text:
# Observational Signatures of the Magnetic Connection between a Black Hole and a Disk

## 1 Introduction

A magnetic field connecting a black hole to a disk has important effects on the balance and transfer of energy and angular momentum (Blandford, 1999, 2000; Li, 2000a, b, 2001; Li & Paczyński, 2000, and references therein). When the black hole rotates faster than the disk, energy and angular momentum are extracted from the black hole and transferred to the disk. Thus, the rotational energy of the black hole provides an energy source for the radiation of the disk in addition to disk accretion. The energy deposited in the disk by the black hole can be dissipated by the internal viscosity of the disk and radiated away to infinity (Li, 2000a, b).

A disk powered by a black hole through magnetic connection shows interesting features different from that of a standard accretion disk (Li, 2000b, 2001). The energy radiated by the disk comes from regions closer to the center of the disk, the radiation flux decreases more rapidly with radius, which approaches $`r^{3.5}`$ at large radii (compared to $`r^3`$ for a standard accretion disk). This implies that the radiation spectrum of a disk with magnetic connection observed by a distant observer will also be different from that of a standard accretion disk.

Interestingly, the most recent XMM-Newton observation of the nearby bright Seyfert 1 galaxy MCG–6-30-15 reveals an extremely broad and red-shifted Fe K$`\alpha `$ line indicating its origin from the very most central regions of the accretion disk (Wilms et al., 2001). To explain the observed spectrum a very steep emissivity profile with index $`\alpha =4.35.0`$ is required \[a steep emissivity for the same galaxy and Mrk-766 is also reported by Branduardi-Raymont et al. (2001)\]. Such a steep emissivity is very difficult to be explained within the framework of a standard accretion disk, but the magnetic connection between a black hole and a disk may provide a natural explanation (Wilms et al., 2001). Though there is yet another possible explanation in term of the magnetic connection between the inner boundary of the disk and the plunging material inside the inner boundary (Krolik, 1999; Gammie, 1999; Agol & Krolik, 2000), the issue remains controversial (Paczyński, 2000) and the most recent numerical simulations show that the stress produced by such a magnetic connection sensitively depends on the thickness of the disk: the stress in the plunging region is significantly reduced as the thickness of the disk decreases (Hawley & Krolik, 2001a, b; Armitage, Reynold, & Chiang, 2001; Hawley, 2001)222In fact, all analytic and numerical works on disk dynamo show that the strength of the magnetic field lying in the disk is always limited by the gas pressure in the disk (Galeev, Rosner, & Vaiana, 1979; Balbus & Hawley, 1998; Miller & Stone, 2000). Since in the plunging region the gas pressure is very low due to the supersonic flow we expect that the stress produced by the magnetic field in the plunging region cannot be important..

In this Letter we use a simple model to demonstrate the observational signatures of the magnetic connection between a black hole and a disk. We assume that an axisymmetric magnetic field connects a black hole to a non-accretion disk from the inner boundary of the disk to a circle with radius $`r_b`$. As in the case of a standard accretion disk, the inner boundary of the disk is assumed to be at the marginally stable orbit with radius $`r_{ms}`$. We will calculate the radiation flux, the emissivity index, and the radiation spectrum observed by a distant observer for various distribution of the magnetic field between $`r_{ms}`$ and $`r_b`$ on the disk. We will compare the results with that of a standard accretion disk and look for the robustness of the observational signatures of the magnetic connection.

## 2 The Model and the Radiation Flux

The magnetic connection produces an angular momentum flux transferred between the black hole and the disk (Li, 2001)

$`H={\displaystyle \frac{1}{8\pi ^3}}\left({\displaystyle \frac{d\mathrm{\Psi }_{HD}}{dr}}\right)^2{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Omega }_H\mathrm{\Omega }_D}{rdZ_H/dr}},`$ (1)
where $`\mathrm{\Psi }_{HD}`$ is the magnetic flux connecting the black hole to the disk, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_H`$ is the angular velocity of the horizon of the black hole, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_D`$ is the angular velocity of the disk, $`Z_H`$ is the resistance of the black hole which is mapped to the disk surface by the magnetic connection. We assume that $`H`$ is distributed from $`r=r_{ms}`$ to $`r=r_b`$ with a power law

$`H=\{\begin{array}{cc}Ar^n,\hfill & r_{ms}<r<r_b\hfill \\ 0,\hfill & r>r_b\hfill \end{array},`$ (4)
where $`A`$ is a constant. In our model we allow $`n`$ to vary from $`n=1`$ to $`n=9`$. The case $`n=1`$ roughly corresponds to a uniform magnetic field between $`r_{ms}`$ and $`r_b`$. As $`n`$ decreases the magnetic field becomes more concentrated toward the center of the disk.

In a steady state the radiation flux of a non-accretion disk is (Li, 2001)

$`F={\displaystyle \frac{1}{r}}\left({\displaystyle \frac{d\mathrm{\Omega }_D}{dr}}\right)\left(E^+\mathrm{\Omega }_DL^+\right)^2{\displaystyle _{r_{ms}}^r}\left(E^+\mathrm{\Omega }_DL^+\right)Hr𝑑r,`$ (5)
where $`E^+`$ and $`L^+`$ are respectively the specific energy and the specific angular momentum of a particle on a Keplerian orbit around the black hole (Page & Thorne, 1974). For the $`H`$ given by equation (4), we have

$`F={\displaystyle \frac{A}{r}}\left({\displaystyle \frac{d\mathrm{\Omega }_D}{dr}}\right)\left(E^+\mathrm{\Omega }_DL^+\right)^2{\displaystyle _{r_{ms}}^{\mathrm{min}(r,r_b)}}\left(E^+\mathrm{\Omega }_DL^+\right)r^{n+1}𝑑r,`$ (6)
For a canonical Kerr black hole with $`a=0.998M_H`$, where $`M_H`$ is the mass of the black hole and $`a`$ is the specific angular momentum of the black hole (Thorne, 1974, throughout the paper we use the geometrized units $`G=c=1`$), we have calculated the radiation flux for $`n`$ ranging from $`n=1`$ to $`n=9`$. The results are shown in Fig. 1. The position of $`r=r_b`$, which is chosen to be $`2r_{ms}`$, is shown with an upper arrow. For comparison, in Fig. 1 we also show the radiation flux of a standard accretion disk (SAD, the short-dashed curve) and the radiation flux of a disk with a limiting magnetic connection (LMC, the long-dashed curve) where the magnetic field is assumed to touch the disk at the inner boundary. The radiation flux is normalized to give the same luminosity for all models. We see that, with the magnetic connection, more energy are radiated from regions close to the inner boundary of the disk. This trend becomes more prominent as $`n`$ decreases i.e. as the magnetic field becomes more concentrated toward the center of the disk. In the limiting case when the magnetic field touches the disk at the inner boundary, the radiation flux peaks at the inner boundary. Outside $`r=r_b`$, the radiation flux of a disk with magnetic connection declines faster than that of a standard accretion disk.

## 3 The Emissivity Index and the Radiation Spectrum

We define the emissivity index to be

$`\alpha {\displaystyle \frac{d\mathrm{ln}F}{d\mathrm{ln}r}},`$ (7)
which mimics $`Fr^\alpha `$ locally. For the radiation flux given by equation (6) we have calculated the emissivity index and the results are shown in Fig. 2 for the same models in Fig. 1. The emissivity index produced by a standard accretion disk is shown with the short-dashed curve. The emissivity index produced by a limiting magnetic connection is shown with the long-dashed curve. The emissivity index for the Seyfert 1 galaxy MCG–6-30-15 inferred from the recent XMM-Newton observation (Wilms et al., 2001) is shown with the shaded region. From Fig. 2 we see that, inside $`r_b`$ the emissivity index sensitively depends on the distribution of the magnetic field while outside $`r_b`$ the emissivity index is independent of the magnetic field distribution inside $`r_b`$. The emissivity index of a standard accretion disk increases with radius and approaches to $`3`$ as $`r\mathrm{}`$, which is always smaller than that inferred from the observation of MCG–6-30-15. The emissivity index of a non-accretion disk with magnetic connection increases to a maximum at some radius and then decreases with radii and approaches to $`3.5`$ as $`r\mathrm{}`$. To be consistent with the observation of MCG–6-30-15 inside $`r_b`$, a very large $`n`$ is required.

We have also calculated the radiation spectrum seen by a remote observer who is at rest relative to the central black hole, by using the transfer function provided by Cunningham (1975). The disk is assumed to radiate like a black-body and the observer is assumed to be at polar angle $`\theta =\pi /3`$ from the axis of the black hole. The results are shown in Fig. 3 where the radiation flux is normalized to give the same luminosity for all models. We see that, the magnetic connection tends to harden the radiation of the disk. As $`n`$ decreases the amplitude of the observed spectrum goes down, this is caused by the fact that for smaller $`n`$ the magnetic field becomes more concentrated toward the center of the disk and thus the radiation is more focused to the plane of the disk (Bardeen, 1970). Though the shape of the radiation flux curve (Fig. 1) is very sensitive to the distribution of the magnetic field inside $`r_b`$, the radiation spectrum is not so, especially at the high frequency end. This indicates that the spectral signature of the magnetic coupling can be robust.

## 4 Discussion and Conclusions

Ever since Penrose (1969) proposed the first Gedankenexperiment for extracting energy from a rotating black hole many people have looked for more practical ways that may work in astronomy. Among many alternatives the Blandford-Znajek mechanism (Blandford & Znajek, 1977; Macdonald & Thorne, 1982; Phinney, 1983) has been thought to be promising for powering extragalactic jets. The magnetic connection between a rapidly rotating black hole and a disk is a variant of the Blandford-Znajek mechanism and is more efficient in extracting energy from the black hole (Li, 2000a). The energy extracted from the black hole is deposited into the disk, dissipated by the internal viscosity of the disk, and subsequently radiated away to infinity (Li, 2000b). Such a disk can radiate without accretion, the power of the disk comes from the rotational energy of the black hole.

The magnetic connection not only increases the radiation efficiency of the disk (i.e., increases the ratio of radiated energy to accreted mass) but also produces observational signatures. With the magnetic connection, more energy is dissipated in and radiated away from regions closer to the center of the disk, which in turn produces a steep emissivity profile. The spectral signature produced by the magnetic connection is also significantly different from that produced by the standard accretion. The recent XMM-Newton observations of soft X-ray emission lines from two Narrow Line Seyfert 1 galaxies MCG –6-30-15 and Mrk 766 shows an extreme steep emissivity profile, which has been suggested to indicate that most of the line emission originates from the inner part of a relativistic accretion disk (Branduardi-Raymont et al., 2001; Wilms et al., 2001). From Fig. 1 and Fig. 2 we see that these features are just predicted by the magnetic connection between a rapidly rotating black hole and a disk.

Another kind of observation which may be relevant to the magnetic connection between a black hole and a disk is the kilohertz quasi-periodic oscillations (kHz QPOs) in X-ray binaries, which has been suggested to originate from the inner edge of a relativistic accretion disk (van der Klis, 2000, and references therein). The magnetic connection between a Kerr black hole and a disk provides an interesting model for kHz QPOs. In the case of strong coupling, Blandford (1999) has proposed to associate QPOs with the radial oscillation produced by the magnetic connection. There is yet another possibility: QPOs may be produced by a non-axisymmetric magnetic field connecting a black hole to a disk (Li, 2000b, 2001). Suppose a bunch of magnetic field lines connect a black hole to a disk and the feet of the magnetic field lines are concentrated in a small region in the disk, then a hot spot will be produced on the disk surface if the black hole rotates faster than the disk. Since the disk is perfectly conducting, the magnetic field is frozen in the disk so the hot spot will co-rotate with the disk and show a periodic oscillation.

