text:
# The Current State of Coherent States11footnote 1Contribution to the 7th ICSSUR Conference, June 2001.

## Introduction

The modern reincarnation of what are now often called canonical coherent states began in 1960  (with a mathematical-physics application to define coherent state path integrals), in 1961  (with a thorough mathematical study), and in 1963  (with a physics application central to the new theory of quantum optics). Over the years, generalizations of the original family of canonical coherent states have been introduced based largely on mathematical or possibly mathematical-physics grounds. These generalizations have frequently involved one or another of the mathematical properties of the canonical coherent states and its elevation to the central concept in defining new sets of coherent states. As examples, we cite group-defined coherent states , annihilation-operator-eigenstate defined coherent states , and minimum-uncertainty-state defined coherent states . Such generalizations typically lead to new sets of coherent states alright, but (apart perhaps from the group-defined coherent states) such rules for generating new sets of coherent states have always seemed to the present author to be overly mathematical and rather divorced from any specific physics. After all, what is the physics involved in choosing annihilation-operator eigenstates or in choosing minimum uncertainty states? What would be so wrong in choosing states for which the minimum uncertainty product was exceeded by a factor of three, for example?

These views have in recent years prompted the author to seek other generalizations of the canonical coherent states often with specific physical criteria chosen as the key factor involved in defining and obtaining such generalizations. Although other prescriptions exist, we shall, in the interests of brevity and consistency, pursue just one path among many in our discussion of new sets of coherent states.

A few introductory remarks are useful: For convenience, we denote each of the coherent states by $`|l`$, $`|l0`$, where $`l=(l^1,l^2,\mathrm{},l^L)`$, $`l^j`$, denotes an $`L`$-dimensional (real) label lying in a label space $``$ which locally is topologically equivalent to $`^L`$. This latter property means that we can identify continuous functions on $``$. It is often useful to regard $`l`$ as a classical variable in a classical (phase) space $``$. Although we shall not generally do so, it is often useful to group some or all of the real parameters by pairs and to form complex parameters. Throughout, we choose units so that $`\mathrm{}=1`$.

With these remarks as background, we start with what we regard as the basic minimum properties for any set of states to be called a set of coherent states:

1. Continuity of Labeling: The map from the label space $``$ into the Hilbert space $``$ is strongly continuous.

Comment: Specifically, this condition requires that the expression $`|l^{}|l0`$ whenever $`ł^{}l`$ in $``$. This condition is equivalent to the joint continuity of the coherent state overlap function, $`l^{\prime \prime }|l^{}`$, in its two arguments.

2. Resolution of Unity: A positive measure $`\mu (l)`$ on $``$ exists such that the unit operator $`11`$ admits the representation

$$11=_{}|ll|𝑑\mu (l),$$

where $`|ll|`$ denotes the rank-one operator that takes an arbitrary vector $`|\psi `$ into a multiple (namely $`l|\psi `$) of the vector $`|l`$.

Comment: If $`|l=0`$ for some $`l`$, these vectors would make no contribution to the resolution of unity, and so we have already assumed that $`|l0`$, i.e., $`l|l>0`$. If $`d\mu (l)=0`$ for a set of nonzero measure, then these vectors would also not contribute to the resolution of unity. Hence, there is no loss of generality to require that $`\mu (l)`$ is a strictly positive measure (up to sets of measure zero). In addition, it is often useful to assume that $`\mu (l)`$ is scaled (or rescaled, if necessary) so that $`l|l=1`$ for all $`l`$. If $`l|l=1`$, then it follows that $`|ll|`$ is a one-dimensional projection operator. (Ideally, $`\mu (l)`$ should be a countably additive measure, but a finitely additive measure is generally sufficient, which is a distinction for positive measures that may arise when an infinite number of degrees of freedom are involved.)

Remark: The two postulates about coherent states above were proposed in substantially this form nearly forty years ago , even before such states were called “coherent states”. With very few exceptions, all states that have been so named have fulfilled these two postulates and for purposes of the present article we shall require that these two postulates hold. \[For a recent study of a case where a resolution of unity (Postulate 2) fails to hold, see .\]

The generality of the first two postulates, and their mathematical specificity as well, has been done deliberately so that a vast catalog of sets of coherent states implicitly exists; ideally, it is the analysis of a specific physical problem which, whenever possible, puts on additional physical restrictions that singles out a subset of coherent-state sets—or even a single coherent-state set—tied to the specified physical problem.

A useful analogy to the present point of view lies in the mathematical concept of a set of orthonormal functions. Initially, one can define the properties that make a set of functions an acceptable set of orthonormal functions, i.e., completeness, orthogonality, and normalization. Finally, one can introduce criteria to select some sets or even one set of orthonormal functions relevant to some specific physical problem.

Remark: The philosophy of defining coherent states expressed here is, of course, just one of many possible choices. Others are free to choose alternative definitions, although it naturally diminishes the utility of the phrase when it is used too widely. The ultimate value of a definite rule of definition stems from its usefulness in applications; and applications generally arise for specific and concrete systems.

We now turn our attention to picking out suitable sets or even a single set of coherent states by adopting certain physical criteria rather than imposing selected mathematical requirements as discussed in the previous section.

## Temporal Stability

For our first additional property we shall study time evolution as dictated by a specific Hamiltonian operator $``$. The evolution of any coherent state $`|l`$ may always be captured by the relation

$$e^{it}|l|l,t,$$

a definition that imposes no restriction whatsoever. However, we can ask for much more. Let us first restrict attention to normalized coherent states, $`l|l=1`$, for all $`l`$. Then we may ask that the following condition holds:

3. Temporal Stability: The time evolution of any coherent state always remains a coherent state. In symbols,

$$e^{it}|l=|l(t)$$

for all $`ł`$ and all $`t`$, where $`l(0)=l`$.222Although temporal stability refers to the quantum evolution of the coherent states, there is nonetheless an induced classical dynamics inherent in this concept that realizes the label-space map $`ll(t)`$ for each $`l`$. We shall touch on this classical dynamics below.

Comment: In order to avoid any time-dependent scale factors, it has been useful to first assume that all coherent states are normalized. While the set of coherent states satisfies temporal stability, the same cannot be said for the temporal evolution of a general state $`e^{it}|\psi |\psi ,t`$. Nevertheless, in a coherent state representation that enjoys temporal stability, dynamics becomes kinematics. In other words,

$`l|\psi ,tl|e^{it}|\psi l(t)|\psi ,`$
namely, the dynamical evolution of an arbitrary state $`\psi (l)l|\psi `$ in the coherent state representation simply amounts to a “reshuffling of the labels”, $`\psi (l,t)\psi (l(t))`$.

Let us see how we can explicitly implement temporal stability. For convenience, we restrict attention to Hamiltonians with a discrete, nondegenerate spectrum and energy levels of the form $`0=E_0<E_1<E_2<\mathrm{}`$. It follows that $`lim_n\mathrm{}E_n=E^{}`$, and cases where $`E^{}=\mathrm{}`$ and $`E^{}<\mathrm{}`$ are both of interest. We set $`e_nE_n/\omega `$, for some convenient choice of $`\omega `$, to generate a sequence of dimensionless energy levels. If $`E^{}<\mathrm{}`$, we can, without loss of generality, choose $`\omega =E^{}`$ so that $`lim_n\mathrm{}e_n=1`$. Furthermore, we let $`|n`$, $`n=0,1,2,\mathrm{}`$, be energy eigenvalues for $``$, such that

$`|n=E_n|n=\omega e_n|n.`$
We then define (see ) coherent states asociated with this system by the expression

$`|J,\gamma N(J)^{1/2}{\displaystyle \underset{n=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}{\displaystyle \frac{J^{n/2}e^{ie_n\gamma }}{\sqrt{\rho _n}}}|n,`$
where $`0J<J^{}\mathrm{}`$ and $`\mathrm{}<\gamma <\mathrm{}`$, expressed with the aid of a set of positive weight factors $`\{\rho _n\}`$, with $`\rho _01`$ for convenience. Here normalization is achieved by setting

$`N(J)={\displaystyle \underset{n=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}{\displaystyle \frac{J^n}{\rho _n}},`$
and where $`J^{}lim\; inf_n\mathrm{}[\rho _n]^{1/n}`$ denotes the radius of convergence of this series. We note first that

$`e^{it}|J,\gamma N(J)^{1/2}{\displaystyle \underset{n=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}{\displaystyle \frac{J^{n/2}e^{ie_n\gamma i\omega e_nt}}{\sqrt{\rho _n}}}|n`$
$`=|J,\gamma +\omega t`$
whatever the choice of the weight factors $`\{\rho _n\}`$. Thus by a careful choice of the phase factor we have ensured temporal stability.

Let us next discuss the freedom in the choice of the factors $`\{\rho _n\}`$ so that the coherent states fulfill Property 2 dealing with the resolution of unity. To that end, we assume there exists a nonnegative weight function $`\rho (u)`$, $`\rho (u)0`$, $`0u<U\mathrm{}`$, with the property that

$`\rho _n{\displaystyle _0^U}u^n\rho (u)𝑑u;\rho _0=1.`$
Next we observe that

$`{\displaystyle |J,\gamma J,\gamma |d\nu (\gamma )\underset{\mathrm{\Gamma }\mathrm{}}{lim}(2\mathrm{\Gamma })^1_\mathrm{\Gamma }^\mathrm{\Gamma }|J,\gamma J,\gamma |𝑑\gamma }`$
$`=N(J)^1{\displaystyle \underset{n=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}{\displaystyle \frac{J^n}{\rho _n}}|nn|.`$
Finally, if we introduce $`k(J)N(J)\rho (J)`$ and $`UJ^{}`$, then we find that

$`{\displaystyle |J,\gamma J,\gamma |d\mu (J,\gamma )_0^Uk(J)𝑑J𝑑\nu (\gamma )|J,\gamma J,\gamma |}`$
$`={\displaystyle \underset{n=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}{\displaystyle \frac{|nn|}{\rho _n}}{\displaystyle _0^U}J^n\rho (J)𝑑J`$
$`={\displaystyle \underset{n=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}|nn|11.`$
As a result of this analysis, we learn that there are a vast number of coherent state sets, all of which fulfill temporal stability for a single Hamiltonian, and which are distinguished from each other by the presence of different weight factor sets $`\{\rho _n\}`$.

