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# 1 Introduction

## 1 Introduction

The small scale distribution of molecular species in translucent and opaque clouds is still poorly characterized as compared to structure in the atomic phase (see the paper by J. Lauroesch in these proceedings). To complement the scarce data available on minor tracers like H2CO, OH, HCO+ (, ), we have undertaken an observational program devoted to a simultaneous study of small scale variations in the column density of various molecular and atomic species, including the major ones, H2 and HI.

A bright, large proper motion star, HD 34078, has been selected for repeated observations in the far-UV with FUSE, and in the visible range, at the Observatoire de Haute-Provence. Due to the large transverse velocity of this target (100km/s), the line of sight is drifting through the foreground material (E(B-V) = 0.52) at a velocity of about 17 AU/yr. Thus, observations separated by an interval ranging from about one month to a few years provide information on structure at scales 1 - 50 AU. Further, HD 34078 has been the subject of detailed studies in the past and several high S/N and resolution spectra have been obtained (, , ). By comparison with our recent ones, scales as large as 200 AU can then be probed for species like CH and CH+.

The main properties of the absorbing material along the sightline towards HD 34078 are discussed in Le Petit et al. (these proceedings). In this paper, we focus on absorption line $`\mathrm{𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠}`$ and present a preliminary analysis of H2 features in the three FUSE cycle 1 spectra and of the variations of visible CH and CH+ absorption lines.

## 2 Observations and data analysis

The FUSE spectra were obtained in january 2000, october 2000 and february 2001. The data have been processed using the FUSE pipeline software. Individual exposures were co-added in a standard manner. For each epoch, the total integration time is about 6500s; the S/N ratio reached in the LiF1A data that we will use here is about 30 per 15 mÅ pixel. Seven visible spectra were obtained between november 1999 and february 2001 at the Observatoire de Haute Provence (O.H.P.) with the echelle spectrometer, ELODIE, mounted on the 1.93m telescope. The spectral resolution is about 10km/s; the typical S/N ratio is 150 per .03 Å pixel. A spacing of about one month was adopted first but since CH and CH+ lines looked quite stable, only two spectra were taken next winter.

In FUSE spectra, a large number of transitions are available to study column density variations but in fact, only a few of them are suitable for a sensitive search for variations. Indeed, since profiles are not resolved by FUSE, the equivalent width of lines falling on the flat part of the curve of growth are insensitive to N variations. The situation is favorable in two cases: a) marginally thin lines (0.5 $`<\tau _0<`$ 3 where $`\tau _0`$ is the opacity at line center) and b) damped lines. For species which are likely to display the same b value as CH (about 3 km/s), case a) corresponds to lines with W ranging from roughly 10 to 50 mÅ. H2 lines from high excitation levels, CH and CH+ lines fall into this category. Case b) corresponds to Ly$`\beta `$ or the strongest J = 0, 1, 2 H2 lines. It can be shown easily that the difference between two damped profiles is maximum where the normalised intensity equals 0.36; typically, for a 10% N variation, the expected difference is 0.04. Thus, a definite signature is expected for such lines, which should be easily detectable in good quality spectra if $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$N is large enough. Obviously, some care has to be taken concerning instrumental effects which might induce apparent line variations but using several transitions from the same species or data from different FUSE segments can be used to solve these potential difficulties.

## 3 Results

H2: the first goal of our project is to estimate the fluctuations of the total H2 column density. We thus need to study lines from the J = 0, 1 and 2 states. Several damped lines originating from these levels and with good S/N profiles are present in our spectra. These features appear blended in systems but generally, the blue or red wing is primarily due to one specific transition (for instance, in the system around 1050Å shown in Fig. 1, the blue wing is due mostly to the J = 0 transition); blends with other lines also restricts the range to be used. Before comparing profiles from distinct epochs, we first adjust the wavelength scales by applying a uniform shift. Second, we adjust the flux level in intervals free of absorption using one single multiplicative factor. As can be seen in Fig. 1 profiles look extremely similar; their difference shows no significant deviation from zero. For comparison, we show in Fig. 1 the difference expected if N(J = 0, 1 and 2) are varied by $`\pm `$ 10%. Our residuals are clearly well smaller ! We conclude that over the three epochs considered, a 2.5 $`\sigma `$ upper limit on variations in N(J=0 and J=2) is 7%. This result suggests that N(H2) variations are smaller than those reported for H2CO and OH.

For the highest excitation H2 levels detected, lines become close to optically thin and we recover a good sensitivity to variations. We find some evidence for variations with W(oct. 2000) $`<`$ W(feb. 2001) $`<`$ W(jan. 2000). For instance, in the region around 1046 Å, large variations are seen for a feature at 1046.45 Å that we tentatively assign to H2(v=4, J=2); similarly, two features from H2 J=11 apparently show in the 2d and 3rd spectra a blueshift of about 10 km/s and a broader profile. By cross-correlating the behaviour of various lines from each level, we should be able to reach firm conclusions on the reality and magnitude of these variations. As discussed by Le Petit et al. in this volume, variable excited H2 lines could be due to instabilities in the shocked gas at the HD34078’s wind - ambient medium interface.

CH and CH+: no small scale variations are detected in our homogeneous set of OHP spectra. The excellent S/N reached on the CH4300 line allows us to set a 3 $`\sigma `$ limit on relative column density fluctuations $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$N/N $``$ 6% for scales in the range 1 - 20AU. Thus, we do not find evidence for the kind of ubiquitous structure seen for OH and H2CO .

However, comparing our results with those obtained several years ago (, Federman, private communication, ), we find that W(CH4300) has increased by about 18% between 1993 and 1998 as illustrated by Fig. 2 (this interval corresponds to about 100 AU). It is noteworthy that, from the analysis of the damped Ly$`\beta `$ profile (blended with H2 lines), we get an estimate of the HI column density, N(HI) = 2.51 1021 cm-2, which is 38% higher than the value derived from 1979 IUE data, N(HI) = 1.82 1021 cm-2 (; the time interval corresponds to about 300 AU).

Regarding CH+, we get a less stringent limit on small scale variations $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$N/N $``$ 15% and do not find evidence for a similar large scale variation.

Let us conclude with a few prospects. The coming cycle 2 and 3 FUSE spectra will clearly allow us to improve the sampling and to extend the range of scales probed. Thus, we will be more sensitive to a small regular variation (i.e. of N(H2, J=0 or 1)). Additional spectra will also help to establish the reality of variations suspected for the weak lines of highly excited H2, and quantify the magnitude of these changes. Finally, we note that HST/STIS spectra would complement these FUSE data in a very useful way because a) the HST range comprises a lot of vibrationally excited H2 transitions; b) given the spectral resolution of STIS, most of these lines would appear unblended; c) changes in the kinematics of the excited H2 would be much more apparent.

Acknowledgments: We are grateful to Steve Federman for communicating his 1993 W(CH4300) measurement and to Jim Lauroesch who kindly provided us with a co-added Copernicus $`\zeta `$ Oph spectrum.


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# Dephasing and thermal smearing in an electromechanical which-path device

## Figure Caption

Argument of the resonant elastic transmission amplitude as a function of $`\kappa =\lambda /\mathrm{}\omega `$ for (a) the Fock states $`n=1,10`$ and $`100`$, (upper panel), and (b) the coherent states $`\nu =(1/\sqrt{2})(1i),\sqrt{5}(1i)`$ and $`\sqrt{50}(1i)`$, (lower panel), with $`\mathrm{\Gamma }/\mathrm{}\omega =10`$. The magnitudes of the coherent states are chosen so that the mean number of quanta in each correspond to one of the Fock states.


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# Gravity compensation in complex plasmas by application of a temperature gradient

## Abstract

Micron sized particles are suspended or even lifted up in a gas by thermophoresis. This allows the study of many processes occurring in strongly coupled complex plasmas at the kinetic level in a relatively stress-free environment. First results are presented. The technique is also of interest for technological applications.

Dusty or complex plasmas are low temperature, low pressure plasmas, e.g. glow discharge plasmas, containing microparticles in addition to ions, electrons and neutral gas. They have a large variety of important applications in fundamental and applied physics (see e.g. bouchoule ). For example, the microparticles can, under certain conditions, form a crystal I ; Thomas1 ; hayashi  which allows the study of the liquid-solid phase transition at the kinetic level Thomas . Due to the large mass of the microparticles (typically $`10^{13}`$ times the mass of plasma ions) gravity is an important force. The normal procedure for complex plasma experiments under gravity conditions is to suspend the microparticles (which carry a negative charge, $`Q`$) in a strong electrostatic field, $`E`$, i.e. $`mg=QE+_iF_i`$, where the $`F_i`$ are other forces such as ion drag. To lowest order, $`E`$ varies linearly with position in a sheath of extent and it is easy to calculate that systematic body force variations from one lattice plane to the next exceed interparticle forces for the interesting particle size range above a few $`\mu `$m. The systems are thus subject to a considerable amount of stress and there is abundant stored energy, which affects especially nonlinear processes such as phase transitions, interface dynamics and configurational or velocity space instabilities. It is for this reason that experiments under microgravity were proposed and are now being conducted morfill .

