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# 1 Introduction

## 1 Introduction

The production of strange particles is extensively studied in heavy ion experiments in a very broad energy range from GSI/SIS to BNL/AGS and from CERN/SPS up to BNL/RHIC . The amount of data available for $`K^+`$ and $`K^{}`$ yields already allows a detailed analysis of the kaon excitation function in A–A collisions  as well as an analysis of the relative enhancement of kaon production in A–A with respect to p–p collisions . Of particular interest is here the behaviour of $`K^+`$ yield with energy, as this is the most abundantly produced particle with non–vanishing strangeness. The kaon excitation function at midrapidity, as the $`K^+/\pi ^+`$ ratio, is a very abruptly increasing function of the collision energy between SIS up to top AGS. At higher energies it reaches a broad maximum between 10 AGeV and 40 AGeV  and, gradual decrease up to RHIC energy . In the microscopic transport models the increase of the kaon yield with collision energy is qualitatively expected, owing to a change in the production mechanism from associated to direct kaon emission. However, the hadronic cascade transport models are as yet not providing the quantitative explanation of the experimental data. The Hadron String Dynamics (HSD) model  severely underpredicts the top AGS results on $`K^+/\pi ^+`$ ratio, while RQMD  overpredicts the yield at lower energies and gives too small yield at the SPS. The Statistical model SM, on the other hand, provides quite a satisfactory description of the kaon excitation function and of the $`K/\pi `$ midrapidity ratio in the whole energy range from SIS up to RHIC . A detailed analysis of the experimental data at SIS , AGS , SPS  and recently also at RHIC  has shown that hadronic yields and their ratios resemble those of a population in chemical equilibrium. Most particle multiplicities measured in nucleus–nucleus collisions are well consistent with the thermal model predictions . A similar analysis of particle yields in hadron–hadron collisions  also shows the consistency of the statistical model with the data.

Recently, it was argued  that SM can also describes a basic future of strangeness enhancement from p–A to A–A collisions measured by WA97 Collaboration : the enhancement pattern and enhancement saturation for a large number of participants $`N_{\mathrm{part}}`$. The enhancement of (multi)strange baryons is of particular interest, since it was conjectured to be a signal for quark–gluon plasma formation in heavy ion collisions . The centrality dependence of the (multi)strange baryon enhancement, increasing with the strangeness content of the particle, was shown to appear in the SM as a consequence of the canonical suppression of the particle phase space in a small system. Satisfactory agreement of the SM with data confirmed that SM provides a tool to make a prediction for hadron production in A–A collisions.

In this paper we apply (SM) formulated in the canonical ensemble  to study the energy dependence of the (multi)strange baryon enhancement from p–p to A–A collisions. We first show that the observed relative enhancement of the $`K^+/\pi ^+`$ ratio in A–A to p–p collisions from top AGS up to top SPS energy can be quantitatively described by the SM. We then make a prediction for relative (multi)strange baryon enhancement at $`\sqrt{s}=8.73,12.3,17.3`$ GeV at SPS and $`\sqrt{s}=130`$ GeV at RHIC energies. We show that at RHIC the enhancement of (multi)strange baryons is expected to be comparable with the one measured at the top SPS energy; however, it could be almost an order of magnitude larger at lowest ($`\sqrt{s}=8.73`$ GeV) SPS energy.

## 2 Statistical description of strangeness enhancement

Within the statistical approach, hadron production is commonly described by using the grand canonical GC partition function, where the charge conservation is controlled by the related chemical potential. In this description a net value of a given U(1) charge is conserved on the average. The GC approach can be valid only if the total number of particles carrying a quantum number related with this symmetry is very large. In the opposite limit of small particle multiplicities, conservation laws must be implemented exactly and locally, i.e. the canonical C ensemble for conservation laws must be used . The local conservation of quantum numbers in the canonical approach severely reduces the thermal phase space available for particle production. The exact charge conservation is therefore of crucial importance in the description of particle yields in proton–induced processes , in $`e^+`$$`e^{}`$ , as well as in peripheral heavy ion collisions .

In the present analysis of the energy dependence of the strangeness enhancement, we adopt the statistical model, which has previously been used to analyse hadron productions in heavy ion collisions . This model is formulated in the canonical ensemble with respect to strangeness conservation, whereas baryon number conservation is controlled by the chemical potential. Within this framework particle multiplicity ratios depend only on two thermal parameters: the temperature $`T`$ and the baryon chemical potential $`\mu _B`$, as well as the correlation volume, which is assumed to scale with the number of participating projectile nucleons.

The canonical model description of strangeness conservation including multistrange particle contributions was described in detail in . We quote here the final results  for particle density, which are relevant to our discussion of the energy dependence of the strangeness enhancement.

The number density $`n_i^s`$ of particle $`i`$ carrying strangeness $`s`$ is found to be

$$n_i^s=\frac{Z_i^1}{Z_{S=0}^C}\underset{n=\mathrm{}}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\underset{p=\mathrm{}}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}a_3^pa_2^na_1^{2n3ps}I_n(x_2)I_p(x_3)I_{2n3ps}(x_1),$$
(1)
where

$$Z_{S=0}^C=\underset{n=\mathrm{}}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\underset{p=\mathrm{}}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}a_3^pa_2^na_1^{2n3p}I_n(x_2)I_p(x_3)I_{2n3p}(x_1)$$
(2)
is the canonical partition function for a system with total stangeness $`S=0`$. The variables $`a_i`$ and $`x_i`$ are defined by $`a_i=\sqrt{S_i/S_i}`$, $`x_i=2\sqrt{S_iS_i}`$, and $`S_n=V_kZ_k^1`$ is the sum over all particles and resonances carrying strangeness $`n`$. For a particle of mass $`m_k`$, with degeneracy factor $`g_k`$, carrying baryon number $`B_k`$ with the corresponding chemical potentials $`\mu _B`$, the one-particle partition function in Boltzmann approximation reads

$$Z_k^1\frac{g_k}{2\pi ^2}m_k^2TK_2\left(\frac{m_k}{T}\right)\mathrm{exp}(B_k\mu _B);$$
(3)
here $`I_i`$ and $`K_2`$ are the modified Bessel functions.

It can be shown that, in the limit of large $`x_1`$, that is for large strangeness multiplicity, the above formula coincides with the grand canonical result.111 This can be easily seen for charges and baryons neutral system by making a large argument expansion of the Bessel functions in Eq. (1). In the opposite limit, that of small $`x_1`$, the equilibrium density of (multi)strange baryons is strongly suppressed with respect to their grand canonical value .

To study the energy and centrality dependence of (multi)strange particle yields in terms of the above model, one needs to establishes first the variation of thermal parameters with energy and centrality. From a previous analysis  one knows that temperature to a good approximation is only a function of the collision energy and is independent from the number of participating nucleons. For fully integrated, $`4\pi `$ particle yields, one can also assume that the baryon chemical potential is weakly changing with centrality. The above assumption could be partly justified by data since for $`\sqrt{s}=8.73`$ GeV the total number of pions per participant in central Pb–Pb ($`\pi /N_{\mathrm{part}}`$=2.5) and in p–p ($`\pi /N_{\mathrm{part}}2.62`$) almost coincide  (see also Fig. 1). In the SM and with the same temperature, the above can only be valid if the baryon chemical potential is weakly centrality–dependent. For larger collision energies, such as at RHIC, $`\pi /N_{\mathrm{part}}`$ is seen in Fig. 1 to increase from p–p to central Au–Au collisions. Thus, here $`\mu _B`$ is decreasing with increasing centrality. With a freeze–out temperature $`T175`$ MeV and $`\mu _B50`$ MeV required to reproduce the RHIC data , this would correspond to an increase of $`\mu _B`$ from 50 MeV at most central Au–Au collisions to 70 MeV in p–p collisions. This change, however, will only weakly influence the relative enhancement of (multi)strange particles. We thus assume, for simplicity, that the baryon chemical potential is centrality–independent.222 In general in p–p collisions the baryon number should also be treated canonically . However, since here the baryon number $`B=2`$ the canonical suppression is much less effective than in the case of strangeness. The canonical corrections due to baryon number should not exceed $`30\%`$ .

Thermal parameters are, however, very sensitive to collision energy. At the AGS  and SPS  we use the chemical freeze–out parameters as obtained from a detailed analysis of the experimental data. In particular at $`\sqrt{s}=17.3`$ GeV, $`T168`$ MeV and $`\mu _B266`$ MeV. At RHIC we adopt the values from . At 40 AGeV the available data are still not sufficient to make a precise determination of freeze–out parameters . To estimate these values we use the relation between $`T`$ and $`\mu _B`$ as determined by the unified freeze–out conditions of fixed energy per particle  and the measured result on $`\pi /N_{\mathrm{part}}=2.55\pm 0.15`$ for Pb–Pb collisions at 40 AGeV . The Pb–Pb data at 80 AGeV for $`\pi /N_{\mathrm{part}}`$ are still not known. Here we use instead the extrapolated to 80 AGeV value from Fig. 1, leading to $`\pi /N_{\mathrm{part}}3.4`$. Thermal parameters for 40 and 80 AGeV extracted in this way are: $`T=145\pm 5`$ MeV, $`\mu _B=370\pm 20`$ MeV and $`T152`$ MeV, $`\mu _B280`$ MeV correspondingly. Finally, the volume parameter appearing in Eq. (1) is assumed to be proportional to the number of projectile participants, $`VV_0N_{\mathrm{part}}/2`$ where $`V_07`$ fm3 is taken as the volume of the nucleon.

In Fig. 2 we show the compilation of the data on the $`K^+/\pi ^+`$ ratio in A–A relative to p–p collisions . This double ratio could be referred to as strangeness enhancement factor. The enhancement is seen in the data to be the largest at the smallest beam energy and is decreasing towards higher energy. The line is a smooth interpolation between the canonical model results for $`\sqrt{s}=17.3,12.3,8.73,5.56`$ GeV, obtained with the parameters described above.

The enhancement seen in Fig. 2 is entirely due to the suppression of the $`K^+/\pi ^+`$ ratio in p–p collisions with decreasing energy and not due to a dilution of this ratio by excess pions in the A–A system. The $`K^+/\pi ^+`$ ratio is known experimentally not to vary within $`30\%`$ in the energy range from $`\sqrt{s}5`$ GeV at AGS up to $`\sqrt{s}=130`$ GeV at RHIC . This behaviour is also described by the statistical model as a consequence of particular distributions of thermal parameters with collision energy .333 We have to point out that the NA49 data in the full phase space shows a depletion in the $`K^+/\pi ^+`$ ratio from 40 A GeV to 160 A GeV. This behaviour was previously conjectured as a possible signal of deconfinement .

The results in Fig. 2 show that in terms of the SM the energy dependence of the strangeness enhancement could be related with the suppression of the thermal phase space available for strangeness production in p–p collisions. Having in mind the above agreement, we apply this model to analyse the enhancement for multistrange baryons. Two relevant questions are here of particular interest: (i) Is the enhancement pattern observed by WA97 a characteristic feature of the top SPS energy or can it also be seen at lower energies ? (ii) Is the enhancement for multistrange baryons a decreasing or increasing function of energy? In Fig. 4 and Fig. 4 we show the results on relative (multi)strange baryon enhancement from p–p to Pb–Pb collisions at $`\sqrt{s}=8.73`$ GeV and at $`\sqrt{s}=130`$ GeV, respectively. It is clear that the same enhancement pattern as at the SPS is expected in the SM model to appear for all relevant energies.

