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# References

In Ref. , Verlinde made an interesting proposal that the Cardy formula  for the two-dimensional conformal field theory (CFT) can be generalized to arbitrary spacetime dimensions. Such generalized formula, called the Cardy-Verlinde formula, is shown to coincide with the Friedmann equation at the moment when the conjectured holographic entropy bound is saturated. Within the context of the radiation dominated universe corresponding to the brane moving in the bulk background of the AdS-Schwarzschild black hole, it was shown  that such a special moment corresponds to the moment when the brane crosses the black hole horizon. This result is later generalized  to brane universes in the bulks of various AdS black holes. It was also shown  that the Cardy-Verlinde formula should hold generically in thermodynamical systems with a first order phase transition. Verlinde  further proposed a holographic bound on the Casimir energy which unifies the Hubble and the Bekenstein bounds in an elegant way. In particular, in our previous works , we have shown that these results, originally proposed  for the closed universe case, continues to hold even for the flat and the open universes.

Recently, attempts  have been made to generalize the Verlinde’s results to the case of the dS black holes. Such attempts were motivated by the observational evidence that our universe has positive cosmological constant. Study of holographic principle for dS spacetime is complicated by subtle points that AdS spacetime does not have, such as nonexistence of globally defined timelike killing vector and spacelike infinity, which make it difficult to define conserved charges of a gravitating system in the asymptotically dS spacetime. Following the Brown-York prescription , the authors of Ref.  proposed a way to define conserved charges of asymptotically dS spacetimes from data at the timelike past or future infinity. A surprising result is that black holes in dS spacetime is less massive than the dS spacetime itself. So, unlike the black holes in the AdS spacetime, the mass of a black hole in the AdS spacetime is proportional to the minus of the mass parameter of the black hole solution, excluding the Casimir contribution from the background dS spacetime. (These results were explicitly checked and explicit expressions for thermodynamic quantities of the dS black holes in arbitrary spacetime dimensions were obtained in Ref. .) Because of this fact, the holography bound on the Casimir energy, conjectured by Verlinde , does not lead to the Hubble and the Bekenstein entropy bounds 222The recent work  claims to have derived such bounds from bound on the Casimir quantity, however the author considers the dS black hole solution with the mass term having the opposite sign from that of the conventional solution., although thermodynamic quantities (including entropy) of the dual CFT take usual special forms expressed in terms of the Hubble parameter and its its time derivative at the moment when the brane crosses the horizon. Also, difficulty of expressing entropy associated with the black hole horizon, rather than the cosmological horizon, in the form of the Cardy-Verlinde formula was observed . In this paper, we instead study the brane world cosmology in the bulk background of the AdS black hole, where the brane tension takes a value giving rise to a positive cosmological constant in the Friedmann equations 333Some aspects of the brane world cosmology in the AdS black hole background, where the brane tension does not take the fine-tuned value, were also previously studied in Ref. .. (In fact, the astronomical data indicates that the Friedmann equations have the positive cosmological constant term, not necessarily that bulk spacetime of the brane universe is asymptotically dS if our universe is described by the brane world scenario.) We obtain the associated Cardy-Verlinde formula. We find that the Hubble and the Bekenstein entropy bounds can be derived from the conjectured holographic bound on the Casimir entropy, even when the Friedmann equations have the cosmological constant term. It turns out that the matching of the first Friedmann equation and the entropy density of the dual CFT when the brane crosses the black hole horizon does not hold when the cosmological constant in the Friedmann equation is nonzero. The Bekenstein entropy bound turns out to depend on the cosmological constant.

The topological AdS black hole solution in $`(n+2)`$-dimensions has the form:

$`ds_{n+2}^2`$ $`=`$ $`h(a)dt^2+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{h(a)}}da^2+a^2\gamma _{ij}(x)dx^idx^j,`$ (1)
$`h(a)`$ $`=`$ $`k{\displaystyle \frac{w_{n+1}m}{a^{n1}}}+{\displaystyle \frac{a^2}{L^2}},w_{n+1}={\displaystyle \frac{16\pi G_{n+2}}{n\mathrm{Vol}(M_n)}},`$ (2)
where $`\gamma _{ij}`$ is the horizon metric for a constant curvature manifold $`M_n`$ with the volume $`\mathrm{Vol}(M_n)=d^nx\sqrt{\gamma }`$, $`G_{n+2}`$ is the $`(n+2)`$-dimensional Newton’s constant, $`m`$ is the ADM mass of the black hole, and $`L`$ is the curvature radius of the AdS spacetime. The horizon geometry of the black hole is elliptic, flat and hyperbolic for $`k=1,0,1`$, respectively. The Bekenstein-Hawking entropy $`S`$ and the Hawking temperature $`𝒯`$ of the black hole are

$$S=\frac{a_H^n\mathrm{Vol}(M_n)}{4G_{n+2}},𝒯=\frac{h^{}(a_H)}{4\pi }=\frac{(n+1)a_H^2+(n1)kL^2}{4\pi L^2a_H},$$
(3)
where $`a_H`$ is the black hole horizon, defined as the largest root of $`h(a_H)=0`$.

According to the holographic principle, thermodynamic quantities of the holographic dual CFT theory at high temperature are identified with those of the bulk AdS black hole . The metric for the CFT is given by

$$ds_{\mathrm{CFT}}^2=\underset{a\mathrm{}}{lim}\left[\frac{L^2}{a^2}ds_{n+2}^2\right]=dt^2+L^2\gamma _{ij}dx^idx^j.$$
(4)
Since the CFT time is rescaled by the factor of $`L/a`$ w.r.t. the AdS time, the energy $`E`$ and the temperature $`T`$ of the CFT are rescaled by the same factor $`L/a`$ w.r.t. those of the bulk AdS-Schwarzschild black hole. This fact appears to hold even when the brane tension is not fine-tuned, since argument leading to this fact does not involve the brane tension. This position is taken, for example, in Refs. . However, it is argued in Ref.  that the scale factor between energy and temperature of the AdS black hole and those of the CFT is rather given by $`lim_a\mathrm{}\frac{dt}{d\tau }=\frac{\kappa L^2}{a}`$, where $`\tau `$ is the time coordinate for the induced metric (7) on the brane, given in the below, and $`t`$ is the time coordinate for the bulk metric (2). Furthermore, it is argued  that energy of the AdS-Schwarzschild black hole is rather given by $`E_{\mathrm{bh}}=\frac{m}{\kappa ^2L^2}`$. These modified scale factor and the black hole energy take the usual forms $`L/a`$ and $`m`$, when the brane tension takes the fine-tuned value such that $`\kappa =1/L`$. The energy and the temperature of the CFT are therefore given by

$$E=E_{\mathrm{bh}}\frac{\kappa L^2}{a}=\frac{m}{\kappa a},T=𝒯\frac{\kappa L^2}{a}=\frac{\kappa L}{4\pi a}\left[(n+1)\frac{a_H}{L}+(n1)\frac{kL}{a_H}\right],$$
(5)
whereas the entropy $`S`$ of the CFT is still given by the Bekenstein-Hawking entropy (3) of the black hole without rescaling.

The dynamics of the brane is determined by the Israel junction conditions , which for our case take the form (Cf. Ref. ):

$$𝒦_{\mu \nu }=\frac{\kappa }{n}h_{\mu \nu },$$
(6)
where $`𝒦_{\mu \nu }`$ is the extrinsic curvature, $`\kappa `$ is related to the brane tension, and $`h_{\mu \nu }`$ is the induced metric on the brane. The induced metric can be brought to the following form of the Robertson-Walker metric:

$$h_{\mu \nu }dx^\mu dx^\nu =d\tau ^2+a^2(\tau )\gamma _{ij}dx^idx^j,$$
(7)
by introducing a new time coordinate $`\tau `$ satisfying

$$\frac{1}{h(a)}\left(\frac{da}{d\tau }\right)^2h(a)\left(\frac{dt}{d\tau }\right)^2=1.$$
(8)
The brane equation of motion (6) is translated into

$$\frac{dt}{d\tau }=\frac{\kappa a}{h(a)}.$$
(9)
Making use of Eqs. (8,9), we obtain the following Friedmann equation:

$$H^2=\kappa ^2\frac{h}{a^2}=\frac{w_{n+1}m}{a^{n+1}}\frac{k}{a^2}+\kappa ^2\frac{1}{L^2},$$
(10)
describing the evolution of the $`(n+1)`$-dimensional universe on the brane, where $`H\dot{a}/a`$ is the Hubble parameter. From this equation, we see that the brane motion in the bulk background (2) of the AdS black hole induces radiation matter ($`m/a^{n+1}`$). In this paper, we assume that $`\kappa ^2>1/L^2`$ so that the effective cosmological constant $`\mathrm{\Lambda }=\frac{n(n1)}{2}\left(\kappa ^2\frac{1}{L^2}\right)`$ of the brane universe is positive. Taking the $`\tau `$-derivative of Eq. (10), we obtain the second Friedmann equation

$$\dot{H}=\frac{n+1}{2}\frac{w_{n+1}m}{a^{n+1}}+\frac{n^2w_{n+1}^2}{8(n1)}+\frac{k}{a^2}.$$
(11)
The energy density of the CFT within the volume $`V=a^n\mathrm{Vol}(M_n)`$ is given by $`\rho =\frac{E}{V}=\frac{nw_{n+1}m}{16\pi \kappa G_{n+2}a^{n+1}}`$ and the induced CFT matter, being a radiation matter, satisfies the equation of state of the form $`p=\rho /n`$, where $`p`$ is the pressure of the CFT matter. So, the Friedmann equations (10,11) can be brought to the following standard forms of the Friedmann equations:

$$H^2=\frac{16\pi G}{n(n1)}\rho +\frac{2}{n(n1)}\mathrm{\Lambda }\frac{k}{a^2},$$
(12)
$$\dot{H}=\frac{8\pi G}{n1}\left(\rho +p\right)+\frac{k}{a^2},$$
(13)
where $`G=(n1)\kappa G_{n+2}`$ is the modified $`(n+1)`$-dimensional Newton’s constant on the brane proposed in Ref.  and once again $`\mathrm{\Lambda }=\frac{n(n1)}{2}\left(\kappa ^2\frac{1}{L^2}\right)`$ is the effective cosmological constant on the brane. From these Friedmann equations, we obtain the following energy conservation equation:

$$\dot{\rho }+n(\rho +p)\frac{\dot{a}}{a}=0.$$
(14)
The Friedmann equations (12,13) can be respectively put into the following forms resembling thermodynamic formulas of the CFT:

$$S_H=\frac{2\pi }{n}a\sqrt{E_{BH}[2(E+E_\mathrm{\Lambda })kE_{BH}]},$$
(15)
$$kE_{BH}=n(E+pVT_HS_H),$$
(16)
in terms of the Hubble entropy $`S_H`$ and the Bekenstein-Hawking energy $`E_{BH}`$, where

