format: text

text:
# Measurements of the Composite Fermion masses from the spin polarization of 2-D electrons in the region 1<𝜈<2

## Abstract

Measurements of the reflectivity of a 2-D electron gas are used to deduce the polarization of the Composite Fermion hole system formed for Landau level occupancies in the regime $`1<\nu <2`$. The measurements are consistent with the formation of a mixed spin CF system and allow the density of states or ‘polarization’ effective mass of the CF holes to be determined. The mass values at $`\nu =3/2`$ are found to be $`1.9m_e`$ for electron densities of $`4.4\times 10^{11}`$cm-2, which is significantly larger than those found from measurements of the energy gaps at finite values of effective magnetic field.

The fractional quantum Hall effect has been very successfully described in terms of the picture of Composite Fermions, however considerable uncertainties exist about both the Composite Fermion masses and the role of spin and the formation of partially polarized states . In particular Park and Jain  have pointed out that the CF mass measured from activation measurements of the energy gap may be substantially smaller than the thermodynamic or “polarization” mass which determines the equilibrium spin populations of the carriers, an idea which has received some recent experimental support . In this paper we describe a direct measurment of the polarization of the 2D Composite Fermion (CF) gas and deduce values for the polarization mass.

In the Composite Fermion model 2D electrons at filling factor $`\nu =1/2`$ form a new collective state with quasi-particle excitations, known as Composite Fermions, and zero effective magnetic field. If the Zeeman energy is small compared to the equivalent Fermi energy in the Composite Fermion system the spin polarization of the 2D electrons around $`\nu =1/2`$ deviates from 100$`\%`$ even at zero temperature. Cyclotron-like quantization of the energy spectra of the Composite Fermions away from $`\nu =1/2`$ causes oscillations in the spin polarization of the 2D electrons at integer filling factors for Composite Fermions. Simultaneously, transport properties of the 2DEG become controllable by the ratio of the cyclotron energy for the Composite Fermions to the Zeeman energy. In spite of this evidence for partial polarization of the CF system direct measurements of the CF Fermi wavevector suggest that the system is close to fully polarized both at $`\nu =1/2`$  and at $`\nu =3/2`$.

In this work we report direct measurements of the properties of Composite Fermion holes in the region of level occupancy $`1<\nu <2`$. For small values of the Zeeman energy a very convenient way to treat the unoccupied states in the zeroth Landau level in the region $`1<\nu <2`$ is as “holes”  with an effective filling factor given by $`\nu _h=2\nu _e`$ relative to completely filled electron sublevels of both spins. The properties of such holes in the region $`1<\nu _e<2`$ are equivalent to the properties of electrons in the region $`0<\nu _e<1`$ if the energy scale for the Coulomb interaction is much less than the cyclotron energy. Thus a new Composite Fermion system is generated around filling factor $`\nu _h=1/2`$ which corresponds to the filling factor $`\nu _e=21/2=3/2`$. One should expect similar but much more significant oscillations in the spin polarization of the 2D holes away from the filling factor $`\nu _e`$ = 3/2  as the relative energy of the Zeeman splitting is considerably smaller with respect to the Coulomb interaction. Evidence of such oscillations has been observed before in the magnetic field dependence of the spin polarization of electrons at low density on the top of a strong monotonic fall of the electron spin polarization towards $`\nu =2`$. In principle there is a simple relation between the spin polarization $`P_e`$ of 2D electrons and the spin polarization $`P_h`$ of 2D holes $`P_h\nu _h=P_e\nu _e`$, but in the region close to $`\nu _e=2`$ both $`\nu _h`$ and $`P_e`$ become too small to allow reliable extraction of the hole spin polarization from the measured electron value. Here we measure directly the spin polarization of the holes in the zeroth Landau level of 2D electrons by measuring the hole population with interband reflectivity. At temperatures below 1.5K we find that the spin polarization of the holes in the region $`1<\nu <2`$ agrees very well with a picture based on Composite Fermions with a relatively large effective mass.

We have measured magnetoreflectivity from a 2DEG formed in a pair of doped GaAs single quantum wells with widths of $`120`$Å and $`150`$Å and with carrier densities of $`4.4\times 10^{11}`$ cm-2. The quantum wells were grown using a $`300`$Å thick Al0.33Ga0.67As spacer followed by a $`300`$Å thick layer of doped Al0.33Ga0.67As:Si with a doping level $`10^{18}`$ cm-3 and a final $`250`$Å thick cap layer of GaAs. The measurements used a standard projection lamp giving unpolarized illumination of the sample in a 20T He3 insert with a base temperature of 0.4K. Reflected light from the sample was analysed using an in-situ circular polariser and detected and dispersed with a CCD camera and monochromator.

Fig.1 shows a false colour plot of the optical reflectivity for both $`\sigma ^+`$ and $`\sigma ^{}`$ polarizations for the $`150`$Å SQW. This is made from a series of reflectivity spectra measured with a small magnetic field step at 0.4K. White corresponds to high intensities of the reflected signal and black to a weaker signal. The strength of the magnetoreflectivity signal is determined by the density of unoccupied states and hence the density of holes in the Landau levels. The absorption coefficient is directly related to dispersion in the refractive index through the Kramers-Kronig relation and it has been shown theoretically that the magnitude of the excursion of the reflectivity around the transition energy is proportional to the absorption coefficient . The direct reflectivity spectra measured at 14.5T are shown as an example of this analysis in the lower part of Fig.1. At high magnetic fields the reflectivity shows a set of different lines corresponding to the allowed transitions between Landau levels of the valence and conduction bands with the same Landau level index N. For a well resolved spin splitting in the 2D electron gas we start to detect N-N transitions only after empty spaces appear in the Nth electron Landau level at filling factor $`\nu =2N+2`$ for the upper spin sublevel ($`\sigma ^+`$ polarization) and at $`\nu =2N+1`$ for the lower spin sublevel ($`\sigma ^{}`$ polarization). This simple single particle behaviour however changes dramatically for absorption into the two spin sublevels of the zeroth Landau level. For $`\nu <2`$ at first we see only transitions to the upper spin state, but beyond $`\nu =5/3`$ we start to detect transitions to both spin sublevels in contrast to the predictions of a single particle picture.

In Fig.2 we show the filling factor dependence of the relative intensities $`(I^+)`$ and $`(I^{})`$ of the two lines from the interband $`0`$$`\mathrm{\hspace{0.33em}0}`$ and $`0`$$`\mathrm{\hspace{0.33em}0}`$ transitions extracted from the magnetoreflectivity spectra for $`\sigma ^+`$ and $`\sigma ^{}`$ polarized light. The sum of the intensities $`(I^++I^{})`$ for both lines agrees well with the the theoretically expected proportionality to $`(2\nu )/\nu `$ for the density of empty states thus confirming the validity of our analysis procedure. We estimate from this that the relative values of the intensities are correct to within $`\pm 5\%`$. The spin polarization of the holes in the zeroth Landau level should be equal to the polarization of the intensities of the interband transitions $`P_h=(I^+I^{})/(I^++I^{})`$. In Fig.3 we show $`P_h`$ for the zeroth Landau level for temperatures in the range from $`2.7`$K to $`0.4`$K. At temperatures below $`1.5`$K we find that the $`P_h`$ agrees very well with a picture based on Composite Fermions with a g-factor close to that of the (bare) free electron in GaAs, as shown schematically in the inset to Fig.3. We observe a partially polarized flat region around filling factor $`\nu _h=1/2`$ $`(\nu _e=3/2)`$ which corresponds to zero effective magnetic field in the Composite Fermion picture. Moving into finite effective magnetic field we observe a polarization approaching 1 at $`\nu _h1/3`$ $`(\nu _e5/3)`$ which corresponds to the complete or partial filling of only a single Composite Fermion hole level and we find a well-developed minimum of the spin polarization at $`\nu _h=2/3`$ $`(\nu _e=4/3)`$ corresponding to the filling of two oppositely oriented Composite Fermion hole levels.

