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# Large Orbital Magnetic Moment and Coulomb Correlation effects in FeBr2

## Abstract

We have performed an all-electron fully relativistic density functional calculation to study the magnetic properties of FeBr2. We show for the first time that the correlation effect enhances the contribution from orbital degrees of freedom of $`d`$ electrons to the total magnetic moment on Fe2+ as opposed to common notion of nearly total quenching of the orbital moment on Fe2+ site. The insulating nature of the system is correctly predicted when the Hubbard parameter U is included. Energy bands around the gap are very narrow in width and originate from the localized Fe-3$`d`$ orbitals, which indicates that FeBr2 is a typical example of the Mott insulator.

FeX2(X= Cl, Br, I) are well known model systems for the study of antiferromagnetism.stryjewski  They show unusual metamagnetic behavior wherein they undergo a phase transition from the antiferromagnetic to a saturated paramagnetic phase as a function of external magnetic field and temperature. FeBr2 has a layered structure, where the ferromagnetic Fe layers are widely separated by non-magnetic halogen layers producing a quite weak interlayer antiferromagnetic interactions ($`T_N`$= 14.2 K). The long range antiferromagnetic ordering can be overcome by applying an external magnetic field ($``$ 30 kOe) parallel to the c-axis.yelon  As a result, many theoretical pleming  and experimentalbinek ; aruga  works on FeBr2 have been concentrated on probing the axial magnetic phase diagram, to predict and understand anomalies near the antiferromagnetic to the paramagnetic phase boundary.

In addition, the electronic structures of transition metal dihalide system are of interest because they show various types of interesting behavior due to the strong correlation effect in the transition metal ion.zaanen  For example, they behave as a Mott insulator or charge transfer type insulator depending upon the relative size of charge transfer energy $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ and the intra-orbital correlation energy $`U`$ of the $`d`$-electrons.

Although large amount of work is done to understand the anomalies in the phase diagram and the correlation effects, surprisingly no electronic structure is known from the first principles calculation. In this report, we study the electronic and magnetic properties of one of these systems (FeBr2) by combining a first principles method and the Hubbard on-site correlation term.

Orbital magnetic moment plays a crucial role in determining many important effects in magnetic materials such as magnetic crystalline anisotropy, non-collinear magnetism, magneto-optical Kerr effect etc..ebert  It is a well known fact that crystal field interaction quenches the orbital magnetic moment in systems containing 3d-transition metal. Accordingly, it is assumed that because of strong crystalline field on Fe2+ ions from the surrounding Br-, the orbital moment will also get quenched in FeBr2.wilkinson  Ropka, Michalski, and Radwanskiropka  showed that the orbital moment is not quenched fully by the crystal field through their quasi-atomic calculation. Ropka et al. ascribed the origin of the large orbital moment to spin-orbit coupling (SOC). Our study also demonstrates that orbital degrees of freedom has substantial contribution (of $`20\%`$ to the total magnetic moment). However, correlation effect in Fe 3$`d`$ orbitals increases the orbital contribution to the total magnetic moment significantly, as discussed below. This is explicitly shown by incorporating the Hubbard parameter U in the self-consistent calculation which also predict an insulating nature.

FeBr2 is isomorphic to the hexagonal CdI2 structure (space group $`p\overline{3}m1`$, $`D_{3d}^3`$, No. 164) at atmospheric pressure and low temperature. Figure 1 shows the crystal structure. The lattice parameters are $`a=3.77`$ Å and $`c=6.22`$ Åwilkinson  where the $`c/a`$ ratio ($`1.65`$) is very close to the ideal value of $`\sqrt{8/3}1.63`$. The chemical unit cell has one Fe and two Br atoms. The Br atoms are bonded tightly to the Fe atoms on either side by covalent bond to form a Br-Fe-Br trio. The Br-Fe-Br trios are separated by an empty layer between them, and bonding between the trios is a weak van der Waals type. The Fe ions are located at 1a positions whereas Br atoms are located at 2d positions in a unit cell. Each Fe ion is at the center of octahedron formed by the surrounding Br ions with a small distortion. As a result, a small trigonal component of crystal field due to this distortion is present apart from the cubic component. FeBr2 is also taken as an example of dynamic Jahn-Teller system wherein strong coupling between lattice and spin excitations are manifested in temperature dependent Raman spectrum.johnstone

We have carried out density functional calculationshohenberg  on FeBr2 using the full-potential linear muffin-tin orbital (FPLMTO)savrasov  method with full relativistic effects on the single-particle electron states and the nonrelativistic local density approximation (LDA) for the many-body effects in the exchange-correlation energy with the Vosko-Wilk-Nussair form.vosko  The strong correlation effect in the Fe 3$`d`$ site is taken into account by LDA+U method.ldau  In the past, LDA+U method is frequently used to predict the occurrence of large orbital moment and insulating nature and is found to be a robust method for the correlated systems.solovyev ; min  The chemical unit cell is doubled ($`c=12.44`$ Å) along c-axis to simulate the antiferromagnetic system with 2 Fe atoms and 4 Br atoms. Basis functions, electron densities and potential were calculated without any shape approximation. The trial wave function, potential and charge densities are expanded in combination of spherical harmonics (lmax = 6) inside the atomic muffin-tin sphere region and plane wave Fourier series in the interstitial region (Ecut=94 Ry). 2 $`\kappa `$-basis set (where $`\kappa `$ is kinetic energy of muffin-tin orbitals in interstitial region) is used. In the Fe sphere, 4s, 4p and 3d orbitals are taken as valence states and 3p orbitals are treated as semi-core state, whereas in the Br sphere, 3d orbitals are taken as a semicore state and 4s, 4p and 4d orbitals are taken as valence states. The semicore states are treated in a separate energy window. The k-space integration is done with 30 k-points in irreducible part of Brillouin Zone(IBZ)(144 k-points in full Brillouin Zone(FBZ)) using the tetrahedron method.blochl  We have also carried out calculations with larger set of k-points (43 points in IBZ and 320 points in FBZ), but the total energies are found to be converged within 1 meV and magnetic moments change within 0.01 $`\mu _B`$. To bring about the orbital contribution to total magnetic moment, spin-orbit interaction is included in the crystal Hamiltonian. The calculations are done at experimental lattice constant.

Due to mean field character of LDA, it incorrectly describes the ground state of many strongly correlated materials, for example, the transition metal oxide systems.anisimov  In these materials, the $`d`$-orbitals are well localized and retain the strong atomic-like character. For a good description of strong on-site correlation effect between electrons in the $`d`$-shell, the LDA+U method is widely used. This method identifies these orbitals as correlated states. The LDA+U variational total energy functional takes the form

$`E^{tot}[\rho ,\widehat{n}]=E^{LDA}[\rho ]+E^U[\widehat{n}]E^{dc}[\widehat{n}],`$ (1)
where the first term is the usual local spin density functional of the local electron spin density $`\rho ^\sigma `$(r)($`\sigma =,`$). $`\widehat{n}^\sigma `$ is a local orbital ($`d`$ or $`f`$) occupation matrix. EU is an electron-electron interaction energy which depends on Slater integrals F0, F2 and F4. Edc is a double counting term. The Slater integrals are in turn related to the screened Coulomb and exchange parameters U and J respectively:

$`J={\displaystyle \frac{F^4+F^2}{14}}`$ (2)
and

$`U=F^0.`$ (3)
For 3$`d`$ electron systems it is found that $`F^2/F^4`$ = 0.625. It is to be noted that the orbital polarization is automatically included in LDA+U method, as the orbital dependent effect comes from F2 and F4. Since no experimental value of U in FeBr2 system is available in the literature, we decided to take U and J values from experiments on other systems. It is to be noted that the experimental value of U in FeO systemtanaka  is 5.7eV and 6.0 eV. In similar systems like antiferromagnetic transition metal oxides,ldau  J is close to 0.9 eV and does not change much from this value, so we have taken J = 0.9 eV. To check the validity of our U values, we performed the self-consistent calculations at four different values of U, namely, 5.7 eV, 6.0 eV, 6.4 eV and 6.8 eV. We consistently obtain the insulating ground state in agreement with the experiment, although the energy gap changes by a small fraction. The magnetic moments are almost constant with respect to the U values. So, the four different values of U do not affect our conclusions. We present our results for U = 6 eV taken from the experimental value in FeO system if not mentioned explicitly.

Table 1 shows energy gap and magnetic moment for FeBr2 at the two representative values of U. LDA and GGA both predict FeBr2 to be metallic, while LDA+U predicts it to be insulating in agreement with experiment.wilkinson  It is, therefore, crucial to take into account the correlation effects to obtain the correct electronic structure. It means that there is a strong intra-orbital correlation for Fe2+ ion in FeBr2 and that this strong correlation is responsible for the insulating nature.

Figure 2 shows dispersion curves for electronic states along high symmetry directions in IBZ of the hexagonal unit cell. The top of valence band is set to energy zero. Br-4$`s`$ bands are not shown in the figure which is located at around -16 eV. It is seen from Fig. 2 that there is a indirect energy gap between H and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ with a gap size of 1.53 eV. A direct gap of 1.87 eV is located at the middle of the symmetry line connecting M and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$. No experimental value of the gap is available in the literature. However, since FeBr2 is yellow in color,ropka  the gap would be around 2 eV which may correspond to a transition across the direct gap. Our calculated gap values of 1.87 eV are in reasonable agreement with the conjectured one(see Table 1). We can see from Fig. 2 that the bands have little dispersion in the $`z`$-direction (see the bands along symmetry lines $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$-A, L-M, and K-H) which is a characteristic feature in systems with layered structure like graphite or some high Tc superconductors. The equienergy surfaces near the energy gap, therefore, have cylinder-like shapes.

Density of states (DOS) of FeBr2 in Fig. 3(a) shows the total DOS for FeBr2. Spin-up Fe-$`d`$ states are located deep in energy between -10 eV and -6.5 eV, whereas spin-down Fe-$`d`$ states are located at between -0.5 eV and 3 eV as shown in Fig. 3(b). Fe-$`d`$ orbitals form localized states with narrow band width where the main peaks are located -9.6 eV, -8.9 eV, -6.8 eV for spin-up states and -0.2 eV, 1.6 eV, 2.2 eV for spin-down states. A group of bonding orbitals with wide band width is located between -6 eV and -2 eV which is the hybridization of Br-$`p`$ and Fe-$`s`$ bands( Fig. 3(c)). This wide band gives a covalent bonding within the Br-Fe-Br trio. The energy gap between the hybridized bonding orbitals of Br-$`p`$/Fe-$`s`$ and the conduction band is 3.6 eV. The $`d`$-bandwidth, W, of 0.5 eV is found to be much smaller than U so that $`U/W>1`$. The states near the band gap at conduction band minimum and valance band maximum are mainly from spin-down Fe-$`d`$ states. This means that FeBr2 is a typical Mott insulator (materials in which the kinetic energy gain is smaller than the Coulomb repulsion energy U and as a result electrons can hardly hop to the Fe-$`d`$ orbitals).