We now seek an additional physical criterion that picks out a single set of weights $`\{\rho _n\}`$ for a given Hamiltonian, thereby reducing the vast family of coherent states down to a single set.

## The Action Identity

Let us return to the appropriate label map $`ll(t)`$ for the set of coherent states under discussion. Specifically, the appropriate map in the present case is clearly given by $`(J,\gamma )(J,\gamma +\omega t)`$. This temporal evolution is the most general solution of the two equations of motion

$`\dot{\gamma }=\omega ,\dot{J}=0,`$
which in turn arise, for example, from the “classical action functional”

$`I=[J\dot{\gamma }\omega J]𝑑t`$
as the relevant Euler-Lagrange equations. In point of fact, other action functionals would work just as well, say, for instance,

$`I^{}=[J^3\dot{\gamma }\omega J^3]𝑑t.`$
However, there is an additional sense in which $`I`$ is preferred since in that case $`J`$ and $`\gamma `$ can be said to be classical canonical coordinates; this interpretation is not supported by using $`I^{}`$ (or any other such form). Let us accept the physical notion that $`J`$ and $`\gamma `$ should represent classical canonical coordinates and thus $`I`$ corresponds to the appropriate classical action.

It is a longstanding proposal  that there is just one action principle in physics, and that in particular, the classical action principle is just the quantum action principle applied to a restricted set of Hilbert space vectors. We can illustrate this proposal as follows: Let

$`I_Q=[i\psi (t)|(d/dt)|\psi (t)\psi (t)||\psi (t)]𝑑t`$
denote the usual quantum action functional. Extremizing this functional over all bra vectors $`\psi (t)|`$ leads to Schrödinger’s equation

$`i(d/dt)|\psi (t)=|\psi (t).`$
Let us ask the question, however, what is the result if we extremize the quantum action functional over a limited set of vectors such as those in a set of coherent states. For example, consider states of the form

$`|p,qe^{iqP}e^{ipQ}|0,`$
where $`[Q,P]=i11`$ and $`|0`$, say, is a unit vector which satisfies $`(Q+iP)|0=0`$. It is then straightforward to show that

$`I_Q=[ip(t),q(t)|(d/dt)|p(t),q(t)p(t),q(t)||p(t),q(t)]𝑑t`$
$`=[p(t)\dot{q}(t)H(p(t),q(t))]𝑑t,`$
where $`H(p,q)p,q||p,q`$ is a classical Hamiltonian symbol asociated with the quantum Hamiltonian $``$. Clearly, extremal variation of $`I_Q`$ within the limited set of coherent states, i.e., for general functions $`p(t)`$ and $`q(t)`$, leads to traditional classical equations of motion for the canonical variables $`p`$ and $`q`$. In this interpretation, classical dynamics is what remains of quantum dynamics when the latter is subject to a sufficiently large class of constraints that restrict possible variations. Stated otherwise, classical dynamics is quantum dynamics restricted to the only quantum degrees of freedom that may possibly be varied at a macroscopic level, namely, the mean position and the mean momentum (or velocity).

The foregoing discussion can be applied to the problem at hand as follows: If we seriously wish to identify the variables $`J,\gamma `$ of the coherent states $`|J,\gamma `$ as canonical coordinates, then it is necessary that

$`I=[J\dot{\gamma }\omega J]𝑑t`$
$`=[iJ,\gamma |(d/dt)|J,\gamma J,\gamma ||J,\gamma ]𝑑t.`$
Consequently, we are led to the next, and last, postulate, namely

4. Action Identity: To ensure that the variables $`J`$ and $`\gamma `$ correspond to physical canonical coordinates, we require that

$`J,\gamma ||J,\gamma =\omega J.`$
Comment: As easily seen, this last condition is equivalent to requiring that $`iJ,\gamma |d|J,\gamma =Jd\gamma `$. The action identity is a strong requirement, and we next show that it will uniquely specify the weight factors $`\{\rho _n\}`$ for a given Hamiltonian $``$.

The action identity asserts, for all $`J`$, $`0J<J^{}`$, that

$`{\displaystyle \underset{n=o}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}{\displaystyle \frac{e_nJ^n}{\rho _n}}=J{\displaystyle \underset{n=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}{\displaystyle \frac{J^n}{\rho _n}}.`$
Equating like powers of $`J`$, we are led to the condition $`e_n/\rho _n=1/\rho _{n1}`$, or $`\rho _n=e_n\rho _{n1}`$. Choosing $`\rho _0=1`$ (as already noted), we find that

$`\rho _ne_ne_{n1}\mathrm{}e_1=\mathrm{\Pi }_{l=1}^ne_l.`$
The final result is, therefore, the set of coherent states introduced by Gazeau and Klauder .

It is instructive to apply the final coherent-state prescription to a familiar example, namely, to the harmonic oscillator. In that case, $`E_n=\omega n`$, or $`e_n=n`$, and so $`\rho _n=n!`$. If we let $`|z|J^{1/2}`$ and set $`z|z|e^{i\gamma }`$, then we find that

$`|J,\gamma |z=e^{{\scriptscriptstyle \frac{1}{2}}\left|z\right|^2}{\displaystyle \underset{n=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}{\displaystyle \frac{z^n}{\sqrt{n!}}}|n.`$
Observe that in the present case it suffices that $`\pi \gamma <\pi `$ to achieve the needed orthogonality. Reassuringly, therefore, we have been able to deduce from our several postulates that the canonical coherent states are the unique family of coherent states associated with the harmonic oscillator dynamics.

## Application to Hydrogen-like Spectrum

Finding coherent states for the bound state portion of the hydrogen atom has been a long-standing problem. Surely, various proposals for such coherent states have been made (see, e.g., ), and just as surely they generally differ one from another. One means to gauge such proposals is how well they do in the semi-classical regime, namely, what is the spread in the energy levels for highly excited systems. Ideally, one would prefer that the spread decreases as the excitation level rises so that more nearly classical-like behavior is obtained. A measure of the spread is provided by the variance, and therefore it is appropriate to focus on the variance in the proposed coherent states. While the full hydrogen atom has been treated elsewhere, we content ourselves here with a simple one-dimensional model which serves to illustrate the principles involved in a clearer fashion.

We now turn our attention to a one-dimensional model problem with the hydrogen-like spectrum

$`E_n=\omega [11/(n+1)^2].`$
In this case

$`\rho _n={\displaystyle \underset{l=1}{\overset{n}{}}}{\displaystyle \frac{(l^2+2l)}{(l+1)^2}}={\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\left({\displaystyle \frac{n+2}{n+1}}\right),`$
and thus the coherent states in question are defined by

$`|J,\gamma =N(J)^{1/2}{\displaystyle \underset{n=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}\sqrt{\left({\displaystyle \frac{2n+2}{n+2}}\right)}J^{n/2}e^{i\gamma [1(n+1)^2]}|n.`$
Here

$`N(J)={\displaystyle \underset{n=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}\left({\displaystyle \frac{2n+2}{n+2}}\right)J^n={\displaystyle \frac{2}{1J}}+{\displaystyle \frac{2}{J^2}}[J+\mathrm{ln}(1J)],`$
provided that $`0J<J^{}=1`$. As in the general case, these states clearly exhibit temporal stability, i.e.,

$`e^{it}|J,\gamma =|J,\gamma +\omega t.`$
### Variance

By design, of course, these states fulfill the condition

$`J,\gamma ||J,\gamma =\omega J.`$
A question of particular interest, however, refers to the variance of the energy in each of the given coherent states since this quantity serves to indicate how well the energy is peaked about its mean value in the coherent state $`|J,\gamma `$.

It may be shown (e.g., by direct computation) that for the hydrogen-like model under discussion the variance

$`v(J)J,\gamma |^2|J,\gamma J,\gamma ||J,\gamma ^2`$
$`(3\omega ^2/4)J(1J).`$
It is noteworthy that the variance vanishes not only for $`J=0`$ but for $`J=1`$ as well. This fact implies that the state $`|J,\gamma `$ is peaked in its energy values about its mean value when $`J0`$ and when $`J1`$.

We now proceed to discuss the variance in a more general fashion.

## Variances for more General Systems

Let us discuss the variance for rather general systems for which $`J^{}=1`$. This analysis leads to further information about the hydrogen-like model as well as many other examples.

In the general case, the energy variance is defined by

$`v(J)=J,\gamma |^2|J,\gamma J,\gamma ||J,\gamma ^2`$
$`={\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Sigma }e_n^2J^n/\rho _n}{\mathrm{\Sigma }J^n/\rho _n}}{\displaystyle \frac{(\mathrm{\Sigma }e_nJ^n/\rho _n)^2}{(\mathrm{\Sigma }J^n/\rho _n)^2}}`$
$`={\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Sigma }_{n,m}(e_ne_m)^2J^{n+m}/\rho _n\rho _m}{\mathrm{\Sigma }_{n,m}J^{n+m}/\rho _n\rho _m}}.`$
Let us examine $`v(J)`$ at the two extremes $`J0`$ and $`J1`$.

