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# The Transformation of Galaxies within the Large Scale Structure around a 𝑧=0.41 Cluster Based on data collected at Subaru Telescope, which is operated by the National Astronomical Observatory of Japan.

## 1. Introduction

Clusters of galaxies are a very visible constituent of the structure of the Universe at the present-day. Redshift surveys of the local Universe, $`z<0.1`$, illustrate the filamentary nature of large scale structure (e.g. Peacock et al. 2001), and the presence of clusters at the intersections of these filaments and walls. N-body simulations have been particularly successful in reproducing these filamentary features, showing that they are a natural consequence of gravitationally-driven structure formation (e.g. Moore et al. 1998). The precursors of the filaments should be present around distant clusters, containing many of the galaxies which will subsequently infall onto the virialized core and form the cluster population we see today.

The influence of environment on the star formation histories of the galaxies is a critical question for models of galaxy evolution. The striking variation in the stellar populations of galaxies in different environments (e.g. Larson, Tinsley & Caldwell 1980; Butcher & Oemler 1984; Balogh et al. 1999; Norberg et al. 2001) clearly indicates the importance of such environmental influences on star formation. Since clusters (which are dominated by passive galaxy populations) are continuously growing through the accretion of galaxies and groups from the field, which is dominated by actively star-forming galaxies, this activity must be quenched during the assimilation of the galaxies into the cluster. This transformation is a key process in creating the environmental dependence of galaxy properties, and may also underpin the observed evolution of galaxy properties in distant clusters (e.g. Butcher & Oemler 1984; Kodama & Bower 2001). However, the physical mechanism which is responsible for these changes has not yet been identified (Moore et al. 1996; Abadi et al. 1999; Balogh et al. 2000). Recent studies have begun to focus on tracing the variation of galaxy properties from the cores of clusters, out to the surrounding field in an attempt to identify the environment where the decline in the star formation in accreted galaxies begins (e.g. Abraham, et al. 1996; Balogh et al. 1999; Pimbblet et al. 2001).

The advent of Suprime-Cam, a revolutionary wide-field camera on the Subaru telescope, has provided an unique new tool to tackle programs requiring deep, high quality imaging across large fields. In this Letter, we analyze unique deep, panoramic, multi-color imaging of the $`z=0.41`$ cluster A 851. We estimate photometric redshifts for galaxies across the $`27^{}`$ field and isolate a narrow redshift slice around the cluster. Our two-dimensional map covers $`11\times 11`$ Mpc, over a much wider field of view than the previous studies (e.g. Iye et al. 2000), allowing us to identify a wealth of filamentary structures extending from the cluster core. We use the depth and wide range in environment spanned by our observations, over two orders of magnitude in galaxy surface density, to investigate the dependence of faint galaxy properties on local environment.

§2 describes the observations and reduction, §3 details the analysis of our photometric catalog and discusses our results, while §4 gives our main conclusions. We adopt $`H_o=50`$ km s-1 Mpc-1 and a $`q_o=0.1`$ cosmology.

## 2. Observations, Reduction and Analysis

### 2.1. Observations and Reduction

We obtained deep, multi-band imaging of the rich cluster A 851 (Cl 0939+4713), using the optical mosaic camera, Suprime-Cam, on the 8.3-m Subaru Telescope, Mauna Kea, Hawaii. These observations were undertaken on 2001 January 21–22 as a common-user program during the first semester of telescope operations. The weather conditions were good and photometric during the observations. Total exposure times of 3.6, 2.2, 4.0 and 1.3 ks were obtained in $`BVRI`$ respectively, with seeing measured off the stacked frames of 1.1, 0.7, 1.0, 0.7′′. These frames have 5-$`\sigma `$ limiting magnitudes of $`B=27.0`$, $`V=26.5`$, $`R=26.2`$ and $`I=25.0`$, sufficient to detect a passively evolving early-type galaxy as faint as $`0.02L_V^{}`$ at $`z=0.41`$ in all passbands.

We used iraf and purpose-written software: nekosoft (Yagi 1998); developed by the Suprime-Cam team, to reduce the data. This entailed bias subtraction, flat fielding using super sky-flats constructed from the median of the dithered science frames ($`>`$9 frames), matching the point spread function (PSF) between the mosaic chips, relative calibration of the fluxes between chips, mosaicing, and photometric calibration using standard stars from Landolt (1992). We then constructed an $`I`$-band selected sample using SExtractor v.2.1.6 (Bertin & Arnouts 1996). For each object we use the phot package in iraf to measure photometry within a 3′′ diameter aperture in all the passbands, after matching the PSF. Hereafter, we employ the aperture photometry for colors and SExtractor’s mag\_best for total magnitudes. The final catalog used in our analysis has 15,055 galaxies brighter than $`I=23.4`$ ($`M_V^{}+4`$ at $`z=0.41`$).

### 2.2. Foreground/background subtraction

To trace the properties of galaxies inhabiting the large scale structure around the cluster core, we need to map the distribution of cluster members out to very low density regions. The key requirement for our analysis is therefore the removal of unassociated galaxies in the foreground and background, to maximize the contrast of the cluster on the sky.

Spectroscopy is the ideal method to remove the field contamination from our sample. However, it is not practical to obtain spectroscopy for the $`15`$,000 very faint galaxies required for our analysis. We therefore exploit photometric redshift techniques, as an observationally efficient and reliable method to map the three dimensional distribution and properties of faint galaxies over a large field. We apply our photometric redshift code (Kodama, Bell & Bower 1999) to the galaxies in our $`BVRI`$ catalog. To test the reliability of our photometric redshifts we compare the predicted redshifts with spectroscopic measurements for the 67 confirmed cluster members from Dressler et al. (1999). For S/N $`>10`$ detections, the dominant source of uncertainty in the photometric redshifts is the match between the model spectrum and the true galaxy spectrum. Thus, although the magnitude limit of our photometric sample is fainter than that of the spectroscopic sample, the error estimated from this comparison is a good indication of the uncertainties for all galaxies with $`I<23.4`$. The photometric redshifts, $`z_{\mathrm{phot}}`$, for the spectroscopic members exhibits a tail at lower redshifts, showing that they tend to be underestimated for some of the galaxies by up to $`|\mathrm{\Delta }z|0.1`$. This is largely due to the lack of $`U`$-band data, which is important to discriminate the blue cluster members at $`z=0.4`$ from the foreground galaxies (e.g. Kodama et al. 1999). We note that this modest photometric bias will only serve to weaken the trends we uncover in §3.2. We adopt a range of $`0.32<z_{\mathrm{phot}}<0.48`$ for the photometric membership to ensure that we include the bulk of the cluster population, $`>80`$%, while still reducing the field contamination by a factor of $``$10 at $`I=23.4`$.

As a final step, we estimate the expected field contamination in our photometric redshift slice using similar observations of a blank field. This correction accounts both for field galaxies genuinely in the cluster redshift slice and for galaxies whose redshifts are miss-classified by the photometric analysis. In this case we use comparably deep $`BVRi^{}`$ imaging of the ‘Subaru/XMM Deep Field’ over a similarly large area, 618 arcmin2 (Ouchi et al. 2001). After transforming the SDSS $`i^{}`$-band to Cousins $`I`$-band (Fukugita et al. 1995), we apply the same photometric redshift code to the galaxies in this field observed in the same combination of passbands $`BVRI`$ and adopt the same redshift cut of $`0.32<z_{\mathrm{phot}}<0.48`$. We find that the averaged surface number density of field galaxies down to $`I=23.4`$ that fall within this redshift range is $`2.29\pm 0.06`$ arcmin-2. We subtract this remaining contamination statistically (§3.2).

## 3. Results and Discussion

### 3.1. Large scale structure

Having applied our photometric redshift selection, it is straightforward to map out the distribution of galaxies which are likely to be associated with the cluster. The full field of our observations is shown in Fig. 1. Several large scale structures are visible around the cluster core: two large subclumps $`10^{}`$ (4 Mpc) to the West and South and a number of filamentary extensions coming out directly from the core. Importantly, most of these extensions from the core are aligned with the surrounding subclumps. The alignment of structures visible to the Northeast, Northwest and South are all good examples, each extending out to 3–5 Mpc. Since the field contamination is only $`<`$20% at the lowest density contour, most of the structures traced by the contours in Fig. 1 are expected to be real.

The structures identified in this region are qualitatively similar to those seen in cosmological simulations of the growth of clusters which exhibit the filamentary/clumpy substructures on similar scales (e.g. Ghigna et al. 1998). It appears therefore that we are witnessing A 851 as it assembles through the accretion of galaxies and groups along the filaments onto the cluster core from the surrounding field. Many of the systems in these filaments will have been assimilated into the cluster population by the present-day, given their likely infall speeds of $`>1000`$ km s-1 ($``$1 Mpc/Gyr).

Fig. 1. — A wide-field map of A 851 from our Suprime-Cam $`BVRI`$ imaging. The field is 11 Mpc on a side. The points identify cluster members based on photometric redshifts. Note that the remaining field contamination is not subtracted (see §3.2). The large and small circles identify the color of galaxies redder or bluer than $`(BI)=3.40.1\times (I17.0)`$, corresponding to 0.5 mag bluer than the color-magnitude sequence, respectively. The contours indicate the local surface density of the member galaxies defined by 10 nearest neighbors, corresponding to $`\mathrm{log}_{10}\mathrm{\Sigma }=1.8`$, 2.0 (thick) and 2.5 Mpc-2 (after correcting for field contamination; see §3.2), respectively. The thick contour traces the boundary where the color distribution of galaxies changes dramatically (see §3.3). Large scale structure is clearly visible around the cluster core, with several filaments and subclumps coming out from the main body of the cluster and extending to $`>`$5 Mpc. The overall shape resembles an ‘octopus’, with a round head and many legs.

The combination of the depth of our observations and their complete sampling, compared to spectroscopic surveys, means that our map of this $`z=0.41`$ cluster provides one of the most detailed views of large scale structure around clusters (West et al. 1995; Bardelli et al. 2001; Connolly et al. 1996; Lubin et al. 2000; Clowe et al. 2000; Abraham et al. 1996). The application of the photometric redshift technique to multi-color deep, panoramic CCD imaging allows us for the first time to efficiently trace weak filamentary structures across large fields of view. Furthermore, because the cluster is at relatively high redshift, the contrast between the red galaxies in the cluster core and the blue colors of the field galaxy population is greatly enhanced, providing a much stronger gradient across the transistion zone between these two regimes (§3.2).

We have also compared the structures in Fig. 1 with the X-ray emission from a 14.2-ks ROSAT PSPC exposure (Schindler et al. 1998). However, we cannot see any significant emission from the subclumps or filaments, except for the cluster core. This is not surprising given the steep slope of the mass-X-ray luminosity relation seen in local groups (Mulchaey 2000).