While the model presented in this Letter is so simple that it cannot be directly applied to comparison with observations, it demonstrates some interesting observational signatures of the magnetic connection between a black hole and a disk. With Chandra and XMM-Newton telescopes it becomes possible to probe the inner region of a disk around a black hole, so the observational signatures of the magnetic connection may be identified.

Support for this work was provided by NASA through Chandra Postdoctoral Fellowship grant number PF1-20018 awarded by the Chandra X-ray Center, which is operated by the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory for NASA under contract NAS8-39073.


format: text

text:
# Quantum cryptographic ranging

## Abstract

Abstract. We present a system to measure the distance between two parties that allows only trusted people to access the result. The security of the protocol is guaranteed by the complementarity principle in quantum mechanics. The protocol can be realized with available technology, at least as a proof of principle experiment.

The following touching problem will be addressed in this paper. Alice is lost in the woods. Her friend Bob needs to find her, rescue her, and live happily ever after. On the other hand, the bad wolf Eve also wants to find her, in order to gobble her up. Suppose for simplicity an unidimensional forest, Alice and Bob need to find their relative position (ranging) without giving any hint to Eve. This intent is analogous to the one underlying cryptography, i.e. the exchange of information in a secure fashion. In this respect we will refer to it as crypto-positioning procedure.

In this paper, we show how the quantum mechanical time–energy uncertainty principle can be employed to measure in a quantum cryptographically secure fashion the distance between Alice and Bob. This means that the physical limitations imposed by quantum mechanics do not allow, not even in principle in the ideal case, any kind of eavesdropping on Eve’s part. The secure exchange of information, based on analogous “weird” quantum effects has been shown long ago in  and technological applications seem to be at hand . Our idea to help Bob in his quest stems by joining Ekert’s quantum cryptographic protocol  with the recently proposed quantum positioning protocol , that allows one to perform ranging using frequency-entangled states.

In  we have shown how, by using $`N`$ frequency-entangled photons, one can obtain an $`1/\sqrt{N}`$ accuracy enhancement in finding out the distance between Alice and Bob over the case in which the $`N`$ photons are unentangled. This is a truly quantum effect that arises from the strong photon correlations between photons originating from the entanglement. This same fact, however, makes the loss of a single photon critical: as shown in , when one of the entangled photons that travel from Bob to Alice is lost, the remaining photons yield no information at all on the distance between the two. Such an apparent drawback turns out to be the key feature in devising the crypto-positioning protocol.

In what follows we can limit our analysis to the case $`N=2`$. In this situation it is possible to use the state generated by cw-pumped spontaneous parametric down-conversion, in which the two generated photons are anticorrelated in frequency, i.e.

$`|\mathrm{\Psi }{\displaystyle 𝑑\omega \varphi (\omega )|\omega _0+\omega _I|\omega _0\omega _S}.`$ (1)
In Eq. (1) the notation $`|\nu `$ refers to a single photon state of frequency $`\nu `$, the ket subscripts refer to the two distinct field modes (the signal $`S`$ and the idler $`I`$) generated by the crystal, $`2\omega _0`$ is the pump frequency, and $`\varphi (\omega )`$ is the two-photon spectral function centered in $`\omega =0`$ with bandwidth $`\mathrm{\Delta }\omega `$. The state $`|\mathrm{\Psi }`$ is one of the best known sources of entanglement currently available and an enormous amount of literature both theoretical and experimental is accessible (see for example  and citations therein). Another possibility that can be exploited is the recently proposed ‘difference beam state’  that displays frequency correlated photons, whereas $`|\mathrm{\Psi }`$ displays anti-correlation in frequency.

The properties of the entanglement in the state $`|\mathrm{\Psi }`$ are such that, if one measures the frequency of the signal photon, he/she would obtain a random value $`\omega _0+\omega `$ with probability density $`|\varphi (\omega )|^2`$, but the subsequent measurement on the idler photon will have the predictable outcome $`\omega _0\omega `$ (and vice versa if the measurements are reversed). On the other hand, it is possible to show that if one measures the time of arrival of the first photon on a detector, then he/she will be able to predict (with an accuracy of the order of $`\mathrm{\Delta }\omega ^1`$) the time of arrival of the second photon on a second detector at a distance $`L`$. In fact, the joint probability of measuring the first photon at time $`t_1`$ and the second at time $`t_2`$ is given by

$`P_c(t_1,t_2)\left|{\displaystyle 𝑑\omega \varphi (\omega )e^{i\omega (t_1t_2+L/c)}}\right|^2,`$ (2)
which exhibits a peak centered in $`t_2t_1=L/c`$ of width proportional to $`\mathrm{\Delta }\omega ^1`$. What happens when one measures the frequency of the first photon and the time of arrival of the second? In this case it is possible to show that the outcome of the time of arrival measurement is completely unpredictable: all the timing information has been “erased” by the frequency measurement. In this respect, the measurement of the frequency on one of the photons has the same effect as the loss of such photon.

The crypto-positioning procedure, depicted in Fig. 1, is the following:

1. Bob produces a certain number of labeled copies of the two-photon state $`|\mathrm{\Psi }`$. Of each copy he sends Alice one of the two photons (e.g. the signal photon).
2. Of the idler photon he did not send Alice, he randomly measures either the frequency or the time at which it reaches a photodetector placed at a known distance from him.
3. In the thick of the woods, Alice receives Bob’s photon and she also randomly chooses to measure either the frequency or the time of arrival.
4. Alice and Bob broadcast the kind of measurement (frequency or time of arrival) they performed on each of the two-photons copies. They discard all the measurement results of the cases in which their choices did not match.
5. Alice and Bob exchange the results of the frequency measurements and compare them. If the communication channel is perfect and there is no eavesdropper measuring photon transit times, these results are correlated (namely, if Alice had obtained the frequency $`\omega _0+\omega `$, Bob must have found $`\omega _0\omega `$). On the contrary, if Eve measured the transit times of the photons, she unavoidably spoiled the frequency entanglement. Alice and Bob find this out when they compare their data, since it will no longer be correlated.
6. Once they have verified that Eve is not tapping on the exchanged photons, Alice broadcasts to Bob all the measurement results of the photon times of arrival. This information is useless to anybody except Bob (who knows the timing information of the other photon of each couple) and it allows him to find the lost Alice through Eq. (2) which yields the distance $`L`$, given the photon times of arrival $`t_1`$ and $`t_2`$.

Notice that Eve can measure the frequency of the traveling photons without being detected. This, however, does not allow her to gain any information on the distance $`L`$. She will only succeed in disturbing Alice and Bob’s communication.

The scheme can be straightforwardly adapted to much more complicated scenarios. For example, one may tailor the entanglement to situations in which multiple rescuers are present and they can obtain Alice’s position only if they meet and exchange their data in the spirit of quantum secret sharing protocols. A discussion of the quantum crypto-positioning protocol can be also found in .

In conclusion, we have presented a protocol that, using the frequency entangled state at the output of a parametric downconversion crystal, allows one to perform quantum crypto-positioning. No matter how many resources the evil Eve devotes to eavesdropping, she will not be able to prevent a happy ending, since only Bob will find Alice!

This work was funded by the ARDA, NRO, and by ARO under a MURI program.


text:
# The World of Synchrotrons*footnote **footnote *In Resonance, 6, No. 11, pp. 77–86 (November 2001). A monthly Publishon of the Indian Academy of Sciences, http://www.ias.ac.in/resonance/

## I Introduction to Synchrotron Radiation

Charged-particles when accelerated radiate electromagnetic energy. This interesting physical phenomenon, now known by the name synchrotron radiation had its theoretical beginnings a long time ago at the time of classical electrodynamics. At that time, only the very basic features of this physical phenomenon were studied and expressions were derived for several quantities such as the total radiation intensity, spectral distribution and angular distribution . These theoretical studies had to wait for about half a century till the development of charged-particle accelerator technology for a direct observation and experimental verification. It was experimentally observed for the first time in 1947 in the $`70MeV`$ electron synchrotron and hence the name synchrotron radiation. This observation generated a renewed interest in synchrotron theory. Synchrotron radiation was an irritant in early electron synchrotrons and storage rings. But it was soon realized that synchrotron radiation was a very valuable product in itself for research applications requiring intense and bright sources of light over a wide range of wavelengths. Electrons loose a large amount of energy in the form of synchrotron radiation putting a limit on the maximum attainable energy in a given type of accelerator. Let us first consider the case of the betatron. The betatron is a cyclic electron accelerator with a circular orbit of approximately constant radius which provides acceleration through magnetic induction. As the beam energy rises synchrotron radiation losses rise and begin to compete with the energy gained due to magnetic induction. In practice, the synchrotron radiation begins to become important at about $`100MeV`$ and limits beam energies to about $`300MeV`$. This challenge of the synchrotron radiation stimulated the development of accelerator technology and further increased the energy of the accelerated particles.

Here, it would be relevant and interesting to mention the very exceptional case of the charged-particles under uniform acceleration, i.e., a constant force. This constant force can be produced, for example, by a constant uniform electrostatic field. From the special theory of relativity we know that a particle under a constant force executes hyperbolic motion. Does a charged-particle under uniform acceleration (hyperbolic motion) radiate? The answer to this question is not yet completely resolved! This topic is listed as one of the several surprises in theoretical physics in the compilation due to Peierls .

One of the characteristics of the synchrotron radiation is its intensity (energy emitted per unit time). Let us first consider the motion of a charged-particle of rest mass $`m_0`$ and charge $`q`$ in a uniform magnetic field of strength $`B`$ with the simplification that there is no component of the velocity along the field direction. We further decide to neglect the changes in the trajectory due to the radiation losses. In such a configuration the particle moves in a circle. The radius $`R`$ of this circle is given by the well-known relation

$$R=\beta \gamma \frac{m_0c}{qB}=\frac{\beta }{c}\frac{E}{qB}$$
(1)
where the total energy $`E=\gamma m_0c^2`$, $`c`$ is the velocity of light, $`\beta =v/c`$ and the relativistic factor $`\gamma =\frac{1}{\sqrt{1\beta ^2}}`$. In 1898 Liénard derived the expression for the total radiation intensity $`P`$ for a charged-particle moving in circular motion

$$P=\frac{2}{3}\frac{q^2c}{4\pi ϵ_0R^2}\beta ^4\left(\frac{E}{m_0c^2}\right)^4$$
(2)
The radiated power depends on the rest mass of the radiating particle like $`1/m_0^4`$. For protons and electrons of the same total energy $`E`$ the ratio of the radiated powers is

$$\frac{P_p}{P_e}=\left(\frac{m_e}{m_p}\right)^4=8.80\times 10^{14}$$
(3)
Synchrotron radiation is the dominant factor in the design of high energy electron synchrotrons and is an obstacle to exceeding $`100GeV`$ or so in this type of accelerator. Only now synchrotron radiation is becoming a design consideration for proton synchrotrons. In the proton case, single-particle motion, to a very good approximation, exemplifies a Hamiltonian system. Particle motion in electron synchrotrons, on the other hand, is inherently dissipative.

