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# Is the graviton a domain wall glueball?

## 1 INTRODUCTION

Recent developments in string theory have changed our perspective on the ancient puzzle on how to construct the QCD string. The conventional wisdom had been that the fundamental superstring for gravity operates exclusively at or near the the Planck scale with the extra 6 dimension compactified in Planckian units. The standard model (and therefore QCD) would appear as simply a low energy effective field theory long after all stringy effects have disappeared. In this scenario the fact that confinement of chromodynamic flux and the large N expansion might also exhibit stringy features is essentially accidental, with no physical relation to the strings of quantum gravity.

With the discovery of Maldacena’s string/gauge duality , we now have explicit examples of the equivalence between 10-d superstring and 4-d Yang-Mills theory. The key new ingredient is a strongly “warped” radial (or 5-th) dimension as illustrated in the weak/strong duality between strings in $`AdS^5\times S^5`$ and 4-d $`𝒩=4`$ super Yang Mills. The redshift in the warped axis interpolates between low energy (IR) and high energy (UV) physics. Extensions of the string/gauge duality have been suggested by Witten  and others for non-SUSY QCD like theories exhibiting discrete glueball spectra, confinement, etc. In addition Randall and Sundram have shown how brane world gravity maybe realized in AdS space with the Planck/TeV hierarchy separated exponentially as function of the proper distance in the warped axis.

Here I review our recent calculations of the glueball spectrum at strong coupling  and its extension to include brane world gravity . The goal is to develop a toy model which is illustrative of this new approach to the QCD string.

## 2 GLUEBALLS IN ADS BLACK HOLE

The $`QCD_4`$ model proposed by Witten  modifies the 11-d $`AdS^7\times S^4`$ metric solution to M-theory or its low energy limit 11-d supergravity,

$`S`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2\kappa _{11}}}{\displaystyle d^{11}x\sqrt{g_{11}}(R_{11}|F_4|^2)}`$ (1)
$``$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{12\kappa _{11}}}{\displaystyle A_3}F_4F_4+\text{fermions},`$
by compactified both the 11-th axis reducing it to IIA string theory and a second “thermal” (or $`\tau `$) axis with anti-periodic Fermionic boundary conditions to break the conformal and super symmetries. The resultant background metric is an $`AdS^7\times S^4`$ black hole,

$$ds^2=\frac{1}{r^2r^{1d}}dr^2+(r^2r^{1d})d\tau ^2+r^2\eta _{\mu \nu }dx^\mu dx^\nu $$

The minimum value $`r>r_{min}=1`$ is a co-ordinate singularity at the black hole horizon.

In the strong coupling ’tHooft limit ($`g^2N\mathrm{}`$), the inverse QCD string tension vanishes like $`\alpha ^{}(R_{ads}/r_{min})^3\alpha _{string}^{}1/(g^2N\mathrm{\Lambda }^2)`$, where $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ sets the scale of the glueball spectrum. Hence the string collapses to a point so the glueball spectrum can be found as the normal modes in the supergravity fields $`G_{MN},A_{MNL}`$ (see Table below).

| $`G_{\mu \nu }`$ | $`G_{\mu ,11}`$ | $`G_{11,11}`$ | $`m_0`$ |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| $`G_{ij}`$ | $`C_i`$ | $`\varphi `$ |  |
| $`2^{++}`$ | $`1_{()}^{++}`$ | $`0^{++}`$ | 4.7007 |
| $`G_{i\tau }`$ | $`C_\tau `$ |  |  |
| $`1_{()}^+`$ | $`0^+`$ |  | 5.6555 |
| $`G_{\tau \tau }`$ |  |  |  |
| $`0^{++}`$ |  |  | 2.7034 |
| $`A_{\mu \nu ,11}`$ | $`A_{\mu \nu \rho }`$ |  | $`m_0`$ (Eq.) |
| $`B_{ij}`$ | $`C_{123}`$ |  |  |
| $`1^+`$ | $`0_{()}^+`$ |  | 7.3059 |
| $`B_{i\tau }`$ | $`C_{ij\tau }`$ |  |  |
| $`1_{()}^{}`$ | $`1^{}`$ |  | 9.1129 |

The entire strong coupling glueball spectrum that lies in the superselection sector of $`QCD_4`$, has been calculated  and its comparison with the numerical values determined in lattice QCD (Fig. 1) reveals surprisingly good agreement in view of the extreme approximation of the strong coupling limit.

All the lowest $`J^{PC}`$ states are present, requiring contributions from all the bosonic fields in IIA supergravity. Even the radial excitations (illustrated by $`0^+`$ in Fig. 1) are the right order of magnitude. The absence of higher spins, such as $`3^{+\pm }`$, is a direct consequence of the strong coupling (or infinite tension) limit whereby all “orbital” modes are sent to infinity.

## 3 BRANE WORLD GRAVITY IN ADS BLACK HOLE

Next we have introduced a Planck brane as a UV cut-off at $`r=r_c`$ by reflecting the metric ($`rr_c/r^2`$) at a $`Z_2`$ orbifold and adding a positive tension brane world action . The essential new feature is that in addition to massive tensor glueballs, there is now a new normalizable tensor eigenfunction with zero mass — the graviton. After scaling out the warp factor $`g_{\mu \nu }r^2(\eta _{\mu \nu }+h_{\mu \nu })`$ the transverse tensor amplitude $`h_{\mu \nu }^{}=ϵ_{\mu \nu }(p)T(r)e^{ipx}`$, obeys the same equation as a minimally coupled scalar.

For comparison with the Randall-Sundram solution, we convert to the proper distance $`y(r)`$ from the horizon, $`y(r)=_b^r𝑑r/\sqrt{f(r)}`$, and introduce an integrating factor,$`\mathrm{\Psi }=e^{W(y)}T`$, so that the tensor equation has the SUSY form,

$$[\frac{}{y}W^{}(y)][\frac{}{y}+W^{}(y)]\mathrm{\Psi }(y)=\frac{p^2}{r^2}\mathrm{\Psi }(r)$$
(2)
with prepotential $`W(y)={\scriptscriptstyle \frac{1}{2}}\mathrm{log}[\mathrm{sinh}((d+1)k(|y_cy|y_c))]`$. The effective potential $`V_{eff}(y)=(W^{})^2W^{\prime \prime }`$ is plotted for $`y[0,y_c]`$ in the figure below.

Note the “volcano” potential at the Planck brane is a delta function at the edge of the disk ($`y_c=y(r_c)`$ for all $`\tau `$) with a single zero mass bound state (dashed line) , the graviton wave function: $`\mathrm{\Psi }=\mathrm{\Psi }_0\mathrm{exp}(W(y))`$. The black hole horizon at the origin ($`y=0`$ or $`r=r_{min}`$) is represented as a double pole in the potential $`W(y)`$ which localizes the massive glueball wave functions (solid lines). The mass hierarchy between the glueballs and the Planck mass is a reflection of the fact that glueball wave functions are concentrated near the black hole horizon where the graviton wave function is exponentially suppressed.

## 4 REMARKS

In addition to the graviton, careful analysis reveals a radion mode (flexing the proper distance separating the Planck brane from the black hole horizon) and a massless vector. At low energies the Planck brane action can be modified, consistent with covariant energy-momentum conservation, lifting these to small positive masses. If we were working in $`AdS^6`$, these three would be the only “domain wall” states added to the glueball spectrum. However the boundary of $`AdS^7`$ is $`R^{3,1}\times S^1\times S^1`$ with an extra flat compact $`S^1`$ along the 11th axis. Hence this analysis has in fact led us to 5-d gravity with standard Kaluza Klein (KK) compactification and in addition to the graviton the usual KK gravi-photon and dilaton. At strong coupling there is an accidental $`O(4)`$ symmetry, causing for example the $`2^{++}/0^{++}`$ degeneracy seen in the spectrum (see Fig. 1). However this degeneracy will be broken at weak coupling since the 11-th axes is differentiate from the spatial axes as the $`S^1`$ on which the M-theory membrane is wrapped to get IIA strings. So the mechanism that lifts this symmetry must evidently give mass to the KK photon/dilaton as well.


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# A Jet-ADAF model for Sgr A∗

## 1 Introduction

The energetic radio source Sgr A located at the center of our Galaxy is now widely believed to be the signature of a massive black hole with mass $`M=2.6\times 10^6\mathrm{M}_{}`$ (Melia & Falcke 2001; Haller et al. 1996; Eckart & Genzel 1996; Ghez et al. 1998; Reid et al. 1999; Backer & Sramek 1999). Its radio spectrum seems to consist of two components, with a break around $`50`$ GHz. The spectral dependence is $`F_\nu \nu ^{0.2}`$ for $`\nu <50`$ GHz, while above this break there is a submm bump which is described by $`F_\nu \nu ^{0.8}`$ up to $`10^3`$ GHz followed by a steep cut-off towards the infrared (IR) (Zylka et al. 1992; Serabyn et al. 1997; Falcke et al. 1998). The upper limits from IR (Menten et al. 1997) and ROSAT X-ray observations (Predehl & Trümper 1994) indicate that this source is quite dim.

On the theoretical side, a number of models have been proposed in the past years for Sgr A. Most models are based on accretion onto the central massive black hole. Possible sources of accretion material include the stellar winds emitted by the nearby massive stars and the hot interstellar medium. Since in either case the angular momentum of the accretion flow should be small, Melia (1992; 1994) proposed a spherical accretion model. In this model the accretion flow is assumed to free-fall until a Keplerian disk is formed within a small “circularization” radius. The main contributors to the radio and X-ray spectra are synchrotron radiation and bremsstrahlung, respectively, from the roughly free-fall flow beyond the small disk. However, spherical accretion is likely to be an over-simplification, since the accretion flow still possesses some angular momentum. An advection-dominated accretion flow (ADAF) model therefore is more dynamically exact in this sense (Narayan et al. 1995; Manmoto et al. 1997; Narayan et al. 1998). The most attractive feature of the ADAF model is its ability to explain the unusual low-luminosity of Sgr A given the relatively abundant accretion material. This is because most of the viscously dissipated energy is stored in the flow and advected beyond the event horizon rather than radiated away (Ichimaru 1977; Rees et al. 1982; Narayan & Yi 1994, 1995; Abramowicz et al. 1995; Chen et al. 1995; Narayan et al. 1997; Chen et al. 1997). In the application to Sgr A, the radio spectrum is produced by the synchrotron process in the innermost region of the disk while the X-rays are due to bremsstrahlung radiation of the thermal electrons in a large range of radii $`10^310^4R_\mathrm{s}`$, where $`R_\mathrm{s}=2GM/c^2`$ is the Schwarzschild radius. However, the ADAF under-predicts the low-frequency radio emission of Sgr A by over an order of magnitude and additional assumptions must be imposed in order to match the spectrum (Mahadevan 1998, Özel et al. 2000).

