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# Microscopic spin interactions in the CMR manganites

## Abstract

Using inelastic neutron scattering we measured the microscopic magnetic coupling associated with the ferromagnetic (FM) clusters of the “colossal magnetoresistance” (CMR) compound Pr0.70Ca0.30MnO3. When the insulating to metal (I-M) transition is induced by an external magnetic field there is a discontinuous change in the spin-wave stiffness constant. This result indicates that the probed regions undergo a first-order transition from an insulating to a metallic state, and that there are no FM metallic domains in the insulating region. We argue that the I-M transition in the CMR manganites is more complex than the simple percolation of large FM metallic clusters.

The understanding of the colossal magnetoresistance (CMR) effect – the unusually large change in electrical resistance in response to a magnetic field – in certain materials is among the most interesting unresolved problems in condensed matter physics. The most studied of these materials are the doped perovskite manganites $`A_{1x}B_x`$MnO3 \[where $`A`$ is a trivalent ion (La3+, Pr3+, Nd3+, etc) and $`B`$ is a divalent ion ( Ca2+ or Sr2+)\] with $`x0.3`$. The basic microscopic mechanism responsible for the CMR effect is believed to be the double-exchange (DE) interaction , where ferromagnetism and electrical conductivity arise from hopping of the itinerant $`e_g`$ electrons from trivalent Mn3+ to tetravalent Mn4+ sites. The physics of the CMR effect, however, is far from being completely understood. For example, recent calculations suggest that these materials are intrinsically inhomogeneous, and have a strong tendency to spatial electronic phase separation . Experimentally, the existence of mesoscopic phase separation, in which the I-M transition is achieved via the percolation of large metallic clusters, has been suggested by electron microscopy and tunneling experiments . If this mesoscopic phase separation scenario is central to the CMR physics, it should be universal and occur in all CMR manganites. In this Letter, we show that the I-M transition in Pr0.70Ca0.30MnO3 (PCMO30) is far more complex than the simple percolation of large metallic clusters. Instead, the I-M transition in this system is associated with insulating ferromagnetic (FM) regions that become metallic in a first-order process. This result challenges our present understanding of the CMR effect and suggests that, if percolation plays an important role in the CMR process, it must be the percolation of insulating clusters in conjunction with an underlying first-order phase transition.

PCMO30 is an ideal system to test the mesoscopic phase separation scenario, because it has an inhomogeneous low-temperature insulating state where ferromagnetism, antiferromagnetism, and charge ordering coexist. This insulating state is metastable and can be converted to a metallic state by the application of an external magnetic or electric field, high pressure, and by exposure to x-rays or visible light. In the mesoscopic electronic phase separation picture , the electrical conductivity in the CMR materials is achieved via the percolative transport of carriers through micrometer-sized FM metallic domains in an insulating antiferromagnetic (AF) background. In this scenario, the effect of an external magnetic field in a system like PCMO30 would be only to enlarge the FM metallic clusters, at the expense of the AF insulating regions, without modifying the magnetic coupling of the spins. We use inelastic neutron scattering to probe the microscopic magnetic coupling associated with the FM clusters in PCMO30. We achieve this by measuring the FM spin-wave (SW) stiffness constant “$`D`$”(which measures the strength of the magnetic coupling of the spins ) as PCMO30 undergoes the I-M transition induced by a magnetic field. The use of thermal neutrons, which probe length scales of the order of 100-300Å, ensures that our measurements are insensitive to FM cluster-size changes at micron scales. For a conventional ferromagnet the effect of an external magnetic field of a few Tesla is limited to induce a small Zeeman gap in the SW dispersion relation, with no change in $`D`$ . Surprisingly, we discovered that when the I-M transition in PCMO30 is induced by a 3.5 T field at low temperature there is also a three fold discontinuous change in the magnitude of $`D`$. This unexpected result indicates that the I-M transition involves a first-order transformation from insulating to metallic clusters, and not just the simple percolation of metallic clusters. Thus, any realistic percolation model of the I-M transition must account for the microscopic interactions of the spins and the first-order nature of the I-M transition.

For this study, we prepared a single crystal of PCMO30 by the floating-zone method . Transport and electron-probe microanalysis on different parts of the crystal indicated that the Ca doping was homogeneous. The crystal has a mosaic spread of about 1 degree and a volume of 0.4 cm3. The neutron scattering measurements were performed at Oak Ridge National Laboratory’s High Flux Isotope Reactor. Most of the measurements were performed using triple-axis spectrometers configured to provide an energy resolution at the elastic ($`E=0`$) position of $`\mathrm{\Delta }E=0.55meV`$ (full-width at half maximum (FWHM)). Neutron diffraction measurements were also carried out at the Wide Angle Neutron Diffractometer (WAND).

PCMO30 has an orthorhombic structure slightly distorted from the cubic lattice. For simplicity, we label the wave vectors $`Q=(q_x,q_y,q_z)`$ in units of Å-1 as $`(H,K,L)=(q_xa/2\pi ,q_ya/2\pi ,q_za/2\pi )`$ in the reciprocal lattice units (rlu) appropriate for the pseudo cubic unit cells with lattice parameter $`a3.87`$ Å. In this convention all $`(H,K,L)`$ ($`H,K,L`$ integers) reflections are allowed. The crystal was oriented to allow wave vectors of the form $`(H,K,0)`$ to be accessible in the scattering plane. PCMO30 has a complex sequence of transitions. Below $`T_{CO}`$ 200K it exhibits charge ordering while remaining paramagnetic, below $`T_N`$140K the magnetic moments associated with the Mn3+ and Mn4+ ions order antiferromagnetically in the so-called pseudo CE-type structure, and only below $`T_C`$ 110K the system develops a FM component that coexists with the CE-type antiferromagnetism. At zero magnetic field PCMO30 remains an insulator at all temperatures. The charge-ordered and antiferromagnetic phases are both characterized by satellite reflections $`(1/4,1/4,0)`$ and $`(1/2,0,0)`$ (and equivalent reflections).

We collected data under two different conditions, first by applying a magnetic field after the sample was cooled in zero field (zero field cooling or ZFC), and by cooling the sample under an applied field (field cooling of FC). The magnetic field was applied perpendicular to the scattering plane by an Oxford cryomagnet (0T$`H`$ 7.0 T). The ZFC with H=0 measurements revealed the clear presence of diffuse scattering around the main Bragg peaks above $`T_C`$, (see Fig. 1) . This diffusive component is strongest at the smaller wavevectors and becomes gradually weaker as the wavevector increases, as expected for the magnetic form factor of the Mn ions, indicating that this scattering is magnetic. When the sample is cooled below $`T_C`$ a long-range FM component  develops (additional Bragg intensity at the $`(H,K,L)`$ positions), at the same time that the diffuse scattering becomes weaker. This diffusive component, however, does not vanish even at the lowest temperatures indicating the inhomogeneous character of this system at zero field. In addition to the diffuse scattering there are additional superlattice reflections indicating the antiferromagnetism associated with the charge ordering of the pseudo CE-type. This ordering has characteristic wavevectors $`(\pm 1/4,\pm 1/4,0)`$ (see Fig. 1). From the sharpness of the charge ordering peaks, it is clear that the charge ordering in PCMO30 is long-range  in contrast to the short-range charge ordering in La1-xCaxMnO3 family of materials .