## II Quantum Effects in Synchrotron Radiation

Synchrotron radiation was experimentally observed in a period when there was a very keen interest in analyzing the quantum corrections to the prescriptions based on the classical theories. The need of such studies also arose from the desire to achieve higher beam energies with the evolving accelerator technology. A quantum mechanical expression for the radiation intensity was derived by Schwinger which is:

$$P^{\mathrm{Quantum}}=P^{\mathrm{Classical}}\left(1\frac{55}{8\sqrt{3}}\frac{ϵ}{E}+\mathrm{}\right)$$
(4)
where the critical energy of the radiated photon $`ϵ=\mathrm{}\omega _c=\frac{3}{2}\gamma ^3\frac{\mathrm{}c}{R}`$. For an electron the quantum contributions become effective only at about $`10^4GeV`$. There have been also studies to assess the effect of spin and the anomalous magnetic moment on the radiation intensity. These effects are also noticeable only at very high energies. As far as the radiation intensity is concerned the quantum contributions are of no consequence in any realizable accelerator. However, there are several other ways by which quantum effects manifest at energies realizable in many of the accelerators. The quantum radiation fluctuations start having an appreciable effect on the motion of the particles at energies exceeding $`E_c=m_0c^2\left(\frac{m_0cR}{\mathrm{}}\right)^{1/5}`$ which for an electron is about $`500MeV`$ . Quantum fluctuations of the radiation have to be taken into account in the engineering calculations of the particle motion. In passing it is to be noted that the quantum corrections to the beam optics are related to the powers of the de Broglie wavelength of the charged-particle. Hence the quantum corrections to the beam optics are more noticeable at lower energies . One practical aplication of the quantum formalism of charged-particle beam optics would be to get a deeper understanding of the polarized beams.

It has been confirmed that the synchrotron radiation is responsible for the directional orientation of the particle spin i.e., it leads to radiation self-polarization of the beam. As a result of the quantum fluctuations of the synchrotron radiation, the particle spin achieves a state whose orientation direction is opposite to that of the magnetic field. The particle beam becomes $`92\%`$ polarized in a time $`\tau `$ given by

$$\frac{1}{\tau }=\frac{5\sqrt{3}}{8}\frac{\mathrm{}}{m_0cR}\gamma ^5\frac{q^2}{4\pi ϵ_0m_0cR^2}.$$
(5)
For many realizable accelerators this time turns out to be about few hours and hence it is possible to observe (and utilize) radiation self-polarization in numerous storage rings. The radiation self-polarization is currently the only method of obtaining relativistic beams with an oriented spin. A novel proposal to produce polarized beams using the proposed spin-splitter devices based on the Stern-Gerlach kicks has been presented recently . Polarized beams are very essential for many of the experiments in particle physics.

Some of the many important properties of the synchrotron radiation are summarized below:

1. The angular distribution of the synchrotron radiation is very sharply peaked in the direction of the particle’s velocity vector within an angular width of $`1/\gamma `$. The radiation is plane-polarized on the plane of the particle’s orbit, and elliptically-polarized outside this plane.
2. The radiation spans a continuous spectrum. The power spectrum produced by a high energy particle extends to a critical frequency $`\omega _c=\frac{3}{2}\gamma ^3\omega _R`$ where the cyclotron frequency $`\omega _R=\frac{c}{R}=\frac{qB}{\gamma m_0}`$

These results imply that the synchrotron radiation is extremely intense over a broad range of wavelengths from the infrared through the visible and ultraviolet range and into the vacuum ultraviolet and soft and hard X-rays parts of the electromagnetic spectrum. The high intensity over a very broad spectrum range and certain other properties (including, collimation, polarization, pulsed-time structure, partial coherence, high-vacuum environment, …) make synchrotron radiation a very powerful tool for a variety of applications in basic and applied research and technology. It is particularly important in those parts of the electromagnetic spectrum where laser sources are (presently) not available such as the vacuum ultraviolet, soft and hard X-rays, parts of the infrared, etc.,. The applications of the synchrotron light span a wide range of domains in fundamental science (chemistry, physics, biology, molecular medicine, etc.,) applied research (materials science, medical imaging, pharmaceutical R & D, advanced radiology, etc.,) and industrial technology (micro-fabrication, micro-analysis, photo-chemistry, etc.,).

## III Numerical Estimates

Using Equation (2) let us estimate the energy radiated by a single particle in one revolution. The time, $`T`$ of one revolution is $`2\pi R/\beta c`$ and the energy $``$ lost is

$``$ $`=`$ $`P\times T`$ (6)
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{3}}{\displaystyle \frac{q^2}{ϵ_0R}}\beta ^3\gamma ^4.`$ (7)
The maximum energy a particle can loose by radiation is all its kinetic energy, $`K=(\gamma 1)m_0c^2`$. This can happen only at ultrarelativistic energies ($`\gamma 1`$ and $`\beta 1`$). The required $`\gamma `$ is found by equating $``$ to $`K`$. Then one gets

$$\gamma =\frac{1}{\beta }\left[3m_0c^2\frac{ϵ_0R}{q^2}\right]^{\frac{1}{3}}.$$
(8)
In the particular cases of an electron and a proton one gets

$`K_e`$ $`=`$ $`20R^{\frac{1}{3}}GeV,`$ (9)
$`K_p`$ $`=`$ $`5\times 10^5R^{\frac{1}{3}}GeV,`$ (10)
where $`R`$ is in $`meters`$. In any realizable accelerator $`R`$ is about several $`km`$ which limits the energy to several $`100`$’s $`GeV`$ for an electron-synchrotron and to about a thousand $`TeV`$ for a proton-synchrotron. So one needs to explore other types of machines. For high-energy $`e^+e^{}`$ colliders, linear accelerators become a very attractive option. This is why all $`p\overline{p}`$ colliders are circular and all future high-energy $`e^+e^{}`$ colliders will likely be linear. In the high-energy machines several $`megawatts`$ of power is dissipated in the form of synchrotron radiation around the ring. This power loss is comparable to the power requirements of a small town.

## IV Synchrotron Facilities

A synchrotron radiation facility is based on the technology of charged-particle accelerators. Bunches of charged-particles (usually, electrons) are made to circulate for several hours inside a ring-shaped, long tube under high vacuum. These rings have several beam lines with experimental stations and serve several sets of users simultaneously. Contrary to the expectation there are not very many synchrotron facilities to meet the huge demands of numerous users. This is due to the high costs (about a hundred million US $) and the required optimum technological expertise. Currently, around the world there are about fifty storage rings in operation as synchrotron radiation sources, located in twenty-three countries. About a dozen are under construction and another dozen or so are being planned. In Asia there are about twenty synchrotrons laboratories in nine countries: Armenia, China, India, Japan, Jordan, Korea, Singapore, Taiwan and Thailand. This small list leaves out not only many countries but the regions (such as the Continents of Africa and Australia) without a single synchrotron facility. India has the expertise and the experience of indigenously building two synchrotrons at the Centre of Advanced Technology (CAT) in Indore. Indus-I is a $`450MeV`$ synchrotron and Indus-II is a very energetic $`2.0GeV`$ synchrotron.

Storage rings are very flexible devices. By reusing most of the major components their performance can be upgraded at an incremental cost that is small as compared with the cost of construction of a new synchrotron. In recent years this flexibility is being innovatively exploited to relocate the very generously donated synchrotrons to those locations which are under-represented in the World Synchrotron Map.

## V The Most Powerful Synchrotrons

The $`8.0GeV`$ SPring-8 synchrotron is the largest synchrotron radiation source in the world and was completed in 1997 in Hyogo prefecture of Japan. Japan is one of the leading countries along with the United States and the European Union in accelerator-based science research. The SPring-8 belongs to the category of hard X-rays machines, along with the $`7.0GeV`$ Advanced Photon Source (APS) in Argonne, USA and the $`6.0GeV`$ European Synchrotron Radiation Facility (ESRF) in Grenoble, France. Owing to their extremely high energy these synchrotrons have their specific problems, and have forced the development of new techniques and new devices in the field of optics and detectors to ensure the required high stability of the electron beam. In view of the very unique challenges arising due to the very high energy the three most powerful synchrotron laboratories have signed a Framework of Agreement for Collaboration .

## VI Accelerator Programmes in India

The accelerator programmes in India have a very long history. It had an early beginning in 1940 when Prof. Meghnad Saha developed a $`37inch`$ cyclotron at the Calcutta based Institute of Nuclear Physics, which is now called Saha Institute of Nuclear Physics (SINP). In 1950, a $`1.0MeV`$ cyclotron was commissioned at the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR) in Mumbai. In 1960, a $`5.5MeV`$ Van-de-Graff accelerator was installed at the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC) in Mumbai. In 1978, an indigenously designed and built $`224cm`$ diameter Variable Energy Cyclotron was made operational at the Variable Energy Cyclotron Centre (VECC) in Calcutta. Now, there are several Pelletrons such as the $`6.0MeV`$ Pelletron at the Institute of Physics (IOP) in Bhubaneshwar and the $`14.0MeV`$ Pelletron at TIFR. The Nuclear Science Centre (NSC) in New Delhi has a very energetic $`150MeV`$ Pelletron, which can accelerate very heavy ions to high energies. Very recently a beam of the radioactive isotope beryllium-$`7`$ was produced at the NSC. This marks India’s entry into an elite group of nations which are doing research with radioactive-ion beams . India has the expertise and the experience of indigenously building the two synchrotrons at the Centre of Advanced Technology (CAT) in Indore. Indus-I is a $`450MeV`$ machine and Indus-II is a very energetic $`2.0GeV`$ machine .

## VII Accelerator Meetings in India

India, one of the very few countries which very regularly holds Accelerator and Beam Physics Meetings. For several years the Centre for Advanced Technology (CAT) at Indore has been holding a series of Schools on the Physics of Beams every year in December–January. This series of Schools is funded by the Department of Science and Technology (DST), with the aim of dissemination more widely in India, knowledge of, and interest in, beam physics. The School attracts several speakers from the premiere accelerator laboratories around the world. The Schools are very well-structured with tutorials and a few laboratory experiments. The participants of the School are further attracted to the Summer Research Programme conducted at CAT (see the very detailed School Reports in Ref. ). For over a decade the IUC-DAEF Calcutta Centre has been holding the tri-annual National Seminars on Physics and Technology of Particle Accelerators and their Applications. This series of National Seminars known by the acronym PATPAA provide a forum where all the accelerator physicists and technical personnel can meet and exchange their ideas and new developments. These PATPAA conferences, conducted once in three three years, attract a large participation from across the entire nation and some from abroad with enthusiasm and interest .

The above Schools are extremely significant since, the Accelerator & Beam Physics and associated technologies are not yet part of the regular university curriculum in most parts of the world! The learning of such an important interdisciplinary science is done to a very large extent individually and through the very few Schools when and where available . We need to include accelerator & beam physics in the regular university curriculum. In passing it is to be noted that, there is yet to be an Accelerator & Beam Physics Association/Society of India. The Japanese Beam Physics Club  and the Particle Accelerator Society of China  provide the required Forums in their respective countries. When created, such an Association/Society will provide the much awaited Forum , strengthening the accelerator & beam physics community nation-wide. This has been the case in various other areas of Physics, for a very long time. Then, why should accelerator & beam physics continue to make an exception?

## VIII The Relocated Synchrotrons

Siam Photon Source: Recently the Japanese donated a $`1.0GeV`$ synchrotron to Thailand . Thus, Asia-Pacific region became the birth-place for the Era of the Relocated Synchrotrons. Located $`250km`$ northeast of Bangkok in the city of Nakhon Ratchasima, the “Siam Photon Source” is Thailand’s first synchrotron light facility and is intended to serve scientists throughout Southeast Asia. The original synchrotron light source, called SORTEC, was located in Tsukuba Science City, near KEK, Japan’s High Energy Accelerator Research Organization. Thailand’s Ministry of Science, Technology, and Environment got the machine gratis and is investing about US $ 15 million to move and upgrade it. This includes the doubling of the circumference to $`81m`$ and tailoring the machine to produce narrow bright beams of soft X-rays and ultraviolet radiation. Scientists from the KEK have helped in the redesign and are training the scientists from Thailand to operate their new facility. Professor Tokehiko Ishii, the retired Director of the Synchrotron Radiation Laboratory at University of Tokyo is the key figure in orchestrating the donation. He is also overseeing the technical and scientific aspects of the transfer and upgrading of the synchrotron. The plan is to use the Siam Photon Source for physics and chemistry research, with some industrial research in semiconductors, medicine, pharmaceuticals, and agriculture. Siam Photon Source is scheduled to go on-line in 2001 .

