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# Environmental effects in galaxies

## 1 Introduction

A longstanding issue in galaxy evolution is whether galaxies evolve according to a given set of initial conditions or whether the environment in which they reside is decisive for their evolution; i.e. whether galaxy evolution depends on nature or nurture. In order to search for environmental effects in galaxies properties we have obtained optical and millimetric data for galaxies in dense regions of the Southern sky and in the field. In de Mello et al. (2001, hereafter Paper II) we present an extensive analysis of the data. The main results we found are: intermediate type spirals in dense environments have on average less molecular gas per blue luminosity, lower current SFR, the same SFE and higher atomic gas fraction when compared with field galaxies. Although none of the above results stand out as a single strong diagnostic, given their statistical significance (see Table 3 of Paper II), taken together they suggest a trend for diminished gas content and star formation activity in galaxies in high density environments. We also found that SFR per blue luminosity increases linearly as the total amount of gas increases in LINERs. This result, based on a small sample, suggests that LINERs are powered by star formation rather than an AGN. We refer to Paper II for a more detailed analysis of these results.

In this paper we present the optical and millimetric data and is organized as follows. Section 2 describes the sample, Section 3 describes the optical data, Section 4 describes the millimetric data, Section 5 describes general properties, and a comparison with other samples, Section 6 presents a summary and conclusions. A Database of optical and millimetric spectra together with digitized images are shown in Appendix A (available at http://www.oso.chalmers.se/$``$duilia/env.html).

## 2 Sample Selection

### 2.1 Previous samples

Surveys of the molecular gas content in galaxies have in general been done on samples which are far–infrared selected, or galaxies selected exclusively for belonging to clusters or groups (often with a far–infrared selection criteria on top; e.g. Casoli et al. 1991, Combes et al. 1994, Leon et al. 1998). A few exceptions exist in the literature. For example, Sage (1993) presents the CO content of a distance limited sample of 65 non-strongly interacting spiral galaxies, and Horellou et al. (1995) present a CO and HI survey of spiral and lenticular galaxies in the Fornax cluster, both based on samples selected without a far-infrared criterion.

However, until now no survey of galaxies in different environments has included a rigorously selected control sample. For instance, the sample by Casoli et al. (1998) which contains a large sample of 582 objects is an important source of information concerning molecular gas in spiral galaxies. However, it was built by gathering data from various surveys and is very heterogeneous in terms of morphology and environment. It contains galaxies from several clusters as well as galaxies in the field.

### 2.2 Dense Environment and Control Sample (HDS and CS)

In view of these biases plagueing existing samples we have selected our sample from the catalog by Maia et al. (1994) which contains objects in low and high density areas of the Southern sky. The selection of groups adopted by Maia et al. is similar to the methodology developed by Huchra & Geller (1982) with the adaptations described by Maia et al. (1989). The catalog was drawn from the ESO/Uppsala Survey of the ESO(B) Atlas (Lauberts 1982) and used velocity information from the Southern Sky Redshift Survey (e.g., da Costa et al. 1989). The groups are defined to be formed by the accumulation of galaxy pairs with a member in common.

* The high density sample (HDS, hereafter) is formed by galaxies that are in groups of three or more members. They have a density contrast $`\delta \rho /\rho 500`$. This is equivalent to densities larger than 18 galaxies/Mpc3. All the selected objects have radial velocities (after correction for Virgo infall) smaller than 8000 kms-1.
* The control sample (CS, hereafter) is made up of galaxies which are not members of any group and which are situated in regions with density contrast $`\delta \rho /\rho 0.01`$, i.e. less than 0.0004 galaxies/Mpc3.

### 2.3 HDS versus Compact Groups and Poor Groups

Although a group finding algorithm was used to generate the samples, the idea is not to identify groups (either loose or compact), but galaxies in high and low local density environments. The main difference between the HDS and compact groups of galaxies is the isolation criterion which is imposed by the groups selection (Hickson 1982, Coziol et al. 2000). The only 2 compact groups (HCG 21 and HCG 90) in the region searched by Maia et al. (1994) (bII$``$ –30, $`\delta `$$`<`$–17.5) have 3 galaxies of each group taking part of the HDS, but none of them take part in the present subsample analysis.

The HDS should also not be confused with poor groups which are defined as systems with less than five bright galaxies but which can have 20-50 faint members (e.g, Zabludoff & Mulchaey 1998, Willmer et al. 1999). Some galaxies in these poor groups are certainly part of the HDS, but since our selection includes only members with known redshift, the HDS will have only the brighter members which have measured redshift. The HDS and CS contain in total 151 and 179 galaxies, respectively.

### 2.4 Our Subsample: Morphology selection

Maia et al. (1994) have analysed the morphology distribution of the HDS and CS and concluded that the HDS has an excess of early-type galaxies compared to the CS. This is interpreted as an effect of the morphology-density relationship (Dressler 1980); i.e. a correlation between morphological types and local density showing that the fraction of early-type galaxies increases as a function of local galaxy density while the fraction of later types decreases (see also Sanroma & Salvador-Solé 1990, Whitmore & Gilmore 1991). Since there are galaxies of all morphologies in the HDS and in the CS, the main goal of our work is to evaluate the effects of the environment in galaxies of the same morphological type when compared with isolated galaxies. The ideal survey would include all galaxies in the HDS and CS, however, due to large size of the samples we have imposed such a selection which is fundamental in order to avoid any bias due to the well known correlation between morphology and physical properties of galaxies. Figures 2–4 of Roberts & Haynes (1994) summarize clearly how morphology is correlated to fundamental properties of galaxies such as, blue luminosity, far infrared lumninosity, total mass, and neutral hydrogen mass. One of their conclusions is that, although the scatter is large, Sa-Sc have near constant molecular gas normalized either by the blue luminosity or by the total mass. They also pointed out that later type spirals have less molecular gas and suggest that this could also be due to the CO to H2 conversion factor which would depend on morphology. Therefore, in order to have an homogeneous sample, we selected mostly intermediate spiral galaxies; i.e. Sb, Sbc, and Sc, avoiding Sa and Sd galaxies. In this work we present the analysis of the optical and millimetric data of a subsample of 47 spiral galaxies, 22 in the HDS and 25 in the CS, with velocities smaller than 5500 kms-1.

Table 1 lists information taken from the NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database (NED) on each galaxy as follows. Column (1): designation in the ESO-Uppsala catalog (LV89); column (2): designation in other catalogs; column (3): right ascension ($`^{\mathrm{h}\mathrm{m}\mathrm{s}}`$) and declination (  ′′) for J2000; column (4): type of sample (control sample=CS and high density sample=HDS) and morphological type (Lauberts & Valentijn 1989, hereafter LV89) 1=Sa, 2=Sa-b, 3=Sb, 4=Sb-c, 5=S…, 6=Sc, Sc-d, 7=S../Irr, 8=Sd; column (5): morphological type from The Third Reference Catalogue of Bright Galaxies (RC3; de Vaucouleurs et al. 1991); column (6): number of galaxies in the same group (Maia et al. 1989); column (7): mean pairwise separation in Mpc (Maia et al. 1989); column (8): BT magnitude from RC3; column (9): IRAS 60 $`\mu `$m flux in Jy (Moshir et al. 1990) , and column (10): IRAS 100 $`\mu `$m flux in Jy (Moshir et al. 1990).

## 3 The Optical Data

Long slit spectra were obtained with the Boller & Chivens Cassegrain spectrograph at the ESO 1.52m telescope (La Silla) during several runs in 1997 and 1998 as part of a key project during Brazilian time. We used the Loral/Lesser CCD (No. 39) with 2048 $`\times `$ 2048 pixels (1 pixel = 15 $`\mu `$m) and grating No. 27 which has 600 lines mm-1 and gives a spectral coverage of 3600–7500 Å and dispersion of 1.7 Å pix-1. The slit width was 3′′ and positioned along the major axis of the galaxies which corresponds to galactic sizes of 250 pc for the closest galaxy in the sample and to 1 kpc for the most distant galaxy in the sample.

Spectrophotometric standard stars were observed close to zenith several times during the night with a slit width of 5′′. A He-Ar lamp was observed after every exposure and used for wavelength calibration. Typical exposure times were 2 $`\times `$ 20–30 minutes for galaxies and 5–10 minutes for stars.

Standard data reduction, including bias and flat-field correction, was performed using IRAF. One dimensional spectra were extracted of each galaxy integrated along the slit length. We corrected for Galactic extinction using Cardelli et al. (1989) extinction curve and E(B-V) from NED. All spectra are flux calibrated and corrected for Doppler shift which was calculated using a cross-correlation technique.

Starlight subtraction was particularly critical in weak lines such as H$`\beta `$. The starlight contribution was removed using the technique of McCall, Rybski & Shields (1985, see also Storchi-Bergmann, Calzetti & Kinney 1994). Taking into account that in the typical stellar population the equivalent width of H$`\beta `$ in absorption is of the order of 1.5Å, we corrected for this effect by adding a factor of 1.5 times the continuum flux around H$`\beta `$ to the emission line flux. When no emission line was clearly visible we adopted a theoretical ratio, H$`\alpha `$/H$`\beta `$=2.86 (Ho et al. 1997). In this case, the value of H$`\beta `$ is an upper limit. Therefore, higher ratios of H$`\alpha `$/H$`\beta `$ can also be expected. We have investigated whether a higher ratio would influence our results by adopting ratios typical of AGNs (H$`\alpha `$/H$`\beta `$=3.1). We found no significant difference given the uncertainties in the continuum determination.

We tested a second method of starlight subtraction using templates of old stellar populations from Bica (1988). We subtracted our spectra from the templates and then measured the fluxes. Both methods gave similar results given the accuracy of the measurements, dominated by the uncertainty in the continuum determination (Cid Fernandes et al. 1998).

We measured the integrated fluxes and equivalent widths of the emission lines H$`\beta `$, \[OIII\]$`\lambda `$5007, \[NII\]$`\lambda `$6548, H$`\alpha `$, \[NII\]$`\lambda `$6583, \[SII\]$`\lambda `$6716,6731 for 35 galaxies with good signal-to-noise spectra. Internal reddening was estimated from Cardelli et al. (1989) extinction curve and H$`\alpha `$/H$`\beta `$ ratios. H$`\alpha `$ equivalent width was measured after internal reddening correction, following the same procedure as in Ho et al. (1997).

