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# Landau’s quasi-particle mapping: Fermi liquid approach and Luttinger liquid behavior

## Abstract

A continuous unitary transformation is introduced which realizes Landau’s mapping of the elementary excitations (quasi-particles) of an interacting Fermi liquid system to those of the system without interaction. The conservation of the number of quasi-particles is important. The transformation is performed numerically for a one-dimensional system, i.e. the worst case for a Fermi liquid approach. Yet evidence for Luttinger liquid behavior is found. Such an approach may open a route to a unified description of Fermi and Luttinger liquids on all energy scales.

The behavior of strongly correlated electron systems is a fundamental issue with many intriguing but unresolved questions . Two antithetic concepts for non-symmetry-broken phases govern the discussion: the Fermi liquid (FL)  and the Luttinger liquid (LL) . The FL, well-established in three-dimensional (3D) systems, is based on Landau’s conjecture that the low-lying excitations of interacting fermion systems can be connected continuously to those of the non-interacting Fermi gas: there is a smooth mapping between the quasi-particles of the interacting and of the non-interacting system. The LL, well-established in one dimension (1D), is based on the observation that collective particle-hole excitations exhaust all degrees of freedom. These collective excitations are bosonic and thus completely different from the non-interacting fermionic excitations. In two dimensions (2D) – relevant for the understanding for high-temperature superconductivity  – the situation is marginal  due to the occurrence of logarithmic factors. Here we report a non-perturbative prescription based on quasi-particle conservation to construct Landau’s mapping. Evidence is found that LL behavior is retrieved with our method.

FL theory is most successful as phenomenological theory based on the energy functional

$$E=\underset{k}{}\epsilon (k)\delta n_k+\underset{k,q}{}f(k,q)\delta n_k\delta n_q$$
(1)
where $`k,q`$ are momenta close to the Fermi surface, $`\delta n_k`$ the density of quasi-particles – particles above the Fermi sea, holes below, $`\epsilon (k)`$ the kinetic energy and $`f(k,q)`$ is Landau’s interaction function. We highlight that Eq. 1 implies the conservation of the number of quasi-particles. Microscopic derivations of Eq. 1 are based on perturbation theory . Ordinary electrons or holes are good quasi-particles on the Fermi surface $`k=k_\mathrm{F}`$ due to the restricted scattering phase space. The quasi-particle weight $`0<Z1`$ quantifies to which extent, i.e. to which fraction, real electrons or holes overlap with true quasi-particles. Moreover, the renormalization group (RG) has been used in the last decade to give FL theory a firm basis . Additionally, RG approaches  are recently used to understand the 2D Hubbard models in the context of high-$`T_c`$ superconductivity . All these approaches are conceptually based on diagrammatic perturbation theory in the interaction strength. They do not employ or construct Landau’s mapping except on the Fermi surface. Quasi-particle conservation does not appear.

We use continuous unitary transformations (CUT)  to treat interacting Fermi systems

$`H`$ $`=`$ $`E_0+{\displaystyle \underset{k}{}}\epsilon (k):n_k:+`$ (3)
$`{\displaystyle \underset{K,p,q}{}}\mathrm{\Gamma }(K,p,q):c_{K+p}^{}c_{Kp}^{}c_{Kq}^{}c_{K+q}^{}:`$
where $`::`$ stands for normal ordering (in particular $`:n_k:=\delta n_k`$) and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }(K,p,q)`$ is the vertex function encoding all scattering processes induced by the interaction. We define a CUT which maps the Hamiltonian (3) to an effective one $`H_{\mathrm{eff}}`$ which conserves the total number of quasi-particles $`Q:=_k\mathrm{sign}(|k|k_\mathrm{F}):n_k:`$, i.e. $`[Q,H_{\mathrm{eff}}]=0`$. To this end, the flow parameter $`\mathrm{}`$ is used to denote intermediate Hamiltonians $`H(\mathrm{})`$. Starting point is $`H(\mathrm{}=0)=H`$; end point is $`H(\mathrm{}=\mathrm{})=H_{\mathrm{eff}}`$. The transformation is defined by

$`_{\mathrm{}}H`$ $`=`$ $`[\eta (\mathrm{}),H(\mathrm{})]`$ (5)
$`\eta _{i,j}(\mathrm{})`$ $`=`$ $`\text{sign}(Q_{i,i}Q_{j,j})H_{i,j}(\mathrm{})`$ (6)
where (6) with $`\text{sign}(0)=0`$ defines the infinitesimal generator $`\eta `$. The matrix elements $`\eta _{i,j}`$ and $`H_{i,j}`$ are given in an eigen-basis of $`Q`$. The flow stops for $`[Q,H]=0`$ since then $`\eta =0`$. This represents indeed the fix point at $`\mathrm{}=\mathrm{}`$ as can be shown generally under certain assumptions . The choice (6) eliminates all parts of $`H`$ changing the number of quasi-particles. The block band diagonality in $`H(\mathrm{})`$  is retained which means here that the number of quasi-particles is changed only by $`0,\pm 2,\pm 4`$. Even the 3- or more-particle terms do not change it by $`\pm 6`$ or higher. It is very important that (Landau’s quasi-particle mapping: Fermi liquid approach and Luttinger liquid behavior) is renormalizing since it suppresses matrix elements between states with very different energies more strongly than those between similar energies . Since approximations have to be made to solve (Landau’s quasi-particle mapping: Fermi liquid approach and Luttinger liquid behavior) this renormalizing property is essential in order not to loose important low-energy physics.

Let us assume that we are able to solve Eqs. Landau’s quasi-particle mapping: Fermi liquid approach and Luttinger liquid behavior exactly and that the resulting flow converges. Then the above defined CUT represents Landau’s mapping of quasi-particles. The conservation $`[Q,H_{\mathrm{eff}}]=0`$ allows to describe all excitations by a finite number of quasi-particles. This is one of the crucial points of the present work. The conservation of the number of quasi-particles ensures that terms in $`H_{\mathrm{eff}}`$ consisting of 6, 8, or more fermionic operators become relevant only if three or more quasi-particles are present in the system. The terms made from 2 and 4 fermionic operators constitute the 1-particle and the 2-particle parts of the effective Hamiltonian. They represent the dispersion and the effective interaction (cf. Ref.). The basic idea of FL theory is that at low energies only the 1-particle and the 2-particle parts are relevant even though 3-particle terms are present. Comparing Eq. 1 and Eq. 3 at $`\mathrm{}=\mathrm{}`$ the vertex function at zero momentum transfer ($`p=q`$) can be identified with Landau’s interaction function $`f(Kp,K+p)=\mathrm{\Gamma }(K,p,p)`$. For non-zero momentum transfer $`\mathrm{\Gamma }(K,p,q)`$ can be interpreted as general quasi-particle scattering amplitude. A precise one-to-one correspondence, however, to the quantities known from conventional FL theory  cannot be established since the CUT keeps all interactions local in time so that the vertex function $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ in Eq. 3 has no frequency dependence.

So the CUT defined in Eq. Landau’s quasi-particle mapping: Fermi liquid approach and Luttinger liquid behavior allows to compute Landau’s interaction function $`f`$ directly for a microscopic model. But there is a caveat. Terms comprising six and more fermionic operators do not vanish and they influence the 1- and 2-particle terms for $`0<\mathrm{}<\mathrm{}`$ because the quasi-particle conservation is achieved only at the end of the transformation ($`\mathrm{}=\mathrm{}`$). The restriction to the scattering processes labelled by the vertex function $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ constitutes an approximation. It is related to a 1-loop RG calculation for the interaction vertex or, equivalently, to the summation of the parquet diagrams . Recently, such RG computations are performed by numerous groups  for 2D Hubbard models, for which results by a CUT  exist, too. There are three particularly attractive features of the CUT approach (Landau’s quasi-particle mapping: Fermi liquid approach and Luttinger liquid behavior). First, it is local in the flow parameter $`\mathrm{}`$. Second, there is no need to take a retardation into account, i.e. no frequency dependence occurs because the unitarity of the transformation ensures that all intermediate Hamiltonians stay hermitian. This is a conceptual advantage over the RG procedures used so far since the book-keeping related to another dimension, namely time, is avoided. Third, and most importantly, a CUT keeps states a all energies. No information is lost. This major conceptual advancement makes it possible to address also non-universal behavior like the full frequency dependence of spectral densities .

In order to back up the above general results we performed a numerical calculation for a tight-binding model of interacting fermions without spin on a chain with average filling $`n=1/2`$. The bare dispersion $`\epsilon _0(k)`$ reads $`\mathrm{cos}(k)`$. The interaction is taken to be a nearest-neighbor repulsion implying $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_0(K,p,q):=V\mathrm{sin}(p)\mathrm{sin}(q)`$ . This model is equivalent to an anisotropic, antiferromagnetic Heisenberg spin chain with $`S=1/2`$ via the Jordan-Wigner transformation . It is exactly solvable so that much is known about its properties . The system is metallic for $`V1`$. For larger values the discrete translational invariance is broken and a gap is opened making the system insulating; here we do not consider this phase. The metallic phase itself is a generic realization of a LL . The Luttinger parameter can be deduced from the comparison of exactly known quantities like velocities  to the predictions of bosonization . So the power-law behavior in the momentum distribution at the Fermi edge is known quantitatively . This power-law behavior and the absence of a jump in the momentum distribution is taken as signature for the absence of quasi-particles and the prevailance of bosonic modes. Thus the ansatz (3) in terms of fermions may seem inappropriate. Yet this is not the case.

We use the parametrization in Eq. 3 with $`\mathrm{}`$-dependent energy constant $`E_0`$, dispersion $`\epsilon `$, and vertex function $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$. In the limit of an infinite system the starting values are $`\mathrm{\Gamma }(\mathrm{}=0)=\mathrm{\Gamma }_0`$, $`\epsilon (\mathrm{}=0)=(1+2V/\pi )\mathrm{cos}(k)`$, and $`E_0(\mathrm{}=0)=((1+V/2)/\pi )N`$, where $`N`$ is the system size. The deviations from the bare values result from the normal-ordering assumed in Eq. 3. The Eqs. 3 and Landau’s quasi-particle mapping: Fermi liquid approach and Luttinger liquid behavior form a closed set of equations once the normal-ordered 3-particle terms engendered on the r.h.s. of Eq. 5 are omitted . We treat the resulting set of functional differential equations by discretization, i.e. we solve the equations for finite systems. Up to about $`N=50`$ sites could be treated well numerically, which amounts up to a set of several thousand differential equations. In Fig. 1, cuts of the vertex function $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ for a given total momentum $`K`$ illustrate the transformation at work. Different grey scales encode the action of the scattering process on the number of quasi-particles. Clearly, the processes that change the quasi-particle number are gradually suppressed (light and dark grey) on $`\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ so that at $`\mathrm{}=\mathrm{}`$ only the processes (black) remain which leave the number of quasi-particles unchanged.

In Fig. 2a the ground state energy beyond the absolute and linear term in $`V`$, i.e. the correlation part, is depicted. The approximate CUT result agrees well with the exact result. Only for $`V0.75`$ a deviation becomes discernible; beyond $`V_{\mathrm{si}}0.94`$ the approximate CUT treatment breaks down because of the omission of the 3-particle terms. This omission leads to a spurious instability (subscript si). Scaling the interaction $`V_{\mathrm{si}}`$ where the spurious breakdown occurs to infinite system size we find $`V_{\mathrm{si}}(N=\mathrm{})0.75`$ which shows that there is a finite range of interactions where the CUT restricted to the ansatz (3) works.

More information on the underlying physics is provided by the the momentum distribution $`n(k):=n_k`$ which can be computed by $`n(k)=NE/\epsilon _0(k)`$. A generic result is shown in Fig. 3 (crosses). At first glance, the data points towards a fairly large jump. But the points close to the Fermi surface bend strongly towards the value 1/2. Similar CUT results were obtained for a Tomonaga model . For a quantitative analysis we use a FL fit  and a LL fit  as shown in Eqs. 8 and 9

$`\left|n(k)1/2\right|`$ $``$ $`Z/2+\mathrm{\Delta }k\left(B\mathrm{ln}(\mathrm{\Delta }k)+C\right)`$ (8)
$`\left|n(k)1/2\right|`$ $``$ $`B\mathrm{\Delta }k^\alpha +C\mathrm{\Delta }k`$ (9)
with $`\mathrm{\Delta }k=|kk_F|`$; the parameters $`Z_{k_F},B,C`$ and $`\alpha ,B,C`$ are fitted. Checking the applicability of (9) on finite-size data obtained by bosonization for the Luttinger model  shows that least-square fits are most robust and provide good estimates within 5% accuracy for the exponent $`\alpha `$. In Fig. 3, the excellent agreement of the LL type fit and the much poorer agreement of the Fermi type fit are salient. This result is not affected by the precise fit procedure.

