text:
# Magnetic properties of photospheric regions with very low magnetic flux

## 1 Introduction

The study of the quiet Sun magnetism is an open and challenging problem, particularly in the low magnetic flux limit ($``$ 1017 Mx and below). From the observational point of view, two important difficulties must be overcome. First, the polarization signals are weak and therefore close to the noise level. This complicates the analysis of the observations with the currently available diagnostic tools. They employ non-linear least-squares fitting algorithms, which are usually very unstable in this regime. A second difficulty comes from the fact that the magnetic structures cannot be spatially resolved by present-day instrumentation. The measurement of magnetic properties has to be based on modeling. However, without a reliable physical model for the magnetic elements, the inference of atmospheric properties is uncertain. Any sensible diagnostic technique must necessarily rely on a proper understanding of the basic properties of the atmosphere (see, e.g., the discussion in Socas-Navarro 2001). The complication arises because both theoretical and observational arguments indicate that the magnetic field in the quiet solar photosphere may be intermittent with length scales much smaller than the mean free path of the photons (e.g., Sánchez Almeida et al. 1996; Sánchez Almeida 1998; Cattaneo 1999). In this situation the description of the basic properties of the atmosphere is not simple. The radiative transfer becomes non-trivial and absorption and emission must be properly averaged at each spatial point to synthesize spectra (Sánchez Almeida et al. 1996). The acronym MISMA (MIcro-Structured Magnetic Atmosphere) denotes an atmosphere with such small-scale magnetic inhomogeneities.

The problem of inverting Stokes profiles formed in MISMAs was addressed by Sánchez Almeida (1997), who developed an inversion code (IC) using a standard non-linear least-squares algorithm111The term inversion code stands for any procedure aimed at retrieving information on the physical conditions in the solar atmosphere by fitting observed quantities. The Stokes profiles describe the polarization of a spectral line, hence inverting Stokes profiles means inferring physical properties by reproducing the observed line polarization.. This code was applied by Sánchez Almeida & Lites (2000, hereafter SAL) to quiet Sun observations from the Advanced Stokes Polarimeter (Elmore et al. 1992). Since the polarization signal was too weak in most of the points of the observed map, SAL inverted only 15% of surface, where the polarization was above some arbitrary threshold. As a result, they obtained 5200 different model MISMAs that are capable of fitting the observations, even the most strikingly asymmetric ones, within a single framework.

Our work generalizes the study of SAL applying a novel inversion procedure to a larger fraction of the same observed region. By doing so, we extend the original results to weaker and therefore more numerous signals, thus improving the statistical significance of the conclusions. We also demonstrate the feasibility of the new technique to systematically retrieve information on the weak and very asymmetric line polarization produced by the quiet Sun, for which no other technique is available at the moment. The inversion technique is denoted by FATIMA (Fast Analysis Technique for the Inversion of Magnetic Atmospheres), and a brief is provided in §3.1. We begin this work by summarizing the observational material (§2). Then the specificities of the general inversion technique applied to our particular data set are described in §3.2 and §3.3. The main results are pointed out in §4, and their reliability is discussed in §5. Finally, we analyze in §6 the consequences to be drawn from the study.

## 2 Observations

The observations are summarized for the sake of comprehensiveness. Further details can be found in Lites et al. (1996) and SAL. The polarized spectra were gathered with the Advanced Stokes Polarimeter (Elmore et al. 1992; Lites et al. 1993) working on a very quiet 57″$`\times `$ 90″ region near disk center (Fig. 1). Scanning the map with a sampling interval $``$ 0$`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}`$38 required some 9 minutes. Stokes $`I`$, $`Q`$, $`U`$ and $`V`$ profiles of the Fe i lines at 6301.5 Å and 6302.5 Å are available for every spatial position in the mapped region. Various tests indicate that the map reaches an angular resolution of about 1″ . The noise of the Stokes spectra is better than $`10^3I_c`$ , $`I_c`$ being the continuum intensity (see Figs. 2, 3 and 4). The Stokes spectra were corrected for instrumental polarization to a level below the noise (Skumanich et al. 1997). SAL inverted only those points of the region having a maximum Stokes $`V`$ signal above an arbitrary threshold of $`3\times 10^3I_c`$. Some 5200 pixels or 15% of the mapped area satisfy this criterion. In this paper we extend the inversion to the entire map, although our analysis will be restricted to those points where the maximum Stokes $`V`$ signal is at least twice the noise of each particular spectrum. Since the noise of the different spectra varies, this criterion optimizes the number of available spectra for a given signal to noise ratio. The noise is computed in a continuum window where no polarization is expected. We retain approximately 27% of the map for analysis.

## 3 Inverting the Stokes profiles

### 3.1 The inversion code

The Stokes data were inverted using FATIMA (see Socas-Navarro et al. 2001, hereafter SNLAL; Rees et al. 2000; López Ariste 2001). This IC is based on the Principal Component Analysis of the profiles, which extracts the most relevant features present in the spectra and compares them to a database of synthetic profiles. The model atmosphere producing the synthetic profile in the database that is closer to the observed one is chosen as the solution of the inversion.

The main advantages and drawbacks of FATIMA with respect to other inversion procedures are discussed in detail by SNLAL. In particular, there are three important benefits that make it suitable for our purposes here:

1. Since it performs a global search over the whole space of possible models and profiles, FATIMA never settles on secondary minima. In this sense, it is very stable. If a discrepancy between the synthetic and observed profile is found, it must be ascribed to either the adopted physical scenario not being a valid description of the Sun or to the database not sampling the model hyperspace in an adequate manner.
2. As shown in SNLAL, FATIMA is relatively less sensitive to noise than other inversion codes. This is also related to the stability issues discussed above. Inversions based on iterative minimization algorithms are more likely to find secondary minima when faced to profiles with very low signal to noise ratio, like those analyzed in this work.
3. It is extremely fast, which results in the ability to process large data sets in a very short time.

An important point to bear in mind is that FATIMA does not solve the radiative transfer problem, and is therefore not bound to any particular type of model atmosphere. Instead, it simply relies on a precomputed set of models and profiles that are stored in a database. This means that it may be applied to any particular situation, independently of the physical ingredients that need to be taken into account, provided that the database has been constructed in a suitable manner.

### 3.2 The physical scenario

Although the emphasis in SNLAL was given on Milne-Eddington model atmospheres, FATIMA may also be applied to more sophisticated scenarios. One only needs to construct the database using profiles that are consistent with the model assumed. To this aim we used the models obtained by SAL from the MISMA inversion of the points with strongest polarization in the region described in §2.

The MISMA models consist of two magnetic components embedded in a non-magnetic background. The two magnetic components are allowed to have different magnetic field strengths, polarity, mass flows, occupation fractions (fraction of occupied atmospheric volume), etc. These components are not monolithic structures. Instead, they represent the mean properties of a conglomerate of many different very narrow magnetic fluxtubes. The temperature stratification is forced to be the same inside and outside the fluxtubes. This is justified with the argument that the radiative energy exchange becomes an efficient smoothing mechanism that smears out any possible thermal imbalance in seconds (e.g., Spiegel 1957; Kneer & Trujillo-Bueno 1987; Stix 1991). Conservation of mass and magnetic flux is imposed in each magnetic component. Hence the magnetic field becomes weaker as the tubes spread with height, and the velocity amplitudes increase as the density drops. The tubes and the surrounding environment are in horizontal mechanical balance, i.e., at each height the magnetic pressure and gas pressure in the tubes is compensated by the gas pressure of the surroundings. Hydrostatic equilibrium is imposed in order to determine the density stratification of the tubes and the non-magnetic background. Since the velocities inferred from the observations are sub-critical, this should be a fairly good approximation. Finally, magnetic fields are assumed to be vertical, an assumption that does not limit the validity of the models. Should the structure be inclined, it produces the spectrum of a vertical structure except for a multiplying factor of the order of the cosine of the inclination (Sánchez Almeida & Trujillo Bueno 1999).

### 3.3 Application of FATIMA

The vertical magnetic fields in our model atmospheres do not produce linear polarization and therefore we do not consider Stokes $`Q`$ and $`U`$ in the fits.

Some of the techniques given by SNLAL to reduce the dimensionality of the problem are not applicable here because we are not dealing with Milne-Eddington model atmospheres. In particular, the scaling of the source function and the filling factor, which allows the IC to recognize similar profiles with different amplitudes, is not applicable here. For this reason, the database with the original synthetic profiles does not represent a valid statistical description of the whole observation, since it only contains the points with the strongest polarization signals. It exhibits an important bias, and FATIMA will be unable to provide good fits to many profiles. To overcome this difficulty, we have set a global magnetic filling factor as a parameter that affects all MISMA components in the same way. FATIMA selects the model atmosphere in the database producing the synthetic Stokes profiles $`\{I_i,V_i\}`$ that minimizes the residuals

$$\chi ^2=\underset{i}{}\left\{\left[\frac{V_{oi}}{V_o^m}\frac{V_i}{V^m}\right]^2+\left[I_{oi}I_i\right]^2\right\}.$$
(1)
The index $`i`$ varies with wavelength, whereas the set $`\{I_{oi},V_{oi}\}`$ represents the observations. The Stokes $`V`$ profiles, both synthetic and observed, are normalized in equation (1) to their extreme values $`V^m`$ and $`V_o^m`$. The scaling factor is then given by

$$\alpha =V_o^m/V^m.$$
(2)
Once the best fitting profile is found in the database, the filling factor of the individual MISMA components in the original model is multiplied by the global filling factor (2) to render the best fitting model atmosphere.

By accepting such scaling, we assume that the filling factors involved are much smaller than unity, which is the case here. Moreover, it is also assumed that the original spectra inverted by SAL represent an adequate sample of all the line shapes that may be found in the entire map. They only exhibit stronger polarization because, statistically, the magnetic components are present with a larger filling factor in those points. This is a reasonable assumption since the classification into low or high signals carried out by SAL does not obey physical differences, but it results from an arbitrary thresholding relative to the noise of the observations. In addition, the extrapolation is rather modest affecting polarization signals that are at most a factor three weaker than the weakest in the database. If this scaling does a proper job, then the modified version of FATIMA should be able to provide good fits to the observations over the whole map, including the line asymmetries. As we discuss in §4.1, this is indeed the case. All observations are successfully inverted with this scenario, and we are able to obtain a model MISMA for each pixel.

The telluric lines in the observed spectral region were removed from the intensity spectra before proceeding with the inversion. This was accomplished by interpolating between two points far in the wings of these lines. Ideally, these distant points should be in the continuum. In our case, however, the Fe i lines of interest are too close in wavelength, which results in a slight deformation of the Fe line wings. This effect has negligible impact on the inversions, because both the synthetic and the observed profiles have been clipped in exactly the same manner, and also because most of the information retrieved is contained in the Stokes $`V`$ profiles, which are not affected by the telluric lines.

