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# Prospecting for spiral structure in the flocculent outer Milky Way Disk with color magnitude star counts from the 2 Micron All Sky Survey

## 1 Introduction

It has long been recognized that star counts or the number of stars per magnitude bin per unit area on the sky are strongly affected by extinction, or the absorption of light by dust (e.g., Seeliger 1900; McCuskey 1965). Because extinction is particularly strong in the plane of the Milky Way, it has not been possible to study the spiral structure of our Galaxy deep within the Galactic Plane using star counts. However, above the scale height of the gas and dust, at Galactic latitudes outside the “Zone of avoidance” or greater than $`10^{}`$ from the Galactic Plane, it is possible to measure the distribution of stars in the galaxy. For example star counts from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey well above the Galactic Plane have recently been used to measure the scale heights of the thin and thick stellar disks (Chen et al., 2001) and uncover structure in the halo (Yanny et al., 2000).

Because of the sensitivity to extinction, rather than probe for galactic structure, star counts are often used to measure extinction, as first illustrated with the Wolf diagram, Wolf 1923; Trumpler & Weaver 1953, or make extinction maps in the visible bands (e.g., Dickman 1978) and at very high levels of extinction in molecular clouds in the near-infrared (e.g., Lada et al. 1994; Cambresy 1999; Lombardi & Alves 2001).

The 2MASS team has recently released a significant fraction of the sky at a depth of about 15 mag in $`K_s`$ band (the Second Incremental Release). For information on the 2MASS Second Incremental Release Point Source Catalog see http://irsa.ipac.caltech.edu. Because 2MASS is carried out between 1 and 2 microns, the effect of extinction is greatly reduced compared to that at visible wavelengths. 2MASS therefore provides us with a unique opportunity to probe for structure within the plane of our Galaxy.

## 2 Number Counts in a color-magnitude diagram

To detect structure in the halo Yanny et al. (2000) selected stars in a narrow range of color. On the main sequence color effectively determines the luminosity of the star and so its distance can be determined from the observed magnitude. While this technique worked well to uncover structure in the halo, we now explain why it presents difficulties when used to search for structure in the Galactic Plane using 2MASS data.

A difference in $`JH`$ of 0.1 results in a change in absolute magnitude on the main sequence of about a magnitude (see Fig. 1) and this would correspond to a factor in distance of 1.6. The nearest spiral arms are about 2 kpc away from the sun (e.g., Vallée 1995) and may only have thicknesses of a few hundred pcs, so to see an enhancement in the star counts we can only tolerate distance uncertainties that are less than factors of 1.1. This corresponds to a magnitude uncertainty of less than 0.2 which is difficult to achieve using an infrared color section for stars at the distance where we expect spiral arms. We expect that magnitude uncertainties resulting from the strong dependence of absolute magnitude on color of the main sequence will wipe out any evidence for spiral structure in a given color selected sample. Furthermore because of reddening associated with extinction, a color selection will not restrict the stars to a give spectral type or absolute magnitude. So despite the fact that this approach was successful for detecting structure in the halo, if we only search in one color bin it is unlikely to work in the Milky Way disk using 2MASS data.

So how do we get around this problem? We must use information from stars which cover a range of observed colors. The main sequence provides us with a useful relation between color and absolute magnitude. A change in stellar population caused by recent star formation causes a local increase in the number of blue stars, whereas extinction will cause the entire main sequence to shift toward redder colors on a color magnitude diagram. If we see features on a color magnitude number count diagram (number counts per unit color and magnitude bin) that extend along the direction of the main sequence, then we expect that those features are caused by local changes in either extinction or the local stellar population density.

In Figure 1 we show star counts from a 2.5 square degree field taken from the 2MASS Second Incremental Release Point Source Catalog. Stars were counted in an array of bins defined by both color and magnitude. Magnitude bins were 0.1 mag wide in either $`J`$ or $`K_s`$ bands and $`JH`$ color bins were 0.025 mag wide. To aid the contouring algorithm we slightly smoothed the array with a smoothing function 3 pixels high and wide that is shaped like a pyramid with half the flux in the central pixel. The minimum contour shown contains 5 stars per bin and we show a total of 12 contours spaced logarithmically with the maximum being the maximum value of counts in the array. For the 2MASS Point Source Catalog the Level 1 requirements were to achieve a signal to noise of S/N$`=10`$ at 15.8, 15.1, and 14.3 mag in $`J,H`$ and $`K_s`$ bands respectively. The actual achieved limiting magnitudes at this signal to noise are about 0.5 magnitude better than expected. Typical photometric errors are about 0.03 mag for 13,12.5 and 12.5 magnitudes in $`J,H`$ and $`K_s`$ band respectively and about 0.1 mag for 16.3,15.5 and 15.0 mag respectively.

As a stellar population becomes more distant, the luminosity function is pushed to higher magnitudes on this figure. However extinction both reddens and decreases the luminosity and so affects the entire main sequence along the same vector in the diagram. A region containing a young population increases the number of blue stars at a particular magnitude range or distance. An increase in the stellar density at a particular distance will cause an increase in counts again along an angle parallel to that of the main sequence. This will cause a shift in the contours toward the left. In Figure 1 we have over-plotted the main sequence at a solar metallicity and distance of 1kpc for 3 different aged populations. Diagonal streaks in the contour levels are observed which are along the same angle as the main sequence but offset in magnitude. Because we see bends in the contours that extend over a magnitude in J and K and 0.2 mag in color, they are likely to be real and not to due Poisson noise. These diagonal streaks are probably due to extinction at a distance exceeding the main sequence model points. The distance to the gas cloud responsible for the extinction can be estimated from the magnitude shift of the main sequence. A streak in the contours is seen in both $`J`$ and $`K_s`$ vs $`JH`$ band color magnitude plots corresponding to an extended enhanced region of extinction or gas cloud at a distance of about 2.5 kpc from the sun.

## 3 Prospecting for Spiral Structure

We now look for coherent structures seen in the color magnitude diagrams in different locations in the Galactic Plane. There are three regions in the Second Incremental release that contain the Galactic Plane and not the Galactic Center. These regions have Galactic longitudes which range $`glon=220`$$`250^{}`$, 50–$`80^{}`$ and 170–$`190^{}`$. All three regions should contain the the Perseus Spiral arm (see Fig. 2), however in the 50-80 region the arm is distant at 5-7 kpc and so it should be impossible to detect it using main sequence stars. Furthermore because the spiral arms increase with distance with increasing Galactic longitude, even weak spiral arms in the region between the Carina and Perseus arms at $`glon80^{}`$ should not extend over a large range in galactic longitude. In the Galactic anti-center region between $`glon=170`$$`190^{}`$ the Perseus spiral arm should be roughly equidistant from the sun at a distance of 2 kpc but little extinction is evident in this direction. So we begin by concentrating on the region between 220 and $`250^{}`$.

In Figure 3 we show color magnitude number count diagrams in regions ranging from 220-250 with Galactic latitudes $`glat=0`$ to $`2`$ or $`3`$ to $`1^{}`$. In a few regions pieces of the sky were not covered by the data release so the counts were corrected by dividing by the percent of sky area covered. The $`K_s`$ band plot corresponding to the $`J`$-band plot in Fig. 3a is not shown since it is quite similar to Fig. 3a. In this region between we see streaks (denoted by a dotted line in Fig. 2) that begin at $`J14.5`$ at $`glon=220`$ and end at $`J15.5`$ at $`glon235`$. This feature is also seen in the $`K_s`$ color mag contour plot (Fig. 3c). The location of the streaks is at somewhat larger magnitudes for $`glat=3`$ to $`1`$ than for $`glat=0`$$`2^{}`$ suggesting that there is a larger smooth extinction gradient with radius at this Galactic latitude than at $`glat=1^{}`$. From the location of the feature in the $`K_s`$-band plots and how it is offset from the main sequence at 1 kpc (see Figure 1) we can estimate its distance to be $`2.5`$ kpc at $`glon=220`$ extending to $`4`$ kpc at $`glon=235`$. This corresponds to the expected location of the Perseus spiral arm (see Fig. 2) as extended from our knowledge in existing spiral tracers (Vallée, 1995).

We also see evidence for additional structures which have not been identified by Drimmel & Spergel (2000) and HI surveys. See for example the indent in contours at $`glon=225`$ to $`235`$ at $`K_s13.8`$ to $`15`$ which would correspond to extinction at a distance of 2–4 kpc but inside the Perseus arm which is expected to be at a distance of 5 kpc at $`glon=235^{}`$.

