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# Omega photoproduction beyond the resonance region at small u

## I Introduction

At energies beyond the $`s`$ channel resonance region the vector meson photoproduction off the nucleon is traditionally discussed in terms of exchanges in the $`t`$ and $`u`$ channels.

At forward angles the vector meson photoproduction is dominated by the exchanges in the $`t`$ channel. A long time ago, Berman and Drell Berman  proposed that at low energies and small $`t`$ meson photoproduction can be well understood in terms of the exchanges of light mesons.

Most recently, Donnachie and Landshoff Donnachie1 ; Donnachie2  and Laget Laget1  illustrated that at high energies the photoproduction can be well described by soft pomeron and meson Regge trajectories.

Furthermore, the high energy data Breitweg  on $`\rho `$ photoproduction at $`|t|`$ above $``$0.4 GeV2 require some additional contribution, which might stem from the hard pomeron exchange Donnachie3 . The data Adloff  on $`J/\mathrm{\Psi }`$ meson photoproduction can be reproduced well by an additional introduction of the hard pomeron exchange in the $`t`$ channel Donnachie3 ; Sibirtsev1 ; Donnachie4  even at small $`|t|`$.

At backward angles, i.e. where $`|t|`$ becomes large and $`|u|`$ still remains small, the photoproduction is dominated by exchanges in the $`u`$ channel. At low energies beyond the resonance region, the production amplitude is given by the nucleon exchange. At high energies it is due to the contribution from the nucleon Regge trajectory.

Meson photoproduction at the kinematical region where both $`t`$ and $`u`$ are large can be dominated by hard interactions between the photon and the quarks of the nucleon. It is believed that this region is beyond the applicability of the standard boson exchange and Regge models. Moreover, a typical signature Brodsky  of hard processes is a strong $`s^8`$ dependence of the differential photoproduction cross section.

Experimental results Clifft  on backward $`\omega `$ meson photoproduction at photon energies $`E_\gamma `$ between 2.8 and 4.8 GeV collected at Daresbury Laboratory indicate a prominent structure shown in Fig. 1. The differential $`d\sigma /du`$ cross section has a dip around $`u0.15`$ GeV2, which becomes more pronounced with increasing the photon energy.

It was proposed Clifft  to parameterize the $`\gamma p\omega p`$ differential cross section as a sum of contributions from the Regge trajectory exchange and hard mechanism. Indeed the energy dependence of the $`\omega `$ meson photoproduction cross section $`d\sigma /du`$ at different values of $`u`$ was fitted well by

$$\frac{d\sigma }{du}=|a(u)s^{\alpha (u)1}+b(u)\mathrm{exp}^{i\varphi (u)}s^{n/2}|^2,$$
(1)
with fixed power $`n=8`$ and parameters $`a`$, $`b`$ and $`\varphi `$ adjusted to the data Clifft . It was found that $`\alpha (u)`$ corresponds to the nucleon trajectory, that the parameter $`b`$ does not depend on $`u`$ and the phase $`\varphi =90^o`$ indicating that the Regge exchange and hard mechanism do not interfere.

Finally, the data Clifft  on backward $`\omega `$ photoproduction off a nucleon at $`E_\gamma `$ between 2.8 and 4.8 GeV were interpreted as due to the dominant contribution from the nucleon Regge trajectory exchange at $`|u|`$0.2 GeV2 and an additional contribution from the hard interaction between the photon and the quarks of the target nucleon.

On the other hand, the data Clifft1  on backward $`\rho `$ and $`f`$ meson photoproduction collected at the same spectrometer and for the same range of photon energies do not indicate a dip around $`u0.15`$ GeV2 as well as a strong $`s^8`$ dependence.

Furthermore high precision measurements Anderson  at SLAC of the backward photoproduction of charged pions off a nucleon at photon energies between 4.1 and 14.8 GeV and $`1.8u0.05`$ GeV2 also do not indicate a dip at $`u`$–0.15 GeV2. SLAC data Tompkins  on backward $`\pi ^o`$ photoproduction at photon energies $`E_\gamma `$=6, 8, 12 and 18 GeV show a $`s^3`$ dependence with no sign of a dip at $`u`$ between -1 and 0 GeV2.

Therefore, among available data on meson photoproduction at large angles only the $`\gamma p\omega p`$ reaction shows a very specific signature which might be interpreted as an indication of hard interactions between the photon and the nucleon. However it is quite difficult to motivate that the $`\omega `$ photoproduction can be sensitive to hard processes whereas photoproduction of $`\pi `$, $`\rho `$ and $`f`$ mesons are not, since hard interactions are driven by the partonic structure of the hadrons.

Here we investigate whether the data Clifft  on backward $`\omega `$ meson photoproduction might be understood in terms of a standard hadronic approach as a meson exchange model. At photon energies above the $`s`$ resonance region we adopt the $`\pi `$, $`\eta `$ and $`\sigma `$ exchanges in the $`t`$ channel as well as the nucleon exchange in the $`s`$ and $`u`$ channels. Within meson exchange models, the contribution from the nucleon exchange dominates at large angles.

It is important to note that within the meson exchange model, the difference between the data on backward $`\omega `$ and $`\pi `$, $`\rho `$ and $`f`$ meson photoproduction can be reasonably motivated, since the couplings and the form factor functions in the meson-nucleon-nucleon vertices are not necessarily identical for the various mesons. Moreover, theoretical analysis Machleidt1 ; Machleidt2  of the nucleon-nucleon interaction really result in different vertex functions for different mesons.

## II The model

The vector meson photoproduction at small four momentum $`t`$ transfer has been studied theoretically for a long time Drell ; Alles ; Joos . Considering the contributions from all possible intermediate states that are lighter than the produced vector mesons, Joos and Kramer Joos  formulated the $`\pi `$, $`\eta `$ and $`\sigma `$ exchange model.

The coupling constants for the $`\pi `$, $`\eta `$ and $`\sigma `$ exchanges were fixed either from the analysis of nucleon-nucleon scattering or from the relevant partial decay widths of the vector meson to the photon and the pseudoscalar meson. The $`\omega \gamma \sigma `$ coupling was not specified explicitly. Form factors in the interaction vertices were not taken into account Gottfried ; Watson .

However, the model in its original formulation Drell ; Alles ; Berman ; Joos  was not able to reproduce the data on $`\omega `$ photoproduction at energies 1.8$`E_\gamma `$5.8 GeV collected later Aachen1 ; Ballam1 ; Ballam2 ; Davier . We notice that the $`\omega `$ photoproduction data Drell ; Alles ; Berman ; Joos  at low $`|t|`$ can be well described by the model of Ref. Joos  when introducing the relevant form factors at the interaction vertices.

Following the model of Refs. Drell ; Alles ; Berman ; Joos  and evaluating the interaction vertices by vector meson dominance Friman and Soyeur Friman  reproduced the data LB1  on total $`\gamma p\omega p`$ cross section at photon energies below 2 GeV and differential $`d\sigma /dt`$ omega photoproduction cross sections Aachen1  at $`|t|`$0.5 GeV2 for 1.4$`E_\gamma `$1.8 GeV. In this model Friman  the photon couples to the $`\rho `$ and the $`\omega `$ and the $`\rho N\omega N`$ transition is given by $`\pi `$ meson exchange, while the $`\omega N\omega N`$ scattering was described by $`\sigma `$ exchange. Furthermore, the interaction vertices were dressed by form factors and unknown parameters for the $`\sigma `$ meson exchange were adjusted to the data Aachen1 .

Obviously, since both models Joos ; Friman  discussed above account only for the $`t`$-channel contribution, they are not able to reproduce the data Clifft  collected at small $`|u|`$.

Very recently Oh, Titov and T.S.H. Lee Oh1  investigated $`\omega `$ photoproduction in the resonance region by considering the $`\pi `$, $`\eta `$ and pomeron exchanges in the $`t`$ channel and the excitation of the nucleon and baryonic resonances in the $`s`$ and $`u`$ channels. The form factors and coupling constants for $`\pi `$, $`\eta `$ and nucleon exchanges were adopted from the literature. The parameters for the pomeron exchange were fixed Donnachie1 ; Donnachie5 ; Donnachie6  at high energies. Furthermore, the resonance parameters were fitted to the $`\gamma p\omega p`$ differential cross sections Klein  collected at photon energies 1.23$`E_\gamma `$1.92 GeV. The calculations Oh1  also well reproduce the data Ballam3  at small $`|t|`$ for $`E_\gamma `$=2.8 and 4.7 GeV. However, the model could not reproduce the $`\omega `$ photoproduction data Clifft  at small $`|u|`$.

Here we consider $`\omega `$ meson photoproduction due to the pseudoscalar $`\pi `$ and $`\eta `$ and scalar $`\sigma `$ meson exchanges and the direct and crossed nucleon terms. The relevant diagrams are shown in the Fig. 2. Furthermore, the squared invariant collision energy $`s`$ and the squared $`t`$ and $`u`$ four momenta transfers are given by

$`s=(p+k)^2=(p^{}+q)^2,`$ (2)
$`t=(qk)^2=(p^{}p)^2,`$ (3)
$`u=(qp)^2=(p^{}k)^2,`$ (4)
where $`k`$, $`q`$, $`p`$, and $`p^{}`$ are the four momenta of the photon, $`\omega `$ meson, initial nucleon and final nucleon, respectively.

The effective Lagrangian densities used for the evaluation of the $`\pi `$ and $`\eta `$ meson exchange amplitudes are given as

$`_{\omega \gamma \phi }`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{eg_{\omega \gamma \phi }}{m_\omega }}ϵ^{\mu \nu \alpha \beta }_\mu \omega _\nu _\alpha A_\beta \phi ,`$
$`_{\phi NN}`$ $`=`$ $`ig_{\phi NN}\overline{N}\gamma _5N\phi ,`$ (5)
where $`\phi `$ denotes the $`\pi ^0`$ or the $`\eta `$ meson, while $`A_\beta `$ is the photon field. Furthermore we adopt the $`\pi NN`$ and $`\eta NN`$ coupling constants as $`g_{\pi NN}=13.26`$ and $`g_{\eta NN}=3.53`$, respectively. The $`g_{\omega \gamma \pi }`$=1.82 and $`g_{\omega \gamma \eta }`$=0.42 coupling constants were evaluated from the partial $`\omega \gamma \pi `$ and $`\omega \gamma \eta `$ decay widths PDG , respectively.