$$S_H(n1)\frac{HV}{4G},E_{BH}n(n1)\frac{V}{8\pi Ga^2},T_H\frac{\dot{H}}{2\pi H},E_\mathrm{\Lambda }\frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }V}{8\pi G}.$$
(17)
Eq. (15) is referred to as the cosmological Cardy formula, due to its resemblance to the Cardy formula for the two-dimensional CFT. Note, Eq. (16) resembles the Smarr’s formula for a thermodynamic system having the Casimir contribution. The first Friedmann equation (12) can be expressed also as the following relation among the Bekenstein entropy $`S_B\frac{2\pi a}{n}E`$, the Bekenstein-Hawking entropy $`S_{BH}(n1)\frac{V}{4Ga}`$, the Hubble entropy $`S_H`$, and $`S_\mathrm{\Lambda }\frac{2\pi a}{n}\frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }V}{8\pi G}`$:

$$S_H^2=2(S_B+S_\mathrm{\Lambda })S_{BH}kS_{BH}^2.$$
(18)
For the $`k=1`$ case, this can be expressed as the following quadratic relation:

$$S_H^2+(S_B+S_\mathrm{\Lambda }S_{BH})^2=(S_B+S_\mathrm{\Lambda })^2.$$
(19)
Unlike the $`\mathrm{\Lambda }=0`$ case considered in Ref. , $`S_B+S_\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ does not remain constant during the cosmological evolution, as can be seen by applying the energy conservation equation (14) along with the equation of state $`\rho =p/n`$. Nevertheless, we can extract inequalities among entropies from this relation. First of all, it is trivial to see that $`S_HS_B+S_\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ all the time. When $`S_HS_{BH}`$ \[$`S_HS_{BH}`$\], namely when $`Ha1`$ \[$`Ha1`$\], we have $`S_{BH}S_B+S_\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ \[$`S_{BH}S_B+S_\mathrm{\Lambda }`$\]. These inequalities are nothing but the second criteria (42) for the weakly or the strongly self-gravitating universe given in the below.

We study thermodynamics of the CFT at the moment when the brane crosses the black hole horizon $`a=a_H`$. Since the black hole horizon $`a_H`$ is a root of $`h(a_H)=0`$, we see from Eq. (10) that

$$H^2=\kappa ^2\mathrm{at}a=a_H.$$
(20)
The total entropy $`S`$ of the CFT remains constant, but the entropy density,

$$s\frac{S}{V}=(n1)\frac{\kappa a_H^n}{4Ga^n},$$
(21)
varies with time. When the brane crosses the black hole horizon, $`s`$ can be expressed in terms of $`H`$ in the following form:

$$s=(n1)\frac{H}{4G}\mathrm{at}a=a_H,$$
(22)
which implies

$$S=S_H\mathrm{at}a=a_H.$$
(23)
Making use of Eqs. (10,20), we see that the CFT temperature $`T=h^{}(a_H)L/(4\pi a_H)`$ at $`a=a_H`$ can be expressed in terms of $`H`$ and $`\dot{H}`$ as

$$T=\frac{\dot{H}}{2\pi H}=T_H\mathrm{at}a=a_H.$$
(24)
Note, entropy and temperature of the CFT take the same forms regardless of the value of the brane tension, when $`a=a_H`$. From Eq. (16) along with Eqs. (23,24), we we see that

$$E_C=kE_{BH}\mathrm{at}a=a_H,$$
(25)
where $`E_C`$ is the Casimir energy defined as

$$E_Cn(E+pVTS).$$
(26)
We now study thermodynamics of the CFT for an arbitrary value of $`a`$. Thermodynamic quantities of the CFT satisfy the first law of thermodynamics:

$$TdS=dE+pdV,$$
(27)
which takes the following form in terms of the densities:

$$Tds=d\rho +n(\rho +pTs)\frac{da}{a}.$$
(28)
Here, the combination $`\rho +pTs`$ measures the subextensive contribution in the thermodynamic system. Making use of the following expression for the energy density of the CFT, obtained from $`h(a_H)=0`$,

$$\rho =\frac{na_H^n}{16\pi G_{n+2}a^{n+1}}\left(\frac{a_H}{L}+k\frac{L}{a_H}\right),$$
(29)
together with the equation of state $`p=\rho /n`$, we have

$$\frac{n}{2}(\rho +pTs)=k\frac{\gamma }{a^2},$$
(30)
where $`\gamma `$ is the Casimir quantity given by

$$\gamma =\frac{n(n1)a_H^{n1}}{16\pi Ga^{n1}}.$$
(31)
By multiplying Eq. (30) by $`2V`$, we obtain the following explicit expression for the Casimir energy, defined by Eq. (26), in terms of quantities of the black hole solution:

$$E_C=\frac{kn(n1)a_H^{n1}\mathrm{Vol}(M_n)}{8\pi Ga}.$$
(32)
The entropy density (21) of the CFT can be expressed in terms of other thermodynamic quantities of the CFT as

$$s^2=\left(\frac{4\pi \kappa L}{n}\right)^2\gamma \left(\rho k\frac{\gamma }{a^2}\right).$$
(33)
For a general value of $`\kappa `$, this entropy density expression does not reproduce the first Friedmann equation (12) when the brane crosses the horizon. However, when the brane tension takes the fine-tunned value giving rise to $`\mathrm{\Lambda }=0`$, i.e., when $`\kappa =1/L`$, making use of Eq. (22) we see that Eq. (33) reduces to the first Friedmann equation when $`a=a_H`$. The matching of the first Friedmann equation and the entropy density of the CFT for $`a=a_H`$ therefore turns out to be actually accidental for the $`\kappa =1/L`$ case. On the other hand, Eq. (30) reduces to the second Friedmann equation (13) when $`a=a_H`$, for any values of $`\kappa `$, perhaps because the second Friedmann equation is independent of the cosmological constant.

The following generalized Cardy-Verlinde formula can be obtained by multipling Eq. (33) by $`V^2`$ and then taking square root:

$$S=\kappa L\sqrt{\frac{2\pi a}{n}S_C\left[2EE_C\right]},$$
(34)
where the Casimir entropy $`S_C`$ and the Casimir energy $`E_C`$ are defined as

$`S_C`$ $``$ $`(n1){\displaystyle \frac{a_H^{n1}\mathrm{Vol}(M_n)}{4G}},`$ (35)
$`E_C`$ $``$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{kn}{2\pi a}}S_C=kn(n1){\displaystyle \frac{a_H^{n1}\mathrm{Vol}(M_n)}{8\pi Ga}}.`$ (36)
Note, the generalized Cardy-Verlinde formula (34) has apparent dependence on the brane tension, although $`S`$ is nothing but the Bekenstein-Hawking entropy (3) of the AdS black hole (as prescribed by the holographic principle), which has nothing to do with the brane tension. This is due to the fact that the modified definition for $`G`$, proposed in Ref. , involves the brane tension. On the other hand, cosmological Cardy formula (15) has explicit dependence on $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$, namely on the brane tension, since it describes the dynamics of the brane in the black hole bulk spacetime. The matching of the generalized Cardy-Verlinde formula and the cosmological Cardy formula when the brane crosses the horizon is actually accidental for the $`\mathrm{\Lambda }=0`$ case, for which the cosmological Cardy formula happens to be independent of the brane tension. The generalized Cardy-Verlinde formula can be rewritten as the following relation among various entropies:

$$S^2=\kappa ^2L^2(2S_BS_CkS_C^2).$$
(37)
This relation coincides with the relation (18) among the cosmological entropy bounds when $`a=a_H`$, only for the $`\mathrm{\Lambda }=0`$, i.e., $`\kappa =1/L`$, case.

We derive the cosmological holographic bounds from the conjectured holographic bound on the Casimir entropy $`S_C`$, proposed by Verlinde . Since the explicit expressions for $`S_C`$ and $`S_{BH}`$ obtained in the above depend explicitly on neither $`k`$ nor $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$, we conjecture that the cosmological bound on $`S_C`$ proposed in Ref.  for the $`k=1`$ and $`\mathrm{\Lambda }=0`$ case continues to hold even for the $`k1`$ and $`\mathrm{\Lambda }0`$ cases without modification:

$$S_CS_{BH}.$$
(38)
Using the explicit expressions for $`S_C`$ and $`S_{BH}`$, we see that this conjectured holographic bound is equivalent to $`aa_H`$, namely that the brane has to be outside of the horizon. In other words, cosmological holographic bounds that follow from Eq. (38) do not hold after the brane falls into the horizon. And the conjectured bound (38) is saturated at the moment when the brane crosses the horizon (i.e., $`a=a_H`$), at which moment the thermodynamic quantities of the CFT take special forms given by Eqs. (23-25). As for the criteria for the weakly and the strongly self-gravitating universes, we consider the two possibilities. First, if we choose to define the weakly and the strongly self-gravitating universes by comparing the energy $`E`$ to the Bekenstein-Hawking energy $`E_{BH}`$, defined as the energy for which $`S_B=S_{BH}`$ and interpreted as the energy required to form a black hole with the size of the universe, then the criteria in terms of the Hubble parameter $`H`$ should be modified. Namely, the criteria for the weakly and the strongly self-gravitating universes are respectively

$`EE_{BH}S_BS_{BH}\mathrm{for}H^2{\displaystyle \frac{2k}{a^2}}+{\displaystyle \frac{2}{n(n1)}}\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ (39)
$`EE_{BH}S_BS_{BH}\mathrm{for}H^2{\displaystyle \frac{2k}{a^2}}+{\displaystyle \frac{2}{n(n1)}}\mathrm{\Lambda }.`$ (40)
Second, if we choose to define the weakly and the strongly self-gravitating universes by comparing the radius $`a`$ of the universe to the Hubble radius $`H^1`$, then the criteria in terms of energy or entropy have to be modified. Namely, the criteria for the weakly and the strongly self-gravitating universes are respectively