Fe2+ ion in FeBr2 has six electrons in $`d`$ orbitals. The nearly octahedral arrangement of Br- surrounding Fe2+ ions introduces crystal field which splits the d-orbital into t2g (dxy, dyz, and dxy) and eg (d$`_{x^2y^2}`$ and d$`_{3z^2r^2}`$) orbitals. This splitting hinders the free rotation of the electrons and reduces its orbital moment. Both t2g and eg orbitals of spin-up Fe-$`d`$ bands are fully occupied while only one of t2g orbitals is occupied in spin-down bands to contribute 4 $`\mu _B`$ as a spin contribution to the total magnetic moment. This simple estimation of the magnetic moment from DOS is consistent with the calculated spin contribution of 3.86 $`\mu _B`$ to the total magnetic moment. The Fe2+ ion has L=2, S=2 and J=4 in free space. If we assume that the orbital moment is quenched as in usual 3$`d`$ transition metal magnetic system, the spin contribution to the total magnetic moment is also consistent with the simple atomic picture. However, the neutron diffraction studywilkinson  shows that the magnetic moment on Fe site is nearly 4.4 $`\mu _B`$. Wilkinson et al.wilkinson  argue that this moment is close to that expected for divalent metallic Fe2+ ions if the orbital contribution is taken to be zero. Our calculation shows that total magnetic moment $`\mu `$ is split into orbital $`\mu _l`$ and spin parts $`\mu _s`$ with the orbital part contributing a significant amount. From Table 1 it is seen that the orbital contribution to the total magnetic moment is $`20\%`$ the total magnetic moment. It is interesting to note that the nearly octahedral arrangement of Br ions surrounding Fe ion is not able to totally quench the orbital degrees of freedom. The orbital and spin degrees of freedom are therefore not totally decoupled (obeying Hund’s third rule). Quasi-atomic calculations by Ropka et alropka  also give the orbital moment close to our values, and the large orbital moment were speculated to be due to SOC. However, our calculations show that SOC is not enough to explain the large orbital contribution as can be seen in table 1. LDA calculation with SOC gives an orbital magnetic moment of 0.14 $`\mu _B`$ and total magnetic moment of 3.64 $`\mu _B`$ which is smaller than the experimental value of 4.4 $`\mu _B`$. When we include the on-site correlation effect at the Fe site as well as SOC, we get about five times larger orbital magnetic moment of 0.66 $`\mu _B`$. Total magnetic moment of 4.52 $`\mu _B`$ is in good agreement with experimental value within 3% error. Thus we can see that the important contribution to the large orbital magnetic moment of FeBr2 is mostly due to the correlation effect of the 3$`d`$ orbitals. Therefore, the correlation effect plays a very important role in determining the magnetic properties as well as the insulating ground state. In Ropka et al.’s quasi-atomic model, the correlation effects are included by the correlated basis set with no explicit term representing on-site correlation effect in the Hamiltonian. However, in our calculation we include explicitly the correlation term in the Hamiltonian.

We suggest that, if an x-ray magnetic circular dichroism (XMCD)thole  experiment, which is a local probe for spin and orbital magnetic contribution to total magnetic moment, is performed on FeBr2, then the orbital contribution can easily be probed. Such experiments relate, via atomic sum rules, the dichroic intensities (ie., difference between right- and left-circularly polarized photons absorption cross-sections) measured at the absorption edges of the constituent elements to the ground-state expectation value of effective one-electron operators such as $`L_z`$ and $`S_z`$.

To conclude, we have shown for the first time that the correlation effect is important in describing the magnetic and electronic properties of FeBr2 which plays an important role in enhancing the orbital magnetic moment and predicting the correct insulating nature. This indicates that Fe2+ ion in FeBr2 retains to some extent its atomic-like character. FeBr2 can be classified as a typical example of Mott insulator due to the character of the energy gap and the width of the bands around the gap. We expect that the present calculation will help understand the electronic and magnetic properties of other iron halide systems.

We are thankful to Prof. B. I. Min and Prof. Sukmin Jeong for helpful discussion. Critical comments from Prof. D. I. Khomskii is highly appreciated. The authors are grateful to KISTEP/CRI of Korean ministry of Science and Technology for financial support.


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# Method for Determination of |𝑈_{𝑒3}| in Neutrino Oscillation Appearance Experiments

## I Introduction

With the accumulating evidences for neutrino oscillation in the atmospheric, the solar  and the accelerator neutrino experiments , it is now one of the most important subjects in particle physics to explore the full structure of neutrino masses and the lepton flavor mixing. In particular, it is the challenging task to explore the relatively unknown (1-3) sector of the MNS matrix , namely, $`\theta _{13}`$, the sign of $`\mathrm{\Delta }m_{13}^2`$ and the CP violating phase $`\delta `$. The only available informations to date are the upper bound on $`\theta _{13}`$ from the reactor experiments , and an indication for positive sign of $`\mathrm{\Delta }m_{13}^2`$ by neutrinos from supernova 1987A . Throughout this paper, we use the standard notation of the three flavor MNS matrix, in particular $`U_{e3}=s_{13}e^{i\delta }`$, and define the neutrino mass-squared difference as $`\mathrm{\Delta }m_{ij}^2m_j^2m_i^2`$.

The long baseline $`\nu _\mu \nu _e`$ neutrino oscillation experiment is one of the most promising way of measuring $`\theta _{13}`$. In particular, it is expected that the JHF-Kamioka project which utilizes low energy superbeam can go down to the sensitivity $`\mathrm{sin}^22\theta _{13}6\times 10^3`$ . A similar sensitivity is expected for the proposed CERN $``$ Frejus experiment . Although a far better sensitivity is expected to be achieved in neutrino factories , it is likely that the low energy conventional superbeam experiments are the ones which can start much earlier. Therefore, it is of great importance to examine how accurately $`\theta _{13}`$ can be determined in this type of experiments.

In this paper, we point out that determination of $`\mathrm{sin}^22\theta _{13}`$ by using only neutrino channel suffers from large intrinsic uncertainty of $`\pm `$ (30-70) % level due to the unknown CP violating phase $`\delta `$ and the undetermined sign of $`\mathrm{\Delta }m_{13}^2`$. It should be noted that the intrinsic uncertainty exists on top of the usual experimental (statistical and systematic) errors. To overcome the problem of the intrinsic uncertainty, we suggest a new strategy for determination of $`\theta _{13}`$ by doing appearance experiments utilizing both antineutrino and neutrino beams. Our proposal is a very simple one at least at the conceptual level; tune the beam energy to the oscillation maximum and run the appearance experiments in both $`\overline{\nu }_\mu \overline{\nu }_e`$ and $`\nu _\mu \nu _e`$ channels.

We will show that it not only solves the problem of intrinsic uncertainty mentioned above but also resolves the ($`\delta \theta _{13}`$) two-fold ambiguity discussed in Ref. . Furthermore, it does not suffer from possible ambiguity due to the unknown sign of $`\mathrm{\Delta }m_{13}^2`$, the problem first addressed in Refs. .*** Our new strategy and these results were announced in the 8th Tokutei-RCCN workshop .  We are aware that there are combined ambiguities to be resolved (even ignoring experimental uncertainties) to determine a complete set of parameters including $`\delta `$, $`\theta _{13}`$, and the sign of $`\mathrm{\Delta }m_{13}^2`$, which are as large as four-fold . We take experimentalists’ approach to the ambiguity problem and try to resolve them one by one, rather than developing mathematical framework for the simultaneous solutions. The most important issue here is again to accurately determine $`\theta _{13}`$, because then all the combined ambiguities will be automatically resolved, as we will show below.

## II Intrinsic uncertainty in determination of $`\theta _{13}`$ due to CP violating phase

Let us clarify how large uncertainty is expected for determination of $`\theta _{13}`$ due to our ignorance of $`\delta `$ in the $`\nu _\mu \nu _e`$ appearance experiment. To achieve intuitive understanding of the issue we use the CP trajectory diagram introduced in previous papers . Plotted in Fig. 1 are the CP trajectory diagrams in bi-probability space spanned by $`P(\nu )P(\nu _\mu \nu _e)`$ and $`P(\overline{\nu })P(\overline{\nu }_\mu \overline{\nu }_e)`$ averaged over Gaussian distribution (see next paragraph) with three values of $`\theta _{13}`$, $`\mathrm{sin}^22\theta _{13}=0.05`$ and 0.02 for $`\mathrm{\Delta }m_{23}^2>0`$ case and $`\mathrm{sin}^22\theta _{13}=0.064`$ for $`\mathrm{\Delta }m_{23}^2<0`$ case. Since we assume $`|\mathrm{\Delta }m_{23}^2||\mathrm{\Delta }m_{12}^2|`$ the sign of $`\mathrm{\Delta }m_{23}^2`$ is identical with that of $`\mathrm{\Delta }m_{13}^2`$. (The fourth one with $`\mathrm{sin}^22\theta _{13}=0.04`$ is for our later use.) The values of $`\mathrm{sin}^22\theta _{13}`$ for the second and the third trajectories are chosen so that the maximum (minimum) value of $`P(\nu )`$ of the second (third) trajectory coincides with about 1.1 %, the minimum value of $`P(\nu )`$ of the first trajectory. The remaining mixing parameters are taken as the best fit value of the Super-Kamiokande (SK) and the K2K experiments , $`|\mathrm{\Delta }m_{23}^2|\mathrm{\Delta }m_{atm}^2=3\times 10^3`$ eV2, and the typical ones for the large mixing angle (LMA) MSW solar neutrino solution as given in the caption of Fig. 1.

While we focus in this paper on the JHF experiment with baseline length of 295 km, JAERI-Kamioka distance, many of the qualitative features of our results remains valid also for the CERN-Frejus experiment. Throughout this paper we take the neutrino energy distribution of Gaussian form with width of 20 % of the peak energy. Of course, it does not represent in any quantitatively accurate manner the effects of realistic beam energy spread and the energy dependent cross sections. But we feel that it is sufficient to make the point of this paper clear, illuminating our new strategy toward accurate determination of $`\theta _{13}`$.

Suppose that a measurement of appearance events gives us the value of the oscillation probability $`P(\nu )1.1`$ %. Then, it is obvious from Fig. 1 that a full range of values of $`\mathrm{sin}^22\theta _{13}`$ from 0.02 to 0.064 are allowed (even if we ignore experimental errors) due to our ignorance to the CP violating phase $`\delta `$ and the sign of $`\mathrm{\Delta }m_{13}^2`$. It may be worth to remark the following: Low energy neutrino oscillation experiments with superbeams are primarily motivated as a result of the search for the place where CP violating effects are comparatively large and easiest to measure . See e.g.,  for works preceding to . Unfortunately, this large effect of $`\delta `$ is the very origin of the above mentioned large intrinsic uncertainty in determination of $`\theta _{13}`$. If we know that the sign is positive, for example, the uncertainty region would be limited to 0.02-0.05, which is still large.

Let us estimate in a syatematic way the uncertainty in the determination of $`\theta _{13}`$ due to the CP violating phase $`\delta `$. To do this we rely on perturbative formulae of the oscillation probabilities $`P(\nu )`$ and $`P(\overline{\nu })`$ which are valid to first order in the matter effect . With relatively short baseline $`300`$ km or less the first-order formula gives reasonably accurate results. Ignoring O($`\mathrm{sin}^32\theta _{13}`$) terms the formula can be written with use of the notation $`\mathrm{\Delta }_{ij}\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }m_{ij}^2L}{2E}`$ ($`L`$ and $`E`$ denote baseline length and neutrino energy, respectively) in the form

$$P(\nu /\overline{\nu })=P_\pm \mathrm{sin}^22\theta _{13}+2Q\mathrm{sin}2\theta _{13}\mathrm{cos}\left(\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }_{13}}{2}\pm \delta \right)$$
(1)
where

$$P_\pm (\mathrm{\Delta }_{13})=s_{23}^2\left[\mathrm{sin}^2\left(\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }_{13}}{2}\right)\frac{1}{2}s_{12}^2\mathrm{\Delta }_{12}\mathrm{sin}\left(\mathrm{\Delta }_{13}\right)\pm \left(\frac{2Ea}{\mathrm{\Delta }m_{13}^2}\right)\mathrm{sin}^2\left(\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }_{13}}{2}\right)\frac{aL}{4}\mathrm{sin}\left(\mathrm{\Delta }_{13}\right)\right],$$
(2)
$$Q=c_{12}s_{12}c_{23}s_{23}\mathrm{\Delta }_{12}\mathrm{sin}\left(\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }_{13}}{2}\right),$$
(3)
where $`a=\sqrt{2}G_FN_e`$ denotes the index of refraction in matter with $`G_F`$ being the Fermi constant and $`N_e`$ a constant electron number density in the earth. The $`\pm `$ signs in $`P_\pm `$ refer to the neutrino and the antineutrino channels, respectively.

The maximum and the minimum of $`P(\nu )`$ for given mixing paramters, neutrino energy and baseline is obtained at $`\mathrm{cos}\left(\delta +\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }_{ij}}{2}\right)=\pm 1`$. Then, the allowed region of $`\mathrm{sin}2\theta _{13}`$ for a given value of $`P(\nu )`$, assuming blindness to the sign of $`\mathrm{\Delta }m_{13}^2`$, is given by

$$\frac{\sqrt{Q^2+P_+(\mathrm{\Delta }_{13})P(\nu )}|Q|}{P_+(\mathrm{\Delta }_{13})}\mathrm{sin}2\theta _{13}\frac{\sqrt{Q^2+P_+(\mathrm{\Delta }_{13})P(\nu )}+|Q|}{P_+(\mathrm{\Delta }_{13})}$$
(4)
In Fig. 2 presented is the allowed region of $`\mathrm{sin}^22\theta _{13}`$ for a given value of measured oscillation probability $`P(\nu )`$. Figures (a)-(c) correspond respectively to neutrino energies (a) $`E=`$ 500 MeV, (b) 716 MeV (oscillation maximum), and (c) 1 GeV. One notices that the intrinsic uncertainty is large. It strongly depends on the value of $`\mathrm{sin}^22\theta _{13}`$ and gradually decreases as $`E`$ grows. Roughly speaking, it ranges between, $``$ 45 % (30 %) at $`\mathrm{sin}^22\theta _{13}=0.1`$ and $``$ 80 % (70 %) at $`\mathrm{sin}^22\theta _{13}=0.01`$ at $`E=500`$ MeV (716 MeV). Notice that all the results shown in the plots in this paper were obtained by numerically solving the neutrino evolution equation assuming constant matter density without using the first-order formula.

