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# Thermal Properties of Centaurs Asbolus and Chiron

## 1 Introduction

The so-called Centaur population consists of objects with perihelia beyond Jupiter but orbital semimajor axes smaller than Neptune’s. Their orbits are unstable on timescales of about $`10^{5.5}`$ to $`10^{6.5}`$ yr (Dones, Levison, & Duncan, 1996) due to perturbations by the giant planets and are in dynamical transition from the trans-Neptunian Kuiper Belt to the inner Solar System. Those Centaurs that are not thrown from the Solar System or impact planets or the Sun are transferred into typical Jupiter-family comet-like orbits; thus the Centaurs hold a direct evolutionary link between the cometary and trans-Neptunian populations. The colors of many Centaurs, extinct comet candidates, and active comets (Hartmann, Tholen, & Cruikshank, 1987; Luu, 1993) are consistent with this dynamical picture, and further physical and compositional studies will let us understand the physical evolution. Moreover, since the Centaurs are generally brighter than the trans-Neptunian objects (TNOs), they provide a proxy through which we can infer the ensemble properties of that more distant population.

The spectral diversity of the Centaurs and TNOs is well established (e.g., Luu & Jewitt, 1996; Davies et al., 1998; Jewitt & Luu, 1998; Barucci, Lazzarin, & Tozzi, 1999), but the primary cause of this phenomenon is unknown. A secondary cause is probably the competition between reddening by cosmic-ray-induced surface chemistry and impacts exposing sub-surface icy material (Jewitt & Luu, 2001). Such a mechanism might also have observable effects on the albedo as a function of object size and color. Furthermore, cometary activity, e.g. as shown by Chiron, may significantly influence the albedo as icy grains on ballistic trajectories dust the surface. Thus, sampling the Centaur and TNO albedos could provide clues to the physical nature of their surfaces.

In this paper we describe the determination of the geometric albedos and sizes of two Centaurs, Chiron and Asbolus, using the radiometric method. We will place the Chiron dataset in the context of earlier work by Lebofsky et al. (1984), Campins et al. (1994), Altenhoff & Stumpff (1995), and Groussin et al. (2001).

## 2 Observations and Reduction

The observations span two wavelength regimes, mid-infrared (MIR) and visible. The MIR data were obtained with the Keck I telescope using the “LWS” $`256^2`$-pixel camera (Jones & Puetter, 1993), and the visible-wavelength data were obtained with the UH 2.2-m telescope using a Tektronix $`2048^2`$-pixel charge-coupled device (CCD). Table 1 gives the observational circumstances of the two targets and the measured fluxes. The objects were unresolved at MIR wavelengths. No visible-wavelength data were obtained for (8405) Asbolus so for our analysis we use results published by others.

The MIR data were obtained using chopping and nodding, both with throws of 4 arcsec. Non-sidereal guiding was used for each target. Flat fields were obtained by comparing staring images taken at both high and low airmass. The seeing was about 0.3 arcsec full-width at half-maximum (FWHM) at 12.5 $`\mu `$m and 0.45 arcsec FWHM (diffraction-limited) at 17.9 $`\mu `$m. Flux calibration was done by comparing count rates to the following known (12.5 and 17.9 $`\mu `$m) flux densities of standard stars: $`\alpha `$ Lyr, 26.4 Jy and 12.9 Jy; $`\sigma `$ Lib, 120.7 Jy and 58.9 Jy; $`\alpha `$ CrB, 3.64 Jy and 1.97 Jy; $`\gamma `$ Aql, 54.2 Jy and 27.5 Jy. These values are derived from the standard system in use at UKIRT111This information is available at World Wide Web URL http://www.jach.hawaii.edu/JACpublic/UKIRT/astronomy/conver.html. (Chrysostomou, 1998) and the magnitudes given by Tokunaga (1984). We corrected for atmospheric extinction by comparing the stars’ photometry over a range of airmasses. As the filters we used are only 10% wide, the correction to monochromatic magnitudes was 0.01 mag or less, and so was ignored.

The visible-wavelength image was obtained while guiding on a nearby star at a sidereal tracking rate in seeing that was 1 arcsec FWHM. A flat field was constructed by combining dithered images of the blank twilight sky. Flux calibration and airmass corrections were obtained by repeated measurements of the Landolt (1992) standard stars SA 107-457, 104-485, and 112-250. Chiron displayed a faint coma, as was expected, but the light was dominated by the nucleus. We used an aperture of radius 1.1 arcsec to minimize the coma’s contribution.

## 3 Analysis

### 3.1 Thermal Model

The basic radiometric method to obtain an effective radius, $`R`$, and geometric albedo, $`p`$, is to solve two equations with these two unknowns, first done about 30 years ago (Allen, 1970; Matson, 1970; Morrison, 1973) and described in detail by Lebofsky & Spencer (1989):

$`F_{vis}(\lambda _{vis})`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{F_{}(\lambda _{vis})}{(r/1\mathrm{A}\mathrm{U})^2}}\pi R^2p{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Phi }_{vis}}{4\pi \mathrm{\Delta }^2}},`$ (1a)
$`F_{mir}(\lambda _{mir})`$ $`=`$ $`ϵ{\displaystyle B_\nu (T(pq,\theta ,\varphi ),\lambda _{mir})𝑑\varphi d\mathrm{cos}\theta R^2\frac{\eta \mathrm{\Phi }_{mir}}{4\pi \mathrm{\Delta }^2}},`$ (1b)
where $`F`$ is the measured flux density (in e.g. W m-2 Hz-1) of the object at wavelength $`\lambda `$ in the visible (“vis”) or mid-infrared (“mir”); $`F_{}`$ is the flux density of the Sun at Earth as a function of wavelength; $`r`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ are the object’s heliocentric and geocentric distances, respectively; $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$ is the (dimensionless) phase function in each regime; $`B_\nu `$ is the Planck function (in e.g. W m-2 Hz-1 sr-1); $`ϵ`$ is the (dimensionless) infrared emissivity; $`\eta `$ is a (dimensionless) factor to account for infrared beaming; and $`T`$ is the temperature. The temperature itself is a function of the geometric albedo $`p`$, surface planetographic coordinates $`\theta `$ and $`\varphi `$, and the (dimensionless) phase integral $`q`$ which links the geometric and Bond albedos. For lack of detailed shape information – as is the case for our two objects – the modeled body is assumed to be spherical.

We employ the “standard thermal model” (STM) for slow-rotators (Lebofsky et al., 1986) to derive the function $`T`$ and evaluate Eqs. 1. In the STM, the rotation is assumed to be so slow and/or the thermal inertia so small that every point on the surface is in instantaneous equilibrium with the impinging solar radiation. We will show below that the other extreme, a model assuming a fast-rotator with a rotation axis perpendicular to the Sun-Earth-object plane, is inconsistent with the measured color temperatures.

The other parameters to the models are $`ϵ`$, $`\eta `$, $`\mathrm{\Phi }_{mir}`$, $`\mathrm{\Phi }_{vis}`$, and $`q`$. Emissivity is close to unity and we will assume $`ϵ=0.9`$ here. The beaming parameter is known for only a few of the largest asteroids, but to facilitate comparison with other work we adopt the standard value $`\eta =0.756`$ (Lebofsky et al., 1986). For $`\mathrm{\Phi }_{mir}`$ we assume that the magnitude scales with the phase angle $`\alpha `$: $`2.5\mathrm{log}\mathrm{\Phi }_{mir}=\beta \alpha `$, where, based on earlier work (Matson, 1970; Lebofsky et al., 1986), $`0.005`$ mag/deg $`\beta 0.017`$ mag/deg. In the much-better studied visible regime, we use the $`H,G`$ formalism (Lumme & Bowell, 1981; Roemer, Candy, & Hers, 1985) to obtain $`\mathrm{\Phi }_{vis}`$. The slope parameter $`G`$ ranges between 0.0 and 0.7. The value of $`G`$ determines $`q`$, but since that has a minor effect on the modeling we adopt $`q=0.38`$, the integral’s value for $`G=0.15`$. Note that our observations all occurred at small $`\alpha `$ (Table 1).

We should note that the values for $`R`$ and $`p`$ are valid in the context of the model used, but since the thermal model represents an extremum of thermal behavior it is not a perfect descriptor. The error bars here and in many other published reports usually do not describe the systematic errors from the model itself. However, such errors are likely to be comparable to the quoted formal errors so the values are still physically meaningful.

### 3.2 Modeling Results for Asbolus

We did not obtain our own visible-wavelength measurements of Asbolus, but photometry by Brown & Luu (1997) provides an excellent constraint. They measured a mean absolute magnitude222Absolute magnitude is the hypothetical apparent magnitude of an object when 1 AU from Earth, 1 AU from the Sun, and at zero phase angle. of $`H=8.43\pm 0.05`$ in $`R`$ band. Since our MIR measurements were taken at an unknown rotational phase, and the peak-to-valley amplitude is about 0.4 mag, we adopt a $`\pm 0.2`$ mag uncertainty. With this visible-wavelength information and our June 23 mid-IR photometry (see Table 1), the STM provides $`T`$ and Eqs. 1 yield Asbolus’ effective radius $`R`$ and geometric albedo $`p`$. Since there are not enough data points to perform the $`\chi ^2`$ statistical test, we have found instead the range of values for $`R`$ and $`p`$ such that the model passes within 2$`\sigma `$ of all data points. The ranges, means ($`\overline{R}`$ and $`\overline{p}`$), and standard deviations are:

$`\overline{R}=33\mathrm{km}\pm 2\mathrm{km};`$ $`29\mathrm{km}R38\mathrm{km}`$ (2a)
$`\overline{p}=0.12\pm 0.03;`$ $`0.06p0.20`$ (2b)
We note that the object was a few mJy brighter on June 21 compared to June 23; the time difference is 5.35 rotation periods (Brown & Luu, 1997; Davies et al., 1998), and the magnitude difference is $`0.20\pm 0.18`$. This is consistent with rotational modulation caused by a changing cross section, since in that case the mid-IR and visible amplitudes would be the same. However we do not know the exact rotational phase of the mid-IR data since the uncertainty in the magnitude difference is too big. (Otherwise we could find the position on a sine curve corresponding to that shift in rotation phase and change in brightness.) At worst our data correspond to a minimum or maximum in brightness, but a 0.20 mag shift would affect $`R`$ by only about 1% (since the object is dark) and $`p`$ by 15 to 20%.

The STM predicts a (12.5- to 17.9-$`\mu `$m) color temperature $`T_c=135`$ K, while our photometry shows $`T_c=144`$ K $`\pm 13`$ K. By comparison, the fast-rotator model mentioned previously predicts $`T_c=100`$ K, so that model is inapplicable. Since the spin period of Asbolus is not exceptionally slow – about 8.9 h (Brown & Luu, 1997; Davies et al., 1998) – the other contributing effect, the thermal inertia, must be low. A caveat is that the fast-rotator model degenerates into the slow-rotator model for a rotation axis pointing at the Sun, which could deceive us in interpreting the thermal inertia. However, the fact that (a) Asbolus has a large photometric amplitude (Brown & Luu, 1997) and (b) Kern et al. (2000) have reported spectroscopic variation over the course of a rotation make a pole-on point of view unlikely. Note that the lack of rotational context prevents us from matching our albedo to the reported spectroscopic variation.

