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# Recent Results from PHENIX

## 1 Introduction

Can we create matter in which quarks are free? What makes up the majority of the mass around us? What makes up the spin of the proton? These are some of the questions that the PHENIX collaboration, which utilizes the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider (RHIC) at Brookhaven National Laboratory, will address. RHIC is a versatile collider which can produce Au+Au collisions up to 200 GeV/u, polarized p+p collisions up to 500 GeV, as well as ion combinations in between. During the first RHIC run during the summer of 2000, gold ions were collided at 130 GeV/u from which the PHENIX detector recorded 5 million events.

The PHENIX detector is designed to measure a broad range of signals including rare penetrating probes, such as photons, electrons, and muons, that are sensitive to the formation of a deconfined state of matter. In order to accomplish this, PHENIX is a complex integrated detector system that has a high rate capability, high granularity, good mass resolution, and good particle ID. The central detector was approximately 50% instrumented for the summer 2000 experimental run.

In this paper I report on a subset of PHENIX’s results from the first year of data taking. I subdivide these results into two categories: initial conditions and hard probes. The results are intriguing in their own right and show the promise of the program over the coming years.

## 2 Initial Conditions

Initial conditions are required to characterize the state of nuclear matter formed. To fully understand the initial conditions a comprehensive program that includes e+A, p+A, and a variety of A+A species are needed. However, even with A+A collisions at full energy we can begin to get a handle on some of the initial conditions.

From the first year of data of Au+Au collisions at full energy, PHENIX has measured the ratio between anti-protons and protons, the transverse energy, and charged multiplicity as a function of collision centrality. This allows us to extract some information on the initial density of created partons, the baryon density, the energy density, and particle production.

### 2.1 Gluon saturation

Gluons can begin to fuse with high enough gluon density, limiting the parton production. If the gluon density is indeed high enough to saturate, it implies that the system would thermalize quickly. This would be important as it has implications on the initial energy density achieved.

If the parton production is limited, we expect that the final state charged particle yields to also be limited. Therefore, PHENIX’s measurement of the charged particle multiplicity as a function of number of participants constrains models. (See Fig. 1). In particular, the results disfavor models that have a fixed saturation scale, while models in which the saturation scale changes with centrality can describe the data. While the latter class of models can describe the data, it is not a unique description. Further measurements with different species and energies, and perhaps ultimately e+A collisions, are needed to explore whether the initial gluon density saturates.

### 2.2 Baryon density

The measure of the baryon and energy density is required to map out the phase diagram of nuclear matter. Lattice calculations, which predict that nuclear matter undergoes a phase transition, are calculated at zero baryon density.

In a preliminary analysis, PHENIX has measured $`\overline{p}/p=0.64\pm 0.01\pm 0.08`$. This represents a net baryon density significantly lower than at the SPS, and is approaching the low baryon density limit where lattice calculations are preformed. The ratio of $`\overline{p}/p`$ shows only a weak centrality dependence and little or no $`p_T`$.

### 2.3 Energy density

Lattice calculations indicate the phase transition to occur at zero baryon density and an energy density $`ϵ_{crit}0.61.8GeV/fm^3`$. Assuming a boost invariant expanding cylinder of dense nuclear matter in which a thermalized system is reached after a formation time, $`\tau _0`$, Bjorken derived a formula from which the measured transverse energy, $`E_t`$ can be related to the energy density, $`ϵ_{Bj}`$. For the most central events, we measure $`ϵ_{Bj}=4.6GeV/fm^3`$ for a formation time of 1 fm/c. This is roughly 1.5 to 2 times higher than previous experiments. However, we expect the formation time to be smaller at RHIC than at the SPS, perhaps indicating a much higher energy density at RHIC. For example, if the formation time is 0.2 $`fm`$ we arrive at an energy density of $`23GeV/fm^3`$. Therefore, it appears that the the energy deposition is certainly adequate, so the question becomes whether a thermalized system is created fast enough before $`ϵ`$ falls below $`ϵ_{crit}`$. The PHENIX program includes the measurement of direct $`\gamma `$’s, which should help conclude whether we are indeed producing a thermalized system.

### 2.4 Particle production

Many models of particle production identify two components: (A) soft interactions where production scales with the number of participating nucleons; and (B) hard interactions where production scales with the number of binary collisions. Therefore, we write $`dN_{ch}/d\eta =A\times N_{part}+B\times N_{bin}`$. PHENIX has measured $`B/A=0.38\pm 0.19`$ from our charged particle multiplicity measurement. (See Fig. 1). We also find that the transverse energy density per participant scales in a consistent manner with the charged particle density per participant. These results provide evidence for a term in the growth which scales like the number of collisions.

## 3 Hard Probes

It has been predicted that partons respond differently to a deconfined plasma phase compared to ordinary nuclear matter, therefore providing a probe of the formation of a plasma. Parton-parton interactions at high $`Q^2`$ occur during the very early pre-equilibrium phase of nucleon-nucleon collisions. At a high enough $`Q^2`$, pQCD can be used to reliably calculate hard scattering rates. Using these rates and measured parton distribution and fragmentation functions, the rates of high $`p_T`$ leading hadrons can be predicted.

Partons are expected to lose energy via gluon radiation in traversing a quark-gluon plasma. The partons then fragment into the hadrons which we measure. Above 2 GeV we expect the hadrons to be largely a result of jet fragmentation. Therefore, we look for a suppression of high $`p_T`$ leading particles, which carry information about whether the momentum of the parton is lowered while traversing the formed matter.

### 3.1 PHENIX’s $`\pi ^0`$ and unidentified leading hadron measurements

PHENIX has measured the transverse momentum spectra of $`\pi ^0`$ and unidentified charged hadrons out to $``$ 4 GeV from Year-1 of RHIC. Currently, there is no N+N data at 130 GeV to serve as a baseline, and therefore we parameterize the p+p and p+$`\overline{p}`$ charged hadron spectra and interpolate to 130 GeV. We then scale by the number of binary collisions in two different centrality classes: “peripheral” representing 60-80% and “central” representing 0-10%. For the $`\pi ^0`$ baseline we make the additional correction due to the $`h/\pi `$ ratio measured at the ISR. When we compare our measured leading particle spectra with the p+p baseline we find that for the peripheral centrality class it is consistent with N+N scaled by the number of collisions, while for the central centrality class it is significantly below the scaled N+N spectra. We also observe that the $`\pi ^0`$ deficit is larger than that from the unidentified hadrons. (See Fig. 2.)

This is consistent with our identified spectra measurements which show that the particle composition is a strong function of $`p_T`$.

### 3.2 Complications

So far I have ignored possible complications due to nuclear effects. However, the transverse momentum spectra is known to be modified due the “Cronin effect” and quark and gluon “shadowing”.

The Cronin effect can be modeled as prior parton scattering. This has the effect of broadening the transverse momentum spectrum, which enhances high $`p_t`$ particles. Calculations show that the largest enhancement is expected around $`p_T`$ = 4 GeV/c, and to become small above 6 GeV/c.

Nucleon structure functions are known to be modified in nuclei, translating into a deficit of high $`p_T`$ particles. In the frame where the nucleon is moving fast, this can be modeled as a recombination effect due to the high gluon number density at low x. The nuclear shadowing due to quarks has been measured. For the x range relevant to RHIC, $`x>10^2`$, it is around 10% effect. Unlike quark shadowing, gluon shadowing has not been measured. Furthermore, gluon scatter will be important at RHIC. However, in the x range relevant for RHIC is expected to be smaller than a 10% effect.

Therefore, the current understanding of the known nuclear effects cannot account for our experimental observation. Our central collisions data shows significant suppression relative to the prediction without energy loss. This indicates a novel effect: the deviation from point like scaling. It is consistent with parton energy loss, but without p+p data at the appropriate energy, p+A data to verify the expectations for quark and gluon shadowing, and a larger $`p_T`$ reach to eliminate the possibility contributions from collective soft effects, it is too early to make definitive conclusions.

## 4 Outlook

The first PHENIX run was a huge success. In addition to commissioning a complex detector, our charged particle multiplicity measurements constrain models, the energy density appears to be well above the phase transition level, and we have suggestive high transverse momentum measurements.

The second PHENIX run is ongoing. During this run we expect RHIC to achieve design luminosity. Assuming RHIC delivers the promised integrated luminosity, PHENIX will be able to measure high-$`p_t`$ leading particles out beyond 10 GeV, and make measurements of the $`J/\mathrm{\Psi }`$, $`\omega `$, $`\varphi `$, and direct-$`\gamma `$’s. Equally as exciting, the Year-2 will include the first polarized proton collisions.


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# References

Neutron star composition in strong magnetic fields
G. Mao111e-mail: maogj@mail.ihep.ac.cn Tel: 88200974, V.N. Kondratyev, and A. Iwamoto

Japan Atomic Energy Research Institute
Tokai, Naka, Ibaraki 319-1195, Japan

Z. Li and X. Wu

China Institute of Atomic Energy
P.O. Box 275 (18), Beijing 102413, P.R. China
W. Greiner

Institut für Theoretische Physik der J. W. Goethe-Universität
Postfach 11 19 32, D-60054 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
I.N. Mikhailov

Bogoliubov Laboratory of Theoretical Physics
JINR, Dubna, Russia and CSNSM-IN2P3, Orsay, France

## Abstract

We study the neutron star composition in the presence of a strong magnetic field. The effects of the anomalous magnetic moments of both nucleons and electrons are investigated in relativistic mean field calculations for a $`\beta `$-equilibrium system. Since neutrons are fully spin polarized in a large field, generally speaking, the proton fraction can never exceed the field free case. An extremely strong magnetic field may lead to a pure neutron matter instead of a proton-rich matter.

PACS number(s): 26.60.+c; 97.10.Ld; 97.60.Jd

The discovery of pulsars  substantially stimulated the study of neutron stars, a class of extreme objects in astrophysics. Indeed, shortly after their discovery pulsars were identified as rotating magnetized neutron stars  with a surface magnetic field of $`10^{12}`$ \- $`10^{14}`$ G . Recent observations of soft gamma repeaters (SGRs) have confirmed that they are newly born neutron stars with very large surface magnetic fields (up to $`10^{15}`$ G) . Such stars are named as magnetars . It is expected that appreciably higher fields could exist in the interior of neutron stars although the total strength of internal magnetic fields remains unknown. The allowed internal field strength of a star is constrained by the scalar virial theorem . According to it, the maximum interior field strength could reach $`10^{18}`$ G. Naturally, one may expect considerable influences of such high fields on the properties of neutron stars.

Theoretical investigation of a free electron gas in intense fields related to the neutron star crusts  and white dwarfs  as well as ideal noninteracting neutron-proton-electron (n-p-e) gas for the internal properties of neutron stars  has been carried out by several authors. The equation of state (EOS) of pure neutron matter under large magnetic fields was investigated in Ref.  where the strong interaction was taken into account. Theoretical calculations of spin polarized isospin asymmetric nuclear matter based on the Brückner-Hartree-Fock formalism has been performed in Ref. . Analogous calculations employing various mean-field models can be seen in Ref. . The effects of strong magnetic fields on a dense n-p-e system under the beta equilibrium and the charge neutrality conditions were studied in Ref. . Extremely large fields up to the proton critical field (here the critical field is defined by the condition that the particle’s cyclotron energy is comparable to its rest mass ) $`B_c^p10^{20}`$ G and beyond were considered in their calculations. It was found that the nuclear matter in beta equilibrium practically converts into stable proton-rich matter. However, in these investigations the effects of the anomalous magnetic moments (AMM) were neglected, which may play an important role in the presence of such high fields. Recent studies demonstrated  that the contributions from the AMM of nucleons become significant when the magnetic field $`B>10^5B_c^e`$. Here $`B_c^e=4.414\times 10^{13}`$ G is the electron critical field. Consequently, the softening of the EOS caused by Landau quantization  is overwhelmed by the stiffening due to the incorporation of the nucleon anomalous magnetic moments. But a dramatic increase of the proton fraction with the increase of the magnetic field remains. In the study of Ref.  the AMM of electrons was not taken into account.