### 3.2. Environmental dependence of galaxy properties

By exploiting the striking large scale structure around this cluster, we can investigate the influence of environment on the photometric properties of galaxies across more than two orders of magnitude in local density. We define the environment for each galaxy using the local surface number density, $`\mathrm{\Sigma }`$, of members, calculated from the 10 nearest neighbors (including that galaxy) brighter than our magnitude cut, $`I=23.4`$. Secondly, we correct for residual field contamination in the redshift slice. We statistically subtract galaxies based on the local number density $`\mathrm{\Sigma }`$ and the color and magnitude distribution of the galaxies in the blank field (§2.2) using a Monte Carlo simulation. The density $`\mathrm{\Sigma }`$ is also corrected for the field contamination. The statistical uncertainty in the resultant color and magnitude distributions of the cluster members arising from this field correction is negligible. Even if we assume a large variation in field density of 20%, the median color in the lowest density bin would change only by $``$0.02 mag (Fig. 2a).

In the following we use $`(VI)`$ color and $`I`$ magnitude to characterize the galaxy population. These roughly correspond to $`(UV)`$ and $`V`$ in the rest-frame, providing a good measure of the relative importance of recent and past star formation. We divide the density distribution into three regimes as indicated in Fig. 2a. There is a close correspondence between the local density and structure: the high density region corresponds to the cluster core within $`<1`$ Mpc; the medium density region includes the structures defining the filaments surrounding the cluster; and the low density region comprising the rest of the volume (Fig. 1).

As shown in Fig. 2b, the color distribution in the high density region is strongly peaked at $`(VI)_c2`$, the color of an early-type cluster member. However, as we move to lower densities, the distribution becomes dramatically bluer. In the lowest density regions, there are only a small fraction (15%) of galaxies as red as the early-type color magnitude sequence seen in higher density regions, with most of the galaxies being much bluer, $`(VI)_c1.5`$, similar to the field population, which is dominated by star-forming galaxies at these redshifts (Ellis et al. 1996). Fig. 2a shows that this color transition with local density occurs quite abruptly at $`\mathrm{log}_{10}\mathrm{\Sigma }2`$, indicating a threshold effect in transforming galaxy properties. We performe a $`\chi ^2`$ test to verify the significance of the sharpness of the color transition, and found that a linear (smooth) dependence of median color on local density is rejected at greater than 3 sigma confidence. The boundary corresponding to this critical density is highlighted in Fig. 1. One important clue to the physical origin of this transition is that over 80% of the galaxies in the ‘transition zone’ ($`1.8<\mathrm{log}_{10}\mathrm{\Sigma }<2.2`$) reside in subclumps outside the core ($`>`$1.5 Mpc from the cluster center).

The origin of the color-density correlation is hotly debated. It has been suggested that it may reflect a primordial imprint of the regions in which the galaxies were formed. However, this is unlikely to give rise to a sharp transition in the colors of galaxies at a particular density threshold at the observed epoch. Our data suggest a recent and environmentally driven transformation that is closely linked to the galaxy environment at $`\mathrm{log}_{10}\mathrm{\Sigma }2`$. This sharp color change is equivalent to supressing the median star formation rate by a factor of 6, based on the simple ‘tau’ models with exponentially decaying star formation histories (e.g. Kodama & Bower 2001). Our ability to pin-point this environment is a fundamental step towards identifying the dominant mechanism.

There are three mechanisms which are favored in the literature: ram-pressure stripping (where cold gas in the galaxy disk is removed as the galaxy passes through a hot intra-cluster medium; Gunn & Gott 1972); galaxy–galaxy collisions (which cause cold disk gas to be driven to the galaxy center creating a star burst; Moore et al. 1996); and ‘suffocation’ (where warm gas in the galaxy’s halo is shock heated by the intra-cluster medium so that it can no longer cool and replenish the cold gas in the disk; Larson et al. 1980). The $`\mathrm{log}_{10}\mathrm{\Sigma }2`$ subclumps are unlikely to have sufficiently high gas densities (§3.1), or high enough relative velocities for the galaxies within them, for ram-pressure stripping to operate effectively (Abadi et al. 1999). In contrast, we note that the threshold density corresponds to the point at which the dark matter halos of individual galaxies will begin to overlap (Brainerd et al. 1996). Under these circumstances, galaxy–galaxy collision become important, as does ‘suffocation’. Our data do not distinguish directly between these possibilities, although they do suggest where to look. In particular, the two mechanisms predict very different bulge luminosity functions for the resulting galaxies. Strong galaxy interactions thicken galaxy disks and brighten bulges, in contrast, suffocation should leave the bulge luminosity function unchanged (Dressler 1980; Balogh et al. 2001).

It is important to note that the changes in galaxy properties as a function of local density are most prominent in galaxies fainter than $`0.1L_V^{}`$ (Fig. 2a). This is mirrored to the dramatic change in the shape of the luminosity function with local galaxy density: where we see a steepening of the faint end slope of the luminosity function with decreasing density (Fig. 2c). Assuming that their star formation effectively ceases, the relative absence of low-luminosity galaxies at projected densities of $`\mathrm{log}_{10}\mathrm{\Sigma }>2`$ can be understood as they will fade by $`>1`$ mag as their star formation declines (e.g. Kodama & Bower 2001). This will put many of their descendents below our magnitude limit ($`M_V^{}+4`$). This is also qualitatively consistent with the presence of large numbers of very low luminosity, $`M_V^{}+3`$, passive dwarf galaxies in local clusters (Binggeli et al. 1988; Trentham 1998).

## 4. Conclusions

We have presented a photometric analysis of the galaxy population in A 851 at $`z=0.41`$ using sensitive multiband observations from Subaru. These cover a $`27^{}`$ (11 Mpc) field allowing us to compare galaxy properties in a wide range of environments in the cluster periphery. By using photometric redshift techniques to identify cluster galaxies as faint as $`M_V^{}+4`$, we have traced the network of filaments and subclumps around this rich cluster, and been able to investigate the relation between environment and star formation in faint galaxies.

The colors of faint galaxies show a strong dependence on their local galaxy density, with an abrupt transition in galaxy colors occurring at $`\mathrm{log}_{10}\mathrm{\Sigma }2`$. Thus, for faint galaxies, the transformation of their properties seems to be almost complete before they have entered the cluster core. The changes in the color distribution and in the luminosity function as a function of local density are coupled: there is a decreasing fraction of blue, faint galaxies in higher density regions. This density threshold corresponds to the point at which galaxy halos lose their individual identity and become incorporated into groups along the filaments surrounding the cluster.

We have now identified where the transformation of these galaxies occurs. The key remaining question is to identify why. Two mechanisms: ‘suffocation’ and galaxy–galaxy collisions are both good candidates in these environments, but they can be distinguished by tracing the variation in the individual components of galaxies, bulges and disks, between the cluster and the field.

We thank the Subaru telescope observatory staff and the Suprime-Cam team for their invaluable effort to complete the telescope and the instrument over the last 10 years. We are grateful to Dr Y. Komiyama for his assistance during our observations. We acknowledge the Suprime-Cam team for allowing us to use the blank field data. We also thank Drs. M. Balogh, K. Pimbblet, N. Arimoto, K. Shimasaku for helpful discussion. TK and FN acknowledge the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science for support through its Research Fellowships for Young Scientists. IRS acknowledges support from the Royal Society and the Leverhulme Trust.


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# Quintessence and variation of the fine structure constant in the CMBR

## I Introduction

Current observations of type Ia supernovae  suggest that our Universe is accelerating. This has lead many theorists to allow for the existence of a mysterious dark energy that permeates the universe and has negative pressure. One example is a cosmological constant, $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$, with the equation of state $`w_\mathrm{\Lambda }p_\mathrm{\Lambda }/\rho _\mathrm{\Lambda }=1`$. More recently, it was suggested that the dark energy would not necessarily have to be of constant density at all times. The idea is to introduce a dynamical light scalar field $`Q`$, called Quintessence, with a tracking potential $`V(Q)`$ chosen in such a way that $`Q`$ comes to dominate the expansion of the Universe only recently. The equation of state $`w_Qp_Q/\rho _Q`$ will now depend on the choice of $`V_Q`$ and will generally be time-dependent. The current value of $`w`$ of dark energy is only loosely constrained: $`w0.6`$ , however there is hope that future experiments will improve the bounds .

Dirac was among first to suggest that fundamental constants, such as the fine structure constant $`\alpha e^2/\mathrm{}c`$, could vary with time . The interest in varying constant theories has recently risen with the increased popularity of models with both large and small extra dimensions in which four-dimensional constants are no longer fundamental. Additional motivation is provided by the fact that some of the puzzles of Cosmology, such as the horizon, flatness and, arguably, other problems as well, could be resolved if the speed of light was larger in the past .

Experimental constraints on variation in $`\alpha `$ come from atomic clock tests , measurements of isotope ratios  and absorption spectra in distant quasars . While all laboratory and geophysical tests have so far failed to see any indication of $`\alpha `$ varying at present epoch , the quasar data  has produced some evidence that the fine structure constant could have been smaller in the past.

The imprint of a varying fine structure constant on the cosmic microwave background radiation (CMBR) has been studied before . It is usually assumed that the value of $`\alpha `$ at the time of last-scattering was different from its present value but that it did not change considerably throughout the recombination epoch. It is also assumed that at any given time $`\alpha `$ was the same everywhere in space***While we employ the same assumptions in this work, we would like to stress that in many varying constant theories the change in $`\alpha `$ comes from the dynamics of a time- and space-dependent scalar field . Fluctuations of this scalar field could potentially have a non-trivial effect on CMBR.. A change in $`\alpha `$ at the time of recombination would change the cross-section of Thomson scattering of CMB photons and also would alter the energy levels of atoms. Thus, the main effect of varying $`\alpha `$ comes from the change in the redshift of the last scattering surface.

It was argued in  and  that the next generation of CMB experiments should be able to constrain the variation of $`\alpha `$ at redshifts $`z1000`$ with an accuracy $`\mathrm{\Delta }_\alpha (\alpha \alpha _0)/\alpha _010^210^3`$, where $`\alpha _0`$ is the current value. The likelihood of a varying $`\alpha `$ based on the recent CMB data  was analysed in . While in  and  it was found that the data prefers a smaller value of $`\alpha `$ in the past, the combined analysis of the most recent CMB data and the big bang nucleosynthesis (BBN) constraints in  did not produce any evidence for a varying $`\alpha `$ at more than 1$`\sigma `$ level.