Finally, the $`\gamma p\omega p`$ reaction amplitude due to the $`\pi `$ and $`\eta `$ meson exchange is given as

$`_{\pi ,\eta }={\displaystyle \underset{\phi =\pi ,\eta }{}}{\displaystyle \frac{ieg_{\omega \gamma \phi }g_{\phi NN}}{m_\omega }}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{tm_\phi ^2}}`$
$`\times \epsilon ^{\mu \nu \alpha \beta }q_\mu \epsilon _\nu ^{}(q)k_\alpha \epsilon _\beta (k)\overline{u}(p^{})\gamma _5u(p).`$ (6)
Moreover, at each interaction vertex we introduce the phenomenological form factor

$$F(t)=\frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }^2m_{ex}^2}{\mathrm{\Lambda }^2t},$$
(7)
where $`m_{ex}`$ is the mass of the exchanged meson and the cutoff parameters in the $`\pi NN`$ and $`\eta NN`$ vertices were fixed as $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_{\pi NN}`$=0.7 GeV and $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_{\eta NN}`$=1 GeV. The cutoff parameters of the form factors in the $`\omega \gamma \pi `$ and $`\omega \gamma \eta `$ vertices were fitted to the data as will be specified later.

The $`\sigma `$ meson exchange amplitude was calculated from the following effective Lagrangians:

$`_{\omega \gamma \sigma }`$ $`=`$ $`em_\omega g_{\omega \gamma \sigma }\omega _\beta A^\beta \sigma `$
$`_{\sigma NN}`$ $`=`$ $`g_{\sigma NN}\overline{N}N\sigma ,`$ (8)
where the $`\sigma NN`$ coupling constant was taken as $`g_{\sigma NN}`$=8, while the $`\omega \gamma \sigma `$ coupling constant was fitted to the data.

The photoproduction amplitude due to the $`\sigma `$ meson exchange is then naively given as

$$_\sigma =\frac{em_\omega g_{\omega \gamma \sigma }g_{\sigma NN}}{tm_\sigma ^2}\epsilon _\mu ^{}(q)\epsilon ^\mu (k)\overline{u}(p^{})u(p).$$
(9)
Again we introduce monopole form factor of Eq. (7) in the interaction vertices with $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_{\sigma NN}`$=1 GeV and adjust the cutoff $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_{\omega \gamma \sigma }`$ to the data. Furthermore, the gauge invariant $`\sigma `$ exchange amplitudes is now given as

$`_\sigma `$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{em_\omega g_{\omega \gamma \sigma }g_{\sigma NN}}{tm_\sigma ^2}}`$ (10)
$`\times `$ $`\epsilon _\mu ^{}(q)(g^{\mu \nu }{\displaystyle \frac{k^\mu q^\nu }{qk}})\epsilon _\nu (k)\overline{u}(p^{})u(p).`$
The direct and crossed nucleon exchange amplitudes due to the diagrams depicted in Fig. 2c) and Fig. 2b), respectively, were evaluated from the following interaction Lagrangians:

$`_{\gamma NN}`$ $`=`$ $`e\overline{N}\left(\gamma _\mu {\displaystyle \frac{1+\tau _3}{2}}A^\mu {\displaystyle \frac{\kappa _p}{2M_N}}\sigma ^{\mu \nu }_\nu A_\mu \right)N,`$
$`_{\omega NN}`$ $`=`$ $`g_{\omega NN}\overline{N}\left(\gamma _\mu \omega ^\mu {\displaystyle \frac{\kappa _\omega }{2M_N}}\sigma ^{\mu \nu }_\nu \omega _\mu \right)N,`$ (11)
where the anomalous magnetic moment of the proton was taken as $`\kappa _p`$=1.79, while the $`\omega NN`$ coupling constant was fitted to the data. Moreover, in the following calculations we adopt $`\kappa _\omega `$=0.

Ignoring the form factors for the $`\gamma p\omega p`$ reaction, the reaction amplitudes due to the nucleon exchange in the $`s`$ and $`u`$ channels are given as

$`_N=eg_{\omega NN}\overline{u}(p^{})\epsilon _\mu ^{}(q)\gamma ^\mu {\displaystyle \frac{\overline{)}p+\overline{)}k+m_N}{sm_N^2}}`$
$`\times [\gamma _\nu +{\displaystyle \frac{i\kappa _p}{2m_N}}\sigma _{\nu \alpha }k^\alpha ]\epsilon ^\nu (k)u(p),`$ (12)
$`\stackrel{~}{}_N=eg_{\omega NN}\overline{u}(p^{})\epsilon _\mu ^{}(q)[\gamma _\nu +{\displaystyle \frac{i\kappa _p}{2m_N}}\sigma _{\nu \alpha }k^\alpha ]`$
$`\times {\displaystyle \frac{\overline{)}p\overline{)}q+m_N}{um_N^2}}\gamma ^\mu \epsilon ^\nu (k)u(p).`$ (13)
The form factor in the $`\omega NN`$ vertex will be specified in the next section.

Finally, the model parameters which we fixed prior to the global fitting to the data are listed in Table 1. However let us to remind that for each meson exchange diagram shown in the Fig.2a) the form factors in the $`\omega \gamma \pi `$, $`\omega \gamma \eta `$ and $`\omega \gamma \sigma `$ vertices were adjusted to the data, while those in the $`\pi NN`$, $`\eta NN`$ and $`\sigma NN`$vertices, respectively, were fixed. Since the $`_\pi `$, $`_\eta `$ and $`_\sigma `$ amplitudes contain the product of the form factors in both vertices, the model could not be used for a unique determination of the relevant vertex function parameters.

## III The $`\omega NN`$ vertex function

A naive evaluation of the amplitude and/or the introduction of phenomenological form factors in the photoproduction reactions at the level of Born amplitudes violates gauge invariance. There are a few common recipes Ohta ; Workman ; Haberzettl1 ; Haberzettl2 ; Davidson  proposed to restore gauge invariance. The dominant contribution at small $`u`$ comes from the nucleon exchange current. Therefore, the data on $`\omega `$ photoproduction at small $`u`$ should be sensitive to the prescription of the $`\omega NN`$ vertex function as well as to the methods for restoration of gauge invariance of the nucleon exchange amplitude.

In order to understand whether it is necessary to use form factors in the $`\omega NN`$ vertices at $`s`$ and $`u`$ channels of the diagrams (b) and (c) in Fig.2 we fit the data without $`\omega NN`$ form factors and vary the $`g_{\omega NN}`$ and $`g_{\omega \gamma \sigma }`$ coupling constants and cut-off parameters at the $`\omega \gamma \pi `$, $`\omega \gamma \eta `$ and $`\omega \gamma \sigma `$ vertices. We denote these calculations as Model A.

Furthermore, we use simultaneously the $`\gamma p\omega p`$ data on the $`d\sigma /du`$ Clifft  and the $`d\sigma /dt`$ differential cross sections available at photon energies 2.8$`E_\gamma `$4.7 GeV. The global fit was performed with Minuit James  and includes 120 experimental points.

The results obtained with model A are shown by the dashed lines in Fig. 1 and Fig. 3. The relevant sets of model parameters and the total $`\chi ^2`$ are listed in Table 2. The calculations describe the data at small $`|u|`$ at $`E_\gamma `$=4.7 GeV well. However, model A could not reproduce the dependence of the $`\omega `$ photoproduction differential cross section $`d\sigma /du`$ on the photon energy. Moreover, the fit results in large $`\omega \gamma \sigma `$ and very small $`\omega NN`$ coupling constants. Therefore we consider the parameters of model A as unreasonable. Finally we conclude that the calculations without a form factor at the $`\omega NN`$ vertex cannot not reproduce the complete set of data on the $`\gamma p\omega p`$ reaction.

Now we have followed Refs. Oh1 ; Haberzettl2  and included a form factor at the $`\omega NN`$ vertex in the $`u`$ and $`s`$ channels

$$F(r)=\frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }^4}{\mathrm{\Lambda }^4+(rm_N^2)^2},$$
(14)
where $`r`$=$`s`$ or $`u`$. The cut-off parameter $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ was fitted to the data.

Furthermore, the gauge invariant nucleon exchange amplitudes are now given as

$`_N`$ $`=`$ $`eg_{\omega NN}\overline{u}(p^{})\epsilon _\mu ^{}(q)[\gamma ^\mu k^\mu {\displaystyle \frac{\overline{)}q}{qk}}]{\displaystyle \frac{\overline{)}p+\overline{)}k+m_N}{sm_N^2}}`$ (15)
$`\times `$ $`F(s)[\gamma _\nu +{\displaystyle \frac{\kappa _p}{2m_N}}\gamma _\nu \overline{)}k{\displaystyle \frac{q_\nu \overline{)}k}{qk}}]\epsilon ^\nu (k)u(p),`$
$`\stackrel{~}{}_N`$ $`=`$ $`eg_{\omega NN}\overline{u}(p^{})\epsilon _\mu ^{}(q)[\gamma _\nu +{\displaystyle \frac{\kappa _p}{2m_N}}\gamma _\nu \overline{)}k{\displaystyle \frac{q_\nu \overline{)}k}{qk}}]`$ (16)
$`\times `$ $`F(u){\displaystyle \frac{\overline{)}p\overline{)}q+m_N}{um_N^2}}[\gamma ^\mu k^\mu {\displaystyle \frac{\overline{)}q}{qk}}]\epsilon ^\nu (k)u(p).`$
We denote the calculations with the form factor of Eq. (14) as model B and show the results by the dotted lines in Fig. 1 and Fig. 3. The parameters of model B are given in Table 2.

The calculations by model B again could not reproduce the dependence of the $`\gamma p\omega p`$ differential cross section on the photon energy. The data on $`d\sigma /dt`$ and $`d\sigma /du`$ at $`E_\gamma `$=4.7 GeV are well described, however. We also notice that our results shown in Fig. 1 are different from those reported in Ref. Oh1 . We attribute this discrepancy to the fact that in our study the complete set of available $`\omega `$ photoproduction data on both $`d\sigma /dt`$ and $`d\sigma /du`$ is included for the whole energy range 2.8$`E_\gamma `$4.7 GeV, while Oh, Titov and T.S.H. Lee Oh1  adjusted the model parameters to the $`d\sigma /dt`$ data only.

