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# I Introduction

## I Introduction

General relativity is a theory of gravitation that supports a massless graviton with two degrees of freedom. However, if one were to describe gravity with a massive tensor field, general covariance is lost and the graviton would possess five degrees of freedom. In the limit of vanishing mass, these five degrees of freedom may be decomposed into a massless tensor (the graviton), a massless vector (a graviphoton which decouples from any conserved matter source) and a massless scalar. This massless scalar persists as an extra degree of freedom in all regimes of the theory. Thus, a massive gravity theory is distinct from Einstein gravity, even in the limit where the graviton mass vanishes. This discrepancy is a formulation of the van Dam–Veltman–Zakharov (VDVZ) discontinuity.

The most accessible physical consequence of the VDVZ discontinuity is the gravitational field of a star or other compact, spherically symmetric source. The ratio of the strength of the static (Newtonian) potential to that of the gravitomagnetic potential is different for Einstein gravity compared to massive gravity, even in the massless limit. Indeed the ratio is altered by a factor of order unity. Thus, such effects as light deflection by a star or perihelion precession of an orbiting body would be affected significantly if the graviton had even an infinitesimal mass.

This discrepancy appears for the gravitational field of any compact object. An even more dramatic example of the VDVZ discontinuity occurs for a cosmic string. A cosmic string has no static potential in Einstein gravity; however, the same does not hold for a cosmic string in massive tensor gravity. One can see why using the momentum space perturbative amplitudes for one-graviton exchange between two sources $`T_{\mu \nu }`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{T}_{\mu \nu }`$:

$`V_{massless}(q^2)`$ $``$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{M_P^2}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{q^2}}\left(T_{\mu \nu }{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\eta _{\mu \nu }T_\alpha ^\alpha \right)\stackrel{~}{T}^{\mu \nu }`$ (1)
$`V_{massive}(q^2)`$ $``$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{M_P^2}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{q^2+m^2}}\left(T_{\mu \nu }{\displaystyle \frac{1}{3}}\eta _{\mu \nu }T_\alpha ^\alpha \right)\stackrel{~}{T}^{\mu \nu }`$ (2)
The potential between a cosmic string with $`T_{\mu \nu }=\mathrm{diag}(T,T,0,0)`$ and a test particle with $`\stackrel{~}{T}_{\mu \nu }=\mathrm{diag}(2\stackrel{~}{M}^2,0,0,0)`$ is

$$V_{massless}=0,V_{massive}\frac{T\stackrel{~}{M}}{M_P^2}\mathrm{ln}r,$$
(3)
where the last expression is taken in the limit $`m0`$. Thus in a massive gravity theory, we expect a cosmic string to attract a static test particle, whereas in general relativity, no such attraction occurs. The attraction in the massive case can be attributed to the exchange of the remnant light scalar mode that comes from the decomposition of the massive graviton modes in the massless limit.

Nevertheless, the presence of the VDVZ discontinuity is more subtle than just described. Vainshtein suggests that the discontinuity is derived from only the lowest order, tree-level approximation and that this discontinuity does not persist in the full classical theory . However, doubts remain  since no self-consistent theory of massive tensor gravity exists. One can shed light on the issue of nonperturbative continuity versus perturbative discontinuity by studying a recent class of braneworld theories*** There has been a recent revival of interest in the VDVZ discontinuity in the context of braneworld theories. These studies have focused on variations of the Randall–Sundrum braneworld scenario where the brane tension is slightly detuned from the bulk cosmological constant. The localized four-dimensional graviton acquires a small mass, allowing one to study the VDVZ problem in an effective massive four-dimensional gravity theory. For examples related to such work, see . with a metastable graviton on the brane . The theory we wish to consider has a four-dimensional brane embedded in a five-dimensional, infinite volume Minkowski bulk, where the graviton is pinned to the brane by intrinsic curvature terms induced by quantum fluctuations of the matter. The metastable graviton has the same tensor structure as that for a massive graviton and perturbatively has the same VDVZ problem in the limit that the graviton linewidth vanishes. In this model the momentum space perturbative amplitude for one-graviton exchange is

$$V(q^2)\frac{1}{M_P^2}\frac{1}{q^2+iqr_0^1}\left(T_{\mu \nu }\frac{1}{3}\eta _{\mu \nu }T_\alpha ^\alpha \right)\stackrel{~}{T}^{\mu \nu },$$
(4)
where the scale $`r_0`$ is the scale over which the graviton evaporates off the brane. But unlike a massive gravity theory, this braneworld model provides a self-consistent, generally covariant environment in which to address the nonperturbative solutions in the limit as $`r_0\mathrm{}`$. Indeed, exact cosmological solutions  in this theory already suggest that there is no VDVZ discontinuity at the nonperturbative classical level .

We would like to continue this program and investigate the gravitational field of compact objects in the same braneworld theory with a metastable brane graviton. In this regard, one would ideally like to identify the nonperturbative metric of a spherical, Schwarzschild-like source. That problem, however, possess considerable, though not insuperable, computational difficulties.

Instead, we investigate the metric of a cosmic string as a close alternative formulation of the VDVZ problem for a compact source. The advantage of this system is its relative simplicity, as well as the clarity with which the VDVZ discontinuity manifests itself. After laying out the framework in which the problem is phrased, we identify various regimes where one can linearize the cosmic string metric. We then argue that there exist a region where these cosmic string solutions are simultaneously valid and that they are identical up to a coordinate redefinition. The resulting cosmic string metric indicates there is no discontinuity in the fully nonperturbative theory. It also provides an understanding as to how different phases appear in different regions near and far away from the string source. We conclude with some comments regarding the consequences of this solution.

## II The Solution

### A Preliminaries

We wish to address the issues raised in the previous section using a braneworld theory of gravity with an infinite volume bulk and a metastable brane graviton . Consider a four-dimensional braneworld embedded in a five-dimensional spacetime. The bulk is empty; all energy-momentum is isolated on the brane. The action is

$$S_{(5)}=\frac{1}{2}M^3d^5x\sqrt{|g|}\stackrel{~}{R}+d^4x\sqrt{g^{(4)}}_m+S_{GH}.$$
(5)
The quantity $`M`$ is the fundamental five-dimensional Planck scale. The first term in Eq. (5) corresponds to the Einstein-Hilbert action in five dimensions for a five-dimensional metric $`g_{AB}`$ (bulk metric) with Ricci scalar $`R`$. The term $`S_{GH}`$ is the Gibbons–Hawking action. In addition, we consider an intrinsic curvature term which is generally induced by radiative corrections by the matter density on the brane :

$$\frac{1}{2}M_P^2d^4x\sqrt{g^{(4)}}R^{(4)}.$$
(6)
Here, $`M_P`$ is the observed four-dimensional Planck scale (see  for details). Similarly, Eq. (6) is the Einstein-Hilbert action for the induced metric $`g_{\mu \nu }^{(4)}`$ on the brane, $`R^{(4)}`$ being its scalar curvature. The induced metric is

$$g_{\mu \nu }^{(4)}=_\mu X^A_\nu X^Bg_{AB},$$
(7)
where $`X^A(x^\mu )`$ represents the coordinates of an event on the brane labeled by $`x^\mu `$.

We wish to find the spacetime around a perfectly straight, infinitely thin cosmic string. With Lorentz boost symmetry and translational invariance along the cosmic string, as well as rotational symmetry around the string axis, the most general time-independent metric can be written with the following line element:

$$ds^2=N^2(r,z)(dt^2dx^2)A^2(r,z)dr^2B^2(r,z)\left[dz^2+\mathrm{sin}^2zd\varphi ^2\right],$$
(8)
where the string is located at $`r=0`$ for all $`(t,x)`$. These coordinates are depicted in Fig. 1. If spacetime were flat (i.e., $`N=A=1`$, $`B=r`$), we would choose the brane to be located at $`z=\frac{\pi }{2}`$. In general, one can choose coordinates within the context of the line element Eq. (8) such that the brane is located at $`z=\frac{\pi }{2}`$, even when spacetime is not flat. However, we will find it useful to apply a less stringent constraint, considering coordinates where the brane is located at $`z=\frac{\pi \alpha }{2}`$, where the parameter $`\alpha `$ is to be specified by the brane boundary conditions. Again, one can find a set of coordinates within the ansatz Eq. (8) in which this is possible in general.

Assuming the cosmic string dominates the energy-momentum content of the spacetime, we ignore the matter effects of the brane itself, except through the intrinsic curvature term Eq. (6). Using the coordinate system specified by Eq. (8), the energy-momentum of the system isThroughout this paper, we define the distributional $`\delta (x)`$ of the variable $`x`$, such that given any well-behaved function $`f(x)`$, $`𝑑x\delta (x)f(x)=f(0)`$ .

$$T_{tt}=T_{xx}=N^2(r,z)\frac{T\delta (r)}{2\pi A(r,z)B^2(r,z)\mathrm{sin}z},$$
(9)
where the parameter $`T`$ denotes the string tension and all other components of the energy-momentum tensor are zero. The Einstein equations dictated by the action Eqs. (56) are

$$\frac{1}{2r_0}G_{AB}+\frac{1}{B(r,z)}\delta \left(z\frac{\pi \alpha }{2}\right)G_{AB}^{(4)}=\frac{1}{M_P^2}T_{AB},$$
(10)
where $`G_{AB}`$ is the five-dimensional Einstein tensor, $`G_{AB}^{(4)}`$ is the induced four-dimensional Einstein tensor on the brane, $`T_{AB}`$ is the energy-momentum on the brane Eq. (9), and we have defined a crossover scale

$$r_0=\frac{M_P^2}{2M^3}.$$
(11)
This scale characterizes that distance over which metric fluctuations propagating on the brane dissipate into the bulk .

We assume a $`𝒵_2`$–symmetric brane across $`z=\frac{\pi \alpha }{2}`$. Under this circumstance, one may solve Eqs. (910) by solving $`G_{AB}=0`$ in the bulk, i.e., when $`z<\frac{\pi \alpha }{2}`$ and $`r0`$, such that the following brane boundary conditions apply at $`z=\frac{\pi \alpha }{2}`$:

$`\left({\displaystyle \frac{N_z}{N}}+{\displaystyle \frac{A_z}{A}}+{\displaystyle \frac{B_z}{B}}\right)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{r_0r}{A^2}}\left[{\displaystyle \frac{N_{rr}}{N}}{\displaystyle \frac{N_r}{N}}{\displaystyle \frac{A_r}{A}}+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{r}}\left({\displaystyle \frac{N_r}{N}}{\displaystyle \frac{A_r}{A}}\right)\right]`$ (12)
$`{\displaystyle \frac{\sqrt{1\beta ^2}}{\beta }}+{\displaystyle \frac{r_0T/M_P^2}{2\pi \beta }}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{A}}\delta (r)`$ (13)
$`\left(2{\displaystyle \frac{N_z}{N}}+{\displaystyle \frac{B_z}{B}}\right)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{r_0r}{A^2}}\left[{\displaystyle \frac{N_r^2}{N^2}}+{\displaystyle \frac{2}{r}}{\displaystyle \frac{N_r}{N}}\right]{\displaystyle \frac{\sqrt{1\beta ^2}}{\beta }}`$ (14)
$`\left(2{\displaystyle \frac{N_z}{N}}+{\displaystyle \frac{A_z}{A}}\right)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{r_0r}{A^2}}\left[2{\displaystyle \frac{N_{rr}}{N}}+{\displaystyle \frac{N_r^2}{N^2}}2{\displaystyle \frac{N_r}{N}}{\displaystyle \frac{A_r}{A}}\right]`$ (15)
where we have defined $`\beta =\mathrm{sin}\frac{\pi \alpha }{2}`$ and where the subscript represents partial differentiation with respect to the corresponding coordinate. Equations (14) follow from $`G_{tt}`$, $`G_{rr}`$ and $`G_{\varphi \varphi }`$, respectively, and are generated by the intrinsic curvature term induced by the action Eq. (6). We also impose boundary conditions to ensure continuity of the metric and its derivatives at $`z=0`$, and to fix a residual gauge degree of freedom by choosing $`B(z=\frac{\pi \alpha }{2})=r`$.