Following the initial paper by Reynolds & McKee (1980) (see also Blandford & Königl 1979), Falcke et al. (1993) proposed that it is the jet stemming from the disk rather than the disk itself which is responsible for the radio spectrum of Sgr A. In this model, the submm bump is produced by the acceleration zone of the jet, called nozzle, while the low-frequency radio spectrum comes from the part of the jet beyond the nozzle (Falcke 1996b; Falcke & Biermann 1999). The nozzle is of order 10$`R_\mathrm{s}`$ and forms from the disk at a radius of $`2R_\mathrm{s}`$. This model gives an excellent fit to the radio spectrum of Sgr A, including the low-frequency spectrum below the break and the submm bump, but the expected X-ray emission was not calculated explicitly.

The latest observational constraints for Sgr A come from the high spatial resolution ($`1^{\mathrm{}}`$) Chandra X-ray Observatory (Baganoff et al. 2001a, 2001b). Baganoff et al. observed Sgr A twice and they found that Sgr A comes in two states: quiescent and flares. In the present paper we concentrate on the quiescent state, whereas the flare state is considered in Markoff et al. (2001b). The main observational results for the quiescent state are summarized as follows111The luminosity and especially the photon index are taken from Baganoff et al. 2001b, which are slightly different from those in Baganoff et al. 2001a where the spectral models used did not account for dust scattering; see Baganoff et al. 2001b for details..

* The absorption-corrected 2-10 keV luminosity is (2.2$`{}_{0.2}{}^{}{}_{}{}^{+0.4}`$)$`\times 10^{33}\mathrm{erg}\mathrm{s}^1`$.
* The spectrum is well fitted by an absorbed power-law model with photon index $`\mathrm{\Gamma }=2.2_{0.7}^{+0.5}`$.
* The inner region of the source is rapidly variable on short timescale of $`1\mathrm{h}\mathrm{r}`$. A rapid drop of flux on a timescale of 10 minutes is detected in the flare state. On the other hand, the comparison between the two observations with an interval of about one year indicates that the steady X-ray flux remains almost constant.
* Some fraction of the X-ray flux may come from a partly extended region with diameter $`1^{\mathrm{}}`$.
* There is tentative evidence for a Fe K$`\alpha `$ line at 6.7 keV.

These results provide new and strict constraints to the theoretical models for Sgr A. In both the ADAF and spherical accretion models mentioned above, the X-ray radiation is produced by bremsstrahlung originating from $`10^3`$$`10^4R_\mathrm{s}`$. Hence the spectrum is very hard with photon index $`\mathrm{\Gamma }1.4`$ and the predicted variability timescale is thousands of hours, much longer than the observed $`1`$ hour.

Therefore it is necessary to reexamine the theoretical models for Sgr A. Melia et al. (2001) proposed that the electrons in the small Keplerian disk can attain a very high temperature through some magnetic processes, and the resulting synchrotron and self-Compton emission are responsible for the radio and X-ray spectrum. However, the formation of the small disk may not be a necessary result of such low angular momentum accretion. An accretion flow with very low angular momentum can still be described by an ADAF, although such accretion may belong to the Bondi-like type rather than disk-like type, as shown by Yuan (1999) (see also Abramowicz & Zurek 1981; Abramowicz 1998). Thus the dynamical scenario of this model needs to be studied carefully.

For the jet model, Falcke & Markoff (2000) take into account the contribution from synchrotron self-Compton emission (SSC) in the nozzle and find that the parameters required to interpret the submm bump give a very good fit to the Chandra spectrum without changing the basic parameters of the jet model. But the remaining important problem in the model is why the parameters of the jet possess the required values, particularly in reference to the inferred underlying accretion disk. Previous ideas of a standard optically thick accretion disk in Sgr A\* (e.g., Falcke & Heinrich 1994) do not seem to work because the predicted IR flux from a standard thin disk with a reasonable accretion rate would be several orders of magnitude higher than the observed IR upper limit (Falcke & Melia 1997). Therefore, it is crucial to consider the jet and accretion flow as a coupled system in Sgr A, and to consider what are their respective roles if both are truly present in Sgr A. Yuan (2000) presented the first effort, by considering a combination of jet and ADAF models. However, the complete Chandra data was not available at that time and the detailed coupling mechanism was lacking in Yuan (2000) so it is necessary to revisit the model again.

The development of the theory provides a new chance to model Sgr A. Since the Bernoulli parameter of the ADAF is positive, which means the gas can escape to infinity with positive energy, Blandford & Begelman (1999) propose an advection-dominated inflow-outflow solution (ADIOS) in which most of the gas is lost through winds rather than accreted past the horizon of the black hole. The concept of strong winds from accretion flow was also proposed and studied by Xu & Chen (1997) and Das & Chakrabarti (1999). The former described pressure-driven winds from centrifugally supported boundary layers and shocks in the inner regions of disks, and the latter proposed an advection-dominated flow where the central black hole redirects the inward flow at low latitudes into an outflow at high latitudes. We are not explicitly making use of the latter two models. The most appealing point of the ADIOS model as applied to Sgr A is that the predicted X-ray spectrum is possibly much softer than that of the ADAF (Quataert & Narayan 1999), and therefore could possibly give a better fit to the Chandra data. This is because the density profile of the accretion flow becomes flatter due to the wind, while X-ray emission at higher frequencies is produced in the inner region of the accretion flow. If we assume that the mass accretion rate in the ADIOS is described by a power-law of radius, $`\dot{M}R^p`$, the predicted photon index in Chandra band is approximately $`\mathrm{\Gamma }3/2+2p`$. Thus it is necessary to investigate this model for the possibility of interpreting the Chandra results.

In this paper we explore several of the above-mentioned models for Sgr A. By probing a larger parameter space than before, we find that ADAFs can give a marginal interpretation to the new Chandra results, although the fit is not very good in some points (Sect. 2), while the ADIOS model can’t (Sect. 3). In Sect. 4 we propose that the combination of an ADAF and a jet could provide an excellent fit to the observations to Sgr A, and present our model results. The last section is a summary and discussion.

## 2 ADAFs

We first model Sgr A with the advection-dominated accretion model. The modeling technique is described in detail in Yuan et al. (2000; see also Nakamura et al. 1997). We use the Paczyński & Wiita (1980) potential to mimic the geometry of the central black hole. A randomly oriented magnetic field is assumed to exist in the accretion flow and the ratio between the gas pressure and total pressure (gas pressure plus magnetic pressure) is denoted as $`\beta `$. As commonly used, we assume that a fraction, $`\delta `$, of viscous dissipation will directly heat electrons. The radiation mechanisms we consider include bremsstrahlung, synchrotron radiation and their Comptonization. We require a physical global solution that satisfies the no-torque condition at the horizon of the black hole, a sonic point condition, and the outer boundary conditions. The calculation of the spectra and the structure of the accretion flows are made completely self-consistent as the full set of coupled radiation hydrodynamical accretion equations are solved numerically.

The parameters are adopted as follows. We take the black hole mass as $`M=2.5\times 10^6\mathrm{M}_{}`$, and the viscosity parameter is fixed as $`\alpha =0.1`$. We assume the magnetic field is in equipartition with the gas pressure or weaker, i.e., $`\beta =0.5,0.9,0.99`$, although the sub-equipartition magnetic field is more plausible if $`\alpha =0.1`$. We set $`\delta `$ as $`10^3`$ or $`10^2`$ as usual, i.e., we assume that most of the viscous dissipation will heat ions. For the mass accretion rate, using their latest Chandra observational data, Baganoff et al. (2001a) estimate $`\dot{M}3\times 10^6\mathrm{M}_{}\mathrm{yr}^1`$, if the stellar wind is the accretion material, or $`\dot{M}1\times 10^6\mathrm{M}_{}\mathrm{yr}^1`$, if the hot ISM around Sgr A serves as the accretion source, which we use as our reference numbers. In principle, the accretion rate of Sgr A\* could be much higher, based on the available material from stellar winds. However, explosive events like the hyper-/supernova Sgr A East could temporarily reduce the accretion rate onto Sgr A\* substantially (e.g., Coker 2001).

The outer boundary conditions should be taken seriously since they may affect the emergent spectrum significantly (Yuan et al. 2000). Throughout this paper we set the outer boundary of the accretion flow at $`R_{\mathrm{out}}=10^5R_\mathrm{s}`$, where $`R_\mathrm{s}`$ is the Schwarzschild radius of the black hole, since this is approximately the location where the accretion begins according to the Bondi-Hoyle capture theory. Three outer boundary conditions are the temperatures of ions and electrons, $`T_{\mathrm{i},\mathrm{e}}`$, and the angular velocity of the accretion flow, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{\mathrm{out}}`$, at $`R_{\mathrm{out}}`$. When $`R_{\mathrm{out}}`$ is very large, as in the present case, the available range of $`T_{\mathrm{i},\mathrm{e}}`$ within which we can get a physical solution is small, therefore the effect of $`T_{\mathrm{i},\mathrm{e}}`$ can be neglected. But the feasible range of $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{\mathrm{out}}`$ is large and may have a significant effect on the emergent spectrum. For fixed parameters $`R_{\mathrm{out}}`$, $`\beta `$ and $`\alpha `$, there exists a critical value of $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{\mathrm{out}}`$ above which the accretion is of disk-like type while below it is of Bondi-like type (Yuan 1999). The density of the Bondi-like accretion flow is much lower than the disk-like type at the same mass accretion rate. Unfortunately the exact value of $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{\mathrm{out}}`$ is uncertain. We only know that it must be low no matter whether it originates from stellar winds or from the hot ISM. For example, the hydrodynamical simulations of Coker & Melia (1997) found $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{\mathrm{out}}0.2\mathrm{\Omega }_{\mathrm{Kepler}}`$, if it comes from stellar winds. We therefore require in our model that $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{\mathrm{out}}0.3\mathrm{\Omega }_{\mathrm{Kepler}}`$.

Fig. 1 shows our fits to the spectrum with an ADAF model. The radio and IR data are compiled by Melia & Falcke (2001). The short solid line within the error box shows the best fit to the Chandra observation by a power-law model in Baganoff et al. (2001b). We show $`F_\nu `$ rather than $`\nu F_\nu `$ because it is more conducive for judging the quality of the spectral fit at radio bands. The solid line shows our best fit to the spectrum especially to the Chandra data. The parameters are $`\alpha =0.1,\beta =0.9,\delta =10^2`$, and $`\dot{M}=1.55\times 10^6\mathrm{M}_{}\mathrm{yr}^1`$ (or $`2.8\times 10^5\dot{M}_{\mathrm{Edd}}`$, here the Eddington accretion rate is defined as $`\dot{M}_{\mathrm{Edd}}=L_{\mathrm{Edd}}/0.1c^2=5.525\times 10^2\mathrm{M}_{}\mathrm{yr}^1`$ where $`L_{\mathrm{Edd}}`$ is the Eddington luminosity.). The outer boundary condition at $`R_{\mathrm{out}}=10^5R_\mathrm{s}`$ is $`T_\mathrm{i}T_\mathrm{e}=8\times 10^6\mathrm{K}`$ (this value of temperature is consistent with the X-ray observations by Baganoff et al. 2001a), $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{\mathrm{out}}=0.16\mathrm{\Omega }_{\mathrm{Kepler}}`$.

