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# 1 Introduction

## 1 Introduction

It is commonly believed that the holographic principle will be an essential constituent of any valid theory of quantum gravity . This principle (which follows from Bekenstein’s entropy bound ) implies that, if given a physical system, the relevant degrees of freedom must suitably live on a surface enclosing that system. To take it a step further, given a physical theory in $`d`$+1-dimensional spacetime, one would expect the existence of a $`d`$-dimensional theory that can capably describe the same physics.

In spite of its esoteric origins, the holographic principle has explicitly been realized by way of the AdS/CFT correspondence . That is, a duality has been demonstrated between $`d`$+1-dimensional anti-de Sitter (AdS) spacetimes and appropriately defined, $`d`$-dimensional conformal field theories (CFTs). More specifically, the thermodynamics at the horizon of an AdS black hole can be identified with the thermodynamics of a CFT that lives on an asymptotic boundary of the AdS background .

Recently, Verlinde  has utilized this AdS/CFT duality to demonstrate a result of considerable significance. This author was able to generalize Cardy’s well-known entropy formula (for a 2-dimensional CFT)  to a theory of arbitrary dimensionality. The essence of Verlinde’s work was the identification of Cardy’s central charge (the number of massless particle species) with the Casimir (or sub-extensive) contribution to the CFT energy. Of further significance, this Casimir energy can be fixed, precisely, by way of the AdS/CFT duality (provided that the conformal symmetry at the boundary has properly been exploited).

This generalized Cardy entropy, or Cardy-Verlinde formula, has since been extended to a variety of asymptotically AdS spacetimes (see, for instance, Ref.), as well as dynamical-boundary scenarios (see, for instance, Ref.).111There has been an abundance of work in these areas. One might consult Ref. for a listing of most of the relevant citations. The range of validity is quite remarkable given the “modest” scope of the original Cardy formula.

In analogy to the AdS/CFT duality, a correspondence between de Sitter (dS) spacetimes and CFTs has similarly been proposed . (For earlier work along this line, see Refs.-.) At the simplest level, any dS spacetime is related to an AdS space by a trivial reversal in the sign of the cosmological constant. However, this sign change has significant repercussions that can hinder a quantum (or semi-classical) interpretation of dS geometries . For instance, dS spacetimes lack a globally timelike Killing vector, a spatial infinity, an objective observer and a string-theoretical description.

In spite of these complications, considerable progress has still been made towards establishing a dS/CFT correspondence -.222Such studies have, in large part, been motivated by recent evidence that our universe has a positive cosmological constant . Thus, by investigating the dS/CFT duality, one might hope to understand “realistic” quantum gravity in a holographic way. The crucial points are as follows: (i) the CFT is a Euclidean one that lives on a spacelike boundary at temporal infinity and (ii) the dS cosmological horizon adopts the role played by the black hole horizon in the AdS/CFT duality. Some of the more recent studies have considered generalizing the Cardy-Verlinde formalism for a dS (bulk) scenario . Although such treatments have achieved only qualified success (see discussion below), there does indeed appear to be a Cardy-Verlinde-like description of the boundary entropy in a dS context.

Of particular interest to the current paper is a very recent study by Halyo . (For earlier, closely related works, see Refs..) This author considered a Schwarzschild-de Sitter (SdS) spacetime and implemented a somewhat novel approach in deriving the generalized Cardy-Verlinde formula of interest.333The novelty of Ref. being that the derivation does not incorporate the Bekenstein-Hawking entropy (of the SdS cosmological horizon). However, the derivation does utilize the Hawking temperature, which implies this entropy via the first law of thermodynamics . Hence, the novelty is really in the presentation, rather than the derivation per se. The premise of this approach is that a Cardy-Verlinde-like form (for the entropy of a suitable boundary theory) can be obtained with only three pieces of input: the bulk metric, the conformal symmetry on the asymptotic boundary and the Hawking temperature at the cosmological horizon. Along with this derivation, it was shown that the boundary theory can be interpreted in terms of Strominger’s realization: Euclidean time evolution in a dS bulk is dual to a renormalization group flow . (Also see Ref..)

In the current paper, our analysis begins with a review of Haylo’s procedure in the context of an SdS-black hole bulk. We then “break new ground” by extending this treatment to a pair of interesting cases: the Reissner-Nordstrom-de Sitter (RNdS) black hole and a certain class of asymptotically de Sitter solutions lacking a black hole horizon. This latter class of “topological” de Sitter (TdS) spacetimes was first considered by Cai, Myung and Zhang  and has since been investigated in Refs..

Early indicators from the cited studies suggest that TdS solutions can be used to circumvent many of the difficulties associated with the “conventional” dS/CFT correspondence. These problematic points include a negative energy on the boundary (which implies a non-unitary CFT), a failure to incorporate the thermodynamics of the (usual) black hole horizon into the CFT framework, and formal breakdowns that occur in a dynamical-boundary scenario. On the other hand, TdS solutions have the undesirable feature of a naked singularity.444In fact, the original motivation for the study of TdS spacetimes  was to test an earlier conjecture on cosmological singularities . It is just possible, however, that there is some CFT that remains well defined while effectively describing this singular bulk. (Noting that a dual boundary theory is not necessarily sensitive to the intricate details of the corresponding bulk geometry .) On this basis, we propose that such solutions do indeed merit further investigation.

The rest of the paper is organized as follows. In the next section, by way of review , we derive a generalized form of the Cardy-Verlinde entropy for a SdS background. Also, a brief account is given on how the asymptotic boundary theory can be interpreted in terms of renormalization group flows. In Section 3, we generalize the prior formalism to accommodate a RNdS background. That is, we consider the implications (at the conformal boundary) when charge is incorporated into an asymptotically dS background. In Section 4, the analytic program is further extended to the case of a TdS bulk spacetime. We also elaborate on the distinctions that exist between these topological solutions and “conventional” asymptotically dS spacetimes. Section 5 closes with a brief summary and discussion.

## 2 Schwarzschild-dS/CFT Correspondence

We begin the formal analysis by considering a Euclidean CFT on the asymptotic boundary of a Schwarzschild-de Sitter (SdS) background.555Since conformal symmetry in the bulk is broken by the presence of a black hole, a prospectively dual boundary theory is, strictly speaking, not necessarily a conformal one . Nonetheless, for convenience sake, we will continue to refer to the relevant boundary theories as CFTs. The primary focus of this section is to derive a generalized form of the Cardy-Verlinde formula for this scenario. We again note that this is essentially a review of a derivation found in Ref..

Let us first consider an $`n`$+2-dimensional SdS metric in manifestly static coordinates :

$$ds_{n+2}^2=h(r)dt^2+\frac{1}{h(r)}dr^2+r^2d\mathrm{\Omega }_n^2,$$
(1)
$$h(r)=1\frac{r^2}{L^2}\frac{\omega _nM}{r^{n1}},$$
(2)
$$\omega _n=\frac{16\pi G_{n+2}}{n𝒱_n}.$$
(3)
Here, $`L`$ is the curvature radius of the asymptotically dS background (i.e., $`L^2=2\mathrm{\Lambda }/n(n+1)`$, where $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ is the positive cosmological constant), $`d\mathrm{\Omega }_n^2`$ denotes the line element of an $`n`$-dimensional constant-curvature hypersurface of positive curvature, $`𝒱_n`$ is the volume of this hypersurface, $`G_{n+2}`$ is the $`n`$+2-dimensional Newton constant, and $`M`$ is a constant of integration. $`M`$ can be identified with the conserved mass of a SdS black hole and is always non-negative.

Note that a positive mass and a positively curved hypersurface are necessary conditions for the existence of an apparent black hole horizon. In fact, the allowed range of mass values is given by $`0MM_N`$, where:

$$M_N=\frac{2l^{n1}}{(n+1)\omega _n}\left(\frac{n1}{n+1}\right)^{\frac{n1}{2}}$$
(4)
is the mass of an $`n`$+2-dimensional Nariai black hole . In this Nariai case, the black hole horizon coincides with the cosmological horizon, whereas the cosmological horizon typically lies on the outside (i.e., further from the singularity at $`r=0`$). On the other hand, $`M=0`$ describes a “pure” dS space having no black hole horizon; only a cosmological horizon at $`r=L`$.

In general, the cosmological horizon, $`r=RL`$, corresponds to the largest root of $`h(r)`$. This identification leads to a defining relation for the black hole mass:

$$M=\frac{R^{n1}}{\omega _n}\frac{R^{n+1}}{\omega _nL^2}.$$
(5)
From a holographic perspective, the quantity of immediate interest, rather than the mass of the black hole, is the corresponding excitation of gravitational energy as measured at $`_+`$ (i.e., future spacelike infinity).666Asymptotically dS spacetimes actually have a pair of spacelike asymptotic boundaries: $`_+`$ at future infinity and $`_{}`$ at past infinity . We will typically be considering the CFT at future infinity. As discussed in Section 1, there are inherent difficulties in defining conserved charges in an asymptotically dS spacetime. Nevertheless, Balasubramanian et al.  have recently calculated the gravitational energy of interest by suitably adapting the Brown-York tensor .