The anomalous magnetic moment of an electron  may not be negligible due to its relatively large Bohr magneton. Because of the charge neutrality of the system, a significant effect on electrons will in turn influence protons. Considering that the proton fraction is crucial in determining the direct URCA process which leads to the cooling of neutron stars , in this work we examine the problem with the inclusion of the AMM not only for nucleons but also for electrons. One may argue that the electron self-energy may not change substantially in magnetic fields when high-order terms are taken into account. However, systematic incorporation of high-order contributions beyond the AMM is not yet clear, which will be the topic of our forthcoming works. Here the effects of magnetic fields on different particles within the same system are taken into account at the equal footing. We consider the magnetic fields up to $`10^6B_c^e`$. Though we do not yet know any object generating such fields, some possibilities have been suggested .

For the n-p-e system in a uniform magnetic field $`B`$ along the $`z`$ axis, the interacting Lagrangian can be written as

$``$ $`=`$ $`\overline{\psi }[i\gamma _\mu ^\mu e{\displaystyle \frac{1+\tau _0}{2}}\gamma _\mu A^\mu {\displaystyle \frac{1}{4}}\kappa _b\mu _N\sigma _{\mu \nu }F^{\mu \nu }M_N+\mathrm{g}_\sigma \sigma \mathrm{g}_\omega \gamma _\mu \omega ^\mu {\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\mathrm{g}_\rho \gamma _\mu 𝝉𝐑^\mu ]\psi `$ (1)
$`+\overline{\psi }_e[i\gamma _\mu ^\mu e\gamma _\mu A^\mu {\displaystyle \frac{1}{4}}\kappa _e\mu _B\sigma _{\mu \nu }F^{\mu \nu }m_e]\psi _e+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}_\mu \sigma ^\mu \sigma U(\sigma )`$
$`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{4}}\omega _{\mu \nu }\omega ^{\mu \nu }+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}m_\omega ^2\omega _\mu \omega ^\mu {\displaystyle \frac{1}{4}}𝐑_{\mu \nu }𝐑^{\mu \nu }+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}m_\rho ^2𝐑_\mu 𝐑^\mu ,`$
where the conventional notation has been adopted. $`U(\sigma )`$ is the self-interaction part of the scalar field

$$U(\sigma )=\frac{1}{2}m_\sigma ^2\sigma ^2+\frac{1}{3}b(\mathrm{g}_\sigma \sigma )^3+\frac{1}{4}c(\mathrm{g}_\sigma \sigma )^4.$$
(2)
$`A^\mu (0,0,Bx,0)`$ refers to a constant external magnetic field and $`\sigma ^{\mu \nu }=\frac{i}{2}[\gamma ^\mu ,\gamma ^\nu ]`$. $`\mu _N`$ and $`\mu _B`$ are the nuclear magneton of nucleons and Bohr magneton of electrons; $`\kappa _p=3.5856`$, $`\kappa _n=3.8263`$ and $`\kappa _e=\alpha /\pi `$ are the coefficients of the AMM for protons, neutrons and electrons, respectively. The third set of parameters in Table II of Ref.  is used as the nucleon coupling strengths. It turns out $`\mathrm{g}_\sigma =8.7818`$, $`\mathrm{g}_\omega =8.7116`$, $`\mathrm{g}_\rho =8.4635`$, $`b\mathrm{g}_\sigma ^3=27.9060`$, $`c\mathrm{g}_\sigma ^4=14.3989`$. This yields a binding energy $`B/A=16.3`$ MeV, saturation density $`\rho _0=0.153`$ fm-3 and bulk symmetry energy $`a_{sym}=32.5`$ MeV.

The general solutions for the Dirac equation with the inclusion of the AMM are in the form of $`\psi (X)e^{iEt+ip_yy+ip_zz}\varphi _p(p_y,p_z,x)`$ for protons and electrons and $`\psi (X)e^{iEt+i𝐩𝐱}\varphi _n(𝐩)`$ for neutrons. We have derived the concrete expressions of the Dirac spinors $`\varphi _p(p_y,p_z,x)`$ and $`\varphi _n(𝐩)`$ in the chiral representation . The chemical potentials of protons and neutrons are defined as

$`\mu _p=ϵ_f^p+\mathrm{g}_\omega \omega _0+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\mathrm{g}_\rho R_{0,0},`$ (3)
$`\mu _n=ϵ_f^n+\mathrm{g}_\omega \omega _0{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\mathrm{g}_\rho R_{0,0}.`$ (4)
They are related to the respective Fermi momenta via following equations:

$`\left(k_{f,\nu ,S}^p\right)^2=\left(ϵ_f^p\right)^2\left(\sqrt{m^2+2eB\nu }+S\mathrm{\Delta }\right)^2,`$ (5)
$`\left(k_{f,S}^n\right)^2=\left(ϵ_f^n\right)^2(m^{}+S\mathrm{\Delta })^2.`$ (6)
Here $`\mathrm{\Delta }=\frac{1}{2}\kappa _b\mu _NB`$; $`S=\pm 1`$ for spin-up and spin-down particles. $`\nu `$ is the quantum number of Landau levels for charged particles . The effective nucleon mass $`m^{}=M_N\mathrm{g}_\sigma \sigma `$. Here $`\sigma `$, $`\omega _0`$ and $`R_{0,0}`$ are the mean values of the scalar field, the time-like component of the vector field and the time-like isospin 3-component of the vector-isovector field in neutron star matter, respectively. They are obtained by solving the non-linear equations of the meson fields. The total scalar density and baryon density are $`\rho _S=\rho _S^p+\rho _S^n`$ and $`\rho =\rho _0^p+\rho _0^n`$ respectively, where

$`\rho _S^p={\displaystyle \frac{eBm^{}}{2\pi ^2}}{\displaystyle \underset{S}{}}{\displaystyle \underset{\nu }{}}{\displaystyle \frac{\sqrt{m^2+2eB\nu }+S\mathrm{\Delta }}{\sqrt{m^2+2eB\nu }}}\mathrm{ln}\left|{\displaystyle \frac{k_{f,\nu ,S}^p+ϵ_f^p}{\sqrt{m^2+2eB\nu }+S\mathrm{\Delta }}}\right|,`$ (7)
$`\rho _S^n={\displaystyle \frac{m^{}}{4\pi ^2}}{\displaystyle \underset{S}{}}\left[ϵ_f^nk_{f,S}^n(m^{}+S\mathrm{\Delta })^2\mathrm{ln}\left|{\displaystyle \frac{k_{f,S}^n+ϵ_f^n}{m^{}+S\mathrm{\Delta }}}\right|\right],`$ (8)
$`\rho _0^p={\displaystyle \frac{eB}{2\pi ^2}}{\displaystyle \underset{S}{}}{\displaystyle \underset{\nu }{}}k_{f,\nu ,S}^p,`$ (9)
$`\rho _0^n={\displaystyle \frac{1}{2\pi ^2}}{\displaystyle \underset{S}{}}\left[{\displaystyle \frac{1}{3}}\left(k_{f,S}^n\right)^3+{\displaystyle \frac{S\mathrm{\Delta }}{2}}\left((m^{}+S\mathrm{\Delta })k_{f,S}^n+\left(ϵ_f^n\right)^2(\mathrm{arcsin}{\displaystyle \frac{m^{}+S\mathrm{\Delta }}{ϵ_f^n}}{\displaystyle \frac{\pi }{2}})\right)\right].`$ (10)
The summation of $`\nu `$ runs up to the largest integer for which $`\left(k_{f,\nu ,S}^p\right)^2`$ is positive. For spin-up protons $`\nu `$ starts from 1 while for spin-down protons 0. It should be pointed out that here the so-called spin up and spin down are just relative notes since the wave functions are no longer eigenfunctions of 3-component spin operator , mainly attributed to the coupling of the spin to the magnetic field. The electrons are assumed to move freely in the strong magnetic field. The chemical potential of electrons $`\mu _e=ϵ_f^e`$. Its relation to the electron Fermi momentum as well as the definition of the electron density $`\rho _0^e`$ are the same as given in Eqs. (5) and (9) except that the corresponding quantities are replaced by the electron ones. Numerical calculations are performed under the constraints of the charge neutrality $`\rho _0^p=\rho _0^e`$ and the $`\beta `$-equilibrium $`\mu _n=\mu _p+\mu _e`$ . These two constraint equations together with three meson equations are solved self-consistently in an iterative procedure.

Figure 1 displays the effective nucleon mass and proton fraction as functions of the baryon density and magnetic field strength. Two situations with and without taking into account the anomalous magnetic moments are distinguished. In agreement with the finding of Refs. , the effective mass remains unaltered from the field free case when $`B10^5B_c^e`$. If the field is increased to $`10^6B_c^e`$, the effects of magnetic fields cause the $`m^{}/M_N`$ to increase when the AMM is included ($`\kappa 0`$) and decrease when the AMM is neglected ($`\kappa =0`$). The proton fraction is shown to increase with the increasing of the magnetic field strength in the case of $`\kappa =0`$. A considerable enhancement of Yp is observed at $`B=10^6B_c^e`$. For even stronger magnetic fields, one may speak about proton-rich matter . The situation, however, becomes completely different if the anomalous magnetic moments are taken into account. At $`B=10^5B_c^e`$, Yp is a little enhanced at lower density and then quickly approaches the field free case as the density increases. In the case of $`B=10^6B_c^e`$, no protons survive at $`\rho <4\rho _0`$. Evident suppression of the proton fraction is exhibited for the typical density range of neutron stars.

In order to understand the above results, in the upper panel of Fig. 2 we depict the proton fraction as a function of the magnetic field strength, where the effects of the AMM are neglected. It can be found that for a fixed density the proton fraction begins to increase rapidly at a certain value of the magnetic field. This is the critical point where both protons and electrons are completely spin polarized (i.e., only one Landau level is occupied.) due to Landau quantization while no direct effects from the magnetic field act on neutrons. The Fermi energies of electrons and protons fall drastically. As a consequence, a large amount of neutrons converts to protons. The system approaches to a well proton-rich matter. The variation of the critical field with the baryon density is displayed in Fig. 3 as the dashed line.