Given that the object is a slow rotator, we can calculate an upper limit to the thermal inertia. The dimensionless thermal parameter $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$, introduced by Spencer, Lebofsky, & Sykes (1989), is defined as

$$\mathrm{\Theta }=\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }\sqrt{\omega }}{ϵ\sigma T_{SS}^3},$$
(3)
where $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ is the thermal inertia, $`\omega `$ is the rotational frequency, $`\sigma `$ is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant (in e.g. W m-2 K-4), and $`T_{SS}`$ is the subsolar equilibrium temperature. This parameter is less than unity for a slow-rotator (and zero for a body that is non-rotating or has no thermal inertia), and greater than unity for a fast-rotator. Thermal inertia itself is defined as $`\mathrm{\Gamma }=\sqrt{\kappa \rho c}`$, where $`\rho `$ is the object’s bulk density (in e.g. kg m-3), $`c`$ is the heat capacity (in e.g. J kg-1 K-1), and $`\kappa `$ is the conductivity (in e.g. W m-1 K-1). Thus $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ gives clues to the internal thermal behavior. At Asbolus’ heliocentric distance (with $`ϵ=0.9`$, $`p=0.12`$, and $`q=0.4`$), $`T_{SS}=142`$ K, so $`\mathrm{\Theta }1`$ requires that $`\mathrm{\Gamma }10.5`$ J m-2 s-1/2 K-1. By comparison, in the same units, Ceres’ value is about 10 (Spencer, 1990); the Moon, 50 (Winter & Saari, 1969); Europa, about 45-70 (Spencer et al., 1999), Ganymede, 70 (Spencer, 1987); near-Earth asteroid Eros, 170 (Harris & Davies, 1999); and near-Earth asteroid Phaethon, $`>320`$ (Harris, Davies, & Green, 1998). Asbolus’ limit of 10.5 argues for a relatively porous and/or rough surface – perhaps a regolith, perhaps the aftermath of episodic cometary activity – inhibiting heat flow. The quantity $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ is not yet known for any typical cometary nucleus.

### 3.3 Modeling Results for Chiron

With our visible-wavelength and 12.5-$`\mu `$m photometry from Table 1, the STM provides $`T`$ and Eqs. 1 yield Chiron’s effective radius $`R`$ and geometric albedo $`p`$. Again, since there are not enough data points to permit the $`\chi ^2`$ statistical test, we have found instead the range of values for $`R`$ and $`p`$ such that the model passes within 2$`\sigma `$ of all data points. The ranges, means, and standard deviations are:

$`\overline{R}=74\mathrm{km}\pm 4\mathrm{km};`$ $`67\mathrm{km}R82\mathrm{km}`$ (4a)
$`\overline{p}=0.17\pm 0.02;`$ $`0.13p0.21`$ (4b)
We note that Chiron appeared slightly brighter on June 21 compared to June 23 (Table 1), but the magnitude difference, $`0.14\pm 0.17`$, is consistent with no change. Since Chiron has a small rotational amplitude, 0.1 mag or less, this is expected and finding the rotational context is not as critical as for Asbolus.

The STM predicts a (12.5- to 17.9-$`\mu `$m) color temperature of $`T_c=120`$ K. Our photometry shows $`T_c=155`$ K $`\pm 20`$ K, which is about 1.75$`\sigma `$ higher but clearly a better match than the fast-rotator model, which predicts $`T_c=88`$ K. Since the spin period of Chiron is not exceptionally slow – about 5.9178 h (Luu & Jewitt, 1990; Marcialis & Buratti, 1993) – the thermal inertia must be low. The same inertia caveat as for Asbolus may be applied here, but there is some evidence that we do not view the axis pole-on. The photometric variation due to rotation, which is less than 0.1 mag (Luu & Jewitt, 1990), does not change with ecliptic longitude after accounting for damping by the coma (Marcialis & Buratti, 1993).

Independently, Groussin et al. (2001) have used a “mixed model” thermal model of Chiron’s surface, integrating the thermal properties of water ice and refractory grains, to constrain the thermal inertia from ISO+ISOPHOT mid- and far-IR photometry (Peschke, 1997). They obtain $`\mathrm{\Gamma }=10`$ J m-2 s-1/2 K-1, similar to Asbolus’ limiting value from above.

Critical for the determination of the albedo is a robust measurement of the nucleus’ visible-wavelength flux density without contamination from comatic light. As a check, we can compare our measured magnitude to the long-term photometric behavior of Chiron. In early 1985 Chiron appears to have been at one of its intrinsically faintest points (Marcialis & Buratti, 1993), judging by the light curve over the last 30 years (Lazzaro et al., 1997; Bus et al., 2001). Marcialis & Buratti (1993) report a V band absolute magnitude $`H_v=6.84`$, assuming the slope parameter $`G0.7`$. The uncertainty in $`G`$ is high and introduces several tenths of a magnitude of uncertainty to $`H_v`$, so here we shall instead refer magnitudes to the phase angle of their observations, $`\alpha =\alpha _0=3.19^{}`$ on UT 1985 January 19. This is convenient not only because we avoid having to worry about most of the opposition surge, but also because Chiron had a similar phase angle during our visible-wavelength observations. Thus, whereas $`H_v=V5\mathrm{log}(r\mathrm{\Delta })+2.5\mathrm{log}\mathrm{\Phi }_{vis}(\alpha )`$, let us define

$$H_{v,\alpha _0}=V5\mathrm{log}(r\mathrm{\Delta })+2.5\mathrm{log}\mathrm{\Phi }_{vis}(\alpha )2.5\mathrm{log}\mathrm{\Phi }_{vis}(\alpha _0).$$
(5)
From the data published by Marcialis & Buratti (1993) for UT 1985 January 19, we calculate that $`H_{v,\alpha _0}=6.96\pm 0.01`$.

Now, regarding our photometry, the phase angle was $`\alpha =2.70^{}`$. If $`0.0G0.7`$, which is a range that covers nearly all of the asteroids for which slope parameters are known, then $`2.5\mathrm{log}\mathrm{\Phi }_{vis}(\alpha )2.5\mathrm{log}\mathrm{\Phi }_{vis}(\alpha _0)=0.03\pm 0.01`$ mag. Chiron has nearly solar colors (Hartmann et al., 1990), so $`VR=0.37`$, and substituting the data from Table 1 into Eq. 5 yields $`H_{v,\alpha _0}=6.85\pm 0.03`$. Thus Chiron was only about 0.11 mag brighter than its faintest point in early 1985. Since the rotational phase was unknown, effectively the difference is $`0.11\pm 0.05`$ mag, but the nucleus provided about 90% of the measured flux density during our observations.

## 4 Discussion

### 4.1 Albedo Context

Figures 1 and 2 display our current understanding of albedos among the Centaurs and related bodies. The data were taken from this work and from many other published sources; the plotted error bars are those cited by the various authors.

In Fig. 1, we plot albedo vs. effective radius (top) and vs. perihelion distance (bottom). We have only included objects with both reliable radii and albedos, and we have excluded Pluto since its surface is strongly influenced by atmospheric effects. A trend with perihelion would suggest that the albedo is altered by thermal processing from insolation, but there is no apparent correlation in the plot. The addition of active and dormant comets in the 2-5 AU range would be useful. A trend with radius among the outer Solar System objects might imply a connection between the albedo and effects that depend on cross section (such as the impact rate), and here, if we calculate the linear-correlation coefficient, there is a correlation on the 3$`\sigma `$ level (as also noted by Jewitt, Aussel, & Evans (2001)). However this correlation is solely due to Charon, at $`R=625`$ km, $`p=0.38`$.

The distribution of albedos itself however readily reveals that there is a greater diversity among the Centaurs than among the comets. Activity might yield a spuriously high albedo – since in that case one could overestimate the visible-wavelength flux – but for the inactive Asbolus that is inapplicable. It appears that during the dynamical cascade from the Kuiper Belt, through the Centaur region, and into the inner Solar System, an object does not necessarily preserve its albedo. Whether this is just a bias in our sampling of differently-sized objects – since we have not yet seen many Centaur-sized, inner Solar System, active comets – remains to be seen. However the effect may provide a clue to the mechanisms of cometary activity, since the phenomenon occurring on Chiron does not appear to leave behind the same dark, mantled surface as we infer on the cometary nuclei. For example, an object that erupts in the Centaur region may be exposing pristine ice and/or dust the surface with icy grains. This scenario would suggest that Asbolus may still be sporadically active or only recently have entered a quiescent state.

Figure 2 compares albedo with $`BV`$, $`VR`$, and $`VJ`$ colors. Again the population is sparse but we note a general trend of redder objects having a lower albedo. This would be consistent with the idea that chemistry activated by cosmic ray irradiation effects surface darkening and reddening – if there were a mechanism to brighten the surface in the first place. For the Centaurs, cometary activity could be that mechanism. Impacts contribute to the effect as well but since most impactors are too small to cause widespread resurfacing, and since other color data now are inconsistent with the predicted manifestations, this cannot be the dominant cause (Jewitt & Luu, 2001). The full explanation of the color diversity remains unknown, but in any case populating Fig. 2 with the albedos of more ordinary objects would be wise.

### 4.2 Earlier Chiron Radiometry

Table 2 gives a list of published radiometric estimates of Chiron’s radius (with 1$`\sigma `$ uncertainties) and color temperature as a function of time and heliocentric distance. The average radius (weighted by the variances) is 82 km; on the 2$`\sigma `$ level all points are consistent. Some of the variation on the positive side would normally be attributed to contamination from the infrared dust coma, but this would not mimic the long-term trend in activity seen at visible wavelengths (Lazzaro et al., 1997). Moreover a high color temperature is difficult to explain. Grains much smaller than the wavelength of peak Planck emission will appear to be hotter than expected but if that were the case with Chiron one would also expect the comet to be intrinsically brighter (and hence yield a larger effective radius), opposite to what is observed. A further constraint is the occultation result of Bus et al. (1996), where the assumed-spherical Chiron needs to have $`R90`$ km. Since rotational light curves imply that Chiron is indeed only about 10% aspherical (Bus et al., 1989), this would imply a minimum effective radius of about 85 km.

The reconciliation of the radiometry in Table 2 (and the occultation data) may involve more detailed thermal modeling, as Groussin et al. (2001) have done, but further observations are certainly necessary since none of the thermal measurements in the past 20 years have high signal-to-noise. Thus it is possible that photometric uncertainty is corrupting our interpretation.