First, for $`J0`$, we readily see that

$`v(J)=e_1J+O(J^2).`$
In short,

$`v(J)J`$
near $`J=0`$.

For $`J1`$ the analysis is somewhat more involved. We note that $`v(J)`$ may be written as

$`v(J)={\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Sigma }J^m/\rho _m\mathrm{\Sigma }(\delta _n\delta _m)^2J^n/\rho _n}{\mathrm{\Sigma }J^m\rho _m\mathrm{\Sigma }J^n/\rho _n}},`$
where $`\delta _n1e_n`$. Observe that $`\delta _n0`$ as $`n\mathrm{}`$. For the moment we assume even more, namely, that $`\mathrm{\Sigma }\delta _m^2<\mathrm{}`$. Since large $`n`$ values dominate the $`n`$-sums in the numerator and the denominator, then near $`J=1`$ it suffices to consider

$`v(J)={\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Sigma }\delta _m^2J^m/\rho _m\mathrm{\Sigma }J^n/\rho _{\mathrm{}}}{\mathrm{\Sigma }J^m/\rho _{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{\Sigma }J^n/\rho _{\mathrm{}}}}`$
$`=(1J)(\frac{1}{2}\rho _{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{\Sigma }\delta _m^2/\rho _m)+O([1J]^2).`$
Roughly speaking, if $`\delta _m^2m^\tau `$, for large $`m`$, $`1<\tau `$, then we have shown to leading order that

$`v(J)(1J)`$
near $`J=1`$. On the other hand, if $`\delta _m^2m^\tau `$, for large $`m`$, $`0<\tau <1`$, it follows to leading order that

$`v(J)(1J)^\tau `$
near $`J=1`$.

Finally, we learn that the vanishing of the variance for large quantum numbers, i.e., when $`J1`$ is a rather general phenomena, given the choice of coherent states to which we have been led in the present article. This fact would seem to confirm their utility in semi-classical analyses rather generally.

## Related work

Several other papers have recently appeared dealing with topics raised in this article, and the interested reader may wish to consult them directly. In  temporally stable coherent states are developed for the infinite square well and for the Pöschl-Teller potential. A review of various attempts to develop coherent states in general and hydrogen atom coherent states in particular is given in .

## Acknowledgements

I take this opportunity to thank several colleagues who have been recently involved with the author in one way or another regarding the subject of coherent states. These collaborators are: J.-P. Antoine, B. Bodmann, J.-P. Gazeau, P. Monceau, K.A. Penson, J.-M. Sixdeniers, S.V. Shabanov, and G. Watson.


format: text

text:
# Alpha cluster condensation in 12C and 16O

\[

## Abstract

A new $`\alpha `$-cluster wave function is proposed which is of the $`\alpha `$-particle condensate type. Applications to 12C and 16O show that states of low density close to the 3 resp. 4 $`\alpha `$-particle threshold in both nuclei are possibly of this kind. It is conjectured that all self-conjugate 4$`n`$ nuclei may show similar features.

Keywords: Binding energies, Collective levels, $`\alpha `$-like correlations, Bose-Einstein condensation, nuclear matter, $`\alpha `$-particle matter.

\]

Many properties of finite quantum systems such as nuclei, quantum dots, atomic clusters or ultracould gases in a trap are fairly well described within a mean-field approximation neglecting the correlations between the quasiparticles. However, sometimes correlations become strong, giving rise to the formation of clusters, and they have to be taken into account. An intriguing problem is when bosonic clusters as bound states of fermions are produced, and the Bose character of the composite clusters competes with the fermionic properties of their constituents. As an example, we will discuss the relevance of $`\alpha `$-like four-nucleon correlations in atomic nuclei. Special attention will be paid to such correlations which correspond to an $`\alpha `$-type condensate in low-density symmetric nuclear matter, similar to the Bose-Einstein condensation observed for finite numbers of bosonic atoms such as Rb or Na in traps.

It is a well known fact that in light nuclei many states are of the cluster type . In the case of cluster states of stable nuclei where we have only very few excess nucleons in addition to the clusters, they are all located close to or above the threshold energy of breakup into constituent clusters. This fact which is known as the threshold rule  means that the inter-cluster binding is weak in cluster states. The threshold rule can be considered as a necessary condition for the formation of the cluster structure, because if the inter-cluster binding is strong the clusters overlap strongly and the clusters will loose their identities.

For example one of the fundamental questions of the cluster model is what kind of $`\alpha `$-particle cluster states can be expected to exist around the threshold energy $`E_{n\alpha }^{\mathrm{thr}}=nE_\alpha `$ of $`n\alpha `$ breakup in self-conjugate $`4n`$ nuclei. One possible answer to this question, which is strongly under debate, is the existence of the cluster state of a linear $`n\alpha `$ chain structure. The idea of the linear $`\alpha `$ chain state, originally due to Morinaga , is so fascinating that recently the formation of linear 6$`\alpha `$ chain states in 24Mg was studied extensively by experiments and also theoretically . The possibility of the linear 3$`\alpha `$ chain state in 12C, which is the simplest linear $`\alpha `$ chain state was studied in detail by many authors solving the 3$`\alpha `$ problem microscopically . However, these three-body studies all showed that the 3$`\alpha `$-cluster states around the 3$`\alpha `$ threshold energy $`E_{3\alpha }^{\mathrm{thr}}`$ do not have a linear chain structure. For example it was found that the calculated second $`0^+`$ state in 12C, which corresponds to the observed second $`0^+`$ state located at 0.39 MeV above the 3$`\alpha `$ threshold energy, has a structure where $`\alpha `$-clusters interact predominantly in relative S-waves. Thus it was concluded that the cluster state near $`E_{3\alpha }^{\mathrm{thr}}`$ has not a linear chain structure but rather an $`\alpha `$-particle gas-like structure.

On the other hand there have been recent theoretical investigations on the posibility of $`\alpha `$-particle condensation in low density nuclear matter . In  Röpke et al. made a variational ansatz for the solution of the in-medium 4-body equation. In  Beyer et al. solved the Faddeev- Yakubovsky equations for an alpha-like cluster in nuclear matter. The outcome of these studies was that such $`\alpha `$-condensation can occur only in the low-density region below a fifth of the saturation value. At higher densities rather a state of ordinary $`p`$-$`n`$, $`n`$-$`n`$, or $`p`$-$`p`$ Cooper pairing will prevail. In view of these results it may be a tempting idea that in finite self-conjugate $`4n`$ nuclei one could expect the existence of excited states of dilute density composed of a weakly interacting gas of $`\alpha `$-particles. Since the $`\alpha `$-cluster is a Bose particle, such states could approximately be considered as an $`n\alpha `$ cluster condensed state and eventually excitations thereof.

The purpose of this paper is to report on our study which not only confirms that indeed the second $`0^+`$ state in 12C could be considered as such a condensed state but that in addition also in 16O such a state close to the threshold possibly exists. We will therefore then conjecture that the existence of such $`\alpha `$-condensed states might be a general feature in $`N`$=$`Z`$ nuclei.

For the purpose of our study we write down a new type of $`\alpha `$-cluster wave function describing an $`\alpha `$-particle Bose condensed state:

$$|\mathrm{\Phi }_{n\alpha }=(C_\alpha ^{})^n|\mathrm{vac}$$
(1)
where the $`\alpha `$-particle creation operator is given by

$`C_\alpha ^{}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle d^3Re^{𝐑^2/R_0^2}d^3r_1\mathrm{}d^3r_4}`$ (2)
$`\times `$ $`\phi _{0s}(𝐫_1𝐑)a_{\sigma _1\tau _1}^{}(𝐫_1)\mathrm{}\phi _{0s}(𝐫_4𝐑)a_{\sigma _4\tau _4}^{}(𝐫_4)`$ (3)
with $`\phi _{0s}(𝐫)=(1/(\pi b^2))^{3/4}e^{𝐫^2/(2b^2)}`$ and $`a_{\sigma \tau }^{}(𝐫)`$ being the creation operator of a nucleon with spin-isospin $`\sigma \tau `$ at the spatial point $`𝐫`$. The total $`n\alpha `$ wave function therefore can be written as

$`𝐫_1\sigma _1\tau _1,\mathrm{}𝐫_{4n}\sigma _{4n}\tau _{4n}|\mathrm{\Phi }_{n\alpha }`$ (4)
$`𝒜\{e^{\frac{2}{B^2}(𝐗_1^2+\mathrm{}+𝐗_n^2)}\varphi (\alpha _1)\mathrm{}\varphi (\alpha _n)\},`$ (5)
where $`B=(b^2+2R_0^2)^{1/2}`$ and $`𝐗_i=(1/4)_n𝐫_{in}`$ is the center-of-mass coordinate of the $`i`$-th $`\alpha `$-cluster $`\alpha _i`$. The internal wave function of the $`\alpha `$-cluster $`\alpha _i`$ is $`\varphi (\alpha _i)\mathrm{exp}[(1/8b^2)_{m>n}^4(𝐫_{im}𝐫_{in})^2]`$. The wave function of Eq.(3) is totally antisymmerized by the operator $`𝒜`$. It is to be noted that the wave function of Eqs.(1,3) expresses the state where $`n\alpha `$-clusters occupy the same $`0s`$ harmonic oscillator orbit $`\mathrm{exp}[\frac{2}{B^2}𝐗^2]`$ with $`B`$ an indepedent variational width parameter. For example if $`B`$ is of the size of the whole nucleus whereas $`b`$ remains more or less at the free $`\alpha `$-particle value (a situation encountered below), then the wave function (3) describes an $`n\alpha `$ cluster condensed state in the macroscopic limit $`n\mathrm{}`$. For finite systems we know from the pairing case that such a wave function still can more or less reflect Bose condensation properties. Of course the total center-of-mass motion can and must be separated out of the wave function of Eq.(1) for finite systems. In the limiting case of $`B=b`$ (i.e. $`R_0`$ = 0), Eq.(3) describes a Slater determinant of harmonic oscillator wave functions. It may also be worth mentioning that for $`B0`$ the wave function (1,3) is different from the cluster state proposed by Brink .