To see the dependence of the strength of the enhancement with energy, we show in Fig. 6 and Fig. 6 the relative enhancement of $`\mathrm{\Xi }`$ and $`(\mathrm{\Omega }+\overline{\mathrm{\Omega }})`$ for different collision energies. The enhancement is the largest at lowest energy; for $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$, it can even be larger by a factor of almost 10 at 40 A GeV than observed at the SPS. This behaviour could already be partly deduced from the experimental data. Indeed, combing the Si–Pb results for $`\mathrm{\Xi }^{}`$ production obtained by the E810 Collaboration  and the E802 value for pion or $`K^{}`$ yield in Si–Au collisions  at the top AGS energy, one can estimate that $`\mathrm{\Xi }^{}/\pi ^+0.0076`$; this within errors, coincides with the value of $`\mathrm{\Xi }^{}/\pi ^+0.0074`$ obtained by NA49 in Pb–Pb at $`\sqrt{s}=17.3`$ GeV , as seen in Fig. 7. In p–p collisions the $`\mathrm{\Xi }^{}/\pi ^+`$ ratio is obviously a strongly decreasing function of energy. From the above one could therefore expect that the relative enhancement of $`\mathrm{\Xi }^{}`$ from p–p, p–A to A–A collisions should be larger at AGS than at SPS energy, which is seen in Fig. 6. In addition the ratio containing only newly produced particles such as e.g. $`\mathrm{\Xi }^{}/K^{}`$, is also seen in Fig. 7 to be larger at AGS than SPS. The energy dependence of the $`\mathrm{\Xi }^{}/\pi ^+`$ and $`\mathrm{\Xi }^{}/K^{}`$ ratios was calculated in Fig. 7 along the freeze–out curve  following the method described in .

The results of Fig. 6 and Fig. 6 show a saturation of the enhancement, which indicates that the grand canonical limit was reached. It is clear from these figures that this saturation is shifted towards larger centrality with decreasing energy.

In p–p collisions local strangeness conservation required that there be associated production of particles, e.g. $`\mathrm{\Xi }`$ has to appear together with two other strangeness 1 particles, to neutralize strangeness. In high energy central A–A collisions, there are already sufficiently many strange hadrons being produced for strangeness to be conserved on the average, which substantially increases thermal particle production. The associated production and locality of strangeness conservation is an origin of the suppression of particle thermal phase space, which increases with the strangeness content of the particle as well as with decreasing collision energy. As a consequence the enhancement from p–A to A–A collisions with decreasing energy is seen in Fig. 6 and Fig. 6 to be stronger for $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ than for $`\mathrm{\Xi }`$. At RHIC the freeze–out temperature was found to be consistent, within errors, with the one at the SPS as well as with the critical temperature found in the Lattice Gauge Theory. As a consequence the enhancement of (multi)strange baryons at $`\sqrt{s}=130`$ GeV RHIC energy is seen in Fig. 4 to be comparable with that at the SPS. The change in baryon chemical potential from 266 MeV to 50 MeV, evidently does not influence the strength of the enhancement. Thus, also an increase of the energy from 130 to 200 GeV should not change the above results much. These predictions are in obvious disagreement with UrQMD . There, the production of strangeness is very sensitive to the initial conditions. In UrQMD the early stage multiple scattering may imply an increase of the colour electric field strength. Consequently, according to the Schwinger mechanism, this should increase the production of (multi)strange baryons. Under similar kinematical conditions as at the SPS, the UrQMD model predicts at RHIC an increase in relative strength of $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ yields from p–A to A–A by a factor of 4 .

The strangeness enhancement pattern measured by the WA97 Collaboration at the SPS  was predicted as a signal for quark-gluon plasma formation . In the context of the considered SM model the enhancement pattern of (multi)strange baryons should be observed at all SPS energies, with increasing strength towards lower beam energy. Thus, the results of the above SM make it clear that strangeness enhancement and enhancement pattern are not a unique signal of deconfinement, since these features are expected to be there also at energies where the initial conditions are very unlikely for deconfinement.

The quantitative results shown in Figs. 46 contain some uncertainties. The magnitude of the enhancement is very sensitive to the temperature taken at a given collision energy. Changing $`T`$ by 5 MeV, a typical error on $`T`$ in a thermal analysis, can change, for instance, the enhancement of $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ shown in Fig. 4 by a factor of 2. The $`N_{\mathrm{part}}`$ dependence of the strange hadron enhancement seen in Figs. 3–6 was obtained by assuming a linear dependence of a volume parameter $`V`$ in Eq. (1) with $`N_{\mathrm{part}}`$. In general, $`V`$ could have a weaker dependence with centrality, which could be reflected with an only moderate increase of the enhancement, with centrality and saturation appearing at larger volume. In addition, including the variation of the thermal parameters, in particular of the baryon-chemical potential, with centrality, or extending the model to a canonical description of baryon number conservation , or finally including a possible asymmetry between the strangeness under saturation factors in p–p and A–A collisions , could change our numerical values. However, independently of these uncertainties, the main results: (i) enhancement decreasing with increasing collision energy, and (ii) enhancement pattern being preserved at all SPS energies, are always valid.

## 3 Summary and conclusions

In conclusion, we have shown that, in terms of the statistical model, the relative enhancement of (multi)strange baryons from proton–proton or proton–nucleus to nucleus–nucleus collisions is a decreasing function of the collision energy. Experimentally this fact already, had been obtained for kaon yields and is shown to be expected for multistrange baryons. In addition, an increase of the enhancement with the strangeness content of the particle is a generic feature of our model, independent of the collision energy. On the qualitative level the only input being required in the model to make the above predictions is the information that freeze–out temperature is increasing with collision energy and that the chemical potential shows the opposite dependence. The above conditions are well confirmed by a very detailed analysis of particle production at different collision energies.

We have presented the quantitative predictions for a relative enhancement of $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$, $`\mathrm{\Xi }`$ and $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ yields in the energy range from $`\sqrt{s}=8.7`$ up to $`\sqrt{s}=130`$ GeV. We have discussed the possible uncertainties of the presented results. The relative enhancement at RHIC was found to be lower than at the SPS. This is in contrast with the UrQMD predictions, which are showing the opposite behaviour  . The statistical model applied here is also very unlikely to be capable of explaining an abrupt change of the $`\overline{\mathrm{\Xi }}/N_{\mathrm{part}}`$ enhancement recently reported by the NA57 Collaboration .

## 4 Acknowledgements

One of us, K.R., acknowledges a partial support from the LPTHE Universite Paris 7 and the Polish Committee for Scientific Research (KBN-2P03B 03018). Interesting discussions with F. Becattini, P. Braun-Munzinger, J. Cleymans, A. Keranen, H. Oeschler, H. Satz and R. Stock are also acknowledged.


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# Efficient and robust entanglement generation in a many-particle system with resonant dipole-dipole interactions

## Abstract

We propose and discuss a scheme for robust and efficient generation of many-particle entanglement in an ensemble of Rydberg atoms with resonant dipole-dipole interactions. It is shown that in the limit of complete dipole blocking, the system is isomorphic to a multimode Jaynes-Cummings model. While dark-state population transfer is not capable of creating entanglement, other adiabatic processes are identified that lead to complex, maximally entangled states, such as the $`N`$-particle analog of the GHZ state in a few steps. The process is robust, works for even and odd particle numbers and the characteristic time for entanglement generation scales with $`N^\alpha `$, with $`\alpha `$ being less than unity.

Entanglement is one of the most distinct quantum features of many-particle systems and has only recently started to be studied in a more systematic way. It provides strong tests of quantum nonlocality  and is at the heart of quantum information science with numerous applications . One of the open practical problems is to identify mechanisms for its robust and controlled generation. Recently Mølmer and Sørensen suggested a scheme to create the $`N`$-particle analog of the GHZ state in an ion-trap without the need for a precise control over the collective vibrational modes of the ions . Due to Kramers degeneracy  in the underlying nonlinear Hamiltonian different unitary operations needed to be applied for even and odd number of particles. The optimum interaction time $`T`$ scales linearly with the number of particles and extreme fine tuning of $`T`$ is required. As a consequence this method is highly sensitive to variations of external and internal parameters and in the presence of decoherence the success probability decreases exponentially with $`N`$.

In the present paper we discuss a robust and efficient method to create complex entangled states like the $`N`$-particle analog of the GHZ state

$`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}}\left(|a_1a_2\mathrm{}a_N+|b_1b_2\mathrm{}b_N\right)`$ (1)
in a 3-step adiabatic process in a total interaction time which scales substantially less than linear in the number of particles. The underlying interaction is the resonant dipole-dipole interaction and the associated blockade effect in an ensemble of frozen Rydberg atoms studied in . It was shown in  that the dipole-blockade can be used to generate any (symmetric) entangled many-particle state by applying a specific sequence of resonant pulses . A substantial drawback is however the need of a large number of pulses (which scales linear in $`N`$) with well defined pulse area. Hence the method is also highly sensitive to variations of external and internal parameters and due to the intermediate excitation of decaying Rydberg levels the success probability decreases exponentially with $`N`$.

Following the proposal of Ref. let us consider an ensemble of $`N`$ atoms with two lower levels $`|a`$ and $`|b`$ both coupled to a Rydberg state $`|r`$ by coherent laser fields with (real) Rabi-frequencies $`\mathrm{\Omega }_1(t)`$ and $`\mathrm{\Omega }_2(t)`$ respectively. Let us further assume that there are two additional Rydberg levels above and below $`|r`$ with equal energy splitting. In such a configuration there is a resonant energy transfer between two atoms in Rydberg levels, leading to a symmetric splitting of the doubly-excited states. If the minimum splitting, given by the atoms of largest separation, exceeds the natural linewidth, resonant laser excitation into doubly- or higher excited states is suppressed (dipole-blockade). In the absence of this dipole-blocking, the Hamiltonian is linear in the total spin of the atoms (SU($`2`$) symmetry) and it is not possible to create entanglement.

On the other hand for perfect dipole-blockade there is never more than one excitation in the Rydberg levels. In this limit the effect of the dipole-dipole interaction can easily be modeled by treating atoms in the Rydberg state as fermions $`(\sigma ,\sigma ^+)`$, while representing atoms in levels $`|a`$ and $`|b`$ by bosons $`(a,a^+)`$, $`(b,b^+)`$. The presence of the fermionic component breaks the SU($`2`$) symmetry and the interaction is no longer linear in the total spin but can be described by a multi-mode Jaynes Cummings Hamiltonian :

$`H(t)=\mathrm{\Delta }_1a^+a+\mathrm{\Delta }_2b^+b+\left(\mathrm{\Omega }_1a+\mathrm{\Omega }_2b\right)\sigma ^++h.c.`$ (2)
The detunings $`\mathrm{\Delta }_i`$ have to be much smaller than the minimum splitting of the doubly-excited manifold for the blockade-limit to hold.

The isomorphism to the multi-mode Jaynes Cummings model has a number of interesting consequences. First of all it simplifies the analysis by allowing to employ angular momentum techniques. Secondly many known features of the Jaynes-Cummings dynamics, such as decay and revivals of oscillations , squeezed-state generation, and quantum state transfer between different modes  can be anticipated in the dipole-blocking system.

