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# ON THE ORIGIN OF LYMAN𝛼 BLOBS AT HIGH REDSHIFT: SUBMILLIMETRIC EVIDENCE FOR A HYPERWIND GALAXY AT 𝑧 = 3.1

## 1. INTRODUCTION

It was once thought that forming galaxies could be strong emission-line sources because a large number of massive stars cause the ionization of gas clouds in the forming galaxies (Partridge & Peebles 1967). Motivated by this idea, many attempts have been made to search for such very strong emission-line sources at high redshift, but most these searches failed (Pritchet 1994; Pahre & Djorgovski 1995; Thompson, Mannucci, & Beckwith 1996). However, for these past several years, Ly$`\alpha `$ emitters have been found around known high-$`z`$ objects such as quasars (Hu & McMahon 1996; Hu, McMahon, & Egami 1996; Petitjean et al. 1996; Hu, McMahon, & Cowie 1999). Further, a number of high-$`z`$ Ly$`\alpha `$ emitters have also been found in several blank sky areas (Pascarelle et al. 1996; Cowie & Hu 1998; Keel et al. 1999; Steidel et al. 2000). These recent surveys have reinforced the potential importance of search for high-$`z`$ Ly$`\alpha `$ emitters.

It is remarkable that two Ly$`\alpha `$ emitters found in Steidel et al. (2000) are observed to be very extended spatially, e.g., $``$ 100 kpc; we call these Ly$`\alpha `$ blobs LAB1 and LAB2. These two LABs are found at redshift $`z3.1`$ and show no evidence for the association with AGNsaaa Such extended Ly$`\alpha `$ blobs have been also found by Pascarelle et al. (1996) and Keel et al. (1999). However, since the three LABs found in K99 (53W 002, P96a Object 18, and P96a Object 19) are all strong C iv emitters (Pascarelle et al. 1996), it seems natural to conclude that they are photoionized by the central engine of active galactic nuclei (AGNs). Indeed, some powerful radio galaxies at high redshift have giant Ly$`\alpha `$ nebulae (Chambers, Miley, & van Bruegel 1990; van Ojik et al. 1996). We do not discuss these AGN-related Ly$`\alpha `$ blobs in this Letter.. Their observational properties are summarized as below (in this Letter, we adopt an Einstein-de Sitter cosmology with a Hubble constant $`H_0=100h`$ km s-1 Mpc-1); 1) the observed Ly$`\alpha `$ luminosities are $`10^{43}h^2`$ ergs s-1, 2) they appear elongated morphologically, 3) their sizes amount to $``$ 100 $`h^1`$ kpc, 4) the observed line widths amount to $`1000`$ km s-1, and 5) they are not associated with strong radio-continuum sources such as powerful radio galaxies.

As for the origin of the LABs, two alternative ideas have been proposed. One is that these LABs are superwinds driven by the initial starburst in galaxies because all the above properties as well as the observed frequency of LABs can be explained in terms of the superwind model (Taniguchi & Shioya 2000). Taniguchi & Shioya (2000) also discussed the evolutionary link from dust-enshrouded (or dusty) submillimeter sources (hereafter DSSs) to LABs because the central starburst region in a forming elliptical galaxy could be enshrouded by a lot of gas with dust grains. Their scenario is summarized as follows; Step I: The initial starburst occurs in the center of pregalactic gas cloud. Step II: This galaxy may be hidden by surrounding gas clouds for the first several times $`10^8`$ years (i.e., the DSS phase). Step III: The superwind blows and thus the DSS phase ceases. The superwind leads to the formation of extended emission-line regions around the galaxy (i.e., the LAB phase). This lasts for a duration of $`1\times 10^8`$ years. And, Step IV: The galaxy evolves to an ordinary elliptical galaxy $`10^9`$ years after the formation. This superwind model predicts that the LABs are bright at rest-frame far-infrared if they are high-redshift, luminous analogue of nearby superwind galaxies like Arp 220.

The other idea is that LABs are cooling radiation from proto-galaxies or dark matter halos (Haiman, Spaans, & Quataert 2000; Fardal et al. 2001; Fabian et al. 1986; Hu 1992). Standard cold dark matter models predict that a large number of dark matter halos collapse at high redshift and they can emit significant Ly$`\alpha `$ fluxes through collisional excitation of hydrogen. These Ly$`\alpha `$ emitting halos are also consistent with the observed linear sizes, velocity widths, and Ly$`\alpha `$ fluxes of the LABs. However, it is uncertain how much far infrared and submillimeter continuum emission can be emitted because little is known about the dust content and its spatial distribution in such dark matter halos.

Very recently LAB1 has been detected at submillimeter wavelengths (450 and 850 $`\mu `$m: Chapman et al. 2001); $`S`$(850 $`\mu `$m) = 20.1 $`\pm `$ 3.3 mJy and $`S`$(450 $`\mu `$m) = 76 $`\pm `$ 24 mJy. At the position of LAB1, one Lyman break galaxy denoted as C11 is found in the $`R`$ band image. A near-infrared (NIR) source is also found close to the center of LAB1 in the $`K`$ band image (Steidel et al. 2000) (hereafter the source K). If we adopt the superwind model of Taniguchi & Shioya (2000), the source K is the most probable host galaxy giving rise to LAB1 as the relic of its superwind.

## 2. THE SPECTRAL ENERGY DISTRIBUTION OF LYMAN $`\alpha `$ BLOB 1

In Figure 1, we show the observed SED of LAB1. In this Figure, we show the optical and NIR photometric data for both the source K and C11 are shown. The submillimeter source detected at LAB1 appears indeed coincident with the central Ly$`\alpha `$ knot of LAB1 and this Ly$`\alpha `$ peak has the $`K`$-band counterpart, the source K (Chapman et al. 2001). Therefore, the source K is the most likely host galaxy of the submillimeter sources rather than C11.

For comparison, we show SEDs of Arp 220, NGC 6240, and SMM 02399$``$0136, all of which are corrected as observed at $`z`$ = 3.1. Arp 220 is one of typical superwind galaxies in the local universe (Heckman, Armus, & Miley 1987, 1990) and its infrared luminosity ($`L_{\mathrm{IR}}L_{81000\mu m}`$) exceeds $`10^{12}L_{}`$; i.e., a ultraluminous infrared galaxy (ULIG: Sanders et al. 1988; Sanders & Mirabel 1996); $`L_{\mathrm{IR}}`$(Arp 220) = $`1.5\times 10^{12}L_{}`$ with a Friedman universe with a Hubble constant of $`H_0`$ = 75 km s-1 Mpc-1. NGC 6240 is a luminous infrared galaxy in the local universe with evidence for an AGN (Iwasawa 1999). SMM 02399$``$0136 is a hyperluminous infrared galaxy with evidence for an AGN at $`z=2.8`$ (Ivison et al. 1998). The observed SED of LAB1 is quite similar to that of Arp 220 although LAB1 is more luminous by a factor of 30 than Arp 220bbb If we adopt a cosmology with $`H_0`$ = 70 km s-1 Mpc-1, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{m}=0.3`$, and $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }=0.7`$, LAB1 is more luminous by a factor of 20 than Arp 220.. The SEDs of both NGC 6240 and SMM 02399$``$0136 appear different from that of LAB1 in that they are brighter than LAB1 at rest-frame UV and optical ranges. The observed $`S`$(450 $`\mu `$m)/$`S`$(850 $`\mu `$m) ratio (3.8 $`\pm `$ 1.2) implies that the dust temperature is $`T_{\mathrm{dust}}`$ 40 K if the source is located at $`z3`$ (Chapman et al. 2001; Blain 1999). Indeed, Scoville et al. (1991) estimated $`T_{\mathrm{dust}}`$ 47 K for Arp 220, being consistent with the above prediction.

The comparison of SEDs shown in Figure 1 suggests strongly that LAB1 is a very bright infrared galaxy. Since its infrared luminosity is higher by a factor of 30 than that of Arp 220, we obtain $`L_{\mathrm{IR}}`$(LAB1) $`4.5\times 10^{13}L_{}`$. Therefore, LAB1 can be regarded as a hyperluminous infrared galaxy or a hyperwind galaxy at $`z=3.1`$.

## 3. DISCUSSION

Here we consider why LAB1 is so luminous at submillimeter wavelengths when compared to Arp 220. Although Arp 220 shows evidence for the superwind activity, it is considered that ultraluminous starbursts have been going on for $`10^8`$ yr (e.g., Taniguchi, Trentham, & Shioya 1998). Furthermore, $``$ 50% of the bolometric luminosity is hidden by a large amount of dust grains (Shioya, Trentham, & Taniguchi 2001). This implies that the majority of the central energy sources are still covered by a cocoon of dust grains and thus Arp 220 is a ULIG with evidence for the superwind activity. Therefore, it is suggested that intense star formation is still in progress in the heart of LAB1, although massive stars formed in earlier evolutionary phases have already exploded as Type II supernovae, giving rise to the formation of the observed extended Ly$`\alpha `$ nebula of LAB1. If the origin of LAB1 is attributed to the cooling radiation from proto-galaxies or dark matter halos, dust grains would be associated with distributed star formation and thus the SED of LAB1 cannot be similar to that of Arp 220.

It is known that Arp 220 has a lot of molecular gas of $`10^{10}M_{}`$ (Sanders et al. 1988; Scoville et al. 1991; Scoville, Yun, & Bryant 1997). Since LAB1 appears to be a scaled-up version of Arp 220, it is expected that the gas mass of LAB1 may exceed $`10^{11}M_{}`$, being higher than that of a quasar host of BR 1202$``$0725 at $`z=4.7`$ (Ohta et al. 1996; Omont et al. 1996). The submillimeter detection of LAB1 implies that a large amount of dust grains are already present in this source and thus significant flux from CO molecules will be detected in the existing millimetric radio telescope facilities.

The superwind model for LAB1 suggests that LAB1 is a weak X-ray emitter. Scaling the X-ray data of Arp 220 (Iwasawa 1999), we estimate a rest-frame 2 - 10 keV flux of LAB1 (0.49 - 2.44 keV in the observed frame) as $`1.22\times 10^{18}`$ ergs s-1 cm-2 for a Friedman cosmology with $`H_0`$ = 75 km s-1 Mpc-1 or $`1.74\times 10^{18}`$ ergs s-1 cm-2 for a cosmology with $`H_0`$ = 70 km s-1 Mpc-1, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{m}=0.3`$, and $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }=0.7`$. If this is the case, LAB1 will not be detected in the X-ray even using Chandra (e.g., Mushotzky et al. 2000; Giacconi et al. 2001; Tozzi et al. 2001).

