_1a_1+N_2b_1=N_1a_0N_2b_0,$$
(5)
$$N_1a_1^2+N_2b_1^2=N_1a_0^2+N_2b_0^2$$
(6)
are obtained. They remind us that the operation of $`D`$ is analogous to the elastic collision of two bodies. We assume they are two rigid balls with masses $`m_1`$ and $`m_2`$. Ball 1 and ball 2 have velocities $`u`$ and $`v`$, respectively. Before the first collision, these velocities are indicated by $`u_0`$ and $`v_0`$; after the collision, they are denoted by $`u_1`$ and $`v_1`$. All velocities are confined to one straight line and the minus sign means that the two balls move in opposite direction before the collision. We obtain two equations

$$m_1u_1+m_2v_1=m_1u_0m_2v_0,$$
(7)
$$\frac{1}{2}m_1u_1^2+\frac{1}{2}m_2v_1^2=\frac{1}{2}m_1u_0^2+\frac{1}{2}m_2v_0^2$$
(8)
based on the conservation of momentum and mechanical energy . We find the forms of Eqs. (7)-(8) similar to the forms of Eqs. (5)-(6). Their solutions also have similar forms. The solutions for Eqs. (7) and (8) are

$$u_1=\frac{(m_1m_2)u_02m_2v_0}{m_1+m_2},$$
(9)
$$v_1=\frac{2m_1u_0+(m_1m_2)v_0}{m_1+m_2}.$$
(10)
Let $`v_c=(m_1u_0m_2v_0)/(m_1+m_2)`$ be the velocity of the mass center of the system. $`v_c`$ is constant during the collision of the two balls. $`u_1`$ and $`v_1`$ can thus be represented as

$$u_1=2v_cu_0$$
(11)
$$v_1=2v_c+v_0$$
(12)
Now, we assume that ball 1 and ball 2 consist of $`N_1`$ and $`N_2`$ particles respectively. For convenience, we denote these particles as $`p_i(i=0,1,\mathrm{},N1)`$. The mass of each $`p_i`$ is denoted by $`M_i=m_0`$, where $`m_0`$ denotes unit mass. Therefore $`m_1=N_1m_0`$, $`m_2=N_2m_0`$, and $`N_1+N_2=N`$. Because of the similarity between Eqs. (7)-(8) and Eqs. (5)-(6), a one-to-one correspondence exists between the amplitude of $`|i>`$ and the velocity of $`p_i`$. All velocities are confined to one straight line because all amplitudes are assumed to be real numbers. The probability of getting $`|i>`$ is analogous to the kinetic energy of $`p_i`$. $`N_1`$ particles in ball 1 and $`N_2`$ particles in ball 2 are analogous to $`N_1`$ basis states in the collective state and $`N_2`$ basis states in the marked state, respectively. Because $`v_c`$ is also represented as $`v_c=(1/N)_{i=0}^{N1}V_i`$, where $`V_i`$ is the velocity of $`p_i`$, it can be concluded that $`v_c`$ is analogous to $`A`$ in Eq.(2). We summarize the above-mentioned correspondences in Table $`1`$.

Table $`1`$: Correspondences between Grover’s search algorithm and classical two-body collisions    Grover’s search algorithm classical two-body collisions    Eqs. (5)-(6) Eqs. (7)-(8)  state $`|i>`$ particle $`p_i`$  amplitude of $`|i>`$ velocity of $`p_i`$  probability of getting $`|i>`$ kinetic energy of $`p_i`$  marked state ball 2  collective state ball 1  A ( average of amplitudes) $`v_c`$ (center of mass velocity )

Initially, two balls move with the same velocity, i.e., all particles move with the same velocity. This is analogous to the initial equal superposition of states in quantum searching. The operation of $`C`$ is analogous to the operation that inverts the velocities of $`N_2`$ particles in ball 2, and leaves particles in ball 1 unaltered. From Eqs. (11) and (12), in the center of mass frame, we find that before the collision, two balls have velocities $`u_0v_c`$ and $`v_0v_c`$; after the collision, their velocities are transformed to $`v_cu_0`$ and $`v_c+v_0`$. This fact means that the velocities are inverted by the collision. In the reference frame of the laboratory, however, the after-collision velocities are $`2v_cu_0`$ and $`2v_c+v_0`$, respectively. Application of the diffusion operator $`D`$, which is also called inversion about average, transforms the amplitudes of the collective state and the marked state from $`a_0`$ and $`b_0`$ to $`2Aa_0`$ and $`2A+b_0`$. Therefore, the similarity between operation of $`D`$ and the collision is obvious.

According to the classical analog of the quantum searching algorithm, we conceive a thought experiment to simulate the algorithm. Ball 1 and ball 2 move rightwards along a horizontal and straight path without friction with the same initial velocity $`u_0=v_0=v`$ as shown in Fig.1a.

In order to invert the velocity, we set an obstacle at the right end of the path. The velocity of ball 2 is inverted but its modulus remains unaltered after it collides with the obstacle. The velocities of the two balls after the collision are $`v`$ and $`v`$ as shown in Fig.1b. This collision is analogous to the operation of $`C`$ used in the quantum searching algorithm. After ball 2 collides with the obstacle, it collides with ball 1. The second collision is analogous to operation by $`D`$. The velocities after this collision are $`u_1`$ and $`v_1`$ as shown in Fig.1c. The two collisions that are analogous to $`C`$ and $`D`$ constitute the complete iteration analogous to $`U`$ used in the quantum searching. There are 3 possible cases after the collision of the two balls: 1) The two balls both move rightwards, 2) ball 1 moves leftwards and ball 2 moves rightwards, and 3) the two balls both move leftwards. In some cases, the next collision of two balls cannot happen after the velocity of ball 2 is inverted again. Because we only are concerned with collisions and have no interest in the positions of the two balls, we can exchange the two balls’ positions or set an obstacle at the left end of the path in order to make the iteration continue. Assuming the two balls have velocities $`u_n`$ and $`v_n`$ after $`n`$ iterations, we obtain the recursion equations in matrix notation

$$\left(\begin{array}{cc}u_{n+1}& \\ v_{n+1}& \end{array}\right)=\left(\begin{array}{cc}\frac{N_1N_2}{N_1+N_2}\hfill & \frac{2N_2}{N_1+N_2}\hfill \\ \frac{2N_1}{N_1+N_2}\hfill & \frac{N_1N_2}{N_1+N_2}\hfill \end{array}\right)\left(\begin{array}{c}u_n\\ v_n\end{array}\right),$$
(13)
by replacing the subscripts 1 and 0 in Eqs.(9) and (10) by $`n+1`$ and $`n`$, respectively, and by using the conditions that $`m_1=N_1m_0`$, and $`m_2=N_2m_0`$. For the quantum system, after $`U`$ is repeated $`n`$ times, the amplitudes in the collective state and marked state are transformed to $`a_n`$ and $`b_n`$. One can directly obtain the recursion equations

$$\left(\begin{array}{c}a_{n+1}\\ b_{n+1}\end{array}\right)=\left(\begin{array}{cc}\frac{N_1N_2}{N_1+N_2}\hfill & \frac{2N_2}{N_1+N_2}\hfill \\ \frac{2N_1}{N_1+N_2}\hfill & \frac{N_1N_2}{N_1+N_2}\hfill \end{array}\right)\left(\begin{array}{c}a_n\\ b_n\end{array}\right)$$
(14)
from Eq.(13), based on the above-mentioned similarities. The initial conditions are $`u_0=v_0=v`$ for Eq.(13), and $`a_0=b_0=1/\sqrt{N}`$ for Eq.(14). The $`2\times 2`$ matrix in Eq.(14) is the product of Grover’s diffusion operator and suitable inversion operator, and is denoted by

$$T=\left(\begin{array}{cc}\frac{N_1N_2}{N_1+N_2}\hfill & \frac{2N_2}{N_1+N_2}\hfill \\ \frac{2N_1}{N_1+N_2}\hfill & \frac{N_1N_2}{N_1+N_2}\hfill \end{array}\right).$$
(15)
We will proceed to solve Eqs.(13) and (14) using linear algebra . One finds that

$$\left(\begin{array}{cc}u_n& \\ v_n& \end{array}\right)=T^n\left(\begin{array}{cc}u_0& \\ v_0& \end{array}\right),$$
(16)
$$\left(\begin{array}{c}a_n\\ b_n\end{array}\right)=T^n\left(\begin{array}{c}a_0\\ b_0\end{array}\right),$$
(17)
where $`n=1,2,\mathrm{}`$. In order to obtain explicit expressions for $`u_n`$, $`v_n`$, $`a_n`$ and $`b_n`$, we transform $`T`$ to the diagonal matrix