The size of the intrinsic uncertainty must be compared with the statistical and the systematic errors which are expected in the actual experiments. A detailed estimation of the experimental uncertainties is performed for the JHF experiment by Obayashi  assuming the off-axis beam (OA2)  and running of 5 years. The results strongly depend upon $`\theta _{13}`$. We quote the case of three typical values; $`\mathrm{sin}^22\theta _{13}=0.1+0.0180.014`$, $`0.03+0.0100.007`$, and $`0.01+0.0070.006`$. The errors include not only statistical but also systematic ones. We implemented these errors in Fig. 2b which is drawn with the similar energy as the peak energy of OA2 beam ($`780`$ MeV). We should note, however, an important difference between Fig. 2 and the plot in ; the abscissa of Fig. 2 is the Gaussian averaged probability, whereas the corresponding axis of the plot in  is the number of events. Therefore, we tentatively determined the location of errors in Fig. 2 so that the center of the error bars coincide with the center of the allowed band of $`\mathrm{sin}^22\theta _{13}`$. Keeping this difference in mind, we still feel it informative for the readers to display the expected experimental uncertainties in Fig. 2b for comparison.

Therefore, the intrinsic uncertainty due to $`\delta `$ and undetermined sign of $`\mathrm{\Delta }m_{13}^2`$ is larger than the expected experimental errors in most of the sensitivity region for $`\theta _{13}`$ in the experiment. We note that the experimental errors are dominated by the statistical one in phase I of the JHF-SK neutrino project and hence it should be improved by a factor of $`10`$ in two years of running in the phase II with a megaton water Cherenkov detector . Thus, the intrinsic uncertainty completely dominates over the experimental ones if one stays only on the neutrino channel.

## III Possible way out and the relationship with $`\theta _{13}\delta `$ ambiguity

Let us discuss possible ways out of the uncertainty problem in the determination of $`\theta _{13}`$. It is tempting to think about seeking better resolution by adding more informations. A natural candidate for such possibilities in this line of thought is to do additional appearance experiment $`\overline{\nu }_\mu \overline{\nu }_e`$ using antineutrino beam. While it strengthens constraints, it does not completely solve the uncertainty problem even if we ignore the experimental errors. It is due to the inherent two-fold ambiguity which exists in simultaneous determination of $`\delta `$ and $`\theta _{13}`$ as has been pointed out by Burguet-Castell et al. . While their discussion anticipates applications to neutrino factory, the issue of the two-fold ambiguity is in fact even more relevant to our case because of the large effect of $`\delta `$ as we saw in the previous section.

The existence of the two-fold ($`\theta _{13}\delta `$) ambiguity is easy to recognize by using the CP trajectory diagram. We show in Fig. 1 by a dash-dotted curve another trajectory drawn with $`\mathrm{sin}^22\theta _{13}=0.04`$ which has two intersection points with the solid curve trajectory with $`\mathrm{sin}^22\theta _{13}=0.05`$. Suppose that measurements of neutrino and antineutrino oscillation probabilities $`P(\nu )`$ and $`P(\overline{\nu })`$ had resulted into either one of the two intersection points. Then, it is clear that we have two solutions, for positive $`\mathrm{\Delta }m_{13}^2`$, ($`\mathrm{sin}^22\theta _{13},\delta `$) = (0.04, 0.65$`\pi `$) and (0.05, 0.35$`\pi `$) for the upper intersection point, and ($`\mathrm{sin}^22\theta _{13},\delta `$) = (0.04, 1.4$`\pi `$) and (0.05, 1.7$`\pi `$) for the lower intersection point. Similar two-fold ($`\theta _{13}\delta `$) ambiguity also exists for negative $`\mathrm{\Delta }m_{13}^2`$ which however is not shown in Fig. 1. In other word, we can draw two different CP trajectories which pass through a point determined by given values of $`P(\nu )`$ and $`P(\overline{\nu })`$. This is the simple pictorial understanding of the ($`\theta _{13}\delta `$) two-fold ambiguity which is uncovered and analyzed in detail in . We will show in the next two sections that the ambiguity is automatically resolved by our proposal.

## IV New strategy for determination of $`\theta _{13}`$

We now present our new strategy for determination of $`\theta _{13}`$ which avoids the problem of the large intrinsic uncertainty. It is intuitively obvious from the CP trajectory diagram displayed in Fig. 1 that if one can tune the experimental parameters so that its radial thickness (which measures the $`\mathrm{cos}\delta `$ term in Eq. (1)) vanishes then the two-fold ambiguity is completely resolved. It occurs if we tune the beam energy at the oscillation maximum so that $`\mathrm{\Delta }_{13}=\pi `$ as is clear from Eq. (1).

We explain below in more detail how it occurs and then discuss by what kind of quantity $`\theta _{13}`$ is determined. In the following discussion we assume that the mixing parameters $`|\mathrm{\Delta }m_{13}^2||\mathrm{\Delta }m_{23}^2|\mathrm{\Delta }m_{atm}^2`$, $`\mathrm{\Delta }m_{12}^2\mathrm{\Delta }m_{}^2`$, $`\theta _{23}`$, and $`\theta _{12}`$ are accurately determined by the time of the experiment. It is not so unrealistic assumption in view of the array of experiments ongoing (SK, SNO, K2K, KamLAND), on schedule (Borexino, MINOS, OPERA), or in planned (JHF). For example, the uncertainty in measurement of $`\theta _{23}`$ is expected to be $`\delta (\mathrm{sin}^22\theta _{23})0.01`$ in JHF phase I .

We note that the oscillation probabilities (1) can be written as

$`P(\nu )`$ $`=`$ $`A\mathrm{cos}\delta +B\mathrm{sin}\delta +C_+`$ (5)
$`P(\overline{\nu })`$ $`=`$ $`A\mathrm{cos}\delta B\mathrm{sin}\delta +C_{}`$ (6)
where $`A=Q\mathrm{cos}\left(\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }_{13}}{2}\right)`$, $`B=Q\mathrm{sin}\left(\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }_{13}}{2}\right)`$, and $`C_\pm =P_\pm \mathrm{sin}^22\theta _{13}`$ in the present approximation. It is easy to show from this expression that CP trajectory diagram is elliptic in the approximation that we are working . (In fact, it is the case for all the known perturbative formulae.) Given (6) it is simple to observe that the CP trajectory is a straight line at the oscillation maximum, $`A=0`$; the equation obeyed by the oscillation probabilities is given as $`P(\nu )+P(\overline{\nu })=C_++C_{}`$. Moreover, the first order matter effect cancels in $`C_++C_{}`$, leaving the vacuum peace of $`P_\pm `$. Therefore, the slope of the straight-line CP trajectory is the same as that in vacuum, and the matter effects affects only on the maximum and the minimum points of the straight line in $`P(\nu )`$ and $`P(\overline{\nu })`$ coordinates. Thus, once a set of values of $`P(\nu )`$ and $`P(\overline{\nu })`$ is given by the experiments, one can determine $`C_++C_{}`$ as the segment of the “CP straight line” in the diagram, and hence $`\mathrm{sin}^22\theta _{13}`$ to which $`C_++C_{}`$ is proportional. Thus, measurement of $`P(\nu )`$ and $`P(\overline{\nu })`$ at the oscillation maximum implies determination of $`\theta _{13}`$ without suffering from any uncertainties due to unknown value of $`\delta `$ and the sign of $`\mathrm{\Delta }m_{13}^2`$.

In Fig. 3 we present the thinnest trajectories with the tuned value of the energy $`E=760`$ MeV for $`L=295`$ km (JAERI-Kamioka distance) with $`\mathrm{sin}^22\theta _{13}=0.05`$ and 0.02, by taking the other mixing parameters given in the caption of Fig. 1. The energy would be $`E=716`$ MeV if we sit on the oscillation maximum. It arises because the contributions from higher and lower energy parts around the peak energy do not completely cancel because of the extra 1/E factor in the $`\mathrm{cos}\delta `$ term for symmetric Gaussian beam width. Thus, we need slightly higher energy to have the thinnest trajectory. It should be noted, however, that the feature highly depends upon the specific beam shape, and will also be affected by the fact that the cross section has an extra approximately linear E dependence.

The slightly different slope of the straight-line trajectories of positive and negative $`\mathrm{\Delta }m_{13}^2`$ indicates the higher order matter effect. This effect must be (and can be) taken into account when one try to determine $`\theta _{13}`$ following the method proposed above.

## V Comments on the relationship with $`\theta _{13}\delta `$ sign of $`\mathrm{\Delta }m_{13}^2`$ ambiguities

We now show that the ($`\theta _{13}\delta `$) ambiguity is automatically resolved by tuning neutrino energy at the oscillation maximum. It must be the case because two straight-line trajectories with the same slope do not have intersection points. For our purpose, it suffices to work with oscillation probability at a fixed monochromatic beam energy because averaging over a finite width complicates the formalism and may obscure the essence of the problem. It can be shown  that the difference between the true ($`\theta _{13}`$) and the false ($`\theta _{13}^{}`$) solutions of $`\theta _{13}`$ for a given set of $`P(\nu )`$ and $`P(\overline{\nu })`$ is given under the small $`\theta _{13}`$ approximation by

$$\theta _{13}^{}\theta _{13}=\frac{\mathrm{sin}\delta z\mathrm{cos}\delta }{1+z^2}\frac{2Q}{P_{}P_+}\mathrm{sin}\left(\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }_{13}}{2}\right)$$
(7)
where

$$z=\frac{P_{}+P_+}{P_{}P_+}\mathrm{tan}\left(\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }_{13}}{2}\right)$$
(8)
Hence, the difference vanishes at the oscillation maximum, $`\mathrm{\Delta }_{13}=\pi `$, which means $`z\mathrm{}`$. Thus, no ($`\theta _{13}\delta `$) ambiguity exists at the oscillation maximum as expected.

It should be emphasised that our strategy of tuning beam energy at the oscillation maximum is not affected by the ambiguity correlated with the sign of $`\mathrm{\Delta }m_{13}^2`$ which is discussed in Ref. . It is because the matter effect split the straight-line CP trajectories of positive and negative $`\mathrm{\Delta }m_{13}^2`$ toward the direction of the line itself in first order of the matter effect. The possible correction comes from higher order matter effect which is small in the relatively short baseline of the JHF (as well as the CERN $``$ Frejus) experiment, as shown in Fig. 3. The effect can be easily taken care of in the actual determination of $`\theta _{13}`$.

## VI Concluding remarks

In this paper, we proposed a new strategy for accurate determination of $`\theta _{13}`$ without suffering from the intrinsic ambiguity due to unknown value of $`\delta `$. That is, tune the beam energy at the thinnest CP trajectory and do the measurement both in neutrino and antineutrino channels. We have shown that our new strategy completely resolves the ambiguities in the determination of $`\theta _{13}`$ due to $`\delta `$ and due to the sign of $`\mathrm{\Delta }m_{13}^2`$ within the experimental accuracy attainable in such experiments.

One of the proposal which could be extracted from the strategy described in this paper is a possibility of having $`\overline{\nu }_\mu `$ beam as early as possible. It would be the promising option for the case of relatively large $`\mathrm{sin}^22\theta _{13}`$, say, within a factor of 2-3 smaller than the CHOOZ bound. In this case, the $`\nu _\mu \nu _e`$ appearance events can be easily established in a few years of running of next generation neutrino oscillation experiments. Then, the uncertainties in determination of $`\theta _{13}`$ would be greatly decreased by switching to $`\overline{\nu }_\mu `$ beam rather than just running with the $`\nu _\mu `$ beam.