From the absolute spin polarization at $`\nu _h=1/2`$ we are able to deduce the density of states effective mass (or polarization mass ) of the Composite Fermions at zero effective field from simple Pauli paramagnetism arguments. We assume that the population difference is caused by the single particle (bare) Zeeman energy, $`g^{}\mu _BB`$, and that the level occupancy is related to the spin polarization of the Composite Fermion holes by $`P_h=(\nu _h^+\nu _h^{})/(\nu _h^++\nu _h^{})`$. If we assume a constant CF mass (parabolic dispersion) we can relate the effective Fermi energies for the spin up and spin down CF holes $`(E_f^{CF+},E_f^{CF})`$ to their occupancies and write

$$P_h=(E_f^{CF+}E_f^{CF})/(E_f^{CF+}+E_f^{CF})$$

$$=g^{}\mu _BB/(E_f^{CF+}+E_f^{CF})$$

$$=(m^{}g^{}\mu _BB)/(2\pi \mathrm{}^2n_h)=m^{}g^{}/m_e$$
(1)
where $`n_h=\frac{2eB}{h}n_e`$ is the number of CF holes. The fact that we are using a parabolic dispersion means that the same equation would hold for the electron polarization $`P_e`$ in terms of the electron density $`n_e`$ and would lead to the same values of mass for CF electrons and holes.

Using the measured $`60\%`$ hole spin polarization and remembering that at $`\nu _e=3/2`$, $`n_h=\frac{1}{3}n_e`$ we find that $`m^{}g^{}/m_e=0.60`$ and the ratio $`n_h^+/n_h^{}=4`$. The electron g-factor depends on both the quantum well confinement and the magnetic field and can be calculated using k.p theory  which may be approximated by the following expression:

$$g=220\left(\frac{1}{1.5+\mathrm{\Delta }E_g}\frac{1}{1.85+\mathrm{\Delta }E_g}\right)+0.062$$
(2)
where $`\mathrm{\Delta }E_g`$ accounts for the increase in the band gap due to the electron and hole confinement and cyclotron energies. This expression gives a g-factor of -0.32 for the $`150`$Å quantum well which gives a value of $`m_{CF}^{}1.9m_e`$ for the CF holes. Fig.3 also shows the spin polarization of the holes for a second $`120`$Å SQW, which has a significantly smaller g-factor of -0.23 (because of stronger confinement) but the same carrier density. This sample shows a similar qualitative behaviour around $`\nu _e=3/2`$ ($`\nu _h=1/2`$) but with a lower absolute polarization at $`\nu =3/2`$ of only 0.40 due to the lower effective g-factor. The polarization value gives a similar value for the effective mass of $`1.74m_e`$ and confirms the general picture.

We can further confirm the large value of the effective mass by examining the temperature dependence of the spin polarization of the CF holes moving in finite effective field. The total $`(B)`$ and effective $`(B^{})`$ fields for the CF hole levels are given by

$$B=\frac{2p+1}{3p+2}n_e\mathrm{\Phi }_0\text{and,}B^{}=\frac{1}{3p+2}n_e\mathrm{\Phi }_0$$
(3)
where $`p=\pm 1,2,\mathrm{},\mathrm{\Phi }_0`$ is the flux quantum and for the present samples $`n_e\mathrm{\Phi }_0=18`$T. For the case of $`p=\pm 2`$ when the Zeeman and CF cyclotron energies are comparable we expect a high temperature limit for the polarization of $`50\%`$, as there will be $`1\frac{1}{2}`$ filled levels of spin up and a $`\frac{1}{2}`$ filled level of spin down. The low temperature behaviour will now depend on which splitting is largest with $`g^{}\mu _BB>\mathrm{}eB^{}/m^{}`$ leading to an increase in polarization as $`T0`$ and $`g^{}\mu _BB<\mathrm{}eB^{}/m^{}`$ leading to a falling polarization. The low temperature limits for the two cases should be 100% and 0% for totally unbroadened levels. The actual values will be less than these limits due to the disorder present and the fact that the lowest temperature studied is only 0.4K. However, the direction of the temperature dependence will be independent of the disorder unless this is highly asymmetric. For $`p=2`$ $`(\nu _h=2/3,\nu _e=4/3)`$ and $`p=+2`$ $`(\nu _h=2/5,\nu _e=8/5)`$ the high $`T`$ limit (2.7K) is $`P=50\%`$ as expected but for $`p=2`$ the polarization falls to $`40\%`$ and for $`p=+2`$ it rises to $`75\%`$. These two cases give us the limits $`1.2<m^{}<2.0`$, with the fact that the polarization at $`p=+2`$ is closer to its fully polarized value suggesting that the mass is closer to the upper limit. Around $`\nu _e=3/2`$ $`(\nu _h=1/2)`$ there is a rapid depolarization of the spin system with temperature due to the increasing thermal population of the upper spin sublevel, which is consistent with the behaviour being dominated by the small energy scale of the bare spin splitting. By contrast at $`\nu _e=1`$ $`(\nu _h=1)`$ there is a maximum in the spin polarization of the holes which is much more robust than these other features due to the formation of the Quantum Hall ferromagnet and exchange enhancement of the spin gap, although the polarization is not $`100\%`$ due to spin mixing phenomena which will be the subject of a further publication .

The values which we have deduced for the mass are high compared with values based on activation measurements of the energy gap , exactly as predicted by Park and Jain , and it should be born in mind that the value of the carrier density is quite high in the samples studied here and we would expect that the mass would increase due to the $`\sqrt{B}`$ dependence of the Coulomb energy on magnetic field as observed in activation measurements for $`\nu _e<1`$ . The value for $`m^{}g^{}/m_e`$ is also substantially higher than found from tilted field  and thermal acivation measurements around $`\nu =3/2`$ in lower density samples. Du et al  in particular concluded that there was a dependence on the effective field of $`m^{}g^{}/m_e=0.264+0.05B^{}`$ which would give a value of $`m^{}g^{}/m_e=0.49`$ for $`\nu =4/3`$ in our samples. Similarly the conclusion of Leadley et al  was that the mass alone also depended on the effective field as $`m^{}/m_e=0.51+0.083B^{}`$ which would give a mass of $`1.91m_e`$ at $`\nu _e=1/3`$ in our samples. The present measurements suggest instead that the polarization mass is determined only by the total carrier density and the fact that the polarization approaches $`\nu =3/2`$ smoothly shows that there is no evidence for any divergence of the mass as $`B^{}0`$ as has been previously suggested in both theory  and experiment. One question is whether the $`\nu _h=1/2`$ CF hole masses should be compared with the mass at the equivalent (low) electron densities or with the value appropriate to the total electron density. In the present case the parabolic dispersion assumption implies that the CF hole and electron masses should be the same and therefore makes it likely that the high values for the CF hole mass are due to the high total carrier density. Even higher values for the masses have been deduced in a recent optical measurement of electron polarization deduced indirectly from photoluminescence polarization by Kukushkin et al . Values of $`2.27m_e`$ were found both at $`\nu _e=1/2`$ with $`n_e=1.26\times 10^{11}`$cm-2 and at $`\nu _e=3/2`$ with $`n_e=6.3\times 10^{11}`$cm-2. The higher density result seems consistent with our data, but not that at the lower density.

In conclusion, we have demonstrated that a direct measurement of the spin polarization of the 2DEG can be made through measurements of the absorption deduced from the reflectivity. This allows us to observe a partially polarized CF gas and to deduce the polarization mass of the CF holes which is found to be significantly higher than the values deduced from measurements of the activation energy gaps at fractional filling factors.

Acknowledgements: We are grateful to the UK-EPSRC for continued support.


text:
# On the Mixed Propagator Approach to 𝜌-𝜔 Mixing This work is partly supported by the grant No.90103002 of National Natural Science Foundation of China.

##

$`\rho ^0\omega `$ mixing (or $`\rho ^0\omega `$ interference, or interference between overlapping resonances, or charge asymmetry caused by $`\rho \omega `$ mixing and so on) has attracted much interest during past four decades. Since 1961, there is a great deal of works on this subject in the literature (see, for example, review articles and the references within). Recently, we used model-independent effective Lagrangian (eff-L) approach to discuss $`\rho `$ and $`\omega `$ anomaly-like processes of $`\rho ^0\pi ^0\gamma `$, and of $`\omega \pi ^0\gamma `$. It has been found that there exist a hidden charge-asymmetry enhancement effect to $`\rho ^0\pi ^0\gamma `$ due to $`\rho ^0\omega `$ mixing. Namely, we have (by using the notations in ref)

$`f_{\rho ^0\pi ^0\gamma }|_{\mathrm{eff}\mathrm{L}}`$ $`=`$ $`f_{\rho ^0\pi ^0\gamma }^{(0)}(1+{\displaystyle \frac{3\mathrm{\Pi }_{\rho \omega }(m_\rho ^2)}{m_\rho ^2m_\omega ^2+im_\omega \mathrm{\Gamma }_\omega }}),`$ (1)
$`f_{\omega \pi ^0\gamma }|_{\mathrm{eff}\mathrm{L}}`$ $`=`$ $`f_{\omega \pi ^0\gamma }^{(0)}(1+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{3}}{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Pi }_{\rho \omega }(m_\omega ^2)}{m_\omega ^2m_\rho ^2+im_\rho \mathrm{\Gamma }_\rho }}),`$ (2)
where the subscript ’eff-L’ means the results obtained by in the effective Lagrangian approach. Due to $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_\omega <<\mathrm{\Gamma }_\rho `$, we have

$`|f_{\rho ^0\pi ^0\gamma }|_{\mathrm{eff}\mathrm{L}}`$ $`>>`$ $`f_{\rho ^0\pi ^0\gamma }^{(0)}=f_{\rho ^\pm \pi ^\pm \gamma }`$ (3)
$`|f_{\omega \pi ^0\gamma }|_{\mathrm{eff}\mathrm{L}}`$ $``$ $`f_{\omega \pi ^0\gamma }^{(0)}.`$ (4)
This reflects an unusual charge asymmetry enhancement effect for $`\rho \pi \gamma `$. As addressed in, this hidden effect has already been implied by experiment.

