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# Magnon delocalization in ferromagnetic chains with long-range correlated disorder

## I introduction

The properties of quasi-particle excitations in low-dimensional disordered systems has been the subject of recent intensive investigations due to the possible applications of random structures and super-lattices in new devices. In many particular cases of interest, one-dimensional Hamiltonians can incorporate the main aspects of the disorder in what concerns the spatial distribution of quasi-particle excitations, such as optical, acoustic, electronic and spin-waves. Scaling theory establishes that in one-dimensional systems with uncorrelated disorder, the characteristic length of excitations is finite for any amount of disorder as a consequence of exponentially localized states. Correlations in the disorder distribution can stabilize extended states. Resonant extended states emerge, for example, in one-dimensional electronic systems with randomly distributed impurity segments and interpenatrating Anderson chains. Recently, it has been demonstrated that long-range correlations in the disorder distribution can be responsible for the emergence of a phase of extended states within the band of allowed energies, with mobility edges separating localized and extended states. A recent optical experiment has demonstrated this phenomenon which has been proposed for use in the development of window filters in electronic, acoustic, or photonic non-periodic structures.

Spin-wave excitations in ferromagnetic chains with randomly distributed exchange couplings $`J`$ have similar features as those of electronic excitations in chains with a particular distribution of pair-correlated off-diagonal disorder. The localization length of the low-energy one-magnon excitations diverges as $`\xi (E)E^\varphi `$, where $`\varphi `$ depends on the particular form of the disorder distribution in the vicinity of $`J=0`$. A diverging length of low-energy excitations is also observed in disordered harmonic chains. In both cases, this behavior is associated with the presence of an uniformly ordered ground state.

Long-range correlations in electronic systems with off-diagonal disorder can stabilize extended states in a more effective way than in systems with diagonal disorder. As the magnon equations of motion in ferromagnetic spin chains can be mapped onto those of electronic chains with off-diagonal disorder, one would expect the one-magnon excitations in disordered ferromagnetic chains to be also quite sensitive to the presence of long-range correlations in the random exchange distribution. In this paper we study, via direct diagonalization and finite size scaling, the nature of the one-magnon eigenstates in a disordered chain with long-range correlated disorder with power spectrum decaying as $`S(k)k^\alpha `$. Our results indicate that a phase of extended magnons emerges at the bottom of the band for $`\alpha >1`$. We characterize the scaling aspects of the localization length and relate it with those of the disorder distribution.

## II Model, formalism and numerical procedure

The Hamiltonian describing a spin $`1/2`$ quantum Heisenberg ferromagnetic chain with random exchange couplings has the form

$$H=\underset{n=1}{\overset{L}{}}J_n\widehat{𝐒}_n\widehat{𝐒}_{n+1},$$
(1)
the ground state of the chain being the ordered state with all spins aligned. The one-magnon excitations have the general form $`|\mathrm{\Psi }=_nb_n|n`$, where $`|n`$ represents a state with the spin on the $`n`$-th site flipped with respect to the ground state orientation. The coefficients $`b_n`$ can be shown to satisfy the difference equation

$$(J_{n1}+J_n)b_nJ_{n1}b_{n1}J_nb_{n+1}=Eb_n$$
(2)
where $`E`$ is the excitation energy. For an uncorrelated distribution of the exchange couplings, the one-magnon excitations are exponentially localized in the thermodynamic limite for any $`E>0`$. The uniform $`E=0`$ mode is quite particular since this mode is not sensitive to the presence of disorder. This feature is responsible for the emergence of effectively extended low-energy excitations in finite chains. The typical localization length $`\xi `$ diverges as $`E0`$ with a power-law whose exponent depends on the specific form of the distribution $`P(J)`$ at the vicinity of $`J=0`$. For distributions with a finite average $`1/J`$, the inverse localization length vanishes linearly with $`E`$. However, for distributions with a diverging $`1/J`$, the excitations with low energy become more localized and only a slower divergence $`\xi E^\varphi `$ takes place with an exponent $`\varphi <1`$ which depends of the specific behavior of $`P(J)`$ at small values of $`J`$. This transition at $`E=0`$, which exists even for uncorrelated disorder, is due to the fact that the ground state is not affected by the disorder. In contrast, this feature is not present in the usual electronic problem with uncorrelated disorder.

In this work we will investigate the role played by long-range correlations in the exchange coupling distributions. In the analog electronic system, it has been recently demonstrated that long-range correlations can drastically modify the localized character of the excitations and even induce the emergence of a phase of delocalized states near the center of the band.

