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# Injection of Radioactivities into the Forming Solar System

## 1 Introduction

Studies of meteoritic material have revealed the presence of short-lived radioactivities in the early solar system (Wasserburg, 1985; Cameron, 1993; Podosek and Nichols, 1997; Goswami and Vanhala, 2000; McKeegan et al., 2000). The origin of these dozen or so confirmed (41Ca, 26Al, 60Fe, 10Be, 53Mn, 107Pd, 182Hf, 129I, and 244Pu) or suspected (99Tc, 36Cl, 205Pb, and 92Nb) short-lived radionuclides has been a subject of intense investigation over the last few years. There are two basic ways to explain the production of the radioactivities: via stellar nucleosynthesis or through local production in the early solar system.

A stellar nucleosynthetic source (a supernova or an AGB star) has been the leading explanation for most of the nuclei (Cameron, 1993, 2001a; Wasserburg et al., 1994, 1995, 1998). This source works well for the longer-lived radioactivities, because there is plenty of time to have them produced in stellar interiors and then mixed into the interstellar medium, including the molecular cloud core from which the solar system was formed. However, the case is more complicated for the shortest-lived radionuclides - mean life less than a few million years - since their presence sets a time limit of one million years or less for the time available between their production and their incorporation in the solar system material. This has led to the formulation of the idea of the triggered origin of the solar system (Cameron and Truran, 1977; Boss, 1995; Cameron et al., 1997; Vanhala, 1998; Boss and Vanhala, 2000), which suggests that the formation of the solar system was initiated when an interstellar shock wave propagating from a nearby explosive stellar event impacted on a molecular cloud core. In addition to triggering the collapse of the core earlier than it would have occurred otherwise, the shock wave also enriched it with freshly synthesized radioactivities produced at the stellar site and carried by the shock wave.

Another possibility for the origin of the radionuclides is to have them produced locally in the solar nebula. According to this scenario, the radionuclides were produced during spallation reactions involving energetic particles emanating from protosolar flares (Shu et al., 1997). Since the radioactivities are produced locally, there are no time constraints for the formation of the solar system, and therefore no need to connect the origin of the solar system with a nearby explosive stellar event, as long as all the detected shortest-lived radioactivities can be produced through this mechanism.

The current meteorite data suggests that the best explanation for the origin of the radioactivities requires both scenarios. Local irradiation models appear to have difficulty in matching the observed abundance ratios of the nuclides, especially that of 26Al to 41Ca (Srinivasan et al., 1996; Sahijpal et al., 1998; Lee et al., 1998). Even if it may be possible to overcome this problem by assuming shielding of the refractory inclusions by a less refractory mantle (Gounelle et al., 2001), local production scenarios cannot account for 60Fe, and it therefore requires a stellar nucleosynthetic source (Goswami, Marhas and Sahijpal, 2001). The detection of the short-lived isotope 10Be in an Allende inclusion (McKeegan et al., 2000), has stirred further debate, since the nuclide is thought to be produced only by nuclear spallation reactions. Therefore, its existence has been used to argue in favor of local irradiation scenarios (McKeegan et al., 2000; Gounelle et al., 2001), but it is unclear whether the radioactivity was produced in the solar nebula, or in an earlier phase of evolution, such as in expanding supernova envelopes (Cameron, 2001b) or in the winds ejected from H-depleted Wolf-Rayet (WR) stars (Arnould et al., 2000). These considerations lead to the conclusion that a combination of stellar nucleosynthesis coupled with stellar and/or local irradiation appears to be the best explanation for the known isotopic anomalies. Indeed, there is accumulating evidence that the presence of the short-lived radioactivities in the early solar system may require a fairly involved history for their complete explanation (Meyer and Clayton, 2000).

The theory of the triggered origin of the solar system therefore remains an attractive scenario to explain the presence of at least some of the short-lived radioactivities in the early solar system. In the last few years, the viability of the proposal has been investigated through numerical simulations using several different simulation methods (Boss, 1995; Foster and Boss, 1996, 1997; Boss and Foster, 1997, 1998; Cameron et al., 1997; Vanhala and Cameron, 1998; Vanhala and Boss, 2000); for reviews, see Vanhala (1998) and Boss and Vanhala (2000). The simulations suggest that molecular cloud cores can be triggered into collapse by moderately slow ($``$10-45 km s-1) shock waves (Boss, 1995; Foster and Boss, 1996; Cameron et al., 1997; Vanhala and Cameron, 1998), and the time scale of the process, $``$105 yr (Foster and Boss, 1996; Vanhala and Cameron, 1998), is sufficiently short for the radioactivities to have survived in the measured amounts. Calculations studying the mixing of radioactivities into the forming solar system have shown that shock wave material can be injected into the collapsing system when the postshock gas cools rapidly, resulting in (nearly) isothermal shocks (Foster and Boss, 1997; Vanhala and Cameron, 1998; Vanhala and Boss, 2000). In this case, shock wave material is injected into the collapsing molecular cloud core through Rayleigh-Taylor (RT) fingers, with an efficiency of 10-20% and over a time period of 700,000 years (Foster and Boss, 1997; Vanhala and Boss, 2000). The radioactivities can be injected into the collapsing system even if they are far behind the leading edge of the shock wave (Boss and Foster, 1998). It is also possible that shock wave material can be injected into the system in non-isothermal shock waves where the postshock gas remains hot behind the shock front, but these aspects of the problem have not been investigated further because they appear to be beyond current computational power (Vanhala and Cameron, 1998). Consequently, the discussion of the injection process has concentrated on the isothermal case.

Previous calculations have suggested that the abundances of the injected material may have experienced spatial and temporal variation in the early solar system. This is based on two discoveries of the interaction between the shock wave and the molecular cloud core. First, there appears be a lag of a few $`\times `$ 10,000 yr between the time the center of the compressed molecular cloud core is pushed into collapse and the time the radioactivities carried by the shock wave arrive deep in the system (Vanhala and Boss, 2000). This is due to the fact that while the core can be pushed into collapse by the compressional wave transmitted through the core as the shock wave is decelerated by the outer layers of the core, injection becomes efficient only after the RT-fingers have developed fully at the surface of the core. This makes it possible for the amount of radioactivities to have varied at different times within the forming solar system. Second, the calculations suggest that the RT-fingers remain well defined down to the level of a few tens of AU, making it possible for spatial heterogeneities to exist in the matter falling into different parts of the protostellar disk (Vanhala and Boss, 2000). However, the resolution of the previous calculations has been insufficient to make these suggestions conclusive.

The possibility of heterogeneities in the early solar system has received support from meteorite studies. For example, the absence of evidence of live 26Al in some refractory inclusions might imply their formation in the nebula just prior to the arrival of the freshly-synthesized 26Al deposited by the shock wave (Sahijpal et al., 1998). It is also possible that these inclusions, as well as chondrules, which in contrast to typically 26Al-enriched Ca,Al-rich inclusions (CAIs), show lower values for 26Al enrichment or none at all (Hutcheon, Huss and Wasswerburg, 1994; Hutcheon and Jones, 1995; Russell et al., 1996; Kita et al., 2000; Huss et al., 2001), formed in nebular regions largely devoid of 26Al, whereas the CAIs were formed out of 26Al-rich material (MacPherson, Davis and Zinner, 1995). Spatial heterogeneity is also implied by the strong evidence for a radial gradient in the distribution of 53Mn in the solar nebula (Lugmair and Shukolyukov, 1998). There are some arguments (MacPherson, Davis and Zinner (1995); Nichols, Podosek and Meyer (1999); see the discussion by Podosek and Cassen (1994)) that suggest that the heterogeneity may have been temporal rather than spatial, but this is currently uncertain, and more data is required.

In order to address the details of the injection process, such as the issue of the origin and longevity of heterogeneities, we have initiated a study of the interaction between the molecular cloud core and the shock wave at high spatial resolution (Vanhala and Boss, 2000). The work described in this paper is the latest in a series of calculations studying the injection process under isothermal conditions. The resolution of the current study is sufficiently high to describe the behavior of the injected material at the time it arrives to the forming solar system and determine whether the heterogeneities discovered by the earlier calculations persist at this stage. The system studied in the current calculations is described in § 2, and the results of our study are given in § 3. In § 4 we summarize the results and briefly discuss their implications.

## 2 Simulation method and the initial system

The study presented in this paper is a continuation of the calculations of Vanhala and Boss (2000). The two-dimensional VH-1 hydrodynamics code, which is based on the piecewise-parabolic method (PPM) and includes the effect of the self-gravity of the gas, is described in greater detail by Foster and Boss (1996). Two complementary methods - a color field and tracer particles - are used to follow the behavior of the shock flow material as it impacts the molecular cloud core (Foster and Boss, 1997).

The initial conditions of our calculations are the same as the standard cases of Foster and Boss (1997) and Vanhala and Boss (2000): a marginally stable Bonnor-Ebert sphere joining smoothly to the surrounding medium. The cloud initially has a radius of 0.058 pc, temperature of 10 K, central density of $`\rho _\mathrm{c}`$ = 6.2 $`\times `$ 10-19 g cm-3, and contains one solar mass of material. The intercloud medium has $`T_{\mathrm{icm}}`$ = 10 K and $`\rho _{\mathrm{icm}}`$ = 3.6 $`\times `$ 10-22 g cm-3. The shock wave is represented by a top-hat model, in which the edge of the wave (thickness 0.003 pc) is given the velocity $`v_{\mathrm{edge}}`$ = 20 km s-1, density $`\rho _{\mathrm{edge}}`$ = 3.6 $`\times `$ 10-20 g cm-3 and temperature $`T_{\mathrm{edge}}`$ = 10 K, while the wind behind the leading edge has $`\rho _{\mathrm{wind}}`$ = 3.6 $`\times `$ 10-22 g cm-3, $`T_{\mathrm{wind}}`$ = 10 K and $`v_{\mathrm{wind}}`$ = 0 km s-1. The cylindrical coordinate ($`r`$, $`z`$) grid is taken to be axisymmetric around the $`z`$ axis and extends to $`r`$ = 0.088 pc and -0.176 pc $`<z<`$ 0.088 pc, with the shock wave approaching from the $`+z`$ direction.

In accordance with the earlier studies, the wind is initially at rest. In general, the wind would be expected to have a non-zero velocity. However, we chose to keep the initial conditions the same as in previous calculations to make the calculations comparable. Also, previous calculations have indicated the the injection results do not change appreciably from the standard case with different wind velocities (Foster and Boss, 1997; Boss and Foster, 1998).

To further keep the current calculations comparable with previous studies, we use an isothermal equation of state, with the adiabatic index $`\gamma `$ = 1.00001 (see discussion by Foster and Boss (1997)). Since we are interested in investigating the injection process under optimal conditions, isothermal conditions are an appropriate choice (Foster and Boss, 1997; Vanhala and Cameron, 1998; Vanhala and Boss, 2000).

In the current calculations, the two-dimensional uniform grid has a resolution of 960 x 2880, twice the number of zones in each dimension as in the highest-resolution calculation of Vanhala and Boss (2000), and 16 times the number of zones in each dimension of the original case of Foster and Boss (1997). The size of one zone in these calculations is 19 AU (9.2$`\times `$10-5 pc), not enough to discuss the distribution of injected material at the scale of the present-day solar system, but sufficient to describe the injection process at the time of the formation of the solar system.

## 3 Results

The results of our simulations are shown in FIGS. 1-3. The basic results of our calculations follow well the pattern described by Foster and Boss (1996, 1997) and Vanhala and Boss (2000). When the shock wave impacts the molecular cloud core, it is stalled at the facing side of the core, while material at the sides can sweep past the core. A compressional wave is transmitted through the core as the shock wave is decelerated by the outer layers of the cloud, and eventually the central parts of the system are pushed into collapse. At this point the Courant condition is violated due to the gravity becoming very strong and the calculation stops. The evolution of the compressed core is characterized by an initial growth spurt - about 0.5 solar masses over $``$100,000 years - after which the growth of the protostellar core slows down until the final protostellar mass is reached.