On the other hand, There is a well-known quantum mechanics method to deal with the $`\rho \omega `$ mixing problem: the approach of mixed propagator with pole approximation (shortly, we will call it as pole-Mixed-Propagator approach, or pole-MP approach). This approach was developed even before discovery of QCD. A question arisen here what are results for $`\rho ^0\pi ^0\gamma `$ and $`\omega \pi ^0\gamma `$ in pole-MP approach? The vector meson propagator is given by (Renard representation)

$`D_{\mu \nu }(q^2)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle d^4xe^{iq.x}0|T\{V_\mu (x)V_\nu (0)\}|0}`$ (5)
$`=`$ $`D(q^2)g_{\mu \nu }+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{q^2}}(D(0)D(s))q_\mu q_\nu `$ (6)
where $`sq^2`$, and the propagator function $`D(s)`$ is written in the following way

$$D(s)=\frac{1}{sW(s)}.$$
(7)
For multi-vector-meson channels, $`W(s)`$ is complex mass-square matrix with non-zero off-diagonal elements in general. The basic assumption for pole-MP approach is that the physical states are eigenvectors of $`W(s)`$, or the complex mass-square of physical state is determined by the following equation

$$det[sW(s)]=0.$$
(8)
For $`\rho \omega `$ case, the solutions of this physical condition equation are follows

$`|\rho _p^0`$ $`=`$ $`|\rho _I^0+ϵ|\omega _I,\stackrel{~}{\rho }_p^0|=\rho _I^0|ϵ\omega _I|`$ (9)
$`|\omega _p`$ $`=`$ $`|\omega _Iϵ|\rho _I^0,\stackrel{~}{\omega }_p|=\omega _I^0|+ϵ\rho _I^0|`$ (10)
with

$$ϵ=\frac{\mathrm{\Pi }_{\rho \omega }}{m_\omega ^2m_\rho ^2+i(m_\omega \mathrm{\Gamma }_\omega m_\rho \mathrm{\Gamma }_\rho )},$$
(11)
where $`|\rho _p^0`$ and $`|\omega _p`$ denote physical $`\rho ^0`$ and $`\omega `$ states under the pole approximation assumption respectively, $`|\rho _I^0|1,0`$ and $`|\omega _I|0,0`$ are in the isospin basis, and $`\mathrm{\Pi }_{\rho \omega }\rho _I^0|W|\omega _I`$. Note that $`ϵ`$ is not a real number, and hence the transfer matrix from isospin basis to physical basis is not unitary. The physical states are normalized in following way

$$\stackrel{~}{a}|b=\delta _{ab}\mathrm{and}𝐈=\underset{a}{}|\stackrel{~}{a}a|=\underset{a}{}|a\stackrel{~}{a}|$$
(12)
where $`a,b=\rho _p^0`$ or $`\omega _p`$. Because the transfer matrix between the isospin bases and the physical one is not unitary in the pole-MP, the relations of eq. (9) can not be realized in the formalism of unitary Lagrangian field theory. Since it has been widely accepted that the effective Lagrangian field theories inspired by QCD conceptions (e.g., VMD, large $`N_c`$ expansion, non-linear realization of chiral symmetry, WCCWZ realization, WZ-anomaly, hidden local symmetry and so on) is legitimate and useful to study $`\rho `$ and $`\omega `$ physics, that the pole-MP approach contradicts to effective Lagrangian field theory is a difficulty for pole-MP.

To show the differences between two approach further, let us consider $`\rho ^0,\omega \pi ^0\gamma `$ decays in the pole-MP. Again, using $`f_{\rho ^0\pi ^0\gamma },f_{\omega \pi ^0\gamma }`$ and $`f_{\rho ^0\pi ^0\gamma }^{(0)},f_{\omega \pi ^0\gamma }^{(0)}`$ to denote the physical coupling constants and the isospin-basis constants respectively, we have

$`f_{\rho ^0\pi ^0\gamma }|_{\mathrm{pole}\mathrm{MP}}`$ $`=`$ $`f_{\rho ^0\pi ^0\gamma }^{(0)}(1+{\displaystyle \frac{3\mathrm{\Pi }_{\rho \omega }(m_\rho ^2)}{m_\rho ^2m_\omega ^2+i(m_\omega \mathrm{\Gamma }_\omega m_\rho \mathrm{\Gamma }_\rho )}}),`$ (13)
$`f_{\omega \pi ^0\gamma }|_{\mathrm{pole}\mathrm{MP}}`$ $`=`$ $`f_{\omega \pi ^0\gamma }^{(0)}(1+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{3}}{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Pi }_{\rho \omega }(m_\omega ^2)}{m_\omega ^2m_\rho ^2i(m_\omega \mathrm{\Gamma }_\omega m_\rho \mathrm{\Gamma }_\rho )}}).`$ (14)
where $`f_{\omega \pi ^0\gamma }^{(0)}=3f_{\rho ^0\pi ^0\gamma }^{(0)}`$ has been used. Comparing eq. (1) with eq. (13) and noting $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_\omega <<\mathrm{\Gamma }_\rho `$, we can see

$`f_{\rho ^0\pi ^0\gamma }|_{\mathrm{pole}\mathrm{MP}}`$ $``$ $`f_{\rho ^0\pi ^0\gamma }^{(0)}<<f_{\rho ^0\pi ^0\gamma }|_{\mathrm{eff}\mathrm{L}}`$ (15)
$`f_{\omega \pi ^0\gamma }|_{\mathrm{pole}\mathrm{MP}}`$ $``$ $`f_{\omega \pi ^0\gamma }^{(0)}f_{\omega \pi ^0\gamma }|_{\mathrm{eff}\mathrm{L}}`$ (16)
Eq. (15) indicates there is no the hidden charge-asymmetry enhancement effect for $`\rho ^0\pi ^0\gamma `$ mentioned above in the pole-MP formalism. The result of pole-MP approach to $`\rho ^0\pi ^0\gamma `$ is significantly different from one of eff-L. Thus we learned that there may be something wrong. The purpose of this letter is to re-examine the pole-Mixed Propagator approach, and propose a new mixed propagator approach based on the criterion of experimental measurement to meson resonances.

Let’s consider whether the pole-MP assumption on physical states eq. (8) is consistent with the experimental criterion to measure the physical meson resonance or not. We first consider the single vector meson resonance channel case. The $`D_{\mu \nu }`$ of eq. (5) is now the ordinary propagator of a vector meson. The reaction amplitude for a process by the medium of this vector meson resonance reads

$$J_1^\mu D_{\mu \nu }J_2^\nu =(J_1J_2)\frac{1}{sW(s)}$$
(17)
where $`J_1^\mu `$ and $`J_2^\nu `$ represent some currents and $`q_\mu J_{1,\mathrm{\hspace{0.33em}2}}^\mu =0`$. The reaction probability is

$$\sigma (s)||^2|\frac{1}{sW(s)}|^2$$
(18)
The meson resonance mass measured in the experiment is real and is determined by the location of the maximum of $`\sigma (s)`$peak in real $`s`$axis. Then the resonance mass is determined by the following equation

$$\frac{}{s}|sW(s)|^2=0$$
(19)
Consequently, the mass-square of the resonance, $`M^2`$, is determined by the solution of above equation, i.e.,

$$s=[ReW\frac{1}{4}\frac{}{s}(W^{}W+WW^{})](1\frac{}{s}ReW)^1M^2(s).$$
(20)
Now return to $`\rho ^0\omega `$ two channel case, $`W(s)`$ and hence $`M^2(s)`$ are $`2\times 2`$ matrices. The mass determination equation for physical resonance states should read

$$det[sM^2(s)]=0.$$
(21)
The physical states then are the eigenvectors of the real mass-matrix $`M^2`$. Obviously, the corresponding pole-MP equation (8) is definitely different from above mass determination equation derived from the experiment measurement principle to physical resonance states. It indicates that the the pole-MP is not consistent with the criterion of experimental measurement to the physical resonances. Consequently, we should use eq. (21) to define true physical $`\rho `$ and $`\omega `$fields, and rule out the condition of eq. (8). For convenience, we will call this method hereafter as Experiment-criterion Mixed Propagator approach, or expt-MP approach.