Applying the results of Ref. and subtracting off the vacuum-energy contribution from the anomalous Casimir effect (which is non-zero when $`n`$+2 is odd), we obtain the following excitation energy:

$$E_{SdS}=M.$$
(6)
Significantly, the negative sign implies that the presence of a black hole actually lowers the total bulk energy with respect to the total energy for a pure dS spacetime (for which the gravitational excitation has been calibrated to zero).

Let us now consider the asymptotic form of the SdS metric at future spacelike infinity. First, though, we note the following. For a given choice of coordinates covering an asymptotically dS spacetime, $`_+`$ can be defined by the limit $`\tau +\mathrm{}`$; where $`\tau `$ is an appropriately defined timelike coordinate . In the case of our static coordinate system (1), $`r`$ becomes the relevant timelike coordinate (close to this asymptotic boundary), as $`t`$ and $`r`$ switch their usual roles when an observer passes through the cosmological horizon.777Since the exterior region (with respect to the cosmological horizon) is inaccessible to an internally located observer, we are referring to a hypothetical, omnipotent spectator. Hence, the SdS metric (1) at $`_+`$ should be determined by way of the following limit:

$$\underset{r\mathrm{}}{lim}\left[\frac{L^2}{r^2}ds_{n+2}^2\right]=dt^2+L^2d\mathrm{\Omega }_n^2,$$
(7)
Evidently, this asymptotic limit yields a spacelike metric describing a relatively simple geometry: $`\times S^n`$. Moreover, the resulting metric can also be identified with that of an $`n`$+1-dimensional Euclidean CFT (on $`_+`$). It is appropriate, however, to rescale the boundary coordinates so that the radius of the spatial surfaces coincides with the radial distance of the cosmological horizon . (In doing so, we are exploiting the conformal symmetry of the asymptotic boundary .) That is, $`ttL/R`$. As a consequence of this rescaling, it follows that the CFT energy should be “red shifted” from $`E_{SdS}`$ by the same factor of $`L/R`$.

On the basis of the above arguments and Eqs.(5,6), the CFT energy is given as follows:

$$E_{CFT}=\frac{nC}{24}\frac{R^n}{L^{n+1}}\left[1\frac{L^2}{R^2}\right],$$
(8)
where we have defined:

$$C\frac{3L^n𝒱_n}{2\pi G_{n+2}}.$$
(9)
$`C`$ can readily be identified with the Cardy-like “central charge”  of the CFT corresponding to a pure dS spacetime . We will follow Ref. and presume that $`C`$ remains a fixed quantity for an asymptotically dS theory.

As it turns out, the CFT energy can be expressed in terms of a pair of separable contributions: $`E_{CFT}=E_E+E_C`$. The first term, $`E_E=nCR^n/24L^{n+1}`$, is strictly positive and can be identified as the extensive energy of an $`n`$-dimensional CFT gas . It follows that the second term, $`E_C=E_EL^2/R^2`$, must be a sub-extensive contribution. Notably, $`E_C`$ is always negative and can be identified with the Casimir energy of the CFT . Keep in mind that $`E_{CFT}`$ must be negative for a non-vanishing black hole mass, since $`L>R`$ if $`M>0`$.

Next, let us consider the Hawking temperature associated with the cosmological horizon. Applying the well-known procedure of Gibbons and Hawking  along with Eqs.(2,5), we have:

$$T_{SdS}=\frac{1}{4\pi }\frac{dh}{dr}|_{r=R}=\frac{R}{4\pi L^2}\left[(n+1)(n1)\frac{L^2}{R^2}\right].$$
(10)
It follows that the temperature of the CFT is given as the red-shifted value of the above. That is:

$$T_{CFT}=\frac{L}{R}T_{SdS}=\frac{1}{4\pi L}\left[(n+1)(n1)\frac{L^2}{R^2}\right].$$
(11)
We will now use a standard thermodynamic relation:

$$T_{CFT}=\left(\frac{E_{CFT}}{S_{CFT}}\right)_V$$
(12)
to obtain the CFT entropy. More precisely, we begin by fixing the boundary volume $`V=𝒱_nR^n`$ (i.e., fixing $`R`$), while treating $`L`$ (but not $`C`$) as a variable quantity. We then obtain an expression for $`\delta S_{CFT}`$ by dividing $`\delta E_{CFT}`$ with $`T_{CFT}`$. As it so happens, the resulting variation in entropy can be trivially integrated to yield $`S_{CFT}`$. Note that there is an arbitrary constant of integration, which will always be fixed to vanish. This choice can be justified with an appeal to the black hole area law (see below).

Applying the above methodology and Eqs.(8,11), we find that Eq.(12) is satisfied by the following:

$$S_{CFT}=\frac{\pi CR^n}{6L^n}=\frac{4\pi }{n}R\sqrt{E_E|E_C|}.$$
(13)
Remarkably, this CFT entropy agrees with the Bekenstein-Hawking area law , since it can easily be verified that $`S_{CFT}=V/4G_{n+2}`$. (Note that $`V`$ is clearly the $`n`$+2-dimensional generalization of a horizon surface area.) However, this should not be interpreted as a derivation of the Bekenstein-Hawking formula, but rather as a check on consistency and a demonstration that the CFT entropy is unambiguously defined.

The resulting CFT entropy can also be identified as a modified version of the Cardy formula . In fact, the only explicit difference between Eq.(13) (for SdS) and the Cardy-Verlinde formula (for Schwarzschild-AdS)  is the need for absolute value bars. Note that the above formalism also holds for a pure dS space. In this case, one sets $`R=L`$ to obtain $`E_{CFT}=0`$, $`E_C=E_E`$, $`T_{CFT}=1/2\pi L`$ and $`S_{CFT}=𝒱_nL^n/4G_{n+2}`$.

It is useful to rewrite this generalized Cardy-Verlinde expression (13) so that it more closely resembles the original Cardy formulation. Let us first define the following:

$$c\frac{24}{n}R|E_C|,$$
(14)
$$L_o\frac{1}{n}RE_{CFT}.$$
(15)
The modified Cardy-Verlinde formula (13) then takes on the form:

$$S_{CFT}=2\pi \sqrt{\frac{c}{6}\left[L_o+\frac{c}{24}\right]}.$$
(16)
As for the dual CFT of an (asymptotically) AdS spacetime, $`L_o`$ represents the product of the total energy and the radius, while $`c/24`$ is a shift caused by the Casimir effect . What is of interest here are the relative signs: $`L_o`$ is now a negative quantity (or vanishing for pure dS), while the “Casimir shift” is now positive (since $`c0`$). Conversely, $`L_o`$ is positive and the Casimir shift is negative for the Schwarzschild-AdS case. Note that $`c`$ is analogous to the Cardy central charge and, as anticipated, goes to $`C`$ as $`RL`$ (i.e., for pure dS).

We have observed that, from a holographic perspective, the SdS “picture” is quite similar to that of its Schwarzschild-AdS counterpart. However, there are some notable issues that are specific to the SdS scenario. For instance, $`E_{CFT}<0`$ is a precarious outcome, as it implies that the boundary theory fails to be unitary. (Note that this negative energy is especially problematic in a dynamical boundary scenario .) Given this non-unitarity and that the SdS spacetime lacks conformal symmetry (it is broken by the black hole), there is no reason to expect, a priori, that the bulk theory can be described by a dual CFT. Furthermore, the boundary entropy, $`S_{CFT}`$, is bounded from above by its value for pure dS space (given that a negative $`L_o`$ is vanishing in this limit). Such an upper limit on the accessible degrees of freedom would appear to be a counter-intuitive result.888However, we note that, from a bulk perspective, such an upper bound on the entropy is a well-accepted quirk of asymptotically dS spacetimes . Finally, the modified Cardy-Verlinde formula fails to incorporate the thermodynamics of the black hole; only the cosmological horizon has been considered.

Some of these complications are effectively negated when viewed from a perspective that has been argued for by Halyo . The premise of these arguments is based, in large part, on Strominger’s identification  of a dS/CFT-inspired duality between Euclidean time evolution and an appropriate renormalization group (RG) flow.999Also see Ref.. For earlier work on RG flows in a holographic setting, consult, for instance, Refs.. We briefly summarize this point of view in the following discussion.

Let us first point out that the SdS black hole is known to be unstable; this is by virtue of the Hawking temperature being higher at the black hole horizon than at the cosmological horizon . Given this instability, it follows that the black hole mass, $`M`$, gradually decreases as time increases. (Accordingly, the negative boundary energy, $`E_{CFT}`$, gradually increases towards zero.) After the black hole completely evaporates, what remains behind is a pure dS spacetime, which is, of course, perfectly stable.

Let us now consider this evaporation process in the context of a RG flow. Strominger argues  that the time evolution (in the dS bulk) is expected to be dual with the reverse of a RG flow on the boundary.101010In this context, reverse implies that degrees of freedom are being integrated out as time devolves. That is, a flow from an infrared fixed point (a conformally invariant point with a relatively low number of degrees of freedom) to an ultraviolet fixed point (comparatively high number of degrees of freedom). We can identify the CFT for pure dS as an ultraviolet fixed point, given the obvious conformal symmetry and that it corresponds to an upper bound on the entropy. It then follows that the boundary theory for a SdS black hole (a point of relatively low entropy) should evolve with time towards this pure-dS fixed point of maximal entropy. Notably, this viewpoint is in perfect agreement with the thermodynamic behavior that we discussed above.