The type of activity was classified by measuring line-intensity ratios (log(\[OIII\] $`\lambda `$ 5007/H$`\beta `$) and log(\[NII\] $`\lambda `$ 6583/H$`\alpha `$)) and applying standard diagnostic diagrams (Baldwin et al. 1981, Veilleux & Osterbrock 1987). In Paper II we show the diagnostic diagram used to classify the type of activity.

Table 2 lists the emission line parameters as follows. Column (1): designation in the ESO-Uppsala catalog (LV89); column (2): type of sample (control sample=CS and high density sample=HDS) and morphological type (LV89) 1=Sa, 2=Sa-b, 3=Sb, 4=Sb-c, 5=S…, 6=Sc, Sc-d, 7=S../Irr, 8=Sd; column (3): H$`\beta `$ flux; column (4): \[OIII\]$`\lambda `$5007 flux; column (5): H$`\alpha `$ flux; column (6):\[NII\]$`\lambda `$6583 flux; column (7): H$`\alpha `$ equivalent width in Å, and column (8): type of activity (L=LINERS, HII=HII region).

In Appendix A (available at the following webpage http://www.oso.chalmers.se/$``$duilia/env.html) we show the optical spectra of 35 galaxies of our sample. We also included in the Appendix the CO spectra described below and images from The Digitized Sky Surveys 111The Digitized Sky Surveys were produced at the Space Telescope Science Institute under U.S. Government grant NAG W-2166 which allows direct inspection of the galaxies morphology.

## 4 The CO Data

Millimetric observations were carried out at the Swedish-ESO (SEST) 15m radiotelescope at La Silla in October 1996 and September 1998 during good weather conditions. In the first run we used the SESIS 100 receiver with a 1 GHz bandwidth at 115 GHz (12CO (1 – 0)). Typical system temperatures were $``$ 250 K (in the T$`{}_{}{}^{}{}_{\mathrm{A}}{}^{}`$ scale) at the elevation of the sources and typical zenith opacities between 0.1-0.2. During the second run we used the IRAM 115 and IRAM 230 receivers with 500 MHz and 1 GHz bandwith, at 115 GHz (12CO (1 – 0)) and 230 GHz (12CO (2 – 1)), respectively. The half power beamwidth of the SEST at 115 GHz is 45′′ and 23′′ at 230 GHz.

All galaxies were observed at the central optical coordinate. Integration times were 2–3 hours depending on the signal-to-noise achieved. The pointing was regularly checked on nearby SiO masers. The pointing uncertainties were of the order of 5′′. CO emission was detected in 47 galaxies and had low signal-to-noise detection in only 5 galaxies, ESO-LV1080110 (HDS), ESO-LV1880170 (CS), ESO-LV2850050 (HDS), ESO-LV3550300 (CS), and ESO-LV6050070 (CS). We have not included these galaxies in our analysis.

Two galaxies, ESO-LV3470340 and ESO-LV4060250, were considerably larger than the SEST beam and were observed in 5 and 7 positions, respectively, spaced by half of a beamwidth (23′′). In Appendix A (available at http://www.oso.chalmers.se/$``$duilia/env.html) we show each position along the major axis of the galaxy and give their spectra. We have added the intensities at each position in order to obtain the total CO intensity of each galaxy.

The CO spectra were reduced with the CLASS package (Forveille et al. 1990). We have binned the spectra with a boxcar function. Spectra were corrected for first order baseline in most of the cases or third order in a few obvious cases where first order did not give a good fit to the data. CO intensities were calculated by using the main-beam efficiency, $`\eta `$mb, values of 0.7 and 0.5 for 115 GHz and 230 GHz, respectively. We estimated the 1 $`\sigma `$ uncertainty in the integrated line intensity taking into account the channel–to–channel noise (rms), the width of the emission profile ($`\mathrm{\Delta }`$V) and the number of channels (N) that the emission profile covers (error = rms$`\times `$$`\mathrm{\Delta }`$V$`\times `$N-1/2).

Table 3 lists the CO data as follows. Column (1): designation in the ESO-Uppsala catalog (LV89); column (2): type of sample (control sample=CS and high density sample=HDS) and morphological type (LV89) 1=Sa, 2=Sa-b, 3=Sb, 4=Sb-c, 5=S…, 6=Sc, Sc-d, 7=S../Irr, 8=Sd; column (3): velocity derived from central CO (1 – 0) profiles in kms-1; column (4): the width of the emission profile in kms-1; column (5): blue luminosity in L derived from BT magnitude (errors in LB are within 10% when the magnitude estimates in the RC3 have errors of 0.1mag); column (6): Far-Infrared luminosity in L calculated as described in the next Section; column (7): CO intensity in the line J=(1 – 0) in K kms-1 and errors; column (8): H2 masses and errors in M estimated from the velocity integrated CO (1 – 0) emission as described in the next Section, and column (9): CO intensity in the line J=(2 – 1) in K kms-1. Distances were corrected for the Virgocentric flow according to model 3.1 in Aaronson et al. (1982). Hubble constant value of 75 kms-1Mpc-1 was adopted in all calculations.

Table 4 lists the CO intensity in the line J=(1 – 0) available in the literature for 7 galaxies (4 in the HDS and 3 in the CS). The differences between the fluxes we have measured and the ones obtained previously are due to (i) different sizes of the beam (Elfhag et al. 1996), (ii) baseline adjustments (Combes et al. 1994, Andreani et al. 1995), or short integration time (Horellou & Booth 1997).

## 5 General Properties

The FIR emission together with the molecular gas provide unique information in terms of fuel and star formation. The FIR luminosity was calculated using the relation (Lonsdale & Helou 1985)

LFIR = 5.9$`\times `$105D2(2.58$`\times `$F60+F100)

where F60 and F100 are fluxes in Jy at 60 and 100 $`\mu `$m detected by IRAS and D is the distance in Mpc corrected for the Virgo infall.

H2 masses were estimated from the velocity integrated CO (1 – 0) emission, using a N$`_{\mathrm{H}_2}`$/ICO conversion ratio of 3$`\times `$1020 cm-2 (K kms-1).

We are assuming that the conversion factor is the same in all galaxies in our sample. This assumption is reasonable since our sample do not contain any later-type systems (Sd, Sm, Ir) which, despite the ongoing star formation, show weak CO emission (e.g. Rubio et al. 1991).

Average and median values of LB, LFIR, M$`_{\mathrm{H}_2}`$, and H$`\alpha `$ equivalent width are presented in Table 5.

Fig. 1a and Fig. 2a show the total amount of molecular gas as a function of FIR and blue luminosities. Fig. 1a confirms the known correlation between LFIR and the H2 masses (correlation coefficient= 0.80 and 0.84 for the HDS and CS, respectively). From Fig. 2a we verify that galaxies in the CS are on average more luminous than those in the HDS (a distance bias in our subsample). In order to eliminate this effect, CO intensities were normalized by the blue luminosity, LB, in the analysis presented in Paper II. Given our morphological selection criteria, we assumed that the mass/LB ratio is approximately the same for our galaxies (Roberts & Haynes 1994) and LB is thus a measure of the total mass.

We have plotted the M$`_{\mathrm{H}_2}`$/LB as a function of LB (Fig. 3a) in order to compare whether the bias in blue luminosity present in our subsample may cause a bias in our analysis. The correlation found for HDS and CS is very similar (correlation coefficient= -0.03 and 0.06 for the HDS and CS, respectively) suggesting no evident bias. We have compared our sample properties with samples observed by others, such as normal spiral galaxies (Young et al. 1989, Braine et al. 1993), the ultraluminous FIR galaxies (Sanders et al. 1991), and galaxies in the Coma and Fornax clusters (Casoli et al. 1991 and Horellou et al. 1995). As it is shown in Fig. 1b, Fig. 2b, and Fig. 3b the 47 spiral galaxies of our sample (HDS and CS) have correlations between global parameters which are similar to those in other samples. The ultraluminous FIR galaxies (Sanders & Mirabel 1996), as expected, are overall brighter and more massive than our subsample. The other samples include spirals of all types which explains the large dispersion found in luminosities and masses.

As previously mentioned, only intermediate Hubble types (Sb, Sbc, and Sc) were selected in order to avoid any bias due to the correlation between general properties and morphology. However, even in this sample the uncertainties in morphological classification should be taken into account when making any firm statement. Galaxies in dense environments can have their morphology distorted by tidal effects which makes them difficult to classify. One should refer to Appendix A (available at http://www.oso.chalmers.se/$``$duilia/env.html) in order to visually check the morphology of each individual galaxy in more detail. We also refer to the detailed morphological classification taken from RC3 presented on Table 1 which gives a general idea on the complexity of the morphologies.

In Table 3 we give both the CO(1 – 0) and CO(2 – 1) integrated line intensitites. In order to estimate the CO(2 – 1)/CO(1 – 0) intensity ratios we need to convolve the CO(2 – 1) data to the same angular resolution as the CO(1 – 0) data. Since we observed only a single position for most galaxies, we can not do this. However, taking the values in Table 3 at face value, the average CO(1 – 0) to CO(2 – 1) line intensity ratio is 0.93$`\pm `$0.47. This is an upper limit to the line ratio. In the case of a molecular gas distribution more extended than both the CO(1 – 0) and CO(2 – 1) telescope beams (45′′ and 23′′, respectively), the correction for different angular resolutions would be 1.0. In the other extreme, with the CO emission originating in a point source, the correction for different angular resolutions would be 0.25. Since our telescope beam in almost all cases is large with respect to the optical extent of the galaxies, and since the molecular gas is likely to be centrally concentrated, the correction for different angular resolutions should be $``$0.5. Our average line ratio is thus $`0.5\pm 0.4`$. This value is lower than that found by Braine et al. (1993) of 0.89$`\pm `$0.34 for normal spiral galaxies. The lower value is characteristic of optically thick and subthermally excited molecular gas and most likely reflects the lower star formation activity in our environmentally selected sample as opposed to far infrared bright selected samples.