It is the purpose of this paper to demonstrate that for monodisperse particles thermophoresis can be employed to counteract gravity, allowing complex plasma experiments to be performed in the ”stress free” environment of the central nearly field-free plasma of a RF discharge, and to present first measurements. Results show that large stable systems can be produced in the charge neutral section of the plasma which exhibit the ”central void” generally observed under 0-g condition. New is the observed saturation of thermophoretic levitation in the case of a large particle number combined with low working pressure. Jellum et al. jellum  were the first to apply a temperature gradient and to identify the thermophoretic effect in a dusty plasma. In order to compensate gravity, however, more prerequisites have to be fulfilled: a homogeneous temperature gradient by design, very low energy input to the gas, and the use of monodisperse particles.

Using elementary kinetic arguments, the thermophoretic force can be estimated similar to the heat conductivity reif . The latter follows from the energy flux in the presence of a temperature gradient. Instead of the energy transfer, we consider the momentum transfer per unit time and area in a plasma. Then the thermophoretic force $`F`$ on a microparticle with radius $`r_p`$ is given as

$$F=\frac{8}{3}\frac{r_p^2}{v}\mathrm{\Lambda }\frac{dT}{dx},$$
(1)
where $`v=(8kT/\pi m)^{1/2}`$ is the average thermal velocity of the gas atoms with mass $`m`$ at a gas temperature $`T`$ and $`k`$ is the Boltzmann constant. $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ is the coefficient of heat conductivity and $`dT/dx`$ the temperature gradient.

As we will see, this formula provides very good results if measured values or the best theoretical calculations are used for $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$. The following result for mono atomic gases has been given in the literature gerthsen

$$\mathrm{\Lambda }=2.4\frac{\eta c}{m},$$
(2)
where $`c=3k/2`$ is the specific heat per atom and $`\eta `$ the shear viscosity of the gas. For the viscosity, we use a result derived from a precise solution of the transport problem in the case of hard spheres reif

$$\eta =0.553\frac{\sqrt{mkT}}{\sigma }$$
(3)
with the gas kinetic cross section $`\sigma `$ for atomic scattering, which can be taken from the literature varney ; wutz . Using these cross sections, values for the viscosity of noble gases are obtained (see Table I) in good agreement with measured ones. For example, the measured viscosity of Argon at $`T=300`$ K is $`\eta =2.2110^5`$ Nsm-2 compared to $`2.1610^5`$ Nsm-2 following from (3) together with the cross section $`\sigma =4.210^{19}`$ m2 given in Table I. Combining (1), (2), and (3) results in the thermophoretic force on a microparticle

$$F=3.33\frac{kr_p^2}{\sigma }\frac{dT}{dx}.$$
(4)
Like viscosity and heat conduction the thermophoretic force is pressure independent, as can been seen from (4) containing no pressure dependent parameters. Eq. (4) is valid only for spherical particles, mono atomic gases and low pressure where the mean free path is much larger than the particle radius.

We now compare our result to the literature. First, Waldmann waldmann  derived the thermophoretic force using the Enskog-Chapman method for solving the Boltzmann equation. He obtained the same expression as (1), where, however, the coefficient is given by 32/15 instead of 8/3, i.e., a thermophoretic force reduced by about 20% compared to our result.

In order to compare our result with the one by Havnes et al. havnes , we use the relation $`n\lambda =1/(\sqrt{2}\sigma )`$ reif  in (4), where $`n`$ is the number density of the gas and $`\lambda `$ the mean free path of the atoms, leading to

$$F=4.67nk\lambda r_p^2\frac{dT}{dx}.$$
(5)
The result obtained by Havnes et al. follows from replacing the factor 4.67 by 8 in (5), i.e., they found a thermophoretic force which is larger than ours by almost a factor of two. Balabanov et al. balabanov  have used a formula for the thermophoretic force in a complex DC plasma which agrees with (5) assuming the ideal gas relation for the pressure and replacing the coefficient 4.67 by 4.

Measurements were done in a completely symmetrical RF-excited plasma chamber with a volume of 400 cm3 (Fig. 1). The gas is heated from below and cooled from above by Peltier elements. The RF amplitude (with frequency 13.56 MHz) is applied to the electrodes with $`180^0`$ phase difference.

For calibration of the thermophoretic effect the discharge was operated at only 20 mW. About $`10^4`$ particles were injected, much less than shown in e.g. Fig.2. The temperature difference between the metal plates ((4) in Fig.1) was increased until two narrow particle clouds, above and below the central void (Fig.3), of equal size were visible. For Argon gas the equilibrium was reached for temperatures of 54.6 C at the lower electrode and 19.5 C at the upper electrode. The temperature difference corresponds to a gradient of 1170 Km-1. As monodisperse particles still have a residual size and weight spectrum, particles observed above the void are different from those below in that they are about 5% less heavy. The 50/50 partition hence calibrates the thermophoretic force by the average particle weight. For the measured temperature gradient of 1170 Km-1 (4) predicts a thermophoretic force of $`3.6610^{13}`$ N. Our particles (monodisperse melamine resin, diameter $`3.4\pm 0.1\mu `$m, density 1510 kg/m3) have a weight of $`3.0\pm 0.310^{13}`$ N. Thus, formula (4) is confirmed within the experimental uncertainties. We repeated the calibration with Neon and found equilibrium at a temperature difference of 17.7 K. Thus thermophoresis in Neon is twice as strong as in Argon as expected from the gas kinetic cross-section in Table 1. We also verified the 50/50 partition as described above for a pressure range of 8 to 62 Pa and found no pressure dependence in thermophoresis as predicted by theory.

For comparison and further description of the apparatus we start with a condition where the Peltier elements and thermophoresis are not active (Fig. 2). The particle cloud settles down above the lower electrode due to gravity. One observes that the particles form a lattice, the so-called plasma crystal. The plasma glow was filtered away by an interference filter peaked on the laser wavelength of 686 nm. Measurements taken without filter indicate the highest particle density congruent with the brightest glow. There is no convection after the particles have arranged themselves into the ordered structure. The laser cut is focused to $``$50$`\mu `$m full width, much narrower than the lattice spacing. The stringlike structures, caused by the wake potential of the positive ions streaming to the lower electrode, disappear in patches, corresponding to local distortions no longer illuminated. The three dimensional structure of such a system was analyzed by Zuzic et al. zuzic . The RF power measured at the generator is 170 mW, the peak to peak amplitude measured by a voltage probe at the electrode is 45V. Both electrodes are shunted with 3.3 k$`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ to chassis. Losses in the unbalanced/balanced transformer, the matching circuits and in particular the shunt resistors dictate that only 10% (17 mW) of the RF power go to the discharge.

For the thermophoretic measurements the predetermined gradient of 1170 K/m was applied, the plasma was started and the discharge power was set to a medium value of 20 mW. Particles were injected until the plasma appeared to be saturated. To accomplish a stable discharge in the quasi 0-g case, higher RF amplitudes and powers are required. A survey was measured at three power levels (40, 57, 72 mW) and four pressures (14, 24, 38, 46 Pa).

Fig. 3 and 4 are taken out of the survey in order to visualize the stress-free complex plasma under quasi 0-g and in order to show a saturation of thermophoresis in the presence of a large particle number combined with a small working pressure. Fig. 3 shows how the particle cloud fills the whole discharge volume apart from space charge regions near to the electrodes and the central region where a void is formed morfill . The reason for no lattice structure in Fig. 3 could be a residual convective motion in the order of 1mm/s which is not visible in a single video frame. The void boundary appears well defined with a slight enhancement of particle density behind the boundary. Using $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ as given in table 1 we calculate a total heat flow from the lower to the upper electrode of 24 mW. On the other hand the RF power dissipated in the plasma is roughly 57 mW. Most of this power will be dissipated by ionisation and heating of the electrodes by ion impact. Only a few mW will heat the neutral gas directly, hence we expect that the temperature profile applied from outside for thermophoresis remains reasonably homogeneous for the discharge parameters used, although a small amount of Joule heating in the center of the chamber might contribute to the void formation. If we compare our experimental condition to the one reported by Jellum et al. jellum , we find from the amplitudes and the power levels that they drive their discharge at 5 to 10 times the power density that we use. If we increase the discharge power by 10, we find that the particles are driven out of the bulk plasma by both the ion drag force and intrinsic thermophoresis.