While the core is being compressed by the shock wave, Rayleigh-Taylor instabilities develop at the surface of the core (FIG. 1). Shock wave material collects in clumps at the surface of the compressed core, and RT-instabilities developing at these locations inject shocked material into the collapsing system. The complex structure of the RT-fingers is evident in FIG. 2, which shows a closeup of the last four panels of FIG. 1. The RT-fingers develop at different times at different parts of the core, according to the time at which they first come into contact with the shock wave: the facing side of the core has the instabilities develop first, while the fingers at the sides of the core are just beginning to reach deep into the system at the time the calculation stops. The injection efficiency - the amount of shock wave material captured by the collapsing system with respect to that originally incident on the molecular cloud core - is approximately 10%, the same as in previous calculations.

Our calculations show that the injection becomes efficient only after the RT-fingers have developed fully at the surface of the compressed core. Consequently, there is a lag between the time when the central regions of the core are significantly compressed and when the shock wave material arrives in the inner regions of the system. According to our calculations, this time is a few $`\times `$ 10,000 years. Also, the shock wave material is injected preferentially in the outer parts of the collapsing core, resulting in spatial gradients in the distribution of the radioactivities. This is evident in FIG. 3, which shows the ratio between the amount of shock wave material with respect to the total accumulated mass as a function of distance from the forming protostar. The fractional shock mass shows a clear gradient toward the outer parts of the nebula, and there are bumps in the gradient according to the clumps of matter being injected by the RT-fingers at that distance from the center of the system. These results lead us to expect that the material arrives into the forming solar system in the form of clumpy infall instead of homogeneous rain of well-mixed material. Since our calculations do not include the rotation of the core, we cannot follow the formation of the protostellar disk. Therefore, it might be possible that the arriving material would be mixed within the disk, but a preliminary study of mixing in protostellar disks suggests that heterogeneities might survive even at that stage (Boss, 2001).

In addition to confirming the injection results of the previous calculations, our results also support the original conclusion of Foster and Boss (1996) and Vanhala and Cameron (1998) on the competition between the self-gravity of the core and the development of instabilities at the contact surface between the shock wave and the cloud. In the case described here and in the previous simulations of successful triggered collapse - cases of intermediate velocity shock waves striking centrally condensed molecular cloud cores - the self-gravity pulls the core to the point of collapse before the instabilities have had a chance to develop fully. At this point, the instabilities serve as feeders of shock wave material into the forming solar system instead of destroying the core, as suggested by calculations of high-velocity shock waves.

## 4 Discussion

Our calculations of the impact of an interstellar shock wave on a molecular cloud core confirm the previous results: in isothermal shock waves, shock wave material is injected into the collapsing system by Rayleigh-Taylor instabilities developing at the surface of the compressed core. Injection begins shortly after the central density of the core has started to grow due to the shock wave transmitted from the compressed outer regions of the core. The injection efficiency is $``$10%, and the amount of injected material in the central parts of the collapsing core is typically $``$0.1% of the total mass contained in that region.

Our high-resolution calculations show that the RT-fingers retain their structure down to the size of the forming solar system. We therefore expect the injected shock wave material to arrive on the disk as clumpy infall rather than as thoroughly mixed material. It is possible that instabilities might stir sufficient turbulence in the infalling gas to cause the material to be thoroughly mixed before it arrives on the disk, or that small-scale dynamically driven instabilities could occur at the surface of the RT-fingers at a scale that is beyond the resolution of our calculations. However, we do not see any evidence for this in our calculations, and our main conclusion therefore remains that the arrival of the injected shock wave material into the protostellar disk was neither spatially or temporally homogeneous. Our calculations suggest that the total number of RT-fingers reaching into the forming solar system is 10-12. If the RT-fingers remain separate on their way to the protostellar disk, the spacing between the fingers as they strike the disk depends on the size of the disk. For the 3000 AU of the panels of FIG. 2 \- the size of the forming disk - the fingers would be roughly 300 AU apart, while a later-stage disk of 40 AU, for example, would see a spacing of $``$4 AU of the RT-fingers as they land on the disk.

The calculations were performed on the Carnegie Alpha Cluster, which is supported in part by NSF MRI grant AST-9976645. This work was also supported by NASA Origins of Solar Systems Program grant NAG5-4306 and NASA Astrophysical Theory Program grant NAG5-9263.


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# Precision determination of 𝑉_ub

## Abstract:

We review how to determine $`|V_{ub}|`$ from inclusive semileptonic $`B`$ decay using combined cuts on the leptonic and hadronic invariant masses to eliminate the $`bc`$ background. This leads to a determination of $`|V_{ub}|`$ with theoretical uncertainty at the 5–10% level.
LBNL-49079, UCSD/PTH 01-22, UTPT-01-13

conference: International Europhysics Conference on HEP

The magnitude of $`V_{ub}`$ determines the length of one of the side of the unitarity triangle and is therefore of great importance to overconstrain this triangle. The inclusive decay rate $`BX_u\mathrm{}\overline{\nu }`$ is directly proportional to $`|V_{ub}|^2`$ and can be calculated reliably and with small uncertainties using the operators product expansion (OPE). Unfortunately, the $``$100 times background from $`BX_c\mathrm{}\overline{\nu }`$ makes the measurement of the totally inclusive an almost impossible task111It has recently been suggested that a measurement of the totally inclusive rate might be possible using totally reconstructed $`B`$ decays. Several cuts have been proposed in order to reject the $`bc`$ background, however care has to be taken to ensure that the decay rate in the restricted region of phase space can still be predicted reliably theoretically. The cut which is easiest to implement experimentally is on the energy of the charged lepton, requiring $`E_{\mathrm{}}>(m_B^2m_D^2)/2m_B`$. Unfortunately, this cut restricts the remaining region of phase space too much for the OPE to still be valid. Instead, a twist expansion has to be performed , and at leading order the decay rate is determined by the light cone distribution function of the $`B`$ meson, with subleading twist corrections suppressed by powers of $`1/m_b`$ . This distribution function can not be calculated perturbatively and has to be determined experimentally, for example from the photon energy spectrum in $`BX_s\gamma `$ . The same light cone distribution function also determines the rate in the presence of a cut on the hadronic invariant mass , which has the advantage of keeping most of the $`bu`$ events. In this talk I will show that using a cut on the leptonic invariant mass results in a regions of phase space that is free from $`bc`$ background and which can be calculated reliably in the standard OPE.

Using a cut on the leptonic invariant mass $`q^2=(p_{\mathrm{}}+p_\nu )^2`$ to measure $`|V_{ub}|^2`$ was first proposed in , and it was shown that requiring $`q^2>m_B^2m_D^2`$ leaves a region of phase space free from $`bc`$ events, which can be calculated using the usual OPE. The number of events surviving such a cut on $`q^2`$ were calculated in  and depending on the exact value of the cut chosen, the fraction of events surviving the cut is between 10 and 20%, with uncertainties on $`|V_{ub}|`$ ranging from 15% for $`q_{\mathrm{cut}}^2=m_B^2m_D^2=11.6\mathrm{GeV}^2`$ to 25% for $`q_{\mathrm{cut}}^2=14\mathrm{G}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{V}^2`$.

From Fig. 1 one can see that the $`q^2`$ cut keeps a subset of the phase space available to a cut on the hadronic invariant mass $`m_X`$. Thus, a cut on $`m_X`$ keeps a much larger fraction of the events, up to 80%. However, the fact that the former cut avoids the region of low $`m_X`$ and low $`q^2`$ where the structure function dominates, is why the decay rate in the presence of a $`q^2`$ cut can be calculated while in the presence of a pure $`m_X`$ cut it can not. However, it was observed in  that combining the cuts on $`q^2`$ and on $`m_X`$ allows for a much larger fraction of events compared to a pure $`q^2`$ cut, while keeping the partial rate calculable using the local OPE.

The integrated rate with a lower cut $`q_{\mathrm{cut}}^2`$ on $`q^2`$ and an upper cut $`m_{\mathrm{cut}}`$ on $`m_X`$ may be written as

$$_{\widehat{q}_{\mathrm{cut}}^2}^1d\widehat{q}^2_0^{\widehat{s}_0}d\widehat{s}\frac{\mathrm{d}\mathrm{\Gamma }}{\mathrm{d}\widehat{q}^2\mathrm{d}\widehat{s}}\frac{G_F^2|V_{ub}|^2(4.7\mathrm{GeV})^5}{192\pi ^3}G(q_{\mathrm{cut}}^2,m_{\mathrm{cut}}),$$

where where $`\widehat{q}=q/m_b`$, $`\widehat{s}=(v\widehat{q})^2`$ is the rescaled partonic invariant mass, $`v`$ is the four-velocity of the decaying $`B`$ meson, and

$`\widehat{s}_0=\{\begin{array}{cc}\left(1\sqrt{\widehat{q}^2}\right)^2\hfill & \text{for }m_{\mathrm{cut}}>m_Bm_b\sqrt{\widehat{q}^2}\text{ ,}\hfill \\ 0\hfill & \text{for }m_{\mathrm{cut}}^2<(m_Bm_b\widehat{q}^2)(m_Bm_b)\text{ ,}\hfill \\ {\displaystyle \frac{m_{\mathrm{cut}}^2}{m_Bm_b}}+\left({\displaystyle \frac{m_B}{m_b}}1\right)\left({\displaystyle \frac{m_b}{m_B}}\widehat{q}^21\right)\hfill & \text{otherwise\hspace{0.17em}.}\hfill \end{array}`$ (1)
The hadronic invariant mass $`m_X`$ is related to $`\widehat{q}^2`$ and $`\widehat{s}`$ by

$$m_X^2=\widehat{s}m_Bm_b+(m_Bm_b)(m_B\widehat{q}^2m_b).$$
(2)
$`G(q_{\mathrm{cut}}^2,m_{\mathrm{cut}})`$ is the ratio of the semileptonic $`bu`$ width with cuts on $`q^2`$ and $`m_X`$ to the full width at tree level with $`m_b=4.7\mathrm{GeV}`$. The fraction of semileptonic $`bu`$ events included in the cut rate is $`1.21G(q_{\mathrm{cut}}^2,m_{\mathrm{cut}})`$. Note that the $`m_b^5`$ prefactor, a large source of uncertainty, is included in $`G(q_{\mathrm{cut}}^2,m_{\mathrm{cut}})`$. The theoretical uncertainty in $`|V_{ub}|`$ is therefore half the uncertainty in the prediction for $`G(q_{\mathrm{cut}}^2,m_{\mathrm{cut}})`$.

In Ref.  this function $`G(q_{\mathrm{cut}}^2,m_{\mathrm{cut}})`$ was calculated up to corrections of order $`\alpha _s^2`$ terms not enhanced by $`\beta _0`$, order $`(\mathrm{\Lambda }_{\mathrm{QCD}}/m_b)^2`$ terms proportional to derivatives of $`\delta (\widehat{s})`$, and higher order terms in both series. The result for the function $`G(q_{\mathrm{cut}}^2,m_{\mathrm{cut}})`$ is shown in Fig. 2 for three different values of $`m_{\mathrm{cut}}`$ as a function of $`q_{\mathrm{cut}}^2`$.

