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# Temperature Dependence of the Magnetic Penetration Depth in the Vortex State of the Pyrochlore Superconductor, Cd2Re2O7

## Abstract

We report transverse field and zero field muon spin rotation studies of the superconducting rhenium oxide pyrochlore, Cd2Re2O7. Transverse field measurements (H=0.007 T) show line broadening below $`T_c`$, which is characteristic of a vortex state, demonstrating conclusively the type-II nature of this superconductor. The penetration depth is seen to level off below about 400 mK $`(T/T_c0.4)`$, with a rather large value of $`\lambda (T=0)7500`$ Å. The temperature independent behavior below $`400`$ mK is consistent with a nodeless superconducting energy gap. Zero-field measurements indicate no static magnetic fields developing below the transition temperature.

The pyrochlore transition metal oxides, of general formula A2B2O7, have been the topic of much interest in recent years as they represent ideal systems for studying the effects of geometrical frustration review . Both the A and B sublattices form a network of corner-sharing tetrahedra such that it may not be possible to energetically satisfy all the magnetic interactions simultaneously. The resultant geometric frustration leads to the formation of exotic ground states. Much of the recent work has concentrated on local moment systems where novel properties such as cooperative paramagnetism Gardner\_TbT , partial, non-collinear antiferromagnetic ordering raju ; Champion\_GdT , spin-freezing YMO , and dipolar “spin-ice” behavior Harris ; DyT  have been observed. There has, however, been growing interest in the interplay between itinerant and local moments in geometrically frustrated systems. The metallic pyrochlore Nd2Mo2O7 exhibits a large anomalous Hall effect which has been attributed to the Berry phase produced by spin chirality on the pyrochlore lattice NdMoO , while the spinel compound, LiV2O4 has been claimed to represent the first known transition metal heavy-fermion system and evidence exists that the unusual properties of this material are related to geometrical frustration on the spinel lattice. LiVO

A vast body of work has been carried out on 3$`d`$ and 4$`d`$ transition metal pyrochlores. These are generally insulators and possess either a spin-glass-like or long-range ordered magnetic structure. In contrast, the 5$`d`$ transition metal pyrochlores are mainly metallic, resulting from the extended nature of the 5$`d`$ orbitals. The exception to this is Cd2Os2O7 CdOsO  where the 5$`d^3`$ configuration of Os5+ results in a half-filled $`t_{2g}`$ band and a metal-insulator transition at 226 K. Despite the large number of transition metal compounds which crystallize in the pyrochlore structure and the wide range of physical phenomena observed in these materials, superconductivity had not been observed until the recent discovery of bulk superconductivity in the 5$`d`$ pyrochlore, Cd2Re2O7 Sakai ; Hanawa .

Cd2Re2O7 crystallizes in the pyrochlore structure with room temperature lattice constant $`a`$=10.219 Å and an oxygen positional parameter x=0.3089.crystal  Recent investigations Sakai ; Hanawa ; Jin ; Jin2 ; Hanawa2  have demonstrated the existence of two phase transitions in this compound. The first, occurring at a temperature of about 200 K, is a continuous structural transition which is accompanied by drastic changes in resistivity and magnetic susceptibility Jin2 ; Hanawa2 . On further lowering the temperature, Cd2Re2O7 has been shown to exhibit bulk superconductivity below a sample dependent transition temperature of about 1 K Sakai ; Hanawa ; Jin . Preliminary measurements in the superconducting state indicate that Cd2Re2O7 is a type-II superconductor with $`H_{c1}`$ less than 0.002 T and estimates of the upper critical field, $`H_{c2}`$, ranging from 0.2 T to 1 T Sakai ; Hanawa ; Jin . None of the measurements reported to date extend below 0.3 K ($`T/T_c`$0.3) and hence, little can be concluded about the symmetry of the order parameter in this system. An exponential form of the specific heat as T approaches zero was speculated by Hanawa et al. Hanawa  but they point out that measurements to lower temperatures are clearly needed. We report the first measurements on Cd2Re2O7 below 300 mK, temperatures which are necessary (for $`T_c`$ 1 K) to extract information about the superconducting order parameter symmetry. We have performed transverse field (TF) and zero field (ZF) muon spin rotation ($`\mu `$SR) measurements on single crystal samples of Cd2Re2O7. The ZF-$`\mu `$SR measurements reveal very small internal magnetic fields which are characteristic of nuclear dipoles, indicating no significant electronic magnetism either above or below Tc. The TF-$`\mu `$SR results provide the first measurement of the internal field distribution in the vortex state in this material. In particular, temperature dependent studies from 20 mK to 4 K indicate a penetration depth which levels off as $`T0`$, suggestive of a fully gapped Fermi surface with a rather large zero temperature value of the penetration depth, $`\lambda `$(0)$``$7500 Å.

Muon spin rotation has proven to be a very effective probe in the study of superconductivity Jeff . In particular, TF-$`\mu `$SR provides a measure of the length scales associated with type-II superconductors, the penetration depth, $`\lambda `$ and the vortex core radius $`r_0`$ Jeff . In a TF-$`\mu `$SR experiment, spin polarized muons, with polarization perpendicular to the applied magnetic field direction, are implanted in a sample at a location which is random on the length scale of the vortex lattice. The muon precesses at a rate proportional to the local magnetic field providing a measure of the local field distribution, $`n(B)`$. The presence of the vortex lattice results in a spatially inhomogeneous field distribution and a resulting muon spin depolarization.

Early TF-$`\mu `$SR measurements assumed a Gaussian distribution of magnetic fields and with this approximation, the penetration depth can be directly obtained from the Gaussian depolarization rate, $`\sigma 1/\lambda ^2`$. This approximation has been shown to be reasonable for the case of polycrystalline samples but is inadequate for the case of single crystals Jeff . In this case, a Ginzburg-Landau (GL) model has been developed to model the magnetic field distribution for a single crystal. In GL theory, the size of the vortex core is determined by the applied magnetic field, $`H`$, and the GL coherence length normal to the applied field, $`\xi _{GL}`$, while the penetration depth provides the length scale of the decay of magnetic field away from the vortex core. The field distribution is calculated from the spatial distribution of magnetic field Yaouanc ,

$$B(\text{r})=\frac{\mathrm{\Phi }_0}{S}(1b^4)\underset{\text{G}}{}e^{i\text{G}\text{r}}\frac{uK_1(u)}{1+\lambda ^2G^2},$$
(1)
where $`u^2=2\xi _{GL}^2G^2(1+b^4)[12b(1b^2)]`$, $`K_1(u)`$ is a modified Bessel function, G is a reciprocal lattice vector of the vortex lattice, $`b=H/H_{c2}`$ is the reduced field, $`\mathrm{\Phi }_0`$ is the flux quantum and $`S`$ is the area of the reduced unit cell for a hexagonal vortex lattice.

Single crystals of Cd2Re2O7 were grown using vapor-transport techniques as described elsewhere Jin ; He . Three samples with an approximate surface area of 5$`\times `$5 mm2 each were mounted using low temperature grease such that the cubic (100) direction would be parallel to the applied magnetic field direction. They were mounted on intrinsic GaAs in order to eliminate any precession signal at the background frequency kiefl85  from muons which miss the sample and would otherwise land in the Ag sample holder. The samples were covered with 0.025 mm Ag foil which was bolted to the sample holder to ensure temperature uniformity. The TF and ZF-$`\mu `$SR measurements were performed in an Oxford Instruments dilution refrigerator on the M15 beamline at TRIUMF at temperatures from 20 mK up to 4 K.

Given the estimated critical field values, we selected a field value of 0.007 T and the temperature dependence was measured by cooling the sample in the presence of this applied magnetic field to ensure a uniform flux line lattice. Figs. 1(a) and (b) show typical $`\mu `$SR spectra in a transverse field of 0.007 T, for temperatures above and below Tc respectively. Examination of this data clearly shows an enhanced depolarization rate on entering the superconducting state resulting from the inhomogeneous field distribution associated with the flux line lattice. This represents the first experimental observation of the vortex lattice in Cd2Re2O7 and provides clear evidence that this material is a type-II superconductor. The observed increase in the TF line broadening below Tc can be attributed entirely to the vortex lattice since the ZF muon spin relaxation rate (not shown here) was small and roughly temperature independent below 2 K.

The solid lines shown in Figs. 1(a) and (b) represent fits of the individual time spectra to a sample signal consisting of a Gaussian envelope with fixed asymmetry and a background signal with fixed linewidth and asymmetry. The background, from muons which miss the sample and land in the heat shields, was obtained independently by performing measurements with the sample removed. The resulting sample linewidth, $`\sigma `$, is shown in Fig. 2 as a function of temperature. As one can clearly see, the magnitude of the depolarization rate as $`T0`$ is very small, saturating at a value of about 0.1 $`\mu s^1`$. The residual linewidth from nuclear dipoles, taken from the data above Tc, is very small in Cd2Re2O7 (about 0.03 $`\mu s^1`$), allowing for clear observation of the line broadening associated with the flux line lattice. Apparently the muons stop in sites which are not close to the Re ions, which have appreciable nuclear moments.

As can be seen from Eq. 1, the field distribution depends on both the penetration depth and GL coherence depth. The GL coherence length can be obtained from the known value of the upper critical field using the expression $`\xi _{GL}=(\mathrm{\Phi }_0/2\pi H_{c2})^{1/2}`$ where $`\mathrm{\Phi }_0`$ is the flux quantum. As mentioned above, a range of values for $`H_{c2}`$ have been reported and consequently, to provide a self-consistent measurement of $`\lambda `$, the field dependence of the linewidth was measured. To account for any possible instrumental field-dependence in the linewidth, measurements were made above the transition temperature (2 K) at each field value after which the sample was field-cooled to 100 mK. The measured linewidth in the normal state was subtracted in quadrature from that observed at 100 mK and the results are plotted in Fig. 3 as a function of applied magnetic field. As can be clearly seen, the linewidth decreases almost linearly with applied field. This is attributed to the linear increase in the volume taken up by the vortices. The linewidth parameter, $`\sigma _{FC}`$, approaches zero at a field of 0.5 T which is our estimate of $`H_{c2}`$(T$``$0) and is consistent with measurements on other samples.

This estimate of the critical field corresponds to $`\xi _{GL}`$ 260 Å. Using this value, we obtain the penetration depth using the field distribution shown in Eq. 1. The resulting temperature dependent penetration depth is shown in Fig. 4. As expected from the small values of linewidth, at the base temperature we observe a rather large value of the penetration depth, $`\lambda (0)7500`$Å. We note that this value of penetration depth is significantly larger than most oxide superconductors where values ranging from 1000-2000 Å are typical Uemura ; Aegerter .