Now let us use expt-MP to fit experiments. Following refs and using Breit-Wigner approximation, we have

$`W=\left(\begin{array}{ccc}m_{\rho _I}^2i\sqrt{s}\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\rho _I}\hfill & \mathrm{\Pi }_{\rho \omega }(s)& \\ \mathrm{\Pi }_{\rho \omega }(s)\hfill & m_{\omega _I}^2i\sqrt{s}\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\omega _I}& \end{array}\right)`$ (24)
Considering Im$`\mathrm{\Pi }_{\rho \omega }`$ is small and hence ignorable, we get

$`ReW=\left(\begin{array}{ccc}m_{\rho _I}^2\hfill & \mathrm{\Pi }_{\rho \omega }(s)& \\ \mathrm{\Pi }_{\rho \omega }(s)\hfill & m_{\omega _I}^2& \end{array}\right)`$ (27)
Then, in $`ReW/s`$, only off-diagonal elements of $`\mathrm{\Pi }_{\rho \omega }/s`$ is left. Generally, for a broad class of models $`\mathrm{\Pi }_{\rho \omega }(s)`$ at $`(\rho ,\omega )`$resonance energy region can be determined by taking VMD-type $`\rho \omega `$ mixing Lagrangian $`_{\rho \omega }=f_{\rho \omega }\rho ^{\mu \nu }\omega _{\mu \nu }`$ ( $`V^{\mu \nu }=^\mu V^\nu ^\nu V^\mu ,V=\rho ,\omega `$). It leads to $`\mathrm{\Pi }_{\rho \omega }(s)=f_{\rho \omega }s`$ which satisfies $`\mathrm{\Pi }(s=0)_{\rho \omega }=0`$ required by generic consideration in ref. Thus, we have

$$\frac{}{s}\mathrm{\Pi }_{\rho \omega }=f_{\rho \omega }=\frac{\mathrm{\Pi }_{\rho \omega }}{s}|_{sm_\rho ^2}6.7\times 10^311(ReW/s)1.$$
(28)
where $`|\mathrm{\Pi }_{\rho \omega }|4000MeV^2`$ has been used in the estimation. Furthermore, noting $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_\omega /m_\omega 1`$, we have

$`M^2=\left(\begin{array}{cc}m_{\rho _I}^2\frac{(s\mathrm{\Gamma }_\rho ^2)}{s}& \mathrm{\Pi }_{\rho \omega }\frac{1}{2}(m_{\rho _I}^2+m_{\omega _I}^2)\frac{}{s}\mathrm{\Pi }_{\rho \omega }\\ \mathrm{\Pi }_{\rho \omega }\frac{1}{2}(m_{\rho _I}^2+m_{\omega _I}^2)\frac{}{s}\mathrm{\Pi }_{\rho \omega }& m_{\omega _I}^2\end{array}\right)`$ (31)
where the off-diagonal elements of $`M^2`$ matrix represent the $`\rho \omega `$ mixing in the isospin basis. The physical $`\rho `$ and $`\omega `$ are eigenstates of $`M^2`$. Because $`M^2`$ matrix is real and symmetric, distinguishing from the transformation from isospin basis to physical basis in the pole-MP, the corresponding transfer-matrix of expt-MP is unitary. $`M^2`$ matrix is diagonalized by the unitary $`2\times 2`$ matrix $`C`$:

$`CM^2C^{}=\left(\begin{array}{ccc}m_\rho ^2\hfill & 0& \\ 0\hfill & m_\omega ^2& \end{array}\right)`$ (34)
where

$`C=\left(\begin{array}{ccc}1\hfill & \eta & \\ \eta \hfill & 1& \end{array}\right),\eta ={\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Pi }_{\rho \omega }(1\frac{1}{2s}(m_\rho ^2+m_\omega ^2))}{(m_\omega ^2m_\rho ^2)}}.`$ (37)
Consequently, the solutions of expt-MP’s physical state condition of eq. (21) are follows

$`|\rho _p^0`$ $`=`$ $`|\rho _I^0\eta |\omega _I,\rho _p^0|=|\rho _p^0^{}`$ (38)
$`|\omega _p`$ $`=`$ $`|\omega _I+\eta |\rho _I^0,\omega _p|=|\omega _p^{}.`$ (39)
Under this transformation, we have

$`CWC^{}`$ $`=`$ $`\left(\begin{array}{ccc}z_\rho \hfill & T& \\ T\hfill & z_\omega & \end{array}\right)`$ (42)
where $`z_\rho =m_\rho ^2im_\rho \mathrm{\Gamma }_\rho ,z_\omega =m_\omega ^2im_\omega \mathrm{\Gamma }_\omega `$, and $`T=\mathrm{\Pi }_{\rho \omega }\eta (z_\omega z_\rho )`$ are all defined in the physical state basis of expt-MP. The propagator function in the physical basis $`D^P`$ reads

$`D^P(s)`$ $`=`$ $`C(sW)^1C^{}=(sCWC^{})^1`$ (43)
$`=`$ $`\left(\begin{array}{ccc}(sz_\rho )^1\hfill & (sz_\rho )^1T(sz_\omega )^1& \\ (sz_\omega )^1T(sz_\rho )^1\hfill & (sz_\omega )^1& \end{array}\right)`$ (46)
$``$ $`\left(\begin{array}{ccc}D_{\rho \rho }^P\hfill & D_{\rho \rho }^PTD_{\omega \omega }^P& \\ D_{\omega \omega }^PTD_{\rho \rho }^P\hfill & D_{\omega \omega }^P& \end{array}\right)\left(\begin{array}{ccc}D_{\rho \rho }^P\hfill & D_{\rho \omega }^P& \\ D_{\omega \rho }^P\hfill & D_{\omega \omega }^P& \end{array}\right).`$ (51)
For $`VX`$-vertex ($`V=\rho ,\omega `$ and $`X`$ represents other particles), $`f_{VX}^F`$ denotes the corresponding form-factor, $`f_{VX}^P`$ and $`f_{VX}^0`$ denote the coupling constants in the physical basis and in the isospin basis respectively.

Since $`D_{\rho \omega }^P=D_{\omega \rho }^P0`$ in the expt-MP, generally, the form factor is different from the corresponding coupling constant, i.e., $`f_{VX}^Ff_{VX}^P`$ (by contrast, $`f_{VX}^F=f_{VX}^P`$ in pole-MP approach due to $`D_{\rho \omega }^P=D_{\omega \rho }^P=0`$). From Fig.1, we have

$$D_{VV}^Pf_{VX}^F=D_{V\rho }^Pf_{\rho X}^P+D_{V\omega }^Pf_{\omega X}^P,$$
(52)
with

$`f_{\rho X}^P`$ $`=`$ $`f_{\rho X}^{(0)}\eta f_{\omega X}^{(0)}f_{\omega X}^P=f_{\omega X}^{(0)}+\eta f_{\rho \gamma }^{(0)}.`$ (53)
In terms of eqs. (43) and (53) the time-like EM pion form-factor is given, in the $`\rho \omega `$ interference region, by

$`F_\pi (s)`$ $`=`$ $`1+[f_{\rho \gamma }^PD_{\rho \rho }^Pf_{\rho \pi \pi }^F+f_{\omega \gamma }^PD_{\omega \omega }^Pf_{\omega \pi \pi }^F]`$ (54)
$`=`$ $`1+{\displaystyle \frac{f_{\rho \gamma }^Pf_{\rho \pi \pi }^P}{sz_\rho }}+{\displaystyle \frac{f_{\omega \gamma }^Pf_{\omega \pi \pi }^P}{sz_\omega }}+{\displaystyle \frac{(f_{\rho \gamma }^Pf_{\omega \pi \pi }^P+f_{\omega \gamma }^Pf_{\rho \pi \pi }^P)T}{(sz_\rho )(sz_\omega )}}`$ (55)
$`=`$ $`1+(f_{\rho \gamma }^Pf_{\rho \pi \pi }^P+{\displaystyle \frac{(f_{\rho \gamma }^Pf_{\omega \pi \pi }^P+f_{\omega \gamma }^Pf_{\rho \pi \pi }^P)T}{z_\rho z_\omega }})({\displaystyle \frac{1}{sz_\rho }}+\xi e^{i\varphi }{\displaystyle \frac{1}{sz_\omega }}),`$ (56)
with