Structure seen in these star count color magnitude contour plots appears to be is correlated and extended. A streak in the contours at one galactic longitude is likely to be present in the diagram at lower and higher longitude, though systematically shifted toward more higher magnitudes at higher galactic longitudes. This makes sense if the density perturbations both in the gas and stars are spiral in shaped, or increasing with distance with increasing Galactic longitude (see Fig. 2,4).

The structure see in these star count diagrams cannot be solely due to extinction because local increases in the star counts at higher magnitudes is also seen. This implies that there are also density variations as a function of distance from the sun. Again this is not unexpected if we remember what other galaxies look like (e.g., see Fig. 4 which displays a B-band image of M100.)

Though see strong evidence for local density and extinction variations in the region around $`glon230`$, we do not features associated with extremely strong spiral structure, neither evidence for large variations in the stellar density or local extinction. The most likely explanation for the structure that we do see is that the Milky Way is flocculent in its morphology outside the solar circle.

For a spiral arm outside the solar circle we expect to encounter first an increase in extinction and then an increase in the stellar density as a function of distance from the sun as a spiral arm is crossed (see Fig. 4). The affect of the extinction is therefore decreased by the increased density following the spiral arm. Stellar density and extinction variations associated with spiral structure should be easier to uncover using star counts in the Carina arm within the solar circle because we expect that blue stars should be nearer than the belt of extinction associated with the spiral arm. This should emphasize features seen in the color magnitude star count plots, rather than decrease them as is true when we look toward larger Galactocentric radii. Features associated with these spiral arms may also be easier to detect because these spiral features should have higher gas densities, hence heavier extinction, and stronger stellar density contrasts.

In Figure 5 we show color magnitude star count plots taken from a strip along $`glat=2`$-$`3^{}`$ and between $`glon=65`$$`85^{}`$. There is a lot of extinction at $`glon8^{}`$ which corresponds to the Dark Nebula LDN-906 (Lynds 1962) which has an area of $`15^{}`$ and must be quite nearby. A number of features are seen in these plots which are probably real because they extend over a fair range on an individual plot. However we do not find a high level of coherence between the plots. This is not surprising since at this Galactic longitude we are looking between the Carina and Perseus arms and the opening angle of the arms is such that elongated gas clouds will not extend over a large range in Galactic longitude. The large number of features seen in these plots is consistent with a patchy ISM and the possibility that the outer Milky Way is flocculent in its morphology.

In Figure 6 we show color magnitude star count plots taken from strips along $`glat=1`$ to $`1^{}`$, $`3`$ to $`1^{}`$ and between $`glon=170`$$`190^{}`$. At $`glon170`$ to $`180^{}`$ we see evidence for extinction at a distance of about 2 kpc (streaks beginning at $`K_s13.8`$). This does corresponds to the expected location of the Perseus spiral arm, however the lack of any features at $`glon190`$ suggests that it is not continuous. There are also extended features further out at $`K_s14.5`$ from $`glon180`$ to $`190^{}`$. We see no dominated feature at expected location of the Perseus arm but instead a variety of shorter features at both shorter and longer distances.

## 4 Summary and Discussion

In this paper we have presented color magnitude number count contour plots constructed from the 2MASS Point Source Catalog in the Galactic Plane. We demonstrate how streaks observed in these diagrams can be used to estimate the distance of local regions of high extinction. A coherent structure is seen between Galactic longitude 220 and $`237^{}`$ which corresponds to the probably location of the extension of the Perseus spiral arm. Another coherent structure is seen with a steeper pitch angle between Galactic longitude 230-240 at a distance of 2-4.0 kpc and may be a weaker spiral feature. Neither feature is particularly prominent. In the region $`glon170`$ to $`190^{}`$ we see a feature at the probably location of the Perseus spiral arm but also also other coherent features at both larger and smaller distances. Features seen in the star count contour plots are likely to be real because they cover a significant range in color and magnitude in each color magnitude star count plot and because nearby lines of sight in the galaxy exhibit similar features. At a distance of 2kpc a structure which extends over 10 degrees has a length of 350 pc so the coherent structures picked out from the star counts are likely to associated with spiral arms. The lack of strong spiral features and the evidence for additional weak features suggests that the outer part of Galaxy is flocculent in its morphology.

We suggest that color magnitude number counts could be used to estimate the distances to large scale gas clouds at distances up to a few kpc using blue main sequence stars. It is possible that a similar technique could also reveal structure out to much larger distances using giant stars. Giant stars have the disadvantage that it is not straightforward to estimate the luminosity of the star given its color but the advantage that they can be seen much further away than blue main sequence stars.

Using star counts to measure distances to atomic and molecular clouds is potentially a very powerful technique. However to do this reliably we would need to integrate the stellar luminosity function as a function of distance from us and devise techniques to differentiate between patchy extinction, stellar density variations, mean extinction variations and variations in the mean age of the stellar population. All of these affects should affect the integrated number counts. By combining information available in CO, HI and far-IR images of the Milky Way with 2MASS it may be possible to make a map of the Milky Way with the detail of that shown in Figure 4 of M100 rather than that currently known which is represented in Figure 2.

This work could not have been carried out without helpful discussions with Larry Helfer, Rob Selkowitz, Joel Green, Dan Watson, and Eric Blackman. This research has made use of the NASA/IPAC Infrared Science Archive, and the NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database (NED) which are operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. This publication makes use of data products from the Two Micron All Sky Survey, which is a joint project of the University of Massachusetts and the Infrared Processing and Analysis Center/California Institute of Technology, funded by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration and the National Science Foundation.


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# Planetary Nebulae in the Magellanic Clouds: Probing Stellar Evolution and Populations

## 1. Introduction

Planetary Nebulae (PNs) are the relics of intermediate-mass star evolution, and they are important probes of stellar evolution, stellar Populations, and cosmic recycling. PNs have been observed in most galaxies (the Milky Way, the Local Group galaxies, and distant galaxies up to 10 Mpc) and in the medium between galaxies, thus they also probe evolution and Populations in relation to their environment.

The success of the studies of Galactic PNs is based on their proximity. The details of the observations typically surpass the details of stellar and hydrodynamic models. Yet, the distance scale of Galactic PNs is uncertain to such a degree that the meaning of the comparison between observations and theory is hindered. By the same token, statistical studies of PN populations in the Galaxy suffer for the observational bias against the detection of Galactic disk PNs, and for the patchy interstellar extinction. Thus, while it is certainly wise to cherish the level of detail offered by Galactic PN observations, we should also consider studying PNs in other galaxies, to approach the final phases of intermediate star evolution in a quantitative, statistical way.

PNs in the Magellanic Clouds (LMC, SMC), hundreds of low-extinction planetaries at uniformly known distances, are a real bounty for the stellar evolution scientist. Moreover, the composition gradients between the LMC, the SMC, and the Galaxy make studying MC PNs essential to understand the effects of environment metallicity on their evolution. Finally, understanding how stellar evolution operates in very low metallicity ambients, such as the SMC, is a useful step toward the understanding of stellar Populations in distant galaxies.

In essence, I believe that the MCs are ideal laboratories to shed light on the still many unsolved issues of Planetary Nebula formation and evolution. Together with the detailed studies of individual PNs in the Galaxy, the comparison of large and homogeneous samples of the observed properties of LMC and SMC PNs with the correct evolutionary models will enormously improve our knowledge of the evolution of intermediate-mass stars, their stellar and nebular remnants, their origin, and their interaction with the environment.

## 2. Magellanic Cloud Planetary Nebulae: a field in evolution

### 2.1. Pioneers in the field

PN studies in the MCs are relatively recent. The first discovery paper of MC PNs (Lindsay 1955) contains the spectroscopic identification of 17 SMC PNs. Very rapidly, studies of MC PN samples became common, and their importance evident (e.g., Aller 1961; Westerlund 1964). Ground based observation of MC PN suffer from the fact that they are point sources, thus the contributions of nebular and stellar radiation are superimposed. Attempts to measure the central stars magnitudes were hampered by the difficulties in separating stellar and nebular contributions (e.g., Webster 1969).