From the figure we find that an ADAF model can fit the X-ray spectrum with a reasonable accretion rate 222In Yuan (2000), the Chandra flux is produced with a higher accretion rate, $`1.5\times 10^4\dot{M}_{\mathrm{Edd}}`$. The discrepancy in accretion rate is because in Yuan (2000) the accretion is Bondi-like, while in the present paper it is disk-like. For the same accretion rate, the density in a Bondi-like accretion flow is much lower than in a disk-like flow. Since bremsstrahlung emission is proportional to the square of the density the X-ray emission can be largely different between the two cases. although the predicted spectrum is flatter than the best fit of Baganoff et al. (2001b). The predicted X-ray spectrum is composed of two components, namely the bremsstrahlung from the outer region of ADAF and the second-order SSC from the innermost region of ADAF. The dotted line in the figure shows the result excluding the SSC component. Different from our result, in the ADAF model of Narayan et al. (1998), the X-ray emission is dominated by bremsstrahlung alone. One reason for the difference is our use of a higher $`\delta `$, and another reason is that we treat the outer boundary conditions more carefully. For bremsstrahlung, the emission at a frequency $`\nu `$ is dominated by the largest radius in an ADAF that satisfies $`h\nu kT(r)`$. Our numerical calculation results indicate that the 2 and 10 keV radiation is dominated by radii around $`4\times 10^4R_\mathrm{s}`$ and $`7400R_\mathrm{s}`$, respectively. This large radial range is consistent with the extended emission component ($`1^{\mathrm{}}10^5R_\mathrm{s}`$) observed by Chandra. In addition, the thermal bremsstrahlung can also explain the possible Fe K$`\alpha `$ emission line at 6.7 keV (Narayan & Raymond 1999). The dynamical timescale of the accretion flow at these large radii, which is responsible for the bremsstrahlung variability, is $`t_\mathrm{d}(R^3/GM)^{1/2}1`$ year. Baganoff et al. (2001b) made a comparison between their two observations with an interval of about one year and found that the steady state X-ray flux remains almost constant. This result, combined with the rapid variability, seems to indicate that there are two components to the X-ray emission operating on very different spatial scales and having very different time scales for variability. Bremsstrahlung may well be the component responsible for the constant flux. The SSC component mainly comes from regions $`3R_\mathrm{s}`$ (see Fig. 1 in Manmoto et al. 1997). The corresponding variability timescale is $`3R_\mathrm{s}/v_r1000`$ seconds. So this component would be responsible for the observed rapid variability.

However, as shown by Fig. 1, this model over-predicts the submm bump by a factor of $``$ 2-3. We then try to lower the synchrotron flux from the ADAF to fit the submm bump better, as shown by the dashed line in Fig. 1. The parameters are $`\dot{M}=1.66\times 10^6\mathrm{M}_{}\mathrm{yr}^1,\beta =0.99,\delta =10^3`$. The outer boundary conditions are the same as the solid line except with $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{\mathrm{out}}=0.15\mathrm{\Omega }_{\mathrm{Kepler}}`$. In this case the second order SSC will become too weak to contribute to the X-ray flux, therefore, bremsstrahlung is almost the sole contributor to the X-ray spectrum. Consequently, the predicted spectrum is too flat and the $`1`$ hour variability is hard to explain. Considering that we can only investigate a limited parameter space of the ADAF model, and the fact that the solid line only fits marginally, we conclude that it is possible to interpret the spectrum of Sgr A\* from submm bump to X-ray using the ADAF model. However, it remains to be seen whether the current ADAF model can indeed produce a strong flare as found by Baganoff et al. (2001b). In addition, as in all previous ADAF models in the literature, the ADAF model always under-predicts the low-frequency radio spectrum which needs a contribution from another component such as a jet.

## 3 ADIOS

We next attempt to model Sgr A with an ADIOS. The modeling approach is exactly the same as with the ADAF, except that the accretion rate is assumed to be described by $`\dot{M}=\dot{M}_0(R/R_{\mathrm{out}})^p`$. We solve the full set of coupled radiation hydrodynamical accretion equations to obtain the spectra and the structures of the accretion flow consistently. Note that this is an improvement compared to Quataert & Narayan (1999) where some dynamical quantities such as radial velocity and sound speed obtained in corresponding ADAFs (with $`\dot{M}=\dot{M}_0`$) are used in calculating the spectra of the ADIOS. Following Quataert & Narayan (1999), we assume that the wind does not radiate.

We first assume that the fraction of viscous heating of electrons is $`\delta =10^3`$. We set $`\alpha =0.1`$ but treat $`\dot{M},p`$ and $`\beta `$ as free in order to find the best set of parameters to fit the submm bump and the X-ray spectrum. The dashed line in Fig. 2 shows our best model results. The parameters are $`\dot{M}_0=1.66\times 10^5\mathrm{M}_{}\mathrm{yr}^1`$, $`p=0.28`$, $`\alpha =0.1`$, but $`\beta =0.5`$ (not 0.9 since otherwise the predicted radio flux is too low compared to the observation). The outer boundary conditions are $`T_\mathrm{i}T_\mathrm{e}=8\times 10^6\mathrm{K}`$, and $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{\mathrm{out}}=0.295\mathrm{\Omega }_{\mathrm{Kepler}}`$ at $`R_{\mathrm{out}}=10^5R_\mathrm{s}`$. Compared to the ADAF model, both the slope of the X-ray spectrum and the submm bump are now fitted better. However, there are two serious problems for this fit. The first one is that the required mass accretion rate is over 5 times higher than the upper limit estimated in Baganoff et al. (2001a) mentioned above. The second problem is that the X-ray spectra are produced by thermal bremsstrahlung emission alone, therefore this model cannot explain the short timescale variability. In fact, the introduction of a wind makes the variability timescale even longer because the decreasing density of accretion flows (e.g. Di Matteo et al. 2000) makes things worse.

The very rapid variability observed by Chandra indicates that the X-ray emission comes from a very small spatial region. This points towards SSC occurring in the inner region of the disk. In the case of the existence of strong winds, the density of the accretion flow in the innermost region is very low. When the flow is tenuous, SSC will show some spectral peaks as a result of different scattering orders. To make SSC dominate over bremsstrahlung in the X-ray band, the first order of SSC is more promising due to the rapid decrease of Compton scattering probability with increasing scattering orders. To make the first order SSC component reach the Chandra band, the electron temperature in the emission region must be very high.

An effective way to increase the electron temperature in the accretion flow is to increase $`\delta `$. In the ADAF we generally assume that $`\delta `$ is as as small as $`\delta =10^3`$ or $`10^2`$, i.e., the viscous dissipation mainly heats the ions. However, because of the uncertainty in the microphysics of the ADAF, it is possible that for some reasons, such as magnetic reconnection, the viscous dissipation may prefer heating electrons, i.e., $`\delta `$ may be much larger (Bisnovatyi-Kogan & Lovelace 1997, 2000; Gruzinov 1998; Quataert & Gruzinov 1999; Blackman 1999). In this case, the temperature of the electrons will be greatly increased.

We try to model the spectrum using various values for $`\delta `$. We find that only when $`\delta 1`$, i.e., almost all of the viscous dissipation heats only electrons, can we get a high enough electron temperature to make the first order SSC dominate the X-ray emission. The solid line in Fig. 2 shows such an example. Other parameters in this model are $`\dot{M}_0=2.8\times 10^6\mathrm{M}_{}\mathrm{yr}^1,\alpha =0.1,\beta =0.9`$, and $`p=0.4`$. The outer boundary conditions are $`T_{\mathrm{i},\mathrm{e}}=10^7\mathrm{K}`$, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{\mathrm{out}}=0.25\mathrm{\Omega }_{\mathrm{Kepler}}`$. The temperature of electrons is as high as $`10^{11}`$ K for the accretion flow within $`6R_\mathrm{s}`$ and the highest temperature is $`3\times 10^{11}`$ K. This model is then very similar to the model proposed by Melia et al. (2001) for Sgr A in the sense that a high-temperature inner disk forms, with $`T_\mathrm{e}>10^{11}`$K. Synchrotron emission in this hottest region produces the submm bump, synchrotron self-Compton dominates the X-ray band and gives a very soft spectrum. The thermal bremsstrahlung radiation only contributes a small part as shown by the dotted line, where SSC is neglected. In this case a very short X-ray variability timescale can be expected.

Putting aside the reality of such a high $`\delta `$, the fit is not satisfactory on the following points: First, it under-predicts the low-frequency radio spectrum. Second, the predicted X-ray slope is much steeper than the best fit of Baganoff et al. (2001b). The third problem is that this model over-predicts the flux above $`100`$ GHz by a factor of 4-6. We cannot get a better fit no matter how we adjust the parameters. Because of the strong self-absorption of synchrotron emission, the radio spectrum is the result of a super-position of blackbody radiation from the different parts of the ADAF with different temperatures. So, comparing this model with an ADAF (or ADIOS with small $`\delta `$), we can understand that the main reason for the over-prediction is its too extreme temperature making the flux of the blackbody radiation stronger. Thus we conclude that, if we do not consider the possible radiation of winds, the ADIOS model is not favored for Sgr A.

However, the approximation that the wind does not radiate may be an over-simplification. For example, the part of the wind originating from the supersonic region of the accretion disk will possibly be shocked when it is ejected out of the disk. Thus it would reach very high temperatures and its radiation could not be neglected. In this sense, the wind within the sonic radius will present itself as radiative, outflowing plasma–i.e., like the plasma jets typically observed in AGN. The model would then possibly become similar to our jet-disk model presented below.

## 4 Jet-ADAF model for Sgr A

The idea of combining a jet and an ADAF was proposed by Falcke (1999) and Donea et al. (1999). Yuan (2000) first worked this out in detail and calculated the spectrum of the jet-ADAF system for Sgr A and some nearby elliptical galaxies. There is only scant direct observational evidence for the existence of a jet in Sgr A, from the near-simultaneous VLBA measurements by Lo et al. (1998). They found that the intrinsic source structure at 43 GHz is elongated along an essentially north-south direction, with an axial ratio of less than 0.3. However, it is interesting to note that the nearby spiral galaxy M81 has a very similar radio core and similar unusual polarization features as Sgr A (Bietenholz et al. 2000; Brunthaler et al. 2001). In this source, a jet was clearly observed after many VLBI observations, with the length of the jet being only $`400`$AU at 43 GHz (Bietenholz, Bartel, & Rupen 2000). If we consider M81 to be a scaled-up version of Sgr A, as suggested by their similarity, there could well exist a jet in Sgr A as well. Of course, the jet in Sgr A would be less powerful and hence smaller, making it difficult to detect because of the strong scattering of radio waves within the Galaxy. More generally, jets seem to be symbiotic with accretion disks (Falcke & Biermann 1995; Livio 1999) and they are found in basically all kinds of accretion powered systems. In this sense the model presented here may be quite general.