As the penetration depth is related to the concentration of superconducting carriers, its temperature dependence is a measure of the low-lying electronic excitations. As such, the presence of a nodeless superconducting energy gap is indicated by a leveling off of the penetration depth as the temperature decreases below $`T_c`$. As is clearly seen in Figs. 2 and 4, the linewidth and penetration depth respectively become temperature independent as the temperature decreases below about 0.4 K, consistent with a fully gapped Fermi surface. Consequently, we conclude that the superconducting order parameter in Cd2Re2O7 is consistent with a nodeless energy gap suggesting either $`s`$-wave symmetry or exotic pairing symmetries, such as $`p`$-wave which can also exhibit a fully gapped Fermi surface. For comparison, the solid line in Figs. 2 and 4 represent fits to the two fluid approximation

$$\frac{\sigma (T)}{\sigma (0)}\frac{\lambda ^2(0)}{\lambda ^2(T)}=[1(T/T_c)^4],$$
(2)
while the dashed line in Fig. 4 is a fit to the BCS temperature dependence

$$\lambda (T)=\lambda (0)\left[1+\sqrt{\frac{\pi \mathrm{\Delta }_0}{2T}}\mathrm{exp}\left(\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }_0}{T}\right)\right]$$
(3)
where $`\mathrm{\Delta }_0=1.74(11)`$ K.

The London penetration depth, $`\lambda `$, provides a direct measure of the ratio of superconducting carrier concentration to effective mass, $`n_s/m^{}`$,

$$\frac{1}{\lambda ^2}=\frac{4\pi n_se^2}{m^{}c^2}\left(1+\frac{\xi _0}{l}\right)^1,$$
(4)
where $`\xi _0`$ is the Pippard coherence length, and $`l`$ is the mean-free path. There is considerable uncertainty in estimations of the mean-free path with reported values ranging from 200-700 ÅJin ; Hiroi  and it is unclear whether Cd2Re2O7 is a superconductor in the clean or dirty limit. If the material is in the clean limit, the present results provide strong evidence for a fully gapped Fermi surface. Under the assumption of a clean superconductor, such that $`\xi _0/l`$ $``$ 1, a value of $`n_sm_e/m^{}`$ of 5.0$`\times `$1025 $`m^3`$ can be obtained using Eq. 4 and the measured penetration depth. On the other hand, if $`l`$200 Å (i.e. the dirty limit) then we obtain $`\xi _0`$470 Å and $`n_sm_e/m^{}`$$``$1.4$`\times `$1026 $`m^3`$. Clearly, precise determination of the mean free path for Cd2Re2O7 is needed to allow accurate quantitative information to be extracted.

In conclusion, we have performed $`\mu `$SR studies of the superconducting state in the recently discovered pyrochlore superconductor, Cd2Re2O7. Zero-field measurements indicate no significant magnetism in this superconductor, suggesting that magnetic frustration does not play a direct role in the superconductivity. Transverse-field measurements show that Cd2Re2O7 is a type-II superconductor and indicate a superconducting order parameter consistent with a fully gapped Fermi surface with a zero temperature value of penetration depth of $``$7500 Å. However, considering that the superconductor may be in the dirty limit, spectroscopic techniques which directly measure the density of states would be required to confirm this conclusion.

We would like to acknowledge valuable discussions with M. Yethiraj, as well as the technical support of the TRIUMF facility, in particular B. Hitti and M. Good. Oak Ridge National Laboratory is managed by UT-Battelle, LLC for the U.S. Department of Energy under contract DE-AC05-00OR22725. Work at Los Alamos National Laboratory was performed under the auspices of the U.S. Department of Energy.


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# The ALEPH Search for the Standard Model Higgs Boson

## 1 Introduction

This note presents results on the search for the Standard Model Higgs boson by the ALEPH collaboration in the year 2000. This search primarily looks for the production of Higgs bosons via the Higgsstrahlung process, although some search channels also posses a limited sensitivity to Higgs production via W and Z vector boson fusion. In total, 216.2$`\mathrm{pb}^1`$ of data was collected at centre of mass energies ranging from 200 GeV to 209 GeV, with the majority collected around 205.1 GeV (72$`\mathrm{pb}^1`$) and 206.7 GeV (107$`\mathrm{pb}^1`$).

## 2 Event Selection

The search analyses, described in detail elsewhere ,, are designed to detect specific “channels” or final states arising from the Higgsstrahlung production process:

* The four jet final state (h$`q\overline{q}`$)
* The missing energy final state (h$`\nu \overline{\nu }`$)
* The leptonic final state (h$`\mathrm{}^+\mathrm{}^{}`$)
* The tau lepton final state (h$`\tau \tau `$ and h$`\tau \tau `$, Z $`q\overline{q}`$)

The Higgs boson search was conducted using both a Neural Network based stream (denoted “NN”) and a cuts based stream (“cuts”). The two streams are formed from the above four final state analyses where final states marked with a $``$ have alternate analyses based on NN’s and cuts and the searches are identical in both streams for the leptonic and tau final states. The analysis selection criteria were fixed before the data taking period began thus ensuring that their application to the collected data was unbiased.

## 3 Results and Statistical Interpretation

The number of observed and expected events for each analysis channel and the total combined NN and cuts streams are given in table 1.

Figures 1a and 1b show the distributions of the reconstructed Higgs boson mass($`m_{REC}=m_{12}+m_{34}91.2`$) for the data and expected background in the NN and cuts based streams respectively. Both figures show good agreement between data (points) and the expected background (histogram) at low reconstructed Higgs masses while they both display a clear excess of data candidates at large reconstructed Higgs masses.

### 3.1 Confidence Level Results

The mass is not the only information which may be used to distinguish a Higgs boson signal from SM background. Further information (eg, b-tag, NNoutput) is taken into account in the construction of the likelihood ratio $`Q=L_{s+b}/L_b`$, where $`L_b`$ is the likelihood for the background-only hypothesis and $`L_{s+b}`$ is the likelihood for the signal+background hypothesis for a given Higgs boson mass. The likelihood ratio measures the compatibility of the experiment with a given signal mass hypothesis and is defined as:

$$Q=\frac{L_{s+b}}{L_b}=\frac{exp^{(s+b)}}{exp^b}\underset{i=1}{\overset{n_{obs}}{}}\frac{sf_s(X_i)+bf_b(X_i)}{bf_b(X_i)}$$
(1)
where $`s`$ and $`b`$ are the total number of signal and background events expected. The functions $`f_s`$ and $`f_b`$ are the probability densities that a signal or background event will be found in a given final state identified by a set of discriminating variables. By removing these functions, the likelihood ratio is returned to the ratio of the Poisson probabilities to observe $`n_{obs}`$ events for the signal+background and background-only hypotheses.

The observed and expected distributions of the likelihood ratio, expressed as -2ln$`Q`$, are shown in figures 2a and 2b for the NN and cuts streams respectively.

The compatibility of an experiment with a given hypothesis is derived by calculating the probability of obtaining a likelihood ratio smaller than that observed. This probability is referred to as the confidence level($`CL`$). When observed results are tested against a background-only hypothesis we use the quantity $`CL_b`$. In the case of the expected SM background $`CL_b`$ has a median value at 0.5 while the observation of a signal is expected to produce an excess relative to the background and the value of $`CL_b`$ (1-$`CL_b`$) is expected to rise (drop).

Figures 3a and 3b show the observed and expected distributions for 1-$`CL_b`$ as a function of the hypothesised Higgs boson mass. A large deviation from the expected background value of 0.5 can be seen in both the NN and cuts based streams. This deviation is consistent with an excess of events over the background only hypothesis and is maximal for a Higgs boson mass of $``$ 116 GeV$`/c^2`$. The probability of deviations of this magnitude are 1.5 x $`10^3`$ and 1.1 x $`10^3`$ corresponding to significances of 3.0$`\sigma `$ and 3.1$`\sigma `$ 111The ALEPH significances are calculated using single sided Gaussian distributions for the NN and cuts streams respectively.

### 3.2 Analysis of ‘High Impact’ Candidates

The ‘Quality’ of individual candidates may be assessed by two independent methods. These methods allows us to gain information about the individual candidates and also assess the origin and stability of the observed excess.

The impact of each candidate may be determined by calculating the contribution of the candidate to -2ln$`Q`$. In the calculation of -2ln$`Q`$, individual candidates contribute as a sum of event weights, ln(1+$`\frac{sf_s}{bf_b}`$), which may then be analysed. Figures 4a and 4b show the event weights, as a function of hypothesised Higgs boson mass, for all candidates with weights larger than 0.4 at a mass of 114 GeV$`/c^2`$ for the NN and cuts analyses respectively. The details of the highlighted ‘high impact’ candidates, a-e, all of which occur in the four jet final state, are found in table 2.

Alternatively the ‘Quality’ of the candidates may be assessed by considering their ‘purity’. Here we define purity to be the ratio of expected number of signal to background events with a reconstructed Higgs boson mass greater than 109 GeV$`/c^2`$, from here on denoted as $`(s/b)_{109}`$. Tightening the selection criteria of the analyses enables the purity to be increased and allows us to gain information about the candidate ‘Quality’ and also the stability of the observed excess. High purity values $`(s/b)_{109}`$=1.5 are achieved by tightening the NN cut on the four jet selection in the NN stream and tightening b-tag/Z-mass constraints on the four jets selection in the cuts stream. Figures 5a and 5b show the high purity distributions of the reconstructed Higgs boson mass for the NN and cuts streams respectively.

A large overlap between the high ‘weight’ and high ‘purity’ candidates adds confidence to the observed result and the stability of the excess.

## 4 Conclusion

The data collected with the ALEPH detector in 2000 have been analysed to search for the Standard Model Higgs boson. Both NN and Cuts based analysis streams show a 3$`\sigma `$ excess beyond the Standard Model background expectation. The observed result is consistent with the production of a Higgs boson with a mass near 114 GeV$`/c^2`$.


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# Radial velocity variations of the pulsating subdwarf B star PG 1605+072Based on observations made with the Anglo-Australian Telescope, Coonabarabran, NSW, Australia and the William Herschel Telescope operated on the island of La Palma by the Isaac Newton Group in the Spanish Observatorio del Roque de los Muchachos of the Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias.

## 1 Introduction

It has been several years since the announcement of the discovery that some subdwarf B stars pulsate . Photometric variations in sdBV stars, or “EC 14026 stars” after the prototype, are measured in hundredths of a magnitude and generally have periods of 100–200 s. They appear to be due to low-order stellar pulsations. When the pulsations are better understood, it will be possible to use asteroseismology to obtain more information about the stars, including their size, mass, and structure, as has been done with some other classes of pulsating stars. This will probably require multi-site photometric and spectroscopic observations.