In the lower panel of Fig. 2 we show the results including the effects of the AMM. Different curves are related to the different baryon densities. For each curve there exist two turning points. The first one corresponds to the critical field of electron polarization, its variation with density is depicted as the dotted line in Fig. 3. As soon as the electron is fully polarized, its Fermi energy will be considerably reduced. This causes the conversion of neutrons to protons in a beta-equilibrium system. The proton fraction is therefore enhanced substantially. Because of the different coefficients for the AMM of electrons and protons, the complete spin polarization of protons is reached later than electrons as shown in Fig. 3 with the dash-dotted line. There are no evident signals for the proton spin polarization in the lower panel of Fig. 2 since the rapid increase of the proton fraction has been induced by the electron polarization. When the field is further increased, the neutron can be fully spin polarized because of the coupling of the neutron spin to the magnetic field, an effect totally caused by the anomalous magnetic moment. The inverse process, $`pn`$, starts at the second turning points appeared on the curves plotted in the lower panel of Fig. 2. This causes the Yp to drop rapidly with the increase of $`B`$. A pure neutron matter becomes possible at very large field strength. The critical field for neutron polarization as a function of the baryon density is given in Fig. 3 as the solid line. One can see that the neutron spin polarization happens at $`B>10^5B_c^e`$. We have also considered the situation where the electron AMM is switched off but the nucleon AMM is taken into account. No enhancement of the proton fraction is observed compared to the case that both the electron and nucleon AMM are neglected. While comparing with the condition that the AMM of both electrons and nucleons are considered, the proton fraction is less suppressed. For instance, protons start to appear at $`\rho 2\rho _0`$ rather than $`\rho 4\rho _0`$ for $`B=10^6B_c^e`$. In order to check our numerical process we have revealed the results of Ref. , which is indicated in the lower panel of Fig. 1 as the long-dashed line. The above calculations have been repeated with other mean-field parameter sets used in Refs. , the qualitative trend remains unchanged.

In summary, we have studied the properties of neutron star matter under strong magnetic fields, with an emphasis on the neutron star composition. After taking into account the effects of the AMM of nucleons and electrons, the proton fraction is found to never exceed the field free case. Our results demonstrate that extremely strong magnetic fields may lead to a pure neutron matter rather than a proton-rich matter observed in Refs. , mainly attributed to the complete neutron spin polarization induced by the AMM effects.

Acknowledgments: G. Mao, V.N. Kondratyev, Z. Li, X. Wu and I.N. Mikhailov acknowledge the Japan Atomic Energy Research Institute for local hospitality during their visiting. G. Mao thanks the financial support of the STA foundation. Z. Li and X. Wu acknowledge the National Natural Science Foundation of China for financial support.


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# Path finding strategies in scale-free networks

## Abstract

We numerically investigate the scale-free network model of Barabási and Albert \[A. L. Barabási and R. Albert, Science 286, 509 (1999)\] through the use of various path finding strategies. In real networks, global network information is not accessible to each vertex, and the actual path connecting two vertices can sometimes be much longer than the shortest one. A generalized diameter depending on the actual path finding strategy is introduced, and a simple strategy, which utilizes only local information on the connectivity, is suggested and shown to yield small-world behavior: the diameter $`D`$ of the network increases logarithmically with the network size $`N`$, the same as is found with global strategy. If paths are sought at random, $`DN^{0.5}`$ is found.

Complex network systems are abundant in many disciplines of sciences: social networks composed of individuals interacting through social connections, the world-wide web where vertices are documents and edges are hyperlinks to other documents, genetic networks with genes or proteins connected by chemical interactions, and economic networks, and so on reviews . Topological information on such complex networks is becoming more and more available through computer aided techniques, and there is growing interest in the investigation of properties of such networks.

In complex networks, two remote vertices (or nodes) can be connected by many paths. Among those paths the length of the shortest one usually defines the “distance” $`d_s(i,j)`$ between the two vertices $`(i,j)`$, and the diameter $`D_s`$ of the network is defined to be either the maximum distance $`D_s\mathrm{max}d_s(i,j)`$, or the average distance $`D_sd_s(i,j)`$. We note that finding the shortest path between two vertices requires global information on how all vertices are interconnected, which is usually not accessible to vertices that constitute the network. From this, we suggest that the actual path finding strategy should be based only on local information and should introduce the generalized distance $`d(i,j)`$ and diameter $`Dd(i,j)`$, which depend on the actual path finding strategy. In Ref. kleinberg , a local path finding strategy based on geometric information was suggested and the delivery time in Ref. kleinberg  corresponds to our generalized distance $`d(i,j)`$.

A recent study of the scale-free networks has revealed that the small-world phenomenon (that two distinct vertices can be connected by a remarkably small number of intervening vertices) emerges, i.e., $`D_s\mathrm{log}_{10}N`$ with the network size $`N`$ diam . However, only the shortest paths have been examined and the scaling behavior can in principle be very different if a more realistic path finding strategy is used. In the experiment performed by Milgram reviews ; milgram  the person in Nebraska could not know what the shortest connection was to send a message to the final recipient in Boston, but only tried to deliver it to his/her directly connected (on a first-name basis) friend who was supposed to be closer to the person targeted in Boston. Also, for the World-Wide Web (WWW), although two documents are just a few clicks away if the shortest path is traced diam , it does not necessarily guarantee that one can get the information easily; sometimes it is possible to go around long distances to access a document which turns out to be only a few clicks away from the starting document. Consequently, the small-world phenomenon observed in scale-free networks through the use of the global path finding strategy still remains to be confirmed by use of a local strategy. In this work we suggest several path finding strategies and show that there indeed exists a very simple local strategy which results in the small-world phenomenon.

We first construct the scale-free networks following the same method used in Ref. BA  by Barabási and Albert (BA): Starting with a small number ($`m_0`$) of vertices (or nodes), a new vertex with $`m`$ edges (or links) is added at each time step in such a way that the probability $`\mathrm{\Pi }_i`$ of being connected to the existing vertex $`i`$ is proportional to the connectivity $`k_i`$ (the number of vertices directly connected to $`i`$) of that vertex, i.e., $`\mathrm{\Pi }_i=(k_i+1)/_j(k_j+1)`$ with summation over the whole network at a given instant private . In Ref. BA , it has been shown that the above method of constructing networks, which is composed of ideas of growth and preferential attachment, results in the so-called scale-free networks, which shows the power-law behavior in the connectivity distribution. Once the BA model network is constructed, we seek a path that connects two vertices in the network. At this stage, it is possible to apply various strategies; for example, in previous studies diam , the shortest paths have been considered, the searching of which requires global information on the interconnections. In real network systems like the WWW, the social network, and epidemic spread, it is very unlikely that each vertex has global information and thus one expects that each vertex has enough information only for its directly connected vertices. In other words, the strategy used when finding paths that connect two vertices should be based only on local information not on global.

In this work we suggest three local strategies that one can use to find a path that connects two vertices: (i) the vertex with the largest connectivity is tried first (maximum connectivity first, MAX for short), (ii) a vertex is chosen at random (random choice, RND), and (iii) the vertex with the larger connectivity has the higher probability to be chosen (preferential choice, PRF). We also compare the results with the previously studied global strategy which seeks the shortest path (SHT). In the above experiment by Milgram, for example, the simplest and most intuitive (and quite efficient indeed) strategy one can use is to first ask the friend who has more friends than others, which corresponds to the MAX strategy in this work. In reality, it is possible that one does not know who has more friends than others, but even in this case (s)he can try to first ask the friend who seems to have more friends than others; this then has a close resemblance to PRF strategy. The most naive strategy (it is not a strategy as a matter of fact) will be asking anyone (s)he sees first, which corresponds to RND strategy.

Figures 1(a) and 1(b), respectively, show a comparison between SHT global strategy foot:burning  and local MAX strategy when the path from vertex $`p`$ to vertex $`q`$ is sought. In SHT, we give the distance as $`d=0`$ to vertex $`p`$ \[the first diagram in Fig. 1(a)\], and $`d=1`$ is given to all vertices which are directly connected to $`p`$ \[the second diagram in Fig. 1(a)\]. Then the strategy proceeds to fill all vertices with $`d=2`$ from vertices with $`d=1`$, and then $`d=3`$, and so on, until $`d`$ values are given to all vertices in the network. According to this SHT strategy the $`d`$ value attached to vertex $`q`$ is simply its distance from $`p`$: In the example shown in Fig. 1(a), one has $`d=3`$ for the path connecting $`p`$ and $`q`$, denoted by the thick lines in the last diagram in Fig. 1(a). It is clear that SHT determines the shortest path lengths but by using global information. Figure 1(b) explains local MAX strategy: one starts at vertex $`p`$ and looks around its directly connected vertices to find which vertex has the largest connectivity. In Fig. 1(b), four vertices directly connected to $`p`$ have connectivities of $`k=1`$, 2, 2, and 3, respectively, and thus we proceed to the vertex with $`k=3`$ as shown in the second diagram. This strategy proceeds until one arrives at the vertex that is directly connected to $`q`$. In the example in Fig. 1(b) for local MAX strategy, one has the path denoted by the thick lines in the last diagram of Fig. 1(b) with $`d=3`$. The PRF strategy tries to proceed to the vertex with probability proportional to the connectivity, i.e., $`P=k_i/_jk_j`$ with summation over directly connected vertices of $`i`$. In the above example in Fig. 1(b), PRF connects to the vertex with $`k=3`$ \[see the first diagram in Fig. 1(b)\] with probability $`P=3/(1+2+2+3)=3/8`$. Of course, RND connects to a vertex at random at every stage in path finding.

The BA model network in this work is constructed with $`m_0=m=2`$ and the paths are found according to the above mentioned various strategies. If the path contains self-crossing loops, we remove them when distance $`d`$ is computed. Figures 2(a)–2(b) display the scaling behavior of the generalized diameter of the scale-free network for the strategies SHT, MAX, RND, and PRF, respectively. To get better statistics, the diameters were obtained from averages over many different network realizations. It is clearly shown that although the diameter determined from local MAX strategy is a little bigger than that from global SHT strategy and both exhibit the same small-world phenomenon, i.e., $`D\mathrm{log}_{10}N`$ with network size $`N`$. On the other hand, RND strategy shows the power-law behavior $`DN^{0.5}`$ foot:MIN . Finally, PRF strategy shows the scaling behavior, which fits well to power-law $`DN^{0.34}`$ \[see Fig. 2(d)\]. As expected, the scaling behavior of the generalized diameter of the network depends not only on the structure of the networks but also on the strategy used in path finding. It should also be noted that a very simple MAX strategy, based on local information instead of global, can result in the same small-world effect as global SHT strategy. On the other hand, we are puzzled by the fact that PRF and MAX strategies show very different scaling behaviors although both look quite similar. To compare both strategies in a more careful way, one can change the probability used by PRF, e.g., $`Pk^\alpha `$ with $`\alpha >1`$, to suppress the probability of the vertex with the lower connectivity being chosen.

For comparison, we also study the scaling behavior of the diameter of the small-world network model by Watts and Strogatz (WS) reviews . In the WS model, each vertex is almost equal to each other and there does not exist a governing dominant vertex with very large connectivity. This feature makes our local MAX and PRF strategies inefficient and from numerical investigations we find that none of the local strategies tried in this work yields the small-world phenomenon but gives $`DN^a`$ with $`a0.6`$ unanimously (we have used the range of local connections $`K=3`$ and the rewiring probability $`P=0.1`$; see Watts Strogatz’s work in Ref. reviews  for details of the model). This is in a sharp contrast to the result from the SHT, which reveals $`D\mathrm{log}_{10}N`$. From the above observation, we conclude that the success of strategy MAX for the BA model is due to the existence of the highly connected vertices, thus reflecting the scale-free nature of the network. It is of note that in Ref. kleinberg  an efficient local path finding strategy based on geometric informations was suggested for a two-dimensional small-world network model: When the path from vertex A to target B is found, the strategy first connects C which is closest to B in a geometric sense among the A’s directly connected vertices. We believe that our local strategies in this work have some advantage when more abstract networks like the Internet and WWW are involved: In such networks vertices do not have coordinates and path finding strategies cannot use geometric information.