$`E{\displaystyle \frac{k+1}{2}}E_{BH}E_\mathrm{\Lambda }S_B{\displaystyle \frac{k+1}{2}}S_{BH}S_\mathrm{\Lambda }\mathrm{for}H^2a^21`$ (41)
$`E{\displaystyle \frac{k+1}{2}}E_{BH}E_\mathrm{\Lambda }S_B{\displaystyle \frac{k+1}{2}}S_{BH}S_\mathrm{\Lambda }\mathrm{for}H^2a^21.`$ (42)
We now derive cosmological holographic bounds from the conjectured holographic bound (38) on the Casimir entropy $`S_C`$. First, we consider the first criteria (40). For the strongly self-gravitating case, we have from Eqs. (38,40) that $`S_CS_{BH}S_B`$. Since $`S`$ is a monotonically increasing function of $`S_C`$ in the interval $`S_CS_B`$ (as can be seen from Eq. (37)), $`S`$ takes the maximum value when $`S_C=S_B`$, which implies $`S_C=S_{BH}`$ (because $`S_CS_{BH}S_B`$ for the strongly self-gravitating case). When $`S_C=S_{BH}`$, we can see from Eqs. (18,37) that $`S^2=\kappa ^2L^2(S_H^22S_\mathrm{\Lambda }S_{BH})=S_H^2`$, where we made use of Eq. (20), which is valid for $`a=a_H`$, i.e., when $`S_C=S_{BH}`$. Therefore, we have the following Hubble entropy bound for the strongly self-gravitating universe:

$$SS_H.$$
(43)
Note, the Hubble entropy bound does not depend on the brane tension, therefore on the cosmological constant $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$. For the weakly self-gravitating case, we have $`S_CS_BS_{BH}`$ for the $`k=1`$ case, because Eq. (37) expressed in the form $`S^2+\kappa ^2L^2(S_BS_C)^2=\kappa ^2L^2S_B^2`$ implies $`S_CS_B`$. $`S`$, as a function of $`S_C`$, takes the maximum value when $`S_C=S_B`$, for which $`S=\kappa LS_B`$. Therefore, for the weakly self-gravitating case the conjectured holographic bound (38) implies the modified Bekenstein bound:

$$S\kappa LS_B=\sqrt{1+\frac{2\mathrm{\Lambda }L^2}{n(n1)}}S_B.$$
(44)
Note, the Bekenstein bound depends on the brane tension, therefore on the cosmological constant $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$. In the case of $`k1`$, if we assume $`S_CS_B`$ as the holographic bound on the degrees of freedom of the dual CFT, then we have the following generalized Bekenstein bound for the weakly self-gravitating universe:

$$S\sqrt{2k}\kappa LS_B.$$
(45)
Next, we comment on the second criteria (42). For the $`k=1`$ case, this criteria implies that the universe is always strongly self-gravitating, which appears to not make sense. So, we assume $`k1`$ in the following discussion. First, for the strongly self-gravitating case, we have $`S_CS_{BH}\frac{2}{k+1}(S_B+S_\mathrm{\Lambda })`$, which implies $`S`$ takes the maximum value when $`S_C=S_{BH}`$. We have therefore the same Hubble entropy bound (43) even with the second criteria. Second, for the weakly self-gravitating case, we have $`S_CS_B\frac{k+1}{2}S_{BH}S_\mathrm{\Lambda }`$. So, the maximum of $`S`$ is achieved when $`S_C=S_B`$, which implies the same modified Bekenstein bound (45) even with a choice of the second criteria.
Note Added

After the first version of the paper is appeared in the preprint achieve, Ref. , which studies the same brane world cosmology, was brought to our attention by R. Gregory. Unlike the first version of this paper and Refs. , it is claimed in Ref.  that when the brane tension does not take the fine-tuned value the relations between thermodynamic quantities of the CFT and the bulk black hole, and the $`(n+1)`$-dimensional gravitational constant $`G`$ have to be modified. Later, Ref.  which studies implication of such modification for the results of the first version of this paper appeared in the preprint achieve, before this paper can be revised to take into account such mofications.


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# Investigation of vortex dynamics in Josephson junction arrays with magnetic flux noise measurements

## 1 Introduction

The Berezinski-Kosterlitz-Thouless (BKT) transition  is the subject of many investigations, both experimental and theoretical . Two-dimensional Josephson junction arrays (JJA) in zero magnetic field represent an excellent experimental system to investigate the BKT transition. The easily controllable parameters in the fabrication process, and the precision achieved with photolithographic techniques make good quality and reproducible samples available.

Many experimental techniques are used to investigate the nature of the transition . Most of them consist of measuring the sample by means of invasive methods, and to take the limit of zero drive excitation. In this work we use a non invasive method, which provides a ’clean’ way of measuring the transition.

By measuring the magnetic flux noise in a triangular JJA we have obtained the frequency power spectrum $`S_\varphi (\omega )`$ at various temperatures in the transition zone. We relate the different characteristics of $`S_\varphi (\omega )`$ with the principal features of the transition.

## 2 Theoretical background

Two-dimensional JJA constitute physical realisations of the XY-model, they are therefore ideally suited for an experimental investigation of the BKT transition. The analysis of experimental data is only slightly complicated by the fact that the single junction coupling energy $`E_J(T)`$ is temperature dependent, necessitating the introduction of a reduced temperature $`\tau =k_BT/E_J(T)`$, where $`k_B`$ is Boltzmann’s constant.

In zero magnetic field, the ground state of a JJA at zero temperature is completely ordered, i.e. all the phases are aligned . At any non-zero temperature, thermal fluctuations give rise to different kinds of excitations which destroy long range phase coherence. The first excitations to appear are spin waves. When the temperature fluctuations become more important, vortex-antivortex (V-AV) pairs are created in the system. The array remains superconducting (existence of quasi long range order) up to the transition temperature $`T_c`$. At $`T_c`$ the largest pairs of V-AV dissociate, and the first free vortices appear. Above $`T_c`$ the free vortex density will raise with increasing temperature and is proportional to $`\xi _+^2`$, where $`\xi _+(\tau )\mathrm{exp}[b/(\tau \tau _c)^{1/2}]`$ is the BKT correlation length. In this regime the response of the system at sufficiently long length scales \[compared with $`\xi _+(T)`$\] is determined by free vortices, while V-AV pairs are responsible of the behavior at shorter length scales. For a simple diffusion process $`r_\omega (D/\omega )^{1/2}`$, where D is the diffusion constant, is the typical diffusion distance in time $`\omega ^1`$. Then, by measuring the system for a given time scale (i.e., at a given frequency $`\omega `$) we are testing a spatial scale $`r_\omega `$. In the frequency domain, the low frequency response comes from the contribution of signals extending over large scales, while higher frequencies are associated with smaller distances. At $`T=T_c`$ the correlation length $`\xi _+(T)`$ approaches infinity, which in the frequency domain corresponds to the limit $`\omega =0`$. Above $`T_c`$ pairs of characteristic size $`\xi _+(T)`$ dissociate. We can therefore expect that the frequency $`\omega _\xi `$ associated with the length scale $`\xi _+(T)`$ will mark a regime crossover. Finally, we notice the exponentially decaying behavior of $`\xi _+(T)`$, implying that $`\omega _\xi (T)`$ should be an increasing function of T.

The flux noise power spectrum $`S_\varphi (\omega )`$ (i.e., the Fourier transform of the flux-flux correlation function) permits us to characterize the behavior of the vortex fluctuations over a very broad frequency range. Many theoretical works can be found in the literature which predict different dependencies for $`S_\varphi (\omega )`$. All of these models predict two regimes: at low frequencies a frequency independent white noise which becomes $`\omega ^\alpha (\alpha >0)`$ dependent at higher frequencies. Citing only some of these works, the predicted value for $`\alpha `$ varies among $`3/2`$, $`1`$ or $`2`$, depending on the assumed model .

## 3 Results and discussion

The power spectra of a proximity effect Pb/Cu/Pb triangular JJA at a number of temperatures close to $`T_c`$ were measured. With physical vapor deposition and subsequent photolithography star-shaped islands of Pb were deposited on a Cu layer of $`2000\AA `$ . The lattice constant $`a`$ is $`15\mu m`$, and the junction width is $`1\mu m`$.

The experimental setup is shown in Fig. 1. An astatic detection coil was mounted over the sample, the first winding lying $`20\mu m`$ above the sample. A DC-SQUID detects magnetic flux fluctuations seen by the coil, and transforms them in voltage. A dynamic signal analyzer collects and analyzes the SQUID response, and makes a fast Fourier transform (FFT) giving directly the power spectrum $`S_\varphi (\omega )`$ of the signal.

The resulting power spectra as a function of frequency $`f=\omega /2\pi `$ at different temperatures below the BKT transition temperature are presented in Fig. 2a, a selection of spectra above $`T_c`$ is shown in Fig. 2b. Above $`T_c`$, for frequencies $`\omega `$ up to a characteristic temperature dependent frequency $`\omega _\xi `$ the noise is Johnson like (or white). For $`\omega >\omega _\xi `$ the noise becomes proportional to $`1/\omega `$. If we consider free vortices as uncorrelated entities, the white noise spectrum observed for $`\omega <\omega _\xi `$ appears to be a reasonable result. At smaller length scales the dynamics is strongly influenced by the presence of V-AV pairs, and a different type of spectrum is expected. As evidenced by our results this spectrum is of the $`1/\omega `$ form. It should be emphasized that we find both $`\omega ^0`$ and $`\omega ^1`$ spectra, while other like $`\omega ^2`$ or $`\omega ^{3/2}`$ are not observed.

In the following we focus on the free vortex dominated white noise contribution to $`S_\varphi (\omega )`$ below $`\omega _\xi `$ (the behavior of $`S_\varphi (\omega )`$ associated with V-AV pairs will be discussed elsewhere). From the fluctuation-dissipation theorem relating $`S_\varphi (\omega )`$ to the real part of the conductivity, it is straightforward to show, using a Drude-like approach to describe the free vortex ’charges’, that at low frequencies

$$S_\varphi (\omega )=CT/n_v(T)$$
(1)
where $`n_v(T)`$ is the free vortex areal density and C a temperature independent constant. In a very narrow critical temperature range above $`T_c`$ one expects $`n_v(T)\xi _+^2(T)`$, whereas a simple activated behavior $`n_v(T)\mathrm{exp}(\mathrm{\Delta }/kT)=\mathrm{exp}(B/\tau )`$ should become manifest outside the critical region, at temperatures well above $`T_c`$. The second exponential form relies on the observation that the energy $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ required to nucleate a vortex is proportional to $`E_J(T)`$. In Fig. 3 the quantity $`T/S_\varphi (\omega )`$ extracted from the white noise ’plateaus’ of Fig. 2b is plotted logarithmically as a function of $`1/\tau `$. The data exhibit an almost Arrhenius-like behavior with a vortex nucleation energy $`\mathrm{\Delta }=BE_J1.6E_J`$. There is no trace of critical behavior \[$`n_v(T)\xi _+^2(T)`$\], which should be reflected in a downward curvature of the data as $`\tau `$ approaches $`\tau _c`$. This indicates that, in order to observe genuine critical behavior, $`S_\varphi (\omega )`$ should be measured at frequencies much lower than those accessible in our experiments. This observation rises some questions regarding the validity of the analysis, based on $`r_\omega \xi _+(T)`$ to study $`\omega _\xi `$, carried out in .