$$T_D=S^1TS\left(\begin{array}{cc}\lambda _+& 0\\ 0& \lambda _{}\end{array}\right).$$
(18)
The eigenvalues $`\lambda _\pm `$ of the matrix $`T`$ are the solutions of $`det(T\lambda I)=0`$. They can be expressed as

$$\lambda _\pm =\begin{array}{c}\frac{N_1N_2\pm 2i\sqrt{N_1N_2}}{N_1+N_2}\hfill \end{array}.$$
(19)
$`S`$ and $`S^1`$ are expressed as

$$S=\left(\begin{array}{cc}1& 1\\ i\sqrt{\frac{N_1}{N_2}}& i\sqrt{\frac{N_1}{N_2}}\end{array}\right),$$
(20)
$$S^1=\frac{1}{2}\left(\begin{array}{cc}1& i\sqrt{\frac{N_2}{N_1}}\\ 1& i\sqrt{\frac{N_2}{N_1}}\end{array}\right).$$
(21)
One can easily find that

$$T^n=ST_D^nS^1.$$
(22)
If $`N_2=1`$, and $`N1`$, $`T_D`$ can be expressed as

$$T_D=\left(\begin{array}{cc}e^{i2\theta }& 0\\ 0& e^{i2\theta }\end{array}\right),$$
(23)
using $`\mathrm{tan}2\theta 2\theta `$, where $`\theta \frac{1}{\sqrt{N}}`$. Using Eqs.(20)-(23), one can derive that

$$T^n=\left(\begin{array}{cc}\mathrm{cos}(2n\theta )& \frac{1}{\sqrt{N1}}\mathrm{sin}(2n\theta )\\ \sqrt{N1}\mathrm{sin}(2n\theta )& \mathrm{cos}(2n\theta )\end{array}\right).$$
(24)
Using Eqs.(16), (17) and (24), we obtain the explicit expressions

$$\left(\begin{array}{cc}u_n& \\ v_n& \end{array}\right)=\left(\begin{array}{c}v\frac{\sqrt{N}}{\sqrt{N1}}cos((2n+1)\theta )\\ v\sqrt{N}sin((2n+1)\theta )\end{array}\right),$$
(25)
$$\left(\begin{array}{cc}a_n& \\ b_n& \end{array}\right)=\left(\begin{array}{c}\frac{1}{\sqrt{N1}}cos((2n+1)\theta )\\ sin((2n+1)\theta )\end{array}\right),$$
(26)
noting that $`\mathrm{sin}\theta \frac{1}{\sqrt{N}}`$, and $`\mathrm{cos}\theta \sqrt{\frac{N1}{N}}`$. During the course of collisions, energy is transferred between the two balls through the change of their velocities. Let $`n_0(\pi \sqrt{N}/41/2)`$ be the integer obtained by rounding $`(\pi \sqrt{N}/41/2)`$. When $`n=n_0`$, ball 2 can acquire almost all the mechanical energy of the system. Correspondingly, for the quantum searching algorithm, the amplitude in the marked state can approach 1 if the number of repetitions of $`U`$ is $`n_0`$. The quantum system lies in the marked state if a measurement is made. Our results show agreements with Refs.. We now discuss some related problems based on these discussed similarities.

1.Simulating Grover quantum searching algorithm on a classical system Because $`p_i`$ is analogous to $`|i>`$, a system consisting of $`2^n`$ particles $`p_i(i=0,1,2,\mathrm{},2^n1)`$ can be used to simulate a quantum system that stores $`n`$ qubits of information. For example, if $`m_1=3m_0`$ and $`m_2=m_0`$, the classical system can simulate a two qubit system with $`N_1=3`$, $`N_2=1`$, and $`N=4`$. After exactly one iteration, we find that $`u_1=0`$, $`v_1=2v`$. This result means that ball 2 obtains all the energy of the system, which is analogous to the probability equal to 1 of getting the marked state. Our result is in agreement with the result demonstrated on an NMR quantum computer . If $`m_1=7m_0`$, and $`m_2=m_0`$, the following results are obtained:

$$\left(\begin{array}{c}u_1\\ v_1\end{array}\right)=\left(\begin{array}{c}1/2\\ 5/2\end{array}\right)v,$$
(27)
$$\left(\begin{array}{c}u_2\\ v_2\end{array}\right)=\left(\begin{array}{c}1/4\\ 11/4\end{array}\right)v.$$
(28)
Ball 2 nearly gets the entire energy of the system after 2 iterations. Because mass is continuous, the case where $`m_2=m_0`$, and $`m_1=N_1m_0`$ is equivalent to the case where $`m_2=km_0`$, and $`m_1=kN_1m_0`$ ($`k`$ is a positive integer). The case where $`m_1=3m_0`$, and $`m_2=m_0`$ is analogous to the case where $`N_2=N/4`$ as discussed in Ref. , in which after one iteration, the probability of getting the marked state is 1. If we choose the condition that $`m_1/m_2=p/q`$, where $`q1`$, and $`p`$ and $`q`$ are positive integers with no common factor, we can simulate the quantum search algorithm in the case where the marked state contains multiple basis states, which cannot be realized by NMR .

2. Limits on quantum searching Because the two balls exchange their energy after they collide with each other, neither of them can get all the energy of the system if $`m_1=m_2`$. This case is analogous to the case where the search algorithm is invalid, more specifically, where $`N_1=N_2`$ . We also find that

$$\left(\begin{array}{c}u_1\\ v_1\end{array}\right)=\left(\begin{array}{c}14N_2/N\\ 34N_2/N\end{array}\right)v,$$
(29)
using the initial condition $`u_0=v_0=v`$. Eq.(29) means that if $`N_2>N/4`$, the velocity of ball 1 is inverted after the first iteration. It is possible that the two balls move in the same direction after the velocity of ball 2 is inverted in the second iteration. The energy of ball 2 is reduced after it catches up with ball 1 and collides with it. In this case, the searching algorithm is not efficient .

3.Qualitative discussion of the needed number of iterations Considering the case where $`m_2=m_0`$, $`m_1=(N1)m_0`$. The initial condition is $`u_0=v_0=v`$, and $`N1`$. We obtain $`u_1v`$, and $`v_1=3v`$ after the first iteration. This means that the velocity of ball 2 increases by $`2v`$ and the velocity of ball 1 hardly change in any iteration. The velocity of ball 2 increases by $`2nv`$ after $`n`$ iterations. When $`n\sqrt{N}/2`$, ball 2 gets almost all energy of the system.

Acknowledgement This work is supported by the National Nature Science Foundation of China. We are also grateful to Professor Shouyong Pei of Beijing Normal University for his helpful discussions on the principle of quantum algorithm.


text:
# Enhanced tunneling across nanometer-scale metal-semiconductor interfaces

## Abstract

We have measured electrical transport across epitaxial, nanometer-sized metal-semiconductor interfaces by contacting CoSi2-islands grown on Si(111) with the tip of a scanning tunneling microscope. The conductance per unit area was found to increase with decreasing diode area. Indeed, the zero-bias conductance was found to be $`10^4`$ times larger than expected from downscaling a conventional diode. These observations are explained by a model, which predicts a narrower barrier for small diodes and therefore a greatly increased contribution of tunneling to the electrical transport.

Electrical transport through metal-semiconductor interfaces has received tremendous interest in the past decades, both experimentally and theoretically. Nevertheless, an important shortcoming of existing models is the restriction to infinitely extending interfaces, so that all parameters vary only in the direction perpendicular to the surface. When the interface-size enters the nanoscale regime, many of these models cease to apply. Only a few experiments addressing this topic have been reported. In none of them epitaxial interfaces were used. Scanning tunneling spectroscopy (STS) of metallic clusters on a semiconductor surface has been used to study small metal-semiconductor contacts Carroll et al. (1997). In addition, experiments have been carried out in which the tip of a scanning tunneling microscope (STM) was used to contact a semiconductor surface Avouris et al. (1993); Hasunuma et al. (1998) or a metallic cluster on a semiconductor surface Hasegawa et al. (1999) to form a small Schottky contact. Various deviations from the large-diode models were revealed, e.g. enhanced conductance, which was interpreted as a lower effective barrier. Besides the work that addresses a single small diode directly, measurements have been carried out on many small diodes in parallel Doniach et al. (1987); Yang et al. (1997).