By numeric evaluation, we cannot prove the power law behavior. For instance, previous results , which rely on additional approximations in the transformation of the observable, yielded only a logarithmic correction. We find that our numerical data is better described by (9) than by a $`\mathrm{ln}`$-type fit $`B+a\mathrm{ln}(\mathrm{\Delta }k)+C\mathrm{\Delta }k`$ just in the same way the data in Ref.  is better fitted by (9) than by the $`\mathrm{ln}`$-type fit.

In addition, the exponents $`\alpha `$ in Fig. 2b obtained from the fits agree very well with the exact result. Thus the excellent agreement of the LL fit in Fig. 3 is not accidental. For $`V<0.6`$ the approximated CUT result agrees even better with the exact result than does the straight application of bosonization. While the bosonization result is much too smooth the approximated CUT overestimates the exponent due to the neglect of the 3- and more-particle terms.

The very good agreements in Figs. 3 and 2b provide evidence that the CUT (3,Landau’s quasi-particle mapping: Fermi liquid approach and Luttinger liquid behavior) targeting on quasi-particle conservation captures the relevant LL behavior. This comes as a surprise since the concept of holes below and particles above the Fermi level as quasi-particles belongs in the first place to FL theory. This shows that a powerful RG procedure such as the CUTs allows one to stick to the FL type of quasi-particles. An analogous observation was made previously for spinons and triplets . It is decisive to describe the multi-particle dynamics properly.

The validity of our mapping onto conserved fermionic quasi-particles is strongly supported by recent results  for the closely related quantum sine-Gordon model. By a similar CUT Kehrein mapped this strongly correlated model, which corresponds to an interacting fermionic model , for a wide range of parameters onto non-interacting fermions .

A description of LL behavior in terms of fermionic quasi-particles is intriguing since one can assume that the dimensional crossover to higher dimensional FL behavior is also captured: for $`D>1`$, the quasi-particle description should work even better. Existing RG approaches provide good insight in the dimensional crossover in terms of effective low-energy models . Renormalizing CUTs yield a quantitative description on all energy scales since no degrees of freedom are integrated out. Besides the advantages of the locality in the flow parameter $`\mathrm{}`$ and of the avoidance of retardation, this feature constitutes the main progress. In this way, spectral properties with full frequency dependence are accessible .

Summarizing, we presented a route based on continuous unitary transformations (CUT) to the explicit construction of Landau’s mapping of the excitations of the interacting system to the ones of the non-interacting system. The importance of quasi-particle conservation was highlighted. We constructed Landau’s mapping numerically in the worst case, namely for one-dimensional fermions. The results indicate that the CUT approach captures a finger-print of Luttinger liquids: power-law behavior in the momentum distribution. This finding suggests the CUT approach as method to describe the crossover from Fermi liquids to Luttinger liquids on all energy scales.

We thank S. Kehrein, C. Knetter, V. Meden, W. Metzner, E. Müller-Hartmann, K. Schönhammer, and F. Wegner for helpful discussions. Financial support of the DFG in SP1073 is acknowledged.


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# REFERENCES

Reply to Comment on “Quantum Pump for Spin and Charge Transport in a Luttinger Liquid”

In their Comment , Feldman and Gefen dispute our results in Ref.  by claiming that the high frequency pumping regime that we employ is peculiar. We disagree with this assessment, and we show below that their argument revolves around a trivial issue - it is simply a question of the relative magnitudes for the two crossover scales in the problem, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_c`$ and $`\omega _\mathrm{\Gamma }`$. In our paper we analyze the case $`\omega _\mathrm{\Gamma }<\mathrm{\Omega }_c`$, and they discuss $`\omega _\mathrm{\Gamma }>\mathrm{\Omega }_c`$.

As we state in our paper, for pumping frequencies $`\omega _0<\mathrm{\Omega }_c=v_F/a`$ ($`v_F`$ is the Fermi velocity and $`a`$ is the separation between the two impurities that drive the pump), the two-barrier (or two-impurity) problem can be written as an effective one-barrier (or one-impurity) problem. Above this crossover scale $`\mathrm{\Omega }_c`$, the two impurities are resolved , and one cannot use results for the single-impurity problem .

The other energy scale is the crossover scale for the effective single impurity problem, $`\omega _\mathrm{\Gamma }`$, which depends on the backscattering amplitude $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ and the cut-off energy scale $`E_F`$, $`\omega _\mathrm{\Gamma }E_F(|\mathrm{\Gamma }|/E_F)^{1/1g}`$.

By focusing on the case $`\omega _\mathrm{\Gamma }<\mathrm{\Omega }_c`$, we studied the problem completely within the single-impurity regime. In this case, the ultraviolet (UV) limit corresponds to frequencies $`\omega _0\omega _\mathrm{\Gamma }`$, and the infrared (IR) limit corresponds to $`\omega _0\omega _\mathrm{\Gamma }`$, exactly in the same sense as in Ref. . For this one-impurity problem, as we argue in the paper, the UV pumping conductance reaches a universal value.

Feldman and Gefen analyze the case $`\omega _\mathrm{\Gamma }>\mathrm{\Omega }_c`$ instead. In this situation, one does not reach the UV limit of the single-impurity problem, and, thus, the pumping frequency $`\omega _0\mathrm{\Omega }_c`$ is still in the crossover region where the pumping conductance is, obviously, non-universal.

We would like to point out, however, that the authors of Ref.  choose incorrectly the high energy cut-off scale in their perturbative calculation. The ultraviolet cut-off scale should be of order $`E_F`$, and not $`\mathrm{\Omega }_c`$. Contrary to what they state, $`\omega _\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ depends on $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ and $`E_F`$, and not $`\mathrm{\Omega }_c`$.

Having specified the frequency regime we are considering in terms of the two crossover scales $`\mathrm{\Omega }_c`$ and $`\omega _\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ in the problem, we hope it is clear what the UV limit of the effective theory means.

Finally, we would like to comment that Feldman and Gefen’s argument for quantization in the IR limit is interesting and useful in the bosonization context. We too have recently advanced a more general proof for the quantization (without using bosonization), also applicable to systems not described by the Luttinger model with short-range interactions .

Prashant Sharma and Claudio Chamon
Dept. of Physics, Boston University, Boston, MA 02215


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# Effects of noisy entangled state transmission on quantum teleportation

## 1 Introduction

Quantum teleportation is an entanglement assisted method for transfering quantum information . Since teleportation strategies have been realized experimentally , it is now of interest to discuss possible applications and their technical limitations. If quantum teleportation is actually applied to transfer quantum information over large distances, one of the major sources of errors will be the quantum communication lines used for entanglement distribution. In the following, we present a general formalism by which the effect of a specific type of error in the entanglement distribution on the output state of quantum teleportation can be predicted. In section 2, we present a formulation of ideal quantum teleportation for any N-level system. In section 3, the general error transfer properties are analyzed. Finally, the result is analyzed in section 4 and conclusions are drawn in section 5.

## 2 Ideal quantum teleportation

Quantum teleportation can be applied to any N-level quantum system. Ideally, it requires a maximally entangled state. Given an appropriate basis $`n`$, such a quantum state can always be written as

$$E_{\text{max}}_{i,j}=\frac{1}{\sqrt{N}}\underset{n=0}{\overset{N1}{}}n_in_j.$$
(1)
The second requirement for quantum teleportation is the ability to carry out a measurement projecting a pair of systems onto a maximally entangled state. Ideally, each measurement result $`m`$ corresponds to a maximally entangled state,

$$P(m)_{i,j}=\sqrt{\frac{\chi (m)}{N}}\underset{n=0}{\overset{N1}{}}\left(\widehat{U}(m)n\right)_in_j,$$
(2)
where the normalization factor $`\chi (m)`$ and the unitary transformation $`\widehat{U}(m)`$ fulfill the conditions for a positive operator valued measure,

$$\underset{m}{}P(m)P(m)=\widehat{1}.$$
(3)
Note that this requirement is only necessary for unconditional teleportation. In conditional teleportation, only some measurement results $`m`$ correspond to maximally entangled states. The following analysis applies to both conditional and unconditional teleportation. However, the loss of quantum information due to a conditional teleportation may easily be a more serious source of error than the transmission errors considered here.

For a specific measurement result $`m`$, the principle of quantum teleportation may now be represented schematically by assigning the input state to system $`A`$ and the entanglement to a reference system $`R`$ and the remote system $`B`$. The measurement is performed on the joint input from system $`A`$ and the reference system $`R`$. As a result of the entanglement, $`B`$ is then projected into a unitary transformation of the input state $`\psi _{\text{in}}`$ conditioned by the measurement result $`m`$, as given by

$$\begin{array}{cccccc}\multicolumn{6}{c}{\text{Initial state}}\\ \frac{1}{\sqrt{N}}_n& \psi _{\text{in}}_A& & n_R& & n_B\\ \multicolumn{6}{c}{\text{Measurement projection}}\\ \sqrt{\frac{\chi (m)}{N}}_n& \left(n\widehat{U}^1(m)\right)_A& & n_R& & \\ \multicolumn{6}{c}{\text{Conditional output state}}\\ \frac{\sqrt{\chi (m)}}{N}_n& & \multicolumn{3}{c}{n\widehat{U}^1(m)\psi _{\text{in}}}& n_B.\\ \multicolumn{6}{c}{=\frac{\sqrt{\chi (m)}}{N}\widehat{U}^1(m)\psi _{\text{in}}_B}\end{array}$$
(4)
It should be noted that, at this point, no information has been transfered from $`A`$ to $`B`$ and the density matrix of an observer in $`B`$ is still in a maximally mixed state as long as the measurement result $`m`$ is not known. Teleportation is completed by classically communicating the measurement result $`m`$ to $`B`$. The unitary transformation $`\widehat{U}^1(m)`$ can then be compensated by performing $`\widehat{U}(m)`$ on the output to restore the original state $`\psi _{\text{in}}`$ in $`B`$.

## 3 Error transfer

For long distance teleportation, the most important technical requirement is the distribution of entanglement over long distances. Transmission errors act randomly on the transmission lines for systems $`R`$ and $`B`$. However, all such random errors can be represented as mixtures of quantum mechanically precise operators $`\widehat{F}_R(x_r)`$ and $`\widehat{F}_B(x_b)`$, where $`x_r`$ and $`x_b`$ are the random variables defining the type of error. The probability distribution over $`x_r`$ and $`x_b`$ is given by the expectation values of $`\widehat{F}_i^{}(x_i)\widehat{F}_i(x_i)`$, requiring that

$$\underset{x_i}{}\widehat{F}_i^{}(x_i)\widehat{F}_i(x_i)=\widehat{1}.$$
(5)
Figure 1 illustrates the effect of a well defined pair of errors $`\widehat{F}_R(x_r)`$ and $`\widehat{F}_B(x_b)`$ on the teleportation process. The total error can be represented by an output error operator $`\widehat{F}_{\text{out}}(m;x_r,x_b)`$. This operator can be derived from the teleportation scheme introduced in section 2.