PG 1605$`+072`$ has the largest photometric pulsation amplitudes and the richest frequency spectrum of all studied sdBV’s. Its light curve shows more than 50 frequencies, though it is dominated by 5 frequencies between 1.89 and 2.74 mHz (periods between 529 and 365 s) . It has an effective temperature of $`\mathrm{32\hspace{0.17em}300}\pm 300`$ K (Heber, Reid, & Werner 1999). It has a lower gravity ($`\mathrm{log}g=5.25`$) and longer pulsation periods than any other sdBV studied, which Kilkenny et al.  say indicates that it has evolved away from the core helium burning horizontal branch where the shorter-period sdBV’s are found. It is expected to be evolving more rapidly than other known sdBV’s.

Kawaler  and Kilkenny et al.  report comparisons of the large-amplitude pulsations of PG 1605+072 to those of a model with similar physical parameters. They suggest that what are observed are most likely low-order nonradial pulsations in “trapped modes,” though it was not possible to make individual mode identifications.

An earlier study, O’Toole et al. , used time-resolved spectroscopy of PG 1605$`+`$072 to look for evidence of pulsation in the radial velocities. Their observations provided 38.65 hours of data over a 10 day period. Spectra within a data series were generally separated by 61 to 75 seconds. They detected velocity variations, with the three largest amplitudes having frequencies similar to those found in the photometric data by Kilkenny et al. . The combination of the fairly slow repetition of observations, noise in the velocity spectrum caused by the use of small diameter ($`<2`$-m) telescopes, and a broad observational alias signature in comparison with the spacing of the frequencies observed in the photometry meant that only the strongest pulsations could be detected with any certainty.

We report the results of two-site spectroscopic observations of PG 1605$`+`$072. We take advantage of the higher signal to noise spectra and faster readout repetition possible with the 4-m class Anglo-Australian (AAT) and William Herschel (WHT) telescopes to provide radial velocities for a study of the star’s pulsations. Previous work has shown that high speed spectroscopy at the WHT can be used to detect even small amplitude radial motions, $`2\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$, in sdBVs .

## 2 Observations and reduction

We obtained spectra of PG 1605$`+`$072 at a high time resolution (13 to 22 second repetition) using the 3.9-m AAT and the 4.2-m WHT on the nights of 11 and 12 May 2000. Using both telescopes allowed us to obtain a more continuous data set than possible with a single site. We obtained 16.3 hours of data over a 32.1 hour period. Spectra from both sites covered a 400 Å range chosen to include the H$`\delta `$ and H$`\gamma `$ Balmer lines.

The data were reduced using scripted standard iraf routines to to make the bias, flat-field, and sky corrections, extract the one dimensional spectra, and to apply the wavelength calibration from CuAr arc spectra.

Exposure timings at both sites are calibrated against standard clocks. The 1 or 2 second possible time calibration difference between sites has no detectable effect on the results we report.

### 2.1 WHT observations

We used the blue arm of the ISIS spectrograph with the R1200B grating. The CCD was read out in drift mode . This allowed us to obtain spectra every 13 seconds. Observations were made over a period of 43 minutes starting at $`\mathrm{HJD}=2451676.40761`$ and a period of 8.349 hours starting at $`\mathrm{HJD}=2451677.39750`$, with short breaks for CuAr arc calibration spectra. Spectral resolution was $`\lambda /\mathrm{\Delta }\lambda =5000`$ and the spectral range was $`4050<\lambda <4450\mathrm{\AA }`$. The exposure timings come from the CCD controller’s clock, which is synchronized daily with the observatory’s GPS-calibrated time service. The clock normally drifts about 1 second per night.

### 2.2 AAT observations

We used the Royal Greenwich Observatory Spectrograph with CCD readout in time-series mode . We obtained a spectrum every 22.5 seconds over a period of 7.272 hours starting at $`\mathrm{HJD}=2451676.97869`$, with short breaks every 30 minutes so CuAr arc spectra could be measured for wavelength calibration. Using the 82 cm camera and the R1200B grating gave a spectral resolution of $`\lambda /\mathrm{\Delta }\lambda =5700`$ with a spectral range of $`4010<\lambda <4410\mathrm{\AA }`$. The exposure timings are calibrated against the Observatory’s CAMAC clock and should be accurate to within 20 ms.

## 3 Analysis and Results

The determination of radial velocities from the spectra and the search for periods in the velocity variations followed the method outlined by Jeffery & Pollacco  using idl programs.

Wavelength calibrated spectra were used to determine radial velocity changes of PG 1605$`+`$072. As the spectral wavelength coverage from the two telescopes was slightly different, data from each site were treated separately to simplify the analysis. For each site’s data set the mean spectrum was used as the cross-correlation template. The velocity for each spectrum was determined by fitting a Gaussian to the the peak of the cross-correlation function. The templates from the two data sets were cross-correlated to allow a correction to be made to put the data sets on the same zero-scale. The velocity data is shown in Fig. 1.

The velocity variations can be clearly seen in an expanded portion of the velocity curve shown in Fig. 2 (as can the gaps in the data due to the need to take wavelength calibration arcs).

A search for periods in the velocity variations was performed with a discrete Fourier transform analysis. Fig. 3 shows the periodograms for the separate velocity data sets and our complete data set, and the major photometric frequencies found by Kilkenny et al.  (from their Table 2).

The window function for our data is shown in Fig. 4.

The four major peaks present in the AAT and WHT data become double peaks when the data is combined. This raises the question of whether the peaks are real or the result of aliasing and if the doubling is due to aliasing, which peaks are the real ones? The separation of the peaks in the pairs is between 0.019 and 0.028 mHz. The side lobes in the window function are 0.021 mHz (corresponding to about 13.2 hours) from the central peak. Aliasing is thus a possibility. However, the peak patterns do not resemble that of the window function. The power spectrum and window function of the data set without the WHT data from the first night, the small set near $`\mathrm{HJD}2451676=0.4`$, are virtually identical to those of the full data set, with slightly broader but equally separated peaks. When doing pre-whitening as discussed in the following paragraph we tried removing peaks in different orders or with the photometric frequencies and no method removed the second peaks. Further, neither peak near 2.7 mHz is at the frequency found using photometry. Trials using single and multiple sine waves sampled at the observation times, with and without noise, reproduced the window function at the input frequency(ies) as expected. We admit the possibility that the 2.731 and 2.753 mHz peaks are due to aliasing, but will proceed with the analysis assuming that the splitting is real.

To help determine the relative strengths of the peaks in the periodogram and to detect peaks which are present only because of aliasing, we “pre-whitened” the data by subtracting successive sine waves from the velocity curve to remove individual peaks. The phase for each sine wave was found by cross-correlation with the velocity curve. The velocity amplitudes for the sine waves which remove the periodogram peaks most cleanly were found by simple trial and error. The original periodogram and the periodogram with the six strongest peaks removed are shown in Fig. 5.

The frequencies and velocity amplitudes of the removed peaks are listed in Table 1. No correction has been made for projection effects. The frequency uncertainty was derived using

$$\delta \omega =\frac{3\pi \sigma __N}{2(N_0)^{1/2}TA}$$

where $`A`$ is the amplitude, $`\sigma _N^2`$ is the variance of the noise after the signal has been removed, $`T`$ is the length of the data set, and $`N_0`$ is the number of velocity data points . The periodogram of pre-whitened velocity data in Fig. 5 looks similar to the pre-whitened photometric data in Fig. 3 of Kilkenny et al. , with additional peaks obvious between 1.8 and 3 mHz. Peaks seen in the photometric data around 4.1 and 4.8 mHz are probably also present in the velocity data.

One useful method of mode identification for pulsating stars involves measuring the moments of the line profiles . While we are not yet ready to perform such a test, PG 1605+072, with the largest pulsation amplitudes known for any sdBV, is an ideal subject to test whether the moments can be determined for any of the class. We used the cross correlation function to approximate the average line profile. For our spectra this is dominated by the strong H$`\gamma `$ and H$`\delta `$ Balmer lines. An idl routine was used to find the moments $`M_0`$, $`M_1`$, $`M_2`$, and $`M_3`$, and find their Fourier transforms. The transforms are shown in Fig. 6.

The 0th moment corresponds to the equivalent width of the line. The first is the line centroid. The second is the skewness or lack of symmetry. The third is the kurtosis, a measure of how sharply peaked the line is.

The shape of the Fourier transform of the centroid, $`M_1`$, is virtually identical to that of the radial velocity. However, the peak amplitudes for the centroid are much smaller than those of the the velocities. We thought that this may happen because the hydrogen line wings are not affected as strongly by the pulsations as are weak lines or hydrogen line cores. (Our velocities come from fits to the central peak of the cross correlation function while the centroid measures the centre of the entire “line.”) To test this, we created synthetic spectra for PG 1605+072 forced to pulsate at various frequencies and modes using the programs bruce and kylie \[1997a, 1997b\]. When the spectra included the H $`\gamma `$ and $`\delta `$ lines we found the peak amplitudes for $`M_1`$ similarly reduced in comparison with those of the velocities. When the H line regions of the synthetic spectra were eliminated and the analysis was repeated, the $`M_1`$ and velocity amplitudes were comparable, indicating that the relatively immobile H line wings were the cause of the much smaller amplitudes found using $`M_1`$.

The close match between the shapes of the $`M_3`$ and $`M_1`$ Fourier transforms indicates that the “peakiness” of the cross correlation function, which is dominated by the hydrogen line shape, varies with periods and relative amplitudes identical to the velocity variations.

The $`M_0`$ and $`M_2`$ transforms both show peaks at some of the frequencies present in the $`M_1`$ and $`M_3`$ transforms, but with different amplitude ratios. This shows that the line equivalent widths and asymmetries vary differently than the velocity or line kurtoses.

## 4 Discussion

It is difficult to compare our velocity amplitudes with the photometric amplitudes found by other authors, as there appears to be some shifting of pulsation frequencies. For example, the strong peaks in our velocity periodogram at 2.731 and 2.753 mHz do not correspond well with the peaks in that frequency region in the photometric periodogram of Kilkenny et al. , where there is one strong peak at 2.743 mHz and several much weaker peaks, none of which are at the velocity peak frequencies. But still, in both the velocity and photometry periodograms the major peaks appear in the same general frequency regions: around 1.9, 2.0, 2.1, 2.7, and perhaps 2.3 mHz.

In addition, Kilkenny et al.  say that some frequencies may have variable amplitudes (and that some of the small-amplitude peaks in the power spectrum may be artifacts due to this variability). This amplitude variability may be apparent when our velocity data and the Kilkenny et al. data are compared. The strongest peak in the velocity data is near 2.7 mHz while the strongest in the photometry data is near 2.1 mHz. The velocity data from O’Toole et al.  appear to show amplitude ratios in their periodogram similar to those found in the Kilkenny et al. photometric data, though their relatively slow repetition rate ($`>`$ 1 minute per exposure) and the complicated window function for the O’Toole et al. data make the comparison uncertain.

