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# Discovery of Active Galactic Nuclei in Mid- and Far-Infrared Deep Surveys with ISO

## 1. Introduction

Active galactic nuclei (AGNs) such as quasars have been one of important issues of modern astrophysics since the discovery of a quasar 3C 273 in 1963 (Schmidt 1963). Their central engine has been thought to be mass-accreting, super-massive single black holes around which gravitational energy is transformed into huge kinetic and radiation energy with the help of gaseous accretion disks (e.g., Rees 1984). Since AGNs are intrinsically bright in any frequency regime, various kinds of AGN surveys have been conducted by using radio through optical to X-ray telescope facilities (e.g., Peterson 1997).

Since current unified models for AGNs introduce a dusty torus around the central engine (see for reviews, Antonucci 1993; Urry & Padovani 1995), any infrared information is absolutely necessary to understand AGN phenomena because such dusty tori radiate anisotropic infrared emission (e.g., Pier & Krolik 1992; Clavel et al. 2000; Laurent et al. 2000; Murayama, Mouri, & Taniguchi 2000 and references therein). Another important issue related to infrared observations of AGNs seems to be possible starburst-AGN connections (Weedman 1983; Sanders et al. 1988; Heckman et al. 1989; Mouri & Taniguchi 1992, 2001; Cid Fernandes et al. 2001; Storchi-Bergmann et al. 2001). In particular, infrared emission properties are highly useful in investigating circumnuclear star formation and its relation to the nuclear activity in AGNs (e.g., Genzel et al. 1998; Tran et al. 2001).

Most Seyfert galaxies and a part of quasars were indeed detected at a wavelength range between 12 $`\mu `$m and 100 $`\mu `$m by the Infrared Astronomical Satellite, IRAS, launched in 1983 (see for a review, Soifer, Houck, & Neugebauer 1987). Although IRAS all-sky survey covered over 96% of the sky, its completeness flux limit was 0.5 Jy at 12 $`\mu `$m, 25 $`\mu `$m, and 60 $`\mu `$m, and 1.5 Jy at 100 $`\mu `$m. Therefore, IRAS could probe infrared galaxies and AGNs up to redshift $``$ 0.2 – 0.3 (e.g., Veilleux et al. 1999; Borne et al. 2000) except for some unusually bright (or gravitationally amplified) sources beyond redshift $`z0.5`$, e.g., IRAS F10214+4724 at $`z=2.28`$ (Rowan-Robinson et al. 1991) and IRAS F15307+3252 at $`z=0.93`$ (Cutri et al. 1994); see also Rowan-Robinson (2000).

More than 10 years after the launch of IRAS, the Infrared Space Observatory, ISO, was launched in 1994 (Kessler et al. 1996). The two infrared array detectors, ISOCAM (Cesarsky et al. 1996) and ISOPHOT (Lemke et al. 1996), were used to carry out mid-infrared (MIR) and far-infrared (FIR) deep surveys, respectively. In this paper, we will give a summary of the MIR and FIR deep surveys with ISO and then describe what kinds of AGNs are newly found in these surveys (see for a review, Genzel & Cesarsky 2000).

## 2. MIR Deep Surveys with ISO

ISOCAM has two independent channels containing each a 32$`\times `$32 pixel detector; 1) the short wavelength channel (2.5 $`\mu `$m to 5.5 $`\mu `$m) and the long wavelength one (4 $`\mu `$m to 18 $`\mu `$m) (Cesarsky et al. 1996). Since the short wavelength can be accessible from ground-based telescope facilities, the long wavelength camera was used to carry out MIR deep surveys; i) at 7 $`\mu `$m (Taniguchi et al. 1997; Sato et al. 1999, 2001; Rowan-Robinson et al. 1997; Aussel et al. 1999; Oliver et al. 2000; Lémonon et al. 1998; Altieri et al. 1999; Fadda et al. 2000), ii) at 12 $`\mu `$m (Clements et al. 1999), and iii) 15 $`\mu `$m (Rowan-Robinson et al. 1997; Aussel et al. 1999; Oliver et al. 2000; Lémonon et al. 1998; Altieri et al. 1999; Fadda et al. 2000). A summary of these surveys is given in Table 1; note that the 12 $`\mu `$m survey by Clements et al. (1999) is not included in this table.

Among the above MIR imaging surveys, follow-up spectroscopy has been done for five surveys given in Table 2. Eleven AGNs (4 type 1 and 7 type 2 AGNs) were found among 78 sources in the CFRS-ISOCAM survey (Flores et al. 1999). However, only a few AGN were found in the remaining four surveys (Aussel et al. 1999; Taniguchi et al. 1997; Taniguchi 1999, 2000; Altieri et al. 1999; Fadda et al. 2000). In total, only 14 AGNs (7 type 1s and 7 type 2s) were found among 217 sources in the five surveys. This gives an AGN fraction, $`f_{\mathrm{AGN}}=N_{\mathrm{AGN}}/N_{\mathrm{gal}}`$ 7%. In Figure 1, we show an optical spectrum of a quasar at $`z=1.025`$ found by Taniguchi et al. (1997) as an example.

Although the number of AGNs found in the MIR surveys with ISO is not so large, it seems interesting to compare the above observational result with some model predictions. Oliver et al. (1997) estimated expected numbers of AGNs for their MIR survey of HDF (see also Rowan-Robinson et al. 1997; Aussel et al. 1999), adopting the following two models; 1) PRR models (Pearson & Rowan-Robinson 1996), and 2) AF models (Franceschini et al. 1994); in this article, we do not give details of both PRR and AF models.

a) AGNs expected in the 7 $`\mu `$m survey: In the case of PRR models, the expected number of AGNs in the ISO/HDF field is 1.26 (0.66 type 1 and 0.6 type 2 AGNs) if the 7 $`\mu `$m limiting flux is 38.6 $`\mu `$Jy and the AGN fraction is $`f_{\mathrm{AGN}}`$ 22%. On the other hand, in the case of AF models, they are 0.34 and 9%, respectively.

b) AGNs expected in the 15 $`\mu `$m survey: In the case of PRR models, the expected number of AGNs in the ISO/HDF field is 1.51 (0.73 type 1 and 0.78 type 2 AGNs) if the 15 $`\mu `$m limiting flux is 255 $`\mu `$Jy and the AGN fraction is $`f_{\mathrm{AGN}}`$ 21%. On the other hand, in the case of AF models, they are 0.25 and 3.6%, respectively.

It seems difficult to draw any firm conclusions from the above comparisons between the observations and models because of small-number statistics, although we do not see significant inconsistency between them. Future MIR surveys will give us firmer answers.