In order to solve the so-called A2-problem of pion photoproduction, Davidson and Workman Davidson  recently suggested a new kind of form factor motivated by gauge invariance and crossing symmetry which reads as follows:

$$F(u,s)=F(u,\mathrm{\Lambda })+F(s,\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Lambda }})F(u,\mathrm{\Lambda })F(s,\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Lambda }}),$$
(17)
with the form factors taken in the form of Eq. (14). The cut-off parameters $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Lambda }}`$ should be identical in order to satisfy crossing symmetry. The calculations performed with this form factor are denoted as model C. The results are displayed in Fig. 1 and Fig. 3 by the dashed-dotted lines. The relevant parameters are listed in Table 2. It turned out that the crossing symmetry had to be broken, if a good fit to the data was required. The question arises whether the idea of Davidson and Workman should be abandoned.

We found that a mild modification of the ansatz of Davidson and Workman allows to maintain the crossing symmetry. We investigate the ansatz:

$$F(u,s)=F(u,\mathrm{\Lambda })F(s,\mathrm{\Lambda }).$$
(18)
The form factor of Eq. (18) has to multiply the sum of both the $`s`$ and $`u`$ channel diagrams. Model D refers to calculations performed with the prescription Eq. (18).

Model D describes the $`d\sigma /dt`$ and $`d\sigma /du`$ data on $`\omega `$ meson photoproduction at 2.8$`E_\gamma `$4.7 GeV better than all the other models( see e.g. the $`\chi ^2`$-values ) with the same number of parameters as is employed in model B. Moreover, we consider the parameters of model D as quite reasonable. However, our calculations could not reproduce the dip of the $`\gamma p\omega p`$ differential cross section around $`|u|`$0.15 GeV2 at the photon energy $`E_\gamma `$=4.7 GeV. One might speculate whether the appearance of a dip in $`d\sigma /du`$ needs additional experimental confirmation.

As is shown in Fig. 3, the four different models reproduce the differential $`\omega `$ photoproduction cross section at small $`|t|`$ at different photon energies quite well, but substantially differ at $`|t|`$1 GeV2. Therefore we conclude that the prescription of the $`\omega NN`$ vertex function as well as the model parameters substantially influence the results in the region of moderate and large $`|t|`$.

To illustrate our finding explicitly, we calculate the $`\gamma p\omega p`$ differential cross section $`d\sigma /dt`$ by model B with the set of parameters from Ref. Oh1  taken as

$`g_{\pi NN}=13.26,\mathrm{\Lambda }_{\pi NN}=0.6,g_{\omega \gamma \pi }=1.823,\mathrm{\Lambda }_{\omega \gamma \pi }=0.9,`$
$`g_{\eta NN}=3.53,\mathrm{\Lambda }_{\eta NN}=1.0,g_{\omega \gamma \eta }=0.416,\mathrm{\Lambda }_{\omega \gamma \eta }=0.9`$
$`g_{\omega NN}=10.35,\mathrm{\Lambda }_{\omega NN}=0.5,`$ (19)
where the cut-off parameters are given in GeV. Furthermore, in Ref. Oh1  the pomeron exchange was included instead of $`\sigma `$ meson exchange but it was shown that the contribution from the pomeron exchange is negligible at $`E_\gamma `$=2.8 GeV. Therefore we also neglect the contribution from the $`\sigma `$ meson exchange in reproducing the results from Ref. Oh1  by model B.

Fig. 4a) shows the differential $`\gamma p\omega p`$ cross section as a function of $`t`$ for $`E_\gamma `$=2.8 GeV. The calculations are based on model B with parameters given by Eq. (19). The dashed-dotted line shows the total contribution from both meson and nucleon exchanges, while the dashed line indicates the contribution from nucleon exchange only and the dotted one the contribution from mesonic exchanges. The calculations shown in Fig. 4a) are identical to the ones reported in Ref. Oh1 . It is clear that model B cannot reproduce the data at $`|t|`$0.5 GeV2.

Now, Fig. 4b) shows that the calculations based on model D reasonably reproduce the data Clifft  for the whole range of $`t`$-values. Comparing the two calculations one can easily notice that the contributions from mesonic currents from model B and model C are almost identical, whereas the contributions from the nucleon exchange are substantially different. Obviously, the prescription of the $`\omega NN`$ vertex is important in understanding the data on $`\omega `$ meson photoproduction at large and moderate $`|t|`$.

## IV Energy dependence of the backward $`\omega `$ photoproduction

Now we investigate the dependence of the differential $`\gamma p\omega p`$ cross section $`d\sigma /du`$ on the photon energy. Let us to recall that the very steep $`s^8`$ dependence Brodsky  was interpreted Clifft  as an indication of hard interactions between the photon and the quarks of the nucleon.

Experimental data Clifft  on the energy dependence of the $`\omega `$ photoproduction cross section $`d\sigma /du`$ are shown in Figs.5-7. The solid lines show our calculations based on model D. The overall agreement between the data and the model calculations is reasonable, although there is a systematical discrepancy at $`0.2<u<0.1`$ GeV2 for photon energies above 4 GeV, i.e. in the vicinity of the experimentally observed dip. Furthermore, the calculations systematically underestimate the part of the data at $`0.8<u<0.4`$ GeV2, but rather well reproduce the energy dependence of the differential $`\gamma p\omega p`$ cross section $`d\sigma /du`$.

Two extreme situations are shown in Fig. 7. In Ref. Clifft  the $`\gamma p\omega p`$ data at $`0.1<u<0`$ GeV2 were fitted by a $`s^{3.9\pm 0.3}`$ dependence, while experimental results at $`1.8<u<1.6`$ GeV2 were fitted by a $`s^{9.3\pm 2.1}`$ dependence. Other data available for the range $`1.6<u<0.1`$ GeV2 indicate that the power of $`s`$ is between the two extreme values given above.

Furthermore, our calculations can be fitted well by $`d\sigma /dus^{4.57}`$ at $`0.1<u<0`$ GeV2 and $`d\sigma /dus^{6.73}`$ at $`1.8<u<1.6`$ GeV2 respectively. Although the model does not produce the very steep $`s`$ dependence, we conclude that the agreement between the calculations and the experimental data is very reasonable.

## V Summary

The $`\omega `$ meson photoproduction for energies 2.8$`E_\gamma `$4.7 GeV was studied within the boson exchange model. We consider the $`\pi `$, $`\eta `$, $`\sigma `$ and nucleon exchanges. The mesonic exchanges dominate at small four momenta transfer squared $`|t|`$, while the nucleon exchange contributes at large $`|t|`$.

It was found that the $`\gamma p\omega p`$ data Clifft  available at large $`|t|`$ or small $`|u|`$ are very sensitive to the prescription of the $`\omega NN`$ vertex function. We investigated different recipes commonly used for restoration of gauge invariance in $`\omega `$ photoproduction. The inclusion of a phenomenological form factor at the $`\omega NN`$ vertex which is consistent with gauge invariance and crossing symmetry Davidson  allows to reproduce the data Clifft  both at small $`t`$ and small $`u`$.

However we found that within our approach it is impossible to reproduce the dip in the differential $`\gamma p\omega p`$ cross section $`d\sigma /du`$ around $`u`$–0.15 GeV2. Furthermore, since a similar dip was not observed in the backward photoproduction of $`\pi `$, $`\rho `$ and $`f`$ mesons, we suggest that an additional experimental confirmation would be highly welcome.

We examined the energy dependence of the differential $`\omega `$ photoproduction cross section $`d\sigma /du`$. The experimentally observed steep $`s^8`$ dependence was interpreted Clifft  as an indication Brodsky  of hard interactions between the photon and quarks of the nucleon. However, our meson-exchange calculations also quite reasonably reproduce the energy dependence of $`d\sigma /du`$.

###### Acknowledgements.

Work of K.T. was supported by the Australian Research Council, and the Forschungzentrum Jülich. S.K. acknowledges support by grant N. 447AUS113/14/0 by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft. Thanks are given to Profs. J. Speth and A.W. Thomas for their support of this work.


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hep-th/0202183

Comments on cosmological RG flows

Riccardo Argurio

Institute for Theoretical Physics

Göteborg University and Chalmers University of Technology

412 96 Göteborg, Sweden

argurio@fy.chalmers.se

We study cosmological backgrounds from the point of view of the dS/CFT correspondence and its renormalization group flow extension. We focus on the case where gravity is coupled to a single scalar with a potential. Depending on the latter, the scalar can drive both inflation and the accelerated expansion (dS) phase in the far future. We also comment on quintessence scenarios, and flows familiar from the AdS/CFT correspondence. We finally make a tentative embedding of this discussion in string theory where the scalar is the dilaton and the potential is generated at the perturbative level.

02/02

1. Introduction

Recent experimental data can be interpreted in terms of the presence in our universe of a positive cosmological constant (see  for a review). Its magnitude is however very small with respect to natural quantum gravity units, $`\mathrm{\Lambda }10^{120}m_p^4`$. Nevertheless, a positive constant energy density is bound to dominate the evolution of the universe in the far future. The future evolution will thus be very close to a de Sitter universe. Note that since only the expanding de Sitter universe is relevant to these considerations, we can assume that it has open spatial sections. We can thus write the dS metric in the following most useful form:

$$ds^2=dt^2+e^{2Ht}dx_i^2.$$

Here $`t`$ is the cosmological comoving time and $`H`$ is the Hubble constant (which, for de Sitter, is really constant) associated to $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ as $`H^2\mathrm{\Lambda }/m_p^2`$. A universe with a positive cosmological constant will thus have a metric asymptotic to (1.1) for $`t\mathrm{}`$.

An accelerated (de Sitter like) expansion is also present in the inflationary scenario. This expansion stage is supposed to have taken place in the very early universe and is useful to explain various features of the present universe (most notably its flatness). We can thus suppose that during this stage the universe also had a metric similar to (1.1), however with a different Hubble constant $`H`$. For our following considerations, let us just assume that in contrast with the “future” $`H`$, the “inflationary” $`H`$ is (within a few orders of magnitude) of the Planck scale. Note here that the inflationary de Sitter phase in the past has not to be confused with a de Sitter universe near its past infinity: such a contracting universe is the time reversal of (1.1) and is not relevant to (traditional) cosmological considerations. So to cut the story short, the universe has expanding de Sitter phases both in the past and the future, however there is an enormous hierarchy between the two cosmological constants driving the expansion.