In Fig. 4 we verify that the HDS and CS are also very similar to the galaxies in other samples in terms of SFE. We conclude that the intermediate type spirals in the HDS and CS do not belong to a separate class of object but contain objects with properties similar to galaxies in clusters, nearby spiral galaxies and infrared luminous galaxies.

## 6 Summary

In this paper we present millimetric and optical data obtained in order to study environmental effects in galaxies. Our sample has 47 intermediate Hubble type spirals in either dense environments or in the field. We compared general properties, such as far-infrared luminosity, blue luminosity, and total molecular gas content, to other samples of galaxies, such as ultraluminous infrared galaxies, clusters of galaxies and spiral galaxies. We find that overall our sample has general properties very similar to these other galaxies; i.e. they are not a separate class of objects.

###### Acknowledgements.

The ON team of observers at the ESO1.52m, in particular Christopher Willmer for helping with the data reduction. Henrique Schmitt for valuable suggestions regarding the stellar contamination. This research has made use of the NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database (NED) which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. The Digitized Sky Surveys were produced at the Space Telescope Science Institute under U.S. Government grant NAG W-2166. The images of these surveys are based on photographic data obtained using the Oschin Schmidt Telescope on Palomar Mountain and the UK Schmidt Telescope. D.F.M. was partially supported by CNPq Fellowship 301456/95-0, and the Swedish *Vetenskapsrådet* project number F620-489/2000. M.A.G.M. was supported by CNPq grant 301366/86-1. T.W. was supported by *Vetenskapsrådet* project number F1299/1999.


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# Nonequilibrium Phase Transitions in Directed Small-World Networks

## Abstract

Many social, biological, and economic systems can be approached by complex networks of interacting units. The behaviour of several models on small-world networks has recently been studied. These models are expected to capture the essential features of the complex processes taking place on real networks like disease spreading, formation of public opinion, distribution of wealth, etc. In many of these systems relations are directed, in the sense that links only act in one direction (outwards or inwards). We investigate the effect of directed links on the behaviour of a simple spin-like model evolving on a small-world network. We show that directed networks may lead to a highly nontrivial phase diagram including first and second-order phase transitions out of equilibrium.

Complex networks have recently attracted an increasing interest among physicists. The main reason being that they seem to be exceedingly simple model systems of complex behaviour in real world networks , including chemical reaction networks , food webs , the Internet  and the World-Wide-Web , metabolic  and protein networks, scientific collaboration networks , etc. The hope is that the ideas and techniques developed in the last fifty years in the field of statistical physics to deal with cooperative phenomena in many body systems, may be useful to understand emergent complex behaviour in systems outside the traditional realm of physics. In particular, small-world (SW) networks, recently introduced by Watts and Strogatz , have been very much studied because they constitute an interesting attempt to translate the complex topology of social, economic and physical networks into a simple model. SW networks result from randomly replacing a fraction $`p`$ of links of a $`d`$-dimensional regular lattice with new random links. As a result of this random rewiring, SW networks interpolate between the two limiting cases of a regular lattice ($`p=0`$) and completely random graphs ($`p=1`$). Studies of real network data have shown that SW-like topologies are found in situations as diverse as the network of movie actors collaboration, the electric power grid of Southern California, the network of world airports, the acquaintance network of Mormons, etc .

Many topological properties of the SW model have recently been investigated, as for instance the shortest-path distance and clustering coefficient , the crossover from regular to SW behaviour occurring at $`p=0`$ , a mean-field solution , and percolation on SW networks  among others. Specifically, SW models are expected to play an important role in understanding the interplay between the underlying disordered network and the dynamics of many social or economic processes, such as distribution of wealth, disease spreading, transmission of cultural traits, and formation of public opinion .

In the language of social network analysis , sites are referred to as actors. Actors may represent individuals, companies, airports, countries, etc., depending on the social or economic process we are interested in. Actors are linked to one another by a relational, social or physical tie like for instance, friendship, business transactions, flight connections, kinship, or scientific collaboration, among many others. Some of those relational links are symmetric, in the sense that if Alice is tied to Bob, then Bob must also be tied to Alice, as occurs for instance in the authorship of scientific papers. However, many other networks are directed and exhibit links that are definitely asymmetric, like for instance in the case of networks of import-export of goods, world-wide-web pages links, lending transactions, food webs, cultural influences, etc. In directed networks then, when Alice is tied to Bob, Bob may not be linked to Alice but to someone else instead. Asymmetric synaptic strengths have already been shown to be very important in trying to describe the process of learning in realistic neural network model approaches to brain function.

Several models have recently been studied in order to understand the effect of SW topology on classical systems like the Ising model  or the spread of infections and epidemics . Such a simple models are expected to capture the essential features of the more complicated processes taking place on real networks. However, as mentioned earlier, many social, commercial or biological relations are asymmetric and the following question naturally arises: What is the effect of directed links on a simple model that evolves on the network?

In this Letter we investigate the effect of directed SW topology on the behaviour of a simple model. In case only undirected links are used, our model becomes identical to the classical Ising model on a standard (undirected) SW network . This allows us to study, in a systematic way, the effect of directed ties on this classical model. We find that the existence of directed links completely changes the behaviour of the system from mean-field behaviour (for undirected networks) to a highly nontrivial and rich phase diagram in the case of directed networks. By means of extensive numerical simulations we find that, for rewiring probabilities in the range $`0<p<p_c`$, the model exhibits a line of continuous phase transitions from an ordered to a disordered state. Those phase transitions occur at a critical value of the temperature $`T_c(p)`$, which depends on $`p`$. However, for higher disorder densities $`p_c<p1`$, the phase transition becomes first-order. Our results show that, in order to model biological, social or economic processes on complex networks, it is crucial to take into account the character, directed or undirected, of the corresponding relational links.

The model.- We have studied directed networks in $`d=1`$ and 2. For simplicity we focus here on $`d=2`$ and further results in $`d=1`$ will be published elsewhere. In order to construct a directed SW network, we start from a 2-dimensional square lattice consisting of sites linked to their four nearest-neighbours by both, outgoing and incoming links. Then, with probability $`p`$ we reconnect nearest-neighbour outgoing links to a different site chosen at random. After repeating this process for every outgoing link we are left with a network with a density $`p`$ of SW directed links, as shown in Figure 1. Note that, by this procedure, every site will have exactly four outgoing links and a varying (random) number of incoming links. Generalization to higher dimensions is straightforward.

Adopting social network nomenclature, actors are then placed at the network sites. Any given actor is connected by four outgoing links to other actors, which we call mates. We allow every actor to be in one of two possible states, so that, at any given time, the state of an actor is described by a binary spin-like variable $`s_i\{+1,1\}`$. Depending on the state of their mates, an actor may change its state according to a majority (ferromagnetic) rule: Actors prefer to be in the same state as their mates are. In order to implement this, we introduce the pay-off function

$$G(i)=2s_i\underset{\mathrm{mates}\mathrm{of}i}{}s_j,$$
(1)
where the sum is carried out over the four mates of actor $`i`$. Note that this pay-off function is positive whenever $`s_i`$ points in the same direction as the majority of its four mates. External noise is included to allow some degree of randomness in the time evolution by means of a temperature-like parameter, $`T`$, which we shall call temperature for short from now on. For a given value of the external temperature, the update of the model is then performed as follows: At each time step, an actor (network site) is randomly chosen and its corresponding pay-off function $`G(i)`$ is computed according to Eq. (1). If $`G(i)<0`$, actor $`i`$ is opposing its mates’ majority and the change $`s_is_i`$ is accepted. Unfavorable changes, i.e. when $`G(i)>0`$, are accepted with probability $`\mathrm{exp}[G(i)/T]`$, which depends on temperature in the usual fashion.

Concerning the physics of the above defined model, there are two interesting points that should be explicitly mentioned. On the one hand, the model is nonequilibrium since detailed balance is not satisfied. On the other hand, the model is not simply the asymmetric counterpart of the Ising model, since the pay-off function $`G(i)`$ in Eq. (1) does not include the corresponding interaction terms coming from the ingoing links (needed in order to identify $`G(i)`$ with the energy change after a spin update in the asymmetric Ising model). In fact, one can easily see that the pay-off function $`G(i)`$ of our model cannot be written as variation of any Hamiltonian. However, we would like to remark that if only symmetric links are allowed, our model becomes exactly equal to the (equilibrium) Ising model in an undirected SW network that was studied in Ref.. This can be seen by a simple comparison of the pay-off function Eq. (1) with the change of energy after a spin update in the standard (symmetric) Ising ferromagnet. In this case, it is known that the system presents mean-field behaviour for any value of the disorder $`p>0`$ .

Results.- We have carried out extensive numerical simulations of the model for different values of the density of SW directed ties $`p`$ and temperature. Our results are qualitatively the same for directed networks generated from regular lattices in $`d=1`$ and $`2`$. In the following we focus on $`d=2`$. We have simulated the model in directed SW networks generated from $`L\times L`$ square lattices for sizes ranging from $`L=8`$ to $`100`$ and different rewiring probabilities $`p[0,1]`$. The system is left to evolve until, after some transient, a stationary nonequilibrium state is reached. The stationary state can be described by the appropriate order parameter, which can be defined in a natural way by means of the ’magnetization’ per site

$$m=\frac{1}{L^2}\underset{i=1}{\overset{L^2}{}}s_i.$$
(2)
We find that the system becomes ordered, i.e. $`|m|0`$, below a critical temperature $`T_c(p)`$, so that most actors are, in average, in the same state. In Figure 2 the average absolute value of the order parameter is plotted vs. temperature for two different values of the disorder $`p=0.1`$ and 0.9, calculated in systems of different sizes. For every system size $`L^2`$, results were averaged over both, $`10`$ runs of the dynamics for each network realization and $`n`$ different realizations of the network, in such a way that $`n\times L^21.5\times 10^5`$. Figure 2 shows that the order-disorder transition is continuous (top panel) for a low disorder density, while it becomes discontinuous for a higher concentration of directed SW links (bottom panel). A more systematic study of the phase diagram, as shown in Figure 3, reveals that there is a line of continuous phase transitions for disorder densities below some critical value $`p_c`$. Very interestingly, the transition becomes first-order above $`p_c`$, indicating that there exists a nonequilibrium tricritical point at $`p_c`$. We estimate $`p_c`$ to be roughly at $`p_c=0.65(5)`$. The character, continuous or discontinuous, of the phase transition is better realized when looking at the probability density function (PDF) of the order parameter. For sake of illustration, the insets of Fig. 3 show typical PDFs at points of the phase diagram (p,T), all near the critical line. From those PDFs, one can see that the phase transition is second-order from Fig. 3a to 3b, in the region $`p<p_c`$. In contrast, for $`p>p_c`$ the transition is discontinuous, from Fig. 3c to 3d. The most probable values of $`m`$, which correspond to the two equally highest symmetric peaks in Fig. 3c, become unstable in favor of $`m=0`$ as the transition line is crossed towards Fig. 3d. The transition occurs in such a way that the order parameter exhibits a finite jump at the critical line.