Figure 2 shows the ZFC elastic scattering profiles of the (1 0 0) Bragg peak at T=40K measured with a triple-axis spectrometer, for H=0, 2.5 and 3.5T. The long-range Bragg component of the scattering has been fitted to a Gaussian while the magnetic diffusive component has been fitted to a Lorentzian lineshape. The magnetic diffuse scattering indicates the presence of short-range FM clusters with a correlation length $`\xi `$ 40 Å. These clusters are static within a $`\mathrm{\Delta }t`$ 1ps and coexist with long-range FM clusters . The effect of the magnetic field is to gradually reduce the number of the short-range FM clusters without significantly changing their correlation length, at the same time that the ferromagnetic moment is increased. This is reflected by the intensity reduction of the Lorentzian component without significant change in its linewidth, while the intensity of the Bragg component increases (Fig. 2). When the system is FC at 6.8T, there is no trace of the Lorentzian component. The (ZFC) magnetic field dependence of the intensities of these two components has been plotted in figure 3a. The region where there is a jump in the intensity of the FM component (around 3.5T) corresponds to the I-M transition, which is also the region where the CE-type antiferromagnetism is greatly (but not completely) suppressed. Thus, in the absence of a field there is a coexistence of a)long-range FM , b) short-range FM clusters ($`\xi `$ 40 Å), and c) long-range CE-type AF regions. The effect of the magnetic field is to gradually incorporate the short-range FM clusters into the long-range FM regions and, at the same time, to gradually suppress the CE-Type AF clusters.

We also measured the spin waves in PCMO30 both in the FC and ZFC conditions. First we measured the spin waves at 40K after the sample was cooled in a 6.8T field. Then the field was gradually decreased to 5T, 2T and 0.5T and the low-q ($`q`$ 0.07 rlu) spin waves were measured for every field. The measurements were made in the constant-$`Q=(1+q,0,0)`$ mode. The SW energies followed the usual quadratic dependence expected for a ferromagnet in the long-wavelength (small q) limit: $`E(q)=\mathrm{\Delta }+Dq^2`$, where $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ is the Zeeman energy gap and $`D`$ is the SW stiffness coefficient. This is shown in figure 4a, where the measured FC low-$`q`$ SW energies have been plotted vs. $`q^2`$ for various magnetic fields, the straight lines are the result of fits to the quadratic dispersion relation. The upper inset of figure 4a shows a plot of the fitted SW stiffness coefficient $`D`$ vs. H. Within the experimental error the SW stiffness does not change with the field (after FC at 6.8T), and has a value of $`D=(140\pm 5)`$meV-Å2 at T=40K. Thus, the only effect of the field in the FC case is to open a Zeeman energy gap that grows linearly with the applied field as $`\mathrm{\Delta }=g\mu H`$ (see lower inset of fig. 4a). We note that the magnetic moment obtained from this plot is only $`\mu =(2.57\pm 0.43)\mu _B`$, which is smaller than the expected full Mn moment of 3.7$`\mu _B`$ for the $`x=0.30`$ doped Mn3+/Mn4+ system. The low-q SW excitations at T=40K in the ZFC condition were different. Unlike the FC case, the ZFC measurements had to be performed in the constant-E mode due to the high background produced by the strong FM diffusive component mentioned above, which is strongest in the vicinity of $`Q=(1,0,0)`$. In all cases the SW energies also followed the expected quadratic dependence, the results from these measurements have been plotted in fig. 4b. The surprising result is that the ZFC SW stiffness coefficient for fields up to $``$ 3T is only $`D`$50meV-Å2, almost a factor of three smaller than for the FC case. The full stiffness $`D`$ = (140$`\pm `$5)meV-Å2 is only recovered when the I-M transition is induced at $`H`$ 3.5T (see Fig. 3b), at the same time when the $`\xi `$ 40Å clusters are suppressed.

The sharp three-fold change in $`D`$ suggests either a drastic change in the magnitude of the spins or a drastic change in the strength of the spin interactions at the PCMO30 field-induced I-M transition. The first possibility can be ruled out from Fig. 3a as the magnitude of the small change in the FM component cannot account for the magnitude of the observed change in $`D`$. Our findings thus favor the drastic change in the strength of the microscopic spin interactions at the I-M transition. We note that the high SW-stiffness $`D=(140\pm 5)`$mev-Å2 is comparable to other FM metallic manganites near the $`x=0.30`$ doping , where double exchange seems to be the dominant magnetic interaction. The low SW-stiffness $`D`$50meV-Å2 is similar to that of the recently measured FM insulator $`La_{0.80}Ca_{0.20}`$MnO3, a system likely to be dominated by some form of superexchange, and seems to be characteristic of the FM insulating manganites.

The results of our microscopic measurements on PCMO30 support a picture in which the insulating phase contains large (long-range) and small ($`\xi `$ 40Å ) FM “insulating” (low SW-stiffness) clusters, with no evidence of any large FM metallic (high SW-stiffness) regions. The application of an external magnetic field reduces the number of the small clusters until the system becomes metallic in a first-order transition. This is consistent with two recent reports of thermodynamic measurements in PCMO30. Roy et al  reported an enormous release of energy and a strong irreversibility at the I-M transition of this system. Deac et al suggested the existence of field-induced insulating clusters in this material at low magnetic fields. Our results are inconsistent with the mesoscopic phase separation picture , in which the I-M transition in the CMR materials is associated with the percolation of FM metallic domains, and show that the physics involved in this transition is far more complex. One possible scenario of the I-M transition in the CMR materials could involve the percolation of insulating clusters in conjuction with an underlying first-order transition. It is known that random quenched disorder may or may not produce rounding of a first-order phase transition. This was first studied by Imry and Wortis , and more recently by Moreo et al.. This is a challenge to the current theoretical approaches of CMR.

Finally, we note that the nano-size FM clusters of Figure 2 are comparable in size to those observed in other CMR materials above and at their FM transition temperatures. The field dependence of the nano-size FM clusters of figure 3a seems to imply that these nano-size clusters do play some role in the I-M transition.

This work was supported by U.S. DOE under contract DE-AC05-00OR22725 with UT-Battelle, LLC and by JRCAT of Japan.