The blockade of double and higher excitations results in a chainwize coupling between symmetric collective states as shown in Fig. 1. This coupling with an odd total number of levels suggests the application of dark-state Raman adiabatic passage techniques . To analyze adiabatic passage in such a system it is convenient to introduce dark- and bright-state boson operators

$`D=a\mathrm{cos}\theta b\mathrm{sin}\theta ,B=a\mathrm{sin}\theta +b\mathrm{cos}\theta ,`$ (3)
with $`\mathrm{tan}\theta =\mathrm{\Omega }_1/\mathrm{\Omega }_2`$. In terms of these variables the interaction Hamiltonian reads

$`H`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Delta }_1+\mathrm{\Delta }_2}{2}}\left(D^+D+B^+B\right)`$ (4)
$`+`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Delta }_1\mathrm{\Delta }_2}{2}}\left(D^+DB^+B\right)\mathrm{cos}2\theta `$ (5)
$`+`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Delta }_1\mathrm{\Delta }_2}{2}}\left(D^+BB^+D\right)\mathrm{sin}2\theta `$ (6)
$`+`$ $`\mathrm{\Omega }_0\left(B\sigma ^++B^+\sigma \right),`$ (7)
with $`\mathrm{\Omega }_0=\sqrt{\mathrm{\Omega }_1^2(t)+\mathrm{\Omega }_2^2(t)}`$. The first two terms are the free energy of the atoms in the dark and bright states and the third term describes the coupling between dark and bright states. The last term shows that only the bright-state component is coupled to the Rydberg levels.

Under conditions of two-photon resonance, i.e. $`\mathrm{\Delta }_1=\mathrm{\Delta }_2`$ the dark-state subspace decouples from the remaining system. Its dynamics has however again SU($`2`$) symmetry and factorized states remain factorized. Hence dark-state adiabatic transfer is not suitable for entanglement generation. This result can easily be understood physically. Since the dark state does not contain any excited-state population, the presence of dipole-dipole interactions and the resulting dipole blockade are irrelevant. Nevertheless, as will be shown in the following, adiabatic techniques can be used to create entanglement if other than the zero-eigenvalue state are involved.

To this end we consider here a situation opposite to the two-photon resonance when $`\mathrm{\Delta }=\mathrm{\Delta }_1=\mathrm{\Delta }_2`$. We first discuss the case of a substantial delay between the two pulses $`\mathrm{\Omega }_1`$ and $`\mathrm{\Omega }_2`$ such that the coupling between the dark and bright components, which is proportional to $`\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{sin}2\theta `$ is negligible. In this approximation the Hamiltonian (5) can be expressed in the simple form

$$H=\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }}{2}\sigma _z\mathrm{cos}2\theta +\mathrm{\Omega }_0\left(B\sigma ^++B^{}\sigma ^{}\right),$$
(8)
where the irrelevant constant term $`N\mathrm{\Delta }/2\mathrm{cos}2\theta `$ was omitted. The corresponding Schrödinger equation can be solved analytically in the adiabatic limit, i.e. when the mixing angle $`\theta (t)`$ changes sufficiently slowly in time.

To obtain a convenient closed form of the solution we introduce angular momentum operators $`J_1=(\sigma ^+B+\sigma ^{}B^{})/2\sqrt{M},J_2=i(\sigma ^+B\sigma ^{}B^{})/2\sqrt{M}`$, and $`J_3=\sigma _z/2`$, where $`M=B^{}B+\sigma ^+\sigma `$ is the constant particle number in the bright-state–Rydberg manifold. In terms of these operators the Hamiltonian reads $`H=\overline{\mathrm{\Omega }}\mathrm{e}^{i\beta J_2}J_3\mathrm{e}^{i\beta J_2},`$ where $`\overline{\mathrm{\Omega }}\sqrt{\mathrm{\Omega }_0^2(t)+\mathrm{\Delta }^2\mathrm{cos}^22\theta }`$, and $`\mathrm{tan}\beta (t)=\mathrm{\Omega }_0(t)/\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{cos}2\theta `$. The corresponding unitary evolution operator then reads

$$U\left(t\right)=\mathrm{e}^{i\beta \left(t\right)J_2}\mathrm{exp}\left[iJ_3\underset{\mathrm{}}{\overset{t}{}}\overline{\mathrm{\Omega }}\left(t^{}\right)dt^{}\right]\mathrm{e}^{i\beta \left(\mathrm{}\right)J_2}.$$
(9)
Let us now consider the case of all $`N`$ atoms being initially in $`|a`$. If an intuitive pulse sequence is applied, i.e. if $`\mathrm{\Omega }_1`$ is switched on and off before $`\mathrm{\Omega }_2`$ one has $`\beta :0\pi `$ and the systems starts from a bright state

$$|\mathrm{\Psi }_0=|𝐚^N\frac{1}{\sqrt{N!}}\left(a^{}\right)^N|0=\frac{1}{\sqrt{N!}}\left(B^{}\right)^N|0,$$
(10)
where $`|𝐚^N`$ denotes the collective state with all atoms being in level $`|a`$. The unitary evolution operator then reads

$`W`$ $`=`$ $`2iJ_2\mathrm{exp}\left[iJ_3{\displaystyle \underset{\mathrm{}}{\overset{+\mathrm{}}{}}}dt\beta (t)\right].`$ (11)
One-time application of $`W`$ generates a symmetric collective state containing a single Rydberg excitation and all other atoms are in $`|b`$:

$`|\mathrm{\Psi }_1`$ $`=`$ $`W|\mathrm{\Psi }_0={\displaystyle \frac{1}{\sqrt{\left(N1\right)!}}}\left(B^{}\right)^{N1}\sigma ^+|0`$ (12)
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\sqrt{\left(N1\right)!}}}\left(b^{}\right)^{N1}\sigma ^+|0,`$ (13)
corresponding to

$`|𝐚^N\stackrel{W}{}|𝐛^{N1}𝐫.`$ (14)
Applying $`W`$ twice generates the W-state of Ref.

$`|𝐚^N\stackrel{W^2}{}|𝐚^{N1}𝐛.`$ (15)
On the other hand starting from an initial state with all atoms in $`|b`$ corresponds to a pulse sequence in counter-intuitive order and leads to the transfer

$$|𝐛^N\stackrel{W}{}|𝐚^N.$$
(16)
Iterative applications of the same operator $`W`$ allows one to reach any state in the $`2N+1`$ dimensional manifold of symmetric many-particle excitations with at most one Rydberg atom. The $`W`$-operation is based on adiabatic evolution and is robust against variations of parameters as long as the condition

$`\gamma {\displaystyle _{\mathrm{}}^{\mathrm{}}}dt{\displaystyle \frac{\dot{\theta }^2(t)}{\overline{\mathrm{\Omega }}^2(t)}}1`$ (17)
is fulfilled, with $`\gamma `$ being the decay rate of the Rydberg levels.

Although the application of $`W`$ leads to an entangled state whose creation would require many $`\pi `$-pulses, $`𝒪(N)`$ steps are needed for the generation of complex states like the $`N`$-particle analog of the GHZ state (1). We will now show that a small modification of the $`W`$ operation can achieve this goal in very few steps and independent on the number of particles.

For this we assume that the system is initially in an equal superposition of atoms being in $`|a`$ and the symmetric state containing a single Rydberg excitation.

$`|\mathrm{\Psi }_0^{}={\displaystyle \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}}\left(|𝐚^N+|𝐚^{N1}𝐫\right).`$ (18)
$`|\mathrm{\Psi }_0^{}`$ can easily be created out of $`|\mathrm{\Psi }_0`$ in a robust way e.g. by sweeping the frequency of $`\mathrm{\Omega }_1`$ through resonance (rapid adiabatic passage) . We now apply the $`W`$ operation discussed above, however with a smaller time delay between the two pulses. In this case the dark-bright state coupling in the Hamiltonian (5) proportional to $`\mathrm{sin}2\theta `$ needs to be taken into account. Furthermore it is assumed that $`|\mathrm{\Omega }_0||\mathrm{\Delta }|`$. Under these conditions the Schrödinger equation can no longer be solved analytically. However numerically evaluating the equations (for $`N`$ up to 20), we found the behavior shown in Fig. 2.

The mechanism can qualitatively be understood as follows: Due to the non-vanishing detuning $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ and the chosen intuitive pulse order, the state amplitude in $`|𝐚^N`$ undergoes an adiabatic return process  and ends up in the same state as it started from. At the same time the chosen pulse order is counter-intuitive for the state $`|𝐚^{N1}𝐫`$ and hence its amplitude undergoes Raman adiabatic passage to $`|𝐛^{N1}𝐫`$ through a chain of successive $`V`$-type transitions. Since the fields are not in $`N`$-photon resonance, it is essential that $`|\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{m}||\mathrm{\Delta }|`$.

The amplitude of the state vector in $`|𝐚^N`$ undergoes some rapid oscillations but returns to the same state for $`t\mathrm{}`$. At the same time the amplitude in $`|𝐚^{N1}𝐫`$ is transferred to $`|𝐛^{N1}𝐫`$. Applying in a third step the inverse of $`W`$, eqs.(14) and (16), eventually leads to the $`N`$-particle GHZ state (1). This corresponds to the overall 3-step adiabatic process:

$`|𝐚^N{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}}\left(|𝐚^N+|𝐚^{N1}𝐫\right)`$ (19)
$`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}}\left(|𝐚^N+|𝐛^{N1}𝐫\right){\displaystyle \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}}\left(|𝐛^N+|𝐚^N\right).`$ (20)
The transfer is in all parts robust. It does not depend on the exact pulse form of $`\mathrm{\Omega }_1`$ and $`\mathrm{\Omega }_2`$, nor does it require an extreme control of the delay time $`\tau `$ or the pulse length $`T`$. Furthermore the mechanism works for even and odd numbers of atoms in the same way. In Fig. 3 we have shown the dependence of the final population in the states $`|𝐚^N`$ and $`|𝐛^{N1}𝐫`$ for $`N=5`$ as function of pulse delay $`\tau `$ and pulse area $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{m}T`$. It can be seen that the mechanism is robust against small variation of the delay time and – above some critical limit – the pulse area. It should be mentioned that for very large values of the pulse area the populations decrease again, since then the term $`\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{sin}2\theta `$ in (5) is negligible and there is a transfer $`\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}\left(|a^N+|a^{N1}r\right)\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}\left(|b^N+|b^{N1}r\right).`$

Since all processes are adiabatic and $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{m}`$ is limited by the dipole-blockade condition, the question arises how the time $`T`$ for generating the GHZ state scales with the number of particles. From our numerical calculations, shown in Fig. 4, we find $`TN^\alpha `$ with $`\alpha <1`$ and decreasing with $`N`$. The numerical calculations for $`N=3\mathrm{}16`$ indicate $`\alpha 2/3`$. Thus in the presence of decay, the success probability decreases less than exponential with $`N`$.

In conclusion, we have proposed an efficient and robust method to generate complex entanglement structures, such as the $`N`$-particle GHZ state in a many-particle system with resonant dipole-dipole interactions. The method is robust against variations of parameters since for all steps adiabatic transfer processes are used. Although dark-state adiabatic passage is not suitable for entanglement generation, as it does not involve population of the interacting Rydberg levels, other adiabatic processes are identified that allow e.g. for the generation of the $`N`$-particle GHZ state (1) in three steps. The suggested method avoids the problem associated with Kramers degeneracy and thus works for even and odd number of particles. Exact knowledge of the number of particles is not required, making the method robust against number fluctuations. As opposed to the proposal of ref. no extreme fine tuning of the interaction time is needed and the minimum interaction time scales only less than linear with the number of particles. Finally it should be mentioned that similar ideas can be applied to other many-particle systems, e.g. ions in a trap.

The work of RU was supported by the DFG under contract number FL 210/10 and the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation. We thank K. Bergmann and B.W. Shore for helpful discussions.


text:
# 1 Introduction

## 1 Introduction

The shape of many interstellar grains are expected to be non-spherical and maybe even highly irregular. One way to deal with irregular particles and clusters of dust grains is to assume that they consist of touching spheres. With such an assumption it is possible to construct a variety of morphologies which can then be compared with observations.