The critical behaviour of the model in the region $`p<p_c`$, where transitions are continuous, can be studied in detail. We find that the order parameter exhibits finite-size scaling with exponents that depend on the disorder density $`p`$. Close to the critical point, $`|t|0`$, we have $`|m||t|^\beta `$, where $`t=(TT_c)/T_c`$ is the reduced temperature. At the critical point, $`t=0`$, the order parameter scales with system size as $`|m|L^{\beta /\nu }`$, where $`\nu `$ is the correlation length exponent. Figure 4 displays the behaviour of $`|m|`$ vs. $`L`$ for two disorder densities $`p=0.1`$ and 0.5 below $`p_c0.65`$. Only for $`T=T_c(p)`$ a power-law is obtained and the slope of the straight line in a log-log plot gives an estimation of the ratio $`\beta /\nu `$ between critical exponents. From Fig. 4 we obtain that for $`p=0.1`$ and $`p=0.5`$, $`\beta /\nu =0.53(2)`$ and $`0.40(3)`$, respectively. Moreover, from data collapse analysis (not shown) at the corresponding $`T_c(p)`$ we have $`\beta =0.50(3)`$, $`\nu =0.94(6)`$, and $`\beta =0.30(3)`$, $`\nu =0.80(3)`$ for $`p=0.1`$ and $`p=0.5`$, respectively. These critical exponents are different from both mean-field, ($`\beta =\nu =1/2`$) and exact values ($`\beta =1/8`$ and $`\nu =1`$) for the Ising model in $`d=2`$.

Conclusions.- Many social, economic and biological networks in the real world exhibit directed ties or relations. This may be modeled by including directed links in the corresponding complex network model. In addition, spin-like models, borrowed from statistical physics, have recently been proposed as toy models to understand some social processes, like for instance conflict vs. cooperation among coalitions  or formation of cultural domains . We claim that the directedness of the network may strongly affect the behaviour of simple processes evolving on complex networks. We studied the effect of a directed small-world topology on a very simple spin model. Our model becomes equal to the Ising model when all links are undirected. From numerical simulations we showed that, when directed links exist, the phase diagram of the model is nontrivial. We found that the system exhibits continuous phase transitions for disorder densities below a critical threshold $`p_c0.65`$. For stronger disorder, the transition is first-order. At this stage we can only speculate that the competition among weekly coupled clusters may be related to the existence of first-order transitions.

We believe that the effect of directed links may be relevant in other types of disordered networks, like free-scale networks, and different dynamical models. In trying to model real systems, directed links may play an important and unforeseen role.

Acknowledgement.- We would like to thank J. Güemez for collaboration at the early stages of this work. We are also grateful to J.J. Ramasco, L. Pesquera and X. Guardiola for stimulating discussions and comments. A.D.S. acknowledges postdoctoral fellowship from CONICET (Argentina). J.M.L. acknowledges financial support from the European Commission (contract HPMF-CT-1999-00133). Partial financial support from Ministerio de Ciencia y Tecnología (Spain) through projects BFM2000-0628-C03-02 and BFM2000-1105 is acknowledged.


text:
# Pionic dressing of baryons in chiral quark models

## I Introduction

Chiral symmetry is one of the most important features of QCD at low energies. This approximate symmetry is spontaneously broken by the quark condensate, leading to constituent masses for the quarks and to pions which are, to a good approximation, the corresponding Goldstone bosons. As a result pions are much lighter than all other mesons and so the cloud of virtual pions surrounding a baryon can make significant contributions to the properties of that baryon. Any realistic model for the structure of baryons should therefore take account of their pion clouds.

As approximate Goldstone bosons, pions with low momenta interact relatively weakly with other hadrons. This forms the basis for chiral perturbation theory (ChPT), in which hadron properties and scattering amplitudes are expanded in powers of momenta and the pion mass (for a review, see ). It also provides a motivation for treating the pion cloud perturbatively in chiral quark models. Such a treatment ensures that at least the longest-range effects of the pion cloud are described correctly, since these involve virtual pions with low momenta. These effects can be checked by comparing contributions to hadron properties that depend nonanalytically on the square of the pion mass with the model-independent predictions of ChPT.

A range of chiral quark models for baryon structure can be found in the literature. These include chiral or “cloudy” bag and soliton models and chiral versions of constituent quark models. In all of these, pions are introduced as elementary degrees of freedom and in many cases their contributions are calculated perturbatively.

In contrast, models of the Nambu–Jona-Lasinio (NJL) type are based on relativistic quarks only, and the quark condensate and pions are generated by the interactions between these quarks (for a review, see: ). As such they represent a step closer to QCD, although problems with implementing confinement remain to be solved satisfactorily. In these models baryon states have been constructed by solving the relativistic Faddeev equation, but this approach does not include the pion cloud.We should mention that a completely different approach to baryons in these models uses a mean-field treatment where baryons are described as Skyrmion-like solitons. This is expected to be valid in the limit of a large number of colours. However in the realistic case of three colours the Faddeev approach is likely to be more appropriate. An attempt to hybridise the two approaches can be found in Ref. . The part of the cloud corresponding to the pairwise meson exchange between quarks has been studied in Ref. . Recently a covariant version of the treatment used in the cloudy-bag model has been applied to calculate pion cloud effects based on a Faddeev approach to the nucleon. Also, a quite different, noncovariant approach to the calculation of pion cloud effects in models with composite pions has been proposed by Bicudo et al. .

In the present work we address the problem of mesonic corrections within an NJL model, deriving covariant expressions for the complete set of one-loop corrections to baryon masses and couplings to currents. The approach is based on the “gauging of equations” method  for constructing photon couplings to strongly interacting systems of particles. Our approach is applicable to any set of one-boson contributions to such systems and was recently used to construct a complete set of electromagnetic corrections. As has been noted previously in the context of NJL models for mesons, such completeness is important since it ensures that physical quantities calculated in this approach satisfy the relevant symmetry constraints. The general features of the approach also allow us to comment on the approximations used in cloudy-bag and chiral quark models, which have recently been the subject of some debate.

## II Covariant mesonic corrections

A method has recently been presented for calculating all possible electromagnetic corrections, at order $`e^2`$, to any quark or hadronic model whose strong interactions can be represented nonperturbatively by integral equations . We will use this method to calculate in a covariant manner all mesonic corrections to a relativistic quark model. For this purpose all we need to do is to summarise the main model-independent results of Ref. , applied to exchange of mesons rather than photons.

In such a model, the Green’s function $`G`$ describing a bare system of quarks satisfies an integral equation whose symbolic form is

$$G=G_0+G_0KG,$$
(1)
where $`G_0`$ is the “free” Green’s function. Note that this need not describe the propagation of three free quarks. In a Faddeev approach, for instance, it is the Green’s function for one free quark and an interacting pair of quarks (often referred to as a diquark, although the pair need not be bound).

The lowest-order mesonic correction to $`G`$ is denoted by $`\delta G`$. This should contain all possible insertions of the meson propagator, $`D_{\mu \nu }`$. In chiral quark models with elementary mesons this is just a standard boson propagator, but in NJL-type models it is essentially the quark-antiquark $`T`$-matrix, as discussed below. A four-vector-like notation is used for the indices $`\mu `$ and $`\nu `$ which label the meson channels. This will allow for applications to models with vector or axial mesons. The propagator is diagonal in its indices, except for the mixing between pseudoscalar and axial channels which occurs in models with spin-1 mesons. The set of corrections includes mesonic insertions within the kernel $`K`$ which do not start or finish on an external quark line. These provide a contribution $`\delta K`$ to the kernel. Similarly insertions within the free Green’s function $`G_0`$ provide a contribution $`\delta G_0`$.

All contributions with a meson which connects two elements of the integral equation Eq. (1) are constructed by the “gauging of equations” method  which in this case attaches an external meson in all possible ways to each of the unperturbed quantities $`G_0`$, $`K`$ and $`G`$. The corresponding vertices are given by

$$\mathrm{\Gamma }_0^\mu =G_0^1G_0^\mu G_0^1,\mathrm{\Gamma }^\mu =\mathrm{\Gamma }_0^\mu +K^\mu ,G^\mu =G\mathrm{\Gamma }^\mu G.$$
(2)
An equation for the complete set of lowest-order mesonic corrections to $`G`$, denoted by $`\delta G`$, then follows from Eq. (1):

$$\delta G=\delta G_0+\delta G_0KG+G_0\delta KG+G_0K\delta G+\left(G_0^\mu K^\nu G+G_0^\mu KG^\nu +G_0K^\mu G^\nu \right)D_{\mu \nu }.$$
(3)
Writing

$$\delta G=G\mathrm{\Delta }G,$$
(4)
this can be formally solved to give

$$\mathrm{\Delta }=\delta K+G_0^1\delta G_0G_0^1+\left(\mathrm{\Gamma }^\mu G\mathrm{\Gamma }^\nu \mathrm{\Gamma }_0^\mu G_0\mathrm{\Gamma }_0^\nu \right)D_{\mu \nu }.$$
(5)
The quantity $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ consists of the complete set of one-loop mesonic corrections to the unperturbed kernel $`K`$. The third term on the right hand side (RHS) contains the physical intermediate states of three quarks plus a meson. There are significant cancellations between the second and fourth terms, leaving contributions which correct the $`G_0`$ piece of the third term for omissions and overcounting. Note that the contributions of these terms include disconnected pieces where the particles in $`G_0`$ are individually dressed by meson loops. These can be easily recast as corrections to the “free” propagator $`G_0`$.