We finally examine the error and attack tolerance of the BA model (see Ref. albert:attack  for a study based on SHT strategy) that is subjected to the various strategies. We first remove $`N^{}`$ vertices in the network either randomly (error) or starting from the vertex with the highest connectivity (attack) albert:attack , and then measure how many pairs of vertices are connected by a given path finding strategy. More specifically, we pick two vertices, $`p`$ and $`q`$, and examine if $`q`$ can be connected to $`p`$ by the path finding strategy given. Since there are a total of $`N(N1)`$ possible choices for the pair $`(p,q)`$ in a network of size $`N`$, the ratio $`r`$ of failed connections in Fig. 3 is then defined as

$$r\frac{\text{(number of failed connections)}}{N(N1)}.$$
(1)
The tolerance in this article is detected either by $`r`$ in Eq. (1) or by the change in diameter $`d`$ of the network. The former should not depend on the strategy since the strategy chosen can only change the path lengths between vertices once they belong to the same cluster. As expected, $`r`$ versus the failure fraction $`fN^{}/N`$ (the ratio between the number of vertices removed and the total number of vertices in the network) in Fig. 3 shows the behavior independent of the strategy. This robustness to the path finding strategy implies that the error tolerance and the attack vulnerability found in Ref. albert:attack  are genuine topological characteristics of a scale-free network. Figures 4(a)–4(d) confirm the similar tolerance behavior reflected in diameter $`d`$ to errors and attacks for various strategies: SHT, MAX, RND, and PRF, respectively. For RND strategy in Fig. 4(c), it can be seen that removal of randomly chosen vertices makes $`d`$ smaller as $`f`$ is increased from zero; this somewhat interesting behavior is due to the fact that in RND path finding can be more efficient if unimportant connections are removed.

In summary, we have investigated the possibility of the small-world phenomenon in the scale-free network subjected to several local strategies of path finding. It was found that there is a very simple local strategy based on local connectivity information which leads to the scaling behavior $`D\mathrm{log}_{10}N`$. The error tolerance and the attack vulnerability found previously by global strategy have been shown to be generic topological properties of scale-free networks, and do not depend on the path finding strategy.

###### Acknowledgements.

S.K.H. and B.J.K. acknowledge support from the BK 21 project of the Ministry of Education in Korea. This work was supported in part by the Swedish Natural Research Council through Contract No. F5102-659/2001 (B.J.K.), and by the NSF through Grant No. PHY-9988674 and CAREER DMR97-01998 (H.J.).

Note Added in Proof: After submission of this paper we found that the similar local search algorithm in networks with power-law connectivity distribution was studied in Ref. huberman .


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# Reply to “The quantum algorithm of Kieu does not solve the Hilbert’s tenth problem”

## Acknowledgement

I wish to thank Falk Scharnberg for discussion and Boris Tsirelson for email correspondence.


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# Dynamical Behaviour of Fine Granular Glass/Bronze Mixtures under Vertical Vibration

## Abstract

We report the behaviour of mixtures of fine bronze and glass spheres under sinusoidal vertical vibration. Depending upon the ratio of their diameters and the amplitude and frequency of the vibration, we observe the formation of sharp separation boundaries between glass-rich and bronze-rich phases, the absence of gross convection which would mix these phases, and a number of oscillatory and non-periodic behaviours. These phenomena are related to the differential air damping of the glass and bronze grains, disappearing completely in the absence of air.

PACS numbers:45.70.Mg, 45.70.-n

The dynamical behaviour of a shaken granular material is strongly influenced by the inelastic nature of collisions between the grains and with the container walls . Vertical sinusoidal vibration induces convection, surface waves, arching and pattern formation  depending principally upon the peak acceleration of the container, conveniently represented by $`\mathrm{\Gamma }=a\omega ^2/g`$. Here a is the peak amplitude of vibration, $`\omega `$ is the angular frequency and g is the acceleration due to gravity. There is also a substantial body of knowledge on the separation and segregation of granular mixtures under vertical vibration, but a clear understanding of many of the physical processes involved is still lacking . Furthermore much of the effort has been concentrated on studying systems of large particulates for which air effects are unimportant.

If a body of particulates containing a single larger and heavier grain is vibrated vertically, this grain tends to move to the upper surface, the “Brazil nut effect”; a larger lighter grain may under appropriate circumstances move to the bottom, the “reverse Brazil nut effect”. Computer simulations, in which air effects are absent, also predict conditions for the “Brazil nut” to take up an intermediate height. Others have simulated the behaviour of binary mixtures under vertical vibration and have offered predictions for separation based upon mass and size differences. None of these simulations include the interactions between the grains and the container walls that, in practice, induce convective stirring, and most of these predictions have yet to be tested experimentally.

The important influence of air on fine grains was first recognised by Faraday. Upon a vertically vibrated horizontal surface, the presence of air induces piling and modified convection in the granular bed. Fine grains vibrated vertically within a container break symmetry by forming a tilted upper surface down which grains cascade. Faraday suggested that grains are sucked under the main body as the supporting platform accelerates downwards. Later, the granular body falls upon these grains, causing continuously erupting piles. However, while work at high $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ supports this explanation, other experiments show that it is not satisfactory for $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ just exceeding unity, and a full explanation of the effects of the ambient fluid on the motion of fine grains is still the subject of debate.

Here we report the influence of air on the behaviour of mixtures of fine bronze and soda-glass spheres under vertical sinusoidal vibration. We observe the appearance of very sharp boundaries between glass-rich and bronze-rich phases and a range of periodic and non-periodic behaviours of the separation boundaries. We also note the great disparity between the kinetic activity in the bronze-rich and in the glass-rich regions and the very high velocity shear which may exist across the separation boundaries.

Our experiments use bronze spheres of density $`\rho _b=8900kg/m^3`$ and soda-glass spheres of density $`\rho _g=2500kg/m^3`$, with four ratios of the mean diameters, $`d_b/d_g`$. The glass and bronze is sieved to produce a spread of sizes of typically $`\pm 10\%`$ to avoid crystallisation. The dynamic angles of repose lie within $`23.4^o\pm 0.8^o`$ and $`23.9^o\pm 0.8^o`$ for the glass and bronze spheres respectively and the coefficients of restitution, measured in vacuum, are both very close to unity. A chosen mixture, of mean depth 20mm, is contained within a rectangular soda-glass box 50mm high and of internal dimensions either 40mm x 10mm, 20mm x 10mm or 10mm x 10mm in the horizontal plane. The boxes are excited vertically in the frequency range $`10Hz<f<180Hz`$ by an electromagnetic transducer, the axis of the transducer and the sides of the box being aligned to the vertical to within $`1^o`$. The motion is monitored by cantilever capacitance accelerometers. The finest glass spheres, particularly those of diameters less than $`100\mu m`$, are influenced by static charge when shaken vigorously within a glass box. The effects which we shall describe are still observed, but the glass spheres stick to the walls of the box, impairing photography. The addition of minute quantities of an anti-static surfactant greatly reduces this effect. Initially we shall describe the behaviours of four mixtures contained in a 40mm x 10mm box.

Mixture A: bronze $`125150\mu m`$, glass $`6090\mu m`$, $`25\%:75\%`$ by volume. Figure 1(a) provides a simplified outline of the principal behaviours found at various values of f and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$. At lower frequencies global convection and tilting of the upper surface are observed as the amplitude of vibration is increased above $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ = 1. At the critical line shown in Fig. 1(a) as A, sharp separation boundaries quickly appear between glass-rich and bronze-rich regions. The bronze-rich regions rapidly merge into a single upper bronze-rich phase which lies above a lower glass-rich phase. The boundary between bronze-rich and glass-rich phases is extremely well defined, being only one grain-diameter wide. The bronze-rich phase contains only a small proportion of glass $`(520\%)`$ while the lower region consists almost entirely of glass. Figure 2 shows this behaviour as a function of time for $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ = 5.5 and f=35Hz. Following the application of vibration, fine bronze-rich structures quickly appear. Development towards a single upper bronze-rich region occurs by coarsening, an effect observed in other granular systems. Once separation has happened convection currents occur within the individual bronze and glass-rich regions but do not act to cause mixing.

Above A both the separation boundary and the upper surface exhibit fluctuations. At low values of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ and f, region B in Fig. 1(a), simple oscillations back and forth between the two alternative tilts occur. At higher values of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ the fluctuations contain both periodic and non-periodic components. By values of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ corresponding to region C, considerable throwing of the upper surface is observed and global convection currents act to mix bronze-rich and glass-rich regions; simple separation into two phases is no longer observed.

At higher frequencies there is also a critical line, D, at which sharp separation boundaries between a bronze-rich phase and a glass-rich phase first appear. Here, however, the bronze-rich regions rapidly merge to form a stable single layer at an intermediate height, sandwiched between upper and lower glass-rich regions. The formation of such a sandwich is shown in Fig. 3 for $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ = 6.8 and f = 160Hz. Again, the bronze-rich layer contains appreciable glass, but the glass-rich regions are almost completely free of bronze. Convection may be observed within the individual glass and bronze-rich regions, with considerable velocity shear at the sharp separation boundaries, but no convection currents are present which would mix the two phases. At a far higher critical line E, the system undergoes an inversion. The bronze-rich layer rises slowly to the surface, while remaining close to horizontal. Once there, the surface tilts. The bronze then avalanches down the slope, and passes into the depths of the glass to form a stable low-lying horizontal layer. Over an intermediate range of frequencies (F in Fig. 1(a)) a similar process repeats continuously. An intermediate bronze-rich layer rises to the surface, which tilts. The bronze-rich phase then passes into the depths to reform a horizontal layer which then begins to rise to the surface again. The sequence then repeats, oscillating between the two alternative tilts of the upper surface. Such a sequence is shown in Fig. 4 for $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ = 16.7 and f = 70Hz.

Both at low and at high frequencies, there is considerably more kinetic activity in the bronze-rich phase than in the glass-rich phase. “Droplets” of glass frequently condense within the bronze-rich phase, these droplets then moving to join nearby glass-rich regions. In the high frequency regime we also observe small and violently vibrating elliptical excitations which traverse the upper horizontal surface of the bronze-rich layer when this layer is sandwiched between two glass-rich regions. These disturbances appear to be regions of very low granular density.

Mixture B: bronze $`90120\mu m`$, glass $`90120\mu m`$, $`25\%:75\%`$ by volume. For this mixture we observe many similar phenomena to those described above. The behaviour again broadly falls into a low frequency regime and a high frequency regime (Fig. 1(b)). In the low frequency regime we again observe the formation of a very sharp separation boundary, the bronze-rich region preferring to be above the glass-rich region (Fig. 1(b)-A). We observe tilt oscillations, B, fluctuations of the separation boundary and upper surface, and at sufficiently high $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$, failure of separation by throwing and mixing convection, C. In the higher frequency regime we observe the bronze-rich phase to settle at an intermediate height, with the sharp lower boundary, $`D_1`$, forming at somewhat lower values of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ than the upper boundary, $`D_2`$. At a higher value of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$, E, the bronze-rich phase moves to the upper surface which tilts; the bronze-rich phase then settling to a stable lower horizontal sandwich position. We observe upper glass-rich surfaces to be horizontal but for slight hexagonal patterning.