What would be the implication of our strategy to the determination of $`\delta `$? The tuning of beam energy at thinnest trajectory in fact also provides a good way of measuring $`\delta `$. Tuning of beam energy at the oscillation maximum itself has been proposed before for differing reasons from ours. First of all, it is preferred experimentally because it maximizes disappearance of $`\nu _\mu `$ as well as the number of electron appearance events . The tuning of beam energy to the oscillation maximum for measurement of CP violating phase $`\delta `$ was proposed by Konaka for the purpose of having maximal CP-odd ($`\mathrm{sin}\delta `$) term at the energy .  The ambiguity ($`\delta \pi \delta `$), however, is unresolved and it would necessitate supplementary measurement either by using “fattest” trajectory configuration , or by second detector with different baseline distance . We should emphasize that once $`\theta _{13}`$ is measured accurately there is no more intrinsic ambiguities in determination of $`\delta `$. We have explicitly shown that ($`\delta \theta _{13}`$) ambiguity is resolved. The only ambiguity which would survive (from the viewpoint of determination of $`\delta `$) would be the accidental one that arises in a correlated way ($`\delta `$ $``$ sign of $`\mathrm{\Delta }m_{13}^2`$), which is nothing but the remnant of ($`\delta \pi \delta `$) degeneracy in vacuum . But it is also resolved by either one of the two second measurements mentioned above.

Nore added:

While this paper was being written, we became aware of the paper by Barger et al.  whose results partially overlaps with ours. However, most of the ambiguities discussed in the paper will be gone once $`\theta _{13}`$ is determined accurately, as we noted above.

###### Acknowledgements.

We thank Takashi Kobayashi and Yoshihisa Obayashi for valuable informative correspondences on low energy neutrino beams, detector backgrounds, and $`\theta _{13}`$ sensitivity in the JHF experiment. This work was supported by the Brazilian funding agency Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP), and by the Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research in Priority Areas No. 12047222, Japan Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science, and Technology.


text:
# Frequencies of 𝑓 modes in differentially rotating relativistic stars and secular stability limits

## 1. Introduction

Instabilities of rotating relativistic stars have been studied for more than three decades in relation to the emission of gravitational waves driven by radiation-reaction. Since the discovery of the so called Chandrasekhar-Friedman-Schutz (CFS) instability (Chandrasekhar 1970 ; Friedman and Schutz 1978), in fact, the stability properties of a number of non-axisymmetric stellar oscillations have been investigated using different techniques (see Friedman 1998 ; Andersson and Kokkotas 2001 for recent reviews). The $`f`$ (fundamental) modes were among the first modes of oscillations ever to be studied in rotating relativistic stars. These are spheroidal modes with harmonic indices $`l=m`$ and represent the generalization of the Kelvin modes of Newtonian Maclaurin spheroids to compressible fluid stars. Over the years, the literature on the subject has been continuously updated and the limits for the onset of the instability have been improved through different approaches. This has been done by several groups focussing on Newtonian stellar models (Bardeen et al. 1977 ; Comins 1979a, 1979b ; Clement 1979 ; Durisen and Imamura 1981 ; Imamura et al. 1985 Managan 1985 ; Ipser and Lindblom 1990) on post-Newtonian stellar models (Cutler and Lindblom 1992) and on rapidly rotating relativistic stars (Yoshida and Eriguchi 1997 ; Stergioulas and Friedman 1998 ; Morsink et al. 1999 ; Yoshida and Eriguchi 1999). Part of the interest in these modes comes from the fact that they have long been regarded as the modes of oscillation most susceptible to the CFS instability. In particular, for stars rotating at a rate at which mass starts being shed at the equator (the mass-shedding limit), general relativistic calculations on the stability limit indicate that the $`l=m=2`$, $`f`$-mode (also referred to as the “bar-mode”) could have the shortest growth timescale. Because of this, and because of a possible weakening of the bulk viscosity at very high temperatures (Lai 2001), the bar-mode may represent the most important non-axisymmetric instability in very hot and rapidly rotating newly born neutron stars.

The occurrence of an $`f`$-mode instability in a newly born uniformly rotating neutron star is in general prevented by the large bulk and shear viscosities of nuclear matter in those conditions and detailed calculations have shown that the instability is suppressed except for very large rotation rates, close to the mass-shedding limit (Ipser and Lindblom 1991); for superfluid stars an even stronger damping was calculated (Lindblom and Mendel 1995). More recently, however, a number of new elements have improved our understanding of the instability and have again increased the expectations that the $`f`$ mode instability might characterize the earliest life stages of a newly formed neutron star. The first of these new elements was provided by Cutler and Lindblom (1992) who have shown that, within a post-Newtonian approximation, general relativistic effects tend to further destabilize the $`f`$ mode, lowering the critical value of the ratio between the stellar rotational kinetic energy and the absolute value of the gravitational energy, $`\beta _c(T/|W|)_c`$ at which the secular $`f`$-mode instability is triggered. Analogous results have also been found by Yoshida and Eriguchi (1997) within the relativistic Cowling approximation and by Stergioulas and Friedman (1998) in fully general relativistic calculations. The second new element was provided by Shibata and Uryū (2000) whose fully general relativistic hydrodynamical simulations have shown that the remnants of binary neutron star mergers could be, at least for polytropic equations of state, rapidly and differentially rotating stars. In addition to this, Liu and Lindblom (2001) have recently computed the structure of objects formed in accretion-induced collapse of rotating white dwarfs and found that these objects can rotate extremely rapidly and differentially. Furthermore, a differentially rotating object could be produced also during the process of core-collapse in supernova leading to the formation of a neutron star.

Within this framework, differential rotation has two major consequences. Firstly, it allows for the existence of an equilibrium model at values of $`\beta `$ which are considerably larger than the ones supported by the counterparts with the same rest-mass but uniform rotation (Baumgarte et al. 2000). Secondly, as shown by a number of authors for Newtonian stellar models (Managan 1985, Imamura et al. 1985, Imamura and Durisen 2001), it increases the critical value $`\beta _c`$ for the onset of the secular instability. In this revised picture, we have computed the eigenfrequencies of $`f`$ modes and determined the secular stability limits for rapidly rotating relativistic stars with differential rotation.

## 2. Formulation

The equilibrium stellar models are assumed to be stationary and axisymmetric and are constructed with a numerical code based on the method of Komatsu et al. (1989a,b). Their spacetime is therefore described by the line element

$$ds^2=e^{2\nu }dt^2+e^{2\alpha }(dr^2+r^2d\theta ^2)+e^{2\mu }r^2\mathrm{sin}^2\theta (d\varphi \omega dt)^2,$$
(1)
where $`\nu ,\alpha ,\mu ,`$ and $`\omega `$ are the “gravitational potentials” and are functions of the $`r`$ and $`\theta `$ coordinates only. The stars are modeled as relativistic polytropes with the equation of state (EOS)

$$\frac{p}{\rho _c}=\kappa \left(\frac{\rho }{\rho _c}\right)^{1+1/N},ϵ=\rho +Np,$$
(2)
where $`p,\rho ,ϵ`$ are the pressure, the rest-mass density and the total energy density, respectively. The subscript “$`c`$” refers to the maximum value for the equilibrium model which is used for normalization. In order to investigate how the limits for the secular instability depend on the “stiffness” of the EOS, we have performed calculations for two different polytropic models whose properties are summarized in Table I (We adopt units in which $`c=G=M_{}=1`$.). Along each sequence of rapidly rotating stellar models, the polytropic constant $`\kappa `$, the polytropic index $`N`$ and the total rest-mass $`M_0`$ are kept constant.

|  | $`N`$ | $`\kappa `$ | $`M_0/M_{}`$ |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Model $`(a)`$ | $`0.5`$ | $`6.02\times 10^4`$ | $`1.60`$ |
| Model $`(b)`$ | $`1.0`$ | $`1.00\times 10^2`$ | $`1.52`$ |

TABLE I: Properties of the polytropic equilibrium models.

The rapidly rotating stellar models are constructed after specifying a law of differential rotation $`\mathrm{\Omega }=\mathrm{\Omega }(r,\theta )`$ with a choice which is, to some extent, arbitrary. This is because there are a number of differential rotation laws that satisfy the integrability condition of the equation of hydrostatic equilibrium as well as the Rayleigh criterion for dynamical stability (Tassoul 1978). All of these laws are physically consistent, cannot be excluded on physical grounds and might influence the qualitative behaviour of the results. We here follow the formulation suggested by Komatsu et al. (1989a,b) who have modeled the rotational angular velocity profile as

$$A__\mathrm{R}^2(\mathrm{\Omega }_0\mathrm{\Omega })=\frac{(\mathrm{\Omega }\omega )r^2\mathrm{sin}^2\theta e^{2(\mu \nu )}}{1(\mathrm{\Omega }\omega )r^2\mathrm{sin}^2\theta e^{2(\mu \nu )}}.$$
(3)
Here $`\mathrm{\Omega }_0`$ is the angular velocity at the centre of the coordinate system, i.e. at the intersection of the rotation axis with the equatorial plane of the equilibrium models, and $`A__\mathrm{R}`$ is a dimensionless parameter accounting for the degree of differential rotation. In particular, the degree of differential rotation increases with $`A__\mathrm{R}^1`$, and in the limit of $`A__\mathrm{R}^10`$, the profile reduces to that of uniform rotation. In the Newtonian limit, the differential rotation law (3) reduces to the so-called “j-constant” law (Clement 1978)

$$\frac{\mathrm{\Omega }}{\mathrm{\Omega }_0}=\frac{A__\mathrm{N}^2}{A__\mathrm{N}^2+r^2\mathrm{sin}^2\theta },$$
(4)
and is commonly used in Newtonian calculations (Eriguchi and Müller 1985 ; Karino et al. 2001 ; Rezzolla and Yoshida 2001).

Once the rapidly and differentially rotating equilibrium stellar model has been constructed, we introduce “adiabatic” perturbations in the fluid variables so that the adiabatic index of the perturbed matter coincides with the polytropic exponent of the equilibrium configuration

$$\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }p}{p}=\left(1+\frac{1}{N}\right)\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }\rho }{\rho }.$$
(5)
Here, $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ refers to a Lagrangian perturbation with displacement vector $`\stackrel{}{\xi }`$ and is related to the Eulerian perturbation $`\delta `$ of a generic quantity $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$ through the relation: $`\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Phi }=\delta \mathrm{\Phi }+_\stackrel{}{\xi }\mathrm{\Phi }`$, with $`_\stackrel{}{\xi }`$ being the Lie derivative along $`\stackrel{}{\xi }`$ (Friedman and Schutz 1978a). Because of the stationary and axisymmetric background, the Eulerian perturbations are naturally decomposed into a harmonic component of the type $`\mathrm{exp}(i\sigma t+im\varphi )`$, where $`\sigma `$ is the mode angular frequency and $`m`$ is an integer. Working within the Cowling approximation (McDermott et al. 1983), we do not include Eulerian perturbations in the metric and the fluid oscillations are investigated in the fixed background spacetime of the equilibrium star (1)111An alternative approach to the relativistic Cowling approximation was formulated by Finn (1988). This simplification clearly introduces an error which is particularly large in the case of the lower order $`f`$ modes. However, as discussed in previous works (Lindblom and Splinter 1990 ; Yoshida and Kojima 1990 ; Yoshida and Eriguchi 1997, 1999), the results obtained with this approximation reproduce well the qualitative behaviour of the mode eigenfrequencies with the errors being of the order of 10% for low mode-numbers and progressively less for high mode-numbers (Lindblom and Splinter 1990 ; Yoshida and Eriguchi 1997, 1999). Furthermore, by neglecting the contributions coming from the metric perturbations, the Cowling approximation tends, at least for the lowest mode-numbers (i.e. $`m=2,3`$), to overestimate the stability (see the comparison in Figs. 2 and 3).

Introducing the harmonic perturbations in the hydrodynamical equations yields a system of four partial differential equations accounting for baryon number conservation and conservation of the stress-energy tensor. These equations are then solved for the four unknown functions represented by the components of the Eulerian 3-velocity perturbation $`\delta v^r,\delta v^\theta ,\delta v^\varphi `$ and the dimensionless quantity $`q\delta p/(ϵ+p)`$. The partial differential equations are discretized on a two-dimensional numerical grid and are solved following the strategy discussed by Yoshida and Eriguchi (1999), after imposing $`\mathrm{\Delta }p=0`$ at the surface of the unperturbed star as a boundary condition. For each degree of differential rotation $`A__\mathrm{R}`$ and for each mode-number $`m`$, the solution to the eigenvalue problem is found for increasing values of $`\beta `$ until the limit of mass-shedding is found, which is indicated with $`\beta _s`$ (see Komatsu et al. 1989a for a definition of $`\beta `$).