Although a large number of submillimeter sources have been found for these past several years (Smail, Ivison, & Blain 1997; Hughes et al. 1998; Barger et al. 1998; Eales et al. 1999), it is known that submillimeter sources at high redshift are heterogeneous (Ivison et al. 2000). However, if we miss a number of hyperwind galaxies such as LAB1 in the previous surveys, we could underestimate the star-formation rate at high redshift. In order to elucidate the cosmic star-formation history unambiguously (Hughes et al. 1998; Madau et al. 1996), it will be important to carry out deep imaging surveys with narrow-band filters for such submillimeter sources.

We would like to thank an anonymous referee for useful suggestions and comments. YS is a JSPS fellow. This work was financially supported in part by the Ministry of Education, Science, and Culture (Nos. 10044052, and 10304013).


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# Femtosecond data storage, processing and search using collective excitations of a macroscopic quantum state.

## Abstract

An ultrafast paralell data processor is described in which amplitude mode excitations of a charge density wave (CDW) are used to encode data on the surface of a 1-$`T`$ TaS2 crystal. The data are written, manipulated and read using parallel femtosecond laser pulse beams, and the operation of a database search algorithm is demonstrated on a 2-element array.

Recently it was shown that the collective amplitude mode (AM) oscillations of a charge-density wave state (CDW) can be detected in real time in the quasi one-dimensional semiconductor K0.3MoO3 by femtosecond time-resolved pump probe experiments. In these experiments, the AM is first excited by an ultrashort laser pump pulse which acts as a $`\delta `$function-like perturbation, and the resulting reflectivity oscillations due to the modulation of the dielectric constant by an AM oscillation are detected by suitably delayed probe pulses.

In the experiments presented in this letter, we demonstrate the feasibility of using the collective AM excitation of a CDW in combination with femtosecond-pulse laser beams to represent data written on the surface of a $`1T`$-TaS2 crystal. We also proceed to perform basic data processing such as storage, manipulation and readout operations. Because of the macroscopic nature of the excitation, the operations can be performed at temperatures approaching 200K with subpicosecond switching and readout times. Finally we demonstrate a parallel search operation using a single pulse.

1T-TaS2 is a layered nearly two-dimensional metal at room temperature, which undergoes a transition to a CDW state driven by a Fermi surface instability at $`2k_F`$ ($`k_F`$ is the Fermi wavevector) at transition temperatures near $`T_c200`$K. The macroscopic CDW state is characterised by two collective excitations: the collective amplitude (AM) and phason modes (PM), which are described by the solutions of the quantum-mechanical Fröhlich Hamiltonian. Importantly from the point of view of data processing, the AM decay time in this system is quite long, $`\tau _p`$ $`>10`$ ps. Since this is almost two orders of magnitude longer than the time necessary to excite the mode $`\tau _s`$ ($`100`$ fs), it gives us the opportunity to store data (in the form of phase and amplitude of the AM) and also manipulate the AM database in real-time with femtosecond laser pulses.

In what follows we first demonstrate the manipulation of the AM amplitude and phase using different laser pulse sequences, an approach similar to coherent control of coherent optical phonons performed on GaAs and GaAs/AlAs superlattices , Bi films  and on crystalline quartz . We demonstrate switching of the AM on and off at will, and show that we can set and detect the phase and amplitude of the AM to a significant degree of accuracy. In effect, we show that the collective amplitude mode excitation can be used as a switchable THz optical modulator whose amplitude and phase can be controlled by laser pulses. In the second step we demonstrate the operation of a search algorithm with a single-query parallel search on multiple cells defined by multiple laser spots on the sample.

A schematic experimental setup is shown in Figure 1. A stream of $`80`$ fs pulses from a Ti:Sapphire laser at a wavelength of 800 nm is split into a number of beams by Michaelson interferometers in which the time-delay (TD)$`\mathrm{\Delta }t`$ between the pulses in different arms can be controlled to sub-femtosecond precision. In the standard experimental configuration, one or more pulse trains are incident on a spot on the surface of the crystal (a cell), with which the amplitude and phase of the AM is written or changed, while a strongly attenuated readout pulse beam is used to determine the state of the cells by measurement of the reflectivity modulations as a function of time. The experimental details have been described elsewhere.

The reflectivity modulation $`\psi =\mathrm{\Delta }R/R`$ at the surface of the crystal caused by a laser pump pulse at $`t=0`$ is shown in Figure 2a) (trace A). Typically, the signal can be described by a function of the form $`\psi (t,T)=A(t)\mathrm{exp}[i\omega _A(T)t+\varphi ]+B\mathrm{exp}[t/\tau _s].`$ The first term describes the AM oscillations, and the second term is the contribution from single-particle relaxations. The amplitude of the AM decay is well approximated by an exponential function $`A(t)=A_0\mathrm{exp}[t/\tau _p]`$ where $`\tau _p`$ is the AM decay time. We have found that by tuning the laser wavelength near 800 nm, we can extinguish the second term almost entirely, so that only the AM contribution is observed as shown in Figure 2a). The frequency $`\omega _A(T)`$ is temperature dependent, as shown in Fig. 2b) which agrees well with previous Raman measurements. The discrete Fourier transform (FT) of $`\psi `$ in trace A is shown in Fig. 2c). Apart from the AM at $`\omega _A=2.42`$ THz, two additional peaks are present, at 2.1 THz and 3.9 THz. These are attributed to coherent phonon oscillations and are not of interest to us at present.

In Figure 2a) (trace B) we also show the time-evolution of the AM after the application of a 2-pulse sequence (whose timing is indicated by arows). The first pulse sets up the AM oscillatory state with $`\varphi =0`$. The second pulse is set to have equal amplitude, but is delayed with respect to the first pulse such that its phase is shifted by $`\pi `$ with respect to the first pulse, i.e. $`\mathrm{\Delta }t=\varphi =[2n+1]\pi /\omega _A`$. We see that after the $`\pi `$ pulse in trace B the amplitude of the AM oscillations is significantly reduced. From the FT of signal B for $`t>2`$ ps (shown in Figure 2c) it is evident that the amplitude of the AM is reduced by more than 90%, while the remaining signal contains significant contributions of the coherent phonon oscillations at 2.1 and 3.9 THz, and of course noise. From the point of view of data manipulation and computation, we see that the AM has been effectively reset by the $`\pi `$ laser pulse. Considering the fact that no spatial or temporal pulse shaping or amplitude matching has been performed in these experiments, the efficiency of this process is quite remarkable.

Similarly, we find that if the second pulse delay is set to be in phase with the first pulse $`(\mathrm{\Delta }t=\varphi =2n\pi /\omega _A),`$ the amplitude is approximately doubled at $`t=\varphi `$ by the second pulse, and the total AM amplitude is $`A=A_1+A_2`$. This demonstration shows that $`A`$ and $`\varphi `$ can be manipulated by the application of an appropriate laser pulse sequence and allows any arbitrary superposition of states $`\psi `$ to be represented.

For the purpose of performing data processing operations, we can divide the surface of the crystal into a set of $`N=1\mathrm{}j`$ discrete cells. Since the frequency $`\omega _A(T)`$ of the AM is temperature dependent (Fig.2), we can set the frequency of different cells with different $`\omega _j`$ by adjusting the temperature of each cell. (This can be done with a temperature gradient along the $`x`$ axis for example). This facilitates a tomographic reconstruction of the database whereby different cells can be uniquely identified by their frequency, and a Fourier transform (FT) of the readout probe pulse which covers the entire array of cells simultaneously gives directly the amplitude (and phase) of each cell. In effect it gives a 1-dimensional projection of $`A`$ and $`\varphi `$ along the $`x`$ axis.

To implement a database search, we follow an operation sequence, which is similar to a sequence given by Grover invented for the case of a quantum search. A database search operation is performed in two steps preceeded by a setting up operation. First the amplitude $`A_j`$and phase $`\varphi _j`$ of each cell is set up by an appropriately timed ”write” laser pulse $`𝐖.`$ This sets up the database $`\mathrm{\Psi }`$ such that the information in cell $`j`$ with frequency $`\omega _j`$ is represented by $`A_j`$ and $`\varphi _j.`$ Since the time to perform the entire sequence of operations $`t_0\tau ,`$ we assume that the amplitude is time independent $`A_j(t)A_j`$ and the reflectivity of each cell is thus given by$`\psi _j=A_j\mathrm{exp}[i\omega _jt+\varphi _j].`$ The database is set up such that one item is marked by setting its phase to be $`\varphi =\pi ,`$ while the unmarked cells have $`\varphi =0.`$

The next step is to apply $`𝚷`$ pulse on the entire array simultaneously, which amplifies the set item and suppresses the rest. In our example this is given by a properly timed laser pulse on the entire array, such that $`\mathrm{\Delta }t=(2n+1)\pi /\omega _0,`$ where $`\omega _0`$ is the center frequency of the array. The result is that the amplitude of the marked cell is doubled, while the rest are suppressed. The reflectivity modulations due to the entire array of cells is then read out by a pulse beam $`R,`$ which covers the entire array. Thus the data encoded in the surface of the crystal in cells $`1\mathrm{}j`$ is transferred to the reflected readout beam whose intensity is proportional to $`\mathrm{\Psi }=_jA_j\mathrm{exp}[i\omega _jt+\varphi _j]`$ and contains all the phase and amplitude information stored in the array, which can be displayed by a Fourier transform of $`\mathrm{\Psi }.`$

Here we limit ourselves to a two-element array $`(N=2),`$ which is sufficient to effectively demonstrate the principle of operation. The first cell is heated with a continuous wave argon laser, while the second is not, so that the heated and unheated cells have frequencies of $`\omega _1=2.38`$ and $`\omega _2=2.42`$ THz respectively.