Fitzpatrick & Massa  studied the interstellar extinction in the direction of 45 reddened stars, and found that it displays a peak whose central wavelength $`\lambda _0`$ is remarkably constant ($`\lambda _0=2174.4\pm 17`$ Å), even though its full width at half maximum (FWHM) varies considerably from $`360`$ to $`600`$ Å; they also found no apparent correlation between the small variation in $`\lambda _0`$ and the large variation in the FWHM. These characteristics have since been known as the “2200 Å peak”. Graphite is a very promising though controversial candidate for explaining the 2200 Å peak .

## 2 Method

We investigate the effect of cluster shape in the extinction of clusters of spherical polycrystalline graphite particles. Table 1 shows all the clusters we have used in this work; they are either sparse or compact, and small or large. Their extinction is computed using a rigorous solution (GA)  as well as two DDA implementations – MarCODES  and DDSCAT  – this allows us to test how well the DDA performs when applied to clusters of different geometries.

The three dimensional clusters of 7, 49, 343 ($`7^n,n=1,2,3`$) particles correspond to the first three stages in the recursive building of the snowflake fractal. The dimension of this fractal is $`D=\mathrm{ln7}/\mathrm{ln3}=1.77`$ . Although such a deterministic structure is not expected to occur in nature, its fractal dimension is close to that of more realistic random cluster-cluster aggregation models. In particular, small particles in space may move in straight, ballistic trajectories and form larger aggregates upon collisions. Numerical simulation of this process yields that the fractal dimension of the resulting aggregates is around 1.9  and this value has also been confirmed by experimental results . Moreover, optical properties of fractal clusters with $`D<2`$ are predicted to be significantly different from those with $`D>2`$ ; hence we consider it important to use a realistic fractal dimension in our computations.

Theoretical computation of absorption and scattering by graphite particles is difficult because graphite is a semi-metal with high anisotropy $`(ϵ_{},ϵ_{})`$. In this work we use the dielectric functions $`ϵ_{}`$ and $`ϵ_{}`$ derived by , and we deal with the anisotropy of graphite by assuming that in all our clusters, each individual particle is polycrystalline having a dielectric function $`ϵ_{\mathrm{ave}}`$ given by the arithmetic average of $`ϵ_{}`$ and $`ϵ_{}`$, namely $`ϵ_{\mathrm{ave}}=\frac{1}{3}ϵ_{}+\frac{2}{3}ϵ_{}`$. By contrast, the usual “1/3$``$2/3” approximation, treats individual particles as mono-crystalline - 1/3 of the cluster particles are assumed to have dielectric function $`ϵ_{}`$ and the remaining 2/3 to have dielectric function $`ϵ_{}`$. Considering grain formation and grain growth in stellar environments , polycrystalline particles seems to be a better choice than mono-crystalline ones.

A rigorous and complete solution to the multi-sphere light scattering problem has been given by Gérardy & Ausloos (GA) . It is based on the exact solution of Maxwell’s equations for arbitrary cluster geometries, polarisation and incidence direction of the light. This gives a system of $`2NL(L+2)`$ equations whose solution is the $`2^L`$-polar approximation to the electro-magnetic response of the cluster. The smallest L needed for the convergence of the extinction will be different in different spectral regions. In the UV-visible range it is enough to use L = 7 for open clusters, or L = 9 for compact ones, to compute the extinction with an accuracy of 1%; this holds for clusters of up to a few tens of particles.

The discrete dipole approximation (DDA), on the other hand is one of several discretisation methods for solving scattering problems in the presence of targets of arbitrary geometry. In this work we use the DDSCAT code version 5a10  and MarCoDES .

## 3 Results

The results from the three methods for the frac7, frac49, sc8 and sc 27 cluster can be seen in Fig. 1 and 2. It is clear that there are significant differences between the results of the three codes. MarCODES uses one dipole per particle, and the difference from the GA results is due to the neglect of higher order terms, $`L2`$. Even in the DDSCAT computations the number of dipoles used per particle (977 for frac7, 2103 for sc8, 35 for frac49 and 622 for sc27) was probably not enough to ensure full convergence of the result.

Table 2 lists the extinction’s peak position and width for all the clusters, as computed with the GA method; the polar order at which the GA calculation was truncated is also indicated. The width was determined as the FWHM. For the asymmetric compact cluster fcc49 we have investigated the importance of the orientation of the cluster and it was found that the peak position was shifted less than 0.1 $`\mu `$m-1 while its width remained the same. The clusters considered by  all had peak positions at higher wavenumber than the 2200 Å peak while our clusters all have peak position at lower wavenumbers. The main difference between our study and the one in  is the way we deal with the anisotropy of the graphite grains. They  used the usual “$`1/32/3`$” approximation. The frac7 and frac49 clusters come close (peak position is off by $`0.040.08\mu `$m-1) to the observational constrains. This indicates that small ($`N5100`$) fractal clusters ought to be investigated in more detail to determine if fractal clusters with low fractal dimension have a stable peak position around $`4.6\mu `$m-1 and produce a variable width depending on the number of particles in the cluster.

### Acknowledgments

We would like to thank B.T. Draine and V.A. Markel for making their DDA codes available as share-ware. VP would like to thank V.A. Markel for fruitful discussions. ACA acknowledges support from the Carlsberg Foundation. JS and GN acknowledges support from the Swedish Natural Science Research Council (NFR). VP acknowledges support from the Wenner-Gren Foundation.


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# The Kondo lattice model from strong-coupling viewpoint

## Abstract

We study the magnetic excitation spectrum of the two-dimensional (2D) square-lattice S=1/2 Kondo lattice model at finite (hole) doping, by representing the Hamiltonian in terms of a set of local excitations. The location of the paramagnetic-antiferromagnetic phase boundary at T=0 is determined.

journal: SCES’2001

The Kondo lattice model in its simplest form describes itinerant ($`c`$) electrons hopping on a lattice, and interacting with localized ($`d`$) orbitals via Kondo exchange $`J`$ (we assume an antiferromagnetic sign $`J0`$):

$$H=t\underset{i,j,\sigma }{}\left(c_{\sigma ,i}^{}c_{\sigma ,j}+\text{h.c.}\right)+J\underset{i}{}𝐒_i^d.𝐒_i^c.$$
(1)
There are two major issues that are of interest from both fundamental and experimental (heavy fermion materials) perspectives: (1.) Description of the competition between the Kondo effect and the RKKY interaction, which generally leads to a quantum phase transition from a paramagnetic to a long-range ordered phase, and (2.) The possible breakdown of the Kondo effect (screening) near such a phase boundary, especially in antiferromagnetic metals . We concentrate mostly on the first aspect, and consider the model Eq.(1) on a square lattice at finite hole doping $`\delta `$ ($`\delta =0`$ is half-filling), which makes the system conducting.

We rewrite Eq.(1) in the local (one site) basis, where four bosonic modes (a singlet and a triplet) can be excited: $`\sqrt{2}s^{}|v=ϵ_{\sigma \rho }c_\sigma ^{}d_\rho ^{}|0`$, $`\sqrt{2}t_\alpha ^{}|v=\sigma _{\rho \delta }^\alpha ϵ_{\delta \sigma }c_\sigma ^{}d_\rho ^{}|0`$, $`(\alpha =x,y,z;\sigma ,\rho ,\delta =,)`$, as well as two fermionic modes: $`f_{1,\sigma }^{}|v=d_\sigma ^{}|0`$, $`f_{2,\sigma }^{}|v=c_{}^{}c_{}^{}d_\sigma ^{}|0`$. Here $`|v`$ is a reference vacuum with no excitations present, and $`|0`$ corresponds to absence of physical electrons. The described set of states can be used to generalize the bond-operator representation, often used in localized spin systems (with only $`s`$ and $`𝐭`$ modes present) . Similar ideas have also been successfully applied to Kondo insulators ($`\delta =0`$) . The representation is exact provided the on-site kinematic constraint is implemented: $`s^{}s+f_{\nu ,\sigma }^{}f_{\nu ,\sigma }+t_\alpha ^{}t_\alpha =1`$, necessary to restrict the Hilbert space of the new operators to the physical sub-space. It is physically clear that for doping $`\delta =0`$ and strong Kondo exchange $`J/t1`$ the ground state is a singlet (thus paramagnet), meaning that the $`s`$ excitations condense: $`s0`$. Let us note that the term “strong-coupling” ($`J/t1`$) in this work has the opposite meaning to the one used in Ref.. The Hamiltonian in the local representation becomes, by taking the singlet state $`s^{}|v`$ as the ground state, $`H=H_2+H_{Int}`$:

$$H_2=\underset{𝐤,\sigma ,\nu =1,2}{}E_\nu (𝐤)f_{\nu ,\sigma ,𝐤}^{}f_{\nu ,\sigma ,𝐤}+J\underset{𝐤}{}𝐭_𝐤^{}.𝐭_𝐤+\underset{𝐤,\sigma }{}B(𝐤)f_{1,\sigma ,𝐤}^{}f_{2,\sigma ,𝐤}^{}+\text{h.c.},$$
(2)
$$H_{Int}=[\mathrm{𝐭𝐭}ff]\&[𝐭ff]\text{scattering}\text{vertices},$$
(3)
where $`E_\nu (𝐤),B(𝐤)t`$ are easily calculated, and $`H_{Int}`$ represents the non-linear interactions (with coefficients also proportional to the hopping $`t`$) between the bosonic and fermionic modes. The challenge now becomes to treat the kinematic constraint (which amounts to an infinite local repulsion between the $`𝐭`$ and $`f_\nu `$ modes), as well as the interactions present in $`H_{Int}`$, as accurately as possible in order to have reliable results for the excitation spectrum. We have followed the philosophy outlined in Ref. for spin insulators to implement the hard-core repulsion, while the various terms in $`H_{Int}`$ were treated to lowest non-trivial (one-loop) order (see also references  and , discussing the situation at finite doping for the $`tJ`$ model). The extension of the approach from zero to finite doping is a non-trivial matter, and details will be provided elsewhere . It is crucial in this treatment that the S=1 magnetic excitations (the spectrum of the $`𝐭`$ operators) form a dilute Bose gas. Departure from the dilute, low-density limit would also mean a possible change in the ground state and failure of our approximation scheme since the latter is based on classification of diagrams in powers of the excitation density. In addition, doping is also assumed to be a small parameter in the problem.

Let us summarize our main results :
$``$ The magnetic ($`𝐭`$) excitations are found to be gapped everywhere in a certain region of parameter space, see Fig.1, meaning that the system is paramagnetic. The gap at the antiferromagnetic ordering wave vector $`𝐐_{AF}=(\pi ,\pi )`$ vanishes on a critical line, signaling a transition to a phase with long-range order (finite staggered magnetization, proportional to the condensate $`𝐭_{𝐤=𝐐_{AF}}`$). The parameter F, displayed on the axis in Fig.1 (which is introduced for numerical reasons), is found to vary very weakly with doping. In the simplest of our approximation schemes it has the constant value F$`0.72`$ . This produces a critical point at zero doping $`(J/t)_c1.39`$ which is quite close to the numerical result  (however no numerical results are available for $`\delta 0`$). Let us also mention that the magnons are damped at any finite doping, which can readily be seen from the width of their spectral function.
$``$ We would like to emphasize that our calculational scheme is self-consistent in the sense that the dilute Bose gas description is maintained throughout the phase diagram. This means that the singlet ground state, the starting point of the calculation, is stable (i.e. $`s0`$), leading to the usual Fermi liquid description of the critical properties . Departure from the Fermi liquid picture would occur if $`s0`$ at the quantum critical point (QCP); one can then expect various exotic effects such as different critical exponents, which has been in fact suggested to occur in two dimensions . The fact that we do not find perturbative indications for breakdown of the Kondo effect at the QCP could be quite possibly due to our approximation scheme, which can detect the existence of a quantum critical line (where \[the magnetic gap\]$`J`$), but is not capable of predicting universal properties in the quantum critical regime.