From stellar evolution theory, we expect that some heavy elements (argon, neon, sulfur) are not processed by stars in the mass range of the PN progenitors, thus the abundances of these elements are the signature of the chemical mix of the environment when the stellar progenitors were born. On the other hand, carbon, oxygen and nitrogen are at variation during the evolutionary paths that preceded the PN phases, and their relative abundances probe the nuclear processes within the evolving star, the occurrence of the-dredge up processes, and the mass of the progenitors (Iben & Renzini 1983). Since the central stars of MC PNs are not directly observable from the ground, the correct observations and analysis of the nebular chemistry offers best insight of stellar evolution from the nebular properties.

Observations with the IUE, combined with the optical spectral data acquired from the ground, allowed the abundance analysis of MC PNs. Space observations in the UV range was used for the detection of the complete set of carbon lines at various ionization stages, and made the carbon abundance derivation much more reliable. The key results in abundance studies can be found, to name a few, in Peimbert (1984), Boroson & Liebert (1989); Kaler & Jacoby (1991). Optical spectroscopy of large samples of MC PNs have been carried out by Dopita and collaborators (Meatheringham & Dopita 1991ab, Vassiliadis et al. 1992). IUE observations were also used to measure the stellar luminosity beyond the Lyman limit for the central stars, giving an estimate of the total stellar luminosity, and and approximate estimate to the mass (Aller et al. 1987). Several papers on MC PN spectroscopy, abundances, and the connection of nebulae and stellar evolution can be found in the earlier IAU Symposia on Planetary Nebulae (e.g., Westerlund 1968; Feast 1968; Webster 1978), while the most recent, complete review on MC PNs is due to Barlow (1989).

Magellanic Cloud Planetary Nebula spectra are similar, in general, to the well-known Galactic ones. In the MCs, as well as in the Galaxy, PNs have been classified on the basis of their chemical content (see Peimbert 1978, 1997). New stellar models models with the MC metallicity were build (Vassiliadis & Wood 1993, 1994) to improve the overall knowledge of the origin of the MC PNs.

### 2.2. MC PN science since the last IAU Symposium

Magellanic Cloud PNs become even more relevant in the recent years. Since the last IAU Symposium on Planetary Nebulae, more than 70 papers related to MC PNs have been published, of the 363 papers ever published in this field 111 These numbers are derived from an ADS search, and may not be complete. The most notable recent results are in two major areas: The catalogs and emission line surveys, and the nebular-stellar evolution connection.

To date, 277 LMC PNs (Leisy et al. 1997) and 55 SMC PNs (Meyssonnier & Azzoppardi 1993) are known. The total number of MC PNs have more than doubled from the last count by Barlow (1989). In the last few years, several emission line surveys have been completed, or are near completion (e.g., UKST survey: Morgan 1998, Parker & Phillips 1998; UM/CTIO survey: Smith et al. 1996). Future analysis of these surveys is essential for the future health of MC PN research. We expect that the PN counts in the MCs will increase significantly, improving the statistics of these studies. For example, Murphy & Bessel (2000) found 107 new SMC PN candidates, their PN status remains to be confirmed with spectroscopy. One important aspect of these surveys is the discovery of fainter PNs, that contributes to increasing the reliability of the faint end of the MC PN luminosity function (see Jacoby, this volume), and to enlarge the pool of known evolved PNs.

Related to the populations of MC PNs is the 2MASS survey (Egan, Van Dyk, & Price 2001). The importance of this multi-wavelength infrared survey to LMC PNs is related to the spatial distribution of the different types of AGB stars. Egan et al. showed that low mass AGB stars occupy the whole of the LMC projected volume, while the higher mass, younger Population, AGB stars populate preferentially the LMC bar. Chemical and morphological studies of large LMC PN samples should take these distributions into account, to relate the PN populations in the LMC to their immediate evolutionary progenitors.

Studies of the chemical content of MC PNs have been active in the last five years as well. On the observational side, Leisy & Dennefeld (1996), Costa, de Freitas Pacheco, & Idiart (2000), and Idiart & Costa (this volume) have produced new chemical abundances for several MC PNs from optical and UV observations, enriching the databases for studies on the dredge-up of post-AGB stars and on the ISM enrichment in galaxies. On the theoretical side, van den Hoek & Groenewegen (1997) calculated new chemical yields of the enrichment of the interstellar medium from synthetic evolution of intermediate-mass stars. With models from a wide range of initial masses and metallicities, including the MC metallicities, van den Hoek & Groenewegen (1997) confirm that the yields of nitrogen and carbon change abruptly for masses higher than about 4 solar masses, independent on initial composition.

## 3. The Hubble Space Telescope contribution to the field

### 3.1. Early Hubble observations of Magellanic Cloud Planetary Nebulae

Extended studies of Galactic PNs have shown that PN morphology is intimately related to the mass and evolution of their central stars, to their stellar progenitors, and to the nebular chemistry (e.g., Manchado, this volume). Morphology appears then to be an essential PN property, to be studied statistically, and to be compared case by case to the nebular and the stellar properties. In the case of the LMC and the SMC, morphological studies became possible with the use of the cameras on board the Hubble Space Telescope. Hubble observations have also the capability of spatially separate the image of the nebula and that of the central star, making direct stellar analysis possible.

The early narrow-band images of MC PNs were obtained before the first Hubble servicing mission (i.e., before the installation of COSTAR on Hubble) with the Faint Object Camera (Blades et al. 1992). Other images by Blades et al. have later been published by Stanghellini et al. (1999), where the quality of the pre-COSTAR images was validate through their comparison with post-COSTAR images of the same objects. These papers have made available 15 MC PN images usable for statistical and morphological studies, while another 15 LMC PNs have been observed with the Planetary Camera 1 by Dopita et al. (Dopita et al. 1996; Vassiliadis et al. 1998a). Finally, an additional ten Wide Field and Planetary Camera 2 narrow-band images of LMC PNs are available in the Hubble Data Archive (program 6407, PI: Mike Dopita).

The UV and optical spectroscopic capability of Hubble have been employed to greatly improving the quality of the spectrophotometric calibration of SMC and LMC PNs. Among the many papers that have been published based on Hubble spectroscopy (e.g., Vassiliadis et al. 1998b, Dopita et al. 1997ab), two results from Dopita et al. are worth noting: first, it is shown that there are different populations of PNs within the LMC, and that is it possible to discern these populations on the basis of their alpha-element abundance (see Fig. 3 in Dopita et al. 1997b). Second, by relating the expansion of the LMC PNs to the central star position on the HR diagram, it is inferred that several central stars of LMC PNs sustain their evolution via helium-burning, rather than hydrogen-burning. Even if the latter result is hindered by the obvious uncertainties on the location of the stars in the HR diagram (the stars were not directly observed in these narrow-band images, and their location on the HR diagram was inferred from nebular analysis), they are still important as they hint to a possible dichotomy of PN populations in the LMC.

### 3.2. Our program, based on Hubble data, and the future

Statistical studies of MC PNs and their central stars need an homogeneous, large imaging databases to achieve significance. In the past two years, a project with HST was implemented by myself and my collaborators, with the aim of obtaining morphology, nebular physics, and stellar parameters, for all the known PNs in the MCs. The scientific rationale is to derive a complete description of formation and evolution of PNs according to their environment, based on the confrontation of the HST and ancillary ground-based data with the stellar and hydrodynamic models of PN evolution.

The observing strategy invokes slitless spectroscopy with the Space Telescope Imaging Spectrograph (STIS), coupled with STIS broad-band imagery. This technique provides pseudo narrow-band images in the major emission lines (e.g., H-alpha, H-beta, \[O III\] 5007 A, \[N II\] 6584 A, \[S II\] 6716-6731 A), suitable to derive the size, the ionization stage, the gas density, the extinction, and the morphology of the nebulae, plus broad-band images to determine the magnitude of the central stars. The observations, performed in snapshot mode, gather morphological and stellar information in less than one orbit for each MC PN, making it a cost-effective HST program.