The state $`|\mathrm{\Phi }_{n\alpha }`$ has spin-parity $`0^+`$. In the limit of $`R_0=0`$, the normalized wave function $`|\mathrm{\Phi }_{n\alpha }^\mathrm{N}=|\mathrm{\Phi }_{n\alpha }`$ $`/\sqrt{\mathrm{\Phi }_{n\alpha }|\mathrm{\Phi }_{n\alpha }}`$ is identical to a harmonic oscillator shell model wave function with the oscillator parameter $`b`$. For $`n=3`$, it is identical to the $`p`$-shell wave function $`|(0s)^4(0p)^8,[444]0^+`$, and for $`n=4`$, it is identical to the double closed shell wave function, $`|(0s)^4(0p)^{12},0^+`$. This is easily proved by noticing that these limit wave functions for $`n`$ =3 and 4 have maximum spatial symmetry  and , respectively. Only 8Be has an $`\alpha `$-particle structure in its ground state. Heavier $`n\alpha `$ nuclei collapse to the dense state in their ground state but the individual $`\alpha `$’s may reappear when these nuclei are dilated i.e. excited.

We calculated the energy surfaces in the two parameter space, $`R_0`$ and $`b`$, $`E_{n\alpha }(R_0,b)=\mathrm{\Phi }_{n\alpha }^\mathrm{N}(R_0,b)|\widehat{H}|\mathrm{\Phi }_{n\alpha }^\mathrm{N}(R_0,b)`$, for $`n`$ = 3 and 4. The Hamiltonian $`\widehat{H}`$ consists of the kinetic energy, the Coulomb energy, and the effective nuclear force named F1 which was proposed by one of the authors and contains a finite range three-nucleon force in addition to the finite range two-nucleon force . This force reproduces reasonably well the binding energy and radius of the $`\alpha `$-particle, the $`\alpha `$-$`\alpha `$ phase shifts of various partial waves, and the binding energy and density of nuclear matter. As we will see below this force also gives good results for binding energies and radii of 12C and 16O.

In Fig.1 we give the contour maps of the energy surfaces $`E_{n\alpha }(R_0,b)`$ for 12C and 16O. The qualitative features of both surfaces are similar. They show a valley running from the outer region with large $`R_0>11`$ fm and $`bb_\alpha `$ = 1.44 fm to the inner region with small $`R_0`$ and $`b>b_\alpha `$, where $`b_\alpha `$ is the oscillator parameter of the free $`\alpha `$-particle. The valleys have a saddle point at $`R_010`$ fm for $`n`$ = 3 and at $`R_010.6`$ fm for $`n`$ = 4. Beyond the saddle point, $`E_{n\alpha }(R_0,b_\alpha )E_{n\alpha }^{\mathrm{thr}}=nE_\alpha `$, where $`E_\alpha `$ = \- 27.5 MeV is the theoretical binding energy of the free $`\alpha `$ particle by the present F1 force in Hartree-Fock approximation. Therefore we have $`3E_\alpha `$ = -82.5 MeV and $`4E_\alpha `$ = -110 MeV. In the asymptotic region the average inter-$`\alpha `$ distance is large and the kinetic energy of the center-of-mass motion of an $`\alpha `$-cluster ($`3\mathrm{}^2/4mB^2`$) is very small which leads to $`E_{n\alpha }(R_0,b_\alpha )`$ being more or less equal to $`E_{n\alpha }^{\mathrm{thr}}`$. The height of the saddle point measured from the theoretical threshold energy is about 1.4 MeV for $`n`$ = 3 and 2.2 MeV for $`n`$ = 4. The appearance of the saddle point is due to the increase of the Coulomb energy and kinetic energy towards the inward direction which is not yet compensated by the gain in potential energy around the saddle point region. This saddle point will help to stabilize the possible $`\alpha `$ condensed state around $`E_{n\alpha }^{\mathrm{thr}}`$. The minimum of the energy surface is located at $`R_0`$ 2 fm for $`n`$ = 3 and at $`R_0`$ 1 fm for $`n`$ = 4. Since $`R_0=0`$ means the shell model limit, we thus see that the wave function even at the energy minimum point deviates from the shell model limit and shows rather strong $`\alpha `$-particle correlations. The gain in energy from the shell model limit is 10.3 MeV for 12C and 4.7 MeV for 16O. Before comparing numbers with experiments we have to make a quantum mechanical calculation. This will be achieved via a standard Hill-Wheeler ansatz taking $`R_0`$ and $`b`$ as the Hill-Wheeler coordinates. However, in order to reduce the complexity of the calculation and because the valleys run essentially parallel to the $`R_0`$ axis at $`b=b_\alpha `$ we take $`b=b_\alpha =`$ constant and only discretise the $`R_0`$ variable. We therefore have

$$|\mathrm{\Psi }_{n\alpha ,k}=\underset{j}{}f_k((R_0)_j,b_\alpha )|\mathrm{\Phi }_{n\alpha }^N((R_0)_j,b_\alpha ).$$
(6)
The normalization of $`f_k((R_0,b)_j)`$ is so that the $`k`$-th eigen-function $`|\mathrm{\Psi }_{n\alpha ,k}`$ is normalized. The adopted mesh size of $`R_0`$ values is typically 0.5 fm. In order to see the character of the obtained wave function $`|\mathrm{\Psi }_{n\alpha ,k}`$, we introduce the overlap amplitude

$$A_{n\alpha ,k}(R_0,b)=\mathrm{\Phi }_{n\alpha }^N(R_0,b)|\mathrm{\Psi }_{n\alpha ,k}.$$
(7)
From this overlap amplitude we can estimate the relevant values of the variational parameter $`R_0`$ in the different states $`k`$ as will be discussed below.

After outlining the results for the new kind of wave function for 12C and 16O, we will discuss whether the obtained condensed states correspond to the states found in these nuclei. We first consider 12C, i.e. $`n`$ = 3, see Table I. The calculated lowest two eigenenergies are situated at -85.9 and -82.0 MeV. The lowest energy state corresponds to the ground state of 12C and is only slightly lower than the minimum point of the energy surface located at -85.5 MeV. However, the calculated ground state is still above the observed binding energy of 12C which is at -92.16 MeV. An increase of mesh points will certainly lower the energy but, as has been discussed by many people, in order to reproduce the observed 12C binding energy satisfactorily we have to extend our functional space so as to include the spatial symmetry broken wave functions which allow to incorporate the effect of the spin-orbit force adequately. The second eigenvalue lies 0.36 MeV above our theoretical $`3\alpha `$ threshold energy, $`E_{3\alpha }^{\mathrm{thr}}`$ = -82.5 MeV, and we believe that it corresponds to the observed second $`0^+`$ state of 12C which lies 0.5 MeV above $`E_{3\alpha }^{\mathrm{thr}}`$. As seen in Table I the rms radius of the obtained wave function $`|\mathrm{\Psi }_{3\alpha ,2}`$ is 4.29 fm which is much larger than the one of the ground state which is 2.97 fm, slightly greater than the experimental value 2.45 fm but in agreement with the missing binding of 6.75 MeV. We thus see that the second $`0^+`$ state corresponds to a very dilute system of average density which is only about a fifth of the experimental ground state density.

To characterise the wave function by a typical value of the width parameter $`R_0`$, we consider the overlap amplitude $`A_{3\alpha ,k}(R_0,b_\alpha )`$ given in Eq.(6) as a function of $`R_0`$ at fixed $`b_\alpha `$. Whereas the ground state ($`k=1`$) wave function is almost exhausted by one $`\mathrm{\Phi }_{3\alpha }^N(R_0,b_\alpha )`$ with $`R_02`$ fm which is quite close to the wave function of the minimum energy point of the energy surface, the second $`0_{k=2}^+`$ state has the largest overlap amplitude (about 0.87) with $`R_04.5`$ fm. This rather large value implies that the distribution of the center-of-mass momenta is rather narrow, in a certain approximation to an $`\alpha `$ condensate in infinite nuclear matter where all $`\alpha `$-clusters populate the same state $`P=0`$ of the center-of-mass momentum. The fact that the calculated $`0_{k=2}^+`$ state is of dilute density is in agreement with nuclear matter calculations  where it was shown that a condensate of $`\alpha `$-like particles (quartetting) is possible only in matter with density $`\rho 0.03`$ fm-3. The average distance of the $`\alpha `$-clusters in the dilute $`0_{k=2}^+`$ state is in agreement with this value for low density nuclear matter, where the overlap of the $`\alpha `$-clusters is small so that the Pauli blocking effects are weak.

Let us now discuss the case of 16O, i.e. $`n=4`$. The energies of the lowest observed $`0^+`$ states are shown in Table II, together with the corresponding widths. The first excited $`0_2^+`$ state at 6.06 MeV is very well known to have $`\alpha `$-clustering character  and is well described by the 12C + $`\alpha `$ microscopic cluster model as having the structure where the $`\alpha `$-cluster moves in a S state around the 12C-cluster in its ground state  though also other cluster states have been proposed . Similarly, the third excited $`0_4^+`$ state at 12.05 MeV can be described by the same model where the $`\alpha `$-cluster moves in a D state around the 12C-cluster in its first 2+ excited state . We will exclude these well understood states from our further discussion. The excited states $`0_3^+`$ at 11.26 MeV and $`0_5^+`$ state at 14.0 MeV observed in 12C + $`\alpha `$ elastic scattering  cannot be described by such a model. Furthermore, they have very large decay widths, not typical for the other states. These states may be described by our new wave function as condensed states.