In this paper, we present measurements of electrical transport through an epitaxial, nanometer sized metal-semiconductor interface. We argue that the observations can be explained by a simple model for the Schottky barrier thickness in metal-semiconductor interfaces smaller than the free-carrier screening length (Debye length, $`L_\mathrm{D}`$). Our model predicts an interface-size dependent barrier thickness, leading to greatly enhanced tunneling in small Schottky diodes. The CoSi2/Si(111)-interface used in our experiments is among the few metal-semiconductor interfaces of which reliable Schottky barrier height (SBH) values exist, mainly because it can be grown as a virtually perfect, abrupt, epitaxial interface Tung (1992a). The SBH in this system is 0.67 eV (for n-type Si) and has been measured with various techniques Tung (1992a); Kaiser et al. (1991); von Känel et al. (2000). It is therefore a nearly ideal system to study electrical properties of metal-semiconductor interfaces and has been intensely used for that purpose.

Both in our model and in the analysis of the measurements, the SBH will be considered as a given quantity, because of the well-determined character of the CoSi2-Si(111) interface. We do not expect that ultra-small-size effects as reported in Ref. Landman et al., 2000 play a role here, due to the semi-infinite extension of the semiconductor in our experiment. The focus will be on the size and shape of the space charge region in the semiconductor. The resulting band bending gives in general rise to a potential barrier in the semiconductor, the shape of which is very important as it determines the conductance due to the various transport mechanisms (e.g. thermionic emission, tunneling) across the interface.

In a large diode (an infinite metal-semiconductor interface) the extent of the space charge layer in the semiconductor that compensates the surface charge in the metal is set by the concentration of free carriers and doping atoms. The width of this space charge layer (and thus the thickness of the barrier) is therefore generally proportional to $`L_\mathrm{D}=\sqrt{ϵkT/[e^2(n+p)]}`$, where $`n`$ and $`p`$ are the free electron and hole concentrations, respectively.

For diodes of finite size, the barrier can be much narrower. This is because any charged object (here the metallic side of the interface) with effective size $`a`$ at potential $`V_0`$ with respect to infinity gives rise to a potential that drops as $`VV_0(a/r)`$ when the distance $`ra`$. Therefore the barrier thickness will be at most a few times $`a`$, even in the absence of free charge carriers. If there are free carriers they can only make this barrier narrower—in the same way as with the large diode—by depletion or accumulation close to the interface. If, however, the interface size is much smaller than $`L_\mathrm{D}`$, this additional screening can be completely neglected. In the remainder of this paper, we use the terms “large” and “small” for diodes of which the interface size is larger or smaller than $`L_\mathrm{D}`$, respectively. The crossover to this new regime of small diodes is visualized in Fig. 1, with parameters similar to those in the experiments. This figure is based on numerical solutions of the Poisson-equation in silicon for various interface diameters.

The main consequence for electrical transport is, that the narrow barrier in small diodes can make tunneling the dominant transport mechanism (instead of thermionic emission) even at very low doping levels.

Note that our description of small diodes has some similarity to that of SBH-inhomogeneities in large diodes as analyzed by Tung Tung (1992b). There, the effect of small patches with lower SBH on the space charge region is found to extend for only a few times the size of these patches.

All experiments were performed in an UHV system with a base pressure of $`510^{11}`$ mbar. About 0.3 monolayers of Co atoms were evaporated onto a clean, $`7\times 7`$-reconstructed Si(111) surface which was held at room temperature. Then the sample was subsequently annealed at $`500^{}`$C and $`800^{}`$C, both for about 5 min, so that hexagon-shaped epitaxial CoSi2-islands were formed (Fig. 2(a), inset) 111It must be mentioned that the CoSi2-islands grow *into* the substrate. However, the three occurring CoSi2/Si(100)-facets Ilge (2000) do have the same SBH as the CoSi2/Si(111) interfaces Tung (1984); Zhu et al. (2000).. The height of the islands ranged from 2–4 nm (with respect to the silicon surface), while the diameters were in the range 15–30 nm. The inter-island distances were much larger than the island diameters. Next, the Si-surface reconstruction was destroyed by exposing the surface to atomic hydrogen for 10 min, while the surface was held at $`400^{}`$C. The samples used were n-type doped with resistivities of $`10\mathrm{\Omega }`$cm and $`0.01\mathrm{\Omega }`$cm, respectively. After preparation, the surface was inspected with an STM. The $`IV`$-measurements were done (at room temperature) by positioning the STM-tip over an island and lowering it by a distance $`\mathrm{\Delta }z`$, sufficient to make contact to the island (with feedback loop switched off). Then the current was measured while ramping the voltage. The value of $`\mathrm{\Delta }z`$ was determined by lowering the tip at a fixed bias and measuring the current. After the expected, initial exponential increase, the current reached a constant, maximum value when it was lowered by $`9`$Å. To ensure good contact, in all $`IV`$-measurements $`\mathrm{\Delta }z=15`$Å was used.

The $`IV`$-measurements did hardly deteriorate the imaging quality of the STM-tip (Fig. 2(a), inset) and showed excellent reproducibility when repeated on the same island. The advantage of this type of measurement (as compared to the usual STS) is that the measurements are not dominated by the properties of the vacuum-gap, but instead it is possible to directly probe the properties of the buried metal-semiconductor interface. The electrochemically etched tungsten STM-tips were prepared to be contaminant and oxide-free by in situ annealing and self-sputtering with Ne. Since both CoSi2 and the tip are metallic, no barrier at the tip-island interface is expected. Furthermore, the resistance of the back-contact on the sample was measured to be at most a few k$`\mathrm{\Omega }`$. Therefore, we can be sure that we are really probing the properties of the island-substrate interface.

From our measurements we learned that the nature of the surface reconstruction (Si-$`7\times 7`$ or Co-induced $`1\times 1`$) surrounding the islands greatly influenced the acquired $`IV`$-curves, presumably because of surface conduction Hasegawa et al. (1996) or environmental Fermi-level pinning resulting in additional band bending. For this reason the surface reconstruction was first destroyed by exposing it to atomic hydrogen, as described before. This procedure always led to a decreased conductance, apparently cutting off a surface-related transport channel.

Although the size of our islands is limited to approximately 15–30 nm (due to the used growth mode), both the small and the large diode regime can be addressed by varying the doping level. Indeed, on the $`10\mathrm{\Omega }`$cm substrate, where the doping level predicts a screening length of $`1\mu `$m, we are far into the small-diode regime. On the $`0.01\mathrm{\Omega }`$cm substrate (screening length $`10`$ nm) we are just at the other side of the crossover.

It turned out to be impossible to fit our $`IV`$-data of the small diodes to the standard diode equation $`I[\mathrm{exp}(eV/kT)1]`$, even at small bias. This is a first hint that the dominant transport process is not thermionic emission, here. A further clear indication of the special behavior of small diodes is the much higher conductance than expected from downscaling a conventional diode. The inset of Fig. 2(b) shows a typical $`IV`$-curve acquired on a small diode ($`10\mathrm{\Omega }`$cm substrate). The specific contact resistance $`R_\mathrm{c}`$ (the zero-bias differential resistance multiplied by the island area) for this measurement is $`110^2\mathrm{\Omega }`$cm2, which is $`10^4`$ times lower than for conventional diodes with a barrier height of $`0.67`$ eV Sze (1981); Zhu et al. (2000). Considering the facts that in a conventional diode on a $`10\mathrm{\Omega }`$cm substrate $`J_{\mathrm{th}}/J_\mathrm{T}`$ (ratio of thermionic and tunnel current) is expected to be $`10^{10}`$ Chang and Sze (1970) and that $`J_{\mathrm{th}}`$ is independent of the barrier thickness, the total current increase requires an increase of the tunnel current by a striking factor of $`10^{14}`$. Such a large increase can reasonably well be explained by a considerably reduced barrier thickness. Besides, pure thermionic emission would lead to a saturation current at positive sample bias of approximately $`110^7`$ nA for this SBH Sze (1981), while the observed current was much larger. This also indicates the presence of an important, additional conduction path. Note that it is not necessary to assume a *lower* SBH to explain our data.

To further test our hypothesis, the dependence of the (small-bias) conductance on the island area was measured. The large diodes ($`0.01\mathrm{\Omega }`$cm substrate) behaved as expected: the barrier thickness is fixed by $`L_\mathrm{D}`$, so that a larger diode area leads straightforwardly to a larger conductance (see Fig. 2(a)). The observed scaling is not linear, which is presumably due to the contribution of the edges, which are not included in our simple model. The measurements in Fig. 2(b) show that in small diodes the conductance *per unit area* decreases with increasing diode area. This is fully consistent with our model, which predicts a thicker barrier for larger interfaces.