## 4 Results

When FATIMA runs on the observed map, we obtain a model MISMA and a synthetic profile for each pixel. Then we select only those points fulfilling the criterion described in §2 which left approximately 27% of the surface available for study. For all these points we have the variation with height in the atmosphere of the relevant physical parameters (from magnetic fields to temperatures). Some general trends of these properties are described in the forthcoming sections.

### 4.1 Quality of the fits

The overall quality of the fits is very good, in the sense that all observed profiles are well reproduced within the noise level. Figures 2 to 4 show some representative examples of different fits to observations with various signal levels. In particular, the synthetic profiles reproduce all sorts of Stokes $`V`$ asymmetries, a fact already known for the strongest polarization signals analyzed by SAL, but which remains valid for the weak signals studied here. Therefore, the assumption that our database is representative of the whole data except for the effect of a global filling factor, is justified a posteriori (see §3.3).

### 4.2 Magnetic field strength

Figure 5 shows a map of the average unsigned magnetic field strength at the base of the quiet Sun photosphere (i.e., the height where the continuum optical depth at 5000 Å equals unity or the total pressure becomes 1.3 $`\times 10^5`$ dyn cm-2). We represent the mean field strength of the two magnetic components in the resolution element (a density-weighted mean that mimics the result to be obtained if a single field strength were assigned by the IC; see Sánchez Almeida 2000). The network may be easily recognized as patches of strong field whose centers match the signals observed in the magnetogram (Fig. 1). These patches are much larger than their counterpart in the magnetogram, indicating a large decrease of occupation fraction towards the cell interiors (see also Fig. 6). Even outside the network most of the pixels harbor magnetic fields stronger than 1 kG. However, they tend to be slightly weaker than those around network patches. Among the Inter-Network (IN) fields, we find a few intrinsically weak sub-kG fields. The weakest fields tend to appear in the external parts of magnetic structures having larger field strengths, although the converse is not true. Frequently magnetic structures become below the observational threshold with no transition through a weakening of the field strength.

Figure 7 shows the magnetic field strength versus the magnetic flux density of the observation. The latter is defined as the total magnetic flux across the pixel divided by the area of the pixel, and it is supposed to be the quantity shown in magnetograms (e.g. Keller et al. 1994). As one moves towards weak flux densities (i.e., weak polarization signals), the mean field slightly decreases and, simultaneously, the scatter of possible values increases. Still, most pixels show kG fields. We argue in §5 that these field strengths are not an artifact of the inversions but real. However, measurements with the IR Fe i line at 15648 Å convincingly show sub-kG fields associated with the IN fields (see Fig. 7), which leads to the conclusion that both weak and strong fields have to co-exist within regions 1″across. We consider this point in §6 below.

### 4.3 Magnetic flux

Figure 8 shows the total (unsigned) magnetic flux of the region when all those pixels above a given level of Stokes $`V`$ signal are considered. In agreement with SAL, the amount of magnetic flux in the region keeps increasing as the sensitivity improves, with no clear signs of saturation. The total flux of the region in the pixels that we analyze amounts to 4.8 $`\times 10^{20}`$ Mx. The mean flux density, corresponding to the total flux over the total area of the region, is 18 G. If one employs only points outside the network (defined as those with a occupation fraction smaller than 10%), the flux density decreases to 10 G.

These values for the magnetic flux and magnetic flux density are large in various senses. SAL obtained for the same region 3.3 $`\times 10^{20}`$ Mx when only the strongest signals are considered. We gain a factor two in sensitivity which produces a 50 % increase of the magnetic flux. It is clear how the sensitivity of the observation plays a crucial role in the determination of the quiet Sun magnetic flux budget (and therefore the energy budget).

On the other hand, we also computed the flux density of the map from the magnetogram in Figure 1 following the standard procedure to calibrate magnetograms222We use equation (3) below with the derivative computed using the mean Stokes $`I`$ profile observed in the entire region. This leads to a calibration constant of 5145 G per Stokes $`V`$ signal unit.. The total flux thus obtained is 2.0 $`\times 10^{20}`$ Mx, which infra-estimates the flux by a factor 2.4. This deficit can be pinned down to various factors: the saturation of the Fe i 6302.5 Å line whose circular polarization is no longer proportional to the magnetic flux for kG fields (e.g. Stenflo 1973), the weakening of the lines in magnetic concentrations (Harvey & Livingston 1969), but also to the partial cancellation of the existing flux. Two opposite polarities frequently coexist in the resolution elements. Figure 9 shows the fraction of pixels where two opposite polarities in the resolution elements are invoked to reproduce the observed polarization.

The amount of flux in the quiet Sun is also large as compared to the flux observed in active regions during the solar maximum. Should the full Sun be covered by quiet regions like the one we study, the total unsigned flux across the solar surface would be $`10^{24}`$ Mx, which is similar but larger that the magnetic flux during the solar maximum measured with standard low spatial resolution magnetographs (see Schrijver & Harvey 1994, Fig. 3). This fact indicates that taking into account the contribution of the IN fields may be important to evaluate and characterize the flux budget during the cycle, including the evolution with time.

### 4.4 Mass motions

The observed asymmetric Stokes $`V`$ profiles (Figs. 2, 3 and 4) follow from a rather simple velocity field. The magnetic components are embedded in a downflowing non-magnetic environment. The two magnetic components exhibit different motions. One of them is almost at rest and contains most of the magnetized mass. The other one tends to undergo strong downflows.

The distribution of velocities at the height corresponding to the base of the non-magnetic photosphere is shown in Figure 10. It contains the mean and the standard deviation as a function of the flux density. We separate the two components according to the velocities. The mean of the distribution in the slow component (the solid line) is very small for large magnetic flux densities. In fact, it is smaller than the uncertainty given by the absolute wavelength calibration (refer to SAL). The scatter is also small in this region of the diagram. As we move to lower flux densities (say below 10 G), the distribution shifts to negative (upwards-directed) velocities and the scatter increases slightly. The second component (the dashed line) is characterized by important downflows of $``$ 3 km s-1 at this height. Its mean value remains approximately constant over the whole range of flux density values, but in this case the scatter grows significantly when we consider weak signals.

### 4.5 Occupation fraction

Figure 6 shows the occupation fraction, i.e., the fraction of volume in the resolution element occupied by magnetic fields. The map corresponds to the lower photosphere. Occupation fractions span from some 20%, for a few network concentrations, to 0.5%, for the weakest polarizations analyzed here. The mean value for the surface that we analyze is about 4%. If the network concentrations are not considered (a discrimination based on the polarization threshold used in §4.3), it decreases to 3%. If one considers the whole region instead of the 27% having reliable signals, then the magnetic fields that we detect occupy only 1% of the total volume. This figure is a lower limit because it assumes that places with negligible signal contain no magnetic field.

## 5 Reliability of the results

This work employs an unusual method of inversion to analyze low polarization signals. Since the reliability of our conclusions is very much based on the dependability of the inversions, we feel compelled to explain in some detail the studies that give us confidence on the results.

First, we compared the model atmospheres chosen by FATIMA for those points used to produce the database. In 90% of these points, the field strength retrieved by FATIMA differs less than 10% from the value in the database, which proves that the IC is working properly in the five thousand cases where we can test it directly. In particular, it shows that the principal component decomposition of the profiles does not seem to introduce artifacts.

Second, we wondered whether the noise of the observation was too high so that the IC has no information and it assigns model atmospheres at random. Several arguments discard such concern. The probability of finding a given physical property in the whole region is not the same as that obtained from the points in the database. Should atmospheres in the database were chosen at random, the distributions of magnetic field strength, velocities, etc, would have to mimic the original one. However, this is not the case. Magnetic fields are sensibly weaker in the whole region, the fraction of opposite polarities larger, and so forth. Figure 9 shows the fraction of times that FATIMA assigns mixed polarities in the resolution element. It becomes 35% in the weakest signals analyzed here whereas, in average, only 13% of the times such mixed polarities are present in the original database.

Another hint that the IC is not assigning magnetic properties at random can be inferred from Figure 5. Note that neighboring pixels show similar field strengths although the inversions of all of them are independent. Since adjacent pixels show similar profiles, this indicates the IC has been able to distinguish their shapes and separate them.

Third, one of the important conclusions of the work is the ubiquity of kG field strengths even outside the network. Since most of the magnetic fields in the database correspond to kG (SAL, Fig. 14), one naturally wonders whether this bias determines the conclusion. It does not. The database also contains sub-kG fields, but most of the times they are left aside on purpose by the IC. There is enough information in the observed profiles to distinguish between kG and sub-kG fields. Most of the profiles observed in IN regions cannot be produced by sub-kG fields. An example of how the fits worsen if one attempts sub-kG field fittings in a region whose best fit requires kG is shown by Sánchez Almeida (2001), §4. Here we offer a much simpler argument pointing in the same direction. Suppose that the IN fields were covered by intrinsically weak fields of the kind inferred in the IR (Lin & Rimmele 1999; Collados 2001). These fields are weak in two different senses. The radiative transfer can be treated in the so-called weak field approximation, i.e., the Stokes $`V`$ scale with the wavelength derivative of the intensity profile,

$$V(\lambda )=kg_{eff}\lambda _0^2B\frac{dI(\lambda )}{d\lambda },$$
(3)
where $`k`$, $`g_{eff}`$, $`\lambda _0`$ and $`B`$ have their usual meanings (a constant, the effective Landé factor, the mean wavelength of the spectral line, and the longitudinal component of the magnetic field, respectively). On the other hand, the magnetic fields are dynamically weak so that they cannot determine the thermodynamic properties of the atmosphere. This second argument points out that in weak magnetic structures, the thermodynamic properties have to be close to those of the quiet Sun, so that the relative strengths of Fe i 6302.5 Å and Fe i 6301.5 Å are those observed in the quiet Sun. Consequently, for intrinsically weak fields, the Stokes $`V`$ signals have to be given by equation (3), $`I`$ being the quiet Sun spectrum $`I_q`$. Figure 11 shows the product $`g_{eff}dI_q(\lambda )/d\lambda `$. It is clear how the signal to be expected in Fe i 6301.5 Å is much weaker than that in Fe i 6302.5 Å, as it is indeed observed in some places (see Fig. 4). However, observations usually show the two lines with similar degrees of polarization (Fig. 3), proving that the lines are formed outside the weak field regime, which corresponds to kG. Figure 12 displays the scatter plot of the maximum Stokes $`V`$ signals observed in the two Fe i lines employed in the study. Note how most of them appear clearly above the line corresponding to weak fields, as deduced from the derivatives in Figure 11. In short, despite the uncertainties of the inversion, the presence of kG fields in the IN is a solid result.