As seen from Table I, the experimental value of the ground state ($`0_1^+`$) of 16O at -127.62 MeV is well reproduced by the calculated energy value for the ground state ($`0_{k=1}^+`$) at -124.8 MeV. The calculated energy is above the minimum energy of the energy surface. It is because the $`b`$ value of the minimum energy point is fairly larger than $`b_\alpha `$ and the minimum energy point is not covered by the adopted mesh points. In order to have a better wave function for the ground state we, of course, need to include mesh points around the minimum energy in our generator coordinate calculation. When we adopt $`b`$ = 1.57 fm which is the $`b`$ value of the energy minimum point, the generator coordinate calculation gives -128.0 MeV as the lowest eigen energy. The rms radius of the calculated ($`0_{k=1}^+`$) state is 2.59 fm and is slightly smaller than the observed ($`0_1^+`$) rms radius, 2.73 fm, of 16O. The second ($`0_{k=2}^+`$) state of our calculation is bound by 6 MeV below the theoretical 4$`\alpha `$ threshold energy. The rms radius of this state is 3.12 fm and this state has the largest overlap amplitude (about 0.86) with $`\mathrm{\Phi }_{4\alpha }^N(R_0,b_\alpha )`$ with $`R_02.5`$ fm. We conjecture that this state corresponds to the observed $`0_3^+`$ state situated at 3.18 MeV below the observed 4$`\alpha `$ threshold energy. Indeed one may argue that there will be some mixing between the second ($`0_{k=2}^+`$) state and the 12C+$`\alpha `$ state, bringing theoretical and experimental energies closer together. The third ($`0_{k=3}^+`$) state of our calculation is bound by 0.7 MeV below the theoretical 4$`\alpha `$ threshold energy. We think that it may correspond to the measured $`0_5^+`$ state situated at 0.44 MeV below the observed 4$`\alpha `$ threshold energy. This state has a very large rms radius of 3.94 fm and has the largest overlap amplitude (about 0.80) with $`\mathrm{\Phi }_{4\alpha }^N(R_0,b_\alpha )`$ with $`R_04.1`$ fm. In analogy to the case of 12C, these values indicate that this state of dilute density should be considered as just the 4$`\alpha `$-cluster condensed state that we expected. One should point out that the ease with which we get the $`0^+`$-states around $`E_{n\alpha }^{\mathrm{thr}}`$ is a strong indication that our wave function (1,3) grasps the essential physics because otherwise the threshold states are very difficult to obtain. We also would like to mention that the present formalism yields very good results for the groundstate of 8Be as well.

In conclusion, our present study thus predicts in 12C and 16O the existence of near-$`n\alpha `$-threshold states which are the finite system analogues to $`\alpha `$-cluster condensation in infinite matter. They are characterized by low density states so that the $`\alpha `$-clusters are not strongly overlapping and by an $`n`$-fold occupation of their identical S-wave center-of-mass wave function. Therefore these states are quite similar in structure to the Bose-Einstein condensed states of bosonic atoms in magnetic traps where all atoms populate the same lowest S-wave quantum orbital. Because of the short life-time of the $`\alpha `$-condensed states, the predicted large values for the rms radii may be verified by indirect methods. The measurements of the spectra of the emitted $`\alpha `$ particles should allow to determine the Coulomb barrier which is expected to be small for the low density states. Of particular interest would be $`\alpha `$-$`\alpha `$ coincidence measurement of decaying condensed states.

We conjecture that such condensed $`\alpha `$-cluster states near the $`n\alpha `$ threshold may also occur in other heavier 4$`n`$ self-conjugate nuclei. For example condensed 6$`\alpha `$ states of 24Mg could be deformed and the measurement of a reduced moment of inertia over the rigid body value would be a strong indication for $`\alpha `$-particle superfluidity. The wave function we have proposed in this work is very flexible and can straightfowardly be adopted for the description of other condensation phenomena such as for example ordinary Cooper pairing or a mixture of Cooper pair and $`\alpha `$-particle condensation.


text:
# Evidence for three dimensional superconductivity in the cuprates oxides

## Abstract

We review the empirical scenario emerging from the measured doping dependence of the transition temperature and the anisotropy parameter $`\gamma `$ $`=\xi _{ab}/\xi _c`$, defined as the ratio of the correlation lengths parallel and perpendicular to the ab-planes. It suggests that two dimensional models cannot explain the occurrence of superconductivity in the cuprates. This conclusion is confirmed and extended in terms of a novel scaling relation. It involves the transition temperature, the aerial superfluid density in the ground state, $`\gamma `$ and the dynamic critical exponent of the quantum superconductor to insulator transition. The important implication there is that a non vanishing superfluid density in the ground state of the cuprates is unalterably linked to an anisotropic but 3D condensation mechanism.

It has been a long-standing question wether two dimensional (2D) models alone can describe and explain the essential experimental observations of superconductivity in cuprates oxides. On the one hand models of the $`CuO_2`$ plane alone, such as the t-J or Hubbard model, have been successful in explaining properties of the undoped insulator, including the renormalization of charge dynamics and the occurrence of a spin gap . Moreover, given the crystal structures of the superconducting cuprates oxides, it is to be expected that the physical properties of single crystals will show a high degree of anisotropy. This is indeed the case; by way of example the ratio $`\rho _c/\rho _{ab}`$ between the out-of-plane $`\rho _c`$ and in-plane $`\rho _{ab}`$ resistivity is very large. On the other hand, serious questions can be raised. The first is the observation that when the ground state is a superconductor both components of resistivity drop to zero at the same temperature $`T_c`$, so that the phase transition has genuine 3D character. The second emerges from the empirical phase diagram of La2-xSrxCuO4 and the doping dependence of the anisotropy parameter $`\gamma `$, depicted in Fig.1. It shows that after passing the so called underdoped limit, at $`x_u0.05`$, where the quantum insulator to superconductor (QSI) transition occurs , $`T_c`$ rises and reaches a maximum value $`T_c^m`$ at $`x_m0.16`$. With further increase of $`x`$, $`T_c`$ decreases and finally vanishes in the overdoped limit $`x_o0.27`$. Here the system undergoes a quantum superconductor to normal state (QSN) transition. From Fig.1 it is also seen that decreasing dopant concentration is also accompanied by a raise of anisotropy. In tetragonal cuprates it is defined as the ratio $`\gamma =\xi _{ab}/\xi _c`$, of the correlation lengths parallel and perpendicular to the ab-planes. Although the fundamental reason for the anisotropy increase is not clear, it reveals a 3D-2D crossover with reduced dopant concentration. Note that the limit $`\gamma \mathrm{}`$ implies 2D critical behavior. The observation that in the underdoped regime $`T_c`$ falls with increasing anisotropy $`\gamma `$ (see Fig.1) suggests that superconductivity in the cuprates is inevitable a 3D phenomenon.

This letter addresses these issues by providing experimental and theoretical evidence that a non vanishing superfluid density in the ground state of the cuprates oxides is unalterably linked to an anisotropic but 3D condensation mechanism. We review the scenario emerging from the experimental data for the doping dependence of $`T_c`$ and anisotropy $`\gamma `$. It suggests that two dimensional models cannot explain the occurrence of superconductivity in the cuprates. This conclusion is confirmed and extended in terms of a new scaling relation. It involves $`T_c`$, the aerial superfluid density in the ground state, $`\gamma `$ and the dynamic critical exponent of the 2D-QSI transition. The important implication there is that a non vanishing superfluid density in the ground state of the cuprates is unalterably linked to an anisotropic but 3D condensation mechanism. This finding clearly reveals that two dimensional models cannot explain the occurrence of superconductivity in these materials.

A generic property of cuprate superconductors is the existence of a phase transition line, $`T_c\left(x\right)`$, separating the superconducting from the normal conducting phase, as well as the so-called underdoped and overdoped regimes. This behavior is thought to be universal for cuprate superconductors. A glance to Fig.1 reveals that it is very well described by the empirical relation

$$T_c\left(x\right)=T_c^m(1+82.6(x0.16)^2),$$
(1)
due to Presland *et al.* . In practice, there are only a few compounds, including La2-xSrxCuO4, HgBa2CuO4+x  and Bi2Sr2CuO6+x , for which the dopant concentration $`x`$ can be varied continuously throughout the entire doping range. In other cuprates, including Bi2Sr2CaCu2O8+x , YBa2Cu3O7-x  and Y$`{}_{1x}{}^{}\mathrm{Pr}_{x}^{}`$Ba2Cu3O7-δ , only the underdoped and optimally doped regimes appear to be accessible.