Finally, we want to mention the behavior of small diodes at large bias. In conventional diodes, the current saturates at reverse bias. At forward bias, after the initial exponential increase, the current is limited by the serial resistance of the bulk semiconductor. In small diodes, the situation is completely different, so that it might even reverse the expected diode operation (see Fig. 2(b), inset, where the current at forward (negative) bias is smaller than at reverse bias) 222It has been reported that a significant amount of acceptor-like impurities can be incorporated in the top layer of the substrate during sample flashing at $`1200^{}`$C in UHV Liehr et al. (1987), effectively reversing the doping to p-type in (initially) n-type low-doped samples. Nevertheless, the concentration of these possible p-type dopants is expected to be so low that it does not affect our main arguments.. We found that the observed behavior can be explained qualitatively by considering the small diode as a ballistic point contact and furthermore by taking into account Fowler-Nordheim tunneling from the diode’s edges at positive sample bias.

In conclusion, we have measured electrical transport through epitaxial nanometer scale metal-semiconductor interfaces. Both the observed high zero-bias conduction and the dependence of the zero-bias conduction on the diode area support our model for the extent of the space charge region for interface sizes smaller than the free carrier screening length. This phenomenon provides a way to tune the Schottky barrier thickness lithographically for a fixed doping concentration, which can be useful in making tunnel contacts.

We wish to thank J. Caro for detailed discussions concerning this work and W.J. Eijsenga and W. Crans for granting us access to their “Avant! Medici” device simulation software. One of us, S. R., wishes to acknowledge fellowship support from the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences.


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# Contents

## 1 Introduction

### 1.1 New vacuum condensates in QCD

One of the well-known examples of vacuum condensate in QCD is the quark condensate (of mass dimension 3) for light quarks:

$$0|\overline{q}q|00,$$
(1.1)
which implies the generation of the constituent quark mass associated with the spontaneous breaking of the chiral symmetry. Another example is the gluon condensate (of mass dimension 4):

$$0|\alpha _s(_{\mu \nu }^A)^2|00,$$
(1.2)
which implies the existence of non-perturbative vacuum as suggested from the identity derived from the trace anomaly:

$$0|T_\mu ^\mu |0=\frac{\beta (\alpha _s)}{4\alpha _s}0|(_{\mu \nu }^A)^2|0,$$
(1.3)
where $`T_\mu ^\mu `$ is the trace of the energy-momentum tensor $`T_{\mu \nu }`$ and $`\beta (\alpha _s)`$ is the renormalization group beta function with $`\alpha _s:=\frac{g^2}{4\pi }`$. The RHS of (1.3) is negative for the asymptotically free theory characterized by the negative beta function $`\beta (\alpha _s)<0`$ when $`0|(_{\mu \nu }^A)^2|0>0`$. Hence, the vacuum with a non-vanishing gluon condensate is more stable than the perturbative vacuum with $`0|T_\mu ^\mu |0=0`$.

Recently, two kinds of vacuum condensate of mass dimension 2 have been proposed independently. The first one is the ghost condensation (in the Maximal Abelian gauge)

$$0|i\overline{C}^aC^a|00,$$
(1.4)
where the index $`a`$ runs over the off-diagonal components only. The second one is the gluon condensation (in the Lorentz gauge)

$$0|𝒜_\mu ^A𝒜_\mu ^A|00.$$
(1.5)
### 1.2 Physical implications of vacuum condensate of mass dimension 2

The non-vanishing vacuum condensates of mass dimension 2 imply the existence of effective gluon mass and ghost mass. This suggests the existence of mass gap in Yang-Mills theory.

Moreover, the vacuum condensates of mass dimension 2 imply the existence of the linear potential at short distance in the static quark potential:

$$V(r)=C_F\frac{\alpha _s(r)}{r}+\sigma _sr,$$
(1.6)
where $`C_F=\frac{N_c^21}{2N_c}`$ and the string tension $`\sigma _s`$ is proportional to the vacuum condensate of mass dimension 2, e.g., for the Landau gauge in the Lorentz gauge fixing,

$$\sigma _sg_R^2[𝒜_\mu 𝒜_\mu ]_R.$$
(1.7)
This should be compared with the conventional linear potential which is expected to hold in the long distance,

$$V(r)=\sigma _lr.$$
(1.8)
This suggests the existence of a short confining string which is compatible with the asymptotic freedom. The available data of numerical simulations are not inconsistent with an observation,

$$\sigma _s\sigma _l.$$
(1.9)
In the short distance, the coupling constant is small due to asymptotic freedom and hence it is possible to perform the reliable calculation. Therefore, it is expected that quark confinement might be derived by extrapolating the short distance result to the long distance.

Another advantage of this approach is that we can discuss the direct connection between the topologically non-trivial field configuration (monopole, instanton, meron, etc.) and the non-vanishing vacuum condensate. Even in the short distance (or high energy), a non-perturbative phenomenon is expected to occur (Note that the linear potential can not be derived in the perturbative expansion).

### 1.3 Questions

For the validity of the above scenario, we must answer the following questions.

1. The composite operators $`𝒜_\mu ^2`$ and $`\overline{C}C`$ are neither gauge invariant nor BRST invariant. Is there any physical meaning for such condensates?
2. Does the QCD vacuum really favor the vacuum condensate of mass dimension 2?
3. How does the existence of vacuum condensate affect the various physical quantities in QCD?

## 2 Manifestly Lorentz covariant formulation of Yang-Mills theory (Review)

We analyze the Yang-Mills theory in the continuum formulation, not on the lattice. Therefore, we begin with the manifestly Lorentz covariant formulation of Yang-Mills theory. This material is well known and hence the details are omitted. See the text book of quantum field theory. The generating functional is given by

$$Z[J,K]:=𝒟\mathrm{\Phi }e^{iS[\mathrm{\Phi }]}$$
(2.1)
where $`\mathrm{\Phi }=\{𝒜_\mu ,𝒞,\overline{𝒞},\}`$ and

$`S[\mathrm{\Phi }]`$ $`=S_{YM}^{tot}+S_J+S_K,`$ (2.2)
$`S_{YM}^{tot}:={\displaystyle \frac{1}{4}}_{\mu \nu }^{\mu \nu }i𝜹\left(\overline{𝒞}\left(^\mu 𝒜_\mu +{\displaystyle \frac{\alpha }{2}}\right)\right),`$
$`S_J:={\displaystyle d^4x\left[J^\mu 𝒜_\mu +J_C𝒞+J_{\overline{C}}\overline{𝒞}+J_B\right]},`$
$`S_K:={\displaystyle d^4x\left[K^\mu 𝜹𝒜_\mu +K_C𝜹𝒞\right]},`$
where $`𝜹`$ is the BRST transformation, $`S_J`$ is the source term for the elementary field and $`S_K`$ is the source term for the BRST transformed field.

## 3 The Slavnov-Taylor identity

The BRST invariance of the theory is translated into a set of identities for Green’s functions, the so-called the Slavnov-Taylor (ST) identities. The ST identity is written in terms of the generationg functional of the connected Green functions and that of the 1PI Green functions. An important consequence of the ST identity is that the vacuum polarization tensor of the gluon is transverse.

## 4 Choice of gauge fixing

By imposing a gauge fixing condition, the original local gauge symmetry $`G_{local}`$ is broken down to the residual local gauge symmetry $`H_{local}`$.

1. Lorentz gauge $`^\mu 𝒜_\mu =0`$: $`G_{local}`$ is completely broken by the gauge fixing condition, $`G_{local}H_{local}=\{\mathrm{}\}`$. However, $`G_{global}`$ remains unbroken, $`G_{global}G_{global}`$.
2. Maximal Abelian (MA) gauge: $`G_{local}`$ is partially broken by the MA gauge fixing condition for the off-diagonal components, $`G_{local}H_{local}`$ where $`H_{local}`$ is the maximal torus subgroup of $`G_{local}`$. At the same time, $`G_{global}`$ is also broken explicitly, $`G_{global}H_{global}`$. See  for details.

## 5 Mass gap in quantum Yang-Mills theory

The classical Yang-Mills theory is a massless and scale-invariant gauge theory. In fact, the mass term $`\frac{1}{2}M^2𝒜_\mu ^2`$ breaks the gauge invariance explicitly.

The quantum Yang-Mills theory is expected to have a nonvanishing effective mass. This is due to the dimensional transmutation from the dimensionless parameters, $`g`$ (coupling constant) and $`N_c`$ (number of color), to the dimensionful scale $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$. Hence, non-zero mass $`M`$ proportional to the intrinsic scale $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ is possible in quantum Yang-Mills theory. How to derive the mass theoretically?

1) The introduction of mass term by hand breaks the BRST invariance as well as the local gauge invariance explicitly.