If the bronze-rich layer rises to the surface and passes again into the depths small amounts of bronze may be trapped upon the upper glass-rich surface where they collect together in a one or more swarms, vibrating vigorously in slight indentations in the surface formed by patterning and by their own weight. These vibrating bronze puddles attract each other and may merge. In doing so it often happens that the glass-rich surface can no longer sustain their weight. Rather they form a droplet, which falls through the glass to join the lower bronze-rich layer. For mixture B, too, the kinetic activity within the glass-rich phase is far less than within the bronze-rich regions. However, while the glass-rich phase contains a trace of bronze, the bronze-rich phase contains considerably less glass than for mixture A. Correspondingly the condensation of glass “droplets” is far less obvious for mixture B than for mixture A.

Mixture C: bronze $`6090\mu m`$, glass spheres $`125150\mu m`$, $`25\%:75\%`$ by volume. For this mixture we observe poor separation, with sharp boundaries only visible over the limited frequency range of 25-90Hz. We observe the formation of bronze-rich regions close to the upper surface at some lower frequencies and bronze-rich regions at intermediate levels at some higher frequencies. We also observe some oscillatory behaviours of the bronze-rich regions. However, the separation is always very poor; the sharp separation boundary, where it does exist, distinguishes regions containing a considerable proportion of the other component. At all frequencies increasing $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ readily induces global convection currents which thwart any tendency to separate.

Mixture D: bronze $`3863\mu m`$, glass $`125150\mu m`$, $`25\%:75\%`$ by volume. For mixtures of these diameters we observe convective mixing for values of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ just greater than 1. At a value of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ in the range 1.8-2.6, weak separation is observed with glass predominating close to the upper surface and the lower regions remaining well mixed. Diffuse rather than sharp separation boundaries are observed. If $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ is then slightly increased, the upper glass-rich region initially becomes purer. Soon, however, the upper surface tilts and at the same time global convection currents appear. These effectively mix the bronze and glass components and any separation disappears.

In the experiments on mixtures A-D the behaviour is close to two dimensional; there is very little variation of any property across the smaller horizontal dimension. If the experiments are repeated in 20x10mm or 10x10mm boxes most of the same general separation phenomena are observed. However, as the larger horizontal dimension is decreased, oscillations of the separation boundaries are greatly reduced and the ability of bronze-rich layers to quickly pass to intermediate positions, by avalanching down an upper slope and passing en masse into the depths, is suppressed. Instead, approach to equilibrium at an intermediate depth occurs by slow diffusion and droplet formation; it may become very slow indeed for the 10x10mm box geometry.

If, in any of the experiments, the box is evacuated separation effects cease once the pressure falls to below a few mbarr. Rather rapid global convection is observed which effectively maintains a near-homogeneous mixture.

Our principal observation is the spontaneous formation of glass-rich and bronze-rich phases with very sharp separation boundaries. It is clear that air is responsible for this effect since it does not occur for large particles and it disappears if the box is evacuated to the point where the air viscosity is greatly reduced. A simple dynamical model which incorporates the effect of air viscosity through Stoke’s law suggests that the relative acceleration of the glass and bronze spheres induced by air flow is given by $`R=\rho _bd_b^2/\rho _gd_g^2`$. R = 12, 3.6, 1 and 0.4 respectively for our mixtures A to D. R is large for the two mixtures which separate well with the bronze uppermost at low frequencies, and is somewhat less than unity for mixture D which separates weakly with the glass uppermost. Although Stoke’s law is not expected to be accurately valid for our dense granular systems this simple argument suggests that it is the differential air damping of the two species which is responsible for our observations.

Our experiments suggest that if $`R>>1`$ there is a strong tendency for glass and bronze to separate. In this limit, the bronze spheres will be only weakly affected by the surrounding air, whereas the glass spheres will be strongly influenced by the local air flow, which will tend to dampen the particles’ motion. Thus, an individual bronze sphere will be more mobile than a glass sphere and, consequently, bronze-rich regions will be more dilated than glass-rich regions. Any initial inhomogeneity in the composition of the mixture will therefore set up number-density gradients under vibration. There will then be a tendency for particles to move down these gradients, and, as the bronze spheres are more mobile, there will be a net flux of bronze from the more compact to the less compact regions. As the local concentration of bronze increases, this will be accompanied by an increase in the dilation locally, thus enhancing the effect further. There is therefore a dynamical instability that will induce separation of the two components.

Once well-defined bronze-rich and glass-rich regions have formed, it will be extremely difficult for a bronze sphere to re-enter the dense glass- rich region, rather it will “bounce off”. Thus, the glass-rich regions will naturally tend to lose any bronze component, and eventually consist almost entirely of glass, as we observe. On the other hand, it is easier for a glass sphere to enter a dilated bronze-rich region. For example a high-energy bronze sphere, bouncing off the interface with the glass-rich region may, in the process, knock a glass sphere into the bronze-rich region. The bronze-rich regions will therefore contain a proportion of glass spheres as is observed. As R is increased, the spaces between the bronze spheres available to glass spheres will increase and, one would expect an increased proportion of glass within the bronze-rich regions for increased R, as we also observe.

However, the above discussion only provides a qualitative picture of the separation phenomena and a satisfactory quantitative model is still lacking. Such a model will also have to explain the preferred position of the bronze-rich region. Two effects may contribute. The less highly damped component will tend to be thrown higher, leading to bronze being uppermost for $`R>>1`$ and glass being uppermost for $`R<<1`$. However, once separation has occurred, the dilation, and thus the mean density, of the two phases will differ. The equilibrium position of the phases will then be influenced by their relative buoyancy, which in turn is determined by the densities of the phases and by their dilation. The dilation is itself a function of f, $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ and the position within the granular body. We suggest that at higher frequencies the mean buoyancy has a major influence upon the relative positions of the two phases.

We are grateful to T. Davies, N. Miles and S. Kingman for their assistance, and to Potters Ballotine Ltd for advice and samples.


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# 1 Introduction

## 1 Introduction

String theory enjoys a number of duality symmetries that relate the physics of apparently different theories in different dimensions. A particularly striking illustration of such a symmetry is the AdS/CFT duality , which relates gravity on AdS space to a CFT on the AdS boundary. In this note we propose a correspondence between the physics of large charge black holes in $`\mathrm{AdS}_k\times \mathrm{S}^l`$ and small charge black holes in $`\mathrm{AdS}_l\times \mathrm{S}^k`$.

The black holes in question are electrically charged under $`U(1)`$ gauge fields arising from Kaluza-Klein reduction of 10d or 11d supergravity on a sphere. Myers and Tafjord  showed that the curvature singularities of such charged solutions of $`\mathrm{AdS}_5\times \mathrm{S}^5`$ gravity can be understood as condensates of giant gravitons  on $`\mathrm{S}^5`$. In Sections 2 and 3 we extend the work of Myers and Tafjord  to charged black holes in the four and seven dimensional gauged supergravities. Lifting the solutions to eleven dimensions  as asymptotically $`\mathrm{AdS}_k\times \mathrm{S}^l`$ spaces reveals that their singularities arise from condensation of giant gravitons on $`\mathrm{S}^l`$. In four and seven dimensions there are four and two possible U(1) charges that the black holes can carry, while the five dimensional solutions in  can carry three charges. Each of the different charges arises from a different species of giant graviton. In all cases, the single charge BPS solution has a horizon that coincides with the curvature singularity and adding some energy creates a solution with finite gravitational entropy.

As is well known, $`\mathrm{AdS}_4\times \mathrm{S}^7`$, $`\mathrm{AdS}_5\times \mathrm{S}^5`$ and $`\mathrm{AdS}_7\times \mathrm{S}^4`$ arise in string theory as the near horizon geometries of stacks of M2, D3 or M5-branes. Typically, we take the near-horizon limit of a flat brane and find the Poincaré patch of $`\mathrm{AdS}_k`$, and a duality follows with the low energy world-volume CFT of the corresponding planar $`k2`$ brane. The charged black holes studied here are in global AdS space, so we do not have such a near-horizon construction.111However, see  for global $`\mathrm{AdS}_3`$ arising from the near-horizon limit of the spinning D1-D5 string. It would be interesting if a similar construction could be carried out in higher dimensions from the near horizon limit of spinning branes. Nevertheless, these spaces are dual to a $`k2`$ brane CFT on a sphere. Hence we will speak of $`N`$ spherical “background” branes creating the spacetime. As described above, the single charge black hole solutions of these theories can be interpreted as condensates of giant gravitons which are themselves spherical branes moving on the sphere factor of $`\mathrm{AdS}_k\times \mathrm{S}^l`$. The giants of $`\mathrm{AdS}_4`$, $`\mathrm{AdS}_5`$ and $`\mathrm{AdS}_7`$ are spherical M5, D3 and M2 branes respectively. Near any one of these branes, the geometry should locally be $`\mathrm{AdS}_l\times \mathrm{S}^k`$. When the number of giants is very large, the background spacetime should be dominated by the presence of the giants rather than the presence of background branes. This leads to an intriguing hypothesis: When the number of condensed giants $`N_g`$ is much greater than the number of background branes $`N`$, the system has an equivalent description in terms of $`N`$ giant gravitons condensed in a background created by $`N_g`$ branes.

In Section 4 we find evidence for such a correspondence by examining the thermodynamics of near-BPS, single charge black holes of $`\mathrm{AdS}_k\times \mathrm{S}^l`$. We measure entropies and temperatures in terms of the number of condensed giants, and find an exact match between the large charge black holes in $`\mathrm{AdS}_k\times \mathrm{S}^l`$ and the small charge black holes in $`\mathrm{AdS}_l\times \mathrm{S}^k`$ when the number of giants is exchanged with the number of background branes while holding energies and the AdS scale fixed. Implications of our findings and directions forward are discussed in Section 5.