Obviously thermophoresis will not support an unreasonably large total mass of particles. A saturation in the thermophoretic force becomes visible first at low working pressure. Fig. 4 is a measurement under identical conditions as Fig. 3, however, at a working pressure of 14 Pa. The particles settle down towards the lower electrode. This effect can be reversed by increasing the pressure again to 46 Pa. Out of a number of possible mechanisms our data as well as rough estimates identify radiation cooling (Brattli and Havnes brattli ) as the best explanation. By thermal radiation the particles will approach everywhere a temperature roughly equal to the average temperature of the chamber surfaces. Hence for a large particle density and good thermal coupling between the particles and the gas the temperature gradient in the dust region will be reduced and the gradient in the dust free region will become correspondingly larger. A reduced temperature gradient in the dust region weakens the thermophoretic force. Gravity gains the overhand and the dust settles down towards the lower (heated) electrode as observed. At larger pressure the decreasing mean free path of the neutral atoms reduces the thermal coupling between the gas and the particles, causing the reversal of this effect. A quantitative understanding of this effect requires detailed investigations beyond the scope of the present Letter.

At ambient pressure ($`10^5`$ Pa) gravity driven convection would obstruct thermophoresis completely. At working pressures between 46 and 14 Pa convection is 3 orders of magnitude weaker. The driving force of vorticity depends on the temperature difference, the free fall acceleration and the mass density of the gas. The driving force hence decreases in proportion to pressure whereas the counteracting friction on the chamber walls remains unchanged as the viscosity of gases is pressure independent.

In conclusion, the thermophoretic levitation of microparticles in a complex plasma, can give interesting insights into complex plasmas and be used as a promising tool complementary to microgravity experiments. As an example we discussed radiation cooling by the particles, leading to the observed particle density dependent reduction of the temperature gradient. Other important exampels are the investigation of the void and vortices formation, also observed under microgravity conditions. Furthermore we present an easy to use relation for the thermophoretic force together with the relevant gas kinetic data. Technological applications of thermophoresis could be size selective particle production in a reactive plasma and surface plating of particles. In semiconductor production where nanometer sized particles are a byproduct in some processes, controlled thermophoresis may be used to keep particles away from the substrate where they can diminish the yield, as already suggested by Jellum et al. jellum , or to incorporate them in a controlled way where they are beneficial, e.g. for amorphous solar cells rocca . Controlled thermophoresis could be interesting for ”pick and place” in context with hybrid integration pick-place .

Acknowledgements

The work was triggered by a microgravity project funded by: DLR (BMBF), grant no. 50WB9852. We have to thank Prof. O. Havnes (University of Tromsø) and our colleagues U. Konopka, K. Tarantik and M. Zuzic for valuable suggestions and help with the manuscript.


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# Two dimensional self-avoiding walk with hydrogen-like bonding: Phase diagram and critical behaviour

## 1 Introduction

Self-avoiding walks have been widely studied as models of polymers in dilute solution. A self-avoiding walk on a lattice is defined as a random walk which is forbidden from visiting the same lattice-site more than once. In the limit of very long walks it models a polymer in a good solvent. In order to model the relative affinity between the monomers (compared with the solvent) an attractive energy is introduced between non-consecutively visited nearest-neighbour sites. This is the standard $`\theta `$-point model. At high temperatures the polymer is happy to be in solution. As the temperature is lowered the polymer tends to collapse in on itself, and at a given temperature will precipitate from solution. For an idealised infinitely long polymer the high temperature and low temperature regimes are separated by a phase transition occurring at a temperature known as the theta temperature, $`T_\theta `$. In the grand-canonical description the average length of the walk is controlled by a fugacity $`K`$ (or chemical potential $`\mu `$ where $`K=\mathrm{exp}(\beta \mu )`$). At high temperatures the (average) length of the walk diverges smoothly as a critical fugacity $`K_c(T)`$ is approached. At low temperatures the length jumps discontinuously at a given value of the fugacity $`K^{}(T)`$ (corresponding to a first order transition). The two lines $`K_c(T)`$ and $`K^{}(T)`$ follow continuously one from the other, and the two behaviours are separated by a tricritical point, at a temperature corresponding to $`T_\theta `$. The transition line $`K_c(T)`$ then $`K^{}(T)`$ is identified with the “thermodynamic limit” of the polymer problem. Along this line, the proportion of visited sites is zero for $`T<T_\theta `$ and becomes non-zero continuously for $`T>T_\theta `$.

While it is clear that the main experimental interest lies in three dimensions (although there are some experimental results also in two dimensions), there has been a lot of theoretical interest in the two dimensional case. This is in part due to the fact that the upper critical dimension for a tricritical point is three. In dimensions lower than three (but larger than one) there is a possibility for a greater diversity of critical behaviours.

In this article we investigate a two-dimensional model with a restricted set of interactions, compared to the theta model; an interaction is only present between nearest-neighbour non-consecutively visited sites belonging to straight portions of polymer, i.e. an interacting site cannot sit on a corner of the walk (see Figure 2). This choice of interactions may be motivated by the rôle of hydrogen bonding in the formation of secondary structures in proteins. These bonds are formed between the CO group of one peptide and the NH group of a nearby (non-consecutive) peptide. This bond imposes a constraint on the orientation of the relevent peptides. This type of bonding is thought to be responsible for the formation of alpha helices and beta sheets. In our two-dimensional toy-model the formation of alpha helices is not possible. A representation of the formation of a beta sheet through hydrogen bonding is shown in Figure 1.

Our main interest in this paper is not to give a realistic model for protein folding, but rather to understand the influence of these apparently small modifications to the local attractive interactions on the critical behaviour of lattice interacting self-avoiding walks. To this end we present the phase diagram and elucidate the critical behaviour in the full fugacity—temperature plane.

In the following section we present in detail the model as well as the transfer matrix calculation of the quantities of interest. In section 3 we present the phase diagram and discuss the different transitions present. In section 4 we concentrate more specifically on the Hamiltonian Walk limit of the model in which all sites are visited exactly once. In section 5 we finish with some concluding remarks.

## 2 The model and the transfer matrix calculation

The model studied here consists of a self-avoiding walk embedded on a square lattice. An interaction energy $`ϵ`$ is assigned for each non-consecutively visited pair nearest-neighbour sites for which the four bonds are parallel (see figure 2). A chemical potential, $`\mu `$, and related fugacity $`K=\mathrm{exp}(\beta \mu )`$ are associated to each step.

The grand canonical partition function is then

$$𝒵=\underset{\mathrm{walks}}{}K^N\mathrm{exp}(\beta N_Iϵ),$$
(1)
where $`N`$ is the number of steps in the walk and $`N_I`$ is the number of interactions. Quantities of interest may be calculated as appropriate derivatives of the partition function, for example, the density is given by:

$$\rho =\frac{N}{\mathrm{\Omega }}=\frac{K}{\mathrm{\Omega }}\frac{\mathrm{log}𝒵}{K},$$
(2)
where $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ is the number of lattice sites. The relative length fluctuations are related to the derivative of $`\rho `$ through:

$$\frac{N^2N^2}{N}=\frac{K}{\rho }\frac{\rho }{K}.$$
(3)
.

In the dilute polymer regime (small enough $`K`$) the correlation function may be identified with the probability that two given points are joined by a walk. In this case the correlation length must scale in the same way as any reasonable characteristic length scale associated to the walk. It is usual to take the radius of gyration, which corresponds to the average squared distance the walk steps from the common centre of gravity. It follows that

$$R_G|KK_c|^\nu ,$$
(4)
where $`\nu `$ is defined as the standard correlation length exponent . Using the relation (2), one finds

$$R_GN^\nu ,$$
(5)
from which we may see that the walk is fractal; the mass of the walk scales linearly with $`N`$, and hence $`R_G^{1/\nu }`$. The fractal (Haussdorf) dimension of the walk is then $`d_H=1/\nu `$. It is usual in such problems to take equation (5) as the definition of the exponent $`\nu `$. In this case, note that it only relates to the usual critical exponent in the case of a critical transition in the dilute regime. In the collapsed phase(s) the polymer fills the lattice, the mass scales as $`R_G^d`$ and equation (5) gives $`\nu =1/d`$.