The picture of our jet-disk model presented here is as follows. The accretion disk is described by an ADAF. In the innermost region, $`r<r_0`$, where parameter $`r_0`$ is the jet location, a fraction $`q_\mathrm{m}`$ of the accretion flow is ejected out of the disk and forms a jet. Since in our model $`r_0`$ is very small ($`r_02R_\mathrm{s}`$, within the sonic point of the accretion disk), the radial velocity of the accretion flow is supersonic at this small radius (the Mach Number is $`23`$). Therefore, when the supersonic accretion flow is transferred from the disk into the jet, which is normal to the disk, the plasma will be shocked before entering into the jet. The shocked gas passes through a nozzle where it becomes supersonic. Then it is accelerated along the jet axis through the gas pressure gradient force (the gravitational force is ignored since its effect is rather small in the supersonic regime far away from the black hole) and expands sideways with its initial sound speed. Given the initial physical states of the plasma at the sonic point (top of the nozzle), we can solve for all the quantities as a function of distance from the nozzle, and after calculating the density and the strength of the magnetic field, we can calculate the radiation of the jet (Falcke & Markoff 2000).

If, however, there exists a possibility that a substantial fraction of the accretion flow can be transferred into the jet directly without being shocked (e.g., the accretion flow outside of the sonic point also goes into the jet), we could also envisage a mixture of a relatively cold (un-shocked, $`10^{10}`$K in the innermost region of ADAF) and hot (shocked, $`10^{11}`$K, see below for this value) electrons in the jet. If the energy transfer between particles is inefficient, this kind of mixture could last for a long distance along the jet. For an emission model we can ignore this possibility, because the implied radiation should be less than the dashed line in Fig. 3 and the contribution to the overall spectrum can be neglected. On the other hand, such a mixture of hot and cold electrons may be needed when considering the circular polarization of Sgr A (Beckert & Falcke 2001). This might increase the coupling constant between jet and disk.

The exact physics of the nozzle are difficult to model since we are at present unclear as to the physical mechanism of jet formation. In this paper we treat the nozzle only phenomenologically when calculating its spectrum. We simply assume that it consists of a series of cylinders with the same electron temperature but linearly decreasing density (increasing velocity) from bottom to top. The velocity of the gas at the base of the nozzle is assumed to be $`1/5`$ of that at the top of the nozzle where it reaches sound speed. The emission is not very sensitive to the exact value of the initial nozzle speed. The main radiation mechanisms are synchrotron emission and its Comptonization. The parameters describing the jet include radius and height of the nozzle, $`r_0`$ and $`z_0`$, electron temperature $`T_\mathrm{e}`$, electron number density $`n_e`$, the strength of the magnetic field $`B`$ at the top of nozzle, and the angle between the jet axis and the line of sight $`\theta `$.

All above are free parameters in the original jet model (but most of them have obvious physical constraints to their range of values, see Falcke & Markoff 2000). But here in our coupled jet-disk system, more constraints are required so that the jet parameters are consistent with the underlying accretion disk. $`T_\mathrm{e}`$ is calculated self-consistently as follows. When some accretion gas passes through the shock and enters into the jet, the ordered kinetic energy in the pre-shock gas will be converted into thermal energy in the shock front. Neglecting the effects of the magnetic field on the shock jump condition (we will check the rationality of this approximation later), we calculate the electron temperature of the post-shock plasma by the following Rankine-Hugoniot relations, namely the conservation of flux of mass, momentum, and energy. Written in the conventional notation, they are

$$[\rho v]=0,$$
(1)
$$[P+\rho v^2]=0,$$
(2)
$$\left[\frac{1}{2}v^2+\frac{2}{5}\frac{P}{\rho }\right]=0,$$
(3)
respectively. To obtain $`T_\mathrm{e}`$ immediately after the shock, we still need the ratio between the ion and electron temperatures, $`\xi `$. On the one hand, shock heating may favor the ions rather than electrons, as isotropization of the bulk flow velocities will give to each species a thermal energy proportional to its mass. On the other hand, Coulomb collisions, and maybe collisionless processes also, will bring about equilibration between ions and electrons temperatures. Determining the value of $`\xi `$ is a difficult task (see Laming 2000 for a recent review). In the context of supernova remnant shocks, Cargill & Papadopoulos (1988) predict $`\xi =5`$ from a numerical simulation, while Laming et al. (1996) derive $`\xi =20`$ from their fit to observations. We set $`\xi =10`$ in our model.

For a given shock location $`r_0`$, we first solve the radiation-hydrodynamical equations describing the underlying ADAF under selected parameters and outer boundary conditions to obtain the pre-shock physical quantities at $`r_0`$. We then substitute them in the above shock relations to get the post-shock values. Thus we obtain the electron temperature $`T_\mathrm{e}`$ in the nozzle. Therefore $`T_\mathrm{e}`$ is not a free parameter in our model, we can change its value only through changing the parameters and outer boundary conditions of the underlying accretion disk. We use the same “magnetic parameter” $`\beta `$ as in the ADAF to describe the ratio between the gas pressure and total pressure in the nozzle to obtain the value of $`B`$ if temperature and density are known. This means that $`B`$ is no longer a free parameter, either. The density, $`n_\mathrm{e}`$, in the jet follows from the coupling constant $`q_\mathrm{m}`$ in the jet-disk symbiosis model (Falcke et al. 1993). This is defined as the ratio between mass loss in the jet and accretion rate outside $`r_0`$. For jets, $`q_\mathrm{m}`$ is typically a few percent and we require $`q_\mathrm{m}1`$.

Our best spectral fit is presented by the solid line in Fig. 3. The dashed line denotes the emergent spectrum from the jet, and the dotted line is from the underlying disk (ADAF). The solid line is their sum. For ADAFs, the parameters are $`\dot{M}=8.8\times 10^7\mathrm{M}_{}\mathrm{yr}^1`$, $`\alpha =0.1,\beta =0.95`$ and $`\delta =10^3`$. The outer boundary conditions are $`T_\mathrm{i}T_\mathrm{e}=8\times 10^6\mathrm{K}`$, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{\mathrm{out}}=0.27\mathrm{\Omega }_{\mathrm{Kepler}}`$ at $`10^5R_\mathrm{s}`$. The parameters for the jet are $`r_0=1.7R_\mathrm{s}`$, $`z_0=3.5r_0`$, $`q_\mathrm{m}=0.5\%`$ and $`\theta =35^\mathrm{°}`$, the “calculated parameters” are $`B=23\mathrm{G}`$, $`T_\mathrm{e}=2.1\times 10^{11}\mathrm{K}`$, and $`n_e=2.4\times 10^6`$. The mass loss rate in the jet is $`\dot{M}_{\mathrm{jet}}=\pi r_0^2c_sn_em_p=4.3\times 10^9\mathrm{M}_{}\mathrm{yr}^1`$, i.e. 0.5% of the accretion rate. For $`\beta =0.95`$ and shock location $`r_0=1.7R_\mathrm{s}`$, the Alfvén Mach number $`M_Av/v_{A1}=(v/c_s)(4\pi \gamma p/B^2)^{1/2}10>6`$, here $`v_{A1}B_1/(4\pi \rho _1)^{1/2}`$ is the pre-shock Alfvén speed, the magnetic effects are weak in the shock transition condition, so our hydrodynamic approximation to the shock transition condition, Eqs. (1)-(3) above, is justified (Draine & McKee 1993).

This model fits the spectrum over the whole range of frequencies from radio to the X-ray quite well. The submm bump is slightly over-predicted, but it is acceptable considering the variability of the data in this band (Melia & Falcke 2001) and the uncertainty of the model. The low-frequency radio emission is mainly contributed by the jet outside the nozzle. The contribution from the ADAF is rather weak and can be neglected. The submm bump is the sum of the synchrotron radiation from both the ADAF and the nozzle of the jet. We note that the emission from the nozzle is much weaker than in the ADIOS with $`\delta =1`$ presented in the last section (solid line in Fig. 2) although the electron temperatures are both $`10^{11}\mathrm{K}`$. Such a difference is not surprising considering the much smaller spatial scale of the nozzle, $`r_0=1.75R_\mathrm{s}`$, while in that case, there is a larger radial range with high temperature. In this sense, an abrupt increase in the temperature profile is necessary to model the spectrum. This is naturally satisfied in our jet-disk model by the formation of a jet. If instead the nozzle in our model is replaced by a similar high-temperature component such as the inner region of a disk, since the temperature profile of the disk is in general smooth, the radial range of this high-temperature component would be considerable. In this case, we expect that the model would greatly over-predict the submm flux, and the low-frequency radio spectrum is still hard to explain, as indicated by our calculation for the ADIOS model with high $`\delta `$ in Sect. 3. This is the reason why in Melia et al. (2001)’s model the authors require an accretion disk as small as $`5R_\mathrm{s}`$.

The X-rays are mainly produced in the nozzle by SSC, although bremsstrahlung from the ADAF also contributes to a small degree. The predicted X-ray spectrum is the sum of the very soft SSC from the nozzle and the relatively flatter bremsstrahlung spectrum from the ADAF, which is in very good agreement with the Chandra data, almost identical to the best fit of Baganoff et al. (2001b). The fit is also much better than that of the ADIOS with $`\delta =1`$ in the last section. In both cases, the X-ray emission is the sum of bremsstrahlung and SSC, but in the present case, bremsstrahlung produces a much flatter spectrum than in the case of an ADIOS due to the absence of a strong wind. Because of the contribution of SSC from the jet, the variability timescale of X-rays should be short, $`tr_0/v_{\mathrm{jet}}10`$ minutes. This is consistent with the $``$ 1 hour variability timescale determined in the quiescent state and is in excellent agreement with the $`600`$ seconds variability timescale detected in the flare state. We show that it is the variability of the flux from the nozzle that causes the huge-amplitude flare (Markoff et al. 2001b). On the other hand, since the bremsstrahlung radiation from the ADAF also contributes partly to the X-ray spectrum, this could explain the possibly detected extended source with $`10^5R_\mathrm{s}(1^{\mathrm{}})`$, the 6.7 keV K$`\alpha `$ emission line, and steady X-ray flux on $``$ one year timescale, as we stated in Sect. 2.

We note that the above nozzle parameters, temperature, spatial size and density, are very close to the “second component” in the model of Beckert & Duschl (1997), which is also responsible for the submm bump of Sgr A. These parameters seem to be the best ones to fit the submm bump. It is interesting that the nozzle with these parameters will “evolve” naturally into a jet whose emission can well reproduce the low-frequency radio spectrum of Sgr A, and the Comptonization of its synchrotron emission can produce a very soft X-ray spectrum which can fit the Chandra data excellently. In fact, to make the up-scattered submm bump extend to the Chandra band, an electron temperature as high as $`10^{11}\mathrm{K}`$ is needed. The peak frequency of this bump is $`10^{12}`$ Hz. To up-scatter it to the X-ray band, $`\nu 10^{16}`$ Hz, the electron Lorentz factor must satisfy $`4\gamma _e^210^{16}/10^{12}10^4`$. This corresponds to a temperature of $`T\frac{1}{k}\frac{\gamma _e}{3.5}m_ec^210^{11}`$K. This value is about 10 times higher than the highest temperature that a canonical ADAF can reach in its innermost region, but is naturally reached when some fraction of accretion matter is shocked333We note in this context that Falcke (1996b) and Beckert & Duschl (1997) demanded that $`T10^{11}`$K based on the Sgr A\* spectrum alone.. In addition to a high temperature, the spatial size of the dominant emission medium must be small, otherwise the model will over-predict the high-frequency radio flux as in ADIOS with high $`\delta `$ (the solid line in Fig. 2). This is also easily satisfied in the jet model by requiring a small $`r_0`$. In addition to the above parameters, a truncated (no hard tail) electron energy distribution is also required in the model, otherwise the synchrotron emission will extend above the observed IR flux upper limit. Beckert & Duschl (1997) simply assume a mono-energetic distribution. In our model, a relativistic thermal distribution, which is highly peaked at $`\gamma 3.5\frac{kT}{m_ec^2}`$, is a natural result of shock heating (e.g. Drury 1983) since the Mach number is not very large in our case, $`23`$.