We gratefully acknowledge stimulating conversations with Kevin Ingersent and Subir Sachdev, and the financial support of NSF Grant DMR-9974396.


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# Proving Higgs Bosons are scalars at a Linear Collider

DESY 01-192

Snowmass `P1_miller_0707`

## Abstract

The threshold dependence and angular correlations of Higgs-strahlung in $`e^+e^{}`$ collisions can be used to demonstrate the spinless nature of the Standard Model Higgs boson. This method, and its possible extention to heavy neutral MSSM Higgs bosons, is discussed.

1. The next generation of colliders will most likely discover the Higgs boson, or whatever other mechanism is responsible for Electroweak Symmetry Breaking. In order to distinguish whether any newly discovered particle is the expected Higgs boson or something else not yet predicted, it is important to experimentally determine its properties. One such task is the verification of the scalar nature of the Higgs boson.

The isotropic decay of a Higgs boson is a necessary consequence of the zero spin of the Higgs boson but is not sufficient to confirm its spinless nature, since other higher spin objects may also exhibit isotropic decays Birgit . While such an observation is doubtless an interesting consistency check, it is constructive to consider other methods. In this talk I will describe the verification of the spinless nature of the Standard Model (SM) Higgs boson from the threshold behaviour and angular correlations of Higgs-strahlung in $`e^+e^{}`$ collisions, $`e^+e^{}ZH`$. I then discuss the possible extension of this method to the heavy Higgs bosons of the Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model (MSSM).

2. As a first step, it is useful to examine the Higgs-strahlung cross-section and angular distributions for arbitrary spin ’Higgs bosons’ without specifying the model. (Although a boson of non-zero spin is undoubtedly not our traditional Higgs boson, I shall, in the interests of simplicity continue to refer to it as such, and will continue to use the term Higgs-strahlung for its radiation off a Z boson.) Using only the properties of the angular momentum operator, the helicity amplitude for the $`Z^{}ZH`$ current can be written as helicity ,

$$Z(\lambda _Z)H(\lambda _H)|Z^{}(m)=\frac{g_WM_Z}{\mathrm{cos}\theta _W}d_{m,\lambda _Z\lambda _H}^1(\theta )\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\lambda _Z\lambda _H},$$
(1)
where $`\lambda _Z,\lambda _H`$ and $`m`$ are the helicities of the real Z, Higgs and virtual Z bosons respectively, and $`d_{mm^{}}^j(\theta )`$ are the usual d-functions resulting from the projection of different angular momentum eigenstates on to one another. $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\lambda _Z\lambda _H}`$ are reduced helicity amplitudes which are model dependent, and normalized to be dimensionless. If the Higgs sector is $`𝒞𝒫`$ conserving then the parity relation between helicity amplitudes for a Higgs boson of spin J and parity $`𝒫`$ can be exploited:

$$\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\lambda _Z\lambda _H}=(1)^𝒥𝒫\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\lambda _Z\lambda _H}.$$
(2)
In this way, the Higgs-strahlung cross-section is given by,

$$\sigma =\frac{G_F^2M_Z^6(v_e^2+a_e^2)}{24\pi s^2(1M_Z^2/s)^2}\beta \left[|\mathrm{\Gamma }_{00}|^2+2|\mathrm{\Gamma }_{11}|^2+2|\mathrm{\Gamma }_{01}|^2+2|\mathrm{\Gamma }_{10}|^2+2|\mathrm{\Gamma }_{12}|^2\right],$$
(3)
where $`v_e`$ and $`a_e`$ are the vector and axial-vector $`Z`$ charges of the electron; $`M_Z`$ is the $`Z`$-boson mass, $`\sqrt{s}`$ the centre-of-mass energy, and the normalized $`Z`$/$`H`$ velocity is $`\beta =2p/\sqrt{s}`$ with $`p`$ the $`Z`$/$`H`$ three-momentum in the centre-of-mass frame. The Standard Model cross-section is recovered by inserting, $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_{00}=E_Z/M_Z`$, $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_{10}=1`$ and setting all other helicity amplitudes to zero, resulting in an excitation curve rising linearly with $`\beta `$ near the threshold, $`\sigma \beta `$. It is this distinctive property of the SM which can be exploited to verify the spinless nature of the Higgs boson.

Similarly, the polar angle distribution of the Higgs and $`Z`$ bosons in the final state can be written,

$$\frac{d\sigma }{d\mathrm{cos}\theta }\mathrm{sin}^2\theta \left[|\mathrm{\Gamma }_{00}|^2+2|\mathrm{\Gamma }_{11}|^2\right]+[1+\mathrm{cos}^2\theta ]\left[|\mathrm{\Gamma }_{01}|^2+|\mathrm{\Gamma }_{10}|^2+|\mathrm{\Gamma }_{12}|^2\right],$$
(4)
Inserting the SM reduced helicity amplitudes one sees that the SM distribution of the polar angle $`\theta `$ is isotropic near the threshold.

Finally, independent information can be obtained by considering the final-state fermion distributions in the decay $`Zf\overline{f}`$. Denoting the fermion polar angle in the $`Z`$ rest frame with respect to the $`Z`$ flight direction in the laboratory frame by $`\theta _{}`$, the double differential distribution in $`\theta `$ and $`\theta _{}`$ is given by.

$`{\displaystyle \frac{d\sigma }{d\mathrm{cos}\theta d\mathrm{cos}\theta _{}}}`$ $``$ $`\mathrm{sin}^2\theta \mathrm{sin}^2\theta _{}|\mathrm{\Gamma }_{00}|^2+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}[1+\mathrm{cos}^2\theta ][1+\mathrm{cos}^2\theta _{}]\left[|\mathrm{\Gamma }_{10}|^2+|\mathrm{\Gamma }_{12}|^2\right]`$ (5)
$`+[1+\mathrm{cos}^2\theta ]\mathrm{sin}^2\theta _{}|\mathrm{\Gamma }_{01}|^2+\mathrm{sin}^2\theta [1+\mathrm{cos}^2\theta _{}]|\mathrm{\Gamma }_{11}|^2`$
$`+{\displaystyle \frac{2v_ea_e}{(v_e^2+a_e^2)}}{\displaystyle \frac{2v_fa_f}{(v_f^2+a_f^2)}}\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2}\mathrm{cos}\theta \mathrm{cos}\theta _{}\left[|\mathrm{\Gamma }_{10}|^2|\mathrm{\Gamma }_{12}|^2\right].`$
Note that in the SM the reduced helicity amplitudes $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_{01}`$ and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_{11}`$ are zero and consequently the $`[1+\mathrm{cos}^2\theta ]\mathrm{sin}^2\theta _{}`$ and $`\mathrm{sin}^2\theta [1+\mathrm{cos}^2\theta _{}]`$ correlations are absent.

3. Of course, these formulae are not useful unless one has expressions for the reduced helicity amplitudes in a particular model. To find these, consider the most general current describing the $`Z^{}ZH`$ vertex,

$$𝒥_\mu =\frac{g_WM_Z}{\mathrm{cos}\theta _W}T_{\mu \alpha \beta _1\mathrm{}\beta _𝒥}\epsilon ^{}(Z)^\alpha \epsilon ^{}(H)^{\beta _1\mathrm{}\beta _𝒥},$$
(6)
where $`\epsilon ^\alpha `$ is the usual spin-1 polarization vector and $`\epsilon ^{\beta _1\mathrm{}\beta _𝒥}`$ is the spin-$`𝒥`$ polarization tensor which is symmetric, traceless and orthogonal to the 4-momentum of the Higgs boson $`p_H^{\beta _i}`$. The tensor $`T_{\mu \alpha \beta _1\mathrm{}\beta _𝒥}`$ is effectively transverse due to the conservation of the lepton current. By choosing the most general tensor for the appropriate spin, and comparing with Eq.(1), expressions for the reduced helicity amplitudes can be found.

For example, the most general tensor for a $`𝒥^𝒫=0^+`$ Higgs coupling to the Z boson is given by,

$$T^{\mu \alpha }=a_1g_{}^{\mu \alpha }+a_2k_{}^\mu q^\alpha ,$$
(7)
where $`q=p_Z+p_H`$, $`k=p_Zp_H`$ and $``$ denotes orthogonality to $`q`$. Projecting with the polarization vector, and comparing this with Eq.(1), one obtains $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_{00}=(a_1E_Z\frac{1}{2}a_2s^{3/2}\beta ^2)/M_Z`$, $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_{10}=a_1`$ and all other reduced helicity amplitudes vanish. Clearly, the SM is restored with the choice $`a_1=1`$ and $`a_2=0`$.

In this way, it is straightforward to write down general reduced helicity amplitudes for theories with higher spin Higgs bosons. In general, the coefficients of the tensors in $`T^{\mu \alpha \beta _1\mathrm{}\beta _𝒥}`$ ($`a_1`$ and $`a_2`$ in the $`0^+`$ example above) may be functions of $`\beta `$, so the full behaviour of the cross section is still unknown. However, near threshold, where $`\beta `$ is small, one may make a power series expansion of these functions, and predict the steepest possible $`\beta `$ dependence of the cross-section in the threshold region. This prediction can be examined experimentally allowing one to rule out certain spin states.

A full analysis of all possible $`𝒥^𝒫`$ states miller  reveals that every spin-parity combination yields a faster than $`\beta `$ rise of the cross-section at threshold, except for the $`0^+`$, $`1^+`$ and $`2^+`$ states. In particular, states of $`𝒥<3`$ and odd parity present at least a $`\beta ^3`$ rise of the cross-section near threshold, and for $`𝒥3`$ the behaviour is $`\beta ^{2𝒥3}`$ and $`\beta ^{2𝒥1}`$ for $`(1)^𝒥𝒫=\pm 1`$ respectively. It is therefore a simple matter to rule out the majority of $`𝒥^𝒫`$ states by simply measuring the cross-section rise at threshold Dova:2001sq .

4. The exceptional cases must be ruled out using extra observations. Generally, the requirement that the $`1^+`$ or $`2^+`$ states mimic the linear $`\beta `$ rise of the $`0^+`$ state places restrictions on the reduced helicity amplitudes. For a $`2^+`$ Higgs boson, the term in the $`Z^{}ZH`$ coupling which provides a linear rise ($`g^{\alpha \beta _1}g_{}^{\mu \beta _2}+g^{\alpha \beta _2}g_{}^{\mu \beta _1}`$) also contributes to all possible reduced helicity amplitudes. Consequently all of the reduced helicity amplitudes in this model are non-zero and would provide angular correlations in the decay of the Z boson, Eq.(5), in direct contradiction of the SM. For example, if one then observes no $`[1+\mathrm{cos}^2\theta ]\mathrm{sin}^2\theta _{}`$ or no $`\mathrm{sin}^2\theta [1+\mathrm{cos}^2\theta _{}]`$ correlations then a $`2^+`$ state is ruled out.