In order to introduce long-range correlations in the disorder distribution, the exchange couplings $`J_n`$ will be considered to be in such a sequency to describe the trace of a fractional Brownian motion with a specified spectral density $`S(k)1/k^\alpha `$, where $`k`$ is related to the wavelength $`\lambda `$ of the ondulations on the random exchange landscape by $`k=1/\lambda `$. For $`\alpha =0`$, one recovers the traditional disordered ferromagnetic chain model with $`\delta `$-correlated disorder $`J_nJ_n^{}=J^2\delta _{n,n^{}}`$. The exponent $`\alpha `$ describes the self-similar character of the random distribution and the persistent character of its increments. Following an approach based on the use of discrete Fourier transforms, a power-law spectral density is imposed by construction whenever the exchange couplings are given by

$$J_n=\underset{k=1}{\overset{L/2}{}}\left[k^\alpha \left(\frac{2\pi }{L}\right)^{(1\alpha )}\right]^{1/2}\mathrm{cos}\left(\frac{2\pi nk}{L}+\varphi _k\right)$$
(3)
where $`L`$ is the number of sites and $`\varphi _k`$ are $`L/2`$ random phases uniformly distributed in the interval $`[0,2\pi ]`$. The equation above is a general decomposition of a power-law correlated potential where randomness is present only in the relative phases of the Fourier components. We normalize the width of the disorder distribution to keep it finite and size independent with $`J^2J^2=1`$. Such procedure implies that the couplings generated by Eq. 3 have to be rescaled by $`L^{\alpha /4}`$. In what follows, we shift the couplings to have $`J_n=4`$ to enforce all generated couplings to be strictly positive. Those rare sequences not satisfying this bound where not considered on the subsequent analysis. The typical dependence of the coupling constant landscape with the spectral density exponent $`\alpha `$ are similar to those reported in Ref.. The most relevant aspect is that the landscape becomes progressively less rough as $`\alpha `$ is increased, favoring therefore to delocalization.

Our numerical procedure consisted in obtain all eigen-energies and one-magnon eigen-states for finite chains of size $`L`$ by direct diagonalization and to infer about the thermodynamic behavior through a finite size scaling analysis. We performed a configurational average over distinct disorder realizations such that, for each chain size, we computed $`16\times 10^4`$ eigenstates. From each normalized eigen-state ($`_nb_n^2=1`$), we computed the inverse participation ratio $`Y=_nb_n^4`$ and used it to characterize the localized/delocalized nature of these one-magnon states. The typical localization length will be estimated by $`\xi =1/Y`$. In general, the localization length is finite for exponentially localized states and diverges linearly with $`L`$ for trully extended states. In the next section, we report our results for its scaling behavior for distinct long-range correlated coupling constants characterized by the power spectrum exponent $`\alpha `$.

## III results and discussions

The behavior of the inverse participation ratio $`Y`$ and the typical localization length $`\xi `$ as a function of the one-magnon energy are shown in figure 1a and 1b respectively as obtained from chains with $`L=1600`$ sites and several power spectrum exponents $`\alpha `$. For $`\alpha =0`$, which mimics an uncorrelated disorder distribution, we found that $`YE`$ at low-energy excitations, as expected. This trend remains in the range of $`\alpha <1`$. In this regime, we also found the localization length to be size independent over the entire band of allowed energy values (except for finite size scaling corrections near $`E=0`$), even tough the local disorder scales down as $`L^{\alpha /4}`$. Our results indicate that the localization length of the excitations are not sensitive to such rescaling in this regime. In Fig. 2, we plot the normalized localization length $`\xi (E)/L`$ for $`\alpha =0.5`$ and several chain sizes to illustrate the comments above. $`\xi (E=0)/L`$ remains finite in the thermodynamic limite once the uniform mode remains delocalized. For any finite energy, the one-magnon excitations are exponentially localized with $`\xi (E)/L0`$ as $`L`$ increases.

For $`\alpha =1`$, a new scaling behavior was identified where at low energies $`YE^\varphi `$, with $`\varphi >1`$, indicating that in this case the excitations have a stronger tendency to become delocalized. It is important to mention that a similar feature ($`\varphi >1`$) was reported to be present in the analog electronic chain model with long-range correlated hopping amplitudes. For any $`\alpha >1`$, the data suggest that a phase of delocalized low-energy magnon states emerges, which is seen quite clear in figure 1b where $`\xi /L`$ achieves a plateau. Therefore, long-range correlations can stabilize extended one-magnon states whenever the power spectrum exponent $`\alpha >1`$.

To further characterize the scaling behavior of the localization length in the regime of strong correlations that allows for the existence of delocalized states, we employed a finite size scaling study of data from chains with $`L=1600,800,400,200`$ and $`100`$ sites. The behavior of $`\xi (E)/L`$ is shown in figure 3a for the typical case of $`\alpha =2`$. For $`E<E_c=3.0(2)`$ the data collapse characterizes a phase with delocalized states. $`E_c`$ depends on the correlation exponent $`\alpha `$ and on the disorder width. The one-magnon eigen-states remain exponentially localized for $`E>E_c`$. However, the localization length in this regime becomes sensitive to the size-dependent rescaling of the coupling constants. We found that the localized states for $`\alpha =2`$ have $`\xi L^\gamma `$ with $`\gamma =0.42`$ as illustrated by the collapse of data above $`E_c`$ in figure 3b. This size dependence is weaker than the expected for a similar rescaling of the local couplings in chains with uncorrelated disorder. The additional factor is due to the correlated nature of the disordered potential and its consequently enforced finite width. The new scaling exponent $`\gamma `$ depends on the correlation exponent $`\alpha `$ in a non-trivial way. In figure 4, we report our estimated values for $`\gamma `$. Our results suggest a non-linear relation $`\gamma (\alpha )(\alpha 1)^{0.75}`$, although we could not envisage a simple scaling argument to support this fact. In Figure 5, we show typical wave-functions representing the localized/delocalized nature of one-magnon excitations within each phase.