With the errors, the initial state for teleportation reads

$$\frac{1}{\sqrt{N}}\underset{n}{}\psi _{\text{in}}_A\widehat{F}_R(x_r)n_R\widehat{F}_B(x_b)n_B.$$
(6)
By replacing the ideal initial state in equation (4), the outcome of the teleportation measurement of $`m`$ can be calculated. It reads

$`{\displaystyle \frac{\sqrt{\chi (m)}}{N}}{\displaystyle \underset{n,n^{}}{}}n^{}\widehat{U}^1(m)\psi _{\text{in}}`$ (7)
$`\times n^{}\widehat{F}_R(x_r)n\widehat{F}_B(x_b)n_B.`$
This equation may be greatly simplified by intruducing the transpose $`\widehat{F}_R^T(x_r)`$ of $`\widehat{F}_R(x_r)`$ in the $`n`$ basis, defined by

$$n^{}\widehat{F}_R(x_r)n=n\widehat{F}_R^T(x_r)n^{}.$$
(8)
With this definition, the output state of the teleportation after the application of $`\widehat{U}(m)`$ reads

$$\frac{\sqrt{\chi (m)}}{N}\widehat{U}(m)\widehat{F}_B(x_b)\widehat{F}_R^T(x_r)\widehat{U}^1(m)\psi _{\text{in}}_B.$$
(9)
The difference between this teleportation result and the ideal result is described by the effective error operator $`\widehat{F}_{\text{out}}(m;x_r,x_b)`$, given by

$$\widehat{F}_{\text{out}}(m;x_r,x_b)=\widehat{U}(m)\widehat{F}_B(x_b)\widehat{F}_R^T(x_r)\widehat{U}^1(m).$$
(10)
With this equation, it is possible to characterize the teleportation errors based on any combination of transmission errors $`\widehat{F}_R(x_r)`$ and $`\widehat{F}_B(x_b)`$. In general, the errors are only changed by unitary transformations, indicating that any properties invariant under such transformations will be preserved. All other properties of an error are transformed according to the measurement result $`m`$ obtained in the teleportation process. Knowledge of $`m`$ is therefore important in order to minimize the effects of errors in the teleportation process .

## 4 Properties of the output error

The result shows that the errors in $`R`$ and the errors in $`B`$ are effectively multiplied, representing the expected exponential increase in errors with the length of the communication line. Indeed, the total error may be interpreted as a sequential error of an initial transmission through channel $`R`$ with an error of $`\widehat{U}(m)\widehat{F}_R^T(x_r)\widehat{U}^1(m)`$, followed by a transmission through channel $`B`$ with an error of $`\widehat{U}(m)\widehat{F}_B(x_b)\widehat{U}^1(m)`$. The only differences between the teleportation and the direct transmission of the quantum state through the transmission lines used for $`R`$ and $`B`$ are given by the unitary transformation $`\widehat{U}(m)`$ and the transposition operation on the error in $`R`$. However, this transposition is also a unitary transformation that preserves the general properties of $`\widehat{F}_R(x_r)`$, such as the eigenvalues or the overlap between eigenstates. From this property, it is clear that the channel capacity of quantum teleportation is exactly identical with the capacity for a direct transmission. It is for this reason, that the use of teleportation as a quantum repeater requires some form of reliable entanglement purification . Nevertheless it is interesting to note that the errors are not increased by the use of entanglement in the channels. In this context, entanglement is no more sensitive to errors then any arbitrary quantum state.

It is now possible to consider different types of error statistics. The most simple errors are homogeneous ones, such that any unitary transformation $`\widehat{U}(m)`$ merely causes a permutation of the errors $`x_i`$,

$$\widehat{U}(m)\widehat{F}_i(x_i)\widehat{U}^1(m)=\widehat{F}_i(x_i^{}).$$
(11)
If the $`x_i`$ are unknown, such errors are independent of $`m`$ and the teleportation errors correspond to the direct transmission except for the transposition in $`R`$. However, it is likely that errors homogeneous with respect to $`\widehat{U}(m)`$ are also homogeneous with respect to the transposition,

$$\widehat{F}_R^T(x_r)=\widehat{F}_R(x_r^{}).$$
(12)
In fact, a much wider class of errors should fulfill this requirement, making it possible to identify the transposed errors with non-transposed ones.

In order to illustrate the physics of a transposition, it is helpful to consider the angular momentum operators $`\widehat{l}_x`$,$`\widehat{l}_y`$, and $`\widehat{l}_z`$. A transposition in the basis of $`\widehat{l}_z`$ eigenstates leaves both $`\widehat{l}_x`$ and $`\widehat{l}_z`$ invariant, while reversing the sign of $`\widehat{l}_y^T=\widehat{l}_y`$. The transposition therefore corresponds to a mirror image in the $`xz`$-plane. For reasons of symmetry it is likely that transmission errors will indeed be homogeneous with respect to this operation. In the case of transmission lines with a non-homogeneous error, the transposition will effectively reverse the asymmetry.

For errors which are not homogeneous with respect to $`\widehat{U}(m)`$, the output error statistics depend strongly on the measurement result $`m`$. Equation (10) then describes the correlation between $`m`$ and the output error. If the output states are analyzed without reference to $`m`$, the teleportation will be far more noisy than a direct transmission. However, this type of noise originates from a classical randomization of the signal based on the known variable $`m`$. This noise source can therefore be eliminated by analyzing the full correlated statistics.

## 5 Conclusions

The entanglement distribution errors are essentially equivalent to errors in a direct transmission of quantum states through the same communication lines. If the errors are homogeneously distributed, it makes no difference whether the quantum state is teleported or it is sent directly. For non-homogeneous errors, the teleportation measurement result $`m`$ represents an additional source of randomness. However, the random variable $`m`$ is known to both the sender and the receiver, indicating that this randomness will not cause any loss of information. In conclusion, the errors caused by entanglement distribution are remarkably similar to the errors of a direct transmission through the same quantum channels. The method of teleportation itself neither reduces nor enhances the errors.


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# High time resolution observations of a Vela glitch

## 1. Introduction

Observations of pulsar glitches, in addition to providing insights into the phenomenon itself, offer one of the few probes of neutron star structure, and thus the physics of ultra-dense matter. Vela is the brightest known radio pulsar, and as it is at a declination of -45o, it is above the horizon at the Hobart Radio Observatory (Mount Pleasant) for more than 18 hours a day. It undergoes large glitches in pulse rate every few years and so provides an excellent test-bed for the neutron star equations of state.

Since 1981 the University of Tasmania has devoted a 14m diameter antenna at its Mt Pleasant Observatory to measurements of arrival times of pulses from the Vela pulsar. During this time we have observed 7 large glitches, or sudden decreases, in the period of the pulsar (McCulloch et al 1983, McCulloch et al 1987, McCulloch et al 1990, McCulloch 1996)

The telescope has a single pulse observing system whose speed and sensitivity have been enhanced in order to answer a number of questions; how quickly does the crust accelerate to the new period during a glitch, how soon does the recovery from the glitch start, and what is the form of this recovery?

On 2000 January 16 (MJD 51559) the rate of pulsation jumped with a fractional period change of $`3.1\times 10^6`$, the largest recorded for this pulsar. The glitch was automatically detected and we issued an IAU telegram (Dodson, McCulloch, & Costa 2000) within 12 hours, allowing the X-ray telescope, Chandra to make Target of Opportunity observations (Helfand, Gotthelf, & Halpern 2001) . These observations have so far failed to find the signature of neutron star heating, which was the driver for the observations, but have produced spectacular images of the X-ray pulsar wind nebula.

## 2. Observations

The reported observations were made simultaneously at 635 MHz, 990 MHz and 1390 MHz, to allow continuous measurement of the dispersion measure (DM). The signal-to-noise ratio in each total intensity profile is typically 30:1, allowing a mean pulse arrival time to be determined to an accuracy of $`80\mu `$s at 635 MHz, $`60\mu `$s at 990 MHz and $`180\mu `$s at 1390 MHz per integration.

The recent improvements in the time resolution have been achieved by de-dispersing over 8 adjacent channels at 990 MHz, thereby increasing the signal to noise ratio and allowing observations of single pulses. The de-dispersed bandpass is sampled at 2 kHz and recorded directly onto disk for later retrieval, while an ‘on the fly’ monitoring system folds on a ten second basis for which the RMS is $`85\mu `$s. These arrival times are monitored and if a glitch is detected a warning is issued and the single pulse data are retained.

## 3. Timing fits

The data presented here were recorded between MJD 51505 and 51650. The arrival times have been transformed to the Solar System barycentre using standard techniques. The position and proper motion of the Vela pulsar was defined by data from the Radio VLBI position of Legge (Legge 2001).

The recorded TOAs from all frequencies and both systems were fitted in the program TEMPO (Taylor et al 1970). The results of this fit are given in Table 1.

Shortly after 07:34 UT, the residuals diverge from the fit, indicating a sudden decrease in pulse period. The period jump occurs on a very short timescale, without warning. The observations are consistent with an instantaneous change in period; modelling has shown that a spin-up timescale of forty seconds would produce a three sigma signal.

The separation into four time-scales is clear. The longer three decay terms are similar to those previously reported (Alpar et al 1993, Flanagan 1990), and are in an approximately equal ratio of 5.9:5.7. These have been associated with the vortex creep models by (Alpar et al 1993) and others. The fast decay timescale, not previously observed (or observable) is shown separated from the other effects in figure 1. We have subtracted the terms found by TEMPO in the 2 minute data from the single pulse data folded for 10 seconds. In this plot a gradual spin-up (as opposed to an instantaneous) would be a negitive excursion around the projected time of the glitch, as we’d have overestimated the phase in the model. We see a positive excursion, indicating that the true glitch epoch was later, and is followed by a rapid decay. We have fitted a linear rise ($`\mathrm{\Delta }\nu \mathrm{\Delta }t`$) followed by a forth decay term to this.

## 4. Future development

Since the acceleration of the crust cannot be instantaneous, it should be possible to observe the spin-up of the rotation period of the pulsar. The parallel single pulse system designed to observe this has a three $`\sigma `$ detection limit of less than 40 seconds. This is in contrast to the observations made on the Crab (Wong, Backer, & Lyne 2001) where the spin-up timescale has been observed to take about $`0.5`$ of a day. Further improvements of the single pulse system are being undertaken which will allow a detection limit of a few seconds, which is of the order of the fastest coupling times in all EOS models. Higher time resolution will allow further constraints on the coupling of the crust to the liquid interior, including the core.

## References

M. A. Alpar, H. F. Chau, K. S. Cheng, and D. Pines. Astrophys. J., 409:345–359, May 1993.

R. G. Dodson, P. M. McCulloch, and M. E. Costa. IAU Circ., 7347:2, January 2000.

C. S. Flanagan. Nature, 345:416, May 1990.

D. J. Helfand, E. V. Gotthelf, and J. P. Halpern. ApJ, 556:380–391, July 2001.

D.R. Legge. PhD thesis, School of Maths and Physics, University of Tasmania, 2001.

P. M. McCulloch. ASP Conf. Ser. 105: IAU Colloq. 160: Pulsars: Problems and Progress, page 97, 1996.

P. M. McCulloch, P. A. Hamilton, D. McConnell, and E. A. King. Nature, 346:822–824, August 1990.

P. M. McCulloch, P. A. Hamilton, G. W. R. Royle, and R. N. Manchester. Nature, 302:319–321, March 1983.

P. M. McCulloch, A. R. Klekociuk, P. A. Hamilton, and G. W. R. Royle. Australian Journal of Physics, 40:725–730, 1987.

J. Taylor, R. Manchester, D. Nice, J. Weisberg, A. Irwin, N. Wex, and E. Standish. http://pulsar.princeton.edu/tempo, 1970.

T. Wong, D. C. Backer, and A. G. Lyne. Astrophys. J., 548:447–459, February 2001.


text:
# EVOLUTION OF INDUCED AXIAL MAGNETIZATION IN A TWO-COMPONENT MAGNETIZED PLASMA

## I Introduction

The investigation of the propagation of electromagnetic waves is a long studied subject of plasma physics ( see  and references therein). In the traditional approach one studies low amplitude waves propagating in an uncorrelated plasma. Important information on the properties of plasmas in the linear response regime can be obtained from the knowledge of the dielectric tensor. The dielectric function of a magnetized uncorrelated plasma has been extensively studied by Horing . The dispersion of low amplitude waves or the interaction of low intensity particle beams with plasmas may be studied by employing the dielectric function. Recently, the stopping power of an uncorrelated plasma has been investigated . There have been two basic lines beyond the traditional investigations of electromagnetic modes propagation. One line considers the influence of correlation effects on the plasma dispersion relations. Recent papers are devoted to the study of the dielectric tensor of correlated magnetized plasmas and to the investigation of the electromagnetic mode dispersion in coupled magnetized plasmas . The other line is aimed at the investigation of nonlinear effects in uncorrelated plasmas. A growing number of papers is dedicated to the study of the propagation of intense radiation in plasmas (recent works are cited in ).