SESAME: Jordan is the first country from the Middle East to join the elite group of countries possessing a synchrotron light source . This became possible as Germany decided to generously gift the BESSY-I, a $`800MeV`$ synchrotron, fully functioning since 1982 in Berlin, to the region of Middle East. BESSY stands for Berliner Elektronen-Spiecherring für Synchrotronstrahlung. BESSY-I is to be replaced by the more powerful BESSY-II, a $`1.9GeV`$ synchrotron located in another part of Berlin. Germans are well-known for their environmentally responsible attitude towards reusing and recycling, and now they have very successfully extended that attitude to the large-scale research facilities! The idea of donating the BESSY-I Synchrotron came from Herman Winick of the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center (SLAC) in California, a member of the Machine Advisory Committee of BESSY-II, and the fellow committee member Gustav-Adolf Voss, a former director of Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron (DESY) in Hamburg, Germany. The Project is known by the acronym SESAME (Synchrotron-light for Experimental Science and Applications in the Middle East) . The SESAME Project reached a major milestone with the selection of a site in Jordan at a Meeting of the SESAME Interim Council in Amman, Jordan during 21-22 June 2000. SESAME will be the upgraded reincarnation of BESSY-I. The upcoming joint synchrotron radiation facility, which would be the first regional centre for cooperation in basic research in the Middle East will also serve as a seed for an International Centre built around the facility. SESAME will be located at the Al-Balqa’ Applied University in Al-Salt and will be open to scientists from any country in the region or elsewhere. Because of this openness, organizers see its potential as not only a world-class research centre, but also as a politically important example of scientific cooperation in the region. Such a centre has been long overdue and it shall be the first of its kind in the region. The Centre will be operated and supported by its eleven member countries (Armenia, Cyprus, Egypt, Greece, Iran, Israel, Jordan, Morocco, Oman, Palestine and Turkey) with support from countries including, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Russia, Sweden, Switzerland and USA. Other countries which have expressed an interest to join this new fount of science and medium of international cooperation include, Bahrain, Tunisia and Yemen. It is hoped that the new centre will be able to mirror the CERN in stimulating regional research collaboration. Very much like CERN, SESAME is under the very valuable political umbrella of UNESCO and is expected to promote science and foster international cooperation . A broad-spectrum of planned research programmes include, structural molecular biology, molecular environmental science, surface and interface science, micro-electromechanical devices, X-ray imaging, archaeological microanalysis, materials characterization, and medical applications. A detailed account of events leading to the SESAME are available in .

DELSY: A Dutch accelerator and storage ring used for nuclear physics is being moved to Dubna, to add to Russia’s Synchrotron capability . The original facility, was located at the Institute of Nuclear Physics and High Energy Physics (NIKHEF) in Amsterdam, The Netherlands. This shall be the $`1.2GeV`$ “Dubna Synchrotron Radiation Source (DELSY)”, located at the Joint Institute of Nuclear Research (JINR) in Dubna.

## IX Asian Committee for Future Accelerators

The pace of development and the increasing role of accelerator-based science in Asia has led to the establishment of a forum, the Asian Committee for Future Accelerators (ACFA), to discuss and implement plans for further promoting collaborative accelerator-based science in Asia. The primary purpose of ACFA is to strengthen regional collaboration in accelerator-based science, to encourage future projects in Asia, and to make recommendations to governments. This organization was formed in 1996 and its members now include, China, India, Indonesia, Japan, Korea, Malaysia, Pakistan, Singapore, Taiwan, Thailand and Vietnam. The continent of Australia is also a member . The First Asian Particle Accelerator Conference (APAC-1998) was held at the Japanese High Energy Accelerator Organization (KEK) under the auspices of the ACFA, stressing the importance of regional collaboration among Asian regions in the field of accelerator science and technology as well as accelerator-based science. The “Next APAC” is scheduled to be held during 17-21 September 2001 at Beijing, China . Globally speaking, the International Committee for Future Accelerators (ICFA, would provide an excellent framework for collaborations and forums. ACFA closely collaborates with ICFA, a longstanding organization of the world community. It is noteworthy to see how the ICFA Beam Dynamics Panel has contributed to the accelerator & beam physics. The well-attended and very regularly held ICFA Beam Dynamics Workshops are one of the proofs of its grand success.

## X Concluding Remarks

We have briefly discussed the synchrotron radiation and the synchrotron facilities, with a coverage to accelerator programmes in India. Siam, SESAME and DELSY are very unique facilities as they are being built by relocating the very generously donated synchrotrons. There are several countries which are in the process of building their own synchrotrons. Armenia is planning to build the $`3.2GeV`$ CANDLE: Center for the Advancement of Natural Discoveries using Light Emission . There is the proposal to build the $`3.0GeV`$ BOOMERANG  under the Australian Synchrotron Research Programme (ASRP. Spain has the project for a $`2.5GeV`$ National Synchrotron Laboratory (LLS) at Barcelona . The upcoming synchrotron facilities will be able to bridge the gap in several of the under-represented regions of the World Synchrotron Map . These, when built, will immensely benefit the scientific community in the concerned regions by enhancing international cooperation and providing them the latest technological expertise. Among the upcoming synchrotrons, SESAME is the most international project and offers an excellent opportunity for participation and active international collaboration. India could have participated and can still get involved and play a significant role .


text:
# Exact calculations of the paranematic interaction energy for colloidal dispersions in the isotropic phase of a nematogenic material

## Abstract

In a recent paper \[Phys. Rev. E 61, 2831 (2000)\], Borštnik, Stark and Žumer have studied the stability of a colloidal dispersion of micron-sized spherical particles in the isotropic phase of a nematogenic material. Close to the nematic transition, the attraction due to a surface-induced paranematic order can yield flocculation. Their calculation of the nematic-mediated interaction was based on an ansatz for the order-parameter profile. We compare it with an exact numerical calculation, showing that their results are qualitatively correct. Besides, we point out that in the considered regime, the exact interaction is extremely well approximated by a simple analytical formula which is asymptotically exact.

preprint: To appear in Phys. Rev. E (BR)

In recent years, a large interest has been devoted to understanding the interactions and phase behavior of colloidal particles dispersed in a nematic phase Poulin et al. (1997a, b); Stark et al. (1999); Yamamoto (2001); Andrienko et al. (2001) or in the isotropic phase of a nematogenic compound Galatola and Fournier (1999); Borštnik et al. (1999, 2000); Galatola and Fournier (2001). In the nematic phase, colloids experience a specific elastic interaction because they induce competing distortions of the nematic director field. New physics arises due to the long-range character of this interaction and the induction of topological defects Poulin et al. (1997a).

In the isotropic phase, the surface of colloidal particles can induce a local paranematic order Sheng (1976); Miyano (1979), giving rise to a short-range elastic interaction Galatola and Fournier (1999); Borštnik et al. (1999). Two effects compete: an attraction due to the favorable overlapping of the paranematic halos and a repulsion due to the distortion of the director field. For small particles, of size comparable to the nematic–isotropic coherence length $`\xi `$, it has been predicted that repulsion may dominate and stabilize the colloidal dispersion Galatola and Fournier (1999, 2001). (Note that latex particles as small as $`50`$ nm have been successfully dispersed in lyotropic nematics Mondain-Monval et al. (1999).) On the other hand, Borštnik, Stark and Žumer have predicted that for micron-sized particles attraction dominates Borštnik et al. (1999), which allows to trigger flocculation close to the nematic transition Borštnik et al. (2000).

The results of Borštnik, Stark and Žumer Borštnik et al. (2000) are based on a composite ansatz for the nematic director field $`𝐧`$ and for the scalar order-parameter $`Q`$, within an uniaxial hypothesis. It turns out that our exact calculations Galatola and Fournier (2001), based on a multipolar expansion for the full tensorial order-parameter $`Q_{ij}`$, rest on the same theoretical model, and can be performed also for micron-sized particles.

In this Brief Report, we check the correctness of the paranematic interaction energy used in Ref. Borštnik et al. (2000), by comparing it with the exact one, numerically calculated according to the method of Ref. Galatola and Fournier (2001). For the typical values considered in Ref. Borštnik et al. (2000), we find that the exact interaction is attractive instead of repulsive at distances $`5\xi `$, and that it is about two times weaker at distances of the order of $`\xi `$ (Fig. 1). However, the order of magnitude and the sign of the interaction is correct in the regime where the paranematic attraction competes with the electrostatic repulsion. In particular, at particles’ separations of the order of $`\xi `$, the paranematic attraction remains much larger than the van der Waals attraction: this implies that the conclusions of Ref. Borštnik et al. (2000) regarding critical flocculation phenomena remain qualitatively correct. Finally, we show that in the whole regime of interest, the exact interaction calculated numerically is extremely well approximated by a simple asymptotic formula \[see Eq. (8)\].

The Landau–de Gennes de Gennes and Prost (1993) paranematic free-energy density considered in Refs. Borštnik et al. (1999, 2000) is

$$f=\frac{1}{2}a\mathrm{\Delta }TQ^2+\frac{3}{2}L_1\left(\mathbf{}Q\right)^2+\frac{9}{2}L_1Q^2\left|\mathbf{}𝐧\right|^2$$
(1)
for the bulk, and

$$f_s=G_Q\left(QQ_s\right)^2+3G_nQQ_s\mathrm{sin}^2\theta $$
(2)
for the surface. Here $`Q`$ is the scalar order-parameter and $`𝐧`$ the nematic director. The parameter $`Q_s`$ is the order-parameter favored by the particles’ surface, and $`\theta `$ is the angle between the direction of $`𝐧`$ at the surface and the normal to the surface $`𝝂`$, which is assumed to correspond to the easy-axis. The coefficients $`a`$ and $`L_1`$ are material parameters, $`\mathrm{\Delta }T=TT^{}`$ is the difference between the actual temperature $`T`$ and the limit of stability $`T^{}`$ of the isotropic phase, $`G_Q`$ and $`G_n`$ are introduced to describe the strength of the surface anchoring.

Incidentally, we note that the surface free-energy density (2) is inconsistent within a Landau-de Gennes framework, unless $`G_Q=G_n`$. Indeed, at quadratic order, the most general expansion in terms of the tensorial order parameter $`Q_{ij}`$ and of the normal $`𝝂`$ to the surface can be written as

$`f_s=`$ $`g_1Q_{ij}\nu _i\nu _j+g_{21}Q_{ij}Q_{ij}+g_{22}Q_{ij}Q_{jk}\nu _i\nu _k`$ (3)
$`+g_{23}Q_{ij}Q_{kl}\nu _i\nu _j\nu _k\nu _l,`$
where summation over repeated indices is implied. For a uniaxial tensorial order-parameter

$$Q_{ij}=\frac{3}{2}Q\left(n_in_j\frac{1}{3}\delta _{ij}\right),$$
(4)
this yields

$`f_s=`$ $`g_1Q+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\left[3g_{21}+2\left(g_{22}+g_{23}\right)\right]Q^2`$ (5)
$`{\displaystyle \frac{3}{4}}\left[2g_1Q+\left(g_{22}+4g_{23}\right)Q^2\right]\mathrm{sin}^2\theta `$
$`+{\displaystyle \frac{9}{4}}g_{23}Q^2\mathrm{sin}^4\theta .`$
Matching Eqs. (5) and (2) requires setting $`g_{23}=0`$ and consequently $`g_{22}=0`$. Equation (5) then becomes

$$f_s=\frac{g_{1}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}}{6g_{21}}+\frac{3}{2}g_{21}\left[\left(QQ_s\right)^2+3QQ_s\mathrm{sin}^2\theta \right],$$
(6)
with $`Q_s=g_1/3g_{21}`$. Therefore, Eq. (2) is compatible with this expression only if $`G_Q=G_n`$.