The uncertainties in the OPE prediction for $`G(q_{\mathrm{cut}}^2,m_{\mathrm{cut}})`$ come from three separate sources: perturbative uncertainties from the unknown full two-loop result, uncertainties in the $`b`$ quark mass and uncertainties due to unknown matrix elements of local operators at $`O(1/m_b^3)`$ in the OPE. In the following I will consider each of these uncertainties separately as the fractional errors on $`G(q_{\mathrm{cut}}^2,m_{\mathrm{cut}})`$. The fractional uncertainty in $`|V_{ub}|`$ then is one half of the resulting value. Starting with the perturbative uncertainties, we may estimate the error in the perturbation series in two ways: (a) as the same size as the last term computed, the order $`\alpha _s^2\beta _0`$ term, or (b) as the change in the perturbation series by varying $`\mu `$ over some reasonable range. These are illustrated in Fig. 3 (a) and (b), respectively. In Fig. 3(b) we vary the renormalization scale between $`\mu =4.7\mathrm{GeV}`$ and $`\mu =m_b/31.6\mathrm{GeV}`$, and plot the change in the perturbative result. For a given set of $`q_{\mathrm{cut}}^2`$ and $`m_{\mathrm{cut}}`$, we take the perturbative error to be the larger of (a) and (b).

The partially integrated rate depends sensitively on the value of the $`b`$ quark mass due both to the $`m_b^5`$ factor in $`G(q_{\mathrm{cut}}^2,m_{\mathrm{cut}})`$ and the cut on $`q^2`$, as stressed in . Currently, the smallest error of the $`1S`$ mass is quoted from sum rules . Ref.  obtains the value $`m_b^{1S}=4.69\pm 0.03\mathrm{GeV}`$ by fitting an optimized linear combination of moments of the $`e^+e^{}b\overline{b}`$ spectrum, which may underestimate the theoretical error ; the authors of  cite a similar central value with a more conservative error of $`\pm 0.08\mathrm{GeV}`$. In Fig. 4 we show the effects of a $`\pm 80\mathrm{MeV}`$ and a $`\pm 30\mathrm{MeV}`$ uncertainty in $`m_b^{1S}`$ on $`G(q_{\mathrm{cut}}^2,m_{\mathrm{cut}})`$, using the central value $`m_b^{1S}=4.7\mathrm{GeV}`$.

Finally, there are uncertainties from unknown $`1/m_b^3`$ contributions to $`G(q_{\mathrm{cut}}^2,m_{\mathrm{cut}})`$. We distinguish two contributions, the first originating from the local OPE  and the second from weak annihilation (WA) . The latter terms vanish in the factorization limit, however they are enhanced by a factor of $`16\pi ^2`$. The two contributions are shown in Fig. 6, assuming a 10% violation of factorization, with the uncertainty from WA dominating. Since the WA contribute in general differently to charged and neutral $`B`$ decays, an indication of the size of the WA effect can be obtained by comparing the measurement of $`G(q_{\mathrm{cut}}^2,m_{\mathrm{cut}})`$ from charged and neutral $`B`$’s.

Since the structure function becomes more important as the cut on $`q^2`$ is lowered, we still need to estimate the effect of the distribution function to determine how low $`q_{\mathrm{cut}}^2`$ may be decreased. To leading twist, this is obtained by smearing the $`b`$ quark decay rate with the distribution function $`f(k_+)`$. The best way to determine $`f(k_+)`$ is from the $`BX_s\gamma `$ photon spectrum, however in the absence of precise data, we will use a simple model to estimate the effects of the structure function. In Fig. 6 we plot in such a model the effect of the structure function on $`G(q_{\mathrm{cut}}^2,m_{\mathrm{cut}})`$ as a function of $`q_{\mathrm{cut}}^2`$, for three different values of $`m_{\mathrm{cut}}`$.

Using these results the strategy to extract $`|V_{ub}|`$ in a model independent way is:

* make the cut on $`m_X`$ as large as possible, keeping the background from $`bc`$ small
* for a given cut on $`m_X`$, reduce the $`q^2`$ cut as low as possible, keeping the contribution from the $`b`$ quark structure function, as well as the perturbative uncertainties, small

In Table 1 we show the results for two different combinations of cuts. From this table one can see that the number of events included using the combined cuts is about a factor of three larger than for a pure $`q^2`$ cut and that the uncertainties on $`|V_{ub}|`$ can be reduced by a factor of two.

In summary, combining a cut on $`q^2`$ with a cut on $`m_X`$ allows for a model independent determination of $`|V_{ub}|`$ using up to 45% of the total $`bu`$ events with uncertainties at the 5-10% level. This is a significant improvement over other methods presented to date, which either have strong model dependence or larger theoretical uncertainties.


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# Helical structures in Seyfert galaxies

## 1. Introduction

The numerous emission line images of Seyfert galaxies show a existence of a cone-like NLR with a broad opening angles and spatial sizes from $`10`$ pc to $`18`$ kpc (Wilson & Tsvetanov 1994). Also these galaxies has high-collimated elongated radio structures (radio-jets) coinciding with the cones axis (Wilson & Tsvetanov 1994; Nagar et al. 1999). A ordered Z-shaped emission pattern is a frequently features in the NLRs. We found more then 20 such objects on published emission-line images of the nearby Seyferts. There are no common point of view on an origin of the such regular structures in NLR. Different models were proposed for individual objects: a bent bipolar outflow (Mulchaey et al. 1992), strong collimated precessing twin-jet (Veilleux, Tully, & Bland-Hawtorn 1993), a system of inclined gaseous disks (Morse et al. 1998) and etc.

## 2. Kinematical features of the Z-shaped NLR

A sample of galaxies with Z-shaped NLRs were observed at the 6m telescope. The scanning Interferometer Fabry-Perot and integral field spectrograph MPFS were used for study of the 2D kinematics of stars and ionized gas. Some systems of the gas clouds with velocity difference more than $`100÷200\text{km}\text{s}^1`$ are present on the light of sight in the central region of cones, but the outer emission filaments has only one component of the emission lines. The gas velocity fields are strongly non-circular in comparing with the stellar one. A large gradient of the line of sight gas velocities presents in Z-shaped spiral. We note that similar features also observed on the velocity fields in the other Sy galaxies with (see references in Moiseev et al. 2000) and these could be common for Z-shaped pattern.

## 3. Non-linear simulations

We suggest that Z-shaped spiral filaments in NLRs have a common wave origin and generated by the hydrodynamic instability due to the velocity break between a galactic instellar medium and a outflowing gas from the central AGN. A collimated radio jet corresponds to the direction of outflow and matches with the cone’s axis. A linear analysis shows that jet are unstable relatively to waveguide-resonance development of pinch and helical internal gravity waves. A developments of the instabilities leads to a set of shock waves creation in an ambient medium. Our 2D and 3D non-linear hydrodynamical simulations show that the shock waves penetrate outward from the jet boundaries to the ambient medium. A resulting shock-wave structure covers broad cone with open angle $`30^{}÷80^{}`$ and appears in a sky-plane as a NLR with bright emission pattern (Fig. 1). A pinch (axisymmetrical) and helical modes of the shock waves are develop in the NLR. A helical wave modes provides the Z-shaped emission structures which observed in the ionized cones.

### Acknowledgments.

This work was supported by federal program ”Astronomy” (Project 1.2.3.1)

## References

Moiseev A.V., Afanasiev V.L., Dodonov, S.N., et al. 2000, astro-ph/0006323

Morse, J. A., Cecil, G., Wilson, A.S., Tsvetanov, Z.I. 1998, ApJ, 505,1 59

Mulchaey, J.S., Tsvetanov, Z., Wilson, A.S., et al., ApJ, 394, 91

Nagar, N.N., Wilson, A.S., Mulchaey, J.S., Gallimore, J.F. 1999, ApJS, 120, 209

Veilleux, S., Tully, R.B., Bland-Hawtorn, J. 1993, AJ, 105, 1318

Wilson, A.S. & Tsvetanov, Z.I. 1994, AJ, 107, 1227


text:
# Renormalization of an effective model Hamiltonian by a counter term

## 1 Example for local renormalization

The new parameter $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ appears due to regularization. According to renormalization theory the spectrum may not depend on this formal parameter, thus we must require

$`\delta _\mathrm{\Lambda }M^2(\mathrm{\Lambda })\stackrel{!}{=}0.`$ (2)
To achieve this, we extend the model interaction by a adding to $`R`$ a counter term $`C(\mathrm{\Lambda },Q)`$. We choose this function according to three criteria. First, the new function $`\stackrel{~}{R}R+C`$ must again be a regulator. Second, we require that a zero is added for a particular value of $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$, say for $`\mathrm{\Lambda }=\mu `$. Third, we require the first $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$-derivative of $`\stackrel{~}{R}`$ to vanish at $`\mathrm{\Lambda }=\mu `$. The conditions are met by

$`C(\mathrm{\Lambda },Q)=Q^2{\displaystyle \frac{(\mathrm{\Lambda }^2\mu ^2)}{(\mathrm{\Lambda }^2+Q^2)^2}}.`$
The kernel of the integral equation becomes then

$`U`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{4}{3\pi ^2}}{\displaystyle \frac{\alpha }{m}}\left({\displaystyle \frac{2m^2}{Q^2}}+R+C\right).`$
The lowest eigenvalue of the corresponding integral equation is displayed in Figure 2 as function of $`\alpha `$ and $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$.

Based on the Hellmann-Feynman theorem, and

$`{\displaystyle \frac{d\stackrel{~}{R}}{d\mathrm{\Lambda }^2}}=2Q^2{\displaystyle \frac{(\mathrm{\Lambda }^2\mu ^2)}{(\mathrm{\Lambda }^2+Q^2)^3}},`$
one expects that the derivative of the eigenvalues change sign at $`\mathrm{\Lambda }=\mu `$. The numerical results in Figure 2 illustrate this very convincingly. In fact, for the numerical value $`\mu =1330`$ MeV $`(\mu /\mathrm{\Delta }=3.8)`$, the eigenvalues satisfies Eq.(1). The Hamiltonian is thus partially renormalized in the vicinity of $`\mathrm{\Lambda }\mu `$ for all $`\alpha `$.

## 2 Exact renormalization by counter terms

Above, we have constructed a local renormalization counter term in the region of $`\mathrm{\Lambda }/\mathrm{\Delta }=3.8`$. Now our aim is to renormalize globally, i.e. for all possible $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$. This can be achieved by requiring that the $`\mathrm{\Lambda }^2`$-derivatives of all orders have to vanish in the point $`\mathrm{\Lambda }=\mu `$. Besides that, we will take up an easier and more straightforward way to derive a global counter term.

The regularization function $`\stackrel{~}{R}`$ is defined by:

$`\stackrel{~}{R}(\mathrm{\Lambda },Q)=R(\mathrm{\Lambda },Q)+C(\mathrm{\Lambda },Q),`$
$`\mathrm{with}R(\mathrm{\Lambda },Q)={\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }^2}{\mathrm{\Lambda }^2+Q^2}}.`$
Goal is to construct a counter term $`C`$ such that

$`C(\mathrm{\Lambda }=\mu ,Q)=0,\mathrm{and}{\displaystyle \frac{d\stackrel{~}{R}}{d\mathrm{\Lambda }^2}}|_\mathrm{\Lambda }=0.`$
The requirements are satisfied by the differential equation

$`{\displaystyle \frac{dC}{d\mathrm{\Lambda }^2}}={\displaystyle \frac{dR}{d\mathrm{\Lambda }^2}}={\displaystyle \frac{Q^2}{(\mathrm{\Lambda }^2+Q^2)^2}}.`$
The boundary conditions are included by its integral form

$`C(\mathrm{\Lambda },Q)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{\mu ^2}{\overset{\mathrm{\Lambda }^2}{}}}𝑑\lambda ^2{\displaystyle \frac{dR(\lambda ^2,Q)}{d\lambda ^2}}`$
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\mu ^2}{\mu ^2+Q^2}}{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }^2}{\mathrm{\Lambda }^2+Q^2}}.`$
The regularization function $`\stackrel{~}{R}`$ becomes

$`\stackrel{~}{R}(\mathrm{\Lambda },Q)={\displaystyle \frac{\mu ^2}{\mu ^2+Q^2}},`$
which is to be used in the integral equation of the $``$-model, i.e.