We wish to find the full five-dimensional spacetime metric induced by a thin cosmic string situated within the braneworld. The problem defined by Eqs. (910) is dependent only on the scale $`r_0`$ and the dimensionless parameter $`\frac{T}{M_P^2}`$. We are interested in the problem when $`r_0\mathrm{}`$ with all other parameters held fixed. Since $`r_0`$ represents the only scale in the problem, this statement implies we are interested in the system when $`rr_0`$ with $`\frac{T}{M_P^2}`$ fixed.

### B The Einstein solution

Before we attempt to solve the full five-dimensional problem given by Eqs. (910) and Eq. (14), it is useful to review the cosmic string solution in simply four-dimensional Einstein gravity . For a cosmic string with energy momentum Eq. (9), the exact metric may be represented by the line element:

$$ds^2=dt^2dx^2\left(1\frac{T}{2\pi M_P^2}\right)^2dr^2r^2d\varphi ^2.$$
(16)
This represents a flat space with a deficit angle $`\frac{T}{M_P^2}`$. Thus, there is no Newtonian potential between a cosmic string and a static test particle. However, a test particle (massive or massless) suffers an azimuthal deflection of $`\frac{T}{M_P^2}`$ when scattered around the cosmic string. With a different coordinate choice, the line element can be rewritten as

$$ds^2=dt^2dx^2(y^2+z^2)^{T/2\pi M_P^2}[dy^2+dz^2].$$
(17)
Again, there is no Newtonian potential between a cosmic string and a static test particle. However, in this coordinate choice, the deflection of a moving test particle can be interpreted as resulting from a gravitomagnetic force generated by the cosmic string. We can ask whether this Einstein solution is recovered on the brane in the limit of the theory where the graviton linewidth vanishes. In this limit, gravity fluctuations originating on the brane are pinned on that surface indefinitely, implying that gravity should resemble a four-dimensional theory. However, the question remains whether the four-dimensional theory that results is Einstein gravity or some massless scalar-tensor theory instead.

### C Linearized Five-Dimensional Einstein Equations

Let us examine the linearized form of the Einstein equations, Eqs. (10). We will see that the trick is to find an appropriate background (including boundary conditions) around which linearize. We take the following:

$`N(r,z)`$ $`=`$ $`1+n(r,z)+\mathrm{}`$ (18)
$`A(r,z)`$ $`=`$ $`1+a(r,z)+\mathrm{}`$ (19)
$`B(r,z)`$ $`=`$ $`r\left[1+b(r,z)+\mathrm{}\right],`$ (20)
where it is assumed that the functions $`\{n(r,z),a(r,z),b(r,z)\}1`$ in the regimes of interest. Taking the $`R_{tt}`$-component of the Einstein equations, one find that the PDE for $`n(r,z)`$

$$r^2n_{rr}+2rn_r+n_{zz}+\frac{\mathrm{cos}z}{\mathrm{sin}z}n_z=0,$$
(21)
may be decoupled from the others. Equation (21) is simply Laplace’s equation for the Newtonian potential, $`n(r,z)`$, reducing the determination of $`g_{00}`$ to a linear static potential problem (albeit, with unusual boundary conditions resulting from the presence of the brane). In order to determine $`a(r,z)`$ and $`b(r,z)`$, one can directly integrate the $`G_{zz}`$ and the $`G_{zz}`$ components of the Einstein equations, leaving

$`a(r,z)`$ $`=`$ $`2n(r,z)+rf^{}(r)\mathrm{cos}z+rg^{}(r)+g(r)`$ (22)
$`b(r,z)`$ $`=`$ $`2n(r,z)+f(r)\mathrm{cos}z+g(r).`$ (23)
The functions $`f(r)`$ and $`g(r)`$ are to be determined by the brane boundary conditions, as well as the last remaining residual gauge. This technique for decomposing the linearized Einstein equations is the direct analog of that used in .

The brane boundary conditions Eqs. (14) in the linearized Einstein equations may be used to complete the determination of the metric components. The second two equations in Eqs. (14) both yield

$$\beta f(r)=\frac{\sqrt{1\beta ^2}}{\beta }2r_0n_r(r)|_{\mathrm{sin}z=\beta }.$$
(24)
Combining this equation for $`f(r)`$ and fixing the gauge choice $`b(r)|_{\mathrm{sin}z=\beta }=0`$ gives

$$g(r)=2n(r)|_{\mathrm{sin}z=\beta }+\frac{\sqrt{1\beta ^2}}{\beta }r_0n_r(r)|_{\mathrm{sin}z=\beta }\frac{1\beta ^2}{\beta ^2}.$$
(25)
The remaining equation in Eqs. (14) is then used to set the brane condition for the Newtonian potential $`n(r,z)`$:

$$n_z|_{\mathrm{sin}z=\beta }=r_0\left[\left(r+\frac{2r_0}{3}\frac{\sqrt{1\beta ^2}}{\beta }\right)n_{rr}+n_r\right]_{\mathrm{sin}z=\beta }+\frac{r_0}{3\beta ^2}\delta (r)\left[\beta +\left(\frac{T}{2\pi M_P^2}1\right)\right],$$
(26)
where the coefficient of the $`\delta `$–function contribution to this condition comes from the matter source (as reflected in the first equation of Eqs. (14)) and from the step in $`A(r,z)`$ at $`r=0`$ necessary to maintain elementary flatness at the location of the string. Once one determines $`n(r,z)`$ using Eq. (21) and the boundary conditions Eq. (26) as well as $`n_z(r)|_{z=0}=0`$, then one can automatically read off $`a(r,z)`$ and $`b(r,z)`$ using Eqs. (2225).

### D The weak brane limit

Let us first identify the solution to Eqs. (910) and Eq. (14) in the weak field limit. Here, we presume that the metric deviates from a flat metric with a flat brane where the perturbations (of the bulk and the brane) are proportional to the strength of the source, $`\frac{T}{M_P^2}`$, assuming this parameter is small. With the coordinate choice under consideration, one may keep the brane at $`z=\frac{\pi }{2}`$ while still allowing for a brane extrinsic curvature of $`𝒪(\frac{T}{M_P^2})`$. We refer to this limit where the extrinsic curvature of the brane is perturbed around a $`flat`$ brane as the weak brane limit.

In this limit one may use the linearized equations established in the last subsection. The explicit solution to Eqs. (21) and (26) with $`\beta =1`$ is

$$n(r,z)=\frac{r_0}{3}\left(\frac{T}{2\pi M_P^2}\right)_0^{\mathrm{}}\frac{dk}{1+r_0k}e^{kr\mathrm{cos}z}J_0(kr\mathrm{sin}z),$$
(27)
where $`J_0`$ is the usual Bessel function of the first kind. One can then solve for $`a(r,z)`$ and $`b(r,z)`$ directly using Eqs. (2225). One may also arrive at this result by applying the graviton propagator  and approximating the gravitational potential through one-particle graviton exchange between the cosmic string source and a test particle in a Minkowski spacetime with a flat braneworld.

Two limits are of interest. The regime where $`rr_0`$ represents the crossover from four-dimensional to five-dimensional behavior expected at the scale $`r_0`$. Graviton modes localized on the brane evaporate into the bulk over distances comparable to $`r_0`$. The presence of the brane becomes increasingly irrelevant as $`r/r_0\mathrm{}`$ and a cosmic string on the brane acts as a codimension-three object in the full bulk. Here the metric is asymptotically spherically symmetric (i.e., $`z`$-independent) while the Newtonian potential Eq. (27) becomes

$$n(r,z)=\frac{1}{3}\left(\frac{T}{2\pi M_P^2}\right)\frac{r_0}{r}+𝒪(r_0^2/r^2).$$
(28)
Using the metric Eq. (8), we find the metric on the brane is specified by the line element

$$ds^2=N^2(r)|_{\mathrm{sin}z=1}(dt^2dx^2)A^2(r)|_{\mathrm{sin}z=1}dr^2r^2d\varphi ^2$$
(29)
with

$`N(r)|_{\mathrm{sin}z=1}`$ $`=`$ $`1{\displaystyle \frac{1}{3}}\left({\displaystyle \frac{T}{2\pi M_P^2}}\right){\displaystyle \frac{r_0}{r}}+𝒪(r_0^2/r^2)`$ (30)
$`A(r)|_{\mathrm{sin}z=1}`$ $`=`$ $`1+{\displaystyle \frac{2}{3}}\left({\displaystyle \frac{T}{2\pi M_P^2}}\right){\displaystyle \frac{r_0}{r}}+𝒪(r_0^2/r^2),`$ (31)
recovering the Schwarzschild-like solution for a codimension-three object in five-dimensional spacetime with

$$r_G=\frac{r_0T}{2\pi M_P^2}=\frac{T}{4\pi M^3}$$
(32)
acting as the effective Schwarzschild radius.

In the complementary limit when $`rr_0`$, we find that Eq. (27) becomes

$$n(r,z)=\frac{1}{3}\left(\frac{T}{2\pi M_P^2}\right)\mathrm{ln}\left[\frac{r}{r_0}(1+\mathrm{cos}z)\right]+𝒪\left(\frac{T^2}{M_P^4}\right).$$
(33)
Using the metric Eq. (29) on the brane, we find

$`N(r)|_{\mathrm{sin}z=1}`$ $`=`$ $`1+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{3}}\left({\displaystyle \frac{T}{2\pi M_P^2}}\mathrm{ln}{\displaystyle \frac{r}{r_0}}\right)+𝒪\left({\displaystyle \frac{T^2}{M_P^4}}\right)`$ (34)
$`A(r)|_{\mathrm{sin}z=1}`$ $`=`$ $`1+{\displaystyle \frac{2}{3}}{\displaystyle \frac{T}{2\pi M_P^2}}+𝒪\left({\displaystyle \frac{T^2}{M_P^4}}\right),`$ (35)
which represents a conical space with deficit angle $`\frac{2}{3}\frac{T}{M_P^2}`$. Recall that for pure four-dimensional Einstein gravity, this metric is $`N(r)=1`$ and $`A(r)=(1\frac{T}{2\pi M_P^2})^1`$, which again represents a flat conical space with deficit angle $`\frac{T}{M_P^2}`$. Thus in the weak brane limit, we expect not only an extra light scalar field generating the Newtonian potential found in $`N(r)`$, but also a discrepancy in the deficit angle with respect to the Einstein solution. Moreover, since Eqs. (3435) deviate from the four-dimensional Einstein solution, the brane boundary conditions Eq. (14) imply that the brane itself possess an extrinsic curvature whose magnitude is $`𝒪(\frac{T}{M_P^2})`$.