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# Metal-Poor Globular Clusters of the Milky Way and Environs

## 1. Introduction

The most metal-deficient stars of the local universe provide an unparallelled opportunity to study material representative of a much earlier epoch, perhaps predating the formation of the prominent components of the highest redshift galaxies being discovered today. While the massive globular star clusters (GCs) offer distinct, well-known advantages in such research, individual stellar chemistry is a powerful tool in the quest to understand early Galactic history. Unusually comprehensive recent review volumes are those of Martínez Roger, Pérez Fournón & Sánchez (1999), Carney (2001) and Harris (2001).

As is well known, the metallicity distribution of the 137 Milky Way GCs with \[Fe/H\] determinations is well described by two Gaussian curves centered on \[Fe/H\]$`=`$$`1.6`$ and $`0.6`$ (Harris 2001) on the popular Zinn & West (1984) metallicity scale. Of particular interest in this context is that the most metal-deficient clusters have \[Fe/H\]$``$$`2.3,`$ whereas the most metal-deficient halo stars extend to metallicity values more than an order of magnitude lower (c.f., Carney et al. 1996). While not entirely a proper comparison, the most metal-poor GCs and halo stars exhibit compositions well below those of damped Lyman-$`\alpha `$ forest systems at $`z>3`$ (c.f., Prochaska & Wolfe 2000), yet ironically many of the extremely metal-dificient Galactic objects likely to have formed at high redshift can be seen with binoculars.

Other properties of the GC system offer important clues to its origin. At Galactocentric radii (Rgc) beyond 10 kpc, the average Mv of those clusters with blue HB morphology is $`7.3`$, while clusters exhibiting red horizontal-branch (HB) morphology have a corresponding value of $`4.8`$ (van den Bergh 1996). Half-light radii for Galactic GCs show a dependence on Galactocentric radii, with the farthest ones generally being larger in diameter. While exhibiting similar trends, the clusters of the Fornax dSph or the LMC have a different distribution (van den Bergh 2000a). van den Bergh (2000a,b) interprets the present data as evidence that the Galaxy, Fornax and the LMC were distinct systems when they started to form their GCs: it appears that somehow the GCs “knew” they were going to end up in their respective parent galaxy.

By correlating the spatial distributions and kinematics of Galactic halo tracers, Hartwick (2000) argues that the spatial distribution of Milky Way companion galaxies define a real triaxial structure reflecting the initial conditions of the Galaxy’s formation epoch. The outer halo GCs form a nearly oblate, flattened system whose minor axis is highly inclined to the present rotation axis, and thus do not seem part of the same triaxial system.

## 2. Length of Initial Burst

How long did the initial burst of cluster formation last for the Milky Way? The answer, from relative ages of the most metal-deficient halo stars, can help distinguish among conceivable formation scenarios (e.g., fast collapse, leisurely buildup through mergers, etc.). While relative measurements are usually more reliable to make and more straightforward to interpret, controversy about relative cluster ages persists.

Morphological properties of HBs have been extensively explored for their potential as a powerful tool for sensitive age discrimination among clusters. From plots of metallicity against the ratio of the difference in the number of blue and red HB stars to the total HB population, compared with isochrones from synthetic HB models for GCs, Y.-W. Lee, Demarque, & Zinn (1994, et seq.; hereafter LDZ) found evidence for an age range of about 4 Gyrs, or some 25–35$`\%`$ of the age of a 12–15 Gyr old Galaxy. The age range so inferred is present at all metallicities, and an age-$`R_{\mathrm{gc}}`$ relation was suggested. The concepts which emerged from this important work have exerted wide influence in thinking about how long it took to form or assemble the Galactic halo. Many accept that evidence from GCs strongly favors a relatively drawn out formation, which fits nicely with growing support for the importance of hierarchical mergers during the formation of large galaxies. However, this compelling interpretation of HB morphologies has been the subject of debate over the past seven or so years. In part this arises because stellar evolutionary models indicate that HB morphology is sensitive to differences in parameters that are well below present observational uncertainties. Specific counterexamples to the LDZ analysis noted by, e.g., Stetson, VandenBerg, & Bolte (1997), are disconcerting. What seems to be the current situation?

Harris et al. (1997) compared comparably deep (V,V$``$I) color-magnitude diagrams (CMDs) for the massive GCs M92 and NGC$`\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2419}`$, which are among the most metal-deficient GCs in the Galaxy. They were unable to detect any age difference in excess of 1 Gyr. Importantly, M92 resides in the inner part of the Galactic halo, while NGC$`\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2419}`$’s Rgc$``$$`90`$ kpc places it in the outermost halo (roughly twice as far as the LMC). Moreover, its large core and tidal radii are a strong indication that it has existed in the outer halo throughout its life, for otherwise dynamical forces would have modified its appearance. (Note that Shetrone, Côté, & Sargent 2001 have recently determined, for the first time, a metallicity for NGC$`\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2419}`$ from high-dispersion spectra of giants which confirms the validity of pairing it with M92). This single comparison among archtypical metal-deficient clusters from different regions of the halo already provides stringent constraints on the duration of the formation of the most massive clusters early in Galactic (pre)history. Grundahl’s (2001) comparisons of deep CMDs for M92, NGC$`\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}5053}`$ and NGC$`\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}5466}`$ in the Strömgren photometric system similarly found no evidence of age differences in excess of $``$1 Gyr.

An extensive study by Rosenberg et al. (1999) applied both techniques of relative age determinations, the color-difference (between the lower giant branch and the turnoff) and luminosity-difference (between the turnoff and the HB), to a homogeneous data set for 35 GCs. They found all the clusters with \[Fe/H\]$`<1.2`$ to be old and coeval. Some clusters in the range $`1.2`$ \[Fe/H\] $`0.9`$ appear to be up to 25% younger than the otherwise co-eval oldest clusters, while the most metal-rich clusters studied appear to be co-eval. They infer that the GC formation process started at the same time throughout the halo to a distance of $``$$`20`$ kpc from the Galactic center, with the small population of significantly younger halo clusters found at Rgc$`>`$$`8`$ kpc likely the result of later mergers. They further note that their evidence for the co-eval metal-rich clusters being $``$17% younger than other GCs (that is, for a mild age-metallicity relation) is particularly model dependent. J.-W. Lee et al. (2001) have extended the Rosenberg et al. analysis with three extremely metal-poor clusters located in the innermost Galactic halo, further strengthening the evidence against an age range or of a trend in ages with Rgc among the most metal-deficient GCs in the Galaxy.

On the question of the existence of an age-metallicity relation, VandenBerg (2000) analyzed in a systematic manner high-quality CMD data from the literature for 26 GCs. He infers that unless \[O/Fe\] or \[$`\alpha `$/Fe\] are up significantly at the lowest metallicities, then a mild age-metallicity relation results. At any given metallicity, however, he found the data do not permit an age range $``$ 10-15%.