Given these observations based on experimental data, the question arises of how to incorporate them into string theory. Setting aside conceptual problems related to quantum gravity in de Sitter space \[2,,3\], an interesting point of view is drawn from the analogy with the AdS/CFT correspondence , where it is postulated that a gravitational theory in the bulk of de Sitter spacetime is dual to a Euclidean CFT situated on its future boundary  (we consider here the set up of the correspondence where the metric is (1.1), which covers half of de Sitter spacetime and reaches only to one boundary). A step further in the analogy is to associate the cosmological time coordinate $`t`$ with renormalization group flow in the dual CFT : time evolution in de Sitter corresponds to scale transformations in the dual CFT. It is then natural to generalize that beyond pure de Sitter and consider renormalization group flows in the boundary theory as cosmological evolution in the bulk. In particular, evolution between two de Sitter phases is interpreted as the RG flow of the dual theory between two fixed points , with the UV one (corresponding to the future) having a much larger central charge than the IR one.

Once this correspondence between cosmological evolution in the bulk and RG flow in the boundary field theory is stated, it is interesting to investigate it in many respects. The many AdS/CFT techniques and concepts developed in the context of the domain wall/RG flow correspondence can be translated into dS language, and differences analyzed. Some of the flows considered in AdS space, when mapped to dS, can be actually given a cosmological interpretation. Conversely, cosmological models can be analyzed with field theory insight. The major drawback of dS considerations versus AdS ones, is that in the latter extended supersymmetry allows us to consider very specific potentials which entail precise predictions on the field theory side. In the dS case, for which supersymmetry is necessarily absent (presumably broken), we are left with generic considerations and toy potentials.

In the following, we will firstly formulate the problem of cosmological evolution coupled to a scalar with a potential, and cast the equations of motion in a first order form. This implies that the potential derives from a prepotential. We then analyze generically the field theory interpretation of the extrema of the potential and prepotential, together with some considerations about the scalar field solutions around the extrema and their interpretation in the dual field theory. We then consider a few specific flows, both exact ones and others from the AdS/CFT literature, and comment on their cosmological implications. A particular class of flows is the one generated by potentials which are a sum of exponentials, since they could come from loop corrections to the string effective action. Their cosmological and RG flow interpretation is given. We conclude with a brief discussion.

2. Cosmology with a scalar potential

We are going to consider the simplest model of cosmological evolution, gravity coupled to a scalar with potential. Although a set up with several scalars is more general, the exact analytic flows we want to consider are more likely to arise when only one scalar is active, as for example in the AdS flows presented in \[7,,8\]. Moreover we will apply in section 5 this formalism to the case where the scalar is the dilaton, while the other moduli are (hopefully) frozen.

We take the spacetime to be $`D+1`$ dimensional, and we single out the time coordinate $`t`$. The action is:

$$S=m_p^{D1}𝑑td^Dx\sqrt{g}\left(R\frac{1}{2}\varphi ^2V(\varphi )\right).$$

The metric is taken to be isotropic, homogeneous and flat:

$$ds^2=e^{2b(t)}dt^2+e^{2a(t)}dx_idx_i,i=1\mathrm{}D.$$

We include for the moment a lapse function, to be fixed later to 1. The Einstein equations are thus:

$$\frac{D(D1)}{2}\dot{a}^2=\frac{1}{4}\dot{\varphi }^2+\frac{1}{2}e^{2b}V\frac{1}{2}e^{2b}\rho ,$$

$$(D1)\left(\ddot{a}\dot{a}\dot{b}+\frac{D}{2}\dot{a}^2\right)=\frac{1}{4}\dot{\varphi }^2\frac{1}{2}e^{2b}V\frac{1}{2}e^{2b}p,$$

where the energy density is defined by $`\rho =T_{}^{t}{}_{t}{}^{}`$ and the pressure by $`p=T_{}^{1}{}_{1}{}^{}=\mathrm{}=T_{}^{D}{}_{D}{}^{}`$. Note that the positivity of the kinetic term assures the null energy condition $`p+\rho 0`$, however the dominant energy condition $`p\rho `$ is satisfied if and only if the potential is non negative $`V0`$. This is what we will assume here, indeed it will turn out to be a crucial condition for most of the flows. Note also that it is the opposite condition that is satisfied for AdS flows.

The equation of motion of the scalar field is:

$$\ddot{\varphi }+D\dot{a}\dot{\varphi }\dot{b}\dot{\varphi }+e^{2b}_\varphi V=0.$$

This equation together with (2.1) imply (2.1), so the latter is redundant.

The action can be rewritten using the reduced variables $`a(t)`$, $`b(t)`$ and $`\varphi (t)`$:

$$S𝑑te^{Dab}\left\{D(D1)\dot{a}^2+\frac{1}{2}\dot{\varphi }^2e^{2b}V\right\}.$$

The energy functional vanishes on-shell due the $`G_{tt}`$ equation, (2.1).

We now wish to rewrite the equations of motion in terms of first order equations, provided the potential $`V`$ is of some specified form. That is automatically provided in a supersymmetric theory, here however we have to make a specific ansatz. Mimicking the technique of \[9,,10\], we suppose the potential is the difference of two squared terms. It turns out that the correct expression in this case is (see also  for a recent similar discussion in de Sitter):

$$V=\frac{D}{D1}W^22(_\varphi W)^2.$$

The equations (2.1) and (2.1) then are satisfied when:

$$\frac{1}{2}\dot{\varphi }=e^b_\varphi W,$$

$$(D1)\dot{a}=e^bW.$$

We have fixed here a sign ambiguity for $`W`$. In the following we will mainly use the $`b=0`$ gauge. Let us stress that (2.1) is motivated only for finding first order equations from which the equations of motion derive, and not by positive energy considerations. The energy is indeed always vanishing on shell.

It is interesting to note that the expression for the potential (2.1) is “upside down” with respect to its canonical form in supersymmetric (or, equivalently, AdS) theories. Most notably, solutions for which $`\varphi `$ is constant will have a positive energy density since in that case $`VW^2`$. This is of course consistent with the fact that we are interested in spacetimes which asymptote to de Sitter.

Let us comment briefly on the c-function and the c-theorem. In analogy with \[12,,13\], a c-function has been proposed in  for the flat homogeneous isotropic case which is $`cH^{(D1)}`$, where $`H\dot{a}`$ in our notations (see also  for a recent refinement of the proposal). Note that a small cosmological constant, and hence a small Hubble constant $`H`$, leads to a large central charge. Conversely, a cosmological constant of the Planck scale leads to a central charge of order unity. The c-theorem follows directly from the Friedmann equations for such a cosmology, $`\dot{H}(\rho +p)0`$ in all generality, thus implying $`\dot{c}0`$. This identifies the UV with the future (which is near the dS boundary) and the IR with the past (the deep dS “interior”).

Note that if we enforce $`V0`$ and thus $`p\rho `$, we also have an upper bound on the variation of $`c`$. This is however somewhat loose. Note first that:

$$\dot{c}=\frac{1}{2}\frac{c}{H}(\rho +p)\frac{c}{H}\rho =D(D1)cH,$$

where we have used (2.1). If $`c`$ saturates the bound on its variation, and we write the “volume” of a spacelike section as $`v=e^{Da}`$, we get $`cv^{D1}`$. Thus $`c`$ is allowed to grow even faster than the volume of the spacelike section of the universe (for $`D>2`$; for $`D=2`$, that is 3 dimensional cosmology, $`c`$ can at most grow as the volume). In some sense, the growth of degrees of freedom in the boundary theory can be bigger than the expansion of the volume in Planck units of a spatial section of the universe.

3. General considerations on the potential

In this section we make general considerations on the extrema of the potential, in relation with the flows and cosmologies to which they correspond.

As it is clear from (2.1), the Hubble constant is proportional to the prepotential. If we want our flow (or our cosmology) to go between two fixed values of $`\varphi `$, say $`\varphi _\pm \varphi (t\pm \mathrm{})`$, we then immediately see that $`W(\varphi _\pm )W_\pm `$ must be extrema, and such that $`W_{}>W_+>0`$ to comply with $`\dot{H}0`$ and $`H>0`$ for an expanding universe. Clearly, the generic situation is when $`\varphi `$ starts rolling down from a maximum in $`W_{}`$ and lands to a minimum in $`W_+`$. Of course less generic situations can be thought of, where higher derivatives of $`W`$ vanish in $`\varphi _{}`$ and/or $`\varphi _+`$.

Once stated the above, we have to make sure that the evolution still seems reasonable in terms of the potential $`V`$, for instance we want that the universe settles into a minimum of $`V`$ in order to avoid excessive fine tuning. To do this, we first note that $`V`$ has two kinds of extrema, those for which $`W^{}=0`$, that is the extrema of the prepotential, and those for which $`\frac{D}{D1}W=2W^{\prime \prime }`$ (in the following we denote by primes derivatives with respect to $`\varphi `$). Following the argument of the previous paragraph, our first order equations are best suited to handle extrema of the first kind. We would thus like to enforce as a first condition that there is no extremum of the second kind in between the two extrema we are considering.

Secondly, let us consider the second derivative of $`V`$ evaluated at an extremum of $`W`$:

$$V^{\prime \prime }|_{W^{}=0}=2W^{\prime \prime }\left(\frac{D}{D1}W2W^{\prime \prime }\right).$$

Assuming the flow begins at a (positive) maximum of $`W`$, then $`\varphi _{}`$ is clearly also a maximum of $`V`$. The minimum of $`W`$ is also a minimum of $`V`$ provided $`\frac{D}{D1}W_+>2W_+^{\prime \prime }`$. This is obviously the same as requiring that there is no extremum of the second kind between $`\varphi _{}`$ and $`\varphi _+`$.