## 6 Conclusions

We investigate the properties of quiet Sun regions having very small magnetic flux (down to the smaller that we can detect, equivalent to a few times 1016 Mx; see Fig. 7 and Fig. 10). These regions, frequently referred to as “non-magnetic” regions, occupy most of the solar surface and therefore they may easily contain a sizeable fraction of the photospheric magnetic flux and energy (e.g., Stenflo & Lindegren 1977; Yi et al. 1993; Sánchez Almeida 1998). Both observations and theory suggest that the fields of the quiet Sun have a very complex topology (e.g. Cattaneo 1999; SAL), which hinders an easy detection. The tangling of field lines cancels to a large degree the polarization that would reveal the presence of magnetic structures333Either as a true cancellation of the Zeeman-induced polarization, or due to the intrinsic weakness of the scattering polarization signals used to infer magnetic fields via the Hanle effect.. Many of the weakest signals appear in the network cell interiors; the so-called Intra-Network fields (IN). Although the first detections of weak IN fields date back to the seventies (Livingston & Harvey 1971; Livingston & Harvey 1975; Smithson 1975), we still have a very rudimentary knowledge of their basic properties. Low angular resolution magnetograms have provided information on their apparent shapes, magnetic fluxes and macroscopic motions (e.g., Wang et al. 1995; Zhang et al. 1998, and references therein.) However, the advent of a generation of spectro-polarimeters with improved sensitivity has provided new data that remain to be incorporated into a consistent paradigm.

One of the first and important results of the new polarimeters has been finding very asymmetric Stokes profiles (Sánchez Almeida et al. 1996; Grossmann-Doerth et al. 1996; Sigwarth et al. 1999; SAL). Obviously, the observed polarization is produced in atmospheres that require more than a single magnetic field and a single velocity to be described. The inference of the physical properties of such atmospheres requires special inversion techniques. This inference presents an additional complication, namely, the observed polarization signals are low and therefore close to the noise level. In this work we propose, essay and then use a new technique that copes with these two difficulties. It reproduces the asymmetries of all observed Stokes profiles (§4.1). The application of the technique allows us to obtain model atmospheres for 27% of the observed quiet Sun region. The procedure is a modification of FATIMA (SNLAL; see §3.1 and 3.3) which employs a database of synthetic observations based on the MISMA inversion of the strongest signals in the region (SAL). This inversion technique is extremely fast, and it offers a real chance to handle large data sets of very weak asymmetric polarization signals, like those presumably needed for the analysis of future observations.

The inversions show that most polarization signals in the quiet Sun correspond to kG fields at the base of the photosphere (§4.2 and Fig. 5). This is in agreement with previous observations based on Fe lines in the visible spectral range (Grossmann-Doerth et al. 1996 ; see, however, Keller et al. 1994), and we show this conclusion to be a solid result of our analysis (§5). On the other hand, different observations based on the Fe i IR line at 15648 Å almost exclusively find sub-kG fields in regions having similarly low flux densities (Lin 1995; Lin & Rimmele 1999; Collados 2001). Again this is a robust conclusion mostly based on the separation of the Stokes $`V`$ peaks whose small splitting does not correspond to kG fields. We believe that the apparent contradiction between visible and IR based field strengths is not real. As explained by SAL (§4.5), the IR observations are not sensitive to the kG fields that may exist. The two seemingly inconsistent observations actually indicate that various strengths often coexist within the resolution elements. According to the same observations, kG and sub-kG fields fill only a small fraction of the photospheric volume. In our case the detected magnetic fields occupy only 1% of the total volume (or 4% of the volume if we restrict the estimate to those places with detected signals; see 4.5). In IR observations the fraction increases since the intrinsic field strengths are lower, but still there is enough space for extra weak fields. In particular, those inferred in Hanle effect based determinations of turbulent fields (e.g, Stenflo et al. 1998; Bianda et al. 1998; Bianda et al. 1999).

The scenario described above is very much in favor of a magnetic field with complicated topology, whose properties we are just beginning to glimpse. Two additional results of our study have to be included as part of the complexity. First, we find that a large fraction of the signals correspond to two different polarities in the resolution element (35% of the weakest signals, see Fig. 9). The magnetic field lines of the two magnetic components in the model atmosphere cross the horizontal plane in opposite senses. Second, the bulk magnetic flux of the region is contained in the weakest signals that we detect (see Fig. 8). Moreover, the flux that we find is larger than the fluxes associated to the IN fields in previous works having lower sensitivity (§4.3), indicating that the amount of flux that we detect still is a matter of sensitivity. In other words, a fraction of the existing magnetic structures is missing. They will emerge in future measurements with improved sensitivity and better spatial resolution analyzed through the proper diagnostic technique.

Should the quiet region that we observe be typical of the rest of the Sun, its flux would be comparable to (and even larger than) the flux crossing the solar surface in the form of active regions at any time during the solar cycle maximum (some $`10^{24}`$ Mx). Do quiet Sun fields play an active role during the cycle? We simply do not know. However, since the flux (and presumably energy) that they contain is so important, it is difficult to discard any potential influence. Keep in mind that we detect only a fraction of the existing flux.

This work uses a new inversion technique to extend the study by SAL to weaker signals. The conclusions expressed here are very much in the line of those already found by SAL, except that here we rest on a larger statistical basis. In particular, the velocity flows that we find (§4.4) are also of the kind that fits the typical plage and network asymmetries in a MISMA context (Sánchez Almeida 1997). Most of the magnetized mass is at rest but there is also strong co-spatial downflows that produces the observed asymmetric line shapes.

The mechanism that concentrates magnetic fields to form kG fields remains unclear. We do not detect weak field strength precursor regions with enough magnetic flux to produce typical network magnetic concentrations ($`10^{17}`$ Mx – $`10^{18}`$ Mx). Sánchez Almeida (2001) proposed that the concentration process takes place in patches of much smaller fluxes ($`10^{16}`$ Mx), which are then gathered by the super-granular converging flows to create the regular network structures that we observe. If so, there should be a population of structures of low flux but already concentrated kG fields. We believe that they begin to show up in the upper left corner of Figure 7. The finding of such population demands the existence of concentration mechanisms able to efficiently operate with low flux structures, like the thermal relaxation process described by Sánchez Almeida (2001).

As we pointed out above, the investigation of the quiet Sun fields is still in a developing phase. Each new contribution suggests observations to either confirm previous findings or explore conjectures. In this sense, the above results naturally convey to simultaneous and co-spatial IR and visible observations. They will prove or discard the co-existence of sub-kG and kG field strengths that we support. They also would allow to witness the concentration process of low flux structures. Such observation requires high sensitivity to both kG and sub-kG field strengths, which can be attained by the simultaneous use of IR and visible spectral lines. On the other hand, we conjecture that the quiet Sun fields may participate in the global solar magnetic cycle playing a significant but still unknown role. Monitoring of the quiet Sun magnetism along the cycle using sensitive spectro-polarimeters is eagerly needed444 This may be an ideal task for the vector magnetograph of the synoptic instrument SOLIS; http://www.nso.noao.edu/solis/. .

Much of the efforts to assess the reliability of the results were inspired by discussions with Bruce Lites. He also provided the data employed here. Thanks are due to Arturo López Ariste and Javier Trujillo Bueno for suggestions to improve the manuscript. This work has been partly funded by the Spanish DGES under project 95-0028-C. It has been carried out within the EC-TMR European Solar Magnetometry Network.


format: text

text:
# Generating the curvature perturbation without an inflaton

## Introduction.

It is now widely accepted that the dominant cause of structure in the Universe is a spatial curvature perturbation . This perturbation is present on cosmological scales a few Hubble times before these scales enter the horizon, at which stage it is time-independent with an almost flat spectrum. One of the main objectives of theoretical cosmology is to understand its origin.

The usual assumption is that the curvature perturbation originates during inflation, from the quantum fluctuation of the slowly-rolling inflaton field. As cosmological scales leave the horizon, the quantum fluctuation is converted to a classical gaussian perturbation with an almost flat spectrum, generating immediately the required curvature perturbation which is constant until the approach of horizon entry. This idea has the advantage that the prediction for the spectrum is independent of what goes on between the end of inflation and horizon entry . The spectrum depends only on the form of the potential and on the theory of gravity during inflation (usually taken to be Einstein gravity), providing therefore a direct probe of conditions during this era. On the other hand, the demand that inflation should produce the curvature perturbation in this particular way is very restrictive, ruling out or disfavouring several otherwise attractive models of inflation.

In this note we point out that the primordial curvature perturbation may have a completely different origin, namely the quantum fluctuation during inflation of a light scalar field which is not the slowly-rolling inflaton, and need have nothing to do with the fields driving of inflation. We call this field the curvaton. The curvaton creates the curvature perturbation in two separate stages. First, its quantum fluctuation during inflation is converted at horizon exit to a classical perturbation with a flat spectrum. Then, after inflation, the perturbation in the curvaton field is converted into a curvature perturbation. In contrast with the usual mechanism, the generation of curvature by the curvaton requires no assumption about the nature of inflation, beyond the requirement that (if the curvaton has a canonical kinetic term) the Hubble parameter is practically constant. Instead, it requires certain properties of the curvaton and of the cosmology after inflation so that the required curvature perturbation will be generated. We shall explore the simplest setup, consisting of the following sequence of events. First, the curvaton field starts to oscillate during some radiation-dominated era, so that it constitutes matter with an isocurvature density perturbation. Second, the oscillation persists for many Hubble times so that a significant curvature perturbation is generated. Finally, before neutrino decoupling, the curvaton decays and the curvature perturbation remains constant until the approach of horizon entry.

We shall show that under these conditions the quantum fluctuation of the curvaton during inflation is converted into a curvature perturbation after decay according to the formula

$$\zeta r\delta $$
(1)
where $`\delta `$ is the isocurvature fractional density perturbation in the curvaton before it decays and $`r`$ is the fraction of the final radiation that the decay produces.

The mechanism that we are describing may succintly be described as the conversion of an isocurvature perturbation into a curvature perturbation. It was actually discovered more than a decade ago by Mollerach , who corrected the prevailing misconception that no conversion would occur. At the time the conversion was regarded as a negative feature, because the focus was on finding a good mechanism for generating an isocurvature perturbation. For this reason, and also because cosmology involving late-decaying scalars was not considered to be very likely, the conversion mechanism has received little attention***The possibility of converting an initially isocurvature perturbation into an adiabatic one was noted by Linde and Mukhanov. The situation now is very different. On the observational side, we know that the curvature perturbation provides the principle origin of structure. On the theoretical side, late-decaying scalars are routinely invoked in cosmology, and are ubiquitous in extensions of the Standard Model of particle physics. Also, one is now aware of inflation models whose only defect is their failure to generate the curvature perturbation from the inflaton, some of which will be mentioned later.