The mass accretion rate of the ADAF in our model, $`8.8\times 10^7\mathrm{M}_{}\mathrm{yr}^1`$, is only marginally smaller than the lower limit of Baganoff et al. (2001a) estimate of $`1\times 10^6\mathrm{M}_{}\mathrm{yr}^1`$. If we used a higher accretion rate, we would obviously slightly over-predict the flux at the submm bump band because of the higher flux of the synchrotron emission from the ADAF.

There are various ways to further evolve the model. One is to introduce global winds in the ADAF. The X-ray radiation from the disk would be almost unaffected but the radio emission from the disk would be greatly decreased because of the great decrease in density close to the black hole (Quataert & Narayan 1999). But the wind cannot be too strong, otherwise the X-ray spectrum would be too soft, as we argued in the case of ADIOS model with $`\delta 1`$. Another modification is to assume that the accretion disk is radiatively truncated within $`r_0`$, the radius of the jet formation (Yuan 2000). The physical reason for the truncation is that to form a jet, some amount of energy is needed. If we assume this energy comes from the underlying disk, the disk will be left cold within $`r_0`$ because of the energy extraction (Blandford & Payne 1982). This will greatly suppress the synchrotron emission due to the very sensitive dependence of synchrotron radiation on the temperature.

## 5 Summary and Discussion

Recent Chandra X-ray observations put new constraints on the theoretical models of Sgr A. The spectrum is very soft, the flux is rapidly variable and the source is extended. In this paper we consider three different models to explain the observational results of Sgr A. We find that an ADAF model can give a marginally satisfactory interpretation to the Chandra spectrum and the rapid X-ray variability. But our best fit is still not good for the radio spectrum in the sense that it over-predicts the high-frequency radio by a factor of 2-3 and significantly under-predicts the low-frequency radio. We then consider the possibility of strong winds from ADAFs, i.e., an ADIOS model. If the winds are non-radiative and viscous dissipation in the accretion flow mainly heats ions, as generally assumed in the literature, this model can fit the spectrum ranging from submm bump to X-ray quite well. However, it is hard to explain the rapid X-ray variability since in this model bremsstrahlung is the sole contributor at X-ray band. If we assume that most of the viscous dissipation preferentially heats electrons, a rapidly variable X-ray spectrum is expected since in this case the X-ray emission is dominated by SSC. But in this case the model over-predicts the radio flux above $`100`$ GHz by a factor of 4-6, and the predicted X-ray spectrum is much steeper than the best fit of the Chandra observations.

An excellent fit to all the data including low-frequency radio can be obtained with a coupled jet-disk model. In this model, the accretion disk is described by an ADAF. In the innermost region of the ADAF, $`2R_\mathrm{s}`$, some fraction $`q_\mathrm{m}`$ ($`0.5\%`$ if any cold jet component is neglected. See our discussion in Sect. 4 for the possibility of a cold jet component) of the accretion flow is ejected out of the ADAF and transferred into the jet. In this process, a shock occurs because the accretion flow is radially supersonic before the shock. After the shock the temperature of electrons in the nozzle (the base of the jet) reaches about $`2\times 10^{11}\mathrm{K}`$. In this case, the synchrotron emission in the nozzle largely dominates the submm bump, and its Comptonization dominates the quiescent X-ray spectrum in Sgr A. The X-ray spectrum is soft and the variability timescale is short. Out of the nozzle, the jet gas expands freely outward under the force of the gas pressure gradient of gas pressure. Furthermore its self-absorbed synchrotron radiation gives an good fit to the low-frequency radio spectrum of Sgr A which is hard to explain in ADAF models. The model is completely self-consistent.

The jet in our model produces a slightly inverted radio spectrum, as can be understood from the canonical model of Blandford & Königl (1979), with modifications as in Falcke (1996a). In the absence of a shock acceleration region in the highly-supersonic outer region of the jet, the particles retain the highly-peaked relativistic Maxwellian energy distribution which is attained by shock heating occurring when the radial supersonic accretion flow is transferred into the vertical direction. On the other hand, the electrons in AGN jets typically seem to have a power-law high-energy tail after shock acceleration in jets, since the Mach number in jets is very high (Drury 1983). In that case, a corresponding optically thin power-law spectrum at IR/optical frequencies is generally expected, as is seen in many AGN and perhaps even X-ray binary jets (e.g., Markoff et al. 2001a). In the case of Sgr A, the absence of an optically-thin power-law indicates that, for some unknown reason, such high Mach number shocks do not occur. If they would occur under certain conditions, we should still see an inverted radio spectrum, but we would also expect some kind of hard power-law emission at higher frequencies (mid-IR to X-rays).

In addition to the observations we mention in the present paper, there are also constraints to the model through the frequency-size relationship obtained from VLBI observations (Rogers et al. 1994; Krichbaum et al. 1998; Lo et al. 1998). The jet-disk model can fit this well as shown in Falcke & Markoff (2000).

We therefore conclude that it is possible to present a consistent picture of the emission processes associated with the central black hole in our Galaxy by combining the three basic astrophysical ingredients that have been discussed in recent years: Bondi-Hoyle accretion from the immediate environment, optically thin accretion through an ADAF, and energy extraction and visible emission by a plasma jet. Our jet-ADAF model predicts a closely correlated variability among sub-millimeter, IR, and X-ray. More broad-band observations and monitoring at various wavebands (radio, IR, X-rays) will help to judge whether it will be possible to establish a standard model invoking those elements for Sgr A\* in the near future. For example, more precise determination of the IR flux will help to further discriminate between the jet-ADAF model and the pure ADAF model since the former predicts higher IR flux than the latter. This will also be crucial for understanding the activity in low-power black holes in general.

###### Acknowledgements.

We are grateful to Peter Biermann for discussions on shock physics. F. Y. thanks the partial support from China 973 Project under NKBRSF G19990754.


text:
# Classical and Quantum-like approaches to Charged-Particle Fluids in a Quadrupole

## 1 Introduction

The dynamics of a charged–particle system in a quadrupole-like device concerns with a number of problems in accelerator physics , in plasma physics , and in the physics of electromagnetic (e.m.) traps . In particular, charged–particles execute synchrotron oscillations in radio–frequency (RF) fields; then, the system can be suitably bunched as a result of the bucket formation . When oscillations are sufficiently small, the syncrotron motion can be described as being in a harmonic-like potential well whose strength is proportional to the RF voltage amplitude . Typically, this strength is a slow function of time compared to the RF period.

Sometimes, during the above dynamics in a RF field, the phenomenon of dissipation due to the e.m. radiation emission cannot be neglected. However, it allows the system to reach a steady state.

In the combined traps for positrons (electrons) and antiprotons (protons), such a kind of dissipation enables the system to cool and condense, and consequently to make possible the anti-hydrogen (hydrogen) atom formation .

In the circular accelerating machines, the radiation damping, in competition with the quantum excitation (photon noise), leads the system to an asymptotic equilibrium state, which typically corresponds to a Gaussian particle distribution in both configuration space and momentum space, with a given final temperature (or final emittance) . This final steady state can be considered as a sort of coherent state reached by the system which does not depend on its history . In fact, it can be determined a priori in terms of both the bunch and the machine parameters only . It is worth to note that this phenomenon of dissipation does not always lead the bunch to cool. In fact, the combined effect of radiation damping and quantum excitation can make possible the warming up of the bunch. It happens when the initial temperature (initial emittance) of the bunch is smaller than the final one.

In this paper, we develop a fluid description for a charged-particle system in a quadrupole-like potential well in the presence of dissipations in both classical-like and quantum-like domains. In particular, a generalized class of coherent states are shown to be possible, within this fluid framework, in the presence of dissipation. It is shown that coherent states described in the classical domain are equivalent to the ones described in the quantum-like domain.

## 2 Hydrodynamical description of coherent states for charged-particle beams

In this section, following a recent hydrodynamic approach applied to the radiation fluids , we start to consider a classical-like description of coherent states for a dilute charged-particle fluid, for which the ideal-gas-state equation is assumed. For the sake of simplicity, we consider the 1-D motion fluid motion equation of a dilute charged-particle beam. Accordingly, we have

$$\left(\frac{}{s}+P\frac{}{x}\right)P=\frac{U}{x}\frac{1}{n}\frac{\mathrm{\Pi }}{x},$$
(1)
$$\frac{n}{s}+\frac{}{x}\left(nP\right)=0,$$
(2)
where $`s=ct`$ ($`c`$, being the speed of light), $`P=P(x,s)`$ is the current velocity, $`n=n(x,s)`$ is the particle number density, and the quantity $`U=U(x,s)`$ is a dimensionless effective potential acting on the system. Assuming the ideal gas state equation

$$\mathrm{\Pi }=\frac{nk_\mathrm{B}T}{mc^2},$$
(3)
where $`\mathrm{\Pi }`$ is the thermal pressure, normalized with respect to $`mc^2`$, $`k_\mathrm{B}`$ is the Boltzmann constant, $`m`$ is the particle mass, and $`T=T(s)`$ is the temperature of the system, we have

$$\frac{\mathrm{\Pi }}{x}=\frac{\mathrm{\Pi }}{n}\frac{n}{x}=\eta \frac{n}{x},$$
(4)
with the definition

$$\eta \frac{\mathrm{\Pi }}{n}.$$
(5)
Note that, for an isothermal transformation,

$$\eta =\frac{k_\mathrm{B}T}{mc^2}=\frac{v_{\mathrm{th}}^2}{c^2}=\text{const}.,$$
(6)
where $`v_{\mathrm{th}}\sqrt{k_\mathrm{B}T/m}`$ is the thermal velocity. In general, the explicit expression of $`\eta `$ depends on the particular thermodynamical transformation that the system undergoes, but it is related someway to the r.m.s. of momentum-space distribution $`\sigma _P`$. Let us assume, in the following, that $`P`$ and $`\eta `$ are functions of $`s`$ only, namely,

$$P(x,s)=P_0(s)$$
(7)
and

$$\eta (x,s)=\eta _0(s).$$
(8)
Consequently, (1) and (2) become

$$P_0^{^{}}(s)=\frac{U}{x}\eta _0(s)\frac{}{x}\mathrm{ln}n,$$
(9)
$$\frac{n}{s}+P_0(s)\frac{n}{x}=0,$$
(10)
where the prime denotes differentiation with respect to $`s`$. Thus, (9) can be easily integrated with respect to $`x`$, giving