## 4 Conclusions

From the results presented here we conclude that it is possible to characterize the features of the BKT transition by inspecting the flux noise spectra for different temperatures. When $`T>T_c`$ the spectrum presents two easily distinguishable parts: for frequencies $`\omega `$ lower than a crossover frequency $`\omega _\xi (T)`$ we observe white noise, the signature of free vortices, while for $`\omega \omega _\xi (T)`$ the spectrum decays as $`1/\omega `$, signature of bound V-AV pairs. As the temperature grows, the characteristic frequency $`\omega _\xi (T)`$ increases, as expected. At $`T_c`$ an infinite vortex correlation length implies that the crossover frequency vanishes and the $`1/\omega `$ spectrum is present at all frequencies. The same functional frequency dependence is observed for temperatures slightly below $`T_c`$, where the intensity of the noise decreases with T.

## 5 Acknowledgments

We thank S.E. Korshunov for useful discussions and critical reading of this paper. This work was supported by the Swiss National Science Foundation, the Swiss Federal Office for Education and Science within the framework of the TMR network Superconducting Nanocircuits of the European Union and the Vortex Program of the European Science Foundation.


text:
# The Stellar Populations of the Cetus Dwarf Spheroidal GalaxyBased on observations with the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope obtained at the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Incorporated, under NASA contract NAS5-26555.

## 1 Introduction

It is truly remarkable that dwarf galaxy members of the Local Group are still being uncovered over 60 years after the discovery of the first such system, Sculptor, by Shapley (1938). Ongoing efforts to search for these systems have led to our current census which includes 32 dwarf galaxies in the Local Group (Grebel 2000) distributed over a roughly 4 Mpc3 volume. These searches have primarily been fueled by the realization that dwarfs may represent the building blocks of much larger galaxies such as spirals and ellipticals (e.g. Côté et al. 2000). Furthermore, there is the question of whether environmental effects play a role in the formation and evolution of the dwarf systems themselves. As such, understanding their properties is likely to shed light on the process of galaxy formation in general.

Within this framework, the Hubble Space Telescope (HST) cycle 8 and 9 programs entitled ‘A Snapshot Survey of Probable Nearby Galaxies’ (GO-8192 and GO-8601, PI:Seitzer) were initiated to improve our understanding of nearby dwarf galaxies - their numbers, spatial distribution, structural properties, and stellar populations, among other things (Seitzer et al. 2001). Previous papers reporting the results of our survey include Dolphin et al. (2001) and Karachentsev et al. (1999; 2000a; 2000b).

In the present work, we turn our attention to the Cetus dwarf spheroidal (dSph) galaxy, which was discovered by Whiting, Hau, & Irwin (1999; hereafter WHI) as part of their comprehensive program using sky survey plates to search for low surface brightness dwarf galaxy candidates. It is located at $`\alpha _{2000}=00^h26^m11^s,\delta _{2000}=11^{}02^{}40^{\prime \prime }`$ in a relatively isolated region of the Local Group. Follow-up observations of Cetus with the Cerro Tololo Inter-American Observatory 1.5m telescope allowed WHI to determine a distance modulus of $`(mM)_0=24.45\pm 0.15`$ based on the magnitude of the red giant branch (RGB) tip and a metallicity of $`1.9\pm 0.2`$ dex from the color of the RGB. In addition, from the surface brightness profile of Cetus, WHI estimated a core radius of $`1.5\pm 0.1`$ arcmin and a tidal radius of $`4.8\pm 0.2`$ arcmin. Subsequent work by Tolstoy et al. (2000, see also Tolstoy 2001) presents a deep $`BR`$ color-magnitude diagram for Cetus based on observations with the ESO Very Large Telescope. Their data reveal that Cetus possesses a predominantly red horizontal branch (HB) with the possible presence of a small blue HB component.

The remainder of this paper is organized as follows. The next section describes how the observations were obtained and the techniques employed to derive our color-magnitude diagram for Cetus. Sec. 3 presents an analysis of our results regarding the distance (Sec. 3.2), metallicity (3.3), and horizontal branch morphology (3.4) of Cetus. Finally, our conclusions are summarized in Sec. 4.

## 2 Observations and Data Reduction

The observations of Cetus were obtained on 16 Jan 2001 UT as part of our cycle 9 HST snapshot survey focusing on nearby dwarf galaxies (GO-8601, Seitzer et al. 2001). The data consist of two 600s exposures, one each using the F606W ($``$V) and F814W ($``$I) filters, with Cetus centered in the WF3 CCD. Figure 1a shows our observed WFPC2 field overlaid on the Digitized Sky Survey while Fig. 1b displays a cosmic ray cleaned mosaic of our combined F606W and F814W WFPC2 images.

The photometric reduction of these observations has already been fully described by Dolphin et al. (2001). To summarize, the calibrated images obtained from STScI were input into the HSTphot package (Dolphin 2000a). After removing cosmic rays with the HSTphot cleansep routine, simultaneous photometry was performed on the F606W and F814W frames using multiphot, with aperture corrections made to an aperture of radius 0.5 arcsec. CTE corrections and calibrations were then applied using the Dolphin (2000b) formulae, producing $`VI`$ photometry for all stars detected in both images. Because of the relatively small field of the PC1 CCD, very few bright stars were available for the computation of an aperture correction, leading to larger than acceptable uncertainties in the PC1 photometry. As a result, we have excluded the PC1 results from further analysis. In the case of the WF photometry, we estimate an uncertainty of 0.02 mag in the photometric zeropoint based on the results of Dolphin (2000b). In contrast to previous papers in this series, instead of setting a lower limit of 5 for the signal-to-noise per stellar magnitude measurement, we have used a lower limit of 3.5. This has been done so as to provide the maximum amount of information on the morphology of the blue horizontal branch, which is near the limit of the photometry.

## 3 Results and Discussion

### 3.1 Color-Magnitude Diagrams

Figure 2 shows our (V,V–I) and (I,V–I) color-magnitude diagrams (CMDs) for the Cetus dSph based on photometry derived from the three WF chips for 3101 stars. The variation of the photometric errors with magnitude are also shown. The CMDs reveal a relatively steep and well-populated red giant branch (RGB) along with a predominantly red horizontal branch (HB). The tip of the first ascent RGB is located at I$``$20.5 with the level of the HB being at V$``$25. The CMD contains little or no indication of significant recent star formation in Cetus. For example, there are very few stars in the region where one expects to see O and B type stars (V–I $`<`$ 0) indicative of a $`<`$1 Gyr population. In addition, there is a negligible number of asymptotic giant branch stars located above the first ascent RGB, which are normally associated with an intermediate-age (1$`<`$t$`<`$8 Gyr) population.

### 3.2 Reddening and Distance

Both the Burstein & Heiles (1982) and Schlegel, Finkbeiner, & Davis (1998) reddening maps indicate that Cetus is in a region of very low extinction. More specifically, the latter suggest that the reddening of Cetus is $`E(BV)=0.03`$, which, following the lead of WHI, we will also adopt in the present study along with an assumed error of 0.01 mag. In addition, given that $`A_V=3.1E(BV)`$, for the HST filters used herein, Schlegel et al. (1998) give $`A_I=1.85E(BV)`$ so that $`E(VI)=1.25E(BV)`$.

Since the location of the first ascent RGB-tip (TRGB) appears to be well determined in our CMD, we will obtain an estimate of the distance using I(TRGB). Our RGB cumulative luminosity function is shown in Fig. 3 to which we have applied a slope finding algorithm that isolates the TRGB (dashed line). This technique yields $`I(TRGB)=20.50\pm 0.10`$, in good accord with the WHI value. Assuming an absolute magnitude of $`M_I(TRGB)=4.05\pm 0.10`$ (Da Costa & Armandroff 1990, hereafter DCA; Sakai, Madore, & Freedman 1996; Bellazzini, Ferraro, & Pancino 2001), this gives $`(mM)_0=24.46\pm 0.14`$, which is in good accord with the WHI value of $`(mM)_0=24.45\pm 0.15`$; to minimize confusion, we will adopt their distance modulus in the subsequent analysis.

We note in passing that the HB can in principle be used as a distance indicator as well. However, since we have no information on the presence of RR Lyrae variables in Cetus, the use of a relation between $`M_V(RR)`$ and $`[Fe/H]`$ may produce spurious results. Carretta et al. (2000) provide a calibration of the mean magnitude of the HB \[$`M_V(HB)`$\] in terms of metallicity, but the only red HB clusters in their sample, 47 Tuc and NGC 362, have globular cluster-like ages. Yet, it is known that both age and metallicity affect the luminosity of a purely red HB (a.k.a. red clump; Sarajedini 1999; Girardi & Salaris 2001). Therefore, if we assume that the mean age of the Cetus population producing its red HB is not significantly different from those of 47 Tuc and NGC 362, then we can use Equation 6 of Carretta et al. (2000) and our mean metal abundance (Sec. 3.3) to calculate $`M_V(HB)=0.51\pm 0.08`$. Fitting a Gaussian to our $`V`$ luminosity function, we find $`V(HB)=25.01\pm 0.02`$ (sec. 3.4), which produces a distance modulus of $`(mM)_0=24.41\pm 0.09`$, consistent with the TRGB distance obtained above.

### 3.3 Metallicity

At this point, since we have estimates for the reddening and distance of Cetus, it is a relatively simple matter to compare our RGB photometry to globular cluster RGB sequences. The two panels of Fig. 4 show our Cetus photometry in the ($`M_V,(VI)_0`$) and ($`M_I,(VI)_0`$) planes along with the empirical RGBs of Saviane et al. (2000) for metallicities of $`[Fe/H]=2.2,1.6,`$ and –1.2 on the Zinn & West (1984) abundance scale and assuming the Lee, Demarque, & Zinn (1990) distance scale (both the same as DCA). These sequences are based on their V,I database of Galactic globular cluster photometry and agree quite well with the RGBs published by DCA for M15, M2, and NGC 1851. From this figure, the mean metal abundance of Cetus would appear to be somewhere between –2.2 and –1.6.

To obtain a more quantitative assessment, we have utilized equations (2) through (6) in Saviane et al. (2000) along with the relevant coefficients in their Table 5 to calculate the metallicity for all Cetus RGB stars with $`4.0M_I2.0`$. In addition, the error in metal abundance is estimated by multiplying the HSTPhot error in $`VI`$ by d$`[Fe/H]`$/d$`(VI)_0`$. The resultant metallicity distribution function (MDF) for stars with $`4.0M_I3.0`$ is shown in Fig. 5a, while the MDF for stars with $`3.0<M_I2.0`$ is included in Fig. 5b.

We note that inspection of globular cluster VI CMDs and theoretical isochrones suggest that the AGB merges into the RGB at $`M_I2.0`$; this indicates that our MDF should not be significantly affected by (bluer) AGB stars simulating an excess of metal-poor stars. We will now show that the characteristics of the MDF are unaffected by the magnitude range as long as only stars brighter than $`M_I2.0`$ are used.