One of the important area in these investigations is the generation of magnetic fields under the influence of electromagnetic (EM) waves . One of the sources of the generation of induced magnetization is the inverse Faraday effect (IFE). The induced magnetization from IFE due to propagation of several waves in plasma, has been previously investigated (see Ref.  and references therein). This phenomenon arises from magnetic moment per unit volume of the ordered motion of charges of both signs, in the presence of an electromagnetic wave propagating in plasma . This induced field must have axial as well as lateral component depending on the nature of the wave-wave and wave- particle interactions. For an elliptically polarized Alfven wave propagating along the static back ground magnetic field in a two component plasma, this induced magnetization were found to be inversely proportional to the cube of the ambient magnetic field and the square of the incident wave amplitude, and acts in the direction of the incident wave propagation. Such effects are expected to be significant in the study of various processes in the sun and other stars, including pulsars. This effect may be demonstrated in laboratory plasmas.

In this paper, it has been shown that the zero harmonic magnetic moment generated from an elliptically polarized EM-wave along the direction of its propagation induces strong dc magnetic permeability depending non-linearly on the incident wave amplitude and acts in the same direction as the induced magnetization. Moreover, a small perturbation of the self-generated zero harmonic magnetic moment starts to evolve. This evolution can be investigated by using Block equation model .In this paper this evolution has been studied and it has been shown that it induces strong magnetic anisotropy in the plane perpendicular to the direction of the incident wave propagation. This induced magnetic anisotropy is evident from the existence of non-vanishing off-diagonal elements of the magnetic permeability tensor, which also depend non-linearly on the incident wave amplitude.

In general plasma medium is not a magnetic material. However, the propagation of an incident EM wave in a plasma generates a self generated uniform magnetization $`\stackrel{}{M}_a`$ which induces a strong magnetic permeability in the plasma medium depending nonlinearly on the incident wave amplitude. As magnetic permeability of a ferromagnet is very large, we can assume our resulting plasma medium as a weakly ferromagnetic medium in which magnetic permeability is large but not as large as for a ferromagnetic material medium. The self generated uniform magnetization may be considered as the ground state magnetization. Since we have considered long wave length excitations, a continuum theory is appropriate to study the evolution of small perturbation in the ground state magnetization.

Thus a weak ferromagnetic behavior of plasma is expected which can change the orientation of the bulk magnetization of the plasma that can reduce the mobility of electrons and ions and as a result the displacement current dominates over the conduction current . This effect modifies the dispersion characteristics of the incident EM-wave. The dispersion relation of the incident EM-wave in the resulting plasma medium has been obtained in this paper. In the low frequency Alfven wave limit, it has been seen that the phase velocity of the incident Alfven wave in the resulting plasma medium depends on the static back-ground magnetic field of the plasma as well as on the square of the incident wave amplitude. As the induced magnetization is directly proportional to the square of the incident wave amplitude, the increase in the wave amplitude causes to increase the induced IFE magnetization. This pronounces the induced magnetic anisotropy, and ultimately inhibits the Alfven wave propagation in the resulting plasma medium. These results have been verified numerically both in the Solar corona and Sunspots.

On the basis of this mechanism many authors have already developed a new mechanism of stabilization of stimulated Brillouin scattering (SBS) in laser produced plasmas, which is a consequence of the self-generated magnetic field in the SBS process . In that case, a temporally exponentially growing zero harmonic magnetic field was generated in both axial and lateral directions. The lateral magnetic field was found to be responsible for the initiation of magnetic anisotropy in the plasma medium, which can exponentially reduce the phase velocities of incident and scattered light waves. However, for an elliptically polarized EM-wave propagating parallel to the static back- ground magnetic field, a zero harmonic induced axial magnetization is only generated. This axial magnetization in the ground state cannot induce magnetic anisotropy. The evolution of its linear perturbation induces magnetic anisotropy in the plasma medium, which has been investigated in this paper by using Block equation model.

In section 2, the dc magnetic permeability induced by the self-generated axial magnetic moment has been obtained. Its evolution has been studied in section 3. The effect of this evolution on the incident EM-wave is investigated in section 4. Section 5 describes these results in the low frequency Alfven wave limit. Calculation of the magnetic moment induced by the Alfven wave is given in the Appendix. Numerical estimation has been followed by discussion cited in section 6.

## II DC Magnetic Permeability Induced by Self-Generated Axial Magnetic Moment

In the classical approximation, the bulk magnetization present in a magnetic material should be due to orbital angular momentum of charges, because of the distortion of orbital motion under the inference of EM fields . When an EM wave propagates along the static background magnetic field, in a two component plasma, the magnetic moment is generated from the Inverse Faraday effect (IFE) mechanism along the $`z`$-direction,

$$\stackrel{}{M}_0=M_0\stackrel{}{z},$$
(1)
which has been presented in the Appendix . This magnetic moment can be expressed in the form

$$\stackrel{}{M}_0=(M_{0x},M_{0y},M_{0z}),$$
(2)
where $`M_{0x}=0`$, $`M_{0y}=0`$, and

$$M_{0z}=\frac{n_0c}{2\omega }\underset{s=e,i}{}\frac{q_s(\alpha _s+Y_s\beta _s)(\beta _s+Y_s\alpha _s)}{\left(1Y_s^2\right)^2},$$
(3)
with

$$\alpha _s=\frac{q_sa}{m_s\omega c},\beta _s=\frac{q_sb}{m_s\omega c};Y_s=\frac{\mathrm{\Omega }_s}{\omega };\mathrm{\Omega }_s=\frac{q_sH_0}{m_sc},$$
(4)
$`q_s,m_s,\mathrm{\Omega }_s,(s=e,i)`$ are charge, mass and cyclotronfrequencies of electrons and ions, respectively, $`a`$ and $`b`$ are the amplitudes of the incident elliptically polarized EM wave, $`H_0`$ is the static background magnetic field. The unperturbed plasma density is given by $`n_0=n_{0e}=n_{0i}`$ and c is the velocity of light in vacuum, $`\omega `$ is the frequency of the incident EM wave, $`\stackrel{}{z}`$ is the direction of incident wave propagation.

Hence the induced magnetization is,

$$H_z^{in}=4\pi M_{0z}=\frac{4\pi n_0c}{2\omega }\underset{s=e,i}{}\frac{q_s(\alpha _s+Y_s\beta _s)(\beta _s+Y_s\alpha _s)}{\left(1Y_s^2\right)^2},$$
(5)
which also acts along the direction of wave propagation. Substituting Eqs.(1,2,3) in the constitutive relation

$$\stackrel{}{B}=\widehat{\mu }\stackrel{}{H},$$
(6)
with

$$\stackrel{}{B}=\stackrel{}{H}+4\pi \stackrel{}{M};\stackrel{}{H}=\stackrel{}{H}_0;\stackrel{}{M}=\stackrel{}{M}_0;\stackrel{}{\mu }=\stackrel{}{\mu }_0,$$
(7)
we obtain

$$H_0+4\pi M_{0z}=\mu _{0z}H_0,$$
(8)
and hence

$$\mu _{0z}=1\frac{1}{2}\underset{s=e,i}{}\frac{X_s}{Y_s}\frac{(\alpha _s+Y_s\beta _s)(\beta _s+Y_s\alpha _s)}{\left(1Y_s^2\right)^2},$$
(9)
and $`\alpha _s,\beta _s`$ are the dimensionless amplitude of the incident EM wave, where $`X_s=\omega _{ps}^2/\omega ^2`$ and $`\omega _{ps}^2=4\pi q_s^2n_0/m_s`$ is the plasma frequency of s-th species of charges.

This shows that the zero harmonic magnetic moment $`\stackrel{}{M}_0=M_{0z}\stackrel{}{z}`$ induces a strong dc magnetic permeability $`\mu _{0z}`$ depending nonlinearly on the incident wave amplitude and in the $`z`$-direction. Thus the resulting plasma medium behaves as a ferromagnetic medium with the IFE magnetization as the ground state magnetization. In the next section, the dynamics of this self-generated axial IFE magnetization will be studied.

## III EVOLUTION OF SELF-GENERATED AXIAL MAGNETIC MOMENT IN A WEAKLY FERRO-MAGNETIC MEDIUM

From a macroscopic point of view, we may consider the ferromagnetic media as continua characterized by a magnetic moment density called magnetization. The ground state of a ferromagnet is of uniform magnetization at absolute zero temperature. A small disturbance in this magnetization will propagate in such a medium and this propagation can be studied by Block equation model ,

$$\frac{d\stackrel{}{M}}{dt}=\frac{\gamma }{c}\left(\stackrel{}{M}\times \stackrel{}{H}_{eff}\right),$$
(10)
where $`\stackrel{}{M}`$ is the bulk magnetization and $`\stackrel{}{H}_{eff}`$ is the effective magnetic field in the medium , $`\gamma `$ is the charge to mass ratio and $`c`$ is the velocity of light in vacuum.

The propagation of an elliptically polarized EM wave in a two component magnetized plasma induces a zero harmonic axial magnetic moment from IFE, which generates a nonlinear magnetic permeability in the same direction. The plasma behaves as a weakly ferromagnetic medium and the induced magnetic moment $`\stackrel{}{M}_0`$ acts as its bulk magnetization. This bulk magnetization is immediately perturbed and the resulting magnetization follows the equation

$$\frac{d\stackrel{}{M}_s}{dt}=\frac{\gamma _s}{c}\left(\stackrel{}{M}\times \stackrel{}{H}_{eff}\right),$$
(11)
where s=e(electron)/i(ion) and the effective magnetic field $`\stackrel{}{H}_{eff}`$ is the sum of the background magnetic field $`\stackrel{}{H}_0`$ and the $`1^{st}`$ harmonic magnetic field $`\stackrel{}{H}_1`$ of the incident em wave. Thus, we have

$$\stackrel{}{H}_{eff}=\stackrel{}{H}_0+\stackrel{}{H}_1.$$
(12)
Moreover, the resulting magnetization,

$$\stackrel{}{M}_s=\stackrel{}{M}_{0s}+\stackrel{}{M}_{1s},$$
(13)
where $`\stackrel{}{M}_{1s}`$ is the linearized perturbation of the bulk magnetization $`\stackrel{}{M}_{0s}`$. Both $`\stackrel{}{M}_{1s}`$ and $`\stackrel{}{H}_1`$ satisfy the condition

$$\stackrel{}{M}_{1s}\stackrel{}{M}_{0s};\stackrel{}{H}_1\stackrel{}{H}_0.$$
(14)
$`\stackrel{}{M}_{0s}`$ being the zero harmonic magnetic moment from the orbital motion of sth species of charges given by

$$\stackrel{}{M}_{0s}=(0,0,M_{0s_z}),$$
(15)
where

$$M_{0s_z}=\frac{n_0c}{2\omega }\frac{q_s(\alpha _s+Y_s\beta _s)(\beta _s+Y_s\alpha _s)}{\left(1Y_s^2\right)^2}$$
(16)
is independent of both space and time. Here,

$$\stackrel{}{M}_{1s}=(M_{1s_x},M_{1s_y},0)and\stackrel{}{H}_1=(H_{1x},H_{1y},0)$$
(17)
are the first order perturbations in $`\stackrel{}{M}_s`$ and $`\stackrel{}{H}_{eff}`$, respectively. Using Eqs.(12,13) in (11) and linearizing we obtain

$$\frac{d\stackrel{}{M}_{1s}}{dt}=\frac{\gamma _s}{c}\left\{\left(\stackrel{}{M}_{0s}\times \stackrel{}{H}_1\right)+\left(\stackrel{}{M}_{1s}\times \stackrel{}{H}_0\right)\right\}.$$
(18)
Substitution of (15) and (17) in the RHS of (18) gives

$$\dot{M}_{1s_x}=\omega _{Ms}H_{1y}+\mathrm{\Omega }_sM_{1s_y},$$
(19)
$$\dot{M}_{1s_y}=\omega _{Ms}H_{1x}\mathrm{\Omega }_sM_{1s_x},$$
(20)
where $`\omega _{Ms}=q_sM_{0s_z}/m_sc`$ is the magnetization frequency of the sth species of charge particles, which depends on the induced magnetization $`M_{0s_z}`$. It is actually the frequency of gyration of charge particles about the lines of forces of the induced magnetic field $`\stackrel{}{M}_{0s}`$. Substituting $`M_{0s_z}`$ from (16) in $`\omega _{Ms}`$, we obtain