Another essential property in this context is the anisotropy parameter $`\gamma `$. In tetragonal cuprates it is defined by $`\gamma =\xi _{ab}/\xi _c`$, because $`\xi _a=\xi _b=\xi _{ab}`$. In the normal state, where $`\gamma =\xi _{ab}/\xi _c=\sqrt{\rho _{ab}/\rho _c}`$, it can be inferred from resistivity and magnetic torque measurements. In the superconducting state, where $`\gamma =\xi _{ab}/\xi _c=\lambda _c/\lambda _{ab}`$ holds, it follows from magnetic torque and penetration depth data . $`\lambda _{ab}`$ and $`\lambda _c`$ are the London penetration depth due to supercurrents flowing parallel and perpendicular to the ab-planes, respectively. In a mean-field treatment of the Ginzburg-Landau Hamiltonian $`\gamma `$ can also be expressed in terms of the effective masses $`M_{ab}`$ and $`M_{c\text{ }}`$ for the motion of the pairs parallel and perpendicular to the ab-planes as $`\gamma =\sqrt{M_c/M_{ab}}`$. As shown in Fig.1 for La2-xSrxCuO4, the anisotropy parameter $`\gamma _{T_c}`$, evaluated close to $`T_c`$, increases as the dopant concentration is reduced and appears to diverge in the underdoped limit. This doping dependence of $`\gamma _{T_c}`$, also observed in HgBa2CuO4+δ  and YBa2Cu3O7-x , is thought to be generic and uncovers the 3D-2D crossover, tuned by reducing the dopant concentration $`x`$. Consequently, the doping does not control $`T_c`$ only, but the dimensional crossover, not included in 2D- models, as well. Since $`T_c`$ tends to zero while $`\gamma _{T_c}`$ appears to diverge in the underdoped limit, it is instructive to consider the doping dependence of $`T_c\gamma _{T_c}`$ and $`T_c\gamma _{T=0}`$. A glance to Figs.2 and 3 makes it clear that these quantities scale nearly linearly with the relative distance from the overdoped limit, $`x_ox`$. The straight lines correspond to

$$T_c\gamma _{T_c}=a_{T_c,\gamma }(x_ox)$$
(2)
and

$$T_c\gamma _{T=0}=a_{T=0,\gamma }(x_ox),$$
(3)
respectively. To check the consistency of the empirical relations (1), (2) and (3) we included in Fig.1 the$`T_c`$ values, resulting from Eqs.(2) and (3), and the experimental data for $`\gamma `$. Moreover, we included $`\gamma _{T_c}\left(x\right)`$, expressed in terms of Eqs.(1) and (2).

Close to both, the QSI and the QSN transition, the empirical relation (1) for $`T_c`$ implies the power law behavior

$$T_c=2T_c^m\sqrt{82.6}\left|xx_{u,o}\right|,$$
(4)
and with the empirical doping dependence of $`T_c\gamma _{T_c}`$ (Eq.(2)) and $`T_c\gamma _{T=0}`$ (Eq.(3)) the expressions:

$$\gamma _{T_c}=\frac{a_{T_c,\gamma }(x_0x)}{2T_c^m\sqrt{82.6}\left(xx_u\right)},\gamma _{T=0}=\frac{a_{T=0,\gamma }(x_0x)}{2T_c^m\sqrt{82.6}\left(xx_u\right)}.$$
(5)
Their divergence in the underdoped limit $`\left(x=x_u\right)`$ implies a 2D-QSI transition and for any $`x_u<xx_{0\text{ }}`$, where $`\gamma _{T_c}`$ and $`\gamma _{T=0}`$ are finite, a superconducting state with anisotropic but genuine 3D character. Consequently, the available experimental data for the doping dependence of $`T_c`$, $`\gamma _{T=0}`$ and $`\gamma _{T_c}`$ strongly suggest that two dimensional models cannot explain the occurrence of superconductivity in the cuprates. Despite this, the vast majority of theoretical models focus on single Cu-O plane,i.e., on the limit of zero intracell and intercell c-axis coupling.

Next we confirm and extend this empirical scenario by invoking the scaling theory of quantum critical phenomena. This theory predicts that close to the QSI and QSN transition $`T_c\left(x\right)`$ scales as

$$T_c\left(x\right)=a_{QSIT_c}\left(xx_u\right)^{z_{QSI}\overline{\nu }_{QSI}}$$
(6)
and

$$T_c\left(x\right)=a_{QSNT_c}\left(x_0x\right)^{z_{QSN}\overline{\nu }_{QSN}},$$
(7)
respectively. $`z`$ is the dynamic critical exponent, $`\overline{\nu }`$ the exponent of the correlation lengths $`\xi \left(T=0\right)\delta ^{\overline{\nu }}`$, $`a_{QSI}`$ and $`a_{QSN}`$ denote nonuniversal critical amplitudes. Moreover, supposing that the QSI transition occurs in 2D, $`T_c`$ and the zero temperature in-plane penetration depth $`\lambda _{ab}(T=0)`$ are not independent but in the limit $`xx_u0`$ related by the universal relation

$$\frac{T{}_{c}{}^{}\lambda _{ab}^{2}(T=0)}{d_s}=\frac{1}{\overline{Q}_2}\left(\frac{\mathrm{\Phi }_0^2}{16\pi ^3k_B}\right),$$
(8)
where $`\overline{Q}_2`$ is a universal number. Here the bulk superconductor corresponds to a stack of independent superconducting slabs of thickness $`d_s`$. Experimentally, this relation is well confirmed for various families of underdoped cuprates in terms of the empirical Uemura plot . On the other hand, at finite temperature there is along the 3D phase transition line $`T_c\left(x\right)`$ the universal relation,

$$k_BT_c=\frac{\mathrm{\Phi }_0^2}{16\pi ^3}\frac{\xi _{ab,0}^{}}{\gamma _{T_c}\lambda _{ab,0}^2}.$$
(9)
$`\xi _{ab,0}^{}`$ and $`\lambda _{ab,0}`$ are the finite temperature critical amplitudes of in-plane correlation length for $`TT_c`$ and penetration depth, respectively. Matching with the quantum behavior (6) and (8) requires that the finite temperature critical amplitudes scale as, $`\xi _{ab,0}^{}\xi _{ab}\left(T=0\right)\left(xx_u\right)^{\overline{\nu }_{QSI}}`$ and $`\lambda _{ab,0}^2\lambda _{ab}^2(0)\left(xx_u\right)^{z_{QSI}\overline{\nu }_{QSI}}`$. Substitution into Eq.(9) leads to the remarkable result that close to the 2D-QSI transition $`\gamma _{T_c}`$ diverges as

$$\gamma _{T_c}\left(xx_u\right)^{\overline{\nu }_{QSI}}.$$
(10)
On the other hand, approaching the 2D-QSI transition at $`T=0`$ along the doping axis, the singular part of the ground state energy density scales in 3D as  $`E_s^{3D}=\overline{R}_3\left(\xi _\tau \xi _{ab}^2\xi _c\right)^1=\overline{R}_3\gamma _{T=0}\left(\xi _\tau \xi _{ab}^3\right)^1`$, while in 2D, $`E_s^{2D}=\overline{R}_2\left(\xi _\tau \xi _{ab}^2d_s\right)^1`$ applies. $`\overline{R}_3`$ and $`\overline{R}_2`$ are universal numbers and $`\xi _\tau \left(xx_u\right)^{z\overline{\nu }}`$ is the temporal correlation length having units of energy. The 3D-2D crossover requires that both expressions give close to the QSI transition the same doping dependence. This yields

$$\gamma _{T=0}=\overline{R}_3\xi _{ab}/\left(\overline{R}_2d_s\right)\left(xx_u\right)^{\overline{\nu }_{QSI}},$$
(11)
in agreement with Eq.(10). Accordingly, given a 2D-QSI transition we confirmed the divergence of $`\gamma _{T_c}`$ and $`\gamma _{T=0}`$ , emerging from the empirical scenario ( Eq.(5)). Moreover, comparing Eqs.(4)-(6), (10) and (11) this scenario also suggests a 2D-QSI transition with critical exponents $`z_{QSI}=1`$ and $`\overline{\nu }_{QSI}=1`$. Although the experimental data are rather sparse close to this transition, there is mounting evidence for $`z_{QSI}1`$ and $`\overline{\nu }_{QSI}1`$. These estimates are close to theoretical predictions , from which $`z_{QSI}=1`$ is expected for a disordered bosonic system with long-range Coulomb interactions independent of dimensionality and $`\overline{\nu }_{QSI}11.03`$ in D=2. They are also consistent with Monte Carlo calculations on the dirty-boson Hamiltonian, yielding $`\overline{\nu }_{QSI}=0.9\pm 0.15`$, as well as with experiments on the 2-QSI transition in thin (InO, Bi, MoGe) films, where $`\overline{\nu }_{QSI}`$ clusters around $`\overline{\nu }_{QSI}=1.2\pm 0.2`$. In this transition, the loss of phase coherence is due to the localization of the pairs which is ultimately responsible for the transition. As the 3D-QSN transition is concerned, the estimate for $`z_{QSN}\overline{\nu }_{QSN}`$ , inferred from the empirical relation (4) is $`1`$. This value is consistent with the disordered d-wave superconductor to normal state transition considered by Herbut , with $`z_{QSN}\overline{\nu }_{QSN}1,z_{QSN}=2`$ and $`\overline{\nu }_{QSN}1/2`$. Upon using Eqs.(6), (10) and (11) one obtains for $`T_c\left(x\right)\gamma _{T_c}\left(x\right)`$ and $`T_c\left(x\right)\gamma _{T=0}\left(x\right)`$ the expression

$$T_c\gamma _{T_c}T_c\gamma _{T=0}\left(xx_u\right)^{\overline{\nu }_{QSI}\left(z_{QSI}1\right)}.$$
(12)
For $`z_{QSI}=1`$ these quantities remain finite, as suggested by the experimental data shown in Figs.2 and 3. More importantly, eliminating $`xx_u`$ from the scaling forms (6), (8), (10) and (11) we obtain close to the 2D-QSI transition the novel scaling form

$$T_cn_s\left(T=0\right)\gamma _{T_c}\left(x\right)^{z_{QSI}}\gamma _{T=0}^{z_{QSI}},$$
(13)
where $`n_s\left(T=0,x\right)d_s/\lambda _{ab}^2\left(T=0,x\right)`$ is the aerial superfluid number density. It relates the superconducting properties to the anisotropy parameters, fixing the dimensionality of the system, for any $`z_{QSI}`$. Since $`z_{QSI}>0`$, this leads to the conclusion that superconductivity in the cuprates oxides is unalterably linked to a finite $`\gamma _{T=0}`$, implying an anisotropic but 3D condensation mechanism.