$`\begin{array}{cc}& \left[M^24m^24\stackrel{}{k}^2\right]\varphi (\stackrel{}{k})={\displaystyle d^3\stackrel{}{k}^{}U(\stackrel{}{k}^{},\stackrel{}{k})\varphi (\stackrel{}{k}^{})},\hfill \\ & \mathrm{with}U(\mathrm{\Lambda },Q)={\displaystyle \frac{4}{3\pi ^2}}{\displaystyle \frac{\alpha }{m}}\left({\displaystyle \frac{2m^2}{Q^2}}+{\displaystyle \frac{\mu ^2}{\mu ^2+Q^2}}\right).\hfill \end{array}`$
The equation is now manifestly independent of $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ and the limit $`\mathrm{\Lambda }\mathrm{}`$ can be taken trivially. In line with the theory of renormalization, the three parameters $`\alpha `$, $`\mu `$ and $`m`$ have to be determined by experiment, i.e. in principal three exprimental values are needed to fix them.

## 3 Determining the parameters $`\alpha `$ and $`\mu `$

We fix the two unknown parameters $`\alpha `$ and $`\mu `$ by the experimental values of the ground and excited state mass of the pion. The pion has the mass $`M_\pi =140`$ MeV. The precise empirical value of the excited pion mass is not known very well. We choose here $`M_\pi ^{}=M_\rho =768`$ MeV for no good reason other than convenience. This large value is the reason for our comparatively large quark mass $`m=406`$ MeV, which is fixed here once and for all.

Each of the two equations, $`M_0^2(\alpha ,\mu )=M_\pi ^2`$ and $`M_1^2(\alpha ,\mu )=M_\pi ^{}^2`$ determine a function $`\alpha (\mu )`$, as illustrated in Figure 3. Their intersection point determines the solution, that is $`\alpha _0=0.761`$ and $`\mu _0=1.15`$ GeV, or $`\mu _0/\mathrm{\Delta }3.28`$, as displayed in the figure.

Important to note is that the two contours in Figure 3 are intersecting only once. This crossing of the contours is unique, even for $`\mu \mathrm{}`$.

Acknowledgment. Michael Frewer enjoys to thank the organizers of the meeting for support.


text:
# Heavy flavor production at HERA

## 1 Introduction

Open heavy flavor production at HERA is understood as being mainly due to the photon gluon fusion reaction (see Figure 1a) ), which is directly sensitive to the gluon density in the proton.

In this process two hard scales are available facilitating the convergence of perturbative QCD. The first is the virtuality $`Q^2`$ of the exchanged photon, with accessible values at HERA ranging from zero (photoproduction) to larger values (deep inelastic scattering, DIS), reaching up to $`Q^240000\text{GeV}^2`$. The second is the mass of the heavy quark, which allows the calculations to be extended to the photoproduction regime. Further significant contributions to heavy flavor production at HERA are expected from resolved processes (see Figure 1b) ), in which the photon initially fluctuates into hadronic objects whose partons enter into the hard scattering. These processes are expected to be strongly suppressed towards larger photon virtualities.

Within the framework of pQCD, two approaches are available to describe heavy flavor production at HERA. In the so-called massive or fixed order scheme, u, d and s are the only active flavors in the proton, and charm and beauty are dynamically produced in the hard scattering. It is expected that this approach works well at HERA for the important kinematic region $`p_tm_q`$, where $`p_t`$ $`(m_q)`$ is the transverse momentum (mass) of the heavy quark. At higher transverse momenta, the so-called massless or resummed approach should be applicable, where charm and beauty are regarded as active flavors (massless partons) in the proton and in the photon, and fragment only after the hard process into massive quarks. This ansatz incorporates diagrams such as the two most right shown in Figure 1 b), which are called charm (or beauty) excitation processes.

In the following we will “take a walk” through the scales, i.e. in $`Q^2`$ from photoproduction to DIS and in $`m_q`$ from charm to beauty and compare the data for each case with QCD predictions. The results presented here are based on analyses exploiting partial or full statistics of the HERA I data from the years 1995-2000, while the HERA collider was operated with 820 or 920 GeV protons colliding on 27.5 GeV positrons or electrons.

## 2 Charm

The results on open charm production presented here rely almost entirely on analyses of the channel $`D^+D^0\pi _s^+`$ with $`D^0K^{}\pi ^+`$ and the corresponding charge conjugated mode.

In photoproduction, inclusive and differential $`D^{}`$-measurements significantly exceed the massive NLO calculations unless one uses theory parameters which are at their extreme limits, e.g. a charm quark mass of 1.2 GeV. To obtain more information, ZEUS has measured the $`D^{}`$-yields in events with two identified hard central jets. From the kinematics of the jets, the photon fractional momentum $`x_\gamma ^{obs}`$entering into the hard interaction can be determined. Figure 2 (left) shows the observed $`x_\gamma ^{obs}`$spectrum compared with predictions from massive NLO (bottom) and massless LO (top) QCD.

For $`x_\gamma ^{obs}`$values below 0.75, the domain of resolved photon processes, the massive NLO calculation is clearly below the data. A much better description is obtained by the massless LO prediction, where the bulk of the resolved events is due to charm excitation processes. In such processes, diagrams with a gluon propagator in the hard scattering box (see Figure 1b) most right) contribute. For these diagrams, the angle between the jets and the beam axis in the dijet center of mass system should peak more forward than for diagrams with a quark propagator. The angular distribution as measured by ZEUS (see Figure 2 right) is matched well by the overlayed LO massless MC prescription and exhibits, for the resolved part of the data ($`x_\gamma ^{obs}`$$`<0.75`$), a stronger rise towards small angles, adding evidence to the charm excitation hypothesis.

In contrast to photoproduction the observed $`D^{}`$-cross sections $`^,`$ in deep inelastic scattering are in general fairly well described by the massive NLO calculations. Some excess of reconstructed $`D^{}`$-mesons is found towards the forward region, which is especially sensitive to the quark fragmentation. A key interest in charm production in DIS is the contribution of charm events to the total ep scattering cross section, which can be expressed by the structure function $`F_2^{cc}(Q^2,x)`$. For this the $`D^{}`$-measurements have to be extrapolated outside the accessible $`p_t(D^{})`$ and $`\eta (D^{})`$ regions. The $`F_2^{cc}`$ measurements of H1 and ZEUS shown in Figure 3 agree within the errors with each other and with the overlayed massive NLO prediction.

The structure function $`F_2^{cc}`$ rises towards larger values of $`Q^2`$ and towards lower values of x, reflecting the behavior of the gluon density in the proton. At highest $`Q^2`$ and low x, the charm contribution to the total cross section approaches the expected limit of 40%, when charm contributes to the proton structure effectively like an u quark.

## 3 Beauty

The expected beauty cross section at HERA is roughly two orders of magnitude smaller than for charm, due to the larger b-mass reducing the available phase space and the smaller b-quark charge. In order to find these rare processes, both H1 and ZEUS select dijet events with high $`p_t`$ leptons (muons or electrons) from semileptonic heavy flavor decays. The beauty component in these events can be isolated from charm and light quark background by using the relative transverse momentum $`p_t^{rel}`$of the lepton to the associated jet, a quantity which is sensitive to the mass of the semileptonically decaying quark. A second observable used by H1 with its central vertex detector is the signed impact parameter $`\delta `$ of muons with respect to the event vertex. This quantity is sensitive to the quark life time. Figure 4 shows the observed muon impact parameter spectrum in photoproduction events together with signal and background contributions.

The relative fractions have been determined from a likelihood fit to the two dimensional $`p_t^{rel}`$versus $`\delta `$ distribution, yielding a beauty component of about 27%. The same measurement technique has been used by H1 to determine for the first time the cross section for beauty production in the regime of deep inelastic scattering. H1 muon and ZEUS electron results $`^,`$ have been compared with NLO calculations in the massive scheme as shown in Figure 4 (right). Three independent measurements in photoproduction and the measurement in DIS, with an average $`Q^2`$ of about 12 $`\text{GeV}^2`$ all exceed the NLO calculations.

## 4 Conclusions

An overview of recent results for open charm and beauty production in ep scattering at HERA has been presented. In photoproduction the measured charm cross sections overshoot the NLO QCD calculations in the massive scheme. Experimental evidence is found that a significant fraction of photoproduction events with charm can be described by resolved photon processes, where the charm quarks are a part of the photon structure function. In deep inelastic scattering, the NLO QCD calculations give a fairly reasonable description of the observed charm cross sections. The measurements of the structure function $`F_2^{cc}`$ show that, at large photon virtualities and low x, the events with charm constitute a major part of the total ep cross section. The beauty cross sections in photoproduction and in DIS, where it is measured for the first time, significantly exceed the NLO predictions in the massive scheme.


text:
# REFERENCES

Mixed initial conditions to estimate the dynamic critical exponent in short-time Monte Carlo simulation

Roberto da Silva***E-mail: rsilva@dfm.ffclrp.usp.br, Nelson A. AlvesE-mail: alves@quark.ffclrp.usp.br and J.R. Drugowich de FelícioE-mail: drugo@usp.br Departamento de Física e Matemática, FFCLRP Universidade de São Paulo. Av. Bandeirantes 3900.
CEP 014040-901 Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil

## Abstract

We explore the initial conditions in short-time critical dynamics to propose a new method to evaluate the dynamic exponent $`z`$. Estimates are obtained with high precision for 2D Ising model and 2D Potts model for three and four states by performing heat-bath Monte Carlo simulations.

Keywords: short-time dynamics, critical phenomena, dynamic exponent, Ising model, Potts model, Monte Carlo simulations.

PACS-No.: 64.60.Fr, 64.60.Ht, 02.70.Lq, 75.10.Hk

The description of static critical phenomena in terms of finite size scaling (FSS) relations, developed by Fisher et al.  has been extended by Halperin, Hohenberg, Ma and Suzuki  to include dynamical properties of the system. Later, Janssen et al. , and independently Huse  found evidence for an universal behavior far from equilibrium.

As discussed by Janssen et al. one finds an universal behavior already in the early stages of the relaxation process for systems prepared at an initial state characterized by non-equilibrium values of the order parameter. As a consequence, they could advance the existence of a new critical exponent $`\theta `$, independent of the known set of static exponents and of the dynamic critical exponent $`z`$. This new exponent characterizes the so called “critical initial slip”, the anomalous increasing of the magnetization when the system is quenched to the critical temperature $`T_c`$.

That new universal stage has been exhaustively investigated to confirm theoretical predictions and to enlarge our knowledge on phase transitions and critical phenomena. In this sense, several models and algorithms  have been used, as toy models, in order to check the ability of the new approach in obtaining dynamic and static critical exponents. Results are in good agreement with pertinent results for static exponents and seems to be confident even for the new critical exponent $`\theta `$. However, a reliable technique to obtain the dynamic exponent $`z`$ is lacking. A first proposal by Li et al.  using a time-dependent Binder’s cumulant yields estimates with low precision when compared with other techniques . An alternative way which uses another kind of cumulant, proposed by Zheng , gives the right answer for the 2D Ising model but fails in determining the value of $`z`$ for the 3-state Potts model  and for the Ising model with multispin interactions .

In this letter, we introduce and check a new technique to obtain the exponent $`z`$, combining the behavior of the order parameter and its second moment when the system is submitted to different initial conditions.

Before presenting our proposal, we shall review the main results in short time dynamics.