Although our main focus here is on covariant approaches, it is worth noting that the same formalism also applies to time-ordered perturbation theory. The only difference is that the Green’s functions involved are functions of three-momenta rather than four-momenta. A method for applying time-ordered perturbation theory to mesonic corrections in models of this type has recently been outlined in Ref. , although that work proposed truncating the sum over intermediate baryon states to just the nucleon and $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$. However, within a time-ordered approach, it is difficult to ensure that vertex functions satisfy the constraints of Lorentz invariance. This is necessary if one wants to calculate processes involving finite momentum transfer to a baryon, or to treat correctly recoil of the intermediate baryons in meson-loop diagrams. In addition, a time-ordered approach would make it difficult to include quark “z-diagrams”, since these would go beyond a basis of states with three valence quarks (plus mesons). Such effects are expected to be important in models where the quarks have strong couplings to scalar mesons and couplings to pions with a pseudoscalar form. It is also difficult to regularise time-ordered approaches to NJL models in a way that respects Lorentz invariance. For these reasons we have concentrated here on developing a covariant treatment.

## III NJL model for the nucleon

The NJL model is a relativistic quark model which reflects many aspects of the spontaneously broken chiral symmetry of QCD. It therefore provides a useful framework within which to investigate the role of mesonic corrections.

The simplest version of the model is defined in terms of an isospin-doublet colour-triplet quark field $`\psi `$ and has the Lagrangian density

$$=\overline{\psi }\left(i\partial ̸m_0\right)\psi +g_\pi \left[(\overline{\psi }\psi )^2(\overline{\psi }\gamma _5𝝉\psi )^2\right]$$
(6)
where $`𝝉`$ is the vector of isospin Pauli matrices, and $`m_0`$ is the current quark mass (which explicitly breaks chiral symmetry).

Chiral symmetry is spontaneously broken in this model by condensation of quark-antiquark pairs. These generate a constituent mass for the quarks, which can be found by solving the Schwinger-Dyson (SD) equation for the quark propagator

$$S(p)=S_0(p)+S_0(p)\mathrm{\Sigma }(p)S(p)$$
(7)
where $`S_0(p)`$ is the bare quark propagator and the self-energy $`\mathrm{\Sigma }`$ is, in the Hartree approximation,

$$\mathrm{\Sigma }(p)=ig_\pi \frac{d^4k}{(2\pi )^4}\text{tr}[S(k)].$$
(8)
Here “tr” denotes a trace over Dirac, colour and flavour indices. The integral over four-momenta is, of course, divergent and so needs to be regularised. This may be done either by using one of the various cut-off schemes which can be found in the literature, or by introducing form-factors to smear out the local interaction. Provided that the coupling $`g_\pi `$ is large enough, this SDE has a nonzero solution for $`\mathrm{\Sigma }`$.

The quark-antiquark $`T`$-matrix can be found by solving a Bethe-Salpeter (BS) equation, which in the random-phase approximation is a simple algebraic equation. For example, in the pion channel this yields

$$D_\pi (p)=\frac{4ig_\pi }{12ig_\pi \mathrm{\Pi }_\pi (p^2)},$$
(9)
where the basic quark-antiquark loop integral is

$$\mathrm{\Pi }_\pi (p^2)\delta _{ij}=\frac{d^4k}{(2\pi )^4}\text{tr}\left[i\gamma _5\tau _iS(p+k)i\gamma _5\tau _jS(k)\right].$$
(10)
In the simplest NJL model there is a similar $`T`$-matrix in the scalar isoscalar ($`\sigma `$-meson) channel. In more general versions of the model, interactions in the vector and axial-vector channels are treated in the same way.

In the treatment of the model considered here, the nucleon is described by a three-quark vertex function which satisfies a four-dimensional Faddeev equation. The local nature of the quark-quark interaction means that the structure of this integral equation is similar to that of a BS equation. At lowest order the kernel $`K`$ can be pictured as exchange of a quark between a quark and two interacting quarks (a “diquark”).

The coupling strengths of the quark-quark interaction can be found by Fierz-transforming it into these channels. The colour-$`\overline{3}`$ diquark channels are the relevant ones for formation of a nucleon. For a local interaction, there are two such channels: scalar isoscalar and axial-vector isovector. The transformed interaction Lagrangian has the form

$$_I=g_S\underset{a}{}\left(\overline{\psi }\gamma _5C\tau _2\beta ^a\overline{\psi }^T\right)\left(\psi ^TC^1\gamma _5\tau _2\beta ^a\psi \right)+g_A\underset{i,a}{}\left(\overline{\psi }\gamma _\mu C\tau _i\tau _2\beta ^a\overline{\psi }^T\right)\left(\psi ^TC^1\gamma ^\mu \tau _2\tau _i\beta ^a\psi \right)$$
(11)
where

$$(\beta ^a)_{ik}=i\sqrt{\frac{3}{2}}ϵ_{aik},$$
(12)
and $`g_s`$ and $`g_a`$ are the couplings in these channels.Other contributions including colour-6 diquark channels and the chiral partner of the axial diquark, $`\overline{\psi }\gamma _\mu \gamma _5C\tau _2\beta ^a\overline{\psi }^T`$, are generated by the Fierz-transformation. We have not written these down since they are not needed for the present discussion. For the original NJL model, these couplings can be related to $`g_\pi `$ as described in Ref.. In the scalar-diquark channel, the propagation of two interacting quarks can be described by the $`T`$-matrix,

$$D_s(p)=\frac{4ig_s}{12ig_s\mathrm{\Pi }_s(p^2)},$$
(13)
where $`\mathrm{\Pi }_s(p)`$ has the same form as in the pion channel, Eq. (10). The interaction between two quarks in the axial diquark channel leads to a $`T`$-matrix whose form is similar to that in a vector-meson channel (see Ref. for more details).

The corresponding Faddeev equation is represented diagrammatically in Fig. 1. It can be written in the form of Eq. (1) by defining the “free” quark-diquark propagator

$$G_0(P)=S(Pp)D_s(p).$$
(14)
The quark-diquark interaction kernel is given by the quark exchange term

$$K_{a^{}a}(p^{},p)=\gamma _5\beta ^aS(p^{}+p)\gamma _5\beta ^a^{}.$$
(15)
When the axial diquark channel is included, the kernel must be extended to a $`2\times 2`$ matrix which couples the two spin-isospin channels, as described in Ref. .

## IV Mesonic corrections to the nucleon

The mesonic corrections to this model can be found by applying the general formulation of Eqs. (1)–(5) to the Faddeev equation outlined above. The resulting expression for $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ is represented diagrammatically in Fig. 2. Mesonic corrections to the nucleon in the NJL model have previously been studied by Ishii but it should be noted that the set of diagrams in that work is incomplete. Only the diagrams of Fig. 3 were included, with subtracted meson propagators as discussed below.

The full set of diagrams includes not only the meson exchanges between the quarks treated by Ishii but also the meson clouds of the quark and diquark. In calculating the pion-cloud contributions it is essential to attach the pion in all possible ways to the dressed quark propagator obtained from the Hartree approximation. As well as direct dressings of the quark lines, as in Fig. 2(a), this includes attachments within the Hartree self-energy and generates tadpole diagrams like Fig. 2(d) where a pion loop is connected to a quark line via an interacting quark-antiquark pair in the scalar, isoscalar channel. The exchanged quark-antiquark pair is represented in Fig. 2(d) by a sigma-meson propagator. There is a strong cancellation between these diagrams and the basic pion loop attached to a single quark. This cancellation is needed to get the correct leading nonanalytic (LNA) terms in the chiral expansion in any model where the pion-fermion coupling has a pseudoscalar ($`\gamma _5`$) form.

The complete one-meson correction to the nucleon mass in this model can be calculated as the expectation value of $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ in the lowest-order wave function obtained from the homogeneous equation corresponding to Eq. (1). This can be written

$$\delta M=\overline{\mathrm{\Psi }}\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Psi },$$
(16)
where $`\mathrm{\Psi }`$ satisfies

$$\mathrm{\Psi }=G_0K\mathrm{\Psi }.$$
(17)
In models where the mesons are not introduced as elementary fields, some care should be taken with the quark-antiquark $`T`$-matrix, Eq. (9). In the mesonic dressing of a single quark or one-loop corrections to meson properties, this $`T`$-matrix can be used as a meson propagator to generate a complete set of terms at next-to-leading order in $`1/N_c`$ where $`N_c`$ is the number of colours. These include terms which are linear in the coupling $`g_\pi `$, such as the exchange or Fock term corresponding to the Hartree self-energy of Eq. (8). For a diquark or a baryon, these linear terms are already included in the interactions between the quarks. Hence meson exchanges between two quarks which do not otherwise interact should be described by the subtracted $`T`$-matrix

$$\overline{D}_{\mu \nu }(p)=D_{\mu \nu }(p)4ig_\pi \delta _{\mu \nu }.$$
(18)
In the case of the pion, this has the form

$$\overline{D}_\pi =\frac{8g_\pi ^2\mathrm{\Pi }_\pi (p^2)}{12ig_\pi \mathrm{\Pi }_\pi (p^2)}.$$
(19)
This subtracted $`T`$-matrix should be used in the diagrams of Fig. 3, which form part of Fig. 2.

For a single quark (or a meson) the mesonic one-loop diagrams, including the Fock terms, form the leading corrections to the properties of these particles in a systematic expansion in powers of $`1/N_c`$. In the case of baryons, things are not so clean. Both Hartree and Fock terms contribute to the baryon energy at leading order ($`N_c^1`$). Meson exchanges between the quarks in a baryon are also of leading order, as are nonlinear terms arising from interactions among the mesons. In the large-$`N_c`$ limit, this provides a justification for treating the baryon as a soliton, as in the Skyrme model. Such treatments have been quite widely applied to NJL-type models. They form a radically different approach to baryon structure from the one outlined here and it is still unclear which is the better for the case of interest, $`N_c=3`$. Indeed a hybrid of the two has been proposed in Ref. . Ultimately, numerical calculations of the size of the kernel based on Eq. (18) will indicate whether a perturbative treatment is adequate.