The data analysis plan is at an early stage, yet we have already obtained important results from the samples of MC PNs, to add to the value of the sheer quantity and quality of the images collected so far. The major results from the observations and analysis can be summarized as follows:

1. PNs in the Clouds have substantially the same morphologies than Galactic PNs: Symmetric (Round and Elliptical) and Asymmetric (Bipolar, Bipolar Core, and Pointsymmetric) PNs were observed. There is a larger fraction of Asymmetric to Symmetric PNs in the LMC than in the Galaxy; since most Asymmetric Galactic PNs are Galactic disk objects, the result may simply disclose the selection effects that play against the detection of Galactic disk PNs. The fraction of Symmetric to Asymmetric PNs in the LMC is different that that of the SMC, indicating different mixes of PN populations across galaxies.
2. The surface brightness of the LMC PNs in the light of \[O III\] 5007 A, correlates with the photometric radii of the nebulae, as shown in Figure 1. The photometric radius of a PN roughly traces the rate of its dynamic evolution (velocities of PNs are within a very narrow range, see Shaw et al. 2001), therefore the relation of Figure 1 can be used to constraint the hydrodynamic models. In fact, preliminary models show a similar surface brightness decline in PN evolution (Villaver et al. in preparation). In Figure 1 the symbols indicate the PN morphology, as listed in the legend. We infer that Asymmetric PNs have a more rapid dynamic evolution than Round PNs. The distribution of the SMC PNs on the plane of Figure according to morphological type is similar to that, shown, of LMC PNs. We do not plot the SMC PNs in Figure 1, since their calibrated surface brightness are yet to be measured from the Hubble spectra.
3. We found that asymmetric PNs are neon and sulfur rich, compared to Round and Elliptical PNs, in the LMC (Stanghellini et al., 2000). This result is broadly consistent with the predictions of stellar evolution if the progenitors of Asymmetric PNs have on average larger masses than the progenitors of Symmetric PNs, independent on assumptions, or relation to, a possible stellar multiplicity of the progenitors. This result is also in broad agreement with the findings in Galactic PNs that bipolar Planetary Nebulae have more massive central stars (e.g., Stanghellini, Corradi, & Schwarz 1993), and bears on the question of formation mechanisms for asymmetric PNs, specifically, that the genesis of PNs structure should relate strongly to the Population type, and by inference the mass, of the progenitor star, and less strongly on whether the central star is a member of a close binary system.

An important product of our program is the prepared data set, available within the HST Data Archive. The observations, images, analysis, publications, and other useful links for PN science can be found at:

http://archive.stsci.edu/hst/mcpn/

In the future, we plan to furtherly exploit the data that we are collecting. One of our aims is the determination of the central star photometry, and the direct calculation of the stellar luminosity. By deriving the effective temperature via Zanstra analysis, or with the analysis of the stellar spectra, we will be able to locate the central stars in the logL-logTeff plane. The comparison of these locations with the evolutionary tracks will lead to the determination of the central star’s masses. The stellar properties will then be related to the nebular ones, to disclose all the possible relation between stars and nebulae, with the aim of finding direction toward the understanding of PN formation and evolution. The stellar properties will also be studied with the UV STIS slitless spectra that we are presently acquiring. The stellar data will constraint the the detailed hydrodynamic models, that we will build specifically for MC PNs to compare them to the Hubble images. Optical and ultraviolet spectra will be used to determine the PN abundances, with the aim of confirming our results on LMC PN progenitors.

## 4. Acknowledgements

Sun Kwok and Micheal Dopita are warmly thanked for inviting me to review this important subject. Thanks to the organizers, and in particular to Peter Wood, for their help in solving a number of questions. Section 3.2 is based on work in collaboration with Richard Shaw, Max Mutchler, Bruce Balick, Chris Blades, and Stacy Palen.

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text:
# Radiatively Driven Plasma Jets around Compact Objects

## 1 Introduction

When matter with some angular momentum is pulled in by the central gravitating object, it spirals in to form a temporary depository of matter called the accretion disc. As the accreting matter comes closer to the compact object, in much of the parameter space, the centrifugal force becomes comparable to the gravitational pull slowing down the flow considerably. The flow may suffer a shock in a thin region (Chakrabarti, 1989; hereafter C89), where the Mach number of the flow jumps discontinuously from supersonic to subsonic value. Entropy is also generated at the shock. The region in which the flow slows down may be extended if the shock conditions are not satisfied. This hot, slowed down region puffs up in the form of a torus (hereafter, CENBOL $``$ CENtrifugal pressure dominated BOundary Layer). This disc solution which includes the advection term may be called the advective accretion disc. Chakrabarti and Titarchuk (1995, hereafter CT95) pointed out that radiation from this region is responsible for the characteristic hard and soft states of the black hole candidates. Similarly, Chakrabarti and co-workers (Chakrabarti, 1998; Chakrabarti, 1999; Das and Chakrabarti, 1999) pointed out that the same region may also generate the outflow. At the shock, a part of the hot accreting matter bounces off this effective boundary layer of the compact object, and is ejected along the axis of symmetry as outflows or jets (Das and Chakrabarti, 1999). Initially, the flow should be subsonic, since matter comes out with almost zero velocity in a very hot environment. In this region, the subsonic outflowing matter is continuously bombarded by hot photons and hence apart from usual thermal acceleration, radiative acceleration should also be important.

Interaction of radiation and matter in the context of black hole astrophysics was investigated as early as 1974 by Wickramasinghe, where he studied the radiation pressure driven mass loss from the outer most region of an accretion disc. Icke (1980) studied the effect of radiative acceleration of gas flow above a Sakura-Sunyaev Keplerian disc (1973; see also Bisnovatyi-Kogan and Blinnikov, 1977). But the effect of radiation drag on the gas flow was ignored. Sikora and Wilson (1981) showed that even if the radiation is collimated by geometrically thick discs (Lynden- Bell, 1978; Abramowicz and Piran, 1980), radiation drag is important for astrophysical jets. Piran (1982) while calculating the radiative acceleration of outflows about the rotation axis of thick accretion discs, found out that in order to accelerate outflows to $`\mathrm{\Gamma }>1.5`$ (where $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ is the bulk Lorentz factor), the funnels must be short and steep, but such funnels are found to be unstable. Sol et. al. (1989) proposed a two flow model for jets, one consists of relativistic particles (electrons and positrons) and of relativstic Lorentz factor the other being normal, mildly realitivistic plasma. Melia and Königl (1989), on the other hand, considered ultra relativistic jets around super-massive black holes. These jets are assumed to be accelerated to super-relativistic Lorentz factors by hydrodynamic and electromagnetic processes close to the black hole and are Compton dragged to $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\mathrm{}}10`$. Icke (1989) considered blobby jets about the axis of symmetry of thin discs and he obtained the ‘magic speed’ of $`v_m=0.451c`$ where $`c`$ is the velocity of light. Fukue (1996) went one step ahead and found out that outflowing-rotating matter, away from the axis of symmetry, achieves terminal speed less than what Icke found previously. Sikora et. al. (1996) found out that the net radiative acceleration of AGN jets, vanishes for values of the $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_{eq}4`$. Recently Fukue and his collaborators (Watarai et. al. 1999; Hirai and Fukue 2001, Fukue et. al. 2001) systematically studied radiative acceleration and collimation of winds from a disc, which is a combination of outer luminous slim disc and inner advection dominated region. In the present paper, we investigate the issue of the radiative acceleration of outflows by radiation coming out from advective accretion discs (C89; CT95; Chakrabarti, 1990a; Chakrabarti, 1996). In the papers mentioned above, in order to mimic cold plasma the pressure gradient term was altogather neglected. However, we include the pressure gradient term as well. A number of workers, such as Castor (1972), Hsieh and Spiegel (1976), Blandford and Payne (1981), Mihalas and Mihalas (1984, here after MM84), Fukue et al (1985), Kato et. al. (1998) have investigated the equations of photo-hydrodynamics. The equations of motion for non-rotating outflow is taken from MM84. We solve the governing equations of matter and radiation by the so-called ‘sonic point analysis’ (Chakrabarti, 1990b; here after C90b). The radiation energy density and flux along the axis of symmetry is calculated following the treatment of Chattopadhyay and Chakrabarti (2000).

In §2.1, we present the model assumptions. In §2.2, we present the equations of motion of the cold outflowing plasma, and in the rest of the Section we discuss the method of solution. In §3, we present the solutions, where we find that more radiation results in more acceleration, though radiation drag has a limiting effect on the terminal velocity achieved. Finally, in §4, we draw our conclusions.

## 2 Assumptions, Governing Equations and the Method of Solution

### 2.1  Assumptions

We assume that the outflows are non-viscous and non-rotating. As the astrophysical jets or outflows are observed to be extremely collimated (Bridle and Perley, 1984), the flow geometry is considered to be thin and conical. Thus the transverse structure of the jet is ignored which means all the flow variables will be calculated on the axis of symmetry and will be assumed not to vary along the transverse direction.