In all previous studies, when looking at the effect of varying $`\alpha `$ on CMB spectra, it was assumed that the vacuum energy of the universe is due to a cosmological constant. Alternatively, the vacuum energy could be due to a quintessence field. One might question if the constraints on the change in $`\alpha `$ would be different if the variation in $`\alpha `$ was considered at same time with the variation in the equation of state of the dark energy component. While the change in the fine structure constant effectively changes the redshift of the CMB last-scattering surface, a change in the equation of state of quintessence changes the conformal distance to a fixed redshift. Thus, to some extent, changes in the CMBR anisotropy spectrum caused by $`\mathrm{\Delta }_\alpha 0`$ can be compensated for by a change in $`w_Qp_Q/\rho _Q`$. We shall see that this indeed is the case.

We would like to emphasize that this work is an exposition of a degeneracy \- not an evaluation of experimental constraints.

This paper is organized as follows. In Section II we describe our implementation of quintessence and varying $`\alpha `$. In Section III we discuss how we search for degeneracies in CMB spectra. The results are presented in Section IV and we finish with a discussion in Section V of possible theoretical frameworks in which the quintessence field and the variation in $`\alpha `$ may be inter-related.

## II Quintessence, varying $`\alpha `$ and CMBR

There is an enormous variety of quintessence models, i.e. models containing a dynamical scalar field which could drive the current accelerated expansion of the universe. While any particular choice of a model, or even a class of models, still remains a matter of personal taste, there is a relatively limited set of properties relevant to the CMBR. The effect of the $`Q`$-component on the CMBR spectra is primarily due to the change in the conformal distance to the last scattering surface. Somewhat less prominent is the role of the perturbations in the $`Q`$-component. It was shown in  that the main effect of including the perturbations is on very large scales due to the integrated Sachs-Wolfe effect (ISW). For completeness, in this work we do take into account the fluctuations in the pressure and energy density of the quintessence.

We have assumed that the quintessence field (or the $`Q`$-component) couples to other particle species only gravitationally. The evolution of the energy density and the pressure of the $`Q`$-component as well as their perturbations is completely specified by the equation of state (EOS), $`w(t)=p_Q/\rho _Q`$, which is generally time-dependent. Equivalently, one could start with the potential $`V_Q`$ of the $`Q`$-field and deduce the EOS from it. However, many different potentials can lead to the same EOS.

We will limit ourselves to models in which the EOS of the $`Q`$-component remains effectively constant between the time of recombination and today. The reason for this restriction is simply the fact that none of the specific quintessence models appears to be more attractive than others. We therefore take the simplest case. The effects of several time-dependent EOS were examined in . Predictions of some specific models were also studied in .

The effect of varying fine structure constant $`\alpha `$ on the CMBR comes from the changes in the differential optical depth $`\dot{\tau }`$ of photons during the time of recombination. $`\dot{\tau }`$ can be written as

$$\dot{\tau }=x_enc\sigma _T,$$
(1)
where $`x_e`$ is the ionization fraction, $`n`$ is the electron number density and $`\sigma _T`$ is the Thomson scattering cross-section. The dependence of $`\sigma _T`$ on $`\alpha `$ is well known:

$$\sigma _T=\frac{8\pi \alpha ^2\mathrm{}^2}{3m_e^2c^2}$$
(2)
where $`m_e`$ is the electron mass. The ionization fraction $`x_e`$ depends on $`\alpha `$ through the binding energy of hydrogen as well as through the change in the recombination rates. The correct procedure for accounting for these two effects is described in . We have closely followed the discussion in  when incorporating the effects of varying $`\alpha `$ into CMBFAST .

We will be calculating the angular power spectrum $`C_l`$ of the CMB temperature anisotropy defined as following:

$$C_l=\frac{1}{2l+1}\underset{m=l}{\overset{l}{}}a_{lm}^{}a_{lm},$$
(3)
where

$$a_{lm}=𝑑\widehat{n}Y_{lm}^{}(\widehat{n})\left(\frac{T(\widehat{n})\overline{T}}{\overline{T}}\right),$$
(4)
where $`T(\widehat{n})`$ is the CMBR temperature in a certain direction on the sky and $`\overline{T}`$ is the average temperature.

## III Searching for degeneracies

The CMB anisotropy spectrum is computed by a version of CMBFAST , modified for simultaneous quintessence (including perturbations in quintessence) and variable fine structure constant. We have only considered flat models ($`\mathrm{\Omega }_{total}=1`$) with adiabatic initial conditions. The parameter space consists of ($`\mathrm{\Omega }_m,w_Q,\mathrm{\Delta }_\alpha ,h,\mathrm{\Omega }_Bh^2,n_s,N`$), where ($`\mathrm{\Omega }_m`$ is the ratio of the cold dark matter energy density to the critical density, $`w_Q`$ is the quintessence equation of state, $`\mathrm{\Delta }_\alpha (\alpha \alpha _0)/(\alpha _0)`$ is the fractional change in the fine structure constant, $`h`$ is the Hubble constant in units of 100 km s-1Mpc-1, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_Bh^2`$ is the baryon density, $`n_s`$ is the scalar spectral index and $`N`$ is the overall normalization of the spectrum. The restriction to flat geometry implies that $`\mathrm{\Omega }_Q=1\mathrm{\Omega }_m`$. Each point in this parameter space has a CMB anisotropy spectrum associated with it. Two points in parameter space are considered degenerate if their associated CMB spectra are indistinguishable. The degeneracy of the parameter space is surveyed by picking a point in that space to be the fiducial model, and then comparing its CMB spectrum with that of another point. To illustrate the degeneracy in the $`(w_Q,\mathrm{\Delta }_\alpha )`$ plane, these parameters were gridded. A fiducial model was picked and its spectrum was compared to the least distinguishable spectrum of each grid point. The parameters $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m`$ and $`\mathrm{\Omega }_Q`$ were held fixed, while $`h,\mathrm{\Omega }_Bh^2,n_s,N`$ were allowed to vary to find the model least distinguishable from the fiducial model. It should be emphasized that the parameters of the fiducial model are chosen to suit illustrative purposes, and are not always related to experimental observations. Our results are an exposition of a degeneracy in parameter space - not an evaluation of experimental constraints.

The presence of degeneracy sensitively depends on the criteria one uses to determine distinguishability of CMB spectra. A real CMB anisotropy experiment would be limited in the following ways: a finite beam width would imply a minimum scale resolution, which we approximate as a simple truncation of the spectrum above a specific $`\mathrm{}_{max}`$. Normally the results of the experiment would be analyzed as independent ’bins’ - effectively a collective range of $`C_{\mathrm{}}`$’s. We consider a bin size of 1 multipole in our runs, as this illustrates the degeneracy present in an optimistic future experiment. Finally, any real experiment will have some level of error above cosmic variance - due to incomplete sky coverage, instrumentation noise, non-CMB sources in the sky, etc. Again intending to demonstrate the optimistic limit, we take the error at each $`C_{\mathrm{}}`$ to be $`5\%`$ plus cosmic variance. To address the issue of different levels of degeneracy, some runs are done with CMB spectra being computed and compared out to a maximum multipole of $`\mathrm{}_{max}=900`$ \- this captures the large-angle plateau and acoustic peak structure, but not the damping scale. Alternatively, some runs are done with $`\mathrm{}_{max}=1500`$ which additionally captures the damping scale.

Note that only the scalar portion of the spectrum is considered here. The addition of a tensor component would not diminish the degeneracy - instead, as we discuss below, it might qualitatively increase it.

The chi-square from the comparison of the CMB spectrum of each point on the grid with the fiducial model is used to determine how distinguishable the points are. In the plots, solid curves mark the contours of $`68.3\%`$, $`95.5\%`$ and $`99.7\%`$ likelihood distinguishability. That is, points on the outer contour produce CMB spectra such that one can say with $`99.7\%`$ confidence that these spectra are not produced by the fiducial model.

## IV Results

We have found that effects of changing the fine structure constant and varying the equation of state of quintessence are to a large extent degenerate. This degeneracy arises because it is possible to compensate for the change in the redshift of last-scattering ($`\mathrm{\Delta }_\alpha `$) by a change in the conformal distance to a given redshift ($`w_Q`$) - the quantity that must remain fixed is the angle on our sky subtended by the sound horizon at last-scattering (ie: the angular scale of the first Doppler peak). In addition to changing the redshift of the last-scattering, a change in $`\mathrm{\Delta }_\alpha `$ also changes the thickness of the last-scattering surface. Anisotropies on scales shorter than this thickness destructively interfere when projected onto the sky and, as a result, the CMB power spectrum is suppressed below a certain scale. Also, at very small scales perturbations in the primordial plasma are washed out due to the imperfect coupling of baryons and photons - the Silk damping, which further suppresses the CMBR anisotropy spectrum.

The extent of the degeneracy depends on what criteria one uses to determine which CMB spectra are in principle distinguishable and which are not. If one measures the anisotropy only on scales larger than the damping scale ($`\mathrm{}900`$), compares each $`C_{\mathrm{}}`$ individually (rather than binning them), and considers a modest ($`5\%`$) error in addition to cosmic variance, then one does find the degeneracy, as shown in Fig. 1. For the fiducial model (marked with a triangle on the plot) we have chosen $`w_Q=2/3`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }_\alpha =0`$. Similarly, we have tried using $`w_Q=1`$ for the fiducial model and found that the degree of the degeneracy remains unchanged. The rest of parameters in the fiducial model were chosen to be $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{total}=1`$, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m=0.3`$, $`h=0.65`$, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_Bh^2=0.02`$ and $`n_s=1`$.

When searching for a degeneracy in the $`(w_Q,\mathrm{\Delta }_\alpha )`$ space, other parameters were allowed to vary as well. Allowed ranges for $`h`$, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_Bh^2`$ and $`n_s`$ were $`[0.5,0.9]`$, $`[0.015,0.025]`$ and $`[0.85,1.15]`$ respectively. At all grid points in the $`(w_Q,\mathrm{\Delta }_\alpha )`$ plane the best-fit values for $`h`$ and $`n_s`$ never varied by more than $`1\%`$ from their fiducial values. Baryon density, by contrast, changed by about $`4\%`$ in Fig. 1 for every $`1\%`$ change in the fine structure constant. The thin dashed lines in Figs. 1 and 3 are contours of constant $`\mathrm{\Omega }_Bh^2`$, showing that some variation of the baryon density is required, as well as $`w_Q`$, to compensate for the effects of a change in the fine structure constant. However, merely varying $`\mathrm{\Omega }_Bh^2`$, while holding $`w_Q`$ fixed, is not sufficient to compensate for the change in $`\mathrm{\Delta }_\alpha `$. Figure 2 shows the likelihood contours in the $`(\mathrm{\Omega }_Bh^2,\mathrm{\Delta }_\alpha )`$ space with the value of $`w_Q`$ fixed at $`2/3`$. These likelihood contours enclose a compact region, rather than an elongated, curved region as in Fig. 1. That is, if $`w_Q`$ is not allowed to vary, the degeneracy is not present. Though a change in the baryon density is necessary to compensate for a change in $`\mathrm{\Delta }_\alpha `$, because the change in redshift of the last-scattering surface means the baryon density was different at the last-scattering, a change in $`w_Q`$ is necessary to compensate for the change in the angular scale of the sound horizon on the last-scattering surface.