$$\omega _{Ms}=\frac{\omega }{8\pi }\frac{X_s(\alpha _s+Y_s\beta _s)(\beta _s+Y_s\alpha _s)}{\left(1Y_s^2\right)^2}.$$
(21)
From (19) and (20) we obtain the coupled differential equations,

$$\left(D^2+\mathrm{\Omega }_s^2\right)M_{1s_x}=\omega _{Ms}\dot{H}_{1y}+\mathrm{\Omega }_s\omega _{Ms}H_{1x},$$
(22)
$$\left(D^2+\mathrm{\Omega }_s^2\right)M_{1s_y}=\omega _{Ms}\dot{H}_{1x}\mathrm{\Omega }_s\omega _{Ms}H_{1y}.$$
(23)
Since $`H_{1x}`$, $`H_{1y}`$ are the $`x`$ and $`y`$ components of the magnetic field $`\stackrel{}{H}_1`$ of the incident EM wave, propagating along the z-direction, and hence $`M_{1s_x}`$, $`M_{1s_y}`$ are all proportional to $`\mathrm{exp}[i(kz\omega t)]`$. Hence (22) and (23) can be written in the form

$$M_{1s_x}=\frac{\mathrm{\Omega }_s\omega _{Ms}}{\mathrm{\Omega }_s^2\omega ^2}H_{1x}+\frac{i\omega \omega _{Ms}}{\mathrm{\Omega }_s^2\omega ^2}H_{1y},$$
(24)
$$M_{1s_y}=\frac{i\omega \omega _{Ms}}{\mathrm{\Omega }_s^2\omega ^2}H_{1x}+\frac{\mathrm{\Omega }_s\omega _{Ms}}{\mathrm{\Omega }_s^2\omega ^2}H_{1y},$$
(25)
or equivalently,

$$\stackrel{}{M}_{1s}=\widehat{\chi }_s\stackrel{}{H}_1,$$
(26)
where

$$\widehat{\chi }_s=\left(\begin{array}{ccc}\frac{\mathrm{\Omega }_s\omega _{Ms}}{\mathrm{\Omega }_s^2\omega ^2}& \frac{i\omega \omega _{Ms}}{\mathrm{\Omega }_s^2\omega ^2}& 0\\ \frac{i\omega \omega _{Ms}}{\mathrm{\Omega }_s^2\omega ^2}& \frac{\mathrm{\Omega }_s\omega _{Ms}}{\mathrm{\Omega }_s^2\omega ^2}& 0\\ 0& 0& 0\end{array}\right),$$
(27)
is the magnetic susceptibility tensor, whose non vanishing component are

$`\chi _{s_{xx}}`$ $`=`$ $`\chi _{s_{yy}}={\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Omega }_s\omega _{Ms}}{\mathrm{\Omega }_s^2\omega ^2}},`$ (28)
$`\chi _{s_{xy}}`$ $`=`$ $`\chi _{s_{yx}}={\displaystyle \frac{\omega \omega _{Ms}}{\mathrm{\Omega }_s^2\omega ^2}}.`$ (29)
Hence the net induced magnetic susceptibility of the resulting plasma medium is

$$\widehat{\chi }=\widehat{\chi }_e+\widehat{\chi }_i=\underset{s=e,i}{}\widehat{\chi }_s.$$
(30)
Consequently the induced magnetic permeability of the medium becomes

$$\widehat{\mu }=\widehat{I}+4\pi \underset{s=e,i}{}\widehat{\chi }_s,$$
(31)
where $`\widehat{I}`$ is the unit matrix of order 3. Substitution of (29) in (31) gives

$$\mu _{xx}=1+\underset{s=e,i}{}\frac{4\pi \mathrm{\Omega }_s\omega _{Ms}}{\mathrm{\Omega }_s^2\omega ^2},$$
(32)
$$\mu _{xy}=\underset{s=e,i}{}\frac{4\pi \omega \omega _{Ms}}{\mathrm{\Omega }_s^2\omega ^2},$$
(33)
and hence

$$\mu _{xx}=1+\frac{1}{2}\underset{s=e,i}{}\frac{X_sY_s(\alpha _s+Y_s\beta _s)(\beta _s+Y_s\alpha _s)}{\left(1Y_s^2\right)^3},$$
(34)
$$\mu _{xy}=\frac{1}{2}\underset{s=e,i}{}\frac{X_s(\alpha _s+Y_s\beta _s)(\beta _s+Y_s\alpha _s)}{\left(1Y_s^2\right)^3}.$$
(35)
It is seen from the expression (34) and (35) that $`\mu _{xx}`$ and $`\mu _{xy}`$ depend on the square of the incident wave amplitude. The nonvanishing off-diagonal elements $`\mu _{xy}`$ and $`\mu _{yx}`$ indicate that a strong magnetic anisotropy is developed in the $`xy`$-plane, perpendicular to the direction of incident wave propagation (along the z-direction). This anisotropy is exclusively due to the evolution of the perturbation $`\stackrel{}{M}_1`$ in a plasma medium, having weakly ferromagnetic properties.

## IV EFFECT OF MAGNETIC ANISOTROPY ON THE INCIDENT EM WAVE PROPAGATION

As we are studying magnetic moment dynamics in the plasma medium under the action of long range coulomb forces between the charge particles, classical theory is more appropriate than quantum mechanical theory because any disturbance propagates through a plasma medium with a wave length much greater than the atomic distances.

In this section we shall investigate how this induced magnetic anisotropy changes the dispersion characteristics of the incident elliptically polarized EM wave.

The induced magnetic anisotropy reduces the mobility of the charge particles. Hence the conduction current becomes negligible and the displacement current dominates over conduction current. Thus in such an insulated ferromagnet, the propagation of an EM wave obeys the following Maxwell equations

$$\stackrel{}{}\times \stackrel{}{E}=\frac{1}{c}\frac{\stackrel{}{B}}{t},$$
(36)
$$\stackrel{}{}\times \stackrel{}{H}=\frac{1}{c}\frac{\stackrel{}{D}}{t},$$
(37)
with constitutive relations

$`\stackrel{}{D}`$ $`=`$ $`\widehat{ϵ}\stackrel{}{E},`$ (38)
$`\stackrel{}{B}`$ $`=`$ $`\widehat{\mu }\stackrel{}{H},`$ (39)
where $`\widehat{ϵ}`$, $`\widehat{\mu }`$ are respectively the dielectric tensor and magnetic permeability tensor of the resulting plasma medium, $`\widehat{\mu }`$ has been already obtained in section 3. Since the plasma under consideration is initially magnetized, it has a dielectric anisotropy of the form

$$\widehat{ϵ}=\left(\begin{array}{ccc}ϵ_{xx}& iϵ_{xy}& 0\\ iϵ_{xy}& ϵ_{yy}& 0\\ 0& 0& 0\end{array}\right),$$
(40)
where

$`ϵ_{xx}=1{\displaystyle \underset{s=e,i}{}}{\displaystyle \frac{X_s}{1Y_s^2}},`$ (41)
$`ϵ_{xy}={\displaystyle \underset{s=e,i}{}}{\displaystyle \frac{X_sY_s}{1Y_s^2}}.`$ (42)
Since the electric field $`E_{1x}`$, $`E_{1y}`$ and magnetic field $`H_{1x}`$, $`H_{1y}`$ of the incident electromagnetic wave contain the phase factor $`\mathrm{exp}[i(kz\omega t)]`$, where $`\omega `$ and $`k`$ are its frequency and wave number, the Maxwell equations (36) and (37) together with the state relations (39) reduce to

$$n\left(\begin{array}{c}E_{1x}\\ E_{1y}\end{array}\right)=\left(\begin{array}{cc}i\mu _{xy}& \mu _{yy}\\ \mu _{xx}& i\mu _{xy}\end{array}\right)\left(\begin{array}{c}H_{1x}\\ H_{1y}\end{array}\right),$$
(43)
$$n\left(\begin{array}{c}H_{1x}\\ H_{1y}\end{array}\right)=\left(\begin{array}{cc}iϵ_{xy}& ϵ_{yy}\\ ϵ_{xx}& iϵ_{xy}\end{array}\right)\left(\begin{array}{c}E_{1x}\\ E_{1y}\end{array}\right).$$
(44)
Substituting $`E_{1x}`$, $`E_{1y}`$, $`H_{1x}`$, $`H_{1y}`$ from (A15) and(A16), we obtain

$$n^2=\left(ϵ_{xx}\pm ϵ_{xy}\right)\left(\mu _{xx}\pm \mu _{xy}\right),$$
(45)
which is the modified dispersion relation of the incident EM wave in the anisotropic plasma medium. Substitution of $`\mu _{xx}`$, $`\mu _{xy}`$, $`ϵ_{xx}`$, $`ϵ_{xy}`$ from (34,35) and (42) in (45) gives

$$n^2=\left(1\underset{s=e,i}{}\frac{X_s}{1\pm Y_s}\right)\left(1\frac{1}{2}\underset{s=e,i}{}\frac{X_s(\alpha _s+Y_s\beta _s)(\beta _s+Y_s\alpha _s)}{(1\pm Y_s)\left(1Y_s^2\right)^2}\right),$$
(46)
where $`n=kc/\omega `$ is the refractive index of the resulting plasma medium. This dispersion relation shows that the dispersion characteristics of the incident EM wave depend on the product of the incident EM wave amplitude. In the next section we shall investigate such characteristics for the case of Alfven waves.

## V ALFVEN WAVE APPROXIMATION

If the incident EM wave propagating in a two component plasma along the static background magnetic field is an Alfven wave, the wave frequency satisfies the condition

$$\omega \mathrm{\Omega }_e,\mathrm{\Omega }_i.$$
(47)
Under the approximation (47) the dispersion relation (46) reduces to

$$n_\pm ^2=\left(\frac{k^2c^2}{\omega ^2}\right)_\pm =\left(1+\frac{c^2}{c_A^2}\right)\left(1\frac{c^2}{c_A^2}\frac{a^2ab+b^2}{H_0^2}\right),$$
(48)
where $`c_A^2=H_0^2/4\pi n_0m_i`$ is the Alfven velocity in the plasma. Thus we get two branches of mode propagation. In the case of a low amplitude wave, $`a,b0`$, we obtain from Eq. (48) the dispersion relation of the ordinary Alfven wave with only one branch. Consider the modifications of wave propagation caused by the nonlinearity. First, the nonlinearity produces a splitting of the Alfven branch into two branches corresponding to the left elliptically polarized ($`a`$ and $`b`$ of equal sign) or to the right elliptically polarized Alfven wave ($`a`$ and $`b`$ of different sign), respectively. Second, the phase velocity of the incident Alfven wave in the resulting anisotropic plasma medium becomes

$$\left(\frac{\omega }{k}\right)_\pm =\pm \frac{c_ac}{\sqrt{c_A^2+c^2}}/\sqrt{1\frac{c^2}{c_A^2}\frac{a^2ab+b^2}{H_0^2}}.$$
(49)
This shows that Alfven wave can propagate with very large but finite phase velocity (49), if

$$\frac{c_A^2}{c^2}\frac{H_0^2}{a^2ab+b^2}>1.$$
(50)
Only very long wave length Alfven waves can propagate, if

$$\frac{c_A^2}{c^2}\frac{H_0^2}{a^2ab+b^2}1,$$
(51)
The first brunch of the nonlinear Alfven wave has a cutoff, if

$$\frac{c_A^2}{c^2}\frac{H_0^2}{a^2+ab+b^2}<1,$$
(52)
the second brunch has ist cutoff, if

$$\frac{c_A^2}{c^2}\frac{H_0^2}{a^2ab+b^2}<1.$$
(53)
We see that for a given amplitude of the Alfven wave the magnetic field strength $`H_0`$ should exceed a certain threshold $`H_0>\left(4\pi n_0m_ic^2(a^2\pm ab+b^2)\right)^{1/4}`$ to make propagation of the Alfven wave possible.