$`\xi e^{i\varphi }`$ $`=`$ $`[{\displaystyle \frac{1}{3}}\eta {\displaystyle \frac{(\eta +\frac{1}{3})T}{z_\rho z_\omega }}][1+{\displaystyle \frac{(\eta +\frac{1}{3})T}{z_\rho z_\omega }}]^1,`$ (57)
where $`f_{\rho \gamma }^{(0)}=3f_{\omega \gamma }^{(0)}`$ and $`f_{\omega \pi \pi }^{(0)}=0`$ have been used, and $`\varphi `$ is Orsay phase. Using $`\mathrm{\Pi }_{\rho \omega }4000MeV^2`$ in eq. (57), we obtain that $`\xi 0.012`$ and $`\varphi `$ is equal to about $`100^o101^o`$ as $`s`$ varies from $`m_\rho ^2`$ to $`m_\omega ^2`$. These predictions are in good agreement with experimental data, and hence the expt-MP approach is legitimate to describe the $`\rho \omega `$ mixing effects in the pion EM-form factor.

Now, we study the anomalous-like $`\rho ^0\pi ^0\gamma `$ and $`\omega \pi ^0\gamma `$ decays in terms of the expt-MP approach. Namely, taking $`X=\pi ^0\gamma `$ in eq. (52), we have

$`D_{\rho \rho }^Pf_{\rho ^0\pi ^0\gamma }^F`$ $`=`$ $`D_{\rho \rho }^Pf_{\rho ^0\pi ^0\gamma }^P+D_{\rho \omega }^Pf_{\omega \pi ^0\gamma }^P,`$ (58)
$`D_{\omega \omega }^Pf_{\omega \pi ^0\gamma }^F`$ $`=`$ $`D_{\omega \omega }^Pf_{\omega \pi ^0\gamma }^P+D_{\omega \rho }^Pf_{\rho ^0\pi ^0\gamma }^P,`$ (59)
and hence

$`f_{\rho ^0\pi ^0\gamma }^F`$ $`=`$ $`f_{\rho ^0\pi ^0\gamma }^{(0)}\eta f_{\omega \pi ^0\gamma }^{(0)}+{\displaystyle \frac{T}{m_\rho ^2m_\omega ^2+im_\omega \mathrm{\Gamma }_\omega }}f_{\omega \pi ^0\gamma }^{(0)},`$ (60)
$`f_{\omega \pi ^0\gamma }^F`$ $`=`$ $`f_{\omega \pi ^0\gamma }^{(0)}+\eta f_{\rho ^0\pi ^0\gamma }^{(0)}+{\displaystyle \frac{T}{m_\omega ^2m_\rho ^2+im_\rho \mathrm{\Gamma }_\rho }}f_{\rho \pi ^0\gamma }^{(0)},`$ (61)
where eqs.( 38) and ( 43) have been used. Considering $`|\eta |0.006<<1`$ and $`T\mathrm{\Pi }_{\rho \omega }`$, we finally obtain the desired results in the expt-MP formalism as follows

$`f_{\rho ^0\pi ^0\gamma }|_{\mathrm{expt}\mathrm{MP}}`$ $``$ $`f_{\rho ^0\pi ^0\gamma }^Ff_{\rho ^0\pi ^0\gamma }^{(0)}+{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Pi }_{\rho \omega }}{m_\rho ^2m_\omega ^2+im_\omega \mathrm{\Gamma }_\omega }}f_{\omega \pi ^0\gamma }^{(0)},`$ (62)
$`f_{\omega \pi ^0\gamma }|_{\mathrm{expt}\mathrm{MP}}`$ $``$ $`f_{\omega \pi ^0\gamma }^Ff_{\omega \pi ^0\gamma }^{(0)}+{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Pi }_{\rho \omega }}{m_\omega ^2m_\rho ^2+im_\rho \mathrm{\Gamma }_\rho }}f_{\rho ^0\pi ^0\gamma }^{(0)}.`$ (63)
Noting $`f_{\omega \pi ^0\gamma }^{(0)}=3f_{\rho ^0\pi ^0\gamma }^{(0)}`$, above equations are same as eq.(1). Consequently, this result indicates that the charge-asymmetry enhancement effect to $`\rho ^0\pi \gamma `$ revealed in ref. by using the effective Lagrangian theory has been confirmed in expt-PM approach.

To conclude, the Mixed Propagator (MP) approach to $`\rho \omega `$ mixing is investigated in this letter. It is found that under the pole-approximation assumption the results of MP approach is not compatible both with the effective Lagrangian theory and with the experiment measurement criterion. This fact indicates the pole approximation for determining the physical basis of $`\rho `$ and $`\omega `$ is inadequate and ad hoc. To cure these diseases, we propose a new MP approach in which the physical states of $`\rho `$ and $`\omega `$ are determined by the requirement of experimental measurement to meson resonance. In terms of this new MP approach, the EM pion form factor $`F_\pi `$ and form factors of $`\rho ^0\pi ^0\gamma `$ and of $`\omega \pi ^0\gamma `$ are derived. The results of $`F_\pi `$ are in good agreement with data. The form factor of $`\rho ^0\pi ^0\gamma `$ exhibits a hidden charge-asymmetry enhancement effect which agree with the prediction of the effective Lagrangian theory, i.e., the conclusion of ref. has been confirmed.

We are pleased to acknowledge K.F.Liu for helpful discussion.


text:
# Mandelbrot set in coupled logistic maps and in an electronic experiment

## Abstract

We suggest an approach to constructing physical systems with dynamical characteristics of the complex analytic iterative maps. The idea follows from a simple notion that the complex quadratic map by a variable change may be transformed into a set of two identical real one-dimensional quadratic maps with a particular coupling. Hence, dynamical behavior of similar nature may occur in coupled dissipative nonlinear systems, which relate to the Feigenbaum universality class. To substantiate the feasibility of this concept, we consider an electronic system, which exhibits dynamical phenomena intrinsic to complex analytic maps. Experimental results are presented, providing the Mandelbrot set in the parameter plane of this physical system.

*1 Institute of Radio-Engineering and Electronics of RAS,
Zelenaya 38, Saratov, 410019, Russia*

*2 Saratov State University,
Astrakhanskaya 83, Saratov, 410026, Russia*

PACS number(s): 05.45.-a, 05.45.Df, 05.45.Xt

One of the rich and fascinating sub-disciplines in nonlinear dynamics is the theory of iterative complex analytic mappings. A well-known example is the quadratic map

$$z_{n+1}=\lambda z_n^2,$$
(1)
where the dynamical variable $`z`$ and the parameter $`\lambda `$ are both complex. The set of parameter values defined by the condition that the iterations launched from the critical point $`z=0`$ do not diverge to infinity is the celebrated Mandelbrot set, perhaps, the most well-known example of a fractal . Among other interesting objects in the field of complex analytic dynamics one can mention Julia sets – fractal basin boundaries of the attractor at infinity on the $`z`$-plane , period-tripling and other unusual bifurcation phenomena , Siegel discs – domains on $`z`$-plane, filled by closed invariant curves, which appear near fixed points at the moment of stability loss via irrational eigenvalues . Although some nontrivial physical applications of complex maps are known (for problems like renormalization group approach in phase-transition theory and percolation theory ), it would be interesting to find examples of nonlinear systems manifesting one or more of the above mentioned phenomena in actual dynamical behavior.

In fact, complex analytic functions represent a very special and restricted class of maps. Indeed, the real and imaginary parts of $`f(z)`$ must satisfy the Cauchy - Riemann equations. If this is not the case, the dynamics become drastically different . This circumstance forces one to ask the principal question: Do the phenomena demonstrated by complex analytic maps have any concern to dynamical behavior of physical systems? Recently this problem was posed and discussed by Beck . This author has considered motion of a particle in a double-well potential in a time-dependent magnetic field, and proved that under certain assumptions a complex analytic map may describe the dynamics of the particle.

The aim of the present paper is to suggest some general approach to constructing physical systems with properties of dynamics specific to the complex analytic maps.