With the required condition $`G_Q=G_nG`$, the free-energy considered in Ref. Borštnik et al. (2000) is identical to the one we used in Ref. Galatola and Fournier (2001), with the correspondence 111Actually, in our free-energy we keep the full biaxial order-parameter $`Q_{ij}`$ instead of assuming the uniaxial order (4).:

$`L^{}`$ $`=`$ $`2L_1,S^{}={\displaystyle \frac{3}{2}}Q,S_0^{}={\displaystyle \frac{3}{2}}Q_s,`$ (7a)
$`a^{}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{2}{3}}a\mathrm{\Delta }T,W^{}={\displaystyle \frac{4}{3}}G,`$ (7b)
where we have dagged the quantities appearing in Ref. Galatola and Fournier (2001). With the above relationships, we have numerically recalculated the exact interaction energy between two spherical particles of radius $`R`$ as a function of their distance to contact $`d`$—using the same parameters as in Ref. Borštnik et al. (1999). The comparison with the results of the ansatz of Borštnik, Stark and Žumer Borštnik et al. (1999) is shown in Fig. 1. We find a qualitative agreement, as previously discussed. Note that the exact nematic director profile displays a Saturn-ring defect Galatola and Fournier (2001), which is absent in the ansatz of Ref. Borštnik et al. (1999). For the case of micron-sized particles considered in Refs. Borštnik et al. (1999, 2000), this defect lies however in a region where the paranematic is almost completely melted.

Finally, we have compared our numerical calculation with the asymptotic formula obtained by us in Ref. Galatola and Fournier (2001). With the correspondence (7), the latter reads

$$F=48\pi L_1\xi \left(\frac{Q_s}{A}\right)^2\frac{e^{\overline{d}}}{2\overline{R}+\overline{d}},$$
(8)
where $`\overline{d}=d/\xi `$, $`\overline{R}=R/\xi `$, and $`A`$ is a constant given by

$$A=\frac{27\overline{\mathrm{}}}{\overline{R}^4}+\frac{6+27\overline{\mathrm{}}}{\overline{R}^3}+\frac{6+12\overline{\mathrm{}}}{\overline{R}^2}+\frac{2+3\overline{\mathrm{}}}{\overline{R}},$$
(9)
where $`\overline{\mathrm{}}=L_1/G\xi `$ is the reduced extrapolation length of the anchoring. The nematic coherence length is $`\xi =\sqrt{3L_1/a\mathrm{\Delta }T}`$. As shown in Fig. 1, the agreement between the numerical and the analytical calculations is excellent in the range of separations relevant to the colloidal flocculation discussed in Ref. Borštnik et al. (2000). Owing to its simplicity and validity, formula (8) thus offers a straightforward means to systematically investigate the stability of such paranematic-wetted colloids.


text:
# New Approach to Nonlinear Dynamics of Fullerenes and Fullerites

## 1 Introduction

Vibrations of many fullerenes and fullerites were investigated by different experimental and theoretical methods (see  and references in these papers). Although the majority of such studies are based on the harmonic approximation only, some nonlinear (anharmonic) effects also were discussed in a number of papers. For example, combination modes of second order brought about by anharmonicity of interactions in $`C_{60}`$ fullerene are discussed and the appropriate lines in infrared transmission spectra are reported in . The above effects does not exhaust the influence of anharmonicity on the fullerene and fullerite vibrational spectra, and we want to consider an application for these objects of the consistent group-theoretical approach for studying nonlinear vibrations in arbitrary physical systems with discrete (point or space) symmetry developed in . This approach reveals the existence of new nonlinear dynamical objects (or new type of anharmonic excitations) in systems with discrete symmetry which we call bushes of normal modes. The concept of the bush of modes can be explained as follows.

In the frame of the harmonic approximation, the set of normal modes can be introduced which are classified by irreducible representations (irreps) of the symmetry group $`G`$ of the considered physical system in equilibrium. In this harmonic approximation, normal modes are independent of each other, while interactions between them appear when some anharmonic terms in the Hamiltonian are taken into account. Let us note that a very specific pattern of atomic displacements corresponds to each normal mode. As a consequence, we can ascribe to a given mode a definite symmetry group $`G_D`$ which is a subgroup of the symmetry group $`G`$. The group $`G_D`$ is a symmetry group of the instantaneous configuration of our system in its vibrational state.

Let us excite at the initial instant $`t_0`$ only one, arbitrarily chosen mode which will be called the root mode. We suppose that all other modes at the initial moment have zero amplitude. Let the symmetry group $`G_D`$ and irrep $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_0`$ correspond to this root mode. Then we can pose the following question: to which other modes can this initial excitation spread from the root mode? We will refer to these initially “sleeping” modes, belonging to the different irreps $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_j(j0)`$, as secondary modes.

A very simple answer to the above question was found in . It turns out that initial excitation can spread from the root mode only to those modes whose symmetry is higher than or equal to the symmetry group $`G_D`$ of the root mode. We call the complete collection containing the root mode and all secondary modes corresponded to it a bush of modes. Since no other modes are excited, the full energy is trapped in the given bush. As a consequence of the above idea, we can ascribe the symmetry group $`G_D`$ (remember that this is a group of the root mode) to the whole bush, and in this sense we can consider the bush as a geometrical object.

It was proved in  that all modes belonging to a given bush B $`[G_D]`$ are coupled by force interactions. It is very important that the structure of a given bush is independent of the type of interactions between particles of our physical system.

A bush of normal modes can be considered as a dynamical object, as well. Indeed, the set of modes corresponding to a given bush B $`[G_D]`$ does not change in time, while the amplitudes of these modes do change. We can write exact dynamical equations for the amplitudes of the modes contained in the bush B $`[G_D]`$, if interactions between particles of our physical system are known. Thus, the bush B $`[G_D]`$ represents a dynamical system whose dimension can be essentially less than that of the original physical system.

The above properties of bushes of normal modes can be summarized in the following manner. A normal mode represents a specific dynamical regime in a linear physical system which, upon being exciting at the initial instant $`t_0`$, continues to exist for any time $`t>t_0`$. Similarly, a bush of normal modes represents a specific dynamical regime in a nonlinear system which can exist as a certain object for any time $`t>t_0`$.

## 2 Some mathematical aspects of bushes of normal modes

Let us examine a nonlinear mechanical system of $`N`$ mass points (atoms) whose Hamiltonian is described by a point or space group $`G`$. Let three-dimensional vectors $`𝐱_i(t)(i=1,2,\mathrm{},N)`$ determine the displacement of the $`i`$-th atom from its equilibrium position at time $`t`$. The $`3\times N`$-dimensional vector $`𝐗(t)=\{𝐱_1(t),𝐱_2(t),\mathrm{},𝐱_N(t)\}`$, describing the full set of atomic displacements, can be decomposed into the basis vectors (symmetry-adapted coordinates) of all irreps $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_\mathrm{j}`$ of the group G contained in the mechanical representation111Considering vibrational regimes only, we can treat $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ as a $`3N6`$ vibrational representation of the group $`G`$. $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$:

$$𝐗(t)=\underset{ji}{}\mu _{ji}(t)𝝋_i^{(j)}=\underset{j}{}\mathrm{\Delta }_j.$$
(1)
Here $`𝝋_i^{(j)}`$ is the $`i`$-th basis vector of the $`n_j`$-dimensional irrep $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_\mathrm{j}`$. The time dependence of $`𝐗(t)`$ is contained only in the coefficients $`\mu _{ji}(t)`$ while the basis vectors are time independent. Thus, a given nonlinear dynamical regime of the mechanical system described by the concrete vector $`𝐗(t)`$ can be written as a sum of the contributions $`\mathrm{\Delta }_j`$ from the individual irreps $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_\mathrm{j}`$ of the group $`G`$.

Each vibrational regime $`𝐗(t)`$, can be associated with a definite subgroup $`G_D`$ ($`G_DG`$) which describes the symmetry of the instantaneous configuration of this system. Now the following essential idea is proposed. The subgroup $`G_D`$ is preserved in time; its elements cannot disappear during time evolution except in the case of spontaneous breaking of symmetry which we will not consider in the present paper. This is the direct consequence of the principle of determinism in classical mechanics.

Introducing operators $`\widehat{g}\widehat{G}`$ acting on the $`3N`$-dimensional vectors $`𝐗(t)`$, which correspond to elements $`gG`$ acting on three-dimensional vectors $`𝐱_i(t)`$, we can write the above condition of preservation of $`G_D`$ as a condition of invariance of the vector $`𝐗`$(t) under the action of the elements of the group $`G_D`$:

$$\widehat{g}𝐗(t)=𝐗(t),gG_D.$$
(2)
Combining Eqs. (1) and (2) one obtains (for the details see ) the following invariance conditions for individual irreps $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_\mathrm{j}`$:

$$(\mathrm{\Gamma }_\mathrm{j}\mathrm{G}_\mathrm{D})𝐜_\mathrm{j}=𝐜_\mathrm{j}.$$
(3)
Here $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_\mathrm{j}\mathrm{G}_\mathrm{D}`$ is the restriction of the irrep $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_\mathrm{j}`$ of the group $`G`$ to the subgroup $`G_D`$, i.e. the set of matrices of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_\mathrm{j}`$ which correspond to the elements $`gG_D`$ only. The $`n_j`$-dimensional vector $`𝐜_j`$ in Eq. (3) is the invariant vector in the carrier space of the irrep $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_\mathrm{j}`$ corresponding to the given subgroup $`G_DG`$. Note that each invariant vector of a given irrep $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_\mathrm{j}`$ determines a certain subspace of the carrier space of this representation, and the total number of arbitrary constants upon which the vector depends is equal to the dimension of this subspace. If in solving Eq. (3) we find that $`𝐜_j0`$, then the irrep $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_\mathrm{j}`$ does contribute to the dynamical regime $`𝐗(t)`$ with the symmetry group $`G_D`$. Moreover, the invariant vector $`𝐜_j`$ determines the explicit form of the mode of the irrep $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_\mathrm{j}`$ belonging to the bush of modes associated with the given nonlinear dynamical regime.