Finally we note that in the regime where thermal fluctuations dominate, $`T_c\gamma _{T_c}`$ is proportional to the number density $`\left|\mathrm{\Psi }\right|^2`$ of the pairs at $`T_c`$. The complex order parameter field $`\mathrm{\Psi }`$ represents the wavefunction of the pairs of charge 2e. In the mean-field approximation, where $`\left|\mathrm{\Psi }\right|^2=\left|\mathrm{\Psi }\right|^2`$, this quantity vanishes for $`TT_c`$. Thus, the plot $`T_c`$ $`\gamma _{T_c}`$ versus $`x`$, shown in Fig.2, also reveals the existence of pairs at and above $`T_c`$, as well as a raise of their number density with decreasing dopant concentration.

In conclusion, we have shown that the scenario emerging from the empirical doping dependence of $`T_c`$, $`\gamma _{T_c}`$ and $`\gamma _{T=0}`$ is remarkably consistent with the scaling properties resulting from a 3D critical line $`T_c\left(x\right)`$, ending in the underdoped and overdoped limit. Here the doping tuned QSI and 3D-QSN transitions occur. Given the evidence for a 2D-QSI transition and the associated 3D-2D crossover, tuned by decreasing dopant concentration, we derived the scaling relation (13), relating the essential characteristics of the superconducting phase to the anisotropy parameters, fixing the dimensionality of the system. It implies that for any finite value of the dynamic critical exponent ($`z_{QSI}`$) of the quantum superconductor to insulator transition, a non vanishing transition temperature and superfluid aerial superfluid density ($`n_s\left(T=0,x\right)`$) in the ground state, require a finite anisotropy. The important conclusion there is that a non vanishing superfluid density in the ground state of the cuprates oxides is unalterably linked to an anisotropic but 3D condensation mechanism. This finding clearly reveals that two dimensional models cannot explain the occurrence of superconductivity in the cuprates. They single out, however, theories that ascribe the phenomenon to interlayer coupling .

The author is grateful to H. Keller, K.A. Müller and S. Roos for very useful comments and suggestions on the subject matter.


text:
# Polarization properties of 6.7 GHz methanol masers in NGC6334F

## 1. Introduction

Masers from the 6.7 GHz transition of methanol were first detected towards star formation regions by Menten (1991). The 6.7 GHz transition is the strongest of the class II methanol masers and has been detected towards more than 400 sources.

One aspect of class II methanol masers which has received relatively little attention to date has been the polarization properties. The polarization properties of masers are strongly influenced by the magnetic properties of the molecule producing the emission. OH is a paramagnetic molecule and frequently exhibits very high levels of circular polarization. Water is a diamagnetic molecule and consequently has a much smaller magnetic dipole moment, typically water masers show modest levels of linear polarization, but no circular polarization. Methanol is also a diamagnetic molecule and so it is expected to have polarization characteristics similar to water masers. Koo et al. (1988) made a single dish study of the polarization of five 12.2 GHz methanol masers. They detected no linear polarization stronger than 3% towards three of these (G188.94+0.89, Cep A & NGC 7538), linear polarization of a few percent towards W3(OH) and 6-10% towards NGC6334F. The observations reported here are the first detailed studies of the polarization properties of 6.7 GHz methanol masers.

## 2. Observations

The observations were made on 1999 September 22 and 25 using the ATCA in the 6A configuration, which yields maximum and minimum baseline lengths of 337 m and 5939 m respectively. The ATCA has linearly polarized feeds and the correlator was configured to record a 4 MHz bandwidth with 1024 spectral channels for each of the products XX, YY, XY and YX on all baselines. This resulting velocity resolution was approximately 0.21 kms-1. Four strong 6.7 GHz methanol maser sources were observed, G339.88-1.26, G345.01+1.79, NGC6334F and G9.62+0.20. Five minute scans on each being interleaved with one minute scans on nearby phase calibrator sources. In order to obtain good parallactic angle coverage additional scans were schedule during transit for each source. Bandpass and primary flux calibration was obtained through a 30 minute observation of PKS1934-638 on each of the two days of observations.

The data were processed using the miriad software package using standard procedures for ATCA observations. The data for each of the two days were editted and calibrated independently and the results compared to check for consistency prior to averaging. In the absence of any systematic errors in the data or calibration, the accuracy to which polarization can be measured with the ATCA is determined by the signal to noise ratio in the observations used to determine the leakage terms. For these observations a 30 minute scan on PKS1934-638 was used to determine the antenna bandpasses and polarization leakage corrections. After averaging all baselines together, the signal to noise ration for the PKS1934-638 observation was estimated to be approximately 200:1, suggesting that the accuracy of the polarization measurements should be 0.4%.

## 3. Results

Linear polarization was detected at levels between a few and 10% in a number of spectral components, in each of the primary target sources. Most components exhibit linear polarization at a level of about 5% or less, although some features have no linear polarization (within the observational limits). For example in NGC6334F there are number of maser components in the velocity range of -10.0 – -6.5 kms-1 with peak flux densities greater than 50 Jy, which show no linear polarization stronger than 0.4%. The rest of this paper will discuss only the results for NGC6334F, the results for other sources can be found in (Ellingsen 2002).

Koo et al. (1988) detected linear polarization in two 12.2 GHz methanol masers, W3(OH) and NGC6334F. Only the latter of these is within the declination range covered by the ATCA and so it is the only source for which we are able to make a comparison of the polarization properties of the two transitions. The first high-resolution observations of the 12.2 GHz methanol masers in NGC6334F, made with the Parkes-Tidbinbilla Interferometer (PTI) by Norris et al. (1988) found that the emission arises from two clusters which are separated by approximately 3′′(i.e. not resolved by the 4 beam used by Koo et al. in their observations). One of these clusters is projected on the leading edge of the H$`\mathrm{II}`$ region NGC6334F, while there is no radio continuum emission stronger than a 5$`\sigma `$ limit of 4.8 mJy at the location of the other (Ellingsen, Norris & McCulloch 1996). Subsequent VLBI observations by Ellingsen et al. (1996) found that at 12.2 GHz the emission at velocities less than -11.0 kms-1 is primarily located in the offset cluster (hereafter NGC6334F(NW)), while the emission at velocities greater than -11.0 kms-1 is located in NGC6334F. This suggests that there should be relatively little blending of emission between the two clusters which would confuse the position angles reported by Koo et al. (1988)

The first high resolution observations of the 6.7 GHz methanol masers in NGC6334F were made by Norris et al. (1993). At 6.7 GHz the velocity ranges for the three clusters overlap significantly. Spectra for each of the four stokes parameters in each cluster were obtained from cleaned (but not self-calibrated) image cubes, and are shown in Fig. 1 It is apparent from Fig. 1 that many of the maser components in both clusters are significantly linearly polarized. The strongest features in each of the stokes V spectra are 0.05% and 1.4% of the total intensity at the same velocity for NGC6334F and NGC6334F(NW) respectively. The latter of these is marginally significant and further investigations are being undertaken to determine if it is real.

Fig. 2 shows the linear polarization spectrum of the emission from the two main clusters of 6.7 GHz methanol masers. In the NGC6334F central cluster the emission with the highest degree of polarization (10.5%) at -10.6 kms-1 corresponds to the strongest feature in the total intensity spectrum. Interestingly the highest degree of linear polarization at 12.2 GHz is also 10% at -10.6 kms-1 and the VLBI observations show that the emission from the two transitions at this velocity is coincident (Ellingsen et al. 1996). The position angle of the emission at 12.2 GHz is quoted by Koo et al. as 45, while at 6.7 GHz it is 78. For the NGC6334F(NW) cluster the strongest component (at -11.4 kms-1) also shows the greatest degree of linear polarization, although in this case it is lower (3.5%) than the degree of polarization of the corresponding 12.2 GHz emission (6%). The position angle at 12.2 GHz is 90, while at 6.7 GHz it is -48. Since we only have measurements at two frequencies it isn’t possible to determine unambiguously the Faraday rotation toward the masing regions.

## 4. Conclusions

Modest levels of linear polarization are relatively common towards strong 6.7 GHz methanol masers. Comparison of the polarization properties between the 6.7 and 12.2 GHz transition in one source (NGC6334F) shows that for this case they are strikingly similar. This suggests that high spatial resolution polarization observations of the two transitions may allow the determination of the intrinsic position angle of the polarized emission, which in turn could be used to obtain information on the line of sight magnetic field in these regions.