Thus the condition for the flow to be acceptable in our framework is that $`\frac{D}{D1}W>2W^{\prime \prime }`$ throughout the flow1 Given a potential $`V`$ one can always try to solve (2.1) for $`W`$, with boundary conditions such that the flow is between two $`W^{}=0`$ extrema (see e.g.  for a discussion of this issue in AdS/CFT). However the generic solution is not analytic and thus beyond the scope of these considerations. (another condition is of course that the potential $`V`$ is non negative along the flow).

Going now back to the RG interpretation we see that the cosmologically trivial remark that a scalar field has to roll down the potential and stabilize eventually at a minimum, translates into the c-theorem where one starts from a fixed point in the IR (the maximum of both $`V`$ and $`W`$) and then integrates in degrees of freedom at higher and higher energies to eventually reach a fixed point in the UV (the minimum of $`V`$ and $`W`$). We have here of course a flow between two fixed points because we suppose that both extrema are positive.

The c-theorem in dS language can be written as $`H_{IR}>H_{UV}`$, or $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_{IR}>\mathrm{\Lambda }_{UV}`$. This is the same as for AdS flows, if one replaces the cosmological constants with their absolute values. In AdS however, the potential $`V`$ is really upside down, and thus non positive, so that the IR extremum is lower than the UV one.

We can also analyze the behaviour of the scalar field near the UV extremum. We note immediately that the first order equation (2.1) actually picks up one of the two asymptotic solutions of the scalar equation (2.1).

Generally, if $`V_+^{\prime \prime }=m^2`$ and $`V_+=D(D1)H`$, the scalar equation (2.1) becomes $`\ddot{\varphi }+DH\dot{\varphi }+m^2\varphi =0`$ and it has asymptotic solutions:

$$\varphi e^{\lambda _\pm t},\lambda _\pm =\frac{DH}{2}\pm \sqrt{\left(\frac{DH}{2}\right)^2m^2}.$$

It is interesting to note that since $`\varphi _+`$ is also an extremum of the prepotential, (3.1) implies that:

$$m^2=2W_+^{\prime \prime }(DH2W_+^{\prime \prime })\left(\frac{DH}{2}\right)^2,$$

and thus the two roots $`\lambda _\pm `$ are always real:

$$\lambda _\pm =\frac{DH}{2}\pm \left|\frac{DH}{2}2W_+^{\prime \prime }\right|.$$

Note we always have $`\lambda _+>\frac{DH}{2}>\lambda _{}`$, and we can accordingly associate dimensions in the dual CFT as $`\lambda _{}=\mathrm{\Delta }H`$ and $`\lambda _+=H(D\mathrm{\Delta })`$ (restricting here to the case $`\mathrm{\Delta }D/2`$). The situation where the roots are real2 Actually, having real $`\varphi `$ solutions is equivalent to be able to reformulate the problem with first order equations and a real prepotential. is surprising against flat space intuition, but saves us from having to consider complex dimensions and thus an explicitly non unitary boundary CFT .

The conventional wisdom in AdS/CFT is that if the solution is normalizable in AdS it corresponds to a flow generated by giving a VEV to an operator of dimension $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$, while if the solution is non normalizable in AdS, the flow corresponds to deforming the theory by the same operator. In dS the situation is more tricky, since normalizability is defined on a spacelike section. However in order to draw an analogy with the AdS case, it seems natural to keep distinguishing solutions according to their normalizability along the time direction (this is equivalent to considering the finiteness of their asymptotic energy, see  for a recent related discussion in the IR). We thus wish to associate solutions with $`\varphi e^{\lambda _+t}`$ with a deformation of the boundary theory with an operator of dimension $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$, while we associate the solutions $`\varphi e^{\lambda _{}t}`$ with giving a VEV to the same operator.

It is then straightforward to continue the analogy by mapping minima with $`m^2>0`$ to relevant operators ($`\mathrm{\Delta }<D`$), extrema with $`m^2=V_+^{\prime \prime }=0`$ to marginal ones, and maxima with $`m^2<0`$ (actually tachyons) to irrelevant operators. Thus the situation considered before where we evolve to a minimum in the UV is obviously associated with relevant operators in the UV theory.

The first order equation (2.1) picks up the solution:

$$\varphi e^{2W_+^{\prime \prime }t}.$$

It will be non normalizable in the sense discussed above if $`W_+^{\prime \prime }<\frac{DH}{4}`$. In this case it corresponds to a (relevant) deformation of the dual CFT. If on the other hand $`\frac{DH}{4}<W_+^{\prime \prime }<\frac{DH}{2}`$, it will be related to the presence of a VEV.

The marginal case occurs when $`V_+^{\prime \prime }=0`$. This can happen for 2 reasons, either $`W_+^{\prime \prime }=0`$ or $`2W_+^{\prime \prime }=DH`$. In the first case, the solution (3.1) is actually power behaved, and corresponds to the deformation by a (presumably not exactly) marginal operator, while the second case corresponds to the VEV of the marginal operator.

Let us make a last general comment. It is interesting to consider the evolution of the equation of state $`p=w\rho `$ of the scalar field. Near the extrema of the flow, the stress energy tensor is dominated by the potential, and thus the equation of state approaches $`p=\rho `$ as for a cosmological constant. One can ask which is the maximum value of $`w`$ along the flow, knowing that it is bounded by 1 since the potential is non negative. Inserting (2.1) and (2.1) into the definitions of $`p`$ and $`\rho `$, one can write:

$$w=\frac{p}{\rho }=1+4\frac{D1}{D}\frac{W_{}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}}{W^2}.$$

While one can certainly build ad hoc (pre)potentials such that $`w`$ rises close to 1 at a certain point in the flow, it is striking that limiting oneself to a simple minimum of $`W`$ one cannot get over $`w=0`$. Indeed, if $`\varphi `$ is sufficiently close to the minimum, we can write $`W=W_++\frac{1}{2}W_+^{\prime \prime }\varphi ^2`$. The maximum of $`w`$, which is attained when $`WW^{\prime \prime }=W^2`$, implies that $`\frac{1}{2}W_+^{\prime \prime }\varphi _{max}^2=W_+`$. This leads to $`\frac{W_{}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}}{W^2}|_{max}=\frac{W^{\prime \prime }}{W}|_{max}=\frac{W_+^{\prime \prime }}{2W_+}<\frac{D}{4(D1)}`$ (by requiring $`\varphi _+`$ to be a minimum of $`V`$), which in turn gives $`w<0`$. This is actually an interesting feature, since while in this model the scalar field is supposed to drive both inflation and the future accelerating phase, it would be unrealistic if it was to simulate some kind of matter/radiation at intermediate stages. On the other hand, it can be shown that if $`W`$ has a zero of higher (even) order, the parameters can be tuned so that $`w`$ rises above 0 at some point of the flow near the minimum. These are flows associated with deformations of the boundary theory by marginal operators.

4. Some cosmological RG flows

Due to the absence of supersymmetry, and thus of a theory providing us with a class of (pre)potentials, we are actually left free to analyze general forms of potentials and the cosmological flows that they give rise. One could actually even take the opposite approach, to choose an interesting (analytic) flow and then derive the potential that generates it.

For instance, a most obvious cosmological evolution interpolating between Hubble constants $`H_{}`$ in the far past and $`H_+`$ in the far future is the following:

$$\dot{a}=\frac{H_{}+H_+}{2}\frac{H_{}H_+}{2}\mathrm{tanh}\frac{t}{T},$$

where of course $`H_{}>H_+`$, and $`T`$ is the time scale of the evolution. From (2.1) we thus have an expression of $`W(t)W(\varphi (t))`$. In combination with (2.1) we can straightforwardly find an equation for the temporal evolution of $`\varphi `$, $`\dot{\varphi }=\sqrt{2|\dot{W}|}`$, which is solved by:

$$\mathrm{cos}\xi \varphi =\mathrm{tanh}\frac{t}{T},\xi ^2=T(D1)(H_{}H_+).$$

The scalar field evolves from $`\varphi _{}=0`$ to $`\varphi _+=\pi /\xi `$. Plugging (4.1) into (4.1), we finally get the prepotential:

$$W(\varphi )=(D1)\left(\frac{H_{}+H_+}{2}+\frac{H_{}H_+}{2}\mathrm{cos}\xi \varphi \right),$$

which has a maximum in $`\varphi _{}`$ and a minimum in $`\varphi _+`$. Now in order to satisfy the condition which ensures that we land in a minimum of the potential $`V`$ as discussed after (3.1), we need to take $`T>(DH_+)^1`$. This condition states that the age of the universe (more precisely, the characteristic time of the evolution from one de Sitter phase to another) in such a flow is bigger than the scale fixed by the late time cosmological constant $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_+H_+^2`$. That would give a time scale of (roughly) an order of magnitude or so larger than the assumed age of the universe. Note however that, in agreement with the general argument after (3.1), we find that $`w<0`$ along all the flow (and $`w`$ comes very close to 0 at a point in the flow if $`H_+H_{}`$). Thus if we suppose that some form of matter and/or radiation dominates the evolution at some intermediate stage, without disrupting the general behaviour of the flow, the timescale $`T`$ could well be suitably reduced to an acceptable magnitude.

In the M-theory context a prepotential like (4.1) has been considered for instance in , and it can possibly arise in non supersymmetric set ups. However for a prepotential like (4.1) to be cosmologically interesting, one needs to have $`H_+H_{}`$ and thus to fine tune its minimum to be almost on the $`\varphi `$ axis.

A very similar story applies to cubic prepotentials, where again one has to fine tune the minimum to be close to the axis. The similarity derives from the fact that for both potentials the two extrema are simple zeroes of $`W^{}`$. Also in this case it is straightforward to find an analytic flow. Thus the simple flow (4.1) seems to be actually a good representative of a rather general class of flows.

A different class of prepotentials leading to an analytic flow derives from the analogy with the flow analyzed in . In its original AdS version, this flow represents a mass deformation of $`N=4`$ SYM away from its UV fixed point towards pure $`N=1`$ SYM in the IR. The confining behaviour of the latter is translated into the singularity at finite radius of the (analytic) domain wall solution.

Reverting to our de Sitter framework, we can write this class of potentials as:

$$W=g+h\mathrm{cosh}\alpha \varphi ,$$

where $`h>0`$ and $`g+h>0`$. The condition for the potential $`V`$ to be positive everywhere (and thus to have only one minimum at $`\varphi =0`$) is that $`\frac{D1}{D}2\alpha ^2`$ must be smaller than 1 if $`g0`$ or smaller than $`1+\frac{g}{h}`$ if $`g<0`$.