2) The introduction of Higgs scalar field can generate the mass through the non-vanishing vacuum expectation value of the Higgs field. However, this procedure alters the theory by adding extra scalar field. The theory is no longer QCD.

3) We examine the possibility of the dynamical mass generation.

In view of this, we propose a linear combination of composite operators of mass dimension 2:

$$𝒪=\frac{1}{\mathrm{\Omega }}d^4x\mathrm{tr}\left[\frac{1}{2}𝒜_\mu (x)𝒜^\mu (x)+\alpha i\overline{𝒞}(x)𝒞(x)\right].$$
(5.1)
where the trace is taken over the broken generators by the gauge fixing. This operator is shown  to be BRST and anti-BRST invariant, since

$$𝜹𝒪=\frac{1}{\mathrm{\Omega }}d^4x^\mu \mathrm{tr}(𝒜_\mu 𝒞)=0.$$
(5.2)
In the Lorentz gauge, the Landau gauge $`\alpha =0`$ is a fixed point under the renormalization. Therefore, the gluon composite operator is a meaningful quanity,

$$𝒪=\frac{1}{\mathrm{\Omega }}d^4x\mathrm{tr}\left[\frac{1}{2}𝒜_\mu (x)𝒜^\mu (x)\right].$$
(5.3)
This is also gauge invariant. Therefore, the Landau gauge is a very economical gauge in the Lorentz gauge.

On the other hand, this is not the case for the MA gauge, since $`\alpha =0`$ is not a fixed point in the MA gauge. Therefore, in the MA gauge, we need to consider the full combination (5.1), see .

## 6 Operator product expansion

The operator product expansion for the gluon propagator (2-point function) $`(G^{AB})(p):=0|T[\overline{𝒞}^A(p)𝒞^B(p)]|0`$ has been calculated:

$`(G^{AB})^1(p)`$ $`=\delta ^{AB}p^2+\mathrm{\Pi }^{AB}(p),`$ (6.1)
$`\mathrm{\Pi }^{AB}(p)`$ $`={\displaystyle \frac{N_cg^2}{4(N_c^21)}}\left[(𝒜_\mu ^A)^2+O\left(1/p^2\right)\right].`$
Owing to gluon condensation of mass dimension 2, we find that all the gluons acquire the nonvanishing effective mass as

$$m_A^2=\frac{N_c}{4(N_c^21)}g^2𝒜_\mu ^A𝒜_\mu ^A,$$
(6.2)
whereas all the ghost acquire the effective mass as

$$m_C^2=\frac{N_c}{4(N_c^21)}g^2𝒜_\mu ^A𝒜_\mu ^A.$$
(6.3)
Remarkably, the nonvanishing mass obtained for $`\alpha =0`$ in this way does not break the BRST symmetry, since the vacuum polarization tensor is transverse and the ST identity is always satisfied. However, the effective mass is gauge parameter dependent.

Moreover, the OPE of the three-gluon vertex (3-point function) shows that the vacuum condensate of mass dimension 2 yields the UV corrections $`\mathrm{\Lambda }^2/Q^2`$ in the QCD running coupling constant $`\alpha _s(Q^2)`$:

$$\alpha _s(Q^2)=\alpha _s(Q^2)_{pert}\left[1+\frac{g_R^2𝒜_\mu ^2_R}{4(N_c^21)}\frac{9}{Q^2}+O(\alpha )\right].$$
(6.4)
Such a correction for the coupling constant  leads to a piece of the linear potential $`\sigma _sr`$ at short distances $`r0`$ in addition to the usual Coulomb-like potential $`C_F\frac{\alpha _s(r)}{r}`$ with $`C_F=\frac{N_c^21}{2N_c}`$. Here the string tension of the short-distance linear potential is proportional to the the gluon condensate of mass dimension 2:

$$\sigma _sg_R^2𝒜_\mu ^2_R.$$
(6.5)
The RHS of this equation is BRST and anti-BRST invariant (A special case $`\alpha =0`$ of the operator $`𝒪`$). So is the LHS of the string tension of the short string. This argument suggests that the quark confinement is already intertwined in the UV region of QCD. Thus it is expected that the linear potential or the area law of the Wilson loop at short distances $`r1`$ could well be extrapolated to large distances $`r1`$ by including higher-order corrections up to a desired order.

In the MA gauge, the OPE has been calculated to the lowest order, see .

## 7 Effective action and potential of composite operator

In order to show that the QCD vacuum favors the vacuum condensation of mass dimension 2, we proceed to calculate the effective potential of the composite operator of mass dimension 2.

In the course of calculation, we must take account of

1. renormalization of elementary fields:

$`𝒜_\mu =Z_A^{1/2}𝒜_\mu ^R,𝒞=Z_C^{1/2}𝒞^R,\overline{𝒞}=Z_C^{1/2}\overline{𝒞}^R,=Z_A^{1/2}^R,`$ (7.1)
$`g=Z_A^{3/2}Z_1g^R,\alpha =Z_A\alpha ^R,`$
$`K_\mu =Z_C^{1/2},K_C=Z_A^{1/2}K_C^R.`$
2. renormalization of composite operators: For the composite operator, there is an additional divergence which cannot be removed by the renormalization constant $`Z`$ of the elementary field. For example,

$$[𝒜_\mu ^2]_R=Z_2𝒜_\mu ^2.$$
(7.2)
3. renormalization of vacuum energy divergence: If we include a source term $`\omega 𝒪=\frac{1}{2}\omega 𝒜_\mu ^2`$, there appears a quadratic divergence in $`\omega `$ (This is a quartic divergence, since $`\omega `$ is of mass dimension 2). Therefore, we need a counterterm proportional to $`\omega ^2`$, which spoils an energy interpretation. (Moreover, the presence of ultraviolet renormalon implies Borel non-summability.)
4. operator mixing: Given a source term $`\omega _i𝒪_i`$ for a composite operator $`𝒪_i`$, the renormalization of $`𝒪_i`$ is given by a linear combination of other composite operators, $`\mathrm{\Delta }𝒪_i=Z_{ij}𝒪_i`$.

A correct way of introducing the composite operator $`𝒪_i`$ is as follows.

$`Z[J,K,\omega ]`$ $`:={\displaystyle 𝒟\mathrm{\Phi }e^{iS[\mathrm{\Phi }]}},`$ (7.3)
$`S[\mathrm{\Phi }]`$ $`=S_{YM}^{tot}+S_J+S_K+{\displaystyle d^4x\left[\omega _iQ_{ij}𝒪_j+\frac{1}{2}\omega _iG_{ij}\omega _j\right]}.`$
where we have introduced the source $`\omega _i`$ for the composite operator $`𝒪_i`$ and the quadratic term in $`\omega `$ to absorb the vacuum energy divergence. Inserting an unity,

$$1=N𝒟\rho _i\mathrm{exp}\left\{id^4x\frac{1}{2}(\rho Q𝒪G\omega )^{}G^1(\rho Q𝒪G\omega )\right\},$$
(7.4)
we arrive at

$$Z[J,K,\omega ,L]:=𝒟\mathrm{\Phi }𝒟\rho _ie^{i(S_{YM}^{tot}+S_J+S_K+S_\rho +S_\omega +S_L)},$$
(7.5)
where

$`S_\rho `$ $`:={\displaystyle d^4x\frac{1}{2}(\rho Q𝒪)^{}G^1(\rho Q𝒪)},`$ (7.6)
$`S_\omega `$ $`:={\displaystyle d^4x\omega \rho },`$
$`S_L`$ $`:={\displaystyle d^4xL𝜹\rho }.`$
Thus, the term $`\frac{1}{2}\omega _iG_{ij}\omega _j`$ quadratic in $`\omega `$ is cancelled to make the energy interpretation possible. The term $`\omega _iQ_{ij}𝒪_j`$ was replaced by $`\omega _i\rho _i`$.

The generating functional $`W`$ of the connected Green function is defined by

$$W[J,K,\omega ,L]=i\mathrm{ln}Z[J,K,\omega ,L].$$
(7.7)
By the Legendre transformation, the effective action, i.e., the generating functional of the one-particle irreducible (1PI) Green function is given by

$$\mathrm{\Gamma }[\underset{¯}{\mathrm{\Phi }},\underset{¯}{\rho };K,L]:=W[J,K,\omega ,L]d^4x[J\underset{¯}{\mathrm{\Phi }}+\omega \underset{¯}{\rho }].$$
(7.8)
The effective potential for the composite operator is obtained by

$$\mathrm{\Gamma }[\underset{¯}{\mathrm{\Phi }}(x)=0,\underset{¯}{\rho }(x)=\sigma ,K=0,L=0]=V(\sigma )d^4x.$$
(7.9)
## 8 Gluon condensation occurs!