In this paper we are not considering the origin of the outflowing matter self- consistently — instead, we have extracted its essential features while doing radiative-hydrodynamics. As outflows originate from the post-shock region in accretion, its initial velocity has to be necessarily subsonic. In the present analysis, this becomes the inner boundary condition of the outflow. The only connection with accretion considered here is the computation of the radiation flux, the energy density and the size of the base of the jet (i.e., CENBOL).

We are basically interested to investigate the issue of radiative acceleration of outflows by momentum deposition of photons to the electrons. In Compton scattering, the transfer of energy per scattering (Rybicki and Lightman, 1979) is given by,

$$\mathrm{\Delta }e=\frac{e}{m_ec^2}(4k_BT_ee),$$
$`(1)`$
where, $`\mathrm{\Delta }e=`$ net change of photon energy, $`e`$ is the photon energy, $`k_B`$ is the Boltzmann constant and $`T_e`$ is the electron temperature. It is clear that if $`e>4k_BT_e`$ then energy is transferred from photons to electrons. Hence for radiative acceleration it is necessary to consider flows to be ‘cooler’ compared to the radiation though this by itself does not ensure that the energy thus supplied can be converted to bulk kinetic energy of the outflow.

### 2.2 Governing Equations

Equations of motion for matter under the action of radiation has been extensively studied in the papers mentioned in §1. We use the equation of motion given by MM84 for radial flow of grey medium. We have assumed the radiation pressure to be equal to the energy density and the Eddington factor is of the order of one (see, MM84). To take care of the strong gravity around a static compact object we introduce the pseudo-Newtonian gravitational potential (Paczyński and Wiita, 1980). Equations governing the steady state flow, in the pseudo-Newtonian limit become,
Momentum Balance Equation:

$$v\frac{dv}{dz}+\frac{1}{\rho }\frac{dP}{dz}+\frac{1}{2(z1)^2}=𝒟_z2v_z,$$
$`(2)`$
Baryon Number Conservation in the Outflow Equation:

$$\dot{M}=\mathrm{\Theta }_{out}\rho vz^2,$$
$`(3)`$
where

$$\mathrm{\Theta }_{out}=2\pi tan^2\theta _0,$$

and Entropy Generation Equation:

$$v(\frac{dϵ}{dz}\frac{P}{\rho ^2}\frac{d\rho }{dz})=Q_+Q_{}.$$
$`(4)`$
The variables $`v`$, $`\rho `$ and $`P`$ in the above equations are, velocity, density and isotropic gas pressure respectively of the flow. $`\theta _0`$ is the opening angle of the conical outflow. In the above equations, $`𝒟_z=\frac{\sigma _T}{m_p}F_z`$, where $`F_z`$ is the z-component of flux of radiation on the axis of symmetry and $`_z=\frac{\sigma _T}{m_p}E`$, where $`E`$ is the radiation energy density on the axis of symmetry. One must note, $`𝒟_z`$ is the radiative acceleration term and is abbreviated as RAMOD (RAdiative MOmentum Deposition force) and the second term in RHS of Eq. (2) is the radiation drag term. $`𝒟_z`$ and $`_z`$ is calculated following the prescription of Chattopadhyay and Chakrabarti (2000), which is given in §2.3, for the sake of completeness. The third term on the LHS of Eq. (2) is the gravity with ‘Paczyński-Wiita’ (psuedo-Newtonian) potential. The first term ($`Q_+`$) in LHS of Eq. (4) is the absorption term or any other heating term, which is considered to be zero. The second one is the cooling (bremsstrahlung, synchrotron etc) term. We neglect cooling terms. Later in this paper, we shall come back to them. $`ϵ`$ in LHS of Eq. (4) is the specific internal energy term and $`ϵ=\frac{P}{(\gamma 1)\rho }`$. As jets are extremely collimated, they are assumed to be in a narrow cone about the axis of symmetry (z-axis), moving radially outward, we choose $`\theta _010^o`$ opening angle of the bipolar outflow, considered to be constant here. The gas is assumed to obey an ideal equation of state,

$$P=\frac{\rho k_BT}{\mu m_p}.$$
$`(5)`$
Here $`T`$ is the temperature, $`m_p`$ is the proton mass and $`\mu =0.5`$. We define the adaiabatic sound speed $`a`$ as,

$$a^2=\frac{\gamma P}{\rho }.$$
$`(6)`$
Units of mass, length and time are chosen to be $`M_B`$ (Mass of the compact object), $`2\frac{GM_B}{c^2}`$ (Schwarzschild radius; G=Universal Gravitational constant) and $`2\frac{GM_B}{c^3}`$ respectively, also $`c=1`$.

### 2.3 Calculation of $`D_z`$

Figure 1 shows the schematic diagram of a disc/jet geometry. The flux of radiation at field point $`B(z)`$, from differential area $`dA`$ around a source point $`D(X,\varphi ,Z^{^{}})`$ is given by:

$$d𝐅=I\mathrm{cos}\mathrm{}(CDB)d\mathrm{\Omega }\frac{\mathrm{𝐃𝐁}}{|\mathrm{𝐃𝐁}|},$$
$`(7)`$
where $`I`$ is the frequency averaged radiation intensity on the surface and $`d\mathrm{\Omega }`$ is the solid angle subtended by the differential area $`dA`$ at $`B`$. The net momentum transferred (in dimensionless units) at B, due to the annular area on the cone, between $`Z^{^{}}`$ and $`Z^{^{}}+dZ^{^{}}`$, along $`z`$ axis is given by:

$$d𝒟_z=\frac{2\pi I\sigma _T}{m_p}\mathrm{tan}^2\theta \frac{z(zZ^{^{}})Z^{^{}}}{[(zZ^{^{}})^2+(Z^{^{}}\mathrm{tan}\theta )^2]^2}dZ^{^{}},$$
$`(8)`$
where, $`\sigma _T`$ is the Thomson scattering cross section. $`\theta `$ is the semi-vertical angle of the inner surface of the CENBOL (see, Fig. 1) which is assumed to remain constant. The direction of $`d𝒟_z`$ is along $`z`$ axis, as the transverse component of the momentum transferred, due to each of the differential area $`dA`$, cancels each other as we integrate over $`\varphi `$. We integrate over $`Z^{^{}}`$ to get the entire radiative contribution of the CENBOL, and hence $`𝒟_z`$ (RAMOD). Thus the analytical expression of RAMOD along $`z`$ is:

$$𝒟_z=𝒟_0[\mathrm{cos}2(\mathrm{\Phi }_1\theta )\mathrm{cos}2(\mathrm{\Phi }_2\theta )],$$
$`(9)`$
where

$$\mathrm{\Phi }_1=tan^1\left[\frac{2(H_+z\mathrm{cos}^2\theta )}{z\mathrm{sin}2\theta }\right],$$

and

$$\mathrm{\Phi }_2=tan^1\left[\frac{2(H_{}z\mathrm{cos}^2\theta )}{z\mathrm{sin}2\theta }\right].$$

$`H_+`$ and $`H_{}`$ are maximum and minimum height of the CENBOL from the equatorial plane, respectively, and

$$𝒟_0=\frac{\pi I\sigma _T}{2m_p}.$$
$`(10)`$
Now, we have to make an estimate of $`I`$. We assume that the radiation coming out is the binding energy of the last stable orbit of accreting matter. Hence,

$$I=\frac{L}{\mathrm{\Omega }_T𝒜}.$$
$`(11)`$
$`L=\eta \dot{M}_{acc}c^2`$, is the amount of rest mass energy of the accreting matter converted into radiation per unit time. Here $`\dot{M}_{acc}`$ is the accretion rate. $`\eta `$ is the convertion ratio and is equal to $`0.06`$ for the Schwarzschild metric. $`\mathrm{\Omega }_T`$ is the solid angle in which the radiation is coming out locally. $`𝒜`$ is the total area of the inner surface of the CENBOL. I is assumed to be uniform here.