If it is found that the shorter-range pieces of $`\overline{D}`$ are too strong to be treated perturbatively, then one possible way to improve the convergence of the approach may be to vary the strength of the subtraction term. This must be compensated by adjusting the strength of the interaction used in the bare equation for $`G`$. That would allow the strong short-range effects to be treated self-consistently in this equation, leaving the longer-range effects to act as a residual interaction.

Note that the loop integral Eq. (10) falls off at high momenta in this type of model. Consequently the subtracted $`T`$-matrix Eq. (18) also falls off; the enhancements due to the Goldstone-boson nature of the pion only appear at low momenta. It is thus the underlying interaction responsible for spontaneous symmetry breaking which controls the short-range interaction between quarks, not the short-range part of Goldstone-boson-exchange as suggested by some authors. Provided that the quarks in a baryon can be assumed to interact in $`s`$-waves, only the strengths of the interactions in the scalar and axial diquark channels are relevant.

The inclusion of interactions between the quarks while a meson is in flight, Fig. 2(b), is crucial to ensuring the correct energy denominators for the intermediate baryon-meson states. The binding energy of the nucleon depends on both the scalar and axial diquark couplings, whereas that of the $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ depends only on the axial one. The short-range interaction thus has an implicit spin-dependence, which splits the bare nucleon and $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ states. This means that, provided the scalar and axial diquark couplings are chosen to give the correct N-$`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ splitting, the only intermediate states in the diagrams of Fig. 2(b) with energy denominators of order $`m_\pi `$ are pion-nucleon ones. These will generate the correct LNA terms in a chiral expansion, for example the order-$`m_\pi ^3`$ term in the nucleon mass.

A model of this type can therefore help to resolve some of the issues which have arisen in comparisons of the results of chiral quark models with those of the cloudy bag model . In order to get the correct LNA terms (which are a signal that chiral symmetry has been correctly implemented) it is crucial that the full propagator $`G`$ is used, allowing the quarks to interact while the meson is in flight. This means that the nucleon-plus-pion states necessary for the LNA terms are included, as in the cloudy bag model . However, in contrast to the elementary bag model (i.e. one defined strictly by the cloudy bag model Lagrangian ), in our approach the spin-dependence of the interaction binding the “bare” baryons means that the $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ is not degenerate with the nucleon and so it does not contribute to the LNA terms in the nucleon mass. Although this problem is avoided in practical bag model calculations where the bare baryon in the baryon-plus-pion state is replaced by a physical one, such an approach is, apparently, equivalent to resumming a subset of mesonic corrections to all orders in the Lagrangian-based description. Such a sum may give rise to conflicts with chiral symmetry at higher orders. In a related context, it has been noted that if $`\pi N`$ loops are resummed in this way then one should also dress the $`\pi N`$ vertex with pion loops.

The chiral quark model of Glozman and coworkers  includes pion loops which dress the quarks individually, effectively treating the quarks as non-interacting while the pion is in flight. In addition, retardation is neglected in the pion exchanges between quarks. These two approximations mean that the current treatments of this model do not generate the correct LNA terms. These would require the inclusion of interactions between the quarks while the meson is in flight, together with the corresponding retardation effects.

Finally it is also worth noting that, in a model of the NJL type, a complete set of intermediate baryon states can be included in the meson-loop diagrams. This will make it possible to examine the role of excited baryons in the mesonic dressing. Although the contributions of individual excited states fall off with energy, there is an infinite number of such states, which may be unbound as well as bound in a nonconfining model. The sum over these states would diverge in the absence of a cut-off. We therefore expect that they could make significant contributions to the mesonic dressing in the approach described here. In this way it will be possible to assess the accuracy of truncating to intermediate nucleon and $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ states only, as done in the original cloudy bag model and more recently in a model of the type discussed here.

In this recent work, Oettel and coworkers have calculated pion-loop contributions to nucleon properties within a Faddeev approach, with a covariant version of the approximation used in the cloudy-bag model. In the original cloudy-bag model, pion loops were calculated keeping only $`\pi N`$ and $`\pi \mathrm{\Delta }`$ intermediate states and the baryons were treated as static. In Refs.  these loops are calculated using fully covariant propagators for the nucleon and $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ but keeping only the poles corresponding to the lowest-energy solutions to the Faddeev equation in each channel. In esssence, this replaces their relativistic quark model by a model of elementary baryons and mesons. Oettel et al. also take care to include the tadpole diagrams required for the correct chiral behaviour. Their loop integrals are made finite by form factors at the meson-baryon vertices. These form factors can be regarded either as ad hoc regulators of the sort typically used in NJL models or as consequences of the internal structure of the hadrons. Although this approach respects chiral constraints and provides good estimates of the largest individual loop contributions, it does not give the complete loop correction since excited baryon states have been omitted.

## V Mesonic dressing of currents

In order to calculate electromagnetic and weak properties of the nucleon, we need to construct the corresponding currents. At lowest order (no meson loops) the electromagnetic current operator to be used in a three-quark state can be obtained diagramatically by attaching a photon everywhere in Eq. (1). The resulting expression for the matrix element of the current has the form

$$J^\mu =\overline{\mathrm{\Psi }}(\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Gamma }}_0^\mu +\stackrel{~}{K}^\mu )\mathrm{\Psi }.$$
(20)
Here $`\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Gamma }}_0^\mu `$ denotes the sum of single-quark and diquark currents, and $`\stackrel{~}{K}^\mu `$ the interaction current where the photon is attached to the exchanged quark. This corresponds to the impulse approximation in the three-quark basis, properly subtracted to avoid double counting . The corresponding axial current can be found in the same way by making an axial-vector insertion instead of attaching a photon. Currents like Eq. (20) have been extensively studied in the NJL model  as well as in QCD-motivated Faddeev  and SD approaches . The same methods can also be used to calculate the matrix element of any operator which is bilinear in the quark fields, such as the pion-nucleon sigma commutator.

At the next order, we need to consider the one-loop mesonic contributions to the currents, $`\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Delta }}^\mu `$. These have a similar origin to the contributions to the kernel, $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$, and so can be obtained by attaching a photon everywhere in $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$, including the meson. The attachments to the composite mesons and diquarks are realised by direct couplings to quark currents in the $`q\overline{q}`$ and $`qq`$ loops respectively.

In addition we need to take into account the effects of mesonic fluctuations on the bound state wave function. If the full wave function is written as $`\mathrm{\Psi }+\delta \mathrm{\Psi }`$, it satisfies the Bethe-Salpeter-type equation

$$(\mathrm{\Psi }+\delta \mathrm{\Psi })=G_0(K+\mathrm{\Delta })(\mathrm{\Psi }+\delta \mathrm{\Psi }).$$
(21)
The perturbation of the wave function $`\delta \mathrm{\Psi }`$ can be expressed as

$$\delta \mathrm{\Psi }=\left[G_B\mathrm{\Delta }\frac{1}{2M}\left(\overline{\mathrm{\Psi }}P^\mu \frac{\mathrm{\Delta }}{P^\mu }\mathrm{\Psi }\right)_{|P|=M}\right]\mathrm{\Psi }.$$
(22)
In the first term, $`G_B`$ denotes the unperturbed Green function $`G`$ with the bound-state pole subtracted off. This term incorporates configuration-mixing effects generated by meson-exchange between the quarks. The second term in this expression is just a wave-function renormalisation, analogous to that in the cloudy bag model. It involves the derivative of the meson-exchange part of the kernel with respect to the the total 4-momentum, evaluated at the unperturbed nucleon mass.

The full one-loop contribution to the current matrix element is finally

$$\delta J^\mu =\overline{\mathrm{\Psi }}\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Delta }}^\mu \mathrm{\Psi }+\overline{\mathrm{\Psi }}(\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Gamma }}_0^\mu +\stackrel{~}{K}^\mu )\delta \mathrm{\Psi }+\delta \overline{\mathrm{\Psi }}(\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Gamma }}_0^\mu +\stackrel{~}{K}^\mu )\mathrm{\Psi }.$$
(23)
Again, it is important that $`\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Delta }}^\mu `$ contain the full propagator $`G`$, allowing the quarks to interact while the meson is in flight, see Fig. 4.

As in the case of the nucleon mass, this generates the correct LNA terms in chiral expansions of the electromagnetic radii of the nucleon. In particular the isovector charge radius contains a term of order $`\mathrm{ln}m_\pi `$ and the isovector magnetic radius one of order $`m_\pi ^1`$. In both cases these LNA terms contribute significantly to the full radii and so any calculation should include pion-nucleon loops with the correct energy denominators.

Neglecting the interactions while the pion is in flight would lead to expressions for the currents like those in the quark model of Glozman and coworkers, which do not contain the correct LNA terms. Truncating the sum over intermediate states to the nucleon and $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ only would lead to an approximation similar to the cloudy-bag model, with the correct LNA terms.

## VI Conclusion

We have presented a method for constructing a complete set of one-loop mesonic corrections to the nucleon in a chiral quark model, treated in a covariant manner. Our approach is based on the “gauging of equations” method which has previously been used to construct electromagnetic corrections to hadronic systems. It ensures that a complete set of one-loop corrections is generated, with no double counting. This completeness is essential if physical quantities calculated in this approach are to satisfy the constraints of chiral symmetry and gauge invariance.

To illustrate the method, we have discussed in some detail its application to a particular covariant chiral quark model: the NJL model. The method starts from an unperturbed valence-quark Green’s function, which in this case is obtained from a Faddeev equation. The complete set of mesonic insertions is used to generate the one-loop contribution to the kernel. The same method can also be used to construct photon-nucleon couplings in a way that respects current conservation.

A central feature of this approach is the use of the unperturbed Green’s function for three interacting valence quarks. This means that while a meson is in flight the quarks propagate in physical baryon states, as described at leading order in the meson-loop expansion. The fact that the NJL model gives rise to an N-$`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ splitting at this order means that the only nonanalytic terms in the chiral expansion are generated by pion-nucleon states. This ensures that the method will give the correct leading nonanalytic terms in nucleon observables, in agreement with ChPT. This is particularly important for electromagnetic radii, where these nonanalytic terms make significant contributions.