Among the ISO MIR deep surveys, it has been found that there are a number of MIR (either 7 $`\mu `$m or 15 $`\mu `$m) sources without optical/NIR counterparts (Taniguchi et al. 1997; Aussel et al. 1999; Flores et al. 1999). These results are summarized in Table 3. It is shown that $``$ 18% of the MIR sources found in the three MIR surveys have no optical/NIR counterparts and $``$ 10% of them above 5$`\sigma `$ detection have no counterparts.

We cannot exclude a possibility that some of such sources may be attributed to unexpected noises. However, if a starburst galaxy with a mass of $`10^{11}M_{}`$ at $`z3`$ is heavily reddened (e.g., $`A_V10`$), this galaxy could be detected at MIR but not at 2 $`\mu `$m (Taniguchi 2000). Recent submillimeter deep surveys have been finding such dust-enshrouded high-$`z`$ galaxies (Hughes et al 1998; Barger et al. 1998; Smail et al. 1999). Therefore, we cannot also exclude a possibility that deep NIR surveys may miss a certain part of reddened populations, causing the underestimate of either star formation density or nonthermal energy density or both in the universe. It seems important to keep the presence of such MIR sources without counterparts in mind in future investigations.

## 3. FIR Deep Surveys with ISO

ISOPHOT is an imaging photopolarimeter covering a wavelength range between 2.5 $`\mu `$m and 240 $`\mu `$m (Lemke et al. 1996). Among the several detectors, two detectors, C100 and C200, were used to carry out FIR deep surveys; i) FIRINDIV-DEEP&DEEP111 Contrasting to the FIRBACK-ELAIS program (acronym for Far Infrared background), in this article, we call the Japanese-IfA/UH program FIRINDIV-DEEP&DEEP where INDIV means individual sources found in the FIR survey and DEEP&DEEP means a deep survey for dust-enshrouded extragalactic populations (deep). Please make sure that DEEP&DEEP is different from the famous DEEP (Deep Extragalactic Evolutionary Probe) survey program promoted by David Koo at UCO/Lick Observatory, University of California (http://www/ucolick.org/ deep/home.html). (Kawara et al. 1998; Matsuhara et al. 2000), ii) FIRBACK-ELAIS; the 90 $`\mu `$m survey (Efstathiou et al. 2000; Serjeant et al. 2001), and the 170 $`\mu `$m survey (Puget et al. 1999; Lagache & Dole 2001; Dole et al. 2001). A summary of these survey is given in Table 4; note that we do not include another ISOPHOT survey at 60$`\mu `$m and 90 $`\mu `$m by Linden-Vornle et al. (2000) because no follow-up observation is available.

Although optical followup spectroscopy has not yet been completed for the two surveys, some preliminary results were reported recently. Serjeant et al. (2001) made optical spectroscopy for 20 sources detected in the FIRBACK-ELAIS survey with $`f`$(90$`\mu `$m) $`>`$ 100 mJy, which are also detected either at 15 $`\mu `$m or at 1.4 GHz. Among them, they found two Seyfert galaxies at $`z=0.149`$ and $`z=0.225`$; the remaining 18 sources are either starbursts (16 sources) or early-type galaxies (2 sources). This gives an AGN fraction, $`f_{\mathrm{AGN}}=2/20`$ = 10%. On one hand, Kakazu et al. (2001a, 2001b; see also Murayama et al. 2001) made optical identification of 35 sources found in the FIRINDIV-DEEP&DEEP survey with $`f`$(170$`\mu `$m) $`>`$ 100 mJy, using the W. M. Keck, Subaru, UH88, and VLA facilities. They identified two AGNs; a Seyfert 1.5 galaxy at $`z=0.206`$ and a quasar at $`z=1.60`$. The remaining 33 sources are classified as starbursts (21 sources), LINERs (10 sources), and early-type galaxies (2 sources). Since infrared-selected LINERs may be shock-heated galaxies (Taniguchi et al. 1999; Lutz, Veilleux, & Genzel 1999; cf. Imanishi, Dudley, & Maloney 2001), they are not genuine AGNs but starburst-related (i.e., superwind) galaxies. Therefore, their survey gives an AGN fraction, $`f_{\mathrm{AGN}}=2/36`$ 6%.

The above AGN fractions are considered to be tentative values because the number of observed galaxies are still small. We hope that future followup observations will give us firmer statistics. It seems worthwhile noting that Franceschini et al. (1989) estimated an AGN fraction in such FIR deep surveys; i.e., $`f_{\mathrm{AGN}}`$ 10%, being similar to the observed values.

Finally, we mention that 10 ultraluminous infrared galaxies (ULIGs) and 1 hyperluminous infrared galaxy (HyLIG) were identified as counterparts of 170 $`\mu `$m sources found in Kawara et al.’s (1998) survey (Kakazu et al. 2001a, 2001b; Murayama et al. 2001), Although the HyLIG222 See for discovery of a HyLIG in the ELAIS survey, Morel et al. (2001). is a quasar at $`z=1.6`$, the ULIGs are located at $`z`$ 0.3 – 0.8. Such intermediate-$`z`$ ULIGs have not yet been found by IRAS. It is also remarkable that the observed surface density of ULIGs is $``$ 10 degree-2. Note that only $``$ 120 ULIGs with $`z<0.3`$ were found by IRAS (Veilleux et al. 1999; Borne et al. 2000; see for a review Sanders & Mirabel 1996), giving a surface density of $``$ 0.003 degree-2. Therefore, it is suggested that the surface density of intermediate-$`z`$ ULIGs is much higher by a factor of 3000 than that of low-$`z`$ ULIGs. Since it has been often argued that ULIGs may be precursors of quasars (Sanders et al. 1988; Sanders & Mirabel 1996; Taniguchi, Ikeuchi, & Shioya 1999), it is interesting to investigate the nature of intermediate-$`z`$ ULIGs found in the ISO FIR deep surveys. Future wide-field FIR deep surveys and their follow-up observations will be also very important to find new populations of intermediate-$`z`$ and high-$`z`$ ULIGs and HyLIGs.

## 4. Discussion and Summary

As summarized in this article, ISO enabled us to perform a number of MIR and FIR deep surveys (see also Genzel & Cesarsky 2000). We give a summary of main points of this article below.

1) As for the MIR surveys, the ISO deep surveys at 7 $`\mu `$m and 15 $`\mu `$m are sensitive enough to detect sources down to 10 $`\mu `$Jy (Taniguchi et al. 1997; Aussel et al. 1999; Sato et al. 2001b). Approximately, 10% of the detected sources appear AGNs from low-$`z`$ Seyfert galaxies to a high-$`z`$ quasar at $`z`$ 1 – 2 (Taniguchi 1999; Aussel 1999; Flores et al. 1999). Since sky areas observed by the surveys are so small, it seems hard to make statistical arguments on AGN populations. However, number counts of the MIR sources show significantly stronger evolution than what expected from no evolution models (e.g., Elbaz et al. 1999). This may be attributed mainly to intense star formation in galaxies at intermediate- and/or high-$`z`$ galaxies (e.g., Takeuchi et al. 2000; Chary & Elbaz 2001). Since dusty starburst galaxies sometimes harbor hidden AGNs (e.g., Sanders et al. 1988; Ivison et al. 2000; Willott et al. 2001), future follow-up observations will be important to understand what faint MIR sources are.