We will illustrate the general statements of bush theory with the $`C_{60}`$ fullerene with buckyball structure and with the icosahedral symmetry group $`G=I_h`$. There are 10 irreducible representations of dimensions 1 ($`A_g`$, $`A_u`$), 3 ($`F_{1g}`$, $`F_{1u}`$, $`F_{2g}`$, $`F_{2u}`$), 4 ($`G_g`$, $`G_u`$) and 5 ($`H_g`$, $`H_u`$) associated with the group $`I_h`$. The infrared (IR) active modes belong to the irrep $`F_{1u}`$, and modes which are active in Raman (R) experiments belong to irreps $`A_g`$ or $`H_g`$. We found all bushes of modes for $`C_{60}`$ fullerene. There are 22 different bushes for this fullerene. Let us consider the bush B7 corresponding to the symmetry group $`G_D=C_{5v}I_h`$. Only four irreps $`A_g,H_g,F_{1u}`$ and $`F_{2u}`$ contribute to it (the appropriate invariant vectors are zero for all other irreps of the icosahedral group $`G=I_h`$) 222Since some elements of the matrices of multidimensional irreps of the group $`G=I_h`$ are irrational numbers, we keep only three digits after the decimal point when we write the invariant vectors.:

$$\begin{array}{cc}\text{B7}:[\text{symmetry}C_{5v}]:\hfill & A_g(a)\text{}I_h,H_g(a,0.577a,0,0.516a,0.258a)\text{}D_{5d}\hfill \\ & F_{1u}(0,0,a)\text{}C_{5v},F_{2u}(a,0.258a,0.197a)\text{}C_{5v}.\hfill \end{array}$$
(4)
The arbitrary constants entering into the description of different invariant vectors are not connected with each other. As all invariant vectors listed in Eq. (4) are one-parametric (their arbitrary constants are denoted by the same symbol $`a`$ only for clarity), it is clear that the bush B7 depends on four arbitrary constants (one constant for each of the four irreps). The structure Eq. (4) of the bush B7 shows that there exist only four contributions $`\mathrm{\Delta }_j`$ to the appropriate dynamical regime $`𝐗(t)`$. We denote them333Hereafter we write the symbol $`j`$ of the irrep $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_\mathrm{j}`$ generating the contribution $`\mathrm{\Delta }_j`$ in square brackets next to symbol $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$. as $`\mathrm{\Delta }[A_g],\mathrm{\Delta }[H_g],\mathrm{\Delta }[F_{1u}],\mathrm{\Delta }[F_{2u}]`$. The invariant vectors listed in Eq. (4) permit us immediately to write the explicit form of the dynamical regime $`𝐗(t)`$ corresponding to the bush B7 by replacing the arbitrary constants with the four functions of time $`\mu (t),\nu (t),\gamma (t)`$ and $`\xi (t)`$:

$$\begin{array}{c}𝐗(t)=\mathrm{\Delta }[A_g]+\mathrm{\Delta }[H_g]+\mathrm{\Delta }[F_{1u}]+\mathrm{\Delta }[F_{2u}]=\hfill \\ \mu (t)𝝋[A_g]+\nu (t)\{𝝋_1[H_g]+0.577𝝋_2[H_g]+0.516𝝋_4[H_g]0.258𝝋_5[H_g]\}+\hfill \\ \gamma (t)𝝋_3[F_{1u}]+\xi (t)\{𝝋_1[F_{2u}]+0.258𝝋_2[F_{2u}]+0.197𝝋3[F_{2u}]\}.\hfill \end{array}$$
(5)
Eq. (5) is a consequence of the relation of the group $`G`$ and its subgroup $`G_D`$ only, and now we must take into account the concrete structure of our physical system to find the explicit form of the basis vectors $`𝝋_i^{(j)}`$ of the irreps entering into Eq. (5). They can be obtained by conventional group-theoretical methods, for example, by the projection operation method. The basis vectors of the irreps determine the specific patterns of the displacements of all 60 atoms of the $`C_{60}`$ fullerene structure.

It is important to note that each of the irreps $`A_g,H_g,F_{1u}`$ and $`F_{2u}`$ is contained in the vibrational representation of the $`C_{60}`$ fullerene several times, namely, 2, 8, 4 and 5 times, respectively. (These numbers are equal to the numbers of fundamental frequencies of normal modes associated with the considered irreps). As a consequence, we must treat the time-dependent coefficients in Eq. (5) as vectors of the appropriate dimensions. Because of this we ascribe a new index ($`k`$) to the basis vectors determining the number of times ($`m_j`$) the irrep $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_\mathrm{j}`$ enters into the vibrational representation. Each contribution $`\mathrm{\Delta }_j`$ “splits” into $`m_j`$ copies $`\mathrm{\Delta }_{jk}`$, where $`k=1,2,\mathrm{},m_j`$ and, therefore,

$$𝐗(t)=\underset{j}{}\mathrm{\Delta }_j=\underset{j}{}(\underset{k=1}{\overset{m_j}{}}\mathrm{\Delta }_{jk}).$$
(6)
For the case of bush B7 we have $`\mathrm{\Delta }[A_g]=\mathrm{\Delta }_1[A_g]+\mathrm{\Delta }_2[A_g],\mathrm{\Delta }[F_{1u}]=\mathrm{\Delta }_1[F_{1u}]+\mathrm{\Delta }_2[F_{1u}]+\mathrm{\Delta }_3[F_{1u}]+\mathrm{\Delta }_4[F_{1u}],etc.`$

The bush B7 in the $`C_{60}`$ fullerene structure forms a 19-dimensional dynamical object: its evolution is described by the dynamical variables listed below as components of the four vectorial variables $`𝝁(t),𝝂(t),𝜸(t)`$ and $`𝝃(t)`$: $`𝝁(t)=[\mu _1(t),\mu _2(t)]`$, $`𝝂(t)=[\nu _1(t),\mathrm{},\nu _8(t)]`$, $`𝜸(t)=[\gamma _1(t),\mathrm{},\gamma _4(t)]`$, $`𝝃(t)=[\xi _1(t),\mathrm{},\xi _5(t)]`$.

Thus, although only four of the ten irreps contribute to the bush B7, its dimension is equal to 19 because several copies of each of these four irreps are contained in the full vibrational representation of $`C_{60}`$ fullerene. We cannot predict the concrete evolution of the amplitudes of the bush modes without specific information of the nonlinear interactions in the considered physical systems, but we can assert that there does exist an exact nonlinear regime which involves only the modes belonging to a given bush.

## 3 Optical bushes for $`C_{60}`$ fullerene

As was already noted, there are 22 bushes of vibrational modes for $`C_{60}`$ fullerene structure. Five of them are infrared active and six are Raman active. We call these bushes by the term “optical”. The root modes of the optical bushes belong to the infrared active irrep $`F_{1u}`$ or to the Raman active irreps $`A_g`$ and $`H_g`$. We want to emphasize that some modes associated with the irreps which are not active in optics can be contained in a given optical bush.

All optical bushes with their symmetry groups (in square brackets), numbers of irreps contributing to them and their dimensions (in parentheses) are listed below.

Infrared active bushes:

| B7 $`[C_{5v}](4,\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}19})`$; | B11 $`[C_{3v}](6,\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}31})`$; | B15 $`[C_{2v}](7,\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}46})`$; |
| --- | --- | --- |
| B19 $`[C_s](9,\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}89})`$; | B22 $`[C_1](10,\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}174})`$. |  |

Raman active bushes:

| B1 $`[I_h](1,\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2})`$; | B4 $`[D_{5d}](2,\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}10})`$; | B5 $`[D_{3d}](3,\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}16})`$; |
| --- | --- | --- |
| B10 $`[D_{2h}](3,\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}24})`$; | B16 $`[C_{2h}](5,\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}45})`$; | B20 $`[C_i](5,\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}87})`$. |

Supposing  that nonlinearity of the considered system is weak444According to results obtained in the paper  this hypothesis valid for $`C_{60}`$ fullerene vibrations. we can estimate the relative values of the contributions from different irreps to a given bush. For example, for above discussed infrared active bush B7 we have

$$\begin{array}{c}\mathrm{\Delta }[F_{1u}](root)=O(\epsilon );\mathrm{\Delta }[F_{1u}](secondary)=O(\epsilon ^3);\hfill \\ \mathrm{\Delta }[F_{2u}]=O(\epsilon ^3);\mathrm{\Delta }[A_g]=O(\epsilon ^2);\mathrm{\Delta }[H_g]=O(\epsilon ^2).\hfill \end{array}$$

Here $`\epsilon `$ is an appropriate small parameter characterizing the value of the root mode.

Thus, in the case of weak nonlinearity, the contributions of different irreps can be of essentially different value. This property seems to be important for the interpretation of the vibrational spectra of bushes of modes.

## 4 Conclusion

In the present paper, we consider a new type of possible nonlinear excitations — bushes of normal modes — in vibrational spectra of fullerenes and fullerites, using as an example the $`C_{60}`$ buckyball structure. We believe that special experiments for revealing the bushes of vibrational modes in their pure form will be important for further elucidation of the role of these fundamental dynamical objects in various phenomena in fullerenes and fullerites. It seems that such experiments may be similar to those by Martin and others reported in . However, unlike these experiments, we must use the monochromatic incident light with frequency close to that of the root mode and with polarization along the symmetry axis of the chosen bush.

The first-principle calculations are desirable for obtaining the coefficients of the anharmonic terms in the $`C_{60}`$ fullerene for a more detailed description of the bush dynamics.

The concept of bushes of normal modes and the appropriate mathematical methods for their analysis are valid for both molecular and crystal structures. Such a possibility can simplify the assignment of the different optical lines in fullerites brought about by both intra- and inter-vibrations of the $`C_{60}`$ molecular clusters.

It will be very interesting to study interactions between bushes of vibrational modes and electron subsystems in fullerenes and fullerites.


text:
# References

Z(3) Symmetric Dimensional Reduction of (2+1)D QCD

P. Bialas1, A. Morel2, B.Petersson3 and K. Petrov3

1Inst. of Comp. Science, Jagellonian University
33-072 Krakow, Poland

2Service de Physique Théorique de Saclay, CE-Saclay,
F-91191 Gif-sur-Yvette Cedex, France

3Fakultät für Physik, Universität Bielefeld
P.O.Box 100131, D-33501 Bielefeld, Germany

Dimensional reduction is a powerful technique to study the high-temperature behaviour of gauge theories. The efficiency of this method was tested in a detailed investigation of the reduction to 2D of (2+1)D QCD ,, showing that it is valid down to temperatures $`T`$ as low as 1.5 times $`T_c`$, the critical temperature for deconfinement in (2+1)D. As it is standard, the reduced model was derived from a perturbative expansion in powers of the (static) time component $`A_0`$ of the gauge field, the non-static components being integrated out at one loop order. Such an expansion breaks the $`Z_3`$ symmetry which the effective model for the Polyakov loops would have. Hence the reduced model, shown to work in the high $`T`$ phase of the full theory, cannot predict confinement as $`T`$ is lowered. Here we present a candidate for a $`Z_3`$-symmetric reduced action. A similar approach for (3+1)D and possible consequences for QCD were discussed by Pisarski .

In the standard reduction, the 2D lattice action has the form

$$S_{eff}^2(U,A_0)=S_W^2\left(U\right)+S_{int}(U,A_0)+S_{pot}\left(A_0\right),$$
(1)
where $`S_W^2\left(U\right)`$ is the 2D Wilson action and $`S_{int}(U,A_0)`$ the gauge invariant kinetic term for the adjoint “Higgs” $`A_0`$

$$S_{int}(U,A_0)=\frac{L_0\beta _3}{6}\underset{x}{}\underset{i}{}Tr\left[\left(D_iA_0\right)^2\right]$$
(2)
$$D_iA_0=U(x;i)A\left(x+ai\right)U(x;i)^1A\left(x\right)$$
(3)
The local potential is

$$S_{pot}\left(A_0\right)=\underset{x}{}h_2TrA_0^2\left(x\right)+h_4\left(TrA_0^2\left(x\right)\right)^2.$$
(4)
The couplings are functions of the 3D gauge coupling $`g_3`$, which sets the scale, and temperature $`T`$:

$$h_2=\frac{9\mu }{\pi L_0\beta _3};h_4=\frac{9}{16\pi \beta _3^2};\beta _3=\frac{6}{ag_3^2};L_0=\frac{1}{aT};\mu =\mathrm{ln}L_0+\frac{5}{2}\mathrm{ln}21$$
(5)
Instead of $`A_0`$, we start with the Polyakov loop $`V(x)\mathrm{exp}(iL_0A_0(x))`$, whose gauge and $`Z_3`$-invariant kinetic term is

$$S_{U,V}=\frac{\beta _3}{L_0}\underset{x}{}\underset{\mu =1,2}{}\left(1\frac{1}{3}\mathrm{}TrU(x;\mu )V(x+a\widehat{\mu })U(x;\mu )^1V^1(x)\right).$$
(6)
We then construct a local potential $`S_V`$ in $`V`$, again gauge and $`Z_3`$-symmetric. Since $`V`$ is an $`SU(3)`$ matrix, gauge invariance implies that $`S_V`$ depends on two independent variables only at each lattice point, $`v(x)1/3TrV(x)`$ and $`v^{}(x)`$ for example, whose two independent and $`Z_3`$-invariant combinations are $`|v(x)|^2`$ and $`\mathrm{}(v^3(x))`$.