$$n(x,s)=\mathrm{exp}\left\{\frac{1}{\eta _0(s)}\left[U(x,s)+P_0^{^{}}(s)x+g(s)\right]\right\},$$
(11)
where $`g(s)`$ is an arbitrary function of $`s`$. By substituting (11) in (10), we obtain

$$\frac{\eta _0^{^{}}}{\eta _0}\left(U+P_0^{^{}}x+g\right)\left(\frac{U}{s}+P_0^{^{\prime \prime }}x+g^{^{}}\right)P_0\left(\frac{U}{x}+P_0^{^{}}\right)=0.$$
(12)
In order to consider the special case of coherent state associated with the beam, let us assume that the potential $`U(x,s)`$ is given by

$$U(x,s)=\frac{1}{2}K(s)x^2.$$
(13)
Equation (13) defines a quadrupole-like potential well with time-varying strength $`K(s)`$. Substituting (13) in (12) we get the following conditions for the quantities $`\eta _0`$, $`P_0`$, $`K`$, and $`g`$:

$$\frac{\eta _0^{^{}}}{\eta _0}=\frac{K^{^{}}}{K},$$
(14)
$$P_0^{^{\prime \prime }}\frac{\eta _0^{^{}}}{\eta _0}P_0^{^{}}+KP_0=0,$$
(15)
$$\frac{d}{ds}\left[\frac{1}{2}P_0^2+g\right]=\frac{\eta _0^{^{}}}{\eta _0}g.$$
(16)
¿From (14), we obtain

$$\beta \frac{\eta _0(s)}{K(s)}=\text{const}.$$
(17)
On the other hand, substituting (13) and (17) into (11), we have

$$n(x,s)=\mathrm{exp}\left\{\frac{\left[xx_0(s)\right]^2}{2\beta }\right\},$$
(18)
where

$$x_0(s)\frac{2g(s)}{P_0^{^{}}(s)},$$
(19)
and

$$g(s)=\frac{1}{2}\frac{\eta _0(s)}{\beta }x_0^2(s)=\frac{1}{2}K(s)x_0^2(s).$$
(20)
By combining (19) and (20), we find

$$P_0^{^{}}(s)=K(s)x_0(s).$$
(21)
Furthermore, substituting (18) in (10), we obtain

$$P_0(s)=x_0^{^{}}(s).$$
(22)
Combining the results given by (14)–(22), we finally obtain

$$x_0^{^{\prime \prime }}+K(s)x_0=0,$$
(23)
$$P_0^{^{\prime \prime }}\mathrm{\Gamma }(s)P_0^{^{}}+K(s)P_0=0,$$
(24)
and

$$\frac{d}{ds}\left[\frac{1}{2}P_0^2+\frac{1}{2}Kx_0^2\right]=\mathrm{\Gamma }(s)\left(\frac{1}{2}Kx_0^2\right),$$
(25)
where

$$\mathrm{\Gamma }(s)\frac{\eta _0^{^{}}}{\eta _0}=\frac{K^{^{}}}{K}.$$
(26)
In conclusion, a normalized density solution of the system of Eqs. (9) and (10) associated with potential (13) is

$$n(x,s)=\frac{1}{\sqrt{2\pi \beta }}\mathrm{exp}\left\{\frac{\left[xx_0(s)\right]^2}{2\beta }\right\}.$$
(27)
¿From (27), it is clear that the beam size (r.m.s.) $`\sigma _0`$ is

$$\sigma _0\left(xx_0\right)^2^{1/2}=\sqrt{\beta }=\text{const}.,$$
(28)
which implies that $`\beta `$ must be positive. It is clear that the Gaussian solution (27) with (23) and the positivity of $`\beta `$ may be a coherent state associated with the charged-particle beam in a quadrupole-like potential well with also a time-varying strength $`K(s)`$. But, in this case, (24)–(26) show that this coherent state exists for a dissipative system, otherwise $`K`$ must be constant. In fact, the $`s`$-variation of $`\eta _0`$ implies that the system, in principle, is not closed and can exchange its energy with the environment (see Eqs. (23)–(25)). This way, the distribution of the particles around the center remains unchanged (see Eqs. (27) and (28)) and corresponds to the coherent-beam configuration, for which the following condition holds:

$$\eta _0(s)=\sigma _0^2K(s).$$
(29)
Let us now consider, as a special case, an isothermal transformation of the beam, for which $`\eta _0`$ is constant. This is equivalent to say that the beam emittance $`ϵ`$  is constant too

$$\frac{ϵ^2}{4\sigma _0^2}=\frac{v_{\mathrm{th}}^2}{c^2}=\text{const}.$$
(30)
According to (14) and (15), it is clear that a coherent state exists, in this case, if and only if, $`K`$ is constant. Moreover, (23)–(25) become

$$x_0^{^{\prime \prime }}+Kx_0=0,$$
(31)
$$P_0^{^{\prime \prime }}+KP_0=0,$$
(32)
and

$$\frac{1}{2}P_0^2+\frac{1}{2}Kx_0^2_0=\text{const}.$$
(33)
Additionally, (29) becomes

$$K\sigma _0^4=\frac{ϵ^2}{4}.$$
(34)
In this case, (27) with (31)–(34) represent a coherent structure which preserves both the energy and the beam emittance. We may refer to this kind of coherent states as ordinary or isothermal coherent states. Furthermore, (26) can be written as

$$\mathrm{\Gamma }(s)=\frac{1}{ϵ^2}\frac{dϵ^2}{ds}.$$
(35)
Let us now observe that, on the basis of (22), (23), (27), and (28), one can introduce the following complex function

$$\mathrm{\Psi }(x,s)=\sqrt{n(x,s)}\mathrm{exp}i\theta (x,s),$$
(36)
where $`\theta (x,s)`$ is defined by

$$P_0(s)=ϵ(s)\frac{\theta (x,s)}{x}.$$
(37)
Consequently, (36) can be explicitly written as

$$\mathrm{\Psi }(x,s)=\frac{1}{\left(2\pi \sigma _0^2\right)^{1/4}}\mathrm{exp}\left[\frac{\left[xx_0(s)\right]^2}{4\sigma _0^2}+\frac{iP_0(s)x}{2ϵ(s)}+i\varphi _0(s)\right],$$
(38)
where $`\varphi _0(s)`$ is an arbitrary function of $`s`$. It is worth to note that the above complex function $`\mathrm{\Psi }`$ contains the same information as the system (22), (23), (27), and (28). However, Eq. (38) recovers a coherent state (similar to the ones in the ordinary quantum mechanics ), when $`ϵ`$ is assumed to be constant (non-dissipative system).

The constant $`ϵ`$ plays the similar role as $`\mathrm{}`$ in quantum mechanics. Consequently, in this case, the complex function defined by Eq. (38) satisfies a Schrödinger-like equation for a harmonic oscillator potential $`U=Kx^2/2`$, where $`K`$ is assumed to be constant, as well. We point out that the above isothermal coherent states coincide with the coherent states for charged-particle beam that have been recently described, within a wave-like context, in Ref.s .

Additionally, when $`ϵ`$ and $`K`$ depend both on $`s`$, it has already been proven that Eq. (38) still describes a quantum-like coherent state, provided that Eq. (30) is satisfied . The coherent states of a driven oscillator with dissipation within the framework of ordinary quantum mechanics were constructed in .

## 3 Quantum-like description

On the basis of the results given in the previous section, we extend the above correspondence between the classical and the quantum-like description  of the fluid motion, beyond the coherent state assumption. To this regard, we assume, in the absence of collective effects, that the dynamics of our system is governed by the following Schrödinger-like equation:

$$i\alpha \frac{\psi }{s}=\frac{\alpha ^2}{2}\frac{^2\psi }{x^2}+U(x,s)\psi ,$$
(39)
where $`\alpha =\alpha (s)`$ plays the role of a dispersion parameter and $`U`$, $`x`$ and $`s`$ have the same meaning as in the previous section. We show that the above Schroödinger-like equation is equivalent, under certain conditions, to the classical fluid system of equations (1) and (2). In fact, if we write

$$\psi (x,s)=M(x,s)\mathrm{exp}i\phi (x,s),$$
(40)
and if we substitute (40) back into (39) we can easily derive the following dissipative Madelung-like fluid equations, namely,

$$\left(\frac{}{s}+P\frac{}{x}\right)P=\frac{U}{x}+\frac{\alpha ^{^{}}}{\alpha }P+\frac{\alpha ^2}{2}\frac{}{x}\left(\frac{1}{M}\frac{^2M}{x^2}\right),$$
(41)
$$\frac{M^2}{s}+\frac{}{x}\left(M^2P\right)=0,$$
(42)
where

$$P=\alpha \frac{\phi }{x}.$$
(43)
Note that we can define the fluid density

$$n(x,s)=|\psi (x,s)|^2=M^2(x,s).$$
(44)
Consequently, under the following condition

$$\frac{\alpha ^{^{}}}{\alpha }P+\frac{\eta _0}{n}\frac{n}{x}+\frac{\alpha ^2}{2}\frac{}{x}\left(\frac{1}{M}\frac{^2M}{x^2}\right)=0,$$
(45)
(41) reduces to the following classical-like form

$$\left(\frac{}{s}+P\frac{}{x}\right)P=\frac{U}{x}\frac{\eta _0}{n}\frac{n}{x},$$
(46)
where $`\eta _0=\eta _0(s)`$ has been already defined above. It is clear that (42) and (46) together with the quantum-like interpretation (44) formally concide with our starting classical system as given by (1) and (2). Now we show that the classical-like solution for the dissipative Schrödinger-like equation (39) satisfying (45) can effectively be determined in the case of a quadrupole-like potential, i.e., $`U=K(s)x^2/2`$, where $`K(s)`$ is the quadrupole strength. Indeed, in this case, Eq. (39) admits the following solution:

$$\psi =\frac{1}{\left[2\pi \sigma ^2(s)\right]^{1/4}}\mathrm{exp}\left[\frac{x^2}{4\sigma ^2(s)}+\frac{ix^2}{2\alpha (s)\rho (s)}+i\chi (s)\right].$$
(47)
¿From (47) and (43), we obtain the following expression for the current velocity:

$$P(x,s)=\frac{x}{\rho (s)}.$$
(48)
In (47) and (48), $`\sigma (s)`$, $`\rho (s)`$, and $`\chi (s)`$ are real functions satisfying the following set of differential equations:

$$\frac{1}{\rho }=\frac{1}{\sigma }\frac{d\sigma }{ds},$$
(49)
$$\frac{d\chi }{ds}=\frac{\alpha (s)}{4\sigma ^2(s)},$$
(50)
$$\frac{d^2\sigma }{ds^2}+K(s)\sigma \frac{1}{\alpha }\frac{d\alpha }{ds}\frac{d\sigma }{ds}\frac{\alpha ^2}{4\sigma ^2}=0.$$
(51)
Up to this point, the function $`\alpha (s)`$ is quite arbitrary within a purely quantum-like context. However, we point out that, by substituting (47) into (45), in view of (40), (43), and (44), the previous equations (48)–(51) are exactly obtained, provided that the following condition for $`\alpha (s)`$ is satisfied:

$$\eta _0(s)=\frac{\sigma }{\alpha }\frac{d\alpha }{ds}\frac{d\sigma }{ds}+\frac{\alpha ^2}{4\sigma ^2}.$$
(52)
This condition clearly shows that $`\alpha (s)`$ is essentially determined by the temperature $`T(s)`$ of the fluid through $`\eta _0(s)`$ (see Eqs. (3), (5), and (8) ). On the other hand, within the quantum-like framework, the r.m.s of the momentum distribution $`\sigma _P`$ is defined as

$$\sigma _P(s)=\alpha \left[_{\mathrm{}}^+\mathrm{}\left|\frac{\psi (x,s)}{x}\right|^2𝑑x\right]^{1/2}=\left[\left(\frac{d\sigma }{ds}\right)^2+\frac{\alpha ^2}{4\sigma ^2}\right]^{1/2}.$$
(53)
Note that, consistently with the quantum-like formalism, the above definition of the r.m.s. of the momentum distribution, suggests to make the following assumption:

$$\eta _0(s)=\sigma _P^2(s).$$
(54)
On the other hand, in the classical-like interpretation, $`\sigma _P(s)`$ is r.m.s. of a Maxwellian-like (Gaussian) distribution in the momentum space and, consequently, it is proportional to the square root of the temperature of the system (see Eq. (46) ). By inserting (52) and (53) into (54), we obtain the following condition:

$$\frac{1}{\alpha }\frac{d\alpha }{ds}=\frac{1}{\sigma }\frac{d\sigma }{ds}.$$
(55)
## 4 Connection between $`\alpha `$ and the beam emittance $`ϵ`$