Our observations of PG 1605$`+`$072 took place about three years after the multi-site photometric campaign to observe it by Kilkenny et al.  and about 2 years after the O’Toole et al.  spectroscopic campaign. The peak amplitude ratio differences we find are probably due to shifts of power between the major peaks. Pulsation modes with different $`\mathrm{}`$ and $`m`$ numbers can produce peaks with different amplitude ratios for velocity and photometric variations, but are unlikely to produce the large differences we find. A campaign of simultaneous spectroscopic and photometric observations would eliminate the possibility of power shifts between modes over the time period between obtaining the two types of data. In addition, the longer observing runs and wider physical distribution available for the smaller telescopes used for photometry would help reduce the aliasing problem present with short, spectroscopy-only programs.

Such a simultaneous campaign would also provide a better chance at successful mode identification. With modes identified, estimates of stellar radius and luminosity can be made using Baade-Wesselink and related techniques discussed by Stamford & Watson .

Mode identification may also be aided by continuing long-term observations of PG 1605+072. The rate of period change for the observed pulsations is slow enough, $`\mathrm{d}P/\mathrm{d}t1.3\times 10^{12}\mathrm{ss}^1`$ , that the shifts in period we observe for the 2.7 mHz peaks are too large to be the result of the frequency of a single mode changing. If the shifts are not an artefact of aliasing, they are probably the result of shifting of power between modes very closely spaced in period, perhaps different components of a multiplet. The splitting is about the right size for this: the frequency difference between modes with successive $`m`$ values is $`\delta \nu \nu _{\mathrm{rot}}\frac{1}{\mathrm{}(\mathrm{}+1)}`$, where $`\nu _{\mathrm{rot}}`$ is the star’s rotational frequency. If we guess that the 2.7 mHz peaks are due to $`\mathrm{}=1`$, $`m=0,\pm 1`$, where the two peaks we find with the velocity data being $`m=\pm 1`$ and the peak found with 1997 and earlier photometric data being $`m=0`$, then $`\delta \nu =0.011\pm 0.002`$ mHz, which corresponds to a stellar rotational period of $`12.6\pm 2.8`$ hours, not far outside the $`\mathrm{\Pi }<8.7`$ h determined by Heber et al. . (We are not arguing that this is an $`\mathrm{}=1`$, $`m=0,\pm 1`$ triplet, but rather just that the splitting is about the size expected for rotational splitting in general for PG 1605$`+`$072.) If over time the type of multiplet can be identified (i.e. triplet, quintuplet, etc.) this would greatly aid in identifying the pulsation modes. Identifying the pulsation modes would allow analysis of the star using asteroseismology, providing more precise and accurate estimates of its physical properties.

## 5 Conclusions

Our two-site campaign of high speed spectroscopic observations of the variable subdwarf B star PG 1605$`+`$072 with 4-m class telescopes provides a new measurement of its radial velocity variations due to pulsation. We find pulsations frequencies similar but not identical to those found in earlier photometric studies. The relative strengths of the frequency peaks in the power spectrum for our data are different from those in the photometry data and possibly from those in an earlier spectroscopic study. The differences in peak strengths and the small differences in detected frequencies probably reflect shifts of power between pulsation modes.

A multi-site campaign of simultaneous photometric and spectroscopic observations combined with continued long-term observations should provide the best chance to identify the star’s pulsation modes. With the modes identified, asteroseismology can be used to accurately determine the star’s physical properties, which will be useful in modeling its evolutionary history.

## Acknowledgments

We are happy to acknowledge financial support from the UK PPARC (grant Refs PPA/G/S/1998/00019 and PPA/G/O/1999/00058).

We thank Rich Townsend for providing his bruce and kylie pulsation codes. Thanks to Chris Benn and Raylee Stathakis and others at WHT and AAT for tracking down information on the timing calibrations of the observations.


text:
# 1 Bob’s probability to find a certain measurement outcome for the scheme corresponding to Eq. ().

Secure communication with a publicly known key
Almut Beige,1 Berthold-Georg Englert,1,2 Christian Kurtsiefer,3 and Harald Weinfurter1,3

1Max-Planck-Institut für Quantenoptik, Hans-Kopfermann-Str. 1,

85748 Garching, Germany

2Departments of Mathematics and Physics, Texas A&M University,

College Station, Texas 77843, U. S. A.

3Sektion Physik, Universität München, Schellingstrasse 4, 80799 München, Germany

## Abstract

We present a scheme for direct and confidential communication between Alice and Bob, where there is no need for establishing a shared secret key first, and where the key used by Alice even will become known publicly. The communication is based on the exchange of single photons and each and every photon transmits one bit of Alice’s message without revealing any information to a potential eavesdropper.

PACS: 03.67.Dd, 42.79.Sz

1. Introduction

It is generally believed that cryptography schemes are only completely secure when the two communicating parties, Alice and Bob, establish a shared secret key before the transmission of a message. This means they first have to create a random bit sequence, which is not known to anyone else, and which is of the same length as the message. In order to communicate, Alice then multiplies the bits of the message one by one with the key bits. When she announces the result to Bob, or even publicly, then he is the only one who can interpret it and deduce Alice’s message.

As shown in a seminal paper by Bennett and Brassard in 1984 , Alice and Bob can establish a shared secret key by exchanging single qubits, physically realised by the polarisation of photons, for example. The protocol of the proposed scheme, that became known as BB84, is as follows. First, Alice prepares a photon in a certain polarisation state, a basis vector in a two-dimensional Hilbert space. Thereby she chooses at random between two complementary bases. Afterwards she forwards the photon to Bob who now performs a measurement on the incoming state. If he chooses the same basis as Alice, which happens with a chance of $`50\%`$, they can agree about one key bit. At the end of a transmission they check whether it was secure or not by just comparing some key bits. An eavesdropper can be noticed because his interception causes an error rate of at least $`25\%`$.

In 1987 Vaidman, Aharonov and Albert published a paper  with the title “How to ascertain the values of $`\sigma _x`$, $`\sigma _y`$ and $`\sigma _z`$ of a spin-$`\frac{1}{2}`$ particle” and described a paradox that later became known as the Mean King’s Problem . The quantum-optical version of the king’s problem proposed recently  suggests a new cryptography scheme, presented in Refs. . In the present paper we focus on a further development, namely a modification that allows Alice to send a message to Bob without the need to establish a shared secret key first.

The protocol of this new scheme has, of course, many similarities to BB84 , its later modifications  and the proposal made by Ekert in 1991 based on entangled photon pairs . But it is much more than just another modification. In contrast to BB84 and its various “analytical continuations”, which are probabilistic, the scheme we describe here is deterministic. Each and every photon sent and detected will eventually contribute a key bit. In addition, and this is another important requirement for direct and confidential communication, no information is revealed to a potential eavesdropper. The only other proposal with deterministic features is the one of Goldenberg and Vaidman .

Altogether, the transmission of a message becomes more efficient than in other schemes. The price to be paid for this efficiency raise is that each photon now has to be prepared in a two-qubit state and not only in a single-qubit state. To obtain these states Alice can use, for instance, the spatial binary alternative of a photon with the basis states $`|𝖱`$ and $`|𝖫`$ and the two polarisations $`|𝗏`$ and $`|𝗁`$. Here, $`|𝖱`$ and $`|𝖫`$ describe a photon traveling either in the “right” fiber or in the “left” fiber. How any desired superposition of such two-qubit photon states can be prepared is described in Ref. .

In the next section we summarise the basic idea that can be used to construct direct confidential quantum communication schemes. In Section 3 we describe concrete proposals for its realisation. The security against eavesdropping attacks of the general intercept-resend kind is addressed in Section 4. After discussing a possible experimental setup, we conclude with a summary of our results.

2. The basic idea

In this section we describe the essential ingredients needed for quantum cryptography. The basic protocol that all schemes have in common is the following: Alice (the sender) exchanges single qubits with Bob (the receiver), each of them prepared in a certain state. As usual she chooses at random between different types of states labeled by $`n`$. Here we choose the notation such that states transmitting a “$`+`$” bit are denoted by $`|n_+`$. In order to transmit a “$``$” bit Alice prepares the state $`|n_{}`$. If a photon arrives at Bob’s end, he performs a measurement on its state whereat he switches at random between at least two different measurement bases. In the following, there will always be only two different measurements he can choose and we denote the corresponding basis states by $`|B_n`$ or $`|C_n`$.

As in Refs. , let us call the eavesdropper Evan. He has full access to all communication channels between the two parties. This means, he can perform any possible quantum mechanical operation on the photons in transmission and he can listen into the classical communication between Alice and Bob. Security of the scheme is assured when Evan’s presence leads to a significantly increased error rate in the bit transmission. At the end of a transmission, Alice and Bob compare some of their bits to test whether this rate is above a certain percentage limit or not. If not, Alice announces the encrypted message via a classical communication channel or even publicly.

Up to now, our description applies to any quantum cryptography scheme. If Alice and Bob want to have a scheme to establish a shared secret key, the states $`|n_\pm `$, $`|B_n`$ and $`|C_n`$ only have to fulfill the condition that Bob can, at least in some cases, deduce which bit Alice sent from the knowledge of $`n`$ and the corresponding outcome of his measurement. In BB84, this applies to $`50\%`$ of the photons which then provide one key bit each. Whether Evan can gain any knowledge about the bits in transmission or not does not matter. Alice and Bob only use the key sequence they created if they can verify the absence of any eavesdropping attempts.

To obtain a more efficient scheme, Alice and Bob should maximise the rate of photons they can use to establish a key bit. One can even assure that Bob always knows whether Alice sent a “$`+`$” or a “$``$” bit by using a four dimensional Hilbert space . This is the case, when a photon in $`|n_+`$ cannot cause the same measurement outcome as a photon in $`|n_{}`$. For instance, if $`n=3`$ and Bob found $`|C_2`$ and knows that $`|C_2`$ overlaps with the state $`|3_+`$, but not with $`|3_{}`$, then he obtains a “$`+`$” bit. Thus every one of Bob’s measurements matches with whatever state Alice prepared and the scheme is deterministic.

If Alice and Bob want to communicate directly and confidentially, then there is another condition that has to be fulfilled: Whatever operation Evan performs on the photon state, he should not be able to gain any information about the bit in transmission. Let us assume that Alice uses all state pairs with the same frequency. To find out whether a photon carries a “$`+`$” or a “$``$” bit, Evan has to answer the question whether its state belongs to the subspace spanned by all $`|n_+`$ states or to the subspace spanned by all $`|n_{}`$ states. If

$$\underset{n}{}|n_+n_+|=\underset{n}{}|n_{}n_{}|,$$
(1)
then these two subspaces are completely indistinguishable and the bit in transmission is perfectly concealed in the state space.