The degeneracy does not extend down to the damping scale. As shown in Fig. 3, the degeneracy is broken if the measurement of the $`C_{\mathrm{}}`$’s is extended to $`\mathrm{}_{max}1500`$ while still assuming a precision of $`5\%`$ \+ cosmic variance. It is worth noting that when $`\mathrm{}_{max}1500`$ the spectra are very nearly identical from the 2nd acoustic peak up to and including the damping scale. The degeneracy can not match the entire spectrum and it is the smaller scales that carry the greater statistical weight. The degeneracy is broken due to differences that arise at large scales (between $`\mathrm{}=2`$ and the first Doppler peak). It is worth noting, however, that we have only considered the scalar contribution to the CMB anisotropy spectrum. The addition of the tensor contribution would affect the spectrum predominantly at large scales before the first Doppler peak, which is where the spectra discussed above differ most. Thus, it is very likely that with the addition of a tensor contribution, with a spectral index $`n_t`$ and a relative normalization $`r`$ taken as free parameters, the degeneracy would no longer be broken by the damping scale. This is a subject of ongoing work.

Other degeneracies in CMB parameters, also involving quintessence, were studied in Ref. . Ways of breaking these degeneracies by other cosmological observations were discussed. In light of our current result, the extent to which, for example, $`w_Q`$ can be resolved by combining multiple types of observations, as discussed in , must be revisited.

## V Outlook

We have shown that the effect of a varying $`\alpha `$ on the CMBR can be partially compensated by adjusting the value of the equation of state of the dark energy. Namely, the value of $`\alpha `$ at recombination decreases with the decrease in $`w_Q`$ along the degeneracy line. This limits the accuracy with which one could determine $`\mathrm{\Delta }_\alpha `$ or the quintessence equation of state $`w_Q`$ from CMB observations alone.

There is a number of additional effects that could have been taken into account. Some of them, such as the effect of a varying $`\alpha `$ on the helium abundance, are relatively small. However, there can be additional non-trivial effects if the dynamics and fluctuations in the field which drives the change in $`\alpha `$ are also considered to a full extent. A time-dependent $`w_Q`$ is yet another possibility that was not considered in this paper.

Both phenomena, varying $`\alpha `$ and quintessence, can be modeled within Einstein’s theory as a light scalar field either minimally or non-minimally coupled to gravity . These theories closely resemble dilaton and Brans-Dicke gravities. It has also been argued that the same light scalar field which is responsible for varying $`\alpha `$ could give rise to quintessence . Other investigations have also pointed to a possible connection between varying $`\alpha `$ and dark energy. Barrow, Sandvik and Magueijo have analyzed the behavior of a varying $`\alpha `$ cosmology during the radiation, dust, curvature and cosmological constant domination epochs . In their model the value of $`\alpha `$ increases during the matter domination but rapidly approaches a constant when negative curvature or $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ start to dominate. A similar effect could have been achieved if a quintessence field was used in place of a cosmological constant.

The degeneracy described in this paper suggests a need for a firmer theoretical understanding of how varying $`\alpha `$ and quintessence may be related to each other as already suggested by . It could be that the standard computer codes, such as CMBFAST , for calculating the CMBR spectra will have to be modified to fully include both effects assuming that they are rooted in same underlying microphysical phenomenon. We leave this for future investigation.

###### Acknowledgements.

We are grateful to Robert Caldwell for making his quintessence code available to us. We thank Ian Del Antonio, Rachel Bean, Joao Magueijo and Haavard Sandvik for helpful comments. We acknowledge the use of CMBFAST . LP is supported by PPARC.


text:
# 1 Introduction

## 1 Introduction

We are all know an incessant interest to the physics of dibaryons and this session at the Conference is an additional confirmation of that . It is well known fact that diprotons have experimentally been observed as a narrow structures in the distributions over invariant mass of proton-proton system in the processes of proton-nucleus interaction . The physical origin of these narrow structures is high interest because it has fundamental importance which is related to the nature of fundamental nucleon-nucleon forces and not only to this one. However the experimental and theoretical understanding of the dibaryon physics is far from desired.

From experimental point of view it would very well done to obtain a strong statement concerning the observation of narrow dibaryons regardless of their origin. However at present time there are many experiments where we can find quite an opposite results: some authors state that they have observed such narrow dibaryons  but the others make the contrary conclusion. It is usually supposed that the main reason for these disagreements is the weakness of dibaryons signatures compared to the physical background of a given process under an experimental study. In that case there are needed the experiments with a high precision. Of course we can always explain a contradiction between the different experiments by a poor energy resolution and statistics or by kinematically unfavourable conditions and all somethings like that. Therefore it would be very desirable to have the measurements with one and the same positive signals coming from different kinds of experiments.

Certainly it’s bad that at present time there is no theory which can explain the existence of the dibaryons and describe them.

I will adress here a nontrivial physical phenomenon related to a manifestation of diproton resonances in the proton-proton total cross sections at low energies. We faced with the phenomenon in our study of global structure for the nucleon-nucleon total cross section.

Mabe it should be emphasized a common experimental point of view that the total cross section is not a suitable characteristic to study the resonance physics. Nevertheless we will show that the existing experimental data set on proton-proton total cross sections allowed us to find a clear signatures for diproton resonances. Let me remind you what was the beginning on.

## 2 Global structure of proton-proton(antiproton) total cross sections

Recently a simple theoretical formula describing the global structure of $`pp`$ and $`p\overline{p}`$ total cross-sections in the whole range of energies available up today has been derived. The fit to the experimental data with the formula was made, and it was shown that there is a very good correspondence of the theoretical formula to the existing experimental data obtained at the accelerators .

Moreover it turned out there is a very good correspondence of the theory to all existing cosmic ray experimental data as well. The predicted values for $`\sigma _{tot}^{pp}`$ obtained from theoretical description of all existing accelerators data are completely compatible with the values obtained from cosmic ray experiments . The global structure of proton-proton total cross section is shown in Fig. 1 extracted from paper .

The theoretical formula describing the global structure of proton-proton total cross section is written below

$$\sigma _{pp}^{tot}(s)=\sigma _{asmpt}^{tot}(s)\left[1+\left(\frac{c_1}{\sqrt{s4m_N^2}R_0^3(s)}\frac{c_2}{\sqrt{ss_{thr}}R_0^3(s)}\right)\left(1+d(s)\right)+Resn(s)\right],$$

$$R_0^2(s)=\left[0.40874044\sigma _{asmpt}^{tot}(s)(mb)B(s)\right](GeV^2),$$

$$\sigma _{asmpt}^{tot}(s)=42.0479+1.7548\mathrm{ln}^2(\sqrt{s}/20.74),$$

$$B(s)=11.92+0.3036\mathrm{ln}^2(\sqrt{s}/20.74),$$

$$c_1=(192.85\pm 1.68)GeV^2,c_2=(186.02\pm 1.67)GeV^2,$$

$$s_{thr}=(3.5283\pm 0.0052)GeV^2,$$

$$d(s)=\underset{k=1}{\overset{8}{}}\frac{d_k}{s^{k/2}},Resn(s)=\underset{i=1}{\overset{N}{}}\frac{C_R^is_R^i\mathrm{\Gamma }_{R}^{i}{}_{}{}^{2}}{\sqrt{s(s4m_N^2)}[(ss_R^i)^2+s_R^i\mathrm{\Gamma }_{R}^{i}{}_{}{}^{2}]}.$$

For the numerical values of the parameters $`d_i(i=1,\mathrm{}8)`$ see original paper .

It should be pointed out that the mathematical structure of the formula is very simple and physically transparent: the total cross section is represented in a factorized form. One factor describes high energy asymptotics of total cross section and it has the universal energy dependence predicted by the general theorems in local quantum field theory (Froissart theorem). The other factor is responsible for the behaviour of total cross section at low energies and it has a complicated resonance structure. However this factor has also the universal asymptotics at elastic threshold. It is a remarkable fact that the low energy asymptotics of total cross section at elastic threshold is dictated by high energy asymptotics of three-body (three-nucleon in that case) forces. The appearance of new threshold $`s_{thr}=3.5283GeV^2`$ in the proton-proton channel, which is near the elastic threshold, is nontrivial fact too.

Some experimental information concerning the diproton resonances is collected in Table 1. The positions of resonances and their widths, listed in Table 1, were fixed in our fit, and only relative contributions of the resonances $`C_R^i`$ have been considered as free fit parameters. Fitted parameters $`C_R^i`$ obtained by the fit are listed in Table 1 too. It should be remarked that the experimental data set on proton-proton total cross sections revealed the existence of two unknown resonances with the masses $`2027MeV`$ and $`2217MeV`$. These resonances were also included on our fit. Some known diproton resonances are not included in the list by the reason of our computer allowance. We plan to make a more extended analysis in the future.

Our fitting curve is shown in Fig. 2. We also plotted in Fig. 3 the resonance structure for proton-proton total cross section at low energies without the experimental points but with dashed line corresponding the “background” where all resonances are switched off. As it is seen from this Figure there is clear signature for the diproton resonances.