## IV summary and conclusions

In this work, we investigated the nature of one-magnon excitations in ferromagnetic quantum chains with long-range correlated disorder. We found that a phase of delocalized magnons emerges whenever the power spectrum exponent characterizing the strength of correlations is $`\alpha >1`$, in a close relationship with the behavior of the analog electronic model with off-diagonal disorder. Chains with distinct sizes and long-range correlations in the coupling exchange distribution need to have the local disorder scaled down as the size $`L`$ increases in order to keep the disorder and band width finite. For $`\alpha <1`$, the localized spin excitations are insensitive to such local disorder rescaling. On the other side, for $`\alpha >1`$, the localized states acquire a size dependent localization length reflecting its sensitivity to the local disorder rescaling. However, such states should not be confused with critical multifractal states whose participation ratio also have a power-law size dependence. The present localized states have exponential tails and their anomalous scaling is linked to the scaling property of the underlying long-range correlated potential. It would be valuable to investigate the spin-wave dynamics in these new regimes and the possible relation between super-diffusion and correlation exponents. This information would be valuable for possible future spin-wave dynamics experiments on correlated ferromagnetic chains and/or non-periodic ferromagnetic super-lattices.

## V acknowledgements

The authors acknowledge the partial financial support of CNPq and CAPES (Brazilian research agencies) and FAPEAL (Alagoas State agency). MLL is grateful to F.A.B.F. de Moura and M.D. Coutinho-Filho for stimulating discussions.

## VI Figure Captions

Figure 1 \- (a) The Inverse participation ratio as a function of the one-magnon energy $`E`$ for a chain with $`L=1600`$ spins. From top to bottom $`\alpha =0.0,1.0,1.5`$. The linear dependence $`YE`$ for low-energy excitations observed for $`\alpha =0`$ is typical of uncorrelated potentials with finite $`<1/J>`$. For $`\alpha >1`$ a phase of low-energy delocalized excitations emerges.
(b) The scaled localization length $`\xi /L`$ versus $`E`$ for chains with $`L=1600`$. From bottom to top $`\alpha =0.0,1.0,1.5,2.0`$. The phase of delocalized states appears as a plateau for $`\alpha >1`$.

Figure 2 The scaled localization length $`\xi /L`$ versus $`E`$ for $`\alpha =0.5`$. From top to bottom $`L=100,200,400,800,1600`$. For excitations with finite energies, $`\xi (L)/L0`$ as $`L`$ increases, characterizing localized states. The uniform mode at $`E=0`$ remains delocalized.

Figure 3 \- (a) The scaled localization length $`\xi /L`$ versus $`E`$ for $`\alpha =2.0`$. From top to bottom $`L=100,200,400,800,1600`$. The phase of delocalized states appears as a size independent plateau. The critical energy separating localized and delocalized states is $`E_c=3.0\pm 0.2`$.
(b) The scaled localization length $`\xi /L^{0.42}`$ versus $`E`$ for $`\alpha =2.0`$ showing a data collapse for $`E>E_c`$. From bottom to top $`L=100,200,400,800,1600`$. The size dependence of the characteristic length of such exponentially localized states reflects their sensitivity to the rescaling of the local disorder.

Figure 4 \- Estimated values of the exponent $`\gamma `$ related to the anomalous scaling of the localization lenght above $`E_c`$ for several values of the correlation exponent $`\alpha `$. The data suggests $`\gamma (\alpha )(\alpha 1)^{0.75}`$.

Figure 5 \- Typical wave-functions representing delocalized and localized one-magnon states of a long-range correlated ferromagnetic chain with $`\alpha =1.75`$. (a) Delocalized state near $`E=2.0`$; (b) Localized state near $`E=8.0`$.


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# GRAVITATION AND NONLOCALITY

## 1 Introduction

Einstein’s general theory of relativity  is a successful classical theory of gravitation inasmuch as it agrees with all experimental data available at present . To develop a microphysical gravitation theory, it may prove useful to investigate the extent to which the basic physical tenets of general relativity conform with the fundamental principles of the quantum theory. This is the general approach adopted in this work.

The basic physical assumptions underlying general relativity can be determined by investigating the measurement problem in the theory of relativity. In this way one can characterize the observational assumptions that are necessary in order to provide a physically consistent interpretation of all relativistic formulas . The resulting four basic pillars of the theory are the following:

(i) Lorentz Invariance,

(ii) Hypothesis of Locality,

(iii) Einstein’s Principle of Equivalence,

(iv) Correspondence with Newtonian Gravitation and the Gravitational Field Equations.