In this article we propose to use a transfer matrix formalism to calculate $`𝒵`$ as a function of $`K`$ and $`\beta ϵ`$. For convenience we shall from now on set $`ϵ=1`$, which simply corresponds to a choice of temperature scale.

The idea behind the transfer matrix formalism is to calculate the partition function on a lattice which is infinite in one direction (the $`x`$ direction, say) but finite in the other ($`y`$) direction. The thermodynamic limit is attained by increasing the lattice width.

The standard way of considering the problem is as follows: Define the restricted partition function $`Z_x(𝒞_0,𝒞_x)`$ as the partition function for a portion of walk between the origin and $`x`$. The walk has a column state $`𝒞_0`$ at the origin and $`𝒞_x`$ in column $`x`$. One may then write the following recursion relation:

$$Z_{x+1}(𝒞_0,𝒞_{x+1})=\underset{𝒞_x}{}Z_x(𝒞_0,𝒞_x)𝒯(𝒞_x,𝒞_{x+1}),$$
(6)
where $`𝒯(𝒞_x,𝒞_{x+1})`$ is the additional Boltzmann weight to add column $`x+1`$ in configuration $`𝒞_{x+1}`$ next to column $`x`$ in configuration $`𝒞_x`$. This forms a (transfer) matrix.

That this recursion should be valid for a spin system is fairly straightforward, since the interactions are all local. For a polymer model it is less clear that this should be possible, since one has to take into account non-local factors, most notably one has to ensure that the partition function describes only one chain, without the formation of “orphan” loops. This is done by appropriately defining the column states $`𝒞_x`$. For the self-avoiding walk problem with no added interactions (i.e. $`ϵ=0`$) it is sufficient to define a column configuration by the arrangement of horizontal bonds in the column along with information about the connectivities between the bonds, that is information about which pairs of horizontal bonds are connected by polymer loops to the left (taking $`x`$ as increasing towards the right). See figure 3 for an example. By successive application of (6), one finds

$$Z_x(𝒞_0,𝒞_x)=𝒞_0|𝒯^x|𝒞_x.$$
(7)
The situation becomes a little more complicated if interactions are to be taken into account. It is necessary to know the column states over three columns in order to incorporate the horizontal bonds. The appropriate modification to the above equations is:

$$Z_{x+1}(𝒞_0,𝒞_1;𝒞_x,𝒞_{x+1})=\underset{𝒞_{}^{}{}_{x1}{}^{},𝒞_{}^{}{}_{x}{}^{}}{}Z_x(𝒞_0,𝒞_1;𝒞_{}^{}{}_{x1}{}^{}𝒞_{}^{}{}_{x}{}^{})𝒯(𝒞_{}^{}{}_{x1}{}^{},𝒞_{}^{}{}_{x}{}^{};𝒞_x,𝒞_{x+1}),$$
(8)
and

$$Z_x(𝒞_0,𝒞_1;𝒞_{x1},𝒞_x)=𝒞_0,𝒞_1|𝒯^{x1}|𝒞_{x1},𝒞_x.$$
(9)
The primed configurations are introduced to retain the matrix notation, the elements of the matrix are now labelled by the two column states for the input and two for the output (primed), with the restriction that only matrix elements with $`𝒞_x=𝒞_{}^{}{}_{x}{}^{}`$ may be non-zero.

It is required that the partition function sum over walks of all possible lengths. To do this we define a restricted partition function $`𝒵_x`$ for all the walks having a caliper extension $`x`$, i.e. walks which are entirely confined to a strip of length $`x`$, and extend over the entire length of the strip. This is simply $`Z_x`$ summed over all configurations $`𝒞_0`$, $`𝒞_1`$, $`𝒞_{x1}`$ and $`𝒞_x`$ compatible with the starting and ending configurations of the walk. The full partition function is then given by

$`𝒵`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{x=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}𝒵_{x+1},`$ (10)
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{b.c.}{\overset{}{}}}{\displaystyle \underset{x=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}𝒯^x`$ (11)
where the primed sum is over the boundary configurations, as described above.

Let us denote by $`\{\lambda _i\}`$ the eigenvalues of $`𝒯`$, numbered in order of their moduli. The eigenvalue of largest modulus, $`\lambda _1`$ , is always positive.

For small enough $`K`$, $`\lambda _11`$. In this case the partition function may be written

$$𝒵=\underset{i}{}\frac{\alpha _i}{1\lambda _i(K,\beta ϵ)}.$$
(12)
The $`\alpha _i`$ are essentially constants dependent on the boundary conditions, which gives for the density:

$$\rho =\frac{K}{\mathrm{\Omega }}\underset{i}{}\frac{1}{1\lambda _i}\frac{\lambda _i}{K}.$$
(13)
If the derivative of $`\lambda _i`$ is finite, which is the case at least for small enough $`\beta `$, the density is zero as long as $`\lambda _1<1`$ and may only change from its zero value when the average length of the walk diverges, i.e. $`\lambda _11`$. The point $`\lambda _1=1`$ is identified with the critical transition, and is often used in polymer science to define the “thermodynamic limit” of “very long” polymers. Another way of reaching to the same conclusion is to consider two points as being correlated if they are joined by a walk. One may then identify $`Z_x`$ with a two point correlation function, and hence identify the correlation length, $`\xi `$:

$$\xi =\frac{1}{\mathrm{log}\left(\frac{1}{\lambda _1}\right)}.$$
(14)
The correlation length diverges as $`\lambda _11`$, consistent with the identification of a critical transition.

The above argument needs to be treated with caution. As long as the lattice width is finite, the system is equivalent to a one-dimensional system with a finite, if large, number of states per site (each site corresponding to a column in our model). It is well known that a one dimensional system with a finite number of states per site cannot have an equilibrium phase transition.

The reason for this apparent discrepancy is that the definition of $`\xi `$ (14) is not valid in the large $`K`$ phase (dense polymer phase). In a spin model the partition function would have been given by $`𝒵_x`$ in the limit $`x\mathrm{}`$. The transfer matrix would contain all the possible configurations, and a standard analysis shows that:

$$\xi =\frac{1}{\mathrm{log}\left(\frac{\lambda _0}{|\lambda _1|}\right)},$$
(15)
where $`\lambda _0`$ is the largest eigenvalue, and $`\lambda _1`$ is the second largest (in modulus). To ensure the correct construction of a single walk all configurations consisting of an empty column have been excluded from the transfer matrix, but replaced by the sum over all possible polymer extensions $`x`$. The consequence of this choice is that the largest eigenvalue in the zero-density phase has been eliminated. Its value, as can be seen by inspection of the expression for $`\xi `$, would be $`\lambda _0=1`$.

This prescription only holds as long as $`\lambda _1<1`$. If $`\lambda _1>1`$ then the partition function, density and $`\xi `$ are given by:

$`𝒵`$ $``$ $`\underset{x\mathrm{}}{lim}\lambda _1^x,`$ (16)
$`\rho `$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{K}{L\lambda _1}}{\displaystyle \frac{\lambda _1}{K}}`$ (17)
$`\xi `$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\mathrm{log}\left(\frac{\lambda _1}{|\lambda _2|}\right)}},`$ (18)
where $`L`$ is the lattice width.

For convenience we impose the condition that the walk of extension $`x^{}`$ in the $`x`$ direction originates at $`x=0`$ and terminates either at $`x=0`$ or $`x=x^{}`$. As is usual in equilibrium phase transitions, the precise choice of boundary condition does not change the critical behaviour. Imposing this restriction it is easy to see that column configurations with even numbers of horizontal bonds may only follow column configurations with even numbers of horizontal bonds, and likewise for configurations with an odd number of horizontal bonds. This block diagonalisation is convenient since it transpires that for much of the phase diagram $`\lambda _1`$ and $`\lambda _2`$ arise in different blocks. It is relatively easy to calculate the largest eigenvalues of a matrix using the power method.