Before ending this introduction, we need to emphasise that the curvaton can produce a curvature perturbation without any accompanying isocurvature perturbation at late times. This is the reason why we include in our setup the requirement that the curvaton decays before neutrino decoupling. If it decays later, the curvature perturbation may be accompanied by a significant isocurvature neutrino perturbation as discussed recently by Hu .

## The curvature perturbation.

The spatial curvature perturbation is of interest only on comoving scales much bigger than the Hubble scale (super-horizon scales). To define it one has to specify a foliation of spacetime into spacelike hypersurfaces (slicing), and the most convenient choice is the slicing of uniform energy density (or the slicing orthogonal to comoving worldlines, which is practically the same on super-horizon scales). The curvature perturbation on uniform-density slices  is given by the metric perturbation $`\zeta `$, defined with a suitable coordinate choice by the line element

$$\text{d}\mathrm{}^2=a^2(t)\left(1+2\zeta \right)\text{d}x^i\text{d}x^j.$$
(2)
On cosmological scales, the spectrum $`𝒫_\zeta `$ of $`\zeta `$ at the approach of horizon entry is almost flat, with magnitude of order $`10^{10}`$.

The time-dependence of $`\zeta `$ on large scales is given by

$$\dot{\zeta }=\frac{H}{\rho +P}\delta P_{\mathrm{nad}},$$
(3)
where $`H\dot{a}/a`$ is the Hubble parameter, $`\rho `$ is the energy density, $`P`$ is the pressure and $`\delta P_{\mathrm{nad}}`$ is the pressure perturbation on uniform-density slices (the non-adiabatic pressure perturbation).

In the usual scenario where $`\zeta `$ is generated during inflation through the perturbation of a single-component inflaton field, it becomes practically time-independent soon after horizon exit and remains so until the approach of horizon entry. The mechanism that we are proposing starts instead with a negligible curvature perturbation, which is generated later through a non-adiabatic pressure perturbation associated with the curvaton perturbation.

## The curvaton field.

The curvaton field $`\sigma `$ lives in an unperturbed Robertson-Walker spacetime characterised by the line element

$$\text{d}s^2=\text{d}t^2a^2(t)\delta _{ij}\text{d}x^i\text{d}x^j$$
(4)
and its lagrangian is

$$_\sigma =\frac{1}{2}\dot{\sigma }^2\frac{1}{2}\left(\sigma \right)^2V(\sigma )$$
(5)
The potential $`V`$ depends of course on all scalar fields but we exhibit only the dependence on $`\sigma `$ which is assumed to have no significant coupling to the fields driving inflation.

The initial era for our discussion is the one which begins several Hubble times before the observable Universe leaves the horizion during an inflationary phase, and ends several Hubble times after the smallest cosmological scale leaves the horizon. During this era, we assume that the Hubble parameter $`H\dot{a}/a`$ is almost constant, that is

$$ϵ_H\dot{H}/H^21.$$
(6)
In the usual slow-roll paradigm with Einstein gravity, $`2ϵ_H(M_\mathrm{P}V^{}/V)^2`$ where $`V(\varphi )`$ is the inflationary potential, $`\varphi `$ is the slowly rolling inflaton and $`M_\mathrm{P}=2\times 10^{18}\text{GeV}`$ is the reduced Planck mass. However for our mechanism we need not assume any specific paradigm for inflation.

We assume that the curvature perturbations is negligible during inflation. For slow-roll inflation with Einstein gravity this requires $`H\text{ }<10^5ϵ_H^{\frac{1}{2}}M_\mathrm{P}`$ or $`V^{\frac{1}{4}}\text{ }<10^2ϵ_H^{\frac{1}{4}}M_\mathrm{P}`$. In any case, an inflation model with Einstein gravity requires $`H\text{ }<10^5M_\mathrm{P}`$ from the cosmic microwave background limit on gravitational waves.

We write at any given time

$$\sigma (𝐱)=\sigma +\delta \sigma (𝐱)$$
(7)
(Throughout we adopt the convenient notation that the absence of an argument denotes the unperturbed quantity.) Like any cosmological quantity the spatial dependence of $`\delta \sigma `$ can be Fourier-expanded in a comoving box much larger than the observable Universe, but it is unnecessary and in fact undesirable for the box to be indefinitely large. Failure to limit the box size leads among other things to an indefinitely large fluctuation for any quantity with flat spectrum. It is a source of confusion in the usual case of inflaton-generated curvature and the same would be true for curvaton-generated curvature.

The unperturbed curvaton field satisfies

$$\ddot{\sigma }+3H\dot{\sigma }+V_\sigma =0,$$
(8)
where $`H\dot{a}/a`$ is the Hubble parameter, and a subscript $`\sigma `$ denotes $`/\sigma `$.

We are interested in the perturbation $`\delta \sigma _𝐤`$, where $`𝐤`$ denotes the comoving momentum. It is conveniently defined on the spatially-flat slicing. In general, the scalar field perturbations on this slicing satisfy to first order the set of coupled equations

$`\ddot{\delta \varphi }_i+3H\dot{\delta \varphi }_i+{\displaystyle \frac{k^2}{a^2}}\delta \varphi _i`$ (9)
$`+{\displaystyle \underset{i}{}}\left[V_{\varphi _i\varphi _j}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{M_\mathrm{P}^2a^3}}\left({\displaystyle \frac{a^3}{H}}\dot{\varphi }_i\dot{\varphi }_j\right)^{}\right]\delta \varphi _j`$ $`=`$ $`0`$ (10)
For simplicity we assume that $`\sigma `$ is sufficiently decoupled from the other perturbations that the latter can be ignored, leading to

$$\ddot{\delta \sigma }_𝐤+3H\dot{\delta \sigma }_𝐤+\left((k/a)^2+V_{\sigma \sigma }\right)\delta \sigma _𝐤=0.$$
(11)
We assume that the curvaton potential is sufficiently flat during inflation,

$$|V_{\sigma \sigma }|H^2,$$
(12)
and that on cosmological scales each Fourier component is in the vacuum state well before horizon exit. The vacuum fluctuation then causes a classical perturbation $`\delta \sigma _𝐤`$ well after horizon exit, which satisfies Eq. (11) with negligible gradient term,

$$\ddot{\delta \sigma }_𝐤+3H\dot{\delta \sigma }_𝐤+V_{\sigma \sigma }\delta \sigma _𝐤=0.$$
(13)
The perturbation is gaussian, and in the limit where Eq. (12) is very well satisfied its spectrum given by

$$𝒫_{\delta \sigma }^{\frac{1}{2}}=\frac{H_{}}{2\pi }.$$
(14)
The star denotes the epoch of horizon exit, $`k=a_{}H_{}`$, and, by virtue of Eq. (6), $`𝒫_\sigma `$ is almost flat. To be more precise, the spectral tilt of the perturbation is given by

$$n_\sigma \frac{d\mathrm{ln}𝒫_\sigma }{d\mathrm{ln}k}=2\frac{\dot{H}_{}}{H_{}^2}+\frac{2}{3}\frac{\left(V_{\sigma \sigma }\right)_{}}{H_{}^2}.$$
(15)
## Oscillating phase.

We now move on to the epoch when the curvaton field starts to oscillate around the minimum of its potential. We suppose that the oscillation starts during some radiation-dominated era. It may not be the one in which nucleosynthesis occurs, but if it is we require that the oscillation starts well before cosmological scales enter the horizon. We assume that Einstein gravity is valid from the oscillation time onwards, so that the total energy density is $`\rho =3H^2M_\mathrm{P}^2`$.

We assume that the curvaton continues to satisfy Eq. (8), and that its perturbation continues to satisfy Eq. (13), after inflation. Assuming that the potential $`V(\sigma )`$ is quadratic, $`V=m^2\sigma ^2/2`$, then oscillations start at the epoch $`Hm`$. Also, Eq. (13) for $`\sigma `$ and Eq. (8) for $`\delta \sigma `$ are then the same and the ratio $`\delta \sigma /\sigma `$ remains fixed on super-horizon scales. This assumption can easily be relaxed, and in particular one can handle the situation where the curvaton may initially be near a maximum of the potential . Any evolution of $`\delta \sigma `$ on super-horizon scales leads to an overall scale-independent factor which will not spoil the flatness of the spectrum. Even if the potential is not quadratic at the onset of oscillation, it will become practically quadratic after a few Hubble times as the oscillation amplitude decreases.

We are interested in the curvaton energy density

$$\rho _\sigma (𝐱)=\rho _\sigma +\delta \rho _\sigma (𝐱)$$
(16)
and in the density contrast

$$\delta \frac{\delta \rho _\sigma }{\rho _\sigma }$$
(17)
Since the spatial gradients are negligible on super-horizon scales, the oscillation is harmonic at each point in space and

$$\rho _\sigma (𝐱)=\frac{1}{2}m^2\sigma ^2(𝐱),$$
(18)
where $`\sigma (𝐱)`$ is the amplitude of the oscillation.

When the oscillation starts, the mean-square perturbation of $`\sigma `$ is given by

$$(\delta \sigma )^2=_{k_{\mathrm{min}}}^{k_{\mathrm{max}}}𝒫_\sigma (k)\frac{\text{d}k}{k}.$$
(19)
As discussed in , the short distance cutoff at the epoch when the oscillation starts is $`k_{\mathrm{max}}(\stackrel{~}{a}\stackrel{~}{H})`$ where a tilde denotes this epoch, sub-horizon modes having red-shifted away. Also, since we are working in a box not too much bigger than the the observable Universe the long distance cutoff is $`k_{\mathrm{min}}a_0H_0`$. Assuming that $`𝒫_\sigma `$ is flat this gives the estimate

$$\frac{(\delta \sigma )^2}{\sigma ^2}=\left(\frac{H_{}}{2\pi \sigma _{}}\right)^2\mathrm{ln}(k_{\mathrm{max}}/k_{\mathrm{min}})(H_{}/\sigma _{})^2.$$
(20)
(If $`𝒫_\sigma `$ increases dramatically on small scales, the estimate has to be increased appropriately.)