The famous “second-parameter” GCs at intermediate metallicities and large Rgc figure prominently in efforts to understand Galactic halo formation. Their great distances, and low masses (hence sparse CMDs) have challenged observations from the ground. Stetson et al. (1999) reported relative age comparisons from HST data by both CMD techniques of three such clusters, Pal 3,4 and Eridanus, with the inner halo clusters M3 and M5, of similar metallicities. They found no evidence for an age spread among the three outer-halo clusters. At face value, their data suggest that those clusters could be younger by $``$$`1.5`$ Gyr than their comparison clusters; a caveat in their result is that errors of 0.2 dex (which cannot be ruled out with present data) in \[Fe/H\] or \[$`\alpha `$/H\] could reduce or eliminate the inferred small age difference between the two groups. Finally, two independent studies that compared CMDs for seven old, metal-poor GCs in the Large Magellanic Cloud with those of comparable clusters in the Galaxy failed to detect any age differences between them in excess of $``$1 Gyr or so (Olsen et al. 1998, Johnson et al. 1999); constraints on the age range from such studies are also potentially limited by the quality of available spectroscopic abundance determinations for the LMC clusters.

In summary, there is evidence that a fraction of the intermediate-metallicity GCs in the Galactic halo may be younger than the bulk of the system. However, in recent years evidence from careful differential CMD comparisons suggests any age dispersion among the bulk of the Galactic GCs (or those in our distant halo) remains below the observational detection limit at a given metallicity, while the evidence for a mild age-metallicity relation remains a more debated question. It thus appears that the bulk of the Galactic GC system, and especially the most metal-poor ones, formed quickly during the earliest phases of Galactic history.

## 3. When Did Formation Begin?

We now turn to the more difficult question of absolute ages or, at what redshift did metal-poor star formation begin in the Galaxy? Recent work by Bergbusch & VandenBerg (2001) interpreting the CMD of M92 with their new isochrones favors an age of $``$15–16 Gyr. This would be reduced by $``$$`10`$% if He or heavy-element diffusion were incorporated into their models. Selection of the appropriate mixing-length for the comparison continues to require judgement. Three field halo subgiants they concurrently studied appeared also to have ages $``$$`15`$ Gyr.

Grundahl et al. (2000) found an M92 age of $``$15 Gyr using Strömgren color-color (c, c$``$y) diagrams, which have the powerful advantage of being distance independent. However, their interpretation requires accurate knowledge of the Teff scale, which they (and Bergbusch & VandenBerg 2001) argue is well-established. They also compared M92 Strömgren color-color data with those of the field subdwarfs having \[Fe/H\]$`<`$$`2`$ and concluded that the subdwarfs are the same age, $``$$`16`$ Gyr, as M92 before taking diffusion into account.

Carretta et al. (2000) studied nine clusters along with a large sample of subdwarfs with good parallax measurements, and concluded, after deciding that distances from the subdwarf fitting method are $``$$`1\sigma `$ too long, that the mean age of their sample was 12.9$`\pm `$2.9 Gyrs (95% confidence range). Further analysis in terms of cosmological models led them to conclude that the initial epoch of GC formation occurred around z$``$3.

Until now, the quality–both internal and external–of photometry has been a limiting factor in the quest for reliable absolute ages for GCs. Fig. 1 is a remarkable example of work Peter Stetson has been doing in the past year or so combining data from many observers and telescopes. This particular CMD is based upon 197(!) CCD images from four telescopes obtained during 15 nights and eight observing runs. The data all came from the original observers. Enabling such research constitutes a powerful argument for cataloguing and archiving data from ground-based telescopes, as most images taken since the introduction of CCDs are tragically languishing on deteriorating tapes in observers’ offices worldwide. With photometric zero points now known to better than 1% on the new standard system (Stetson 2000), and with internal photometric scatter reduced to insignificance by combining many data, photometric quality will no longer limit the ability to determine accurate absolute and relative ages.

## 4. What Limits Our Present Understanding?

As photometric precision ceases to be a determining factor in the accuracy of age determinations, what factors remain important? Accurate knowledge of interstellar reddening for individual clusters and stars therein remains crucial, and nontrivial. Similarly, reducing uncertainties in distances from parallaxes remains a major challenge. Uncertainties in chemical composition determinations are a fundamental yet extremely challenging subject ripe for renewed efforts, as we now discuss. For instance, there are still controversies about the basic scale of GC abundances (Zinn & West 1984, Carretta & Gratton 1997; Rutledge, Hesser, & Steton 1997). That highly experienced teams often find differences in overall abundances well beyond observational errors indicate that systematic errors still limit accuracy in high spectral resolution studies. Finally, abundances for the most distant objects often are inferred from broad-band photometry, or low-resolution spectra of $`\alpha `$-elements, like Ca, in the most luminous giants, rather than from high-dispersion spectra of less evolved stars.

### 4.1. Abundances from giants and dwarfs

A question of considerable interest is whether inferences from more luminous cluster stars apply to the main-sequence and turnoff stars weighted so heavily in age determinations. Until the advent of 8–10-m telescopes HB and red giant branch (RGB) stars have been the only ones for which abundances based upon higher spectral resolution were possible.

HB stars anchor distance moduli, underpin the LDZ interpretation of halo formation, and play many other important roles in our understanding of the galactic halo. an interesting example of modern abundance work is Behr, Cohen, & McCarthy’s (2000) study of the abundances of HB stars in M15, with comparisons to M13 (Behr et al. 1999) and NGC 6752 (Moehler et al. 1999). Among the slowly rotating hot stars two were found that exhibit the same extreme metal-deficiency that characterizes other M15 stars, but the other six stars studied show solar(!) \[Fe/H\] values due to the radiative levitation of metals predicted by Michaud, Vauclair, & Vauclair (1983). Many other interesting trends in detailed element abundances emerging from their study remind us how sensitively the HB reflects many parameters of stellar astrophysics.

The recognition of the phenomenon of abundance spreads among giant stars within an individual GC, but not among open cluster or field stars (e.g., Hesser, Hartwick, & McClure 1976), sparked studies aimed at clarifying the percentage of the dispersion attributable to internal mixing during evolution up the giant branch, differences in initial abundances during the main-sequence phase, accretion, etc. Ivans et al. (1999) reported the range of individual chemical elements in the \[Fe/H\]$`=`$$`1.18`$$`\pm `$$`0.02`$ cluster M4 determined from R=30,000 or 60,000 spectral data with S/N$`>`$100 for 36 giants. Most of the scatter seen for elements heavier than Al is observational, but they found evidence for a wide range of \[O/Fe\], \[Na/Fe\] and \[Al/Fe\] within this cluster. Since both \[Fe/H\] and \[$`\alpha `$/Fe\] play important roles in the age dating process, we need to understand how to characterize them for a given cluster when selecting appropriate isochrones.