Briefly, the inhomogeneous Lorentz transformations in (i) relate the measurements of physical quantities by ideal inertial observers in Minkowski spacetime. However, observers in Minkowski spacetime are generally accelerated, at least along a portion of their worldlines. To deal with realistic (i.e. accelerated) observers, the standard theory of relativity contains the assumption that an accelerated observer is at each instant momentarily equivalent to a hypothetical comoving inertial observer; that is, the acceleration of the observer is considered locally immaterial (“Hypothesis of Locality”). Moreover, an observer in a gravitational field is presumed to be locally equivalent to a certain accelerated observer in Minkowski spacetime according to Einstein’s heuristic principle of equivalence. Assumptions (ii) and (iii) taken together imply that observers in a gravitational field are all locally inertial. The simplest way to connect these local inertial frames is via Riemannian geometry of curved spacetime, where the curvature is identified with the gravitational field and free test particles and null rays follow geodesics of the spacetime manifold. Finally, in the geometric framework of general relativity, Einstein’s field equations are the simplest equations that provide a natural and consistent generalization of Poisson’s equation of Newtonian gravity.

Dirac’s generalization of Schrödinger’s equation and the subsequent achievements of relativistic quantum field theory indicate that (i) can be integrated into the general framework of quantum theory. Therefore, the main part of this paper is concerned with the status of (ii) vis-a-vis quantum mechanics. Section 2 examines the physical basis of (ii) and section 3 describes a nonlocal theory of accelerated observers. The observational aspects of this nonlocal theory are examined in section 4. In conclusion, some of the implications of these ideas for the theory of gravitation are briefly described in section 5.

## 2 Hypothesis of Locality

The ultimate physical basis of the hypothesis of locality is Newtonian mechanics, where the state of a particle is determined by its position and velocity. Thus the accelerated observer and the otherwise identical hypothetical instantaneously comoving inertial observer are equivalent, since they both share the same state.

In terms of realistic measurements of the accelerated observer, the hypothesis of locality would hold if these measurements are essentially pointwise and instantaneous, so that the influence of inertial effects can be neglected over length and time scales that are characteristic of elementary local measurements. To state this criterion in a quantitative way, let us first note that an accelerated observer can be characterized by certain acceleration lengths $``$ that involve the speed of light $`c`$ and certain scalars formed from the translational and rotational accelerations of the observer. If $`\mathrm{¯}\lambda `$ is the intrinsic length scale of the phenomenon under observation, then $`\mathrm{¯}\lambda /`$ characterizes the expected deviation from the hypothesis of locality. For instance, in a laboratory fixed on the rotating Earth, the typical acceleration lengths would be $`c^2/g_{}1`$ lyr and $`c/\mathrm{\Omega }_{}28\mathrm{AU}`$; therefore, for most experimental situations $`\mathrm{¯}\lambda /`$ would be negligibly small. It follows that the hypothesis of locality is approximately valid under most current observational situations. Measuring devices that, like the rods and clocks of classical relativity theory (cf. , p. 60), obey the hypothesis of locality are called “standard”; hence, a standard clock measures proper time along its worldline.

To delve deeper into the various limitations of the hypothesis of locality, we consider a thought experiment involving the reception of a normally incident plane electromagnetic wave by a rotating observer. Let us choose a global inertial system in which the observer moves with constant frequency $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ in the $`(x,y)`$-plane on a circle of radius $`R`$ about the origin such that $`x=R\mathrm{cos}\phi `$ and $`y=R\mathrm{sin}\phi `$, where $`\phi =\mathrm{\Omega }t`$. Moreover, the monochromatic plane wave propagates along the $`z`$-axis with frequency $`\omega `$.

It follows from the hypothesis of locality that the natural orthonormal tetrad frame of the rotating observer can be given with respect to the inertial frame by