2) The ISO FIR deep surveys have also shown that approximately, 10% of the detected sources appear AGNs (Serjeant et al. 2001; Kakazu et al. 2001a, 2001b; Murayama et al. 2001). Although the total sky area surveyed by the FIR surveys exceeds 10 deg2, optical follow-up observations have not yet been fully done. Therefore, future follow-up observations will be important to understand the nature of faint FIR sources. The most remarkable finding of the ISO FIR deep surveys is the discovery of numerous ULIGs at intermediate redshift between $`z0.3`$ and $`z0.8`$ (Kakazu et al. 2001a) because such populations have not yet known from the IRAS survey. It seems quite likely that these populations contribute to the observed excess number count at FIR (e.g., Elbaz et al. 1999; Takeuchi et al. 2000).

3) The above exciting results urge us to conduct new MIR and FIR surveys. Indeed, new space infrared telescope facilities will be launched soon; SIRTF333http://sirtf.caltech.edu and IRIS (ASTRO-F444 http://www.ir.isas.ac.jp/ASTRO-F/index-j.html). We hope that these facilities will give us much more information on AGN populations in the infrared universe.

### Acknowledgments.

The author would like to thank the organizers of this nice IAU colloquium in the beautiful country, Armenia, E. Khachikian, Areg Mickaelian, Dave Sanders, and Richard Green. He would also like to thank his nice colleagues who have been working together on the MIR/FIR deep surveys with ISO and their follow-up observations, Len Cowie, Dave Sanders, Bob Joseph, Haruyuki Okuda, Kimiaki Kawara, Yasunori Sato, Toshio Matsumoto, Hideo Matsuhara, Yoshiaki Sofue, Ken-ichi Wakamatsu, Youichi Ohyama, Sylvain Veilleux, Min Yun, Takashi Murayama, Yuko Kakazu, and Tohru Nagao.

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# On Possibility of Crystal Extraction and Collimation at 0.1-1 GeV

## 1 Introduction

Bent crystals are successfully applied at IHEP Protvino for slow extraction of 70 GeV protons. This technique is well explored in a broad energy range 14-900 GeV , and some projects for halo scraping with crystals at RHIC and Tevatron are in progress. It would be interesting to study the feasibility of this technique also at essentially lower energies, where it may assist in scraping beam halos e.g. at the Spallation Neutron Source, or assist in slow extraction from multi-hundred MeV proton or light ion accelerators. In the present contribution we study only physical aspects of the job, i.e. how much of the beam can be steered at how much angle.

Bent crystal channeling was first demonstrated at a few GeV in Dubna, 1979, and its physics first studied at 1 to 12 GeV at Petersburg, Dubna and CERN. Crystal-based extraction from accelerator was also first demonstrated at 4-8 GeV in Dubna in 1984. So the 1-10 GeV domain is well familiar to bent crystals.

## 2 Crystal Collimation at the SNS

The Spallation Neutron Source will require an efficient halo collimation of the protons accumulated in 1 GeV ring. The general idea of the crystal-assisted collimation is that a crystal, serving as a primary element, gives the incident halo particles a bend of e.g. a few mrad so as to provide a big impact parameter at some secondary element. Then the bent particles are absorbed with a higher probability there, and so the backscattering is much less a problem. A radical solution might even be an extraction of bent particles to some external dump.

”Single-pass scraping”. A straightforward option would be to bend particles in a single pass through the bent crystal, at an angle of the order of 10 mrad. The protons with 1 GeV kinetic energy can move through Silicon in the channeled states over 1-1.5 mm. The bending radius $`R`$ must be greater than critical one ($`R_c`$=0.25 cm here); we take $`R`$=10 cm as an example for our simulation. Figure 1 shows the angular distribution downstream of the bent crystal 1 mm long. In this simulation first we assumed that proton divergence at the incidence on the crystal was much narrower than the acceptance of the Si(110) crystal planes 2$`\theta _c`$=0.25 mrad. About 77% of the particles have exit angles greater than 1 mrad, and 30% of the total are bent at the full bending angle, 10 mrad. Further example in Figure 1 repeats the simulation for the incident beam with divergence of 0.2 mrad. In that case 70% of the particles are bent more than 1 mrad, and 22% of the total are bent at 10 mrad.

Actual bending angles and the particle distribution downstream of a bent crystal can be designed as required to match some particular design of a cleaning system. The examples shown are for illustrative purpose only.

”Multi-pass scraping”. Rather interesting would the option where halo particles can encounter the crystal several times (multiturn, multipass ’extraction’), while circulating in the ring, which increases the extraction efficiency substantially. This option is feasible if the crystal is short enough along the beam, to reduce particle losses and scattering when it encounters the crystal, thus retaining the scattered particles in circulation.

In this option, several bending angles were tried from a fraction of mrad up to 5 mrad. Upon first encounter with a crystal, particles were allowed to circulate in the SNS ring (linear transfer matrice was used with $`\nu _{x,y}`$=5.82/5.80 and beta tentatively chosen as 10 m) and have further encounters with crystal or aperture (in that case the particle was removed). The aperture limitation was imposed on the particle’s angle at the crystal location: if its absolute value was greater than 0.5 (but less than 0.9) of the crystal bending angle, that particle was removed (considered lost at a collimator edge), so we counted only channeled particles that were steered at the proper angle.

The efficiency (the number of particles bent the full angle) was roughly independent of the chosen bending angle in the range studied, up to 5 mrad, and totalled typically 85-90% of the beam incident on the crystal. The unchanneled 10-15% of the particles reach the collimator edge (the aperture) and can be handled by more traditional ”amorphous” collimation.

Figure 2 shows the probability with which the particles unchanneled in the first encounter with crystal (bent 3 mrad) are channeled on later encounters. If the crystal is as short along the beam as order of 50 $`\mu `$m, this probability is very high, so even the particles multiply scattered in the crystal at first incidence can be efficiently channeled on later turns and steered away. Due to multiple encounters, the initial divergence of particles at the crystal becomes not so critical and can be about the scattering angle along the crystal length. Crystal efficiency in multi-pass mode is defined mainly by the interplay of channeling and scattering processes in multiple encounters with a short crystal. The overall energy loss in multiple encounters with crystal is within the nominal energy spread of the SNS beam, $`\mathrm{\Delta }E/E<`$4$`\times `$10<sup>-3</sup> (rms).

For a typical particle, it takes 5 to 10 encounters with a crystal on average before the particle is channeled and extracted. This corresponds to order of 100 turns from the moment of the first encounter with a crystal to the moment of the particle extraction from circulation in the ring.