The dashed curves in Fig. 5 are Gaussian fits to the plotted MDFs. For 107 stars with $`4.0M_I3.0`$ (upper panel in Fig. 5), we find a peak abundance of $`[Fe/H]=1.71`$ with a 1-$`\sigma `$ dispersion of 0.22 dex. Among these same stars, the mean $`[Fe/H]`$ error per star is 0.15 dex leading to an intrinsic 1-$`\sigma `$ abundance spread of 0.17 dex. In the case of the 144 RGB stars with $`3.0<M_I2.0`$ (lower panel in Fig. 5), the peak abundance is $`[Fe/H]=1.65`$ with a 1-$`\sigma `$ spread of 0.36 dex, which when coupled with the abundance dispersion introduced purely by the photometric errors of 0.30 dex, yields an intrinsic 1-$`\sigma `$ metallicity dispersion of 0.19 dex. Thus, we conclude that Cetus exhibits a mean metallicity of $`[Fe/H]=1.7`$. In addition, we find an intrinsic 1-$`\sigma `$ abundance dispersion of $``$0.2 dex in Cetus; Table 2 in Grebel (2000) suggests that metal abundance dispersions of this order are quite common among the dwarf galaxies in the Local Group. With high-resolution spectroscopy, even larger dispersions are being uncovered (e.g. Shetrone, Côté, & Sargent 2000).

We note that our determination of the mean metallicity of Cetus is 0.2 dex more metal-rich than that of WHI. Since we adopt the same distance and reddening as WHI, this abundance difference is likely to be the result of differences in our V–I color zeropoints. A comparison of the RGB location in the WHI CMD with our CMD suggests that the former is $``$0.05 mag bluer than the latter. The origin of this photometric zeropoint difference is unclear.

We acknowledge that our measured values of the mean metallicity and metallicity dispersion can be influenced by age effects, as many (or most) dwarf spheroidals formed their stars over extended periods of time. Based on the Girardi et al. (2000) isochrones, we estimate that for ages greater than 10 Gyr, this effect is minimal ($`\mathrm{\Delta }`$t of 5 Gyr corresponds to $`\mathrm{\Delta }[Fe/H]`$ of roughly 0.1 dex in terms of RGB color), thus leaving our metallicity measurements largely unchanged. However, we cannot completely rule out the presence of younger stars without observing the main sequence turnoff; if stars of age $`7`$ Gyr or younger are present, the resulting effect on our metallicity measurement is 0.2 dex or greater, also adding a large uncertainty to our metallicity dispersion measurement. Although this scenario is possible, there is no a priori reason to assume the presence of younger stars, and thus we will continue to use our measured value of $``$$`[Fe/H]`$$``$$`=1.7`$ with a 1-$`\sigma `$ dispersion of 0.2 dex.

We have also utilized the data in Table 2 of Grebel (2000) to plot the mean metallicity of Local Group dwarfs as a function of their absolute magnitude (Fig. 6a) and central surface brightness (Fig. 6b), excluding the Sagittarius dwarf galaxy and M32. The plotted data represent dSphs (crosses), dIrrs (filled circles) and dEs (open circles). There is a well-known relation between mean abundance, absolute V magnitude, and central surface brightness for these systems in the sense that more luminous galaxies with higher central surface brightness tend to enrich themselves in heavy elements to a greater degree (Caldwell et al. 1998, and references therein). The large open square represents the location of Cetus based on our new mean metal abundance coupled with the luminosity and surface brightness estimates of WHI. It is clear that Cetus occupies its expected location in these diagrams.

### 3.4 Horizontal Branch

As first illustrated in Fig. 2, the HB of Cetus appears to be primarily populated redward of the RR Lyrae instability strip. As a comparison, Fig. 7 shows our Cetus CMD compared with the fiducial sequences of the globular clusters Rup 106 (Sarajedini & Layden 1997), M3 (Johnson & Bolte 1998) and M54 (Sarajedini & Layden 1995). While the metallicity of Cetus is similar to those of Rup 106, M3 and M54 (the RGBs match), there is no question that its HB morphology is significantly redder than the HBs of these clusters. We are probably missing some blue HB stars in Cetus (especially those that may be present along the blue HB tail, i.e. fainter than $`M_V+1`$) due to photometric incompleteness, but there are unlikely to be as many blue HB stars as those on the red HB. We also point out that the (I,V–I) CMD (bottom panel of Fig. 2) shows that the photometric incompleteness along the RGB is not severe even at the faintest levels, i.e. the luminosity function of RGB stars is steadily increasing at these magnitudes. This suggests that photometric incompleteness on the HB at similar magnitude levels is not likely to be problematic.

It has been traditional to use the numbers of stars blueward of the instability strip (B) and those redward of it (R) along with stars within the strip itself (RR Lyrae variables, V) in order to construct the $`(BR)/(B+V+R)`$ index (Lee et al. 1994). However, this approach is not practical in our case because of the lack of information on the numbers of RR Lyraes in Cetus. Instead, we adopt a different procedure, one that takes advantage of the peak HB color as defined by Buonanno et al. (1997). For clusters with metallicities between $`1.80[Fe/H]1.60`$ as given in Table 1 of Buonanno et al. (1997), Fig. 8 displays the relation between the peak $`(BV)_0`$ color of Galactic globular clusters and their $`(BR)/(B+V+R)`$ values (Lee et al. 1994). The plotted quantities are listed in Table 1. The peak $`(BV)_0`$ values come from Buonanno et al. (1997) except for Rup 106, which is calculated using the photometry of Kaluzny, Krzemenski, & Mazur (1995).

The next step is to measure the peak $`(VI)_0`$ of the Cetus HB and convert it to $`(BV)_0`$. First, we construct luminosity functions of our photometry in V and I to which we fit Gaussian distributions in order to isolate the magnitude of the HB. We find $`V(HB)=25.01\pm 0.02`$ and $`I(HB)=24.22\pm 0.02`$ where the errors represent a combination of the standard errors of the mean and an estimate of the uncertainty in the fitting process. Subtracting these and including an estimated error of 0.02 mag in the photometric zeropoint along with our adopted Cetus reddening gives $`(VI)_0=0.75\pm 0.03`$. We prefer this method rather than directly measuring the peak color of the HB for two reasons. First, the color distribution of the HB stars is more susceptible to contamination from the color peak of the RGB stars which are slightly redward. Second, the LF peaks of the HB in V and I are more closely Gaussian so that fitting them with such a distribution is more straightforward. A conversion from $`(VI)_0`$ to $`(BV)_0`$, however, is somewhat more uncertain. Zinn & Barnes (1996) provide a horizontal branch color conversion equation; however it is based on M15 and M68, whose horizontal branches are both predominantly blue. Thus the value we calculate for red HB stars (which is what we have in Cetus) is interpolated between their blue HB stars and RGB stars at the level of the HB. Using their relation, we find $`(BV)_0=0.55\pm 0.03`$. Another empirical relation is given by equations 8 and 10 of von Braun et al. (1998), based only on RGB stars; this gives $`(BV)_0=0.48\pm 0.05`$. Finally, one can use the Kurucz (1994) model atmospheres, convolved with the Bessell (1990) passbands and normalized with the Hamuy et al. (1992) spectrophotometric standards, to obtain theoretical transformations; this procedure results in a color of $`(BV)_0=0.55\pm 0.03`$. Because our use of the von Braun et al (1998) relations is an extrapolation from RGB stars, we utilize the other two values to measure $`(BV)_0=0.55\pm 0.03`$ for the peak color of our horizontal branch. Using the relation plotted in Fig. 8, this color produces a horizontal branch index $`(BR)/(B+V+R)`$ of $`0.91\pm 0.09`$.

Based on its intermediate metallicity and red HB morphology, Cetus joins a long list of other Local Group dSphs that suffer from the second parameter effect (e.g. Harbeck et al. 2001), in much the same way as the Galactic globular clusters in the outer halo (Sarajedini, Chaboyer, & Demarque 1997, and references therein). That is to say, the HB morphology of Cetus is too red for its mean metal abundance. Although there is still no general agreement on the cause of the second parameter effect, the conventional explanation is based on the age hypothesis in which the stellar population of Cetus would be younger than a typical Galactic GC. Utilizing new HB models published by Rey et al. (2001, see their Fig. 4), we estimate that this age difference amounts to some 2-3 Gyr.

## 4 Conclusions

Using HST/WFPC2 in snapshot mode, we have constructed a deep CMD of the Cetus dwarf spheroidal galaxy. Based on this CMD, which extends from the tip of the RGB to about 0.5 mag below the HB, and an adopted reddening of $`E(BV)=0.03`$ based on the Schlegel et al. (1998) extinction maps, we are able to determine a number of fundamental properties for this galaxy. First, we exploit the tip of the first ascent RGB to derive a distance modulus of $`(mM)_0=24.46\pm 0.14`$, which agrees very well with that of Whiting et al. (1999). Having corrected for the reddening and the distance, a comparison of the Cetus RGB with empirical sequences yields a mean metal abundance of $`[Fe/H]=1.7`$ on the Zinn & West (1984) scale with an intrinsic internal abundance dispersion of 0.2 dex. The HB of Cetus is populated predominantly redward of the RR Lyrae instability strip; we calculate an HB morphology index of $`(BR)/(B+V+R)=0.91\pm 0.09`$ based on a technique that utilizes the mean dereddened color of the HB. As such, the mean metallicity and HB morphology of Cetus suggest that the stellar populations of this galaxy manifest the second parameter effect. If we accept the explanation that this is due to age, then Cetus is about 2-3 Gyr younger in the mean than typical Galactic globulars at its metallicity.

Support for proposals GO-8192 and GO-8601 was provided by NASA through a grant from the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Incorporated, under NASA contract NAS5-26555. A.S. has also benefited from financial support from NSF CAREER grant No. AST-0094048. D. G. gratefully acknowledges financial support for this project received from CONICYT through FONDECYT grant 8000002.


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# A 𝛾 Doradus star campaign

## 1. Introduction

This story starts with Cousins (see the review by Kilkenny – these proceedings) & Warren’s (1963) suggestion of having found photometric variability in the F0 V star $`\gamma `$Dor. Cousins (1966) himself confirmed unambiguously his discovery of the variability in $`\gamma `$Dor, the star that later would become the prototype of a new class of pulsating stars. Much later, Cousins (1992) was able to detect two close periods in $`\gamma `$Dor : 0.7570 d & 0.7334 d.

Balona et al. (1996) undertook a very detailed photometric and spectroscopic follow-up study of $`\gamma `$Doradus and found one additional frequency. Moreover, they refined the frequency values to 1.32098 d-1, 1.36354 d-1, 1.47447 d-1. For illustrative purpose, we show in Fig. 1 the phase diagrams for the three detected frequencies of both the photometric and spectroscopic data of Balona et al. (1996). Earlier on, Balona et al. (1994) already proposed $`\gamma `$Dor to be a member of “a new class of non-radial gravity-mode pulsators”. With their 1996 paper, Balona et al. left no longer doubt about the cause of $`\gamma `$Dor’s variability: the radial-velocity variations excluded binarity, while spot models were also excluded since: 1) they required a too large differential rotation, 2) the periods were too stable, and 3) there was no phase difference between the radial-velocity and light maxima. It therefore seemed unavoidable to conclude that $`\gamma `$Dor pulsates multiperiodically, with pulsation periods an order of magnitude longer than those of pressure modes.