We can ask the domain of validity of the solution Eqs. (3435). Examining the boundary conditions Eqs. (14) and the bulk Einstein equations $`G_{AB}=0`$ and comparing the size of terms neglected with respect to those included, we see that on the brane this solution is only valid when

$$r_0\sqrt{\frac{T}{M_P^2}}rr_0.$$
(36)
The left-hand inequality of Eq. (36) is the one of interest. For values of $`r`$ violating this condition, nonlinear contributions to the Einstein tensor become important and the weak brane approximation breaks down. But this is precisely the regime we are interested in, since we wish to understand what happens when $`r`$ and $`\frac{T}{M_P^2}`$ are fixed and $`r_0\mathrm{}`$. We need to find a solution in this regime.

### E The $`r/r_00`$ limit

The weak brane approximation breaks down when the condition Eq. (36) does not apply. Outside this domain of validity, nonlinear contributions to the Einstein equations become important. However, by relaxing the condition that the braneworld be located at $`\mathrm{sin}z=1`$, a perturbative solution to the Einstein equations Eqs. (910) with the boundary conditions Eq. (14) can be found in the limit of interest when $`rr_0`$ with $`\frac{T}{M_P^2}`$ held fixed. We are still interested in the limit of a weak source, i.e., $`\frac{T}{M_P^2}1`$, so that using the linearized equations establish in Sec. IIC is still applicable.

Recall that the coordinate $`z`$ into the bulk acts as a polar angle, but where the space it parametrizes has a deficit polar angle. The bulk is characterized by that part of space where $`\mathrm{sin}z<\beta `$ (i.e., $`0z<\frac{\pi \alpha }{2}`$ and $`\pi (1\frac{\alpha }{2})<z\pi `$) and the two surfaces where $`\mathrm{sin}z=\beta `$ are identified and together represent the braneworld. The identification of these two surfaces induces an extrinsic curvature contribution on the brane which is compensated by the braneworld’s intrinsic curvature. Note that the bulk is $`𝒵_2`$–symmetric across the brane. The key difference between the analysis in this background and that in the previous subsection is the inclusion of nonperturbative extrinsic curvature in the background brane. Figure 2 depicts a spatial slice through the cosmic string.

One begins by solving the linearized Newtonian potential problem Eq. (21) with the boundary conditions Eq. (26) and $`n_z(r)|_{z=0}=0`$. Additional boundary conditions are necessary. In order to avoid the divergence of the fields $`\{n(r,z),a(r,z),b(r,z)\}`$ near the origin that leads to the importance of nonlinear contributions in the weak brane limit, we choose

$$n(z)|_{r=0}=0.$$
(37)
By specifying this boundary condition, one is required to constrain $`\beta `$ (with the brane located at $`\mathrm{sin}z=\beta `$) for consistency with the brane boundary condition, Eq. (26). In order to maintain consistency, the delta-function term must vanish, requiring The divergence in $`n(r,z)`$ as $`r0`$ seen in the weak brane approximation is avoided because the matter source delta-function is matched by a step in the metric function $`A(r,z)`$ rather than a logarithmic divergence in $`N(r,z)`$.

$$\beta =1\frac{T}{2\pi M_P^2}.$$
(38)
One last boundary condition needs to be specified for large-$`r`$. We choose $`n(r,z)`$ to match asymptotically onto the form

$$n(z)|_{r=R}=\frac{1}{3}\left(\frac{T}{2\pi M_P^2}\right)\mathrm{ln}\left[\frac{R}{r_0}(1+\mathrm{cos}z)\right],$$
(39)
for some $`R`$ such that $`r_0\sqrt{\frac{T}{M_P^2}}Rr_0`$. We choose this specific asymptotic form for reasons that will become clear in the next section. This boundary value problem for a static solution to Laplace’s equation Eq. (21) is well-posed, albeit in an unusual geometry and with unusual boundary conditions.

Unlike when $`\mathrm{sin}z=1`$, this solution to Laplace’s equation does not possess a simple closed form. However, one may articulate the dominant contributions to the Newtonian potential in several key limits. When $`rr_0\sqrt{\frac{T}{M_P^2}}`$

$$n(r,z)=\left[\frac{1}{2}\mathrm{cos}z\right]\frac{r}{r_0}\left[\frac{1}{2}P_q(\mathrm{cos}z)\right]\left(\frac{r}{r_0}\right)^q+\mathrm{},$$
(40)
with $`q=1+\sqrt{\frac{T}{\pi M_P^2}}`$ and $`P_q(x)`$ is the Legendre function of the first kind of order $`q`$. When $`rr_0\sqrt{\frac{T}{M_P^2}}`$,

$$n(r,z)=\frac{1}{3}\left(\frac{T}{2\pi M_P^2}\right)\mathrm{ln}\left[\frac{3}{2}\frac{r}{r_0\sqrt{\frac{T}{2\pi M_P^2}}}(1+\mathrm{cos}z)\right]+\mathrm{}.$$
(41)
Indeed, one can arrive at an explicit form for the leading contribution to the Newtonian potential on the brane itself:

$$n(r)=\frac{1}{3}\left(\frac{T}{2\pi M_P^2}\right)\mathrm{ln}\left[1+\frac{3}{2}\frac{r}{r_0\sqrt{\frac{T}{2\pi M_P^2}}}\right]+\mathrm{},$$
(42)
when $`rr_0`$. One may ascertain $`a(r,z)`$ and $`b(r,z)`$ by directly using Eqs. (2225). By comparing the full Einstein equations and brane boundary conditions, Eqs. (1014), with the linearized equations, Eqs. (1926), one can confirm that the Newtonian potential $`n(r,z)`$ is valid in the entire region $`rr_0`$, while the expressions for $`a(r,z)`$ and $`b(r,z)`$ using Eqs. (2225) are valid when $`rr_0\sqrt{\frac{T}{M_P^2}}`$ and when $`rr_0\sqrt{\frac{T}{M_P^2}}`$.

When $`rr_0\sqrt{\frac{T}{M_P^2}}`$, the metric on the brane is determined by the line element

$$ds^2=N^2(r)|_{\mathrm{sin}z=\beta }(dt^2dx^2)A^2(r)|_{\mathrm{sin}z=\beta }dr^2\beta ^2r^2d\varphi ^2$$
(43)
with

$`N(r)|_{\mathrm{sin}z=\beta }`$ $`=`$ $`1+{\displaystyle \frac{r}{2r_0}}\sqrt{{\displaystyle \frac{T}{2\pi M_P^2}}}+𝒪(r^2/r_0^2)`$ (44)
$`A(r)|_{\mathrm{sin}z=\beta }`$ $`=`$ $`1{\displaystyle \frac{r}{2r_0}}\sqrt{{\displaystyle \frac{T}{2\pi M_P^2}}}+𝒪(r^2/r_0^2),`$ (45)
where $`\beta =1\sqrt{\frac{T}{2\pi M_P^2}}`$. The brane solution, Eqs. (4445), is distinct from the weak brane solution, Eqs. (3435). In particular, the extrinsic curvature of the brane in the first case is nonperturbative in the string tension, i.e., $`𝒪(\sqrt{\frac{T}{M_P^2}})`$, whereas extrinsic curvature of the brane in the weak brane approximation is perturbative in the string tension, i.e., $`𝒪(\frac{T}{M_P^2})`$.

The deficit polar angle in the bulk is $`\pi (1\alpha )`$ where again $`\mathrm{sin}\frac{\pi \alpha }{2}=\beta `$, while the deficit azimuthal angle in the brane itself is $`2\pi (1\beta )`$. In the limit when $`r_0\mathrm{}`$, the graviton linewidth vanishes and we recover a flat conical space with a deficit angle $`2\pi (1\beta )=\frac{T}{M_P^2}`$, the solution for a cosmic string in four-dimensional Einstein gravity Eq. (16). Consequently, the cosmic string solution Eqs. (4445) does not suffer from a VDVZ discontinuity, supporting the results found for cosmological solutions  in this braneworld theory with a metastable brane graviton.

## III Matching between Phases

We wish to address the matching of the Einstein phase, Eqs. (4445) to the weak brane phase, Eqs. (3435). These two solutions are in distinct coordinate systems. Nevertheless, when the cosmic string source strength $`\frac{T}{M_P^2}`$ is small, there exists a region in $`r`$, namely $`r_0\sqrt{\frac{T}{M_P^2}}rr_0`$, where both solutions are valid. In this section we show that there exists a coordinate transformation that takes the Einstein phase into the weak brane phase in this region, implying that these phases are simply different parts of the same solution.

In the region $`r_0\sqrt{\frac{T}{M_P^2}}rr_0`$, the Einstein phase takes the form

$`n(r,z)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{3}}\left({\displaystyle \frac{T}{2\pi M_P^2}}\right)\mathrm{ln}\left[{\displaystyle \frac{3}{2}}{\displaystyle \frac{r}{r_0\sqrt{\frac{T}{2\pi M_P^2}}}}(1+\mathrm{cos}z)\right]+\mathrm{}`$ (46)
$`a(r,z)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{2}{3}}{\displaystyle \frac{r_0}{r}}\left({\displaystyle \frac{T}{2\pi M_P^2}}\right)\mathrm{cos}z+\mathrm{}`$ (47)
$`b(r,z)`$ $`=`$ $`\left(\sqrt{{\displaystyle \frac{T}{2\pi M_P^2}}}{\displaystyle \frac{2r_0}{3r}}{\displaystyle \frac{T}{2\pi M_P^2}}\right)\mathrm{cos}z+\mathrm{},`$ (48)
where the brane is located at $`\mathrm{sin}z=1\frac{T}{2\pi M_P^2}`$ (or $`\mathrm{cos}z=\sqrt{\frac{T}{2\pi M_P^2}}`$), and neglecting contributions of $`𝒪(\frac{T}{M_P^2})`$ but keeping leading order contributions, e.g., $`\frac{T}{2\pi M_P^2}\frac{r_0}{r}`$. The weak brane phase in the same region has the form

$`n(r,z)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{3}}\left({\displaystyle \frac{T}{2\pi M_P^2}}\right)\mathrm{ln}\left[{\displaystyle \frac{r}{r_0}}(1+\mathrm{cos}z)\right]+\mathrm{}`$ (49)
$`a(r,z)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{2}{3}}{\displaystyle \frac{r_0}{r}}\left({\displaystyle \frac{T}{2\pi M_P^2}}\right)\mathrm{cos}z+\mathrm{}`$ (50)
$`b(r,z)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{2}{3}}{\displaystyle \frac{r_0}{r}}\left({\displaystyle \frac{T}{2\pi M_P^2}}\right)\mathrm{cos}z+\mathrm{},`$ (51)
where the brane is located at $`\mathrm{cos}z=0`$, and where again contributions of $`𝒪(\frac{T}{M_P^2})`$ are neglected.