If $`H_{}\sigma _{}`$, the field perturbation is small and

$$\delta =2\frac{\delta \sigma }{\sigma }$$
(21)
This is a time-independent gaussian perturbation with a flat spectrum given by

$$𝒫_\delta ^{\frac{1}{2}}=2𝒫_\sigma ^{\frac{1}{2}}/\sigma =\frac{H_{}}{\pi \sigma _{}}1.$$
(22)
In the opposite regime, $`H_{}\sigma _{}`$, the perturbation is bigger than the unperturbed value and

$$\delta =\frac{(\delta \sigma )^2}{(\delta \sigma )^2}.$$
(23)
This is again time-independent, but is now the square of a gaussian quantity (a $`\chi ^2`$ quantity). Its spectrum is flat up to logarithims

$$𝒫_\delta (k)=4\mathrm{ln}(k/k_{\mathrm{min}})\frac{𝒫_\sigma (k_{\mathrm{min}})^2}{(\delta \sigma )^2}1.$$
(24)
We shall show that the curvature perturbation is a multiple of $`\delta `$, which means that it is gaussian in the regime $`H_{}\sigma _{}`$ but a $`\chi ^2`$ non-gaussian quantity in the opposite regime. A $`\chi ^2`$ curvature perturbation is strongly forbidden by observation , which therefore requires

$$H_{}\sigma _{}.$$
(25)
## Generating the curvature perturbation

Once the curvaton field starts to oscillate the energy density becomes a mixture of matter (the curvaton) and radiation. According to Eq. (3) the generation of the curvature perturbation begins at that point, because the pressure perturbation corresponding to this mixture is non-adiabatic. It ends when the pressure perturbation again becomes adiabatic, which is at the epoch of curvaton matter domination, or the epoch of curvaton decay, whichever is earlier.

The curvature perturbation finally generated could be precisely calculated from Eq. (3) knowing the decay rate $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ of the curvaton, but for an estimate it is enough to assume that the decay occurs instantaneously at the epoch $`H=\mathrm{\Gamma }`$. In that case one can avoid the use of Eq. (3) altogether by considering separately the curvature perturbations $`\zeta _\mathrm{r}`$ and $`\zeta _\sigma `$ on respectively slices of uniform radiation- and matter density. These are separately conserved  as the radiation and matter are perfect non-interacting fluids. The curvature perturbations are given by

$`\zeta `$ $`=`$ $`H{\displaystyle \frac{\delta \rho }{\dot{\rho }}}`$ (26)
$`\zeta _\mathrm{r}`$ $`=`$ $`H{\displaystyle \frac{\delta \rho _\mathrm{r}}{\dot{\rho }_\mathrm{r}}}={\displaystyle \frac{1}{4}}{\displaystyle \frac{\delta \rho _\mathrm{r}}{\rho _\mathrm{r}}}`$ (27)
$`\zeta _\sigma `$ $`=`$ $`H{\displaystyle \frac{\delta \rho _\sigma }{\dot{\rho }_\sigma }}={\displaystyle \frac{1}{3}}{\displaystyle \frac{\delta \rho _\sigma }{\rho _\sigma }}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{3}}\delta ,`$ (28)
where the density perturbations are defined on the flat slicing of spacetime. (Note that the constancy of $`\zeta _\sigma `$ is equivalent to the constancy of $`\delta `$ for the oscillating field which we noted earlier.) Using these results the curvature perturbation is

$$\zeta =\frac{4\rho _\mathrm{r}\zeta _\mathrm{r}+3\rho _\sigma \zeta _\sigma }{4\rho _\mathrm{r}+3\rho _\sigma }.$$
(29)
Before the oscillation begins, $`\zeta =\zeta _\mathrm{r}`$ which we are supposing is negligible. It follows that

$$\zeta =\frac{\rho _\sigma }{4\rho _\mathrm{r}+3\rho _\sigma }\delta .$$
(30)
This calculation applies until the curvaton decays, after which $`\zeta `$ is constant. If the curvaton dominates the energy density before decay, the final value of $`\zeta `$ is

$$\zeta =\frac{1}{3}\delta .$$
(31)
In the opposite case, the curvaton density just before decay is some fraction $`r<1`$ of the radiation density. Making the approximation $`r1`$,

$$r\frac{1}{6}\left(\frac{\sigma _{}}{M_\mathrm{P}}\right)^2\left(\frac{m}{\mathrm{\Gamma }}\right)^{1/2},$$
(32)
and the final curvature perturbation is

$$\zeta =\frac{1}{4}r\delta .$$
(33)
Dropping the prefactors $`\frac{1}{3}`$ and $`\frac{1}{4}`$, the spectrum of the curvature perturbation is given in the Gaussian regime, $`H_{}\sigma _{}`$, by

$$𝒫_\zeta ^{\frac{1}{2}}r\frac{H_{}}{\pi \sigma _{}}.$$
(34)
The scale dependence of the spectrum is the same as that of $`\delta \sigma `$. From Eqs. (6) and (15) its spectral index $`n`$ is given by

$$n1\frac{\text{d}\mathrm{ln}𝒫_\zeta }{\text{d}\mathrm{ln}k}=2\frac{\dot{H}_{}}{H_{}^2}+\frac{2}{3}\frac{m^2}{H_{}^2}.$$
(35)
If we relax the demand that the potential is quadratic, $`m^2`$ is replaced by the effective mass-squared $`m_{}^2=(V_{\sigma \sigma })_{}`$ which can be either positive or negative. The observational constraint at 95% confidence level is $`n=0.93\pm 0.13`$ , which requires

$$|m_{}^2|/H_{}^2\text{ }<0.1.$$
(36)
The completely non-gaussian regime $`H_{}\sigma _{}`$ is strongly forbidden by observation , but the intermediate regime is allowed provided that the non-gaussian component is small. From Eq. (18), the curvature perturbation in that case is of the form

$$\zeta =\frac{r}{4}\left[2\frac{\delta \sigma }{\sigma }+\left(\frac{\delta \sigma }{\sigma }\right)^2\right],$$
(37)
with

$$𝒫_{\delta \sigma /\sigma }^{\frac{1}{2}}=\frac{H_{}}{2\pi \sigma _{}}$$
(38)
and, since the first term dominates

$$r10^5/𝒫_{\delta \sigma /\sigma }^{\frac{1}{2}}.$$
(39)
Observational constraints on non-gaussianity can place strong upper limits on the small ratio $`H_{}/\sigma _{}`$, which it would be interesting to evaluate.

## An isocurvature density perturbation?

At the epoch when perturbations first become observable as cosmological scales approach the horizon, the curvature perturbation seems to be the dominant cause of structure but it may not be the only one. In particular, there may be an isocurvature perturbation (one present on slices of uniform total energy density) in the density of one or more of the constituents of the Universe relative (conventionally) to the photon density. In the standard picture the constituents are the photon plus (i) the cold dark matter (ii) the baryons and (iii) the three neutrinos of the Standard Model which have travelled freely since they fell out of equilibrium shortly before nucleosynthesis. There could be an isocurvature density perturbation in any or all of these three components. As described for instance in , these isocurvature perturbations could be a significant fraction of the total as far as present microwave background observations are concerned, though the PLANCK satellite will rule out (or detect) them at something like the 10% level if their spectrum is flat. Going beyond the standard picture, the dark matter might have non-trivial properties and there may be neutrinos or other free-streaming matter with a non-thermal momentum distribution.

An isocurvature density perturbation may originate as the quantum fluctuation of a scalar field during inflation. However, such a field cannot be the inflaton, and in the usual scenario where the latter generates the curvature perturbation it is hard to see why the effect of an isocurvature perturbation should be big enough to be observable. A priori one expects that either it will be dominant, which is forbidden by observation, or else negligible. In contrast, if the curvature perturbation is generated by a curvaton field, that same field may also generate an isocurvature perturbation. In other words, the isocurvature density perturbation of the curvaton field might be converted into a mixture of a curvature and a correlated isocurvature perturbation.

A study of this possibility is outside the scope of the present paper, but we offer some brief comments. Consider first the case that the curvaton decays before neutrino decoupling. In that case the pre-existing radiation is most likely in thermal equilibrium, with the momentum distribution of each species specified by the densities of the baryon number and the three lepton numbers. In this situation, if the decay radiation thermalises with the existing radiation, and generates no baryon or lepton number, the curvaton can only generate a dark matter isocurvature perturbation if some small fraction decays into decoupled dark matter with an exceedingly small branching ratio. If on the other hand the decay radiation thermalises but does possess some baryon or lepton number asymmetry, this can generate a baryon or neutrino isocurvature perturbation, which might be big enough to observe if the asymmetry is not too small. An example of the latter possibility is given in , which however neglects the dominant curvature perturbation.

If the curvaton decays after neutrino decoupling, the pre-existing radiation consists of photons and neutrinos which are now decoupled. In that case the curvaton decay will cause a perturbation in the relative abundance of neutrinos and photons, no matter whether it decays to photons or to neutrinos. In other words it will (conventionally) generate a neutrino isocurvature perturbation. At least if the curvaton decays to neutrinos, this isocurvature perturbation should be big enough to observe in the forseeable future . (Curvaton decay after nucleosynthesis can also significnatly alter the epoch of matter-radiation equality, which again may be observable.)

A distinctive prediction of curvaton decay that generates both the curvature perturbation and an isocurvature perturbation at late times is that the two perturbations, arising from a single initial curvaton perturbation, must be completely correlated. Current microwave background data alone cannot rule out a significant contribution from an isocurvature perturbation correlated with the curvature perturbation , but future data will give much tighter constaints .

## The curvaton as a flat direction

We have still to consider the nature of the curvaton in the context of particle physics. In particular, we did not examine the fundamental assumption that the curvaton potential satisfies the flatness requirement Eq. (12).

Let us first suppose that the curvaton is a generic field, running over an indefinitely large range $`\sigma >0`$ with the lower end the fixed point of a symmetry. The potential will be sufficiently flat only over some range $`\sigma <\sigma _{\mathrm{max}}`$, beyond which it rises too steeply. If inflation lasts long enough we may expect $`\sigma _{}`$ in our location to have equal probablity of being anywhere in the range $`0<\sigma _{}<\sigma _{\mathrm{max}}`$, leading to the rough estimate $`\sigma _{}\sigma _{\mathrm{max}}`$.

For simplicity assume that the symmetry forbids odd powers of $`\sigma `$ in the potential. Adopting the usual paradigm of supersymmetry, the renormalizable (quadratic and quartic) terms of the potential can be eliminated at the level of global supersymmetry (the curvaton can be chosen as a flat direction in field space). However, at the supergravity level the typical effective mass-squared $`m^2(t)`$, of a generic field in the early Universe is of order $`\pm H^2`$, the true mass $`m`$ being relevant only after $`H`$ falls below $`m`$. This is marginally in conflict with the Eq. (36).