Choosing the gauge $`b=0`$, the equations (2.1)-(2.1) become:

$$\frac{1}{2}\dot{\varphi }=\alpha h\mathrm{sinh}\alpha \varphi ,$$

$$(D1)\dot{a}=g+h\mathrm{cosh}\alpha \varphi .$$

The solution to (4.1) is:

$$e^{\alpha \varphi }=\mathrm{tanh}\alpha ^2ht.$$

We thus see that time starts at $`t=0`$ where $`\varphi `$ is infinite and then continues to $`t\mathrm{}`$ where $`\varphi `$ approaches 0. For the metric we get:

$$e^a=e^{\frac{g}{D1}t}(\mathrm{sinh}2\alpha ^2ht)^{\frac{1}{2\alpha ^2(D1)}}.$$

Thus for $`t\mathrm{}`$ we recover the behavior $`a\frac{g+h}{D1}tH_+t`$, that is the late time de Sitter expansion. However for $`t0`$ in the past, the metric becomes singular as:

$$e^at^\gamma ,\gamma =\frac{1}{2\alpha ^2(D1)}.$$

This is a Big Bang dominated by matter with equation of state given by $`w=1+\frac{2}{D\gamma }=1+4\alpha ^2\frac{D1}{D}`$. We thus have $`1<w1`$, but the precise value depends on the model.

The dS version of the flow of  thus represents a cosmology which starts with a Big Bang driven by a specific though model dependent form of matter, and then evolves towards a de Sitter phase. A dual theory which confines in the IR therefore seems to be unsuitable to describe primordial inflation.

A possibility which is in a certain sense opposite to the above one is when we have a potential with an exponential runaway behavior towards zero. This is a well-studied class of potentials in the context of quintessence cosmological models (see  for a string theory point of view on quintessence). In our framework, the simplest such potential derives from a prepotential which consists of a single exponential. There are then no extrema and in the RG flow interpretation there are no fixed points. If however we take two exponential terms, $`W`$ can have a maximum and the RG flow has then a fixed point in the IR but no fixed point in the UV.

A generic exponential prepotential which has a maximum and a runaway behavior is:

$$W=\mu e^{\alpha \varphi }\nu e^{\beta \varphi },\alpha <\beta ,$$

where all the constants are positive. Depending on the parameters, the potential $`V`$ derived from (2.1) has one of the following three behaviors: i) a positive maximum followed by a negative minimum and then blows up to $`+\mathrm{}`$, ii) a positive maximum and then blows up to $`\mathrm{}`$ or iii) a negative minimum followed by a positive maximum and then blows up to $`\mathrm{}`$. Since we are interested in the flows where the potential is positive along all the way, we have to discard the third possibility, which occurs when $`2\alpha ^2>\frac{D}{D1}`$. As for the first two options, which differ by analoguous inequalities for $`\beta `$, they are both acceptable as long as we consider a flow going from the maximum to the runaway direction at $`\varphi \mathrm{}`$.

Although it is possible to solve exactly these flows (for instance choosing a gauge $`b\varphi `$), the salient features can be extracted from the asymptotic regimes. At early times, such a flow will display an inflationary behavior with de Sitter expansion. The maximum being simple, the flow near it will be similar to the analytic flows discussed at the beginning of the section. At late times, the first term in (4.1) will dominate and the evolution will be quintessence-like like in (4.1), but now for $`t\mathrm{}`$. Depending on the exponent $`\alpha `$, the spacetime will have a de Sitter-like causal structure in the future if $`\gamma >1`$ (that is $`w<1+\frac{2}{D}`$), or a Minkowski-like causal structure in the future if $`\gamma 1`$, as is discussed in . The problem however arises of whether it is possible to define a dual theory. Indeed if we fall short of a future dS phase, we are unable to relate the dual theory to the future conformal boundary. For the cases with $`\gamma 1`$, it seems hopeless to try to think in these terms. For the $`\gamma >1`$ case, the presence of a future spacelike boundary is encouraging, but it is clear that we cannot use there the same (conformal) tools as for a dS boundary. It would be interesting to understand what kind of UV theory is dual to a quintessence cosmology, if a dual theory can be defined at all. Note that in  a correspondence for such cases was proposed (irrespective of the value of $`\gamma `$) along the lines of . The correspondence involves going to a “dual” frame by making an appropriate rescaling of the metric with a function of the scalar. The metric is then of dS form, however the choice of such a dual frame is rather ad hoc in this set up.

The interest of exponential potentials is that they are likely to arise in the low energy effective actions derived from some non supersymmetric versions of string theory. We turn to this analysis in the following section.

5. Potentials from non supersymmetric strings

The $`D+1`$ dimensional low energy effective action of a string theory reads in the string frame:

$$S=m_s^{D1}d^{D+1}x\sqrt{\widehat{g}}e^{2\phi }(\widehat{R}+4\widehat{}\phi ^2𝒱(\phi )).$$

We have restricted the fields present to be only the metric and the ($`D+1`$ dimensional) dilaton. The action above is derived, for $`𝒱`$ constant, from the requirement of quantum conformal invariance of the string world-sheet theory. In a non supersymmetric set up we expect however to have non vanishing dilaton tadpoles at loop orders. Thus a generic potential for the dilaton is:

$$𝒱(\phi )=\underset{n}{}c_ne^{n\phi }=c_0+c_1e^\phi +c_2e^{2\phi }+\mathrm{}.$$

The $`c_0`$ term is related to a tree level cosmological constant, which arises if the string is in non critical dimensions. Note that even if we fix the dimension $`D`$, the sign of $`c_0`$ is not fixed. Indeed, allowing for compact directions, the general formula for the superstring is (see for instance ):

$$c_0=\frac{2}{3}(D+1+\frac{2}{3}c_{int}10),$$

where $`c_{int}`$ is the WS central charge of the “compact directions”. Thus starting with an original non critical superstring theory in dimension greater than 10 and then compactifying down to, say, 4 dimensions, leaves us with a potential which is positive as $`\phi \mathrm{}`$. This has been used in a related context in .

The $`c_1`$ term is present if the theory is unoriented and/or has an open string sector, and it has a NSNS tadpole at the disk/crosscap order. The $`c_2`$ term originates from a non vanishing torus partition function, that is a one loop cosmological constant, which is likely to be present for a non spacetime supersymmetric theory. Moreover, as noted in , a possible further contribution to this order is provided by turning on RR fluxes on the compact space, so that there is even a little room for tuning the parameters.

The above considerations clearly need spacetime supersymmetry to be broken at the string level, however this is perfectly consistent when studying de Sitter backgrounds, which are incompatible with supersymmetry. We only need to worry that there are no tachyons in the theory, at least at tree level. This can be achieved, as for example in the construction of .

In order to compare with the general discussion of the previous section, we go to the Einstein frame by the Weyl rescaling of the metric:

$$\widehat{g}_{\mu \nu }=e^{\frac{4}{D1}\phi }g_{\mu \nu }.$$

The action becomes:

$$S=m_p^{D1}d^{D+1}x\sqrt{g}\left(R\frac{4}{D1}\phi ^2e^{\frac{4}{D1}\phi }𝒱(\phi )\right),$$

where we neglect boundary terms. In order to put the action in the form (2.1), we rescale the dilaton by:

$$\phi =\frac{1}{2}\sqrt{\frac{D1}{2}}\varphi ,$$

and the potential is:

$$V(\varphi )e^{\frac{4}{D1}\phi }𝒱(\phi )=\underset{n}{}c_ne^{\left(\frac{4}{D1}+n\right)\frac{1}{2}\sqrt{\frac{D1}{2}}\varphi }.$$

Before analyzing the conditions for such a potential to be generated by a prepotential, we can already ask which terms can be the leading term. Indeed, a quintessence-like behaviour is possible provided the coefficient in the exponential is not too large. It turns out that the tree level term can always produce quintessence, while the tadpole term (if it is leading) does so only for $`D<9`$. This can be seen as follows. It is possible to recast a positive potential $`Ve^{2\alpha \varphi }`$ into a prepotential form with $`We^{\alpha \varphi }`$ if:

$$2\alpha ^2<\frac{D}{D1}.$$

The term $`n=0`$ of (5.1) always satisfies the bound (which is defined only for $`D>1`$). Moreover, from (4.1) we see that it always leeds to $`\gamma =1`$, that is the limiting case for which the expansion does not produce a horizon. For the term with $`n=1`$, the bound (5.1) is satisfied only for $`D<9`$ and the associated $`\gamma `$ is smaller than 1, that is the expansion is softer. For instance for $`D=3`$ it corresponds to an equation of state with $`w=\frac{1}{2}`$. Actually $`w_{n=1}`$ is always positive. It can never be relevant in the future, where it is dominated at least by $`w=0`$ matter. This means that if the dilaton potential (5.1) is to be relevant to the late stages of the evolution, it has to include a tree level term.

Let us thus write a prepotential that should generate the first three terms of (5.1), related to those explicitly written in (5.1). Take a prepotential of the form (4.1):

$$W=Ae^{\frac{1}{\sqrt{2(D1)}}\varphi }Be^{\frac{D+1}{2}\frac{1}{\sqrt{2(D1)}}\varphi }.$$

The potential is then computed through (2.1):

$$V=A^2e^{\sqrt{\frac{2}{D1}}\varphi }ABe^{\frac{D+3}{2\sqrt{2(D1)}}\varphi }B^2\frac{D1}{4}e^{\frac{D+1}{\sqrt{2(D1)}}\varphi }.$$

These can be seen to be the first three terms of (5.1). The condition for a positive $`V`$ to derive from a prepotential with a maximum is thus that:

$$c_0>0,c_1<0,c_2<0\mathrm{and}c_1^2=\frac{D1}{4}c_0|c_2|.$$

Although the inequalities above can be satisfied in a suitable model, it is difficult to think of a symmetry of the WS theory that would enforce the equality between the constants.3 One could still have a little hope of finding a $`c_2`$ satisfying the equality in (5.1) by tuning the RR fluxes as in , when this is possible. Of course releasing the constraint one still has a potential with a maximum and a runaway behaviour, but it becomes unaccessible to our tools of analysis (the solution $`W`$ to (2.1) is not analytic).