## 2 Four dimensions

The Kaluza-Klein compactification of M-theory on $`S^7`$ can be truncated consistently to $`SO(8)`$ gauged $`𝒩=8`$ supergravity in four dimensions. We are interested in black holes charged under the maximal Abelian subgroup $`U(1)^4`$. There is a truncation of the full $`𝒩=8,SO(8)`$ theory to a $`U(1)^4,𝒩=2`$ theory, for which the bosonic fields are the metric $`g_{\mu \nu }`$, four $`U(1)`$ gauge fields $`A_i`$, three scalars and three pseudo-scalars (the pseudo-scalars will be set to zero in this note). This theory admits four-charge AdS black hole solutions, given by :

$`ds_4^2`$ $`=`$ $`(H_1H_2H_3H_4)^{1/2}fdt^2+(H_1H_2H_3H_4)^{1/2}(f^1dr^2+r^2d\mathrm{\Omega }_2^2),`$
$`X_i`$ $`=`$ $`H_i^1(H_1H_2H_3H_4)^{1/4},A^i={\displaystyle \frac{\stackrel{~}{q}_i}{r+q_i}}dt,(i=1\mathrm{}4)`$ (1)
where

$$f=1\frac{\mu }{r}+\frac{r^2}{L_4^2}(H_1H_2H_3H_4),H_i=1+\frac{q_i}{r}.$$

The four $`X_i`$ satisfy the relation $`X_1X_2X_3X_4=1`$, parameterizing three physical scalars, while $`\mu `$ is a SUSY breaking parameter. The BPS solution occurs when $`\mu =0`$. The physical $`U(1)`$ charges $`\stackrel{~}{q_i}`$ are given in terms of $`q_i`$ as

$$\stackrel{~}{q}_i=\sqrt{q_i(\mu +q_i)}.$$
(2)
The mass of this black hole is:

$$M_4=\frac{1}{4G_4}(2\mu +\underset{i=1}{\overset{4}{}}q_i)\frac{1}{4G_4}\underset{i=1}{\overset{4}{}}q_i+2\delta M_4,$$
(3)
where $`2\delta M_4`$ measures the deviation from the BPS limit. Black holes carrying a charge under one of the four $`U(1)`$’s have a curvature singularity surrounded by horizon, which shrinks to zero area as $`\mu 0`$. The multi-charge solutions are qualitatively different. They have a critical value, $`\mu =\mu _{crit}`$, below which the horizon disappears giving a nakedly singular space. For $`\mu >\mu _{crit}`$, there is a regular black hole horizon with finite entropy and a non-zero temperature. As $`\mu \mu _{crit}`$ from above, the horizon approaches a finite limiting area. This critical black hole has zero temperature, but finite entropy .

#### Lifting to 11D supergravity:

The general Kaluza-Klein ansatz that lifts any solution of 4D $`𝒩=2,U(1)^4`$ gauged SUGRA to a solution of 11D supergravity was given in . The charged black hole solution (1) lifts to

$`ds_{11}^2`$ $`=`$ $`\mathrm{\Delta }^{2/3}\left((H_1H_2H_3H_4)^1fdt^2+(f^1dr^2+r^2d\mathrm{\Omega }_2^2)\right)`$
$`+4\mathrm{\Delta }^{1/3}{\displaystyle \underset{i}{}}H_i\left(L_4^2d\mu _i^2+\mu _i^2(L_4d\varphi _i+{\displaystyle \frac{\stackrel{~}{q}_i}{r+q_i}}dt)^2\right),`$
where $`\mu _i^2=1`$, $`\mathrm{\Delta }=(H_1H_2H_3H_4)_{i=1}^4(\mu _i^2/H_i)`$, and $`d\mathrm{\Omega }_2^2=\mathrm{sin}^2\alpha _1d\alpha _1d\alpha _2`$ is the volume element on a unit two-sphere. The solution is asymptotically $`\mathrm{AdS}_4\times \mathrm{S}^7`$ where the AdS and sphere length scales are $`L_4`$ and $`2L_4`$ respectively. The sphere is parameterized by $`\varphi _i`$ and $`\mu _i`$ as

$$d\mathrm{\Omega }_7^2=\underset{i}{}(d\mu _i^2+\mu _i^2d\varphi _i^2),$$
(5)
and the four $`\mu _i`$ are expressed in terms of three angles as

$$\mu _1=\mathrm{cos}\theta _1,\mu _2=\mathrm{sin}\theta _1\mathrm{cos}\theta _2,\mu _3=\mathrm{sin}\theta _1\mathrm{sin}\theta _2\mathrm{cos}\theta _3,\mathrm{and}\mu _4=\mathrm{sin}\theta _1\mathrm{sin}\theta _2\mathrm{sin}\theta _3.$$

The lift of the black hole also has a four form field strength $`F^{(4)}=dB^{(3)}`$ with

$$B^{(3)}=\frac{r^3}{L_4}\mathrm{\Delta }dtd\mathrm{\Omega }_2^2L_4\underset{i=1}{\overset{4}{}}q_i\mu _i^2(L_4d\varphi _idt)d\mathrm{\Omega }_2^2.$$
(6)
#### Interpretation as condensed giants:

The lifted 11 D black hole solutions have curvature singularities localized in $`\mathrm{AdS}_4`$ and distributed all over $`\mathrm{S}^7`$. These singularities are even naked in the multi-charge cases for small $`\mu `$. In the analogous $`\mathrm{AdS}_5\times \mathrm{S}^5`$ solutions, Myers and Tafjord  argued that the singularity could be understood as a condensate of giant gravitons, by showing that the 5-form flux near the singularity in their solution was consistent with presence of a distribution of spherical D3-branes on $`\mathrm{S}^5`$. Then, using the charge-mass relation of BPS giant gravitons they showed that the BPS solutions have an ADM mass that is also consistent with a source that is a condensate of giant gravitons .

In our case, the relevant brane source will be a distribution of giant gravitons on $`\mathrm{S}^7`$. These are spherical M5 branes occupying an $`\mathrm{S}^5`$ of the $`\mathrm{S}^7`$ and carrying angular momentum along one direction of the sphere . We will start with the BPS case ($`\mu =0`$) and a single non-zero charge ($`q_1`$) and then state the results for the general case.

Being spherical branes, our giants correspond to M5 brane dipoles. They locally excite the seven-form field strength which can be detected by integrating the dual four-form over a surface enclosing a part of the M5-sphere. A closed surface transverse to the M5-brane spans the angular coordinates of $`\mathrm{AdS}_4`$ and the directions on $`\mathrm{S}^7`$ that are transverse to the M5-brane. The relevant four-form component is therefore

$$F_{\theta _1\varphi _1\alpha _1\alpha _2}^{(4)}=4q_1L_4^2\mathrm{sin}\theta _1\mathrm{cos}\theta _1\mathrm{sin}\alpha _1.$$
(7)
Integrating this form over the angular coordinates transverse to the giant gravitons ($`\alpha _{1,2}`$ in AdS and $`\varphi _1`$ and $`\theta _1`$ on the sphere) at any fixed $`r`$ and $`t`$ gives a net flux which is proportional to the number of enclosed giants. Following , giant gravitons exciting these four-form components are moving in the $`\varphi `$ direction of $`\mathrm{S}^7`$ and localized along the $`\theta `$ direction. We can express this number in terms of 11d Planck length $`l_p`$ and $`N`$ which counts the number of units of background 4-form flux that are present independently of the giant gravitons, or equivalently the number of M2-branes whose near-horizon limit yields $`\mathrm{AdS}_4\times \mathrm{S}^7`$ with AdS length scale $`L_4=l_p(\frac{1}{2}\pi ^2N)^{1/6}`$. Then, with our conventions,

$$16\pi G_{11}T_5n_1=𝑑\theta _1𝑑\varphi _1𝑑\alpha _1𝑑\alpha _2F_{\theta _1\varphi _1\alpha _1\alpha _2},$$
(8)
where $`G_{11}=16\pi ^7l_p^9`$ and $`T_5=\frac{2\pi }{(2\pi l_p)^6}`$ is the M5 brane tension. By dropping the integration over $`\theta _1`$, we obtain the distribution of giant gravitons in $`\theta _1`$:

$$\frac{dn_1}{d\theta _1}=\frac{N^{1/2}}{8\sqrt{2}\pi ^2L_4^3}F_{\theta _1\varphi _1\alpha _1\alpha _2}^{(4)}𝑑\varphi _1d^2\alpha =2N^{1/2}\frac{q_1}{\sqrt{2}L_4}\mathrm{sin}2\theta _1.$$
(9)
Integrating over $`\theta _1`$ gives the total number of giants,

$$n_1=_0^{\pi /2}𝑑\theta _1\frac{dn_1}{d\theta _1}=\sqrt{2N}\frac{q_1}{L_4}.$$
(10)
Treating a single giant graviton as a probe in a background $`\mathrm{AdS}_4\times \mathrm{S}^7`$ geometry, one finds that a giant located at $`\theta _1`$ has a radius $`L_4\mathrm{sin}\theta _1`$ and carries an angular momentum along the $`\varphi _1`$ direction equal to $`N\mathrm{sin}^4\theta _1`$ . Using this relation, we expect that the total angular momentum of the condensate of giants (9) is

$$P_{\varphi _1}=_0^{\pi /2}𝑑\theta _1\frac{dn_1}{d\theta _1}N\mathrm{sin}^4\theta _1=\frac{2N^{3/2}}{3\sqrt{2}}\frac{q_1}{L_4}.$$
(11)
Likewise, using the energy-momentum relation of BPS giant gravitons, we expect that a condensate with distribution (9) has a total energy

$$E=\frac{P_{\varphi _1}}{2L}=\frac{N^{3/2}}{3\sqrt{2}}\frac{q_1}{L_4^2}.$$
(12)
This agrees beautifully with the ADM mass (3)

$$M_4=\frac{1}{4G_4}q_1=\frac{N^{3/2}}{3\sqrt{2}}\frac{q_1}{L_4^2},$$
(13)
where we have used $`G_4=G_{11}/\mathrm{Vol}(S^7)=\frac{3G_{11}}{128\pi ^4L_4^7}`$.

We can extend this analysis to the multi-charge black hole solutions with arbitrary $`q_i`$. The generic BPS solution is nakedly singular. The singularity arises from condensation of sets of giant gravitons, separately moving along the different $`\varphi _i`$. It is convenient to use the radius of the giant graviton moving along $`\varphi _i`$ as a coordinate $`\rho _i=2L_4\sqrt{1\mu _i^2}`$. Then, an analysis like the one given above shows that the distribution of each set of giant gravitons is

$$\frac{dn_i}{d\rho _i}=2\sqrt{2N}\frac{q_i}{L_4^3}\rho _i.$$
(14)
The giant graviton of radius $`\rho _i`$ carries an angular momentum $`N\rho _i^4/L_4^4`$. The total angular momentum carried by each set of giant gravitons is

$$P_i=\frac{2N^{3/2}}{3\sqrt{2}}\frac{q_i}{L_4}.$$
(15)
Likewise, the total energy of the giant gravitons $`E=P_i/2L_4`$ is in agreement with the ADM mass of the multi-charge black hole.

#### Beyond BPS:

So far we have considered the BPS solutions with $`\mu =0`$. As a result, we were able to compute the energy of a condensate of probe giant gravitons following the distribution (9) and this exactly matched the gravitational mass of the fully back-reacted spacetime solution. Repeating the analysis in the non-supersymmetric case when $`\mu >0`$, we find that the net giant number density, the net number of giants and their net momentum are simply given by replacing $`q_i`$ in (9), (10) and (11) by the physical charge $`\stackrel{~}{q}_i`$ (2) of the non-extremal solution. However, replacing $`q_i`$ by $`\stackrel{~}{q}_i`$ in the giant energy formula (12) does not reproduce the spacetime mass (3) because the non-extremality can produce additional fluctuations of the giant gravitons as well as giant-anti-giant pairs at any fixed net momentum (11).