A write pulse $`𝐖`$ first excites the array, with $`\varphi _1=0`$ for cell 1 and $`\varphi _2=\pi `$ for cell 2. The signal $`\psi _i`$ in the two cells following the operation $`𝐖\mathrm{\Psi }`$ is shown in Figure 3a). After $`\mathrm{\Delta }t=2n\pi =2.09`$ ps (corresponding to $`n=5`$) we apply a $`𝚷`$ pulse. The Fourier components $`𝐅(\omega )`$ at $`\omega _1`$ and $`\omega _2`$ before and after the $`\mathrm{\Pi }`$ pulse are shown in Fig.3b). The amplitude is obtained by a fit to the data to $`\mathrm{\Psi }=\psi _1+\psi _2=A_1\mathrm{cos}[\omega _1t+\varphi _1]+A_2\mathrm{cos}[\omega _2t+\varphi _2]`$. From the data shown in Figures 3a) and b) we see that the amplitude of $`\psi _1`$ is approximately doubled, while the amplitude of $`\psi _2`$ is extinguished, which, if applied to a larger array, would amount to amplifying the set item and suppressing the rest. The identification of the set item thus takes place in a single step. Clearly if $`N>2`$, application of the same procedure would still yield the same result in a single step, as long as there is only one set item in the database. The same search algorithm is also applicable when more than one item is marked, and the amount of information stored in each cell is limited by the resolution with which the amplitude and phase can be read out. For a practically useful system, to increase $`N`$ it would be more practical encode the data 2-dimensionally by using position rather than frequency to identify each cell, enhancing the inherent parallelism of the processor. The crystal surface is then divided into a 2D array, where the cells can be constructed of arbitrary size, the lower limit being set by the coherence length of the CDW system, $`\xi 10`$ nm. With some adaptation, the optical elements presently in use for temporal and spatial shaping of ultrashort optical pulses , can then be used to control the timing of the incident 2D array of pulses.

To conclude, the demonstrated ultrafast coherent-control data processor and storage device using amplitude mode excitations of a CDW is still far from a practical device. However, the parallel processing scheme using a CDW system effectively demonstrates a conceptually new approch to ultrafast optical data processing.

Figure 1 A schematic diagram of the experiments. The pulse timing is controlled by variable time-delay units (Michaelson interferometers) TD$`_i.`$ M is a high-frequency acousto-optic modulator.

Figure 2 (a) The induced reflectivity $`\psi =\mathrm{\Delta }R(t)/R`$ of the AM as a function of time $`t`$ after excitation (trace A). The figure shows the raw data. Trace B represents the reflecivity oscillations for a 2-pulse sequence. The timing of the second pulse is adjusted so that $`\mathrm{\Delta }t=(2n+1)\pi /\omega _A`$ (a $`\pi `$ pulse). (b) The $`T`$-dependence of $`\omega _A`$. (c) The discrete Fourier transforms of $`\psi _A`$ and $`\psi _B`$ for $`t>2.09`$ ps shown in a). The component at $`\omega _A`$ is nearly extinguished by the application of the $`\pi `$ pulse.

Figure 3 (a) a real-time display of the parallel search algorithm for a 2-cell array. $`𝐖`$ sets up the AM oscillation with $`\varphi _1=0`$ in cell 1 and $`\varphi _2=\pi `$ in cell 2 at 2.38 and 2.42 THz respectively with equal amplitudes. The operation $`𝚷`$ amplifies the set data item (in cell 2) while suppressing the amplitude in cell 1. The sum amplitude $`\mathrm{\Psi }`$ is shown in the bottom trace.

(b) The Fourier amplitudes $`F_i(\omega ),`$ and phase $`\varphi _i`$ (expressed both in terms of phase and time-delay) before and after the $`𝚷`$ pulse are shown in the left and right panels respectively. After the $`𝚷`$ pulse, the set item (in cell 2) is amplified, while the contents (AM amplitude) of cell 1 are supressed.


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# A calorimetric test for Kerr black holes in gamma-ray bursts

## 1 Introduction

Gravitation is a vital and universal force in Nature. It ultimately leads to black holes as fundamental particles according to the Einstein theory of general relativity. These objects could be the source of cosmological gamma-ray bursts (GRBs) - the most enigmatic events in the Universe. Their emissions are characteristically non-thermal in the few hundred keV range with a bi-modal distribution in durations, of short bursts around 0.3s and long bursts around 30s(Kouveliotou, 1993). These probably derive from dissipation of the kinetic energy in ultrarelativistic baryon poor jets (see Piran (1998) for a review). Redshift determinations from the X-ray afterglows to long bursts indicate a cosmological origin, consistent with their isotropic distribution in the sky and $`<V/V_{max}>`$ distinctly less than the Euclidean value of 1/2 (Schmidt, 1999). They are probably associated with the formation of young massive stars (Paczyński, 1998; Bloom et al., 2000) and, hence, should be most frequent at a redshift of about two. Remnants of GRBs are potentially found in some of the soft X-ray transients (Brown et al., 2000), with notable candidates GRO J1655-40 (Israelian et al., 1999) and V4645 (Orosz et al., 2001).

The inner engine producing the GRBs should be energetic and compact. Angular momentum forms a canonical energy reservoir, and GRB inner engines are probably no exception. This is consistent with breaking of spherical symmetry (Woosley, 1993). Hypernovae, then, follow up on this idea by postulating massive young stars in binaries as their progenitors (Paczyński, 1998). These proposals have in common the formation of a black hole, which should be rotating (Bardeen, 1970) by conservation of angular momentum from the progenitor star and its binary motion. Black holes formed in prompt collapse, furthermore, are subject to a minimum mass of the order of $`10M_{}`$ (van Putten & Ostriker, 2001) consistent with the observed masses of $`314M_{}`$ in SXTs. We note that high angular momentum is also present in coalescing black hole-neutron star systems. Encysting rotating black holes as the baryon-free energy source in GRBs is perhaps tantamount to understanding how do stars shine.

According to the Kerr solution of rotating black holes (Kerr, 1963), the horizon surface encloses baryonic matter collapsed under its own gravitational forces, while leaving rotational energy accessible by the Rayleigh criterion. The latter is a consequence of the first law of thermodynamics (Bardeen et al., 1973; Hawking, 1975, 1976),

$`\delta M=\mathrm{\Omega }_H\delta J_H+T_H\delta S_H,`$ (1)
where $`\mathrm{\Omega }_H1/2M`$ denotes the angular velocity of the black hole of mass $`M`$, $`J_H`$ its angular momentum, $`T_H`$ and $`S_H`$ its surface temperature and entropy, respectively. The specific angular momentum $`\delta J_H/\delta M`$ of a radiated particle, therefore, is at least twice that of the black hole itself. In isolation, rotating black holes are effectively non-radiating due to angular momentum barriers (Unruh, 1974; Hawking, 1975; Teukolsky, 1973; Press, 1973; Teukolsky & Press, 1974). However, a surrounding torus may trigger a rotating black hole into violent activity (see van Putten (2001a) for a review) – perhaps epitomized in GRBs.

Identifying Kerr black holes as the active nucleus in GBRs may derive from its three defining properties:
1. a compact horizon surface, which causally separates collapsed matter from its progenitor surroundings. The black hole is expected to represent the final outcome of stellar evolution, formed in accretion induced collapse of a neutron star, white dwarf or, alternatively, in prompt collapse. This may produce black holes of intermediate spin in the former (Brown et al., 1999, 2000), and black holes with rapid spin and above a certain mass threshold in the latter (van Putten & Ostriker, 2001).
2. frame-dragging of space-time in violation with Mach’s principle, in the sense of a correspondence of zero angular velocity relative to the distant stars with zero angular momentum. A rotating black hole introduces differential rotation in space-time described by frame-dragging $`\beta `$, equal to the angular velocity $`\mathrm{\Omega }_H`$ of the black hole on the horizon and zero at infinity. Upon reaching the north pole, a ballarina rotating with angular velocity $`\beta `$ relative to the distant stars will find her arms naturally pointed down, while one standing still will find her arms spread out.
3. a compact energy reservoir of up to one-third of the total mass of the black hole. Rotation of a Kerr black hole may be parametrized by $`\mathrm{sin}\lambda =a/M`$, where $`a`$ denotes the specific angular momentum $`J_H/M`$ for an angular momentum $`J_H`$ and mass $`M`$. This gives $`\mathrm{\Omega }_H=\mathrm{tan}(\lambda /2)/2M`$ and $`E_{rot}=2M\mathrm{sin}^2(\lambda /4)`$ for the angular velocity and rotational energy of a Kerr black hole, respectively. Thus, the rotational energy may reach about 29% of the total mass of the black hole. This has no counterpart in baryonic matter. About one-half of the rotational energy is stored in the upper ten percent of the angular velocity of a maximally spinning black hole.

The first two properties – a compact horizon and frame-dragging – are potentially the driving agency behind the formation of a macroscopic gap with ultrarelativistic baryon poor outflows along open magnetic field-lines (van Putten, 2001a, c), serving as the input to GRB/afterglows. These field-lines find their support in an equilibrium magnetic moment of the black hole in its lowest energy state as a consequence of the no-hair theorem, when surrounded by a torus magnetosphere. The latter is expected to be supported by a disk or torus, from fallback matter in failed supernovae/hypernovae (Woosley, 1993; Paczyński, 1998) or debris of a neutron star upon tidal break-up (Paczyński, 1991).

Establishing the third property requires calorimetry on the output from GRBs in all energy channels. For long bursts from rapidly spinning black holes (van Putten & Ostriker, 2001), discussed here, we expect a high incidence of the black hole luminosity onto the inner face of the surrounding disk or torus by equivalence in poloidal topology to pulsar magnetospheres (van Putten, 1999). Firstly, this output into the disk or torus may be processed into several channels, powering gravitational waves, Poynting-flux dominated winds and, when sufficiently hot, neutrino emissions. Indeed, evidence for appreciable energy output from the spin of the black hole into the disk may already be found in chemical depositions onto the companion star of GRO J1655-40 and V4641Sgr, in the hypernovae proposed by Brown et al. (2000). Secondly, this output may be representative for the total output of the black hole, being at least two order of magnitudes more luminous (van Putten & Levinson, 2001) than the true output of $`35\times 10^{50}`$ergs in GRB/afterglows (Frail et al., 2001; Panaitescu & Kumar, 2001; Piran et al., 2001). Thus, GRBs could be merely the tip of the iceberg, being accompanied by as yet “unseen” emissions such as in gravitational waves, whose fluence may reach about 1% of the mass of the black hole(van Putten, 2001b). Therefore, the upcoming Laser Interferometric Gravitational Wave Observatory LIGO (Abramovici et al., 1992) and their French-Italian counter part VIRGO (Bradaschia et al., 1992) promise a new avenue for calorimetry on the energy reservoir in GRBs, and possibly that of rotating black holes.