Slightly more general potentials were considered in , where the aim was actually to find not only a positive maximum but also a positive (or zero) minimum of the potential. This is possible for $`c_0>0`$, $`c_1<0`$ and $`c_2>0`$, this time satisfying a further condition resembling to a loosened version of the equality in (5.1). Such a potential could allow in principle flows similar to the one described at the beginning of the previous section, however it is not possible to describe them analytically.

6. Discussion

We have tried in this paper to discuss issues which arise when one takes seriously the proposal of  that the cosmological evolution be interpreted as RG flow in a dual Euclidean field theory associated with the future boundary. We found particularly useful to borrow from the tools of the AdS/CFT correspondence the possibility to write first order equations governing the flow, provided the potential derives from a prepotential. In such a preliminary analysis, our perspective has been to review different kinds of cosmological flows and their associated potentials. In particular, quantitative investigations on the dual field theory are still lacking (see however  for a recent attempt in this direction).

Having in mind to embed these considerations in string theory, the necessary lack of supersymmetry4 Note that supersymmetric dS vacua appear in theories with ghosts \[22,,23\]. For these theories the analysis is much more similar to the AdS case. prevents us from singling out specific models in order to extract predictions. In the context of supergravities, non supersymmetric dS vacua appear in the potential when the theories are “compactified” on non-compact manifolds \[24,,23,,25,,18\]. One here can make predictions, however the relevance of these theories is not yet clear. More generally, if the supersymmetry is broken to $`N=1`$ in 4 dimension, it is easy to generate potentials with (local) dS minima (see for instance ). We are then back to the problem of having too much choice.

If we thus break supersymmetry at the string scale, for instance by considering a theory in non critical dimension, possibly with orientifolds (in order to have a negative tadpole on the crosscap), we are left with the potentials discussed in the last section. Here we note that if the dilaton indeed takes the runaway direction, and in the presence of a tree level contribution, the leading behaviour at late times will be $`e^at`$, that is the limiting case for which there is no horizon. If we were to consider this as a RG flow, we would have the non-trivial problem of even having to justify the correspondence, since there is no such thing as a future boundary. Any other term in the dilaton potential would lead to an even softer behaviour, as noted in . On the other hand we could consider models like the one of , and flow from the maximum to the minimum. Besides that it cannot be studied analytically, we have to be aware of the potential problems in such non supersymmetric theories away from the perturbative limit $`\varphi \mathrm{}`$. Not to mention the degree of fine tuning (or luck) needed to find a minimum realizing the enormous hierarchy between the observed cosmological constant and the Planck scale.

As a last remark, one could ask how are to be interpreted flows from a positive maximum of the potential to a negative minimum. This situation is puzzling because it clearly admits both dS and AdS vacua. One could thus ask whether there can be a flow mixing both dS and AdS features.5 This question was raised in conversations with G. Ferretti and D. Martelli. Considering only time evolution, such a flow will start with an inflationary phase and then reach the point where the potential becomes negative. At this point however the scalar cannot possibly settle at the minimum, since this would imply $`H^2<0`$ (we assume flat spacelike sections). Moreover also an oscillatory behaviour cannot be combined with $`\dot{H}<0`$. Since when $`V<0`$ the scalar field starts to violate the dominant energy condition, $`p>\rho `$, the expansion is slower and slower and should eventually stop when $`H`$ reaches zero. After that the universe would start contracting. The AdS cosmology with a big crunch is possibly not reached, but the recontracting behaviour also prevents an holographic interpretation.

Acknowledgements: I would like to thank G. Ferretti and L. Houart for discussions and interesting comments. This work is supported by the European Union RTN contract HPRN-CT-2000-00122.

References

relax S. M. Carroll, “The cosmological constant,” Living Rev. Rel. 4, 1 (2001) \[arXiv:astro-ph/0004075\]; “TASI lectures: Cosmology for string theorists,” arXiv:hep-th/0011110. relax T. Banks, “Cosmological breaking of supersymmetry or little Lambda goes back to the future. II,” arXiv:hep-th/0007146. relax E. Witten, “Quantum gravity in de Sitter space,” arXiv:hep-th/0106109. relax For a review, see O. Aharony, S. S. Gubser, J. Maldacena, H. Ooguri and Y. Oz, “Large N field theories, string theory and gravity,” Phys. Rept. 323, 183 (2000) \[arXiv:hep-th/9905111\]. relax A. Strominger, “The dS/CFT correspondence,” JHEP 0110, 034 (2001) \[arXiv:hep-th/0106113\]; M. Spradlin, A. Strominger and A. Volovich, “Les Houches lectures on de Sitter space,” arXiv:hep-th/0110007. relax A. Strominger, “Inflation and the dS/CFT correspondence,” JHEP 0111, 049 (2001) \[arXiv:hep-th/0110087\]; V. Balasubramanian, J. de Boer and D. Minic, “Mass, entropy and holography in asymptotically de Sitter spaces,” arXiv:hep-th/0110108. relax L. Girardello, M. Petrini, M. Porrati and A. Zaffaroni, “The supergravity dual of N = 1 super Yang-Mills theory,” Nucl. Phys. B 569, 451 (2000) \[arXiv:hep-th/9909047\]. relax M. Berg and H. Samtleben, “An exact holographic RG flow between 2d conformal fixed points,” arXiv:hep-th/0112154. relax K. Skenderis and P. K. Townsend, “Gravitational stability and renormalization-group flow,” Phys. Lett. B 468, 46 (1999) \[arXiv:hep-th/9909070\]. relax O. DeWolfe, D. Z. Freedman, S. S. Gubser and A. Karch, “Modeling the fifth dimension with scalars and gravity,” Phys. Rev. D 62, 046008 (2000) \[arXiv:hep-th/9909134\]. relax F. Leblond, D. Marolf and R. C. Myers, “Tall tales from de Sitter space. I: Renormalization group flows,” arXiv:hep-th/0202094. relax L. Girardello, M. Petrini, M. Porrati and A. Zaffaroni, “Novel local CFT and exact results on perturbations of N = 4 super Yang-Mills from AdS dynamics,” JHEP 9812, 022 (1998) \[arXiv:hep-th/9810126\]. relax D. Z. Freedman, S. S. Gubser, K. Pilch and N. P. Warner, “Renormalization group flows from holography supersymmetry and a c-theorem,” Adv. Theor. Math. Phys. 3, 363 (1999) \[arXiv:hep-th/9904017\]. relax V. L. Campos, G. Ferretti, H. Larsson, D. Martelli and B. E. Nilsson, “A study of holographic renormalization group flows in d = 6 and d = 3,” JHEP 0006, 023 (2000) \[arXiv:hep-th/0003151\]. relax F. Larsen, J. P. van der Schaar and R. G. Leigh, “de Sitter holography and the cosmic microwave background,” arXiv:hep-th/0202127. relax K. Behrndt, “A non-singular infrared flow from D = 5 gauged supergravity,” Phys. Lett. B 487, 30 (2000) \[arXiv:hep-th/0005185\]. relax S. Hellerman, N. Kaloper and L. Susskind, “String theory and quintessence,” JHEP 0106, 003 (2001) \[arXiv:hep-th/0104180\]; W. Fischler, A. Kashani-Poor, R. McNees and S. Paban, “The acceleration of the universe, a challenge for string theory,” JHEP 0107, 003 (2001) \[arXiv:hep-th/0104181\]. relax P. K. Townsend, “Quintessence from M-theory,” JHEP 0111, 042 (2001) \[arXiv:hep-th/0110072\]. relax H. J. Boonstra, K. Skenderis and P. K. Townsend, “The domain wall/QFT correspondence,” JHEP 9901, 003 (1999) \[arXiv:hep-th/9807137\]. relax A. A. Tseytlin and C. Vafa, “Elements of string cosmology,” Nucl. Phys. B 372, 443 (1992) \[arXiv:hep-th/9109048\]. relax E. Silverstein, “(A)dS backgrounds from asymmetric orientifolds,” arXiv: hep-th/0106209. relax C. M. Hull, “Timelike T-duality, de Sitter space, large N gauge theories and topological field theory,” JHEP 9807, 021 (1998) \[arXiv:hep-th/9806146\]. relax C. M. Hull, “de Sitter space in supergravity and M theory,” JHEP 0111, 012 (2001) \[arXiv:hep-th/0109213\]. relax V. Balasubramanian, P. Horava and D. Minic, “Deconstructing de Sitter,” JHEP 0105, 043 (2001) \[arXiv:hep-th/0103171\]. relax C. M. Hull, “Domain wall and de Sitter solutions of gauged supergravity,” JHEP 0111, 061 (2001) \[arXiv:hep-th/0110048\]. relax R. Kallosh, “N = 2 supersymmetry and de Sitter space,” arXiv:hep-th/0109168. relax T. Banks and M. Dine, “Dark energy in perturbative string cosmology,” JHEP 0110, 012 (2001) \[arXiv:hep-th/0106276\].


text:
# Fe K EMISSION LINES IN LOW-LUMINOSITY AGNS

## 1 Introduction

Optical spectroscopic surveys have shown that more than one third of nearby galaxies harbor low-luminosity AGNs (LLAGNs; ). Their bolometric luminosities ($`L_{\mathrm{bol}}<10^{42}`$ ergs s<sup>-1</sup>) and the black hole masses measured dynamically indicate that LLAGNs are radiating at an extremely low Eddington ratio, typically $`L/L_{\mathrm{Edd}}10^310^6`$. Models of low-radiative efficiency accretion flows such as advection-dominated accretion flows (ADAFs) have been developed and applied to LLAGNs (e.g., ).

Fe K emission lines are a powerful diagnostic tool to probe the inner parts of accretion disks. In the ADAF scenario, the inner parts of the disk are almost fully ionized, and no Fe K emission line is expected. On the other hand, if an optically thick standard disk is present, a fluorescent line is produced. In this paper, we summarize ASCA results on Fe K lines and give constraints on accretion disks in LLAGNs.