For simplicity, we adopt the Landau gauge $`\alpha =0`$ in the Lorentz gauge fixing $`^\mu 𝒜_\mu =0`$. The renormalization factors for the elementary field are well known. In the Landau gauge, there is no operator mixing for the composite operator $`𝒪=\frac{1}{2}𝒜_\mu 𝒜^\mu `$. In the MS scheme of the dimensional regularization, the renormalization factor of the composite operator is calculated as

$$Z_2=1\frac{3}{2}\frac{g^2N_c}{16\pi ^2}ϵ^1+\mathrm{}.$$
(8.1)
with $`ϵ=4D`$. The counterterm of the vacuum energy divergence is calculated:

$$\delta G=3\frac{N_c^21}{16\pi ^2}ϵ^1+\mathrm{}.$$
(8.2)
There is an arbitrary parameter $`G`$. We identify $`G`$ with a function of $`g`$ and we choose $`G`$ to be a unique meromorphic function of $`g^2`$ with a Laurent expansion around $`g^2=0`$:

$$G(g^2)=\frac{c_1}{g^2}+c_0+c_1g^2+\mathrm{}.$$
(8.3)
The coefficients $`c_n`$ can be determined so as to satisfy the renormalization group equation derived by requiring the multiplicative renormalizability.

The one-loop calculation of the effective potential $`V(\sigma )`$ shows that the potential has an absolute minimum at non-zero $`\sigma `$, $`\sigma =\sigma _0`$. This implies that the gluon condensation of dimension 2 takes place and that the gluon acquires the effective gluon mass given by

$$M^2=\mu ^2\mathrm{exp}\left\{\frac{16\pi ^2}{\frac{13}{6}N_cg^2}\right\}.$$
(8.4)
This form with an essential singularity at $`g=0`$ can not be obtained by the perturbative expansion up to a finite order, since all the coefficient of the Taylor expansion vanish at $`g=0`$. Two-loop calculation also supports the gluon condensation. See  for two-loop results.

## 9 Gauge parameter dependence and the Nielsen identity

By applying the Nielsen identity to our theory, we can conclude that the non-vanishing vacuum energy $`E_{vac}=V(\sigma _0)`$ due to vacuum condensate of mass dimension 2 is independent of the gauge fixing parameter $`\alpha `$, i.e., $`\frac{}{\alpha }V(\sigma _0)=0`$ when $`V^{}(\sigma _0)=0`$. Therefore, we can estimate the gluon condensation of mass dimension 4 based on the identity (1.3):

$$\frac{\alpha _s}{\pi }^2=\frac{32}{11}E_{vac}0.0031\text{(GeV)}\text{4},$$
(9.1)
where we have used $`T_\mu ^\mu =4E_{vac}=4V(\sigma _0)`$ and $`\beta (\alpha _s)=\frac{b_0}{2\pi }\alpha _s^2+\mathrm{}(b_0=\frac{11}{3}N_c)`$. Note that the RHS of the identity (1.3) is gauge invariant. The details will be presented in .

## 10 Recent results of Lattice simulations

The vacuum condensate $`A_\mu ^2`$ was searched by fitting the lattice data to the analytical expression obtained from the OPE up to 2-loop and 3-loop. The lattice data are obtained for the gluon propagator $`G^{(2)}(Q)`$ and the running coupling constant $`\alpha _s(Q)`$ defined by the (3-point) gluon vertex based on the MOM scheme. The result of  is as follows.

| $`\sqrt{A_\mu ^2}`$ | 2-loop fit | 3-loop fit |
| --- | --- | --- |
| $`G^{(2)}(Q)`$ | 1.67(17) GeV | 1.55(17) GeV |
| $`\alpha _s(Q)`$ | 3.1(3) GeV | 1.9(2) GeV |
| $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_{\overline{MS}}`$ | 172(15) MeV | 233(28) MeV |

Obviously, the 2-loop fit of the lattice data disagree with each other. The 3-loop fit leads to the nearly equal value for the vacuum condensation. Therefore, they draw a conclusion that the OPE at 3-loop order is reliable and the condensation is given by

$$\sqrt{A_\mu ^2}1.64(15)\text{GeV}.$$
(10.1)
## 11 Conclusion and discussion

In this talk, we have discussed the following issues.

1. We have proposed a vacuum condensate of mass dimension 2 as the origin of mass gap and quark confinement in Yang-Mills theory.
2. We have shown that there is a BRST and anti-BRST invariant combination for manifestly Lorentz covariant gauges. The Landau gauge $`\alpha =0`$ is a very special gauge where we have only to consider the gluon condensate in the Lorentz gauge. This is not the case for the MA gauge. This case is more involved.
3. Existence of such vacuum condensates has been suggested from the OPE calculation of gluon and ghost propagators (2-point functions) and vertex functions (3-point and higher point functions) in the Lorentz and the MA gauge .
4. If the condensation in question really exists, gluons and ghosts acquire the non-zero effective mass. Moreover, there is a linear potential at short distance, leading to a short confining string.
5. It is possible to show that the Yang-Mills vacuum favours the gluon condensation based on the renormalizable effective potential of the composite operator $`\frac{1}{2}𝒜_\mu ^2`$. The loop calculation has been done up to 2-loop order.

In order to obtain the equivalent dual theory to the Yang-Mills theory with an insertion of the Wilson loop operator, we have introduced an antisymmetric (Abelian) tensor field as an auxiliary field of an gauge invariant antisymmetric tensor field which appears in the non-Abelian Stokes theorem for the Wilson loop, see .

At least in the short distance region, the obtained antisymmetric tensor gauge theory can be converted to

1. the dual Ginzburg-Landau theory,
2. magnetic monopole-current theory,
3. the confining string theory

by making use of the duality transformation, as suggested in  and demonstrated in .

The above results are expected to be extrapolated to the long distance by making use of the exact Wilsonian renormalization group method developed recently based on Polchinski’s idea.

For phenomenological investigations on the gluon condensates of mass dimension 2, see  and also  for intimately related topics.111The author would like to thank D. Ebert and Martin Lavelle for bringing his attention to some of these references.


text:
# Electrons as quasi-bosons in magnetic white dwarfs

## 1 Introduction

It has been known for a long time  that certain stars at the end of their life cycle reach an equilibrium where the gravitational compression is balanced by the Fermi degeneracy pressure of the electron gas. These white dwarf stars are theoretically interesting since understanding their stability requires an understanding of gravity, and of a quantum Fermi gas. The stability argument for a white dwarf can be framed in terms of the Fermi energy of the electrons versus their gravitational binding energy. The Fermi energy for a relativistic electron is approximately

$$E_F\frac{\mathrm{}cN^{1/3}}{R}$$
(1)
where $`N`$ is the number of electrons in the object, and $`R`$ is the radius of the object. The gravitational energy per fermion is approximately

$$E_G\frac{GMm_n}{R}$$
(2)
where $`m_n1.67\times 10^{24}`$ g is the nucleon mass, and $`M=Nm_n`$ is roughly the total mass of the star The total energy is then $`E_{tot}=E_F+E_G`$. If the physical constants in $`E_F`$ and $`E_G`$ are such that $`E_{tot}>0`$ then $`E_{tot}`$ can be decreased by increasing $`R`$ and a stable situation is eventually reached where the star is supported by its Fermi degeneracy pressure. If the physical constants in $`E_F`$ and $`E_G`$ are such that $`E_{tot}<0`$ then $`E_{tot}`$ decreases without bound by decreasing $`R`$ and no equilibrium exists. The boundary between these two situations occurs when $`\mathrm{}cN^{1/3}=GNm_n^2`$ which implies a maximum baryon number of $`N_{max}(\mathrm{}c/Gm_n^2)^{3/2}2\times 10^{57}`$ and a maximum total mass of $`M_{max}N_{max}m_n1.5M_{{\scriptscriptstyle }}`$. This simple argument gives an approximation of the Chandrasekhar mass limit for white dwarfs. Crucial to this argument (or more rigorous versions) is that the electrons should behave as fermions in order to give rise to the Fermi degeneracy pressure. In lower dimensional field theories there are examples, such as the sine-Gordon model in one space and one time dimension, where bosonic and fermionic degrees of freedom can be taken as dual or interchangeable . These lower dimensional examples can be extended to $`3+1`$ dimensions . In Abelian and non-Abelian field theories  there are configurations where, through the action of a magnetic field, the statistics of the system can be transformed (i.e. the system can be fermionic even though all the fields involved in its construction are bosonic). There are also certain condensed matter systems, where fermions can be converted into effective fermions or effective bosons. The fractional quantum Hall effect  offers one such example, where electrons in 2D systems in the presence of a large magnetic flux can act as effective fermions  or effective bosons  depending on which picture/approach one uses. Here we look at the possibility that in highly magnetized white dwarfs a similar transformation may occur for some fraction of the electrons of the star. Converting some fraction of the electrons of the star into quasi-bosons would mean that they would no longer be involved in giving rise to the Fermi degeneracy pressure: the $`N`$ in Eq. (1) would be reduced by the fraction of the electrons which are converted to effective bosons. This weakening of the Fermi degeneracy pressure could result in a white dwarf with a mass below the Chandrasekhar limit collapsing into a neutron star. Further, this collapse of an otherwise stable white dwarf to a neutron star, might occur without a supernova. This could offer an explanation for certain pulsar systems which have planets orbiting them . If the neutron star formed via a supernova then the original planets of the progenitor star should have been blown out of the system. Also transforming electrons into quasi-bosons could result in these electrons Bose condensing, which could speed up the cooling rate of the white dwarf.