The usual treatment of the cloudy-bag model similarly gives the correct leading nonanalytic terms in nucleon observables. However in models of the type discussed here, there is no need to truncate the unperturbed Green’s function to just nucleon and $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ states. A complete set of baryon states can be summed over, regulated by the cut-off which forms an intrinsic part of any NJL-type model.

In contrast, the chiral quark model of Glozman and coworkers effectively uses a free Green’s function to describe the propagation of the quarks in meson-baryon intermediate states. It also neglects retardation effects on the exchange of pions between quarks. As a result this model, in the framework used so far, fails to give the correct nonanalytic terms in the chiral expansion. However this could be remedied by a treatment based on the approach described here, or the corresponding time-ordered version.

## Acknowledgements

This work was supported by the EPSRC. We are grateful to T. Cohen and L. Glozman for helpful discussions.


text:
# Dimensional crossover and driven interfaces in disordered ferromagnets

## I introduction

We study interface motion in the random-field Ising model. In this model an interface separates regions of opposite spin orientation. A magnetic field forces the interface to move whereas this motion is hindered by the disorder. At zero temperature a permanent interface motion is found if the driving field $`H`$ exceeds a critical threshold $`H_\mathrm{c}`$ determined by the disorder. The vanishing of the interface velocity at ($`H=H_\mathrm{c}|T=0`$) is in general referred to as a continuous phase transition . Considering three dimensional systems, for instance, the interface velocity $`v`$ vanishes at the so-called pinning/depinning transition according to $`v(T=0)(HH_\mathrm{c})^{\beta _{3d}}`$ and $`v(H=H_\mathrm{c})T^{1/\delta _{3d}}`$, respectively (see e.g. ). The correlation length diverges algebraically: $`\xi (HH_\mathrm{c})^{\nu _{3d}}`$ .

This pinning/depinning transition can be understood within the framework of the renormalization group theory (see e.g.  and references therein). Within this theory it is found that the order parameter of a continuous phase transition is a generalized homogenous function of, in general, several thermodynamic parameters . In many cases temperature and magnetic field belong to these parameters. Additional parameters may cause crossovers. Examples are spatial anisotropies in Heisenberg models , dipolar effects , or restrictions due to geometry like in thin films (see e.g.  and references therein). In the case of thin films the system behaves like a three dimensional system only as long as the correlation length $`\xi `$ is small as compared to the film thickness $`l`$. Approaching the transition point the component $`\xi _l`$ of the correlation length perpendicular to the film layers is bounded by the film thickness. If $`\xi _l/l`$ becomes of the order of unity a crossover from three to two dimensional behavior occurs. Experiments which determine domain wall velocities in magnetic films typically image the magnetic state of a sample by looking onto the sample using the magneto-optical polar Kerr effect and a CCD camera . If the film is sufficiently thin it is possible to obtain the interface position from snapshots generated by the CCD camera and to calculate the interface velocity from the time dependence of this position. This was done in  where a Pt($`3.4\mathrm{nm}`$)/Co($`0.5\mathrm{nm}`$)/Pt($`6.5\mathrm{nm}`$) film with perpendicular anisotropy was investigated. Due to the film thickness the authors saw evidence to neglect the height dependence of the interface position and to treat the interface not as a two dimensional interface but as a one dimensional line. With increasing film thickness, however, this assumption fails because then the correlation length drops below the film thickness causing a crossover to three dimensional behavior. This scenario is investigated in the present paper in the context of driven interfaces in the random-field Ising model.

## II simulation

The RFIM is defined by the Hamiltonian

$$=\frac{J}{2}\underset{i,j}{}S_iS_jH\underset{i}{}S_i\underset{i}{}h_iS_i\text{.}$$
(1)
The first term is the exchange interaction of neighboring spins and the sum is taken over all pairs of them ($`S_i=\pm 1`$). The second term specifies the coupling to the driving field $`H`$. Additionally, the spins are coupled to independent quenched local random-fields $`h_i`$ characterized by their probability density $`p(h_i)`$ given by

$$p(h_i)=\{\begin{array}{ccc}(2\mathrm{\Delta })^1& \mathrm{for}& |h_i|<\mathrm{\Delta }\hfill \\ 0& & \text{otherwise.}\hfill \end{array}$$
(2)
We use a random-sequential update with transition probabilities according to a heat bath algorithm in the limit of zero temperature. Since in the vicinity of the critical point finite-size effects may not only occur due to the finite film thickness but also due to the other finite extensions of our system, we calculated the interface velocities for each film thickness $`l`$ varying the other extensions of the system. For sufficient large extensions we observed no finite-size effects from which we concluded that the data presented in the following correspond within negligible errors to those of an infinite extended film of thickness $`l`$. Note that for this analysis the extensions of the system must be increased if one approaches the critical point. But this increase requires an increase in CPU time which restricts therefore the data to values not too close to the critical point. We investigate system sizes of up to $`l\times L^2=8\times 1024^2`$ unit cells of a body centered cubic lattice.

We apply periodic boundary conditions in the directions parallel to the film and antiperiodic ones perpendicular to the interface (see ). The interface moves along the $`[100]`$ direction of the bcc lattice resulting in a finite interface velocity for any driving field $`H0`$ in the absence of disorder. The same behavior is found, for instance, on simple cubic lattices with an interface moving along the diagonal direction of the lattice  and on diamond lattices with the interface moving along the $`[100]`$ direction. The schematic phase diagram in  applies to all of these cases. In particular, a continuous phase transition is found for $`\mathrm{\Delta }>J`$ as long as nucleation does not occur. This is the case for $`\mathrm{\Delta }=3`$, which turns out to be a convincing choice because then the dimensional crossover is numerically accessible for a broad range of system sizes.

## III results

In our simulations we start with an originally flat interface which is built into the system. After a transient regime the interface reaches a stationary state.

In Fig. 1 we show the snapshot of an interface configuration (for $`H=1.8`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }=3.0`$). Overhangs are not displayed since they are rare and small. We obtain the interface velocity from the mean interface position $`\overline{h}`$ at a given time $`t`$ according to $`v=\overline{h}/t`$. In  it was argued that this velocity is a generalized homogeneous function of temperature and driving field. We generalize this ansatz to the present situation and include additionally a thickness dependence of $`v`$,

$$v=\lambda v(\lambda ^{1/\beta _{3d}}\eta ,\lambda ^{\delta _{3d}}T,\lambda ^{a_l}l^1)\text{.}$$
(3)
Here, $`T`$ denotes the temperature and $`\eta =HH_\mathrm{c}^{3d}`$ the reduced driving field. In a bulk system we recover under the assumption $`v(l^1=0)=\mathrm{finite}`$ \[Eq. (3)\] $`vT^{1/\delta _{3d}}f\left(\eta /T^{1/\beta _{3d}\delta _{3d}}\right)`$ which is known to be satisfied in the RFIM . In the following we consider only $`T=0`$. Choosing $`\lambda =l^{\beta _{3d}/\nu _{3d}}`$ in Eq. (3) we obtain for the velocity the following scaling behavior:

$$v=l^{\beta _{3d}/\nu _{3d}}f\left(\eta l^{1/\nu _{3d}}\right)$$
(4)
with $`f(x\mathrm{})x^{\beta _{3d}}`$. In this limit the value of $`H_\mathrm{c}`$ coincides with that of the bulk system. For any finite $`l`$, however, $`H_\mathrm{c}`$ becomes $`l`$ dependent and is shifted according to $`H_\mathrm{c}(l)H_\mathrm{c}^{3d}x^{}l^{1/\nu _{3d}}`$ (see  and references therein). Inserting this relation into Eq. (4) one finds that $`f(x)`$ does not vanish at $`x=0`$ but at a finite value $`x^{}`$.

In Fig. 2 we plot $`v(H)`$ for different film thicknesses. For a comparison, we also plot velocities obtained in a three dimensional system. From the data it is evident that the curves $`v(H)`$ for different film thicknesses deviate more and more from the bulk behavior with decreasing $`H`$. In the corresponding region of $`H`$-values the crossover from 2 to 3-dimensional behavior occurs which thus is numerically accessible. In the crossover region the interface velocity in a film turns out to be smaller than in the bulk meaning that the threshold field $`H_\mathrm{c}`$ is shifted towards larger values of the driving field. Rescaling the velocities according to Eq. (4) yields the data collapse shown in Fig. 3.

From the collapse it may be concluded that the scaling function $`f(x)`$ \[see Eq. (4)\] vanishes at a value $`x^{}>0`$, again meaning that the threshold field is shifted towards larger values with decreasing film thickness. We obtain $`\beta _{3d}=0.677\pm 0.07`$ and $`H_\mathrm{c}^{3d}=1.491\pm 0.02`$. These values coincide within the error-bars with those found in bulk systems. In this case (inset of Fig. 3) we find $`\beta ^{\mathrm{bulk}}=0.64\pm 0.05`$ and $`H_\mathrm{c}^{\mathrm{bulk}}=1.5\pm 0.015`$ confirming the results of the crossover scaling. From the data collapse in Fig. 3 we also obtain $`\nu _{3d}=0.763\pm 0.03`$. Both $`\beta _{3d}`$ and $`\nu _{3d}`$ coincide within the error-bars with values found on other lattices and different values of $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ . Also, they agree with the exponents of the Edwards-Wilkinson equation with quenched disorder (see e.g.  and references therein). For this equation $`\beta _{\mathrm{QEW}}0.62`$ and $`\nu _{\mathrm{QEW}}0.77`$ was obtained by an $`ϵ`$-expansion valid to order $`ϵ^2`$ .