Work with Keck and the VLT at higher resolution for fainter apparent magnitudes than heretofore possible using 4-m class telescopes (e.g., Cannon, et al. 1998) allowed Gratton et al. (2001) to compare abundances derived from RGB and turnoff (TO) stars. Encouragingly, they found the same $`<`$\[Fe/H\]$`>`$ values from stars in these different evolutionary states in the clusters NGC 6752 and 6397. They also infer an O-Na anticorrelation among the main sequence stars, as previously seen among the giants in these clusters.

### 4.2. \[O/Fe\], \[Si/Fe\] in Cluster and Field Stars

As the third most abundant element, oxygen plays an important opacity role in stellar atmospheres. Uncertainty in the \[O/Fe\] ratio is a factor in determining the absolute ages of GCs via theoretical isochrone fits. VandenBerg (1992) determined that a 0.25 dex change in \[O/Fe\] will change the resulting cluster age by 1 Gyr. While modern abundance analyses can obtain internal relative abundance uncertainties of less than 0.25 dex, the systematic offsets between the different measurement methods of determining oxygen abundances can be much larger.

Figure 2 plots \[O/Fe\] abundances determined by three methods: the near-UV OH lines, the forbidden resonant \[O I\] lines in the optical, and the far red O I permitted triplet. Each method has strengths and drawbacks, as described in King (2000). As can be seen in Figure 2 the oxygen abundance ratio measures determined from the \[O I\] lines are significantly lower than the determinations derived from the OH and permitted lines. For the most metal-poor GCs, the difference is about 0.5 dex, which translates into a $``$2 Gyr systematic uncertainty in the ages of these GCs. The GC oxygen abundances are determined from the forbidden line, which is relatively stronger in cool giants. The permitted and OH lines are stronger in hotter stars, and the sample of very metal-poor stars with both forbidden- and permitted-line oxygen abundance analyses is small.

Fulbright & Kraft (1999), for example, found that the \[O/Fe\] ratio derived from \[O I\] line in two very metal-poor subgiants does not match the \[O/Fe\] ratio derived from the OH or permitted lines in the same stars. Recent attempts to resolve this discrepancy (King 2000, Israelian et al. 2001) have involved a careful examination of the atmospheric parameters used in the abundance analysis and the inclusion of non-LTE corrections. Asplund & García Pérez (2001) suggests that full 3-D atmospheres may be necessary to model the oxygen lines correctly.

### 4.3. \[Si/Fe\] between GCs

Silicon is the lightest $`\alpha `$-element that does not show large star-to-star abundance variations within individual metal-poor GCs. However there does seem to be a cluster-to-cluster scatter in \[Si/Fe\]. As first pointed out by Kraft (2000), studies of M4 (Ivans et al. 1999; 36 stars) and M5 (Sneden et al. 1992; 12 stars) found both to have similar values of \[Fe/H\] ($`1.18`$ and $`1.17`$, respectively), but M4 is twice as Si-rich as M5 (\[Si/Fe\] ratios of +0.55 and +0.20, respectively). Both studies were conducted by the same group using similar techniques, and the star-to-star scatter within the individual clusters is smaller than the cluster-to-cluster difference.

This is evidence that there was a significant chemical inhomogeneity between the material that formed these clusters. Since the clusters are massive and on the metal-rich end of the halo metallicity distribution, it is unlikely that a random enrichment event would have had a sizable affect on the cluster’s abundances. The lack of \[Si/Fe\] variations within a cluster suggest that the cluster-forming material was well-mixed prior to formation, so whatever led to the cluster-to-cluster variations in \[Si/Fe\] most likely took place before the clusters formed.

In Figure 3 we plot the distribution of \[Si/Fe\] vs \[Fe/H\] for several globular clusters (mean values) and field stars. Aside from Ru 106 and Pal 12, there is general agreement in the range of \[Si/Fe\] values seen in three samples. Two separate, parallel, tracks seem to be defined by M4 and the more metal-rich GCs and another by M5 and the metal-poor GCs. Whether this structure is truly there or is just a sampling effect is hard to determine from the data in hand. Nissen & Schuster (1997) found that for field stars with \[Fe/H\]$``$$`1`$, there are halo stars that show lower \[$`\alpha `$/Fe\] enhancements than disk and other halo stars at a similar metallicity. Fulbright (2001) shows evidence that for field halo stars with $`1`$$`>`$\[Fe/H\]$`>`$$`2`$, the stars having higher kinetic energy (e.g., on more extreme orbits) on average, show lower values of \[X/Fe\] for several elements, including \[Si/Fe\].

Dinescu et al. (1999) computed orbital parameters for 38 GCs and found M4’s apogalactic radius to be $``$6 kpc, while M5’s is $``$40 kpc. Thus connection between kinematics and observed abundances for halo objects extends to M4 and M5, as well. The origin of such a relationship, however, is unclear. The age information we have suggests that all the metal-poor GCs formed at about the same time, so both of these processes must have occurred simultaneously, although one or both of the clusters could have formed in a separate fragment that was accreted later.

### 4.4. Th and U: Independent paths to ages

An exciting new development in the study of GCs is the possibility that the long-lived radioisotopes of the r-process elements Th (14 Gyr half-life) and U (4.5 Gyr half-life) can be used to obtain ages for individual stars. Cowan et al. (1999) obtained a mean age of $`15.6\pm 4.6`$ Gyr for two field stars based on Th line strengths. Sneden et al. (2000) obtained a Th-based age for M15 of $`14\pm 3`$ Gyr. Johnson & Bolte (2001) also measured Th-based ages for several field stars plus the M92 giant VII-18. For VII-18, Johnson & Bolte obtain an age of $`8.8`$$`\pm `$$`5.6`$ Gyr.

A major source of the large uncertainties is calculating the initial Th abundance for the stars. In these studies the models for the initial r-process production were scaled to the observer ed stable rare earth elemental abundances (Eu, for example). The mass differences between the rare earths and Th leaves room for sizable error.

Cayrel et al. (2001) successfully observed the 3895 Å line of U II in the metal-poor field giant CS31082-001 and derived an age of $`12.5\pm 3`$ Gyr for it. This star is special in that while the Fe and other light element abundances are about 1/800 of solar, the r-process abundances are about 1/9 of solar. Having two radioactive species creates the advantageous situation where the observed U/Th ratio can be compared to a theoretical initial U/Th ratio without having to scale to other r-process elements. Due to their proximity in atomic mass, the theoretical initial U/Th ratio should be more precise than scaling either to the lighter r-process elements (Goriely & Clerbaux 1999).

Besides the dependence on quality theoretical r-process calculations, the radioactive age-dating technique could be improved by work in two areas. First, our knowledge of the oscillator strengths of Th II and U II need improvement. Cayrel et al. (2001) quote a 0.12 dex uncertainty in the U II log(gf) value they used. That systematic error can change the resulting age by 2.6 Gyr. It is hoped that the potential of this method to provide an independent age for the Galaxy will induce atomic physicists to improve the data.