## References

Ellingsen, S.P., 2002, in preparation

Ellingsen, S.P., Norris, R.P., McCulloch, P.M., 1996, MNRAS, 279, 101

Ellingsen, S.P., et al. 1996, in “Proceedings of the 4th Asia-Pacific Telescope Workshop” Ed King, E.A., 106

Koo, B., Williams, D.R.W., Heiles, C., Backer, D.C., 1988, ApJ, 326, 931

Norris, R.P., McCutcheon, W.H., Caswell, J.L., Wellington, K.J., Reynolds, J.E., Peng, R.S., Kesteven, M.J., 1988, Nat., 335, 149

Norris, R.P., Whiteoak, J.B., Caswell, J.L., Wieringa, M.H., Gough, R.G., 1993, ApJ, 412, 222

Menten, K.M., 1991, ApJ, 380, L75


text:
# Distortions of Experimental Muon Arrival Time Distributions of Extensive Air Showers by the Observation Conditions

## 1 Introduction

The pioneering studies of the EAS disk structure in the early 1950‘s by Bassi, Clark and Rossi  have been followed by increasing efforts (e.g. \[2-8\]) to detail the information, up to recent measurements with modern detector arrays \[9-11\] like KASCADE . Especially for the EAS muon component \[12-14\] the basic interest arises from the question, how well does the temporal EAS structure reflects the longitudinal profile and how well do muon arrival time distributions map the muon production heights, in particular when observed at sufficiently large distances from the shower axis, where the path-length effects dominate . Via these features muon arrival time distributions should carry some information on the mass of the EAS primaries, unless the intrinsic fluctuations of the muon generation processes and limitations of the detector response do obscure the discrimination. Experimental studies with these aspects are a current subject of the KASCADE experiment \[17-20\], taking use of the

timing and muon detection facilities of the KASCADE Central Detector . Experimental muon arrival time distributions have experienced various intriguing distortions which depend not only on the time resolution of the timing detectors, but also on the multiplicity, i.e. the number n of registered muons spanning the arrival time distribution of the single EAS event. Thus the shapes of the muon arrival time distribution are affected by the efficiency of the detection system registering the fluctuating number of EAS muons. In this note we briefly discuss these multiplicity effects entangled with the response and the time resolution of the apparatus, and we suggest some procedures to reveal the basic time structure of the observed EAS. Fig. 1 indicates the used terminology (see also ). Arrival times of muons, registered by the timing detectors at a certain distance $`R_\mu `$ from the shower axis have to refer to a defined zero time. For the reference zero the arrival time $`\tau _c`$ of the shower core in the detection plane could be used (global arrival times). The correction $`\pm R_\mu tan\theta /c`$ ($`c`$ \- speed of light) is applied to muon arrival times in order to eliminate the distorsions due to the shower inclination. However, there are often experimental difficulties to reconstruct this time-zero with sufficient accuracy. Hence alternatively local arrival times are considered which refer to the arrival time of the first muon, registered locally. In event-by-event observations the individual EAS relative arrival time distributions (global and local) can be characterised by mean values $`\mathrm{\Delta }\tau _{mean}`$ and by various quantiles like the median $`\mathrm{\Delta }\tau _{0.5}`$, the first and the third quartiles $`\mathrm{\Delta }\tau _{0.25}`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }\tau _{0.75}`$, which describe different features of the single distributions. The variation of the distributions of these quantiles, in particular of their mean values and the variances, with the distance $`R_\mu `$ from the shower centre, we call the EAS time profile. In the case of global time parameters these describe the curvature of the shower disk and the shower thickness, while local quantities characterise only the structure of the shower disk. The following discussion is mainly focused on the implications of observations of local time quantities and is based on Monte Carlo simulations of the EAS development, using the code CORSIKA  with the hadronic interaction model QGSJET  as generator.

## 2 Fluctuations of the arrival time of the first muon

The question to which extent the first detected particle represents the arrival time of the EAS front has been discussed by Villiers et. al. .
Following these considerations it can be argued that the arrival time $`\mathrm{\Delta }\tau _1`$ of the first muon, relative to a fictitious zero time, representing the muon front, approximated by a sample with a large number $`n`$ of muons, its expectation value and fluctuations depend on the particular value of the multiplicity $`n`$. Fig. 2 shows muon arrival time distributions accumulated from many showers with the expectation values $`\mathrm{\Delta }\tau _1(n)`$ of the arrival time of the first muon for subsamples of different multiplicities.

With increasing $`n`$ and in the case of infinite time resolution ($`\sigma =0`$ ns) of the timing detector $`\mathrm{\Delta }\tau _1(n)`$ approaches the fictitious arrival time of the shower front (which appears for small $`R_\mu `$ and infinite time resolution near $`\tau _c`$). In addition to the fluctuations of the arrival times of the first muon due to the registered multiplicity (which in practical experimental cases involves also the influence of the detector response) there is the influence of the finite time resolution. It broadens the observed distributions and smears out the original asymmetry. As an example also the expectation for the (global) median $`\mathrm{\Delta }\tau _{0.5}`$ is shown. The averaged global median does not depend much on the time resolution. In contrast the local quantities underly the trends of $`\mathrm{\Delta }\tau _1(n)`$, i.e. they increase with the multiplicity and with the time resolution.

These features are illustrated in Fig. 3 and lead to local shower profiles which are distinctly influenced by the detector qualities (time resolution and response for the muon multiplicity i.e. the detector area) as well as by the natural shower fluctuations. The influence is very pronounced in the central region of the shower with the largest multiplicities. As examples Fig. 4 displays local time profiles $`\mathrm{\Delta }\tau _{0.5}`$ for proton induced showers observed with different time resolution. The profiles approach the ideal case at larger distances from the core ($`>`$ approx. 250 m), where the time resolution loses obviously the influence. It should be noted that local time profiles do exhibit nearly insignificant differences for different masses of the EAS primaries. This feature is contrast to observations of global time parameters .

## 3 How to account for the dependence on the registered muon multiplicity

In actual experimental observations of muon arrival time distributions like in the KASCADE experiment the profiles are derived from EAS events, including all different multiplicities (n $`>`$ ns), as registered by the timing detectors. Due to the lateral distribution of the EAS muon component the average (registered) multiplicities in an EAS are depending on $`R_\mu `$. They depend also on the type and energy of the primary, and even if the energy is approximately specified, the observed time profiles originate from a superposition of various multiplicities, varying with the distance from the shower core. That feature leads to interference effects, distorting the predicted quasi-parabolic shape of the time profile. Fig. 5, which displays measured EAS time profiles , exhibits this effect.

In principle, it would be desirable to extract the shower profile for each multiplicity separately. However, this attempt would meet serious problems of the statistical accuracy of the results. In addition such a procedure would lead to a less transparent selection of shower events. The main problem, however is that the appearance of the distortions depends on the response qualities of the particular detector arrangement, so that measurements by different detector arrays are hardly directly comparable. There are various ways to approach a representative result about the EAS time structure from measurements of local quantities.

* The standard concept to compare experimental results with theoretical predictions are procedures simulating the experimental conditions and response folded with the predictions and comparing the resulting distributions with the measured results. This will give an impression about agreement or disagreement and on the undistorted time profiles, but does not immediately enable the comparison with other experiments of different (often unknown) quality and conditions.
* The measured time parameters, deduced for each event from the single muon arrival time distributions registered with varying multiplicity, get scaled to a chosen reference value of the multiplicity by a correction according to predictions by simulation calculations (indicated for the case of the mean value $`\mathrm{\Delta }\tau _{mean}`$ by a calibration curve in Fig. 3). The appearance of time profiles depends on the choice of the reference multiplicity. The correction procedure needs detailed simulation calculations of muon arrival time distributions of the kind shown in Fig. 3. The procedure has been successfully applied in recent KASCADE experiments .
* The observation that for global time quantities the influences of the multiplicity and the time resolution are less pronounced, suggests to relate the muon arrival times to the arrival time of the shower centre by simulating the time difference between the arrival time $`\tau _1`$ of the local first muon and the arrival $`\tau _c`$ of the EAS core. In this way  the local quantities are transformed into pseudo-global time parameters, which display the EAS time structure rather realistically, but invoke EAS simulations, specified in detail (see also ref. ). While only the shape of the arrival time distributions enters in the above multiplicity calibration procedure, the transformation to pseudo-global quantities stresses also the absolute time difference $`\tau _1\tau _c`$ between the arrival of the first muon and of the shower core in the plane perpendicular to the axis.

Finally Fig. 6 presents a result of an experimental investigation  of EAS time profiles using the KASCADE detector. For different ranges of the truncated muon number $`N_\mu ^{tr}`$ (used as approximate energy estimator ) and with a consistent correction for the multiplicity dependence, the experimental results are compared with CORSIKA  simulations, adopting a mass composition p:O:Fe = 1:1:1.

## 4 Concluding remarks

The shape of measured muon arrival time distributions, which refer to the arrival time $`\mathrm{\Delta }\tau _1`$ of the first locally registered muon, experiences some distortions which arise from the locally varying superposition of different muon multiplicities (spanning the observed individual event distribution). The effect of multiplicity fluctuations is entangled and amplified in an intricate way with the response and time resolution of the detector setup. Due to the larger intensity of the electromagnetic EAS component and the smaller fluctuations of the local arrival time of the first charged particle, the effects are less pronounced in practical cases of studies of the time structure of the charged particle component . In principle, however, the dependence of $`\mathrm{\Delta }\tau _1`$ from the observed multiplicity is also present in simulation studies with an ideal time resolution, though mostly covered by the assumption of large collection areas of the ideal detectors. There are various procedures, which remedy the distortions and reveal the basic experimental results of the structure of the EAS disk for a reasonable comparison with theoretical predictions or other experiments. The described procedures are weakly dependent on the used interaction model, governing the EAS development, and on the adopted mass composition. They invoke explicitely EAS Monte Carlo simulations. The described distortions of the observed muon arrival time distributions lose their significance with increasing distance $`R_\mu `$ from the shower axis ( $`>`$ 250 m) and with increasing energy. Nevertheless local time distributions (referring to the arrival time of the first local muon) turn out to be rather insensitive to the mass of primary cosmic rays. This is in contrast of global arrival times \[12-15\] which refer e.g. to the arrival time of the shower core and measure additionally the curvature of the shower disk.

Acknowledgements

The consideration are borne out from the experimental studies of the EAS temporal structure by the KASCADE experiment. We acknowledge in particular the clarifying discussions with Dr. Andreas Haungs and Dr. Markus Roth. Two of us (A.F.B. and I.M.B.) would like to thank for the personal support by the WTZ project (RUM 99-005) of the scientific-technical cooperation understanding between Germany and Romania.