Moreover, since the boundary theory must inevitably reach the ultraviolet fixed point, it can always be interpreted as an asymptotically conformal theory. Of further note, as time evolves (i.e., RG flows from infrared to ultraviolet) the energy on the boundary monotonically increases from a negative value towards zero. That is, the boundary theory effectively behaves in a quasi-unitary manner.

Also of interest, the Nariai black hole assumes the role of the (unstable) infrared fixed point in this RG-flow picture. This follows from the Nariai black hole having the largest allowable mass (cf. Eq.(4)) and, hence, the smallest (or most negative) allowed values for the CFT entropy and energy.

Finally, we point out that one issue remains conspicuously unresolved; namely, the failure of the generalized Cardy-Verlinde formula to account for the thermodynamics of the black hole horizon. We will have more to say on this matter in Section 4.

## 3 Reissner-Nordstrom-dS/CFT Correspondence

In this section, we will apply the prior techniques to the case of a Reissner-Nordstrom-de Sitter (RNdS) background. Such a spacetime represents the black hole solutions of an Einstein-Maxwell action having a positive cosmological constant.

We begin here with the RNdS metric for an $`n`$+2-dimensional spacetime in static coordinates :

$$ds_{n+2}^2=u(r)dt^2+\frac{1}{u(r)}dr^2+r^2d\mathrm{\Omega }_n^2,$$
(17)
$$u(r)=1\frac{r^2}{L^2}\frac{\omega _nM}{r^{n1}}+\frac{Q^2}{r^{2n2}},$$
(18)
where $`Q`$ describes the conserved charge of the associated black hole and all other parameters are as previously defined.

Here, there are two possibilities. Either the RNdS black holes are magnetically charged or electrically charged . Since the electrically charged black holes can lose their charge through the emission of particles (and thereby decay into SdS black holes), we will focus on the former case; thus implying that the charge is a fixed quantity.

Typically for $`n2`$, there will be three positive (real) roots of $`u(r)`$; with the outermost root describing a cosmological horizon, and the remaining pair describing inner and outer black hole horizons.

The allowed range of mass values (assuming that naked singularities are forbidden) can now be expressed as $`M_{min}MM_{max}`$. Here, $`M_{max}`$ corresponds to the so-called charged Nariai solution, in which case the outermost black hole horizon coincides with the cosmological horizon. Meanwhile, $`M_{min}`$ corresponds to an extremal black hole (i.e., the inner and outer black hole horizons coincide). In general, these bounds are difficult to solve analytically. However, it is only necessary to know that they exist and are well defined. Keep in mind, though, that $`M_{min}>0`$ and $`M_{max}>M_N`$ if $`Q^2>0`$.

Similar to before, we can determine the location of the cosmological horizon, $`r=R`$, by solving for the largest root of $`u(r)`$. This identification yields the following defining relation for the black hole mass:

$$M=\frac{R^{n1}}{\omega _n}\frac{R^{n+1}}{\omega _nL^2}+\frac{Q^2}{\omega _nR^{n1}}.$$
(19)
As discussed in the prior section, one obtains the CFT energy by taking the negative of the red-shifted mass. That is, $`E_{CFT}=ML/R`$ or:

$$E_{CFT}=\frac{nC}{24}\frac{R^n}{L^{n+1}}\left[1\frac{L^2}{R^2}+\frac{L^2Q^2}{R^{2n}}\right].$$
(20)
Note that we have also reversed the relative sign on the charge term; this step follows from the CFT at $`_+`$ being a Euclidean one  (which necessitates a complexification of charge along with time ). It is convenient to separate the CFT energy into three distinct portions: $`E_{CFT}=E_E+E_C+E_Q`$. The positive extensive contribution ($`E_E`$) and the negative Casimir (or sub-extensive contribution, $`E_C`$) are defined exactly as in the uncharged case. However, there is now an additional “electrostatic” contribution ($`E_Q`$), which depends on the charge and is clearly non-negative. This charge-induced portion, $`E_Q`$, can possibly be interpreted as a zero-temperature background energy; which implies that it should make no contribution to the CFT entropy . We will demonstrate below that this is indeed the case.

As for the prior model, the CFT temperature corresponds to the red-shifted value of the Hawking temperature at the cosmological horizon. So it follows that:

$`T_{CFT}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{L}{4\pi R}}{\displaystyle \frac{du}{dr}}|_{r=R}`$ (21)
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{4\pi L}}\left[(n+1)(n1){\displaystyle \frac{L^2}{R^2}}+(n1){\displaystyle \frac{L^2Q^2}{R^{2n}}}\right].`$
By applying the appropriate thermodynamic relation:

$$T_{CFT}=\left(\frac{E_{CFT}}{S_{CFT}}\right)_{V,Q}$$
(22)
along with Eqs.(20,21), we should be able to deduce the form of the CFT entropy. Utilizing the same approach as in the prior section (see the discussion leading up to Eq.(13)), but now fixing both $`V`$ and $`Q`$, we ultimately find the following:

$$S_{CFT}=\frac{\pi CR^n}{6L^n}=\frac{4\pi }{n}R\sqrt{E_E|E_C|}.$$
(23)
This CFT entropy is formally identical to that of the uncharged scenario and is, of course, in agreement with the Bekenstein-Hawking area law: $`S_{CFT}=𝒱_nR^n/4G_{n+2}`$. As anticipated, the CFT entropy has no explicit knowledge about the electrostatic contribution.111111This entropy does, however, have an implicit dependence on the charge. This occurs via the location of the cosmological horizon; cf. Eq.(19). This verifies the conjectured status of $`E_Q`$ as a zero-temperature background energy (as opposed to a thermodynamic excitation). That is, the electrostatic contribution should be subtracted from the total energy before the degrees of freedom are totaled up.

As an aside, one can define a chemical potential in the usual way: $`\mathrm{\Phi }_{CFT}E_{CFT}/Q`$ (with all other parameters being fixed). This leads to the first law of thermodynamics for a constant-volume system:

$$dE_{CFT}=T_{CFT}dS_{CFT}+\mathrm{\Phi }_{CFT}dQ,$$
(24)
where $`\mathrm{\Phi }_{CFT}=nCQ/12L^{n1}R^n`$.

Finally, we point out that, because of the duplicity of the entropy expression, the arguments regarding RG flows (at the end of Section 2) will retain their validity in the case of this charged model. The only significant difference is the identity of the fixed points. For the current analysis, the ultraviolet fixed point corresponds to the (stable) extremal RNdS black hole and the infrared fixed point is described by the (unstable) charged Nariai black hole. Recall that these are the solutions of minimal and maximal allowed mass, respectively.

## 4 Topological-dS/CFT Correspondence

In this section, we consider a certain brand of asymptotically dS solutions that were first proposed by Cai, Myung and Zhang  and received further consideration in Refs.. These topological-de Sitter (TdS) solutions can be obtained with a sign reversal of the mass term in the SdS metric. If the mass is kept positive, this reversal eliminates the black hole horizon and, hence, gives rise to an undesirable naked singularity. However, it is within the realm of possibility that a suitably dual CFT remains well defined even in the presence of the bulk singularity. In this regard, we point out that such a boundary theory is not necessarily sensitive to the fine-grained details of its corresponding background. (See, for instance, Ref..)

Although the above argument is rather speculative, TdS solutions provide a natural means for resolving some of the difficulties associated with the dS/CFT correspondence. For instance, the issue of incorporating the thermodynamics of a dS-black hole horizon (into a CFT framework) would trivially be negated. Moreover, the “mass reversal” has been shown to induce a positive CFT energy on the asymptotic boundary. In view of these desirable features, we argue that such solutions deserve further investigation and proceed on this basis.

Let us now apply the prior treatment to the case of a TdS background geometry. The TdS metric, for an $`n`$+2-dimensional spacetime, can be expressed in the following static form :

$$ds_{n+2}^2=f(r)dt^2+\frac{1}{f(r)}dr^2+r^2d\mathrm{\Omega }_n^2,$$
(25)
$$f(r)=k\frac{r^2}{L^2}+\frac{\omega _nM}{r^{n1}}.$$
(26)
Here, $`M`$ is a mass parameter that is to be regarded as a non-negative quantity (in spite of the sign reversal from Eq.(2)), $`k`$ is a constant of integration that describes the geometry of the cosmological horizon, and all other parameters are as previously defined. Without loss of generality, $`k`$ can be set to +1,0 or -1; describing a spatial slicing that is respectively elliptic, flat and hyperbolic.121212By contrast, in the SdS model, the presumed existence of a black hole horizon necessitates the choice of $`k=+1`$. It is interesting to note that the mass parameter can now increase without bound.

There is only one positive (real) root of $`f(r)`$, and this locates the position of the cosmological horizon, $`R`$. On this basis, the following relation for the mass parameter can be obtained:

$$M=\frac{R^{n+1}}{\omega _nL^2}k\frac{R^{n1}}{\omega _n}.$$
(27)
As usual, we are particularly interested in the gravitational excitation energy as measured at $`_+`$. By applying the formalism of Refs., Cai et al.  obtained the following intuitive result for this energy:

$$E_{TdS}=M.$$
(28)
Note that the anomalous Casimir contribution has, as usual, been subtracted off. Significantly, a non-vanishing mass now induces an excitation of positive gravitational energy.