There will also be an infinite number of non-renormalizable terms, of the form $`\lambda _d\mathrm{\Lambda }^{4d}\sigma ^d`$ with $`d6`$, where $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ is the ultra-violet cutoff at or below the Planck scale. The generic couplings are $`\lambda _d1`$, and taking $`d=6`$ the potential is sufficiently flat to satisfy Eq. (12) only in the regime $`\sigma \text{ }<\sqrt{\mathrm{\Lambda }H}`$. In that case one expects $`\sigma _{}\sqrt{\mathrm{\Lambda }H}`$ and therefore from Eq. (34)

$$𝒫_\zeta r^2\frac{H_{}}{\mathrm{\Lambda }}.$$
(40)
Alternatively, at least the first few non-renormalizable terms might be supressed by a symmetry. In that case one might have $`\stackrel{~}{\sigma }M_\mathrm{P}`$ leading to the much smaller estimate

$$𝒫_\zeta r^2\frac{H_{}^2}{M_\mathrm{P}^2}.$$
(41)
The actual value will probably lie between these extremes, and one sees that the observed value $`𝒫_\zeta 10^{10}`$ can be achieved with quite reasonable values of the parameters. In contrast with the case where the curvature is generated by the inflaton, the prediction does not depend on the derivative of any potential and is in that respect under better control.

There is clearly quite a bit of uncertainty in this generic case. On the other hand, it has the advantage of occuring rather naturally in the context of particle physics. A recent example, which actually appeared when the present paper was almost written, is reference  in which $`\sigma `$ is the scalar super-partner of a right-handed neutrino. (Note though that this paper does not take account our isocurvature-curvature conversion mechanism, supposing instead that the decay of the sneutrino will set up only an isocurvature baryon density perturbation.)

## The curvaton as a pseudo-goldstone boson

To achieve better control of the curvaton mechanism, one can suppose that $`\sigma `$ is a pseudo-goldstone boson, so that $`\sigma \sigma +`$const under the action of some spontaneously broken global symmetry. In the limit where this symmetry is exact the potential would be exactly flat which makes the approximate flatness we require technically natural In a similar way, it has been pointed out  that making the inflaton a pseudo-Goldstone boson will keep a hybrid inflation potential sufficiently flat. The ‘natural inflation’ proposal  that the inflaton is a pseudo-Goldstone boson in a non-hybrid model does not keep the inflaton potential flat, because both the potential and its slope vanish in the limit of unbroken symmetry.. Also, in this case $`\sigma `$ runs over some finite range $`0<\sigma <v`$ with periodic boundary conditions. If inflation lasts long enough, there is equal probability of finding $`\sigma _{}`$ anywhere in this range so one expects $`\sigma _{}v`$. Even if it does not, no particular value is favoured and one has the same expectation.

As a simple example consider a complex field $`\mathrm{\Sigma }`$ with a mexican-hat potential whose U(1) symmetry is broken by non-renormalisable terms:

$$V(\mathrm{\Sigma })=(|\mathrm{\Sigma }|^2v^2)^2+\frac{1}{72M_\mathrm{P}^2}\left(2v^6\mathrm{\Sigma }^6(\mathrm{\Sigma }^{})^6\right).$$
(42)
Putting $`\mathrm{\Sigma }=ve^{i\sigma /v}`$ this gives

$$V(\sigma )=\frac{v^6}{36M_\mathrm{P}^2}\left[1\mathrm{cos}\left(\frac{6\sigma }{v}\right)\right],$$
(43)
and hence

$$\left|\frac{d^2V}{d\sigma ^2}\right|\frac{v^4}{M_\mathrm{P}^2}.$$
(44)
In order for the pseudo-goldstone boson $`\sigma `$ to acquire a spectrum of classical perturbations on super-horizon scales, while the radial field remains fixed in its vacuum manifold, $`|\mathrm{\Sigma }|=v`$, we require

$$\frac{v^2}{M_\mathrm{P}}H_{}v.$$
(45)
This also ensures that variations in the local value of $`\sigma `$ has no effect on the background Hubble expansion.

After $`N>v/H`$ e-folds of inflation, the local value of the $`\sigma `$ field in the vacuum manifold is effectively randomised, so that we expect $`\sigma _{}v`$ and effective mass

$$m_{}^2(V_{\sigma \sigma })_{}\pm v^2/M_\mathrm{P}.$$
(46)
For simplicity we assume that $`\sigma _{}`$ is close to a minimum so that the potential is quadratic.

The field begins to oscillate when $`Hm_\sigma `$ at which time $`\rho _{\mathrm{rad}}/\rho _\sigma (v/M_\mathrm{P})^21`$. Note that this is independent of the reheat temperature $`T_{\mathrm{rh}}`$. The energy density of the oscillating $`\sigma `$ field comes to dominate over the energy density of the radiation when

$$H_{\mathrm{eq}}\frac{v^6}{M_\mathrm{P}^5}.$$
(47)
On the other hand if we assume that $`\sigma `$ decays with only gravitational strength interactions, then the time of decay is given by

$$H_{\mathrm{decay}}\mathrm{\Gamma }\frac{m_\sigma ^3}{M_\mathrm{P}^2}\frac{v^6}{M_\mathrm{P}^5}.$$
(48)
(That this is before nucleosynthesis requires that $`v>10^{12}`$GeV, i.e., $`m_\sigma >100`$TeV.) Thus we generally expect $`\rho _\sigma \rho _{\mathrm{rad}}`$ at the time of decay, and hence from Eqs. (22) and (34)

$$𝒫_\zeta \frac{H_{}^2}{v^2}.$$
(49)
When the curvaton is a pseudo-goldstone boson, the flatness requirement Eq. (12) presents no problem since the flatness of the potential is protected by the global symmetry. The mass $`v`$ of the radial field is not protected and in a generic supergravity theory one would expect that its effective value during inflation would receive contributions of order $`H_{}`$. On the other hand, $`\sigma _{}`$ in our part of the Universe is equally likely to lie anywhere in the range $`0<\sigma _{}<v`$ where the upper limit is the effective value of $`v`$ during inflation. Therefore, if $`H_{}`$ is bigger than the true (vacuum) value of $`v`$, the Gaussianity constraint $`H_{}\sigma _{}`$ represents a significant restriction on the supergravity theory.

## Pre big bang and ekpyrotic scenarios.

In some models of the very early universe, such as the pre big bang scenario , there is essentially no curvature perturbation produced on large scales  and these models have been largely discarded as possible sources for the origin of large-scale structure. Yet if they can produce an almost scale-invariant spectrum of isocurvature perturbations then they may generate a primordial adiabatic curvature perturbation on all scales after the pre-big-bang phase. Because the pre big bang ends with an explosive gravitational production of particle on small scales at energies approaching the Planck scale, the late production of entropy, such as from decaying massive fields, may be necessary in any case to avoid over-production of dangerous relics .

The evolution during a pre big bang  or ekpyrotic  phase is far from slow-roll in the Einstein frame ($`|ϵ_H|=|\dot{H}/H^2|>1`$) which leads to a steep blue spectrum of curvature perturbations during collapse . All massless moduli fields minimally coupled in the Einstein frame have blue spectra with spectral tilt $`n_\sigma =3`$ in the pre big bang or $`n_\sigma =2`$ in the ekpyrotic scenario . However it has previously been shown that a scale-invariant spectrum may be generated in axion fields in the pre big bang scenario . Axion-type fields have a non-minimal kinetic coupling to the dilaton field which yields a range of different scale dependences being determined by the symmetries of the sigma-model effective action and arbitrary constants of integration . If the axion remains decoupled during the uncertain transition from pre to post big bang era then these large-scale perturbations remain isocurvature perturbations at the start of the radiation dominated era .

Previous attempts to model structure formation in the pre big bang have assumed that these axions remain decoupled and effectively massless, only generating curvature perturbations when they re-enter the horizon . This latter model gives distinctive predictions for the spectrum of cmb anisotropies , but may be hard to reconcile with the latest observational data. However we have shown that an initial spectrum of axion perturbations can in fact generate curvature perturbations on super-horizon scales Note added: This idea has also been studied in the context of pre big bang scenario by Enqvist and Sloth  in a preprint that appeared while this work was being written up., as has previously been suggested in Refs. . If the axions acquire a non-perturbative mass and come to contribute a significant fraction to the total energy density before they decay in the early universe, then they can act as a curvaton field and generate a large-scale curvature perturbation long before horizon entry, indistinguishable from that produced in a conventional inflation model.

## Conclusions.

We have drawn attention to the fact that the curvature perturbation in the Universe need not be generated by the quantum fluctuation of a slowly-rolling inflaton field, as is generally supposed. Instead it may be generated by the quantum fluctuation of a field that has nothing to do with the inflation model, which we have called the curvaton.

The curvaton mechanism for the generation of curvature perturbations makes it much easier to construct a viable model of inflation. Inflation need not be of the slow-roll variety, and even if it is there is no need for highly accurate slow-roll demanded by the observed spectral index $`|n1|\text{ }<1`$. For instance, extended inflation  was ruled out by the predicted spectral index $`n\text{ }<0.7`$ by the first COBE result  assuming the standard inflaton mechanism of curvature generation, but it becomes viable with the curvaton mechanism. A similar remark applies to modular inflation , which (at least typically) also predicts too low a spectral index . Another theoretically attractive model giving a too low spectral index is described in . One might even have inflation where the inflaton is not rolling at all, such as thermal inflation , though more than one bout of such inflation would be necessary since at least in the usual context of gravity-mediated supersymmetry breaking a single bout gives only of order $`10`$ $`e`$-folds of inflation.

## Acknowledgements.

The authors are grateful to Lev Kofman, Andrew Liddle, Andrei Linde and Neil Turok for useful comments. DW is supported by the Royal Society.


text:
# Two collaborative experiments in star cluster evolution

## 1. Introduction

Results from the very first collaborative experiment, with $`N=25`$ stars, were actually presented, not in 1997 in Kyoto, but thirty years earlier at a meeting in Paris in 1967 (Lecar 1968). Calculations for the Kyoto experiment (which will here be referred to as KyotoI) took place mainly in the run-up to the Kyoto General Assembly of the IAU in 1997, where the results were presented. It involved not only $`N`$-body integrations (up to $`N=65536`$!) but also various kinds of Fokker-Planck and even gaseous models (Heggie et al 1998). Some hitherto unpublished results are presented in the next section, along with a summary of its specification.

KyotoI was restricted to pure stellar dynamics without primordial binaries. As the subject extends into the realm of “all-inclusive”, more realistic simulations, including the presence of primordial binaries and the simulation of stellar evolution, it is timely to initiate a more advanced collaboration. In section 3 we present and discuss the specification of a new problem which was largely agreed during IAU Symposium 208 in Tokyo, though it will be referred to as KyotoII. Computations are only just beginning at the time of writing, and results will be presented elsewhere.