Lastly, we note that the albedo in Eq. 4b is consistent with previous values (Campins et al., 1994). Since our visible photometry is about 0.1 mag brighter than the faintest intrinsic measurements, as discussed in §3.3, such a correction would reduce our albedo by 0.015. Groussin et al. (2001) report an albedo of $`0.12\pm 0.02`$ using $`H_v=6.95\pm 0.2`$, which would make Chiron about 0.3 mag intrinsically fainter than observed by Marcialis & Buratti (1993) in 1985. A correction of that size would further reduce our albedo by 0.037. Thus all variation among reported albedos can be explained by the use of the different absolute magnitudes.

## 5 Summary

1. We have radiometrically determined the effective radii $`R`$ and geometric albedos $`p`$ of Centaurs Asbolus and Chiron:

$$29\mathrm{km}R38\mathrm{km},\mathrm{and}0.06p0.20,\mathrm{for}\mathrm{Asbolus}.$$

$$67\mathrm{km}R82\mathrm{km},\mathrm{and}0.13p0.21,\mathrm{for}\mathrm{Chiron}.$$

The ranges effectively cover 2$`\sigma `$.

2. Under the STM formalism (Lebofsky et al., 1986; Spencer, Lebofsky, & Sykes, 1989), we calculate an upper limit to Asbolus’ thermal inertia is $`\mathrm{\Gamma }10.5`$ J m-2 s-1/2 K-1. This value is comparable to those of main belt asteroids, smaller than those of icy Galilean satellites, and an order of magnitude smaller than the few values known for near-Earth asteroids. Groussin et al. (2001) find a comparable value for the $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ of Chiron. Presumably the surfaces of Chiron and Asbolus are relatively porous and/or rough enough to inhibit heat flow.

3. Chiron’s albedo is consistent with earlier measurements by others, taking into account the varying absolute magnitude, but others have noted a larger radius (at the 2$`\sigma `$ level). Whether this is due to a varying infrared coma or simply the low signal-to-noise of all extant radiometric data remains to be seen.

4. Of the four Centaur albedos now known, two are comet-like and two are 2 to 3 times higher. During the dynamical cascade of objects from the Kuiper Belt and through the Centaur region into the inner Solar System, the albedo is apparently not always preserved, although a more robust demonstration would require a comparison of similarly-sized objects. Nevertheless, there is a greater diversity among the albedos of the Centaurs than of the cometary nuclei.

We thank Jane Luu for helpful comments on the manuscript. We gratefully acknowledge the help of Keck staff members Joel Aycock, Meg Whittle, Wayne Wack, and Greg Wirth; and 2.2-m staff member John Dvorak. We also acknowledge the JPL Solar System Dynamics group for their Horizons on-line ephemeris generation program. This work was supported by grants to DCJ from NSF.


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# The bicanonical map of surfaces with 𝑝_𝑔=0 and 𝐾²≥7, II

## 1. Introduction

A minimal surface $`S`$ of general type with $`p_g(S)=0`$ satisfies the inequalities $`1K_S^29`$. It is known that for $`K_S^22`$ the image of the bicanonical map $`\phi `$ of $`S`$ is a surface and that for $`K_S^25`$ the bicanonical map is always a morphism. In \[MP1\] it is shown that $`\phi `$ is birational if $`K_S^2=9`$ and that the degree of $`\phi `$ is at most $`2`$ if $`K_S^2=7`$ or $`K_S^2=8`$.

In this note, which is a complement to \[MP1\], we describe the surfaces with $`K_S^2=7`$ or $`8`$ for which the degree of $`\phi `$ is $`2`$. We prove the following:

###### Theorem 1.1.

Let $`S`$ be a minimal smooth complex surface of general type with $`p_g(S)=0`$ and $`K_S^2=7`$ or $`8`$ for which the bicanonical map is not birational. Then:

* $`K_S`$ is ample;
* there is a fibration $`f:S^1`$ such that the general fibre $`F`$ of $`f`$ is hyperelliptic of genus 3;
* the bicanonical involution of $`S`$ induces the hyperelliptic involution on $`F`$.

Furthermore

* if $`K_S^2=8`$, then $`f`$ is an isotrivial fibration with 6 double fibres;
* if $`K_S^2=7`$, then $`f`$ has 5 double fibres and it has precisely one fibre with reducible support, consisting of two components.

We remark that surfaces satisfying the assumptions of Theorem 1.1 do exist. In \[MP1\] we have given examples of such surfaces with $`K_S^2=7`$ and with $`K_S^2=8`$, and the case $`K_S^2=8`$ is completely classified in \[Pa2\].

Acknowledgements. The present collaboration takes place in the framework of the european contract EAGER, no. HPRN-CT-2000-00099. The first author is a member of CMAF and of the Departamento de Matemática da Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade de Lisboa and the second author is a member of GNSAGA of CNR.

Notation and conventions. We work over the complex numbers; all varieties are assumed to be compact and algebraic. We do not distinguish between line bundles and divisors on a smooth variety, using the additive and the multiplicative notation interchangeably. Linear equivalence is denoted by $``$. A nodal curve or $`2`$curve $`C`$ on a surface is a curve isomorphic to $`^1`$ and such that $`C^2=2`$. The rest of the notation is standard in algebraic geometry.

## 2. Involutions and the bicanonical map

In this section we introduce some notation and we give a criterion to decide whether an involution $`\sigma `$ of a surface $`S`$ of general type with $`p_g=0`$ acts trivially on the bicanonical system of $`S`$ (cf. Proposition 2.1).

Let $`S`$ be a smooth surface. An involution of $`S`$ is an automorphism $`\sigma `$ of $`S`$ of order 2. The fixed locus of $`\sigma `$ is the union of a smooth curve $`R`$ and of $`k`$ isolated points $`P_1\mathrm{}P_k`$. We denote by $`\pi :S\mathrm{\Sigma }:=S/\sigma `$ the projection onto the quotient, by $`B`$ the image of $`R`$ and by $`Q_i`$ the image of $`P_i`$, $`i=1\mathrm{}k`$. The surface $`\mathrm{\Sigma }`$ is normal and $`Q_1\mathrm{}Q_k`$ are ordinary double points, which are the only singularities of $`\mathrm{\Sigma }`$. In particular, the singularities of $`\mathrm{\Sigma }`$ are canonical and the adjunction formula gives $`K_S=\pi ^{}K_\mathrm{\Sigma }+R`$. Let $`ϵ:XS`$ be the blow-up of $`S`$ at $`P_1\mathrm{}P_k`$ and let $`E_i`$ be the exceptional curve over $`P_i`$, $`i=1\mathrm{}k`$. It is easy to check that $`\sigma `$ induces an involution $`\stackrel{~}{\sigma }`$ of $`X`$ whose fixed locus is the union of $`R_0:=ϵ^1R`$ and of $`E_1\mathrm{}E_k`$. Denote by $`\stackrel{~}{\pi }:XY:=X/\stackrel{~}{\sigma }`$ the projection onto the quotient and set $`B_0:=\stackrel{~}{\pi }(R_0)`$, $`C_i:=\stackrel{~}{\pi }(E_i)`$, $`i=1\mathrm{}k`$. The surface $`Y`$ is smooth and the $`C_i`$ are disjoint $`2`$curves. Denote by $`\eta :Y\mathrm{\Sigma }`$ the morphism induced by $`ϵ`$. The map $`\eta `$ is the minimal resolution of the singularities of $`\mathrm{\Sigma }`$ and there is a commutative diagram:

(2.1)
$$\begin{array}{ccc}X& \stackrel{ϵ}{}& S\\ \stackrel{~}{\pi }& & \pi & & \\ Y& \stackrel{\eta }{}& \mathrm{\Sigma }\end{array}$$

We say that a map $`\psi :SW`$ is composed with $`\sigma `$ if $`\psi \sigma =\psi `$.

###### Proposition 2.1.

Let $`S`$ be a minimal surface of general type with $`p_g(S)=0`$ and let $`\sigma `$ be an involution of $`S`$. Assume that $`|2K_S|`$ has no fixed component and let $`\phi :S^{K_S^2}`$ be the bicanonical map.

Then $`\phi `$ is composed with $`\sigma `$ if and only if the number of isolated fixed points of $`\sigma `$ is equal to $`K_S^2+4`$.

###### Proof.

We use the notation introduced above for involutions.

We have $`\chi (𝒪_S)>0`$, since $`S`$ is of general type, and $`p_g(S)=0`$ by assumption, hence $`q(S)=0`$ and, as a consequence, $`p_g(\mathrm{\Sigma })=q(\mathrm{\Sigma })=0`$. We also have $`P_2(S)=\chi (𝒪_S)+K_S^2=1+K_S^2`$.

If $`B=0`$, then $`K_S=\pi ^{}K_\mathrm{\Sigma }`$, hence $`K_\mathrm{\Sigma }`$ is nef and big and $`\mathrm{\Sigma }`$ is a surface of general type. The standard formulas for double covers give:

$$1=\chi (𝒪_S)=2\chi (𝒪_\mathrm{\Sigma })k/4=2k/4,$$

i.e. $`k=4<K_S^2+4`$. In addition we have

$$P_2(S)=K_S^2+1=2K_\mathrm{\Sigma }^2+1>K_\mathrm{\Sigma }^2+1=P_2(\mathrm{\Sigma }),$$

hence $`\phi `$ is not composed with $`\sigma `$.

Now assume that $`B0`$ and consider diagram (2.1). By the theory of double covers, there exists $`L\text{Pic}(Y)`$ such that $`2LB_0+C_i`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{\pi }_{}𝒪_X=𝒪_YL^1`$. The adjunction formula gives

$$2K_X=\stackrel{~}{\pi }^{}(2K_Y+B_0+C_i)$$

and the projection formulas for double covers give

$$H^0(X,2K_X)=H^0(Y,2K_Y+L)H^0(Y,2K_Y+B_0+C_i).$$

The bicanonical map $`\phi `$ is composed with $`\sigma `$ iff either $`H^0(Y,2K_Y+L)=0`$ or $`H^0(Y,2K_Y+B_0+C_i)=0`$. The elements of $`H^0(Y,2K_Y+L)`$ pull-back on $`S`$ to the “odd” sections of $`2K_X`$, which vanish on $`R_0`$. On the other hand,

$$|2K_X|=ϵ^{}|2K_S|+2E_i,$$

hence the fixed part of $`|2K_X|`$ is supported on $`E_i`$, since by assumption $`|2K_S|`$ has no base component. It follows that $`H^0(Y,2K_Y+B_0+C_i)0`$, and $`\phi `$ is composed with $`\sigma `$ iff $`H^0(Y,2K_Y+L)=0`$.