As priorly discussed, we obtain the CFT energy by red shifting the gravitational excitation with a factor of $`L/R`$. That is:

$$E_{CFT}=\frac{nC}{24}\frac{R^n}{L^{n+1}}\left[1k\frac{L^2}{R^2}\right].$$
(29)
Note that the initial conditions require this energy to be a non-negative quantity.

Once again, we are able to express this CFT (total) energy as a sum of identifiable contributions: $`E_{CFT}=E_E+E_C`$. The extensive term, $`E_E=nCR^n/24L^{n+1}`$, is always positive (as was also found for the SdS theory). Meanwhile, the Casimir (sub-extensive) contribution is given by:

$$E_C=k\frac{L^2}{R^2}E_E$$
(30)
and can be positive, negative or vanishing; depending on the choice of $`k`$. (By contrast, the SdS Casimir energy is always negative.)

As demonstrated before, the CFT temperature is obtainable as the red-shifted value of the Hawking temperature at the cosmological horizon. More explicitly:

$$T_{CFT}=\frac{L}{4\pi R}\frac{df}{dr}|_{r=R}=\frac{1}{4\pi L}\left[(n+1)(n1)k\frac{L^2}{R^2}\right].$$
(31)
For the purpose of calculating the CFT entropy, let us now reconsider the following relation:

$$T_{CFT}=\left(\frac{E_{CFT}}{S_{CFT}}\right)_V.$$
(32)
Adopting the approach of the prior sections, we obtain:

$$S_{CFT}=\frac{\pi CR^n}{6L^n}=\frac{4\pi }{n}R\sqrt{E_E\left|\frac{E_C}{k}\right|}.$$
(33)
Note that the quantity $`\left|k^1E_C\right|`$ translates to $`nCR^{n2}/24L^{n1}>0`$, regardless of the choice for $`k`$. That is, the CFT entropy contains no explicit information about this TdS geometrical parameter. (Although $`k`$ does have implicit influence via $`R`$.)

As found for the previous models, $`S_{CFT}`$ agrees with the anticipated Bekenstein-Hawking form: $`V/4G_{n+2}`$. Moreover, the entropy can be identified as a (slightly) modified version of the Cardy-Verlinde formula . Note that the above formalism also holds for a pure dS space. In this case, one sets $`R=L`$ and $`k=1`$ to obtain $`E_{CFT}=0`$, $`E_C=E_E`$, $`T_{CFT}=1/2\pi L`$ and $`S_{CFT}=𝒱_nL^n/4G_{n+2}`$.

As for the SdS model, it is informative to re-express $`S_{CFT}`$ (33) into a form that resembles the original Cardy relation. With this in mind, let us define:

$$c\frac{24}{n}R\left|\frac{E_C}{k}\right|,$$
(34)
$$L_o\frac{1}{n}RE_{CFT}.$$
(35)
The modified Cardy-Verlinde formula (33) then becomes:

$$S_{CFT}=2\pi \sqrt{\frac{c}{6}\left[L_o+k\frac{c}{24}\right]}.$$
(36)
Notably, this relation is closer to the original Cardy-Verlinde formulation  than was found for the SdS analysis (16). First of all, $`L_o`$ is a positive quantity for the TdS-bulk case. (Conversely, it is negative for the SdS scenario.) Secondly, consider the relative shift as induced by the Casimir effect. Given a dS context, this can only be negative for a TdS-bulk spacetime. This occurs when $`k=1`$, which happens to be the condition for a positive Casimir energy (cf. Eq.(30)). In this sense, it is the case of a hyperbolic horizon geometry which most closely resembles the Schwarzschild-AdS “template”.

Let us now recall the discussion on RG flows at the end of Section 2. For the current TdS scenario, such an interpretation is hindered by difficulties in identifying the relevant fixed points. One notable exception being the infrared fixed point for the $`k=1`$ case, as the associated pure-dS spacetime (i.e., the $`M=0`$ solution) conveniently imposes a lower bound on $`S_{CFT}`$. Alternatively, the massless limit is not so well defined if $`k=0`$ or $`1`$. For these topologies, the cosmological horizon disappears when (or before) $`M`$ goes to zero. However, the existence of such exotic bulk geometries is not necessarily an issue, as we argue below.

In interpreting the boundary theory of a TdS background, we first take note of the key finding: the CFT (total) energy is a strictly non-negative quantity. This implies that the boundary theory is a unitary one that is capable of describing bulk spacetime events; for instance, the emission of Hawking radiation from the cosmological horizon.

Let us now consider the following picture. In the distant past, the TdS bulk is assumed to be in a relatively massive state (i.e., large $`M`$ and, thus, large $`S_{CFT}`$). It follows that the cosmological horizon will necessarily radiate until it achieves a state of thermal equilibrium with the emitted radiation. (Such an equilibrium state follows by virtue of there being no black hole horizon in this model.) When this occurs, there will be zero net radiation and the bulk will have settled into a state of comparatively low mass (i.e., small $`M`$ and, thus, small $`S_{CFT}`$). However, we conjecture that this “final” value of mass is not so low that the cosmological horizon (in the case of $`k=0`$ or $`1`$) will be jeopardized (as discussed above). To put it another way, time evolution in the bulk is dual with a RG flow from ultraviolet to infrared boundary points that are at least effectively fixed.

Along with the apparent unitarity of the boundary theory, the above picture is supported by an intuitively satisfying correspondence: the boundary degrees of freedom are directly correlated with the gravitational mass in the bulk. This is at least the case for $`k=1`$ and $`k=0`$, where it is clear that an increasing (decreasing) $`M`$ always corresponds to an increasing (decreasing) $`S_{CFT}`$.

On the other hand, this monotonic mass-entropy trend is not so evident for the case of $`k=+1`$. With this topological choice, a numerical analysis will likely be required to establish the true mass-entropy relationship. However, the negative Casimir energy for $`k=+1`$ suggests that this may be the “least physical” case of the three. Interestingly, peculiar behavior linked to a negative Casimir energy has been detected for another background: a “topological” AdS black hole with $`k=1`$ .131313From an AdS perspective, topological refers to asymptotically AdS-black hole solutions having either a hyperbolic ($`k=1`$) or flat ($`k=0`$) hypersurface . Note that $`k=+1`$ describes the “usual” Schwarzschild-AdS black hole.

In some sense, TdS solutions are “mirror images” of their AdS analogues, with the cosmological horizon replacing the AdS black hole horizon. Furthermore, in view of the relative sign of the Casimir energy, a TdS hyperbolic horizon ($`k=1`$) should be regarded as the “reflection” of an AdS spherical horizon ($`k=+1`$) and vice versa.

## 5 Conclusion

In summary, we have considered generalized forms of the Cardy-Verlinde entropy formula  in the context of asymptotically de Sitter spacetimes. Towards this end, we have applied a program of study that is based on a prior work by Halyo . The premise of this methodology is that one can derive the entropy of an appropriately dual CFT by using only the bulk metric, the asymptotic conformal symmetry and the Hawking radiation of the cosmological horizon . The validity of this approach was substantiated by the reproduction (in all examined cases) of the Bekenstein-Hawking area law, which is expected to be a fundamental feature of any quantum theory of gravity .

Our analysis considered three distinct cases having dS asymptotics. First of all, we examined the Schwarzschild-de Sitter black hole, which was essentially a review of the originating work . In particular, we derived the entropy of the dual CFT, and demonstrated that it adopts a Cardy-Verlinde-like form. We also argued that, in spite of apparent conceptual difficulties (such as a non-unitary CFT), the proposed SdS/CFT duality can still fit into a self-consistent framework. These arguments were based on an observation by Strominger : Euclidean time evolution in a de Sitter space is dual to a renormalization group flow from an infrared to an ultraviolet fixed point.

Secondly, we considered the Reissner-Nordstrom-de Sitter black hole. We found that the addition of charge into the model results in an “electrostatic” contribution to the CFT energy. However, the charge made no explicit contribution to the boundary entropy, which implies that the electrostatic energy can be interpreted as a zero-temperature background (rather than a thermodynamic excitation). This outcome was anticipated , but not necessarily obvious.

Finally, we applied the analytic program to a special class of “topological” de Sitter solutions. Such solutions correspond to a sign reversal in the mass term of the corresponding Schwarzschild-dS scenario. For this case, the CFT entropy most closely resembled the original Cardy-Verlinde formulation (for AdS spacetimes) . Furthermore, the boundary energy was found to be positive, in stark contrast to the priorly studied cases. This is a desirable outcome, as it suggests a unitary theory at the conformal boundary. With this property of unitarity, we were able to conceptualize a duality between an apparent flow in the boundary theory and time evolution in the TdS bulk.

Let us further point out two notable failures of SdS-type models (with regard to the proposed holographic duality) that TdS solutions can seemingly resolve. These are as follows: (i) the issue of how to incorporate the properties of the black hole horizon into the CFT thermodynamic relations (there is no such horizon for TdS spacetimes) and (ii) a negative CFT energy can become especially problematic in the context of a dynamic-boundary scenario .141414We note, however, that Myung has recently argued against both SdS and TdS backgrounds in such a cosmological setting .