## VI Numerical Estimation

In the solar corona, the ambient magnetic field is, $`H_0=10^2\mathrm{G}`$ and the plasma mass density is, $`\rho =10^{16}\mathrm{g}/\mathrm{cm}^3`$. Hence the Alfven speed in a solar corona is $`c_A=2.75\times 10^5\mathrm{cm}/\mathrm{sec}`$. If an Alfven wave of amplitude $`a=10^8\mathrm{esu}`$ propagates in the solar corona, the induced magnetic field would be of the order of $`10^4\mathrm{G}`$ and the phase velocity of the incident wave in the resulting anisotropic plasma medium is very large but finite. This implies that only very long wave length waves can propagate in such a medium. For an incident wave amplitude $`a=10^7\mathrm{esu}`$, the induced magnetization is $`10^2\mathrm{G}`$ and the wave phase velocity $`\omega /k`$ becomes infinite. Moreover, if the incident wave amplitude increases to a value $`10^6\mathrm{esu}`$, the induced magnetization becomes $`1.13\mathrm{G}`$ and the phase velocity of the incident wave becomes imaginary and no further wave propagation is possible. The refractive index of nonlinear circular polarized Alfven wave with amplitude $`a=b`$ and propagating in the solar corona is shown in Fig. 1. With increasing wave amplitude the refractive indices of both nonlinear Alfven brunches decrease. The first brunch ($`n_+^2`$) has its cutoff at an amplitude $`a=5.310^8\mathrm{esu}`$, whereas the second brunch ranges up to an amplitude of $`a=9.110^8\mathrm{esu}`$.

Similar results have also been obtained in sunspots, where $`H_0=3000\mathrm{G}`$, mass density $`\rho =10^5\mathrm{g}/\mathrm{cm}^3`$ and Alfven speed $`c_A=2.7\times 10^5\mathrm{cm}/\mathrm{sec}`$. In that case for $`a=10^2\mathrm{esu}`$, $`H^{in}=420\mathrm{G}`$ and $`\omega /k`$ is very large but finite. For $`a=10^{1.5}\mathrm{esu}`$, $`H^{in}`$ becomes $`4200\mathrm{G}`$ and $`\omega /k`$ is infinite, and for $`a=10^1\mathrm{esu}`$, $`H^{in}=4.2\times 10^4\mathrm{G}`$, $`\omega /k`$ is imaginary.

These numerical results confirm that the increase in the incident wave amplitude produces a magnetic anisotropy via the increasing induced magnetization in the plasma medium and consequently inhibits the Alfven wave propagation.

## VII DISCUSSION

From the results so far obtained in this paper, it is evident that for a strong EM wave propagating along the static back ground magnetic field in a two component plasma, the self generated zero harmonic axial magnetic moment starts to evolve. This evolution induces a strong magnetic anisotropy in the plasma medium and the medium consequently behaves as a weakly ferromagnetic medium with the zero harmonic magnetization as the ground state magnetization. This anisotropy inhibits the incident wave propagation in the resulting plasma medium. Moreover, as the wave amplitude increases, the anisotropy becomes strong and absorption of the wave by the medium is pronounced.

## A CALCULATION OF THE MAGNETIC MOMENT FOR AN ELLIPITICALLY POLARIZED EM-WAVE IN A TWO-COMPONENT MAGNETIZED PLASMA

We consider the propagation of a transverse EM-wave in a two component cold magnetized plasma in which electrons and ions are both mobile. Collisions have been neglected. The basic equations describing such a plasma model, in the cold plasma limit are

$$\frac{\stackrel{}{u}_s}{t}+\left(\stackrel{}{u}_s\stackrel{}{}\right)\stackrel{}{u}_s=\frac{q_s}{m_s}\stackrel{}{E}+\frac{q_s}{m_sc}\left(\stackrel{}{u}_s\times \stackrel{}{H}\right),$$
(A1)
$$\frac{n_s}{t}+\stackrel{}{}\left(n_s\stackrel{}{u}_s\right)=0,$$
(A2)
$$\stackrel{}{}\times \stackrel{}{E}=\frac{1}{c}\frac{\stackrel{}{H}}{t},$$
(A3)
$$\stackrel{}{}\times \stackrel{}{H}=\frac{1}{c}\frac{\stackrel{}{E}}{t}+\frac{4\pi }{c}\stackrel{}{j},$$
(A4)
$$\stackrel{}{}\stackrel{}{E}=4\pi \rho ,$$
(A5)
$$\stackrel{}{}\stackrel{}{H}=0,$$
(A6)
where $`\rho =_{s=e,i}n_sq_s`$ and $`\stackrel{}{j}=_{s=e,i}n_sq_s\stackrel{}{u}_s`$ are the charge and current densities in the plasma. Assuming the plasma is initially quasi-static and quasi-neutral, such that

$$\stackrel{}{u}_{s0}=0;n_0=n_{0e}=n_{0i}.$$
(A7)
We linearize the field variables,

$$\stackrel{}{u}_s=\stackrel{}{u}_{s0}+\stackrel{}{u}_{s1};n_s=n_{s0}+n_{s1};\stackrel{}{E}=\stackrel{}{E}_0+\stackrel{}{E}_1;\stackrel{}{H}=\stackrel{}{H}_0+\stackrel{}{H}_1,$$
(A8)
where $`\stackrel{}{H_0}=(0,0,H_0)`$ is the ambient magnetic field acting along the $`z`$-direction and $`\stackrel{}{u}_{s1}`$, $`n_{s1}`$, $`\stackrel{}{E}_1`$, $`\stackrel{}{H}_1`$ are the first order perturbations in the field variables about their equilibrium value.

Linearizing the basic equations (A1,A2,A3,A4,A5,A6) with the help of (A8), we obtain

$$\frac{\stackrel{}{u}_{s1}}{t}=\frac{q_s}{m_s}\stackrel{}{E}_1+\frac{q_s}{m_sc}\left(\stackrel{}{u}_{s1}\times \stackrel{}{H}_0\right),$$
(A9)
$$\frac{n_{s1}}{t}+\stackrel{}{}\left(n_0\stackrel{}{u}_{s1}\right)=0,$$
(A10)
$$\stackrel{}{}\times \stackrel{}{E}_1=\frac{1}{c}\frac{\stackrel{}{H}_1}{t},$$
(A11)
$$\stackrel{}{}\times \stackrel{}{H}_1=\frac{1}{c}\frac{\stackrel{}{E}_1}{t}+\frac{4\pi n_0}{c}\underset{s=e,i}{}q_s\stackrel{}{u}_{s1},$$
(A12)
$$\stackrel{}{}\stackrel{}{E}_1=4\pi \underset{s=e,i}{}q_sn_{s1},$$
(A13)
$$\stackrel{}{}\stackrel{}{H}_1=0.$$
(A14)
Let the first order electric field of the em wave that induces the perturbation in the plasma model be

$$\stackrel{}{E}_1=(a\mathrm{cos}\theta ,b\mathrm{sin}\theta ,0);\theta =kz\omega t,$$
(A15)
where $`\stackrel{}{z}`$ being the direction of propagation of the em wave. Substitution of (A5) in (A11) gives

$$\stackrel{}{H}_1=n(b\mathrm{sin}\theta ,a\mathrm{cos}\theta ,0),$$
(A16)
where $`n=kc/\omega `$ is the refractive index of plasma, $`\omega `$ and $`k`$ are the frequency and wave number of the incident em wave. Solution of the linearized set of equations (A9,A10,A11,A12,A13,A14) with the help of (A15) and (A16) gives the first order perturbed velocity of the charged particles $`\stackrel{}{u}_{s1}`$, induced by the first order transverse em wave

$$\stackrel{}{u}_{s1}=(u_{s1_x},u_{s1_y},0),$$
(A17)
$$\stackrel{}{u}_{s1_x}=\frac{q_s}{m_s}\frac{\omega a+\mathrm{\Omega }_sb}{\omega ^2\mathrm{\Omega }_s^2}\mathrm{sin}\theta ,$$
(A18)
$$\stackrel{}{u}_{s1_y}=\frac{q_s}{m_s}\frac{\omega b+\mathrm{\Omega }_sa}{\omega ^2\mathrm{\Omega }_s^2}\mathrm{cos}\theta .$$
(A19)
After integrating (A18) and (A19), we obtain the first order wave induced displacement of the charge particles

$$\gamma _{s1_x}=\frac{q_s}{m_s\omega }\frac{\omega a+\mathrm{\Omega }_sb}{\omega ^2\mathrm{\Omega }_s^2}\mathrm{cos}\theta ,$$
(A20)
$$\gamma _{s1_y}=\frac{q_s}{m_s\omega }\frac{\omega b+\mathrm{\Omega }_sa}{\omega ^2\mathrm{\Omega }_s^2}\mathrm{sin}\theta .$$
(A21)
Hence the magnetic moment induced by the electrons and ion motion under the influence of the incident EM wave is

$$\stackrel{}{M}=\underset{s=e,i}{}\stackrel{}{M}_s,$$
(A22)
where

$$\stackrel{}{M}_s=\frac{1}{2c}\left(\stackrel{}{\gamma }_{s1}\times \stackrel{}{j}_{s1}\right),$$
(A23)
with $`\stackrel{}{j}_{s1}=n_0q_s\stackrel{}{u}_{s1}`$, is the first order perturbed current density due to the wave induced motion of charge particles. From (A18,A19,A20,A21,A22) we obtain

$$\stackrel{}{M}=(0,0,M_z),$$
(A24)
where

$$M_z=\frac{n_0c}{2\omega }\underset{s=e,i}{}\frac{q_s(\alpha _s+Y_s\beta _s)(\beta _s+Y_s\alpha _s)}{\left(1Y_s^2\right)^2},$$
(A25)
where $`(\alpha _s,\beta _s)=q_s(a,b)/m_s\omega c`$, $`Y_s=\mathrm{\Omega }_s/\omega `$, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_s=q_sH_0/m_sc`$. Here $`q_s`$ and $`m_s`$ are charge and mass of the sth species of charge particles.

This is the induced magnetization from IFE generated from the distortion of the ordered motion of charge particles under the influence of incident EM wave. Eq. (A24) shows that this induced magnetic moment acts along the $`z`$-direction which is the direction of the incident wave propagation. This is the ground state magnetization $`\stackrel{}{M}=\stackrel{}{M_0}`$ of the weakly ferromagnetic medium as discussed in this paper. Hence the induced magnetization $`\stackrel{}{H}^{in}`$ is

$$\stackrel{}{H}^{in}=4\pi \stackrel{}{M}.$$
(A26)
Substituting (A24) and (A25) in (A26), we obtain

$$\stackrel{}{H}^{in}=(0,0,H_z^{in}),$$
(A27)
where,

$$H_z^{in}=\frac{2\pi n_0c}{\omega }\underset{s=e,i}{}\frac{q_s(\alpha _s+Y_s\beta _s)(\beta _s+Y_s\alpha _s)}{\left(1Y_s^2\right)^2}.$$
(A28)
Figure Captions

Fig. 1 Squares of refraction indices $`n_\pm ^2`$ of nonlinear left circular polarized Alfven wave propagating in the solar corona vs. wave amplitude $`a`$ (in esu): solid line - $`n_{}^2`$, dashed line - $`n_+^2`$. Magnetic field strength is $`H_0=10^2\mathrm{G}`$ and plasma mass density is $`\rho =10^{16}\mathrm{g}/\mathrm{cm}^3`$.


text:
# A Superwind from Early Post-Red Giant Stars?

## 1 INTRODUCTION

Gaps along the principal sequences of globular cluster (GC) color-magnitude diagrams (CMDs) constitute one of the most intriguing problems in the evolution of low-mass stars. Sandage, Katem, & Kristian (1968) first reported that a “major significant” gap was present on the red giant branch (RGB) of M15 (NGC 7078), and subsequently similar features were reported in several other GCs. Most prominent among these have been the gaps along the horizontal branch (HB), which is the core helium-burning evolutionary phase immediately following the RGB phase. The HB is thought to constitute a sequence in post-RGB mass (Rood 1973), where stars with progressively lower masses (i.e., with higher mass loss rates on the RGB) end up at hotter and hotter regions on the zero-age HB (ZAHB).