We have chosen a region, $`r_0\sqrt{\frac{T}{M_P^2}}rr_0`$, such that the solution Eqs. (47) remains a valid solution to the linearized Einstein equations while undergoing the following linear coordinate transformation. Take a new polar variable, $`𝒵`$, such that

$$𝒵=z+\sqrt{\frac{T}{2\pi M_P^2}}\mathrm{sin}z+𝒪\left(\frac{T}{2\pi M_P^2}\right).$$
(52)
Since

$$\mathrm{sin}𝒵=\mathrm{sin}z\left[1+\sqrt{\frac{T}{2\pi M_P^2}}\mathrm{cos}z\right]+\mathrm{},$$
(53)
the metric functions are still in the ansatz Eq. (8) with the new polar coordinate, $`𝒵`$:

$$ds^2=N^2(r,𝒵)(dt^2dx^2)A^2(r,𝒵)dr^2B^2(r,𝒵)\left[d𝒵^2+\mathrm{sin}^2𝒵d\varphi ^2\right].$$
(54)
Under this coordinate redefinition, when the brane is located at $`\mathrm{cos}z=\sqrt{\frac{T}{2\pi M_P^2}}`$, it is now located at

$$\mathrm{cos}𝒵=\mathrm{cos}z\sqrt{\frac{T}{2\pi M_P^2}}+\mathrm{}=0+𝒪\left(\frac{T}{2\pi M_P^2}\right).$$
(55)
and with a time renormalization

$$\tau =\frac{t}{1\frac{1}{6}\left(\frac{T}{2\pi M_P^2}\right)\mathrm{ln}\frac{T}{2\pi M_P^2}}$$
(56)
the Einstein phase takes the form

$`n(r,𝒵)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{3}}\left({\displaystyle \frac{T}{2\pi M_P^2}}\right)\mathrm{ln}\left[{\displaystyle \frac{r}{r_0}}(1+\mathrm{cos}𝒵)\right]+\mathrm{}`$ (57)
$`a(r,𝒵)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{2}{3}}{\displaystyle \frac{r_0}{r}}\left({\displaystyle \frac{T}{2\pi M_P^2}}\right)\mathrm{cos}𝒵+\mathrm{}`$ (58)
$`b(r,𝒵)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{2}{3}}{\displaystyle \frac{r_0}{r}}\left({\displaystyle \frac{T}{2\pi M_P^2}}\right)\mathrm{cos}𝒵+\mathrm{},`$ (59)
with the brane located at $`\mathrm{cos}𝒵=0`$, which is identical to Eq. (50) up to $`𝒪(\frac{T}{M_P^2})`$. Thus, one can match the Einstein phase solution with the weak brane solution using the coordinate transformation Eq. (52) and the time redefinition Eq. (56), implying that the Einstein phase in Sec. IIE and the weak brane phase in Sec. IID are parts of the same solution.§§§On the brane itself, the coordinate transformation is applicable including $`𝒪(\frac{T}{2\pi M_P^2})`$. One can confirm this by comparing Eqs. (3435) with Eq. (42) and Eqs. (22), (24), and (25) using the time renormalization Eq. (56).

## IV Discussion

In different parametric regimes, we find different qualitative behaviors for the brane metric around a cosmic string. For an observer at a distance $`rr_0`$ from the cosmic string, where $`r_0^1`$ characterizes the graviton’s effective linewidth, the cosmic string appears as a codimension-three object in the full bulk. The metric is Schwarzschild-like in this regime. When $`rr_0`$, brane effects become important, and the cosmic string appears as a codimension-two object on the brane. When the source is weak (i.e., when the tension, $`T`$, of the string is much smaller than the square of the four-dimensional Planck scale, $`M_P^2`$), the Einstein solution with a deficit angle of $`\frac{T}{M_P^2}`$ holds on the brane when $`rr_0\sqrt{\frac{T}{M_P^2}}`$. In the region on the brane when $`rr_0\sqrt{\frac{T}{M_P^2}}`$ (but still where $`rr_0`$), the weak brane approximation prevails, the cosmic string exhibits a nonvanishing Newtonian potential and space suffers a deficit angle different from $`\frac{T}{M_P^2}`$.

We identified a coordinate transformation connecting the weak brane phase, Eqs. (3435), and the Einstein phase, Eqs. (4445). Each phase is a linear solution which becomes strongly nonlinear outside of its domain of validity simply because the corresponding coordinate system in which each solution is linear differs from the other. The full nonlinear solution in this light is reminiscent of the ansatz introduced by Vainshtein  for the Schwarzschild solution in a massive gravity theory. Moreover, the presence of this weak brane phase at large distances from the cosmic string may have non-negligible consequences for the observational search for cosmic strings through gravitational lensing techniques . For a GUT scale ($`10^{16}`$ GeV) cosmic string, the Einstein deficit angle for the string is $`10^5`$. This implies that the light deflection by the string differs significantly from the predictions of general relativity at distances

$$rr_0\sqrt{\frac{M_{\mathrm{GUT}}^2}{M_P^2}}3\mathrm{Mpc},$$
(60)
where $`r_0`$ is taken to be today’s Hubble radius. Such a seemingly peculiar choice of $`r_0`$ is intriguing cosmologically . Detailed discussion on how such a correspondingly small fundamental Planck scale is possible without serious phenomenological obstacles may be found in .

The solution presented here supports the Einstein solution near the cosmic string in the limit that $`r_0\mathrm{}`$. This observation suggests that the braneworld theory under consideration does not suffer from a van Dam–Veltman–Zakharov (VDVZ) discontinuity, corroborating the findings for cosmological solutions in the same theory . Far from the source, the gravitational field is weak, and the geometry of the brane within the bulk is not substantially altered by the presence of the cosmic string. Propagation of the light scalar mode is permitted. However near the source, the gravitational fields induce a nonperturbative extrinsic curvature in the brane. That extrinsic curvature suppresses the coupling of the scalar mode to matter and only the tensor mode remains, thus Einstein gravity is recovered. As one takes $`r_0\mathrm{}`$, the region where the source induces a large brane extrinsic curvature grows with $`r_0`$, implying Einstein gravity is strictly recovered in this limit.

In this paper, we investigate the spacetime around a cosmic string on a brane in a five-dimensional braneworld theory that supports a metastable brane graviton. This system has the advantage of offering a semianalytic solution to the metric around a compact object, while still providing a clear example in which the VDVZ discontinuity manifests itself. The result may help shed light on the more difficult, more immediately relevant problem of a Schwarzschild-like spherical source in this braneworld theory. At the same time, the cosmic string solution is itself interesting and, should these objects exist in nature, would have testable phenomenological consequences.

###### Acknowledgements.

The author would like to thank C. Deffayet, G. Dvali, A. Gruzinov, M. Porrati, R. Scoccimarro and E. J. Weinberg for helpful discussions. This work is sponsored in part by NSF Award PHY-9996137 and the David and Lucille Packard Foundation Fellowship 99-1462.


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# 1 Introduction

## 1 Introduction

A variety of space observations indicate clearly the ubiquitous presence of suprathermal particle populations in astrophysical plasma environments . The family of kappa velocity space distributions, introduced first by Vasyliunas , is recognized to be highly appropriate for modeling specific electron and ion components of different plasma states.

Numerous magnetospheric interaction processes and instabilities were studied successfully within the concept of kappa-distributions  ranging from plasma sheet ion and electron spectra  to a combined electron-proton-hydrogen atom aurora . The saturation of ring current particles towards a kappa-distribution was studied by Lui and Rostoker  and accurate fittings of observed electron flux spectra were performed by a power law at high energies . Furthermore, it was demonstrated by Leubner  that the Jovian banded whistler mode emission can be interpreted within a kappa-distribution approach and that mirror instability thresholds are drastically reduced in suprathermal space plasmas . Energetic tail distributions play a key role in coronal plasma dynamics  and high resolution plasma observations near 1 AU confirm that even the distribution function of heavy solar wind ions are well fitted by a kappa-distribution .

The generation of velocity space distributions exhibiting pronounced energetic tails was frequently interpreted as a consequence of several different acceleration mechanisms. Those include besides DC parallel electric fields or field-aligned potential drops in reconnection regions also wave-particle interaction due to kinetic Alfvén wave turbulence  and cyclotron interactions . Clear evidence of the importance of suprathermal particle populations in space plasmas have motivated the development of a modified plasma dispersion function for kappa-distributions .

The use of the family of kappa-distributions to model the observed non-thermal features of electron and ion structures was frequently criticized since a profound derivation in view of fundamental physics was not available. A classical analysis addressed to this problem was performed by Hasegawa  demonstrating that kappa-distributions turn out as consequence of the presence of suprathermal radiation fields in plasmas and Collier  considers the generation of kappa-like distributions using velocity space Lévy flights. Furthermore, a justification for the formation of power-law distributions in space plasmas due to electron acceleration by whistler mode waves was proposed by Ma and Summers  and a kinetic theory was developed showing that kappa-like velocity space distributions are a particular thermodynamic equilibrium state . Here we demonstrate that the family of kappa-distributions results as consequence of the entropy generalization in nonextensive statistics, providing thus the missing link for the use of kappa-distributions from fundamental physics.

## 2 Theory

A generalization of the Boltzmann-Gibbs-Shannon entropy formula for statistical equilibrium was recognized to be required for systems subject to spatial or temporal long-range interactions making their behavior nonextensive. Any extensive formalism fails whenever a physical system includes long-range forces or long-range memory. In particular, this situation is usually found in astrophysical environments and plasma physics where, for example, the range of interactions is comparable to the size of the system considered. A generalized entropy is required to possess the usual properties of positivity, equiprobability, concavity and irreversibility but suitably extending the standard additivity to nonextensivity.

In view of the difficulties arising in this conjunction within the Boltzmann-Gibbs standard statistical mechanics motivated Tsallis  to introduce a thermo-statistical theory based on the generalized entropy of the form

$$S_q=k_B\frac{1p_i^q}{q1}$$
(1)
where $`p_i`$ is the probability of the $`i^{th}`$ microstate, $`k_B`$ is Boltzmann’s constant and $`q`$ is a parameter quantifying the degree of nonextensivity and is commonly referred to as the entropic index. A crucial property of this entropy is the pseudoadditivity such that

$$S_q(A+B)=S_q(A)+S_q(B)+(1q)S_q(A)S_q(B)$$
(2)
for given subsystems $`A`$ and $`B`$ in the sense of factorizability of the microstate probabilities. For $`q1`$ the standard Boltzmann-Gibbs-Shannon extensive entropy is recovered as

$$S_q=k_Bp_i\mathrm{ln}p_i$$
(3)
Applying the transformation

$$\frac{1}{q1}=\kappa $$
(4)
to equation (1) and restricting to values $`1<q1`$ yields the generalized entropy of the form

$$S_\kappa =\kappa k_B(p_i^{11/\kappa }1)$$
(5)
for $`\frac{1}{2}<\kappa \mathrm{}`$. With regard to Silva  one finds the corresponding one dimensional equilibrium velocity space distribution in kappa notation as

$$f(v)=A_\kappa \left[1+\frac{1}{\kappa }\frac{v^2}{v_{th}^2}\right]^\kappa $$
(6)
where the normalization constant reads

$$A_\kappa =\frac{N}{v_{th}}\frac{1}{\sqrt{\kappa }}\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }\left[\kappa \right]}{\mathrm{\Gamma }\left[\kappa 1/2\right]}$$
(7)
Here $`N`$ denotes the particle density, $`v_{th}=\sqrt{2k_BT/m}`$ is the thermal velocity where $`T`$ and $`m`$ are the temperature and the mass, respectively, of the species considered. The case $`\kappa =\mathrm{}`$ corresponds to $`q=1`$ wherefrom the Maxwell equilibrium distribution is recovered. Figure 1a illuminates schematically the non-thermal behavior of the distribution function (6) for some values of the spectral index kappa.