### 2.4 Calculation of $`_z`$

In reference to Fig. 1, one can also calculate the radiation energy density. The radiation energy density at the field point $`B(z)`$ is given by:

$$dE=\frac{I}{c}\mathrm{cos}\mathrm{}(CDB)d\mathrm{\Omega }.$$
$`(12)`$
Integrating over the inner surface of the CENBOL as in the previous case we have:

$$E=E_0z\left[\frac{1}{\{(z^{^{}}z\mathrm{cos}^2\theta )^2+z^2\mathrm{sin}^2\theta cos^2\theta \}^{1/2}}+\frac{1}{z\mathrm{sin}^2\theta }\mathrm{sin}\{\mathrm{tan}^1\frac{z^{^{}}z\mathrm{cos}^2\theta }{z\mathrm{sin}\theta \mathrm{cos}\theta }\}\right]_H_{}^{H_+}.$$

Hence,

$$_z=_0z\left[\frac{1}{\{(z^{^{}}z\mathrm{cos}^2\theta )^2+z^2\mathrm{sin}^2\theta cos^2\theta \}^{1/2}}+\frac{1}{z\mathrm{sin}^2\theta }\mathrm{sin}\{\mathrm{tan}^1\frac{z^{^{}}z\mathrm{cos}^2\theta }{z\mathrm{sin}\theta \mathrm{cos}\theta }\}\right]_H_{}^{H_+},$$
$`(13)`$
where,

$$_0=2\pi \mathrm{sin}^2\theta \mathrm{cos}\theta \frac{I\sigma _T}{m_p},$$
$`(14)`$
and quantities $`[\mathrm{}]_H_{}^{H_+}`$ refers to $`[\mathrm{}]_{H_+}[\mathrm{}]_H_{}`$. We have chosen the shock in the accretion flow to be located at distance $`r=R_s=10r_g`$ (see CT95) where $`1r_g=2GM_B/c^2`$ and the specific angular momentum of the accretion to be $`1.6(2GM_B/c)`$. This determines the geometrical structure of the CENBOL. From Fig. 1, we see that $`R`$ is the position of $`H_+`$ on the equatorial plane of the accretion disc. And $`R_s`$ is the maximum radial distance of the CENBOL. With the above choice of accretion parameters, we have $`H_+=4.4r_g`$ and $`R=6.671r_g`$. $`H_{}=1.1r_g`$. With these geometric structure of CENBOL is determined which in turn helps to calculate $`𝒟_z`$ and $`_z`$. Though it seems that geometric structure of CENBOL introduces additional parameters, but one must remember that these along with the total amount of radiation, are dependent on the accretion parameters. So self-consistent accretion-jet solution should determine these from the accretion parameters (namely, accretion rate and angular momentum) only.

### 2.5  Method

Sonic Point Analysis: To solve Eqs. (2)-(4) we use the method of sonic point analysis (C90b). In this paper the outflow is assumed inviscid and fully ionised plasma. Moreover, only electron scattering is considered. Thus, $`Q_+=0`$ in Eq. (4). The cooling terms are not considered for the time being (we will come back to them in later part of $ 3), hence $`Q_{}=0`$. Equations (2)-(4) with the help of Eqs. (5) and (6) can be written as;

$$\frac{dv}{dz}=\frac{\frac{2a^2}{z}\frac{1}{2(z1)^2}+𝒟_z2v_z}{v\frac{a^2}{v}}$$
$`(15)`$
and

$$\frac{da}{dz}=\frac{a(\gamma 1)}{z}\frac{a(\gamma 1)}{2v}\frac{dv}{dz}.$$
$`(16)`$
Since an outflow around compact objects must originate from inflowing matter, it must start with a subsonic velocity. Therefore relativistic outflows which acquire supersonic terminal velocity at large distances from the central object, must be transonic in nature. Thus, at some point (critical or sonic point), the denominator of Eq. (15) must go to zero. Since the flow must be smooth everywhere, this implies that at radial distance where the denominator of Eq. (15) goes to zero, the numerator must go to zero as well. Using this property we have the so-called critical point conditions or sonic point conditions. The sonic point conditions are :

$$v_c^2=a_c^2,$$
$`(17)`$
and

$$a_c^2_{z_c}a_c+\frac{z_c}{2}𝒟_{z_c}\frac{z_c}{4(z_c1)^2}=0,$$
$`(18)`$
where $`z_c`$ is the sonic point. By definition it is the distance on the axis of symmetry at which the sonic point conditions are satisfied. As $`zz_c`$, $`\frac{dv}{dz}=\frac{N}{D}\frac{0}{0}`$. The gradient of radial velocity at $`z_c`$ is found out by l’Hôspital’s rule,

$$\left(\frac{dv}{dz}\right)_c=\left[\frac{\frac{dN}{dz}}{\frac{dD}{dz}}\right]_c.$$
$`(19)`$
The expression of gradient of sound speed at $`z_c`$, is obtained by modifying Eq. (16),

$$\left(\frac{da}{dz}\right)_c=\frac{a_c(\gamma 1)}{z_c}\frac{(\gamma 1)}{2}\left(\frac{dv}{dz}\right)_c.$$
$`(20)`$
To obtain a complete transonic solution, we supply $`z_c`$, $`\dot{M}_{acc}`$ and integrate Eqs. (15) and (16), with the help of Eqs. (17)-(20), once from $`z_c`$ inwards and again from $`z_c`$ outwards to a large distance. Once we obtain $`v`$ and $`a`$ as functions of $`z`$, we have a complete solution of the problem. Other flow variables like $`T`$ can be found out from Eqs. (5) and (6) and $`\rho `$ from Eq. (3). To get an estimate of the electron temperature, we can use the expression $`T_e=(\frac{m_e}{m_p})^{1/2}T_p`$. Calculation of $`\rho `$ and estimation of $`T_e`$ are used when cooling mechanisms are considered. To calculate $`\rho `$, one has to supply the value of $`\dot{M}`$, the only constant of motion. ¿From the works of Chakrabarti and his collaborators, it is known that $`\dot{M}`$ is not a free parameter, and can be calculated as a function of $`\dot{M}_{acc}`$ and the compression ratio at the shock of the accretion disc. We make an estimation of $`\dot{M}`$ from $`\dot{M}_{acc}`$, following Chakrabarti (1999).
Here the accretion and wind is assumed to be conical. According to Chakrabarti (1999),

$$\frac{\dot{M}}{\dot{M}_{acc}}=\frac{\mathrm{\Theta }_{out}}{\mathrm{\Theta }_{acc}}\frac{R_c}{4}[\frac{R_{c}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}}{R_c1}]^{3/2}\mathrm{exp}(\frac{3}{2}\frac{R_c^2}{R_c1})$$
$`(21)`$
where, $`\dot{M}`$ is the mass outflow rate, $`\dot{M}_{acc}`$ is the mass accretion rate and $`R_c`$ is the compression ratio at the shock in accretion. $`\mathrm{\Theta }_{out}`$ is the solid angle subtended by the outflow, $`\mathrm{\Theta }_{acc}`$ is the solid angle subtended by the accreting matter. Assuming $`\mathrm{\Theta }_{out}\mathrm{\Theta }_{in}`$ (for simplicity) Chakrabarti calculated the mass outflow rate for any generic value of compression ratio, the latter varying from $`1`$ (no-shock) to $`7`$ (very strong shock). Putting $`R_c=1`$ (no-shock) in Eq. (21) Chakrabarti found out $`\dot{M}=0`$ , i.e., there is no outflow if there is no shock in accretion. The maximum outflow rate calculated was about $`30\%`$ of the accretion (for $`R_c4`$). In the strong shock limit (for $`R_c5`$) it was calculated to be less than $`10\%`$. In the present work, the mass outflow rate is assumed to be,

$$\dot{M}=0.01\dot{M}_{Edd},$$
$`(22)`$
until otherwise stated. Of course, the actual value of mass outflow rate is necessary only while considering effects of various cooling mechanisms.

## 3 Results

In view of RHS of Eq. (4) to be zero, Eq. (2) can be integrated and can be written in the form,

$$\frac{1}{2}v(z)^2+na(z)^2\frac{1}{2(z1)}=\frac{1}{2}v_{in}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}+na_{in}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}\frac{1}{2(z_{in}1)}+_{z_{in}}^z(𝒟_z^{^{}}2v_z^{^{}})𝑑z^{^{}}$$
$`(23a)`$
or,

$$E(z)=E_{in}+_{z_{in}}^z(𝒟_z^{^{}}2v_z^{^{}})𝑑z^{^{}}$$
$`(23b)`$
Equation (23) shows that, in absence of radiation, non-rotating outflows are accelerated by thermal pressure only and such outflows are called Bondi-type (1952) outflows. ¿From the above equation, it is quite clear that in order to accelerate outflows significantly by radiation, the work done by radiation forces, onto the flow has to be comparable to the initial energy of the outflow. We will come back to this equation to understand quite simply various phenomenon.