## 2. “First” collaborative experiment (KyotoI)

During the run-up to the IAU General Assembly in Kyoto, i.e. the period May-August 1997, several groups around the world participated in a collaborative experiment in star cluster evolution. The aim was to study the evolution of the same cluster by several different techniques. The initial specification of the cluster was as follows:

1. King Model, $`W_0=3`$ (non-rotating), $`r_t=30`$pc, $`M=6\times 10^4M_{}`$;
2. mass function $`n(m)dmm^{2.35}dm`$ for $`0.1M_{}<m<1.5M_{}`$ ;
3. No (primordial) binaries, no mass segregation;
4. Tidal boundary conditions corresponding to circular motion round a point-mass galaxy;
5. Heating by 3-body binaries;
6. No stellar evolution, no collisions.

The 1997 collaborative experiment brought a number of benefits. In particular, new stellar dynamics was learned, because of problems raised by the $`N`$-body results (see Baumgardt 2001), and the specification has become a kind of benchmark problem which has been occasionally used since (e.g. Giersz 2001). Though only one publication has emerged so far, a fault for which the author bears total responsibility, considerable amounts of data became available almost immediately on the web (http://www.maths.ed.ac.uk/$``$douglas/experiment.html). One drawback of the specification also emerged. Data had been requested corresponding to times when the system had lost half of its mass (by escape) and at the time of core collapse. Unfortunately these times turned out to be rather similar.

Figs 1-4 illustrate some of the data which emerged from this experiment. Other data can be found in Heggie et al 1998. The key to the symbols is given in Fig.5, which also lists the persons who participated. In studying these figures it must be recalled that some improvements have been made in these codes since the time of the collaborative experiment, most notably in the treatment of boundary conditions in Fokker-Planck codes (Takahashi & Portegies Zwart 1998, 2000).

## 3.  A new proposal

### 3.1. Specification

Now that $`N`$-body simulations in stellar dynamics are attempting a new level of realism, it is timely to build on the previous collaborative experiment by devising a more ambitious specification. The following specification had been under discussion for some time before the time of the symposium, and was largely firmed up then. The aim has been to devise a model which displays an interesting interplay of stellar and dynamical evolution, and is doable by as many groups as possible. The simulation of the recent evolution of M67 by Hurley et al (2001) has been a very useful guide. Their model, with $`N_s=5000`$ single stars and $`N_b=5000`$ binaries (i.e. 50% primordial binaries and $`N=15000`$ stars altogether) took about 1 month on a GRAPE 4.

The agreed specification is as follows:

* Initial structure

1. King (1966) model, $`W_0=5`$
    2. no initial mass segregation
* Boundary condition

1. tidal radius $`r_t=27.9`$pc (initially)
    2. tidal cutoff (i.e. instantaneous removal at $`r_t`$)
* Single stars

1. $`N_s=12288`$
    2. IMF: KTG3 (Kroupa, Tout & Gilmore 1993111To be precise, their eq.(14), using entries in Table 10 with $`\alpha _1=1.3`$), restricted to $`0.1M_{}<m<100M_{}`$
* Primordial binaries

1. $`N_b=4096`$
    2. eccentricity distribution $`f(e)=2e`$
    3. IMF for total binary mass: KTG1 (see Hurley et al 2001, eq.(1)), restricted to $`0.2M_{}<m<200M_{}`$
    4. mass ratio $`q<1`$, uniform in the range giving component masses in the range $`0.1M_{}<m<100M_{}`$
    5. $`a`$: uniform in $`\mathrm{log}a`$ in a range such that $`a(1e)>2(R_1+R_2)`$ and binding energy exceeds $`10kT`$222Stellar radii $`R_i`$ are from Eggleton, Fitchett & Tout 1989, and $`1.5kT`$ is the mean kinetic energy of single stars and the barycentres of binaries
* Stellar evolution

1. $`Z=`$ solar

### 3.2. Discussion

Initial conditions, suitable for $`N`$-body computations, have been constructed in accordance with the above specification333See the web page http://www.maths.ed.ac.uk/$``$douglas/kyotoII.html. It was decided to do this once for all, and not to invite each participant to create his own set of initial conditions. The reason for this is that different initial masses will lead directly to binaries with very different histories, whereas use of a common set of initial conditions may allow the fate of the same binary in different simulations to be compared. The distributions of $`q`$ and $`\mathrm{ln}a`$ in the initial conditions are not, of course, uniform, as the ranges of $`q`$ and $`a`$ depend, respectively, on the total mass of a binary and the masses and radii of the components.

It follows from the above specification that the initial proportion of primordial binaries is $`f_b=25\%`$, and that the total initial number of stars is $`N=N_s+2N_b=20480`$. The initial conditions which have been constructed lead to a total initial mass $`M=10174M_{}`$ approximately. For a point-mass galaxy, such a mass yields the required tidal radius at a galactocentric distance of $`8.5`$kpc if the circular speed is $`220`$km/s.

Fig 6 provides a summary of the kinds of dynamical and other processes which the two collaborative experiments involve. It also gives an indication of the kinds of computer code to which the specified problems are accessible. Even the new proposed experiment does not test certain aspects of the dynamics: unsteady tides, for example (as for a cluster on an elliptical galactic orbit, or with disk shocking), or rotation (cf. Kim et al 2001).

Notice the choice of a tidal cutoff, rather than the more realistic tidal field adopted in the “first” collaborative experiment. The reason for this is that it has become clear that implementation of tidal boundary conditions in the Fokker-Planck method is a delicate issue, and it is in the context of a tidal cutoff that the problems have been most thoroughly studied (Takahashi & Portegies Zwart 1998, 2000).

In much the same way, the value of $`N`$ here is much less relevant to the dynamical evolution of globular clusters than the value selected in the “first” experiment. One reason is that it is known to be difficult to scale $`N`$-body results to large enough $`N`$, though the problems are minimised by the use of a tidal cutoff (Baumgardt 2001). In principle, the collision cross section can be scaled (Portegies Zwart et al 1999) but, more importantly, there is no experience in the scaling (with $`N`$) of $`N`$-body models which include stellar evolution.

### 3.3.  Output

According to results of Vesperini & Heggie (1997) and Portegies Zwart et al (2001b) (see Heggie, this vol.), if binaries were treated as single stars with the combined mass of both components, and if stellar evolution were neglected, the lifetime in a tidal field would be $`4.0`$Gyr. Nevertheless, an unconfirmed computation with “inert” binaries (see below) implies that the lifetime within a tidal cutoff is about $`2`$Gyr. Therefore an output interval of $`1`$Gyr would be too small. In fact the specification of the collaborative experiment requires output at intervals of $`0.5`$Gyr (at least), and the minimal required output is

1. Mass $`M`$
2. Half-mass radius $`r_h`$
3. $`N_s`$, $`N_b`$
4. Number of blue stragglers, $`N_{bs}`$, and degenerate stars, $`N_{deg}`$
5. Luminosity $`L`$

Optional additional output includes

1. Luminosity function
2. Mass function
3. Colour-magnitude diagram

and no doubt more.

### 3.4.  Partial calculations

The issue of stellar evolution is left largely unspecified in the above list, except for the metallicity, $`Z`$. Many codes which might be used for the study of the evolution of globular clusters lack all but the most rudimentary treatment of stellar evolution. Appropriate sources of formulae on single star evolution are Eggleton, Fitchett & Tout (1989) and Hurley, Pols & Tout (2000). Evolution of binary stars is even more involved, but suitable treatments are described in Tout, Aarseth & Pols (1997) and Portegies Zwart et al (2001a), and in the references in the latter.

In principal, stellar evolution, where it is lacking, could be implemented in several codes within the time scale of the collaborative experiment. Even so, it is very likely that the number of participants in the full calculation will be very small. But there is also a set of restricted but useful computations for which results could be achieved by many more groups. These are

1. Stellar evolution mass loss only This approach, adopted by Chernoff & Weinberg (1990), may be updated through use of the formulae of Eggleton et al (1989) for the evolution time. At this time, the mass of each star is replaced by the appropriate remnant mass.
2. No stellar evolution In this case the evolution is restricted to pure dynamical evolution, as in the “first” collaborative experiment, though now including primordial binaries.
3. Inert binaries Here, even the internal degrees of freedom of the binaries are ignored. Suitable $`N`$-body initial conditions are also available from the web page.

### 3.5.  Timetable

The idea of a second collaborative experiment arose in the spring of 2001, and Table 1 summarises the time scale to which the collaborative experiment should work.

During the period when “blind” calculations are carried out, the only results which will be made available are a specification of the kind of calculation that has been carried out (e.g. “inert binaries, Fokker-Planck”). At the end of February, 2002, the results obtained so far will be made available on the web page. This may reveal shortcomings or disagreements in the calculations which have been made, and so there will be an opportunity for revised calculations to be performed before the results are summarised publicly. This initial public account of the results may be given at a workshop on the topic Integrating Stellar Evolution and Stellar Dynamics, June 17-21, 2002, at the American Museum of Natural History. In due course a definitive paper will be prepared, discussing the results in detail.

#### Acknowledgments.

I thank the organisers for their support, and Piet Hut, who originally suggested the idea of a second collaborative experiment. I am grateful to colleagues from the first experiment, S.J. Aarseth, G. Drukier, T. Fukushige, M. Giersz, H.M. Lee, R. Spurzem and K. Takahashi for permission to include a summary of the results in this paper. I apologise to other participants whom I was unable to contact before the deadline for submission.