Meanwhile, several comparison stars for other variables turned out to have similar variability to $`\gamma `$Dor:

* HD 164615 (Burke et al., 1977);
* HD 55892 (Hensberge et al., 1981);
* four variables in NGC 2516 (Antonello & Mantegazza, 1986);
* 9 Aur (Krisciunas & Guinan, 1990);
* HD 111828 (Mantegazza et al., 1991);
* HD 224638 & HD 224945 (Mantegazza & Poretti, 1991);.

This led Krisciunas & Handler (1995) to publish a list of 17 candidate $`\gamma `$Dor stars. Since the publication of the list by Krisciunas & Handler, several additional candidates were found from ground-based photometry (Henry, 1995, 1999; Breger et al., 1997; Kaye et al., 1999; among others). Presently, an updated list is maintained by Handler at http://www.saao.ac.za/$``$gerald/gdorlist.html.

It should be noted that the periodic variability of only very few stars is illustrated by phase plots of the quality shown in Fig. 1. For most stars the scatter is considerably larger.

The cause of the non-radial gravity modes is still a matter of debate. Guzik et al. (2000) have proposed an excitation mechanism, but this certainly is not generally accepted (see, e.g., Wu 2002; Löffler 2002). It is therefore of importance to find as many members as possible and to derive their basic physical stellar parameters, besides their frequencies and mode identification.

One of the early ideas about the general properties of $`\gamma `$Dor stars is that such pulsators would be young. This suggestion was based on the fact that circumstellar matter was discovered around some member stars, among which is $`\gamma `$Dor itself. Inspired by this proposal, searches for $`\gamma `$Dor stars in clusters of different ages were undertaken. Krisciunas & Patten (1998) discovered 2 $`\gamma `$Dor candidates (out of 15 stars) in M 34 (age $``$ 195 Myr), while Zerbi et al. (1998) came up with 8 candidates (out of 44 stars) in NGC 2516 (age $``$ 107 Myr). An enormous effort in this respect was done by Martin (2000), who checked 149 stars in 9 clusters. She found only 3 $`\gamma `$Dor stars: 2 in the Pleiades (age $``$ 83 Myr) and 1 in Coma Ber (age $``$ 490 Myr). The conclusion therefore must be that current studies do not reveal a clear relationship between age and the $`\gamma `$Dor phenomenon.

The FlanSA $`\gamma `$Dor campaign found its origin at the IAU General Assembly in Kyoto in 1997, when CA convinced LE to come to Leuven for a scientific visit to search in detail for new $`\gamma `$Dor stars in the hipparcos data base. LE’s visit resulted in a chain of initiatives with respect to the study of $`\gamma `$Dor stars, which we highlight in this paper. First we report on the status of the FlanSA $`\gamma `$Dor campaign in Section 3, after having highlighted the contribution into this field by the hipparcos mission (Section 2). The analyses of the time series are described in Section 4, while an attempt to identify the modes in two stars is explained in Section 5. We end this paper with future prospects and additional current studies of $`\gamma `$Dor stars at the Institute in Leuven and worldwide.

## 2. The Contribution of the hipparcos mission

We recall that the hipparcos photometry provides a homogeneous all-sky survey down to $`V`$ magnitude 7.3-9.0 (depending on the galactic latitude and the spectral type of the observed star). The hipparcos satellite took 13 million photometric measurements of about 118 000 stars over a period of 3.3 yr (52 000 stars are from the survey and 66 000 stars were selected objects). The hipparcos photometry proved to be very useful to reveal large numbers of new variables of many different kinds (see ESA 1997: fields H6, H49-54 of the main catalogue and volumes 11 and 12). In specific cases the number of known variable stars increased dramatically, e.g. the number of Slowly Pulsating B stars increased nearly by a factor 10 (Waelkens et al. 1998).

hipparcos has rather good detection capabilities for determining correctly the characteristic periods of $`\gamma `$Dor stars (0.5-3 d). The sampling does not suffer from the alias problems of Earth observations for such stars. Indeed, the spectral windows of hipparcos and ground-based data show very different patterns. However, the precision of photometric individual measurements degrades quite rapidly for fainter stars (although more time was allocated to observe them), impeding the unambiguous variability detection of fainter objects.

Another difficulty with the hipparcos data occurred specifically for $`\gamma `$Dor stars, since their variability behaviour is not always strictly periodic. This, in combination with the rather low density of data points of the hipparcos sampling, prohibited an easy search for new candidate members of the class. For instance, when we compare the bona-fide member list (which contained 13 stars in the version of 2000) and the hipparcos catalogue, we find that all stars listed were measured by hipparcos and were classified as follows: 4 stars are in the Variability Annex as periodic variables, one star as unsolved variable, three stars are flagged as microvariable, four are without classification and one flagged as constant. A remark worth making is that the four stars in the Periodic variables of the Variability Annex have periods at the short end of the interval 0.5-3 d.

Eyer (1998) and Eyer & Grenon (1998) did a selection of $`\gamma `$Dor candidates, which was made from the published Periodic variable star Annex from the hipparcos catalogues (volume 11 and 12, ESA 1997). This preliminary study was based on stars which had precise parallax and colour $`BV`$. In the HR diagram, there was clearly at the cool edge of the region occupied by the $`\delta `$Scuti stars a very clumped group of stars with periods and amplitudes compatible with the $`\gamma `$Dor stars and thus these were declared good candidate $`\gamma `$Dor stars.

Aerts, Eyer & Kestens (1998), in an effort to be more general and to settle better the case of membership, performed a multivariate discriminant analysis by using Geneva photometric indices in order to determine the physical properties of the stars. As a supplementary test, all stars were checked against multiperiodicity. The stars were drawn from the Periodic variable star Annex. The two first studies listed the name of 29 stars identified with hipparcos photometry (three being redundant with the list of Handler & Krisciunas 1997).

Because of the sometimes irregular nature of $`\gamma `$Dor light curves, candidates could have been rejected from the Periodic variable Annex by the hipparcos groups analyzing and producing the catalogues. Handler (1999a) decided to go through the hipparcos data once more, but looked at the periodic variability Annex as well as at the Unsolved catalogues. He also widened the criteria of acceptable spectral types. His analysis permitted the addition to the list of 31 non-redundant prime candidates.

We recall here that only 6 years ago, the number of total objects was 17 (6 bona fide members and 11 candidates – Krisciunas & Handler 1995). As we can see from the successive lists provided in publications and/or on the Internet, this field has undergone intense studies. At the time of this oral presentation there were 13 bona-fide members listed by Handler, and the number of candidates amounted 122111Since then the list maintained by Gerald Handler has been updated, and we have the following progression of respectively bona fide members and candidates for different years 1995: (6, 11); 1997: (9, 16); 2000: (13, 122); 2001: (24, 120). .

We assisted in the explosion of the number of candidates and therefore undertook the initiative of settling the origin of the variability for each candidate $`\gamma `$Dor star. This somewhat unrewarding task of removing objects from a list of potentially very exciting stars requires extensive new photometric campaigns. The Institute of Astronomy in Leuven decided to undertake this effort. C. Aerts took the initiative of applying for several weeks of observing time in South Africa in the framework of the FlanSA project. L. Eyer became the driving force of the planning and exploration of the observing time allotted in Sutherland. At the same time the 1.2-m Swiss at La Silla was used to monitor each of the candidates spectroscopically. Furthermore the Leuven 1.2-m telescope Mercator (a twin of Euler) at La Palma has become operational (since a few months prior to this writing) and is currently used to monitor the northern $`\gamma `$Dor candidates photometrically in the seven-colour Geneva system. We here report on the results derived from the data gathered in South Africa.

## 3. The observational Campaign at SAAO

The time allocated for this project was 15 weeks spread over one year (from 1999 October to 2000 September) in order to observe 35 stars on the 0.5-m telescope located in Sutherland. The observations were done in the $`B`$, $`V`$, $`I`$ bands in the sequence $`IVBBVI`$ (30-s exposures in each filter) and then sky measurements in $`IVB`$ (10 s in each filter). The whole sequence for observing an individual star took about 3 min and 50 s.

The photometry obtained is differential. Two stars were chosen as comparison stars for each programme star. Their selection was done using hipparcos epoch photometry. Particular attention was paid to remove stars with peculiar chemical composition. For those stars the variation of the luminosity is a function of the wavelength. More precisely, for the cooler Ap stars, the variations can be in anti-phase in blue and red light and the signal is washed out in a broad band filter like the $`Hp`$ filter. Therefore the star appears to be a constant. The physical reason of this is that the blocking effect is more severe in the blue, while the re-emission is in the red for the cool Ap stars (in the case of hot Ap stars the blocking effect is in the ultraviolet and the backwarming in the visible). The comparison stars were generally chosen to be at a distance less than 7 and of similar magnitude. Furthermore, one comparison star was chosen to be slightly bluer than the programme star and the other slightly redder.

The measurements consisted of three block sequences of $`APB`$ where $`P`$ is the programme star and $`A`$ and $`B`$ are the comparison stars. Typically a star was measured 2-4 times per night. However the sampling was sometimes denser with short sequences $`APBPA`$…(where $`P`$ is the programme star and $`A,B`$ the two comparison stars) in order to be able to distinguish periods of $`\delta `$Sct stars from periods of $`\gamma `$Dor stars.

Some tests were also done to take photometry only in two bands at the beginning or end of the night (before and after the astronomical night) focusing on only one star.

### 3.1. Weather conditions

The campaigns in Sutherland suffered from relatively bad weather. Normally the fraction of photometric nights is about 55%, while we had about 40–45%. There were a few exceptional and rare events:

* the tail of the bad weather causing the tragic flood in Zimbabwe surprisingly reached Sutherland,
* a beautiful Aurora occurred, which had the sad effect of rendering void a large part of a night. The time scale of the light variability caused by this aurora is short as seen in Fig. 2. We recall here that Sutherland is not very far South (latitude is $`32^{}`$).

### 3.2. The observers

We give below by affiliation the list of observers, with (in parentheses) the number of weeks observed. From the Katholieke Universiteit Leuven (KUL): L. Eyer (6), P. De Cat (3), from the South African Astronomical Observatory (SAAO): F. van Wyk (2), G. Handler (1), from the University Cape Town (UCT): M. Müller (2), M. Hempel (1). The people having no experience with the 0.5-m received an introduction by either D. Kurtz or G. Handler.