The $`1^+`$ state is even easier to experimentally disprove. Firstly, the observation of $`H\gamma \gamma `$ decays or the formation of Higgs bosons in photon collisions, $`\gamma \gamma H`$, rules out all spin-1 assignments as a result of the Landau-Yang theorem. In addition, the spin-parity relation among the reduced helicity amplitudes, Eq.(2), implies that $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_{00}`$ must vanish (indeed, this is also true for any $`𝒥^𝒫`$ assignment where $`(1)^𝒥𝒫=1`$, i.e. $`2^{}`$, $`3^+`$, $`4^{}`$ etc.). Therefore the observation of a $`\mathrm{sin}^2\theta \mathrm{sin}^2\theta _{}`$ correlation in Eq.(5), as predicted by the Standard Model, eliminates this possibility. Finally, as with the $`2^+`$ Higgs state, a linear $`\beta `$ rise of the cross-section also requires that $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_{01}`$ and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_{11}`$ be non-zero, so non-observation of $`[1+\mathrm{cos}^2\theta ]\mathrm{sin}^2\theta _{}`$ or $`\mathrm{sin}^2\theta [1+\mathrm{cos}^2\theta _{}]`$ correlations also rules out a $`1^+`$ Higgs boson.

Non-zero spin Higgs bosons of non-definite parity (i.e. when the $`Z^{}ZH`$ vertex is parity violating) are equally straightforward to disprove. In this case one may no longer use Eq.(2) to obtain the simple form of the (differential) cross sections seen in Eqs.(35). In particular, the polar angle distribution, Eq.(4), is modified to include a linear term proportional to $`\mathrm{cos}\theta `$, indicative of $`𝒞𝒫`$ violation. The analysis, however, proceeds as in the fixed normality case, since the most general tensor vertex will be the sum of the even and odd parity tensors (with appropriate phase factors). One finds that, for every spin, only one of the even or odd parity tensors dominates at threshold, so that the procedure outlined above will also eliminate all mixed parity states with non-zero spins.

Also observe that this measurement can very easily rule out an odd parity Higgs boson, which has at best a $`\beta ^3`$ rise of the cross-section at threshold. It is, however, unable to distinguish between the SM $`0^+`$ Higgs boson and a scalar Higgs boson of indefinite parity, since their threshold behaviour will be indistinguishable.

5. The MSSM contains two Higgs doublets, and consequently five physical Higgs states: two $`𝒞𝒫`$ even (h and H), one $`𝒞𝒫`$ odd (A), and two charged Higgs bosons ($`H^\pm `$). Clearly the lightest $`𝒞𝒫`$ even Higgs boson spin can be determined via Higgs-strahlung, $`e^+e^{}Zh`$, exactly as for the SM Higgs boson, as described above. The heavier Higgs bosons, however, present more of a challenge. Here I consider only the heavy neutral Higgs bosons.

At first sight our method seems hopeless for determining the spin of the heavy Higgs bosons. Heavy Higgs-strahlung, $`e^+e^{}ZH`$, and production of the pseudoscalar in association with the light scalar, $`e^+e^{}Ah`$, are, in this case, not useful since their cross-sections are suppressed by the square of $`\mathrm{cos}(\alpha \beta )`$ making them prohibitively small. The only process of use for this method is the production of the pseudoscalar together with the heavy scalar, $`e^+e^{}AH`$. However, this process, presents two major difficulties. Firstly, we have two unknown spins in the process (assuming that neither spin has been experimentally determined elsewhere), giving many more different spin combinations which must be ruled out. Secondly, and more significantly, in the MSSM the decay products of the spin one virtual Z boson are scalar particles, and consequently form a P-wave, with an expected threshold dependence $`\beta ^3`$. This slowly rising signal makes the threshold measurement much more difficult for experiment. Furthermore, any higher spin combination which one would naturally expect to form an S-wave, may mimic such a P-wave by having all their non-zero helicity amplitudes $`\beta `$ at threshold.

However, one possible exploitable feature is that, since both H and A are scalars, the MSSM process has only one reduced helicity amplitude $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_{00}`$. Consequently the differential cross-section with respect to the polar angle of the outgoing pair is proportional to $`\mathrm{sin}^2\theta `$ (see Eq.(4)). By contrast, when one considers the possible tensor structures for the $`Z^{}HA`$ vertex which produce similar $`\beta ^3`$ threshold cross-section dependences, one finds that most also contribute other non-zero reduced helicity amplitudes resulting in $`[1+\mathrm{cos}^2\theta ]`$ correlations in the differential cross-section.

The exceptions to this rule occur when the H and A spins are identical and non-zero. In order to discount them, one must again resort to the further decay into fermion pairs. Note that this is much more complicated than for the SM Higgs boson since we must now consider the decay of a boson whose spin is unknown, in contrast to the decay of the well studied Z boson. This is beyond the scope of this contribution and will be reported elsewhere djmha .

6. In summary, the $`𝒥^𝒫`$ quantum numbers for a SM Higgs boson can be unambiguously determined by measuring the threshold dependence of the Higgs-strahlung cross-section, $`e^+e^{}ZH`$, and the angular correlations $`[1+\mathrm{cos}^2\theta ]\mathrm{sin}^2\theta _{}`$ and $`[1+\mathrm{cos}^2\theta _{}]\mathrm{sin}^2\theta `$. The observation of a linear dependence on $`\beta `$ at threshold eliminates all spin-parity assignments different from $`0^+`$ except $`1^+`$ and $`2^+`$, and these last two assignments may then be ruled out by the absence of the above correlations. The method can be extended to the MSSM, where the processes $`e^+e^{}Zh`$ and $`e^+e^{}HA`$ can be used to experimentally verify the spinless nature of all neutral Higgs bosons of the theory.

###### Acknowledgements.

The Author would like to thank P. M. Zerwas, S. Y. Choi and J. Wells for useful discussions.


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# To the problem of electron-phonon interaction and ”d-wave pairing” in high-𝑇_𝑐 oxides.

It is supported a recent proposal by Maksimov  that electron-phonon interaction (EPI) (see, e.g. Gruneisen-Bloch formulae) determines the linearity of temperature dependence of resistivity for both HTSC-cuprates and most of metals at $`T\mathrm{\Theta }_D/5`$ (normal state for HTSC). However, it is here emphasized that resistivity is not proportional to $`T`$ in this temperature range but is only linear in $`T`$. This fact indicates to temperature-independent contribution to normal-state resistivity in HTSC-cuprates (magnetic contribution in our treatment) which behavior, in its turn, indicates to possible magnetic (SDW-like) phase transition before SC transition in HTSC-system. SDW-gap (measured as pseudogap with d-wave symmetry, in our treatment) is formed at symmetrical parts of the Fermi surface above $`T_c`$ and persists in SC state. The magnitude of SDW-gap is essentially larger than that for SC-gap. So, SDW formed can mimic d-wave symmetry of the order parameter measured below $`T_c`$ (which is now attributed to d-wave pairing). On the other hand, since Gruneisen-Bloch curve appears to be the geometric locus for the onset of SC transition at different magnetic fields (as in LTSC), this fact may be considered as evidence for EPI-nature (BSC) of SC transition (s-wave) in high-$`T_c`$-oxides. Also, there is presented a proposal to model stripe structure (SDW/CDW) of $`CuO_2`$-plane in HTSC-cuprates using both static (subnanotechnology) and dynamic (solid-state plasma physics) methodics to increase $`T_c`$.
Submitted to Usp.Fiz.Nauk as a Comment to the paper by E.Maksimov  (February, 2001)

In a recently published paper by Maksimov  it was noted that linearity of temperature dependence of resistivity $`\rho (T)`$, observed in a normal state of high-$`T_c`$ oxides, is also characteristic for most metals (magnetic ones are included) at $`T\mathrm{\Theta }_D/5`$ (fig.2 in ). In this temperature region resistivity of the metal is due to phonon scattering of charge carriers ($`\rho (T)=\rho _{ph}(T)`$) and is well described by Gruneisen-Bloch formulae (here $`\mathrm{\Theta }_D`$ is a Debye temperature of corresponding metal). In this connection, it may be noted the following. The problem of relation of this linearity to copper oxides begin discuss, in fact, just after discovery of high-$`T_c`$ superconductivity (see, e.g. well-known review by Gor’kov and Kopnin ). However, already first calculations by Allen, Pickett and Krakauer  have demonstrated that phonon scattering (calculated for parameters of high-$`T_c`$ oxides) though provides linearity of $`\rho _{ph}(T)`$-dependence in the normal state of HTSC but corresponding dependences lay essentially lower than experimental ones. Moreover, same conclusion follows from Gruneisen-Bloch formulae too: even from fig.2 in (see, also the book by Kittel ”Introduction to Solid-State Physics” (John Wiley and Sons, Inc.) or the monograph by Ziman ”Electrons and Phonons” (Oxford at the Clarendon Press, 1960 )) it’s seen that in this temperature range $`\rho _{ph}(T)`$ is not proportional to $`T`$ $`(\rho _{ph}T)`$ as it is usually considered but is only linear in $`T`$, cutting (at extrapolation) negative part at the ordinate axis which value is comparable with that of $`\rho _{ph}(T)`$ at $`T\mathrm{\Theta }_D/5`$. At the same time, in HTSC cuprates linear dependence corresponding to $`\rho (T)`$ in the normal state comes through the coordinate origin (”in best single-crystalline samples”) or usually cuts positive part at the $`\rho `$-axis. This fact indicates to presence in HTSC system of additional (to phonon) contribution $`\rho _m(T)`$ caused by scattering mechanism which scattering rate only slightly depends on temperature ($`\rho _m(T)const`$) in this temperature range. It seems to be natural to attract here the magnetic scattering mechanism: parent compounds $`La_2CuO_4`$ and $`YBa_2Cu_3O_6`$ are antiferro(AF)-magnetic insulators and, at their doping, in HTSC system there persist AF spin fluctuations which are an effective origin of scattering for charge carriers in the normal state. The same conclusion (as one of the possibilities ) was in fact made by authors of , too. Analysis of the HTSC behavior performed by us in the beginning of 90’s , in frames of the model  ($`\rho _{tot}=\rho _{ph}+\rho _m`$, where $`\rho _m`$ is a magnetic contribution in resistivity of HTSC) used at analysis of resistivity $`\rho (T)`$ in magnetic metals, permits one to describe the ”anomalous” behavior of HTSC cuprates at ($`H,T`$)-plane, in details. As it’s seen from fig.1 (see ) Gruneisen-Bloch curve (dashed curve in the fig.1) separates from experimental $`\rho (T)`$-curves (1-4) a contribution $`\rho _m(T)`$ (shaded area in fig.1a). The behavior of so-extracted magnetic contribution $`\rho _m(T)`$ (fig.1b) evidents (cf. with ) about phase transition in magnetic subsystem of HTSC cuprates from spin-disordered ($`\rho _mconst`$ in the normal state) to magnetically-ordered state ($`\rho _m=0`$), modulated magnetic structure (like to spin density wave (AF SDW)) coexisting with superconductivity at $`TT_k(H)`$. As it has been followed from analysis of available in that time literature data (see, ) SDW in the system is realized in the form of quasistatic stripe structure in $`CuO_2`$-plane (see, insert in fig.1b) when magnetic stripes (triangles) alternate with charge stripes (circles) (charge density wave (CDW)) (see, also the review by Bianconi ). It should be underlined that parts of resistive curves which lay above points of intersection with Gruneisen-Bloch curve ($`TT_k(H)`$) relate to magnetic (SDW) phase transition, i.e. correspond to normal rather than resistive state as it is usually considered (in other words, above $`T=T_k(H)`$ in HTSC sample there are no SC vortices, at all).