## References

Baumgardt, H. 2001, MNRAS, 325, 1323

Chernoff, D. F. & Weinberg, M. D. 1990, ApJ, 351, 121

Eggleton, P.P, Fitchett, M.J., Tout, C.A. 1989, ApJ, 347, 998

Giersz, M. 2001, MNRAS, 324, 218

Heggie, D. C., Giersz, M., Spurzem, R., & Takahashi, K. 1998, Highlights in Astronomy, 11, 591

Hurley, J. R., Pols, O. R., & Tout, C. A. 2000, MNRAS, 315, 543

Hurley, J. R., Tout, C. A., Aarseth, S. J., & Pols, O. R. 2001, MNRAS, 323, 630

Kim, E., Einsel, C., Lee, H.M., Spurzem, R., Lee, M.G. 2001, MNRAS, submitted; astro-ph/0109062

King, I. R. 1966, AJ, 71, 64

Kroupa, P., Tout, C. A., & Gilmore, G. 1993, MNRAS, 262, 545

Lecar, M. 1968, Bull. Astron., 3, 91

Portegies Zwart, S.F., Makino, J., McMillan, S.L.W., Hut, P. 1999, A&A, 348, 117

Portegies Zwart, S.F., McMillan, S.L.W., Hut, P., Makino, J. 2001a, MNRAS, 321, 199

Portegies Zwart, S.F., Makino, J., McMillan, S.L.W., Hut, P. 2001b, ApJ, 546L, 101

Takahashi, K. & Portegies Zwart, S. F. 1998, ApJ, 503, L49

Takahashi, K. & Portegies Zwart, S. F. 2000, ApJ, 535, 759

Tout, C.A., Aarseth, S.J., Pols, O. 1997, MNRAS, 291, 732

Vesperini, E. & Heggie, D. C. 1997, MNRAS, 289, 898


text:
# 1 Introduction

## 1 Introduction

Studies of the interstellar medium in the Magellanic Clouds (MC) explore different environmental conditions from those typically probed in our own Galactic ISM. On average, MC stars and H II regions have metallicities below solar values by 0.3 dex (LMC) and 0.6–0.7 dex (SMC), though the relative elemental abundances (e.g., \[X/Zn\], for elements X that we consider) are generally similar to those found for analogous Galactic objects (; ; ; ). The ISM in both MC generally has lower dust-to-gas ratios, stronger ambient radiation fields, and significant differences in UV extinction (especially in the SMC). Determination of elemental abundances, depletions, and physical conditions in the MC ISM therefore provides interesting tests for theoretical models of interstellar clouds and dust grains, and should also yield insights into the nature of the even lower metallicity QSO absorption-line systems.

Most studies of the optical absorption lines of Ca II and Na I have focused on the kinematics and structure of the MC (e.g., ; but see ). While UV spectra of many MC stars were obtained with IUE, the relatively low resolution (FWHM $``$ 20–25 km s-1) and generally low S/N made it very difficult to determine accurate abundances and physical conditions for individual interstellar clouds in the generally complex MC sightlines (e.g., ; ).

New observing capabilities (both on the ground and in space) are enabling much more detailed studies of the MC ISM, however (e.g., ). In this contribution, we focus on recent studies of the predominantly neutral gas in the MC, based on high-resolution optical spectra and on UV spectra from IUE, HST (GHRS and STIS), and FUSE. We compare relative gas-phase abundances \[X/Zn\] (which essentially give the depletion of X) in the MC ISM with representative patterns found in our Galaxy (; ) and note constraints on the physical conditions that can be derived from the available data.

## 2 Large Magellanic Cloud

SN 1987A: High-resolution (FWHM $``$ 3 km s-1) Na I and Ca II spectra () reveal at least 46 components, at velocities between $``$25 and +295 km s-1, which may be associated with 10 component groups discernible in the lower resolution IUE spectra () (Fig. 1). Accurate component group column densities for many neutral and singly ionized species were obtained by using the detailed component structure found for Na I and Ca II to model the UV line profiles of similarly distributed species. The main LMC component groups (8–10), with total $`N`$(H) $``$ 2.8 $`\times `$ 1021 cm-2, have relative abundances \[X/Zn\] similar to those found for Galactic “warm, diffuse” clouds (Fig. 2). Variations in individual component $`N`$(Na I)/$`N`$(Ca II), narrow line widths for individual components seen in even higher resolution Na I and K I spectra (FWHM $``$ 0.5 km s-1; ), and analysis of the C I fine structure excitation equilibrium, however, strongly suggest that the main LMC groups contain both warm and cold gas. More severe depletions in the colder gas could be masked by blending with components with less severe depletions. The lower column density LMC groups (6–7), with $`N`$(H) $``$ 1.4 $`\times `$ 1020 cm-2, have \[X/Zn\] more similar to the values found for clouds in the Galactic halo.

\[Cr/Zn\]: Column densities derived from HST/GHRS echelle spectra () yield \[Cr/Zn\] = $``$0.76 for the LMC components toward Sk $``$69o175 — suggesting depletions similar (on average) to those for group 10 toward SN 1987A. More severe depletions are likely toward Sk $``$68o73, which has \[Cr/Zn\] = $``$1.13, as well as stronger Na I, Mg I, and Zn II.

Sk $``$67o5: Spectra from FUSE () and IUE yield relative abundances \[X/Zn\] (for X = Si, P, Cr, Fe, and Ni) similar to those for group 10 toward SN 1987A. The FUSE spectra also show strong absorption from H2, with $`N`$(H2) $``$ 3 $`\times `$ 1019 cm-2, $`T_{01}`$ $``$ 60 K, and $`T_{\mathrm{ex}}`$ $``$ 800 K for $`J`$ = 3–5 ().

## 3 Magellanic Bridge

STIS echelle spectra (FWHM $``$ 6.5 km s-1) have been obtained for DI 1388, located in the Magellanic Bridge, where the overall metallicity has been estimated as about 1.1 dex below solar (). For two components with total $`N`$(H) $``$ 1–2 $`\times `$ 1020 cm-2, the relative abundances \[X/S\] (for X = Al, Si, Fe, and Ni) are similar to those found for Galactic halo clouds (Fig. 2). The apparent underabundance of N I in the weaker component may be due to partial ionization. Combining a (tentative) detection of C I with a limit on $`n_e`$ (from analysis of the C II fine structure excitation) suggests either a relatively weak radiation field or a relatively low $`T`$ for the stronger component.

## 4 Small Magellanic Cloud

Sk 108: GHRS echelle spectra (FWHM $``$ 4.2 km s-1) reveal at least 16 SMC components between 89 and 210 km s-1 (Fig. 3; ). For all the SMC components, the relative abundances \[X/Zn\] (for X = Si, Cr, Mn, Fe, and Ni) are broadly similar to those in Galactic halo clouds, though Si may be slightly high and Ni slightly low (Fig. 5). For $`N`$(H) $``$ 3.5 $`\times `$ 1020 cm-2, the overall \[Zn/H\] is consistent with a metallicity 0.6 dex below solar and a Zn depletion of 0.1 dex (as in the halo clouds). Analysis of lower resolution GHRS G160M and FUSE spectra (FWHM $``$ 20–25 km s-1) suggests that P, S, and Ar are essentially solar, relative to Zn (). The abundance of N may be low, but is uncertain due to saturation of the N I lines near 1135Å, possible partial ionization in the outlying SMC components, and uncertainties in the overall SMC N abundance. Strong absorption due to N III, S III, and Fe III indicates a significant ionized component in the SMC. Weak absorption from the $`J`$ = 1 and $`J`$ = 3 levels of H2 appears consistent with $`N_{\mathrm{tot}}`$(H2) $``$ 3 $`\times `$ 1014 cm-2 and $`T_{\mathrm{ex}}`$ $``$ 1000 K (for all levels); Na I and C I are not detected.

Sk 78 (HD 5980): STIS echelle spectra (FWHM $``$ 6.5 km s-1) were obtained to study the post-outburst spectrum of this WR binary (); many IUE spectra are also available (). The overall SMC relative abundances \[X/Zn\] (for X = S, Ti, Cr, Mn, Fe, and Ni) fall between the “warm, diffuse” and halo cloud patterns; Mg and Si are slightly higher (Fig. 5; ). FUSE spectra indicate $`N`$(H2) $``$ 4.2 $`\times `$ 1015 cm-2, compared to a total SMC $`N`$(H I) $``$ 8.5 $`\times `$ 1020 cm-2 (); Na I and C I are detected, but weak.

Sk 155: STIS echelle spectra reveal at least 12 Milky Way and 25 SMC components, over a total velocity range of nearly 300 km s-1 (Fig. 4; ); $`N`$(H) $``$ 3.5 $`\times `$ 1021 cm-2. Striking differences between the profiles of trace neutral species, dominant depleted species (e.g., Fe II, Ni II), and dominant undepleted species (e.g., S II, Zn II) imply significant variations in depletions and physical conditions among the three main SMC component groups (A, B, C). The depletions of Fe and Ni range from mild (\[Fe,Ni/Zn\] $``$ $``$0.3 to $``$0.8 dex) to severe (\[Fe,Ni/Zn\] $``$ $``$1.7 dex); Mg and Si, however, are essentially undepleted (\[Mg,Si/Zn\] $``$ $``$0.1 to +0.2 dex) throughout. The combination of severe depletion of Cr, Mn, Fe, and Ni and negligible depletion of Mg and Si has not been seen in any Galactic sightline — but is consistent with the \[Mg,Si/Zn\] found toward Sk 108 and Sk 78 (Fig. 5). Both C I and its excited fine structure levels are detected; analysis of the excitation equilibrium suggests pressures $`n_\mathrm{H}T`$ $``$ 1–2 $`\times `$ 104 cm-3K — significantly higher than values typically found in the Galactic ISM (), as predicted by theoretical models for clouds in low metallicity, high radiation environments (). Intriguingly, the strongest Cl I (which should track H2) is not in the component with the most severe depletions of Fe and Ni — which may suggest differences in the relationship between molecular fraction and depletions in the SMC.

## 5 Discussion/Summary

The relative abundances in the LMC gas (total line of sight values toward four stars) are broadly similar to those found for warm, diffuse clouds in the Galactic disk and halo. The available diagnostics (e.g., higher resolution Na I and Ca II spectra, C I fine structure) suggest that the individual components are likely characterized by wider ranges in depletions and physical conditions, however. Higher resolution UV spectra for three SMC sightlines do reveal significant differences in depletions (from mild to severe) and physical conditions for individual components — both within the SMC and relative to the Galactic ISM. We conclude with some implications and areas for further study:

If Si is generally undepleted in the SMC, then models of SMC dust — which rely heavily on silicates () — will need revision; oxides and/or metallic Fe grains may dominate. If Si is also undepleted in QSO absorption-line systems (which resemble the SMC ISM in some respects), then observed QSOALS \[Si/Fe\] ratios would not imply enhanced $`\alpha `$-element/Fe ratios. The higher pressures found toward Sk 155 are consistent with theoretical models; are such elevated pressures characteristic of the SMC ISM? General weakness of the trace neutral species (e.g., Na I, C I) in the MC, relative to H — even after accounting for the lower metallicity and stronger radiation fields — may provide further evidence for additional processes affecting the ionization of heavy elements in the ISM (). A new FUSE survey of H2 toward 70 MC stars has revealed some differences in the behavior of H2, relative to that in the Galactic ISM (); comparisons of depletions and H2, for the different environmental conditions in the Milky Way and MC, should give insight into the relationships between H2, dust, and local physical conditions.

Acknowledgements.  We are grateful for support from NASA grants HST-GO-08145.01-A (via STScI) and NAG5-3228 (LTSA), both to the University of Chicago.