Second is the need for near UV/blue-sensitive very high resolution spectrographs on 10-m or larger telescopes. While the present status of the field would not be possible without the excellent HIRES and UVES spectrographs, the near UV region of even these very metal-poor stars are still plagued with line blending at resolutions $``$50000–70000. The situation would be vastly improved at resolutions $`>`$150000 with similar S/N levels. The reduction of blending problems and the increased contrast against the continuum would help make measurements of the Th and U lines possible in GC stars, which have not been found to be as enhanced in the r-process elements as CS31081-001.

## 5. Concluding Remarks

True to Neruda’s poetry, the pale, metal-deficient objects throughout the Galaxy’s extended environs remain enigmatic, but they continue to yield important insights into how the Milky Way might have formed, and how that might in turn constrain understanding of galaxy formation in general. The salient points from our attempt to review the current status are:

1. The initial epoch of massive, metal-poor star cluster formation proceeded quickly ($`<`$1.5-2.0 Gyr); there are, however, younger clusters at intermediate-metallicities, which may have been accreted later. In particular, the most metal-deficient clusters (and field stars) show no discernible age dispersion throughout their 1-100 kpc extent in Rgc.

2. The most distant second-parameter GCs do not appear to be more than $``$$`1.5`$–2 Gyr younger than comparable metallicity, inner-halo clusters, but uncertain knowledge of their respective chemistry presents a caveat.

3. Absolute ages of the most metal-deficient clusters remain controversial with recent determinations falling in the range 12 to 16 Gyrs with uncertainties of $``$2–3 Gyrs; recent consistency checks using abundances of radioactive elements (Th, U) are promising.

4. Existence of a putative age-metallicity relation also remains controversial; it presently seems likely to be $`\stackrel{<}{}`$10%.

5. Photometric precision will soon not be a limiting observational factor on the accuracy of cluster ages; rather, uncertainties in reddenings, distances and chemical composition will dominate. The time is ripe for major efforts on abundance determinations with 8-m and larger telescopes, but the most interesting problems may require telescopes with 20-30-m aperture.

6. There is growing evidence that dispersion of light elements within individual GCs reflect the epoch of star formation, rather than of mixing during stellar evolution; such differences combine with uncertain \[O/Fe\] determinations to complicate accurate age determinations. It is encouraging that the average compositions determined from evolved and turnoff region stars seem to be the same within the limits of the data quality in the few clusters yet examined.

7. Cluster-to-cluster differences for ratios of light elements imply substantially different enrichment histories.

8. Field halo stars exhibit wide ranges of \[X/Fe\]; such differences provide detailed insight into early star formation.

9. Over $`5`$ orders of magnitude in total mass (from GCs to dSphs to the LMC), the most metal-poor Local Group constituents appear to have formed at the same epoch, yet to also have been aware of their ultimate association with a articular parent.

We are grateful to Frank Grundahl, Jennifer Johnson, J.-W. Lee and Peter Stetson for sharing material that we used when preparing this paper, and to Eva Grebel and Doug Geisler for organizing an outstanding conference in a beautiful location.

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## Discussion

D’Antona:  \[COMMENT MADE AFTER DEMARQUE’S REMARKS\]
Recently, Gratton et al. have found that the iron and oxygen abundances in NGC 6397 turnoff stars are equal to subgiant branch abundances, although models including diffusion predict differences, also by a factor of two, for this metal-poor cluster. Of course, this does not give information on helium diffusion, which affects the age determinations, but is an indicator that the models are not adequate for the diffusion of metals.


text:
# Beyond the Constituent Quark Model *footnote **footnote *Based on a plenary talk presented at Hadrons 2001, Aug 25 - Sept 1, Protvino, Russia.

## I Introduction

The constituent quark model has a long and distinguished history of service to hadronic physics. However, its utility is restricted to quark-number conserving hadronic processes – it has nothing to say about channel coupling, or about gluonic physics in general. And its connection to QCD is tenuous at best. Indeed, it is clear that present day experiment is outstripping theory and that new reliable and tractable continuum models of QCD are required to interpret and guide the new generation of hadronic experiments.

For example, it is very likely that resonant structure is seen in the exotic $`J^{PC}=1^+`$ channel at 1600 MeV; and something is seen at 1400 MeV at BNL, CERN, and VES. Proving that these states are mesonic hybrids will require a substantial improvement in our understanding of the dynamics of soft glue, both in terms of the structure of the putative resonance and in terms of its coupling to ‘canonical’ mesons. Similarly, it is tempting to interpret the extensive Crystal Barrel data on the $`f_0(1500)`$ as evidence for a scalar glueball. However, state mixing in the scalar sector is notorious for its strength and its obscurity. This mixing must be thoroughly mastered before we can claim the discovery of a glueball and this task will require a reliable model of soft glue. As a final example, consider the extraction of baryonic resonance parameters from Jefferson Lab, BNL, GRAAL, and Bonn. At modern energies, one must analyse data using coupled channel methods; thus $`\pi N`$, $`\pi \pi N`$, $`\pi \pi \pi N`$, $`\eta N`$, $`\rho N`$, etc channels become important and one must have a trustworthy method to parameterise the couplings between the different channels. It will also become increasingly important to have reliable estimates of background amplitudes. A moments’ reflection reveals that this is a difficult problem in strong QCD: quark exchange diagrams contribute, but may also be present at the effective meson-exchange level. More perplexing is the possibility of quark-antiquark annihilation to intermediate states with excited gluonic contentThere is compelling evidence for this in meson-meson and meson-baryon scattering data..

Although these examples were drawn from the mainstream of hadron spectroscopy, it should be stressed that these issues are rather far reaching. For example, extracting electroweak phases will require reliable knowledge of strong phases which are generated in the necessarily present hadronic final states. Analyzing forthcoming RHIC data for putative signals of the quark-gluon plasma will require a careful subtraction of hadronic scattering background which may mask the signal. Again, a thorough knowledge of hadronic dynamics is needed.

Of course, more fundamental reasons exist for building a new model of strong QCD. QCD is a remarkably rich theory, displaying such diverse phenomena as spontaneous chiral symmetry breaking, asymptotic freedom, colour confinement, possible new high temperature phases of matter, and important topological features. It would be remiss to abrogate the responsibility of learning as much as possible about these phenomena.

## II Issues Facing a Modern Constituent Quark Model

A short and incomplete list of the issues facing the construction of a ‘new’ quark model follow.

$``$the nature of confinement

For several decades, the quark model has employed a linear (or similar) static long range interquark potential. While this is in accord with lattice data, many open issues remain. For example, what is the colour space structure of the long range force? This is required even for heavy quarks. The standard choice is $`\lambda \lambda `$ and this has received strong support from the lattice. It is also possible to prove that this is the correct colour structure in the heavy quark limit. The extrapolation to light quark masses remains an open issue. Note that the colour structure is important when one considers hadronic interactions (ie., processes with more than three valence quarks).