Let us now focus on the solution topologies of the outflow which is accelerated by the radiative momentum deposition. Figure 2a, shows the variation of bulk velocity ($`v`$) along the axis of symmetry with $`log(z)`$. Various curves denote flows acted on by radiation corresponding to $`\dot{M}_{acc}=12\dot{M}_{Edd}`$ (long-dashed), $`\dot{M}_{acc}=6\dot{M}_{Edd}`$ (short-dashed) and the solid line denotes Bondi-type outflow. The initial parameters are the same in all the curves $``$ $`v_{in}=0.02`$ (in units of $`c`$) at $`z_{in}=2.97`$ (in units of $`2GM/c^2`$). We see that the outflows are accelerated by radiative momentum deposition. As outflows with the same input parameters are accelerated to higher and higher terminal velocities, correspondingly sonic point will also come closer. Figure 2b, exhibits this phenomena where the sonic point ($`z_c`$) is plotted with non-spatial part of RAMOD \[$`𝒟_0`$; see, Eq. (10)\]. Input parameters are the same as that of Fig. 2(a).

Figure 3(a), shows the variation of $`v_{1000}`$ ($`v`$ at $`z=1000`$) with initial energy ($`\mathrm{E}_{in}`$) of the flow for outflows acted on by RAMOD proportional to $`\dot{M}_{acc}=15\dot{M}_{Edd}`$ (dash-dot), $`\dot{M}_{acc}=10\dot{M}_{Edd}`$ (long-dashed), $`\dot{M}_{acc}=5\dot{M}_{Edd}`$ (short -dashed) and the Bondi-type outflow is denoted by the solid line. We see that though $`v_{1000}`$ achieves a higher value, it is almost independent of RAMOD when $`\mathrm{E}_{in}`$ is high. For lower value of $`\mathrm{E}_{in}`$, the radiative momentum deposition plays more significant role and even outflows which are initially bound are pushed to infinity as transonic outflows. ¿From Eq. (23b) we see that if $`E_{in}`$ is significantly greater than radiative work done then clearly $`v`$ at large $`z`$ will have a weak dependence on radiation. More over, we also see that, if LHS of Eq. (23b) is less than zero then there is no outflow. Since outflows originate close to the black hole, for cold plasma $`E_{in}`$ may be negative. In that case the wind will blow if the second term in RHS of Eq. (23a) is greater than $`E_{in}`$. Thus the critical specific initial energy $`E_{min}`$ for which wind do not blow, will be obtained when these two terms are equal. Figure 3(b), shows $`E_{min}`$ as a function of $`𝒟_0`$. Outflows with $`E_{in}`$ on this curve and bellow will not reach a large distance.

Figure 3(c) shows the variation of specific energy of the outflow which was initially bound, energetically speaking. Initial parameters are $`\mathrm{E}_{in}=0.002`$ (in units of $`c^2`$) at $`z_{in}=3`$. Consequently, the Mach number ($`M=v/a`$) variation of the same solution (solid) is compared with only the thermally driven outflow (short-dashed), starting with the same initial condition we find no transonic solution at all, as is exhibited in Fig. 3(d).

We now investigate the role of radiative deceleration or the radiation-drag term i.e., the third term in the RHS of the momentum balance equation. The radiation drag term is proportional to both $`v`$ and $`_z`$. i.e., as $`v`$ increases radiation drag also increases. But if the radiation energy density increases, the drag term will increase too. This phenomenon is exhibited in Fig. 4. Figure 4(a), shows the comparison of velocity ($`v`$) variation of outflows with (solid) and without (short-dashed) radiation drag. RAMOD corresponds to $`\dot{M}_{acc}=5\dot{M}_{Edd}`$ was chosen. Initial parameters are $`z_{in}=2.96`$, $`v_{in}=0.02`$. Figure 4(b), shows the comparison of velocity ($`v`$) variation of outflows with (solid) and without (short-dashed) radiation drag for RAMOD corresponding to $`\dot{M}_{acc}=10\dot{M}_{Edd}`$. Increasing the radiation one would have expected more acceleration and hence more $`v_{1000}`$ at large $`z`$. But as this also increases the radiative energy density the drag term increases and results in marginally higher $`v_{1000}`$. As radiative deceleration is proportional to both $`v`$ and radiative energy density, the actual deceleration will depend on competition of both of these terms. Outflows are generated close to the black hole, radiation energy density due to the inner part of the disc is large and initial velocity of the outflow is small. Hence, initially radiation drag is not strong enough to stop the outflow from forming. As outflows achieve supersonic velocity far away from the black hole, radiation energy density falls off, thus radiation drag once again is not strong enough to make the outflow decelerate or for that matter to fall back on the disc. Now the question is what is the maximum velocity allowed before deceleration sets in. If we equate the two terms in RHS of Eq. (2), we get the equilibrium speed above which there would be deceleration. Thus,

$$v_{eq}=\frac{𝒟_z}{2_z}$$
$`(24)`$
Thus we see that the maximum velocity beyond which deceleration sets in depends on both $`𝒟_z`$ and $`_z`$. Inside the funnel shaped region $`_z`$ is large, but $`𝒟_z`$ is small, as flux of radiation along $`z`$ is smaller. As outflowing matter leaves the funnel $`𝒟_z`$ increases compared to $`_z`$ and consequently $`v_{eq}`$ also increases. The dashed curve in Fig. 5(a) shows the variation of $`v_{eq}`$ as a function of $`z`$. As $`z`$ large, $`v_{eq}0.5`$. This is what Icke(1989) called as the ‘magic speed’, which for a thin disc was found to be equal to $`0.451`$. Important thing to note is that though magic speed or in our parlance $`v_{eq}`$ at large $`z`$, does not depend on the magnitude of radiation intensity from the CENBOL, but actual deceleration will. In Fig. 5(b), matter is injected with $`v_{in}`$ larger than $`v_{eq}(z_{in})`$. In the region $`z<z_1`$, $`v>v_{eq}`$ so there is a net deceleration and the flow velocity decreases than what it should be. At $`z=z_1`$ $`v(z_1)=v_{eq}(z_1)`$ which means that the radiative force is zero. For $`z_2>z>z_1`$, $`v<v_{eq}`$, radiation again accelerates the flow. At $`z>z_2`$, again $`v>v_{eq}`$, the flow again decelerates but as at large $`z`$, net radiative deceleration is small, the effect is marginal. If one looks at the variation of $`E`$ of such a flow, the effect is more understandable. In Fig. 5(c), specific energy of the flow \[same as Fig. 5(b)\] is plotted with $`z`$. In the region $`z<z_1`$, there is net deceleration so $`E`$ decreases. At $`z>z_1`$, there is acceleration, hence $`E`$ increases. Again at $`z>z_2`$, $`v>v_{eq}`$ which means there is radiative deceleration but as the magnitude of deceleration is small, the effect is marginal. Note however, $`v_{eq}`$ is not the terminal velocity. For $`z\mathrm{}`$, $`E(z)\frac{1}{2}v_{\mathrm{}}^2`$. From Eq. (23) we get,

$$\frac{1}{2}v_{\mathrm{}}^2=E_{in}+_{z_{in}}^{\mathrm{}}(𝒟_z^{^{}}2v_z^{^{}})𝑑z^{^{}}.$$
$`(23c)`$
The above equation tells us that $`v_{\mathrm{}}`$ will depend on both the net radiative work done on to the flow and also the initial energy of the flow.

Apart from looking at acceleration phenomenon we have also analyzed Eq. (18), to see if there is any possibility of multiple sonic points. But we did not find multiple sonic points. This limits the scope of formation of radiative-hydrodynamic shocks in winds, although in time dependent rotating flow, shocks can still form.