### 3.3. The programme stars

The initial target list contained thirty-seven stars. However, at the beginning of the observing run two stars were removed from the list thanks to the cross-check of the list by G. Handler (1999b). Their $`V`$ magnitudes range from 5.3 to 9.5. Five stars needed to be observed with neutral density filters. The spectral types range from A1 to F4, but most stars are classified as F0 or F2. Altogether 105 stars (programme stars and comparison stars) were observed during the observing run. Finally we note that twenty-six of the stars are being measured with the Echelle spectrograph coralie attached to the Swiss Euler telescope located at La Silla. The spectral analysis is still in progress, so we will not refer to it here.

Thirty stars were analyzed in total in the following section. The number of observations per star varies between 14 and 97 in the $`V`$ band. Seventeen stars were from the lists of Eyer (1998) and Aerts et al. (1998), eleven from Handler (1999a), one from the bona fide member list, and one from Paunzen et al. (1998).

## 4. The analysis of the time series

The analysis of the time series was performed by F. Bouckaert in the framework of his master thesis in Leuven and was supervised by J. Cuypers and C. Aerts. For those stars which are also present in the Geneva data base, a general comparison was done with Geneva photometry. For all stars, the variability in the South African data was cross-checked also with the hipparcos data and with results from the literature, whenever possible. There is a point worth mentioning here: in Simbad the origin of the discovery of the variability is not reported and sometimes it is difficult to trace back the source of the claimed variability and subsequently check more carefully the data.

The period searches were done with different programs and methods, both based on the PDM technique and on Fourier analysis. Moreover, we used the programme developed by J. Cuypers which fits simultaneously several frequencies. Special emphasis was put on the search for multiperiodicity for every star.

The stars were classified in several categories: multiperiodic $`\gamma `$Dor stars, singly periodic $`\gamma `$Dor stars, non-$`\gamma `$Dor stars ($`\delta `$Sct stars, eclipsing binaries) and dubious cases. We now sum up the results for each of these categories.

### Multiperiodic $`\gamma `$Dor stars

Our analysis resulted in the classification of 9 targets as multiperiodic $`\gamma `$Dor stars: HD 12901 (HIP 9807), HD 34025 (HIP 24215), HD 48501 (HIP 32144),
HD 65526 (HIP 39017), HD 110606 (HIP 62105), HD 112685 (HIP 63372),
HD 135828 (HIP 74825), HD 206481 (HIP 107443), and HD 209295 (HIP 108976).

As an illustration, we present in Fig. 3 the data for the star HD 112685. It is clearly multiperiodic, with the periods 0.623 d (main period), 0.349 d and 0.737 d. Although we have far fewer data points, the quality of the phase diagrams is similar to the one of the prototype shown in Fig. 1. The hipparcos periodic variable Annex quotes a period of 0.600 d for this object. The phase diagrams of the eight other stars are similar to the ones shown here for HD 112685.

### Singly periodic $`\gamma `$Dor stars

There are 8 stars classified as monoperiodic $`\gamma `$Dor stars: HD 10167 (HIP 7649), HD 14940 (HIP 11192), HD 26298 (HIP 19383), HD 40745 (HIP 28434), HD 111709 (HIP 62774), HD 112934 (HIP 6349), HD 187028 (HIP 97590), and HD 197451 (HIP 102329).

One might be tempted to conclude that about half of the $`\gamma `$Dor stars turn out to be monoperiodic. However, we note that the stars of small amplitude will have a tendency to be classified as monoperiodic $`\gamma `$Dor stars for statistical reasons, particularly when a relatively small amount of data is available. The monoperiodicity of our targets does not necessarily imply that the fraction of multiperiodic $`\gamma `$Dor stars is effectively higher at higher amplitude.

### Eclipsing binaries

HD 41448 (HIP 28778), HD 81421 (HIP 46223), and HD 85964 (HIP 48580) are thought to be eclipsing binaries. This conclusion was drawn because of the difference in depth of successive minima in the light curve, which is typical for EB type eclipsing binaries. The phase plots of the three stars are shown in the Fig. 4.

Handler (2001) would classify the star HD 41448 as a $`\gamma `$Dor star, though. Its light curve does indeed also support that interpretation since it shows a clear sign of multiperiodicity. It remains to be confirmed if the unequal minima are true, or merely a consequence of the multiperiodicity. It may very well be that this star is a binary with a $`\gamma `$Dor star as a component. The spectra currently taken by coralie will probably resolve the ambiguity.

### $`\delta `$Sct stars

There are two objects classified as $`\delta `$Sct stars: HD 125081 (HIP 69848) and HD 181998 (HIP 95358). The spectrum for the former star is shown in Fig. 5. The main frequency is 6.4941 d-1. For the latter object our analysis is in contradiction with the conclusion of Handler (1999b). We find evidence for a frequency of 6.742 d-1, while Handler lists a typical $`\gamma `$Dor frequency of 0.7496 d-1. Very probably both frequencies are aliases of each other.

### Dubious cases and additional comments

For three additional stars our study did not lead to firm results, mostly because of a lack of data. This concerns HD 171813 (HIP 91412), HD 197187 (HIP 102217), and HD 216910 (HIP 113402). For the latter two stars our analysis does not confirm the previously published periods found in hipparcos (those two stars also have few measurements).

There is one star which shows longer term behaviour in our data: HD 27377 (HIP 20036) for which we find a frequency of 0.100 d-1. This result is in conflict with Handler (1999a), who reports the two frequencies 0.3511 d-1 and 0.548 d-1 from the hipparcos data. Additional data are needed to understand the variability pattern for this object. For 4 additional studied stars no conclusions were reached.

All the results presented here will be reviewed and published with the addition of coralie spectra which are currently being gathered and analysed. Special care will be taken for the claim of eclipsing binaries and for the distinction between EW eclipsing binaries and monoperiodic $`\gamma `$Dor stars.

## 5. Photometric Mode identification

For two of the target stars, we also have extensive Geneva data at our disposal. As this leads to amplitudes at seven different wavelengths, we decided to try to identify the pulsation modes in these two $`\gamma `$Dor stars. This work was performed by M. Van Loon in the framework of her Master’s thesis and was supervised by C. Aerts.

The goal of the work is to identify the non-radial pulsation modes thanks to the different behaviour of the pulsation as observed through different filters. This photometric method is able to discriminate between different (low) degrees $`\mathrm{}`$ but cannot derive the azimuthal number $`m`$. For a review of the method of photometric mode identification we refer to Garrido (2000). Although the method has severe limitations because of the inherent different results introduced by using different atmosphere models (see the discussion by Garrido), we applied it to the two stars to get a crude idea about the pulsational degree. As there exists currently no real overall accepted excitation mechanism, any estimate of the observed degree is welcome for as many stars as possible.

Only two stars were considered, HD 12901 and HD 48501, since these are the only ones for which we have data in many filters. They were measured in the seven filters of Geneva photometry ($`U`$, $`B`$, $`B1`$, $`B2`$, $`V`$, $`V1`$, $`G`$). These two stars were already discussed in the article by Eyer & Aerts (2000), who classified them as new $`\gamma `$Dor stars. Bouckaert found three frequencies for each of the two stars: 1.21564 d-1, 1.39595 d-1, and 2.18374 d-1 for HD 12901 and 1.29054 d-1, 1.09408 d-1, and 1.19924 d-1 for HD 48501.

The physical parameters of both stars were determined from the calibration by Künzli et al. (1997), making use of the stellar models published by Schaller et al. (1992) and Schaerer et al. (1993). They are displayed in Table 1. We remark that the stars are nearly twins, except for their metallicity. Indeed their temperature, gravity, mass, and radius are equal within the uncertainty induced by the method of determination. The time series analysis reveals also that the detected frequencies are rather similar, as well as their amplitude ratios. One expects therefore, their pulsation modes to be of similar nature as well.

The method of Heynderickx et al. (1994) was used for the mode identification. With this method, the amplitude ratios with respect to the $`U`$ filter are concerned. The choice of the $`U`$ filter is arbitrary, but was chosen in this method because it was designed originally for applications to $`\beta `$Cep stars, which have by far the largest amplitude in the bluest filter. The main hypotheses and ingredients of the method are:

* the unknown non-adiabatic effects are taken into account by a free parameter, which is determined such that the difference between observed and theoretical amplitudes is minimal (same as in the method by Garrido),
* rotational effects are completely neglected,
* the phase difference between the light curves of different bands is zero (unlike the method by Garrido).

We prefer to make use of this method, as it uses the variability in seven filters (while Garrido’s method only makes use of one colour and one phase difference). As it turned out, for both stars, we observe no phase difference at all in the seven filters. This is quite a surprise, since one expects to have severe phase differences due to non-adiabaticity. However, the data are of very high quality and leave no doubt that the phase differences are zero. In that respect, it is better to use as many amplitude ratios as possible to derive the degree of the mode. The work of M. Van Loon consisted of several steps:

1. she translated the code of Heynderickx, which was written in Pascal, to C$`++`$,
2. she included improved numerical interpolation tools to calculate the derivatives of the functions (such as the flux and the limb darkening function) with respect to the effective temperature and the gravity,
3. she cross-checked if her results were compatible with those by Heynderickx for a large number of $`\beta `$Cep stars,
4. she added to the code the grid of stellar atmosphere models for the temperature range of the $`\gamma `$Dor stars.

For all three frequencies in both stars, the study favours very strongly the solution $`\mathrm{}=1`$. All other $`\mathrm{}`$-values lead to amplitude ratios very different from the observed ones. These results remain to be confirmed, of course, preferably by spectroscopic studies, but they do help to discriminate between future excitation models for the $`\gamma `$Dor stars. We remark that the models by Guzik et al. (2000) imply the excitation of mainly $`\mathrm{}=1`$ modes, which is thus compatible with our observational results.

## 6. Future prospects

There are a number of future projects in the pipeline, both observational and theoretical. We mention here that a large observational campaign is being organized and performed by P. Mathias & collaborators. It consists of photometric and spectroscopic observations in the Northern Hemisphere. This, together with our spectroscopic study with Euler from La Silla for the Southern stars and our photometric study with Mercator from La Palma should allow us to constrain the observational behaviour of the $`\gamma `$Dor stars with high precision during the forthcoming years. Moreover, the observational results will allow a critical confrontation with the theoretical works that are currently being worked out (Löffler 2002; Wu, 2002 and maybe others).

## 7. Acknowledgements

We are thankful for the warm and generous hospitality of the researchers and staff in Cape Town and Sutherland.

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## Discussion

Breger: Could you comment on the high $`\mathrm{log}g`$ value ($`\mathrm{log}g=4.49`$) at $`T_{eff}=7000`$ K which you derived from Geneva photometry? It appears very high and the star should not be below the ZAMS.