Although Halperin et al.  have studied systems with different dynamics, we consider only systems without conservation laws, the so called Model A  because our discussion aims dynamics generated by heat bath dynamics. Therefore, we consider a magnetic system prepared at high temperature ($`T>>T_c`$) with a small nonzero magnetization $`m_0`$, (this can be achieved with a small external magnetic field $`h`$) and quenched to the critical temperature $`T_c`$ without any external magnetic field. If the system is allowed to relax towards equilibrium with the dynamics of model A, the magnetization obeys the following scaling relation (generalized to $`k\mathrm{th}`$ moment),

$$M^{(k)}(t,\tau ,L,m_0)=b^{k\beta /\nu }M^{(k)}(b^zt,b^{1/\nu }\tau ,b^1L,b^{x_0}m_0).$$
(1)
Here $`b`$ is an arbitrary spatial scaling factor, $`t`$ is the time evolution and $`\tau `$ is the reduced temperature, $`\tau =(TT_c)/T_c`$. The exponents $`\beta `$ and $`\nu `$ are the static critical exponents, while $`z`$ is the dynamic one. $`M^{(k)}=M^k`$ are the $`k\mathrm{th}`$ moments of magnetization. This scaling relation depends on the initial magnetization $`m_0`$ and gives origin to a new, independent critical exponent $`x_0`$, the scaling dimension of the initial magnetization, which is related to $`\theta `$.

From Eq. (1) we can derive the power law increasing of the magnetization, observed in the initial stage of the dynamic relaxation. For this purpose, we consider large lattice sizes $`L`$ at $`\tau =0`$ with $`b=t^{1/z}`$. This leads to the scaling relation

$$M(t,m_0)=t^{\beta /\nu z}M(1,t^{x_0/z}m_0)$$
(2)
for the first moment of the magnetization $`M^{(1)}M`$. By expanding this equation for small $`m_0`$, we have the following power law,

$$M(t)m_0t^\theta ,$$
(3)
where, as anticipated, we identify $`\theta =(x_0\beta /\nu )/z`$. Here we also have the condition that $`t^{x_0/z}m_0`$ is small, which sets a time scale $`t_0m_0^{z/x_0}`$  where that phenomena can be observed.

On the other hand, it has been realized the existence of another important dynamic process from an initial ordered state , which represents another fixed point in the context of renormalization group approach. This leads to a different universal behavior of the dynamic relaxation process also described by Eq. (1) with $`m_0=1`$. In particular, dealing with large enough lattice sizes at the critical temperature ($`\tau =0`$), one obtains a power law decay of the magnetization

$$M(t)t^{\beta /\nu z},$$
(4)
which follows from Eq. (1) when we choose $`b^zt=1`$ and shows the average magnetization is not zero as would be expected from a disordered initial state.

Equation (1) and their particular forms in (3) and (4) can be used to determine relations involving static critical exponents and the dynamic exponent $`z`$ .

The observables in short-time analysis are described by different scaling relations according to the initial magnetization. In particular, the second moment $`M^{(2)}(t,L)`$,

$$M^{(2)}=\left(\frac{1}{L^d}\underset{i=1}{\overset{N}{}}\sigma _i\right)^2=\frac{1}{L^{2d}}\underset{i=1}{\overset{N}{}}\sigma _i^2+\frac{1}{L^{2d}}\underset{ij}{\overset{N}{}}\sigma _i\sigma _j,$$
(5)
behaves as $`L^d`$ since in the short-time evolution with initial condition $`m_0=0`$ the spatial correlation length is very small compared with the lattice size $`L`$. Thus we have

$$M^{(2)}(t,L)=t^{2\beta /\nu z}M^{(2)}(1,t^{1/z}L)t^{(d2\beta /\nu )/z}.$$
(6)
Moreover, under this initial condition one can also define the time-dependent Binder’s cumulant at the critical temperature,

$$U(t,L)=1\frac{M^{(4)}(t,L)}{3(M^{(2)}(t,L))^2},$$
(7)
which leads at $`T=T_c`$ to the FSS relation

$$U(t,L)=U(b^zt,b^1L),$$
(8)
and the exponent $`z`$ can be independently evaluated through scaling collapses for different lattice sizes .

In order to obtain more precise estimates for the dynamic exponent $`z`$, another cumulant has been proposed . It is given by

$$U_2(t,L)=\frac{M^{(2)}(t,L)}{(M(t,L))^2}1$$
(9)
and should behave as

$$U_2(t)t^{d/z}$$
(10)
when one starts from an ordered state. In this case, curves for all the lattices lay on the same straight line without any re-scaling in time and results in more precise estimates for $`z`$. However, application of this procedure has not been successful in at least two well known models: the two-dimensional $`q=3`$ Potts model  and the Ising model with three spin interactions in just one direction . The reason for the above disagreement could be related to the value of the second term of r.h.s in Eq. (5) when $`m_0=1`$.

A plausible way to circumvent this problem is to work with different initial conditions. For this we decided to follow the evolution of the ratio $`F_2=M^{(2)}/M^2`$ but using different initial conditions to calculate each one of the mean values. The reason is we know the behavior of the second moment of the magnetization when samples are initially disordered $`(m_0=0)`$ and also the dependence on time of the magnetization of samples initially ordered $`(m_0=1)`$. Under the above mentioned conditions the ratio behaves as

$$F_2(t,L)=\frac{M^{(2)}(t,L)|_{m_0=0}}{(M(t,L))^2|_{m_0=1}}\frac{t^{(d2\beta /\nu )/z}}{t^{2\beta /\nu z}}=t^{d/z},$$
(11)
which has the same potential law that the cumulant mentioned before but requires two independent simulations instead of one used for calculating $`U_2`$.

In short-time Monte Carlo (MC) simulations, the time scale $`t`$ is settled in units of whole lattice updates, and does not depend on the initial conditions. However, the same dynamics (Metropolis, Glauber or heat-bath) should be used in both simulations .

Now we present our estimates obtained for 2D Ising model, $`q=3`$ and $`q=4`$ Potts models.

We have performed independent heat-bath (HB) MC simulations for a large lattice $`(L=144)`$ according to the required initial conditions and the evolutions have been done until the maximum time $`t=200`$ MC sweeps with $`N=10000`$ samples. This gives averages for the magnetization and its second moment. We have performed this kind of simulation 20 times to obtain our final estimates for each moment in function of $`t`$. Since all runs are independent due to the choice of random numbers, we have a total of 400 time series for Eq. (11).

Our results are shown on a log-log scale for the time interval  in Fig.1 and Fig.2, respectively for three and four-state Potts model (a similar figure is obtained for 2D Ising model) and they appear to be clearly consistent with a power law in that time interval. The error bars are also presented in those figures but they are hardly seen in that scale.

Our estimates for $`z`$ comes from a least square fitting in the time interval $`[t_i,t_f]`$. Due to our small statistical errors, we can make a systematic study for the range in $`t`$ where we find acceptable goodness-of-fit $`Q`$ . As examples, we obtain for 2D Ising model, $`z=2.1435(2)`$ in the time interval $`[10,200]`$ with $`Q=10^{250}`$, $`z=2.1359(3)`$ in $`[50,200]`$, with $`Q=10^{41}`$, and the most acceptable $`Q=0.99`$ in $`[30,90]`$, which yields $`z=2.1565(7)`$. This value is presented in Table 1, where we also include some estimates for comparison. Here we observe that our result is in agreement with more recent estimates within two standard-deviations. This indicates our statistical errors are presumably underestimated possibly due to corrections to scaling.

We complete the overview in Table 1 with data from . Estimates have been obtained from the long time behavior of the magnetization for the square lattice (sq), $`z=2.168(5)`$, for the triangle (TP), $`z=2.180(9)`$, and for the honeycomb (hc) lattice, $`z=2.167(8)`$, while from damage spreading in short-time the authors quote $`2.166(7)`$, $`2.164(7)`$ and $`2.170(10)`$ for sq, TP and hc lattices.

For $`q=3`$ Potts model, our study monitoring $`Q`$ gives $`z=2.198(2)`$ in the interval  with $`Q=0.82`$. This result agrees with $`z=2.203(11)`$ (Ref. ) obtained from the Binder cumulant in Eq. (7), and with the estimate obtained in  with HB algorithm from the second moment $`M^{(2)}(t)`$ in short-time analysis.

The value in  refers to TP lattice, presenting further numerical evidence (comparing  and ) to the dynamic universality. Reference  also presents the value $`2.14(3)`$, obtained from Eq. (9), in clear disagreement with $`2.203(11)`$ as commented in . On the other hand, our estimate from Eq. (11) gives a value in full agreement with the Binder cumulant and collapse data analysis in short time.

The case $`q=4`$ has been less studied. Our analysis gives $`z=2.290(3)`$ in the interval $`[60,90]`$ with $`Q=0.72`$. Here, we stress the importance of monitoring $`Q`$, since we may find values for $`z`$ as large as $`z=2.3483(2)`$ in  but with unacceptable value, $`Q=10^{269}`$ or $`z=2.3532(3)(2)`$ in  with $`Q=10^{202}`$.

As a final comment, the suspected $`z`$ as been weakly  or even independent on $`q`$  is not supported by the most recently results presented in Table 1.

Acknowledgements

R. da Silva gratefully acknowledges support by FAPESP (Brazil), and N. Alves by CNPq (Brazil). Thanks are also due to DFMA for computer facilities at IFUSP.

Figure Captions:

Time evolution of $`F_2(t)`$ for 2D three-state Potts model.

Time evolution of $`F_2(t)`$ for 2D four-state Potts model.


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# The X-ray Spectra of Black Hole X-ray Novae in Quiescence as Measured by Chandra

## 1. Introduction

X-ray Novae (XN) are compact binary systems in which a Roche-lobe-overflowing main sequence or subgiant star, typically $`1M_{}`$, transfers matter onto a black hole (BH) or neutron star (NS) primary (for a review, see van Paradijs & McClintock 1995; Tanaka & Lewin 1995; Tanaka & Shibazaki 1996). XN are highly variable and undergo rare but dramatic X-ray and optical outbursts. For most of the time, XN are in a quiescent state and are very faint. During quiescence, the mass accretion rate from the disk to the compact object may be very small, producing a low level (perhaps no) X-ray emission. X-ray observations of quiescent XN have been hindered due to the limited sensitivity of previous X-ray telescopes. Nonetheless, several of the brightest black hole X-ray novae (BHXN) have been detected with ROSAT, ASCA and BeppoSAX. This quiescent X-ray (and associated non-stellar optical) emission is difficult to explain using standard accretion disk models. Narayan, McClintock, & Yi (1996), Narayan, Barret, & McClintock (1997a) and Narayan, Garcia, & McClintock (2001) showed that the observations can be explained by an advection-dominated accretion flow (ADAF) model.

An ADAF is an accretion flow in which most of the energy is stored in the accreting gas rather than being radiated away promptly, as in a thin accretion disk. This thermal energy is advected with the flow to the center – hence the name ADAF. If the accretor is a BH, the gas with all its thermal energy will be lost from view as it falls through the event horizon. However, in the case of a NS, the accretion energy will eventually be radiated from the star’s surface. This difference can explain the fact that quiescent BHs are much fainter than quiescent NSs. Using pre-Chandra data, Narayan, Garcia, & McClintock (1997b) showed that BHs display a large variation of luminosity between their bright and their faint states, while NSs have a much smaller variation. Menou et al. (1999) subsequently pointed out that in comparing the luminosities of BH and NS systems, it is important to compare systems with comparable orbital periods. More recently, Garcia et al. (2001; hereafter G01) presented a comprehensive study of a series of Chandra observations of BHXN in quiescence; they confirmed that the quiescent X-ray luminosities of BHXN are $`100`$ lower than those of neutron star X-ray novae (NSXN). Such findings provide strong evidence that BHs have event horizons.