## 3 Conclusion

* It appears the diproton resonances are confirmed by the data set for proton-proton total cross section at low energies from statistical point of view (good fit!).
* There is a big bag (“bol’shoi korob”) with many dibaryon resonances. This korob (bag) is not completely filled yet till now! How many dibaryon resonances are there?
* There are many questions???…There are no answers!!!…What is the physical nature and dynamical origin of dibaryon resonances? What are the quantum numbers: spin, isospin, and so on. A nontrivial fact in our fitting games is the observation that three resonances with the mass 2087, 2106, 2127 $`MeV`$ have an odd parity.
* Without any doubt the physics of dibaryon resonances is very interesting, very exciting, very promising, very…, very… part of elementary particle and nuclear physics.
* From the global structure it follows that new threshold, which is near the elastic one, looks like a manifestation of a new unknown particle:

$$\sqrt{s_{thr}}=2m_p+m_{},m_{}=1.833\pm 0.001MeV.$$

We predicted the position of new threshold with a high accuracy.
* It seems $``$-particle may have many faces. We could take a refreshing thought that $``$-particle may be a bound state of photons–“photoball”, or a bound state of electron-positron pairs embedded in continuum, or very deeply bounded system of pions. A very intriguing idea that $``$-particle is Higgs particle, which is well known theoretically but it is not observed experimentally, is admissible one as well. Is $``$-particle a photonium, positronium, pionium, and so on x-onium?
* Could one make an experiment to search $``$-particle? It is very probably that $``$-particle has been observed in Darmstadt. We find in the abstract of paper : “The most pronounced line appears at a sum energy of $`810keV`$, corresponding to an invariant mass of $`1.83MeV/c^2`$.” This result was confirmed by the other group a year later . Now we can understand an independence of Darmstadt effect on the content of beam and target nuclei because this is a manifestation of fundamental nucleon-nucleon dynamics. It’s a pity, the present status of Darmstadt efect is not so stable. That is why, it would be very desirable to make new experiments to search $``$-particle.
* Could one measure a missing mass spectra in one-particle $`pppX`$ and in two-particle $`ppppX`$ inclusive reactions with a high precision and with a high resolution in missing mass?

Such measurements will shed more light on the questions surrounding the nature of diproton resonances.
* Surely, it is very important to perform systematic studies and precise calculations using quantum field theoretical methods. In this respect we hope that the discovery of quasicrystal structure of the vacuum in quantum field theory  will help us to understand the new sites of the fundamental dynamics.

## Acknowledgements

I am grateful to A.M. Zaitsev provided me the possibility to attend the Conference HADRON 2001 and to present the Report there.


text:
# ”

## Abstract

It is a current opinion that thermonuclear fusion is the main source of the star activity. It is shown below that this source is not unique. There is another electrostatic mechanism of the energy generation which accompanies thermonuclear fusion. Probably, this approach can solve the solar neutrino problem.

Energy generation in stars

B.V.Vasiliev

Institute in Physical-Technical Problems, 141980, Dubna, Russia

vasiliev@dubna.ru

PACS: 64.30.+i; 95.30.-k; 97.10.-q

The basic source of energy in stars is the nuclear energy. At high temperature inside a star there are conditions for the thermonuclear fusion. More heavy nuclei have greater bonding energy and greater mass defect. The energy related to this mass defect becomes free at fusion of heavy nuclei and it is used up for a heating of a star and a radiation. This is generally known.

The thermonuclear fusion can be considered as a process of a growing of the averaged mass number A and the averaged charge Z of nuclei in plasma.

The nuclear mass table data show that the bonding energy which becomes free at thermonuclear fusion depend linearly on the averaged charge of nuclei

$$E_m310^5Zerg$$
(1)
But, at consideration of the thermonuclear fusion as an unique process of the energy generation in stars, one looses sight of the fact that there is other additional parallel mechanism of the energy generation - a decrease in the gravitational energy of a star, which is caused by of decrease in the electrostatic energy of plasma and is a result of nuclear charge build-up.

According to the virial theorem , the full energy of plasma is equal to the half of its potential energy. The potential energy of plasma inside a star , related to one nucleus is

$$E_z=\frac{U}{N_{}}=\frac{GM_{}^2}{2R_{}N_{}}$$
(2)
According to , the steady-state value of the star mass is

$`M_{}=1.5^6\sqrt{{\displaystyle \frac{10}{\pi ^3}}}\left({\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{}c}{Gm_p^2}}\right)^{3/2}{\displaystyle \frac{m_p}{(A/Z)^2}}`$
$`6.47\left({\displaystyle \frac{Z}{A}}\right)^2M_{Ch}12\left({\displaystyle \frac{Z}{A}}\right)^2M_{}`$ (3)
and the equilibrium radius

$`R_{}={\displaystyle \frac{3^3}{2^4}}\left({\displaystyle \frac{10}{\pi }}\right)^{1/6}{\displaystyle \frac{ea_0}{G^{1/2}m_p\alpha ^{1/2}}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{AZ}}`$
$`1.6{\displaystyle \frac{R_{}}{AZ}},`$ (4)
where $`M_{Ch}=\left(\frac{\mathrm{}c}{Gm_p^2}\right)^{3/2}m_p=3.4210^{33}g`$ is the Chandrasechar’s mass, $`M_{}`$ and $`R_{}`$ are the mass and the radius of the Sun, $`m_p`$ is the proton mass, $`G`$ is the gravitational constant, $`\alpha `$ is the fine structure constant, $`a_0`$ is the Bohr radius.

As the equilibrium number of nuclei inside a star is

$$N_{}=M_{}/Am_p,$$
(5)
with account of Eq.(3) and Eq.(4),

$$E_z0.8\left(\frac{\mathrm{}c}{a_0}\right)Z^3510^9Z^3erg.$$
(6)
Obviously, that the heavy nuclei fusion is really accompanied by a decreasing of electrostatic energy of plasma.

This energy, like the fusion energy, causes a calorification of a star and can be radiated. This energy is related to the process of fusion but it is of quite a different nature - this is the gravitational energy which is caused by a changing of the electrostatic energy of plasma.

The dependencies of the transmutation energy and the electrostatic energy of plasma on the averaged nuclear charge Z are shown in Fig.1.

The luminosity of a star depends on the energy generation velocity inside it:

$$\frac{dE}{dt}=\frac{dE_m}{dt}+\frac{dE_Z}{dt}=(310^5+1.510^8Z^2)\frac{dZ}{dt}\frac{erg}{s}.$$
(7)
The dependencies of energy generation velocities on Z are shown in Fig.2.

Essentially, the full radiation from the surface of a star depends on both - the fusion energy and the decrease in a plasma electrostatic energy. Simultaneously, neutrinos are generated by fusion processes only. It is known, that the neutrino flux (with account of all fusion processes) is approximately two times less than the value which can be obtain on the basis of full radiancy of the Sun.

It is possible to conclude from Fig.2, that an averaged charge of nuclei of the plasma core in this case is close to $`Z45`$.


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# A Single Shot, Sub-picosecond Beam Bunch Characterization with Electro-optic Techniques

## I Introduction

The development of very short beam pulses is a crucial part of the effort to achieve the desired luminosity for the future accelerators which are being designed to bring us to the next energy frontier and for SASE for FEL. The Lorentz cone of an ultra-relativistic charged particle beam bunch (CPB) has a very small opening angle jackson  and therefore the amplitude of the generated electric field has a longitudinal profile very close to the longitudinal charge distribution of the beam. One way to measure the produced electric field in a non-invasive way is the electro-optic effect (Pockels effect) using an electro-optic crystal as the electric field sensor. A polarized laser light goes through the electro-optic crystal and the E-field from the CPB induces an ellipticity in the polarization state of the laser light. Ellipsometer techniques are used to analyze the laser light polarization state. The first electro-optic detection of charged particle beams have been reported in references pac99 ; yan00 ; fitch01 ; semertzidis00 ; tsang01 .

The techniques that are used to read out the ellipsometers are:

1. The pump-probe method where a short laser pulse is used with a determined time delay between the electron beam and the laser pulse. The time delay is varied so different parts of the electron beam can be probed. This approach can in principle give the average longitudinal beam profile of many electron pulses yan00 ; fitch01 .

The time resolution of this method is determined by the appropriate combination of the laser pulse length, the laser pulse size in the crystal and the crystal length ($`CL`$) along the laser propagation direction. The latter is equal to $`\sigma _{cl}=CL/(c/n)`$ with $`c`$ the speed of light and $`n2.2`$ the index of refraction for the $`\mathrm{LiNbO}_3`$ crystal at the laser frequency. For a crystal length of 1 mm, $`\sigma _{cl}7.5`$ ps. If the CPB length is shorter than the crystal length, the time resolution would be equal to the CPB pulse length. If the laser pulse and the CPB move in the same direction then the pulse broadening equals $`\sigma _{cl}=CL(11/n)/c1.8`$ ps for the above example which is consistent with the resolution reported in reference yan00 . In order to reach sub-picosecond time resolution the crystal length needs to be less than $`100\mu \mathrm{m}`$. Crystals with $`100\mu \mathrm{m}`$ or smaller lengths are already commercially available.
2. The single shot technique where the light after the ellipsometer is either (a) read by a streak camera dimitri01 , or (b) the laser light is stretched after it goes through the crystal so that the signal can become slow enough to be read out using conventional electronics Hutchins00  or (c) by measuring the laser pulse spectra with and without the presence of an electron pulse wilke01 . The advantage of the single shot method is that it can, in principle, provide information on the longitudinal beam profile on a single pulse basis.

The time resolution of this approach is limited by the laser pulse size in the crystal and the crystal length along the laser propagation.

We report a recent development triveni01  based on the electro-optic effect which is capable of reaching sub-picosecond time resolution down, in principle, to a few fs in the single shot mode.

## II Theory

Let us consider an electron beam bunch of charge density $`\sigma (x,y)`$, and bunch length $`l`$, focused to a sheet beam with transverse dimension $`D`$. Let this relativistic charged particle beam move along $`x`$ axis, the length of a birefringent crystal. The electric field experienced by the crystal at a distance r from the electron beam, due to the charge $`\sigma (x,y)dxdy`$ can be written as

$$dE_z=(\gamma /4\pi ϵ_0)\sigma (x,y)dydx/ϵr^2$$
(1)
where $`ϵ`$ is the dielectric constant of the crystal in Z direction and $`\gamma `$ is the relativistic Lorentz factor. This field is present at this location for the time $`dt`$ taken by this charge to traverse the distance $`dx`$. A polarized laser beam propagating along the y-axis inside this birefringent crystal would then experience this field over a distance $`dL=dx/n`$ where n is the refractive index of the crystal, along the direction of propagation at the laser frequency. The phase retardation experienced between the two orthogonal polarization components (z and x) of the laser beam $`d\mathrm{\Gamma }(t)`$ is:

$$d\mathrm{\Gamma }(t)=\kappa (2\pi /\lambda )dLdE_z(t)$$
(2)
where $`\kappa `$ is the electro-optic coefficient and $`\lambda `$ is the wavelength of the laser beam. The total retardation is obtained by integrating over the entire charge distribution, the time taken by the laser to cross the crystal and the length of the crystal. The limits of integration would then depend on the smaller of these interrelated parameters. If the transmitted laser beam is detected after passing through a quarter wave plate and a crossed analyzer, then the transmitted intensity I(t) is given by

$$I(t)=I_0[\eta +\mathrm{sin}^2(\mathrm{\Gamma }_0+\mathrm{\Gamma }_b+\mathrm{\Gamma }(t))]$$
(3)
where $`\eta `$ is the intensity extinction coefficient, $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_0`$ is the residual retardation by the crystal in the absence of the electric field and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_b`$ is the retardation introduced by the quarter wave plate. Typical values for $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_0`$ and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }(t)`$ are in the range of tens of milliradians. The value of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ is chosen to suit the detector capabilities and the experimental conditions.