## 3 The $`K\beta `$ phase diagram

The critical lines may be identified using phenomenological renormalisation. At a critical point the correlation lengths for two strip widths, measured as a fraction of the strip width, must be the same. This reflects the scale invariance of a critical system. In practice a finite width system is always off-critical, however

$$\frac{\xi _L(K^{})}{L}=\frac{\xi _L^{}(K^{})}{L^{}}$$
(19)
gives a finite-size estimate of the critical fugacity, $`K^{}`$, which will tend to the true critical fugacity as the strip widths tend to infinity. Assuming that the system is sufficiently close to the true critical point, the correlation length behaves (to leading order) as

$$\xi _L=A|K^{}K_c|^\nu .$$
(20)
Since it is the finite width of the system which prevents the correlation length from diverging, at $`K^{}`$ we have $`L\xi _L`$. If these two scaling laws are admitted, then a finite-size estimate of the correlation length exponent may be calculated from the equation:

$$\frac{1}{\nu _{L,L^{}}}=\frac{\mathrm{log}\left(\frac{\mathrm{d}\xi _L}{\mathrm{d}K}/\frac{\mathrm{d}\xi _L^{}}{\mathrm{d}K}\right)}{\mathrm{log}\left(\frac{L}{L^{}}\right)}1.$$
(21)
There exists at least one phase transition. In the case $`\beta =0`$ this corresponds to the standard Self-Avoiding Walk transition. As $`\beta `$ is increased, this point extends into a line of critical points. In analogy to the standard $`\theta `$-point model, we would expect this transition to change to first order at some given value of $`\beta =\beta _H`$. As discussed in the previous section, starting from the low-K phase, the correlation function is given by (14). In the high-K phases the appropriate form of $`\xi `$ is given by (15). The phase diagram estimates found using phenomenological renormalisation, using the appropriate form of $`\xi `$, are shown in figure 4. As is usual in this sort of problem, there are strong parity effects, notably for the odd lattice widths $`\lambda _1`$ is in the odd sector of the transfer matrix, while for the even lattice widths $`\lambda _1`$ is taken from the even sector. The next largest eigenvalue, $`\lambda _2`$, is in the other sector for the low-$`K`$ phase and for the high temperature high-$`K`$ phase, while it is in the same sector for the high-$`K`$ low temperature phase. This observation was not used to estimate the transition lines, which were however found assuming that $`\lambda _1`$ and $`\lambda _2`$ came from different sectors of the transfer matrix. Not all the transition lines are found for even lattice widths.

Let us now characterise the different phases and transitions. For low $`K`$ the average length of polymer is finite, the density of the polymer on the lattice must therefore be zero. The first transition as $`K`$ is increased is to one of two dense phases, depending on whether $`\beta <\beta _H`$ or $`\beta >\beta _H`$. It is convenient to use the density as an order parameter. For practical reasons we choose boundary conditions in which the polymer is made to extend the length of the lattice, between $`x=0`$ and $`x\mathrm{}`$. This obliges the polymer to be infinite in length even in the zero-density phase. A choice of boundary conditions is not expected to affect the critical behaviour of an equilibrium system. The partition function becomes $`𝒵=lim_x\mathrm{}\lambda _1^x`$ for both the high and low density phases, and $`\rho `$ may be calculated using (17) in all phases. The density will now be finite for $`K<K_c`$ as long as the lattice width is finite, but must tend to zero as $`L\mathrm{}`$. This is indeed what is observed from the density plots shown in figures 5 and 6.

For $`\beta <\beta _H`$ the behaviour of $`\rho `$ and the length flucuations indicate the existence of a line of second order phase transitions, as expected. The line is in the self-avoiding walk universality class, having $`\nu =3/4`$ as may be seen from the finite size estimates for $`\nu `$ shown in figure 7. The transition is to a finite density phase.

For $`\beta >\beta _H`$ the density plot, given in figure 6, indicates that the transition is first order to a dense phase. That this line corresponds to the compact polymer state is confirmed by the observed exponent $`\nu =0.5=1/d`$, see figure 7. A major difference with the $`\theta `$-point model, seen using the phenomenological renormalisation scheme is the existence of two different high density phases. The density plots in figure 6 for $`\beta >\beta _H`$ suggest that the walk changes discontinuously from $`\rho =0`$ to $`\rho =1`$, and that the density of interactions saturates instantly. In other words the lattice changes abruptly from being essentially empty to essentially full, with a maximum density of interactions. Trivially, a lattice which is empty (a finite walk length on an infinite lattice) has zero energy and zero entropy per site; the free energy per site is zero. If the lattice is completely full with the interactions density saturated, the walk may only be in one of two configurations; either all the bonds are vertical or all the bonds are horizontal. The entropy per site in this phase is therefore also zero. Since, in this state, there is one bond and one interaction per site, the energy per site is $`e=\mu ϵ`$. The transition between the two phases would then occur when the free energy per site, $`f=eTs=e=0`$, in other words when $`\mu =ϵ`$. Remembering the choice $`ϵ=1`$, the transition line would be $`K=\mathrm{exp}(\beta )`$. This line has been plotted for comparison on the phase diagrams, shown in figure 4. The agreement with the observed first-order transition line is excellent.

In order to differentiate between the two high density phases, it is convenient to use the interaction density, $`\rho _I`$, as an order parameter. This order parameter, along with its fluctuations, is plotted as a function of $`\beta `$ for $`K=1.5`$ in figure 8. The order parameter differentiates between the two phases since it is identically one in the high-$`\beta `$ phase, and less than one in the low-$`\beta `$ phase. The variation of the order parameter appears to be fairly smooth for all lattice sizes, and leads one to conjecture that this high density transition is critical. Also plotted in figure 8 is the specific heat, calculated as the second derivative of the free energy with respect to the temperature, keeping $`\mu `$ and $`ϵ`$ constant.

Various estimates of the critical $`\beta `$ for $`K=1.5`$, calculated using the phenomenological renormalisation group and by locating the peaks in the specific heat, are given in table 1. The various results are coherent with an estimate $`\beta _c(K=1.5)=.55\pm 0.01`$. At a critical transition, the specific heat diverges as $`TT_c`$ with an exponent $`\alpha `$,

$$C|TT_c|^\alpha .$$
(22)
When combined with relation (20) and $`\xi _LL`$, this leads to the finite-size scaling result

$$C_{\mathrm{max}}A+BL^{\alpha /\nu }.$$
(23)
A three point fit for odd widths gives $`\alpha /\nu =0.67`$ for $`L=3,5,7`$ and $`\alpha /\nu =0.55`$ for $`L=5,7,9`$. A similar three point fit for the even sizes, $`L=4,6,8`$ gives a value of $`\alpha /\nu =0.156`$. If sufficiently large lattice widths are considered then $`A`$ can be dropped. When this is not the case, then the result is an effective value of the exponent, which should converge to the correct value as the lattice width is increased. Unfortunately the number of two point approximations we could construct does not allow for meaningful extrapolation. All we could determine is that $`0.156\alpha /\nu 0.55`$ gives a reasonable limit on the possible values of $`\alpha /\nu `$. Using the scaling relation $`\alpha =2d\nu `$, this gives $`\nu `$ as $`0.78\nu 0.93`$. Note that this range is coherent with the values of $`\nu `$ found from the phenomenological renormalisation group calculation, shown in table 1. Additionally, the upper boundary, calculated from the even lattice sizes, is in good agreement with the even lattice size estimates of $`\nu `$ in table 1.

It now remains to determine the nature of the transition at $`(K_H,\beta _H)`$, where the three transition lines join. For the standard $`\theta `$ point model, this point is tricritical, and corresponds to the confluent of two transition lines, not three.

The problem we are faced with is that the phenomenological renormalisation group applied to even lattice widths does not give the first-order transition at all. When applied to the odd lattice widths, the method is not able to follow the self-avoiding walk transition line all the way to $`\beta _H`$, jumping to the upper transition line just short of $`\beta _H`$. This undershoot rapidly becomes smaller as the lattice width is increased. Remembering that the length of the walk first diverges when $`\lambda _11`$ and that this condition coincides with the low-K phase transitions in the thermodynamic limit, we can use the condition $`\lambda _1(K,\beta )=1`$ as a criterion for defining finite width estimates to the transition lines. The phase diagram estimates calculated using this criterion are shown in figure 9. This method is incapable of giving the high-$`K`$ transitions, and converges more slowly than the phenomenological renormalisation group, but has the advantage that the transition lines are fairly smooth and continuous. The density and its fluctuations, calculated along this line, are presented in figure 10. As the width of the lattice is increased, the jump in the density becomes sharper. The height of the fluctuations (shown with a log-linear scalin in figure 11) increases extreemly rapidly with lattice width, stronly suggesting a delta peak in the thermodynamic limit. Whilst the range of lattice widths prevent us from being categorical, the results suggest strongly that the transition is first order along the transition line. This seems to confirmed in the phase diagram. In both figures 4 and 9 the transition line has a discontinuous slope at $`\beta _H`$.

The positions of the peaks of density fluctuations are shown in figure 11 along with the positions of the cusps where the upper and lower critical lines join for even lattice widths. We estimate $`\beta _H=1.00\pm 0.02`$, with $`K_H=\mathrm{exp}(\beta _H)`$. It is curious that $`\beta _H`$ should be so close to one, though we have as yet not been able to determine why this should be the case.