## 3 Seven dimensions

In an analysis parallel to the one above, we can consider the $`𝒩=4,SO(5)`$ gauged supergravity in 7 dimensions, arising from dimensional reduction and consistent truncation of 11d SUGRA on $`\mathrm{S}^4`$. This theory can be further truncated to $`𝒩=2,U(1)^2`$ gauged SUGRA, where the only bosonic fields retained are the metric, two gauge potentials and two scalars .222This is not in general a consistent truncation but is so for solutions of the form considered here . The charged black hole solutions in this theory are

$`ds_7^2`$ $`=`$ $`(H_1H_2)^{4/5}fdt^2+(H_1H_2)^{1/5}(f^1dr^2+r^2d\mathrm{\Omega }_5^2),`$
$`X_i`$ $`=`$ $`H_i^1(H_1H_2)^{2/5},A^i={\displaystyle \frac{\stackrel{~}{q}_i}{r^4+q_i}}dt,`$ (16)
and

$$f=1\frac{\mu }{r^4}+\frac{r^2}{L_7^2}(H_1H_2),H_i=1+\frac{q_i}{r^4},i=1,2.$$
(17)
Here $`\mu `$ is a SUSY-breaking parameter and the $`\stackrel{~}{q}_i`$ are defined as in (2). The mass of this solution is

$$M_7=\frac{\pi ^2}{4G_7}(\frac{5\mu }{4}+q_1+q_2)=\frac{\pi ^2}{4G_7}(q_1+q_2)+5\delta M_7,$$
(18)
where $`\delta M_7`$ measures the deviation from the BPS limit. Using the general Kaluza-Klein ansatz to lift to a solution of 11d SUGRA , the charged black hole solution (16) becomes

$`ds_{11}^2`$ $`=`$ $`\mathrm{\Delta }^{1/3}\left((H_1H_2)^1fdt^2+(f^1dr^2+r^2d\mathrm{\Omega }_5^2)\right)`$
$`+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{4}}\mathrm{\Delta }^{2/3}\left[d\mu _0^2+{\displaystyle \underset{i=1}{\overset{2}{}}}H_i\left(L_7^2d\mu _i^2+\mu _i^2(L_7d\varphi _i+{\displaystyle \frac{\stackrel{~}{q}_i}{r^4+q_i}}dt)^2\right)\right],`$
where

$$\mathrm{\Delta }(H_1H_2)\left(\mu _0^2+\underset{i=1}{\overset{2}{}}\frac{\mu _i^2}{H_i}\right),\mu _0\mathrm{sin}\theta _1\mathrm{sin}\theta _2,\mu _1\mathrm{cos}\theta _1,\mu _2\mathrm{sin}\theta _1\mathrm{cos}\theta _2,$$
(19)
and $`L_7^2=4l_p^2(\pi N)^{2/3}`$. This solution is asymptotically $`\mathrm{AdS}_7\times \mathrm{S}^4`$ with scales $`L_7`$ and $`L_7/2`$ respectively. $`N`$ counts the number of units of background 7-form flux, or equivalently, the number of M5-branes whose near-horizon limit is $`\mathrm{AdS}_7\times \mathrm{S}^4`$ with $`\mathrm{AdS}_7`$ scale $`L_7`$. First consider the BPS solution ($`\mu =0`$). Following the reasoning in  and the previous section, the relevant 7-form component is

$$F_{\rho _i\varphi _i\alpha _1\alpha _2\alpha _3\alpha _4\alpha _5}^{(7)}=4q_i\rho _i\mathrm{sin}^4\alpha _1\mathrm{sin}^3\alpha _2\mathrm{sin}^2\alpha _3\mathrm{sin}\alpha _4,$$
(20)
where $`\rho _i\frac{L_7}{2}\sqrt{1\mu _i^2}`$. The density of giant gravitons is

$$\frac{dn_i}{d\rho _i}=\frac{1}{16\pi G_{11}T_2}F_{\rho _i\varphi _i\alpha _1\alpha _2\alpha _3\alpha _4\alpha _5}^{(7)}𝑑\varphi _id^5\alpha =8N^2\frac{q_i}{L_7^6}\rho _i.$$
(21)
The total number of giant gravitons in each set is

$$n_i=_0^{L/2}𝑑\rho _i8N^2\frac{q_i}{L_7^6}\rho _i=N^2\frac{q_i}{L_7^4}.$$
(22)
Giant gravitons of radius $`\rho _i`$ carry angular momentum $`\frac{2N}{L_7}\rho _i`$  and therefore the total angular momentum carried by each set of giant gravitons is

$$P_{\varphi _i}=_0^{L/2}𝑑\rho _i\frac{dn_1}{d\rho _i}\frac{N}{L_7}\rho _i=\frac{2N^3}{3}\frac{q_i}{L_7^4}.$$
(23)
Likewise, using the energy-momentum relation for giants, the total energy of the condensate of giants is

$$E=\frac{P_{\varphi _1}+P_{\varphi _2}}{L_7/2}=\frac{4N^3}{3}\frac{q_1+q_2}{L_7^5}.$$
(24)
As before, these energy and momentum calculations are performed while treating giant gravitons as probes in a background $`\mathrm{AdS}_7\times \mathrm{S}^4`$ geometry. Nevertheless, the total energy agrees exactly with the spacetime mass of the solution (18)

$$M_7=\frac{\pi ^2}{4G_7}(q_1+q_2)=\frac{4N^3}{3}\frac{q_1+q_2}{L_7^5}.$$
(25)
where we have used $`G_7=6G_{11}/(\pi ^2L_7^4)`$. In contrast, the non-supersymmetric solutions with $`\mu >0`$ have a net condensate of giants in which $`q_i`$ in (21) and (23) is replaced by the physical charge $`\stackrel{~}{q}_i`$ defined as in (2). A similar replacement in the giant energy formula (24) will not reproduce the mass (18) because at positive $`\mu `$ additional excitations of the giants as well as brane-anti-brane pairs may be present.

## 4 Entropy

Above we have generalized the calculation of Myers and Tafjord  in 5d to interpret certain charged black holes and curvature singularities of 4d and 7d gauged supergravity as condensates of giant gravitons. Giant gravitons are themselves spherical M2, D3 and M5 branes, and so we expect that after including gravitational back-reaction the geometry very close to the surface of a giant should be locally $`\mathrm{AdS}_l\times \mathrm{S}^k`$. In particular, near the M5-brane giants of the $`\mathrm{AdS}_4\times \mathrm{S}^7`$ space, the geometry should be locally $`\mathrm{AdS}_7\times \mathrm{S}^4`$. Likewise, near the M2-brane giants of $`\mathrm{AdS}_7\times \mathrm{S}^4`$ the local geometry should be $`\mathrm{AdS}_4\times \mathrm{S}^7`$. Finally, near the D3-brane giants of $`\mathrm{AdS}_5\times \mathrm{S}^5`$ the local geometry should again be $`\mathrm{AdS}_5\times \mathrm{S}^5`$, but the AdS scale should be determined by $`N_g`$, the number of giants, rather than $`N`$, the number of background branes. This suggests a simple correspondence principle that should hold when a single species of giant is condensed: When the number of giants in $`\mathrm{AdS}_k\times \mathrm{S}^l`$ is sufficiently large, the physics can be equivalently described by a dual $`\mathrm{AdS}_l\times \mathrm{S}^k`$ in which the giants and the background branes have exchanged roles.

If this correspondence is correct, the thermodynamics of the large charge black holes of $`\mathrm{AdS}_k\times \mathrm{S}^l`$ and the small charge black holes of $`\mathrm{AdS}_l\times \mathrm{S}^k`$ should be equivalent. In the near-BPS limit we expect it to imply equality of black hole entropies and temperatures. Below, we test this by expressing the entropy and temperature of near-BPS, single charge black holes of $`\mathrm{AdS}_k\times \mathrm{S}^l`$ in terms of the number of condensed giants $`N_g`$, the number of background branes $`N`$ and the energy above extremality $`\delta M`$.

#### $`\mathrm{𝐀𝐝𝐒}_\mathrm{𝟓}\mathbf{\times }𝐒^\mathrm{𝟓}`$:

The previous sections have discussed the charged black hole solutions of $`\mathrm{AdS}_7`$ and $`\mathrm{AdS}_4`$ but here we begin by analyzing the entropy of the $`\mathrm{AdS}_5`$ black holes whose interpretation in terms of giant gravitons was given in . In detail, the $`𝒩=8,SO(6)`$ gauged SUGRA arising from consistent truncation of 10d, IIB SUGRA compactified on $`\mathrm{S}^5`$ has a further truncation to 5d $`𝒩=2,U(1)^3`$ gauged SUGRA. The black hole solutions of this theory are

$`ds_5^2`$ $`=`$ $`(H_1H_2H_3)^{2/3}fdt^2+(H_1H_2H_3)^{1/3}(f^1dr^2+r^2d\mathrm{\Omega }_3^2),`$
$`X_i`$ $`=`$ $`H_i^1(H_1H_2H_3)^{1/3},A^i={\displaystyle \frac{\stackrel{~}{q}_i}{r+q_i}}dt,(i=1\mathrm{}4)`$ (26)
where

$$f=1\frac{\mu }{r^2}+\frac{r^2}{L_5^2}(H_1H_2H_3),H_i=1+\frac{q_i}{r^2}.$$
(27)
The solution has a mass

$$M_5=\frac{\pi }{4G_5}(\frac{3}{2}\pi \mu +q_i)=\frac{\pi }{4G_5}q_i+3\delta M_5.$$
(28)
Here $`3\delta M_5`$ measures the additional mass over the BPS limit produced by turning on $`\mu `$. In the single charge BPS case ($`\mu =0`$) Myers and Tafjord showed that the singularity contains

$$N_g=N\frac{q}{L_5^2}$$
(29)
giants where $`L_5^4=4\pi g_sNl_s^4`$ and $`N`$ is the number of background units of 5-form flux, or equivalently the number of 3-branes whose near-horizon limit gives $`\mathrm{AdS}_5`$ with scale size $`L_5`$. Beyond the BPS limit ($`\mu >0`$), the number of giants is given by replacing $`q`$ in (29) by the physical charge $`\stackrel{~}{q}`$ as in (2). The horizon of the single charge black holes occurs at

$$r_h=\frac{1}{2}\sqrt{2(L_5^2+q)+2\sqrt{(L_5^2+q)^2+4\mu L_5^2}}.$$
(30)
We will consider near-BPS limits in which $`\mu q`$ and compute the horizon entropy in the two cases $`qL_5^2`$ and $`qL_5^2`$, or equivalently $`N_gN`$ and $`N_gN`$. Gravitational entropy of a 5d horizon is given by

$$S=\frac{A}{4G_5}=\frac{\mathrm{\Omega }_3}{4G_5}r_h^2\sqrt{r_h^2+q},$$
(31)
where $`r_h`$ is the location of the horizon, $`G_5=\frac{G_{10}}{\pi ^3L_5^5}`$ and $`G_{10}=8\pi ^6g_s^2l_s^8`$ are the 5d and 10d Newton constants.333$`\mathrm{\Omega }_D=\frac{2\pi ^{(d+1)/2}}{\mathrm{\Gamma }[(d+1)/2]}`$ is the volume of the unit D-sphere. In terms of the number of giants we find that

$`\begin{array}{ccc}& & \\ \mathrm{Limits}& r_h& S=\frac{A}{4G_4}\\ & & \\ \mu q,N_gN& \sqrt{\mu }& S=4\pi (L_5\delta M_5)\sqrt{\frac{N_g}{N}}\\ & & \\ \mu q,N_gN& r_h=L_5\sqrt{\mu /q}& S=4\pi (L_5\delta M_5)\sqrt{\frac{N}{N_g}}\end{array}`$ (35)
Notice that in the small and large charge limits, the entropy formula interchanges the roles of the giant gravitons ($`N_g`$) and the D3-branes ($`N`$) whose near-horizon created the background geometry, if we hold $`L_5`$ and $`\delta M_5`$ fixed.