Since $`v(x)`$ is an order parameter for $`Z_3`$, it vanishes in the symmetric phase, and in this phase we expect that the effective action may be truncated to the two above lowest order terms in $`v(x)`$. We write for it

$$S_{Z_3}=S_W^2\left(U\right)+S_{U,V}+\underset{x}{}\left(\lambda _2|v(x)|^2+\lambda _3(v^3(x)+v^3(x))\right).$$
(7)
Suppose now we move in the $`\lambda _2,\lambda _3`$ plane from a point in the symmetric phase and cross a $`Z_3`$ breaking transition line. In the broken phase, we may expand the action in $`A_0`$ around zero mod($`2\pi /3`$) and determine $`\lambda _2`$ and $`\lambda _3`$ in such a way the terms of order 2 and 4 match the action (1). The result is

$$\lambda _2=\frac{9}{16}\frac{20\mu 1}{\pi L_0^2};\lambda _3=\frac{3}{8}\frac{12\mu 1}{\pi L_0^2}$$
(8)
Preliminary results of a numerical investigation with the action (7,8) indicate that a second order phase transition does exist. A study of properties of the $`Z_3`$-broken phase is under way, with the aim to compare the Polyakov loops correlations in both the former and the new model at high temperature.


text:
# 1 Introduction

## 1 Introduction

Supersymmetry (SUSY) is a landmark in our efforts to construct a unified theory of all fundamental interactions observed in nature. At very high energies, close to the Planck scale ($`M_P`$) it is indispensable in constructing consistent string theories, and at low energies ($`1\mathrm{TeV}`$) it seems unavoidable if the gauge hierarchy problem is to be resolved. Such a resolution provides a measure of the supersymmetry breaking scale $`M_{SUSY}𝒪(1\mathrm{TeV})`$. There is indirect evidence for such a low-energy supersymmetry breaking scale, from the unification of the gauge couplings  and from lightness of the Higgs boson as determined from precise electroweak measurements, mainly at LEP . Furthermore, such a low energy SUSY breaking scale is also favored cosmologically. As is well known, $`R`$-parity conserving SUSY models, contain in the sparticle spectrum a stable, neutral particle, identifiable with the lightest neutralino ($`\stackrel{~}{\chi }`$), referred to as the LSP . It is important  that such a LSP with mass, as low-energy SUSY entails, in the $`100\mathrm{GeV}1\mathrm{TeV}`$ region, may indeed provide the right form and amount of the highly desirable astrophysically and cosmologically Dark Matter (DM). The latest data about Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) radiation anisotropies  not only favour a flat ($`k=0`$ or $`\mathrm{\Omega }_0=1`$), inflationary Universe, but they also determine a matter density $`\mathrm{\Omega }_Mh_0^20.15\pm 0.05`$. Taking into account the simultaneously determined baryon density $`\mathrm{\Omega }_Bh_0^20.02`$, and the rather tiny neutrino density, they result to

$$\mathrm{\Omega }_{DM}h_0^2=0.13\pm 0.05.$$
(1)
If we assume that all DM is supersymmetric due to LSP, i.e. $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{DM}\mathrm{\Omega }_{\stackrel{~}{\chi }}`$, it is tempting to combine the bound of Eq.1 with other presently available constraints from particle physics, such as the lower bound on the mass of the Higgs bosons ($`m_h113.5\mathrm{GeV}`$) provided by LEP  and the recent results from the BNL E821 experiment  on the anomalous magnetic moment of the muon ($`\delta \alpha _\mu =43(16)\times 10^{10}`$). Although the situation regarding the $`g_\mu 2`$ has not been definitely settled, supersymmetry emerges as a prominent candidate in explaining the discrepancy between the Standard Model predictions and experimental measurements, and in the sequel we concede that this deviation accounted for SUSY. We find that this combination of the experimental information from high energy physics and cosmology puts austere bounds on the parameter space of the Constrained Minimal Supersmmetric Standard Model (CMSSM), enabling us to investigate the potential of discovering SUSY, if it is based on CMSSM, at future colliders and direct DM search experiments.

## 2 Neutralino relic density

It has been argued that for large $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$ the neutralino relic density ($`\mathrm{\Omega }_{\stackrel{~}{\chi }}h_0^2`$) can be compatible with the recent cosmological data which favour small values for $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{\stackrel{~}{\chi }}h_0^2`$. In this regime the neutralino ($`\stackrel{~}{\chi }`$) pair annihilation through $`s`$-channel pseudo-scalar Higgs boson ($`A`$) exchange leads to an enhanced annihilation cross sections reducing significantly the relic density , while the heavy $`CP`$-even Higgs ($`H`$) exchange is $`P`$-wave suppressed and not that important. The importance of this mechanism, in conjunction with the recent cosmological data which favour small values of the DM relic density, has been stressed in . The same mechanism has been also invoked  where it has been shown that it enlarges the cosmologically allowed regions. In fact cosmology does not put severe upper bounds on sparticle masses, and soft masses can be in the TeV region, pushing up the sparticle mass spectrum to regions that might escape detection in future planned accelerators. Such upper bounds are imposed, however, by the recent $`g_\mu 2`$ E821 data  constraining the CMSSM in such a way that supersymmetry will be accessible to LHC or other planned $`e^+e^{}`$ linear colliders if their center of mass energy is larger than about $`1.2\mathrm{TeV}`$ . The bounds put by the $`g_\mu 2`$ has been the subject of intense phenomenological study the last few months .

The $`\stackrel{~}{\chi }\stackrel{~}{\chi }`$ fusion to the pseudo-scalar Higgs boson, $`A`$, which subsequently decays to a $`b\overline{b}`$ or a $`\tau \overline{\tau }`$, becomes the dominant annihilation mechanism for large $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$, when the pseudo-scalar mass $`m_A`$ approaches twice the neutralino mass, $`m_A2m_{\stackrel{~}{\chi }}`$. In fact by increasing $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$ the mass $`m_A`$ decreases, while the neutralino mass remains almost constant, if the other parameters are kept fixed. Thus $`m_A`$ is expected eventually to enter into the regime in which it is close to the pole value $`m_A=\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2}m_{\stackrel{~}{\chi }}`$, and the pseudo-scalar Higgs exchange dominates. It is interesting to point out that in a previous analysis of the direct DM searches , we had stressed that the contribution of the $`CP`$-even Higgs bosons exchange to the LSP-nucleon scattering cross sections increases with $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$. Therefore in the large $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$ regime one obtains the highest possible rates for the direct DM searches. Similar results are presented in Ref. . In the framework of the CMSSM the chargino mass bound as well as the recent LEP Higgs mass bound  already exclude regions in which $`\stackrel{~}{\chi }`$ has a large Higgsino component, and thus in the regions of interest the $`\stackrel{~}{\chi }`$ is mainly a bino. A bino is characterized by a very small coupling to the pseudo-scalar Higgs $`A`$, however the largeness of $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$ balances the smallness of its coupling giving a sizeable effect when $`m_A\mathrm{\hspace{0.33em}2}m_{\stackrel{~}{\chi }}`$, making the $`s`$-channel pseudo-scalar exchange mechanism important.

It becomes obvious from the previous discussion that an unambiguous and reliable determination of the $`A`$-mass, $`m_A`$, is necessary in order to to calculate the neutralino relic density especially in the large $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$ region. The details of the procedure in calculating the spectrum of the CMSSM can be found elsewhere . Here we shall only briefly discuss some points which turn out to be essential for a correct determination of $`m_A`$. In the constrained SUSY models, such as the CMSSM, $`m_A`$ is not a free parameter but is determined once $`m_0`$, $`M_{1/2}`$, $`A`$ as well as $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$ and the sign of $`\mu `$ are given. $`m_A`$ depends sensitively on the Higgs mixing parameter, $`m_3^2`$, which is determined from minimizing the one-loop corrected effective potential. For large $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$ the derivatives of the effective potential with respect the Higgs fields, which enter into the minimization conditions, are plagued by terms which are large and hence potentially dangerous, making the perturbative treatment untrustworthy. In order to minimize the large $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$ corrections we had better calculate the effective potential using as reference scale the average stop scale $`Q_{\stackrel{~}{t}}\sqrt{m_{\stackrel{~}{t}_1}m_{\stackrel{~}{t}_2}}`$ . At this scale these terms are small and hence perturbatively valid. Also for the calculation of the pseudo-scalar Higgs boson mass all the one-loop corrections must be taken into account. In particular, the inclusion of those of the neutralinos and charginos yields a result for $`m_A`$ that is scale independent and approximates the pole mass to better than $`2\%`$ . A more significant correction, which drastically affects the pseudo-scalar mass arises from the gluino–sbottom and chargino–stop corrections to the bottom quark Yukawa coupling $`h_b`$ . The proper resummation of these corrections is important for a correct determination of $`h_b`$ , and accordingly of the $`m_A`$.

In calculating the LSP relic abundance, we solve the Boltzmann equation numerically using the machinery outlined in Ref. . In this calculation the coannihilation effects, in regions where $`\stackrel{~}{\tau }_R`$ approaches in mass the LSP, which is a high purity Bino, are properly taken into account.

In what follows only the $`\mu >0`$ case is considered. The $`\mu <0`$ case is not favored by the recent $`bs\gamma `$ data, as well as by the observed discrepancy of the $`g_\mu 2`$, if the latter is attributed to supersymmetry, and therefore we shall discard it.

In the panels shown in figure 1 we display our results by drawing the cosmologically allowed region $`0.08<\mathrm{\Omega }_{\stackrel{~}{\chi }}h_0^2<0.18`$ (dark green) in the $`m_0,M_{1/2}`$ plane for values of $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$ equal to $`50`$ and $`55`$ respectively. Also drawn (light green) is the region $`0.18<\mathrm{\Omega }_{\stackrel{~}{\chi }}h_0^2<0.30`$. The default values for the masses of massive quarks are $`m_t=175\mathrm{GeV},m_\tau =1.777\mathrm{GeV}`$ and $`m_b(m_b)=4.25\mathrm{GeV}`$. The remaining inputs are shown on the top of each panel. The solid red mark the region within which the supersymmetric contribution to the anomalous magnetic moment of the muon falls within the E821 range $`\alpha _\mu ^{SUSY}=(43.0\pm 16.0)\times 10^{10}`$. The dashed red line marks the boundary of the region when the more relaxed lower bound $`11\times 10^{10}\alpha _\mu ^{SUSY}`$ is used, corresponding to the $`2\sigma `$ lower bound of the E821 range. Along the blue dashed-dotted lines the light $`CP`$-even Higgs mass takes values $`113.5\mathrm{GeV}`$ (left) and $`117.0\mathrm{GeV}`$ (right) respectively. The line on the left marks therefore the recent LEP bound on the Higgs mass . Also shown is the chargino mass bound $`104\mathrm{GeV}`$ In the context of our analysis focus point regions  show up for smaller values of the top mass. In any case the bulk of the focus point region appears for rather large values of $`m_0`$ and hence they are not favoured by the $`g_\mu 2`$ data.. The shaded area (in red) at the bottom of each figure, labelled by TH, is theoretically disallowed since the light stau is lighter than the lightest of the neutralinos. From the displayed figures we observe that for values of $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$ up to $`50`$ the cosmological data put an upper bound on the parameter $`m_0`$. However, there is practically no such upper bound for the parameter $`M_{1/2}`$, due to the coannihilation effects  which allow for $`M_{1/2}`$ as large as $`1700\mathrm{GeV}`$ within the narrow coannihilation band lying above the theoretically disallowed region.