The Lorentz structure of confinement is not determined by Wilson loop calculations and is important for those wishing to ‘relativise’ quark models. Indications from heavy quarkonium spin splittings and from direct lattice computations are that the structure is scalar$``$scalar. However, it should be remembered that this is the form of the effective interquark interaction once gluons are integrated out of the theory/model. Indeed, comparison with QCD in Coulomb gauge shows that the Lorentz structure of confinement is vector$``$vector in the heavy quark limit, and that the effective scalar interaction arises due to nonperturbative mixing with intermediate hybrids.

An important, and almost uniformly ignored, aspect of model building is deriving the long range confinement potential. While it is tempting to merely assume that confinement exists and to take its form from the lattice, this risks missing vital aspects of strong QCD because confinement is strongly tied to the vacuum structure of QCD, and therefore is related to the appearance of chiral symmetry breaking and constituent quarks (see ‘chiral pions’ below). All three of these phenomena are central features of low energy hadronic physics and must be modelled reasonably well before we can have full confidence in the new quark model. That this ambitious goal is possible has recently been demonstrated twice: with the Schwinger Dyson formalism in Landau gauge, and with Hamiltonian methods in Coulomb gauge. The result of the latter calculation is shown in Fig. 1.

$``$gluodynamics

Glue, and especially the dynamics of glue, is conspicuously absent from most present day models of strong QCD. It is clear that glue plays a vital role in many aspects of low energy hadronic physics. Indeed, about the only place where it is relatively safe to neglect QCD gluodynamics is when discussing the static properties of mesons and baryons. Thus, for example, a reliable model of gluodynamics is required to address simple questions such as the masses and static properties of glueballs and hybrids. Just as important is the way in which these states couple to ‘canonical’ matter. This must be known if we are to disentangle exotics from the canonical spectrum. Again the lattice will be of great assistance. Lattice computations of glueball masses serve as a litmus test for any putative models of gluodynamics. Furthermore, high precision computations of the adiabatic excited gluon energies provide our first glimpse into the dynamics of strongly interacting glue.

$``$unquenching the quark model

A closely related issue is going beyond the valence approximation in hadronic phenomenology. While it is clear that this is a pressing issue for the investigation of nonvalence physics, such as the strangeness content of the proton, or the perplexing robustness of the OZI rule in the face of hadronic loops, it is also relevant to spectroscopy. Typical hadronic widths of 150 MeV point to typical hadronic mass shifts of a similar scale. Furthermore, meson loops cause spin splittings which can confound simple attempts at deriving these. It is clear that a quark model which unifies quark-antiquark pair creation with valence physics is required.

Although there are a number of technical issues which need to be overcome to achieve this unification (such as efficiently solving coupled channel problems, determining the optimal number of channels to include in a given problem, and accounting for excluded channels), the main issue is the form of the quark creation operator. Certainly this operator is dominated by nonperturbative glue, but a detailed microscopic description is lacking. The most popular model to date is the $`{}_{}{}^{3}P_{0}^{}`$ model (first diagram in Fig. 2) which assumes an effective vertex which produces quark pairs with vacuum quantum numbers. This model produces a reasonably reliable phenomenology.

Other possible decay mechanisms exist and need to be explored. For example, the second diagram in Fig. 2 is the leading diagram in naive perturbation theory. However predictions of the D/S amplitude ratios (which are sensitive to the assumed Lorentz structure of the decay vertex) in $`b_1\omega \pi `$ and $`a_1\rho \pi `$ strongly prefer a $`{}_{}{}^{3}P_{0}^{}`$ pair creation over $`{}_{}{}^{3}S_{1}^{}`$.

Another possible decay mechanism is obtained by isolating the instantaneous portion of diagram 2 (diagram 3 of Fig. 2) – say by working in radiation gauge. However, a model examination of this process reveals that it is strongly suppressed with respect to the $`{}_{}{}^{3}P_{0}^{}`$ vertex.

A promising approach to hadronic properties is provided by the Schwinger-Dyson formalism. The leading decay mechanism in this approach is the triangle diagram (last diagram of Fig. 2). This method has the benefit of employing the same kernel to describe quark-quark interactions and quark-antiquark pair production. However, this may be too restrictive since vector pair creation appears to be disfavoured by the $`b_1`$ and $`a_1`$ amplitude ratios. Nevertheless it is possible that the situation may be saved by the relativistic character of the Schwinger-Dyson approach (certainly, this physics is not explored in the quark model calculations which favour the $`{}_{}{}^{3}P_{0}^{}`$ mechanism).

The final possibility considered here is the production of a $`q\overline{q}`$ pair directly from the confinement potential/flux tube (fourth diagram, Fig. 2). This diagram is a leading term in Coulomb gauge QCD. Although the phenomenology of decays in Coulomb gauge QCD has not been explored, it is promising because this diagram yields a vertex with $`{}_{}{}^{3}P_{0}^{}`$ quantum numbers, and would be our first microscopic justification of the $`{}_{}{}^{3}P_{0}^{}`$ model.

Given the importance of unquenching the quark model and the paucity of our knowledge of the nonperturbative nature of quark pair creation, a lattice exploration of the form of the decay vertex should be a high priority topic in the near future.

$``$chiral pions

Pions are an important part of any attempt to understand strong QCD. As the lightest hadrons they dominate nuclear physics; pion cloud effects are important, and pions are ubiquitous in final states of many hadronic experiments. Having a firm grip on their qualities is of central importance to constructing viable models of strong QCD.

It is often said that the constituent quark model view of pions as quark-antiquark bound states is in conflict with their quasiGoldstone boson nature. However, these two world-views need not be at odds. For example, the very existence of the constituent quark model is due to the existence of light pions: the dynamics which causes dynamical symmetry breaking (and Goldstone bosons) also creates quark-like quasiparticle excitations – the constituent quarks. A recent paper, show explicitly how the Goldstone, collective, nature of the pion can coexist with the $`q\overline{q}`$ bound state quark model pion; briefly, both descriptions are correct when the appropriate degrees of freedom are employed (partonic for the Goldstone modes; constituent for the quark model states). Thus it is likely that a good phenomenology may be obtained simply by ignoring the underlying chiral aspects of the pion. However, incorporating the physics of chiral symmetry breaking is important if one wishes to deal with aspects of the QCD vacuum or if the model is strongly constrained (so that pionic fluctuations into many-quark Fock components may not be absorbed into model parameters).

$``$relativity

This is a longstanding and well known problem with the constituent quark model which is a left-over from the early days of hadronic physics. There is really no reason to continue with nonrelativistic approaches (except that they are computationally simple and they work reasonably well!) – and several groups have mounted efforts to construct ‘relativised’ quark models. These typically fall into two categories, light cone/Bakamjian Thomas models or Schwinger Dyson/Bethe Salpeter models. The latter are closer to field theory (or are truncated field theory) and offer great hope.