#### $`\mathrm{𝐀𝐝𝐒}_\mathrm{𝟒}\mathbf{\times }𝐒^\mathrm{𝟕}`$:

We will study single charge 4d black holes (1) for which the horizon occurs when

$$f=1\frac{\mu }{r}+\frac{qr}{L_4^2}+\frac{r^2}{L_4^2}=0.$$
(36)
As above we will compare the entropy of small charge ($`qL_4`$) and large charge ($`qL_4`$) black holes. From (10), the number of giants $`N_g`$ satisfies $`N_g\sqrt{N}`$ and $`N_g\sqrt{N}`$ in these cases. We will study the near-BPS solutions for which $`\mu q`$, but in the large charge case will need to separately consider the regimes $`\mu L_4^2/q`$ ($`\frac{\mu }{L_4}\frac{\sqrt{N}}{N_g}`$) and $`L_4^2/q\mu q`$ ($`\frac{\sqrt{N}}{N_g}\frac{\mu }{L_4}\frac{N_g}{\sqrt{N}}`$). The gravitational entropy is

$$S=\frac{A}{4G_4}=\frac{\mathrm{\Omega }_2}{4G_4}r_h^2\sqrt{1+\frac{q}{r_h}},$$
(37)
where $`r_h`$ is the location of the horizon. Then, using $`G_4=G_{11}/\mathrm{Vol}(\mathrm{S}^7)`$ and $`G_{11}`$ as in Sec. 2, we obtain,

$`\begin{array}{ccc}& & \\ \mathrm{Limits}& r_h& S=\frac{A}{4G_4}\\ & & \\ \frac{\mu }{L_4}\frac{N_g}{\sqrt{N}},N_g\sqrt{N}& \mu & \sqrt{48\pi ^2}(L_4\delta M_4)^{3/2}\frac{\sqrt{N_g}}{N}\\ & & \\ \frac{\mu }{L_4}\frac{\sqrt{N}}{N_g},N_g\sqrt{N}& \mu & \sqrt{48\pi ^2}(L_4\delta M_4)^{3/2}\frac{\sqrt{N_g}}{N}\\ & & \\ \frac{\sqrt{N}}{N_g}\frac{\mu }{L_4}\frac{N_g}{\sqrt{N}},N_g\sqrt{N}& L_4\sqrt{\mu /q}& 4\pi \frac{1}{3^{1/4}}(L_4\delta M_4)^{3/4}\frac{\sqrt{N}}{N_g^{1/4}}\end{array}`$ (42)
Here $`\delta M_4`$ is a measure of energy over the BPS limit as in (3). Unlike the $`\mathrm{AdS}_5`$ case the entropies for the small and large charge cases do not seem to be related to each other. However, we will see a remarkable fact below – the large charge $`\mathrm{AdS}_4`$ black hole entropy is related to the small charge $`\mathrm{AdS}_7`$ entropy and vice versa.

#### $`\mathrm{𝐀𝐝𝐒}_\mathrm{𝟕}\mathbf{\times }𝐒^\mathrm{𝟒}`$:

The horizon of the single charge 7d black hole (16) occurs when

$$1\frac{\mu }{r^4}+\frac{r^2}{L_7^2}+\frac{q}{r^2L_7^2}=0.$$
(43)
We will consider small charge ($`qL_7^4`$) and large charge ($`qL_7^4`$) limits, which imply $`N_gN^2`$ and $`N_gN^2`$ respectively from(22). As above, we will study the near-BPS ($`\mu q`$) limit, but in the small charge case we must separately consider the cases $`(q/L_7^2)^2\mu q`$ $`\left(\frac{N_g^2}{N^4}\frac{\mu }{L_7^4}\frac{N_g}{N^2}\right)`$ and $`\mu (q/L_7^2)^2`$ $`\left(\frac{\mu }{L_7^4}\frac{N_g^2}{N^4}\right)`$. The gravitational entropy is given by

$$S=\frac{A}{4G_7}=\frac{\mathrm{\Omega }_5}{4G_7}\sqrt{1+\frac{q}{r_h^4}}r_h^5.$$
(44)
Using $`G_7=G_{11}/\mathrm{Vol}(\mathrm{S}^4)`$ and $`G_{11}`$ as in Sec. 3,

$`\begin{array}{ccc}& & \\ \mathrm{Limits}& r_h& S=\frac{A}{4G_7}\\ & & \\ \frac{\mu }{L_7^4}\frac{N_g}{N^2},N_gN^2& L_7\sqrt{\mu /q}& \sqrt{48\pi ^2}(L_7\delta M_7)^{3/2}\frac{\sqrt{N}}{N_g}\\ & & \\ \frac{\mu }{L_7^4}\frac{N_g^2}{N^4},N_gN^2& L_7\sqrt{\mu /q}& \sqrt{48\pi ^2}(L_7\delta M_7)^{3/2}\frac{\sqrt{N}}{N_g}\\ & & \\ \frac{N_g^2}{N^4}\frac{\mu }{L_7^4}\frac{N_g}{N^2},N_gN^2& \mu ^{1/4}& 4\pi \frac{1}{3^{1/4}}(L_7\delta M_7)^{3/4}\frac{\sqrt{N_g}}{N^{1/4}}\end{array}`$ (49)
Here $`\delta M_7`$ is a measure of energy over the BPS limit as in (18).

### 4.1 A thermodynamic correspondence

The entropy formulae derived above were necessarily functions of $`\delta M`$, the energy above extremality. However, since entropy is itself dimensionless, this energy always appears in the dimensionless combination $`L\delta M`$, where $`L`$ is the AdS scale. The appearance of this combination, which is natural from the point of the gravitational solution, also has a natural interpretation from the microscopic point of view. Das, Jevicki and Mathur have shown that a giant graviton has a discrete spectrum that is determined by the AdS scale $`L`$ and is independent of all other length scales including the radius of the giant . This remarkable fact, coupled with the appearance of $`L\delta M`$ in the above entropy formulae, suggests that the thermodynamics of the charged black holes studied here can be microscopically explained in terms of the fluctuations of giant gravitons that make up the singularity. In effect, the giant gravitons appear to play a role for our black holes analogous to the role of the D1-D5 string in the classic Strominger-Vafa analysis of black hole entropy in string theory .

Above we argued that when the number of giants in the solution is large there ought to be a correspondence exchanging the roles of the giant gravitons and the background branes creating the AdS spacetime. Essentially, this should relate the entropies of large charge black holes in $`\mathrm{AdS}_l\times \mathrm{S}^k`$ and small charge black holes in $`\mathrm{AdS}_k\times \mathrm{S}^l`$. The results presented in (35), (42) and (49) are a striking confirmation of this fact. In $`\mathrm{AdS}_5`$ the entropy at large $`N_g`$ is obtained from the small $`N_g`$ result by exchanging $`N`$ and $`N_g`$ while holding the dimensionless energy $`L_5\delta M_5`$ fixed. Similarly, the large $`N_g`$ entropy in $`\mathrm{AdS}_4`$ reproduces the small $`N_g`$ entropy in $`\mathrm{AdS}_7`$ if we hold the dimensionless energy fixed ($`L_4\delta M_4=L_7\delta M_7`$) while exchanging $`N_g`$ and $`N`$. The numerical factors match exactly, as do the limits on the supersymmetry breaking parameter $`\mu `$.

We can derive the temperature of our solutions from the thermodynamic relation $`\beta =1/T=dS/dE`$. By requiring that the temperatures match between corresponding solutions in $`\mathrm{AdS}_l\times \mathrm{S}^k`$ and $`\mathrm{AdS}_k\times \mathrm{S}^l`$ we find that while exchanging $`N`$ and $`N_g`$ we should separately hold $`\delta M`$ and the supergravity length scale $`L`$ constant. Since $`L`$ can be expressed in terms of the number of background branes and the fundamental length scales $`l_5=g_s^{1/4}l_s`$ or the Planck length $`l_p`$, this requires us to rescale $`l_5`$ or $`l_p`$ when $`N_g`$ and $`N`$ are exchanged. In particular, $`N_gN`$ solutions in $`\mathrm{AdS}_5`$ with a given value of $`l_5=g_s^{1/4}l_s`$ are related to the $`N_gN`$ solutions with $`\stackrel{~}{l}_5=l_5(N/N_g)l_5`$. Similarly, the $`N_g\sqrt{N}`$ solutions in $`\mathrm{AdS}_4`$ with a given Planck length $`l_p`$ are related to $`N_gN^2`$ spaces in $`\mathrm{AdS}_7`$ with $`\stackrel{~}{l}_p=l_p(1/2)^{7/6}(N/N_g^2)^{1/6}l_p`$. Finally, the $`N_gN^2`$ solutions in $`\mathrm{AdS}_7`$ with a given $`l_p`$ are related to $`N_g\sqrt{N}`$ black holes in $`\mathrm{AdS}_4`$ with $`\stackrel{~}{l}_p=l_p(2)^{7/6}(N^2/N_g)^{1/6}l_p`$. In all cases, the new fundamental length scale is much smaller than the original scale. While this will be important for a quantum mechanical analysis of our proposed correspondence, it is not relevant for the supergravity analysis of this article since only the scale $`L`$ appears in the spacetime solutions.

## 5 Discussion: A correspondence principle?

We have presented evidence from supergravity that there is a correspondence between the physics of certain large charge black holes in $`\mathrm{AdS}_l\times \mathrm{S}^k`$ and small charge black holes in $`\mathrm{AdS}_k\times \mathrm{S}^l`$. It would be interesting to extend the correspondence that we suggest to a full quantum mechanical duality.

To this end, it is important to understand how the charged black holes discussed here are represented in the CFT dual to AdS space. In  it was shown that non-normalizable bulk modes (boundary conditions) map to CFT couplings, while normalizable supergravity lumps give rise to VEVs for CFT operators. The operators relevant to condensation of giant gravitons were identified in  as subdeterminants of products of CFT fields. Presumably, the black holes we have studied are related to superselection sectors of the CFT in which these operators have VEVs.

The CFT state corresponding to large $`N_g`$ would not be well-approximated by the planar limit. (See  for a discussion of the combinatorial explosion in perturbative calculations involving giant gravitons.) In the bulk spacetime non-planar diagrams correspond to string loop corrections. The correspondence we are proposing could be understood in $`\mathrm{AdS}_5`$ as stating that these loop corrections re-sum to give another description in which the $`SU(N)`$ gauge symmetry of the dual CFT is exchanged with an $`SU(N_g)`$ symmetry arising from the condensed giants.

A brief glance at the entropy formulae in (35), (42) and (49) and the relation $`1/T=dS/dE`$ shows that the black holes that we are examining have unusual thermodynamic relations. For example, in the limits we examined in (35) the temperature is independent of the energy. In fact, some of the solutions we have considered here have thermodynamic, and possibly dynamical, instabilities . We expect that such solutions with large charges in $`\mathrm{AdS}_k\times \mathrm{S}^l`$ will correspond to unstable small charge solutions in $`\mathrm{AdS}_l\times \mathrm{S}^k`$ and that the instabilities can be related to each other. Understanding this will be important for the goal of relating various features of the gravitational solutions to the physics of the giant gravitons making up the singularities.

Acknowledgements

We thank Micha Berkooz and Matt Strassler for useful discussions. This work was supported by DOE grant DOE-FG02-95ER40893.