Consistently, the one-dimensional equilibrium velocity space distribution in the q-nonextensive framework is written as

$$f(v)=A_q\left[1(q1)\frac{v^2}{v_{th}^2}\right]^{1/(q1)}$$
(8)
where

$$A_q=\frac{N}{v_{th}}\sqrt{1q}\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }\left[1/(1q)\right]}{\mathrm{\Gamma }\left[1/(1q)1/2\right]}$$
(9)
for $`1<q1`$. In analogy, the isotropic three dimensional velocity space distribution is found as

$$f(𝐯)=B_\kappa \left[1+\frac{1}{\kappa }\frac{v^2}{v_{th}^2}\right]^\kappa $$
(10)
identical to the distribution function for a plasma in a suprathermal radiation field discussed by Hasegewa (1985) where the normalization constant reads

$$B_\kappa =\frac{N}{\pi ^{3/2}v_{th}^3}\frac{1}{\kappa ^{3/2}}\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }\left[\kappa \right]}{\mathrm{\Gamma }\left[\kappa 3/2\right]}$$
(11)
for $`\frac{3}{2}<\kappa \mathrm{}`$. Equation (6) and (10) denote a reduced form of the standard kappa-distribution used for astrophysical applications and written conventionally as

$$f(𝐯)=A_\kappa \left[1+\frac{1}{\kappa }\frac{v^2}{v_{th}^2}\right]^{(\kappa +1)}$$
(12)
with the normalization constant

$$A_\kappa =\frac{N}{\pi ^{3/2}v_{th}^3}\frac{1}{\kappa ^{3/2}}\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }\left[\kappa +1\right]}{\mathrm{\Gamma }\left[\kappa 1/2\right]}$$
(13)
For a variation of the spectral index kappa Figure 1 demonstrates the different behavior between the one dimensional case of the distribution function (12), generally used for space applications and modeling, as compared to equation (6) resulting from the modified entropy approach. Since (6) and (12) differ only in the exponent no exact mapping is possible when substituting $`\kappa \kappa +1`$. Nevertheless, highly similar structures are found for both with the appropriate values of kappa, hence favoring relation (6) for astrophysical velocity space distribution modeling due to the physical background.

An effective thermal speed $`\theta =v_{th}\sqrt{(\kappa 3/2)/\kappa }`$ is commonly defind from the moments of the distribution function (12) where the spectral index kappa is conventionally limited to positive values $`\kappa >3/2`$ and we note that negative values of kappa have never been considered for space plasma applications. Contrary, the generalization to negative values of kappa identical to $`q1`$, discussed in the framework of nonextensive statistics as well, generates according to equation (6) or (10) a thermal cutoff at the maximum allowed velocity

$$v_{\mathrm{max}}=\sqrt{\kappa \frac{2k_BT}{m}}$$
(14)
hence providing an additional physical interpretation of the spectral index kappa of non-thermal plasma structures. To our knowledge there is presently no observational evidence for distributions corresponding to $`q1`$ in space plasmas available. On the other hand it should be mentioned that any observed thermal cutoff in velocity distributions would not have been recognized or interpreted as being a consequence of a possible nonextensivity of the system.

Finally we note that Collier  has evaluated the Boltzmann entropy for kappa-distribution functions. Upon introducing the corresponding nonextensive velocity space distribution the resulting kappa-dependent entropy is found to obey qualitatively the same functional dependence. Since the suprathermal tails are more pronounced in the modified entropy case as compared to the standard kappa function, see Figure 1, also the entropy enhancement for low values of the spectral index, corresponding to a large fraction of suprathermal particle populations, is increased relatively to the traditional kappa-distribution case. Both approaches merge for large values of kappa towards the Maxwellian limit.

## 3 Conclusions

Nonextensive statistics was successfully applied to a number of astrophysical and cosmological scenarios. Those include stellar polytropes , the solar neutrino problem , peculiar velocity distributions of galaxies  and generally systems with long range interactions and fractal like space-times. Cosmological implications were discussed  and recently an analysis of plasma oscillations in a collisionless thermal plasma was provided from q-statistics . On the other hand, kappa-distributions are highly favored in any kind of space plasma modeling  among others, where a reasonable physical background was not apparent. A comprehensive discussion of kappa distributions in view of experimentally favored non-thermal tail formations is provided by Leubner and Schupfer  where also typical values of the index $`\kappa `$ are quoted and referenced for different space plasma environments.

In the present analysis the missing link to fundamental physics is provided within the framework of an entropy modification consistent with nonextensive statistics. The family of kappa distributions are obtained from the positive definite part $`\frac{1}{2}\kappa \mathrm{}`$, corresponding to $`1q1`$ of the general statistical formalism where in analogy the spectral index kappa is a measure of the degree of nonextensivity. Since the main theorems of the standard Maxwell-Boltzmann statistics admit profound generalizations within nonextensive statistics , a justification for the use of kappa-distributions in astrophysical plasma modeling is provided from fundamental physics.


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# First-principles study of superconductivity in high-pressure Boron

## I Introduction

In a recent paper Eremets *et al.*Eremets et al. (2001) reported experiments where boron transforms from a non-metal at normal pressures to a superconductor at very high pressures above 160 GPa. They presented results that showed an increase of the superconducting temperature, $`T_c`$, from 6K at 175 GPa to 11K at 250 GPa.

Previous theoretical studies on the metallization of boron based on first-principles total-energy calculationsMailhiot et al. (1990) predicted that the 12 atom insulating form of boron ($`\alpha _{12}`$B) at atmospheric pressure transformed to a metallic body-centered tetragonal phase at 210 GPa and subsequently to an fcc structure at 360 GPa.

In this work we performed total energy and band structure calculations for the rhombohedral $`\alpha _{12}`$B and fcc phases. Our results for the fcc phase were used as an input to the rigid-muffin-tin (RMT) theory of Gaspari and GyorffyGaspari and Gyorffy (1972) to determine the value of the Hopfield parameter $`\eta `$ and subsequently evaluate the coupling constant $`\lambda `$ and $`T_c`$. Our results for the parameter $`\eta `$ give values comparable to those reported in the pastPapaconstantopoulos and Klein (1977) for metallic hydrogen at very high pressure. Assuming that the fcc phase is the real high pressure structure in the experiments of Eremets *et al.*Eremets et al. (2001), this indicates that the simple RMT theory accounts for high-pressure superconductivity in boron.

## II Theory and Results

In this work we have applied the RMT theoryGaspari and Gyorffy (1972) to calculate the Hopfield parameter $`\eta `$ given by the expression:

$$\eta =\frac{E_F}{\pi ^2N(E_F)}\underset{\mathrm{}}{}2(\mathrm{}+1)\mathrm{sin}^2(\delta _{\mathrm{}+1}\delta _{\mathrm{}})\frac{N_{\mathrm{}}N_{\mathrm{}+1}}{N_{\mathrm{}}^{(1)}N_{\mathrm{}+1}^{(1)}}$$
(1)
where $`\delta _l`$ is the scattering phase shift at the Fermi energy $`E_F`$ and angular momentum $`\mathrm{}`$, $`N_{\mathrm{}}^{(1)}`$ is the single-scatterer density of states which, as defined in Ref. Gaspari and Gyorffy, 1972, is an integral involving the radial wave functions. $`N(E_F)`$ is the total density of states (DOS) at $`E_F`$ and $`N_{\mathrm{}}`$ are the angular momentum components of the DOS inside the muffin-tin spheres. Eq. (1) is exact to $`\mathrm{}=1`$, but for higher values of $`\mathrm{}`$ it involves non-spherical corrections. The necessary input to Eq. (1) was generated from a set of full potential Linearized Augmented Plane Wave (LAPW) calculations that we performed for fcc-B using touching muffin-tin spheres, and the tetrahedron method for the DOS.

We also performed an LAPW calculation for $`\alpha _{12}`$B.This is a rhombohedral structure, space group R$`\overline{3}`$m-D$`{}_{}{}^{5}{}_{3d}{}^{}`$ (#166), with measured lattice parametersVillars and Calvert (1991) $`a=b=c=9.56`$ a.u. and angles $`\alpha =\beta =\gamma =58.06^{}`$. The energy bands of $`\alpha _{12}`$B are shown in Fig. 1. We obtain a valence bandwidth of 15.9 eV and an energy gap of 1.47 eV separating valence and conduction bands. The angular momentum character of the states can be seen from Fig. 2, which shows the expected dominance of the $`p`$-states through the whole spectrum.

For fcc B we calculated an equilibrium lattice parameter a=5.37 a.u. and a bulk modulus of 282 GPa, to be compared with the values of 5.34 a.u. and 269 GPa reported by Mailhiot *et al.*Mailhiot et al. (1990) We note that for $`a=4.60`$ a.u., which, according to our total energy calculations corresponds to a pressure of 307 GPa, the nearest neighbor B-B distance is 3.25 a.u., which is close to the B-B distance (3.37 a.u.) in the newly discovered superconductor MgB2. This leads us to believe that superconductivity may have the same origin in both materials.

The band structure of fcc B confirms a metallic phase for all lattice parameters, with a rapidly increasing band width going to higher pressures. The occupied band with is 1.43 Ry at equilibrium and 1.88 Ry at $`a=4.60`$ a.u. The energy bands for $`a=4.60`$ a.u. are shown in Fig. 3. A fairly flat band appears near $`E_F`$ in the XW direction at all lattice parameters. At X the band has strong $`s`$ character, becoming $`p`$-like at W. This situation is reminiscent of MgB2 where a similar flat band just above $`E_F`$ has been identified as the origin of superconductivity in this compound.An and Pickett (2001); Kortus et al. (2001); Mehl et al. (2001); Kong et al. (2001) This band appears to be responsible for a peak in the DOS at $`E_F`$ shown in Fig. 4. Also in Fig. 4 we find the $`s`$, $`p`$, and $`d`$ distribution of the DOS. In Fig. 4 we confirm that the strongest DOS component is that from $`p`$-states. The values of DOS at $`E_F`$ enter Eq. (1) above for the evaluation of the Hopfield parameter $`\eta `$. The input and results using Eq. (1) at four lattice parameters are listed in Table 1.

We note that in Table 1 the $`\mathrm{}`$-components of the DOS are given within the MT spheres (as is the case in Fig. 4),and therefore they do not add up to the value of $`N(E_F)`$. The p-component, $`N_p(E_F)`$, is, as expected, dominant and is about 60% of the value of the total inside the MT. The p-d scattering, resulting from the $`\mathrm{}=1`$ term in Eq. (1), gives by far the largest contribution to the Hopfield parameter $`\eta `$. For the high pressure case ($`a=4.60`$ a.u.) $`\eta _{pd}=0.79\times \eta _{tot}`$. The value of $`\eta _{tot}`$ is approximately the same as the value of $`\eta =14.13`$ eV/Å2 previously reportedPapaconstantopoulos and Klein (1977) for metallic hydrogen at a higher pressure of 467 GPa. It is also interesting to note that the boron value of $`\eta `$ at equilibrium is very close to the value $`\eta =7.627`$ eV/Å2 for Nb,Papaconstantopoulos et al. (1977) a typical transition metal superconductor where the d-f scattering is the dominant term in Eq. (1).