Furthermore, in the intersection points of (experimental) resistive curves with Gruneisen-Bloch one it appears the shoulder which, in fact, indicate to the end of magnetic (SDW) phase transition $`T_k(H)=T_{SDW}^{order}(H)`$ (see above) and the onset ($`T_k(H)=T_c^{onset}(H)`$) of superconducting transition itself. It should be underlined that even at $`H=26T`$ the onset point of SC transition also lays at Gruneisen-Bloch curve (though this curve already deviates from linearity, dashed curve in fig.1c) which fact evidents about applicability of Gruneisen-Bloch formulae to analysis of HTSC-cuprates system at $`T<\mathrm{\Theta }_D/5`$, too. Moreover, the fact that Gruneisen-Bloch curve (see fig.1c) is, in fact, a geometric locus for the onset of SC transition at different magnetic fields $`T_c^{onset}(H)`$ (as in LTSC) may be considered as evidence for EPI-nature (BCS) of SC transition (s-wave) in high-$`T_c`$ oxides. As additional evidence for such conclusion may be also considered the linearity of temperature dependence of upper critical magnetic field $`H_{c2}(T)`$ (with $`H_{c2}(0)45T`$ and $`\xi _{ab}25\AA `$) characteristic for GL and BCS theory in the nearity of $`T_c(0)`$ (see, insert in fig.1c). The dependence of $`H_{c2}(T)`$ is formed from points $`T_c^{onset}(H)`$ at the ($`H,T`$)-plane . (It should be noted that in literature there is significant spread in values of $`H_{c2}(0)`$ up to now, and moreover, correct resistive methodics to determine $`T_c(H)`$ in HTSC cuprates is absent, at all).

The picture obtained was not unexpected: the problem of coexistence of superconductivity and magnetism was firstly considered yet in 1956, by Ginzburg , and then was developed by many researchers (see, e.g. review by Machida ). From the theory by Machida for the system of itinerant electrons with interplay between superconductivity and magnetism it follows that with decreasing temperature it is firstly formed SDW-gap at symmetrical parts of the Fermi surface (normal state), and only then, SC-gap. Such anisotropy of SDW-gap is in agreement with $`d_{x^2y^2}`$-wave symmetry of pseudogap which appearance (together with stripe structure) in the normal state of HTSC-cuprates (at $`T=T^{}=T_{SDW}^{onset}`$, in given model) is now observed in many experiments.

Then, same conclusion about SDW/CDW-origin for the pseudogap was made by Klemm  from Argonne National Lab., USA, on the basis of detailed analysis of direct measurements of energy gap characteristics in HTSC-cuprates. Since, pseudogap also persists in SC state, then its d-wave symmetry mimics the symmetry of the order parameter measured in SC state (e.g., with using of ARPES-methodics or tunnel experiments).

So, evidence obtained by us that SC transition with phonon mechanism in HTSC cuprates occurs only after formation of additional (SDW) order in the normal state, is in agreement with conclusions of  that ”in cuprates … there are essential an electron-phonon interaction (EPI) as well as … spin interaction”  which, in fact, is namely ”something determining, together with EPI, SC mechanism in HTSC systems” . Analysis performed in frames of above approach  permits one significantly clear the picture of ”anomalous” behavior of HTSC-cuprates and answer two main questions arising when describing the phenomena in frames of pure EPI: ”observed anisotropic d-pairing” (or more correctly, strong anisotropy of energy gap) and ” large value of $`2\mathrm{\Delta }(0)/k_BT_c\mathrm{"}`$ . These features now attributed to $`d_{x^2y^2}`$-wave superconductivity, appear to be, in fact, direct consequence of coexistence of SDW and SC order parameters below $`T=T_k(H)`$ (see, fig.1a) when SDW-gap with its $`d_{x^2y^2}`$-wave symmetry and relatively large magnitude ($`\mathrm{\Delta }_{SC}<\mathrm{\Delta }_{SDW}`$ ) prevails in the electron energy spectra  measured in experiments. As for experiment, then investigations performed in last decade with both conventional and new (fast and local (ARPES, EXAFS, STM)) methodics led to quantitative agreement with detailed picture obtained in  (for more details, see ). So, in recent experiments on elastic neutron scattering in La-based cuprates it was observed that superconductivity and static magnetic order appear at the same temperature (see, above: $`T_{SDW}^{order}(0)=T_c^{onset}(0)`$, fig.1a). In addition, the model (SDW/CDW) here considered permits one to propose  both static (with layer-by-layer sputtering (cf. )) and dynamic (the creation of standing wave) methods to increase $`T_c`$ (for detailed discussion of the problem, see monograph ) in such systems. As first example of using (in fact) this mechanism (SDW/CDW/SC) may be considered recent communication in Nature ($`\mathrm{𝟑𝟗𝟒}`$, 453, 1998) about twofold increase of $`T_c`$ in nanostructure with using of thin film of $`La`$-based cuprate on the substrate with slightly different lattice periods (for more details, see ).


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# Implications of the synchrotron emission in plerionic nebulae: a second component in the Crab Nebula

## 1. Introduction

Synchrotron emission from Crab-like nebulae (plerions) provides information on magnetic fields and relativistic electrons contained in these nebulae. One of the goals of the analysis of this emission is to determine the characteristics of the particles injected in the nebula, and eventually those of the injection processes. However in order to obtain the injected spectrum it is necessary to correct for the evolution of particles, which are subject both to adiabatic and synchrotron losses: the former ones dominate at lower particle energies and preserve the shape of the distribution, while the latter ones dominate for more energetic particles, causing a steepening in their distribution.

In the integrated synchrotron spectrum at least two regions with different spectral indices are expected, separated by a break at frequency $`\nu _b`$, where the adiabatic and synchrotron losses are equal (for a more detailed treatment see Pacini & Salvati 1973). At frequencies higher than $`\nu _b`$ spectral inhomogeneities in the spectral index are generally explained in terms of synchrotron evolution; while below $`\nu _b`$ the power-law index of the present particle distribution must correspond to that at injection. In the case of the Crab Nebula, where $`\nu _b15,000\mathrm{GHz}`$, Bietenholz et al. (1997) show that the radio spectral index is highly homogeneous, with an upper limit of only $`0.01`$: this result has been interpreted as a compelling evidence in favour of a single component of injected particles.

Here I shall report on observations at mm wavelengths (a work in collaboration with R. Cesaroni and R. Neri), which instead indicate the coexistence of two components. Details on the observations as well as an extensive discussion of the results are presented by Bandiera et al. (2001).

## 2. 230 GHz observations of the Crab Nebula

The Crab Nebula has been mapped at 230 GHz using the MPIfR bolometer array MAMBO, at the 30-m IRAM telescope (Pico Veleta, Spain), with a $`10.^{\prime \prime }5`$ angular resolution and a 10% photometric accuracy. The 230 GHz map has been compared with a 1.4 GHz VLA map (kindly provided by M.F. Bietenholz), suitably downgraded to the same resolution. The patterns in the two maps are similar, but not identical. This is apparent from the spectral map between the two frequencies (Bandiera et al. 2001): this map shows that in the inner region the spectral index is flatter (by $`0.05`$) than in the rest of the nebula, and is also flatter than the radio spectral index (a similar effect is seen also at 850 $`\mu `$m; Green, at this meeting). This means that, in the range from radio to mm wavelengths, the spectrum of the inner nebula is concave, a behavior hard to explain in terms of synchrotron losses, which on the contrary generate steeper spectra at higher frequencies. Moreover, since $`\nu _b`$ is much higher than 230 GHz, synchrotron losses are not expected to affect the electron distribution in this energy range. A concave spectrum, instead, naturally appears in the case of the coexistence of two different power-law components.

With this in mind we have mapped the residuals after having subtracted an extrapolation of the radio map (after PSF equalization). The map of residuals shows an excess in the inner region, plus a pattern of secondary negative features, whose positions coincide with those of radio filaments. By a non-linear filtering we have synthesized a map of the filaments and we have combined it with the map of residuals in a way to minimize the ripples. We came out with a map of what we guess is the second component (Fig. 1a). In size, shape and position this component resembles the X-ray map (Fig. 1b) and the optical flatter spectrum region (Fig. 1c; Véron-Cetty & Woltjer 1993): this is an unexpected result, because the latter two maps were believed to be shaped by synchrotron losses, while the mm component is not. Finally, this second component is anticorrelated with the radio map (Fig. 1d).

## 3. Discussion

Let me first discuss the negative features coincident with radio filaments. They indicate that, in between radio and mm wavelengths, the spectrum of the filaments is steeper than the integrated spectrum. If this is ascribed to the presence of a synchrotron break, this break must be located at about 70 GHz, namely at a frequency $`200`$ times lower than the $`\nu _b`$ for the integrated spectrum. If electrons cannot diffuse through filaments we have $`\nu _bB^3`$: thus in filaments the field should be $`6`$ times higher than the average.

The fact that even these secondary features are real makes us confident that the primary feature in the residual map, namely the excess in the inner nebula, is not just an instrumental artifact. Even though the 230 GHz map has been compared with a radio map obtained about 10 years earlier, and even though there is evidence of rapid variability in radio (Bietenholz et al. 2001; and at this meeting), there are various reasons why the observed excess cannot be an artifact of time variability. First of all, Bietenholz et al. show a wavy structure of the variability pattern that, when smeared to $`10.^{\prime \prime }5`$ resolution, should average down to zero. Moreover the extension we find is larger than that of the time-variable region in radio. Finally if there have been “bursts of injected particles”, their effect should be detectable for a long time; on the contrary, the evolution of the Crab integrated flux is found to be smooth (Aller & Reynolds 1985).

An analysis of the integrated spectrum of the Crab Nebula allowed us to exclude a thermal origin (either dust or free-free) for this component. Even in the case of a synchrotron nature stringent limits on the electron distribution follow from the data at other wavelengths. The absence of this component at radio wavelengths implies a low-energy cutoff at a $`E_L1.5\times 10^4m_ec^2`$; moreover, its emergence at optical frequencies and beyond constrains the slope of the distribution above $`E_L`$ to be about –2 (about –0.5 in the spectrum; Fig. 2).

In this way a total number of $`N_{tot}2\times 10^{48}`$ electrons is estimated for this component (for an assumed nebular field $`3\times 10^4\mathrm{G}`$). This value for $`N_{tot}`$ is in nice agreement with what predicted by Kennel & Coroniti (1984) model, which otherwise fails to account for the number radio emitting electrons. This may indicate that the Kennel & Coroniti mechanism is producing the newly discovered component, while the radio component requires a different mechanism.

### Acknowledgments.

This work has been supported by the Italian Ministry for University and Research under Grant Cofin99–02–02, and by the National Science Foundation under Grant No. PHY99-07949.

## References

Aller, H. D., & Reynolds, S. P. 1985, ApJ, 293, L73

Bandiera, R., Neri, R., & Cesaroni, R. 2001, A&A (submitted)

Bietenholz, M. F., Frail, D. A., & Hester, J. J. 2001, ApJ, 560, 254

Kennel, C. F., & Coroniti, F. V., 1984, ApJ, 283, 710

Pacini, F., & Salvati, M., 1973, ApJ, 186, 249

Véron-Cetty, M. P., & Woltjer, L., 1993, A&A, 270, 370


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# Effect of impurities on quasi-2D quantum antiferromagnet

## I Introduction

The discovery of superconducting cuprates has attracted much attention to the properties of diluted 2D, QHAF , the subject intensively studied some 30 years ago in the context of magnetism in diluted magnetic alloys . Traditional view of the effect of local disorder on the spectrum of an ordered 3D antiferromagnet is that at long wavelengths the form of the spectrum is not modified. The only effects are the reduction of hydrodynamic parameters and a weak damping.