## 4 The Hamiltonian Walk limit ($`K\mathrm{}`$)

In the limit $`K\mathrm{}`$ the walk will fill the lattice maximally. Each site will be visited once and only once. In this limit the walk becomes what is known as an Hamiltonian Walk. In this limit the effect of the interaction is to energetically penalise corners in the walk. This is similar to the Flory model except that there are configurations which introduce one or two corners into the walk with no difference in energy, see figure 2.

There is a low-temperature corner-free phase. As the temperature is raised there is a transition in which the density of corners becomes non-zero. To distinguish between the high and low temperature phases it is possible to use either the density of corners the energy density. This latter is shown, as a function of $`\beta `$ in figure 12.

We estimate the critical temperature again using the phenomenological renormalisation group, the results of which are shown in table 2 and extrapolated using a three point fit to

$$\beta _c^{\mathrm{}}=\beta _c^L+AL^B,$$
(24)
where $`\beta _c`$ is the finite size estimate and $`\beta _c^{\mathrm{}}`$ is the extrapolated value. $`A`$ and $`B`$ are constants to be determined.

Only the odd lattice widths presented solutions to the phenomenological renormalisation group equation (19), given in table 2. The positions and values of the maxima of the energy fluctuations per site, shown in figure 13, are also reported in table 2. The fluctuations appear to saturate. We assume that, even if the fluctuations do not diverge, the transition point is estimated by the value of $`\beta `$ for which the fluctuations are maximal. This agrees well with the phenomenological renormalisation group estimate, and fits with a continuation of the finite $`K`$ phase diagrams (figure 4) to high values of $`K`$. Phenomenological renormalisation and the peaks of the energy fluctuations give estimates of the critical temperature which concur, giving $`\beta _c=0.476\pm 0.001`$.

It is also possible to estimate the exponant $`\eta `$, using the conformal invariance result for periodic boundary conditions:

$$\eta =\frac{L}{\pi \xi }.$$

We find $`\eta _c=0.096\pm 0.002`$, see table 2.

It is anticipated that the entire high temperature phase is critical, in analogy with other models of this type, such as the model F, the Flory model and the loop gas model on the brickwork lattice. The estimates of $`\nu `$ are not at all clear. They seem close to $`\nu =1`$, but in other respects the transition is similar to that seen in the model F and the Flory model, which have transitions of infinite order with $`\nu `$ infinite.

## 5 Conclusions

In this article we have presented a two-dimensional model for homopolymer collapse under the influence of “hydrogen-bonding” like nearest-neighbour interactions. The phase diagram is quite different from the equivalent $`\theta `$ point phase diagram; the collapse transition is now first order. This is also observed in the oriented interacting self-avoiding walk model, where, for appropriate values of the model parameters, a first order collapse occurs to a spiral configuration. These two models have in common that the collapsed phase is anisotropic, in our case one of the two lattice directions is selected, and in the oriented walk case, for strong enough parallel interaction strength, one of two chiralities is selected. In the standard $`\theta `$ model the collapsed phase is isotropic.

Here we also observe an additional transition in the dense walk regime. This transition appears to be second order, though for the moment we have not been able to determine to any accuracy any of the critical exponents. Similar critical lines are observed in the loop models with corner interactions, with or without a collapse transition.

There also exists non-trivial critical behaviour in the $`K\mathrm{}`$ limit, where there is a finite temperature phase transition between a critical high temperature phase and a frozen low temperature phase.

Another well studied model with a qualitatively similar phase diagram is the partially directed interacting polymer model. There are major differences however: The line $`K=\mathrm{exp}(\beta )`$ corresponds to a phase transition line for all values of $`K`$, deliminating a similar fully collapsed phase. The equivalent phase to the finite-$`\rho `$ phase has a density $`\rho =0`$ due to the directed nature of the model. The equivelent to the theta point transition is second order (here it appears to be first order).

DPF would like to thank the kind hospitality of the INFM and the Dipartimento di Fisica, Università di Padova during the early stages of this work.

## References


text:
# Probing neutron star superfluidity with gravitational-wave data

## Abstract

We discuss the possibility that future gravitational-wave detectors may be able to detect various modes of oscillation of old, cold neutron stars. We argue that such detections would provide unique insights into the superfluid nature of neutron star cores, and could also lead to a much improved understanding of pulsar glitches. Our estimates are based on a detector configuration with several narrowbanded (cryogenic) interferometers operating as a “xylophone” which could lead to high sensitivity at high frequencies. We also draw on recent advances in our understanding of the dynamics of pulsating superfluid neutron star cores.

The extremes of physics. — Since their discovery in the late 1960s neutron stars have emerged as unique probes of many extremes of physics. Comprising roughly one and a half solar masses of material compressed inside a radius of ten kilometers, i.e well beyond nuclear density, the neutron stars still hide many of their mysteries. For example, we do not yet fully understand the nature of the supranuclear equation of state required to describe matter in the core of neutron stars. Still, a picture has emerged in which superfluidity plays a vital role. Theoretically, such a picture has as its foundation sauls  the extraordinarily successful many body theory of Fermi liquids and the BCS mechanism that are used to describe superconductors and superfluid Helium three. It is now generally believed that once a neutron star cools below a few times $`10^9`$ K (a few months after its birth) the bulk of its core will become superfluid. Thus, the more than 1000 observed pulsars provide useful laboratories for studying large scale superfluidity and truly high $`T_c`$ superconductors.

The main observational evidence for neutron star superfluidity is provided by the glitches (a sudden spin-up followed by a long term relaxation period) that have been observed in roughly 30 pulsars. For a summary of the current results see Table 5 in wang00 . While the smaller glitches in, for example, the Crab pulsar can be understood in terms of spindown induced quakes in the neutron star’s crust franco00 , this model cannot explain the large glitches seen in, for example, the Vela pulsar alpar81 . In the long favoured model for large glitches the observed spin-up is caused by the transfer of angular momentum from a superfluid that coexists with lattice nuclei in the inner crust (extending from neutron drip to $`2\times 10^{14}\mathrm{g}/\mathrm{cm}^3`$). This idea is based on the notion that the vortices by means of which the superfluid “rotates” can be pinned to the crust and therefore be prevented from moving outwards (and thus spinning the superfluid down) as the crust undergoes magnetic braking. Once sufficient strain between the two components has been built up the vortices undergo chaotic “unpinning” and a glitch occurs alpar81 . However, very recent observations of possible free precession in PSR B1828-11 stairs  seem to indicate a much lower degree of superfluid vortex pinning than is usually assumed in the glitch models jones . Thus the standard glitch model would seem to be in trouble and our need for an improved understanding of neutron star superfluidity and its astrophysical manifestation is amply illustrated.

“Gravitational-wave asteroseismology”. — The exciting possibility that gravitational waves from pulsating neutron stars may prove to be detectable, and that a knowledge of the various mode frequencies will provide strong constraints on the supranuclear equation of state has been discussed in a series of papers astero1 ; astero2 ; BCCS98 . However, the most recent estimates suggest that such a detection with (say) LIGO II requires mode-excitation to possibly unrealistic amplitudes astero2 . The most promising scenario corresponds to the various modes being excited following the formation of the neutron star after gravitational collapse. This could potentially lead to an energy equivalent to $`10^6M_{}c^2`$ being radiated as gravitational waves, and there is no obvious reason why a comparable energy should not be deposited in various nonradial modes of oscillation. But there are still two problems with this scenario: Firstly, the event rate would be rather low unless the waves from neutron stars born in the Virgo supercluster (at a distance of roughly 20 Mpc) can be seen (and this seems unlikely astero2 ). Secondly, it may be difficult to detect the associated gravitational waves even from events in our own galaxy should significantly less energy be radiated. Basically, the recent estimates suggest that the detectability of the waves using an advanced LIGO detector is likely to be marginal even from the most optimistic astrophysical scenarios. On the other hand, the possibility that such observations may help shed light on the true nature of matter at extreme densities provides strong motivation for pursuing work in this direction. It also seems likely that the first direct detection of gravitational waves will be the initial step towards a true revolution in the way that we view the Universe, leading to the development of detectors with significantly increased sensitivity. We feel that — as a new generation of detectors is about to come on-line — it is appropriate to speculate about future challenges for this field.