While the statistical significance of the Sandage et al. (1968) gap on the M15 RGB has been questioned on the basis of detailed Monte Carlo simulations (Bahcall & Yahil 1972), and while similar arguments (Catelan et al. 1998) have been put forward to question the statistical significance of gaps similar to the famous “Newell (1973) gaps” along the HB, it is still possible that some of the detected gaps on the HB may turn out to be real (Ferraro et al. 1998; Piotto et al. 1999), thereby requiring a physical (rather than purely statistical or mathematical) explanation for their occurrence. For instance, Brown et al. (2001) have recently provided a convincing physical explanation for a gap located inside the “extreme HB” (EHB) of NGC 2808 (Bedin et al. 2000).

Besides the EHB gap, one cooler gap, presumably located somewhere in the range $`T_{\mathrm{eff},\mathrm{G1}}10,00012,000`$ K, has often been suggested in the literature; this is Newell’s (1973) “gap 1,” or the Ferraro et al. (1998) gap “G1.” Note that this gap’s temperature is intriguingly close to the onset of radiative levitation of heavy elements in HB stars, which has been shown to give rise to observable consequences in the CMDs of GCs, particularly in the shorter wavelengths (Grundahl et al. 1999). Indeed, Caloi (1999) has suggested a connection between a gap at $`(\mathrm{B V})_0=0`$ (which however is substantially cooler than G1) and radiative levitation. While interesting, it remains to be proven that a real gap exists at the location of G1 in all Galactic GCs with sufficiently hot HB stars, in the same manner that radiative levitation of metals clearly leads to identifiable features in the near-UV CMDs of all GCs whose HBs contain stars hotter than $`T_{\mathrm{eff}}11,500`$ K. The compilation presented by Catelan et al. (1998) shows that the fraction of GCs showing one such gap is relatively small, which strengthens the argument that this gap too may turn out to be the result of a statistical fluctuation.

However, the same argument may not apply to Newell’s (1973) “gap 2,” which appears to be located in the same position as gap G3 in Ferraro et al. (1998). This is a gap located at a much hotter region of the HB, near the boundary between the blue HB (BHB) and the EHB, at $`T_{\mathrm{eff},\mathrm{G3}}20,000`$ K. While the number of GCs showing extended blue tails reaching the G3 region is small compared with the number of GCs which have the region around G1 populated, several authors have recently argued that all GCs with sufficiently extended blue tails do seem to show the G3 gap (Ferraro et al. 1998; Piotto et al. 1999; Brown et al. 2001). Ferraro et al. argue that such a gap occurs at roughly the same temperature in all clusters, $`T_{\mathrm{eff},\mathrm{G3}}20,000`$ K (cf. their Table 2). In contrast, Piotto et al. argue that clusters with different metallicity have gap G3 located at somewhat different temperatures and the quantity remaining constant from one case to the next is the ZAHB mass of the observed gaps: $`0.53M_{}<M<0.54M_{}`$. The Piotto et al. result is based on $`B,V`$ photometry which is not well suited for determining the physical parameters of such hot stars. To firmly establish the nature of the gap extensive ultraviolet photometry of a large sample of blue-tail GCs is needed. What is clear now is that all clusters with a substantial HB populations hotter than $`20,000`$ K observed to date show a gap, and that the envelope mass for the stars hotter than G3 is quite small. In any case, our proposed scenario does not depend strongly on the gap being for a constant total stellar mass. It could as well be at a constant envelope mass, and have some dependence on metallicity (although the core mass does not depend strongly on metallicity; Sweigart 1987).

Our goal here is to explore a possible physical reason for the occurrence of gap G3. We shall investigate the requirements on the (ill constrained) RGB mass loss rates for a gap such as the one conjectured by Piotto et al. to appear. We propose that stars which start to peel-off the RGB experience a super-wind phase, i.e., an enhanced mass loss rate phase, during the very late RGB phase and early post-RGB phase. Although by peel-off stars one usually refers to stars which have the core helium flash during the post-RGB phase, in the present paper we use the term more loosely, also to characterize all RGB stars which start to move to the left on the HR diagram, i.e., whose surface temperature starts to increase, even though they may still be on the RGB by the time they undergo the helium core flash. From the inner bright shell of planetary nebulae and obscuration of late asymptotic giant branch (AGB) stars, such a super-wind phase is known to exist in late AGB and early post-AGB stars. The AGB super-wind was postulated by Renzini (1981). A super-wind phase seems to occur in some red supergiants which are progenitors of Type II narrow-line supernovae (Fransson et al. 2001).

We begin in §2 by evaluating the constraints on the RGB mass loss rate for the production of a gap similar to G3. In §3 we discuss the envelope structure of RGB stars that are near the “peel-off” stage at the tip of the RGB and post-RGB, comparing that against similar computations for AGB stars during their super-wind phase. A summary and discussion are provided in §4.

## 2 THE SUPERWIND POSTULATION

Lower metallicity stars peel-off the RGB at higher temperatures, smaller radii, and have lower opacities compared with higher metallicity RGB stars. In what follows we scale parameters for the $`[\mathrm{Fe}/\mathrm{H}]=1.48`$ and $`Z=6\times 10^4`$ model of D’Cruz et al. (1996). This model leaves the RGB with $`L1800L_{}`$, $`T_{\mathrm{eff}}=4000\mathrm{K}`$, and $`R=90R_{}`$. By peel-off stars we refer to all stars which have their surface temperature increasing on the RGB, even if a core helium flash occurs while they are still on the RGB. This is more or less the stage where the super-wind occurs in AGB stars. From Castellani & Castellani (1993) we find that RGB stars start to peel-off when their total mass is $`M0.50.6M_{}`$. Stars that suffer core helium flash during the post-RGB phase, i.e., bona-fide peel-off stars, have much lower masses (D’Cruz et al. 1996). We take the duration of the super-wind, $`t_{\mathrm{sw}}`$, to be similar to, or somewhat longer (due to slower evolution of low-mass cores) than, the super-wind phase in AGB stars, namely $`t_{\mathrm{sw}}t_{\mathrm{sw}}=10^4\mathrm{yr}`$, and scale quantities by their values at the termination of the RGB. The boundary between peel-off and He-flasher stars occurs for $`\eta 0.7`$ (D’Cruz et al. 1996; Brown et al. 2001), where $`\eta `$ determines the mass loss rate via the Reimers (1975a, 1975b) formula. Since we are interested in stars that start to peel off, even if not becoming peel-off stars, we scale with a somewhat lower mass loss rate $`\eta =0.5`$, to get

$$\dot{M}_\mathrm{R}=6.5\times 10^8\left(\frac{\eta }{0.5}\right)\left(\frac{L}{1800L_{}}\right)\left(\frac{R}{90R_{}}\right)\left(\frac{M}{0.5M_{}}\right)^1M_{}\mathrm{yr}^1.$$
(1)
Even though we use Reimers’ formula as a reference, it should be noted that any of the alternative analytical mass loss formulae discussed by Catelan (2000) yield qualitatively similar results. To form the observed gap at $`20,000\mathrm{K}`$, we require the peel-off stars to lose extra mass. Using the Piotto et al. (1999) result that the gap in different GCs occurs at roughly the stellar mass range of $`0.53M_{}<M<0.54M_{}`$, the required enhanced mass loss rate factor $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ is

$$\mathrm{\Gamma }=\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }M_{\mathrm{sw}}}{|\dot{M}_\mathrm{R}|t_{\mathrm{sw}}}=15\left(\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }M_{\mathrm{sw}}}{0.01M_{}}\right)\left(\frac{|\dot{M}_\mathrm{R}|}{6.5\times 10^8M_{}\mathrm{yr}^1}\right)^1\left(\frac{t_{\mathrm{sw}}}{10^4\mathrm{yr}}\right)^1,$$
(2)
where $`\mathrm{\Delta }M_{\mathrm{sw}}`$ is the extra mass that needs to be lost during the super-wind phase. A similar factor, or even larger, is thought to exist in stars leaving the AGB. As the star loses mass, contracts, and heats up, the super-wind ceases. The super wind may last longer than the scaled time here, and the enhanced mass loss factor can be smaller, e.g., $`\mathrm{\Gamma }=3`$ for $`t_{\mathrm{sw}}=5\times 10^4\mathrm{yr}`$. In any case, after the super-wind gradually ceases, the mass loss resumes its “normal” value (as provided, e.g., by Reimers’ formula). Just as the “normal” mass loss varies from star to star due to differences in some yet unknown parameter like rotation, the super wind probably also varies from star to star. The net effect of the super-wind is to increase somewhat the amount of mass lost by the star. It will not remove the entire envelope, just as the “regular” wind will not. Only stars below the gap have experienced a super-wind. The derivation above suffers from several large uncertainties, but it does suggest that a super-wind may explain the G3 gap.

## 3 ENVELOPE STRUCTURE

One of the reasons for the occurence of a super-wind in AGB stars may be the shallow density and steep entropy gradients in the envelope (Soker & Harpaz 1999; hereafter SH99). To show from simple arguments that shallow density envelope profiles exist, accompanied by a steep entropy gradient, in peel-off stars, hence we expect them to go through a super-wind phase, we follow the arguments of SH99. The photospheric pressure $`P_\mathrm{p}`$ and density $`\rho _\mathrm{p}`$ are determined by the stellar effective temperature $`T_\mathrm{p}`$, luminosity, and photospheric opacity $`\kappa `$ (e.g., Kippenhahn & Weigert 1990, §10.2). By using the definition of the photosphere as the place where $`\kappa l\rho _\mathrm{p}=2/3`$, where $`l`$ is the density scale height, we can write

$$\rho _\mathrm{p}=\frac{2}{3}\frac{GM\mu m_\mathrm{H}}{k_\mathrm{B}}\frac{1}{R^2\kappa T_\mathrm{p}},$$
(3)
where $`k_\mathrm{B}`$ is the Boltzmann constant and $`\mu m_\mathrm{H}`$ is the mean mass per particle. At the level of accuracy required here, we can take the pressure and density scale height at the photosphere to be equal. We take the opacity from Alexander & Ferguson (1994), for a temperature of $`T_\mathrm{p}4000`$ K and density of $`\rho 10^9\mathrm{g}\mathrm{cm}^3`$. Substituting typical values for peel-off stars, we find the ratio of the photospheric density to the average envelope density $`\rho _\mathrm{a}=3M_\mathrm{e}/(4\pi R^3)`$ to be

$$\frac{\rho _\mathrm{p}}{\rho _\mathrm{a}}0.026\left(\frac{R}{90R_{}}\right)\left(\frac{\kappa }{10^3\mathrm{cm}^2\mathrm{g}^1}\right)^1\left(\frac{T_\mathrm{p}}{4000\mathrm{K}}\right)^1\left(\frac{M}{0.5M_{}}\right)\left(\frac{M_\mathrm{e}}{0.04M_{}}\right)^1.$$
(4)
Since the density increases inward, the density ratio between the photosphere and outer envelope regions is higher (closer to unity), hence a very shallow density gradient exists in the outer envelope regions of upper RGB and early post-RGB stars. In AGB stars with parameters similar to stars with observed super-winds, SH99 find the ratio in equation (4) to be $`0.25`$. We derive a similar ratio of $`0.25`$ for red supergiants which are thought to have a super-wind (Fransson et al. 2001), e.g., VY Canis Majoris (Kastner & Weintraub 1998, and references therein). The structure and properties of RGB stars with low mass envelopes are similar to those of AGB and red supergiant stars. Although such RGB peel-off stars have steeper gradients than the AGB and red supergiants the gradients are much shallower than in “normal” stars, so it is still plausible that these stars have a super-wind phase.

To emphasize the similarity between RGB and AGB stars, we constructed upper RGB and early post-RGB models with the same numerical code that was used to build the AGB models of SH99 (where all details of the calculations can be found), and the same composition was used (solar). We find the same behavior for low metallicity stars, but for a quantitative comparison with AGB stars we present in this short paper the solar metallicity results. In Figure 1 we present the relevant variables in the same form as in SH99, so a direct comparison can be made. The upper panel is for an RGB stellar model with an envelope mass of $`M_\mathrm{e}=0.1M_{}`$. The star at this stage still climbs the RGB (it is a solar metallicity star), and the core has not reached its maximum mass yet. The middle panel presents a star with the same radius, but a lower envelope mass and a more developed core; the star is at its very early post-RGB phase. The envelope in the middle panel has a shallower density and a much steeper entropy gradient compared with the upper pannel. The differences in the entropy gradients are largest at the outer $`20\%`$ of the envelope. The lower panel presents a model with a lower envelope mass and later in its post-RGB phase. The radius and envelope mass are lower than those for the middle panel model in such a way that the density gradients are comparable, but the entropy gradient is much steeper in the lower panel. The steepening of the entropy gradients implies a stronger convection. SH99 discuss plausible ways by which these changes can enhance the mass loss rate.