$$\lambda _{(0)}^\mu =\gamma (1,\beta \mathrm{sin}\phi ,\beta \mathrm{cos}\phi ,\mathrm{\hspace{0.33em}0}),$$
(1)
$$\lambda _{(1)}^\mu =(0,\mathrm{cos}\phi ,\mathrm{sin}\phi ,0),$$
(2)
$$\lambda _{(2)}^\mu =\gamma (\beta ,\mathrm{sin}\phi ,\mathrm{cos}\phi ,\mathrm{\hspace{0.33em}0}),$$
(3)
$$\lambda _{(3)}^\mu =(0,\mathrm{\hspace{0.33em}0},\mathrm{\hspace{0.33em}0},\mathrm{\hspace{0.33em}1}),$$
(4)
where $`\gamma `$ is the Lorentz factor, $`\gamma =(1\beta ^2)^{1/2}`$, and $`\beta =v/c=R\mathrm{\Omega }/c`$. The motion of the frame along the worldline can in general be characterized by six scalar quantities that form an antisymmetric tensor $`\varphi _{\alpha \beta }`$ defined by $`d\lambda _{(\alpha )}^\mu /d\tau =\varphi _\alpha ^\beta \lambda _{(\beta )}^\mu `$. Here $`\tau `$ is the proper time, $`d\tau =\gamma ^1dt`$, the “electric” part of $`\varphi _{\alpha \beta }`$ corresponds to translational acceleration $`\stackrel{~}{g}_i=\varphi _{0i}`$ and the “magnetic” part $`\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Omega }}_i=\frac{1}{2}ϵ_{ijk}\varphi ^{jk}`$ corresponds to the rotational frequency of the spatial frame. For the tetrad (1) - (4), we find that the scalars $`\stackrel{~}{g}_1=\gamma ^2R\mathrm{\Omega }^2`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Omega }}_3=\gamma ^2\mathrm{\Omega }`$ are the only nonzero components of $`\stackrel{~}{𝐠}`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{𝛀}`$ corresponding respectively to a centripetal acceleration of magnitude $`\gamma ^2v^2/R`$ and a rotation of the spatial frame about the $`z`$-axis of frequency $`\gamma ^2\mathrm{\Omega }`$. It should be noted that proper acceleration scales can be constructed from the invariants $`\frac{1}{2}\varphi _{\alpha \beta }\varphi ^{\alpha \beta }`$ and $`\frac{1}{2}\varphi _{\alpha \beta }^{}\varphi ^{\alpha \beta }`$, where $`\varphi _{\alpha \beta }^{}`$ is the dual of $`\varphi _{\alpha \beta }`$; in the case of uniform rotation, these are respectively $`\gamma ^2\mathrm{\Omega }^2`$ and zero. It follows that $`=c/(\gamma \mathrm{\Omega })`$, where $`\gamma \mathrm{\Omega }=d\phi /d\tau `$ is the proper rotation frequency of the observer .

Regarding the reception of the wave by the observer, we note that an electromagnetic field may be represented in terms of the components of the Faraday tensor $`f_{\mu \nu }`$ as measured by the standard set of ideal inertial observers at rest in the underlying global frame. The field measured by an arbitrary accelerated observer is then the projection of $`f_{\mu \nu }`$ on the orthonormal tetrad of the observer

$$\widehat{f}_{\alpha \beta }=f_{\mu \nu }\lambda _{(\alpha )}^\mu \lambda _{(\beta )}^\nu .$$
(5)
It is possible to express (5) using the six-vector representation of the Faraday tensor, i.e. in terms of the electric and magnetic fields — $`f_{\alpha \beta }(𝐄,𝐁)`$, as

$$\widehat{f}=\mathrm{\Lambda }f.$$
(6)
The incident electromagnetic radiation field under consideration may therefore be expressed as the real part of

$$f=i\omega A\left[\begin{array}{c}𝐞_\pm \\ 𝐛_\pm \end{array}\right]e^{i\omega (tz/c)},$$
(7)
where $`A`$ is a complex amplitude, $`𝐞_\pm =(𝐞_1\pm i𝐞_2)/\sqrt{2},𝐛_\pm =i𝐞_\pm `$ and the upper (lower) sign indicates radiation of positive (negative) helicity. Here $`𝐞_1`$ and $`𝐞_2`$ are unit vectors along the positive $`x`$ and $`y`$ directions, respectively. Using equations (1) - (7), we find that the field measured by the rotating observer is given by the real part of

$$\widehat{f}=i\gamma \omega A\left[\begin{array}{c}\widehat{𝐞}_\pm \\ \widehat{𝐛}_\pm \end{array}\right]e^{i\widehat{\omega }\tau },$$
(8)
where $`\widehat{𝐛}_\pm =i\widehat{𝐞}_\pm `$ and

$$\widehat{𝐞}_\pm =\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}\left[\begin{array}{cc}1& \\ \pm i\gamma ^1& \\ \pm i\beta & \end{array}\right]$$
(9)
involve unit vectors with respect to the tetrad axes, $`\gamma \tau =t`$ and

$$\widehat{\omega }=\gamma (\omega \mathrm{\Omega }).$$
(10)
To interpret these results, let us first note that a simple application of the hypothesis of locality would connect the instantaneous inertial frame of the rotating observer with the global inertial frame. In terms of the propagation four-vector of the wave, the result is the transverse Doppler effect; namely, the accelerated observer measures a frequency $`\omega ^{}=\gamma \omega `$, where the Lorentz factor accounts for time dilation. However, if the hypothesis of locality is applied to the field and the result is Fourier analyzed — a nonlocal operation in proper time — then, the result is equation (10), which goes beyond $`\gamma \omega `$ by terms of the form $`\mathrm{\Omega }/\omega =\mathrm{¯}\lambda ^{}/`$. Therefore, $`\widehat{\omega }\omega ^{}`$ in the JWKB limit $`\mathrm{\Omega }/\omega 0`$.