In view of the above considerations, TdS spacetimes appear to be promising candidates for the realization of a dS/CFT correspondence. However, we again stress that TdS solutions have a naked singularity as an inevitable consequence. It is possible that a well-defined dual CFT exists in spite of this singular behavior; however, until this existence can be established, the outcomes of Section 4 should be regarded as speculative.

In conclusion, a holographic interpretation of asymptotically de Sitter spacetimes continues to have a few unresolved issues; whether it is viewed from the perspective of a black hole (SdS, RNdS) or a topological (TdS) bulk. Nonetheless, in weighing all the evidence, we find that the results of this analysis comes out in support of the proposed dS/CFT correspondence.

## 6 Acknowledgments

The author would like to thank V.P. Frolov for helpful conversations.


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# Buckyballs and gluon junction networks on the femtometer scale

## 1 Introduction

The Buckyball is the nickname for the carbon molecule Buckminsterfullerene, $`C_{60}`$, a new form of carbon discovered in chemistry in 1985 by R. F. Curl, H. W. Kroto and R. E. Smalley. The molecule was named after the geodesic dome, invented by the architect Buckminster Fuller, whose geometry approximates that of a truncated icosahedral (soccer-ball) shaped structure. The discovery of Buckyballs was followed by the discovery of a wide variety of other carbon molecules with interesting geometrical properties. Carbon tubes, helixes, tori, etc. opened the doorway to technology on the nanometer ($`10^9`$ m) scale. Carbon atoms can be arranged in novel geometric forms because the carbonic bonds can arrange into 3 way junction structures as illustrated in Fig. 1. Nano-structures have also been constructed using 3 and 4 way DNA junctions by Seaman et al.  . The field of nano-technology is developing rapidly using an assortment of molecular junctions as the chemical “lego” building blocks.

In nuclear/particle physics, where the distance scales are femtometers ($`10^{15}`$ m), the existence of special three-way QCD junctions (topological gluon field configurations) was predicted a long time ago . Lattice QCD calculations were able to confirm the existence of such junctions only recently. Data on baryon stopping and strangeness production in experiments with high energy heavy ion collisions from CERN SPS and BNL RHIC accelerators are also in agreement with model calculation assuming that QCD junctions carry the conserved baryon charge. In this Letter, we explore what types of femtometer scale structures can be constructed from QCD using junctions and anti-junctions as a nuclear scale “lego set”. Our preliminary results were presented at a Symposium on multiparticle production in high energy physics .

According to QCD, hadrons are composite bound state configurations built up from the fundamental quark and gluon fields. Quarks, $`\mathrm{\Psi }_{i,f}(x)`$, carry color, $`i=1,\mathrm{},N_c`$ , and flavor, $`f=u,d,s,c,b,t`$ quantum numbers. Gluons, $`A_a^\mu (x)`$, are the vector gauge bosons intermediating the color, $`a=1,\mathrm{},N_c^21`$, interactions between the quarks and gluons. The form of the interaction is fixed by the principle of gauge invariance under the non-Abelian color $`SU(N_c)`$ Lie group. The $`N_c=1`$ limit is Quantum Electrodynamics (QED). Gauge invariance of composite operators can only be achieved with the help of open string operators, called Wilson lines , that keep track of the phase along an arbitrary path, $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$, in space-time. In QED, $`U(\mathrm{\Gamma })=\mathrm{exp}\left[ie_\mathrm{\Gamma }𝑑x^\mu A_\mu (x)\right]`$ is the well known Aharonov-Bohm phase  accumulated by an electron moving along a path $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ in an external electromagnetic field, $`A^\mu (x)`$ . In QCD, $`N_c=3`$ and $`U(\mathrm{\Gamma })`$ is a matrix defined by a path ordered exponential with dimension corresponding to that of the representation of the generators, $`T_a`$, of the Lie algebra.

Closed Wilson loops, $`\text{Tr}U(\mathrm{\Gamma }_{xx})`$, correspond to color singlet glueball configurations in QCD, while open “strings”, $`\overline{\mathrm{\Psi }}_{i_1f_1}(x)U^{i_1i_2}(\mathrm{\Gamma }_{xy})\mathrm{\Psi }_{i_2f_2}(y)`$, terminating with quark and anti-quark ends, correspond to mesons. Baryons are special field configurations composed of $`N_c`$ quarks with their color flux strings tied together (outer product of color indices) by the Levi-Civita antisymmetric tensor, $`ϵ_{i_1\mathrm{}i_{N_c}}`$ . In the physical ($`N_c=3`$) case, baryons of flavor $`(f_1,f_2,f_3)`$ are represented by the color neutral and gauge invariant operator,

$$B_{f_1f_2f_3}=\overline{\mathrm{\Psi }}_{i_1f_1}(x_1)\overline{\mathrm{\Psi }}_{i_2f_2}(x_2)\overline{\mathrm{\Psi }}_{i_3f_3}(x_3)J^{i_1i_2i_3}(\mathrm{\Gamma }_1,\mathrm{\Gamma }_2,\mathrm{\Gamma }_3),$$
(1)
where the quark color indices are contracted by the baryon Junction tensor

$$J^{i_1i_2i_3}(\mathrm{\Gamma }_1,\mathrm{\Gamma }_2,\mathrm{\Gamma }_3)=ϵ_{j_1j_2j_3}U^{i_1j_1}(\mathrm{\Gamma }_1)U^{i_2j_2}(\mathrm{\Gamma }_2)U^{i_3j_3}(\mathrm{\Gamma }_3),$$
(2)
that depends on the paths, $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_i`$, connecting the quark at $`x_i`$ to an intermediate junction vertex point, $`x`$. All three paths are chromo-field flux lines oriented into the junction vertex as represented by black dots in Fig. 1. Anti-baryons can be constructed similarly with the help of an anti-Junction tensor, $`\overline{J}`$, where all the flux lines are oriented away from the vertex. Note that because of the special, $`detU=1`$, constraint on the symmetry group , $`SU(3)`$, $`J^{i_1i_2i_3}(\mathrm{\Gamma },\mathrm{\Gamma },\mathrm{\Gamma })=1`$ . Thus color singlet states can be constructed from the color tensor links $`U(\mathrm{\Gamma })`$ not only by tracing and contracting with quark fields but also by contracting with baryon junctions. The paths from a physical junction vertex must be all nondegenerate. Paths are deformable according to Stoke’s theorem only if the background fields are pure gauge artifacts. In the physical, confining vacuum, or in a quark-gluon plasma, different paths correspond to configurations with different energy. In the ground state of a heavy quark baryon, the physical junction vertex ends up in the three quark plane, leading to a Y shaped chromo-field flux field configuration inside the baryon .

## 2 Archimedean polyhedra in QCD

The compelling theoretical arguments in favor of the existence of gauge junction and anti-junctions as inevitable components of the Standard Model led to the prediction  of $`M_J^0=\text{Tr}J\overline{J}=ϵU(\mathrm{\Gamma }_1)U(\mathrm{\Gamma }_2)U(\mathrm{\Gamma }_3)ϵ`$, a new family of glueballs, with masses O$`(N_c)`$ larger than usual glueballs corresponding to a closed string. In addition, many new exotic states formed by a multitude of quarks and anti-quarks  were predicted to exist. So far none of these structures have been observed experimentally, probably because the decay widths of these structures is too large, due to their strong coupling to light meson and baryon anti-baryon states. These previously discussed QCD structures are analogous to carbonic structures with low number of carbon atoms that do not possess any special geometric symmetry.

In high-energy baryon and nuclear collisions, the valence quarks carry a large fraction of the incident baryon’s momentum. Those quarks thus hadronize in the fragmentation regions which are typically within one unit of rapidity, $`y=0.5\mathrm{log}[(E+p_z)/(Ep_z)]`$, from the kinematic limits. However, baryon junctions invalidate this naive picture of baryon production, since gluons carry on the average only small fraction of the baryon’s momentum. Therefore, junction mechanism of baryon production (via exchange of the $`M_J^0`$ Regge trajectory) predicts a much higher probability of finding the conserved valence baryon number many units of rapidity away from the incident baryons . In addition, junction dynamics also naturally predicts  a high probability that the valence baryon emerges with multiple strangeness quantum numbers, e.g. $`\mathrm{\Xi }^{}(dss)`$, $`\mathrm{\Omega }^{}(sss)`$, in the central rapidity region, since the final baryon is made by neutralizing the color of the gluon junction by pair production of quarks and antiquarks with arbitrary flavors. The baryon production data from SPS/CERN  and now RHIC/BNL  are consistent with these predictions and therefore lend experimental support to the important role that gluon junction dynamics plays in nuclear reactions. From a rehadronizing quark matter baryon junctions may pick up the valence quarks similarly as described by the quark combinatorics of the ALCOR model that describes the production of multi-strange anti-baryon to baryon ratios at CERN SPS in simple terms . The success of the ALCOR model implementation of quark combinatorics in predicting  the multistrange anti-baryon to baryon ratios at RHIC is thus consistent with a junction mechanism for the formation of baryons.