## 4 SUMMARY

The hottest ($`>20,000`$K) part of the HB in Galactic globular clusters may be populated by stars which have peeled off, or started to peel off the RGB before the helium flash, i.e., whose surface temperatures increased just before the helium core flash. We suggest that such stars may undergo a super-wind phase analogous to that observed in AGB stars. These stars have the shallow density gradient and steep entropy gradient thought to be important in driving AGB super-winds. Scaling laws suggest that the peel-off star super-winds could provide enough additional mass loss to separate their helium burning progeny from the distribution of normal HB stars whose ancestors underwent the helium flash at the RGB tip.

If this hypothesis is correct, all HBs with a significant population beyond $`20,000`$K should have a gap in the HB distribution. The presence of the gap should not depend on factors like cluster density or binary fraction. Further ultraviolet photometry of a larger sample of GCs with blue tails is necessary to determine whether the gaps are universal and the physical parameters of the gap. Does the gap occur at constant $`T_{\mathrm{eff}}`$, constant total mass, or constant envelope mass? Coupled with a grid of theoretical models this could point to the key envelope structures which lead to the onset and termination of a RGB super-wind.

###### Acknowledgements.

We thank the referee for useful comments. This research was supported in part by grants from the US-Israel Binational Science Foundation (N.S.) and the Celerity Foundation. Support for M.C. was provided by NASA through Hubble Fellowship grant HF–01105.01–98A awarded by the Space Telescope Science Institute (STScI), which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., for NASA under contract NAS 5–26555. RTR is partially supported by NASA Long Term Astrophysics Grant NAG 5-6403 and STScI grant GO-8709.
FIGURE CAPTIONS

Figure 1: The envelope structure of three RGB and post-RGB stellar models. The envelope mass of each model is indicated inside the panel. The quantities that are plotted versus the radius are: temperature $`T`$ in Kelvin, density $`\rho `$ in $`\mathrm{g}\mathrm{cm}^3`$, the total mass $`M`$ in $`M_{}`$, and the entropy $`S`$ in relative units. Note that we treat the region near the photosphere using the Eddington approximation of gray atmosphere, and therefore the values of the density, pressure, and temperature very close to the surface (photosphere) are not accurate. Also, these variables are drawn above the photosphere, since the numerical code has few shells there.

Fig. 1.—


text:
# A Study of RHIC Crystal Collimation

## 1 Introduction

The Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider (RHIC) has two large angle acceptance detectors PHENIX and STAR placed at the interaction regions (IR-’s) where the heavy ion beams (like fully striped gold $`{}_{}{}^{+79}Au^{197}`$ ions) from the two parallel rings will be focussed to $`\beta ^{}=12m`$. The intra-beam scattering of the heavy ions like gold $`{}_{}{}^{+79}Au^{197}`$ ions is expected to be a dominant effect of the emittance growth with a fast loss of luminosity. The transverse and longitudinal emittances are expected to double in size between one to two hours due to intra-beam scattering which may lead to transverse beam loss. Particle amplitudes also grow due to other effects like beam gas interaction, beam diffusion due to the nonlinear beam dynamics etc. This results in beam loss at limiting apertures at the triplet magnets close to the large detectors. This beam loss creates hadronic showers which leads to larger than desirable backgrounds in detectors. To reduce this background it is necessary to scrape the unwanted beam. The primary betatron collimator has to be able to remove particles with large amplitudes. The RHIC collimator studies previously reported , , had shown that a combination of the primary with the secondary collimators reduced the background around the large detectors. The studies have shown that losses of the out-scattered ions from the primary collimators were, as expected, localized at the high beta focusing quadrupoles. The amplitude growth of the the gold $`{}_{}{}^{+79}Au^{197}`$ and proton ion beams was estimated by a diffusion process based on measurements at the SPS-CERN . The energy and phase distributions of the out-scattered ions from the primary collimators were obtained by using the “ELSHIM” Van Ginneken code  , , which simulated transport of the 100 GeV gold $`{}_{}{}^{+79}Au^{197}`$ ion beam through the primary collimator jaws. The previous study  has shown that for the best collimation of the gold ions the alignment of the primary collimators’ jaws has to be within about 10 $`\mu `$rad. This is a report where a simulation of the bent crystal deflection for the RHIC beam collimation of the heavy ion beam is described.

There are few motivations for this study and an eventual implementation of the bent crystals for the collimation purposes:

* The bent crystal, with a length of the order of 1 cm removes a request for the high accuracy in alignment of the primary collimator jaws
* The primary collimators, placed $``$7 m downstream of the crystal, become effectively the secondary collimators, because most of the large amplitude particles are bent into it.
* The background of the large detectors will be reduced because the losses at the high focusing quadrupoles are expected to be reduced.

### 1.1 Bent Single Crystal Deflection

The protons and heavy ion (like fully stripped lead $`{}_{}{}^{208}Pb^{82+}`$ ions) bent single crystal extraction has been demonstrated and continually used at many laboratories like (SPS, Fermilab, IHEP, Aarhus, ect.) and previously reported in many articles , ,  ect. The high energy relativistic particles are channeled within the bent crystal planes and bent away from the center of the beam.

The theoretical predictions and experimental results of the crystal extraction and deflection are very well understood. The crystal extraction efficiency is defined as the number of ions extracted by the crystal with respect to the number of lost particles due to the crystal. The theoretical predictions of the crystal extraction F are obtained by tracking the particles through the potential of the bent crystal lattice taking into account the multipole and catastrophic scattering, nuclear and electronic collisions with the crystal discontinuities, surface effects and dislocations . The heavy ions (like $`{}_{}{}^{+79}Au^{197}`$) interact with the crystal matter differently than protons due to their large mass and high charge state. The critical angle $`\psi _c`$, one of the most important parameters for the channeling acceptance  scales with the mass and charge as $`\psi _c\sqrt{\frac{Z}{p}}`$.

## 2 Bent Crystal Collimation Simulation in RHIC

The crystal collimation is clearly a multi turn process. The multi turn efficiency for the TEVATRON is estimated well above 90$`\%`$ at the peak according to our simulation. In this report, instead of a proper simulation of the multi turn deflection a simulation a single pass of the diffused gold ions is performed. The initial horizontal and vertical phase space distributions of 19528 gold $`{}_{}{}^{+79}Au^{197}`$ ions in front of the crystal were obtained by selecting ions which had their amplitudes grown above 5$`\sigma _x`$ horizontally by diffusion process. The diffusion was described by the published experimental and theoretical results from the SPS (CERN) .

All particles in the initial horizontal phase space distribution have the horizontal distance larger than $`x`$0.04290 m which represents 5$`\sigma _x`$ of beam with the $`40\pi mmmrad`$ emittance. The betatron functions at this position of the crystal are presented in Table 1. Before the gold ions were transported through the 1 mrad bent silicon single crystal Si(110), an optimum value for the crystal length was selected to be l=1 cm along the beam direction. This length provides large enough deflection efficiency and is still practical for the experimental use.

The gold $`{}_{}{}^{+79}Au^{197}`$ ions, with an input energy of $`\gamma `$=108.4, are transported through the lattice of the bent silicon crystal by the Monte Carlo program “CATCH” . The total number of the gold ions which passed the crystal was 18296. The number of particles which interacted with the crystal nuclei was 5%. The simulation of the bent crystal collimation is continued by using the ions obtained from the output at the crystal edge. Four coordinates of each ion (x, x’, y, y’, dp/p) were used as an input into the tracking program TEAPOT . All measured systematic as well as the random multipole errors in the magnetic field for each magnet were introduced into the lattice as well as the measured magnet misalignment errors. The bent single crystal is placed in the lattice at the position downstream of the high focusing quadrupoles at the IR where the PHENIX detector is located. The tracking was performed at the top energy of 100 GeV/nucleon for gold for 256 turns. The rms values for misalignment of the arc quadrupoles were $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$x,y=0.5 mm $`\mathrm{\Delta }\theta `$=0.5 mrad, while from the measurements of the triplet quadrupoles the roll and misalignment errors for the rms values were $`\mathrm{\Delta }\theta `$=0.5 mrad and $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$x,y=0.5 mm. During tracking the RF voltage was included and the longitudinal motion of the surviving particles could be monitored. Particles which survived, with momentum offsets within the bucket size limit, executed synchrotron oscillations. In the phase space of the gold ions at the end of the crystal, there are large number of particles with momenta larger than the bucket size. If these particles are not removed by the primary collimators they will be lost due to their large momentum offsets. The crystal length, together with its bending angle, can be further reduced to affect the momentum loss distribution which will be addressed in our future simulations.

### 2.1 Transverse Phase Space Distribution at the Crystal End

The position of the primary collimator is 7.68 m downstream of the single crystal. Each tracking run was performed with a different position of the primary collimator selected to a distance from center of the beam, starting with a position completely away from the beam. In gold ion distributions in the horizontal phase space at the downstream edge of the crystal, there are several important features to point out:
-The channeled particles are contained in the upper part of the x and x’ plot with a slope of $`x_{ch}^{}`$0.073 mrad. The slope of the gold ions, used for the input into the bent crystal, is within the range of $`1.080mrad<x_{input}^{}<1.058mrad`$. A difference between the average slopes of $`x_{ch}^{}x_{input}^{}`$1 mrad, shows that the channeled particles are bent for $``$1 mrad.
-The group of particles at the lower part of the x and x’ plot with a value of x$``$0.04289 m and with the slope of x’$``$-1.15 mrad is not channeled. The slope of the horizontal amplitude x’ 1.15 mrad reaches negative values larger than the end within the initial distribution (-1.108 mrad).
-Particles with the slope of the horizontal amplitude between the channeld ones and the edge clearly interacted with the crystal lattice. When the primary collimator was completely away from the beam, the particles from the crystal are lost mostly at the first quadrupole downstream of it, as well as at the high focusing quadrupoles around the IR’s where the $`\beta ^{}`$=1 m. In the gold ion distribution in the horizontal phase space, at the 7.68 m downtream of the crystal, particles which reached the primary collimator in the first pass are presented within a very narrow region between values of the slope of the horizontal amplitude $``$1.17 mrad$`x^{}`$0.47 mrad. Particles within the ellipse survived many turns and reach every turn the primary collimator again. If all the particles are channeled then the primary collimator could be set up at the distance close to 0.042 m. It is clear that not all the particles are channeled and there will be losses around the ring even when the primary collimator is set to a horizontal distance of 5$`\sigma _x`$ of the beam. This is due to the paticles which come from the crystal with the slopes larger than 1.08 mrad from the crystal edge.

## 3 A Comparison of the Crystal Collimation with the Previous Results

The large amplitude particles are mostly likely to get lost at the most limited appertures in the two RHIC accelerator rings which are located at the high focusing triplet magnets. The background of the two large detectors will be enhanced by the showers generated by these lost particles. Table 2 represents a

the losses around the RHIC rings from the particles scattered of the standard collimation case by using a standard primary and secondary collimators while table 3 shows the losses from the particles deflected by the crystal.

In the table 3 two extreme cases are presented when the primary collimator downstream of the crystal is wide open and when it is set to 5$`\sigma _x`$, the same horizontal distance as a front edge of the crystal.

## 4 Conclusions

We presented a simulation study where the bent single crystals are used in the RHIC collimation system. The preliminary results are very encouraging. The 100 GeV/nucleon gold ions were transported through the bent single crystal Si(110) and the gold ions from the crystal were tracked through the RHIC storage lattice. A comparison to the previous results with a standard two stage collimator system shows lower losses around the ring from the outscattered particles. This would possibly reduced background at the two large detectors due to smaller losses at the high focusing limited apperture quadrupoles located around the detectors. The study of the crystal collimation in RHIC will be concluded by the multiturn crystal deflection simulation and with a shorter length and smaller bending angle single crystal. We expect improvement in the momentum distribution of the ions passed through the crystal and a reduction of lost particles around the ring.