3. A concrete scheme for direct communication

In this section we present a concrete scheme for direct communication between Alice and Bob. To do so let us assume that

$$|n_+|B_n\mathrm{and}|n_{}|C_n.$$
(2)
Then the states $`|n_+`$ and $`|n_{}`$, respectively, evenly span the whole Hilbert space and clearly fulfill condition (1). They equal either one or the other measurement basis of Bob. Note that such a coding is different to BB84 and its modifications, where where the states $`|n_+`$ and $`|n_{}`$ always belong to the same set of basis states.

To assure that Bob always knows how to interpret his measurement result there should be no overlap between basis states with the same index $`n`$, i.e.

$$B_n|C_n=0.$$
(3)
If Bob finds the photon, for instance, in $`|B_m`$ with $`mn`$, then he knows immediately that Alice prepared it $`|n_{}`$. The reason is that a photon in $`|n_+`$ cannot cause a “click” at this detector. Otherwise, if $`n`$ coincides with $`m`$, then he knows that he received a “$`+`$” bit. This tells him that he measured the same basis as the one used by Alice to prepare the photon state.

The protocol for direct and confidential communication originating from this ansatz is the following: First, Alice creates a random succession of ciphers $`n`$ that will serve as her cryptographic key. The length of this sequence should coincide with the length of her message. Depending on whether she wants to transmit a “$`+`$” bit or a “$``$” bit next, she prepares the photon either in $`|B_n`$ or in $`|C_n`$ with $`n`$ according to the next number of her key and sends it to Bob. Bob measures at random either the $`B`$ or the $`C`$ basis on each incoming photon. After Alice and Bob assured each other that the transmission was secure (how well this can be done is discussed in the next section), Alice publicly announces her key. In doing so, she reveals the message to Bob.

Up to now, we have not yet answered the question, what the $`B`$ and $`C`$ basis should look like. Let us assume here that Alice and Bob use single photon two-qubit states . Then all states are part of a four-dimensional Hilbert space but our results can also be carried over easily to higher dimensions. Note, that is not possible to find a non-trivial solution to Eqs. (2) and (3) in less than four dimensions, this means a solution for which the states $`|C_n`$ are not just a permutation of the states of the $`B`$ basis.

In the following, we denote the basis transformation that rotates the $`B`$ basis into the $`C`$ basis by $`𝐀`$ and write

$$(|C_1,|C_2,|C_3,|C_4)=(|B_1,|B_2,|B_3,|B_4)𝐀.$$
(4)
Condition (3) is then fulfilled if the unitary $`4\times 4`$ matrix $`𝐀`$ has only vanishing diagonal elements. Besides this, there are no other restrictions on $`𝐀`$ and there are many choices Alice and Bob can make. For symmetry reasons, let us assume that $`𝐀`$ is not only unitary but also Hermitian. Then the inverse of the transformation (4) is also furnished by $`𝐀`$.

It is sufficiently general to consider matrices of the form

$$𝐀=\mathrm{i}\left(\begin{array}{cccc}\hfill 0& \hfill a_1& \hfill a_2& \hfill a_3\\ \hfill a_1& \hfill 0& \hfill a_3& \hfill a_2\\ \hfill a_2& \hfill a_3& \hfill 0& \hfill a_1\\ \hfill a_3& \hfill a_2& \hfill a_1& \hfill 0\end{array}\right)$$
(5)
where the parameters $`a_i`$ are real and fulfill the normalisation constraint

$$a_1^2+a_2^2+a_3^2=1.$$
(6)
Thus, Alice and Bob have two free parameters which they can choose to their liking. Bob’s probabilities to find the incoming photon in a certain state are summarised in Table 1.

In the next two Sections we will see that the fully symmetric choice

$$a_1=a_2=a_3=1/\sqrt{3}$$
(7)
maximises the error rate that a potential eavesdropper introduces in the bit transmission between Alice and Bob. Another solution is to choose

$$a_1=a_2=1/\sqrt{2}\mathrm{and}a_3=0.$$
(8)
In this case, the experimental implementation of the corresponding scheme is particularly simple, see in Section 5 below. To prepare a photon in one of the states of the $`B`$ and the $`C`$ basis does not require to produce entanglement between the two degrees of freedom, the spatial coordinates and the polarisation, of the photon. Nevertheless, the error rate introduced by an eavesdropper is still relatively large.

Finally, we would like to convince ourselves that whatever the parameters $`a_i`$ are, it is indeed impossible for Evan to gain any information without the knowledge of Alice’s key. The reason is that the states $`|n_+`$ (and $`|n_{}`$, respectively) equally span the whole Hilbert space. As long as Alice chooses equally likely between the four possible values of $`n`$, she prepares the ensemble of photons with a “$`+`$” bit in the mixed state that is given by the (normalised) identity matrix. The same applies to the ensemble of photons that carry a “$``$” bit. Thus whatever Evan measures, the probability to find the photon in a certain state always equals $`\frac{1}{4}`$ and finding a certain state does not reveal any information to Evan.

4. Security against intercept-resend attacks

The security of the scheme we present here results from the fact that Alice does not reveal her key before she is not convinced that no eavesdropper has been listening in. To test whether this is the case or not, Alice and Bob proceed as follows: Alice intersperses her message with a fair number of control bits at random positions and of random values. Only Alice knows which ones are the control bits and which ones the message bits. After the transmission of all photons, she tells Bob which photons carried control bits and he tells her in which state he found them. If Alice verifies that Bob’s findings are consistent with what she sent, then they conclude that the transmission was secure. Otherwise, if the error rate is above a certain percentage level, they should not trust in the security of their communication and Alice should repeat her transmission using a different cryptographic key.

Let us now imagine that Evan is listening in and determine the minimum error rate he causes in case of the setup described in the previous section. By doing so we do not care whether Evan can gain any information in this way or not, once Alice reveals her key. Let us assume, as usual, that Evan intercepts every photon and performs a measurement on it. Afterwards he forwards a replacement to Bob accordingly, namely in the two-qubit state that has the best chance of avoiding wrong detector clicks at Bobs end.

In the following we denote the states of Evan’s measurement basis by $`|E_k`$. As explained at the end of the previous section, the probability to find the photon in a certain state always equals $`\frac{1}{4}`$ and Evan cannot gain any information from his measurement. For simplicity we consider only the strategy in which Evan forwards the photon in exactly the same state he found it in. In this way he forwards it at least in a state that has some overlap with the state prepared by Alice. More general strategies in which Evan optimises the forwarded state can be analysed as well, but that is technically more demanding, and we are here content with referring the reader to the detailed discussion in .

The probability that Alice prepares her photon in $`|n_+`$ equals $`\frac{1}{8}`$ and the probability that Bob measures the $`B`$ basis is given by $`\frac{1}{2}`$. In this case, an error occurs if Bob finds the photon in $`|B_m`$ with $`nm`$. The contribution of this case to the total error probability is given by

$$\frac{1}{8}\frac{1}{2}\underset{k}{}|E_k|n_+|^2\underset{mn}{}|E_k|B_m|^2=\frac{1}{16}\left[\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}1}\underset{k}{}|E_k|B_n|^4\right]$$
(9)
because the probability that Evan measures $`|E_k`$ is in this case $`|E_k|n_+|^2`$ whilst $`|E_k|B_m|^2`$ is the probability that Bob finds the photon afterwards in $`|B_m`$. Analogously, one finds that the contribution to the error rate is given by

$$\frac{1}{16}\underset{k}{}|E_k|n_+|^2|E_k|n_{}|^2=\frac{1}{16}\underset{k}{}|E_k|B_n|^2|E_k|C_n|^2,$$
(10)
if Bob measures the $`C`$ basis instead of the $`B`$ basis. In this case an error occurs only if Bob finds the photon in $`|n_{}`$. Calculating the contributions to the total error rate when Alice prepares the photon in the state $`|n_{}`$ leads to the same result but with $`|B_n`$ replaced by $`|C_n`$ and vice versa.

To calculate the total error rate $`P_{\mathrm{error}}`$ one has to sum over all contributions and all possible values of $`n`$. Doing so leads to

$`P_{\mathrm{error}}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{n}{}}\left[\frac{1}{8}\frac{1}{16}{\displaystyle \underset{k}{}}\left(|E_k|B_n|^4+|E_k|C_n|^4+2|E_k|B_n|^2|E_k|C_n|^2\right)\right]`$ (11)
$`=`$ $`\frac{1}{2}\frac{1}{16}{\displaystyle \underset{n}{}}{\displaystyle \underset{k}{}}\left(|E_k|B_n|^2|E_k|C_n|^2\right)^2.`$
Evan’s task of minimising the error rate so reduces to the task of minimising this expression. Using the notation

$$|E_k=\underset{m}{}e_m|m_+$$
(12)
and Eqs. (2)–(5) we find that

$$P_{\mathrm{error}}\frac{1}{2}\frac{1}{16}\underset{n}{}\left(\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}1}+a_1^4+a_2^4+a_3^4\right)\underset{m}{}|e_m|^4$$
(13)
by neglecting all negative terms in the round brackets at the right hand side of Eq. (11), that is: the terms that stem from Eq. (10). The state $`|E_k`$ is normalised and its coefficients $`e_m`$ obey the inequality $`_m|e_m|^4_m|e_m|^2=1`$. This leads to the result

$$P_{\mathrm{error}}\frac{1}{4}\left(\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}1}a_1^4a_2^4a_3^4\right).$$
(14)
For the optimal scheme corresponding to the parameters given in Eq. (7) the right hand side of this equation is $`\frac{1}{6}=16.67\%`$. For the scheme (8), the error rate introduced by Evan in the bit transmission is always above $`\frac{1}{8}=12.5\%`$.

As it stands, this calculation applies only to strategies where Evan forwards the photon in the detected state, but not to those where the forwarded states are optimised for minimal error rates. It turns out, however, that these more sophisticated strategies do not yield error rates below these $`16.67\%`$ or $`12.5\%`$, respectively. This is confirmed by the numerical data presented in Figure 1 which reports error rates for random choices of Evan’s measurement basis and forwarded states. The data demonstrate that the right hand side of Eq. (14) is indeed the lower bound of the error rate.

To derive Eq. (14) we neglected only terms proportional $`|e_k|^2|e_j|^2`$ with $`kj`$. An optimal strategy for Evan is therefore, for instance, to measure the $`B`$ basis, i.e. to measure whether the incoming photon is in one of the states $`|n_+`$. This strategy also optimises eavesdropping with respect to maximising the information gain of Evan as soon as he gets to know the key. If Alice and Bob fail to notice his presence, he can intercept the whole transmitted message.

5. Proposal for an experimental realisation

We have seen in the previous section that the error rate introduced by an eavesdropper is always above $`16.67\%`$ for the optimal choice of the parameters (7). This is not much larger than the minimum error rate of $`12.5\%`$ which was found for the parameter choice of Eq. (8). In this section we discuss how the second scheme could be realised experimentally because its implementation is much simpler, although implementing the optimal scheme is also possible with the methods of . To achieve the same degree of security in the second scheme, Alice and Bob must use about $`40\%`$ more control bits.