Within the classical framework, it is well known that the beam emittance $`ϵ`$ can be obtained by the relation

$$\frac{ϵ^2}{4}=x^2p^2xp^2,$$
(56)
where $`x^2=\sigma ^2`$, $`p^2=\sigma _P^2`$, and $`xp^2=\sigma ^2\left(d\sigma /ds\right)^2`$; the averages are taken with respect to the classical phase-space Gaussian distribution whose configuration projection coincides with $`|\psi |^2`$. Taking into account the above relations, (56) can be written as

$$\sigma _P^2=\left(\frac{d\sigma }{ds}\right)^2+\frac{ϵ^2}{4\sigma ^2}.$$
(57)
Consequently, by comparing (57) and (53), we obtain the following equality:

$$ϵ\left(s\right)=\alpha \left(s\right),$$
(58)
and the envelope equation (51) becomes

$$\frac{d^2\sigma }{ds^2}+K(s)\sigma \left(\frac{1}{ϵ}\frac{dϵ}{ds}\right)\frac{d\sigma }{ds}\frac{ϵ^2}{4\sigma ^2},$$
(59)
which coincides with the envelope equation obtained in Ref. .

## 5 Conclusions and remarks

We have proven that a dissipative classical fluid, moving in a quadrupole-like focusing device, can be fully described in terms of a Schrödinger-like equation for harmonic oscillator where the Planck’s constant is replaced by the time-varying beam emittance. This result justifies the main assumption of Refs.  where the longitudinal dynamics of an electron bunch in a storage ring in the presence of radiation damping and quantum excitation has been described by Eqs. (39) and (58). We point out that coherent state, in the dissipative case, are recovered from Eq. (59) in the limit of $`1/\rho 0`$, namely, $`d\sigma /ds=0`$ for any $`s`$ ($`\sigma =\sigma _0`$ for any $`s`$), to give Eq. (29). Furthermore, in this case, Eq. (57) reduces to the minimum uncertainty relation condition, which is a typical feature of coherent states. Remarkably, note that, in the absence of dissipation ($`ϵ=\text{const}`$.), all the results of Ref. , concerning with coherent states of charged-particle beams, are fully recovered by the present treatment, provided that $`K`$ is assumed constant, as well. Finally, we point out that the fluid treatment presented in this paper can be also applied to the e.m. traps  with the inclusion of the dissipation.

## Acknowledgments

V.I.M. would like to acknowledge Dipartimento di Scienze Fisiche, Universitá “Federico II” di Napoli for kind hospitality and the Russian Foundation for Basic Research for the partial support under Project No. 99-02-17753.


text:
# Untitled Document

hep-th/0112229 SU-ITP-01/38

Implications of bulk causality
for holography in AdS

Matthew Kleban, John McGreevy, and Scott Thomas

Department of Physics, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305

Gravitational time delay in asymptotically Anti de Sitter spaces has consequences for holographic duality. We argue that the requirement of bulk causality implies that it is not possible for a collection of boundary observers, performing local measurements, to extract information from precursors. Using similar arguments, we derive an integrated weak energy constraint on spacetimes which can admit a holographic dual.

December, 2001

1. Introduction

It is widely believed that quantum gravity is holographic, in the sense that a $`d`$-dimensional gravitational theory is dual to a $`(d1)`$-dimensional theory without a dynamical metric \[1,,2\]. Several examples of such dualities have been discovered ; we focus in this note on theories of the AdS/CFT type, where gravity in an asymptotically anti-deSitter spacetime is dual to a theory which is defined in the UV by a conformal gauge theory.

The conjecture of holographic duality is that the two theories contain identical physical information. However, their natural variables are related through some very complex and non-linear field redefinition, or perhaps by some large gauge fixing , making it very difficult in all but the simplest situations to decode the map directly. Nevertheless, one apparently inescapable consequence of the conjecture is that any event occurring in the bulk of the AdS space is instantaneously reflected in some way in the boundary theory. A good way to see this is to note that when a localized bulk excitation arrives at the boundary, it will excite local gauge invariant operators. One can then evolve this configuration backwards using the gauge theory Hamiltonian, leading to a state which cannot involve excited local operators, and yet also cannot be the gauge theory vacuum. Following , we will refer to such a state in the boundary theory reflecting a bulk event as a precursor, because it exists on the boundary before any bulk gravitational excitation could have propagated there. We will not attempt to address the question of the precise nature of the precursor state. Rather, we wish to ask if it can be detected in a manner which is consistent with bulk causality, and how a boundary theory containing any such effects can manage to be causal.

A candidate answer is that the information in the precursors is not available to any single local observer, but instead is extended spatially in a way roughly analogous to the famous gedanken experiment proposed by Einstein, Podolsky, and Rosen . In that scenario, two spin measurements are performed at spacelike separated points, and the results must be collected at some central location before the surprising correlations can be detected. This does not violate causality because by the time the correlation in the results is reconstructed, the future lightcones of the measurement events have intersected.

At first glance it appears that in a similar way one can avoid causality violation in the case of AdS/CFT precursors. Consider a collection of spatially separated boundary observers, each able to perform a local measurement. Having made their observations, these observers transmit their information along the boundary to a collection point at which precursor information about a bulk event might be reconstructed. One might imagine that the collection time is such that a signal from the bulk will have reached the boundary before any conclusions can be drawn by an observer at the collection point, hence avoiding a violation of causality.

Fig. 1: A spatial section of AdS, showing the paths whose transit times we compare. $`1`$ labels the path for a graviton propagating from an event at the center of the bulk AdS space to the north pole of the boundary sphere; $`2`$ indicates the path of a photon along the boundary from the equator to the north pole.

However, we will argue that such a resolution fails in cases other than that of empty AdS space (dual to an exactly conformal theory); the addition of matter to the bulk, which breaks the conformal invariance of the boundary theory, would spoil the effect and introduce causality violation. (because in this case the time it would take to assemble precursor information on the boundary would be shorter than the time it takes for bulk signals to arrive at the boundary). Instead, we will argue for an alternative explanation: the precursor information can never be usefully measured by any set of correlated boundary observers with access only to local gauge invariant quantities. Therefore, the only indication of the existence of a precursor available to such boundary observers will be ex post facto: after a bulk signal has arrived on the boundary and excited a local operator, a boundary physicist could use the time-reversed gauge theory equations of motion to extrapolate backwards and deduce the existence of the precursor.

In the next section we calculate transit times of massless disturbances through the bulk and around the boundary of asymptotically anti-de Sitter spacetimes. We present a low-energy approximation to a class of domain wall spacetimes which are interesting in this regard. In §3 we discuss the implications of these calculations for precursors in the boundary theory, and in §4 we infer a constraint on which spacetimes of this type can have a holographic dual.

2. Time delay in AdS spacetimes

First, we will review the causal structure of five-dimensional AdS space. The metric in global coordinates is

$$ds^2=(1+\frac{r^2}{R^2})dt^2+(1+\frac{r^2}{R^2})^1dr^2+r^2d\mathrm{\Omega }_3^2.$$

The spacetime can be thought of as a cylinder over $`S^3`$, with time running down the axis, $`r=\mathrm{}`$ as the boundary, and $`r=0`$ the center. The time for a massless particle to propagate along the boundary from the north pole of the boundary sphere ($`\theta =0,r=\mathrm{}`$) to the equator ($`\theta =\pi /2,r=\mathrm{}`$) is

$$t_{\mathrm{BDY}}=\underset{r\mathrm{}}{lim}_0^{\frac{\pi }{2}}𝑑\theta \sqrt{\frac{g_{\theta \theta }}{g_{tt}}}=\frac{\pi }{2}\underset{r\mathrm{}}{lim}\sqrt{\frac{r^2}{1+\frac{r^2}{R^2}}}=\frac{\pi R}{2}.$$

The time for a graviton to propagate from the center of the bulk spacetime ($`r=0`$) to the boundary ($`r=\mathrm{}`$) is

$$t_{\mathrm{BULK}}=_0^{\mathrm{}}𝑑r\sqrt{\frac{g_{rr}}{g_{tt}}}=_0^{\mathrm{}}\frac{dr}{1+\frac{r^2}{R^2}}=\frac{\pi R}{2}=t_{\mathrm{BDY}}.$$

Therefore, in pure AdS, a precursor reflecting an event at $`r=0`$ could in principle be measured instanteously by a ring of boundary observers at the equator who then transmit their information along the boundary to the north pole. Since the time it takes for this information to arrive at the north pole is the same as the time it takes for bulk signals originating at $`r=0`$ to reach the north pole through the bulk, no violation of causality occurs, and there is no problem. As we show below, this is not the case if a domain wall exists in the bulk spacetime.

The Domain Wall Solution

If the bulk spacetime is modified by including additional stress-energy, the bulk path time is increased. In order to demonstrate this in a simple context, we will use a toy model for the bulk five-dimensional effective gravitational theory. Consider gravity coupled to a single scalar, with an asymmetric double well potential for the scalar, admitting a kink solution.

Fig. 2: The scalar potential and profile in the domain wall model.

Away from the kink on either side, the space is AdS, with the curvature determined by the value of the potential at the minimum on that side. The kink itself is a domain wall, with tension determined by the potential. This tension is balanced in Einstein’s equations by the difference in the AdS curvatures on either side of the wall. Very similar solutions occur in string theory examples where a particular mass deformation is added in the boundary gauge theory, so that some reduced supersymmetry is preserved in the region interior to the domain wall and the boundary theory flows in the IR to a conformal theory with a lower central charge . The gravity description of this is essentially the kink solution presented here.