## 3. Results

The results of these calculations are presented in Fig.3, where we plot the frequencies of the $`m=2`$ mode as a function of the parameter $`\beta `$ for the model $`(b)`$ of Table I. Different curves refer to different degrees of differential rotation. Note that the values of $`\beta `$ at which $`\sigma =0`$ (i.e. $`\beta _c`$) signal the onset of the secular instability (neutral points) and that these increase as the degree of differential rotation is increased. At the same time, however, the differentially rotating models are able to support larger values of $`\beta `$ before reaching the mass shedding limit $`\beta _s`$, represented by the end-points of the curves in Fig.3.

Given the results of Fig.3 it is natural to ask whether differential rotation favours or not the onset of the $`f`$-mode instability in rapidly rotating relativistic stars. The evidence that $`\beta _c`$ increases with increasing differential rotation is not sufficient to draw a conclusion since differentially rotating models can support values of $`\beta `$ which are considerably larger than those of uniformly rotating stars before reaching the mass-shedding limit. This is simply due to the fact that in the differentially rotating model described by eq. (3) the inner regions can rotate rapidly while the outer regions rotate more slowly, preventing mass-shedding. Thus, to quantify the importance of differential rotation for the onset of the instability we need to measure not only the secular stability limit $`\beta _c`$, but also how close the latter is to the ultimate limit of mass-shedding $`\beta _s`$. A relative measure of the two quantities across sequences with different degrees of differential rotation can provide information on the likelihood of the existence of a configuration at the onset of the secular instability and clarify the role played by differential rotation. In this sense, the normalization of $`\beta _c`$ with $`\beta _s`$ is equivalent to the normalization, commonly used for uniformly rotating stars, of writing the stellar angular velocity in terms of the mass-shedding angular velocity.

In Fig.3 we show the behaviour of the ratio $`\stackrel{~}{\beta }_c\beta _c/\beta _s`$ as obtained for degrees of differential rotation ranging between $`A__\mathrm{R}^1=0`$ (uniform rotation) to $`A__\mathrm{R}^1=1.25`$. To avoid contamination of our results from configurations that start showing a distinct toroidal topology, we stop our sequences for $`A__\mathrm{R}^1=1.25`$ but were able to find eigenfrequencies also for larger values of $`A__\mathrm{R}^1`$ (see Table II).

The two panels of Fig.3 refer to the models $`(a)`$ and $`(b)`$ of Table I, respectively. In each panel, the different lines refer to the mode-numbers $`m=2,3`$ and 4. As anticipated above, the Cowling approximation overestimates the stability of the stellar models by introducing an error which is of the order of 10% for the $`m=2`$ mode but is considerably smaller for higher mode-numbers. This can be appreciated by comparing with the fully general relativistic values of $`\stackrel{~}{\beta }_c`$ computed for uniformly rapidly rotating stellar models (Stergioulas and Friedman 1998) and indicated with filled symbols in the lower panel of Fig.3. The overall decrease of $`\stackrel{~}{\beta }_c`$ for increasing degrees of differential rotation provides a clear indication that the onset of the secular $`f`$-mode instability is in general favoured by the presence of differential rotation. This is most evident in the case of a stiffer EOS \[model $`(a)`$ of Table I\] where, for reasonable degrees of differential rotation, $`\stackrel{~}{\beta }_c`$ is reduced by about 17%. A direct comparison with corresponding values in the literature is presented in Table II, where we report the values of $`\beta _c`$ for different mode-numbers and degrees of differential rotation.

To validate our relativistic results, we have computed the eigenfrequencies and the secular stability limits for $`f`$ modes in rapidly and differentially rotating Newtonian stellar models (A more extended discussion of these results will be presented in Karino et al. (2002). The numerical strategy followed is the same as the one discussed above for the relativistic Cowling approximation but we have considered both the case in which perturbations in the gravitational potential are neglected (Newtonian Cowling approximation) and the case where they are included. The stellar models used in this case are also polytropes with index $`N=0.5`$. The results found for the corresponding Newtonian quantity $`(\stackrel{~}{\beta }_c)__\mathrm{N}(\beta _c/\beta _s)__\mathrm{N}`$ are presented in Fig.3 where we show $`(\stackrel{~}{\beta }_c)__\mathrm{N}`$ in the Newtonian Cowling approximation (dashed lines) and in the fully Newtonian calculations (solid lines), for the $`m=3`$, $`f`$ mode. As expected, the results found in Newtonian gravity are qualitatively similar to the relativistic ones and show that the presence of differential rotation introduces a general decrease of $`(\stackrel{~}{\beta }_c)__\mathrm{N}`$.

| $`A__\mathrm{R}^1`$ | $`m=2`$ | $`m=3`$ | $`m=4`$ |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 0.00 | 0.1300 | 0.0748 | 0.0516 |
|  | 0.0923 | 0.0627 | 0.0436 |
| 0.25 | 0.1310 | 0.0761 | 0.0528 |
|  | 0.0943 | 0.0635 | 0.0441 |
| 0.50 | 0.1410 | 0.0798 | 0.0552 |
|  | 0.1060 | 0.0668 | 0.0471 |
| 1.00 | 0.1530 | 0.0845 | 0.0587 |
|  | 0.1250 | 0.0753 | 0.0513 |
| 1.25 | 0.1630 | 0.0890 | 0.0615 |
|  | 0.1420 | 0.0818 | 0.0552 |
| 1.43 | 0.1710 | 0.0927 | 0.0641 |
|  | 0.1580 | 0.0865 | 0.0583 |

TABLE II: $`\beta _c`$ for different degrees of differential rotation. The results are presented for $`m=2,3,4`$ and the two values for each mode-number and $`A__\mathrm{R}^1`$refer to models $`(a)`$ and $`(b)`$ of Table I, respectively.

There are three aspects of Fig.3 that are worth commenting on. Firstly, it should be noted that we have not plotted the behaviour for the $`m=2`$ mode. This is because this mode is never found unstable within the Newtonian Cowling approximation and in the range of differential rotation considered here. Secondly, when compared with Fig. 3 the difference between the two approaches appears to be larger for the Newtonian star. This is to be expected since the Cowling approximation is more accurate when the longitudinal gravitational field is stronger and hence in General Relativity. A similar improvement of the Cowling approximation is also observed when the polytropic index is varied. In the case of a softer EOS, in fact, the star is generally more compact and the Cowling approximation more accurate (Yoshida and Kojima 1997). Thirdly, it should be noted that the inclusion of the perturbations in the gravitational potential lowers systematically the values of $`(\stackrel{~}{\beta }_c)__\mathrm{N}`$ for the various degrees of differential rotation indicating that the Cowling approximation tends systematically to overestimate the stability limits for the onset of the secular $`f`$-mode instability. This behaviour, encountered also in relativistic gravity, supports our expectations that a fully general relativistic analysis, in which the metric perturbations are not neglected, will confirm our results and provide even more promising estimates for the secular stability limits of $`f`$ modes to the CFS instability.

It’s a pleasure to thank J. Miller and N. Stergioulas for useful discussions and comments. This research has been supported by the MIUR, EU Research Training Network Contract HPRN-CT-2000-00137 and Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research of Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (12640255).


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# 1 Introduction

## 1 Introduction

The axial coupling constant $`g_A`$ of the nucleon is one of fundamental constants of the nucleon; experimentally, it is $`g_A=1.25`$. Sometimes, the fact that $`g_A`$ is close to unity is considered as an evidence of partially conserved axial vector current (PCAC), and hence it would become one in the limit that the axial current is conserved. This, however, is not correct, and $`g_A`$ takes any number when chiral symmetry is broken spontaneously . This fact is manifest in the non-linear sigma model. Even in the linear sigma model, $`g_A`$ can be arbitrary if higher derivative terms are added.

Theoretically, $`g_A`$ is related to the generators of the chiral group:

$`[Q_V^a,Q_V^b]=iϵ_{abc}Q_V^c,[Q_V^a,Q_A^b]=iϵ_{abc}Q_A^c,[Q_A^a,Q_A^b]=iϵ_{abc}Q_A^c.`$ (1)
If chiral symmetry is not spontaneously broken, these commutation relations may be used to determine the value of $`g_A`$, the nucleon matrix element of the axial charge operator $`Q_A^a`$. When, however, chiral symmetry is spontaneously broken, the operators $`Q_A^a`$ are not well defined. In his pioneering work, Weinberg used the pion-nucleon matrix elements rather than the axial charges $`Q_A^a`$ to compute $`g_A`$ by using Goldberger-Treiman relation and commutation relations among the pion-nucleon coupling matrices $`X^a`$ . These commutation relations are derived from a super convergence property of pion-nucleon scattering amplitudes; it is a consistency condition between the low momentum expansion and the asymptotic behavior of the amplitudes. In the dispersion theory, Aldler and Weisberger derived a sum rule from the commutation relations . Weinberg showed that when continuum intermediate states were saturated by narrow one particle states, the dispersion relations reduce to a set of algebraic equations which are in some cases solved to provide the value of $`g_A`$.

From a group theoretical point of view, a closed algebra determines the values of charges. A rather trivial example is the isospin charge of $`SU(2)`$. Similarly the axial part of the chiral group (a coset $`SU(2)\times SU(2)/SU(2)`$) when combined with the isospin part determines the axial charge of a linear representation of the full chiral group $`SU(2)\times SU(2)`$. In this paper we discuss several examples where $`g_A`$ can be determined by the commutation relations, including the cases corresponding to the non-relativistic quark model, large-$`N_c`$ limit and the mirror assignment for the two nucleons of chiral partners.

The mirror representation of the chiral group for the nucleon is particularly interesting, since it provides a possibility where positive and negative parity nucleons belong to the same chiral multiplet, showing characteristic behaviors toward chiral symmetry restoration . In the latter part of this paper, we propose experimental method in which we will be able to observe the mirror nucleons in pion and eta productions from the nucleon .

## 2 Algebraic determination of axial charges

The use of the algebraic method was considered by Weinberg long ago . He computed pion-nucleon coupling matrix elements for various linear representations of the chiral group. This method was later used in explaining the reason that the axial charge and magnetic moments of the constituent quarks takes the bare values .

It was shown that commutation relations among the pion-nucleon coupling matrices $`X_a`$ and isospin charges $`T^a`$,

$`[X^a,X^b]=iϵ_{abc}T^c,[T^a,T^b]=iϵ_{abc}T^c,[T^a,X^b]=iϵ_{abc}X^c.`$ (2)
were derived by considering the asymptotic behavior of the pion-nucleon forward scattering amplitudes when they are computed from a low energy effective lagrangian. Here the matrices $`X^a`$ and $`T^a`$ are related to the matrix elements of the axial vector and vector currents,

$`N_\beta \lambda ^{}|{\displaystyle d^3x\stackrel{~}{A}_3^a(x)}|N_\alpha \lambda `$ $``$ $`(X^a)_{\beta \lambda ^{},\alpha \lambda },`$ (3)
$`N_\beta \lambda ^{}|{\displaystyle d^3xV_0^a(x)}|N_\alpha \lambda `$ $``$ $`\left(T^a\right)_{\beta \lambda ^{},\alpha \lambda }.`$ (4)
Here $`\alpha `$ and $`\beta `$ are isospin indices of the nucleon, and $`\lambda `$ and $`\lambda ^{}`$ are the helicities. When the momentum direction is taken along the $`z`$-axis, the matrices $`X^a`$ and $`T^a`$ are related to the axial charge $`g_A`$ and isospin charge $`g_V=1`$ by $`(X^a)_{\beta \lambda ^{},\alpha \lambda }=g_A(\tau ^a/2)_{\beta \alpha }(\sigma _3)_{\lambda ^{}\lambda }`$, $`(T^a)_{\beta \alpha }=g_V(\tau ^a/2)_{\beta \alpha }\delta _{\lambda ^{}\lambda }`$. The currents appear in the low energy effective lagrangian

$`L_{int}={\displaystyle \frac{2i}{f_\pi ^2}}V_\mu ^aϵ_{abc}\pi _b^\mu \pi _c+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{f_\pi ^2}}\stackrel{~}{A}_\mu ^a^\mu \pi _a,`$ (5)
where $`\stackrel{~}{A}_\mu ^a=A_\mu ^a(f_\pi _\mu \pi ^a)`$. In (5), the pion-nucleon coupling constant $`g`$ is replaced by $`g_AM/f_\pi `$ through the Goldberger-Treiman relation.