Further simulation involving realistic description of the SNS machine and beam parameters will be necessary for realistic evaluation of a crystal-assisted scraping.

## 3 Slow extraction from multi-hundred MeV machines

The above-considered multipass channeling may be well suited for efficient slow extraction from medium-energy synchrotrons . The analytical theory expects that as the beam energy lowers from multi-GeV to 0.1-1 GeV, one could reduce by a big factor the crystal size. Tiny crystal size may permit a huge multiplicity of particle encounters with the crystal, and hence a very high overall efficiency of crystal channeling.

However, simulations (Figure 3) show that, although the loss for nuclear interaction in thin crystal at lower energy becomes insignificant, the extraction efficiency is limited by another factor - multiple scattering to the aperture (set in these simulations at 0.8 times the bending angle). This factor is dominating with decreasing energy, Figure 3. Nonetheless, the efficiency of crystal-assisted extraction is still 75-80% at a few hundred MeV. In these simulations we assumed the bending angle of 2 mrad at any energy, and described particle revolutions in the ring by linear matrices with parameters chosen from the Indiana University CIS  \- just for illustrative purpose, despite the very broad energy range considered. The crystal size was scaled linearly with energy as suggested by the physics. Besides the two kinds of beam loss shown in the picture, nuclear interactions in the crystal ($``$) and multiple scattering to the aperture ($``$), there was a dechanneling loss, 7-8% of the beam total in the cases considered, due to the particles channeled only part of the crystal and respectively bent just part of the 2 mrad. The dechanneled particles are then lost somewhere on the machine apertures, similarly to multiply scattered particles.

The divergence of the extracted beam in the horizontal plane (plane of bending) is as small as $`\pm `$0.15 mrad$`\times (pv)^{1/2}`$ (full width, where $`pv`$ is beam momentum times velocity in GeV) and defined by crystal properties only. In vertical plane, the scattering in the encounters with crystal contributes (about 1 mrad at 250 MeV), to be added quadratically to the initial divergence. The experience in crystal extraction also shows that this method may have other benefits such as flat time structure of the extracted beam.

## 4 Conclusions

Efficient systems for slow extraction and halo scraping at 0.1-10 GeV accelerators and storage rings can be designed on the base of bent crystals. Beam particles can be steered at the angles of several mrad with efficiencies of 70-90%.

## 5 Acknowledgements

I am very much indebted to Jie Wei, Wu-Tsung Weng, Dejan Trbojevic, and Walter Scandale for useful discussions and support.


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# Elastic Vector Meson Production at HERA

## 1 Introduction

The production of vector mesons (VM, $`V`$) at HERA is interesting for the study of non-perturbative hadronic physics, perturbative QCD (pQCD) and their interplay, and the sensitivity to saturation effects. Moreover, VM production is complementary to deep-inelastic scattering (DIS). Results from DIS have shown the correctness of pQCD down to low values of $`Q^2`$ 1 GeV2 (where $`Q^2`$ is the virtuality of the exchanged photon), a region where a transition to non-perturbative physics is observed . In the past, the elastic processes were mostly treated through non-perturbative methods. These methods successfully describe the basic features of exclusive light VM production at low photon virtualities. However, in recent years a pQCD picture of the exclusive VM production is able to describe the basic features provided that $`Q^2/\mathrm{\Lambda }_{QCD}^2`$ 1 and $`M_V/W`$ 1, where $`M_V`$ is the mass of the VM and $`W`$ is the photon-proton center-of-mass energy. The photon fluctuates into a quark-antiquark pair, $`q\overline{q}`$, a color dipole, long before the interaction with the proton occurs. The interaction occurs via gluon ladders. The steepness of the rise of the VM production with $`W`$ is basically driven by the gluon density in the proton, which is probed at an effective scale, $`\mu `$, $`\mu ^2(Q^2+M_V^2)`$ at low $`x`$ ($`x(Q^2+M_V^2)/W^2`$).

Assuming a flavor independent production mechanism, the relative production rates should scale approximately with the square of the quark charges, i.e. the relative production rates scale as $`\rho :\omega :\varphi :J/\psi =9:1:2:8`$, referred to here as SU(4) ratios. It is interesting to determine how the $`q\overline{q}p`$ scattering changes the SU(4) ratios.

As of today the H1 and ZEUS Collaborations 111A compilation of references may be found in . In addition, new contributions from the H1 and ZEUS collaborations are reviewed in the present contribution. have measured the elastic production of VM’s, $`epeVp`$, where $`V=\rho ,\omega ,\varphi `$ and $`J/\psi `$ over a wide range of $`W`$ and from photoproduction ($`Q^20`$) to $`Q^2=100`$ GeV$`^2.`$ The cross-section for $`q\overline{q}`$ scattering on the proton, $`\sigma _{q\overline{q}}`$, contains the dynamics with which the elastic VM production and total DIS cross-sections may be described. We are in a position to investigate the $`x`$ (or $`W`$) dependence of the VM production cross-section ordered according $`Q^2+M_V^2`$ and to investigate similarities between this and the $`x`$ dependence of the DIS total cross-section.

## 2 Results

The H1 Collaboration reports new results on the elastic photoproduction of $`\rho `$ mesons, where the high momentum proton is tagged in the forward proton spectrometer (FPS) . This experimental technique has the advantage that the elastic reaction is tagged directly. No subtraction of the proton dissociative production is needed. Additionally, by applying this method, one is able to measure directly the $`t`$ dependence of the cross-section, where $`t`$ is the square of the four-momentum transfer at the proton vertex. The kinematic range of the measurement is $`25<W<70\mathrm{GeV}`$, $`0.073<\left|t\right|<0.4\mathrm{GeV}^2`$ and $`E_p^{}/E_p>0.98`$, where $`E_p`$ and $`E_p^{}`$ are the energy of the incoming and scattered proton, respectively.

The elastic cross-section is measured in three bins of $`W.`$ The results are shown in Figure 1 compared with other measurements performed at HERA and fixed target experiments, closing the gap in $`W`$ between them. The solid line corresponds to a fit performed on the energy dependence of the elastic scattering cross-sections in hadron-hadron collisions by Donnachie and Landshoff (DL) . Also, the slope of the differential cross-section, $`b`$, for $`d\sigma /dt\mathrm{exp}(bt)`$ is measured as a function of $`W`$. The $`t`$ dependence of the Pomeron trajectory ($`\alpha _{IP}(t)=\alpha _{IP}(0)+\alpha _{IP}^{}t`$, where $`\alpha _{IP}^{}`$ is also referred to as shrinkage) is compatible with the soft Pomeron  extracted by DL.