## III Measurement of sub picosecond electron bunch length

This scheme has been successfully used to measure the bunch length of 45 MeV electron beam semertzidis00 ; tsang01 . The limit on the resolution had been the bandwidth of the detection system. A number of schemes to measure sub-picosecond electron bunch have been proposed so far. These include characterizing the frequency modulation on a laser spectrum caused by the electron bunch, performing autocorrelation measurements and using the FROG technique to determine both the frequency and time distribution of the laser beam transmitted through a birefringent crystal. In the following section another scheme that converts temporal information to spatial information to measure sub-picosecond electron bunch is described. Bunch length measurement with resolution down to the response time of the crystal is possible using this method since linear arrays with small pixel dimensions is readily available. Furthermore, where pixel dimension proves to be the limitation, effective use of optical imaging can be used effectively to overcome this limitation.

A short laser pulse polarized in the YZ plane, 45o to the z-axis, focused using a cylindrical lens to form a line focus, propagates along the y-axis. A thin birefringent crystal with optic axis along z and ordinary axis along x is positioned at the waist of the laser beam. The electron bunch propagates simultaneously along the x-axis, at a minimum distance r from the laser beam. The transmitted intensity is passed through a crossed analyzer and detected by a linear detector array. As shown in the Figure 1, only those sections of the laser beam that are below the electron bunch will experience a phase retardation linearly proportional to the charge density of the electron beam and reach the linear array. The acceptable jitter between the electron beam bunch and the laser beam is determined by the x dimension of the crystal, length and sensitivity of the detector array, length of the line focus of the laser and laser energy available. For a typical diode array of 1024 elements, 1 cm crystal length and $``$ 100 pJ of laser energy in a 1 cm line focus, jitter up to 30 ps can be tolerated as well as measured using this arrangement.

The pulse duration and the thickness (y dimension) of the crystal determine the resolution and fidelity of the temporal profile. The distance traveled by the electron bunch during the laser pulse constitutes the uncertainty in the bunch length measurement. A relativistic electron travels $`30\mu \mathrm{m}`$ during a laser pulse duration of 50 fs (for $`n=2`$), causing a corresponding broadening of the image on the detector array. The laser pulse duration should then be a small fraction of the electron pulse duration to be measured. Short laser pulses down to tens of femtoseconds are readily achievable. However, the optical beam transport must be designed carefully to reduce pulse broadening and minimize high order dispersion.

The phase rotation of a single photon traveling along the crystal is caused by the integrated charge density along the diagonal of the sheet of charge, seen by the photon while in the crystal. Thus, only an infinitely thin crystal would preserve the temporal profile of the electron bunch. The choice of the thickness of the crystal is, hence, a function of the magnitude of the obtainable electric field (determined by charge density achievable and distance between the electron beam and the laser), the electro-optic coefficients, the sensitivity of the detection system, and the structural integrity of the system.

In conclusion a number of electro-optic detection schemes are available to measure the length of subpicosecond electron bunches. These techniques need to be tested for limitations before a judicial choice can be made.


text:
# Bound states in the 3d Ising model and implications for QCD at finite temperature and density

## 1 Introduction

The use of effective models to describe the relevant degrees of freedom has always been an important tool in the study of non perturbative physics of gauge theories. For pure gauge theories with a second order deconfinement transition, the problem of finding such an effective description is solved by the Svetitsky-Yaffe conjecture .

The case of finite density QCD is not as well understood. It is by now clear that in the phase diagram of high $`T`$ and finite density QCD a central role is played by the second order phase transition located at the end of the first order line which separates the hadronic phase from the quark-gluon plasma one at high density (see fig.1). It has been conjectured that this point is in the same universality class as the order-disorder transition of the 3d Ising model. This identification is even more important than the Svetitsky-Yaffe one for the zero density case, since the difficulty of directly simulating finite density QCD makes an effective description in terms of Ising-type variables more valuable.

The critical behaviour of the 3d Ising model is by now very well understood both numerically and field-theoretically. In particular we have a good understanding of the properties of the free energy and its derivatives near the critical point.

However, in view of an application to finite density QCD one is more interested in phenomena (like the Kertész singularity  or the unbinding line which we shall discuss below) which are not related to any singularity in the free energy.

The goal of this contribution is to discuss these quantities, their behaviour in the 3d Ising model and the possible implications for finite density QCD. Here we just state our results: for all details and derivations, see .

## 2 Bound states in the 3d Ising model

The $`3D`$ Ising model in the broken symmetry phase has a rich spectrum of non perturbative states, which can be interpreted as bound states of the fundamental massive excitation .

This spectrum is mapped by duality into the glueball spectrum of the gauge Ising model, and hence includes states with all the values of angular momentum $`J`$ and parity $`P`$ allowed by the lattice structure. However for our current purposes we can focus on the simplest one, that is the $`J^P=0^+`$ bound state of two elementary quanta.

At vanishing magnetic field, numerical simulations of the Ising model show the existence of a state with mass $`1.83m`$, where $`m`$ is the mass of the fundamental excitation (inverse of the correlation length). On the other hand, the Bethe-Salpeter equation for $`3D`$ $`\varphi ^4`$ theory in the broken symmetry phase predicts the existence of a bound state of two fundamental quanta, with binding energy given at leading order by

$$E_bm\mathrm{exp}\left(\frac{8\pi m}{g}\right)0.17m$$
(1)
The excellent agreement between these numbers allows us to interpret the state at $`1.83m`$ as a bound state.

The Bethe-Salpeter equation shows also that when an external magnetic field is switched on the binding energy decreases. Moreover, in the unbroken symmetry phase the interaction between fundamental excitations is repulsive, and no bound states can exist. These two facts suggest the existence of an unbinding line in the $`(T,H)`$ plane delimiting the region where bound states exist. On the line the binding energy vanishes. High precision Monte Carlo data confirm the existence of this line and strongly suggest that it coincides with the $`T=T_c`$ axis.

## 3 “Critical” and pseudocritical lines in the $`(H,T)`$ plane.

The unbinding line $`E_b(H,T)=0`$ shares many features with the Kertész line, along which the cluster surface tension $`\mathrm{\Gamma }(H,T)`$ vanishes (see  for the precise definition). Given a scaling function $`X(h,t)`$, expressed in terms of the reduced variables $`h\beta H`$ and $`t=\frac{TT_c}{T_c}\frac{\beta _c\beta }{\beta }`$, a simple renormalization group argument shows that the line along which $`X`$ vanishes must have the form

$$t=a_X|h|^{\frac{y_t}{y_h}}$$
(2)
where $`y_t`$ and $`y_h`$ are the RG eigenvalues of the energy and spin operators. The constant $`a_X`$ depends on the choice of the observable $`X`$.

Since both $`E_b`$ and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ are scaling functions, both the unbinding line and the Kertész line will be described by Eq. 2. Numerically we have for the unbinding line

$$a_{E_b}0$$
(3)
while for the Kertész line

$$a_\mathrm{\Gamma }0.39$$
(4)
This indicates that the two lines are definitely different. Both can be considered as “critical lines” since they divide the $`(h,t)`$ plane into well defined phases which can be distinguished by an order parameter ($`E_b`$ or $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$) in the two cases, which is different from zero in one phase and vanishes in the other phase. However these are not phase transitions in the usual sense since the free energy is not singular on either of these lines.

It is interesting to compare the Kertész and unbinding line to the so called pseudocritical lines, defined as the loci of the maxima in the $`(H,T)`$ plane of quantities, like the susceptibility $`\chi (h,t)`$, the specific heat $`C(h,t)`$ or the correlation length $`\xi (h,t)`$ which diverge at the critical point. Since also these quantities are scaling functions, the functional form of the pseudocritical lines must be the same of eq.(2), with various constants $`a_\chi ,a_C,a_\xi ,\mathrm{}`$.

It is very interesting to compare the various values of these constants. It seems that the pseudocritical lines divide into two families, which are, so to speak, “attracted” by the Kertész and unbinding lines respectively. In particular it turns out that $`a_\chi a_\xi a_\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ and $`a_Ca_{E_b}`$. While the susceptibility pseudocritical line lies near the Kertész line but is definitely different from it (a similar behaviour was recently observed also in d=2 ) the pseudocritical line related to the correlation length seems to almost coincide with the Kertész line. It would be very interesting to understand if this is only a coincidence, if a higher resolution analysis separates the two lines and if a similar phenomenon also holds in other models or in the $`2d`$ Ising model.

## 4 Implications for finite density QCD.

Our current understanding of finite $`\mu `$ and $`T`$ QCD is well summarized by fig. 1 (taken from ).

In particular, as $`\mu `$ increases we recognize three regimes: (1) At low $`\mu `$, since the chiral symmetry is not exact the hadronic phase is separated from the quark-gluon plasma (QGP) one by a smooth crossover. (2) At intermediate values of $`\mu `$ the two phases are separated by a first order line whose ending point belongs to the Ising universality class. (3) At large $`\mu `$ a new “superconducting” (SC) phase appears in which quarks pair and can form a condensate.

Again the SC phase is separated by the QGP only by a smooth crossover since both are characterized by the same global symmetries. The boundary between the two is only defined by the fact that the binding energy between quarks, which is

$$E_b\frac{b}{g^5}\mathrm{exp}\left(\frac{3\pi ^2}{\sqrt{2}g}\right)$$
(5)
becomes zero.

If the endpoint of the line of first order transition is in the Ising universality class, then all critical indices and universal amplitude ratios coincide with the Ising ones. It is natural to wonder whether this identification provides us with useful insight about the physically interesting crossover phenomena around the critical point. In this spirit, it was conjectured in  that the Kertész line is to be identified with the separation between hadronic and QGP phase. Here we propose to identify the unbinding line with the line separating the SC and QGP phases. More precisely, we suggest to identify the bound states of elementary quanta of the Ising model with the diquarks of the SC phase. This identification is supported by the similar behavior of the two binding energies which both depend exponentially on the inverse coupling. Moreover both in the Ising and in the QCD case the two phases have the same global symmetry and the only order parameter which allows to distinguish between them is the binding energy.

Let us stress however that at this stage this identification (as the one which involves the Kertész line) is only a conjecture and is by no means implied by universality. Thus it would be very interesting to study it in other models belonging to the Ising universality class, which could better represent the QCD phase diagram, like the 3d Potts model in a magnetic field considered in .


text:
# 1 Introduction

## 1 Introduction

Recombination lines of carbon originate either in regions adjacent to H ii regions (classical C ii regions) or in neutral components (H i or molecular) of the interstellar medium (diffuse C ii regions). The diffuse C ii regions are identified through observations of carbon RLs in absorption at frequencies below $``$ 100 MHz and in emission above $``$ 150 MHz . This paper concerns new extensive observations of the diffuse C ii regions in carbon RLs at frequencies near 327 MHz.