The scattering amplitudes computed by using the lagrangian (5) are small momentum expansion around $`p=0`$, reproducing the low energy behavior expected from the low energy theorems. However, the large momentum behavior of the amplitudes is not consistent with the lower bound of unitarity. The commutation relations (2) are introduced in order to reproduce the correct asymptotic behavior of the amplitudes .

Now using the commutation relations, we can determine the charges, the matrix elements of $`X^a`$ and $`T^a`$. The isospin charge is trivial; it is normalized, $`g_V=1`$. Now taking the nucleon matrix elements, one can compute the axial charges (pion-nucleon couplings) $`X^a`$. For example, we consider a linear representation $`(\frac{1}{2},1)(1,\frac{1}{2})`$. The numbers in the parentheses represent isospin values of $`SU(2)SU(2)`$. Then the first term of the direct sum, $`(\frac{1}{2},1)`$, is the representation for the chirality plus component $`\psi _+=\frac{1}{2}(1+\gamma _5)\psi `$, and the second term, $`(1,\frac{1}{2})`$, for the chirality minus component $`\psi _{}=\frac{1}{2}(1\gamma _5)\psi `$. The chiral representation $`(\frac{1}{2},1)`$ contains terms of isospin 1/2 (nucleon) and 3/2 (delta) as diagonal combinations of 1/2 and 1.

To be specific, let us consider matrix elements of the commutation relation

$`[X^+,X^{}]=T^3`$ (6)
between $`|N=|IM=|1/\mathrm{2\hspace{0.33em}1}/2`$ and $`|\mathrm{\Delta }=|IM=|3/\mathrm{2\hspace{0.33em}1}/2`$. Here $`X^\pm =1/\sqrt{2}(X_1\pm iX_2)`$. Writing the reduced matrix elements as $`NXNX_N`$, $`NX\mathrm{\Delta }X_{N\mathrm{\Delta }}`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }X\mathrm{\Delta }X_\mathrm{\Delta }`$, we obtain the following three coupled equations:

$`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{3}}X_N^2+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{6}}X_{N\mathrm{\Delta }}^2={\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}},`$
$`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{30}}X_\mathrm{\Delta }^2+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{12}}X_{N\mathrm{\Delta }}^2={\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}},`$ (7)
$`2X_NX_{N\mathrm{\Delta }}\sqrt{10}X_\mathrm{\Delta }X_{N\mathrm{\Delta }}=0.`$
Solving these coupled equations for $`X_{N\mathrm{\Delta }}0`$, we find

$`|X_N|={\displaystyle \frac{5}{\sqrt{6}}},|X_\mathrm{\Delta }|=\sqrt{{\displaystyle \frac{5}{3}}},|X_{N\mathrm{\Delta }}|={\displaystyle \frac{4}{\sqrt{3}}}.`$ (8)
These results lead to the nucleon axial charge $`|g_A^N|=5/3`$, which is the value of the non-relativistic quark model. This agreement is not accidental, since in the quark model, the nucleon and delta can be described in the same basis of three quarks, as corresponding to the chiral representation $`(1,\frac{1}{2})(\frac{1}{2},\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}1})`$. If $`X_{N\mathrm{\Delta }}=0`$, there is no coupling between the nucleon and delta, where they belong to separate representations; $`N(\frac{1}{2},0)(0,\frac{1}{2})`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }(\frac{3}{2},0)(0,\frac{3}{2})`$. In this case the nucleon axial charge reduces simply to unity, $`g_A=1`$. This explains the result of the linear sigma model.

We can extend this analysis to various cases (representations). Here we show two examples; one is the large-$`N_c`$ limit and the other is the mirror assignment for parity doublet nucleons. The large-$`N_c`$ nucleons are represented by the representation $`((N_c+1)/4,(N_c1)/4)((N_c1)/4,(N_c+1)/4)`$ . Obviously, this representation contains the isospin states of $`1/2IN_c/2`$. The relevant equations corresponding to (7) are recursion equations from $`I=1/2`$ to $`N_c/2`$. The solution gives the nucleon $`g_A=(N_c+2)/3`$, which is the result known in the large-$`N_c`$ quark model . In the mirror assignment, we consider two nucleons of opposite parity (parity doublet). Then, the assignment of the chiral group $`(I_1,I_2)`$ for the chirality plus and minus components is interchanged for the two nucleons;

$`|1:\psi _+(\frac{1}{2},0),\psi _{}(0,\frac{1}{2}),|2:\psi _+(0,\frac{1}{2}),\psi _{}(\frac{1}{2},0).`$ (9)
Obviously, the absolute values of the axial charges of the two nucleons are unity but with opposite signs. It is also possible to assign the same chiral representation to the two nucleons. This assignment was called the naive assignment. In general, the two representations of (9) can mix in physical nucleons; the chiral eigenstates and mass eigenstates differ. Introducing a mixing angle $`\theta `$, the axial charges of the two physical nucleons (mass eigenstates) are given in the matrix form (see Eq. (24)

$`g_A=\left(\begin{array}{cc}\mathrm{cos}2\theta & \mathrm{sin}2\theta \\ \mathrm{sin}2\theta & \mathrm{cos}2\theta \end{array}\right).`$ (12)
## 3 Experimental observation of the mirror assignment

Among the above examples, the mirror (as well as the naive) representations were not considered much before. The possibility that the axial charge of the negative parity nucleon can be opposite to the nucleon axial charge was first pointed out by Lee and realized in the form of the linear sigma model by DeTar and Kunihiro. Weinberg also pointed out the two possibilities $`g_A=\pm 1`$ . At the composite level, the nucleon axial charge should be derived from the underlying theory of QCD. So far, we do not know reliable methods to do so. In this section, therefore, we first present phenomenological properties of the two chiral assignments, the naive and mirror, using the linear sigma model . We then propose an experimental method to observe the two assignments .

Let us consider linear sigma models based on the naive and mirror assignments. To do this, meson fields are introduced as components of the representation $`(1/2,1/2)`$ of the chiral group, which are subject to the transformation rule: $`\sigma +i\stackrel{}{\tau }\stackrel{}{\pi }g_L(\sigma +i\stackrel{}{\tau }\stackrel{}{\pi })g_R^{}.`$

In the naive assignment, the chiral invariant lagrangian up to order (mass)4 is given by:

$`L_{\mathrm{naive}}`$ $`=`$ $`\overline{N_1}i/N_1g_1\overline{N_1}(\sigma +i\gamma _5\stackrel{}{\tau }\stackrel{}{\pi })N_1+\overline{N_2}i/N_2g_2\overline{N_2}(\sigma +i\gamma _5\stackrel{}{\tau }\stackrel{}{\pi })N_2`$ (13)
$`g_{12}\{\overline{N_1}(\gamma _5\sigma +i\stackrel{}{\tau }\stackrel{}{\pi })N_2\overline{N_2}(\gamma _5\sigma +i\stackrel{}{\tau }\stackrel{}{\pi })N_1\}+L_{\mathrm{mes}},`$
where $`g_1`$, $`g_2`$ and $`g_{12}`$ are free parameters. The terms of $`g_1`$ and $`g_2`$ are ordinary chiral invariant coupling terms of the linear sigma model. The term of $`g_{12}`$ is the mixing of $`N_1`$ and $`N_2`$. Since the two nucleons have opposite parities, $`\gamma _5`$ appears in the coupling with $`\sigma `$, while it does not in the coupling with $`\pi `$. The meson lagrangian $`L_{\mathrm{mes}}`$ in (13) is not important in the following discussion.

Chiral symmetry breaks down spontaneously when the sigma meson acquires a finite vacuum expectation value, $`\sigma _00|\sigma |0`$. This generates masses of the nucleons. From (13), the mass can be expressed by a $`2\times 2`$ matrix in the space of $`N_1`$ and $`N_2`$. The mass matrix can be diagonalized by the rotated states,

$`\left(\begin{array}{c}N_+\\ N_{}\end{array}\right)=\left(\begin{array}{cc}\mathrm{cos}\theta & \gamma _5\mathrm{sin}\theta \\ \gamma _5\mathrm{sin}\theta & \mathrm{cos}\theta \end{array}\right)\left(\begin{array}{c}N_1\\ N_2\end{array}\right),`$ (20)
where the mixing angle and mass eigenvalues are given by

$`\mathrm{tan}2\theta ={\displaystyle \frac{2g_1}{g_1+g_2}},m_\pm ={\displaystyle \frac{\sigma _0}{2}}\left(\sqrt{(g_1+g_2)^2+4g_{12}^2}\pm (g_1g_2)\right).`$ (21)
In the naive model, since the interaction and mass matrices takes the same form, the physical states, $`N_+`$ and $`N_{}`$, decouple exactly; the lagrangian becomes a sum of the $`N_+`$ and $`N_{}`$ parts. 222 Small chiral symmetry breaking might induce a small coupling $`g_{\pi N_+N_{}}`$.  Therefore, chiral symmetry imposes no constraint on the relation between $`N_+`$ and $`N_{}`$. The role of chiral symmetry is just the mass generation due to its spontaneous breaking. When chiral symmetry is restored and $`\sigma _00`$, both $`N_+`$ and $`N_{}`$ become massless and degenerate. However, the degeneracy is trivial as they are independent; they no longer transform among themselves. The decoupling of $`N_+`$ and $`N_{}`$ implies that the off-diagonal Yukawa coupling $`g_{\pi N_+N_{}}`$ vanishes. This is a rigorous statement up to the order we considered.

Now we turn to the mirror assignment. It is rather straightforward to write down the chiral invariant lagrangian compatible to the mirror transformations:

$`L_{\mathrm{mirror}}`$ $`=`$ $`\overline{N_1}i/N_1g_1\overline{N_1}(\sigma +i\gamma _5\stackrel{}{\tau }\stackrel{}{\pi })N_1+\overline{N_2}i/N_2g_2\overline{N_2}(\sigma i\gamma _5\stackrel{}{\tau }\stackrel{}{\pi })N_2`$ (22)
$``$ $`m_0(\overline{N_1}\gamma _5N_2\overline{N_2}\gamma _5N_1)+L_{\mathrm{mes}}.`$
Here the chiral invariant mass term has been added. Note that in the $`g_2`$ term, the sign of the pion field is opposite to that of the $`g_1`$ term. This compensates the mirror transformation of $`N_2`$. The lagrangian (22) was first formulated by DeTar and Kunihiro.

When chiral symmetry is spontaneously broken, the mass matrix of the lagrangian (22) can be diagonalized by a linear combination similar to (20). The mixing angle and mass eigenvalues are given by

$`\mathrm{tan}2\theta ={\displaystyle \frac{2m_0}{\sigma _0(g_1+g_2)}},m_\pm ={\displaystyle \frac{\sigma _0}{2}}\left(\sqrt{(g_1+g_2)^2+4\mu ^2}\pm (g_1g_2)\right),`$ (23)
where $`\mu =m_0/\sigma _0`$. In the mirror model, the interaction term is not diagonalized in the physical basis, unlike the naive model.

Let us show the axial coupling constants $`g_A`$ in the mirror model. They can be extracted from the commutation relations between the axial charge operators $`Q_5^a`$ and the nucleon fields,

$`[Q_5^a,N_+]`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\tau ^a}{2}}\gamma _5(\mathrm{cos}2\theta N_+\mathrm{sin}2\theta \gamma _5N_{})`$
$`[Q_5^a,N_{}]`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\tau ^a}{2}}\gamma _5(\mathrm{sin}2\theta \gamma _5N_+\mathrm{cos}2\theta N_{}).`$ (24)
This implies that $`g_A`$’s are expressed by a $`2\times 2`$ matrix whose elements are given by the coefficients of (24), explaining the result given in (12). From this we see that the signs of the diagonal axial charges $`g_A^{++}`$ and $`g_A^{}`$ are opposite. The absolute value is, however, smaller than one in contradiction with experimental value $`g_A1.25`$. In the present model, the physical states $`N_\pm `$ are the superpositions of $`N_{1,2}`$, whose axial charges are $`\pm 1`$. This explains why $`|g_A^{++}|,|g_A^{}|<1`$. In the algebraic method, the $`g_A`$ value can be increased by introducing a mixing with higher representations such as $`(1,\frac{1}{2})`$.