Motivated by Fullerenes, in this Letter we point out the existence of new geometric structures in QCD with high spatial symmetry. We determine the geometric structure and the characteristic “magic numbers” of these configurations, using analogies with carbon Fullerene structures. We explore some of the interesting topological structures that can be created by QCD networks and closed cages that may be produced in high energy nuclear reactions joining multiple QCD junctions and anti-junctions. Although the QCD Lagrangian is CP even, we point out that the junction and anti-junction building blocks can be used construct CP odd configurations that may also serve as domain walls between inequivalent ($`\theta `$) QCD vacua.

In QCD, the orientation of flux lines going into (out of anti-) junctions restricts the set of allowed configurations. In particular, the number of junctions has to be equal with the number of anti-junctions on any closed path formed by the Wilson lines, which implies that QCD Fullerenes may have only even number of vertexes V, and a zero net baryon number. Recalling Euler’s formula, the number of faces ($`F`$), the number of edges ($`E`$) and the number of vertices ($`V`$) of a simple (genus 0) polyhedron is related by

$$V+F=2+E.$$
(3)
Since each edge is sandwiched between a junction and anti-junction, each face must have an even number of edges. The number of faces,

$$F=N_4+N_6+N_8+\mathrm{},$$
(4)
is then a sum of the the number of squares ($`N_4`$), hexagons ($`N_6`$), etc. Each edge belongs to two faces :

$$E=(4N_4+6N_6+8N_8+\mathrm{})/2,$$
(5)
and each vertex belongs to three faces:

$$V=(4N_4+6N_6+8N_8+\mathrm{})/3.$$
(6)
The resulting Diophantic equations are solved by any number of hexagons and

$$N_4\underset{i=4}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}(i3)N_{2i}=6.$$
(7)
This implies that there is an infinite variety of Fullerene type of structures in QCD, similarly to the case of carbon Fullerenes.

We are particularly interested in the most symmetric geometric structures in QCD, based on the expectation that configurations with the highest geometric symmetry are the most stable ones, similarly to the case of the carbon Fullerenes. If we require that all the vertex positions are equivalent with each other, we have to find the so called Archimedean polyhedra with the constraint that all faces have even number of edges. Archimedean polyhedra can be characterized by the number of vertexes or, equivalently, by their vertex structure $`(i,j,k)`$ denoting that at each vertex one $`i`$-gon, one $`j`$-gon and one $`k`$-gon is joined. The simplest such geometric structure is the $`V=8`$ cube, with vertex structure $`(4,4,4)`$, denoting that three squares are joined at each vertex. The cube is followed by the $`V=24`$ truncated octahedron, with vertex-face structure is $`(4,6,6)`$ , denoting that at each vertex one square and two hexagons are joined. Allowing for octagon, and higher faces lead to only two more closed Archemedian polyhedra, $`V=48`$ $`(4,6,8)`$ and $`V=120`$ $`(4,6,10)`$, in which one square and one hexagon are joined to an 8 or 10 sided polygon at each vertex. These are the most symmetric QCD Fullerenes as illustrated in Fig. 2.

Infinite two dimensional tiling or fences can also be created, for example $`(4,8,8)`$, $`(4,6,12)`$ and the J-graphite $`(6,6,6)`$. In addition, as with carbon cages, there are of course many closed structures with less symmetry such as junction $`n`$-prisms $`(4,4,2n)`$ that can be constructed. Here we will not attempt to discuss the dynamics of elementary particle or heavy ion/nuclear collisions that may lead to the formation of QCD J-balls. In nuclear collisions, we simply assume that the observed copious production of baryons and anti-baryons (interpreted as junctions and anti-junctions) in central collisions is sufficient to allow such a configuration to form with finite probability amidst the “nuclear ashes” due to its relatively high binding energy. The carbon Fullerenes $`C_{60}`$ and $`C_{70}`$ were similarly found within the ashes of laser seared graphite. Another mechanism to create QCD Buckyballs may exist also, that has no analogy in Fullerene chemistry. In particular, high energy collisions of protons and anti-protons at the Fermilab Tevatron accelerator satisfy the conditions for zero net baryon number and high energy density, that are required to excite QCD Fullerenes out of the physical vacuum of strong interactions.

To estimate the relative binding energies of QCD Fullerenes, we consider the simplest model for the relative energy of J-balls consistent with QCD . For a J-ball consisting of $`V/2`$ junctions and $`V/2`$ anti-junctions connected to form a polyhedron with $`E`$ edges with lengths $`l_i`$ we take the following model Hamiltonian

$$H(l_i,𝐧_{v,i};V,E)=\underset{i=1}{\overset{E}{}}(\frac{a}{l_i}+\kappa l_i)+\gamma \underset{v=1}{\overset{V}{}}\underset{i<j=1}{\overset{3}{}}𝐧_{v,i}𝐧_{v,j}$$
(8)
where $`𝐧_{v,i}`$, $`i=1,2,3`$ are the three unit vectors pointing away tangent to the edges at vertex $`v`$. Implicit above is that the topology is defined by these unit vectors and that the flux tubes are straight lines between vertices. The first term is a “kinetic” or “vertex localization” energy, with coefficient $`a`$ that is not yet precisely known. However, one can estimate that $`a\pi h`$ from $`\omega =(2\pi \mathrm{})/\lambda `$ and assuming that $`\lambda =2l`$ that holds in the case of the lowest excitation for a string with two fixed ends. The second parameter of the effective Hamiltonian is the confining string tension, $`\kappa (T)1`$ GeV/fm, a term that vanishes above the deconfinement temperature, $`T_c150`$ MeV. The postulated “strain” term with strength $`\gamma `$ is analogous to the Biot-Savart law in circuits and plays the role of bond angle strain in carbon nanostructures. In this model the relative binding energies are determined by the last term although its magnitude is not yet known from lattice QCD. We estimate below the possible range of $`\gamma `$ and use these limiting values to give a semi-classical estimate of the mass range of the QCD Fullerenes.

For a vertex and face structure $`V`$ and $`(n_1,n_2,n_3)`$ the total strain energy is

$$\delta h_V=\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }H_V}{V}=\gamma \left[\mathrm{cos}\left(\frac{2\pi }{n_1}\right)+\mathrm{cos}\left(\frac{2\pi }{n_2}\right)+\mathrm{cos}\left(\frac{2\pi }{n_3}\right)\right].$$
(9)
For the $`V=8`$ J-cube with face structure $`(4,4,4)`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }h_8=0`$. For the $`V=24,48,120`$ J-balls , this strain energy per vertex is $`1`$, $`(1+\sqrt{2})/2=1.207`$, $`(3+\sqrt{5})/4=1.309`$ in units of $`\gamma `$. The absolute minimum is reached for the junction graphite fence which is bound with $`3/2\gamma `$ per vertex. The $`(4,8,8)`$ and $`(4,6,12)`$ tiles are only bound by $`\sqrt{2}\gamma `$ and $`0.5(1+\sqrt{3})\gamma `$ per vertex. In contrast, the $`n`$ prisms $`(4,4,2n)`$ are bound by $`\mathrm{cos}(\pi /n)>1`$. Note that the $`(J\underset{¯}{J})_1=M_J^0`$ is most unfavorable due to its maximum strain energy of $`6\gamma `$. The $`V=24`$ J-ball in Figs. 1,2 with total strain energy $`24\gamma `$ may be particularly stable not only because of its relatively low strain energy but also due to its topological arrangement of junctions and anti-junctions that increases the potential barrier between adjacent $`J\underset{¯}{J}`$ annihilation. The vertex structure of this $`V=24`$ QCD Buckyball, $`(4,6,6)`$, is the closest to that of the carbon Buckyball $`C_{60}`$ whose vertex structure is $`(5,6,6)`$.

### 2.1 Semiclassical mass estimates for QCD Fullerenes

Let us find the semi-classical values of the Hamiltonian $`H`$ to give an estimate of the expected mass range of the $`V=8,24,48`$ and $`120`$ QCD Fullerenes. Let us first observe that the minimum of the $`H`$ Hamiltonian can be determined from requiring that

$$\frac{H}{l_i}=0$$
(10)
for all $`i=1,\mathrm{}V`$, which implies that all the edges have the same length of

$$l_i=l_j=l=\sqrt{\frac{a}{\kappa }}0.79\text{fm}.$$
(11)
The mass of a QCD Fullerene can be semi-classically approximated by the value of $`H`$ at this minimum,

$$M_V=(\frac{3}{2}\sqrt{a\kappa }+\delta h_V)V$$
(12)
Hence the mass of these QCD Fullerenes is always proportional to the number of vertexes $`V`$ and the constant of proportionality is given by a sum of two terms. The first term is a kinetic term, that can be estimated as $`\frac{3}{2}\sqrt{\pi 0.197}`$ GeV $`1.18`$ GeV, while the second strain term is a product of a known geometrical contribution and the unknown constant of proportionality $`\gamma `$. As $`a>m_N=0.940`$ GeV, we find that without a strain term the mass of QCD Fullerenes were about 25 % higher than that of a system consisting from $`V/2`$ nucleons and $`V/2`$ anti-nucleons, hence if $`\gamma =0`$ these excitations are most likely unstable.