Equations (8) - (10) have a simple intuitive interpretation : For positive (negative) helicity radiation, the electric and magnetic fields rotate with frequency $`\omega (\omega )`$ about the direction of propagation of the wave and the rotating observer perceives positive (negative) helicity radiation but with frequency $`\omega \mathrm{\Omega }(\omega +\mathrm{\Omega })`$ augmented with the time dilation factor $`\gamma `$. Partial experimental evidence is presented in  for this phenomenon; it is an example of the general spin-rotation coupling (see \[5 - 9\] for discussions and reviews). On the other hand, equation (10) has a remarkable consequence for which there is no observational evidence: for incident positive helicity radiation of frequency $`\omega =\mathrm{\Omega }`$, the radiation field becomes static, i.e. the wave stands completely still, for the whole class of observers rotating uniformly with frequency $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ about the $`z`$-axis. More generally, for an obliquely incident radiation field $`\widehat{\omega }=\gamma (\omega M\mathrm{\Omega })`$, where $`M`$ is the multipole parameter associated with the $`z`$-component of the total angular momentum of the field; therefore, the radiation can stand completely still with respect to the rotating observers for $`\omega =M\mathrm{\Omega }`$.

Another general consequence of the hypothesis of locality reflected in equations (5) - (10) is the following: If the incident radiation is a linear superposition of the two possible helicity states, then the radiation as seen by the rotating observer has the same amplitudes in terms of the transformed basis (9) but different frequencies. It would also be interesting to confront this prediction of the hypothesis of locality regarding helicity amplitudes with observation.

## 3 Nonlocal Theory of Accelerated Observers

Consider anew the reception of electromagnetic radiation by an accelerated observer. How is the class of momentarily comoving inertial observers that measure $`\widehat{f}_{\alpha \beta }(\tau )`$ related to the accelerated observer that measures $`F_{\alpha \beta }(\tau )`$ while passing through the continuous infinity of local inertial systems? The hypothesis of locality postulates that $`F_{\alpha \beta }`$ is equal to $`\widehat{f}_{\alpha \beta }`$ at each instant of proper time $`\tau `$. However, the most general linear and causal relationship between $`\widehat{f}_{\alpha \beta }(\tau )`$ and the field $`F_{\alpha \beta }(\tau )`$ that is actually measured by the accelerated observer is given by a Volterra integral equation

$$F_{\alpha \beta }(\tau )=\widehat{f}_{\alpha \beta }(\tau )+_{\tau _0}^\tau K_{\alpha \beta }^{\gamma \delta }(\tau ,\tau ^{})\widehat{f}_{\gamma \delta }(\tau ^{})𝑑\tau ^{},$$
(11)
where $`\tau _0`$ is the instant at which the acceleration is turned on. It follows from Volterra’s theorem that in the space of continuous functions the relationship between $`f=\mathrm{\Lambda }^1\widehat{f}`$ and $`F`$ given by equation (11) is unique; this uniqueness result has been extended to square-integrable functions by Tricomi . Equation (11) is manifestly Lorentz covariant as it deals only with scalar quantities. It remains to determine the kernel $`K_{\alpha \beta \gamma \delta }`$ in terms of the acceleration of the observer.

Let us note that if the kernel $`K`$ is simply proportional to the acceleration, then the magnitude of the nonlocal part in equation (11) would generally be of the form $`\mathrm{¯}\lambda ^{}/`$, as expected. The basic approach to the determination of the kernel in this theory is to exclude the possibility that an incident radiation field could stand completely still with respect to an accelerated observer (cf. section 2). In the case of ideal inertial observers, this comes about because no observer can move at the speed of light; therefore, it follows from the Doppler formula $`\omega ^{}=\gamma \omega (1𝜷𝐧)`$ for radiation propagating along a unit vector $`𝐧`$ that if $`\omega ^{}=0`$, then $`\omega =0`$. We demand a similar outcome for all observers; that is, if in equation (11) $`F_{\alpha \beta }`$ is constant, then the incident field $`f_{\alpha \beta }`$ must be constant. Imposing this requirement, equation (11) in six-vector notation reduces to

$$\mathrm{\Lambda }_0=\mathrm{\Lambda }(\tau )+_{\tau _0}^\tau K(\tau ,\tau ^{})\mathrm{\Lambda }(\tau ^{})𝑑\tau ^{},$$
(12)
where $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_0=\mathrm{\Lambda }(\tau _0)`$ is a constant $`6\times 6`$ matrix. The Volterra-Tricomi uniqueness theorem now ensures that true incident radiation fields will never be found to stand completely still by any observer .

Equation (12) is not sufficient to determine a unique kernel $`K`$; other simplifying assumptions are necessary. To this end, let us suppose that $`K(\tau ,\tau ^{})`$ is only a function of one variable. Two possible situations \[12 - 13\] are of interest $`K(\tau ,\tau ^{})=k(\tau ^{})`$ or $`\stackrel{~}{k}(\tau \tau ^{})`$. A detailed analysis reveals that of these two possibilities only the former (“kinetic”) kernel is acceptable, since the latter convolution kernel can lead to divergences for nonuniform acceleration . It follows from equation (12) that the kinetic kernel is directly proportional to the acceleration of the observer and is given by

$$k(\tau )=\frac{d\mathrm{\Lambda }(\tau )}{d\tau }\mathrm{\Lambda }^1(\tau ).$$
(13)
In this case, equation (11) can be written as

$$F=\widehat{f}+_{\tau _0}^\tau k(\tau ^{})\widehat{f}(\tau ^{})𝑑\tau ^{},$$
(14)
so that the nonlocal contribution to the field is a weighted average over the past history of the accelerated observer. This circumstance is consistent with the observation of Bohr and Rosenfeld that the electromagnetic field cannot be measured at one spacetime point; an averaging process is necessary . From this standpoint, the kinetic kernel $`k`$ appears to be unique .