Recently, Bildsten & Rutledge (2000) suggested that the rapidly rotating secondaries of BHXN may generate stellar coronae with sufficient X-ray luminosity to account for the observed quiescent luminosities of many of these systems. Based on an analogy to the ‘saturated’ coronae in the most luminous RS CVn stars, the coronae in quiescent BHXN are predicted to have maximum luminosities of 0.1% of the stellar bolometric luminosity, and X-ray spectra that are typical of moderately hot ($`kT`$ $`\mathrm{}<`$1 keV), optically thin thermal plasmas. While the X-ray luminosity of V404 Cyg is too high to be produced by a stellar corona, previous observations with modest sensitivity have indicated that the luminosities of other BHXN are consistent with a saturated corona (Bildsten & Rutledge 2000). For these systems, the high S/N X-ray spectra attainable with Chandra and XMM-Newton can provide a critical test of the possible coronal origin of the quiescent X-ray luminosity (Bildsten & Rutledge 2000; Lasota 2001).

In this paper, we report the detailed analysis of Chandra spectra of the brightest three quiescent BHXN observed under an AO-1 GTO program (V404 Cyg, A0620–00 and GRO J1655–40). We also reanalyzed the spectrum of a fourth BHXN (XTE J1550–564) observed under a DDT proposal. We note that three other BHXN (GRO J0422+32, GS 2000+25 and 4U 1543–47) observed under our AO-1 GTO and GO programs provided insufficient counts for spectral analysis. We briefly describe previous quiescent observations of these four sources in § 2. In § 3 we outline our analysis procedure and report the results in § 4. The results are discussed in § 5.

## 2. Previous Quiescent X-ray Observations

All four BHXN have been observed previously in the X-ray, and a summary of previous quiescent observations is given in Table 1; we here discuss them briefly.

V404 Cyg — This relatively bright quiescent BHXN has previously been observed by ROSAT, ASCA and BeppoSAX (see Table 1). In general, the X-ray spectrum can be fitted by a power-law model with photon index $`\alpha 2`$ and $`N_H(12)\times 10^{22}`$ cm-2; the luminosity is $`10^{33}`$ ergs s-1 (Narayan et al. 1997a). We also note that the quiescent source flux can vary on short time scales. Wagner et al. (1994) reported that V404 Cyg decreased in intensity by a factor of 10 in $`<`$ 0.5 day and showed variability by a factor of $`2`$ on time scales of $`30`$ minutes.

A0620–00 — This source was observed by ROSAT in 1992 during its quiescent state (McClintock et al. 1995; Narayan et al. 1997a). The $`39\pm 8`$ counts detected allowed only a modest estimate of the source spectrum. Simple one component models fit the spectrum equally well: for example a power-law with $`\alpha 3.5`$ and $`N_H=(0.11)\times 10^{22}`$ cm-2 or a blackbody with $`kT=0.16_{0.05}^{+0.10}`$ keV. The luminosity is $`5\times 10^{30}`$ ergs s-1. An ASCA observation in 1994 March failed to detect the source; a $`3\sigma `$ upper limit on the luminosity was $`8\times 10^{30}`$ ergs s-1 (Asai et al. 1998).

GRO J1655–40 — The only quiescent observation of GRO J1655–40 was taken in 1996 March with ASCA (Ueda et al. 1998; Asai et al. 1998). The spectrum can be fitted by a power-law model with a photon index $`\alpha 0.7`$ and $`N_H<3\times 10^{21}`$ cm-2; the source luminosity is $`3\times 10^{32}`$ ergs s-1 in 0.5–10 keV. However, we note that this observation was taken between two outbursts separated by $`1`$ years and therefore it may not represent the true quiescent emission.

XTE J1550–564 — This microquasar system was observed as a DDT program on 2000 August 21 and 2000 September 11, which were $`>`$ 120 d after the peak of the 2000 outburst of the source; a detailed spectral analysis has already been given by Tomsick, Corbel, & Kaaret (2001). The energy spectrum can be fitted by an absorbed power-law spectrum with $`\alpha =2.3_{0.48}^{+0.41}`$ and $`N_H=(8.5_{2.4}^{+2.2})\times 10^{21}`$ cm-2; the mean luminosity (0.5–7 keV) is about $`6.7\times 10^{32}`$$`\text{erg}\text{s}^1`$.

## 3. Chandra Observations and Data Reduction

V404 Cyg — Chandra observed V404 Cyg on 2000 April 26 for a total of 10,295 s. Our observations cover spectroscopic phases 0.44–0.46 (Casares & Charles 1994), where phase zero corresponds to the closest approach of the secondary star. The source was positioned on the ACIS-S3 CCD with an offset of $`40^{\prime \prime }`$ from the nominal pointing for the S3. The data were collected using a 1/4 subarray mode, which boosted the time resolution to 1.14 s. The CCD temperature was $`120^{}`$C. Standard pipeline processed level 2 data were used for the analysis. V404 Cyg was clearly detected and the source position is $`\alpha =`$ 20h 24m 03.82s, $`\delta =`$ +33d 52m 02.14s (J2000), which is in good agreement with the optical and radio position of V404 Cyg (Wagner et al. 1991).

The Chandra detectors are known to experience periods of high background, which are particularly significant for the S3 chip (e.g. Garcia et al. 2000). We searched for such background flares in our data by examining the light curve of the entire S3 chip minus the source regions. We found that the background was very stable during the whole observation with an average count rate of 0.13 count s-1. In order to reduce the background, we only analyzed data from 0.3–7 keV. We extracted data from a circle of 3 pixels ($`1.5^{\prime \prime }`$) centered on V404 Cyg and background from an annulus with inner and outer radii of 10 and 50 pixels, respectively. There were 1587 counts in the source region and the expected number of background counts in the source region was only 0.4 counts.

A0620–00 — This source was observed by Chandra on 2000 February 29 for 44,000 s. ACIS-S was operated in the standard configuration with a time resolution of 3.24 s. A0620–00 was observed on the S3 chip with a $`40^{\prime \prime }`$ offset from the nominal pointing. Background was examined; only intervals where the source-free count rate was less than 0.15 count s-1 were selected for analysis. The total net exposure time is 41,189 s. The source position is $`\alpha =`$ 06h 22m 44.48s, $`\delta =`$ -00d 20m 46.36s (J2000) which is consistent with the optical position (Liu, van Paradijs, & van den Heuvel 2001). The observations cover spectroscopic phases 0.09–1.67 (Orosz et al. 1994; Leibowitz, Hemar, & Orio 1998). Only data from 0.3–7 keV were used for spectral analysis. We extracted data from a circle of $`1.86^{\prime \prime }`$ centered on A0620–00. This relatively large aperture encompasses all of the counts in the central region that might reasonably be attributed to the source. There were 137 counts in the source region. The background counts in a $`1.86^{\prime \prime }`$ aperture are estimated to be 1.2. This small background level was not subtracted.

GRO J1655–40 — Chandra observed GRO J1655–40 on 2000 July 1 for 43,000 s, which corresponds to spectroscopic phases of 0.49–0.68 (van der Hooft et al. 1998). The source was located on ACIS-S3 with $`40^{\prime \prime }`$ offset from the aim-point; standard 3.24 s frame transfer time was employed. Good data were selected with background count rate $`<0.15`$ count s-1, resulting in a net exposure of 42,506 s. GRO J1655–40 was very faint; by filtering the data from 0.3–7 keV and applying a circular extraction region of $`1.41^{\prime \prime }`$ centered on the source, only 66 counts were collected. This choice of aperture encompasses all of counts in the central region that are attributable to the source. The estimated background counts in a $`1.41^{\prime \prime }`$ aperture is estimated to be 0.7; this background was not subtracted. The Chandra source position is $`\alpha =`$ 16h 54m 00.09s, $`\delta =`$ -39d 50m 45.37s (J2000), which is consistent with the radio and optical position (Hjellming 1994; Bailyn et al. 1995).

XTE J1550–564 — The source was observed on 2000 August 21 for $``$ 5,000 s and 2000 September 11 for an additional $``$ 5,000 s; the observations cover spectroscopic phases 0.06–0.11 and 0.63–0.68, respectively (Orosz et al. 2001). Technical details of the observations can be found in Tomsick et al. (2001). We used similar procedures to those outlined in Tomsick et al. (2001) to reduce the data. However, we extracted data from 0.3–7 keV and used a smaller circular extraction region with a radius of $`2^{\prime \prime }`$, which is sufficient to encompass all of the counts in the central region. There are 66 and 109 counts in the first and the second observations, respectively; we ignored the background counts in the source region, which we estimated to be 0.2 counts for the first observation and 0.3 counts for the second observation .

## 4. Spectral Analysis

### 4.1. V404 Cyg

Spectra were extracted with CIAO v2.1 111http://asc.harvard.edu/ciao/ and were analyzed with XSPEC v11 222http://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/xanadu/xspec/index.html and also SHERPA v2.1.2 333http://asc.harvard.edu/ciao/download/doc/sherpa\_html\_manual/index.html. The results from both analysis systems were consistent, and we report the XSPEC results herein. In order to allow $`\chi ^2`$ statistics to be used, all the spectra were grouped into at least 30 counts per spectral bin. Response files were selected according to the CCD temperature with standard CIAO routines. We fit the data with several single-component spectral models including power-law, thermal bremsstrahlung, Raymond-Smith and blackbody models including interstellar absorption. The best-fit parameters determined by these fits are shown in Table 2.

All models except the blackbody model gave statistically acceptable fits to the data ($`\chi ^2/\nu `$ $`\mathrm{}<`$1). The power-law model provides the best fit, and yields parameters consistent with previous observations (e.g. $`\alpha =1.81\pm 0.14`$; see Table 1). This best fitting model is shown in Figure 1 and the corresponding plot of confidence regions for column density ($`N_H`$) and photon index ($`\alpha `$) are shown in Figure 2a. The confidence bounds for the Raymond-Smith model are shown in Figure 2b. The best fit temperature for this model is $`kT=7.5`$ keV, and the 90% lower limit on the temperature is $`kT>6.1`$ keV.

The hydrogen column density for V404 Cyg from optical observations was estimated to be $`5.4\times 10^{21}`$ cm-2 ($`A_V=3.1`$; Casares & Charles 1994). The best fit values for $`N_H`$ from the power law and bremsstrahlung models are marginally higher than the optically determined value, but this does not necessarily argue against these models. X-ray binaries often show absorption in the X-ray flux which is somewhat higher than that determined by their optical absorption (Garcia 1994; Vrtilek et al. 1991).

In order to test if the optically-determined absorption yields an acceptable X-ray spectral fit, we re-ran the fits with the absorption fixed to this value. The results of these fits are also given in Table 2. Even though this $`N_H`$ value is outside the 99% confidence bounds shown in Figure 2, these fits do yield acceptable values of $`\chi ^2/\nu `$ (except for the blackbody model). This is a reflection of the fact that the minimum value of $`\chi ^2/\nu `$ obtained with $`N_H`$ as a free parameter is slightly less than one, thereby allowing points outside the $`\chi _{min}^2+9.21`$ (Lampton, Margon, & Bowyer 1976) contour to have $`\chi ^2/\nu 1`$. For these fits with $`N_H`$ fixed, the best fit temperature for the Raymond-Smith model is raised to 8.9 keV, and the 90% lower limit is raised to $`>7.2`$ keV.

Figure 1: Upper panel: The Chandra spectrum of V404 Cyg with an absorbed power-law model ($`\alpha =1.81`$ and $`N_H=6.98\times 10^{21}`$ cm-2). Lower panel: residuals after subtracting the fit from the data in units of $`1\sigma `$.

We do not see any significant Fe-K line emission between 6.4–7 keV, with a 90% confidence upper limit of $``$ 800 eV (line width fixed at 0.1 keV) on the equivalent width.