At what value of $`\gamma =\gamma _c`$ were at least some of the QCD Fullerenes stable? Including the possibility of tilings, the absolute minimum of the geometrical contribution to the strain term is $`_{i<j=1}^3𝐧_i𝐧_j=1.5`$, that can be achieved within a graphite like layer. Hence one obtains for the critical value of $`\gamma `$

$$\gamma _c=\sqrt{a\kappa }\frac{2}{3}m_N$$
(13)
which leads to a numerical estimate of $`\gamma _c0.16`$ GeV. If in Nature $`\gamma >\gamma _c`$ then (at least some high mass) QCD Fullerenes are expected to be stable against decay to baryon anti-baryon pairs, while if $`\gamma <\gamma _c`$ all these objects are unstable for such decays and may exist only as short lived resonance states.

Let us now determine an absolute lower and an upper limit for the strain coefficent $`\gamma `$. If $`\gamma `$ were negative, the strings were attracted to each other and the $`M_J^0`$ state would be a stable bound state and it would be difficult to explain why this state has not been observed untill now. Excluding this possibility, one obtains $`0\gamma `$. An upper limit on the possible values of $`\gamma `$ can be obtained from requiring that even for a graphite like tiling the mass of the Fullerene should be positive, which implies $`\gamma <\sqrt{a\kappa }`$ . Thus one obtains the following lower and upper limits for the mass of QCD Fullerenes:

$$\frac{3}{2}V\sqrt{a\kappa }M_V<\left[\frac{3}{2}V\mathrm{cos}\left(\frac{2\pi }{n_1}\right)\mathrm{cos}\left(\frac{2\pi }{n_2}\right)\mathrm{cos}\left(\frac{2\pi }{n_3}\right)\right]\sqrt{a\kappa }.$$
(14)
Utilizing these limiting values, we obtain Table 1 that summarizes the mass range estimates for the most symmetric QCD Fullerenes utilizing the geometric strain coefficients determined by eq. (9).

Although Table 1 contains order of magnitude estimates only, we can already observe interesting patterns. In particular, the strain coefficient does not influence the mass estimate for the $`V=8`$ QCD cube, and the estimated mass is much higher than that of 8 nucleons hence this and all the low lying QCD Fullerenes are expected to be unstable as they are even more strained than the cube. The first reasonable candidate would be a $`V=B+\overline{B}=24`$ QCD truncated octahedron. The most stable candidates are expected to be the $`V=48`$ QCD Great Rombicuboctahedron  and the $`V=120`$ QCD Great Rombicosidodecahedron. These structures are compact but less strained than similarly compact lower excitations. Their compact structure and their favourable strain term may stabilize all three of them in a large domain of the allowed parameter space.

## 3 CP odd J-ball states in QCD

The junction $`n`$-prisms can be regarded as a closed ribbon of $`n`$ $`J\underset{¯}{J}`$ pairs. Under simultaneous charge conjugation and parity transformation, these prisms are invariant and hence CP even as are all the junction Fullerenes shown in Fig. 2 . However, other nontrivial topological configurations can be constructed which are not symmetric under CP. For example an odd number of $`J\underset{¯}{J}`$ pairs cannot be closed into a prism due to the oriented flux at the junctions, but after a twist to right or left can be connected into a Moebius strip. The two Moebius strips transform into each other and thus there exists a linear combination of the two that is odd under CP. Hence QCD $`J`$-ribbons can be characterized by a single “winding number” $`(i)`$ that gives the number of twists before the ribbon is closed on itself. The topology of the excitations of QCD seems to be very interesting, because not only ribbons but also tubes can be formed. The ends can be closed with caps formed by squares, octagons and decagons, satisfying eq. (5), or can be open, ending on valence quarks. The QCD femto-tubes are analogous to the carbon nano-tubes, both may have interesting chiral properties. As carbon nano-tubes, the QCD femto-tubes can be characterized by two integers $`(i,j)`$, which gives the number of steps in the direction of the lattice vectors, that connect equivalent points on the surface of the tubes. Another interesting possibility is to close the $`J`$-tube on itself, creating a toroidal structure. The femto-tubes can be closed by connecting the two ends of a long tube, and these ends can be rotated before the connection. This gives QCD femto-tori that can be characterized by 3 winding numbers, the $`(i,j,k)`$ femto-tori.

## 4 Summary

Fullerene type of pure glue topological configurations can be constructed in QCD. These “J-balls” are QCD femto-structures with the highest geometrical symmetry. All of the QCD Fullerenes have an equal number of junctions and anti-junctions, and may have specific geometrical and topological properties. The QCD Buckyballs are CP even, other QCD structures such as linear combinations J-Moebius ribbons can be constructed that are CP odd. Topological winding numbers can be introduced to characterize these states. The QCD femto-ribbons are characterized by a single integer $`(i)`$, the femto-tubes by a pair of integers $`(i,j)`$, while the QCD femto-tori by a triplet of integers, $`(i,j,k)`$. We determined that the most symmetric (likely most stable) QCD Buckyball configurations have the magic numbers of baryons + anti-baryons $`B+\overline{B}=8`$, $`24`$, $`48`$ and $`120`$. Although these configurations are likely unstable, they are expected to be more stable than clusters of baryons and anti-baryons with different junction numbers, and they may appear as peaks in the spectrum of $`(B\overline{B})_n`$ clusters with a given total baryon+antibaryon number. To create them, high initial energy densities and small net initial baryon number densities and large volumes are needed. Such conditions may exist in the mid-rapidity domain of central $`Au+Au`$ collisions at RHIC or LHC as well as in diffractive collisions of protons and anti-protons at the Fermilab Tevatron accelerators. We suggest to search for clusters of baryons and anti-baryons with multiparticle correlation patterns of the vertices of J-balls in rapidity slices. In addition, searches for CP violating domains at RHIC should look for unusual baryon anti-baryon correlations suggested by our J-Moebii structures. Baryon junction and anti-junction networks may also help to understand the structure of domain walls between different CP vacua in QCD.

## Acknowledgments

One of us (T. Cs.) would like to thank M. Albrow and G. Gustafson for stimulating discussions. This research has been supported by Hungarian OTKA grants T026435, T034296, the Dutch-Hungarian NWO-OTKA grant N025487, the Collegium Budapest, an US - Hungarian NSF - MTA - OTKA grant, by the Brazilian FAPESP and by the US Department of Energy DE-FG02-93ER40764.


text:
# Modelling Plerion Spectra and their Evolution

## 1. X-ray Spectra of Plerions

### 1.1. Observations and Synchrotron Cooling

Plerions are characterized in X-rays by hard, nonthermal power-law spectra. In the case of the Crab Nebula, where statistics are best, the total integrated spectrum has a best-fit power-law index $`\alpha _X=1.1`$ (Toor & Seward 1974) in energy ($`F_\nu \nu ^\alpha `$, corresponding to a photon index $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_X\alpha _X+1=2.1`$). Within their larger uncertainties, the X-ray power-law indices of most other plerions appear compatible with this value.

The recent availability of spatially resolved spectra of plerions with Chandra and XMM reveals spectral steepening towards the edges, with the hardest spectrum at the center having an index around $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_X1.6`$. The steepening is indicative of synchrotron cooling of a centrally injected hard power-law distribution of electrons and positrons, as is the difference of 0.5 between the central and spatially integrated spectral indices. The corresponding injected particle spectral index is $`p=2.2`$, defined by

$$\dot{N}(\gamma )\mathrm{d}\gamma \gamma ^p\mathrm{d}\gamma $$
(1)
where $`\dot{N}`$ is the injection rate and $`\gamma `$ the particle Lorentz factor.

### 1.2. Theory: Fermi Acceleration at Ultra-Relativistic Shocks

This non-thermal population of electrons and positrons is generally assumed to be accelerated at the termination shock of a highly relativistic pulsar wind. Recent investigations of Fermi acceleration at such relativistic shocks (Bednarz & Ostrowski 1998; Gallant & Achterberg 1999; Kirk et al. 2000; Achterberg et al. 2001) have shown that the resulting spectra, in the limit of high Lorentz factors and of a turbulent magnetic field downstream, have power-law indices $`p`$ in the range 2.2–2.3 for a variety of transport assumptions, compatible with the above inferred value for the injected spectrum.

While further investigations, in particular using 3-D plasma simulations, are needed to confirm that the required levels of magnetic turbulence can be achieved, it seems reasonable to identify the acceleration mechanism for X-ray emitting electrons with Fermi acceleration at the pulsar wind termination shock. Further observational evidence for this scenario comes from gamma-ray burst afterglows, whose spectra can also be explained in terms of Fermi acceleration at the highly relativistic outer blast wave (e.g. Gallant et al. 2000).

## 2. Radio Spectra of Plerions

### 2.1. Observations and Broken Power Laws

In the radio domain, plerions are characterized by flat power-law spectral indices, $`\alpha _r0`$; the Crab Nebula, with $`\alpha _r=0.3`$, has a steeper than average spectrum. The synchrotron loss time of radio-emitting electrons is typically much longer than the age of the plerion, so that the observed spectrum is the injection spectrum integrated over the history of the plerion. Nonetheless, with conventional assumptions about plerion evolution, spectral models assuming a single power-law injection spectrum (Pacini & Salvati 1973; Reynolds & Chevalier 1984) are unable to reproduce the observed spectral index differences $`\mathrm{\Delta }\alpha >0.5`$ between the radio and X-ray spectra.