The nonlocal theory of accelerated systems is consistent with the observed absence of an elementary scalar (or pseudoscalar) particle in nature. For a scalar field $`\mathrm{\Lambda }=1`$, hence $`k=0`$ and the theory is local. Thus it would in general be possible for an observer to stay completely at rest with a pure scalar radiation field, a possibility that is excluded by our physical postulate. Hence the theory predicts that any scalar (or pseudoscalar) particle would have to be a composite.

To illustrate the nonlocal theory, we return to the thought experiment discussed in detail in section 2. Let us suppose that for $`t<0`$ the observer moves uniformly in the $`(x,y)`$-plane such that $`x=R`$ and $`y=R\mathrm{\Omega }t`$ and at $`t=\tau =0`$ begins the rotational motion discussed before. Then the kinetic kernel $`k`$ given by equation (13) turns out to be a constant for the case of uniform rotation

$$k=\left[\begin{array}{cc}k_r& k_t\\ k_t& k_r\end{array}\right],$$
(15)
where $`k_r`$ and $`k_t`$ are $`3\times 3`$ matrices given by $`k_r=\stackrel{~}{𝛀}𝐈=\gamma ^2\mathrm{\Omega }I_3`$ and $`k_t=\stackrel{~}{𝐠}𝐈=\gamma ^2\beta \mathrm{\Omega }I_1`$. Here $`I_i,(I_i)_{jk}=ϵ_{ijk}`$, is a matrix proportional to the operator of infinitesimal rotations about the $`x^i`$-axis. The radiation field according to the rotating observer is given by the real part of

$$F=\widehat{f}\frac{\omega \mathrm{\Omega }e^{i\widehat{\omega }\tau }}{\omega \mathrm{\Omega }},$$
(16)
where $`\widehat{f}`$ is given by equation (8). Two consequences of nonlocality should be noted here: For positive helicity radiation with $`\omega =\mathrm{\Omega }`$, the result (16) has the character of resonance and $`F`$ turns out to be a linear function of proper time $`\tau `$. We note that this linear growth (and eventual divergence) of the field with time would be absent for any finite incident wave packet. Moreover, as a direct result of the fact that $`k`$ is constant and the nonlocal part of the field in equation (14) involves an integration over time, the frequencies $`\omega \mathrm{\Omega }`$ appear in the denominator resulting in a larger (smaller) measured amplitude for the positive (negative) helicity radiation as in equation (16).

Let us recall from the results of section 2 that according to the hypothesis of locality incident waves of frequency $`\omega `$ with opposite helicities and equal amplitudes will be measured by the rotating observer to have equal amplitudes but different frequencies $`\widehat{\omega }=\gamma (\omega \mathrm{\Omega })`$. Thus for the relative amplitudes of the two helicity states, the radiation field is not affected by the rotation of the observer according to the standard theory of relativity. The nonlocal theory predicts, however, that the field strength will be higher (lower) when the electromagnetic field rotates in the same (opposite) sense as the rotation of the observer by the factor $`1+\mathrm{\Omega }/\omega (1\mathrm{\Omega }/\omega )`$ for $`\mathrm{\Omega }/\omega <<1`$. For instance, $`\mathrm{\Omega }/\omega 10^7`$ for radio waves with $`\lambda 1`$ cm incident on a system rotating at a rate of 500 rounds per second.

This helicity dependence of the amplitude of the radiation field is a definite signature of nonlocality and the next section is devoted to a discussion of this effect.

## 4 Confrontation with Experiment

The whole observational basis of the theory of relativity involves experiments performed in accelerated systems of reference; however, the acceleration scales are typically very large compared to the intrinsic scales that are relevant in such experiments and hence rather high levels of observational accuracy would be needed in order to detect nonlocal phenomena. In planning such high-sensitivity experiments, a new problem would be encountered: one must consider the influence of acceleration on the accelerated measuring devices as well. In view of these difficulties, it is interesting to explore a novel approach based on the correspondence principle suggested by Steven Chu : Under appropriate circumstances, the electrons in atoms may be viewed as “accelerated observers”; the predictions of the classical theory could then be compared with quantum mechanics.