The association between the fluence in gravitational waves from a torus and the spin-energy of a central black hole is described in §2. A compactness measure for the observed fluence and frequency in gravitational waves is proposed in §3, which may serve to discriminate black hole-torus systems from rapidly rotating neutron stars. We shall use geometrical units, expressing energy $`E`$ in terms of the equivalent gravitational radius $`EG/c^2=1.5\times 10^5\text{cm}(E/M_{}c^2)`$, where $`G`$ denotes Newton’s constant and $`c`$ the velocity of light, and frequency $`f`$ in terms of $`f/c`$. For example, in these units luminosity is dimensionless, given as a rate of change of energy \[cm\] per unit of time \[cm\].

## 2 Proposed source of gravitational radiation from a torus around a black hole

Long/short GRBs may be associated with a state of suspended-/hyperaccretion onto the black hole (van Putten & Ostriker, 2001). A suspended-accretion state lasts as long as the black hole spins rapidly, whereas the disk around a slowly rotating black hole evolves by magnetic regulated hyperaccretion towards a finite-time singularity. A bi-modal distribution of duration occurs, when the ratio of disk mass to torus mass is small. The suspended accretion state operates by equivalence in poloidal topology to pulsar magnetospheres (van Putten, 1999; Brown et al., 2001): the inner face of the torus receives energy and angular momentum from the black hole as does a pulsar when infinity wraps around it (van Putten, 2001c). Gravitational radiation may be produced in black hole-torus systems as the torus develops non-axisymmetric instabilities. With forementioned association to GRBs, this features several aspects which suggest considering long GRBs as LIGO/VIRGO sources: the torus is strongly coupled to the spin-energy of the black hole; lumpiness in the torus will produce gravitational radiation at twice the Keplerian angular frequency, i.e., in the range of 1-2kHz; gravitational radiation should dominate over emissions in radio waves; the true rate of GRBs should be frequent given their beaming factor of a few hundred (Frail et al., 2001; Panaitescu & Kumar, 2001; Piran et al., 2001). Powered by the spin-energy of the black hole, these emissions are different from radiation produced during spiral in of neutron-neutron star binaries (Narayan et al., 1992; Kochanek & Piran, 1993) or fragmentation in collapse towards supernovae (Bonell, 1995).

Non-axisymmetries in the torus are expected from dynamical and, potentially, radiative instabilities. This can be described by a lumpiness $`m`$, which introduces a luminosity according to the Peters & Mathews’ formula for quadrupole radiation from two point masses (Peters & Mathews, 1963)

$`={\displaystyle \frac{32}{5}}\left(\omega \right)^{10/3}F(e){\displaystyle \frac{32}{5}}\left(M/R\right)^5\left(m/M\right)^2`$ (2)
where $`\omega M^{1/2}/R^{3/2}`$ denotes the orbital frequency with separation $`R`$, $`=(M_1M_2)^{3/5}/(M_1+M_2)^{1/5}M(m/M)^{5/3}`$ the chirp mass and $`F(e)`$ a factor of order unity as a function of the ellipticity $`e`$. The torus may be thick, consistent with the recent indication that long GRBs may be standard (van Putten & Levinson, 2001), which is generally susceptible to the Papaloizou-Pringle instability (Papaloizou & Pringle, 1985). A massive torus, reaching an appreciable fraction of the mass of the black hole, would further be unstable to self-gravity (Woodward et al., 1994). Non-axisymmetries might also be promoted by gravitational radiation, as in the Chandrasekhar-Friedman-Schutz instability, or by its action preferentially on lumps of matter on inner orbits. Gravitational wave-emissions thus produced could be quasi-periodic (QPO), perhaps reminiscent of QPOs in X-ray binaries and possibly also related to general relatistic effects in orbital motions (Stella, 2000).

We find that about one-third of the black hole-luminosity $`L_H`$ (most of which is incident onto the torus) is re-radiated into gravitational waves (van Putten, 2001b):

$`L_{gw}L_H/3`$ (3)
(the fraction on the right hand-side may range from 1/4 to 1/2). For a maximally spinning black hole, therefore, the fluence in gravitational radiation may reach about one-third the rotational energy of the black hole, times the efficiency factor given by the ratio of the angular velocity $`\mathrm{\Omega }_T`$ of the torus to that of the central rotator. For a torus of radius $`R`$ around a maximally spinning Kerr black hole of mass $`M`$, the latter is given by (Shapiro & Teukolsky, 1983)

$`\mathrm{\Omega }_T/\mathrm{\Omega }_H=2/[(R/M)^{3/2}+1].`$ (4)
Hence, by (2-4), the characteristic mass $`m`$ of lumpiness in the torus is required to be

$`m0.15\%M(R/3M)^{7/4}`$ (5)
for a canonical burst duration of 15s (of long bursts). This estimate is consistent with condition that the perturbation $`m`$ is much less than the mass $`M_T`$ of the torus, while $`M_T<<M`$ for there to be a bi-modal distribution. Note that the efficiency (4) will be less than 50% for a torus radius $`R>2M`$, showing that generally most of the rotational energy is dissipated in the horizon of the black hole. Since 90% of the rotational energy of a maximally spinning black hole is contained in the upper 10% of its angular velocity, a black hole-torus system is not expected to evolve significantly during most of its gravitational wave emissions.

## 3 Compactness parameter for bursts of gravitational radiation

We propose a compactness parameter for gravitational wave-emissions by integration of the frequency $`f`$ against fluence:

$`\alpha =2\pi {\displaystyle _0^E}f𝑑E`$ (6)
for a net fluence $`E`$. An equivalent expression is the integration of the luminosity $``$ against the number of periods $`n`$, i.e., $`\alpha =2\pi _0^T(t)𝑑n(t)`$ over the duration $`T`$ of the burst. The measure (6) is reminiscent of the ratio of the rotational energy $`E_{rot}`$ to the length scale $`M`$ of black hole. Indeed, $`\alpha 2\pi E/L`$ for a system of size $`L`$ close to its Schwarzschild radius, whose fundamental angular frequency is of order $`2\pi /L`$. In geometric units, $`\alpha `$ is dimensionless.

For a black hole-torus system, (6) becomes

$`\alpha 2\pi Ef`$ (7)
upon neglecting secular evolution while the black hole continues to spin rapidly. For a maximally spinning black hole, (3) shows that $`E`$ may reach about one-third the rotational energy of the black hole, times the efficiency factor (4). Hence, we have

$`\alpha {\displaystyle \frac{4}{9}}[(R/M)^{3/2}+1]^20.0050.05,`$ (8)
where $`R=(24)\times M`$ denotes a fiducial range of torus radii, corresponding formally to $`f=1.12.5`$kHz for $`M=7M_{}`$.

Gravitational radiation from a neutron star is commonly expected in its early stages of formation. In the approximatation of a neutron star of uniform mass density, rotation about centrifugal break-up gives the upper bound

$`\alpha ^{}={\displaystyle \frac{4}{15}}M_{ns}R_{ns}^2\mathrm{\Omega }_{ns}^3={\displaystyle \frac{4}{15}}(M_{ns}/R_{ns})^{5/2}0.005`$ (9)
for a canonical value $`M_{ns}/R_{ns}1/5`$ of the mass-to-radius ratio of a neutron star. The true value of $`\alpha ^{}`$ may be somewhat less by an (uncertain) efficiency factor and extremal angular velocities below the Newtonian bound $`M_{ns}^{1/2}/R_{ns}^{3/2}`$.

## 4 Calorimetric test for Kerr black holes

Gravitational wave-emissions from a black hole-torus system may be discriminated from those by a neutron star through the test

$`\alpha >\alpha ^{}`$ (10)
The estimates (8,9) show that (10) tends to be satisfied whenever the black hole-torus system is more compact than a neutron star. Here, compactness is now re-expressed in terms of a mass-to-radius ratio: the black hole mass to the radius of the torus in the former, and the neutron star mass to its radius in the latter case.

Applying the test (10) requires the distance to the source in deriving the fluence from the observed strain amplitude. This may be circumvented using a sample of detections, and taking averages to consider

$`\overline{\alpha }>\alpha ^{}`$ (11)
in the approximation

$`\overline{\alpha }2\pi \overline{E}\overline{f}.`$ (12)
A cosmologically nearby sample is well-described by a constant GRB event-rate $`\dot{n}`$ per unit volume, e.g., 2 per year within a distance to 100Mpc. This gives a differential event rate of gravitational wave-bursts $`d\dot{N}\mathrm{\Sigma }\dot{n}dr,`$ where $`\mathrm{\Sigma }=4\pi r^2`$ denotes the surface area of the sphere reaching the source at radius $`r`$. In what follows, we shall assume a source population with standard $`E`$ and $`f`$. Consider a sample of surface energy densities $`e=E/\mathrm{\Sigma }`$ at the detector. Upon averaging, we have $`\overline{e}=E<\mathrm{\Sigma }_{max}/\mathrm{\Sigma }>/\mathrm{\Sigma }_{max}=3E/\mathrm{\Sigma }_{max}`$, where $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_{max}=4\pi r_{max}`$ denotes the maximal surface area associated with a source at $`r=r_{max}`$ at detection threshold. The assumption that of standard emissions $`E`$ may be checked through the relationship

$`d\dot{N}e^{1/2}d(1/e).`$ (13)
The averaged expression (12) for $`\alpha `$ now becomes

$`\overline{\alpha }=\left(4\pi /3\right)^{5/3}\left(\dot{N}/\dot{n}\right)^{2/3}\overline{e}\overline{f}`$ (14)
upon expressing $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_{max}`$ in the net detection rate $`\dot{N}`$.

Sources of gravitational waves in cosmologically nearby sample can be tested for an association with GBRs by comparing their durations with the redshift-corrected mean duration $`\overline{T}=\text{30s}<1/(1+z)>`$ of long GRBs in the BATSE catalogue (Kouveliotou, 1993). This gives $`\overline{T}`$10s if long GRBs are locked to the star formation rate, or $`\overline{T}`$10-15s working from the measured redshifts $`z`$ to individual events (as in van Putten (2001b, c)). The latter might overestimate $`\overline{T}`$ due to extinction of afterglows (see Ramirez-Ruiz et al. (2001)). A typical redshift of about two would be consistent with $`<V/V_{max}>=0.282`$ for long bursts (Katz & Canel, 1996) and the peak in the stellar formation rate (e.g., Conolly et al. (1997)).

In summary, calorimetry on gravitational wave-emissions from GRBs could offer a unique opportunity to establish the existence of Kerr black holes as objects in Nature, and hence that of black holes in general.