Evidence in the Crab Nebula suggests that radio-emitting electron acceleration is still taking place at present, in the central regions near the pulsar wind termination shock (Gallant & Tuffs 2000, 2001; Bietenholz et al. 2001b). Combined with the fact that the nebular spectrum joins smoothly between the radio and X-ray domains, this suggests the injection of a single population of accelerated particles with a broken power-law spectrum.

### 2.2. Theory: Resonant Ion Cyclotron Wave Acceleration

Hoshino et al. (1992) have shown that if pulsar winds contain some ions as well as electrons and positrons, an efficient mechanism to accelerate the positrons and electrons is by resonant absorption of ion cyclotron waves collectively emitted at the shock front. Particle-in-cell simulations of this process yielded a range of spectral indices, but these are in general hard, with an average close to the value of $`p=1.6`$ needed to explain the Crab Nebula radio spectrum. Moreover, in a quasi-stationary calculation of this process where emission is balanced by absorption (Hoshino & Arons 1991), as might be expected in older systems, the resulting spectral index is $`p=1`$, yielding a synchrotron spectral index $`\alpha =0`$, exactly the generic plerion radio value.

This resonant ion cyclotron wave mechanism was seen in the simulations of Hoshino et al. (1992) to accelerate positrons and electrons up to a critical energy

$$\gamma _{\mathrm{crit}}\frac{m_i}{m_e}\gamma _{\mathrm{sh}}$$
(2)
at which they resonate with the fundamental ion cyclotron frequency; here $`m_i/m_e`$ is the mass ratio between ions and electrons, and $`\gamma _{\mathrm{sh}}`$ is the shock Lorentz factor, which is approximately the downstream thermal ion Lorentz factor. From the condition that the electrons must have gyro-radii larger than the shock thickness for Fermi acceleration to operate, it follows that $`\gamma _{\mathrm{crit}}`$ is also the minimum energy for the Fermi mechanism. The picture that emerges for the accelerated particle spectrum is thus of a broken power-law, with a hard spectral index $`p_r=1`$–1.6 up to $`\gamma _{\mathrm{crit}}`$, and the steeper Fermi acceleration index $`p_X=2.2`$ at higher energies.

## 3. Cooling Break, Injection Break, and Crab Wind Parameters

If the X-ray spectrum is synchrotron-cooled and the radio one is not, they must be separated by a synchrotron cooling break, with $`\mathrm{\Delta }\alpha 0.5`$, in addition to the aforementioned injection break. The Crab Nebula, whose spectrum is known over most of the intervening frequency range, does indeed show two spectral breaks, one in the far infrared (FIR) around $`3\times 10^{13}`$ Hz, and one in the UV around $`10^{16}`$ Hz. (A third break, around 100 keV, will not be discussed here.) Spectral index mapping in the IR, where extinction introduces less uncertainty than in the optical, supports the identification of the FIR break as the synchrotron cooling break (Gallant & Tuffs 2000, 2001). Given the age of the Nebula, this yields a magnetic field $`B3\times 10^4`$ G, in line with other estimates of the nebular magnetic field.

Identification of the injection break with the UV break then allows inference of the wind Lorentz factor through (2). This yields for the Crab a value of $`\gamma _{\mathrm{sh}}10^3`$, in stark contrast to the oft-repeated figure of $`10^6`$ from Kennel & Coroniti (1984). It should be emphasized, however, that their model not only does not account for the radio-emitting electrons and positrons in the Nebula, but is incompatible with their originating from the pulsar. If one assumes that all the radio-emitting $`e^\pm `$ were injected in the Nebula by the pulsar wind, it follows that the time-averaged injection rate of pairs must be $`\dot{N}_\pm 3\times 10^{40}\mathrm{s}^1`$, corresponding with current Crab parameters to a pair multiplicity $`\kappa 10^6`$. A wind carrying this number of pairs with a Lorentz factor of $`10^6`$ would exceed the Crab spindown power by several orders of magnitude.

There are few theoretical predictions of pulsar wind parameters at the termination shock. One is given by the reconnecting striped wind model of Lyubarsky & Kirk (2001), who derive an asymptotic solution for the wind Lorentz factor as a function of radius. Substituting the Crab pulsar parameters and the above multiplicity of $`10^6`$ yields a wind Lorentz factor at the termination shock $`\gamma _{\mathrm{sh}}2\times 10^3`$, in close agreement with our above observationally derived value. It should be noted, however, that the required high multiplicity is problematic for pair creation models above pulsar polar caps: the recent calculations of Hibschman & Arons (2001) yield $`\kappa 10^5`$ for the Crab pulsar.

## 4. Evolution of Plerion Spectra

### 4.1. Compression by the Reverse Shock

An analytical framework for the spectral evolution of an expanding plerion was presented by Pacini & Salvati (1973), and extended by Reynolds & Chevalier (1984) to the more realistic case of a plerion evolving inside a shell supernova remnant (SNR). Their analyses remain valid in our picture, except for the addition of a break in the injected spectrum. In particular, in the initial phase of supersonic expansion of the plerion, the particle energies and magnetic field both decrease with time as the plerion radius increases, yielding a very steep decline of the radio surface brightness with time, $`S_\nu t^{2.7}`$ for $`p=1`$ and an approximately constant pulsar spindown luminosity (Reynolds & Chevalier 1984). This helps explain the apparent absence of a radio plerion around some middle-aged pulsars.

This initial phase lasts until the reverse shock from the SNR blast wave reaches the central plerion; at that point, the plerion can be dramatically compressed, as shown by the recent hydrodynamical simulations of van der Swaluw et al. (2001), and subsequently undergoes a slower and initially unsteady subsonic expansion. Compression by the reverse shock increases the magnetic field and particle energies while the radius decreases, which can lead to a significant rebrightening of the plerion (Reynolds & Chevalier 1984). The increased magnetic field can also bring down the frequency of the synchrotron cooling break.

### 4.2. Low-Frequency Spectral Breaks

A number of plerions such as G 21.5–0.9 and 3C 58 have observed or inferred spectral breaks at comparatively low frequencies ($``$100 GHz). Woltjer et al. (1997) have argued that these form a separate class of plerions, and can be explained by a sudden change in the particle or magnetic energy content of the pulsar wind. Here we suggest that the sudden change may occur not in the pulsar wind parameters, but in the plerion confining pressure, as occurs with the reverse shock passage. Assuming that the compression results in a magnetic field in rough pressure balance with the interior of a Sedov blast wave, and that the compression lasts for a time comparable to the age at which the reverse shock hit, one finds that the synchrotron cooling break can reach the observed low frequencies only in a very dense surrounding medium ($`n30\mathrm{cm}^3`$).

Such a scenario might be plausible in the case of G 21.5–0.9, where it could explain the small size of the X-ray “halo” around the plerion, interpreted as a non-thermal shell (Slane et al. 2000). The high density would lead to efficient radiative cooling and a rapid shock deceleration, which might explain the lack of observed thermal X-ray emission from this shell. The high extinction to this object ($`A_V10`$ from the measured X-ray $`N_H`$) would make any optical signature of the shell unobservable. As for 3C 58, its apparent radio brightening with time (Green 1987) may be direct observational evidence that it is currently undergoing compression. This would be consistent with the lack of detected radio expansion of this remnant (Bietenholz et al. 2001a), but the absence of any detected shell emission remains a puzzle.

## 5. Conclusions

The X-ray spectra of plerions are compatible with Fermi acceleration at ultra-relativistic shocks, which yields a power-law distribution of injected particles with spectral index $`p_X=2.2`$–2.3, above a critical energy $`\gamma _{\mathrm{crit}}`$. Plerion radio spectra seem compatible with resonant ion cyclotron wave acceleration, yielding a harder power-law index, $`p_r=1`$–1.6, and fixing the break energy at $`\gamma _{\mathrm{crit}}(m_i/m_e)\gamma _{\mathrm{sh}}`$. In the case of the Crab Nebula, identification of the synchrotron cooling break in the FIR and the injection break in the UV inplies a wind Lorentz factor of about $`10^3`$, in sharp contrast with the model of Kennel & Coroniti (1984). This value of the wind Lorentz factor is compatible with the striped wind model of Lyubarsky & Kirk (2001). Finally, compression by the reverse shock might be responsible for the low-frequency breaks observed in G 21.5–0.9 and 3C 58, among others, but this requires a dense surrounding medium.

One prediction of our scenario for particle acceleration is that small-scale features near the wind termination shock, where synchrotron losses have not had time to operate, should reflect the unsteepened injection spectrum, with a single spectral break. The Crab Nebula’s wisps should be just such features, and comparison of the frequency of this injection break in the wisps and the Nebula as a whole would then allow a determination of the relative magnetic field values.

#### Acknowledgments.

Y.A.G. is currently supported by a Marie Curie Fellowship from the European Union, number MCFI-2000-00855. This work is a collaboration within the “Astro-Plasma-Physics” Network, supported by the EU under the TMR program, contract number FMRX-CT98-0168.

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