Let us assume now that the vectors of the $`B`$ basis are given by

$$(|B_1,|B_2,|B_3,|B_4)=(|\mathrm{𝖱𝗏},|\mathrm{𝖫𝗏},|\mathrm{𝖫𝗁},|\mathrm{𝖱𝗁}).$$
(15)
Then the states of the $`C`$ basis equal

$$(|C_1,|C_2,|C_3,|C_4)=\mathrm{i}(|\mathrm{𝖫𝗌},|\mathrm{𝖱𝗌},|\mathrm{𝖱𝖺},|\mathrm{𝖫𝖺}),$$
(16)
where

$$|𝗌\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}\left(|𝗏+|𝗁\right)\mathrm{and}|𝖺\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}\left(|𝗏|𝗁\right)$$
(17)
are the symmetric and the antisymmetric superposition of the basic polarisation states. Thus, the $`C`$ basis differs from the states of the $`B`$ basis only with respect to the possible polarisations of the photons. The phase factors $`\pm \mathrm{i}`$ in Eq. (16) are a consequence of the conventions adopted at (5) and (8) and could as well be omitted. To prepare the states $`|n\pm `$, Alice could use any source that produces single photons on demand. For examples of experimental realisations of such sources see for instance Refs. .

If Alice wants to send a “$`+`$” bit to Bob, then she should prepare the photon at random in one of the four states on the right hand side of Eq. (15). To do so she chooses equally likely between the polarisations $`|𝗁`$ and $`|𝗏`$ and sends the photon either through a “left” or a “right” fiber. To send a “$``$” bit, Alice can proceed in the same way but should then change the polarisation of the outgoing photon before sending it to Bob. This can be done, for instance with the help of a half-way plate (HWP) that affects the polarisation of a photon such that $`|𝗌`$ changes into $`|𝗏`$ and $`|𝖺`$ changes into $`|𝗁`$, or vice versa. For practical realisations, electrically controllable Pockels-cells should be used.

A possible experimental setup for the transmission of “$``$” bits is sketched in Figure 2. To deflect vertically polarised photons to one detector and horizontally polarised photons to another detector, Bob uses polarising beam splitters (PBS) whilst he changes the polarisation of a photon, like Alice, with the help of a HWP. In which state Bob finds a photon in case of a “click” is indicated in Figure 2 by the two letters written next to the corresponding detector. At Bob’s end, a beam splitter (BS) reroutes the photon either to a measurement of the $`B`$ or the $`C`$ basis.

Instead of using a “left” and a “right” fiber and two polarisation degrees of freedom, Alice and Bob could also utilise other parameters to create single photon two-qubit states. The two fibers can, for instance, be replaced by one fiber and Alice and Bob agree for each photon about two small time windows around a time $`t_𝖫`$ and a time $`t_𝖱`$. If Alice sends the photon around $`t_𝖫`$ it means that she prepared it in the state $`|𝖫`$, otherwise, if she sends the photon around $`t_𝖱`$, she prepared it in $`|𝖱`$. Alternatively, two degrees of freedom could also be obtained by exploiting different photon frequencies.

The scheme shown in Figure 2 looks as if it were a combination of two BB84 schemes. But in fact it is not. The scheme is more efficient than what one would get by just combining two BB84 schemes naively. The reason is that the results are interpreted in a completely different way (see Section 3 and Table 1). In contrast to BB84, each and every photon sent by Alice transmits one bit and the scheme is therefore deterministic. In addition, the bit in transmission is concealed in such a way that an eavesdropper cannot gain any information by performing measurements on the photon state (which cannot be achieved in BB84), and Alice and Bob can communicate directly and confidentially.

6. Conclusions

In summary, we discussed a new scheme for direct and confidential communication between Alice and Bob in detail. While both parties exchange single bits (carried by photons) as in any other quantum cryptography scheme, the purpose of the bit transmission is completely different. Instead of establishing a shared secret key, which can be used later to encrypt a message, Alice can send her message directly. What requirements such schemes have to meet in general has been discussed in Section 1.

To encrypt her message, Alice creates a random sequence of ciphers – the cryptographic key. To transmit a “$`+`$” bit she prepares the photon in the state $`|n_+`$, to transmit a “$``$” bit she prepares it in $`|n_{}`$, whereat $`n`$ always coincides with the next cipher of her key. After Alice and Bob verified that no eavesdropper was listening in, Alice can publicise her key without hesitation. She knows that Bob will be the only one who can decode her message, because he is the only one who received it. In this sense, the scheme realises quantum cryptography with a publicly known key.

In Section 2 and 3 we presented a concrete protocol based on single-photon two-qubit states and discussed its security against intercept-resent eavesdropping strategies. As in other schemes, security arises from the fact that the presence of an eavesdropper leads to a significantly increased error rate in the bit transmission. This rate can be determined by comparing some control bits with which Alice had interspersed the message before. Only when the measurement outcomes of Bob’s side match with the states in which Alice prepared the control qubits, both parties should trust in the security of their communication and Alice can announce her cryptographic key.

By choosing the parameters that characterise the scheme suitably, Alice and Bob can assure that the error rate Evan introduces in the bit transmission is always above $`16.67\%`$. Nevertheless, in Section 5 we discussed possibilities for the experimental realisation of another scheme, one in which the error rate can be as low as $`12.5\%`$. The advantage of this scheme is that its implementation is much simpler, although implementing the optimal scheme is possible too.

Acknowledgment. B.-G. E. thanks Yakir Aharonov and Lev Vaidman for illuminating discussions and wishes to express his gratitude for the hospitable environment provided by Gerald Badurek and Helmut Rauch at the Atominstitut in Vienna, where part of this work was done. A. B. and B.-G. E. are grateful for the kind hospitality extended to them at the Erwin-Schrödinger-Institut in Vienna. Ch. K. and H. W. acknowledge support by project QuCommm (IST-1999-10033) of the European Union.

ERRATUM

A. Beige, B.-G. Englert, Ch. Kurtsiefer and H. Weinfurter, Secure Communication with a Publicly Known Key, Acta Phys. Pol. A 101, 357 (2002).

The particular communication scheme that is specified by the parameter choice of Eqs. (8) and described in Fig. 2 is not secure. It falls prey to an eavesdropping attack in which a quantum nondemolition (QND) measurement is performed that distinguishes $`𝖫`$ from $`𝖱`$. An intermediate measurement of this kind does not produce error’s at Bob’s end and would, therefore, not be noticed. But it gives Evan just enough information to infer correctly the value of every bit after Alice publishes her key sequence.

The main conclusions of the paper are not affected by this flaw. The generic communication scheme, in which all three $`a_i`$ parameters of Eq. (5) are nonzero, *is* secure, because there are no nontrivial QND measurements unless one of the $`a_i`$’s vanishes. Any attempt by Evan to acquire the value of every bit sent will unavoidably give rise to errors, with the total error rate correctly stated in Eq. (14).

We are greatly indebted to Daniel Collins for detecting the flaw and telling us about it.


text:
# 1 Introduction

## 1 Introduction

Recently, the old idea of color superconductivity  has been given a new life , after the discovery that QCD at high density and low temperature can undergo a phase transition to a color super-conducting state characterized, for three light quarks, by Color Flavor Locking: CFL (for recent reviews see ). In this talk I wish to examine a different phase of QCD also present at low temperature and high baryonic chemical potential ; for two flavors this phase is characterized by isospin breaking and the emergence of a crystalline pattern of the diquark condensate. In a recent paper  it has been shown that in this phase there exists a quasi particle (phonon) associated to spontaneous breaking of rotational and translational invariance. Its properties can be studied by an effective lagrangian approach , , ; they will be reviewed here together with a short discussion on possible astrophysical implications.

## 2 Crystalline colour superconductive phase

In any possible application of the color superconductivity, for instance in the inner core of neutron stars, flavor symmetry is likely to be broken not only explicitly by quark mass terms, but also by weak interactions. For example in compact stars, considering only two flavors, isospin is broken by $`\delta \mu =\mu _u\mu _d0`$, due to the process:

$$due\nu .$$
(1)
When the two quarks in the Cooper pair have different chemical potentials, the vacuum is characterized, for certain values of $`\delta \mu `$, by a non vanishing expectation value of a quark bilinear breaking translational and rotational invariance. The appearance of this condensate is a consequence of the fact that in a given range of $`\delta \mu `$ , the formation of a Cooper pair with a total momentum

$$\stackrel{}{p}_1+\stackrel{}{p}_2=\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2}\stackrel{}{q}\stackrel{}{0}$$
(2)
is energetically favored. A similar phenomenon was already observed many years ago in the context of the BCS theory for superconducting materials in presence of magnetic impurities by Larkin, Ovchinnikov, Fulde and Ferrel and the corresponding phase is named LOFF state .

The exact form of the order parameter (diquark condensate) breaking space-time symmetries in the crystalline phase is not yet known. In  the following ansatz is made:

$$\mathrm{\Delta }(\stackrel{}{x})=\mathrm{\Delta }e^{i2\stackrel{}{q}\stackrel{}{x}}=\mathrm{\Delta }e^{i2q\stackrel{}{n}\stackrel{}{x}}.$$
(3)
The value of $`|\stackrel{}{q}|`$ is fixed by the dynamics, while its direction $`\stackrel{}{n}`$ is spontaneously chosen. In the sequel I will assume the ansatz (3) as well. The order parameter (3) induces a lattice structure given by parallel planes perpendicular to $`\stackrel{}{n}`$:

$$\stackrel{}{n}\stackrel{}{x}=\frac{\pi k}{q}(k=0,\pm 1,\pm 2,\mathrm{}).$$
(4)
We can give the following physical picture of the lattice structure of the LOFF phase: Due to the interaction with the medium, the Majorana masses of the red and green up and down quarks have a periodic modulation in space, reaching on subsequent planes maxima and minima. For the Cooper pair to be formed one needs a color attractive channel, which is the antisymmetric channel; therefore it must be in antisymmetric flavor state if it is in antisymmetric spin state ($`S=0`$). The condensate has therefore the form

$$<0|ϵ_{ij}ϵ_{\alpha \beta 3}\psi ^{i\alpha }(\stackrel{}{x})C\psi ^{j\beta }(\stackrel{}{x})|0>=2\mathrm{\Gamma }_A^Le^{2i\stackrel{}{q}\stackrel{}{x}}.$$
(5)
The analysis of  shows that, besides the condensate (5) (scalar condensate), another different condensate is possible, i.e. one characterized by total spin 1 (vector condensate) and by a symmetric flavor state:

$$i<0|\sigma _{ij}^1ϵ_{\alpha \beta 3}\psi ^{i\alpha }(\stackrel{}{r})C\sigma ^{03}\psi ^{j\beta }(\stackrel{}{x})|0>=2\mathrm{\Gamma }_B^Le^{2i\stackrel{}{q}\stackrel{}{x}}.$$
(6)
Note that in the BCS state the quarks forming the Cooper pair have necessarily $`S=0`$.