The various gravitational-wave detector groups are already discussing possible technological improvements that may be achievable in the future. As an example of a suitably advanced instrument we will take the so-called EURO detector, for which the noise-level has been estimated by Sathyaprakash and Schutz (for further details see euro ). We will consider two possible configurations: In the first, the sensitivity at high frequencies is limited by the photon shot-noise, while the second configuration reaches beyond this limit by running several narrowbanded (cryogenic) interferometers as a “xylophone”. The corresponding noise-curves are illustrated, and compared to the current generation of interferometers, in Figure 1.

By comparing the results of previous discussions of gravitational-wave asteroseismology to the data in Figure 1 we immediately see that a EURO detector would provide a superb instrument for studying pulsating neutron stars. This means that previously suggested strategies astero2  for unveiling the supranuclear equation of state may be put to the test. However, we want to be more ambitious than this. We also want to be able to infer the parameters of neutron star superfluidity and possibly shed light on the mechanism for pulsar glitches.

Superfluid neutron star seismology. — An ordinary fluid neutron star has a plethora of pulsation modes, the most familiar of which are the pressure p-modes (the fundamental of which is known as the f-mode) and the gravity g-modes. In addition to these families of modes, the non-zero shear modulus in the neutron star crust provides support for families of modes, the Coriolis force leads to the presence of the so-called r-modes in a rotating star et cetera (see vh80  for a concise description). Basically, each extra piece of physics of a detailed neutron star model brings (at least) one new family of non-radial modes into play. So what happens as the core of the star becomes superfluid?

In the simplest description, a superfluid neutron star core can be discussed in terms of two distinct fluids. One of these fluids represents the superfluid neutrons and the other fluid represents a charge-neutral conglomerate of the remaining components (which are expected to be coupled on a relatively short timescale). The fact that these two fluids — which we will refer to as the “neutrons” and the “protons” — can flow more or less independently provides one of the main distinguishing dynamical features of a superfluid neutron star. The neutrons and the protons are coupled via the so-called entrainment effect, whereby the momentum of one constituent carries along part of the mass of the other constituent (analogous to the way that the momentum of one of the constituents is thought to carry along (or entrain) some of the mass of the other in a mixture of the two superfluids Helium three and Helium four sfluid ). A superfluid is locally irrotational, but it mimics large-scale rotation by forming a dense array of quantized vortices. Because of the entrainment effect the flow of neutrons around these vortices will induce a flow also in a fraction of the protons. This leads to magnetic fields being attached to the vortices and because of the electromagnetic attraction of the electrons to the protons (the timescale of which is very short) there will then be a dissipative scattering of the electrons. This dissipative mechanism is known as mutual friction, and since it serves to damp out any relative motion between the neutrons and the protons it is expected to be relevant both for models of the spin-evolution of a pulsars als  and discussions of mode-oscillations lm00 .

However, the crucial parameters of neutron star superfluidity are not very well determined. For example, the strength of mutual friction depends crucially on the ratio between the “bare” and “effective” proton masses $`m_p`$ and $`m_p^{}`$. Estimates of this ratio suggest that $`0.3m_p^{}/m_p0.8`$. Clearly, any observation that could help determine this ratio (and constrain other relevant parameters) must be seen as an attractive proposition. This prompts the main question motivating this letter: Can gravitational-wave asteroseismology provide us with some of the desired answers? As a first step towards answering this question we need to understand the nature of the pulsation modes of a superfluid neutron star core, and the effect that entrainment has on the spectrum of the emerging gravitational waves.

In a recent study acpuls , aimed at comparing and contrasting oscillations of normal and superfluid neutron star cores, we have discussed this issue in detail. Briefly, our main conclusions are as follows: There are two sets of (predominately acoustic) pulsation modes in a superfluid core. Both mode-families are associated with high-frequency modes and the oscillation frequencies are interlaced in the spectrum. One set of modes is the familiar p-modes, for which the two fluids tend to move together. The other set of modes (exemplified by $`s_0`$ and $`s_1`$ in Table 1) is distinguished by the fact that the protons and neutrons are largely “countermoving”. The existence of these two classes of modes has been established in several studies, but their true nature and the relation to the normal fluid case has not been clearly explained previously. Of particular interest for our current discussion is the fact that the superfluid set of modes is strongly dependent on the entrainment parameters. From the relevant local dispersion relation (see acpuls  for a complete discussion) one finds that superfluid modes can be qualitatively represented by the following, approximate, solution for the local mode-frequency:

$$\omega _s^2\frac{m_p}{m_p^{}}\frac{l(l+1)}{r^2}c_p^2,$$
(1)
where $`c_p^2`$ is (roughly) the sound speed in the proton fluid, $`r`$ is the radial coordinate, and $`l`$ is the index of the relevant spherical harmonic $`Y_{lm}(\theta ,\phi )`$ used to describe the angular dependency of the mode. From this relation it is clear that an observation of these modes would provide potentially unique information regarding the nature of large scale superfluidity.

We have recently performed the first ever (fully relativistic) calculations of both frequency and damping rate of the oscillation modes of a superfluid neutron star acl . This calculation clearly distinguishes the two families of pulsation modes, and highlights the fact that the superfluid mode frequencies are strongly dependent on the parameters of entrainment (mainly the average value of the effective proton mass $`m_p^{}`$, cf. (1)). The first few mode-frequencies and the associated gravitational-wave damping times for one of our model stars are listed in Table 1. (We note in passing that some authors sed  have suggested that the superfluid modes will not radiate gravitational waves.) The given mode-results were obtained for a non-rotating stellar model and a simple equation of state corresponding to a combination of two polytropes. These results should provide a good “order of magnitude” insight into future results for realistic supranuclear equations of state. In particular, since most observed pulsars are slowly rotating (in the sense that they spin at a fraction of the mass-shedding limit) these results should be relevant for all but the fastest millisecond pulsars. Likewise, Mendell M91  has shown that two-fluid (neutron and proton) models of neutron star superfluidity (where magnetic fields, vortex pinning effects, etc. are ignored) are reasonable when the core matter oscillations are in the kilohertz range.

Unveiling the nature of pulsar glitches. — To what extent will future gravitational-wave observations be able to detect the various pulsation modes of a superfluid neutron star? Let us assume that a typical gravitational-wave signal from a neutron star pulsation mode takes the form of a damped sinusoidal, i.e.

$$h(t)=𝒜e^{(tT)/t_d}\mathrm{sin}[2\pi f(tT)]\text{ for }t>T$$
(2)
where $`T`$ is the arrival time of the signal at the detector (and $`h(t)=0`$ for $`t<T`$). Using standard results for the gravitational-wave flux astero2 , the amplitude $`𝒜`$ of the signal can be expressed in terms of the total energy radiated through the mode:

$$𝒜7.6\times 10^{24}\sqrt{\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }E_{}}{10^{12}}\frac{1\text{ s}}{t_d}}\left(\frac{1\text{ kpc}}{d}\right)\left(\frac{1\text{ kHz}}{f}\right).$$
(3)
where $`\mathrm{\Delta }E_{}=\mathrm{\Delta }E/M_{}c^2`$. Finally, the signal-to-noise ratio for this signal can be estimated from astero2

$$\left(\frac{S}{N}\right)^2=\frac{4Q^2}{1+4Q^2}\frac{𝒜^2t_d}{2S_n}$$
(4)
where the “quality factor” is $`Q=\pi ft_d`$ and $`S_n`$ is the spectral noise density of the detector (in Figure 1 we show the dimensionless strain $`\sqrt{f}S_n`$ for various detector configurations).

The main question here is: What amount of energy should one assume to be channeled through the various modes? In the previous studies it was assumed that as much as $`10^5M_{}c^2`$ could be radiated astero2 . However, this number is likely only relevant (if at all) for the oscillations of the remnant following a strongly asymmetric gravitational collapse. It is not useful for our present considerations since such a nascent neutron star will be hot (above $`10^{10}`$ K) enough for the core not to be superfluid. For a reasonable scenario, we turn to the indications that young neutron stars are seismically active. As a suitably simple model scenario we will assume that oscillations in the superfluid core are excited following a glitch. The released energy can then be estimated from

$$\mathrm{\Delta }EI\mathrm{\Omega }\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Omega }(10^610^8)I\mathrm{\Omega }^2$$
(5)
where $`\mathrm{\Omega }=2\pi /P`$. In this formula it is appropriate to use the moment of inertia $`I10^{45}`$ gcm2 of the entire star, since the spin-up incurred during the glitch remains on timescales that are much longer than the estimated coupling timescale between the crust and the core fluid. Using this formula, and the data for the Crab and Vela pulsars (see Table 2) we can estimate the energy associated with typical glitch events. (We note that these estimates are similar to ones already in the literature franco00 ; hart00 .)