The ZEUS Collaboration reports new results on the electroproduction of $`\rho `$ mesons in the range $`32<W<160\mathrm{GeV}`$ and for photon virtualities of $`2<Q^2<80\mathrm{GeV}^2`$ . The ratio of the production cross-section, $`R=\sigma _L/\sigma _R`$, for longitudinally ($`\sigma _L`$) and transversely ($`\sigma _T`$) polarized virtual photons is determined. The ratio increases with $`Q^2`$; however, it is constant with $`W`$. The Pomeron trajectory is extracted for the first time in the electroproduction regime from VM production (see Figure 3). The trajectory parameters obtained in the range $`2<Q^2<40\mathrm{GeV}^2`$ are $`\alpha _{IP}(0)=1.14\pm 0.01_{0.03}^{+0.03}`$ and $`\alpha _{IP}^{}=0.04\pm 0.07_{0.04}^{+0.13}\mathrm{GeV}^2.`$

The ZEUS Collaboration reports new results on the differential cross-section, $`d\sigma /dt`$, of the photoproduction of $`J/\psi `$ in an extended range energy range $`20<W<290\mathrm{GeV}`$ and $`\left|t\right|<1.25\mathrm{GeV}^2`$, with data corresponding to $`55.3\mathrm{pb}^1`$ of luminosity, using the electron decay channel . The $`t`$-slope has been extracted in bins of $`W`$, yielding $`b=4.3\pm 0.08_{0.41}^{+0.16}\mathrm{GeV}^2`$ at $`W=90\mathrm{GeV}`$. The Pomeron trajectory has been extracted yielding $`\alpha _{IP}(0)=1.201\pm 0.013_{0.011}^{+0.003}`$ and $`\alpha _{IP}^{}=0.126\pm 0.029_{0.028}^{+0.015}\mathrm{GeV}^2.`$ The value of the latter parameter indicates the presence of small, but not negligible, shrinkage. This is illustrated in Figure 3.

The H1 Collaboration presents results of the $`t`$-slope of the differential cross-section, $`d\sigma /dt`$, of the photoproduction of $`\psi (2S)`$, studied through the leptonic decay channels . The value of $`b_{\psi (2S)}=4.5\pm 1.2_{0.7}^{+1.4}\mathrm{GeV}^2`$ is similar to that obtained in the photoproduction of $`J/\psi `$. The ZEUS Collaboration reports new results of the photoproduction cross-section of $`\psi (2S)`$ studied through the electron decay channel in the range $`50<W<125\mathrm{GeV}`$ . The cross-section ratio $`\sigma _{\gamma p\psi (2S)p}/\sigma _{\gamma pJ/\psi p}`$ has been calculated. This result is consistent with previous measurements. Both results by the H1 and ZEUS Collaborations are consistent with the expectations of the quark parton model.

## 3 Discussion

The value of $`\delta _{J/\psi }0.7`$ for $`(\sigma (\gamma pVp)W^{\delta _V})`$ indicates a strong rise with $`W`$ for the cross-section of the photoproduction of $`J/\psi .`$ This behavior is qualitatively different from that observed in the photoproduction of the $`\rho `$ meson, with the value of $`\delta _\rho 0.16`$ . This small value indicates that the production of $`\rho `$ mesons is dominated by soft physics. It is expected that the scattering of a transversely polarized $`q\overline{q}`$ state on proton is driven by a soft interaction. In the photoproduction regime, where the mean value of $`Q^2`$, $`Q^25\times 10^5\mathrm{GeV}^2M_{J/\psi }^2`$, it is expected that, the $`q\overline{q}`$ state is transversely polarized 222The ratio of longitudinal to transversely polarized production of VM’s is proportional to $`Q^2/M_V^2`$ for $`Q^21\mathrm{GeV}^2.`$. Additionally, it has been observed that the value of $`\delta _{J/\psi }`$ does not increase with $`Q^2`$ in the electroproduction regime . This indicates that the $`W`$ dependence cross-section for longitudinally and transversely polarized $`J/\psi `$ are similar for the same final state. This is consistent with the observation that $`R=\sigma _L/\sigma _T`$ in the electroproduction of $`\rho `$ mesons is constant with $`W`$ . This leads to the conclusion that, despite the large differences in the dipole size expected for longitudinally and transversely polarized photons, the elastic production of VM’s appears to be independent of the photon polarization.

Strong shrinkage is indicative of soft physics. In processes dominated by hard physics it is expected that $`\alpha _{IP}^{}`$ is zero or very small. However, it has been observed that the value of $`\alpha _{IP}^{}`$ obtained from the photoproduction of $`J/\psi `$ deviates from zero by some four standard deviations. It is not clear whether pQCD can accommodate this large value. This suggests that the interaction leading to the photoproduction of $`J/\psi `$ has a sizeable component of soft physics.

It has been shown that the $`W`$ and $`t`$ behaviors of the elastic VM production cross-sections do not depend strongly on the VM wave functions; the variable $`Q^2+M_V^2`$ is a good choice of the scale of this interaction . The relative production rate for different VM’s may depend on the details of the wave functions. Data seem to indicate that the production rate of heavy VM’s is enhanced with respect to the light VM’s  after taking into account the SU(4) ratios.

The parameters of the Pomeron trajectory, have been extracted from a number of different VM’s for different photon virtualities. The values of $`\alpha _{IP}(0)`$ show a clear dependence with $`Q^2+M_V^2`$. More data are needed to establish a clear correlation between $`\alpha _{IP}^{}`$ and $`Q^2+M_V^2`$. The data do not accommodate a universal Pomeron trajectory with fixed parameters.

Figure 4 shows the values of $`\lambda _V`$ ($`\frac{d\sigma (\gamma pVp)}{dt}|_{t=0}`$ is fitted to $`Ax^{\lambda _V}`$) obtained for various VM’s as a function of $`Q^2+M_V^2.`$ $`\lambda _V`$ is compared with $`\lambda _{eff}`$ obtained from the DIS total cross-section 333Recent results of $`F_2`$ released by the ZEUS Collaboration  have been used for this fits . ($`F_2x^{\lambda _{eff}}`$ at fixed $`Q^2`$). The behavior of the steepness of the rise of the VM production cross-section as $`x0`$ with changing $`Q^2+M_V^2`$ is similar to the $`x`$ dependence of $`F_2`$ with changing $`Q^2.`$ At small values of the scale ($`Q^2`$ and $`Q^2+M_V^2`$ for DIS total and VM cross-sections, respectively) $`\lambda _{eff}`$ and $`\lambda _V`$ depend weakly on the scale. This correlation becomes stronger at larger scales. The similarities between $`\lambda _V`$ and $`\lambda _{eff}`$ are evident. This qualitative discussion serves as an indication that the dynamics that drive the increase of the DIS total and VM cross-sections are very similar. From the point of view of the dipole model, both cross-sections may be easily related to each other . A theoretical description of $`\sigma _{q\overline{q}}`$ should be able to describe simultaneously both the DIS total and VM cross-sections. The addition of VM data to the analysis of $`\sigma _{q\overline{q}}`$ enhances the sensitivity of HERA data to issues like the interface between hard and soft physics and the sensitivity to saturation effects .