To evaluate the critical temperature $`T_c`$ we have used the McMillanMcMillan (1968) approach defining an electron-phonon coupling constant $`\lambda =\eta /M<\omega ^2>`$. Here $`\eta `$ is calculated from Eq. (1) as discussed above. For the average phonon frequency $`<\omega >`$ we followed Eremets *et al.*Eremets et al. (2001) and chose a range of values from 1200K to 1400K. The resulting $`\lambda `$ is in the range 0.53 to 0.39 respectively. Continuing we use the McMillan equation:

$$T_c=\frac{<\omega >}{1.45}\mathrm{exp}\left[\frac{1.04(1+\lambda )}{\lambda \mu ^{}(1+0.62\lambda )}\right].$$
(2)
We solve Eq. (2) for five values of the Coulomb pseudopotential $`\mu ^{}`$ = 0.09 to 0.13, and in the above range of $`\omega `$ and $`\lambda `$ values. The corresponding values of $`T_c`$ are shown in Fig. 5. Within the uncertainty of the values of the frequency $`\omega `$, and near the value $`\omega =1250`$K our model predicts $`T_c`$ values in the range of the experiment which validates the assertion of an electron-phonon mechanism.

Finally, we want to comment on the pressure dependence of $`T_c`$. Our calculations show that the parameter $`\eta `$ goes from the value 7.82 eV/Å2 at the equilibrium fcc volume to the value of 14.59 eV/Å2 at a pressure of 307 GPa. It is important to note that $`N(E_F)`$ follows the opposite trend, i.e., it reduces with increasing pressure. Assuming that the variation of $`<\omega >`$ with pressure is not as strong as the variation of $`\eta `$ we propose that the rapid increase of $`\eta `$ is responsible for the observed increase of Tc with pressure.

In summary, we find that LAPW calculations, the RMT theory, and a McMillan analysis for $`T_c`$ give a good description of superconductivity in boron at high pressures.

###### Acknowledgements.

This work was supported by the U.S. Office of Naval Research.


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# Evidence of a 𝑑 to 𝑠-wave pairing symmetry transition in the electron-doped cuprate superconductor Pr2-xCexCuO4

\[

## Abstract

We present point contact spectroscopy (PCS) data for junctions between a normal metal and the electron doped cuprate superconductor Pr2-xCexCuO4 (PCCO). For the underdoped compositions of this cuprate ($`x0.13`$) we observe a peak in the conductance-voltage characteristics of the point contact junctions. The shape and magnitude of this peak suggests the presence of Andreev bound states at the surface of underdoped PCCO which is evidence for a $`d`$-wave pairing symmetry. For overdoped PCCO ($`x0.17`$) the PCS data does not show any evidence of Andreev bound states at the surface suggesting an $`s`$-wave pairing symmetry.

PACS No.s 74.80.Fp, 74.25.Jb, 74.50.+r, 74.76.Bz

\]

The symmetry of the superconducting order parameter is a crucial input for theories on the mechanism of superconductivity in cuprates. It is now generally believed that the hole-doped high-$`T_c`$ cuprates have a $`d`$-wave pairing symmetry . However, for the electron-doped ($`n`$-doped) cuprates $`R_{2x}`$CexCuO4 ($`R`$= Nd, Pr, Sm or Eu) the situation is still not entirely clear. Initially it was believed that these compounds have an $`s`$-wave symmetry from measurements of penetration depth in Nd2-xCexCuO4 . In addition, tunneling spectroscopy experiments showed no evidence of a zero bias conductance peak (ZBCP) \[which is caused by Andreev bound states (ABS) in a $`d`$-wave superconducting system\], another indication of $`s`$-wave symmetry . However, Cooper  suggested that the paramagnetic moment of the Nd3+ ions could mask the power law dependence of $`\lambda (T)`$ that is the indication of nodes in the order parameter. Consistent with this argument, recent penetration depth measurements in Pr2-xCexCuO4 (PCCO) have shown clear evidence of nodal quasiparticles . Strong evidence of $`d`$-wave pairing symmetry was also provided by Tsuei and Kirtley , who observed a trapped half flux quantum at a tricrystal grain boundary junction, and by recent photoemission experiments . However, the issue has not been completely resolved. Two other penetration depth measurements on PCCO have given evidence of $`s`$-wave pairing symmetry  and alternative explanations for the available data have also been suggested . Moreover, there has still been no convincing evidence of a ZBCP in the tunneling spectra of n-doped cuprates . Two recent reports on Nd2-xCexCuO4 did show a ZBCP . However, the conditions under which the ZBCP appeared were ambiguous  and the appearance of the ZBCP was not attributed to $`d`$-wave symmetry .

In the case of the hole-doped cuprate YBa2Cu3O7-δ (YBCO), recent reports have shown evidence of a transition from a pure $`d_{x^2y^2}`$ pairing symmetry in underdoped compositions to a $`d+id_{xy}`$ pairing symmetry in overdoped compositions . This transition occurs across a quantum critical point (QCP) near optimal doping. In fact recent penetration depth measurements on n-doped cuprates also show evidence of a transition from a $`d`$-wave symmetry for underdoped compositions to an $`s`$-wave symmetry for the overdoped region . In this paper we present point contact spectroscopy (PCS) data on the electron-doped high-$`T_c`$ cuprate superconductor PCCO for the underdoped and overdoped compositions. Our data show that underdoped PCCO has a $`d`$-wave pairing symmetry and overdoped PCCO has an $`s`$-wave pairing symmetry.

Blonder et al.  have discussed the current-voltage ($`IV`$) characteristics of an $`s`$-wave superconductor-normal metal junction separated by a barrier of arbitrary strength. The barrier strength is parameterized by a dimensionless number $`Z`$ such that a direct contact between a normal metal and a superconductor corresponds to $`Z=0`$, while for the tunneling limit $`Z1`$. The calculated $`G/G_NV`$ curves ($`GdI/dV`$ and $`G_N`$ is the value of $`G`$ well outside the gap region) for different $`Z`$ are shown in figure 1a. Kashiwaya et al.  have dealt with the same problem for an anisotropic $`d`$-wave superconductor. The calculated curves for tunneling into

the (110) planes are summarized in figure 1b. The inset shows tunneling into the (110) plane and defines angles $`\theta `$ and $`\alpha `$, which will be used later. Note that even for $`Z>0`$ there is a peak at zero bias in contrast to the $`s`$-wave case. This ZBCP is formed due to surface ABS and is one of the unique features of a $`d`$-wave superconductor  and has been consistently observed in YBCO . For $`Z>0`$ the ZBCP is formed for all directions in the $`ab`$ plane except when tunneling into the (100) and (010) planes . The difference in the $`IV`$ characteristics for the $`s`$ and $`d`$-wave case at low $`Z`$ will form the basis of our experiments. Point contact spectroscopy (PCS) is a powerful technique for making such low $`Z`$ junctions .

In this letter we discuss our $`ab`$ plane PCS data on thin films of Pr2-xCexCuO4 (PCCO). Films of thickness 2500 Å were grown using pulsed laser deposition (PLD) on LaAlO3 (LAO) and yttria stabilized zirconia (YSZ) substrates. Details of the film growth are given in ref. . The films have been optimized for oxygen content by maximizing $`T_c`$ for each cerium concentration. The films were characterized by X-ray, ac susceptibility and resistivity measurements. The first obstacle in carrying out experiments in the same configuration as the ones on YBCO  is that (110)-oriented thin films of PCCO have not been grown. Instead we have used c-axis oriented thin films to form $`ab`$ plane junctions by making a point contact on the side of the film as described in ref. . A film of PCCO is cleaved and a gold tip  is pressed immediately on the side to form a PCCO/Au point contact. This ensures that the current flow is perpendicular to the $`c`$-axis and the junction roughness leads to contributions from different directions in the $`ab`$ plane. The data obtained did not show any qualitative change when the cleavage direction was varied. The $`GV`$ curves were obtained using a standard lock-in technique.

In point contact junctions the $`Z`$ is reduced by increasing the pressure of the point contact which also results in a decrease of the junction resistance . The $`GV`$ curves for such a low $`Z`$ junction on a thin film of underdoped PCCO ($`x=0.13`$) at $`T`$=1.6 K is shown in figure 2. The $`T_c`$ of this particular film is 12.2 K. Without any further analysis we can see that $`G_0/G_N3`$. Both the shape and magnitude of this peak in the $`GV`$ curve strongly suggests a $`d`$-wave pairing symmetry. A ratio of $`G_0/G_N`$ greater than 2 is inconsistent with an $`s`$-wave symmetry. As shown in fig. 1a for $`Z=0`$, $`G_0/G_N`$ reaches a maximum value of 2 for $`\mathrm{\Delta }_{SC}<V<\mathrm{\Delta }_{SC}`$ . For a $`d`$-wave superconductor the value of $`G_0/G_N`$ can have a value greater than 2 due to the ABS at the surface as shown in figure 1b  and shown experimentally for YBCO in ref. . Therefore, this peak we observe is a manifestation of the ABS formed at the surface due to the $`d`$-wave pairing symmetry of underdoped PCCO ($`x=0.13`$). The inset (b) of figure 2 shows a comparison of our data with a theoretical curve calculated using the method of ref. . The parameters for the theoretical curve are $`Z=1.2`$, $`\mathrm{\Delta }_{SC}`$ (for an anisotropic gap this is

the maximum gap value)=7 meV, and $`\alpha =\pi /6`$ ($`\alpha =\pi /4`$ implies current perpendicular to the (110) planes, see inset of figure 1b). For these low $`Z`$ junctions the angular integral was taken over the full range of $`\pi /2<\theta <\pi /2`$. This calculation shows a good quantitative match with our data and is strong evidence of the $`d`$-wave pairing symmetry in underdoped PCCO. It should be mentioned here that the calculated curve is the simplest form of the theory. Additional effects are introduced due to Fermi velocity mismatch between Au and PCCO which modifies $`Z`$ and makes it angle dependent  and due to surface roughness. The angle dependence of $`Z`$ will modify the limits of $`\theta `$ and hence the tunneling cone (range of angles of the incident electrons contributing to the current transport). Surface roughness leads to different facets being exposed at the junction and there is not just a single value but a range of $`\alpha `$. While these factors will affect the parameters which we have used for the calculated spectrum in figure 2, the conclusion that this spectrum is due to the $`d`$-wave pairing symmetry is still valid.