We remark that $`2K_\mathrm{\Sigma }+B`$ is nef and big, since $`2K_S=\pi ^{}(2K_\mathrm{\Sigma }+B)`$ is nef and big by assumption. We have the equality of $``$divisors:

$$K_Y+L=\frac{1}{2}(2K_Y+B)+\frac{1}{2}C_i.$$

The divisor $`\frac{1}{2}(2K_Y+B_0)=\frac{1}{2}\eta ^{}(2K_\mathrm{\Sigma }+B)`$ is nef and big and the divisor $`\frac{1}{2}C_i`$ is effective with normal crossings support and zero integral part. Thus $`h^i(Y,2K_Y+L)=0`$ for $`i>0`$ by Kawamata–Viehweg vanishing and so:

(2.2)
$$h^0(Y,2K_Y+L)=\chi (2K_Y+L)=1+K_Y^2+\frac{3}{2}K_YL+\frac{1}{2}L^2.$$

Using again the projection formulas for double covers, we get

$$1=\chi (𝒪_X)=\chi (𝒪_Y)+\chi (K_Y+L)=1+\chi (K_Y+L),$$

which by Riemann–Roch is equivalent to

(2.3)
$$L^2+LK_Y=2.$$

Finally, we have:

$$k=K_S^2K_X^2=K_S^22(K_Y+L)^2.$$

Using equalities (2.2) and (2.3), this equation can be rewritten:

$$k=K_S^2+42h^0(2K_Y+L).$$

Summing up, $`\phi `$ is composed with $`\sigma `$ iff $`h^0(Y,2K_Y+L)=0`$ iff $`k=K_S^2+4`$. ∎

## 3. The main result

Throughout all this section we assume that $`S`$ is a minimal surface of general type with $`p_g(S)=0`$ and $`K_S^2=7`$ or $`8`$ and that the bicanonical map $`\phi :S^{K_S^2}`$ is not birational.

By Theorem 1 of \[MP1\], the degree of $`\phi `$ is equal to 2. We keep the notation of the previous section. In particular, we denote by $`\sigma `$ the involution associated with $`\phi `$ and by $`\pi :S\mathrm{\Sigma }:=S/\sigma `$ the quotient map.

###### Proposition 3.1.

$`\mathrm{\Sigma }`$ is a rational surface with $`K_\mathrm{\Sigma }^2=4`$ whose singularities are $`K_S^2+4`$ ordinary double points. Furthermore:

* there is a fibration $`h:\mathrm{\Sigma }^1`$ whose general fibre is smooth rational;
* $`h`$ has $`6`$ double fibres for $`K_S^2=8`$ and it has $`5`$ double fibres for $`K_S^2=7`$;
* every double fibre of $`h`$ contains at least 2 singular points;
* if $`K_S^2=8`$, then all the fibres of $`h`$ have irreducible support. If $`K_S^2=7`$, then $`h`$ has exactly one fibre with reducible support, consisting of two components.

###### Proof.

By Theorem 3 of \[Xi1\], $`\mathrm{\Sigma }`$ is a rational surface. By Reider’s theorem, the bicanonical system of $`S`$ has no base points, hence, by Proposition 2.1, the singularities of $`\mathrm{\Sigma }`$ are $`K_S^2+4`$ ordinary double points. The rank $`\nu `$ of $`NS(\mathrm{\Sigma })`$ is $`h^2(S)=10K_S^2`$, hence we have $`\nu 2`$ if $`K_S^2=8`$ and $`\nu 3`$ if $`K_S^2=7`$ and we can apply the results of \[DMP\]. By Lemma 3.1 and Theorem 3.2 of \[DMP\], there exists a fibration $`h:\mathrm{\Sigma }^1`$ such that the general fibre of $`h`$ is a smooth rational curve and such that $`h`$ has $`6`$ double fibres for $`K_S^2=8`$ and it has $`5`$ double fibres for $`K_S^2=7`$. Furthermore Theorem 3.3 of \[DMP\] implies that $`\nu 2`$ if $`K_S^2=8`$ and that $`\nu 3`$ if $`K_S^2=7`$. Hence we have $`\nu =2`$ if $`K_S^2=8`$, $`\nu =3`$ if $`K_S^2=7`$ and $`K_\mathrm{\Sigma }^2=4`$ in both cases. Let $`\eta :Y\mathrm{\Sigma }`$ be the minimal resolution and consider the fibration $`\stackrel{~}{h}:=h\eta :Y^1`$. It is possible to factor $`\stackrel{~}{h}`$ as $`YY^{}^1`$, where $`YY^{}`$ is a birational morphism of smooth surfaces and $`Y^{}^1`$ is a relatively minimal fibration. It follows that $`Y^{}`$ is a ruled surface $`𝔽_e`$ and $`YY^{}`$ is a sequence of 12 blow-ups. On the other hand, $`\eta `$ contracts 12 vertical curves for $`K_S^2=8`$ and 11 vertical curves for $`K_S^2=7`$. Therefore all the fibres of $`h`$ have irreducible support in the former case and there is precisely one fibre with reducible support, consisting of two components, in the latter case. ∎

###### Theorem 3.2.

There is a fibration $`f:S^1`$ such that:

* the general fibre $`F`$ of $`f`$ is hyperelliptic of genus 3;
* $`\sigma `$ induces the hyperelliptic involution on $`F`$;
* if $`K_S^2=8`$, then $`f`$ is an isotrivial fibration whose singular fibres are 6 double fibres;
* if $`K_S^2=7`$, then the multiple fibres of $`f`$ are 5 double fibres and there is precisely one fibre of $`f`$ with reducible support, consisting of two components.

###### Proof.

We set $`f:=h\pi `$, where $`h`$ is the fibration of Proposition 3.1. Hence the general fibre $`F`$ of $`f`$ is hyperelliptic and $`\sigma `$ induces the hyperelliptic involution on it. By Proposition 3.1, $`f`$ has 6 double fibres if $`K_S^2=8`$ and it has $`5`$ double fibres if $`K_S^2=7`$.

Assume $`K_S^2=8`$ and let $`\psi :C^1`$ be the double cover branched over the 6 image points of the double fibres of $`f`$. Taking fibre product and normalization, one gets a commutative diagram:

(3.1)
$$\begin{array}{ccc}X& \stackrel{\stackrel{~}{\psi }}{}& S\\ \stackrel{~}{f}& & f& & \\ C& \stackrel{\psi }{}& ^1\end{array}$$

The map $`\stackrel{~}{\psi }`$ is étale, hence $`X`$ is smooth and we have:

$$\chi (𝒪_X)=2\chi (𝒪_S)=2,K_X^2=2K_S^2=16.$$

The fibrations $`f`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{f}`$ have the same general fibre, which we still denote by $`F`$. Notice that the genus $`g(F)`$ of $`F`$ is odd, since $`f`$ has double fibres. By \[Be\], we have:

(3.2)
$$2=\chi (𝒪_X)(g(C)1)(g(F)1)=(g(F)1),$$

hence $`g(F)=3`$ and (3.2) is an equality. So, again by \[Be\], $`\stackrel{~}{f}`$ is smooth and isotrivial, hence $`f`$ is also isotrivial. Since $`f`$ is smooth, the singular fibres of $`f`$ occur only at the branch points of $`\psi `$, hence they are precisely the 6 double fibres.

Assume now that $`K_S^2=7`$. Then there exists a $`_2^2`$cover $`\psi :C^1`$ branched on the 5 image points of the double fibres of $`f`$ (cf. \[Pa1\], Proposition 2.1). Taking base change and normalization, we obtain a commutative diagram similar to (3.1). In this case $`\stackrel{~}{\psi }`$ is an étale $`_2^2`$cover, hence $`K_X^2=28`$ and $`\chi (𝒪_X)=4`$. Again \[Be\] gives

$$28=K_X^28(g(C)1)(g(F)1)=8(g(F)1),$$

namely $`g(F)=3`$, since $`g(F)`$ is odd and $`S`$ is of general type. Assume now that the fibration $`f`$ has another multiple fibre $`F_0`$, different from the 5 double fibres that we have considered. Then $`F_0`$ is also a double fibre, since $`K_SF_0=4`$, and we can consider a diagram similar to (3.1) where $`\psi :C^1`$ is the double cover branched on the points corresponding to these 6 double fibres. Again, $`X`$ is smooth and \[Be\] gives

$$14=K_X^28(g(C)1)(g(F)1)=16,$$

a contradiction. Hence for $`K_S^2=7`$ the multiple fibres of $`f`$ are precisely the 5 double fibres.

In addition, we have $`h^2(S,)=10K_S^2=3`$ and $`f`$ has at least a reducible fibre $`F_0`$ by Proposition 3.1, iv). Since $`K_S`$ and the components of $`F_0`$ are independent in the Néron–Severi group, it follows that $`F_0`$ is the only reducible fibre and that it has precisely two components. ∎

To complete the proof of Theorem 1.1, we need to show:

###### Theorem 3.3.

The canonical class $`K_S`$ is ample.

###### Proof.

If $`K_S^2=8`$, then the statement is an immediate consequence of Miyaoka’s inequality (\[Mi\], §2).

We assume, from now on, that $`K_S^2=7`$. We prove the theorem for this case, by a step-by-step analysis which will show that $`S`$ does not contain $`2`$curves.

Step 1: If $`CS`$ is a $`2`$curve, then it is contained in a fibre of $`f`$ (cf. Theorem 3.2).

Assume by contradiction $`FC>0`$, where $`F`$ denotes the fibre of $`f`$, as usual. By Proposition 3.2, $`f`$ has double fibres, hence $`FC`$ is even, say $`FC=2d`$. Then the Hurwitz formula applied to the map $`f|_C`$ gives $`22(2d)+5d=d`$, a contradiction.

Write $`F_i=2D_i`$, $`i=1\mathrm{}5`$, for the double fibres of $`f`$ and set $`H:=D_1+\mathrm{}+D_5+F`$. The divisor $`K_S+H`$ restricts to $`K_F`$ on every fibre of $`f`$ different from one of the $`F_i`$ and it restricts to $`K_{D_i}`$ on $`D_i`$ for $`i=1\mathrm{}5`$.

Step 2: The restriction maps $`H^0(K_S+H)H^0(K_F)`$ and $`H^0(K_S+H)H^0(K_{D_i})`$, $`i=1\mathrm{}5`$, are surjective.

Let $`F`$ be a fibre of $`f`$ different from the $`F_i`$ and let $`\mathrm{\Delta }|H|`$ be the divisor $`F+D_1+\mathrm{}+D_5`$. Consider the restriction sequence:

$$0𝒪_S(H)𝒪_S𝒪_\mathrm{\Delta }0.$$

Since $`S`$ is regular, the corresponding long exact sequence in cohomology gives:

$$h^1(H)=h^0(𝒪_\mathrm{\Delta })1=h^0(𝒪_F)+h^0(𝒪_{D_1})+\mathrm{}+h^0(𝒪_{D_5})1=5,$$

where the last equality follows from the fact that the divisors $`F`$ and $`D_1\mathrm{}D_5`$ are $`1`$connected by Theorem 3.2 and by Zariski’s Lemma (cf. \[BPV\], Ch. 3, §8). The same argument shows:

$$h^1(H+F)=h^1(H+D_i)=4,i=1\mathrm{}5.$$

The cokernel of the restriction $`H^0(K_S+H)H^0(K_F)`$ is the kernel of the map $`H^1(K_S+HF)H^1(K_S+H)`$. In turn, the cokernel of the latter map is the $`1`$dimensional space $`H^1(K_F)`$, since by Serre duality $`h^2(K_S+HF)=h^0((D_1+\mathrm{}+D_5))=0`$. It follows that $`H^1(K_S+HF)H^1(K_S+H)`$ is injective, since $`h^1(K_S+H)=h^1(H)=5`$ and $`h^1(K_S+HF)=h^1(H+F)=4`$. This shows that $`H^0(K_S+H)H^0(K_F)`$ is onto. The surjectivity of $`H^0(K_S+H)H^0(K_{D_i})`$, $`i=1\mathrm{}5`$, can be proven in the same way.