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# A Deep Search for Pulsations from the Nearby Isolated Neutron Star RX J1856.5-3754

## 1 Introduction

The *ROSAT* observatory provided us with at least seven soft X-ray emitting point sources which are likely to be radio-quiet thermally-emitting isolated neutron stars (NSs; for reviews see Treves et al., 2000; Motch, 2002). The nearest of these systems is RX J1856.5$``$3754 (hereafter RXJ1856), which was first observed as an unidentified point source in the *EINSTEIN* Slew Survey (Elvis et al., 1992) and later identified as an isolated NS by Walter, Wolk, & Neuhäuser (1996). Subsequent observations in the optical and ultraviolet (UV) have strengthened this claim by detecting a faint blue optical counterpart (Walter & Matthews, 1997), measuring its proper motion (Walter, 2001), and identifying a bow-shock $`H_\alpha `$ nebula around the source (van Kerkwijk & Kulkarni, 2001). Walter (2001) also used *Hubble Space Telescope (HST)* data to measure a parallax distance of $`61_8^{+9}`$ pc to RXJ1856. However, Kaplan, van Kerkwijk, & Anderson (2002) have recently re-analyzed the same data and determined a distance of $`140\pm 40`$ pc — the reasons for the large discrepancy are, as of yet, unclear.

Despite these measurements, the nature of RXJ1856 remains a mystery. Is it young or old? Is it an ordinary radio pulsar beaming away from us, a low magnetic field neutron star accreting from the interstellar medium, or a high-field “magnetar”? A key to answering these questions lies in detecting pulsations from this source, from which we could then determine its spin-period, age, braking torque, and magnetic field strength. If an isolated neutron star is sufficiently magnetized, the resulting anisotropies in the temperature distribution of the crust can produce hotspots of X-ray emission on the surface of the star. If the magnetic axis is mis-aligned with the rotation axis, these hotspots may produce a periodic modulation of the soft X-ray intensity at the rotation period of the NS. Even a non-detection of these pulsations can provide useful constraints on the mass, radius, and emitting geometry of the NS.

Searches for these pulsations were carried out by Burwitz et al. (2001) using a $`56`$ ks *Chandra X-Ray Observatory* observation of RXJ1856 taken on 2000 March 10 using the Low Energy Transmission Grating Spectograph (LETGS111The LETGS is composed of the High Resolution Camera Spectroscopy (HRC-S, Murray et al., 1998) and the Low Energy Transmission Grating (LETG)., Brinkman et al., 2000). Burwitz et al. (2001) found no pulsations and placed an upper limit on the pulsed fraction (for frequencies $`40`$ Hz) of $`8`$%. Similar searches have been undertaken with archival *ROSAT* and *ASCA* data by Pons et al. (2002) who placed a 50% confidence limit on the pulsed fraction of $`6`$%. It should be noted that three other radio quiet isolated NS candidates have been reported to show X-ray pulsations: RX J0720.4$``$3125 with a period of 8.4 s and a pulsed fraction of $`12`$% (Haberl et al., 1997), RX J0420.0$``$5022 with a period of 22.7 s and a pulsed fraction of $`40`$% (Haberl et al., 1999), and RBS 1223 with a period of 5.16 s and a pulsed fraction of $`20`$% (Hambaryan et al., 2002).

In 2001 October, RXJ1856 was observed with the *Chandra* LETGS for an additional 450 ks of Director’s Discretionary Time (DDT) over the course of $`7.25`$ days. The purpose of the observation was to search for features in the spectrum — in particular, due to heavy elements in the NS atmosphere — in order to constrain the NS equation of state (EOS). However, these data are of sufficient time resolution to allow a deep search for pulsations as well. The data were made public soon after the observation was completed. We conducted brute-force period folding and advanced Fourier analyses of this data in order to try to identify the spin parameters of the neutron star. In addition, we have analyzed archival observations of RXJ1856 from both *ROSAT* and *Chandra* in order to specify a consistent set of upper limits to the pulsed fraction.

## 2 Observations and Data Preparation

The DDT observation comprised ObsIds 3382, 3380, 3381, and 3399 in chronological order beginning on 2001 October 8 and ending on 2001 October 15 (see Table 1) and were taken in the standard LETGS configuration. The total exposure time was 450 ks with significant gaps between the various ObsIds giving a total duration of $`626`$ ks.

The data were prepared in a very simple manner. We extracted all events from within $`2^{\prime \prime }`$ of the centroid of the zero-order image from each ObsId. The arrival times of these events were transformed to the Solar System Barycenter using the standard *Chandra Interactive Analysis of Observations (CIAO, v2.2)* tool axBary, the nominal position of RXJ1856 from Walter (2001) of $`\mathrm{RA}(\mathrm{J2000})=18^\mathrm{h}`$ 56m 35$`\stackrel{\mathrm{s}}{\mathrm{.}}`$5 and $`\mathrm{DEC}(\mathrm{J2000})=37^{}\mathrm{\hspace{0.33em}54}^{}\mathrm{\hspace{0.33em}36}\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}8`$, and the preliminary Level 2 orbital ephemeris file distributed with the data release. We binned the 90134 resulting events into 1.5 ms time bins to create a 420 million point time series that was used in the coherent Fourier analysis described in §3.1.

A wiring error in the HRC causes each event to be tagged with the arrival time of the previous event. Unfortunately not every event is telemetered to the ground, so the arrival times of recorded events are typically in error by a few ms222See http://asc.harvard.edu/cal/Links/Hrc/CIP/timing.html. In order to improve the accuracy of these arrival times and to restrict the number of counts so as to make a brute-force period folding search computationally feasible, we also reprocessed the data using the time filtering scheme described by Tennant et al. (2001). By shifting all arrival times in the Level 1 event files back to the previous event, filtering the data spatially, barycentering, and then keeping only those events that arrived within 1 ms of the previous event, we are guaranteed to have all arrival times accurate to $`<1`$ ms at the cost of a loss of $`95`$% of the events that were used in the Fourier analysis (see Table 1). These time filtered events were used in the folding search described in §3.2.

In order to verify preparation methods for the data, we processed events from the LETGS observation of the Crab pulsar (ObsId 759) in the same manner as described above. The Crab pulsar was easily detected in the data at the expected barycentric rotation period and with the expected pulse profile given the HRC wiring error. In addition, significant detection of all spin harmonics up to at least the eighth ($`239`$ Hz), indicate that fast periodicities ($`100`$ Hz) are detectable — albeit drastically suppressed — in unfiltered HRC data given enough signal-to-noise.