## 4 $`\pi `$ and $`\eta `$ productions at threshold region

In this section, we propose experimental method to study the two chiral assignments. As discussed in the preceding sections, one of the differences between the naive and mirror assignments is the relative sign of the axial coupling constants of the positive and negative parity nucleons. In the following discussions, we identify $`N_+N(939)`$ and $`N_{}N(1535)N^{}`$. Strictly, the identification of the negative parity nucleon with the first excited state $`N(1535)`$ is no more than an assumption. From experimental point of view, however, $`N(1535)`$ has a distinguished feature that it has a strong coupling with an $`\eta `$ meson, which can be used as a filter to observe the resonance. In practice, we observe the pion couplings which are related to the axial couplings through the Goldberger-Treiman relation $`g_{\pi N_\pm N_\pm }f_\pi =g_AM_\pm .`$

Let us consider $`\pi `$ and $`\eta `$ productions induced by a pion or photon. Suppose that the two diagrams of (1) and (2) as shown in Fig. 2 are dominant in these process. Modulo energy denominator, the only difference of these processes is due to the coupling constants $`g_{\pi NN}`$ and $`g_{\pi N^{}N^{}}`$. Therefore, depending on their relative sign, cross sections are either enhanced or suppressed. In the pion induced process, due to the p-wave coupling nature, another diagram (3) also contributes substantially.

In actual computation, we take the interaction lagrangians:

$`L_{\pi NN}`$ $`=`$ $`g_{\pi NN}\overline{N}i\gamma _5\stackrel{}{\tau }\stackrel{}{\pi }N,L_{\eta NN^{}}=g_{\eta NN^{}}(\overline{N}\eta N^{}+\overline{N}^{}\eta N),`$
$`L_{\pi NN^{}}`$ $`=`$ $`g_{\pi NN^{}}(\overline{N}\tau \pi N^{}+\overline{N}^{}\tau \pi N)`$
$`L_{\pi N^{}N^{}}`$ $`=`$ $`g_{\pi N^{}N^{}}(\overline{N}^{}i\gamma _5\tau \pi N^{}).`$ (25)
We use these interactions both for the naive and mirror cases with empirical coupling constants for $`g_{\pi NN}13`$, $`g_{\pi NN^{}}0.7`$ and $`g_{\eta NN^{}}2`$. The coupling constants $`g_{\pi NN^{}}0.7`$ and $`g_{\eta NN^{}}2`$ are determined from the partial decay widths, $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_{N^{}(1535)\pi N}\mathrm{\Gamma }_{N^{}(1535)\eta N}70`$ MeV, although large uncertainties for the width have been reported. The unknown parameter is the $`g_{\pi N^{}N^{}}`$ coupling. One can estimate it by using the theoretical value of the axial charge $`g_A^{}`$ and the Goldberger-Treiman relation for $`N^{}`$. When $`g_A^{}=\pm 1`$ for the naive and mirror assignments, we find $`g_{\pi N^{}N^{}}=g_A^{}m_N^{}/f_\pi \pm 17.`$ Here, just for simplicity, we use the same absolute value as $`g_{\pi NN}`$. The coupling values used in our computations are summarized in Table 1.

Several remarks follow :

* We assume resonance ($`N^{}`$) pole dominance. This is considered to be good particularly for the $`\eta `$ production at the threshold region, since $`\eta `$ is dominantly produced by $`N^{}`$.
* There are altogether twelve resonance dominant diagrams. Due to energy denominator, the three diagrams in Fig. 2 are dominant.
* Background contributions, in which two meson (seagull) or three meson vertices appear, are suppressed due to G-parity conservation.

Hence, the processes are indeed dominated by the $`N^{}`$ resonance diagrams.

We show various cross sections for the pion and photon induced processes in Fig. 3. We briefly discuss the results:

1. The total cross sections are of order of micro barn, which are well accessible by the present experiments. In the photon induced process, the diagrams (1) and (2) interfere destructively in the mirror assignment. In the pion induced case, due to the momentum dependence of the initial vertex the third term (3) becomes dominant and the mirror assignment is rather enhanced.
2. In the pion induced reaction, the angular distribution of the final state pion differs clearly depending on the sign of the $`\pi NN`$ and $`\pi N^{}N^{}`$ couplings.

## 5 Summary

In this report we have presented an algebraic argument to determine the nucleon axial charge $`g_A`$. Assuming that the nucleon belongs to a linear representation of the chiral group, the commutation relations can determine $`g_A`$. This explains the nucleon $`g_A`$ values in the non-relativistic quark model, large-$`N_c`$ and the mirror nucleons. In order to detect the mirror nucleons, we proposed an experiment of $`\pi `$ and $`\eta `$ production. Various differential cross sections were computed which can be measured at the facilities such as SPring8 and LNS, Tohoku. Determination of the axial charge is a simple but an interesting question related to chiral symmetry of the nucleon and should be studied further both in theory and experiment.


text:
# Deuterium burning in Jupiter interior

## 1 Introduction

Jupiter emits more radiation then it recives from the sun: the origin of this excess heat is still uncertain and debated. Possible explanations are: release of gravitational potential energy due to the planet contraction and/or Helium sedimentation , decaying of radioactive isotopes in the core , or deuterium burning . Each of these hypotheses has difficulties ; in particular, standard calculations of deuterium burning reaction rates predict negligible contribution to the planet thermal balance, in spite of the substantial enhancement due to electron and ion screening effects .

In a strongly coupled plasma, anomalous diffusion and time correlation effects originate non-Maxwellian two-body relative energy distribution that can be parameterized with and, in same cased, assume the same functional form that appears in the contest of Tsallis non-extensive thermodynamics . As demonstrated for the solar core, small changes of the tail of the energy distribution can strongly modify the fusion rates without affecting mechanical properties (hydrostatic equilibrium and the sound speed) that depend on the mean value of the distribution .

Since the internal conditions of Jupiter indicate the existence of a strongly coupled plasma, we investigate the effects of the consequent small deviations from the standard Maxwell-Boltzmann (MB) statistics on deuterium burning rates and the possibility that deuterium burning could play, or have played in the past, a role in Jupiter thermal balance.

## 2 Jupiter interior and standard deuterium burning

Jupiter interior is a mixture of liquid metallic hydrogen and helium, with density and temperature within the ranges: $`\rho _J=25`$ g cm-3 and $`kT=12`$ eV; during planet formation the central temperature should have been of the order of $`1020`$ eV . If we assume the reference values $`\rho _J=5`$ g cm-3 and $`kT=2`$ eV, the corresponding density of H, D, He and electrons are: $`n_p=2.4\times 10^{24}`$ cm-3, $`n_D=3\times 10^5n_p`$, $`n_{He}=6.25\times 10^2n_p`$, and $`n_e=1.125n_p`$.

Being the electron Fermy energy, $`E_F50`$ eV , much greater than the thermal energy, the electron gas is fully degenerated. The electron and ion plasma parameters, $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_j=(Z_iZ_je^2)/(a^2kT)`$, where $`a=\left(3Z/(4\pi n)\right)^{1/3}`$ is the Wigner-Seitz radius, are: $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_e\mathrm{\Gamma }_i16`$. Therefore, the interior of Jupiter is a Strong Coupled Degenerated Plasma.

Jupiter excess energy flux $`\mathrm{\Phi }_J=5.4\times 10^3`$ erg cm-2 sec-1 implies an excess luminosity: $`L_J=3.5\times 10^{24}`$ erg sec-1. Each D(p,$`\gamma `$)3He reaction produces an energy $`Q_{pD}=5.493`$ MeV. Therefore, deuterium burning is relevant to Jupiter thermal balance only if the rate is greater than a threshold $`r_t=(\rho _JL_J)/(M_JQ_{pD})1\text{sec}^1\text{cm}^3`$, where we have used as Jupiter mass and radius: $`M_J=1.90\times 10^{33}`$ g and $`R_J=7.14\times 10^9`$ cm.

Two-body reaction rates in a thermal plasma can be expressed as $`(1+\delta _{ij})r_{i,j}=n_in_j\sigma v_M`$, where $`\sigma v_M`$ is the thermal average of the reaction cross section $`\sigma `$ times the relative velocity $`v`$, and $`n_i`$ is the number density of species $`i`$.

Cross sections between charged particles below threshold are dominated by the penetration factor $`e^{b/\sqrt{E}}`$, where $`b=\pi \sqrt{2\mu }Z_iZ_je^2/\mathrm{}`$ and $`\mu `$ is the particle reduced mass. In fact the astrophysical factor $`S(E)=\sigma (E)E\mathrm{exp}(b\sqrt{E})`$ has a mild dependence on $`E`$ in absence of resonances.

There exist no experimental determinations of $`S(E)`$ for deuterium reactions at energies in the eV range. Theoretically motivated low-energy extrapolations can increase the deuterium  are: $`S(0)=2.0\times 10^7`$ MeV b for D(p, $`\gamma `$)3He, $`S(0)=5.0\times 10^2`$MeV b for D(d, n)3He and $`S(0)=5.6\times 10^2`$ MeV b for D(d, p)T.

If the thermal distribution is Maxwellian, $`\sigma v_M_0^{\mathrm{}}E\sigma (E)e^{E/kT}𝑑E`$, thermonuclear rates are dominated by the product of the exponentials $`e^{E/kT}`$ (MB distribution) and $`e^{b/\sqrt{E}}`$ (penetration factor), product that has its maximum at the Gamow Peak Energy, $`E_0`$. In the weak screening regime $`E_s<E_0`$ we can use a saddle point expansion around $`E_0`$ and find:

$$r_{i,j}=f_ef_i\frac{n_in_j}{1+\delta _{ij}}\sqrt{\frac{2}{\mu }}\frac{S(E_0)}{(kT)^{3/2}}I_{\mathrm{max}}\mathrm{\Delta }$$
(1)
where $`E_0=\left(bkT/2\right)^{2/3}`$ is the Gamow Energy, $`I_{\mathrm{max}}=\mathrm{exp}\left(3E_0/kT\right)`$ is the integrand at $`E=E_0`$, and $`\mathrm{\Delta }=4\left(E_0kT/3\right)^{1/2}`$ measures the width of the Gamow Peak. The two correction factors, $`f_e=\left(1E_s/E_0\right)\mathrm{exp}\left(E_s/kT\right)`$ for electrons and $`f_i=\mathrm{exp}\left(H(0)/kT\right)`$ for ions, take care of screening.

In fact screening is very important in Jupiter interior. Electron screening lowers the coulomb barrier of $`E_s=e^2/D_s`$, where $`D_s`$ is the short-range screening distance, which is determinated through the incipient Rudberg method . Many body correlations modify also ion wave functions in plasmas: it is possible to define an equivalent mean field potential $`H(r)`$ which is related to the plasma parameter $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ in the contest of Ion Sphere Model: $`H(0)/kT=1.057\mathrm{\Gamma }_s`$ where $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_s`$ is the screened ion plasma factor $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_s=\mathrm{\Gamma }_i\mathrm{exp}\left(a/D_s\right)`$ and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_i`$ is the ion plasma factor.

Despite the large enhancement factors ($`f_e10^{11}`$, $`f_i10^2`$) deuterium burning remains negligible: $`r_{pD}10^{19}`$ and $`r_{DD}10^{26}`$ sec-1 cm-3. Rates are much lower than the threshold rate $`r_t`$ for any relevant temperature.

## 3 Non-Maxwellian deuterium burning

Non extensive Thermodynamics, introduced by Tsallis  has been applied to many different fields. In particular, it has been observed  that small deviations from Maxwellian distribution can be described by weakly non-extensive Tsallis distributions, and that such deviations can have dramatic consequences for nuclear reaction rates in the solar core .