Jets originate from post-shock accretion flow close to the compact object. And hence outflows should be very hot. We have seen so far that for sufficiently hot flow radiative acceleration has a very limited effect. In fact, very close to the compact object cooling processes may be important. In the entire analysis so far, we ignored cooling processes. We know that bremsstrahlung cooling (Chattopadhyay and Chakrabarti, 2000) is a very inefficient process. Therefore in the following analysis we include the synchrotron loss due to stochastic magnetic field. We assume an equipartition magnetic field (B). The synchrotron loss (erg $`g^1s^1`$) is given by Shapiro and Teukolsky, (1983),

$$S_L=\frac{16}{3}\frac{e^2}{c}(\frac{eB}{m_ec})^2(\frac{k_BT_e}{m_ec^2})^2\frac{1}{m_p},$$
$`(25)`$
where, $`e`$ and $`m_e`$ are the electron charge and its mass. We include this cooling term in RHS of Eq. (4). Following similar method as explained in §2, we get the sonic point condition. The first condition is the same as Eq. (19) but the second condition is given by:

$$[1+\frac{(\gamma 1)S_0}{2(z_c1)z_c}]a_{c}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}z_c_za_c+\frac{z_c}{2}[𝒟_{z_c}\frac{1}{2(z_c1)^2}]=0,$$
$`(26)`$
where, $`S_0=(32e^4\mu ^2\pi 1.4\times 10^{17}f)/(3m_{e}^{}{}_{}{}^{3}c^3\gamma ^2M_{}G\mathrm{\Theta }_{out})`$, where $`f`$ is the outflow rate in units of $`\dot{M}_{Edd}`$.

Even in this case there is only one positive real root for sonic point outside the horizon. Hence once again the possibility of finding a steady shock in the transonic outflow is absent. Figure 6, compares the variation of bulk velocity without (solid) cooling and with cooling for $`\dot{M}=0.01\dot{M}_{Edd}`$ (short-dashed) and $`\dot{M}=0.005\dot{M}_{Edd}`$ (long dashed). RAMOD corresponds to $`\dot{M}_{acc}=6\dot{M}_{Edd}`$. Initial parameters are $`z_{in}=3.05`$ and $`v_{in}=0.13`$. We can see that synchrotron cooling produces less energetic outflow. However, synchrotron loss rate (per unit volume) depends on the number density of electrons and also the magnetic field strength. Number density of electrons depends on the mass outflow rate ($`\dot{M}`$). As we have no theoretical handle on the magnetic field, we have assumed an equipartition magnetic field ($`B`$), which depends on the density of matter and hence on $`\dot{M}`$. Thus tuning $`\dot{M}`$ would also tune $`B`$. We reduce $`\dot{M}`$ to $`0.005\dot{M}_{Edd}`$ (long-dashed) and find that compared to the solution which includes cooling (long-dashed) with higher $`\dot{M}`$ results in outflows which are more energetic. If one had a better understanding of magnetic fields around accreting black holes, then synchrotron cooling phenomenon would be worth pursuing. This is just to show cooling can be very important close to the black hole.

## 4 Discussion and Concluding Remarks

It has been pointed out in §1, that outflows around compact objects and especially black holes have to originate from the inner part of the accreting matter. This should, in-fact be a region which is also the source of hard photons. As a photon interacts with an electron, Eq. (1) tells us that there will be exchange of energy between them and therefore momentum. If the thermal energy of the electron is less than the photon energy it will gain energy from the photon. But this does not ensure enhancement of bulk kinetic energy of the flow. Energy gained may not enhance its kinetic energy. Intense radiation in the vicinity of the black hole would create sufficient radiative pressure on the flow to slow it down due to radiation drag. So even if one considers only cold plasma even then radiative acceleration of outflows remains a tricky issue which we have tried to resolve in the present paper.

We have witnessed that as one increases radiative momentum deposition force, one gets more and more energetic outflows, but there is no linear relation between velocity at large distance and the radiative force. This is because of radiation drag effect. Higher radiative force gives rise to a higher energy density. In principle, higher radiative force means more acceleration resulting in higher velocity, but as radiation drag term is proportional to both $`v`$ and energy density, therefore the deceleration starts to be important too. Equating the first term and the second term in RHS of Eq. (2), we get the expression of equilibrium speed $`v_{eq}`$. If one considered the disc to be an infinite flat radiator, as Icke (1989) did, at large distances, the contribution to the radiative energy density remains higher compared to the flux along the axis of symmetry. This is not true when the ‘radiatior’ has a special geometry as in our case. Here, within the funnel of the inner torus of the finite accretion disc, radiation received at any point on the axis is significantly larger than the flux along the axis. As one goes further and further away from the inner torus, the matter will increasingly see it as a point source. Hence the energy density will be that due to a point source. The efficiency of ‘flux-focussing’ is thus better. As a result, we get marginally higher equilibrium velocity (at a large distance) than that obtained for a thin accretion disc. Icke (1989) has also computed magic speed for the thick disc where the temperature of the inner surface of the thick disc decreases with the height. He showed that this temperature variation of the driving surface significantly influence the value of magic speed. In our case the radiation coming out of the inner torus are inverse Comptonized photons and are not thermalized with the post-shock torus. Moreover, the CENBOL surface is an isothermal one. But the frequency averaged intensity will depend on the temperature gradient at the surface of the CENBOL. With the particular case we have taken, the temperature gradient is seen not to vary appreciably except very close to the black hole. Hence for simplicity we have taken the intensity of radiation to be uniform.

Recently Fukue and his collaborators (1999-2001) has systematically studied the radiative acceleration and collimation of jets coming out from a disc which is a combination of inner ADAF region (non luminous) and outer slim disc (luminous). First of all, the ADAF solutions are for very low accretion rate ($`\dot{M}_{acc}\stackrel{<}{}10^5\dot{M}_{Edd}`$), so the outflow rate would be even smaller. The second fact is that the radiative collimation they have got is only because of the inner non-luminous region which does not contribute to the radial ($`r,\varphi ,z`$ system) flux. The situation is different in our case. The hard radiation is coming from the inner post-shock region of the disc while the soft radiation is coming from the outer region of disc. In this paper we have only considered the radiations coming from the post-shock region. Therefore we are working in a different regime.

We ignored bremsstrahlung cooling because it is a very inefficient cooling mechanism and is not likely to change the physics of outflows, qualitatively. We also have ignored cooling due to inverse-Comptonization. As we initially were interested to look at acceleration phenomenon of the radiation we had to look for cold plasma. Thus the equations of motion presented in §2. are not suitable to study the effect of inverse Comptonization. In future we will work with the most general form of radiative transfer equation in curved space time, which will include all the processes.

While calculating the specific intensity of radiation (in §2.3) coming out from the inner torus of the accretion disc, we have assumed that the radiation coming out is proportional to the gravitational energy release of in-falling matter. The conversion ratio ($`\eta `$) used, was that due to last stable orbit around a Schwarzschild black hole. As the Keplerian disc only extends upto the shock location (i.e., $`R_s`$ in §2.4) hence $`\eta `$ will be less than $`0.06`$, around $`0.04`$. Hence there is a little bit of over estimation in the calculation of the terminal velocity, though this is not going to change the result qualitatively.

Our conclusion in the present paper is that the radiation momentum deposition does accelerate matter to produce transonic outflows. Radiative acceleration increases with the accretion rate. Achievement of very high velocity is restricted because of the radiation drag term. Radiation drag term is the deceleration term and it depends on both the velocity of the flow and the energy density of radiation. As a result above some speed ($`v_{eq}`$) radiative deceleration sets in. Within the funnel of the inner post-shock torus of the accretion disc, $`v_{eq}`$ depends on distance but at large distance from it the steady value attained is $`0.5`$ i.e. fifty percent of the velocity of light. It is to be noted that $`v_{eq}`$ itself is not the terminal velocity $`v_{\mathrm{}}`$ – it becomes the terminal velocity for the flow having an infinitesimally small initial energy $`E_{in}`$ \[see, Eq. 23(c)\]. If $`E_{in}>0`$, it can be easily shown that $`v_{\mathrm{}}^2<v_{eq}^2+2E_{in}`$.

Radiative-hydrodynamics changes the critical point condition, but fails to generate multiple real critical points of the equation thus eliminating the possibility of getting steady shocks in outflows. This may be related with the assumptions enforced, namely, due to the consideration of cold plasma in a non-rotating flow. Radiative momentum deposition increases the specific energy of the outflow to the extent of driving bound outflowing matter to infinity as transonic outflow. Synchrotron cooling results in less energetic outflow, but this effect can increase with larger outflow rate. A proper theoretical handle on the structure of magnetic field will dramatically affect the physics of outflows.

The results presented here are calculated bearing a bipolar outflow in mind. It will be noticeable that, the parameters, like the accretion and outflow rates, used here are on the higher side. This was done to study the effects in more extreme conditions. Essential features observed here will remain unaffected for the lower values of the parameters as well.


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# 1 Asymmetric double-well potential.

## References