## 3 Data Analysis

In order to maximize our sensitivity to coherent pulsations with a variety of pulse shapes, we searched the data using two very different techniques. For maximum sensitivity to sinusoidal pulse profiles, we performed a coherent Fourier analysis of all the zero-order events from the complete DDT observation. For better sensitivity to more complicated pulse profiles, we performed period folding searches on the much smaller set of time-filtered events with the significance of each trial determined by the Bayesian method developed by Gregory & Loredo (1992, 1996).

### 3.1 Fourier Analysis

We Fast Fourier Transformed the 420 million point time series described in §2 and searched the resulting Fourier amplitudes using an advanced pulsar search code. The search included harmonic summing to improve sensitivity to low duty-cycle pulsations, Fourier interpolation to minimize the effects of “scalloping” (van der Klis, 1989), and the ability to compensate for signals with a constant frequency derivative (i.e. an “acceleration” search) by matched filtering of the complex Fourier amplitudes with a series of template responses (Ransom et al., 2001; Ransom, 2001).

Due to the limitations in the HRC-S time resolution, we limited our search to frequencies $`f<100`$ Hz. Similarly, we restricted the range of acceptable frequency derivatives to be from $`5\times 10^{10}\dot{f}0`$ Hz s-1, which encompasses the range observed for all known isolated pulsars. Assuming spin down via magnetic dipole radiation, pulsars with period $`P`$ and magnetic field strengths $`B>3.2\times 10^{19}P^{3/2}T^1`$ Gauss will drift across multiple Fourier bins during observations of duration $`T`$ seconds. Un-accelerated searches are considerably less sensitive to pulsars with magnetic fields higher than this threshold. For a 100 ms period and a 630 ks time series (as for the DDT observation), this implies reduced sensitivity for pulsars with $`B>1.6\times 10^{12}`$ G, thereby effectively eliminating a significant fraction of possible phase space for such sources. A near worst-case scenario for un-accelerated searches is the Crab pulsar (for which $`f=29.82`$ Hz and $`\dot{f}=3.7\times 10^{10}`$ Hz s-1) which would drift by $`\left|\dot{f}T^2\right|149`$ Fourier bins during the observation. In a raw power spectrum such a signal would be smeared below detectability. After accounting for the number of independent trials searched, no candidates were detected with an equivalent Gaussian significance of greater than 2 $`\sigma `$. For completeness, we also searched for signals with positive frequency derivative from $`0\dot{f}5\times 10^{10}`$ Hz s-1 and detected no significant pulsations.

In addition to searching the *Chandra* DDT observation, we searched the archival LETGS observation (ObsId 113, $`55`$ ks) of RXJ1856 as well as the 1997 October 9 *ROSAT* High Resolution Imager (HRI) observation ($`29`$ ks) of RXJ1856 using virtually identical techniques. Not surprisingly, no candidates were found with significance greater than 2 $`\sigma `$ in either case. In addition, none of the lower significance candidates from these searches matched any of the low-significance candidates from the DDT observation.

### 3.2 Period Folding Analysis

We conducted brute-force period folding of the time-filtered events from each of the individual observations using a modified version of the Gregory & Loredo (1992) technique that allows searching over $`\dot{f}`$ as well as $`f`$. This method maintains sensitivity to a wide variety of pulsed signals by matching the complexity of a signal’s pulse shape with an appropriate number of bins in the folded profile aligned at the optimal phase. Successful use of this search algorithm has been made by Zavlin et al. (2000) and Hambaryan et al. (2002).

Each individual observation was searched using the time-filtered events described in §2 over a range of frequencies from $`0.001<f<100`$ Hz and frequency derivatives from $`5\times 10^{10}\dot{f}0`$ Hz s-1. The candidate lists from each observation were then compared to those from each of the other observations to find likely matches in $`f`$ and $`\dot{f}`$. No interesting candidates were found.

Most of the CPU time used in the searches was spent searching the two longest observations (ObsIds 3380 and 3381) together over a range of frequencies $`0.001<f<500`$ Hz and frequency derivatives from $`5\times 10^{10}\dot{f}0`$ Hz s-1. The number of operations required for a folding search that includes $`\dot{f}`$ goes as $`N_{phot}T^2`$, where $`N_{phot}`$ is the total number of photons and $`T`$ is the total duration of the observation ($`N_{phot}=3582`$ and $`T=395`$ ks for these two observations together). This search required over $`10^{16}`$ operations and produced no statistically significant candidates.

### 3.3 Pulsed Fraction Limits

Since no candidates were found in any part of our search, upper limits on the pulsed fraction of RXJ1856 can be derived based on the predicted response of a worst-case sinusoidal signal during the Fourier analysis. We use the standard definition of the pulsed fraction $`f_p=a/(a+b)`$, where $`a`$ and $`b`$ are the pulsed and unpulsed count rates respectively. Since a sinusoidal signal in the presence of noise with a total number of events $`N_{phot}=(a+b)T`$ produces an expected normalized power333This normalization is a factor of two smaller than that used in some other X-ray timing papers. of $`P=f_p^2N_{phot}/4+1`$, the pulsed fraction can be written as $`f_p=\left[4\left(P1\right)/N_{phot}\right]^{1/2}`$ (see e.g. van der Klis, 1989; Vaughan et al., 1994).

When no pulsation is detected during a search, an upper limit on the pulsed fraction that the data could still contain can be calculated at some level of confidence $`C`$, based on the maximum observed power in the search. Vaughan et al. (1994) describe how to calculate the signal power that would be required to produce a measured power greater than the maximum observed power a fraction $`C`$ of the time. These calculations are sensitive to how the data are binned and the number of independent trials searched — quantities that can be difficult to estimate. Once this signal power has been calculated, substituting it for $`\left(P1\right)`$ in the definition for pulsed fraction gives the upper limit on $`f_p`$ at a confidence level $`C`$.

Our best estimates for the limiting pulsed fraction for RXJ1856 based on the new *Chandra* observations, as well as the archival *Chandra* and *ROSAT* observations, are given in Table 2. Slightly different upper limits are quoted based on the fact that the number of trials is very different when comparing an acceleration search with a more standard un-accelerated Fourier analysis. For the archival data sets, our 50% confidence upper limits for un-accelerated searches are roughly consistent with (but slightly more conservative than) the values reported in Burwitz et al. (2001) and Pons et al. (2002). For “normal” pulsars with relatively slow spin periods (i.e. $`f5`$ Hz and $`\dot{f}10^{12}`$ Hz s-1), the un-accelerated values are more appropriate.