For $`\mathrm{tan}\beta =55`$ a large region opens up within which the relic density is cosmologically allowed. This is due to the pair annihilation of the neutralinos through the pseudo-scalar Higgs exchange in the $`s`$-channel. As explained before, for such high $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$ the ratio $`m_A/2m_{\stackrel{~}{\chi }}`$ approaches unity and the pseudo-scalar exchange dominates yielding large cross sections and hence small neutralino relic densities. In this case the lower bound put by the $`g_\mu 2`$ data cuts the cosmologically allowed region which would otherwise allow for very large values of $`m_0,M_{1/2}`$. The importance of these corridors has been stressed in the analysis of . However, in the analysis presented here these show up at higher values of the parameter $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$. We should remark at this point that in our analysis we use the value of $`\alpha _{strong}(M_Z)`$ as input and relax unification of the $`\alpha _3`$ gauge coupling with the others. In the constrained scenario it is almost impossible to reconcile gauge coupling unification with a value for $`\alpha _{strong}(M_Z)`$ consistent with experiment due to the low energy threshold effects. This change affects drastically the values of other parameters and especially that of the Higgsino ($`\mu `$) and Higgs ($`m_3^2`$) mixing parameters that in turn affect the pseudo-scalar Higgs boson mass which plays a dominant role.

For the $`\mathrm{tan}\beta =55`$ case, close the highest possible value, and considering the conservative lower bound on the muon’s anomalous magnetic moment $`\alpha _\mu ^{SUSY}11\times 10^{10}`$ and values of $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{\stackrel{~}{\chi }}h_0^2`$ in the range $`0.13\pm 0.05`$, we find that the point with the highest value of $`m_0`$ is (in GeV) at $`(m_0,M_{1/2})=(950,300)`$ and that with the highest value of $`M_{1/2}`$ is at $`(m_0,M_{1/2})=(600,750)`$. The latter marks the lower end of the line segment of the boundary $`\alpha _\mu ^{SUSY}=11\times 10^{10}`$ which amputates the cosmologically allowed stripe. For the case displayed in the bottom right panel of the figure 1 the upper mass limits put on the LSP, and the lightest of the charginos, stops and the staus are $`m_{\stackrel{~}{\chi }}<287,m_{\stackrel{~}{\chi }^+}<539,m_{\stackrel{~}{t}}<1161,m_{\stackrel{~}{\tau }}<621`$ (in $`\mathrm{GeV}`$). Allowing for $`A_00`$ values, the upper bounds put on $`m_0,M_{1/2}`$ increase a little and so do the aforementioned bounds on the sparticle masses. Thus it appears that the prospects of discovering CMSSM at a $`e^+e^{}`$ collider with center of mass energy $`\sqrt{s}=800\mathrm{GeV}`$, such as TESLA, are not guaranteed. However in the allowed regions the next to the lightest neutralino, $`\stackrel{~}{\chi }^{}`$, has a mass very close to the lightest of the charginos and hence the process $`e^+e^{}\stackrel{~}{\chi }\stackrel{~}{\chi }^{}`$, with $`\stackrel{~}{\chi }^{}`$ subsequently decaying to $`\stackrel{~}{\chi }+l^+l^{}`$ or $`\stackrel{~}{\chi }+2\mathrm{jets}`$, is kinematically allowed for such large $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$, provided the energy is increased to at least $`\sqrt{s}=900\mathrm{GeV}`$. It should be noted however that this channel proceeds via the $`t`$-channel exchange of a selectron is suppressed due to the heaviness of the exchanged sfermion.

The situation changes, however, when the strict E821 limits are imposed $`\alpha _\mu ^{SUSY}=(43.0\pm 16.0)\times 10^{10}`$. For instance in the $`\mathrm{tan}\beta =55`$ case displayed in figure 1 there is no cosmologically allowed region which obeys this bound. For the other cases, $`\mathrm{tan}\beta <50`$, the maximum allowed $`M_{1/2}`$ is about $`475\mathrm{GeV}`$, occurring at $`m_0375\mathrm{GeV}`$, and the maximum $`m_0`$ is $`600\mathrm{GeV}`$ when $`M_{1/2}300\mathrm{GeV}`$. The upper limits on the masses of the sparticles quoted previously reduce to $`m_{\stackrel{~}{\chi }}<192,m_{\stackrel{~}{\chi }^+}<353,m_{\stackrel{~}{t}}<775,m_{\stackrel{~}{\tau }}<436`$ all in GeV. However, these values refer to the limiting case $`A_0=0`$. Scanning the parameter space allowing also for $`A_00`$ we obtain the upper limits displayed in the table 1. In this the unbracketed values correspond to the E821 limits on the $`g_\mu 2`$. For completeness we also display, within brackets, the bounds obtained when the weaker lower bound $`\alpha _\mu ^{SUSY}11\times 10^{10}`$ is imposed. We see that even at TESLA with center of mass energy $`\sqrt{s}=800\mathrm{GeV}`$, the prospects of discovering CMSSM are guaranteed in the $`e^+e^{}\stackrel{~}{\chi }^+\stackrel{~}{\chi }^{}`$ if the E821 bounds are imposed.

In the figure 2 we display in the $`(M_{1/2},m_0)`$ plane the points which are consistent both with the muon’s anomalous magnetic moment bounds mentioned before and cosmology, as well as with the other accelerators data. Each of the points is taken from a sample of 45,000 random points in the part of the parameter space defined by $`m_0<1.5\mathrm{TeV}`$, $`M_{1/2}<1.5\mathrm{TeV}`$, $`|A_0|<1\mathrm{TeV}`$ and $`2<\mathrm{tan}\beta <55`$. All the points are consistent with the cosmological bound $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{\stackrel{~}{\chi }}h_0^2=0.13\pm 0.05`$. The plus points (colored in blue) are those consistent with the E821 bound $`27\times 10^{10}<\alpha _\mu ^{SUSY}<59\times 10^{10}`$, while the diamonds (colored in green) are consistent with the more relaxed bound $`11\times 10^{10}<\alpha _\mu ^{SUSY}<75\times 10^{10}`$. The points are grouped in regions, separated by dashed contours, each of which constitutes the boundary of $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$ with the value shown beneath. In the region designated as $`\mathrm{tan}\beta =55`$ all points have $`55>\mathrm{tan}\beta >50`$. It is seen clearly that only a few points in the $`\mathrm{tan}\beta >50`$ case can survive the E821 bound. For $`\mathrm{tan}\beta <50`$ the parameter $`M_{1/2}`$ cannot be larger than about $`500\mathrm{GeV}`$, attaining its maximum value at $`m_0400\mathrm{GeV}`$ , and the maximum $`m_0`$ is $`725\mathrm{GeV}`$ occurring at $`M_{1/2}275\mathrm{GeV}`$. The upper limits put on $`m_0,M_{1/2}`$ result to the sparticle mass bounds displayed in the table 1.

## 3 Direct Dark Matter searches

We shall discuss now the impact of the $`g_\mu 2`$ measurements and of the Higgs mass bound $`m_h>113.5\mathrm{GeV}`$ on the direct DM searches. We are using the same random sample as in figure 2 in order to calculate the spin-independent, $`\stackrel{~}{\chi }`$-nucleon cross section ($`\sigma _{scalar}`$). In figure 3 we plot the scalar $`\stackrel{~}{\chi }`$-nucleon cross section as function of the LSP mass, $`m_{\stackrel{~}{\chi }}`$. On the top of the figure the shaded region (in cyan colour) is excluded by the CDMS experiment . The DAMA sensitivity region (coloured in yellow) is also plotted . Pluses ($`+`$) (in blue colour) represent points which are both compatible with the E821 data $`\alpha _\mu ^{\mathrm{SUSY}}=(43.0\pm 16.0)\times 10^{10}`$ and the cosmological bounds for the neutralino relic density $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{\stackrel{~}{\chi }}h_0^2=0.13\pm 0.05`$. Diamonds ($``$) (in green colour) are points which are cosmologically acceptable with respect to the aforesaid bounds, but the bound to the $`\alpha _\mu ^{\mathrm{SUSY}}`$ has been relaxed to its $`2\sigma `$ region, namely $`11<\alpha _\mu ^{\mathrm{SUSY}}\times 10^{10}<75`$. The crosses ($`\times `$) (in red colour) represent the rest of the points of our random sample. Here the Higgs boson mass bound, $`m_h>113.5\mathrm{GeV}`$ has been properly taken into account. From this figure it is seen that the points which are compatible both the $`g_\mu 2`$ E821 and the cosmological data (crosses) yield cross sections of the order of $`10^810^9`$ pb and the maximum value of the $`m_{\stackrel{~}{\chi }}`$ is about $`200\mathrm{GeV}`$. If one allows the $`2\sigma `$ region of the $`g_\mu 2`$ bound the lower bound of preferred cross sections is $`10^{10}`$ pb and correspondingly the upper bound of $`m_{\stackrel{~}{\chi }}`$ is drifted up to $`350\mathrm{GeV}`$.

Comparing figure 3 and 4 one can realise how $`g_\mu 2`$ data constrain $`m_{\stackrel{~}{\chi }}`$ mass to be up to $`200\mathrm{GeV}`$ or $`350\mathrm{GeV}`$ for the $`1\sigma `$ or $`2\sigma `$ case respectively. In figure 4 we don’t impose the constraints stemming from $`g_\mu 2`$ data, therefore due to the coannihilation processes the cosmologically acceptable LSP mass can be heavier than $`500\mathrm{GeV}`$. What is also important to be noticed about the direct searches of DM is that imposing the $`g_\mu 2`$ data the lowest allowed $`\stackrel{~}{\chi }`$-nucleon cross section increased by about 1 order of magnitude, from $`10^{11}`$ pb to $`10^{10}`$ pb. Similar results are presented in Ref. . This fact is very encouraging for the future DM direct detection experiments, with sensitivities extending up to $`10^9`$ pb .

## 4 Conclusions

Concluding, we combined recent high energy physics experimental information, like the anomalous magnetic moment of the muon measured at E821 Brookhaven experiment and the light Higgs boson mass bound from LEP, with the cosmological data for DM. By doing so we studied the imposed constraints on the parameter space of the CMSSM and hence we assessed the potential of discovering SUSY, if it is based on CMSSM, at future colliders and DM direct searches experiments. The bounds put on the sparticle spectrum can guarantee that in LHC but also in a $`e^+e^{}`$ linear collider with center of mass energy $`\sqrt{s}=800\mathrm{GeV}`$, such as TESLA, CMSSM can be discovered. The guarantee for a linear collider with this energy is lost in a charged sparticle final state channel, if the lower bound on the value of $`g_\mu 2`$ is lowered to its $`2\sigma `$ value, but not for the LHC. In this case only by increasing the center of mass energy to be $`1.2\mathrm{TeV}`$, a $`e^+e^{}`$ linear collider can find CMSSM in $`\stackrel{~}{\tau }\stackrel{~}{\tau }^{}`$ or $`\stackrel{~}{\chi }^+\stackrel{~}{\chi }^{}`$ channels. The impact of the E821 experiment’s result along with the bound on Higgs mass is also significant for the direct DM searches. We found that the maximum value of the spin-independent $`\stackrel{~}{\chi }`$-nucleon cross section attained is of the order of $`10^8`$ pb. Moreover this cross section can not be lower than $`10^{10}`$ pb, which is very promising for the forthcoming direct DM experiments.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

A.B.L. acknowledges support from HPRN-CT-2000-00148 and HPRN-CT-2000-00149 programmes. He also thanks the University of Athens Research Committee for partially supporting this work. D.V.N. acknowledges support by D.O.E. grant DE-FG03-95-ER-40917. V.C.S. acknowledges support by a Marie Curie Fellowship of the EU programme IHP under contract HPMFCT-2000-00675.