Assume that a comparable amount of energy goes into exciting oscillations in the core superfluid. This is obviously ad hoc, but it provides a reasonable order-of-magnitude starting point for this kind of discussion. Using the spectral density estimated for the EURO detector we then readily estimate the associated signal-to-noise ratio from (4). The results of this exercise are listed in Tables 1-2. From this data we can see that the various modes would be marginally detectable given this level of excitation and a third generation detector limited by the photon shotnoise. But if this limit can be surpassed by configuring several narrowbanded interferometers as a xylophone, the achievable signal-to-noise ratio is excellent. Besides estimating the signal-to-noise ratio for the various oscillation modes for a given radiated energy, we can ask related questions relevant for the inverse problem. For example, we can confirm that the oscillation frequencies can be extracted with good accuracy from the data. This then enables us to distinguish clearly between the “normal fluid” f and p-modes and the superfluid s-modes. In other words, we would have the information required not only to infer the mass and radius of the star astero2 , we could also hope to constrain the parameters of neutron star superfluidity. In addition to providing this important information, these observations could provide a unique insight into the glitch mechanism itself since the multipolar structure of the excited modes reflects the symmetry (or lack thereof) of the triggering mechanism.

Issues. — This is a very exciting time for gravitational physics. The opening of a new window to the Universe may well lead to a fundamental change in the way that we view Nature. For example, it is generally expected that gravitational-wave observations will provide us with crucial information regarding the details of neutron star physics, eg. by constraining the supranuclear equation of state. Such information may to a certain extent be obtained by analysing signals from inspiraling neutron star binaries, see for example vall . As we have argued in this Letter an observation of the various modes of oscillation of (say) a glitching pulsar would provide a truly unique probe of the internal physics that could help improve our understanding of, in particular, large-scale superfluidity. The potential precision of this method easily surpasses other proposed methods for studying neutron star superfluidity, eg. by observed cooling data page00 . Of course, it seems likely that our proposed scheme requires the development of detectors with sensitivity beyond the goals set for the advanced LIGO configuration. However, it is clear that, even though the construction of a gravitational-wave detector with the sensitivity of EURO provides a serious challenge, a successful effort in this direction would be richly rewarded.

If we are to achieve this ambitious goal we must also make significant progress on the theoretical side. We need dynamical studies of general relativistic superfluid neutron stars comprising a crust in the outer parts and other possible exotic phases of matter in the core. We need to improve our understanding of the mechanisms that couple the various components of a realistic neutron star, and estimate the relevant coupling timescales. We need numerical simulations that investigate the extent to which the various oscillation modes are excited by plausible mechanisms. These, and related (eg. regarding rapidly spinning stars and possible mode-instabilities ak00 ), topics are tremendously exciting since they challenge our understanding of the very extremes of physics.

NA is a Philip Leverhulme Prize fellow supported by PPARC grant PPA/G/S/1998/00606. GLC was supported by a Saint Louis University SLU2000 Faculty Research Leave Award as well as a visiting fellowship from EPSRC in the UK via grant number GR/R52169/01.


text:
# Measurement of the Hadronic Photon Structure Function 𝐹₂^𝛾 at LEP2

## 1 Introduction

Much of the present knowledge of the structure of the photon has been obtained from measurements of deep-inelastic electron-photon scattering at $`\mathrm{e}^+\mathrm{e}^{}`$ colliders. With the high statistics and high electron energies at LEP2 it is possible to study $`F_2^\gamma `$ at $`Q^2>1000`$ $`\mathrm{GeV}^2`$ and to determine the evolution of $`F_2^\gamma `$ with the factorisation scale.

The determination of $`F_2^\gamma `$ uses the fact that the differential cross-section of the $`e\gamma `$ DIS reaction as a function of $`Q^2`$ and Bjorken $`x`$ is proportional to $`F_2^\gamma (x,Q^2)`$ . For finite $`Q^2`$ the absolute normalisation of $`F_2^\gamma `$ cannot be predicted by perturbative QCD and has to be determined from data, but its evolution with $`Q^2`$ is predicted by QCD to be logarithmic.

This analysis  is based on 632 $`\mathrm{pb}^1`$ of data taken by the OPAL detector in the years 1997–2000, with $`\mathrm{e}^+\mathrm{e}^{}`$ centre-of-mass energies ranging between 183 and 209 GeV. It extends the measurements of $`F_2^\gamma `$ as a function of $`x`$ up to $`Q^2=767`$ $`\mathrm{GeV}^2`$, and significantly improves on the precision of the measurement of the $`Q^2`$ evolution of $`F_2^\gamma `$.

## 2 Data selection

Three samples of events are studied in this analysis, classified according to the subdetector in which the scattered electron is observed. Electrons are tagged using the SW (33-55 mrad), FD (60-120 mrad) and EE (230-500 mrad) subdetectors. Events are selected by applying cuts on the energy and polar angle of the scattered electrons and on the invariant mass and multiplicity of the hadronic final state. An anti-tag condition is applied to ensure that the virtuality of the quasi-real photon is small. In addition, for the EE sample an isolation criterion is applied to the tagged electron.

The number of events passing the cuts is 27819, 11874 and 414 for the SW, FD and EE samples respectively. The data range in $`Q^2`$ from 7.1–2323 $`\mathrm{GeV}^2`$.

## 3 Results

The analysis presented here addresses two questions: first, the extension of the measurement of $`F_2^\gamma `$ as a function of $`x`$ to the highest possible value of $`Q^2`$ using the EE sample; and second, the evolution of $`F_2^\gamma `$ with $`Q^2`$ at medium values of $`x`$ based on all three samples.

Based on the $`x_{\mathrm{vis}}`$ distribution in each range of $`Q^2`$, the structure function $`F_2^\gamma `$ has been obtained from the data by unfolding. No attempt has been made in this analysis to access the region of $`x<0.1`$, so using a one dimensional unfolding on a linear scale in $`x`$ is appropriate, in contrast with the previous OPAL analysis of $`F_2^\gamma `$ . For this purpose the RUN program  has been used. To obtain the central values the HERWIG 5.9+$`k_\mathrm{t}`$(dyn)  program was used as the input Monte Carlo model to the unfolding.

After subtraction of background, the EE sample has been unfolded on a linear scale in $`x`$ using three bins in $`x`$ spanning the range $`0.10.98`$. Each data point is corrected for radiative effects using the RADEG program  and bin-centre corrections are applied. The result for $`F_2^\gamma /\alpha `$ is shown in Figure 1.

The evolution of $`F_2^\gamma `$ with $`Q^2`$ has been measured for several $`x`$ ranges using all three samples. Due to the large statistics the SW and FD samples are further split into two bins of $`Q^2`$. The data are unfolded separately in each bin of $`Q^2`$ and corrected for radiative effects. The results are shown in Figure 2.

The data in Figure 2(a) show positive scaling violations in $`F_2^\gamma `$ for the $`x`$ ranges 0.10–0.25 and 0.25–0.60, as predicted by QCD. For the range 0.60–0.85, within statistics, the data are compatible with scaling violations.

To quantify the slope for medium values of $`x`$, where data is available at all values of $`Q^2`$, a linear function of the form $`a+b\mathrm{ln}Q^2`$ has been fitted to the data in the region 0.10–0.60, Figure 2(b). For this investigation the EE sample is also divided into two regions in $`Q^2`$. The result of the fit is

$$F_2^\gamma (Q^2)/\alpha =(0.049\pm 0.021_{\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0.037}}^{+\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0.049}})+(0.139\pm 0.007_{\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0.013}}^{+\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0.009}})\mathrm{ln}Q^2,$$

where $`Q^2`$ is in $`\mathrm{GeV}^2`$. This is in agreement with the the previous OPAL value , and the errors on $`a`$ and $`b`$ have been strongly reduced.

Both for the measurement of $`F_2^\gamma `$ at $`Q^2=767`$ $`\mathrm{GeV}^2`$ and for the investigation of the $`Q^2`$ evolution of $`F_2^\gamma `$, the quark-parton model prediction is not in agreement with the data. It shows a much steeper rise than the data as a function of $`x`$ for $`Q^2=767`$ $`\mathrm{GeV}^2`$ and also a different behaviour in the $`Q^2`$ evolution. In contrast, the GRSc , SaS1D  and WHIT1  parameterisations of $`F_2^\gamma `$ are much closer to the data, with the WHIT1 prediction giving the best description of the data. This means that the corresponding parton distribution functions of the photon are adequate at large values of $`x`$ and at factorisation scales up to about 1000 $`\mathrm{GeV}^2`$.