It goes without saying that the hypotheses of  are rather restrictive, as these authors assume only two flavors and make the ansatz of a plane wave behavior, Eq. (3). In any event their results are as follows. Assuming a pointlike interaction as the origin of the Fermi surface instability, the LOFF state is energetically favored in a small range of values of $`\delta \mu `$ around $`\delta \mu 0.7\mathrm{\Delta }`$. The actual value of the window range compatible with the presence of the LOFF state depends on the calculation by which the crystalline color state is computed. While the small interval is based on a local interaction, assuming gluon exchange, as in , the window opens up considerably.

The order parameters (5) and (6) spontaneously break rotational and translational symmetries. Associated with this breaking there will be Nambu Goldstone Bosons (NGB) as in a crystal; these quasi-particles are known as phonons. Let us discuss them in some detail.

## 3 Phonons in the LOFF phase

For a generic lattice structure it is known that there are three phonons associated to the breaking of space symmetries. However one can show  that in order to describe the spontaneous breaking of space symmetries induced by the condensates (5) and (6) one NGB is sufficient. The argument (see Fig. 1) is as follows: Rotations and translations are not independent transformations, because the result of a translation plus a rotation, at least locally, can be made equivalent to a pure translation.

The NGB is a long wavelength small amplitude variation of the condensate $`\mathrm{\Delta }(\stackrel{}{x})\mathrm{\Delta }(\stackrel{}{x})e^{i\varphi /f}`$, with

$$\varphi /f=\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2}q(\stackrel{}{n}+\delta \stackrel{}{n})(\stackrel{}{x}+\delta \stackrel{}{x})2q\stackrel{}{n}\stackrel{}{x}=\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2}q\stackrel{}{R}\stackrel{}{x}+T2q\stackrel{}{n}\stackrel{}{x},$$
(7)
where we have introduced the auxiliary function $`T`$, given by $`T=\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2}q\stackrel{}{R}\delta \stackrel{}{x}`$.

Now the lattice fluctuations $`\varphi /f`$ must be small; from this it follows that $`T`$ and $`\stackrel{}{R}`$ are not independent fields and therefore $`T`$ must depend functionally on $`\stackrel{}{R}`$, i.e. $`T=F[\stackrel{}{R}]`$, which, using again (7), means that

$$\mathrm{\Phi }2q\stackrel{}{n}\stackrel{}{x}+\varphi /f=2q\stackrel{}{R}\stackrel{}{x}+F[\stackrel{}{R}]G[\stackrel{}{R},\stackrel{}{x}].$$
(8)
The solution of this functional relation has the form

$$\stackrel{}{R}=\stackrel{}{h}[\mathrm{\Phi }]$$
(9)
where $`\stackrel{}{h}`$ is a vector built out of the scalar function $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$. By this function one can only111In principle there is a second vector, $`\stackrel{}{x}`$, on which $`\stackrel{}{R}`$ could depend linearly, but this possibility is excluded because $`\stackrel{}{R}`$ is a vector field transforming under translations as $`\stackrel{}{R}(\stackrel{}{x})\stackrel{}{R}^{}(\stackrel{}{x}^{})=\stackrel{}{R}(\stackrel{}{x})`$. form the vector $`\stackrel{}{}\mathrm{\Phi }`$ ; therefore we get

$$\stackrel{}{R}=\frac{\stackrel{}{}\mathrm{\Phi }}{|\stackrel{}{}\mathrm{\Phi }|},$$
(10)
which satisfies $`|\stackrel{}{R}|=1`$ and $`<\stackrel{}{R}>_0=\stackrel{}{n}`$. In terms of the phonon field $`\varphi `$ the field $`\stackrel{}{R}`$ is given at the first order in $`\varphi `$ by the expression

$$\stackrel{}{R}=\stackrel{}{n}+\frac{1}{2fq}\left[\stackrel{}{}\varphi \stackrel{}{n}(\stackrel{}{n}\stackrel{}{}\varphi )\right].$$
(11)
The interaction term between the NGB and the quarks is contained in

$$_{int}=\frac{1}{2}e^{i\mathrm{\Phi }}\underset{\stackrel{}{v}}{}\left[\mathrm{\Delta }^{(s)}ϵ_{ij}+\mathrm{\Delta }^{(v)}(\stackrel{}{v}\stackrel{}{R})\sigma _{ij}^1\right]ϵ^{\alpha \beta 3}\psi _{i,\alpha ,\stackrel{}{v}}C\psi _{j,\beta ,\stackrel{}{v}}+h.c.(LR);$$
(12)
from this lagrangian, following the same bosonization procedure of , one can obtain the effective lagrangian for the massless scalar field $`\varphi `$  and derive its dispersion law. It is worth observing that the fields $`\psi _{j,\beta ,\pm \stackrel{}{v}}`$ in (12) are velocity dependent fields; they are computed at opposite velocities, as off-diagonal terms in the average over velocities cancel out.

## 4 Glitches and the LOFF phase

The pulsars are rapidly rotating stellar objects, characterized by the presence of strong magnetic fieds and by an almost continuous conversion of rotational energy into electromagnetic radiation. The rotaton periods can vary in the range $`10^3`$ sec up to a few seconds; these periods increase slowly and never decrease except for occasional glitches, when the variation of frequency can be $`\delta \mathrm{\Omega }/\mathrm{\Omega }10^6`$ or smaller.

Glitches are a typical phenomenon of the pulsars, in the sense that probably all the pulsar have glitches. The ordinary explanation of the glitches is based on the idea that these sudden jumps of the rotational frequency are due to the movements outwards of rotational vortices in the neutron superfluid and their interaction with the crust. This is one of the main reasons that allow the identification of pulsars with neutron stars, as only neutron stars are supposed to have a metallic crust. A schematic diagram of glitches is shown in Fig. 2

The interesting aspect of the LOFF phase discussed in this talk is that even in quark stars, provided one is in a color superconductivity phase, one can have a crystal structure given by a lattice characterized by a geometric array where the gap parameter varies periodically. Therefore also these stars might have glitches and the possibility arises that some of the pulsars are indeed quark stars . In a more conservative vein one can also imagine that the LOFF phase be realized in the inner core of neutron star; in this case the crystalline color superconductivity could be partly responsible for the glitches of the pulsar. A detailed analysis of this scenario is however premature as one should first complete the study of the LOFF phase in two directions, first by including the strange quark and, second, by sorting out the exact form of the color lattice.

I am grateful to R. Casalbuoni, R. Gatto, M. Mannarelli for their precious collaboration in the work on which this contribution is based and to I. Bombaci and K. Rajagopal for enlightening discussions on the subject of my talk.

Discussion

J. Madsen (University of Aarhus): How would you visualize the LOFF phase? I.e.: What are the ”ions” in the crystal and how are they organized?

Nardulli: In the LOFF phase the condensate varies periodically in space with minima and maxima. Maxima are places where the condensate is bigger and therefore the fermions have the largest Majorana mass. The lattice of ”ions” could be visualized as parallel planes where the Cooper pairs are more tightly bounded.

D. K. Hong (Pusan National University): When you derived the effective theory of the LOFF phase, you used the same Fermi velocity for up and down quarks. But it would be much easier to analyze the effective theory using different Fermi velocities that satisfy the constraint $`\mu _u\stackrel{}{v}_u+\mu _d\stackrel{}{v}_d=2\stackrel{}{q}`$.

Nardulli: The use of one velocity has the advantage of a Fermi velocity superselection rule, which reduces the complexity of the loop integrals. It arises because in the $`\mu \mathrm{}`$ limit the rapid oscillations of the exponential factor in the lagrangian cancel all the contributions except those satisfying $`\stackrel{}{v}_u+\stackrel{}{v}_d=0`$.


text:
# Objective-Prism Emission-Line Searches for Active Galactic Nuclei

## 1. Introduction

Objective-prism surveys revolutionized our knowledge of active galactic nuclei (AGNs) in the local universe. In particular, many of the known nearby Seyfert galaxies were discovered by Markarian in the First Byurakan Survey (FBS; see Khachikian this volume.) Galaxies were selected for inclusion in the FBS based on the presence of a UV excess. This selection criterion is biased against the discovery of more heavily reddened AGN such as Seyfert 2’s and LINER galaxies. A number of line-selected surveys have been carried out over the past 20 years in order to select well-defined samples of local AGNs. In this paper, we review existing line-selected surveys for local AGNs carried out using objective-prism techniques (see Stepanian, this volume, for a discussion of the UV+line selected Second Byurakan Survey). We then present a discussion of a new, modern digital objective-prism survey for emission-line galaxies (ELGs), the KPNO International Spectroscopic Survey (KISS). KISS probes several magnitudes deeper than existing surveys, and due to its selection via H$`\alpha `$ emission, is less biased against Seyfert 2 and LINER galaxies than previous surveys. KISS provides one of the best, well-defined samples of local AGNs for comparison to higher redshift studies.

## 2. Previous Line-Selected Surveys

The use of line-selected objective-prism surveys to detect active and star-forming galaxies in the local universe has a long and fruitful history (e.g., Smith 1975; Smith et al. 1976). The University of Michigan (UM) survey (MacAlpine et al. 1977; MacAlpine & Lewis 1981) selected objects via their \[OIII\]$`\lambda 5007`$ emission line. 349 ELGs were detected in 667 sq. degrees. This is a number density of 0.52 per square degree. In Lists 4 & 5 of the UM survey (for which complete follow-up spectroscopy is available from Salzer et al. 1989) 166 ELGs are found in 325 sq. degrees. Approximately 10% of the ELGs detected in the UM survey are AGNs: 9 Seyfert 1’s and 7 Seyfert 2’s. Wasilewski (1983) also utilized the \[OIII\]-line as his selection criterion and found 96 ELGs in 825 sq. degrees, or 0.18 per square degree. Wasilewski found that 8% are AGNs with 1 Seyfert 1 and 7 Seyfert 2 galaxies being detected. The Case survey (Pesch & Sanduleak 1983; Stephenson et al. 1992) used two selection criteria, both UV-excess and \[OIII\]-line emission and cataloged 1440 ELGs in 1551 sq. degrees or 0.94 per sq. degree. Salzer et al. (1995) obtained follow-up spectroscopy for a complete subsample of 176 of the Case galaxies and found that only 6% are AGNs: 2 Seyfert 1’s, 7 Seyfert 2’s, and 2 LINERs. Most recently the Universidad Complutense de Madrid (UCM; Zamaraono et al. 1994, 1996) survey utilized selection via H$`\alpha `$-emission to discover 263 ELGs in 471 sq. degrees or 0.56 per square degree. Follow-up spectroscopy by Gallego et al. (1997) found that 14 (or 5%) of these are AGNs, including 5 Seyfert 1’s and 9 Seyfert 2’s. The completeness limits of all of the above surveys range from $`B=15`$ to 17.