We have shown above that due to the $`d`$-wave pairing symmetry of underdoped PCCO, ABS are formed on the surface which is reflected in the observed point contact spectra. In tunnel junctions on YBCO, a ZBCP is observed in the tunneling spectra due to the surface ABS and this ZBCP splits when a magnetic field is applied perpendicular to the $`ab`$ plane . Figure 2 shows that a magnetic field applied perpendicular to the $`ab`$ plane just results in a reduction of the both the height and the width of the peak but does not result in an observable splitting of the peak. The inset (a) of figure 2 shows the effect of a small field of 1000 G. A very slight reduction of the height is seen. Why do we not see a field induced splitting in our junctions if the peak is formed due to ABS? One mechanism for the splitting of the ZBCP in YBCO is related to Meissner screening

currents . At low fields the splitting, $`\delta `$, increases linearly with the applied field $`H`$. However the screening currents saturate at the pair breaking critical field $`H_c=\varphi _0/\pi ^2\xi \lambda `$  where $`\varphi _0`$ is the flux quantum. The value of $`H_c`$ for optimally doped PCCO is about 1000 G at $`T`$=1.6 K, taking the coherence length $`\xi 60`$ Å  and the penetration depth $`\lambda `$ about 2500 Å . This makes the linear part of the $`\delta H`$ curve very small and the splitting cannot be resolved at the temperatures of our experiments. Another possible origin of the field splitting of the ZBCP in YBCO is a field induced subdominant gap symmetry of the form $`id_{xy}`$ . So the absence of the field splitting in the PCCO case could be due to a different (e.g. $`is`$), or non-existent subdominant gap symmetry in underdoped PCCO. Experiments at subkelvin temperatures will be necessary to resolve the field splitting issue.

So far we have discussed data for underdoped PCCO ($`x=0.13`$) which shows the $`d`$-wave nature of the pairing symmetry in that doping range. What happens at higher doping values? Figure 3 shows a $`GV`$ curve for a low $`Z`$ junction on a thin film of overdoped PCCO ($`x=0.17`$) at $`T`$=1.58 K. The $`T_c`$ for this particular film is 11.8 K. The results are strikingly different from the underdoped case. The most important feature is the dip in $`G_0/G_N`$ at zero bias. This dip shows that there are no ABS at the surface of overdoped PCCO. According to the discussion above, overdoped PCCO then has an $`s`$-wave pairing symmetry. Figure 3 also shows a fit to the data using a modified BTK calculation with parameters $`\mathrm{\Delta }_{SC}`$=1.76 meV, $`Z`$=0.6 and a lifetime broadening factor $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$=0.16$`\mathrm{\Delta }_{SC}`$. The significance of the small value of $`\mathrm{\Delta }_{SC}`$ will be discussed later. The good fit is strong evidence that overdoped PCCO has an $`s`$-wave pairing symmetry. Such a transition from $`d`$ to $`s`$-wave symmetry across optimal doping has also been suggested by recent penetration depth measurements on PCCO . Such doping dependent pairing symmetry has also been

observed in hole-doped cuprates. Recently, a transition from a $`d_{x^2y^2}`$ to a possible $`d+id_{xy}`$ pairing symmetry has been reported in YBCO  and in overdoped Ca-YBCO an $`s`$-wave component was observed . A transition from a $`d`$-wave pairing symmetry in underdoped PCCO to an $`s`$-wave pairing symmetry in overdoped PCCO suggests the existence of a QCP near optimal doping. It has been shown that across a QCP for a $`d_{x^2y^2}`$ superconductor only transitions to $`d+id_{xy}`$ or $`d+is`$ are stable . Since our PCS data shows that their are no ABS formed on the surface of overdoped PCCO and fits well to an $`s`$-wave model, it supports a transition from $`d_{x^2y^2}`$ to a $`d+is`$ pairing symmetry with a significant $`s`$-wave component, as the doping is increased above the optimal value.

As mentioned above, for YBCO the $`d`$-wave pairing symmetry leads to a formation of a ZBCP in the tunneling limit ($`Z1`$) . What happens in point contact junctions with higher $`Z`$ on PCCO? The data from the higher resistance (and hence higher $`Z`$) junctions are shown in figure 4. Although the junction resistance is only about twice that of the junction in figure 2, the $`GV`$ curves are markedly different from those in figure 2. The superconducting gap $`\mathrm{\Delta }_{SC}`$ is clearly seen and is marked in the figure. The value of $`\mathrm{\Delta }_{SC}`$ from the figure is $``$ 6.5 meV for the underdoped composition. Just as in earlier tunneling spectroscopy experiments, there is no hint of a ZBCP. In an earlier paper we showed that even for high $`Z`$ junctions on optimally doped PCCO, no ZBCP is observed . How can we explain this if underdoped PCCO has a $`d`$-wave symmetry? There are two possible reasons. One is the effect of disorder and the other is thermal smearing. It has been shown in the case of YBCO that the ZBCP is suppressed by an increase of disorder in the material . The properties of n-doped cuprates are very sensitive to oxygen concentration and it is possible that oxygen disorder at the surface suppresses the ZBCP. Also, the thermal smearing of the tunneling spectra at a temperature of 1.6 K is $``$ 3.5$`k_BT`$ 0.7 meV. This is comparable to the expected width of the ZBCP since, from the theoretical curves in refs.  it is clear that the width of the ZBCP scales with the value of $`\mathrm{\Delta }_{SC}`$ if the $`Z`$ for the junction is the same. This implies that for tunnel junctions on n-doped cuprates with a $`\mathrm{\Delta }_{SC}`$ 4-6 meV, the width of the ZBCP (if present) should be about 1 meV.

The inset in figure 4a shows the variation of $`\mathrm{\Delta }_{SC}`$, estimated from the point contact spectra, with the Ce concentration $`x`$. The data for $`x=0.15`$ i.e. the optimally doped composition is taken from ref. . The variation of $`T_c`$ (in meV) is also shown. $`\mathrm{\Delta }_{SC}`$ decreases monotonically with increasing $`x`$. For the underdoped ($`x=0.13`$) sample, $`2\mathrm{\Delta }_{SC}/k_BT_c12.4`$ and it drops to about 3.4 for the overdoped ($`x=0.17`$) sample which is close to the weak coupling value. Such a drop in the superconducting gap in the overdoped regime has been observed earlier for hole-doped cuprates like Bi2Sr2CaCu2O8+δ . This is the first such observation for electron-doped cuprates.

In conclusion, we have presented the first systematic study of the formation of Andreev bound states (ABS) at the surface of n-doped cuprate superconductors using point contact spectroscopy. A broad peak is observed at zero bias in the $`GV`$ curves of the low $`Z`$ point contact junctions on underdoped PCCO, the shape and magnitude of which is evidence of the presence of ABS. The observation of ABS is strong confirmation of a $`d`$-wave pairing symmetry in underdoped PCCO. However, for overdoped PCCO ($`x=0.17`$) we do not find evidence for ABS. Instead, the $`GV`$ curves show evidence of an $`s`$-wave pairing symmetry. This transition from $`d`$ to $`s`$-wave symmetry suggests that there is a quantum critical point near optimal doping in n-doped cuprates. Such a transition could also be the reason for the controversial results from previous experiments probing the pairing symmetry of PCCO e.g. penetration depth measurements. Further experiments, e.g. the tricrystal grain boundary junction experiment will have to be done over this doping range to confirm our observations.

The authors would like to thank Prof. C. J. Lobb, Prof. R. C. Budhani, and Dr. I. Zutic for fruitful discussions. The work in Sherbrooke is supported by CIAR, CFI, NSERC and the Fondation FORCE of the Université de Sherbrooke. We thank Z. Y. Li for some of the thin film samples. This work was supported by NSF DMR 01-02350


text:
# Polyakov conjecture and 2+1 dimensional gravity coupled to particles

## Abstract:

A proof is given of Polyakov conjecture about the auxiliary parameters of the $`SU(1,1)`$ Riemann-Hilbert problem for general elliptic singularities. Such a result is related to the uniformization of the the sphere punctured by $`n`$ conical defects. Its relevance to the hamiltonian structure of 2+1 dimensional gravity in the maximally slicing gauge is stressed.

conference: International Europhysics Conference on HEP

1. We shall deal with the proof of a conjecture put forward by Polyakov  about the accessory parameters of the Riemann- Hilbert problem and with the role such a conjecture plays in 2+1 dimensional gravity coupled to particles on an open universe. Such a theory when formulated in the maximally slicing gauge (Dirac gauge) shows a deep connection with the Riemann- Hilbert problem which consists in determining a fuchsian differential equation whose independent solutions transform according to a given representation of the $`SL(2C)`$ group when one encircles the singularities. In the second order canonical ADM formulation  of 2+1 dimensional gravity a variant of the Riemann-Hilbert problem appears which is described in Sec. 2. Such a problem occurs in determining the conformal factor $`e^{2\sigma }`$ in the ADM metric

$$ds^2=N^2dt^2+e^{2\sigma }(dz+N^zdt)(d\overline{z}+N^{\overline{z}}dt).$$
(1)
In fact the hamiltonian constraint in the maximally slicing gauge can be written as

$$4_z_{\overline{z}}\varphi =e^\varphi +4\pi \underset{n}{}\delta ^2(zz_n)(1+\mu _n)+4\pi \underset{B}{}\delta ^2(zz_B)$$
(2)
where

$$\varphi =2\sigma +\mathrm{ln}\left[\frac{1}{2\pi ^2}\underset{n}{}\frac{P_n}{(zz_n)}\underset{n}{}\frac{\overline{P}_n}{(\overline{z}\overline{z}_n)}\right]$$
(3)
being $`z_n`$ the particle positions, $`P_n`$ the canonically conjugate momenta and $`4\pi \mu _n`$ the particle masses in Planck units. The $`z_B`$ are the zeros of $`_nP_n/(zz_n)`$ and are known as the apparent singularities. In eq.(2) one recognizes the Liouville equation with point sources.

The particle equations of motion in the relative coordinates can be written as

$$\dot{z}_n^{}=\underset{B}{}\frac{\beta _B}{\mu }\frac{z_B^{}}{P_n^{}},\dot{P}_n^{}=\frac{\beta _n}{\mu }+\underset{B}{}\frac{\beta _B}{\mu }\frac{z_B^{}}{z_n^{}}$$
(4)
where $`\beta _B`$ are the accessory parameters related to the apparent singularities. One is faced with the problem of proving the hamiltonian nature of eqs.(4) and possibly to give the hamiltonian. As we shall see this problem has a straightforward solution if one assumes the validity of Polyakov’s conjecture to which now we come.