Let us start from the complex quadratic map (1) and, first, separate the real and imaginary parts. Designating $`z=x+iy`$ and $`\lambda =\lambda ^{}+i\lambda ^{\prime \prime }`$ we obtain

$$x_{n+1}=\lambda ^{}x_n^2+y_n^2,y_{n+1}=\lambda ^{\prime \prime }2x_ny_n.$$
(2)
The variable and parameter change

$$\xi =x+\beta y,\eta =x\beta y,$$
(3)
$$\lambda _1=\lambda ^{}+\beta \lambda ^{\prime \prime },\lambda _2=\lambda ^{}\beta \lambda ^{\prime \prime },$$
(4)
where $`\beta 0`$ is an arbitrary constant, transforms the equations (2) into a set of two coupled real logistic maps

$$\xi _{n+1}=\lambda _1\xi _n^2+\epsilon (\xi _n\eta _n)^2,\eta _{n+1}=\lambda _2\eta _n^2+\epsilon (\xi _n\eta _n)^2.$$
(5)
Here $`\epsilon =(1+\beta ^2)/4\beta ^2`$ plays the role of a coupling parameter. It is worth noting that coupling in these equations is of a very special kind: It may be interpreted as an equal simultaneous shift of control parameters in both maps at each step of iterations, which is proportional to the square of the dynamical variable difference.

It is easy to see that for any selection of $`\beta `$ the coupling parameter is positive, and exceeds $`1/4`$. Nevertheless, we may consider the coupled maps (5) for arbitrary values of $`\epsilon `$. To motivate this, we turn to the generalized complex numbers . For pairs of real numbers $`(x,y)`$ written as $`x+iy`$ it is possible to define different consistent rules of arithmetical operations setting $`i^2=a+ib`$, where $`a`$ and $`b`$ are some real constants. The case $`a=1`$, $`b=0`$, or $`i^2=1`$, gives rise to usual complex numbers, $`a=1`$, $`b=0`$, $`i^2=1`$ – to the so-called perplex numbers, and $`a=b=0`$, $`i^2=0`$ – to dual numbers. Any other selection of $`a`$ and $`b`$ appears to be isomorphic to one of these three cases, which are known as elliptic, hyperbolic and parabolic number systems, respectively.

In the case of perplex numbers instead of Eqs. (2) we have $`x_{n+1}=\lambda ^{}x_n^2y_n^2`$, $`y_{n+1}=\lambda ^{\prime \prime }2x_ny_n`$. Then the variable change (3), (4) yields Eq. (5) with $`\epsilon =(\beta ^21)/4\beta ^2`$. The coupling parameter can take either positive or negative values satisfying $`\epsilon <1/4`$. (In fact, by an appropriate variable change this case can be reduced to two uncoupled real maps.) For dual numbers $`x_{n+1}=\lambda ^{}x_n^2`$, $`y_{n+1}=\lambda ^{\prime \prime }2x_ny_n`$. By means of (3), (4) we arrive at the coupled maps (5) with $`\epsilon =1/4`$ – the same value of the coupling parameter for any $`\beta `$.

Diagrams in Fig. 1 are charts of the parameter plane $`(\lambda _1,\lambda _2)`$ for the coupled maps (5) for several values of the coupling parameter. To obtain them we produce a large number of iterations starting from the origin $`\xi =\eta =0`$ at each pixel of some area on the parameter-plane and analyze the asymptotic behavior of the iterations. Divergence is marked by white, aperiodic behavior by black, and asymptotically periodic dynamics by gray; respective numbers designate the periods. At $`\epsilon =0.5`$ we observe exactly the Mandelbrot set (rotated by $`45^{}`$ in comparison with its usual depiction). For $`0.25<\epsilon <+\mathrm{}`$ this set continues to exist, but as a distorted version of the standard picture. At $`\epsilon =0.25`$ the set corresponding to the confined dynamics turns into a number of strips. For $`\epsilon <0.25`$ it takes the form of rhombus-like structures (at $`\epsilon =0`$ this is a square). Similar metamorphoses from the Mandelbrot set to the rhombus-like object was noted earlier in Ref.  for the quadratic map (1) considered for the generalized complex numbers.

It is known that a single real logistic map represents a universality class, which is associated with the period-doubling bifurcation cascade and includes many dissipative nonlinear systems (forced nonlinear oscillators, Rössler and Lorenz equations, etc.) . It may be thought that taking two copies of a system, relating to this universality class, and maintaining the appropriate type of coupling one can arrange the dynamical behavior characteristic to the complex analytic maps. (It is supposed that the control parameters for the both subsystems allow an independent regulation.)

To illustrate the feasibility of this approach we have elaborated a real electronic system, which reproduces the dynamics of the coupled logistic maps (5).

We start with a specialized analog device suggested in Ref.  to study the dynamics of nonlinear systems represented by iterative mappings, in particular, by the logistic map. Our system (see Fig. 2) contains two pairs of the sample-hold cells (marked by dotted frames and figures $`11`$, $`12`$, $`21`$, $`22`$ on the diagram); one pair represents a single real quadratic map. Each of these cells consists of an analog switch and a capacitor. In the regime of picking a sample the capacitor is linked to the signal source via the switch, and accepts a charge up to a definite voltage. At some moment the switch breaks, and then the voltage on the capacitor remains constant – this is the regime of holding or storage. The voltage from the capacitor governs the operational amplifier of large input and low output resistance, so the charge of the capacitor remains practically constant. The used regime of the operational amplifier ensures equality of the output voltage to the input one. A set of two sample-hold cells is governed by two sequences of non-overlapping rectangular pulses: the switches $`K_{11}`$ and $`K_{21}`$ are opened while $`K_{12}`$ and $`K_{22}`$ are closed and vise versa. Multipliers $`N_1`$ and $`N_2`$ ensure quadratic nonlinearity to obtain squared values of the voltages corresponding to $`\xi _n^2`$, $`\eta _n^2`$. Output of the operational amplifier $`D`$ is the difference signal voltage. It is squared by the multiplier $`N_{12}`$ to produce the signal $`(\xi _n\eta _n)^2`$, then multiplied by $`\epsilon `$ and added to the control voltages corresponding to the parameters $`\lambda _1`$ and $`\lambda _2`$ by means of the operational amplifiers $`L_1`$ and $`L_2`$. The presence of three variable resistors $`R_1^{}`$, $`R_2^{}`$, $`R_{12}^{}`$ gives a possibility to regulate parameters $`\lambda _1`$, $`\lambda _2`$, and $`\epsilon `$, respectively.

Using an oscilloscope in the experiment we could distinguish either dynamics taking place in a restricted domain of the voltages, or the voltages jump to some distant values (analog of divergence in the mathematical model). For periodic regimes the periods could be easily determined (in units of the period of pulses, which control the switches) from the picture on the oscilloscope screen.

Fig. 3 presents two examples of the topography of the plane of two parameters, namely, of voltages regulated by the variable resistors $`R_1^{}`$ and $`R_2^{}`$. The values of the coupling constant are chosen to be $`\epsilon =0.1`$ and $`\epsilon =0.5`$ respectively.

The first diagram demonstrates a rhombus-like structure, similar to that in fig. 1d. Some peculiarities of the experimental plot distinct from the computer model may be explained by inevitable deflections from perfect quadratic nonlinearities at the edges of the working interval of voltages.

The second diagram for larger coupling shows a formation remarkably similar to the Mandelbrot set. Although in the experiment it was not possible to resolve extremely fine details of the structure, the location of all main leaves of the ”cactus” are in excellent agreement with the computer generated picture.

Experimental measurements at different values of coupling confirm that the set on the parameter plane $`(U_1,U_2)`$ corresponding to the confined dynamics evolve in accordance with the results of numerical computations for the coupled maps (5).

It is worth emphasizing that what we deal with is a real physical object, effected by such factors as noise and technical fluctuations of voltages. The elements are not perfectly identical, the nonlinear function is not perfectly $`x^2`$, and so forth. A substantial circumstance is that all these factors do not destroy the phenomena of complex analytic dynamics, which we observe.

Perhaps, an electronic system could be built also to realize in a straightforward way the dynamics of real and imaginary parts of the complex variable governed by the map (1). However, our approach seems potentially more interesting because we state a direction for further search for dynamical systems manifesting behavior similar to that of the complex iterative maps.

As explained, the quadratic map used as a basic element in our construction, must be regarded as a representative of the wide universality class, which includes many realistic physical systems and their mathematical models (associated with the period-doubling bifurcation cascade) . Hence, in the case of a properly arranged coupling between two period-doubling elements of any nature, one may expect the whole system to demonstrate the phenomena of complex analytic dynamics.