We can calculate the effects of non-extensivity on nuclear reaction rates by substituting the Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution, $`\mathrm{exp}(E/kT)`$, with the Tsallis one, $`\left[1(1q)E/kT\right]^{q/(1q)}`$, inside the thermal average:

$$\sigma v_M_0^{\mathrm{}}e^{\frac{b}{\sqrt{E+E_s}}}\left(1(1q)\frac{E}{kT}\right)^{q/(1q)}S(E+E_s)E.$$
(2)
The limit $`q1`$ recovers the Maxwellian case. Analogously to the Maxwellian calculation, we find a $`q`$-dependent Gamow Peak Energy $`E_{0q}`$, and, in the weak screening condition $`E_s<E_{0q}`$, we can compute again the reaction rates at first order in the saddle point expansion:

$$r_{i,j,q}=\frac{n_in_j}{1+\delta _{ij}}\sqrt{\frac{2}{\mu }}\left(1\frac{E_s}{E_{0q}}\right)\frac{S(E_{0q})}{(kT)^{3/2}}I_{q,\mathrm{max}}\mathrm{\Delta }_q,$$
(3)
where now $`E_{0q}=E_0\xi ^2(T,q)/q^{2/3}`$ is the $`q`$-dependent Gamow Peak Energy,

$$I_{q,\mathrm{max}}=\mathrm{exp}\left[\frac{b}{\sqrt{E_{0q}+E_s}}+\frac{q}{1q}\mathrm{ln}\left(1(1q)\frac{E_{0q}}{kT}\right)\right]$$

is the integrand at $`E=E_{0q}`$, and

$$\mathrm{\Delta }_q=\mathrm{\Delta }\left(\xi (T,q)/q^{1/3}\right)^{5/2}\left(1+\frac{q(1q)2E_0/(3kT)\xi ^5(T,q)/q^{5/3}}{\left(1(1q)(E_{0q}E_s)/kT\right)^2}\right)^{1/2}$$

measures the peak width. The other terms are: $`a=(1q)b^{2/3}/\left(4q^2kT\right)^{1/3}`$, $`b=1+(1q)E_s/kT`$, and

$$3\xi (T,q)=a+2^{1/3}\left[\left(27b2a^3c\right)^{\frac{1}{3}}+\left(27b2a^3+c\right)^{\frac{1}{3}}\right]$$

with $`c=\sqrt{27b(27b4a^3)}`$, while $`E_0`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ are the same as in the MB case.

Note that it is not possible to factorize an electron enhancement factor as for the MB distribution.

## 4 Discussion and conclusions

In Fig. 1 deuterium reaction rates are plotted for two different values of the $`q`$ parameter. We can observe that moderate deviations $`(q1)0.1`$ from the Maxwellian distribution increase deuterium burning rates above the threshold rate $`r_t1\text{sec}^1\text{cm}^3`$: therefore, these processes should contribute to heat Jupiter at the present epoch ($`T12`$ eV). If we read the graphs for $`T1020`$ eV, which corresponds to temperatures of the planet during its formation, we realize that it was sufficient a smaller value, $`(q1)0.03`$, to effect the thermal balance in that period.

Reaction rates of the order of that required to heat Jupiter do not cause decrease significantly the deuterium density inside the planet; in fact a burning rate equal to ten times the threshold rate would consume a significant fraction of deuterium only after a time of the order of $`n_D/(10r_t)10^{11}`$ years.

These considerations demonstrate that deuterium burning is a possible explanation for the Jupiter excess heat. Precise determinations of the conditions inside Jupiter and additional microscopic calculations are necessary for a better determination of the range of values of $`q`$ relevant to Jupiter interior.


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# Stellar Nuclear Rings in Barred Galaxies: Fossils of Past Circumnuclear Starbursts?

## 1. Introduction

Nuclear rings are circular or elliptical rings of gas and dust, typically $`1`$ kpc in size, found inside the bars of nearby galaxies; they are believed to result from the interplay of bar-driven gas inflow and bar resonances (e.g., Athanassoula 1992; Piner, Stone, & Teuben 1995). They are often sites of vigorous star formation. However, the fate of star-forming nuclear rings — what happens after the gas is consumed and star formation ceases — is currently unclear, since to date almost no “fossil” nuclear rings are known (the extremely small, blue ring found by van den Bosch & Emsellem 1998 in NGC 4570 is a possible exception).

We have recently found evidence for four such rings, in the SB0 galaxies NGC 936, NGC 3945, NGC 4340, and NGC 4371. The sizes of these rings — 600 to 900 pc in radius and 9–12% the size of the respective bars — are consistent with those of typical “young” nuclear rings (Buta & Crocker 1993). These rings are detected only as smooth distortions of the stellar isophotes; there is no evidence for significant dust or recent star formation.

## 2. Finding Fossil Nuclear Rings

Young (i.e., gas-rich and star-forming) nuclear rings are rather easy to see, particularly in color maps (e.g., Buta & Crocker 1993). But an old ring can be much harder to detect, since it may not show up in color maps and may be hard to discern against a bright bulge. Figure 1 shows a simplistic model galaxy, consisting of a de Vaucouleurs bulge of ellipticity 0.25 and a Gaussian ring of ellipticity 0.6. The ring distorts the isophotes in two ways: it makes the isophotes more elliptical at its radius, and the isophotes are rounder and “boxy” just inside the ring. Looking at just the isophotes, or at isophotal ellipse fits, it would not be clear what causes such a distortion; it could be mistaken for, e.g., a nuclear bar. However, the presence and shape of the ring is easily recovered through unsharp masking (bottom half of figure). The similarity to the real galaxy NGC 4371 is striking.

## 3. Morphology and Color of Nuclear Rings

In three of the galaxies (NGC 936, NGC 4340, and NGC 4371), the rings are smooth, elliptical, and aligned with the outer galactic disk: they appear to be intrinsically circular. In NGC 3945, the ring seems intrinsically elliptical, and shows signs of spiral (possibly $`m=4`$) structure. In both NGC 3945 and NGC 4340, small secondary bars, not aligned with the large-scale primary bars, are found inside the nuclear rings. This pairing of nuclear rings and inner bars is also seen in galaxies with young nuclear rings (e.g., Wozniak et al. 1995).

Color maps show that rings are essentially “colorless”: they are indistinguishable from the surrounding bulge and bar stellar population, and are thus probably old and dust-free. The ring in NGC 4371 may be an exception, since it is (slightly) bluer than its surroundings; however, this could also be caused by a faint dust ring outside the stellar ring (cf. Wozniak et al. 1995).

## 4. Bar Resonances

Modeling of gas flow in barred galaxies (Athanassoula 1992; Piner, Stone, & Teuben 1995) shows that gaseous nuclear rings are closely associated with the inner Lindblad resonance(s) (ILRs) of large-scale bars. We can define approximate locations for such resonances in our galaxies by using kinematic information from long-slit spectroscopy; this lets us see whether the stellar nuclear rings are also associated with ILRs.

For NGC 4340, we use the major-axis velocities of Simien & Prugniel (1997) to derive a frequency curve (Figure 2, top). We use our (unpublished) bar-axis velocities, which extend to larger radii, to estimate the outer bar s rotation speed: we assume that corotation is at 1.1–1.3 times the bar length, as appears to be the case for those SB0 galaxies with known bar pattern speeds (e.g., Merrifield & Kuijken 1995; Gerssen, Kuijken, & Merrifield 1999; Elmegreen et al. 1996). The points where the bar pattern speed is equal to $`\mathrm{\Omega }\kappa /2`$ are possible locations of the bar s ILR(s). We do the same for NGC 3945 (Figure 2, bottom), using Kormendy s (1982) major-axis rotation curve, although our estimate of the bar pattern speed is more uncertain due to the fact that the rotation curve does not extend past the outer bar radius.

For both NGC 3945 and NGC 4340, it appears that the nuclear rings lie near or at the inner ILR of the primary bars. This strengthens our identification of these rings as the stellar remnants of gaseous, star-forming nuclear rings.

The resonance curves also indicate that the inner bars in both of these double-barred galaxies end at or inside the inner ILRs. This is consistent with theories of double-barred galaxies where corotation of the faster-rotating inner bar coincides with one of the outer bar s ILRs (Pfenniger & Norman 1990; Maciejewski & Sparke 2000).

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Piner, B. G., Stone, J. M., & Teuben, P. J. 1995, ApJ, 449, 508

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Wozniak, H., et al. 1995, A&A, 111, 115


text:
# On the Merit of Observations Beyond the Cluster Core

## 1. Introduction

The Las Campanas / AAT Rich Cluster Survey (LARCS; O’Hely et al. 1998; Pimbblet et al. 2001a; 2001b; Pimbblet 2001) is a long-term project to study a statistically-reliable sample of 21 of the most luminous X-ray clusters at intermediate redshifts ($`z=0.07`$–0.16) in the southern hemisphere. The photometric imaging of these clusters comprises homogeneous, two degree wide $`B`$ and $`R`$ band observations taken at Las Campanas Observatory. These data permit tracing of photometric variations in cluster members out to large radii (typically $`12`$ Mpc at $`z0.12`$). Galaxies selected from these data are being observed in an on-going spectroscopic follow-up (Pimbblet 2001) with the 2dF spectrograph on the Anglo-Australian Telescope.

## 2. Beyond the Core

Recently, theoretical and observational attention has been turned to the properties of galaxies beyond the cluster core, existing betwixt the infall regions and the virial radius of clusters (e.g. Balogh, Navarro, & Morris 2000; Pimbblet et al. 2001b; Kodama et al. 2001). This region is crucial for understanding the evolution of the galaxy population in clusters as they grow through the accretion of field galaxies at $`z1`$, and hence to answer important questions regarding the origin of such basic correlations as the morphology-density relation seen at the present day (Dressler 1980). At intermediate redshift most field galaxies are actively forming stars. Yet, as these galaxies fall into clusters, their star formation rate declines, eventually to zero (Poggianti et al. 1999). The first clear demonstration of this transformation is reported by Abraham et al. (1996) who show that the reddest spectroscopically-confirmed cluster members, those lying on the colour-magnitude relation (CMR), in the $`z=0.23`$ cluster Abell 2390, get progressively bluer as a function of cluster radius out to $`5`$ Mpc.

Pimbblet et al. (2001b) analyze a sample of eleven LARCS clusters and combine these to trace the CMR from the dense cluster core out to the low-density field. They report that a small blueward shift of $`d(BR)/dr=0.022\pm 0.004`$ (or, equivalently in terms of local-density: $`d(BR)/dlog_{10}(\mathrm{\Sigma })=0.076\pm 0.009`$) is present in the colours of the peak of the CMR, out to $`6`$ Mpc; equivalent to $`\mathrm{\Delta }(BR)0.1`$.

A statistical background correction technique, however, is used by Pimbblet et al. (2001b) to define cluster membership, therefore the CMR radial blueing signal may be contaminated by background galaxies. Spectroscopic observations of the LARCS galaxies (Pimbblet 2001) are yielding membership information for individual galaxies needed to improve the signal-to-noise in the CMR at large radii where this contamination becomes important. Present results show a spectroscopically-confirmed blueward shift in the CMR’s peak colour of $`d(BR)/dr=0.017\pm 0.005`$ which is consistent with the statistically-defined membership result. Pimbblet et al. (2001b) suggest that these trends most likely reflect differences in the luminosity-weighted ages of the galaxies in different environments. If interpreted purely as a difference in ages then the gradient observed within LARCS suggests that the luminosity-weighted ages of the dominant galaxy population within the CMR at 6 Mpc from the cluster core are some 3 Gyrs younger than those residing in the core.

## 3. Summary

To conclude, wide-field observations are paramount to the understanding of cluster formation and evolution and to trace radial variations in the cluster population (i.e. the CMR is readily observed to beyond 8 Mpc in many LARCS clusters; Pimbblet 2001). Although some recent work on a single high redshift cluster has already been undertaken by Kodama et al. (2001), much further work (photometric and spectroscopic) is urgently required to comparatively examine radial trends within a larger, well-defined sample of higher redshift clusters. Such observations would allow the testing of the prediction that these trends will be more strongly pronounced at higher redshifts (Pimbblet et al. 2001b).

## References

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Balogh, M. L., Navarro, J. F., & Morris, S. L. 2000, ApJ, 540, 113

Dressler, A. 1980, ApJ, 236, 351

Kodama, T., Smail, I., Nakata, F., Okamura, S., Bower, R. G. 2001, ApJL, in press

O’Hely, E., Couch, W. J., Smail, I., Edge, A. C., Zabludoff, A. I. 1998, PASP, 15, 3, 273

Pimbblet, K. A., Smail, I., Edge, A. C., Couch, W. J., O’Hely, E., Zabludoff, A. I. 2001a, MNRAS, 327, 588

Pimbblet, K. A., Smail, I., Kodama, T., Couch, W. J., Edge, A. C., Zabludoff, A. I., O’Hely, E. 2001b, MNRAS, in press, astro-ph/0111461

Pimbblet, K. A. 2001, Ph.D. Thesis, Stellar Populations of X-Ray Luminous Clusters at $`z=0.1`$, University of Durham

Poggianti, B. M. et al. 1999, ApJ, 518, 576