Acknowledgement. The author acknowledges stimulating discussions with R.P. Kerr, G.J. Tee, T. Piran and G.E. Brown, and constructive comments from the anonymous referee. This research is supported by NASA Grant 5-7012 and an MIT C.E. Reed Fund.


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# CHARGED MULTIPLICITIES AND 𝐽/𝜓 SUPPRESSION AT SPS AND RHIC ENERGIES

## Charged Multplicities in the Dual Parton Model

In the Dual Parton Model (DPM) the charged multiplicity per unit rapidity in a symmetric collision is given by

$`{\displaystyle \frac{dN_{AA}^{ch}}{dy}}(y,b)`$ $`=`$ $`n_A(b)\left[N_\mu ^{qq^Pq_v^T}(y)+N_\mu ^{q_v^Pqq^T}(y)+(2k2)N_\mu ^{q_s\overline{q}_s}\right]+`$ (2)
$`\left(n(b)n_A(b)\right)\left(2kN_\mu ^{q_s\overline{q}_s}(y)\right).`$
Here $`P`$ and $`T`$ stand for the projectile and target nuclei, $`n(b)`$ is the average number of binary collisions and $`n_A(b)`$ the average number of participants of nucleus $`A`$. These quantities can be computed in a Glauber model. $`k`$ is the average number of inelastic collisions in $`pp`$ and $`\mu (b)=kn(b)/n_A(b)`$ is the total average number of collisions suffered by each nucleon. The first term in (2) is the plateau height in a $`pp`$ collision, resulting from the superposition of $`2k`$ strings, multiplied by $`n_A`$. Since in DPM there are two strings per inelastic collision, the second term, consisting of strings stretched between sea quarks and antiquarks, makes up a total number of strings equal to $`2kn`$.

The charged multiplicity produced by a single string is obtained by a convolution of momentum distribution function and fragmentation functions (eqs. (3.1) to (3.4) of ).

Shadowing corrections in Gribov theory are universal , i.e. they apply both to soft and hard processes. The reduction of the multiplicity resulting from shadowing corrections has been computed in . These corrections are negligeable at SPS energies but at RHIC energies they reduce the multiplicity by 40 to 50%.

We present the results  obtained at two different energies : $`\sqrt{s}=17.3`$ and 130 GeV. The corresponding non-diffractive cross-sections are $`\sigma _{ND}=26`$ and 33 mb, respectively. We take $`k=1.4`$ and 2.0 corresponding to $`dN_{pp}^{ND}/dy=1.56`$ and 2.72. The result in absence of shadowing at $`\sqrt{s}=17.3`$ is shown in Fig 1 (a). We obtain a mild increase of the multiplicity per participant consistent with the results of the WA98 Collaboration . This increase gets stronger with increasing energies. As we pointed out before, shadowing corrections are negligeable at SPS energies but their effect is large at RHIC. Unfortunately, shadowing corrections have a rather large uncertainty at RHIC energies. Two alternative calculations  of shadowing lead to the results at $`\sqrt{s}=130`$ GeV shown by the solid lines in Fig 1 (b). Clearly, with the larger values of the shadowing corrections we obtain a quantitative agreement with the PHENIX data .

Note that our calculations refer to $`dN/dy`$ while the first RHIC measurements refer to $`dN/d\eta `$. The latter is, of course, smaller at mid rapidities. This difference is negligibly small as SPS where the laboratory pseudo-rapidity variable is used. However, at $`\sqrt{s}=130`$ GeV where $`\eta _{cm}`$ is used instead, their ratio can be as large as 1.3 .

The predictions at $`\sqrt{s}=200`$ GeV were also given in . The predicted increase between $`130`$ and $`200`$ GeV is $`13`$ % in quantitative agreement with the measurement by the Brahms Collaboration .

## $`J/\psi `$ suppression vs $`E_T`$ and $`E_{ZDC}`$ at SPS

In the comovers approach the $`J/\psi `$ survival probability is the product of two factors $`S_{abs}(b,s)S_{co}(b,s)`$. The first factor represents the suppression due to nuclear absorption of the $`c\overline{c}`$ pair. Its expression, given by the probabilistic Glauber model, is well known. It contains a parameter, the absorptive cross-section $`\sigma _{abs}`$. The second factor $`S_{co}(b,s)`$ represents the suppression resulting from the interaction with comovers. They are given by

$$S^{abs}(b,s)=\frac{[1\mathrm{exp}(AT_A(s)\sigma _{abs})][1\mathrm{exp}(BT_B(bs)\sigma _{abs})]}{\sigma _{abs}^2ABT_A(s)T_B(bs)}$$
(3)
$$S^{co}(b,s)=\mathrm{exp}\left[\sigma _{co}\frac{3}{2}N_{y_{DT}}^{co}(b,s)\mathrm{}n\left(\frac{\frac{3}{2}N_{y_{DT}}^{co}(b,s)}{N_f}\right)\right]$$
(4)
In (4), $`N_{y_{DT}}^{co}(b,s)`$ is the density of charged comovers (positives and negatives) in the rapidity region of the dimuon trigger and $`N_f=1.15`$ fm<sup>-2</sup>   is the corresponding density in $`pp`$. The factor 3/2 in (4) takes care of the neutrals. In the numerical calculations we use $`\sigma _{abs}=4.5`$ mb and $`\sigma _{co}=1`$ mb  . We compute the density of comovers in the framework of the DPM as we have explained before.

This approach allows to compute the impact parameter of the $`J/\psi `$ event sample. Experimental results of this quantitie are plotted as a function of observable quantities such as $`E_T`$ or $`E_{ZDC}`$. Using the proportionality between $`E_T`$ and multiplicity, we have

$$E_T(b)=\frac{1}{2}qN_{y_{cal}}^{co}(b).$$
(5)
The multiplicity of comovers $`N_{y_{cal}}^{co}(b)`$ is determined using Eq. (2) in the rapidity region of the NA50 calorimeter ($`1.1<y_{lab}<2.3`$). The factor $`1/2`$ is introduced because $`N_{y_{cal}}^{co}(b)`$ is the charged multiplicity whereas $`E_T`$ refers to neutrals. Thus the coefficient $`q`$ is close to the average energy per participant and its value can be determined from the position of the ”knee” of the $`E_T`$ distribution of the $`MB`$ events measured by the NA50 Collaboration. We obtain $`q=0.62`$ GeV .

The energy of the zero degree calorimeter is defined as

$$E_{ZDC}(b)=[An_A(b)]E_{in}+\alpha n_A(b)E_{in}.$$
(6)
Here $`An_A(b)`$ is the number of spectator nucleons of $`A`$ and $`E_{in}=158`$ GeV is the beam energy. The last term represents the small fraction of wounded nucleons and/or fast secondaries that hit the ZD Calorimeter. The value of $`\alpha `$ can be precisely determined from the position of the $`MB`$ event sample measured by NA50. We obtain  $`\alpha =0.076`$. Eqs. (5) and (6) also lead to a correlation between (average values of) $`E_T`$ and $`E_{ZDC}`$. This correlation is close to a straight line  and gives a good description of the experimental one.

To explain the experimental data beyond the knee of the $`E_T`$ distribution we introduce two effects:

1. Comovers fluctuations : We introduce the fluctuation in the density of comovers by replacing $`N_{y_{DT}}^{co}`$ in Eq. (4) by $`N_{yDT}^{co}(b,s)F(b)`$ where $`F(b)=E_T/E_T(b)`$. Here $`E_T`$ is the measured value of the trasverse energy and $`E_T(b)`$ is its average value given by Eq. (5) - which does not contain the fluctuations.

2. $`E_T`$ loss : In the $`J/\psi `$ event sample, $`E_T3`$ GeV is taken by the $`J/\psi `$ trigger and, thus, the transverse energy deposited in the calorimeter by the other hadron species will be slightly smaller than the corresponding one in the $`MB`$ event sample.

The results of our model for the ratio $`J/\psi `$ over $`DY`$, versus $`E_T`$, in $`PbPb`$ collisions at $`\sqrt{s}=158`$ GeV, are shown in Fig. 2a and compared with NA50 data  \- both for the true $`J/\psi `$ over $`DY`$ ratio, and for the one obtained with the $`MB`$ analysis. The results of the model for the true ratio are given by the dotted line (without fluctuations) and the dashed line (with fluctuations). In both cases the $`E_T`$ loss mechanism is not taken into account. However, our results for the true ratio $`J/\psi `$ over $`DY`$ do not change, since the effect due to the $`E_T`$ loss cancels in this ratio. We see that our results are in good agreement with the NA50 which do not extend beyond the knee. The other data in Fig. 2a are obtained with the $`MB`$ analysis, and have to be compared with the dashed-dotted and solid curves (obtained taking into account the $`E_T`$ loss). In this case the agreement with the NA50 data is substantially improved.

In Fig. 2b the results for the ratio $`J/\psi `$ over $`DY`$ versus $`E_{ZDC}`$ are shown. These curves are obtained from the corresponding ones versus $`E_T`$ applying the $`E_TE_{ZDC}`$ correlation . Comparing the data with the model predictions, we see that a better description of the central data (small $`E_{ZDC}`$) is obtained when the $`E_T`$ fluctuations are taken into account. This was to be expected since the fluctuations in $`E_T`$ and $`E_{ZDC}`$ are related to each other via the $`E_TE_{ZDC}`$ correlation. It is important to note that the effect of the $`E_T`$ loss is not present in this case. Indeed $`E_{ZDC}`$ measures the energy of spectators and it is not affected by the dimuon trigger. No disagreement between the data and the model predictions is observed in this case for very central events.

## $`J/\psi `$ suppression at RHIC

In order to compute the $`J/\psi `$ suppression at RHIC in the comovers approach we need to know not only the effects of nuclear absorption and comovers interaction, but also the effect of shadowing – which becomes important at RHIC energies. Therefore, our predictions are only valid so far as the shadowing corrections cancel in the $`J/\psi `$ over $`DY`$ ratio – which is not necessarily the case .