### 4.2. A0620–00

We analyzed the energy spectrum of A0620–00 using procedures similar to those discussed above for V404 Cyg. We grouped the data into spectral bins containing at least 10 counts and used both $`\chi ^2`$ and CASH (Cash 1979) statistics to estimate the best-fit parameters and their errors. We chose to bin the data in order to achieve enough counts per bin to employ the $`\chi ^2`$ statistic. However, binning the data heavily can result in a loss of spectral information. One can also apply the Gehrels’ approximation (Gehrels 1986) to permit the use of fewer counts ($`5`$) per bin, but this approach over-estimates the errors. The CASH statistic is a maximum likelihood method designed to estimate the best-fit parameters using unbinned or slightly binned data. This is particularly useful when the source yields only very few photons. The disadvantage of the CASH statistic, relative to the $`\chi ^2`$ statistic, is that it does not provide a goodness-of-fit criterion for comparing different models. It is therefore worthwhile to examine the results obtained using both $`\chi ^2`$ and CASH statistics. In Table 2, except for V404 Cyg, all the best-fit parameters and errors are based on the CASH statistic on binned data; the reduced $`\chi ^2`$ values are also shown to indicate the quality of the fit. In order to justify the significance of the CASH statistic, we performed Monte-Carlo simulations to estimate the significance level of the fits; these results are also given in Table 2.

Both methods give very consistent results. We also ran the fits with unbinned data using the CASH statistic, and the results were consistent. We employed the same four single-component models with interstellar absorption that we used for V404 Cyg; the best-fit parameters for the various spectral models are shown in Table 2. Among all the models, the power-law gives the best fit ($`\chi ^2/\nu =0.71`$, $`\alpha =2.2\pm 0.5`$), while the blackbody gives the worst fit ($`\chi ^2/\nu =1.58`$); Monte-Carlo simulations based on the CASH statistic also show similar results. The confidence regions for the power-law fit are shown in Figure 2a, and those for the Raymond-Smith fit are shown in Figure 2b. The best fit Raymond-Smith temperature is $`kT=5.5`$ keV, and the 90% lower bound on the temperature is $`kT>3.5`$ keV.

The values of $`N_H`$ determined by the power-law and bremsstrahlung fits are consistent with the optical value, corresponding to $`N_H=(1.94\pm 0.28)\times 10^{21}`$ cm-2 (Wu et al. 1976, 1983; Predehl & Schmitt 1995). The value of $`N_H`$ determined by the Raymond-Smith and blackbody models is lower than the optical value. This conclusion provides marginal evidence that neither the blackbody nor the Raymond-Smith models are correct descriptions of the source spectrum because X-ray fits tend to find $`N_H`$ higher than (or consistent with) the optically determined value. As in the case of V404 Cyg, we re-ran the fits with $`N_H`$ fixed at the optically determined value. The results of these fits are also shown in Table 2. The derived parameters are consistent (within 1$`\sigma `$) with the results obtained by varying $`N_H`$, except for the case of the blackbody model. The best-fit temperature for the Raymond-Smith model is 4.1 keV, and the 90% lower bound is $`>2.8`$ keV.

Previously, the best measurement of the X-ray spectrum of A0620–00 was that afforded by ROSAT (Narayan et al. 1997a), which gave $`\alpha =3.5\pm 0.7`$ with $`N_H`$ fixed to the optical value. This led to the speculation that the quiescent X-ray spectra of BHXN with orbital periods $`\mathrm{}<`$ 1 day might be softer than the spectra of longer period systems. However, this result was based on only $`39\pm 8`$ detected source photons in the presence of a significant background. The present result is much more robust because it is based on more than 3 times as many counts, a negligible background, and a much wider energy band. It is important to note that A0620-00 was also a factor of $`2`$ fainter in this Chandra observation than it was during the previous ROSAT observation. The best fitting power-law model indicates a 0.4–2.4 keV emitted flux of $`1.9\times 10^{14}`$$`\text{erg}\text{cm}^2\text{s}^1`$, corresponding to a luminosity of $`2.1\times 10^{30}`$$`\text{erg}\text{s}^1`$, which is a factor of two below the ROSAT value (see Table 1).

### 4.3. GRO J1655–40

The spectrum of GRO J1655–40 was analyzed using the same methods discussed above for A0620–00. The energy spectrum was grouped into spectral bins containing at least 5 counts and fit using $`\chi ^2`$ and CASH statistics. Unbinned data was also fit using CASH statistic, and the results were consistent. All simple models give acceptable fits. While the blackbody model gives the poorest fits, it cannot be rejected on the basis of $`\chi ^2/\nu `$ and Monte-Carlo simulations. However, the $`N_H`$ for the blackbody model is slightly lower ($`1.5\sigma `$) than the optical value of $`(6.66\pm 0.57)\times 10^{21}`$ cm-2 (Predehl & Schmitt 1995; Hynes et al. 1998), while the other three models indicate values of $`N_H`$ consistent with the optically-derived value. The relatively low value of $`N_H`$ suggests that the blackbody model may not be a true representation of the source spectrum.

The best fit temperature for the Raymond-Smith model is $`kT=12.24`$ keV, and the 90% lower limit on the temperature is $`kT>3.63`$. If we fix $`N_H`$ to the optical value, these values are raised to $`kT=17.15`$ keV and $`kT>5.8`$ keV.

As above, we list the best fit parameters in Table 2, and show a plot of the confidence regions for power-law and Raymond-Smith fits in Figures 2a and 2b. It is important to note that these observations show GRO J1655–40 to be a factor of $`10`$ fainter than previous quiescent observations (see Table 1). The observed 0.4–2.4 keV emitted flux, for the best fitting power-law model, is $`1.5\times 10^{14}`$$`\text{erg}\text{cm}^2\text{s}^1`$; the observed 0.3–7.0 keV luminosity is $`2.4\times 10^{31}`$$`\text{erg}\text{s}^1`$. The large decrease in flux and luminosity indicate that the previous ASCA observations may not have been taken during the true quiescent state because the observations occurred between two outbursts.

### 4.4. XTE J1550–564

We combined the two spectra of XTE J1550–564 as shown in Tomsick et al. (2001), grouped the resulting data into bins containing at least 10 counts each, and fit the data to models using $`\chi ^2`$ and CASH statistics. The results of the spectral fits are shown in Table 2, and the corresponding parameter confidence regions are shown in Figure 2. All four models yield statistically acceptable fits, and we see no straightforward way to select one model over the others. With the exception of the blackbody model, all of the models indicate that $`N_H`$ is somewhat higher than that determined optically (S$`\stackrel{´}{a}`$nchez-Fern$`\stackrel{´}{a}`$ndex et al. 1999). However, as indicated above, this is only a weak argument against the blackbody model. Fits with $`N_H`$ fixed to the optical value are also statistically acceptable, and indicate harder ($`\alpha `$ lower, $`kT`$ higher) spectra than the fits with $`N_H`$ free.

The Raymond-Smith fits indicate a best fit temperature of $`kT=4.38`$ keV, and a 90% lower limit to the temperature of $`kT>2.81`$ keV. Fits with $`N_H`$ fixed to the optical value raise these values to $`kT=10.31`$ keV and $`kT>5.15`$ keV. The results of power-law fit are consistent with those found by Tomsick et al. (2001).

In order to determine if the quiescent X-ray emission of XTE J1550–564 has a flux consistent with a stellar corona, we calculated the unabsorbed X-ray flux ($`F_X`$) and bolometric flux for XTE J1550–564 using the methods of Bildsten & Rutledge (2000). Based on our best-fit power-law result, the unabsorbed 0.4–2.4 keV flux of XTE J1550–564 is $`2.98\times 10^{13}`$$`\text{erg}\text{cm}^2\text{s}^1`$. For the bolometric flux, we used $`F_{bol}=10^{0.4(V_q+11.51+B.C.A_V)}`$$`\text{erg}\text{cm}^2\text{s}^1`$(Bildsten & Rutledge 2000), where B.C. is the bolometric correction for spectral type, $`V_q`$ is the quiescent magnitude, and $`A_V`$ is the reddening. We adopted a $`V_q`$ of $`22\pm 0.2`$ and a spectral type of K3III from recent VLT observations (Orosz et al. 2001), which indicates B.C.$`=0.8`$. We computed $`F_{bol}`$ using the $`A_V`$ determined from optical observations ($`A_V=2.17`$; S$`\stackrel{´}{a}`$nchez-Fern$`\stackrel{´}{a}`$ndez et al. 1999) and find $`F_{bol}=5.1\times 10^{13}`$$`\text{erg}\text{cm}^2\text{s}^1`$. We also determined $`F_{bol}`$ using the $`A_V`$ estimated from our X-ray spectral fitting. For a power-law model, $`N_H=8.73\times 10^{21}`$ cm-2 implies that $`A_V=4.88`$ (Predehl & Schmitt (1995)\], implying $`F_{bol}=6.1\times 10^{12}`$$`\text{erg}\text{cm}^2\text{s}^1`$. These values of $`F_{bol}`$ are discussed in Section 6.

## 5. Time-resolved Spectrum of V404 Cyg

The background-subtracted light curve of V404 Cyg during our observations is shown in Figure 3. The light curve shows a factor of $`2`$ variability in a few ksec. We do not find any significant peak in the power spectrum on timescales from 2.3 s to 10,000 s and the $`3\sigma `$ upper limit on the semi-amplitude is 39% (0.3–7 keV).

The marked variability led us to search for spectral changes at differing flux levels. The data was divided into seven segments based on the source intensity (see Figure 3). The spectrum from each segment contains at least 100 counts. The results of fitting each spectrum with a power-law model are shown in Table 3. The best-fit column density varied between $`(2.9111.08)\times 10^{21}`$ cm-2, and the best fit photon index $`\alpha `$ varied between 1.1–2.4. We found no correlation between either the column density or $`\alpha `$ and the flux. However, we do find a positive correlation between the absorption column and the photon index (see Figure 4) with a correlation coefficient of 0.93 ($`>`$ 99%).

Figure 3: Chandra ACIS-S 10 ksec light curve of V404 Cyg in the 0.3–7.0 keV band. The time resolution is 500 s. Also shown are the seven time intervals used for time-resolved spectral analysis.

However, we suspect that this correlation is not intrinsic to the source, but is rather an artifact of the fitting process which links $`\alpha `$ and $`N_H`$. For example, we note that the slope of the correlation is nearly (within $`5`$%) the same as the slope of the major axis of the parameter confidence contours (Figure 2a). Also, we extracted and examined two spectra, one for count rates below 0.11 counts s-1 and the other for count rates above 0.18 counts s-1 (see Figure 3), and found them to be identical. We conclude that the spectral shape does not vary with intensity.

TABLE 3

Time-resolved Spectral Parameters

|  | $`N_H`$ | $`\alpha `$ | $`\chi _\nu ^2/dof`$ | Luminositya |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|  | ($`10^{21}`$ cm-2) |  |  |  |
| 1 | $`10.21\pm 2.28`$ | $`2.41\pm 0.41`$ | 1.21/11 | 8.07 |
| 2 | $`5.08\pm 1.19`$ | $`1.57\pm 0.26`$ | 0.88/16 | 2.81 |
| 3 | $`6.14\pm 1.97`$ | $`1.72\pm 0.40`$ | 0.41/7 | 4.83 |
| 4 | $`6.47\pm 1.09`$ | $`1.60\pm 0.20`$ | 0.85/28 | 2.81 |
| 5 | $`2.91\pm 1.29`$ | $`1.14\pm 0.40`$ | 1.17/6 | 4.26 |
| 6 | $`5.86\pm 1.18`$ | $`1.56\pm 0.24`$ | 0.85/21 | 3.82 |
| 7 | $`11.08\pm 2.15`$ | $`2.22\pm 0.31`$ | 1.11/17 | 5.32 |
| NOTES — a Luminosity in 0.3–7 keV (1033$`\text{erg}\text{s}^1`$), | | | | |
| assuming a distance of 3.5 kpc | | | | |

Figure 4: Plot of power-law photon index ($`\alpha `$) against absorption column density ($`N_H`$). A positive correlation can be seen.