## 2 Observations and Results

RL observations were made in the longitude range $`l=`$ 332$``$ 89, using the ORT in two different angular resolutions – 2$`\times `$ 2 and 2$`\times `$ 6. In the low resolution survey, carbon RLs were detected at almost all the positions in the longitude range $`l=`$ 0 to 20 and at a few positions between $`l=`$ 20 to 89.

The lv diagram and the radial distribution, obtained from carbon RL emission near 327 MHz, show similarity with those obtained from hydrogen RLs observed near 3 cm from H ii regions and “intense” 12CO emission. This similarity indicates that the distribution of the diffuse C ii regions in the inner Galaxy is similar to that of the spiral arm components.

## 3 Association with cool H i gas

Towards several positions in the inner Galaxy, the central velocities of the observed (2 $`\times `$ 2 resolution) carbon RLs coincide with known H i self-absorption features. H i self-absorption is observed when a cool ($``$ 20 K) H i cloud appears in absorption against H i emission from warmer gas behind it. The similarity of the central velocities suggests that the diffuse C ii regions in these directions coexist with the cool H i clouds. The observed widths ($``$ 4 km s-1 ) of the HI self-absorption features are, however, much narrower than the typical widths ($``$ 15 km s-1 ) of the carbon RLs. The difference in line widths may be due to : (1) There may be several cool H i clouds with slightly different central velocities within the 2$`\times `$ 2 beam and most of them may produce carbon lines, which results in a broader RL. However, the H i observations will detect only the coldest HI clouds and hence the line will have a narrow line width. (2) Alternatively, if “warmer” ($``$ 100 K), presumably more turbulent H i gas is associated with cool H i clouds then both “warm” and “cool” gas will emit carbon RLs but only the cool H i component will be observed in self-absorption.


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# On the Coefficients of a Fibonacci Power Series

(October 15, 2001)

## Abstract

We give an explicit description of the coefficients of the formal power series $`(1x)(1x^2)(1x^3)(1x^5)(1x^8)(1x^{13})\mathrm{}`$. In particular, we show that all the coefficients are equal to $`1,0`$ or $`1`$.

The Fibonacci numbers are defined by the recurrence relation $`F_{n+2}=F_{n+1}+F_n`$ for $`n0`$, and the initial conditions $`F_0=0,F_1=1`$. Consider the infinite product

$$\begin{array}{ccc}\hfill A(x)& =& _{k2}(1x^{F_k})=(1x)(1x^2)(1x^3)(1x^5)(1x^8)\mathrm{}\hfill \\ & & \\ & =& 1xx^2+x^4+x^7x^8+x^{11}x^{12}x^{13}+x^{14}+x^{18}+\mathrm{}\hfill \end{array}$$

regarded as a formal power series. In , N. Robbins proved that the coefficients of $`A(x)`$ are all equal to $`1,0`$ or $`1`$. We shall give a short proof of this fact, and a very simple recursive description of the coefficients of $`A(x)`$.

Following the notation of , let $`a(m)`$ be the coefficient of $`x^m`$ in $`A(x)`$. It is clear that $`a(m)=r_E(m)r_O(m)`$, where $`r_E(m)`$ is equal to the number of partitions of $`m`$ into an even number of distinct positive Fibonacci numbers, and $`r_O(m)`$ is equal to the number of partitions of $`m`$ into an odd number of distinct positive Fibonacci numbers. We call these partitions “even” and “odd” respectively.

Proposition 1. Let $`n5`$ be an integer. Consider the coefficients $`a(m)`$ for $`m`$ in the interval $`[F_n,F_{n+1})`$. Split this interval into the three subintervals $`[F_n,F_n+F_{n3}2],[F_n+F_{n3}1,F_n+F_{n2}1]`$ and $`[F_n+F_{n2},F_{n+1}1]`$.

1. The numbers $`a(F_n),a(F_n+1),\mathrm{},a(F_n+F_{n3}2)`$ are equal to the numbers $`(1)^{n1}a(F_{n3}2),(1)^{n1}a(F_{n3}3),\mathrm{},(1)^{n1}a(0)`$ in that order.
2. The numbers $`a(F_n+F_{n3}1),a(F_n+F_{n3}),\mathrm{},a(F_n+F_{n2}1)`$ are equal to $`0`$.
3. The numbers $`a(F_n+F_{n2}),a(F_n+F_{n2}+1),\mathrm{},a(F_{n+1}1)`$ are equal to the numbers $`a(0),a(1),\mathrm{},a(F_{n3}1)`$ in that order.

This description gives a very fast method for computing the coefficients $`a(m)`$ recursively. Once we have computed them for $`0m<F_n`$ we can immediately compute them for $`F_nm<F_{n+1}`$ using Proposition 1.

Also, since the coefficient of $`x^m`$ in $`A(x)`$ is equal to $`1,0`$ or $`1`$ for all non-negative integers $`m<F_5`$, it follows inductively that the coefficients in each interval $`[F_n,F_{n+1})`$ are also all equal to $`1,0`$ or $`1`$. This proves Robbins’s result.

Proof of Proposition 1. It will be convenient to prove Proposition 1.2 first. Let $`F_n+F_{n3}1mF_n+F_{n2}1`$, and consider the partitions of $`m`$ into distinct positive Fibonacci numbers. It is clear that the largest part in such a partition cannot be $`F_{n+1}`$ or larger. It cannot be $`F_{n2}`$ or smaller either, because $`F_{n2}+F_{n3}+\mathrm{}+F_2=F_n2<m`$. Therefore, it must be $`F_n`$ or $`F_{n1}`$.

If the largest part is $`F_n`$, then the second largest part cannot be $`F_{n1}`$ or $`F_{n2}`$. If, on the other hand, it is $`F_{n1}`$, then the second largest part must be $`F_{n2}`$, because $`F_{n1}+F_{n3}+F_{n4}+\mathrm{}+F_2=2F_{n1}2=F_n+F_{n3}2<m`$.

This means that we can split the set of partitions into pairs. Each pair consists of two partitions of the form $`F_n+F_a+F_b+\mathrm{}`$ and $`F_{n1}+F_{n2}+F_a+F_b+\mathrm{}`$, where $`n3a>b>\mathrm{}`$. In each pair, one of the partitions is even and the other is odd. Therefore $`r_E(m)=r_O(m)`$ and $`a(m)=0`$ as claimed.

Now we use a similar analysis to prove Proposition 1.3. Let $`F_n+F_{n2}mF_{n+1}1`$. As before, the largest part of a partition of $`m`$ must be $`F_n`$ or $`F_{n1}`$. If it is $`F_n`$, the second largest part cannot be $`F_{n1}`$. If, on the other hand, it is $`F_{n1}`$, then the second largest part must be $`F_{n2}`$.

Again, we can split a subset of the set of partitions into pairs. Each pair consists of two partitions of the form $`F_n+F_a+F_b+\mathrm{}`$ and $`F_{n1}+F_{n2}+F_a+F_b+\mathrm{}`$, where $`n3a>b>\mathrm{}`$. In each pair there is an even and an odd partition.

The remaining partitions are of the form $`F_n+F_{n2}+F_a+F_b+\mathrm{}`$, where $`n3a>b>\mathrm{}`$. To each one of these partitions we can assign a partition of $`m^{}=mF_nF_{n2}`$, by just removing the parts $`F_n`$ and $`F_{n2}`$. This is in fact a bijection. Since $`m^{}<F_{n2}`$, any partition of $`m^{}`$ has largest part less than or equal to $`F_{n3}`$; therefore it can be obtained in that way from a partition of $`m`$.

It is clear that, under this bijection, odd partitions of $`m`$ go to odd partitions of $`m^{}`$ and even partitions of $`m`$ go to even partitions of $`m^{}`$. It follows that $`a(m)=a(mF_nF_{n2})`$, as claimed.

Finally we prove Proposition 1.1. Consider $`F_nmF_n+F_{n3}2`$. The parts of a partition of $`m`$ come from the list $`F_2,F_3,\mathrm{},F_n`$. To each partition $`\pi `$ of $`m`$, assign the partition $`\pi ^{}`$ of $`m^{}=F_{n+2}2m`$ consisting of all the numbers on the above list that do not appear in $`\pi `$. Any partition of $`m^{}`$ can be obtained in such a way from a partition of $`m`$: the partitions of $`m^{}`$ also have all their parts less than or equal to $`F_n`$, because it is easily seen that $`m^{}<F_{n+1}`$.

So the partitions of $`m`$ are in bijection with the partitions of $`m^{}`$. If a partition $`\pi `$ of $`m`$ has $`k`$ parts, the corresponding partition $`\pi ^{}`$ of $`m^{}`$ has $`n1k`$ parts. Therefore, if $`n`$ is odd, the bijection takes odd partitions to odd partitions and even partitions to even partitions, and $`a(m)=a(m^{})`$. If $`n`$ is even, the bijection takes odd partitions to even partitions, and even partitions to odd partitions, and $`a(m)=a(m^{})`$. In any case, $`a(m)=(1)^{n1}a(m^{})`$.

Now, it is easily seen that $`F_n+F_{n2}m^{}F_{n+1}2`$. Therefore Proposition 1.3 applies, and $`a(m^{})=a(m^{}F_nF_{n2})=a(F_n+F_{n3}2m)`$. Hence $`a(m)=(1)^{n1}a(F_n+F_{n3}2m)`$, which is what we wanted to show.

Proposition 2. Given an integer $`n`$, pick an integer $`m`$ uniformly at random from the interval $`[0,n]`$. Let $`p_n`$ be the probability that $`a(m)=0`$ or, equivalently, that $`r_E(m)=r_O(m)`$.

Then $`lim_n\mathrm{}p_n=1`$.

Proof. Let $`\alpha _n`$ be the number of non-zero coefficients among the first $`F_n`$ coefficients $`a(0),a(1),\mathrm{},a(F_n1)`$. Then $`p_{(F_n1)}=1\alpha _n/F_n`$. We shall prove that $`lim_n\mathrm{}\alpha _n/F_n=0`$. Proposition 2 follows easily from this.