Since the interface velocity satisfies the ansatz Eq. (4) it is possible to draw conclusions about the critical behavior at $`H_\mathrm{c}(l)`$. Considering $`f(x)`$ with $`x=\eta l^{1/\nu _{3d}}`$ and taking into account that $`\nu _{3d}>0`$ one finds $`x=0`$ at $`H_\mathrm{c}(l)`$ for any finite film thickness. On the other hand, a three dimensional system corresponds to the limit $`l\mathrm{}`$ and in this case $`f(x)`$ is determined by the limiting behavior $`f(x\mathrm{})x^{\beta _{3d}}`$. The critical behavior in a film is therefore different as compared to the bulk behavior and the critical exponents $`\beta `$ and $`\nu `$ coincide with those of the two dimensional model for any finite film thickness. In the two dimensional model $`\beta _{2d}0.31`$ and $`\nu _{2d}1`$ was found . Taking Eq. (3) into account, we also conclude that the exponent $`\delta `$ characterizing the thermal rounding of the depinning transition \[$`vT^{1/\delta _{2d}}`$ at $`H=H_\mathrm{c}(l)`$\] is given by $`\delta _{2d}5`$ (see ) for any finite film thickness.

## IV conclusion

In conclusion, we have investigated the depinning transition of a driven interface in thin films. We have found that the critical behavior is governed by the two dimensional fix-point and the corresponding exponents for any finite film thickness. The exponents obtained by the crossover scaling are in agreement with those of the Edwards-Wilkinson universality class. The scaling ansatz used to analyse our data could also be used to determine critical exponents of the depinning transition of three dimensional systems experimentally, in particular since present experimental techniques use thin films as samples . In , for instance, $`\mathrm{Co}_{28}\mathrm{Pt}_{72}`$ alloy films were investigated with grain sizes of typically $`20\mathrm{nm}`$ and film thicknesses of $`5\mathrm{}50\mathrm{nm}`$. If one naively assumes that by a variation of temperature and/or driving field it is possible to increase the correlation length from the size of the grain to the film thickness we expect the crossover scaling \[Eq. (3)\] to work and to yield the exponents of a three dimensional sample. Note that due to dipolar interactions these exponents need not to coincide with those of the RFIM.

###### Acknowledgements.

The authors would like to thank S. Lübeck for many useful discussions. This work was supported by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft via GRK 277 Struktur und Dynamik heterogener Systeme (University of Duisburg) and SFB 491 Magnetische Heteroschichten: Struktur und elektronischer Transport (Duisburg/Bochum).


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# Precise predictions for 𝐞⁺𝐞⁻→𝟒𝒇(+𝜸) with anomalous couplings11footnote 1RacoonWW can be downloaded from http://ltpth.web.psi.ch/racoonww/racoonww.html.

## 1 Relevance of radiative corrections

From 1996 to 2000, LEP2 has operated very successfully above the $`\mathrm{W}`$-pair threshold allowing for a thorough investigation of $`\mathrm{W}`$-pair production (see e.g. Ref.  and references therein). The results of the four LEP experiments provide accurate tests of the non-Abelian structure of the Electroweak Standard Model (SM) and a precise measurement of the $`\mathrm{W}`$-boson mass. While the precision of the $`\mathrm{W}`$-pair production cross section at LEP2 has reached the per-cent level, the final LEP2 precision for the $`\mathrm{W}`$-boson mass will be 30–$`35\mathrm{MeV}`$. At a future $`\mathrm{e}^+\mathrm{e}^{}`$ linear collider, the accuracy of the cross-section measurement will be at the per-mille level, and the precision of $`\mathrm{W}`$-mass determination is expected to be $`15\mathrm{MeV}`$ by reconstructing the $`\mathrm{W}`$ bosons from their decay products  and about $`6\mathrm{MeV}`$ from a threshold scan  of the total W-pair cross section.

In order to account for the experimental precision at LEP2, considerable theoretical effort was undertaken in the past years, as it is reviewed in Refs. . In the present calculations, the $`\mathrm{W}`$ bosons are treated as resonances in the full 4-fermion processes, $`\mathrm{e}^+\mathrm{e}^{}4\mathrm{f}(+\gamma )`$, and radiative corrections are taken into account in a proper way. These can be split into universal and non-universal corrections. The former comprise leading-logarithmic corrections (LL) from initial-state radiation (ISR), higher-order corrections included upon a proper choice of the input-parameter scheme (running or effective couplings), and the Coulomb singularity. The remaining corrections are called non-universal since they depend on the process under investigation. The full $`𝒪(\alpha )`$ corrections to the $`4f`$ processes are not necessary to match the accuracy of LEP2, and it is sufficient to take only those corrections into account that are enhanced by two resonant $`\mathrm{W}`$ bosons. The leading term of an expansion about the two $`\mathrm{W}`$ poles provides the so-called double-pole approximation (DPA) . In this approximation, there are factorizable corrections, which are the ones to on-shell $`\mathrm{W}`$-pair production and on-shell $`\mathrm{W}`$ decay, and non-factorizable corrections, which originate from soft-photon exchange between the production and decay stages. Different versions of such a pole expansion have been used in the literature . Although several Monte Carlo programs exist that include universal corrections, only two event generators, YFSWW3  and RacoonWW , include non-universal corrections.

While the DPA approach is sufficient for the LEP2 accuracy , the extremely high experimental precision at a future linear collider is a great challenge for future theoretical predictions, in particular since the DPA is not reliable near the $`\mathrm{W}`$-pair threshold. The full $`𝒪(\alpha )`$ corrections have to be known for all $`4f`$ final states, and leading effects beyond $`𝒪(\alpha )`$ have to be included in the theoretical predictions properly. For instance, leading and sub-leading Sudakov logarithms become important and amount to several per cent in the $`\mathrm{TeV}`$ range .

## 2 Non-universal corrections vs. anomalous triple gauge-boson couplings

As already mentioned, one of the main goals at LEP2 is the investigation of the non-Abelian structure of the SM. A proper way to study possible deviations from the SM is the measurement of anomalous couplings. Recently, anomalous quartic  and triple gauge-boson couplings have been incorporated in RacoonWW. A general parametrization of charged anomalous triple gauge-boson couplings has been suggested in Ref. . We have implemented these couplings in RacoonWW in the conventions of Ref. , which differ from the former by a sign in the parity-violating terms. The implementation of neutral triple gauge-boson couplings in RacoonWW follows the general parametrizations of Ref. .

In the numerical discussion, we compare the influence of the anomalous charged gauge-boson couplings with the effect of the non-universal corrections. We adopt the same SM input parameters and the same set of phase-space cuts as in Refs. . In particular, we use the “bare” recombination scheme, where the photon is recombined with a charged fermion if their invariant mass is smaller than $`5\mathrm{GeV}`$. Following a convention widely used in the LEP2 data analysis, we consider only the P- and C-conserving anomalous coupling operators with the coupling constants $`g_1^Z`$, $`\kappa _Z`$, $`\kappa _\gamma `$, $`\lambda _Z`$, and $`\lambda _\gamma `$, which are further constrained by

$$\mathrm{\Delta }\kappa _Z=\mathrm{\Delta }g_1^Z\mathrm{\Delta }\kappa _\gamma \mathrm{tan}^2\theta _\mathrm{w},\lambda _Z=\lambda _\gamma ,$$

where $`\theta _\mathrm{w}`$ is the weak mixing angle and $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ indicates the deviation from the corresponding SM values $`g_1^Z=\kappa _Z=\kappa _\gamma =1`$ and $`\lambda _Z=\lambda _\gamma =0`$. Hence, we are left with the three independent parameters $`\mathrm{\Delta }g_1^Z`$, $`\mathrm{\Delta }\kappa _\gamma `$, and $`\lambda _\gamma `$.

In Figures 1 and 2 we study the influence of the anomalous couplings on the $`\mathrm{W}^+`$-production-angle distribution for the process $`\mathrm{e}^+\mathrm{e}^{}\mathrm{u}\overline{\mathrm{d}}\mu ^{}\overline{\nu }_\mu `$ at the centre-of-mass energy of $`\sqrt{s}=200\mathrm{GeV}`$, as predicted by RacoonWW. All numbers are normalized to the tree-level cross section including higher-order LL ISR up to order $`O(\alpha ^3)`$ via structure functions. The relative deviations for different values of the anomalous couplings are compared with the corresponding predictions including non-universal $`𝒪(\alpha )`$ corrections instead of anomalous couplings. The labels indicate the values of the corresponding anomalous coupling constants, which are chosen to be of the order of the actual accuracy achieved by the LEP experiments. The comparison shows clearly that the non-universal corrections are of the same size as the contributions from anomalous couplings and, thus, have to be taken into account in the determination of the anomalous couplings at LEP2.

## 3 Anomalous quartic gauge-boson couplings in $`\mathrm{𝟒}𝒇\mathbf{+}𝜸`$ production

Finally, we study the effects of anomalous quartic gauge-boson couplings in $`4f+\gamma `$ production. Specifically, we consider the P-conserving couplings $`a_0`$, $`a_c`$, and $`a_n`$, which have been investigated in Ref. , and the P-violating couplings $`\stackrel{~}{a}_0`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{a}_c`$, which have been recently introduced in Ref. . In this analysis we use the improved Born approximation mode  of RacoonWW for $`4f+\gamma `$ production which includes corrections from higher-order ISR and from the Coulomb singularity. We adopt the same SM input parameters as in Refs. ; in particular, we apply the ADLO/TH cuts.

Figure 3 shows the photon-energy spectrum (l.h.s.) and the corresponding relative deviation from the SM (r.h.s.) for different values of the anomalous couplings. The values of the anomalous couplings are of the order of the present experimental accuracy. Only one curve for the coupling $`a_0`$ and the corresponding P-violating coupling $`\stackrel{~}{a}_0`$ (also for $`a_n`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{a}_n`$) is plotted since the respective results are indistinguishable. Within the statistical error, the contributions from $`a_0`$, $`a_n`$, $`\stackrel{~}{a}_0`$, and $`\stackrel{~}{a}_n`$ are symmetric under a change in sign, signalling that the quadratic anomalous terms are dominating the squared amplitude. However, an effect from changing the sign is visible for $`a_c`$, where the interference of anomalous and SM contributions becomes visible. Since the deviations from the SM are largest for hard photons, effects from anomalous quartic gauge-boson couplings can be observed best near the kinematical threshold for $`\mathrm{W}`$-pair production in the $`E_\gamma `$ distribution.