## 6. Discussion

We analyzed the Chandra ACIS-S X-ray spectra of four BHXN in quiescence by fitting the spectra to simple one component models (power-law, thermal Bremsstrahlung, Raymond-Smith, blackbody) including interstellar absorption. While the statistics afforded by the Chandra data surpass that previously available, they are still inadequate to rule out any of these simple model, except for the blackbody model in the case of V404 Cyg. There is some weak additional evidence against a few other models: For A0620–00 the Raymond-Smith and blackbody models imply unlikely values of $`N_H`$ which are lower than the optically-determined values. The same is true for GRO J1655–40 and XTE J1550–564 in the case of the blackbody model. On the other hand, the thermal bremsstrahlung model provides a good fit to the data in all cases; however, the physical interpretation of this model is unclear (see Christian & Swank 1997). The model which does fit well in all cases and which has a straightforward physical interpretation is the power-law model with a photon index of $`2`$. This slope is consistent with the spectra expected for an ADAF.

Bildsten & Rutledge (2000) suggest that much of the X-ray flux observed from quiescent BHXN may be produced by a rotationally enhanced stellar corona in the secondary star, as seen in tidally-locked binaries such as the RS CVn systems. Lasota (2000) has criticized this view, suggesting instead that the physically smaller secondaries of CVs provide a better analog, and that in this case the expected coronal emission is far below that seen in quiescent BHXN.

The coronal hypothesis of Bildsten & Rutledge (2000) makes two clear, testable predictions. First, that $`L_X<10^3L_{bol}`$, and second, that the spectrum of the quiescent BHXN should be similar to that of a stellar corona, i.e., well represented by a Raymond-Smith model with $`kT<1.4`$ keV, (Dempsey et al. 1993). The luminosity and spectral evidence available for five of the six BHXN observed by Chandra rule strongly against these hypotheses, as detailed below. Note that we do not include in this discussion a seventh BHXN observed with Chandra 4U 1543-47, (see G01) because it contains a fully radiative secondary (Orosz et al. 1998) and is not expected to possess an X-ray corona. Consequently, this system is irrelevant to the present discussion.

Figure 5, which is adapted from Bildsten & Rutledge (2000), compares the quiescent fluxes of BHXN with the predictions of the coronal model. The quiescent flux of GRO J0422+32 exceeds the maximum prediction of the coronal model by a factor of $`60`$, and V404 Cyg exceeds this limit by a factor of $`40`$. XTE J1550–564 exceeds the coronal limit by a factor $`50`$ (or $`400`$) for the highest (or lowest) $`L_{bol}`$ computed in section 4.4. However, the luminosity of XTE J1550–564 should be treated with caution because a mini-outburst occurred 120 d after this observation (see Tomsick et al. 2001). This situation is very similar to the case of the ASCA observation of GRO J1655–40 made between two outbursts which gave a high value of the luminosity (see Section 4.3). Finally, A0620–00 is a factor of $`5`$ above the coronal prediction, which may be a significant discrepancy since the prediction corresponds to the maximum likely level of coronal emission.

Turning to the spectral evidence, we find herein that the X-ray spectra of V404 Cyg, A0620-00, GRO J1655–40 and XTE J1550–564 are harder (equivalently hotter) than typical spectra of stellar coronae. The average temperature for these sources as determined from the $`N_H`$ free (fixed) fits to Raymond-Smith models is 7.4 keV (10.1 keV). The average of the 90% lower limits to the temperatures is $`>4`$ keV (or $`>5.24`$ keV from the $`N_H`$ fixed fits). Coronal sources are often fit by Raymond-Smith models with two separate temperature components. The average of the higher of these temperatures has a value of 1.4 keV (Dempsey et al. 1993). Thus, in the four systems for which the data are of sufficient quality to allow us to measure the X-ray spectrum, the temperature is $`5`$ to 7 times higher than the higher temperature typically seen from stellar corona.

Figure 5: Quiescent X-ray and Bolometric Fluxes of BHXN, after Bildsten & Rutledge (2000). X-ray fluxes are as reported herein or from G01, but in all cases converted to 0.4–2.4 keV emitted fluxes (note that Figure 2 of Narayan, Garcia and McClintock (2001) plotted a 0.5–10.0 keV flux for V404 Cyg but agrees with this plot in all other respects). In cases where the spectrum cannot be determined, we have assumed $`\alpha =2`$. Bolometric fluxes are from Bildsten & Rutledge (2000) or as reported herein. An “X” indicates that the X-ray flux is unlikely to be due to a stellar corona, An L (S) indicates that it is the X-ray luminosity (spectrum) that argues against this coronal hypothesis. Based on the data herein, in only one (GS 2000+25) of the six BHXN studied could the corona of the secondary produce a signficant part of the detected X-ray flux.

Thus the combination of spectral and luminosity information argue against a coronal source for the quiescent luminosity in 5 out of the 6 cases for which the coronal mechanism is potentially relevant (i.e. excluding 4U 1543-47). Only in the case of GS 2000+25, where we are unable to determine a spectrum due to the very low number of counts, is it possible that coronal emission from the secondary dominates the quiescent luminosity.

During strong flares, stellar coronae are occasionally seen at temperatures higher than the 1.4 keV average value quoted above. For example, a “super-hot giant flare” from Algol was seen to have a peak temperature of 12.37 keV (Favata & Schmitt 1999). In this regard, it is important to note that both A0620-00 and GRO J1655–40 were observed with Chandra at lower luminosities than in previous quiescent observations. Therefore it is unlikely that these two systems were in a flaring state during our observations.

Either the secondaries in BHXN have coronae unlike those seen before, or the source of the quiescent luminosity is not coronal. This is not to say that these secondaries do not have X-ray emitting corona, but merely that the luminosity from such a corona is swamped by the accretion luminosity even during quiescence. An obvious point to note is the following. Emission from a stellar corona will contribute at some level to the quiescent X-ray luminosity. If in a few cases this level is significant, then the accretion luminosities of the black holes must be even lower than our estimates and the argument for event horizons would be further strengthened.

It is worth noting that the five BHXN for which coronal emission is ruled out cover the full range of orbital period and stellar bolometric flux. It therefore seems unlikely that there is some particular region of parameter space where the coronal model applies. In comparison, the ADAF model is consistent with all the observations, covering the full parameter space (Narayan et al. 1996, 1997a, 2001; Lasota 2000).

Results of this paper further constrain the required ADAF model. Quataert & Narayan (1999) proposed that significant mass can be lost to an outflow/wind in ADAF models. They also predicted the spectral shape for ADAF models with and without winds for V404 Cyg. Our observations indicate that the power-law photon indices of V404 Cyg, A0620–00, GRO J1655–40 and XTE J1550–564 are consistent with $`\alpha 2`$. Therefore, models in which Comptonization dominates are favored (Narayan et al. 1997a); strong-wind models become unlikely unless $`\delta `$ (the fraction of the turbulent energy which heats the electrons) is large enough (Quataert & Narayan 1999). ADAF models also predict line emission in X-ray spectra (e.g. Narayan & Raymond 1999). We set an upper limit on the equivalent width of any line feature between 6.4–7 keV for V404 Cyg and it is much higher than the theoretical prediction even for model with winds. A larger collecting area instrument like XMM-Newton is needed to study this kind of feature. Recent RXTE and Chandra observations of XTE J1550–564 also suggest that the ADAF model can explain the quiescent X-ray emission, although it does not explain all the behavior observed at other wavelengths (Tomsick et al. 2001). The similarity of the quiescent spectra of V404 Cyg, XTE J1550–564, GRO J1655–40, and A0620-00 found herein suggests that they may all be described by a similar ADAF model. Detailed broadband spectral modeling of these systems should be considered in order to further constrain the models.

Figure 6: Quiescent luminosities of BHXN (filled circles and triangles) and NSXN (open circles) after G01. Data points in triangle are from the results of this work. Only the lowest quiescent detections (except for V404 Cyg which we show both the lowest detection and the luminosity derived here) or Chandra upper limits are shown. The non-hashed areas represent common orbital periods for BH and NSXN. The BHXN shown are, from left to right: GRO J0422+32, A0620–00, GS 2000+25, 4U 1543–47, XTE J1550–564, GRO J1655–40 and V404 Cyg.

The sources discussed in this paper have a wide range of luminosities. V404 Cyg is the brightest quiescent BHXN in our sample, with a 0.3–7 keV luminosity of $`5\times 10^{33}`$$`\text{erg}\text{s}^1`$. In our Chandra observations the source was somewhat more luminous than in previous quiescent observations in which the luminosity was about $`10^{33}`$$`\text{erg}\text{s}^1`$ (see Table 1). Wagner et al. (1994) reported that V404 Cyg exhibited a decrease in intensity by a factor of 10 in $`<`$ 0.5 day, while our Chandra observations showed a factor of 2 variability in a few ksec. Wagner et al. (1994) also found that there may have been a factor $``$ 2 variability on timescales of $`30`$ minutes in the highest intensity bins for the ROSAT observations. Thus V404 Cyg in quiescence shows variability in X-rays on both short-term (a few ksec) and long-term (years) timescales. Significant X-ray variability in quiescence was also seen in 4U 1630–47 (Parmar et al. 1997), A0620–00 (Asai et al. 1998; Menou et al. 1999; also Table 1) and GX 339–4 (Kong et al. 2000). V404 Cyg and GX 339-4 are similar in some respects: for example, their quiescent X-ray luminosities are comparable (Kong et al. 2000, 2002) and GX 339–4 has also been observed to undergo X-ray variability by a factor of 3 during its quiescent or ‘off’ state (Kong et al. 2002). Thus, variability in the quiescent state is common, which suggests that BHXN in quiescence are not totally turned off. We note that XTE J1550–564 also varied in luminosity by factor of $`2`$ during the two Chandra observations in quiescence (Tomsick et al. 2001); only V404 Cyg and GX 339–4 have a quiescent luminosity higher than XTE J1550–564.

In Figure 6, we plot the Eddington-scaled luminosities (based on the best-fit power-law model) as a function of orbital period $`P_{orb}`$; this is an update of the same plot from G01. For the mass of XTE J1550–564 we assumed $`M=10.6M_{}`$ (Orosz et al. 2001); the distance to XTE J1550–564 is estimated to be 2.5–6.3 kpc (e.g. S$`\stackrel{´}{a}`$nchez-Fern$`\stackrel{´}{a}`$ndez et al. 1999; Orosz et al. 2001) and we have adopted an average distance of 4 kpc. We note that for the three long orbital period systems (V404 Cyg: 6.47 d, GRO J1655–40: 2.6 d and XTE J1550–564: 1.55 d), the quiescent luminosity is higher than for the other systems (Figure 6). This implies that the accretion rate in these systems is higher than for the others according to the ADAF model (Narayan et al. 1997a; Menou et al. 1999). It is not clear if there is a positive correlation between the luminosities and orbital periods (see Figure 6); a larger sample of long orbital period systems is required to study this correlation.

In summary, we note that our results confirm the prediction of Lasota (2000), who previously pointed out that X-ray emission from a quiescent BHXN is unlikely to come from a stellar coronae; instead he argues that the emission is due to an ADAF. Based on this model, Lasota (2000) predicted fluxes similar to those reported herein. Moreover, he pointed out that detection of GRO J0422+32 by Chandra would rule out the coronal model, and such a detection has been made (G01). However, our Chandra spectra are able to rule out only a few of the simple, one-component spectral models we fit to the data. With its larger collection area, observations with XMM-Newton should be able to do a significantly better job of constraining the source spectra. Additionally, we note that V404 Cyg is variable on a few ksec timescale, so simultaneous optical and X-ray observations may shed substantial light on the quiescent accretion processes in this source.

AKHK was supported by a Croucher Fellowship. JEM was supported in part by NASA grant GO0-1105A. MRG acknowledges the support of NASA LTSA Grant NAG5-10889 and NASA Contract NAS8-39073 to the CXC. The HRC GTO program is supported by NASA Contract NAS-38248.