First we obtain a recurrence relation for $`\alpha _n`$. Consider the non-zero coefficients $`a(m)`$ for $`F_nmF_{n+1}1`$. We know that there are $`\alpha _{n+1}\alpha _n`$ such coefficients. Now split the interval $`[F_n,F_{n+1}1]`$ into the three subintervals $`[F_n,F_n+F_{n3}2],[F_n+F_{n3}1,F_n+F_{n2}1]`$ and $`[F_n+F_{n2},F_{n+1}1]`$. Proposition 1.2 shows that that there are no non-zero coefficients in the second subinterval, and Proposition 1.3 shows that there are $`\alpha _{n3}`$ non-zero coefficients in the third subinterval. Because $`a(F_{n3}1)`$ is non-zero for all $`n5`$ (this follows inductively from Proposition 1.3), Proposition 1.1 shows that there are $`\alpha _{n3}1`$ non-zero coefficients in the first subinterval. We conclude that $`\alpha _{n+1}\alpha _n=2\alpha _{n3}1`$.

The characteristic polynomial of this recurrence relation is $`x^4x^32=0`$, and its roots are approximately $`r_11.54,r_2=1,r_30.23+1.12i`$ and $`r_40.231.12i`$. It follows from standard results on linear recurrences that $`\alpha _n=O(r_1^n)`$, while $`F_n=\mathrm{\Theta }(\lambda ^n)`$, where $`\lambda =(\sqrt{5}+1)/21.62`$. Since $`r_1<\lambda `$, we conclude that $`lim_n\mathrm{}\alpha _n/F_n=0`$.

Acknowledgement. The author would like to thank Richard Stanley for encouraging him to work on this problem, and for pointing out .


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# PROBING THE MASS DISTRIBUTION WITH IRAS GALAXIES

## 1 Introduction

IRAS redshift surveys are characterized by their considerable depth and almost complete sky coverage and thus have been extensively used to investigate the mass distribution in the local universe. As a result, most of the local cosmological information is derived under the assumption that IRAS galaxies are faithful tracers of the underlying mass distribution. Therefore, it is of fundamental importance to test the validity this hypothesis and to quantify the so called biasing relation, i.e. the map between the mass and the galaxy spatial distributions both smoothed with the same filter and on the same smoothing scale.

This problem has been already addressed in several different ways by a number authors. Baker et al. (1998) and Seaborne et al. (1999) have shown that distribution of IRAS galaxies is consistent with that of optical galaxies on scales larger that 5 $`h^1`$Mpc. This indicates that different types of objects trace a common underlying density field. More important, direct comparisons with the mass density field obtained from the observed peculiar velocities of galaxies using POTENT-like algorithms (Bertschinger & Dekel 1989) or Wiener Filtering techniques (Zaroubi et al. 1995), have shown that the distribution of IRAS galaxies is consistent with that of the mass within a region of $`60h^1`$Mpc (see Sigad et al. 1998 and reference therein).

Our aim is to improve the accuracy of the previous analyses, extend them to scales larger than 60 $`h^1`$Mpc and determine whether the biasing of IRAS galaxies is consistent with a linear relation.

## 2 IRAS Galaxies vs. Mass within 60 $`h^1`$Mpc

In the first analysis we perform a density-density comparison i.e. we reconstruct the mass density field within 60 $`h^1`$Mpc from observed galaxy peculiar velocities and compare it with the 3D galaxy distribution obtained from the IRAS redshift surveys. In our analysis we use a new reconstruction method, called Unbiased Minimal Variance estimator \[UMV, hereafter\], a new catalog of peculiar velocity, called SEcat, and the most recent redshift survey of IRAS galaxies, called PSC$`z`$.

The UMV estimator proposed by Zaroubi (2001) can be viewed as a compromise between POTENT algorithm and the Wiener filtering technique. It constitutes an improvement over both these methods since it provides an unbiased minimum variance reconstruction of the underlying density field from incomplete, noisy and sparse catalogs of galaxy peculiar velocities and also account for the correlation properties of the underlying velocity field. The recent SEcat catalog of peculiar velocities results from the merging of the SFI catalog of spiral galaxies (Giovanelli et al. 1997) and the ENEAR catalog of early type galaxies (da Costa et al. 2000). The large number of objects, homogeneous sky coverage and composite nature of the catalog guarantee dense, uniform and unbiased sampling of the cosmic velocity field. Finally, the PSC$`z`$ catalog (Saunders 1996) constitutes the largest and deepest all-sky redshift survey of IRAS galaxies to date.

The preliminary results of the comparison between the UMV-reconstructed mass and the IRAS PSC$`z`$ galaxy density fields are shown in Fig. 1. Each point displayed in the scatter-plot shows the comparison between the UMV and PSC$`z`$ overdensities smoothed with a Gaussian filter of radius 12 $`h^1`$Mpc and measured at the same location. The correlation between the two fields is linear and thus consistent with a biasing relation on the scale of the smoothing. The slope of the solid line returns $`\beta \mathrm{\Omega }^{0.6}/b=0.56_{0.10}^{+0.12}`$, where $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ and $`b`$ indicate the mass density and linear bias parameters, respectively. The distribution of the density residuals is consistent with Gaussian, hence indicating that the PSC$`z`$ density field is an adequate model for the underlying mass density field within a radius of 60 $`h^1`$Mpc under the assumption of linear biasing and on a scales larger than the smoothing length. It is worth stressing that, due to the regularization properties of the UMV estimator and the unprecedented quality of the SEcat and PSC$`z`$ datasets, the statistical significance of this density-density match is greater than in previous comparisons of this type.

The UMV estimator can be also used to reconstruct the underlying continuous velocity field. The comparison with the linear model velocity field predicted from the distribution of PSC$`z`$ galaxies returns a value of $`\beta =0.51_{0.04}^{+0.04}`$, consistent with the one obtained from densities (Zaroubi et al. in prep.).

## 3 IRAS Galaxies vs. Mass beyond 60 $`h^1`$Mpc

To determine the mass distribution on scales larger than 60 $`h^1`$Mpc and compare it to that of IRAS galaxies we have used the tidal field decomposition technique proposed by Hoffman et al. (2001).

In this method the Wiener filtering technique is applied to the Mark III peculiar velocity catalog (Willick et al. 1997) to reconstruct the full density and velocity fields (top-left panel of Fig. 2). The density field within 60 $`h^1`$Mpc is used to determine, via linear theory, the divergent part of the velocity field (top-right). The tidal velocity field (bottom-left) is obtained by subtracting the divergent component to the full velocity field. This tidal field is only determined by the mass distribution beyond 60 $`h^1`$Mpc and is dominated by its dipole and quadrupole moments. The velocity field shown in the bottom-right panel was obtained after subtracting the dipole component from the tidal field and is clearly characterized by a quadrupole pattern. The direction of the Mark III dipole vector is displayed as long arrows in the bottom-left panel of Fig. 2. The long arrows in the bottom-right panel show the directions of the compressional and dilational eigenvectors of the shear tensor.

A similar decomposition was applied to the linear velocity field obtained from the distribution of IRAS PSC$`z`$ galaxies. The full velocity field and its divergent part are obtained, via linear theory, from the distribution of PSC$`z`$ galaxies within 200 $`h^1`$Mpc and 60 $`h^1`$Mpc, respectively (upper plots of Fig. 3). The PSC$`z`$ tidal velocity field, obtained from the galaxy distribution between 60 and 200 $`h^1`$Mpc is shown in the two bottom panels with its dipole component (bottom-left) and without it (bottom-right). As in Fig. 2, the long arrows shown in Fig. 3 indicate the directions of dipole (bottom-left) and shear eigenvectors (bottom-right) of the PSC$`z`$ tidal velocity field.

The preliminary results of our quantitative analysis indicate that the dipole and quadrupole moments of the Mark III and PSC$`z`$ tidal velocity fields agree within the errors (Hoffman et al. in prep.). This match strongly suggests that the distribution of the mass beyond 60 $`h^1`$Mpc is consistent with that traced by IRAS galaxies, at least in term of dipole and quadrupole moments.

## 4 The Mean Biasing Function of IRAS galaxies

Finally, we have used the method of Sigad, Branchini & Dekel (2000) to determine the mean biasing function of IRAS galaxies from their observed one point probability distribution function \[PDF\]. The method assumes that the bias is deterministic and monotonic and that the the mass PDF is lognormal on the scales of interest. To apply this technique we have extracted a volume limited subsample from the PSC$`z`$ galaxy survey and applied a spherical Top Hat filter of radius 8 $`h^1`$Mpc to estimate the PDF of galaxies. Then the mean biasing function has been determined by mapping the galaxy PDF into that of the mass, modeled by a lognormal distribution. Extensive numerical tests have shown that the method is very effective to measure deviations from linear biasing. However, the slope of the mean biasing function is sensitive to the rms density fluctuations, $`\sigma _8`$, which fully characterizes a lognormal distribution and needs to be assumed a priori.

The preliminary results are shown in Fig. 4. The large dots show the PSC$`z`$ mean biasing function obtained assuming $`\sigma _8=1.025`$. The function is clearly consistent with a linear biasing scheme. The two solid lines indicate the $`1\sigma `$ uncertainty interval around the mean biasing, associated to the stochasticity of the biasing relation. as predicted by the Semianalytic Model \[SAM\] of Somerville et al. (2000). The dashed region is plotted for reference and shows the biasing function of IRAS galaxies determined by Feldman et al. (2001) that, however, refers to scales much larger than those of our analyses.

## 5 Conclusions

The preliminary results presented here corroborate the common assumption that IRAS galaxies are faithful tracers of the mass distribution. In the first analysis we have applied the new UMV estimator to show that the distribution of IRAS galaxies matches that of the mass within 60 $`h^1`$Mpc. This confirms the results of similar comparisons previously performed using a number of different techniques and datasets. In the second analysis we take advantage of the nonlocal properties of the galaxy peculiar velocities to infer the mass distribution beyond 60 $`h^1`$Mpc and found that is consistent with that of IRAS PSC$`z`$ galaxies. Finally, we use the inverse-mapping method of Sigad, Branchini & Dekel (2000) to quantify the biasing relation between galaxies and mass. Combined with the result of the likelihood analysis of Tegmark et al. (2000), our results show that on a scale of 8 $`h^1`$Mpc IRAS PSC$`z`$ galaxies obey a mean linear biasing relation with a biasing parameter $`b`$ consistent with unity.

Acknowledgements.  EB is grateful to Y. Hoffman and S. Zaroubi for kindly providing unpublished results and figures.


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# Visualising Interacting Binaries in 3D

## Acknowledgments.

I would like to acknowledge financial support from the Leverhulme Trust, and to thank Dan Rolfe for many discussions on how to represent interacting binaries and the users of BinSim who have provided valuable testing and feedback. BinSim would not have been possible without the efforts of Brian Paul and others responsible for the Mesa 3-D graphics library222http://www.mesa3d.org/.