Step 3: The reducible fibre of $`f`$ (cf. Theorem 3.2) contains an effective divisor $`E`$ with $`E^2=1`$, $`K_SE=1`$.

A fibre of $`f`$ containing a divisor with negative self-intersection is necessarily reducible, hence a divisor $`E`$ as in the statement is contained in the only reducible fibre of $`f`$.

Denote by $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$ the map given by $`|K_S+H|`$. Clearly $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$ is composed with $`\sigma `$, hence it has even degree. On the other hand, $`(K_S+H)^2=35`$ is odd and thus $`|K_S+H|`$ has base points. It follows that either $`|K_{D_i}|`$ has base points for some $`i`$ or there is a fibre $`F`$, different from the $`F_i`$, such that $`|K_F|`$ has base points.

Assume that, say, $`|K_{D_1}|`$ has base points. Then $`D_1`$ is not $`2`$connected (see, e.g., Proposition (A.7) of \[CFM\]). Hence there is a decomposition $`D_1=A+B`$, where $`A`$ and $`B`$ are effective and $`AB1`$. On the other hand $`D_1`$ is $`1`$connected, hence we have $`AB=1`$, $`A^2=B^2=1`$ and $`K_SA=K_SB=1`$, since $`K_SD_1=2`$.

Assume now that $`|K_F|`$ has base points, where $`F`$ is a fibre of $`f`$ different from $`F_1\mathrm{}F_5`$. The same argument as above shows that $`F`$ decomposes as a sum $`A+B`$, where $`A^2=B^2=1`$, $`AB=1`$ and $`K_SA=1`$, $`K_SB=3`$.

Step 4: If $`CS`$ is a $`2`$curve, then it is not contained in a fibre of $`f`$.

Assume by contradiction that $`C`$ is contained in a fibre of $`f`$. Then $`C`$ is a component of the only reducible fibre $`F_0`$ of $`f`$. On the other hand, by Step 3, $`F_0`$ contains an irreducible curve $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ with $`K_S\mathrm{\Gamma }=1`$. By the adjunction formula, one has either $`\mathrm{\Gamma }^2=1`$ or $`\mathrm{\Gamma }^2=3`$. By Theorem 3.2, iv), $`F_0`$ can be written as $`4\mathrm{\Gamma }+mC`$. An easy analysis using again Zariski’s Lemma shows that this is not possible.

The statement follows now from Steps 1 and 4. ∎

###### Remarks 3.4.

i) In \[MP1\] we have presented examples of surfaces satisfying the assumptions of Theorem 3.2. In the example with $`K_S^2=7`$ the unique fibre of the genus $`3`$ fibration having reducible support is a double fibre. It would be interesting to know whether the reducible fibre is always one of the double fibres.

ii) The case $`K_S^2=8`$, where the fibration $`f`$ is isotrivial, is completely classified in \[Pa2\].

iii) All the known examples of surfaces satisfying the assumptions of Theorem 3.2 are not isolated in the moduli space (see \[MP1\], \[Pa2\]), although the expected dimension of the moduli space at the corresponding point is zero. The same phenomenon occurs for Burniat surfaces, which have been characterized in \[MP2\] as the only minimal surfaces of general type with $`K^2=6`$ and $`p_g=0`$ such that the degree of the bicanonical is 4, namely the largest possible degree for $`3K^26`$.

iv) It is interesting to remark that for $`K^26`$, the bicanonical map having the largest possible degree implies that the canonical class is ample (cf. Theorem 3.3, and \[MP2\]).

| Margarida Mendes Lopes | Rita Pardini |
| --- | --- |
| CMAF | Dipartimento di Matematica |
| Universidade de Lisboa | Università di Pisa |
| Av. Prof. Gama Pinto, 2 | Via Buonarroti 2 |
| 1649-003 Lisboa, PORTUGAL | 56127 Pisa, ITALY |
| mmlopes@lmc.fc.ul.pt | pardini@dm.unipi.it |


text:
# The TESLA Detector

## I Introduction

Recently the Technical Design Report for the superconducting linear collider TESLA has been completed . As a proof that the proposed physics program  can be done with a detector of known technology and reasonable price the conceptual design of a multipurpose detector has been included .

The physics goals of TESLA require from the detector

* very good momentum resolution ($`\delta 1/p410^5/\mathrm{GeV}`$) e.g. to measure the Z recoil mass in the process $`\mathrm{e}^+\mathrm{e}^{}\mathrm{ZH},\mathrm{Z}\mathrm{}^+\mathrm{}^{}`$,
* high resolution of the hadronic jet energy ($`\mathrm{\Delta }E/E30\%/\sqrt{E}`$) to reconstruct multi-jet events with intermediate resonances such as ZHH or $`\mathrm{t}\overline{\mathrm{t}}`$H,
* superb b-tagging to identify multi-b final states like ZHH or $`\mathrm{t}\overline{\mathrm{t}}`$H or to separate $`\mathrm{H}\mathrm{b}\overline{\mathrm{b}},\mathrm{H}\mathrm{c}\overline{\mathrm{c}}`$ and $`\mathrm{H}gg`$,
* optimal hermeticity to reduce backgrounds in missing energy channels, especially to veto two-photon induced events.

At TESLA a bunch train consists of around 2800 bunches with a bunch spacing of more than 300 ns. The relatively long time between bunches makes bunch identification easy and no special fast detectors are needed for this purpose. The only really relevant background at TESLA are $`\mathrm{e}^+\mathrm{e}^{}`$ pairs created in the collision. These pairs are concentrated at low angle or low transverse momentum. The low angle component requires a mask in the forward direction, which can, however, to a large part be used for calorimetry. The low $`p_t`$ component at large angles can be kept at low radius by a strong magnetic field. It limits the radius of the most inner detector layer to around 1.5 cm and causes a significant background in that layer of the vertex detector.

Figure 1 a) shows the principle layout of the detector. The tracking system and the calorimeters are situated inside a 4T superconducting coil. Sections II and III describe the two main subsystems, tracking and calorimetry. In section IV the expected performance of the detector is summarised. Needed and planned R&D to build the detector presented here is described in other talks of this session.

## II The Tracking system

The layout of the tracking system is shown in figure 1 b). It consists of a a precise microvertex detector, a large TPC, silicon tracking in between these two main detectors and a set of forward chambers behind the TPC endplate.

The TPC is in principle similar to existing ones, such as ALEPH, DELPHI or STAR. Due to the higher photon background higher granularity and 100–200 pad rows are needed. For this reason an R&D program has been started to read out the signals with new technologies like GEMs or Micromegas. Not to compromise the momentum resolution and the calorimetric energy reconstruction also the field cage and the endplate will be designed to be as thin as possible.

For the microvertex detector (VTX) several technologies are under study, CCDs, active pixel sensors and CMOS sensors. With the CCDs a point resolution of $`3.5\mu \mathrm{m}`$ and a layer thickness of $`0.12\%`$ of a radiation length can be reached. The main problem of CCD detectors for TESLA is the relatively long readout time. Reading out the columns in parallel with a frequency of 50 MHz results in one complete readout every 100 bunch crossings giving a relatively high but acceptable background in the innermost layer. For the other technologies an R&D program is in progress to reach a similar performance as presented for the CCDs.

The intermediate tracking detector consists of two cylinders of silicon strip detectors in the barrel region down to $`25^{}`$ (SIT) and three silicon pixel and four silicon strip layers on either side in the forward region (FTD) of the detector. The SIT and FTD use only technologies that have already been used successfully in LEP so that important R&D is not needed beyond finding ways to thin the detectors. It improves significantly the momentum resolution in the full acceptance region and enables a precise angle measurement in the forward region before a lot of material is crossed, which is needed to measure the acolinearity of Bhabha events in the analysis of the luminosity spectra.

To get a reasonably precise momentum measurement below a polar angle of around $`12^{}`$, where the projected tracklength in the TPC starts to limit the accuracy, at least one precise space point with a resolution around $`50\mu \mathrm{m}`$ at maximal distance from the interaction point is needed. This can for example be done with a forward chamber (FCH) consisting of 12 straw tube planes with $`100\mu \mathrm{m}`$ resolution. The high redundancy helps solving ambiguities in the pattern recognition. The chamber is also extended over the full TPC endplate to help mapping distortions in the TPC and possibly to serve as a preshower device.

## III Calorimetry

To measure jet energies the so called “energy flow” concept is proposed. In this scheme the energy is measured as the sum of the charged particle energies, which contribute about 60% to a typical hadronic jet, the neutral electromagnetic energy measured in the electromagnetic calorimeter, around 30% of a jet, and the energy of neutral hadrons measured in the hadronic calorimeter, representing only the remaining 10% of the energy. In principle this method allows a very good jet energy resolution, since the tracking resolution is below a few percent, while the resolution of a typical hadron calorimeter is around $`100\%/\sqrt{E}`$. However, in this concept one needs a very good spatial resolution of the calorimeters to separate showers from charged and neutral particles.

The setup of the proposed calorimeters can been seen in figure 1 . In the barrel and endcap the electromagnetic (ECAL) and hadronic (HCAL) calorimeters, which are inside the coil are followed by the instrumented iron return yoke which is used as a tail catcher and for muon identification. In the very forward region the mask is instrumented for electromagnetic calorimetry.

For the ECAL two options are under study, a SiW calorimeter and a lead scintillator sandwich with shashlik readout. The SiW option offers several advantages. Due to the high density of tungsten one can pack 25 radiation length into 20 cm thickness. The small Moliere radius of tungsten ($`1\mathrm{cm}`$) together with a $`1\mathrm{cm}^2`$ Si-pad size offers a superb lateral resolution and with around 40 layers also a very good longitudinal resolution is possible. However the detector is fairly expensive ($`130`$Meuro). For the shashlik option a readout granularity of $`3\times 3\mathrm{cm}^2`$ has been studied. Longitudinally a granularity of two is possible using scintillators of different decay times. The shashlik calorimeter is about a factor six cheaper than for SiW, but with worse performance which still has to be quantified.