For the comovers survival probability, Eq. (4), we keep the value $`\sigma _{co}=1`$ mb as discussed above. The hadronic multiplicity at RHIC energies have been successfully evaluated in DPM . Therefore, the prediction at RHIC for this survival probability is rather safe. The situation is quite different in what concerns the survival probability due to nuclear absorption. It is widely recognized  that, at high energy, when the coherence length becomes larger than the nuclear size, the probabilistic expression (3) is no longeer valid. It has been shown in  that, at asymptotic energies, Eq. (3) is replaced by

$$S_{abs}(b,s)=\mathrm{exp}\left(\frac{1}{2}\stackrel{~}{\sigma }AT_A(s)\right)\mathrm{exp}\left(\frac{1}{2}\stackrel{~}{\sigma }BT_B(bs)\right)$$
(7)
where $`\stackrel{~}{\sigma }`$ is the total $`c\overline{c}`$-$`N`$ cross-section. If $`\stackrel{~}{\sigma }\sigma _{abs}`$, the asymptotic result is not very different from the one obtained with the low energy formula – since Eqs. (3) and (7) differ only in the second correction term. This situation is expected if the $`c\overline{c}`$ pair is produced in a colorless state interacting as a dipole. However, the possibility has been advocated , that the $`c\overline{c}`$ pair is produced in a color state accompanied by light quarks – in order to make the system colorless. In this case the system interacts with a comparatively large cross-section $`\stackrel{~}{\sigma }15÷20`$ mb . With such a cross-section it is possible to explain the large suppression of the $`J/\psi `$ observed at $`x_F1`$, without initial state energy loss of the projectile partons in the nucleus.

The results for the ratio $`J/\psi `$ over $`DY`$ at mid-rapidities are presented in Fig. 3. The dashed line is obtained with Eq. (3) and $`\sigma _{abs}=4.5`$ mb. The solid line is obtained with Eq. (7) and $`\stackrel{~}{\sigma }=15`$ mb. As we see, the difference between the two predictions is very large.

The proposed way of measuring the $`J/\psi `$ suppression at RHIC is via the ratio $`J/\psi `$ over $`\mathrm{{\rm Y}}`$. For the latter, the situation is even more complicated. Due to its larger mass, the correlation length is smaller and Eq. (7) is not valid even at mid-rapidities. In this case a finite energy formula  has to be used – which interpolates between the low energy, Eq. (3), and the asymptotic (Eq. (7)) limits. Actually, even for $`J/\psi `$, Eq. (7) is not exact at mid-rapidities. We have estimated that using the finite energy formula with $`\stackrel{~}{\sigma }=15`$ mb the ratio $`J/\psi `$ over $`DY`$ for central events is 40 % higher than the solid line in Fig. 3. Therefore an accurate measurement in $`pA`$ interactions will be necessary in order to clarify the theoretical situation.

We thank N. Armesto, E. G. Ferreiro, A. Kaidalov and C. A. Salgado for discussions. D. S. thanks Fundación Barrie de la Maza for financial support.


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# A New Evolutionary Picture for CVs and LMXBs

## 1. Introduction

The current picture of CV evolution (see e.g. King, 1988 for a review) has remained essentially unchanged for more than two decades. Its main elements are the propositions that

1. Formation: Common–envelope (CE) evolution produces pre–CVs close to contact at all periods $`P`$ such that $`1.5<P<12`$ hr

2. Secular evolution: angular momentum loss brings pre–CVs rapidly into contact after the CE phase and also drives their subsequent evolution as CVs, accounting for the main features of the observed CV period histogram. The loss mechanism is gravitational radiation (GR) and some rather stronger agency, perhaps magnetic braking (MB) at periods $`P>3`$ hr

3. Youth 1: CVs are significantly younger than the Galaxy, so many generations of CVs have passed through the observed CV period range

4. Youth 2: CV secondaries are not nuclear–evolved

The great difficulty inherent in theoretical studies of CE evolution via numerical simulations has meant that elements 1, 3 and 4 have remained largely unexamined. Until recently, most researchers have concentrated on tying down the details of 2. above.

The evolution of low–mass X–ray binaries (LMXBs) is more complex than that of CVs because of the need to form a neutron star or black hole through a supernova explosion, with a resulting potential for disruption of the binary. In particular proposition 1. is no longer obvious. Nevertheless the similarity of short–period LMXBs to CVs has encouraged tacit adoption of at least 2. and 4. for them also. Significant differences (cf Fig. 1) in the period histograms of the two types of binary (first pointed out by White & Mason, 1985) have received relatively little attention.

Here we suggest that for CVs there are real reasons to question the three linked propositions 1.–3.–4., and even some of the apparent successes of 2. We suggest a way out of these difficulties which appears promising for both CVs and LMXBs.

## 2. The CV period minimum as an age effect

The observed CV period histogram (Fig. 2) cuts off sharply at an orbital period of $`P=P_076`$ min. There are respectively 0 and 12 systems in the period ranges $`P_0\pm 5`$ min. The idea that $`P_0`$ represents a global period minimum ($`\dot{P}=0`$ for $`P_{\mathrm{min}}`$) for CVs has been widely accepted for the last two decades. It is clear that such a global minimum can exist (Paczyński & Sienkiewicz, 1981; Paczyński, 1981; Rappaport, Joss & Webbink, 1982). As the mass $`M_2`$ of an unevolved secondary star in a CV is reduced by mass transfer, the binary period $`P`$ decreases also. However for very small $`M_2<0.1\mathrm{M}_{}`$, the secondary’s Kelvin–Helmholtz time $`t_{\mathrm{KH}}`$ begins to exceed the timescale $`t_\mathrm{M}=M_2/\dot{M}_2`$ for mass loss driven by angular momentum loss, e.g. by gravitational radiation. At this point the star will expand adiabatically, causing the binary period to increase rather than decrease.

Detailed calculations always predict a value $`P_{\mathrm{min}}`$ very close to, if slightly shorter than, the observed $`P_0`$. The discrepancy $`P_{\mathrm{min}}<P_0`$ is persistent, but may reflect uncertain or over–simple input physics (cf Kolb & Baraffe, 1999). However there is a much more serious problem with this interpretation of the observed cutoff at $`P_0`$. This concerns the discovery probability

$$p(P)\frac{(\dot{M}_2)^\alpha }{|\dot{P}|}.$$
(1)
Here $`\alpha `$ is some (presumably positive) power describing observational selection effects (e.g. $`\alpha =3/2`$ for a bolometric flux–limited sample). Since $`\dot{P}=0`$ at $`P=P_{\mathrm{min}}`$, $`p(P)`$ must clearly have a significant maximum there unless $`\dot{M}_2`$ declines very sharply near this period. In other words, the observed CV period histogram should show a sharp rise near a global minimum $`P_{\mathrm{min}}`$ unless the mass transfer rate drops there. However all evolutionary calculations show that $`\dot{M}_2`$ changes very little as $`P_{\mathrm{min}}`$ is approached. We conclude that there should be a large ‘spike’ in the CV period histogram near a global minimum $`P_{\mathrm{min}}`$ (cf Kolb & Baraffe, 1999).

The lack of such a spike in the observed period histogram (Fig. 2) has prompted numerous theoretical investigations. Many of these propose ways in which CVs might become difficult to discover near $`P_{\mathrm{min}}`$. A basic problem for this type of argument is that, as we have seen, there is nothing at all unusual about the system parameters (mass transfer rate, separation etc) at this period. Further, attempts to use accretion disc properties as a way of making systems hard to discover founder on the fact that the AM Herculis systems, which have no accretion discs, have precisely the same observed short–period cutoff $`P_080`$ min, and no spike either (cf Fig. 2).

The identification of the observed cutoff $`P_0`$ with the global minimum period $`P_{\mathrm{min}}`$ creates a second problem, particularly emphasized by Patterson (see the review in this volume, and references therein). Namely, if many generations of CVs have completed their evolution and passed the minimum period in the history of the Galaxy, the predicted space density of post–minimum CVs becomes uncomfortably high. The nearest systems should be close enough to be detectable even as bare white dwarfs; and the problem gets worse when one realises that mass transfer decreases only very slowly (timescales $`10^{10}`$ yr) after passing $`P_{\mathrm{min}}`$, so that they are definitely brighter than the bare white dwarfs. Since the orbital period also changes very little, the result should be a very large number of nearby CVs with brightness and periods very close to those at $`P_0`$, which are not observed.

In view of these and other difficulties, it seems reasonable to consider dropping the assumed identification of the observed cutoff $`P_0`$ with the global minimum $`P_{\mathrm{min}}`$. Thus, from now on we will instead investigate the idea that $`P_{\mathrm{min}}`$ might be genuinely shorter than $`P_0`$, or more succinctly, that even the oldest CVs have not yet reached $`P_{\mathrm{min}}`$.

The timescale $`t_{\mathrm{evol}}`$ for the secular evolution of CVs down to $`P_{\mathrm{min}}`$ is considerably shorter than the age of the Galaxy, even from the longest commonly observed periods $`810`$ hr (assuming that magnetic braking is not drastically reduced as has been recently proposed – see the article by Pinsonneault in this volume). Thus to maintain the idea that $`P_{\mathrm{min}}<P_0`$, we must require that most CVs came into contact only a time $`<t_{\mathrm{evol}}`$ ago. In the conventional picture where CE evolution produces pre–CVs close to contact at all orbital periods, this would mean that CVs emerged from CE evolution relatively recently in the age of the Galaxy, presumably as the result of a starburst. This seems unlikely, so we assume instead that for most systems the time $`t_{contact}`$ to shrink the binary enough to initiate mass transfer is at least comparable to the Galactic age $`t_{\mathrm{Gal}}`$ (more precisely $`t_{contact}>t_{\mathrm{Gal}}t_{\mathrm{evol}}`$).

We call this idea the Binary Age Postulate (BAP). In the usual language, it amounts to requiring either that CE evolution is more efficient in removing the envelope of the white dwarf progenitor, thus leaving wider systems than usually assumed, or that with conventional CE evolution, orbital decay into contact by angular momentum loss is much slower than usually assumed. The second possibility would fit with the idea of drastically reduced magnetic braking (see the article by Pinsonneault in this volume). However, unless the usual value of the magnetic braking torque is restored once the system reaches contact there are obvious problems in explaining the brighter (novalike) CVs and the period gap itself. Hence while the reduced braking idea is worth bearing in mind, for the expository purposes of this paper we shall assume the first possibility, i.e. that BAP is satisfied because CE evolution is more efficient than usually assumed. Thus most CVs with secondaries massive enough to have magnetic braking would emerge from CE evolution with periods of order 12 hr or more. CVs with lower–mass secondaries could emerge with shorter orbital periods, but such that relatively few reached contact (evolving via gravitational radiation) within $`t_{\mathrm{Gal}}`$. We note that this type of distribution is not in conflict with the observed pre–CV distribution (Ritter & Kolb, 1998).