In this work we study the problem of impurities in 2D QHAF within the linear spin-wave theory using the $`T`$-matrix approach. The spin-wave Green’s function is evaluated by summing all multiple-scattering diagrams that involve single impurity. We find that the scattering leads to a new length scale $`\mathrm{}/ae^{\pi /4x}`$ beyond which the influence of impurities on the spectrum is dominant. We associate this length scale with the localization length of spin excitations. We show that the dynamical structure factor $`𝒮(𝐤,\omega )`$ for $`a^1k\mathrm{}^1`$ consists of three parts (we use units $`\mathrm{}=k_B=1`$): (i) a broadened quasiparticle peak with a width given by $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_kxc_0k`$, $`c_0=2\sqrt{2}SJa`$; (ii) a non-Lorentian localization peak at $`\omega =\omega _0c_0\mathrm{}^1`$, (iii) a flat background of states between $`\omega =c_0k`$ and $`\omega =\omega _0`$. Thus for every $`𝐤`$-state some weight is spread from the high energies to the low energies. For $`k\mathrm{}^1`$ the quasiparticle and localization peaks merge into a broad incoherent peak that disperses in momentum space. We calculate the static magnetic properties and find a quantitative agreement with both MC simulations and experimental data. We show that at $`T=0`$ the staggered magnetization is given by $`M(x,0)S\mathrm{\Delta }Bx`$, the factor $`\mathrm{\Delta }0.2`$ is the contribution of the zero-point fluctuations of the spins and $`B0.21`$. We find that $`T_N(x)/T_N(0)1A_sx`$ where $`A_s=\pi 2/\pi +B/(S\mathrm{\Delta })`$. This result gives $`A_{1/2}3.2`$ and $`A_{5/2}2.6`$ which agree very well with experiments up to $`x0.25`$.

The systems discussed in this paper are modeled by the site-diluted quantum Heisenberg antiferromagnet:

$`H={\displaystyle \underset{ij}{}}J_{ij}p_ip_j𝐒_i𝐒_j,`$ (1)
where $`p_i=1`$ ($`0`$) if $`i^{}s`$ site is occupied (unoccupied) by the spin $`S`$. We focus on the problem of tetragonal or square lattices with in-plane, $`J`$, and out-of-plane, $`J_{}`$, nearest-neighbor exchange constants, $`ij`$ denotes summation over bonds. In the systems of interest $`JJ_{}`$. We begin with the Hamiltonian (1) in the linear spin-wave approximation which is split into the pure host and impurity part and, after the Bogolyubov transformation, is given by (in the units of $`4SJ`$)

$`_0={\displaystyle \underset{𝐤}{}}\omega _𝐤\left(\alpha _𝐤^{}\alpha _𝐤+\beta _𝐤^{}\beta _𝐤\right),`$ (2)
$`_{imp}={\displaystyle \underset{l,𝐤,𝐤^{}}{}}e^{i(𝐤𝐤^{})𝐑_l}\widehat{𝒜}_𝐤^{}\widehat{𝒱}_{𝐤,𝐤^{}}^l\widehat{𝒜}_𝐤^{},`$ (3)
with two-component vectors $`\widehat{𝒜}_𝐤^{}=[\alpha _𝐤^{},\beta _𝐤]`$ and $`2\times 2`$ scattering potential matrices $`\widehat{𝒱}_{𝐤,𝐤^{}}`$ (for details see ), $`l`$ runs over the impurity sites. We are interested in the Green’s function of the Hamiltonian (2) modified by random impurity potentials (3). The Green’s function is a $`2\times 2`$ matrix defined in a standard way and the $`T`$-matrix equation for the Hamiltonian (3) is given by: $`\widehat{T}_{𝐤,𝐤^{}}^{l,\mu }(\omega )=\widehat{𝒱}_{𝐤,𝐤^{}}^{l,\mu }_𝐪\widehat{𝒱}_{𝐤,𝐪}^{l,\mu }\widehat{G}_𝐪^0(\omega )\widehat{T}_{𝐪,𝐤^{}}^{l,\mu }(\omega )`$, with $`l=A(B)`$, partial waves are restricted to in-plane $`\mu =s,p_\sigma ,d`$ harmonics and $`\widehat{G}_𝐪^0(\omega )`$ is the bare Green’s function. The $`T`$-matrix equations can be solved and the subsequent averaging over random distribution of impurities transforms $`T`$-matrix into the spin-wave self-energies $`\widehat{\mathrm{\Sigma }}_𝐤(\omega )=x\delta _{𝐤𝐤^{}}_\mu \left[\widehat{T}_{𝐤,𝐤^{}}^{A,\mu }(\omega )+\widehat{T}_{𝐤,𝐤^{}}^{B,\mu }(\omega )\right]`$. Summation of the Dyson-Belyaev diagrammatic series for the Green’s functions gives $`\widehat{G}=\widehat{G}^0+\widehat{G}^0\widehat{\mathrm{\Sigma }}\widehat{G}`$ and then the transverse component of the neutron scattering dynamical structure factor is proportional to the linear combination of the spectral functions

$`𝒮^{}(𝐤,\omega )=f(𝐤)g(\omega )\left[A_𝐤^{11}(\omega )+A_𝐤^{22}(\omega )+2A_𝐤^{12}(\omega )\right],`$ (4)
where $`A_𝐤^{ij}(\omega )=\frac{1}{\pi }\text{Im}\widehat{G}_𝐤^{ij}(\omega )`$, kinematic form-factor $`f(𝐤)=\pi S(1\gamma _𝐤)/\omega _𝐤`$, $`g(\omega )=[1+n_B(\omega )]`$, and $`n_B(\omega )=[e^{\omega /T}1]^1`$ is the Bose distribution function.

The static properties of the system are calculated from the spin-wave expression of the averaged on-site magnetic moment:

$`|S_i^z|=S+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}{\displaystyle \underset{𝐤}{}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\omega _𝐤}}\left[{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}+\alpha _𝐤^{}\alpha _𝐤\gamma _𝐤\alpha _𝐤^{}\beta _𝐤^{}\right],`$ (5)
where bosonic averages can be expressed through the spectral functions.

## II Results

A detailed analysis of the spectral function gives the following picture. At the wave-vectors much larger than $`\omega _0`$ ($`\omega _𝐤\omega _0`$), that is at the wavelengths shorter than a characteristic length $`\mathrm{}e^{\pi /4x}`$, the spectral function has three distinct regions in $`\omega `$. First, is a vicinity of a quasiparticle peak, $`\omega \stackrel{~}{\omega }_𝐤`$, where the spectrum has a regular Lorentzian form with the pole at $`\stackrel{~}{\omega }_𝐤`$ and width $`\stackrel{~}{\gamma }_𝐤`$ given by the perturbative result. Second, the intermediate range of energies, $`\omega _0<\omega \stackrel{~}{\omega }_𝐤`$, where the spectral function is independent of $`\omega `$ and corresponds to an almost flat, shallow ($`x`$) background of states. Third, the vicinity of a “localization peak”, $`\omega \omega _0`$, where the spectral function rises sharply from the shallow background states $`x`$ to a peak of the height $`1/x`$ and then vanishes in a singular fashion as $`\omega `$ approaches zero. The spectral function $`A_𝐤^{11}(\omega )`$ is shown in Fig. 1 for a representative value of impurity concentration $`x=0.1`$. One can clearly see the features we have discussed above: the broadened quasiparticle peak, the localization peak, and the states between them. As the $`𝐤`$ decreases all the mentioned structures merge.

The average on-site magnetic moment for randomly diluted AF with the averaging over magnetic sites $`M(x)=_i|S_i^z|/N_m`$ can be expressed through the integral of the spectral functions as:

$`M(x,T)=S\mathrm{\Delta }\delta M(x,T),`$ (7)
$`\delta M(x,T)={\displaystyle \underset{𝐤}{}}{\displaystyle _{\mathrm{}}^{\mathrm{}}}{\displaystyle \frac{n_B(\omega )\text{d}\omega }{\omega _𝐤}}\left[A_{R,𝐤}^{11}(\omega )\gamma _𝐤A_{R,𝐤}^{12}(\omega )\right],`$
where $`\mathrm{\Delta }=_𝐤v_𝐤^20.1966`$ is the zero-point spin deviation, subscript $`R`$ denotes retarded.

Numerical integration of the expression in Eq. (7) gives the suppression rate of the staggered magnetization $`M(x)M(0)Bx`$ with $`B=0.209(8)`$. For $`S=1/2`$ it gives the slope of the normalized staggered magnetization $`M(x)/M(0)1Bx/(S\mathrm{\Delta })10.691(5)x`$. The staggered magnetization v.s. $`x`$ is presented in Fig. 2 for $`S=1/2`$. The recent Monte Carlo data Refs., and NQR data Ref.  are also shown. One can see a very good agreement of our results with numerical data up to high concentrations.

At $`T>0`$ the staggered magnetic moment consists of the quantum, $`T=0`$, and thermal, $`T`$-dependent, parts. For the true 2D system at $`x=0`$ and $`T>0`$ thermal fluctuation destroy the long-range order which manifests itself as a log-divergency of the thermal correction to the magnetization. The 3D coupling provides a cut-off to this divergency in a quasi-2D problem which yields the finite value of the thermal correction and the finite value of the Néel temperature whose mean-field value can be found from the condition $`M(x,T_N)=0=S\mathrm{\Delta }\delta M(x,T_N)`$. Suppression rate of the Néel temperature can be readily obtained $`\frac{T_N(x)}{T_N(0)}1A_sx=1x\left(\pi \frac{2}{\pi }+\frac{B}{S\mathrm{\Delta }}\right)`$. For $`S=1/2`$ this gives $`A_{1/2}=3.196(5)`$ and for $`S=5/2`$ it is $`A_{5/2}=2.600(4)`$. We plot our results for $`T_N(x)/T_N(0)`$ for the case of $`S=1/2`$ in Fig. 3 together with experimental data. One can see that our results agree very well with the experiments up to a rather high doping level $`x0.25`$.

## III Conclusions

We have studied the problem of diluted 2D and quasi-2D quantum Heisenberg antiferromagnets in a tetragonal lattice making use of linear spin-wave theory and $`T`$-matrix approach. We have shown that the spin-wave spectrum is strongly modified by disorder which indicates magnon localization on a length scale $`\mathrm{}`$, exponentially large in $`1/x`$. This new length-scale appears explicitly in the dynamic properties such as the dynamical structure factor $`𝒮(𝐤,\omega )`$ which can be measured directly in neutron scattering experiments, and the magnon density of states $`N(\omega )`$, which is directly related to the magnetic specific heat. The measurement of such quantities will provide a direct test of our theory. Furthermore, we show that the static properties such as the zero-temperature staggered magnetization and Néel temperature do not show any anomaly associated with the spectrum and are finite up to the concentration close to the classical percolation threshold. These results are in a quantitative agreement with the NQR, $`\mu `$SR, ESR, and magnetic susceptibility measurements in different compounds as well as with the Monte Carlo data. Thus, in low-dimensional systems with disorder the connection between static and dynamic quantities is not straightforward. Altogether this provides a self-consistent picture of the effects of disorder in low-dimensional quantum antiferromagnets.

## ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This research was supported in part by Oak Ridge National Laboratory, managed by UT-Battelle, LLC, for the U.S. Department of Energy under contract DE-AC05-00OR22725, and by a CULAR research grant under the auspices of the US Department of Energy.