2. Polyakov  put forward the following conjecture on the accessory parameters $`\beta _n`$ which appear in the solution of the $`SU(1,1)`$ Riemann-Hilbert problem

$$\frac{1}{2\pi }dS_P=\underset{n}{}\beta _ndz_n+c.c.$$
(5)
where $`S_P`$ is the regularized Liouville action , $`S_P=lim_{ϵ0}S_ϵ`$ with

$$S_ϵ[\varphi ]=\frac{i}{2}_{X_ϵ}(_z\varphi _{\overline{z}}\varphi +\frac{e^\varphi }{2})𝑑zd\overline{z}+\frac{i}{2}\underset{n}{}g_n_{\gamma _n}\varphi (\frac{d\overline{z}}{\overline{z}\overline{z}_n}\frac{dz}{zz_n})$$

$$+\frac{i}{2}g_{\mathrm{}}_\gamma _{\mathrm{}}\varphi (\frac{d\overline{z}}{\overline{z}}\frac{dz}{z})\pi \underset{n}{}g_n^2\mathrm{ln}ϵ^2\pi g_{\mathrm{}}^2\mathrm{ln}ϵ^2,\mathrm{where}dzd\overline{z}=2idxdy$$
(6)
and $`X_ϵ`$ is the disk of radius $`1/ϵ`$ in the complex plane from which disks of radius $`ϵ`$ around all singularities have been removed; $`\gamma _n`$ are the boundaries of the small disks and $`\gamma _{\mathrm{}}`$ is the boundary of the large disk. In eq.(5) $`S_P`$ has to be computed on the solution of the inhomogeneous Liouville equation which arises from the minimization of the action i.e.

$$4_z_{\overline{z}}\varphi =e^\varphi +4\pi \underset{n}{}g_n\delta ^2(zz_n)$$
(7)
with behavior at infinity $`\varphi =g_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{ln}z\overline{z}+O(1)`$. Such a conjecture plays an important role in the quantum Liouville theory  and in the ADM formulation of $`2+1`$ dimensional gravity . The conjecture is interesting in itself as it gives a new meaning to the rather elusive accessory parameters  of the Riemann-Hilbert problem. In particular it implies that the form $`\omega =_n\beta _ndz_n+c.c.`$ is exact. Zograf and Takhtajan  provided a proof of eq.(5) for parabolic singularities. In addition they remark that the same technique can be applied when some of the singularities are elliptic of finite order. On the other hand in $`2+1`$ gravity one is faced with general elliptic singularities and here the mapping technique cannot be applied. Picard  proved that eq.(7) for real $`\varphi `$ with asymptotic behavior at infinity $`\varphi (z)=g_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{ln}(z\overline{z})+O(1)`$, $`1<g_n,1<g_{\mathrm{}}`$ and $`_ng_n+g_{\mathrm{}}<0`$ admits one and only one solution (see also ). The interest of such results is that they solve the following variant of the Riemann-Hilbert problem: at $`z_1,\mathrm{}z_n`$ we are given not with the monodromies but with the class, characterized by $`g_j`$, of the elliptic monodromies with the further request that all such monodromies belong to the group $`SU(1,1)`$. The last requirement is imposed by the fact that the solution of eq.(7) has to be single valued.

From eq.(7) one can easily prove , that

$$e^{\frac{\varphi }{2}}=\frac{1}{\sqrt{8}|w_{12}|}[\overline{y}_2(\overline{z})y_2(z)\overline{y}_1(\overline{z})y_1(z)]$$
(8)
being $`y_1,y_2`$ two independent solutions of

$$y^{\prime \prime }+Q(z)y=0\mathrm{where}Q(z)=\underset{n}{}\frac{g_n(g_n+2)}{4(zz_n)^2}+\frac{\beta _n}{2(zz_n)}.$$
(9)
$`w_{12}`$ is the constant wronskian and the $`\beta _n`$ are the accessory parameters .

3. The result of Picard assures us that given the position of the singularities $`z_n`$ and the classes of monodromies characterized by the real numbers $`g_n`$ there exists a unique fuchsian equation which realizes $`SU(1,1)`$ monodromies of the prescribed classes. In particular the uniqueness of the solution of Picard’s equation tells us that the accessory parameters $`\beta _i`$ are single valued functions of the parameter $`z_n`$ and $`g_n`$. We shall examine in this section how such dependence arises from the viewpoint of the imposition of the $`SU(1,1)`$ condition on the monodromies. Starting from the singularity in $`z_1`$ we can consider the canonical pair of solutions around $`z_1`$, $`y_1^1=\zeta ^{\frac{g_m}{2}+1}A(\zeta )`$, $`y_2^1=\zeta ^{\frac{g_m}{2}}B(\zeta )`$ with $`A(\zeta )=1+O(\zeta )`$, $`B(\zeta )=1+O(\zeta )`$, $`\zeta =zz_1`$, i.e. those solutions which behave as a single fractional power multiplied by an analytic function with first coefficient one. Let $`(y_1,y_2)`$ the solutions which realize $`SU(1,1)`$ around all singularities. Obviously all conjugations with any element of $`SU(1,1)`$ is still an equivalent solution in the sense that they provide the same conformal factor $`\varphi `$. The canonical pairs around different singularities are linearly related i.e. $`(y_1^1,y_2^1)=(y_1^2,y_2^2)C_{21}`$. We fix the conjugation class by setting $`(y_1,y_2)=(y_1^1,y_2^1)K`$with $`K=\mathrm{diag}(k,k^1)`$ being the overall constant irrelevant in determining $`\varphi `$. Moreover if the solution $`(y_1,y_2)`$ realizes $`SU(1,1)`$ monodromies around all singularities also $`(y_1,y_2)\times \mathrm{diag}(e^{i\alpha },e^{i\alpha })`$ accomplishes the same purpose being $`\mathrm{diag}(e^{i\alpha },e^{i\alpha })`$ an element of $`SU(1,1)`$. Thus the phase of the number $`k`$ is irrelevant and so we can consider it real and positive. This choice of the canonical pairs is always possible in our case. If $`D_n`$ denote the diagonal monodromy matrices around $`z_n`$, we have that the monodromy around $`z_1`$ is $`D_1`$ and the one around $`z_2`$ is $`M_2=K^1C_{12}D_2C_{21}K`$,where with $`C_{12}`$ we have denoted the inverse of the $`2\times 2`$ matrix $`C_{21}`$. In the case of three singularities (one of them at infinity) by using the freedom on $`K`$ we can reduce $`M_2`$ to the $`SU(1,1)`$ form. The possibility of such a choice is assured by Picard’s result and in this simple case also by the explicit solution in terms of hypergeometric functions . We come now to a qualitative description of the case of four singularities. We recall that the accessory parameters $`\beta _n`$ are bound by two algebraic relations known as Fuchs relations . Thus after choosing $`M_1`$ of the form $`M_1=D_1K`$, in imposing the $`SU(1,1)`$ nature of the remaining monodromies we have at our disposal three real parameters i.e. $`k`$, $`\mathrm{Re}\beta _3`$ and $`\mathrm{Im}\beta _3`$. It is sufficient to impose the $`SU(1,1)`$ nature of $`M_2`$ and $`M_3`$ as the $`SU(1,1)`$ nature of $`M_{\mathrm{}}`$ is a consequence of them. As the matrices $`M_n=K^1C_{1n}D_nC_{n1}K`$ satisfy identically $`detM_n=1`$ and $`\mathrm{Tr}M_n=2\mathrm{cos}\pi g_n`$ we need to impose generically on $`M_2`$ only two real conditions e.g. $`\mathrm{Re}b_2=\mathrm{Re}c_2`$ and $`\mathrm{Im}b_2=\mathrm{Im}c_2`$. The same for $`M_3`$. Thus is appears that we need to satisfy four real relations when we can vary only three real parameters. The reason why we need only three and not four is that for any solution of the fuchsian problem the following relation among the monodromy matrices is identically satisfied $`D_1KM_2M_3M_{\mathrm{}}=1.`$The above reported discussion can be put on rigorous grounds  for any number of singularities by exploiting the existence and uniqueness of the solution and using some basic results of the theory of analytic function of several complex variables, reaching the result that $`\beta _n`$ are analytic functions of $`z_m,\overline{z}_m`$ in the neighborhood of any point of the complex plane, except for a finite number of points.

4. Being defined through a limit procedure the action $`S_P`$ is somewhat uncomfortable to work with. It is however possible, introducing a background field to rewrite $`S_P`$ as a simple integral. In the global coordinate system $`z`$ on $`C`$ one writes $`\varphi =\varphi _M+\varphi _0+\varphi _B`$ where $`\varphi _B`$ is a background conformal factor which is regular and behaves at infinity like $`\varphi _B=2\mathrm{ln}(z\overline{z})+c_B+O(1/|z|)`$ while $`\varphi _0`$ is given by

$$\varphi _0=\underset{n}{}g_n\mathrm{ln}|zz_n|^2\alpha \varphi _B+c_0\mathrm{where}\alpha =(\underset{n}{}g_n+g_{\mathrm{}}2)/2.$$
(10)
Then we have for $`\varphi _M`$

$$4_z_{\overline{z}}\varphi _M=e^{\varphi _0+\varphi _B+\varphi _M}+(\alpha 1)4_z_{\overline{z}}\varphi _B.$$
(11)
$`\varphi _M`$ is a continuous function on the Riemann sphere. The action which generates the above equation is

$$S=[_z\varphi _M_{\overline{z}}\varphi _M+\frac{e^\varphi }{2}+2(\alpha 1)\varphi _M_z_{\overline{z}}\varphi _B]\frac{idzd\overline{z}}{2}.$$
(12)
The integral in eq.(12) converges absolutely. $`S`$ computed on the solution of eq.(11) is related to the original Polyakov action $`S_P`$ also computed on the solution of eq.(11) by

$$S_P=S(\alpha 1)^2\varphi _B_z_{\overline{z}}\varphi _B\frac{idzd\overline{z}}{2}+2\pi (\alpha 1)^2c_B+$$

$$+\pi \underset{m}{}\underset{nm}{}g_mg_n\mathrm{ln}|z_mz_n|^2+4\pi c_0(1\alpha ).$$
(13)
Our aim now is to compute the derivative of $`S_P`$ with respect to $`z_n`$. Again computing the derivative of the new action $`S`$ is not completely trivial because one cannot take directly the derivative operation under the integral sign. In fact such unwarranted procedure would give rise to an integrand which is not absolutely summable. One can device however a subtraction procedure  which allows to perform such operations. The rigorous result for the derivative, using the equation of motion (11) is

$$\frac{S}{z_m}=\underset{ϵ0}{lim}_{X_ϵ}[_z(\frac{\varphi _M}{z_m}_{\overline{z}}\varphi _M)+_{\overline{z}}(\frac{\varphi _M}{z_m}_z\varphi _M)+\frac{\varphi _0}{z_m}\frac{e^\varphi }{2}]\frac{idzd\overline{z}}{2}$$
(14)
which can be computed by using eq.(11) to obtain

$$\frac{S}{z_m}=ig_m\underset{ϵ0}{lim}_{\gamma _ϵ}\frac{1}{zz_m}_z\left(\varphi _M(\alpha 1)\varphi _B\right)dz.$$
(15)
Using $`\varphi _M(\alpha 1)\varphi _B=\varphi _ng_n\mathrm{ln}|zz_n|^2`$ and the expansion of $`A=1+c_1\zeta +\mathrm{}`$ and $`B=1+c_2\zeta +\mathrm{}`$ which are obtained by substituting into the differential equation (9) to obtain

$$c_1=\frac{\beta _m}{2(g_m+2)}\mathrm{and}c_2=\frac{\beta _m}{2g_m}$$
(16)
finally we have

$$\frac{S}{z_m}=2\pi \beta _m2\pi \underset{n,nm}{}\frac{g_mg_n}{z_mz_n}$$
(17)
equivalent to Polyakov conjecture eq.(5) due to the relation (13) between $`S`$ and $`S_P`$. From eqs.(4,5) we see that the hamiltonian is given by $`H=\frac{1}{2\pi }\frac{S_P}{\mu }`$, because

$$\frac{H}{P_n^{}}=\underset{B}{}\frac{\beta _B}{\mu }\frac{z_B^{}}{P_n^{}}\mathrm{and}\frac{H}{z_n^{}}=\frac{\beta _n}{\mu }+\underset{B}{}\frac{\beta _B}{\mu }\frac{z_B^{}}{z_n^{}}.$$
(18)
Acknowledgments We are grateful to Mauro Carfora for pointing out to us reference  and for useful discussions.