## 4 Discussion

The 99% confidence upper limits determined here of 4.1% or 4.5% for un-accelerated or accelerated signals respectively, are the most constraining limits yet on the pulsed fraction of X-ray emission from RXJ1856. The fact that no pulsations have been observed in such sensitive observations is a surprising result, especially considering the fact that three other isolated NS candidates have measured pulsed fractions of well over 10% (see §1). There are at least three potential reasons for the lack of observed pulsations: 1) Radiation from the NS is uniform in intensity and emitted isotropically (possibly due to a uniform temperature distribution and a weak magnetic field). 2) The viewing angle or emitting geometries are unfavorable. 3) Gravitational bending effects near the NS decrease the intrinsic pulsed fraction. We will address each of these possibilities in turn.

While uniform temperature blackbody models with $`T60`$ eV seem to provide the best fits to the observed X-ray spectra, for the $`60`$ pc distance of Walter (2001) the implied NS “radiation” or “redshifted” radius $`R_{\mathrm{}}=R/(12GM/Rc^2)^{1/2}`$ is too small ($`R_{\mathrm{}}24`$ km) for any known EOS (Burwitz et al., 2001; Pons et al., 2002). While the new distance measurement of Kaplan et al. (2002) increases the radiation radius to $`R_{\mathrm{}}59`$ km, since the true radius is always less than the radiation radius these values are still difficult to reconcile with most EOSs — although self-bound quark configurations (i.e. strange stars) may be possible (Lattimer & Prakash, 2001). Unfortunately, an even bigger problem with the uniform temperature blackbody models is that they under-predict the measured optical flux by a factor of $`2`$ (Pons et al., 2002).

If the surface temperature distribution of a NS is non-uniform, we may expect to see X-ray pulsations at the star’s rotation period resulting from the motion of the hotter surface features (presumably polar cap “hotspots”) through our line-of-sight. There are at least two geometries, though, that preclude the observation of such pulsations no matter what the properties of the NS or its hotspots: when the line-of-sight is aligned with the rotation axis of the star, or when the polar cap axis is aligned with the rotation axis. Neither of these possibilities can be ruled out with the current observations, and given the modulation strengths of the other observed isolated NSs, this may be the simplest explanation for the lack of pulsations from RXJ1856.

Finally, gravitational bending effects on pulsations from hotspots on neutron stars have been studied in detail by many groups (e.g. Pechenick, Ftaclas, & Cohen, 1983; Riffert & Meszaros, 1988; Zavlin, Shibanov, & Pavlov, 1995; Psaltis, Özel, & DeDeo, 2000). All have showed that the measured pulsed fraction is a strong function of the angle between the rotation axis and polar cap axis, the angle between the rotation axis and the line-of-sight, the hotspot size as a fraction of the total surface area ($`\alpha `$), and the mass and radius of the neutron star itself.

For RXJ1856, one can compensate for the under-prediction of the optical/UV flux by the uniform temperature blackbody model (when fit to the X-ray data alone) with the simple addition of a cool ($`20`$ eV) blackbody component from the entire NS surface. In this model, the X-ray flux comes from thermal emission from much smaller (and presumably polar cap) hotspots (Burwitz et al., 2001; Pons et al., 2002). For the 60 pc distance to RXJ1856, Pons et al. (2002) find acceptable two-component blackbody fits to the optical, UV, and X-ray data with $`\alpha 0.2`$, provided that $`R_{\mathrm{}}10`$ km and $`M1.3`$$`\text{M}_{}`$ (due to the “causality” limit). If such stars are possible, those with “reasonable” masses (i.e. $`M1.2`$$`\text{M}_{}`$) would be extremely compact, with $`R/M6`$ km $`\text{M}_{}^1`$. The extreme gravitational fields of such compact NSs significantly bend the light emitted from the surface and reduce the observed pulsed fraction.

Psaltis et al. (2000) calculated the likelihood of detecting pulsations of a given pulsed fraction444The definition of pulsed fraction as given in eqn. 16 of Psaltis et al. (2000) is equivalent to that given in §3.3. after integrating over all possible polar cap and line-of-sight angles as a function of $`\alpha `$ and the neutron star radius-to-mass ratio. Figure 6555Note that the axis of ordinates in this figure is mislabeled and should be a factor of ten lower. of Psaltis et al. (2000) shows the fraction of neutron stars with pulsed fraction greater than a specific value, plotted for several values of the radius-to-mass ratio666Our definition of $`p`$, using the more traditional units km $`\text{M}_{}^1`$ is equivalent to that of Psaltis et al. (2000), who set $`G=c=1`$ giving $`pRc^2/2GM`$. $`p3R/M`$ km $`\text{M}_{}^1`$. For stars as compact as those implied by the 60 pc two-component fit mentioned above, less than $`20`$% yield pulsed fractions at or above the limits reported here.

By transforming the two-component blackbody fit to 140 pc and noting that $`\alpha `$ is independent of the distance, we find $`R_{\mathrm{}}22`$ km. This upper limit is compatible with virtually all modern EOSs which predict $`12R_{\mathrm{}}16`$ km (Lattimer & Prakash, 2001). For a “canonical” neutron star with $`R11.5`$ km, $`M=1.35`$$`\text{M}_{}`$, and $`R/M3p9`$ km $`\text{M}_{}^1`$, the majority ($`80`$%) would show pulsed fractions in excess of our limits (Psaltis et al., 2000). Similarly, except for highly unlikely and unfavorable viewing geometries, stars with much higher values of $`R/M`$ (i.e. $`12`$ km $`\text{M}_{}^1`$) may be excluded by the lack of pulsations from RXJ1856. These facts imply — but do not require — that RXJ1856 is a relatively compact NS.

It is important to remember in this discussion of NS hotspots that no truly reliable estimates of a NS radius to mass ratio can be derived from blackbody spectral fits, since these fits only yield estimates of the radiation radius ($`R_{\mathrm{}}`$) provided the distance is known. Furthermore, the inferred area of the X-ray emitting region is strongly dependent upon the presence and properties of any atmospheric component. Since there are as yet no atmospheric models consistent with the current data (Burwitz et al., 2001), clearly, detailed spectral analysis and modeling of the 2001-epoch *Chandra* data should be of great use in trying to explain the lack of pulsations from and the overall nature of this enigmatic object.

S.M.R. acknowledges the support of a Tomlinson Fellowship awarded by McGill University. B.M.G. acknowledges the support of a Clay Fellowship awarded by the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics. P.O.S. acknowledges support from *NASA* contract NAS8-39073. We would like to thank Steve Murray and Michael Juda for providing additional information on time-filtering the HRC-S events, and Dimitrios Psaltis and Feryal Özel for helpful conversations on the effects of gravitational bending on pulsed fraction. Additional thanks go to Vicky Kaspi and the referee, Vadim Burwitz, for careful readings of the manuscript. This research has made extensive use of *NASA’s* Astrophysics Data System (*ADS*) and High Energy Astrophysics Science Archive Research Center (*HEASARC*). Many of the computations for this paper were performed on equipment purchased with NSF grant PHY 9507695.