## 2 Electron field angular momentum in a magnetic white dwarf

In this section we will give a simple picture for how an electron inside a highly magnetized white dwarf can be transformed in an effective boson. We will frame our arguments for this transformation in terms of the field angular momentum of the system rather than the additional phase factor that arises in the exchange of the charge/magnetic flux composites. Various 2D  and 3D  examples have found that both approaches lead to an equivalent understanding of the change in statistics of these composite systems.

The idea that a fermion can be converted to a boson, or a boson into a fermion via a magnetic field, can be found in certain non-Abelian field theories. These examples involve placing a charged particle in the vicinity of one of the finite energy magnetic monopole solutions  which exist in these field theories. This composite of particle plus monopole possesses a field angular momentum which gives the system statistics the opposite of what is naively expected . In the original example of Refs.  both the monopole and charged particle were bosons, while the bound state composite was a fermion. A related phenomenon in 2D was discussed by  where the electric charge combined with a magnetic flux tube quantum to give a composite which had different statistics from naive expectations. For the 2D case one can have objects (anyons) which have statistics that fall anywhere between fermions and bosons . In three spatial dimensions, however, one can show that on topological grounds  only bosons or fermions occur. These arguments leave open the possibility of boson to fermion, or fermion to boson transformations in three spatial dimensions (it is the latter case that we are interested in). Recently this transformation of fermions into composite bosons, or bosons into composite fermions has been experimentally observed in the effectively 2D fractional quantum Hall systems . Since magnetic white dwarfs are 3D objects the fermion to quasi-boson transformation that we are proposing here has more in common with the 3D monopole/charge systems.

Based on these field theory and condensed matter examples we propose that electrons in a highly magnetic white dwarf could be transformed into quasi-bosons via the star’s magnetic field. Specifically the magnetic field could combine with the electric field of the electron to give rise to a field angular momentum. If this field angular momentum is of the correct magnitude (i.e. some half-integer multiple of $`\mathrm{}`$) then the combination of the electrons’ spin plus the field angular momentum will result in an effective boson which will not contribute to the Fermi degeneracy pressure. This would affect the equilibrium of the white dwarf. It would change its mass-radius relationship, so that for a given mass one would have a smaller radius than for a white dwarf with a smaller magnetic field. It might even be possible for such a magnetic white dwarf to collapse into a neutron star despite being below the Chandrasekhar limit.

The angular momentum carried in the electric and magnetic fields can be written as

$$𝐋_{em}=\frac{1}{4\pi c}𝐫\times (𝐄\times 𝐁)d^3𝐫$$
(3)
Now we consider an electron located at the origin in a uniform magnetic field whose direction is taken to define the z-axis. We will assume that near the location of the electron the magnetic field $`𝐁=B_0\widehat{𝐳}`$, where $`B_0`$ is the magnitude of the magnetic field. In a white dwarf the electrons form a conducting gas with a background lattice of the positive nuclei. The electric field of the electron will be screened past a certain distance, $`R_{sc}`$. This screening effect is taken into account by using a Yukawa potential for the electron’s electric field

$$\varphi (𝐫)=\frac{e\mathrm{exp}(r/R_{sc})}{r}$$
(4)
The potential in Eq. (4) gives an E-field of

$$𝐄=\frac{e\mathrm{exp}(r/R_{sc})}{r^2}\left[1+\frac{r}{R_{sc}}\right]\widehat{𝐫}$$
(5)
Carrying out the calculation of the field angular momentum which results from this combination of magnetic and electric fields yields

$$𝐋^{em}=\frac{2eB_0R_{sc}^2}{c}\widehat{𝐳}$$
(6)
The direction of field angular momentum is in the $`\widehat{𝐳}`$ direction, which is determined by the direction of the external magnetic field. Despite the singularity in the Coulomb field of the electron, the net field angular momentum does not diverge. The $`B_0R_{sc}^2`$ part of this expression is proportional to the magnetic flux, $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$ “trapped” by the electron. As will be discussed below $`R_{sc}`$ for a typical white dwarf is in general small – on the order of $`10^{10}`$ cm. Both the spin of the electron and the field angular momentum will be localized within a sphere of radius $`10^{10}`$ cm. Thus it is physically reasonable to view this screened electron plus trapped magnetic flux as a composite system whose total angular momentum is a combination of the electron’s spin plus the field angular momentum – $`L_{tot}=Spin+Field`$. (One can contrast this with the monopole/charge system where the field angular momentum density is not necessarily well localized around the charge and yet is still taken as being part of the total angular momentum of the composite system). If $`L_z^{em}`$ in Eq. (6) takes on some half-integer multiple of $`\mathrm{}/2`$ then the total angular momentum should be that of a boson (such arguments were originally used in  to arrive at the Dirac quantization condition for electric charge). As in the monopole/charge system of Refs. , the electron will behave as an effective boson and not contribute to the degeneracy pressure. A similar picture (i.e. the combining of a field angular momentum with the spin of the electron) was proposed  to give an alternative, complementary picture of the fractional quantum Hall effect where the electrons are transformed into effective fermions by the external field. Here, in contrast, we want the magnetic field magnitude, $`B_0`$, and/or screening distance, $`R_{sc}`$, to take on values which yield $`L_z^{em}=(n+\frac{1}{2})\mathrm{}`$ so that $`L_z^{tot}=L_z^{spin}+L_z^{em}=m\mathrm{}`$ ($`n,m`$ are integers) thus making effective bosons. Highly magnetized white dwarfs can have surface magnetic field strengths up to $`10^8`$ or $`10^9`$ gauss. We are interested in the magnetic field strengths in the interior for which unfortunately there is no direct experimental determination. However, as an estimate we will take the interior field to be two orders of magnitude greater than the surface fields (i.e. interior fields of $`10^{10}`$ or $`10^{11}`$ G). It is not uncommon to postulate interior magnetic fields as large as $`10^{13}`$ G ).

The screening length of the electric field inside a white dwarf can be estimated as

$$R_{sc}=\sqrt{\frac{E_F}{6\pi e^2Zn_0}}$$
(7)
where $`E_F`$ is the Fermi energy, $`n_0`$ the number density of the ions that form the lattice, and $`Z`$ is the number of positive charges of each ion. For these quantities we take the following values which are typical for carbon white dwarfs – $`Z=6`$, $`E_F=0.6\times 10^6`$ ergs, $`n_0=1.7\times 10^{29}`$ cm-3 (this corresponds to an electron number density of $`1.0\times 10^{30}`$ cm-3) – which leads to $`R_{sc}=3.7\times 10^{10}`$ cm. Given this screening length and requiring that $`L^{em}`$ from Eq. (6) equal $`\mathrm{}/2`$ yields $`B_0=3.6\times 10^{11}`$ G. This magnetic field strength is possible in the interiors of highly magnetized white dwarfs . Thus some fraction of the electrons within a highly magnetized white dwarf could be transformed into quasi-bosons in analogy to what occurs in magnetic charge/electric charge composites, or to the quasi-bosons in certain condensed matter systems with strong magnetic fields.