The authors acknowledge support from RFBR (grant No 00-02-17509) and from CRDF (REC-006). V.I.P. acknowledges support from RFBR (grant No 99-02-17735). O.B.I. acknowledges support from RFBR (grant No 01-02-06385). We thank Carsten Knudsen for discussion and useful comments.


text:
# Transport theory and low energy properties of colour superconductors

## 1 Introduction

Quantum chromodynamics (QCD) under extreme conditions displays a very rich phase structure. At low temperature and high baryonic density, quarks form Cooper pairs due to attractive interactions amongst them. The diquark condensate modifies the ground state of QCD and leads to the phenomenon of colour superconductivity . This phase is typically characterised by the Anderson-Higgs mechanism and an energy gap associated to the fermionic quasiparticles. It is expected that a colour superconducting state of matter is realized in compact stars.

For two light quark flavours the diquark condensate breaks the $`SU_c(3)`$ group down to $`SU_c(2)`$ (2SC phase) . Five gluons acquire a mass, while three gluons remain massless and exhibit confinement. Furthermore, quarks of one colour remain ungapped, as they do not participate in the condensation. A global axial $`U_A(1)`$ is broken at asymptotically large densities, leading to a pseudo Nambu-Goldstone mode, similar to the $`\eta ^{}`$ meson. For three light quark flavours the condensates lock the colour and flavour symmetry (CFL phase) . Colour, chiral and baryon number symmetry are spontaneously broken. All gluons become massive and all quarks are gapped. The light degrees of freedom are the Nambu-Goldstone bosons – eight associated to the breaking of chiral symmetry, one associated to the breaking of baryon number symmetry, and, at asymptotically large densities, an extra pseudo Nambu-Goldstone boson associated to the breaking of $`U_A(1)`$ – which dominate the long distance physics of the superconductor.

In this contribution, we discuss results obtained in collaboration with C. Manuel in . First, we include electromagnetic interactions and study the one-loop photon polarisation tensor in colour superconductors . Second, we discuss a semi-classical transport theory for quark quasiparticles in the 2SC phase . This is a convenient starting point for both the construction of low energy effective theories or the computation of transport coefficients of dense quark matter.

## 2 Photons in colour superconductors

A diquark condensate breaks, apart from the colour and flavour symmetry, also the $`U(1)`$ symmetry of electromagnetism . However, the linear combination $`\stackrel{~}{A}`$ of the standard photon and the eighth gluon remains massless,

$`\stackrel{~}{A}=\mathrm{sin}\theta G^8+\mathrm{cos}\theta A,\stackrel{~}{G}^8=\mathrm{cos}\theta G^8+\mathrm{sin}\theta A,\stackrel{~}{e}=e\mathrm{cos}\theta .`$ (1)
The field $`\stackrel{~}{A}`$ plays the role of the “in-medium” photon in the superconductor, with the in-medium gauge coupling $`\stackrel{~}{e}`$. Hence, the usual $`U(1)`$ charge generator $`Q`$ is replaced by the in-medium generator $`\stackrel{~}{Q}`$ . Notice also that the rotation angle $`\theta `$ differs for the 2SC and CFL phases,

$$\mathrm{cos}\theta _{\mathrm{CFL}}=g(g^2+\frac{4}{3}e^2)^{1/2},\mathrm{cos}\theta _{2\mathrm{S}\mathrm{C}}=g(g^2+\frac{1}{3}e^2)^{1/2}.$$
(2)
In the CFL phase, the charged particles are the Goldstone bosons $`\pi ^\pm ,K^\pm `$, four gluons, and four quarks, all with $`\stackrel{~}{Q}`$-charge $`\pm \stackrel{~}{e}`$. The condensates are $`\stackrel{~}{Q}`$-neutral. The spectrum contains the same number of positively and negatively charged particles. In consequence, quark matter in the CFL phase is $`\stackrel{~}{Q}`$-neutral. This holds also in the presence of $`K^0`$ condensates. CFL matter is also $`Q`$-neutral, even for a non-vanishing strange quark mass or chemical potential . No further charge carriers are needed to make the system electrically neutral. In the 2SC phase, four gluons and four quarks have half integer charges $`\pm \frac{1}{2}\stackrel{~}{e}`$, while the up quark which is not participating in the condensate has the $`\stackrel{~}{Q}`$-charge $`\stackrel{~}{e}`$. Additional heavy strange quarks have the $`\stackrel{~}{Q}`$-charge $`\frac{1}{2}\stackrel{~}{e}`$. Again, the condensates are electrically neutral. $`\stackrel{~}{Q}`$-neutrality of the full system requires additional negative charges, either as a background of heavy strange quarks or electrons .

The photon self energy, to one-loop order, is given by all one-loop diagrams with two external photon lines and internal loops of charged particles. The finite parts of heavy gluon loops are suppressed in the infrared, as are those from the light pions and kaons. Hence, photon polarisation effects are entirely dominated in the infrared limit by the quark loops . A simple physical picture has emerged from the explicit computation of the photon polarisation tensor . For intermediate photon momenta $`\mathrm{\Delta }p_0,p\mu `$, the polarisation tensor due to gapped quarks reduces to its well-known hard-dense-loop counterpart in the normal phase. This is easily understood. The photon wavelength is larger than the size of the Cooper pair. Hence, the photons scatter off the gapped quarks just as they would do in the phase without condensation. They are Landau damped, static magnetic fields remain unscreened while static electric fields are effectively Debye screened with a mass of the order $`\stackrel{~}{e}\mu `$, due to all charged quarks. In the 2SC phase, an additional contribution to the Debye mass arises for non-vanishing electron chemical potential. For photons in this momentum regime, and apart from numerical differences for the value of the Debye mass and the couplings, the 2SC and CFL phases look qualitatively the same.

The situation changes significantly for photons with low momenta $`p_0,p\mathrm{\Delta }`$. Here, their Compton wave length is too large to resolve the condensates. The condensates are electrically neutral, but they have an electrical dipole moment and hence modify the dielectric constant $`\stackrel{~}{ϵ}`$ of the medium. Condensates with vanishing spin and angular momentum ($`J=0`$) have no magnetic moment. Therefore, the magnetic permeability remains unchanged. To leading order in $`p_0,p\mathrm{\Delta }`$, one finds for the longitudinal and transversal components of the polarisation tensor $`\mathrm{\Pi }^{\mathrm{gap}}`$ arising from the gapped quarks

$$\mathrm{\Pi }_L^{\mathrm{gap}}(p_0,𝐩)=\stackrel{~}{\kappa }p^2,\mathrm{\Pi }_T^{\mathrm{gap}}(p_0,𝐩)=\stackrel{~}{\kappa }p_0^2,\stackrel{~}{\kappa }=\frac{c}{18\pi ^2}\frac{\stackrel{~}{e}^2\mu ^2}{\mathrm{\Delta }^2}.$$
(3)
The coefficient $`c`$ counts the charges squared of all gapped quarks participating in the condensation: $`c_{2\mathrm{S}\mathrm{C}}=1`$ and $`c_{\mathrm{CFL}}=4`$. The dielectric constant of the medium is

$$\stackrel{~}{ϵ}=1+\frac{c}{18\pi ^2}\frac{\stackrel{~}{e}^2\mu ^2}{\mathrm{\Delta }^2}>1.$$
(4)
For realistic values of the gauge coupling, the gap and the quark chemical potential, $`\stackrel{~}{\kappa }`$ is of order one. It becomes very large for asymptotic large densities and fixed $`\stackrel{~}{e}`$.

In the CFL phase, the low momentum limit of the polarisation tensor is solely given by (3). Due to the absence of ungapped quarks, electric fields are no longer Debye screened in the infrared limit. Since all $`\stackrel{~}{Q}`$-charged hadronic excitations in the CFL phase acquire a gap for non-vanishing quark masses, the photon cannot scatter if its energy is below the energy of the lightest charged mode: CFL matter is a transparent insulator . The polarisation of the medium implies that photons propagate with a velocity smaller than the velocity of light in vacuum. The refraction index of CFL matter with the normal phase is $`\stackrel{~}{n}=\stackrel{~}{ϵ}^{1/2}>1`$.

In the 2SC phase, the low momentum limit of the polarisation tensor is given by (3) plus an additional contribution from the charged ungapped quark and, possibly, electrons. In the static limit, they combine into $`\mathrm{\Pi }_L=(\stackrel{~}{m}^2+\stackrel{~}{\kappa }p^2)`$ with a Debye mass due to the ungapped quark and the electrons. Therefore, photons still scatter from the charged fermions, and Debye screening, though now with a different Debye mass, persists even for low momenta: 2SC matter is an opaque conductor.