For the hadronic calorimeter again two options have been studied. One option is a scintillating tile calorimeter with $`5\times 5\mathrm{cm}^2`$ tiles in the front part and $`25\times 25\mathrm{cm}^2`$ tiles in the back part. The granularity is limited by the possibility to get the fibres out of the detector. As an alternative a so called “digital calorimeter” has been proposed. If the granularity of the calorimeter is high enough the energy resolution using only the number of hit cells is better than by using the total amplitude. Following this observation as a second possibility a “digital calorimeter” has been proposed, consisting of $`1\times 1\mathrm{cm}^2`$ Geiger counters which are read out binary. The very high granularity is well matched to the SiW-ECAL allowing an almost perfect separation of showers from charged and neutral particles.

The detailed setup of the mask is shown in figure 2. The two parts labelled “LAT” and “LCAL” are equipped as calorimeters. The LAT is reasonably clean so that it can be used at least to veto two-photon events. The LCAL receives much background from $`\mathrm{e}^+\mathrm{e}^{}`$-pairs from beamstrahlung. Probably it is only usable for a fast luminosity measurement for machine tuning.

## IV Detector performance

Figure 3 shows the momentum resolution for $`250\mathrm{GeV}`$ muons as a function of the polar angle and for particles at $`\theta =90^{}`$ as a function of the momentum. Over the full tracking region a unique charge identification is possible up to highest momenta and in the central region $`\mathrm{\Delta }\frac{1}{p}410^5/\mathrm{GeV}`$ is reached. With this resolution the Z- and Z-recoil mass resolution in $`\mathrm{e}^+\mathrm{e}^{}\mathrm{ZH},\mathrm{Z}\mu ^+\mu ^{}`$ is dominated by the Z-width and the beam energy spread.

With the CCD vertex detector the impact parameter resolution is given by $`\sigma =2.93.9/(p\mathrm{sin}^{3/2}\theta )\mu \mathrm{m}`$. For b- and c-tagging the SLD package ZVTOP  has been used. As detailed in  this allows in Z decays at rest to tag b-quarks with 70% efficiency at 95% purity and to tag c-quark with 40% efficiency at 85% purity.

An energy flow resolution of $`\mathrm{\Delta }E/\sqrt{E}=30\%`$ had been reached with the SiW-ECAL and the digital HCAL . As can be seen from figure 4 this resolution is needed for example to measure the Higgs self coupling from $`\mathrm{e}^+\mathrm{e}^{}\mathrm{ZHH}`$. A comparable analysis for the shashlik ECAL does not exist yet.

## V conclusions

For the TESLA collider a detector has been designed with which the proposed physics from $`\sqrt{s}=91\mathrm{GeV}`$ to $`\sqrt{s}=800\mathrm{GeV}`$ can be well measured. The degradation of the physics signals due to the finite resolution is minimal. The necessary R&D for the proposed detector is explained in other contributions to this session. The total cost of the detector has been estimated to be between 160 Meuro and 280 Meuro depending on the calorimeter choice.

###### Acknowledgements.

I would like to thank the members of the TESLA detector group for their work on the detector concept, the pleasant atmosphere in the group and for their help preparing the talk and the manuscript.


text:
# The domatic number of regular and almost regular graphs

## 1 Introduction

All graphs considered here are finite, undirected and simple. For standard graph-theoretic terminology the reader is referred to . A subset $`D`$ of vertices in a graph $`G`$ is a dominating set if every vertex not in $`D`$ has a neighbor in $`D`$. The domatic number of a graph $`G`$, denoted $`dom(G)`$, is the maximum number of colors in a (not necessarily proper) vertex coloring of $`G`$, where each color class is a dominating set. The theory of domination and the domatic number are well studied areas in graph theory and theoretical computer science. The two books  present most of the known results in domination theory. The domatic number was first defined in .

Clearly, every graph has a dominating set. Thus, let $`\gamma (G)`$ denote the minimum possible cardinality of a dominating set. It is an easy observation that every graph without isolated vertices has $`dom(G)2`$. Simply take a dominating set $`D`$ with $`|D|=\gamma (G)`$ and notice that $`V(G)D`$ is also a dominating set. On the other hand, deciding whether $`dom(G)>2`$ is an NP-Complete problem . It is well known  that if a graph has high minimum degree, then $`\gamma (G)`$ is small. This, however, does not necessarily mean that $`dom(G)`$ is large. Zelinka  proved that for every $`k`$, there are graphs with minimum degree $`k`$ and with $`dom(G)=2`$. In his examples, there are always (relatively) few vertices with very high degree. This is unavoidable. In this paper we show that if we only consider the class of graphs with minimum degree $`k`$ and maximum degree at most $`Ck`$, for some constant $`C1`$ (in particular, regular graphs), then, in fact, $`dom(G)`$ is guaranteed to be quite large.

Before we present our main result we need a definition. Let $`k`$ be a positive integer and let $`C1`$ be a real number. A graph $`G`$ is called $`(k,C)`$-regular if $`\delta (G)=k`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }(G)kC`$. In particular, a $`(k,1)`$-regular graph is a $`k`$-regular graph. Let $`f(k,C)`$ denote the minimum possible value of $`dom(G)`$ taken over all $`(k,C)`$-regular graphs. For example, $`f(2,C)=2`$ as seen be any cycle whose number of vertices is not divisible by 3. Also, $`f(3,C)=2`$ as seen by the 3-regular graph with 8 vertices consisting of a Hamiltonian cycle and four edges connecting antipodal vertices of the cycle. In general, determining $`f(k,C)`$ precisely seems to be a very difficult task. Our main result is summarized in the following two theorems:

###### Theorem 1.1

Let $`C1`$ be a fixed real number. Then,

$$f(k,C)\frac{k}{2\mathrm{ln}k}(1+o_k(1)).$$

###### Theorem 1.2

Let $`C>1`$ be a fixed real number. Then,

$$f(k,C)\frac{k}{\mathrm{ln}k}(1+o_k(1)).$$

Although Theorem 1.1 and Theorem 1.2 show, in particular, that the order of magnitude of $`f(k,C)`$ is $`k/\mathrm{ln}k`$ for any fixed $`C>1`$, the constants are worthy of investigation. In fact, although the proof of Theorem 1.1 is significantly more difficult than the proof of Theorem 1.2 we conjecture that the latter is the correct answer

###### Conjecture 1.3

Let $`C1`$ be a fixed real number. Then,

$$f(k,C)=\frac{k}{\mathrm{ln}k}(1+o_k(1)).$$

In the next two sections we present the proofs of Theorem 1.1 and Theorem 1.2. The proof of theorem 1.1 demonstrates the so called semi-random method (an unofficial term the author heard several times by researchers in the area of probabilistic methods in combinatorics). In this method, combinatorial objects (such as graph colorings) are generated via repeated applications of the probabilistic method; in the case of Theorem 1.1, iterative applications of the Lovász Local Lemma. The proof of Theorem 1.2 is demonstrated by exhibiting an appropriate random graph.

A final note: Proving an analog of Theorem 1.1 with the constant 3 instead of 2 is a significantly easier task. In fact, a naive application of the Local Lemma does the job. Assume you have about $`t=k/(3\mathrm{ln}k)`$ colors. Let each vertex choose a random color independently with uniform distribution. Let $`A_{v,i}`$ denote the event that the vertex $`v`$ misses the color $`i`$ in its closed neighborhood. The probability of $`A_{v,i}`$ is less than $`1/k^3`$. But $`C^2k^3/\mathrm{ln}k`$ is also an upper bound for the number of events which $`A_{v,i}`$ depends upon, since if $`u`$ and $`v`$ are at distance 3 or more from each other, $`A_{v,i}`$ is independent of $`A_{u,j}`$ (they do not have common neighbors). The total number of vertices at distance 2 is at most $`kC+k^2C^2`$ and there are $`t`$ colors, so the dependency digraph has maximum degree $`(kC+k^2C^2)k/(3\mathrm{ln}k)`$. Now the conditions of the Local Lemma hold, and thus with positive probability no $`A_{v,i}`$ holds. Hence each color class is a dominating set. This naive approach fails, of course, for any constant smaller than 3, so additional ideas must be sought.

## 2 Proof of Theorem 1.1

In the proof of Theorem 1.1 we need to use the Lovász Local Lemma . Here it is, following the notations in  (which also contains a simple proof of the lemma). Let $`A_1,\mathrm{},A_n`$ be events in an arbitrary probability space. A directed graph $`D=(V,E)`$ on the set of vertices $`V=[n]`$ is called a dependency digraph for the events $`A_1,\mathrm{},A_n`$ if for each $`i`$, $`i=1,\mathrm{},n`$, the event $`A_i`$ is mutually independent of all the events $`\{A_j:(i,j)E\}`$.

###### Lemma 2.1 (The Local Lemma, symmetric version)

Let $`A_1,\mathrm{},A_n`$ be events in an arbitrary probability space and let $`D=(V,E)`$ be a corresponding dependency digraph. If the maximum outdegree in $`D`$ is at most $`d1`$ and each $`A_i`$ has $`\mathrm{Pr}[A_i]p`$ and $`p(d+1)1/e`$ then with positive probability no event $`A_i`$ holds.

Proof of Theorem 1.1: Let $`C1`$ be fixed, and let $`ϵ>0`$. in order to avoid cluttered computations we shall assume, wherever necessary, that $`k`$ is sufficiently large as a function of $`C`$ and $`ϵ`$ only. Let $`k`$ be sufficiently large such that there is an integer between $`k/((2+ϵ)\mathrm{ln}k)`$ and $`k/((2+ϵ/2)\mathrm{ln}k)`$. Thus, for some $`ϵ/2\gamma ϵ`$, The number $`t=k/((2+\gamma )\mathrm{ln}k)`$ is an integer. Let $`G=(V,E)`$ be a $`(k,C)`$-regular graph. We need to show that $`dom(G)t`$. This will show, in particular, that $`dom(G)k/((2+ϵ)\mathrm{ln}k)`$ and consequently, $`f(k,C)(k/2\mathrm{ln}k)(1+o_k(1))`$.

Assume that we have the set of colors $`\{0,1,\mathrm{},t\}`$. We call color $`0`$ the transparent color. In the first phase of the proof we color the vertices using all colors such that certain very specific properties hold. In the second phase we recolor the vertices that received the transparent color in the first phase using only the non-transparent colors and show that we can do it carefully enough such that each non-transparent color class (after the second phase) is a dominating set.

We begin with a description of the first phase. Our goal in the first phase is to achieve a coloring with the following properties:

###### Lemma 2.2

There exists a coloring of $`G`$ with the colors $`\{0,1,\mathrm{},t\}`$ such that the following conditions hold:

1. Every vertex has at least $`k\gamma /(4(2+\gamma ))`$ neighbors with transparent color.
2. Every vertex has at most 4 non-transparent colors missing from its (open) neighborhood.
3. Put $`z=12/\gamma `$. For each $`vV`$, and for each sequence of $`z`$ distinct non-transparent colors $`c_1,\mathrm{},c_z`$ and for each sequence of $`z`$ distinct neighbors of $`v`$ denoted $`u_1,\mathrm{},u_z`$, at least one $`u_i`$ has a neighbor colored $`c_i`$.