This idea can be developed in connection with the thought experiment concerning the measurement of the electromagnetic field of a normally incident wave by a uniformly rotating observer as follows: Let us imagine the photoionization process involving the absorption of an incident photon by an electron bound by a potential and the subsequent ejection of the electron from the system. To simulate our thought experiment (cf. section 2) in the quantum domain, we consider the nonrelativistic motion of the electron on a “circular orbit” in the hydrogen atom, so that the stationary state of the electron is specified by the quantum numbers $`n>1,l=n1`$ and $`m=l`$; initially, the photon is incident on this state along the $`z`$-direction. The electron spin is neglected. It is interesting to note that the impulse approximation, originally suggested by Fermi in treating certain problems in quantum scattering theory , is the quantum analogue of the hypothesis of locality in this case. Just as in the hypothesis of locality the accelerated observer is at each moment replaced by an otherwise identical free inertial observer, the impulse approximation in effect replaces the bound electron by a free electron of definite momentum . It then follows that the cross section for photoionization in this approximation is independent of the helicity of the incident radiation. However, the helicity dependence enters the calculation once the Coulomb interaction is properly taken into account in the final state. A detailed treatment reveals that the quantum results and the predictions of the nonlocal theory are in qualitative agreement . For instance, for $`mc^2>>\mathrm{}\omega >E_n`$, where $`m`$ is the electron mass, $`e`$ is its electric charge and $`E_n=me^4/(2\mathrm{}^2n^2)`$ is the electron energy in its initial “circular orbit,” the total cross sections $`\sigma _+`$ (positive helicity) and $`\sigma _{}`$ (negative helicity) for photoionization in the dipole approximation are such that

$$\frac{\sigma _{}}{\sigma _+}=\frac{3(n1)+2n\eta }{2n\left[2(n1)^2+n(2n1)\eta \right]},$$
(17)
where $`\eta =\mathrm{\Omega }_n/\omega `$ and $`\mathrm{\Omega }_n=2E_n/(\mathrm{}n)`$ is the Bohr frequency of the electron in the circular orbit with Bohr radius $`r_n=\mathrm{}^2n^2/(me^2)`$. The dipole approximation requires that $`\omega r_n<<c`$, hence $`\eta >>(137n)^1`$; moreover, we note that $`\mathrm{}\omega >E_n`$ implies that $`\eta <2/n`$. For $`n=1`$, the ground state is spherically symmetric and hence $`\sigma _{}=\sigma _+`$; however for $`n>1`$ the electron following the “circular orbit” with $`m=l=n1>0`$ tends to move on average like the observer in our thought experiment and equation (17) implies that $`\sigma _{}<\sigma _+`$, as expected.

Further corroboration of the predictions of the nonlocal theory may be obtained from the consideration of “circular orbits” of electrons in a uniform magnetic field $`B`$ along the $`z`$-axis. In fact, on the basis of Larmor’s celebrated theorem it would be natural to consider such electronic states in connection with our thought experiment involving an observer in a rotating frame of reference. Ignoring any motion along the $`z`$-axis, such a “circular orbit” would be characterized by the quantum numbers $`N`$ and $`M`$, where $`N`$ denotes the energy states $`\mathrm{}\mathrm{\Omega }_c(N+\frac{1}{2})`$ and $`\mathrm{}M`$ is the $`z`$-component of the angular momentum of the electron. Here $`\mathrm{\Omega }_c=eB/(mc)`$ is the cyclotron frequency and we assume that $`\mathrm{}\mathrm{\Omega }_c<<mc^2`$. The correspondence with the classical cyclotron motion of the electron with orbital frequency $`\mathrm{\Omega }_c`$ can be established for $`NM>>1`$. In this case, the nonrelativistic calculation of electric dipole transitions due to a normally incident radiation of frequency $`\omega ,\mathrm{}\omega <<mc^2`$, and definite helicity reveals that transition is possible only for $`(N,M)(N+1,M+1)`$ with $`\omega =\mathrm{\Omega }_c`$ and positive helicity incident radiation, while for incident negative helicity radiation of $`\omega =\mathrm{\Omega }_c`$ the transition $`(N,M)(N+1,M1)`$ is forbidden. This is in qualitative agreement with the result of the nonlocal theory, equation (16), for the case of resonance $`\omega =\mathrm{\Omega }`$ : At resonance, the field amplitude for positive helicity radiation diverges linearly with proper time, while the amplitude for negative helicity radiation remains finite. Thus in terms of the ratios of helicity amplitudes the result is qualitatively the same as in quantum mechanics.

## 5 Gravitation

It appears from the results of the previous section that the acceleration-induced nonlocality must be taken seriously, since its predictions are closer to reality (as defined by the quantum theory) than the standard theory of accelerated systems. This circumstance raises the question of whether the nonlocality extends to gravitation as would be intuitively expected from Einstein’s heuristic principle of equivalence.

Gravitation is a universal interaction that is qualitatively different from other interactions and so it may not be surprising if it could be described in terms of a nonlocal classical field in Minkowski spacetime such that in a suitable eikonal limit this nonlocal field would have an interpretation in terms of the local curvature of a certain spacetime manifold as in general relativity.

## Acknowledgments

I thank C. Chicone for many valuable discussions regarding the problem of uniqueness of the kinetic kernel. I am grateful to I. Ciufolini and L. Lusanna for their kind invitation and excellent hospitality.

## References