Armed with these assumptions we can give two immediate consequences for CVs, and two for LMXBs.

(i) The period distribution near $`P_0`$. The characteristic square shape of this distribution is naturally reproduced, provided only that CVs at longer periods decrease their periods more quickly than those at short periods, e.g. $`\dot{P}=G(P)`$ with $`\mathrm{d}G/\mathrm{d}P>0`$. This is of course true for the usually assumed forms of magnetic braking. Hence the observed distribution appears naturally if CVs generally come into contact with secondary masses $`M_2`$ large enough ($`M_2>0.3\mathrm{M}_{}`$) for their pre–contact evolution to have been driven by this mechanism. This is of course precisely the content of the BAP idea.

(ii) The space density problem. This is removed, since there is no presumption that many generations of CVs have passed the observed cutoff $`P_0`$, and thus no presumed rate at which CVs are piling up in the Galaxy. Assuming that the formation rate of pre–CVs has decreased markedly since the early epochs of the Galaxy, there is no corresponding problem with the space density of pre–CVs. Note that if we do not make the latter assumption, the space density problem is inevitable in any picture: CVs pile up either as post–minimum or pre–contact systems, as we presumably cannot destroy the white dwarfs in either state.

(iii) The LMXB minimum period. Magnetic braking acts more slowly on LMXBs than CVs, as the binary inertia is greater. Thus we might expect LMXBs to have longer $`P_0`$ cutoffs than CVs – consistent with observation (see Fig. 1) – as they will presumably be unable to reach such short periods in the age of the Galaxy.

(iv) The faint transient problem. King (2000) points out that LMXBs with very low mass transfer rates, such as any which have passed the equivalent of the CV global minimum period, will be readily observable as faint transients. Although some such faint systems are observed, the total number in the Galaxy is much too low compared with the number of ‘normal’ LMXBs to interpret them as post–minimum systems in the standard picture. Again this is as expected if most LMXBs have not yet reached the global minimum. We shall see a further feature of these systems explained in the next section.

## 3. Thermal–Timescale and Nuclear Evolution

The list (i –iv) above shows that BAP has interesting consequences for CV and LMXB evolution. Unsurprisingly there are more. The longer timescales envisaged for orbital decay via angular momentum loss open the possibility that nuclear evolution of the secondary star might bring the binary into contact instead, in direct contrast to the older proposition 4. detailed in the Introduction. This possibility becomes even more pressing when we allow for the fact that white–dwarf and neutron–star binaries can survive a phase of thermal–timescale mass transfer (TTMT) in which $`M_2>M_1`$ (with $`M_1,M_2`$ the primary and secondary masses). For white dwarf systems the TTMT phase, at least in mild cases with $`M_2`$ not too large compared with $`M_1`$, is probably what drives many supersoft X–ray binaries. The realisation that some neutron–star systems, notably Cyg X–2, must have survived quite violent (highly super–Eddington) TTMT is relatively recent (King & Ritter, 1999; Podsiadlowski & Rappaport, 2000; King & Begelman, 1999). TTMT may be observable in systems such as SS433, and the ultraluminous X–ray sources recently identified in external galaxies (King, Taam & Begelman, 2000; King et al, 2001).

Figure 3 shows schematically how angular momentum loss and nuclear evolution may compete in bringing a compact binary into contact. For low (initial) secondary masses $`M_2`$ the nuclear evolution timescale is longer than the age of the Galaxy, so angular momentum loss automatically dominates. For large $`M_2`$ nuclear evolution is rapid, and wins over angular momentum loss. For intermediate secondary masses thermal–timescale mass transfer may occur if $`M_2>M_1`$, although this phase eventually becomes dynamically unstable (the ‘delayed dynamical instability’) for $`M_2`$ larger than some critical value $`M_{2,\mathrm{DDI}}`$. If some nuclear evolution has already occurred, this phase can shrink the binary drastically and strip the hydrogen–rich envelope from the donor, ultimately producing an ultrashort–period system with a low–mass, hydrogen–poor and probably degenerate secondary.

Figure 4 shows the situation for the specific case of CVs. The important result is that BAP hypothesis allows a numerous population of significantly nuclear–evolved CVs to coexist with the familiar unevolved CVs envisaged in the standard picture (cf assumptions 1 – 4 above). The accompanying paper (Schenker & King, this volume) considers this in more detail, and shows that the resulting distribution has several desirable properties, such as possibly explaining the spread in mass transfer rates above the CV period gap.

Figure 5 shows the situation for neutron–star LMXBs. This is qualitatively similar to the CV case. However the slower orbital decay here leads to a larger cutoff period $`P_0`$ (as noted earlier) and a much stronger tendency to nuclear evolution. Thus many systems evolve to long orbital periods (days), while as for CVs the short–period systems include many with significantly evolved secondaries. This agrees with the deduction by King, Kolb & Burderi (1996) that the neutron–star soft X–ray transients observed at such periods must have nuclear–evolved secondaries, as are now indeed observed in some cases (e.g. Haswell et al., 2000). As in the CV case, ultrashort–period neutron–star LMXBs may form after a TTMT phase.

The black–hole case is shown in Figure 6. The larger $`M_1`$ and consequently still slower orbital decay intensifies the trends towards larger $`P_0`$, more long–period systems, and a greater degree of chemical evolution in short–period systems noted for neutron stars. The major difference here is that the smaller mass ratio $`M_2/M_1`$ makes a TTMT phase unlikely. As a result very few ultrashort–period LMXBs with black hole primaries can form, at least by this channel. If as seems likely the faint transients discussed above are LMXBs with low–mass highly–evolved secondaries, either already at ultrashort periods or evolving towards them, this offers a natural explanation for the observation that almost all of them appear to contain neutron stars.

A general point emerging from this discussion is that short–period LMXBs are exceptional: for most LMXBs nuclear evolution wins, leading to long orbital periods $`10100`$ d. Ironically these systems spend almost all of their lifetimes as soft X–ray transients with enormously long recurrence times (cf Ritter & King, this volume), and thus remain undiscovered. The greater observational prominence of short–period systems results from their being either persistent X–ray sources (neutron–star plus unevolved secondary) or soft X–ray transients with fairly short recurrence times (all other short–period LMXBs).

## 4. Conclusion

The BAP idea that even the first generation of CVs and LMXBs have yet to complete their evolution represents a radical break with the standard picture of CV and LMXB evolution. However it appears to have some promising aspects. Given the difficulties with the standard picture, it seems worthwhile to consider it further.

## References

Haswell, C.A., Hynes, R.I., King, A.R., Stull, J., Ioannou, Z., & Webb, N.A., 2000, IAUC 7407

King, A.R., 2000, MNRAS, 312, L39

King, A.R., 1988, QJRAS, 29, 1

King, A.R., & Begelman, M.C., 1999, ApJ, 519, 169

King, A.R., Davies, M.B., Ward, M.J., Fabbiano, G., & Elvis, M., 2001, ApJ, 552, 109

King, A.R., Kolb, U., & Burderi, L., 1996, ApJ, 464, 127

King, A.R., & Ritter, H., 1999, MNRAS 309, 253

King, A.R., Taam, R., & Begelman, M.C., 2000, ApJ, 530, 25

Kolb, U., & Baraffe, I., 1999, MNRAS 309, 1034

Paczyński, B.E., 1981, Acta Astronomica 31, 13

Paczyński, B.E., & Sienkiewicz, R., 1981, ApJ, 248, L27

Patterson, J., 2002, this volume

Pinsonneault, M., 2002, this volume

Podsiadlowski, Ph., & Rappaport, S.A., 2000, 529, 946

Rappaport, S.A., Joss, P.C., & Webbink, R.F., 1982, ApJ, 254, 616

Ritter, H., & King, A.R., 2002, this volume

Ritter, H., & Kolb, U., 1998, A&AS, 129, 83

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### Acknowledgments.

Theoretical astrophysics research at Leicester is supported by a PPARC rolling grant.


text:
# Progress on stochastic background search codes for LIGO

## 1 Data Analysis Techniques

In this section we review the data analysis technique to be used to detect a stochastic background of gravitational radiation. More details can be found in .

### 1.1 Definitions

First, we limit attention to backgrounds which are cosmological in origin and thus can be assumed to be isotropic, unpolarized, Gaussian, and stationary. Subject to these assumptions, the stochastic gravitational-wave (GW) background is completely described by its power spectrum. It is conventional to express this spectrum in terms of the GW contribution to the cosmological parameter $`\mathrm{\Omega }=\rho /\rho _{\text{crit}}`$:

$$\mathrm{\Omega }_{\text{GW}}(f)=\frac{1}{\rho _{\text{crit}}}\frac{d\rho _{\text{GW}}}{d\mathrm{ln}f}=\frac{f}{\rho _{\text{crit}}}\frac{d\rho _{\text{GW}}}{df}.$$
(1)
Note that $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{\text{GW}}(f)`$ has been constructed to be dimensionless, and represents the contribution to the overall $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{\text{GW}}`$ per *logarithmic* frequency interval. In particular, it is *not* equivalent to $`d\mathrm{\Omega }_{\text{GW}}/df`$. Note also that since the critical density $`\rho _{\text{crit}}`$, which is used in the normalization of $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{\text{GW}}(f)`$, is proportional to the square of the Hubble constant $`H_0`$ , it is convenient to work with $`h_{100}^2\mathrm{\Omega }_{\text{GW}}(f)`$, which is independent of the observationally determined value of $`h_{100}=\frac{H_0}{100\mathrm{km}/\mathrm{s}/\mathrm{Mpc}}`$.

### 1.2 Cross-Correlation

Since a stochastic signal is by definition random, it is impractical to look for one in the output of a single gravitational wave detector . However, the effects of such a signal can be detected by cross-correlating the outputs of two independent detectors. If the output $`h_1`$ ($`h_2`$) of the first (second) detector consists of a term $`s_1`$ ($`s_2`$) due to stochastic gravitational waves and a term $`n_1`$ ($`n_2`$) due to instrument noise, and the noise in each instrument is assumed to be uncorrelated both with the GW signal and the noise in the other instrument, the only surviving term in a time averaged correlation $`h_1h_2`$ is the term $`s_1s_2`$ due to the gravitational wave background.