The question that is not addressed in the above analysis is what fraction of the electrons are transformed into quasi-bosons? In the present scenario the field angular momentum needs to take on odd-integer multiples of $`\mathrm{}/2`$ in order to turn the electrons into quasi-bosons. The field angular momentum depends on both the background magnetic field, $`B_0\widehat{𝐳}`$, and the screening distance, $`R_{sc}`$. If one takes these two quantities as varying with position inside the white dwarf, then as one moves around the interior of the white dwarf some regions will have the correct values to $`B_0`$ and $`R_{sc}`$ in order for the transformation to occur. As an illustrative example consider a magnetic white dwarf where it is assumed that $`R_{sc}`$ is constant throughout the star and takes on the value given after Eq. (7) – $`R_{sc}3.7\times 10^{10}`$ cm. Take the magnetic field at the surface to be on the order of $`10^9`$ G and let its magnitude increase linearly with radius, from the surface of the star, to an interior, central value of $`10^{13}`$ G. Taking the radius of the white dwarf to be $`5\times 10^8`$ cm then implies that at a radius of $`4.8\times 10^8`$ cm (i.e. just below the surface) the magnetic field will take on the correct value in order to generate a field angular momentum of $`\mathrm{}/2`$. All the electrons in the spherical shell at this radius will be transformed into quasi-bosons. As one continues further into the star a new radius will be reached where the magnetic field strength will increase to the point that the field angular momentum will become $`3\mathrm{}/2`$ again transforming the electrons into quasi-bosons. Going all the way into the center of the white dwarf one encounters a series of spherical shells where the electrons are changed into effective bosons. The result being that the electron degeneracy pressure is reduced, altering the mass-radius relationship for the star.

Since the magnetic fields discussed here are large relative to those that can be found in a laboratory, one should also ask if quantum modification of the magnetic field strength alter any of the above analysis. If the quantum corrections reduced the magnetic field strength this would tend to increase the point at which the transformation of electrons into quasi-bosons took place. However, for magnetic field strengths on the order of $`10^{15}`$ G one can show  that the quantum corrections are on the order of $`1\%`$. For the magnetic field strengths considered here the quantum corrections can be safely ignored.

## 3 Physical consequences of quasi-bosonic electrons

There are two main physical consequences which could result from the transformation of electrons into bosons. First, as mentioned in the previous sections, the mass-radius relationship would be altered in such a way that the radius would be smaller than what would normally be expected. This decreasing of the radius, due to the transformation of the electrons into effective bosons, is in the opposite direction of another effect of a strong magnetic field. In Ref.  it is shown that for magnetic white dwarfs the pressure of the electron gas is increased through a strong magnetic field, tending to make the radius for a given mass larger than without the magnetic field. However, this effect only starts to become important for magnetic field strengths in the range of $`10^{12}10^{13}`$ G. The magnetic field strengths that transform electrons into effective bosons are one or two orders of magnitude less than this, so that the decrease in radius due to the transformation of the electrons into bosons should begin before the increase in radius due to the mechanism of Ref. . One interesting possible consequence of this weakening of the electron degeneracy pressure through the fermion $``$ boson mechanism, is that it may allow magnetic white dwarfs which are slightly below the Chandrasekhar limit to collapse, without a supernova, into a neutron star. Consider a magnetic white dwarf which is just below the Chandrasekhar limit, and should therefore be stable against further collapse. Take the interior magnetic field of the white dwarf to be in the range of $`10^{12}10^{13}`$ G so that the fermion $``$ bosons transformation could occur in the manner described at the end of the last section (i.e. the magnetic field magnitude varies linearly from its surface value to its interior value so that there will be a series of concentric shells where the electrons become quasi-bosons). The Fermi degeneracy pressure could be reduced enough so that the star’s inward gravitational pressure would be slightly larger, allowing the white dwarf to slowly collapse, without a supernova explosion, into a neutron star. This collapse scenario may offer an explanation of the planet-pulsar systems . In these systems one has up to three planets orbiting a pulsar. If this pulsar formed in a supernova collapse then the initial planets should have been blown out of the system, which is taken to imply that these planets must have formed after the supernova. However, if the original star collapsed slowly due to the fermion $``$ boson transformation, then the current planets might be the original planets of the star.

Second, the cooling period of these magnetic white dwarfs could be accelerated, since the quasi-bosonic electrons could Bose condense. In Ref.  the idea was advanced that certain white dwarfs might be Bose condensed systems, with the positively charged ions being the bosons which are condensing. For an ideal Bose gas the condensation temperature is

$$T_0=\frac{2\pi \mathrm{}^2}{mk}\left(\frac{n}{2.612}\right)^{2/3}$$
(8)
$`k`$ is Boltzmann’s constant and $`n`$ is the number density. When an ideal Bose gas drops below this critical temperature it will Bose condense. Assuming that this is a first order transition  implies that an energy of

$$\mathrm{\Delta }E=LM$$
(9)
is released by the condensation. $`L`$ is the latent heat of condensation and $`M`$ is the total mass of the condensing system. This increases the cooling rate of the star. In Ref.  the condensing particles are the positively charged ions of the white dwarf. This resulted in a condensation temperature from Eq. (8) in the range $`10^410^6`$ K. Using the fermion to boson transformation proposed above one can think to apply this Bose condensation idea to electrons which sit in an appropriately strong magnetic field. Because of the inverse relationship between $`T_0`$ and the mass of the condensing particle in Eq. (8), and since the electron is three to four orders of magnitude lighter than the ions, the critical temperature of these quasi-bosonic electrons to Bose condense is in the range of $`10^710^9`$ K. The Bose condensation of these electrons would occur at much higher temperatures as compared to the condensation of the ions. One might think that the energy released by the electron condensation would be smaller since in this case $`M`$ from Eq. (9) would be the mass of all the electrons which were transformed into quasi-bosons. However, the smaller mass of the electrons relative to the ions is compensated for by the fact that the latent heat of condensation is proportional to $`T_0`$ : $`LT_0`$ (see Ref. ). Since the $`T_0`$ for the quasi-bosonic electrons is increased by the same factor that $`M`$ is decreased, these two effects cancel in the expression for $`\mathrm{\Delta }E`$. One final difference between a Bose condensation of ions versus a Bose condensation of quasi-bosonic electrons, is that for the electrons only those which are transformed will Bose condense, while for the ions they all condense. However the number of electrons is larger than the number of ions (e.g. for a carbon white dwarf there are 6 electrons for every ion), thus even if only some fraction of the electrons are transformed they could nevertheless give a similar contribution to $`\mathrm{\Delta }E`$ as in the ion condensation scheme of Ref. . For the carbon white dwarf example if $`15\%`$ of the electrons are transformed into bosons then the number of quasi-bosonic electrons will be only a little less than the number of ions. Thus the Bose condensation mechanism of Ref.  could be applied to the transformed electrons, but the critical temperature at which Bose condensation occurs would be much higher, because of the smaller electron mass. This would have the effect of accelerating the cooling time for such highly magnetic white dwarfs.

## 4 Discussion

In this paper we have proposed a speculative mechanism whereby some fraction of the electrons within a highly magnetized white dwarf can be transformed by a sufficiently strong magnetic field into effective bosons. The system of an electron placed in a uniform magnetic field has a field angular momentum, whose magnitude is proportional to the strength of the magnetic field and the square of the screening distance of the electric field of the electron. For certain values of the magnetic field and screening distance this field angular momentum can take on half-integer values, which combined with the half-integer spin of the electron leads to the combined object of electron plus trapped magnetic flux having an integer angular momentum. It is postulated that this transforms the electron into a quasi-boson. Similar transformations of fermions into bosons or bosons into fermions via the action of a magnetic field can be found in the charge/monopole systems studied in particle physics  and in the fractional quantum Hall systems in condensed matter physics . There are two physical consequences that could result from turning some of the electrons inside a highly magnetized white dwarf into effective bosons : First, the Fermi degeneracy pressure would be decreased, altering the mass-radius relationship of the white dwarf so that for a given mass the radius would be smaller than if the magnetic field were absent. Such highly magnetic white dwarfs, with quasi-bosonic electrons, might be able to collapse into neutron stars despite being below the Chandrasekhar limit. The second possible physical consequence is a faster cooling rate of such magnetic white dwarfs, via Bose condensation. This is similar to the idea of Ref.  where an accelerated cooling rate was proposed through the Bose condensation of the integer spin nuclei of the white dwarf. The present work differs from this in that the objects which are taken as Bose condensing are the transformed quasi-bosonic electrons.

It would appear that the above mechanism is not applicable to pure, ideal neutron stars. Even though the magnetic field strength of a neutron star can be several orders of magnitude larger than that of a white dwarf, a neutron carries no charge, and therefore no field angular momentum would be generated by placing the neutron in a magnetic field. This of course assumes the approximation of treating the neutron as a fundamental, chargeless object. As one goes to smaller distance/larger energy scales (i.e. as one considers neutron stars with increasing densities) there may be a transition where one needs to describe the matter, not in terms of neutrons, but in terms of a gas of charged quarks. At this point one might again consider applying the mechanism discussed in this paper, but now the magnetic field would be transforming the fermionic quarks into quasi-bosons.

## Acknowledgment

We wish to thank Dr. Fred Ringwald for comments and discussions.

## References