Most of the previous line-selected surveys discussed above have been done in the blue (selecting via \[OIII\]$`\lambda 5007`$ emission) and all used photographic plates. There are a number of biases introduced by these methods. First, selection in the blue limits the sensitivity of the surveys to more heavily reddened Seyfert 2’s and low-ionization LINER galaxies. Second, because the standard IIIa-J emulsions used in most photographic surveys cut off at $`5350`$ Å, the redshift depth of these surveys is limited to $`z0.065`$. A modern, digital survey using CCDs to substantially improve survey depth (to fainter magnitudes and higher redshifts) plus selecting via a redder line (H$`\alpha `$) would greatly reduce these biases. Such a survey is now available, the KPNO International Spectroscopic Survey (KISS).

## 3. The KPNO International Spectroscopic Survey

The KPNO International Spectroscopic Survey (KISS) was initiated in 1994 as a collaborative effort between astronomers from Russia, Ukraine, and the US who shared a common interest in the study of galaxian activity. The survey was envisioned as being the “next generation Markarian survey” for active and star-forming galaxies. By combining the traditional objective-prism survey method for emission line detection with modern detector technology and computer-based analysis, KISS is able to discover Seyfert Galaxies (Sy 1/Sy 2), LINER’s, Starburst Nucleus Galaxies (SBNs), HII Galaxies, and Blue Compact Dwarfs (BCDs) at least 2 magnitudes fainter than previous work. The survey is thus a unique resource for probing the nature of star-forming and active galaxies in the nearby universe. A full description of the survey can be found in Salzer et al. (2000, 2001).

The KISS survey is conducted with CCD detectors on the 24-inch Burrell Schmidt on Kitt Peak. For the first survey strip, a 20482 CCD was used, which afforded a field-of-view of 70 arcmin (1.18) square, with a scale of 2.03 arcsec/pixel. This one-degree-wide strip was chosen to coincide with the Century Redshift survey (Geller et al. 1997) covering a strip at a constant declination of 29 from RA = 12h 15m to 17h which encompasses an area of 62 deg2. The second survey strip goes through the Boötes void at a constant declination of 43 from RA = 12h to 16h 15m covering an area of 66 deg 2. For the second strip a $`2048\times 4096`$ CCD with 1.45 arcsec/pixel resolution was used. The KISS survey data consists of broadband $`B`$ and $`V`$ images (for astrometric and photometric calibration), and spectral (objective prism) data. The spectra were taken in the red (using a blocking filter to restrict the wavelength range to 6400-7200 Å) to detect H$`\alpha `$ emission. One of the important features of the KISS project is its objective criteria: the search and measurement process is carried out entirely by computer. A complete package of IRAF scripts and executables analyzes every source in the field (typically 5000 – 7000 objects) automatically; the output of these routines is a catalog of photometric and astrometric data, and an extracted spectrum for every object in the field. In addition, a list of ELG candidates is produced.

Our survey technique has proven to be quite successful. In our first red spectral strip we have cataloged 1128 ELG candidates. This is about 18.1 per square degree. In the second survey strip, we have detected 1030 ELG candidates or 15.6 per square degree. For comparison, the entire Markarian survey cataloged 1500 UV-excess galaxies (0.1 galaxy per square degree), and had a completeness limit of mB = 15.2 (Mazzarella & Balzano 1986), while the deeper UM (median mB = 16.9; MacAlpine et al. 1977) and UCM (median mB=16.5; Zamarano et al. 1994) surveys both detected only 0.5 ELGs per square degree.

### 3.1. Spectroscopic Follow-up

We have obtained follow-up spectroscopy for 725 of 1128 ELG candidates selected via H$`\alpha `$ emission from the first survey strip using the WIYN 3.5-m, the KPNO 2.1-m, the MDM 2.4-m, the APO 3.5-m, and the Lick 3-m telescopes as well as the Hobby Eberly Telescope. These spectra provide redshifts, H$`\alpha `$ equivalent widths, and line fluxes for various important emission lines including H$`\beta `$, \[O III\]$`\lambda \lambda `$4959,5007, HeI$`\lambda `$5876, \[O I\]$`\lambda `$6300, H$`\alpha `$, \[N II\]$`\lambda \lambda `$6548,6583, and \[S II\]$`\lambda \lambda `$6717,6731. Measurements of the Balmer decrement allow us to directly measure the extinction ($`A_V`$) for each of these galaxies. The follow-up spectra also allow us to identify AGNs in our sample: Seyfert 1s are identified via their broad permitted emission lines, while Seyfert 2’s and LINERs are distinguished primarily via the \[OIII\]/H$`\beta `$ line ratio with LINERs having \[OIII\]/H$`\beta `$ $`<`$ 3 (e.g., Veilleux & Osterbrock 1987). Representative spectra of AGN in the KISS sample are shown in Figures 1 & 2.

We find that 91% (663) of the KISS candidate ELGs are confirmed emission-lines galaxies. About 11% of the galaxies are active galactic nuclei with 67 (10 Seyfert 1’s, 19 Seyfert 2’s, and 38 LINER galaxies) detected via H$`\alpha `$ with redshifts less than 0.095, and an additional 10 (1 Seyfert 1, 5 Seyfert 2’s and 4 QSO’s) detected at higher redshifts where another line has redshifted into our filter. A line diagnostic diagram plotting the logarithm of \[O III\]$`\lambda `$5007/H$`\beta `$ against the logarithm of \[N II\]$`\lambda `$6583/H$`\alpha `$ is shown in Figure 3. The solid line represents the HII sequence with low metallicity, high-ionization ELGs in the upper left and high metallicity, low-ionization objects in the lower right part of the sequence. The star-forming ELGs follow the HII sequence allowing us to classify them from BCDs in the upper left to starburst nuclei in the lower right. AGNs are clearly separated from star-forming galaxies. We find many more high metallicity, low-ionization objects than found with traditional \[O III\]$`\lambda `$5007-selected surveys. The data make it clear that H$`\alpha `$-selected surveys are much more effective at detecting the full range of ionization and metallicity present in star-forming galaxies than \[O III\] or \[O II\] observations.

### 3.2. Properties of KISS AGN

We will concentrate here on the 67 H$`\alpha `$-selected AGN which constitute a well-defined local sample of AGN. Note that because our survey has a sharp upper-wavelength cutoff due to the blocking filter used, the sample is volume-limited for the more luminous objects and all but 8 of the AGNs fall in this category. Figure 4 shows the integrated absolute magnitude distributions of the AGNs in the local KISS sample. KISS detects AGNs with $`M_B`$ ranging from -21.8 to -18 (assuming $`H_0=75`$ km s-1 Mpc-1). The Seyfert 1, Seyfert 2, and LINER luminosity distributions look similar. Figure 5 shows the $`BV`$ color distributions of the KISS AGNs. As expected, Seyfert 2 and LINER distributions are significantly redder (median $`BV`$ = 0.92 and 0.93 respectively) than the Seyfert 1 color distribution (median $`BV=0.70`$). Because of their redder colors, an H$`\alpha `$-selected survey is much more sensitive to Seyfert 2’s and LINERs than a blue (e.g., UV excess or \[OIII\]-selected) survey. This is borne out by comparing the 2:1 LINER/Sy 2 ratio in the KISS survey to the complete lack of LINERs discovered in the \[OIII\]-selected surveys discussed in Section 2.

We have also calculated the $`B`$-band luminosity function for the Seyfert galaxies in our sample. Because our direct images lack the angular resolution required to resolve the nucleus, this is an integrated luminosity function. However, it is directly comparable to the integrated local Seyfert luminosity function of Huchra & Burg (1992). Figure 6 shows the blue luminosity function for both the KISS sample and that of Huchra & Burg. The two LFs are consistent, with the KISS LF extending to fainter luminosities. Note that for this calculation we have not accounted for the possibility that there are AGNs in the fraction of our sample for which we have no follow-up spectra. Because we have preferentially obtained spectra for the more luminous galaxies in our sample, we expect that such a correction would be small, but it could increase our volume densities slightly. Further discussion of the LF and its implications for AGN evolution when compared to other local and higher redshift AGN LFs will be discussed in a future paper (Sarajedini, Gronwall & Salzer 2002).

### 3.3. Multiwavelength Properties

We have also cross-correlated our H$`\alpha `$-selected sample of ELGs from both our first and second survey strips with surveys done in the x-ray, radio, and the far-infrared. A comparison of the KISS sample with the ROSAT All-sky Survey (Voges et al. 1999) finds that 17 of the 2158 KISS ELGs are detected by ROSAT. These are all AGNs: 13 Sy 1’s, 2 Sy 2’s, and 2 LINERs. The x-ray detected AGNs are primarily the most luminous AGNs detected by KISS. A cross-correlation of the KISS sample with the 1.4 GHz FIRST survey (White et al. 1997) done with the VLA reveals that 178 of the 2158 KISS ELGs are detected by FIRST. We have follow-up spectra for all of these sources and find 5 Sy 1’s, 28 Sy 2’s, and 30 LINERs. Similarly, 154 of the 2158 KISS ELGs are found in the IRAS Faint Source Catalog (Moshir et al. 1992) and follow-spectra for these sources have detected 1 Sy 1, 9 Sy 2’s, and 12 LINERs. The KISS ELGs follow the well-known radio-IR correlation discovered by Condon et al. (1991). This correlation is thought to be due to the fact that both the radio and far-IR emission are dominated by star formation. Somewhat surprisingly, we find that the majority of the AGNs in our sample follow the same radio-IR correlation as the star-forming galaxies, implying that the dominant ionizing source in these objects might be young stars, not the active nucleus. We are currently investigating this possiblity. We also plan to use these data to test the validity of IR color diagnostics for AGN activity.

## 4. Summary

The KISS sample represents a substantial step forward in our understanding of the AGN population in the local universe. It is essentially volume-limited and less biased against redder Seyfert 2 and LINER galaxies, and provides a well-defined sample of nearby ($`z<0.1`$) AGN with which to study the statistical properties of AGN. In the first KISS survey strip covering 62 square degrees, 10 Seyfert 1’s, 19 Seyfert 2’s, and 38 LINER’s were discovered. KISS provides an essential database of local AGNs for comparison to higher redshift samples.

#### Acknowledgments.

CG is grateful to the American Astronomical Society and the International Astronomical Union for travel grants which allowed her to participate in this meeting. She would also like to thank the Local Organizing Committee for their wonderful hospitality.

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