Proof: We let each vertex $`vV`$ choose one color from $`\{0,1,\mathrm{},t\}`$ randomly. The probability to choose color $`i`$ is $`p=(2+\gamma /2)\mathrm{ln}k/k`$ for $`i=1,\mathrm{},t`$ and the probability to choose the transparent color is, therefore, $`q=1pt=\gamma /(2(2+\gamma ))`$. Let $`A_v`$ denote the event that $`v`$ has less than $`kq/2`$ neighbors colored with the transparent color. Let $`B_v`$ denote the event that $`v`$ has more than 4 non-transparent colors missing from its neighborhood. Let $`C_v`$ denote the event that $`v`$ has $`z`$ neighbors $`u_1,\mathrm{},u_z`$ and there exist $`z`$ distinct non-transparent colors $`c_1,\mathrm{},c_z`$, such that $`c_i`$ is missing from the neighborhood of $`u_i`$ for each $`i=1,\mathrm{},z`$. Thus, we need to show that with positive probability, none of the $`3|V|`$ events $`A_v`$,$`B_v`$ and $`C_v`$, for each $`vV`$, hold. The following three claims provide upper bounds for the probabilities of the events $`A_v`$,$`B_v`$ and $`C_v`$, respectively.

###### Claim 2.3

$`\mathrm{Pr}[A_v]<1/k^5`$.

Proof: Let $`X_v`$ denote the random variable counting the number of transparent neighbors of $`v`$. The expectation of $`X_v`$ is $`E[X_v]=d_vqkq`$, where $`d_v`$ denotes the degree of $`v`$. Since each vertex chooses its color independently we have by the most common Chernoff inequality (cf. )

$$\mathrm{Pr}\left[A_v\right]=\mathrm{Pr}\left[X_v<\frac{kq}{2}\right]\mathrm{Pr}\left[X_v<\frac{E[X_v]}{2}\right]<$$

$$e^{2(E[X_v]/2)^2/d_v}=e^{d_v^2q^2/(2d_v)}=e^{d_vq^2/2}<e^{kq^2/2}<<\frac{1}{k^5}.$$

(In the final inequality we used the fact that $`q`$ is a constant depending on $`\gamma `$ and that $`k`$ is sufficiently large).

###### Claim 2.4

$`\mathrm{Pr}[B_v]<1/k^5`$.

Proof: Fix 5 distinct non-transparent colors. The probability that none of them appear in the neighborhood of $`v`$ is precisely $`(15p)^{d_v}`$. Now,

$$(15p)^{d_v}(15p)^k=\left(1\frac{5(2+\frac{\gamma }{2})\mathrm{ln}k}{k}\right)^k<\frac{1}{k^{10+2.5\gamma }}.$$

As there are $`\left(\genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{t}{5}\right)`$ possible sets of 5 distinct non-transparent colors we get that

$$\mathrm{Pr}[B_v]<\left(\genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{t}{5}\right)\frac{1}{k^{10+2.5\gamma }}<\frac{1}{k^{5+2.5\gamma }}<\frac{1}{k^5}.$$

###### Claim 2.5

$`\mathrm{Pr}[C_v]<1/k^5`$.

Proof: For a vertex $`u`$ and a color $`c`$ let $`n(u,c)`$ denote the number of neighbors of $`u`$ colored $`c`$. Fix a set of $`z`$ distinct non-transparent colors $`\{c_1,\mathrm{},c_z\}`$ and $`z`$ distinct neighbors of $`v`$, $`\{u_1,\mathrm{},u_z\}`$. We begin by computing the probability that for each $`i=1,\mathrm{},z`$, $`c_i`$ does not appear in the neighborhood of $`u_i`$ (i.e. $`n(u_i,c_i)=0`$). Denoting this probability by $`\rho =\rho (v,u_1,\mathrm{},u_z,c_1,\mathrm{},c_z)`$ we clearly have:

$$\rho =\mathrm{Pr}[n(u_1,c_1)=0]\mathrm{Pr}[n(u_2,c_2)=0|n(u_1,c_1)=0]\mathrm{}$$

$$\mathrm{}\mathrm{Pr}[n(u_z,c_z)=0|n(u_1,c_1)=0\mathrm{}n(u_{z1},c_{z1})=0].$$

For the first term we have $`\mathrm{Pr}[n(u_1,c_1)=0]=(1p)^{d_{u_1}}`$. For the other terms we claim that

$$\mathrm{Pr}[n(u_i,c_i)=0|n(u_1,c_1)=0\mathrm{}n(u_{i1},c_{i1})=0](1p)^{d_{u_i}}.$$

This is obvious since the knowledge that a color from $`\{c_1,\mathrm{},c_{i1}\}`$ does not appear in a neighbor common to $`u_i`$ and some $`u_i^{}`$ for $`i^{}<i`$ only increases the probability that $`c_i`$ is in the neighborhood of $`u_i`$, and hence decreases the probability that $`n(u_i,c_i)=0`$. To be precise, if $`w_{i,1},\mathrm{},w_{i,d_{u_i}}`$ are the neighbors of $`u_i`$, let $`s(j)`$ denote the size of the intersection of $`N(w_{i,j})`$ with $`\{u_1,\mathrm{},u_{i1}\}`$. Clearly $`0s(j)i1<z<t`$. The probability that $`w_{i,j}`$ is colored with $`c_i`$ given that $`n(u_l,c_l)=0`$ for $`l=1,\mathrm{},i1`$ is precisely $`p/(q+(ts(j))p)`$. Recalling that $`q+tp=1`$ we have $`p/(q+(ts(j))p)p`$. Thus,

$$\mathrm{Pr}[n(u_i,c_i)=0|n(u_1,c_1)=0\mathrm{}n(u_{i1},c_{i1})=0]=\mathrm{\Pi }_{j=1}^{d_{u_i}}\left(1\frac{p}{q+(ts(j))p}\right)(1p)^{d_{u_i}}.$$

We therefore have:

$$\rho \mathrm{\Pi }_{i=1}^z(1p)^{d_{u_i}}(1p)^{kz}.$$

There are less than $`(Ck)^z`$ ordered sets of $`z`$ distinct neighbors of $`v`$. There are less than $`t^z`$ ordered sets of $`z`$ distinct non-transparent colors. Thus,

$$\mathrm{Pr}[C_v]<t^z(Ck)^z(1p)^{kz}C^zk^{2z}(1\frac{2+(\gamma /2)\mathrm{ln}k}{k})^{kz}<$$

$$C^zk^{2z}\frac{1}{k^{z(2+\gamma /2)}}=\frac{C^z}{k^{z\gamma /2}}<\frac{C^{13/\gamma }}{k^6}<\frac{1}{k^5}.$$

Having proved $`\mathrm{Pr}[A_v]<1/k^5`$, $`\mathrm{Pr}[B_v]<1/k^5`$ and $`\mathrm{Pr}[C_v]<1/k^5`$ we claim that we can use the Local Lemma to show that with positive probability none of these events hold. Indeed, fix a vertex $`v`$ and let $`U_v`$ be the set of all vertices at distance 5 or greater from $`v`$. Notice that if $`uU_v`$, the neighbors of $`v`$ and their neighborhoods do not intersect the neighbors of $`u`$ and their neighborhoods. Since $`A_v`$ only depends on $`v`$ and its neighbors, $`B_v`$ depends only on $`v`$ and its neighbors and $`C_v`$ only depends on $`v`$, its neighbors and the neighbors of its neighbors, we have that $`A_v`$ is mutually independent of all the $`3|U_v|`$ events $`\{A_u,B_u,C_u|uU_v\}`$. Similarly $`B_v`$ and $`C_v`$ are mutually independent of all the event $`\{A_u,B_u,C_u|uU_v\}`$. Since there are at most $`1+kC+kC(kC1)+kC(kC1)^2+kC(kC1)^3<k^4C^4`$ vertices at distance at most 4 from $`v`$ (including $`v`$), we have that the maximum outdegree in the dependency digraph of the $`3|V|`$ events is at most $`3k^4C^4`$. Since $`(1/k^5)(3k^4C^4+1)<1/e`$ we get by Lemma 2.1 that with positive probability none of the events hold. We therefore proved Lemma 2.2.

We now describe the second phase. We fix a coloring satisfying the three conditions in the statement of Lemma 2.2. For a vertex $`v`$, let $`F(v)`$ denote the set of missing non-transparent colors from its neighborhood. By Lemma 2.2 we know that $`|F(v)|4`$. Now, let $`S(v)=_{uN(v)}F(u)`$. We claim that $`|S(v)|4(z1)`$. To see this, notice that if $`|S(v)|>4(z1)`$ this means that there are at least $`z`$ distinct neighbors of $`u`$, each missing a distinct color from their neighborhood, contradicting the third condition in Lemma 2.2. In the second phase we only color the vertices that received transparent colors in the first phase. Let $`v`$ be a vertex colored with the transparent color. We let $`v`$ choose a random color from $`S(v)`$ with uniform distribution. The choices made by distinct vertices are independent (In case $`S(v)=\mathrm{}`$ we can assign an arbitrary non-transparent color to $`v`$). Let $`vV`$ be any vertex, and let $`cF(v)`$. Let $`A_{v,c}`$ denote the event that after the second phase, $`c`$ still does not appear as a color in a neighbor of $`v`$. Our goal is to show that with positive probability, none of the events $`A_{v,c}`$ for $`vV`$ and $`cF(v)`$ hold. This will complete the proof of Theorem 1.1.

Let $`T_v`$ be the subset of neighbors of $`v`$ given transparent color in the first phase. By Lemma 2.2 we have $`|T_v|k\gamma /(4(2+\gamma ))`$. Assuming $`c`$ does not appear in the neighborhood of $`v`$ we have that for each $`uT_v`$, the color $`c`$ appears in $`S(u)`$. Hence,

$$\mathrm{Pr}[A_{v,c}]=\mathrm{\Pi }_{uT_v}\left(1\frac{1}{|S(u)|}\right)<\mathrm{\Pi }_{uT_v}\left(1\frac{1}{4z}\right)<$$

$$\left(1\frac{1}{4z}\right)^{k\gamma /(4(2+\gamma ))}<\left(1\frac{\gamma }{52}\right)^{k\gamma /(4(2+\gamma ))}<<\frac{1}{k^3}.$$

Now, for $`vV`$, let $`U_v`$ denote the set of all vertices at distance at least 3 from $`v`$. Since the event $`A_{v,c}`$ only depends on $`v`$ and its (transparent) neighbors, we have that $`A_{v,c}`$ is mutually independent of all the events $`A_{u,c^{}}`$ for $`uU_v`$ and $`c^{}F(u)`$. Since the number of neighbors at distance at most 2 from $`v`$ is at most $`1+kC+kC(kC1)`$, including $`v`$, and since $`|F(u)|4`$ for all $`uV`$ we have that the outdegree in the dependency digraph of the events is at most $`4(1+kC+kC(kC1))<5k^2C^2`$. Since $`(1/k^3)(5k^2C^2+1)<1/e`$ we get by Lemma 2.1 that with positive probability none of the events of the form $`A_{v,c}`$ hold. Hence, there is a coloring with the colors $`\{1,\mathrm{},t\}`$ such that each color class is a dominating set.