In practice, one defines a *cross-correlation statistic*

$$Y_Q=𝑑t_1𝑑t_2h_1(t_1)Q(t_1t_2)h_2(t_2)=𝑑f\stackrel{~}{h}_1^{}(f)\stackrel{~}{Q}(f)\stackrel{~}{h}_2(f)$$
(2)
which is weighted by a filter $`\stackrel{~}{Q}(f)`$. In the presence of a stochastic gravitational wave signal, both the mean $`\mu `$ and variance $`\sigma ^2`$ of the cross-correlation statistic will grow linearly with time, so the signal-to-noise ratio $`\mu /\sigma `$ will grow as the square root of the observation time.

Given a GW background spectrum and a pair of detectors, the signal-to-noise ratio is maximized by using the *optimal filter*

$$\stackrel{~}{Q}(f)\frac{f^3\mathrm{\Omega }_{\text{GW}}(f)\gamma _{12}(f)}{P_1(f)P_2(f)}.$$
(3)
The denominator, containing the power spectral densities $`P_{1,2}(f)`$ of the noise in the two detectors, serves to suppress the contributions to the cross-correlation statistic from frequencies where one or both detectors are “noisy” and most correlations are therefore likely to be accidental. The numerator represents the average unweighted cross-correlation between the outputs of two detectors, and depends on both the spectrum $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{\text{GW}}(f)`$ of the expected gravitational wave background and the locations and orientations of the two detectors. The latter is described by the *overlap reduction function* $`\gamma _{12}(f)`$ .

The overlap reduction function is equal to unity for the case of a pair of interferometers (IFOs) at the same location with their arms aligned, and is suppressed as the detectors are rotated out of alignment or separated from one another. The frequency dependence comes about for the following reason: if the wavelength of a wave is comparable to or smaller than the separation between two detectors, the detectors will see different phases of the wave at the same time, and this phase difference will depend on the direction of propagation of the wave. Since the stochastic GW background is assumed to be isotropic, averaging over different propagation directions suppresses the sensitivity of a pair of detectors to high-frequency waves. For example, a wave whose wavelength is twice the distance between the two detectors will drive them $`180^{}`$ out of phase if it travels along the line separating them, but *in* phase if its direction of propagation is perpendicular to this line. Figure 1 shows the overlap reduction functions for several detectors of interest.

### 1.3 Cross-Correlation Spectrum

In early data analysis applications, cross-correlated noise is likely to produce considerable spurious contributions to the integral (2). A useful diagnostic tool will thus be the *cross-correlation spectrum*

$$Y(f)=\stackrel{~}{h}_1^{}(f)\stackrel{~}{Q}(f)\stackrel{~}{h}_2(f),$$
(4)
which is simply the integrand of (2); this may enable us to see directly the impact of these cross-correlated noise sources on the cross-correlation statistic.

## 2 Setting upper limits with LIGO

A two-week engineering run for the LIGO IFOs is planned for around the end of 2001, involving the kilometer-scale IFOs in Livingston, Louisiana  and Hanford, Washington . The 600 meter GEO IFO  in Hannover, Germany and the ALLEGRO  resonant bar detector at Louisiana State University are also planning to operate during the same two-week period. Four groups have been formed to use the data taken from LIGO and the other instruments to set upper limits on various types of GW signals, including stochastic signals . The stochastic group plans to set an upper limit on the strength of a stochastic background, assuming it has the form $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{\text{GW}}(f)=\text{constant}`$, with the goal of improving on the existing best upper limit of $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{\text{GW}}(f)60`$ .

The roles to be played by various pairs of detectors in this effort are largely driven by their separation and alignment relative to one another, as quantified by the overlap reduction function (see Figure 1).

### 2.1 Correlations between LIGO-LA and LIGO-WA

The distance between the two LIGO sites is approximately 3000 km, which makes the light-travel time between the two sites about 10 ms. Thus the two sites are separated by half a wavelength for waves with a frequency of 50 Hz, and as shown in Figure 1 the overlap reduction function first crosses zero at a slightly higher frequency. So the overlap reduction function limits the sensitivity of this pair of detectors at high frequencies; below around 40 Hz, the seismic noise in the detectors will squash the optimal filter (3). The net effect (as illustrated in figure 21 of ) is that for LIGO initial design sensitivity, most of the support of the optimal filter lies between 50 and 250 Hz.

### 2.2 Correlations between LIGO-LA and ALLEGRO

The ALLEGRO bar detector is far closer to the LIGO Livingston site than the LIGO Hanford site is, with only about 40 km separating the two and a “half-wavelength” frequency of 3750 Hz. Thus the observing geometry allows for observations of correlations out to much higher frequencies. On the other hand, the sensitivity of ALLEGRO is concentrated in two narrow frequency bands in the vicinity of 900 Hz, so correlations between ALLEGRO and LIGO Livingston probe a different part of the frequency domain than correlations between the two LIGO detectors.111Another consequence of the proximity between the two detectors is that there is likely to be a lot of cross-correlated noise; a method  has been proposed to account for this noise by measuring the cross-correlation for different alignments of the ALLEGRO bar.

### 2.3 Correlations between LIGO-LA and GEO-600

Since the GEO-600 detector is rather distant from the LIGO sites (over 7500 km from Livingston, corresponding to a “half-wavelength” frequency of only 20 Hz), the small overlap reduction function will render the GEO-600/LIGO-LA pair (the better of the two) considerably less sensitive to gravitational waves than the LIGO-LA/LIGO-WA pair. The primary interest in performing this correlation is thus the information it will provide about cross-correlated noise rather than a contribution to the upper limit on stochastic background strength.

## 3 Data Analysis Routines

### 3.1 Routines in the LIGO Numerical Algorithms Library (LAL)

The data analysis technique described in Section 1 will be implemented within the LIGO data analysis system (LDAS)  using C routines from the LIGO numerical Algorithms Library (LAL) . We have written and tested LAL routines to perform the various parts of the analysis (calculating the overlap reduction function, constructing the optimal filter, etc.).

Care has been taken to make these routines general enough to be applied to both IFO data (e.g., from LIGO and GEO) and data from resonant bar detectors such as ALLEGRO. Two major issues have required some care in this regard:

First, the treatment of detector geometry (used in constructing the optimal filter) needed to be general enough to describe both interferometric and resonant detectors. This was accomplished by defining a data structure within LAL which described an idealized earthbound detector in terms of its location and tensor response to gravitational waves .

Second, since the sensitivity band of ALLEGRO is at a relatively high frequency compared to its bandwidth, its gravitational wave signal is heterodyned before being discretely sampled . By multiplying the time-domain signal by a complex exponential oscillating at a base frequency, one effectively shifts the frequency band represented in the discrete signal (whose full width is equal to the sampling frequency) so that it is centered at the base frequency rather than at DC (0 Hz). To allow for this, the LAL routines had to be written to deal with complex as well as real time series.

### 3.2 Driver Routines in LALWrapper

The interface between the C$`++`$ LDAS environment and the LAL C library is known as LALWrapper . LALWrapper contains a number of dynamically-linked shared objects which can be used to “drive” various search algorithms in LAL. We have written two LALWrapper shared objects: libldasstochastic.so calculates the cross-correlation spectrum (4) between two interferometric detectors, and libldasstochasticbar.so does the same for correlations between an IFO and a resonant bar detector. (Eventually, we plan to integrate the functionality into a single, generalized search engine.)

The general behavior of LALWrapper code is to execute parallel searches on one or more nodes of a Beowulf cluster , with each “slave” node reporting to the “master” node at least ten times. Both stochastic background search engines use the following algorithm to calculate cross-correlation spectra for a sequence of short consecutive time intervals:

1. Equal-length stretches of data from a pair of detectors are input, along with power spectra and response functions, and some search parameters.
2. The data streams are each divided into ten or more shorter-length segments.
3. An optimal filter is constructed using the auxiliary inputs and parameters describing the choice of detectors, etc.
4. In turn, each corresponding pair of data segments is Fourier-transformed and the cross-correlation spectrum calculated using the optimal filter.

Enhancements to be made for the scientific data runs which will begin in 2002 include: (i) Rather than constructing a single optimal filter based on the $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{\text{GW}}(f)=\text{constant}`$ model, we will choose a set of points in the parameter space of stochastic background models and filter the data in parallel with a “grid” of optimal filters, one optimized according to (3) for each $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{\text{GW}}(f)`$ model ; (ii) To set an upper limit or make a measurement of the strength of the stochastic background, we will calculate the cross-correlation statistic for the whole data stream(s) by integrating the cross-correlation spectrum for a given segment over frequency and then adding the contributions from all the segments.

### 3.3 Mock Data Challenge

The shared objects libldasstochastic.so and libldasstochasticbar.so were among the data analysis routines tested at the Burst-Stochastic Mock Data Challenge, held at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology 4-10 September 2001. The shared object for IFO-IFO correlations was tested with trivial and non-trivial synthetic data and produced the expected results in each case; it was also used to analyze 15 minutes of data taken by the two LIGO IFOs during a recent engineering run, to verify that it could do so without failing. The IFO-bar shared object, being slightly less mature, was not tested as extensively. However, some of the tests which were run produced unexpected results which appear to be due to the use of single precision arithmetic in several LAL routines. The finer frequency resolution required by the sharp spectral features in the bar response function may require the use of double precision.

We would like to thank our colleagues in LIGO and the larger gravitational wave community who have made this work possible, especially: B. Allen and the authors of the GRASP routines from which many LAL routines are derived; S. Drasco and É. Flanagan, who wrote early versions of several LAL stochastic background routines; LSC Software Coördinator A. Wiseman and LAL Librarian J. Creighton, without whom LAL would not exist; the other members of the site structure development team including P. Brady, D. Chin, J. Creighton, C. Cutler, K. Riles and A. Lazzarini, who came up with the idea of using the response tensor to describe a generic GW detector; our fellow participants in the Burst-Stochastic MDC including A. Searle on the stochastic side and S. Finn, E. Daw, S. Marka, P. Saulson and J. Zweizig on the burst side and especially E. Katsavouinidis and J. Sylvestre for hosting and K. Blackburn, P. Charlton, P. Shawhan, M. Barnes, P. Ehrens, M. Lei and I. Salzman for providing LDAS support; and finally the other members of the Stochastic Sources Upper Limits Group, including S. Bose, N. Chistensen, R. Drever, P. Fritschel, J. Giaime, W. Hamilton, W. Johnson, M. Landry, T. Nash, A. Ottewill, B. Whiting and R. Weiss. This work was supported by the National Science Foundation under grants PHY-9981795 (UTB) and PHY-9970742 (LSU), and by NASA contract JPL1219731 (UTB). Figure 1 was made using slightly modified versions of LAL routines .

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