We wish to find the metric for this domain wall spacetime. We will work in a limit where the wall is very thin, so that the space is AdS everywhere except very near $`r=r_c`$, the position of the domain wall. The most general asymptotically AdS metric with ($`S^3`$) spherical symmetry is

$$ds^2=\left(1+\frac{(r/r_0)^2}{R^2}\frac{c}{r^2}\right)(dt/t_0)^2+(r/r_0)^2d\mathrm{\Omega }_3^2+\left(1+\frac{(r/r_0)^2}{R^2}\frac{c}{r^2}\right)^1(dr/r_0)^2.$$

Here $`t_0`$ and $`r_0`$ are simply coordinate rescalings, while $`c`$ is the coefficient of a Schwarzschild term.

We have kept the coordinate scalings explicit for the purpose of matching two such solutions across a thin domain wall. For a domain wall with a delta function tension, such a matching requires that the metric be continuous (although its derivative will be discontinuous). We can always set $`t_0=r_0=1`$ outside the wall by an overall coordinate redefinition. As mentioned above, the potential for the scalar determines the value of the AdS radius $`R`$ on each side of the wall, so the remaining parameters are $`c`$ inside and outside, and $`t_0`$ and $`r_0`$ inside. The full metric is

$$\begin{array}{cc}\hfill ds^2=& \left(1+\frac{r^2}{R^2}\frac{c}{r^2}\right)dt^2+r^2d\mathrm{\Omega }_3^2+\left(1+\frac{r^2}{R^2}\frac{c}{r^2}\right)^1dr^2,(r_c<r<\mathrm{})\hfill \\ \hfill ds^2=& \left(1+\frac{(\rho /\rho _0)^2}{R_{}^2}\right)(dt/t_0)^2+(\rho /\rho _0)^2d\mathrm{\Omega }_3^2\hfill \\ & +\left(1+\frac{(\rho /\rho _0)^2}{R_{}^2}\right)^1(d\rho /\rho _0)^2(\rho rr_c(1\rho _0),\mathrm{\hspace{0.33em}\hspace{0.33em}\hspace{0.33em}0}<\rho <\rho _cr_c\rho _0).\hfill \end{array}$$

We have set $`c=0`$ inside the wall which corresponds to pure AdS space in the interior region. Notice that the domain wall has an ADM energy - there is a Schwarzschild term in the exterior metric.

Continuity of the metric requires $`t_0=1/\rho _0`$, and

$$\rho _0^2=(1+r_c^2/R^2c/r^2)/(1+r_c^2/R_{}^2).$$

We also need to impose Einstein’s equations at the wall; this is most conveniently done using the Israel  conditions

$$K_\beta ^\alpha \delta _\beta ^\alpha K=\tau \delta _\beta ^\alpha $$

where $`K_{\alpha \beta }=_\alpha n_\beta `$, $`n_\beta `$ is a unit normal vector, and $`\tau `$ is the tension of the domain wall. This equation yields two independent equations for $`\tau `$:

$$\tau =\frac{3}{r_c}\left(\sqrt{1+r_c^2/R_{}^2}\sqrt{1+r_c^2/R^2c/r_c^2}\right)$$

and

$$\tau =\frac{3}{(1+r_c^2/R_+^2c/r_c^2)^{1/2}}\left[r_c/R_+^2c/r_c^3+\rho _c/R_{}^2\right].$$

Equating these determines the ADM mass $`c`$ in terms of the exterior and interior AdS radii $`R`$ and $`R_{}`$, and the position of the domain wall $`r_c`$. An important consistency check is that the Schwarzschild radius $`r_h`$ of the exterior metric satisfies $`r_h<r_c`$ for all values of the parameters. In other words, there is no horizon anywhere in the spacetime, as expected.

Using this metric we can compute the bulk/boundary transit times as above. The transit time along the boundary will be the same as that of empty AdS space with the same asymptotic radius. The bulk transit time for a graviton travelling from the center to the boundary of the domain wall spacetime can be computed exactly. However, it is somewhat unwieldy, so we present an approximate expression valid for $`r_cR,R_{}`$:

$$\begin{array}{cc}\hfill t_{\mathrm{bulk}}& =_0^{\mathrm{}}𝑑r\sqrt{\frac{g_{rr}}{g_{tt}}}=\frac{t_0}{\rho _0}_0^{\rho _c}\frac{d\rho }{1+\frac{\rho ^2}{\rho _0^2R_{}^2}}+_{r_c}^{\mathrm{}}\frac{dr}{1+\frac{r^2}{R^2}\frac{c}{r^2}}\hfill \\ & \frac{\pi R}{2}R\mathrm{tan}^1\frac{r_c}{R}+\frac{R_{}}{\rho _0}\mathrm{tan}^1\frac{r_c}{R_{}}\pi R/2+\frac{R}{r_c}\left(RR_{}\right)+O\left(\frac{R^3}{r_c^3}\right).\hfill \end{array}$$

A more general static spherically symmetric solution can be built up by a superposition of such domain walls, or by including other types of matter. For such configurations the bulk transit time can be made arbitrarily long. This is clear from, for example, the fact that a black hole horizon in the interior will send the time to infinity. This corresponds to a finite temperature gauge theory, where a low energy signal will be washed out by thermal fluctuations.

While this work was in progress we became aware of , in which the authors prove a general theorem which demonstrates that the bulk propagation time through as asymptotically AdS space is always at least as great as that through an empty space with the same asymptotics, as long as the weak energy condition is satisfied.

3. Implications for precursors

We are now in a position to discuss in more detail the question of what sort of precursors can be allowed in a holographic theory. We are not concerned with the precise nature of the precursor, but rather with the circumstances under which it is in principle detectable. Our results do not depend on the details of the precursor state. To simplify the discussion, and as a concrete example, we will use as a guide the proposal of , in which the authors suggests that the precursor will affect the expectation value of a spatial Wilson loop in the boundary gauge theory. Roughly speaking, the expectation value $`W`$ is given by the area of the minimal surface in bulk AdS bounded by the loop. If there is a disturbance in the bulk at a depth such that the minimal surface passes through it, then the authors of  argue $`W`$ will be modified. At first glance this appears to violate bulk causality, as no local gauge invariant observables on the boundary will be excited until the signal has had time to propagate to the boundary. However, for pure AdS space if the deepest point of the minimal surface bounding a circular Wilson loop just touches a bulk event, then a bulk signal originating at the event will reach the boundary at exactly the same time as a light signal sent from the edge of the loop along the boundary to its center. This is consistent with the standard intuition about the UV/IR correspondence.

There has recently been some debate in the literature over the validity of this proposal ; we will not attempt to address this here. As mentioned above, for our purposes the precise nature of the precursor state is not important.

To make the possible paradox in the domain wall spacetime as sharp as possible, consider an event occurring in the center of the AdS space (meaning the origin $`r=0`$ of the global coordinates (2.1)). To create such an event we could send two particles from the north and south poles of the boundary sphere, in such a way that they meet at $`r=0`$ and form a small black hole, which then evaporates isotropically at $`t=0`$.

The largest Wilson loop available (one whose associated Wilson surface extends farthest into the bulk) is one that extends around the equator of the boundary sphere at $`r=\mathrm{}`$. If the expectation value of such a loop could be measured instantaneously by a set of local observers spaced around the equator, each making instanteous local measurements, the information could be gathered by a boundary observer equi-distant from the equator, (by Santa Claus at the north pole, say) in time $`t=\pi R/2`$, assuming the observers had massless boundary excitations at their disposal with which to send the signal. In pure AdS, this is also the time for a graviton to propagate from $`r=0`$ to any point on the boundary. However, as we have argued above, in a bulk spacetime with additional matter such a signal will take longer to arrive, $`t>\pi R/2`$. Since the spacetime is still asymptotically AdS, the field theory in the asymptotic UV is a CFT. In particular it contains massless degrees of freedom with which boundary observers can send signals. Hence such measurements by Santa Claus to assemble precursor information from the collection of equatorial observers could violate bulk causality, as he could become aware of the bulk event via the boundary CFT measurements before a signal from the event could arrive directly through the bulk.

Perhaps in such a non-conformal theory the expectation value of a Wilson loop will not detect the precursor configuration. However if there is any measurement a set of local observers can make, the worst possible case would have them spread out over the entire boundary sphere, rather than just the equator. This at most doubles the time it would take to collect information through massless boundary excitations: the time is bounded by $`\pi R`$ (the path time for a boundary gluon to go from South to north pole). However, the graviton path time through the bulk can be made arbitrarily large. Therefore,

A measurement of a generic precursor state by any set of boundary observers with access only to local, gauge invariant information is prohibited by bulk causality.

While existence of precursors in the gauge theory is a necessary consequence of holographic duality, they are not measurable by any local observer or set of observers. The best that can be said is that when, or if, a local gauge invariant operator is excited, a boundary physicist could deduce via the equations of motion that the precursor must have been present in the past.

This conclusion is consistent with the results of , which demonstrated that an ordinary quantum mechanical measurement of a spatial Wilson loop in a nonabelian gauge theory is impossible. The authors discuss what they term a “destructive measurement,” where a ring of observers measure small pieces of the loop by circulating charged matter. As noted by , this is not a measurement in the usual sense because it does not leave eigenstates undisturbed.

4. Conclusions

One interesting and important question that arises in discussions of holography is whether or not gravity in a particular background has a holographic dual. An interesting condition on the class of such spacetimes can be obtained by turning the above situation around.1 We thank Joe Polchinski and Gary Horowitz for discussions on this point. Any asymptotically AdS spacetime that satisfies the weak energy condition everywhere satisfies

$$2_0^{\mathrm{}}𝑑r\sqrt{\frac{g_{rr}}{g_{tt}}}\pi R$$

However, if the weak energy condition is violated to a sufficient extent that (4.1) is not satisfied, a graviton could travel from pole to pole through the bulk in a time less than $`\pi R`$. Now imagine in such a space an event at the South Pole of the boundary sphere which sends energy in all directions into the bulk and along the boundary. Gravitons will reach Santa Claus through the bulk before a gluon can arrive via the boundary, and hence a local gauge invariant excitation will occur at the north pole before the equations of motion of a causal boundary gauge theory allow. Therefore,

Any asymptotically AdS spacetime must satisfy the integrated weak energy condition (4.1) if it is to have a causal holographic boundary dual.

As an example, note that in the domain wall solution equation (2.1) implies that a negative tension wall (one with $`R<R_{}`$) will violate this condition and therefore can not have a causal field theory dual.2 Such domain walls would correspond to a field theory that flows from fixed point to fixed point, but with $`c_{UV}<c_{IR}`$. Therefore we see that for flows from CFT to CFT, the four-dimensional c-theorem  is equivalent to our condition.

One might imagine that by placing orientifolds or other consistent negative-tension string theory objects in the interior of the AdS space one can violate the weak energy condition while still maintaining a stringy motivation for the existence of a holographic dual. The integrated weak energy condition would still hold, however.

Acknowledgements

We thank Ben Freivogel, Simeon Hellerman, Gary Horowitz, Shamit Kachru, Nemanja Kaloper, Joe Polchinski, and Lenny Susskind, for discussions. This work was supported in part by the DOE under contract DE-AC03-76SF00515 and by National Science Foundation grant PHY00-97915.

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