To conclude, we have seen that the propagation of photons in a colour superconducting phase is very different from the normal phase, and also different for the different colour superconducting phases. This result is an important input for a quantitative study of transport coefficients like the electrical or thermal conductivity of the medium. Although our results are based only on a one-loop computation, the corrections to the dielectric constant are small for realistic values of the parameters. Therefore, one may expect that higher loop orders do not change the qualitative picture discussed here.

## 3 Transport in colour superconductors

Next, we study thermal corrections to the low energy physics of a two-flavour colour superconductor . For $`T=0`$, an infrared effective theory has been given recently for the massless $`SU(2)_c`$ gauge fields . The gauge field dynamics differs from the vacuum theory, because the condensates, although neutral with respect to the unbroken $`SU(2)`$, polarise the medium . This is fully analogous to what has been found above for the photon interactions. For momenta $`q\mathrm{\Delta }`$, the effective theory is

$$S_{\mathrm{eff}}^{T=0}[A]=d^4x\left(\frac{ϵ}{2}𝐄_a𝐄_a\frac{1}{2}𝐁_a𝐁_a\right),$$
(5)
where $`E_i^aF_{0i}^a`$ and $`B_i^a\frac{1}{2}ϵ_{ijk}F_{jk}^a`$ are the $`SU(2)`$ electric and magnetic fields. Here, $`ϵ=1+g^2\mu ^2/(18\pi ^2\mathrm{\Delta }^2)`$ is the colour dielectric susceptibility . The colour magnetic susceptibility remains unchanged. This theory is confining with a highly reduced scale of confinement $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_{\mathrm{QCD}}^{}\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{exp}(\frac{2\sqrt{2}\pi }{11}\frac{\mu }{g\mathrm{\Delta }})`$. Due to asymptotic freedom, it is expected that perturbative computations are reliable for energy scales larger than $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_{\mathrm{QCD}}^{}`$.

At non-vanishing temperature, thermal excitations modify the low energy physics. The condensate melts at the critical temperature $`T_c0.57\mathrm{\Delta }_0`$, where $`\mathrm{\Delta }_0`$ is the gap at vanishing temperature. We restrict the discussion to temperatures within $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_{\mathrm{QCD}}^{}T<T_c`$. In this regime, the main contribution stems from the thermal excitations of the gapped quarks. Those of the massless gauge fields are of the order $`g^2T^2`$ and subleading for sufficiently large $`\mu `$, and the gapless quarks and the $`\eta `$ meson do not couple to the $`SU(2)`$ gauge fields. We introduce a transport equation for the quark quasiparticles, which are described in terms of an on-shell one-particle phase space density $`f(x,𝐩,Q)`$, $`x^\mu =(t,𝐱)`$. The distribution function depends on time, the phase space variables position $`𝐱`$, momentum $`𝐩`$, and on $`SU(2)`$ colour charges $`Q_a`$, with the colour index $`a=1,2`$ and $`3`$. The quasiparticles carry $`SU(2)`$ colour charges simply because the constituents of the condensate do. Using natural units $`k_B=\mathrm{}=c=1`$, the on-shell condition for massless quarks $`m_q=0`$ relates the energy of the quasiparticle excitation to the chemical potential and the gap as $`p_0ϵ_p`$, with

$$ϵ_p=\sqrt{(p\mu )^2+\mathrm{\Delta }^2(T)},𝐯_p\frac{ϵ_p}{𝐩}=\frac{|p\mu |}{\sqrt{(p\mu )^2+\mathrm{\Delta }^2(T)}}\widehat{𝐩}.$$
(6)
Hence, the quasiparticle velocity $`𝐯_p`$ depends on both the chemical potential and the gap. In the presence of the gap, their propagation is suppressed, $`|𝐯_p|<1`$. The one-particle distribution function obeys the transport equation

$$\left[D_t+𝐯_p𝐃gQ_a\left(𝐄^a+𝐯_p\times 𝐁^a\right)\frac{}{𝐩}\right]f=C[f].$$
(7)
Here, we have introduced the short-hand notation $`D_\mu f[_\mu gϵ^{abc}Q_cA_b^\mu _a^Q]f`$ for the covariant derivative acting on $`f`$. The first two terms on the left-hand side of (7) combine to a covariant drift term $`v_p^\mu D_\mu `$, where $`v_p^\mu =(1,𝐯_p)`$ and $`D_\mu =(D_t,𝐃)`$. The terms proportional to the colour electric and magnetic fields provide a force term. The right-hand side of (7) contains an unspecified collision term $`C[f]`$. Eq. (7) is very similar to transport equations used earlier for hot or dense QCD in the normal phase . The main difference is the non-trivial dispersion relation (6), which leads to modified Wong equations in the present case. The thermal quasiparticles carry a $`SU(2)`$ charge, and provide a $`SU(2)`$ colour current. We introduce the colour density

$$J_a(x,𝐩)=g𝑑QQ_af(x,𝐩,Q),$$
(8)
where an implicit sum over species or helicity indices on $`f`$ is understood. The colour measure obeys $`𝑑QQ_a=0`$ and $`𝑑QQ_aQ_b=C_2\delta _{ab}`$ ($`C_2=\frac{1}{2}`$ for quarks in the fundamental) . The induced colour current of the medium follows from (8) as $`J_a^\mu (x)=\frac{d^3p}{\left(2\pi \right)^3}v_p^\mu J_a(x,𝐩)`$. It is covariantly conserved.

As an application of (7), we study the collisionless dynamics $`C[f]=0`$ close to thermal equilibrium and to leading order in the gauge coupling. Consider the distribution function $`f=f^{\mathrm{eq}}+gf^{(1)}`$ where $`f^{\mathrm{eq}}=(\mathrm{exp}ϵ_p/T+1)^1`$ is the fermionic equilibrium distribution function and $`gf^{(1)}`$ a slight deviation from equilibrium. Expanding the transport equation (7) in $`g`$, and taking the two helicities per quasiparticle into account, we find

$$\left[D_t+𝐯_p𝐃\right]J(x,𝐩)=g^2N_f𝐯_p𝐄(x)\frac{df^{\mathrm{eq}}}{dϵ_p}.$$
(9)
This equation can be solved for $`J(x,𝐩)`$ and gives the full colour current as a functional of the gauge fields only, $`J(x)=J[A](x)`$ . It defines the ”hard superconducting loop” effective action $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\mathrm{HSL}}[A]`$ through $`J[A]=\delta \mathrm{\Gamma }_{\mathrm{HSL}}[A]/\delta A`$, in full analogy to the derivation of the hard thermal loop effective theory within classical transport theory . Hence, the low energy effective theory for modes with $`q\mathrm{\Delta }`$ in the 2SC phase at finite temperature is $`S_{\mathrm{eff}}^T[A]=S_{\mathrm{eff}}^{T=0}[A]+\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\mathrm{HSL}}[A]`$ to leading order in $`g`$.

Consider the thermal polarisation tensor which follows from $`J[A]`$ . It describes Landau damping and Debye screening of the $`SU(2)`$ gauge fields in the 2SC phase. For low momenta, it agrees with the findings of , based on a field-theoretical derivation. In contrast to the normal phase, the dispersion relations for longitudinal and transverse gluons are modified. For example, the Debye mass is $`m_D^2=(2\mathrm{\Delta }/\pi ^2T)^{1/2}g^2\mu ^2\mathrm{exp}\mathrm{\Delta }/T`$ in the limit of large density and low temperature. In the general case, the Debye mass can only be computed numerically. An approximate expression for the polarisation tensor could be given in terms of an effective mean squared velocity $`v_{}`$ for the quasiparticles, similar to the approximation used in  for the normal phase.

In conclusion, we have discussed a very simple classical transport equation for quark quasiparticles in the 2SC phase. To leading order in $`g`$, it leads to the same result as a full field theoretical computation. Due to its simplicity, the present approach seems to be a good starting point for the computation of transport coefficients in the 2SC phase, like the colour conductivity. Here, the techniques of classical transport theory can be exploited . It would also be interesting to provide a similar approach for the CFL phase, where the low energy degrees of freedom are substantially different.

Acknowledgements: I thank C. Manuel for collaboration, and the organisers for a stimulating conference and financial support. This work has been supported by the European Community through the Marie-Curie fellowship HPMF-CT-1999-00404.