It is possible to overstate the case for covariance. Any nonperturbative approach must break covariance at some level, for example, the lattice breaks Lorentz invariance by working on a grid and models typically must truncate at some level in Fock space. Both of these problems may be removed in principle – in practice they are not removed, but the effects may be checked and are seen to be small (at least in the case of lattice gauge theory). It is perhaps more useful to adopt a practical attitude, for example, it would be useful if the computation of the pion decay constant via the PCAC relation $`0|A_\mu ^a(0)|\pi ^b(p)=if^{ab}p_\mu `$ did not depend on the spacetime index.

$``$short distance dynamics

It is easy to believe that the form of the short distance quark interaction is resolved by QCD; short distance means high $`Q^2`$, that means small $`\alpha _s`$, and that means perturbative one gluon exchange. The phenomenology of one gluon exchange works extremely well and has the virtue of providing a good phenomenology for both mesons and baryons. However the transition of one gluon exchange to intermediate or large distance is typically ignored. Indeed, in bound state perturbation theory (which is the way all perturbation theory for hadronic physics should be performed), the diagram corresponding to one gluon exchange (first diagram of Fig. 3) corresponds to mixing with intermediate hybrids (second diagram, Fig. 3), and the first diagram does not occur. However, if one is dealing with a field theory, the first diagram reappears as a counterterm which is active at momentum transfer above the renormalization scale. How these two evolve into each other is therefore an issue dealt with by the renormalization group flow of the underlying field theory and should be properly addressed in a new quark model.

This issue is related to a subtlety in most quark models: how are short range and long range dynamics to be merged? If confinement arises from multiple gluon exchange, surely it is not correct to simply add one gluon exchange to an assumed linear potential. Addressing this issue is very difficult in covariant gauges, however, in Coulomb gauge there is a natural separation of instantaneous and transverse potentials which allows the issue to be resolved simply.

The last diagram of Fig. 3 represents meson exchange contributions to the quark interaction. If one admits that pion (and meson) loops can affect hadron properties (as we have argued above) then one must allow these sort of diagrams. However, it is an open issue as to how important they are. Robson examined this possibility years ago in the context of the tensor splitting of the $`S_{11}(1535)`$ and $`S_{11}(1650)`$ and rejected it. It has since been taken up again, although not without criticism.

$``$topological aspects

Shortly after the notion of topology (here we focus on instantons) was introduced to QCD, ’t Hooft used instantons to resolve the $`U_A(1)`$ problem – namely that the axial symmetry of (massless) QCD is not realized in the Wigner-Weyl or Nambu-Goldstone modes. It has also been argued that collective effects involving infinitely many instantons may generate the quark condensate, and hence, chiral symmetry breaking. Finally, we mention that instantons induce an effective quark interaction, however it appears that this force does not confine.

If we are to accept the instanton resolution to the $`U_A(1)`$ problem, then instanton field configurations must be accepted as an important subset of the vacuum field configurations, and their effects should be included in a new quark model. Indeed, computations with instanton models indicate that they may successfully describe many properties of light hadrons. There is also lattice evidence that instantons dominate the vacuum. We note, however, that old arguments of Witten against instantons have been resurrected. This paper, in turn, has been criticised.

There appears to be little room for instantons in the nonrelativistic constituent quark model, they simply aren’t needed to explain the spectrum. However, if instantons do dominate low energy QCD, they must be incorporated into models. The Bonn group (see Refs. ) has been developing a model which includes instanton-induced quark interactions in a relativistic Bethe-Salpeter approach, and the resulting phenomenology appears quite successful.

Moving beyond the phenomenological stage requires incorporating the effects of instantons in a way which is consistent with the new quark model’s treatment of the vacuum. And this means that a consistent treatment of confinement, chiral symmetry breaking, and instanton effects must be found. I know of no attempts in this direction, and it forms a major challenge for future efforts.

$``$hadronic interactions

Hadronic interactions form an important, if under-appreciated, portion of hadronic physics. They are central to developing a microscopic theory of nuclear physics, to nuclear astrophysics, to the analysis of ‘background’ in $`N^{}`$ and other resonance (hybrids, glueballs) experiments, and to electroweak experiments (where hadronic final state interactions must be properly accounted for). As such, any new quark model should carry with it a well-defined, tractable, methodology for computing hadronic interactions.

The present state of affairs is less than ideal. Constituent quark model calculations date from the ’70s, and continue today with resonating group and perturbative methods (see Fig. 4). While it is likely that these quark model calculations provide reasonable guidance at low energies (except for pion-dominated physics where one must hope that the necessary chiral properties are captured in the quark model – see the discussion above), it is less clear how applicable they are at high momentum transfer. It is here that light cone approaches are expected to be applicable (certainly to inclusive reactions, less certainly to exclusive). Of course what is needed is a consistent formalism which allows the computation of hadronic wavefunctions and hadronic scattering in all energy regimes simultaneously. It is evident that close contact with QCD needs to be maintained if these goals are to be achieved.

One attempt in this regard was made many years ago by Peskin. This approach is essentially a multipole expansion of the interaction of a small colour singlet state with an external colour field (see Fig. 4). The resulting dipole interaction is assumed to be applicable to hadron-hadron interactions as well. However, we note that one prediction of this model is that the cross section for $`\psi ^{}`$ with hadronic matter is 5000 times larger than that of $`\psi `$s. Indeed, Peskin fears that even the $`\mathrm{{\rm Y}}`$ system may be too light for the method to work.

The historical litmus test for hadronic models has been a computation of the hadron spectrum. It is becoming increasingly clear that this is inadequate because the extraction of resonance parameters is fraught with ambiguity. Computations which are closer to the data are required – in particular reaction dynamics need to be incorporated into new quark model predictions. This field is in its infancy; however, it has started.

## III Conclusions

A crucial aspect of the new quark model is a thorough understanding of the QCD vacuum. This is required to meet many of the issues raised above: chiral symmetry breaking, confinement, topology, and gluodynamics. These issues, in turn, are central to developing a viable model of low energy QCD. It will clearly be a stiff challenge to develop a model which adequately addresses all of these issues; however, hadronic physics provides our only window into strongly interacting field theory and is a vital component of nuclear physics, astrophysics, cosmology, and physics beyond the standard model. It will therefore be worth the effort to develop such a model!

An efficient description of hadronic physics will require the identification of appropriate degrees of freedom – constituent quarks, massive gluons, flux tubes, instantons, vortices, or something new. However, if the ambitious goals laid out here are to be achieved, a direct connection of these degrees of freedom to QCD must be maintained. We can take heart that progress is being made. Of particular note is the assistance of lattice gauge theory, which promises to be a useful shortcut to the development of new ideas and to testing these ideas.