## 3 Proof of Theorem 1.2

We shall take the opportunity to prove something slightly stronger than the statement of Theorem 1.2. The random graphs we shall construct to demonstrate the proof of Theorem 1.2 can also have arbitrary large girth.

Trivially, $`dom(G)|V(G)|/\gamma (G)`$. Thus, it suffices to prove the following:

###### Theorem 3.1

Let $`C>1`$ be a fixed real number, and let $`g2`$. For every $`ϵ>0`$, there exists a $`k_0=k_0(C,g,ϵ)`$ such that for all $`k>k_0`$, there exists a $`(k,C)`$-regular graph $`G`$ with $`n`$ vertices and with $`girth(G)>g`$ having $`\gamma (G)(1ϵ)n\mathrm{ln}k/k`$.

A weaker theorem, in which we only require the graph $`G`$ to have minimum degree $`k`$ (i.e. $`C=\mathrm{}`$) and we do not care about the girth (i.e. $`g=2`$) follows immediately from a result of Alon . Proof of Theorem 3.1: Put $`r=2g+1`$. Trivially, we may assume

$$1+ϵ/4<C,ϵ<1.$$
(1)
Let $`k_0`$ be the minimal integer satisfying

1. $$k_0\frac{48}{ϵ^2}.$$
(2)
2. $$k_06g8^{g^2}.$$
(3)
3. For every $`k>k_0`$

$$2k^r\mathrm{exp}\left(k\frac{ϵ^2}{1024(1+ϵ/8)}\right)<\frac{1}{3}.$$
(4)
4. For every $`k>k_0`$

$$k^{ϵ/4}(1ϵ)r(\mathrm{ln}k)^2>1.$$
(5)

Let $`k>k_0`$ and let $`n=k^r`$. Consider the random graph $`G(n,p)`$ where $`p=(1+ϵ/8)/k^{r1}`$. That is, every edge appears, independently, with probability $`p`$. We shall prove the following three lemmas, which, together, supply the required result.

###### Lemma 3.2

With probability greater than $`2/3`$, $`G`$ has minimum degree at least $`k+1`$ and maximum degree at most $`kC`$.

###### Lemma 3.3

With probability greater than $`2/3`$, $`\gamma (G)(1ϵ)n\mathrm{ln}k/k`$.

###### Lemma 3.4

With probability greater than $`2/3`$, any two cycles $`C`$ and $`C^{}`$ of $`G`$ having at most $`g`$ vertices each, are vertex disjoint.

By Lemmas 3.2, 3.3 and 3.4 we know that with positive probability there exists an $`n`$-vertex graph $`G`$ that has minimum degree at least $`k+1`$, maximum degree at most $`kC`$, has $`\gamma (G)(1ϵ)n\mathrm{ln}k/k`$ and any two cycles in $`G`$ whose lengths are at most $`g`$ are vertex-disjoint. Thus, we can delete a single edge from each cycle whose length is at most $`g`$. The resulting graph is $`(k,C)regular`$ (no vertex lost more than one edge), has girth greater than $`g`$, and $`\gamma (G)`$ cannot decrease when we delete edges. This proves Theorem 3.1 and, consequently, Theorem 1.2.

Proof of Lemma 3.2: The proof of this lemma is almost trivial, and is based on standard large deviation approximations. For $`vV(G)`$, let $`d_v`$ denote its degree in $`G(n,p)`$. $`d_v`$ is a random variable with the binomial distribution $`B(n1,p)`$. Thus, $`E[d_v]=(n1)p=(k^r1)(1+ϵ/8)/k^{r1}`$. Clearly, by (2) $`k(1+ϵ/8)>E[d_v]>k(1+ϵ/12)`$. We shall use the large deviation inequality of Chernoff (cf. ) that states that for all $`a>0`$

$$\mathrm{Pr}[|d_vE[d_v]|>a]<2\mathrm{exp}\left(\frac{a^2}{2p(n1)}+\frac{a^3}{2p^2(n1)^2}\right).$$

Using $`a=kϵ/16`$ and the last inequality we get, together with (4), that

$$\mathrm{Pr}[|d_vE[d_v]|>kϵ/16]<2\mathrm{exp}\left(\frac{k^2ϵ^2}{256}\frac{1}{2k(1+ϵ/8)}+\frac{k^3ϵ^3}{4096}\frac{1}{2k^2(1+ϵ/12)^2}\right)=$$

$$2\mathrm{exp}\left(\frac{kϵ^2}{512(1+ϵ/8)}+\frac{kϵ^3}{8192(1+ϵ/12)^2}\right)<2\mathrm{exp}\left(\frac{kϵ^2}{1024(1+ϵ/8)}\right)<\frac{1}{3k^r}.$$

As there are $`n=k^r`$ vertices in $`G`$ we get that with probability greater than $`1k^r/(3k^r)=2/3`$, all $`vV`$ satisfy $`|d_vE[d_v]|kϵ/16`$. In particular, $`d_vE[d_v]kϵ/16k(1+ϵ/12ϵ/16)k+1`$, and $`d_vE[d_v]+kϵ/16k(1+ϵ/8+ϵ/16)<kC`$. Thus, with probability at least 2/3, the minimum degree is at least $`k+1`$ and the maximum degree is at most $`Ck`$.

Proof of Lemma 3.3: Let $`ϵ/2<\alpha <ϵ`$ be such that $`t=(1\alpha )k^{r1}\mathrm{ln}k`$ is an integer. By (2) $`\alpha `$ exists. We must show that with probability greater than $`2/3`$, every subset of $`t`$ vertices is not a dominating set. Fix $`XV(G)`$ with $`|X|=t`$. For $`vV(G)X`$, the probability that $`v`$ is not adjacent to any vertex of $`X`$ is precisely $`(1p)^t`$. Thus, $`v`$ is dominated by $`X`$ with probability $`1(1p)^t`$. Since the edges of $`G`$ are chosen independently, the probability that $`|X|`$ is a dominating set is precisely $`(1(1p)^t)^{nt}`$. As there are $`\left(\genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{n}{t}\right)`$ choices for $`X`$ it suffices to show that $`\left(\genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{n}{t}\right)(1(1p)^t)^{nt}<1/3`$. First, notice that by (2) and $`ϵ/2<\alpha <ϵ`$ we have that

$$(1p)^t=\left(1\frac{(1+ϵ/8)}{k^{r1}}\right)^{(1\alpha )k^{r1}\mathrm{ln}k}=\left(1\frac{(1+ϵ/8)}{k^{r1}}\right)^{\left(\frac{k^{r1}}{1+ϵ/8}1\right)\frac{(1\alpha )k^{r1}\mathrm{ln}k}{\left(\frac{k^{r1}}{1+ϵ/8}1\right)}}>$$

$$\left(1\frac{(1+ϵ/8)}{k^{r1}}\right)^{\left(\frac{k^{r1}}{1+ϵ/8}1\right)\frac{(1\alpha )k^{r1}\mathrm{ln}k}{k^{r1}(1ϵ/4)}}>\mathrm{exp}\left(\frac{(1\alpha )\mathrm{ln}k}{1ϵ/4}\right)>\mathrm{exp}\left(\frac{(1ϵ/2)\mathrm{ln}k}{1ϵ/4}\right)>$$

$$\mathrm{exp}\left((1ϵ/4)\mathrm{ln}k\right)=\frac{1}{k^{1ϵ/4}}.$$

Thus, using the fact that $`ntk^r(1ϵ)=k^{r1}(ϵk(1\alpha )\mathrm{ln}k)>0`$ that follows from (2), and using (5) and the last inequality we have that

$$\left(\genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{n}{t}\right)\left(1(1p)^t\right)^{nt}<\left(\genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{n}{t}\right)\left(1\frac{1}{k^{1ϵ/4}}\right)^{nt}<\left(\genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{n}{t}\right)\left(1\frac{1}{k^{1ϵ/4}}\right)^{k^r(1ϵ)}<$$

$$\left(\genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{n}{t}\right)\mathrm{exp}\left(k^{r1+ϵ/4}(1ϵ)\right)<(k^r)^{k^{r1}\mathrm{ln}k}\mathrm{exp}\left(k^{r1+ϵ/4}(1ϵ)\right)=$$

$$\mathrm{exp}\left(rk^{r1}(\mathrm{ln}k)^2\right)\mathrm{exp}\left(k^{r1+ϵ/4}(1ϵ)\right)=\mathrm{exp}\left(k^{r1}(k^{ϵ/4}(1ϵ)r(\mathrm{ln}k)^2)\right)<\frac{1}{3}.$$

Proof of Lemma 3.4: Let $`F_g`$ be the family of all graphs with at least $`4`$ vertices and at most $`2g1`$ vertices, and which have more edges than vertices. Trivially, if a graph $`G`$ has no element of $`F_g`$ as a subgraph, then all its cycles with lengths $`g`$ or less are vertex disjoint. Thus, if we can prove that the probability that $`G(n,p)`$ has an element of $`F_g`$ as a subgraph is less than $`1/3`$, we are done. First, notice that $`|F_g|<2g2^{2g^2}`$ as there are at most $`2^{\left(\genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{j}{2}\right)}`$ distinct labeled graphs on $`j`$ vertices. Fix $`HF_g`$ and let $`h`$ denote the number of vertices of $`H`$ and $`m`$ denote the number of edges of $`H`$. Hence, $`4h2g1`$ and $`mh+1`$. The complete graph on $`n`$ vertices has less than $`n^h`$ labeled copies of $`H`$. For each labeled copy, the probability that it belongs to $`G(n,p)`$ is precisely $`p^m(1p)^{\left(\genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{h}{2}\right)m}p^m`$. Thus, if we denote by $`n(H)`$ the random variable corresponding to the number of copies of $`H`$ in $`G`$ we have that the expected value of $`n(H)`$ is less than $`p^mn^h`$. Hence,

$$E[n(H)]<p^mn^h=\frac{(1+ϵ/8)^m}{k^{m(r1)}}k^{rh}<(1+ϵ/8)^{2g^2}\frac{k^{rh}}{k^{(h+1)(r1)}}\frac{(1+ϵ/8)^{2g^2}}{k}.$$

In the last inequality we used the fact that $`(h+1)(r1)rh=rh1=2gh1`$. Let $`n(F_g)`$ denote the number of subgraphs of $`G`$ isomorphic to an element of $`F_g`$. By linearity of expectation we get, together with (3), that

$$E[n(F_g)]|F_g|\frac{(1+ϵ/8)^{2g^2}}{k}2g2^{2g^2}\frac{(1+ϵ/8)^{2g^2}}{k}<\frac{1}{3}.$$

By Markov’s inequality, with probability greater than $`2/3`$ we have $`n(F_g)=0`$.