Eyer: In the light of hipparcos data, Pierre North checked the $`\mathrm{log}g`$ values given by the photometric calibration by Künzli et al. (1997) for a sample of $`\delta `$Sct stars. Indeed, the estimates of $`\mathrm{log}g`$ seem affected by a systematic trend and to be too large by about $`\mathrm{log}g=0.2`$. The source of this bias is neither understood nor identified but is under investigation.

Aerts: I also point out that, in general, the determination of the effective temperature is much more accurate than the one of the gravity. This is true for every photometric system. For B stars, the typical uncertainty of $`\mathrm{log}g`$ is 0.2 – 0.5, even for bright stars.

Balona: 1) How can you tell if a singly-periodic star may not be a close binary rather than a $`\gamma `$Dor star?
2) You mentioned that two $`\gamma `$Dor stars do not show a variation of phase with waveband. This is rather strange since one would expect such a variation owing to non-adiabatic effects. Can you comment?

Eyer: 1) If the light curve had a sinusoidal shape (with minima of equal depth) the star was accepted as a $`\gamma `$Dor star variable.

We also looked at the colour variations, but for unambiguous answers we will have to wait for the spectroscopy results.
2) Yes, I agree, that is what we expected. But that is NOT what the stars are telling us. We clearly find that there is no phase difference for the two stars, of which we have numerous high-quality Geneva photometry.

Handler: With the increasing number of $`\gamma `$Dor candidates (17 in 1995, $`>`$ 140 in 1999) and the increasing interest in these stars it has become very difficult to keep the $`\gamma `$Dor database up to date. I’d therefore like to encourage everybody to communicate their new discoveries to me for immediate inclusion in the $`\gamma `$Dor Master list. Simply send an e-mail to gerald@saao.ac.za. Thank you for your help to keep the database up to date.


text:
# TYPE 1 AGN AND THEIR LINK TO ULIRGS

## 1. Introduction

For historical reasons and selection criteria, a classical type 1 AGN is that showing a spectral energy distribution (SED) with most of its energy in the UV and only 10 - 20 % in the infrared. From 10 $`\mu `$m to 1000 Å the agreement among different composite spectra, built on observations from different databases, is excellent, while in the FIR the various studies disagree. The FIR SED differs not only in shape but also the FIR luminosity differs by up two order of magnitudes. This difference is due to inhomogeneities of AGN samples, covering different luminosity ranges and objects selected according to different criteria. However a common result of these studies is that both AGN and starburst (SB) dominated objects have a common FIR-emitting star-formation component from which is not easy to disentangle pure AGN emission. Quite a number of observational evidence supports the above claim: (a) their 60 $`\mu `$m flux, radio and CO emissions are well correlated and AGN and star-forming galaxies show the same properties; (b) their SEDs at $`\lambda >`$ 60 $`\mu `$m have the same shape as those of star-forming regions; (c) the FIR Luminosity Function of AGN coincides with that of SBs in shape and differ only in amplitude: $`\mathrm{\Phi }_{AGN}^{}/\mathrm{\Phi }_{SB}^{}=1/25`$; (d) the evolution rate of the two classes is comparable and shows the same behaviour $`L(z)(1+z)^{2÷3}`$ (e) the FIR component represents a distinct component correlating only weakly with the true AGN emission and very likely related to a concurrent SB (Lawrence, 2001; Rowan-Robinson, 2001). All this supports the idea that all AGN are accompanied by a SB but one SB out of 25 is accompanied by an AGN. There are indeed evidences for a coexistence of central AGN and circumnuclear star formation in a significant fraction of ULIRGs (Genzel et al., 1998) but AGN are difficult to be observationally proved mainly because of the high extinction of the nuclear source. Other distinct direct and indirect observational probes indicate that an unknown fraction of AGN is absorbed, the so-called type 2, and the ratio between type 2 and type 1 may be as high as 10 of which 20 percent in FIR selected objects. For instance, the comoving mass density of Massive Dark Objects, which are probably supermassive Black Holes in galaxy centers, are a factor of 2 or larger than that explained by accretion onto optically-luminous AGN. This implies that much accretion is obscured by dust (Haehnelt, Natarajan and Rees, 1998) a population which is missing in optically selected samples. Other evidences come from X-ray studies and are extensively discussed in this volume. Dust enshrouded type 1 AGN exist at high and low redshifts and constitue a subset of SCUBA galaxies, which in turn share common properties with local ULIRGs. Nearly all nearby ULIRGs appear to be late-stage mergers, then if one out 10 SB has quasar-like activity is then possible to envisage the evolutionary path starting from a merging system going through a starburst and ending to a optical-phase QSO (Sanders et al., 1989).

## 2. Present work

The aim of the present work is to use FIR observations, gathered by the Infrared Space Observatory (ISO), of optical AGN to infer any evolutionary link from ‘pure’ AGN objects to eventual transition objects linking AGN to ULIRGs. This aim was pursued by comparing FIR and optical properties in a complete subsample of optically selected bright (15 $``$ B $``$ 17) quasars. The sample completeness ensures a better control of observational biases and provides reliable information on the properties of the underlying population. The objects studied in this work can be then fully considered as representative of the entire population. The optical observations consist of multicolour (U,B,V,R,I) broad-band photometry used primarily to selected quasars candidates, which were then later spectroscopically confirmed. ISO FIR photometry has been taken at 7,12,25,60,100 and 160 $`\mu `$m. All the details of these observations and the sample properties can be found in Andreani et al. (2001).

## 3. A colour-colour diagramme for QSOs

Figure 1(A) reports $`\alpha (60\mu m,\mathrm{MIR})`$ versus $`\alpha (\mathrm{FIR},60\mu m)`$. By MIR we indicate the mid-IR bands 7, 12 and 25 $`\mu `$m and by FIR the far-IR bands at 100 and 160 $`\mu `$m. $`\alpha `$ are the spectral indices, i.e. for a $`f_\nu \nu ^\alpha `$ SED: $`\alpha (\nu _1,\nu _2)=\mathrm{log}(f(\nu _1)/f(\nu _2))\mathrm{log}(\nu _1/\nu _2)`$ and are therefore simply related to colours. Our results (see Andreani et., 2001) indicate that $`\alpha (\mathrm{FIR},60\mu m)`$ is a fair estimate of T$`{}_{\mathrm{wd}}{}^{}{}_{}{}^{1}`$, where Twd is the temperature of a warm dust component. The diagram shows a trend: the relative emission at MIR (shorter) wavelengths with respect to the 60$`\mu `$m emission decreases as Twd increases. A possible interpretation is the increasing dominance of SB component with respect to AGN in objects with lower values of Twd and lower values of the ratio $`\mathrm{F}(60\mu \mathrm{m})/\mathrm{F}(\mathrm{MIR})`$. The colour-colour diagram was indeed widely used in the past as a tool to detect and discriminate between different types of activity in the nuclear and circumnuclear regions of galaxies (see e.g., Canalizo & Stockton (2001) and references therein). Different kind of objects (QSOs/Seyferts, starbursts and ULIRGS) occupy distinct areas of such a diagram: where FIR fluxes are dominated by dust reradiation objects locate in the lower right corner (in our convention at lower Twd and lower $`\alpha (60\mu m,\mathrm{MIR})`$) while those with strong non-thermal emission, such as optically selected QSOs, are in the upper left corner. This means that our sample spans a wide range of properties from those ‘AGN pure’ to those where a concurrent SB dominates.

## 4. The type 1 SED

By making the rather coarse assumption that optical quasars can thus be modeled as a homogeneous population, observations at fixed frequencies of targets at different redshifts can be then used to build the entire SED for this population. This analysis exploits the whole spectral information from the optical to the FIR and helps outlining possible general features of the emitting mechanisms and the physics of the QSO environment. The spectrum is built by dividing the available wavelength range in bins. In each bin an average of the fluxes at that wavelength is computed. The errorbars shown are those related to the averages but take into account also photometric uncertainties. Figure 1(B) reports the average spectrum in the QSO restframe. A well defined IR component peaking at 10-30 $`\mu m`$ and dropping steeply above 100 $`\mu `$m is evident. Although from the characteristic shape it is quite straightforward to infer a thermal origin for this component it can be due either to a SB emission in the host galaxy and/or to a dusty torus around the central source. When comparing these data with models (Granato & Danese, 1994) it is possible to bound the available parameters on the dust distribution. It turns out that the dust distribution around the central source should be compact because of the sharp cut-off at long wavelengths of the FIR bump. A larger bump would imply larger temperature distribution and very likely larger spatial dimension of the dust distribution. Furthermore, the data are better in agreement with models predicting the strongest dust self-absorption around 10-30 $`\mu `$m.

## 5. Expected counts of Type 1 AGN

Based on these results we show here the predictions of simple models on the expected numbers of type 1 QSOs in deep future surveys such those foreseen with SIRT-F and HERSCHEL Satellites. As well known number counts of extragalactic objects represent one of the fundamental tool to investigate galaxy evolution, since they are related to the Luminosity Function. The differential counts, $`dN(S)/dS`$, can be expressed as a simple integral of the epoch-dependent luminosity function, $`\mathrm{\Psi }(L,z)`$:

$$\frac{dN}{dS}=_{z_l}^{z_u}𝑑z\frac{dV}{dz}\frac{dL(S,z)}{dS}\mathrm{\Psi }[L(S,z),z]sources/sr$$
(1)
where $`z_u`$ and $`z_l`$ being the effective upper and lower limits of the redshift distribution and $`\frac{dV}{dz}`$ the differential comoving volume. The integrated counts are easily found by integrating eq.(1) at different flux limits, $`S`$. As $`\mathrm{\Psi }(L,z)`$ we take the B-band luminosity function that computed by Boyle et al. (2001) and as its redshift evolution that described in Bianchi, Cristiani & Tae-Sum (2001). The latter has a down-turn at $`z=3`$ and decays exponentially until $`z=10`$. The cosmological parameters used to compute the differential volume are H0=50 km/s/Mpc, $`\mathrm{\Omega }=1`$, $`\mathrm{\Lambda }=0`$. We compute k-corrections, i.e. $`dL(S,z)/dS`$, according to the composite spectrum of Figure 1(B) and plot in Figure 2 the expected counts in different observing bands: 5, 8, 24 and 60 $`\mu `$m. i.e. those corresponding to the filter sets of IRAC and MIPS on board of SIRT-F and PACS on board of Herschel. It is easily shown that for a deep survey in a sky area of 0.3$`\mathrm{deg}^2`$ at a depth of 0.4 mJy at 24$`\mu `$m and of 34$`\mu `$Jy at 8$`\mu `$m we expect to see with SIRT-F a few tens and a few hundreds objects, respectively. Note that the numbers presented here refer to an ideal survey not affected by observational uncertainties (confusion noise, photometric errors, …). More realistic predictions taking into account also the selection of candidate QSOs will be the subject of a forthcoming paper.

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