## 2 The Sample

We systematically analyzed 52 ASCA observations of 21 LINERs (low-lonization nuclear emission-line regions) and 17 low-luminosity Seyferts (). The sample is constructed primarily based on the classification of the Palomar survey (), with several other objects added. We made a subsample of LLAGNs from this sample by choosing objects whose hard X-ray emission is dominated by the nucleus, by using X-ray variability, spectra, images, and X-ray to optical emission ratios to judge whether the AGN contribution dominates (). Highly absorbed objects are excluded since they are not suitable for studying accretion disks because of the complicated Fe K emission expected from sources other sources. The final sample consists of 14 observations of 13 LLAGNs. The basic data of the galaxies in our sample are shown in Table 1.

## 3 Results

The X-ray spectra of LLAGNs are well fitted by a canonical model that consists of a power law (photon index $`\mathrm{\Gamma }1.8`$) and a Raymond-Smith thermal plasma with $`kT0.6`$ keV. The thermal component was not required in five objects (NGC 3147, 3998, 4203, 4639, and 5033), but the other objects in the present sample were well described by the canonical model. Fe K emission is detected in seven out of 13 objects. The line center energy, line width, and equivalent width (EW) are summarized in Table 2. For objects without significant Fe K emission, the line center energy was fixed at 6.4 keV in the source rest frame and upper limits on EW were calculated. The line center energies in three objects (NGC 3147, 3998, and 5033) are 6.4 keV, which is expected from cold (or low-ionization state) Fe, while two objects (NGC 4261 and 4639) have higher energies ($``$ 6.7 keV), consistent with He-like Fe. Although the center energy of the Fe line in NGC 3031 (M81) is consistent with both cold and highly ionized Fe, other observations of NGC 3031 indicate a higher line centroid energy (). NGC 4579 was observed more than twice. The line center energy in this object decreased from 6.7 keV to 6.4 keV, accompanied by an increase of the continuum luminosity by 35%. We note that the emission lines at 6.7 keV most likely originate from an AGN, particularly in the case of NGC 3031 () and NGC 4579 (), and a thermal origin is unlikely because the continuum of NGC 3031 has a power-law shape and the Fe line in NGC 4579 is variable.

Thus, Fe line energies in LLAGNs shows some diversity compared to luminous Seyferts, in which the line is generally peaked at 6.4 keV. No broad, asymmetric Fe lines such as those seen in classical Seyfert 1s are detected in LLAGNs (e.g., ), although the photon statistics are limited.

The upper limits on EW are not very tight for the objects without significant Fe lines. In order to obtain tighter constraints, we made a composite spectrum. We coadded the spectra of six objects (NGC 315, 1097, 4203, 4450, 4594, and 4639) from which Fe lines are not detected or only marginally detected. All of these have very similar continuum slopes. NGC 5005 was not used because its spectral slope is flatter than others. The composite spectrum, shown in Figure 1, is well fitted by the canonical model and no Fe line is required. The upper limit to the EW of a narrow Fe line at 6.4 keV is $`38_{38}^{+107}`$ eV. This EW is smaller than or marginally consistent with that for a core in the disk-line profile in luminous Seyfert 1s (). The constraint on the EW of a broader component is weaker. For example, the EW of a Gaussian line with $`\sigma =0.2`$ keV is $`74_{74}^{+137}`$ eV. This upper limit lies on the lowest end of the distribution of Fe EWs in luminous Seyfert 1s.

The continuum of the composite spectrum is well described by a power law with a photon index of $`1.64\pm 0.03`$; a thermal Bremsstrahlung model is not adequate. This reconfirms that the X-ray emission in the present sample is dominated by an AGN and that the contribution from discrete X-ray source such as low-mass X-ray binaries in the host galaxy is small. Therefore, the weakness of an Fe emission line is not due to dilution by sources other than an AGN; instead, it appears to be a property intrinsic to some LLAGNs.

## 4 Discussion

We have shown that Fe emission lines are seen in some LLAGNs but that they are very weak in others. Since we targeted objects whose hard X-ray emission is most likely dominated by the nucleus, the observed properties of the X-ray spectra are attributed to the nature of LLAGNs. The observed properties (continuum shape and Fe line parameters) show no clear correlation with $`L_\mathrm{X}`$, black hole mass, and $`L_\mathrm{X}/L_{\mathrm{Edd}}`$. The continuum slope of LLAGNs are in the range $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ = 1.6–1.9, which is quite similar to those seen in luminous AGNs. These photon indices are also in agreement with the predictions of low-radiative efficiency accretion models, given the accretion rates of the present sample ($`L_\mathrm{X}/L_{\mathrm{Edd}}10^6`$; see Table 1) (e.g., ).

The small EW of the Fe line in the composite spectrum is in accordance with the absence of an inner optically thick disk. Alternatively, the inner part of such a disk may be highly ionized.

If an optically thick standard disk is present, a broad Fe K line is expected through reprocessing by the disk. Depending on the accretion rate, the surface of the disk could be ionized by irradiation (e.g., ). When the disk surface is almost completely ionized to the Thomson depth, an Fe K line is no longer expected. An Fe K line can also be suppressed if the ionization state of Fe is intermediate due to resonant trapping and Auger destruction (). An emission line without a broad component can be produced if the inner part of the disk is highly ionized. Thus, the observed Fe lines in LLAGNs (centered at 6.4 keV or 6.7 keV, or absent) might be understood in terms of the ionization state of the disk. There are, however, serious problems in this scenario. LLAGNs have very low luminosities and very low Eddington ratios (Table 1). It seems difficult to achieve high ionization states under these conditions.

The detected Fe lines that lack a very broad component are consistent with a scenario in which an inner optically thick disk is absent. If the inner part of the accretion disk becomes a hot ADAF, the Fe atoms should be completely ionized and no Fe emission line is expected. In this case, we might observe a fluorescent Fe line only from the outer optically thick regions of the disk, or from regions exterior to the disk (e.g., an obscuring torus presumed in the unification scheme of Seyferts). The limits on the EW of a narrow line at 6.4 keV in the composite spectrum indicate that cold matter (optically thick disk and torus) subtends only a small solid angle as viewed from the X-ray source; this is consistent with the expectation. An Fe line at 6.4 keV is seen in four objects, and their relatively narrow width is also in agreement with this scenario. An additional support for the absence of an inner optically thick disk is the lack of big blue bump (BBB; ). Note, however, that the inner temperature of an optically thick disk depends on the black hole mass and mass accretion rate. A definitive evaluation of the strength of the BBB will require accurate black hole mass measurements (). Therefore, the combination of Fe K lines, spectral energy distributions, and black hole mass measurements provides a powerful diagnostic tool of accretion disks. Although the absence of Fe lines and Fe lines at 6.4 keV can be understood in a scenario invoking an ADAF plus an outer standard disk, the Fe lines at 6.7 keV are still puzzling. Future observations of Fe lines with high signal-to-noise ratio will be able to constrain the location of Fe-emitting region and the structure of accretion disks in LLAGNs.

## ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Y. T. and N. I. are supported by the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science Postdoctoral Fellowships for Young Scientists.


text:
# 1 Introduction

## 1 Introduction

The Drude–Born–Fedorov constitutive relations of a homogeneous, isotropic chiral medium (ICM) are stated as

$$\begin{array}{cccc}𝐃(𝐫,\omega )=ϵ(\omega )\left[𝐄(𝐫,\omega )+\beta (\omega )\times 𝐄(𝐫,\omega )\right]& & & \\ 𝐁(𝐫,\omega )=\mu (\omega )\left[𝐇(𝐫,\omega )+\beta (\omega )\times 𝐇(𝐫,\omega )\right]& & & \end{array}\}.$$
(1)
The permittivity of the ICM is denoted by $`ϵ(\omega )`$, and its permeability by $`\mu (\omega )`$, whilst $`\beta (\omega )`$ is the chirality parameter. An $`\mathrm{exp}(i\omega t)`$ time–dependence is implicit throughout and the dependences on the angular frequency $`\omega `$ are understood from here onwards.

When a linearly polarized plane wave is normally incident on an ICM slab of infinite lateral dimensions, the transmitted plane wave is elliptically polarized with its vibration ellipse rotated with respect to direction of the incident electric field phasor . These two effects are quantified via the optical rotation $`\delta `$ and the circular dichroism $`\psi `$, expressed on a per–unit–thickness basis as

$$\begin{array}{ccc}\delta =\mathrm{Re}\left[\gamma _1\gamma _2\right]/2& & \\ \psi =\mathrm{Im}\left[\gamma _1\gamma _2\right]/2& & \end{array}\},$$
(2)
where the wavenumbers

$$\begin{array}{cccc}\gamma _1=\frac{\omega \sqrt{(ϵ\mu )}}{1\omega \sqrt{(ϵ\mu )}\beta }& & & \\ \gamma _2=\frac{\omega \sqrt{(ϵ\mu )}}{1+\omega \sqrt{(ϵ\mu )}\beta }& & & \end{array}\};$$
(3)
hence,

$$\delta +i\psi =\frac{\omega ^2ϵ\mu }{1\omega ^2ϵ\mu \beta ^2}\beta .$$
(4)
A related quantity of interest is the impedance

$$\eta =\sqrt{(\mu /ϵ)},$$
(5)
which appears in the decomposition of the electric and the magnetic field phasors in terms of Beltrami fields .

Typically, $`\beta `$ is a small parameter that appears to manifest chiefly via $`\delta `$ and $`\psi `$. The influence of $`\beta `$ is immediately obvious from (3) and (4): a change in its sign results in the interchange of the values of the two wavenumbers, which thus reverses the signs of both the optical rotation and the circular dichroism . Pairs of mediums differing only in $`\beta `$ and/or in $`\eta `$ have been contrasted earlier in this journal .

The objective of the present communication is to present the observable consequences of a very recent development on isotropic chiral mediums: Shelby et al. have constructed and tested a dielectric/magnetic composite material which appears to possess permeability and permittivity with negative real parts in a particular frequency range . Although their material is not exactly as advertised, future possibilities mandate the examination of observable repercussions on ICMs.

## 2 Analysis

Let us consider electromagnetic field phasors in an ICM at a frequency that does not lie in an absorption band . Accordingly,

$$\begin{array}{cc}ϵ=a(\pm 1+i\mathrm{tan}\delta _ϵ)ϵ_0& \\ \mu =b(\pm 1+i\mathrm{tan}\delta _\mu )\mu _0& \end{array}\},$$
(6)
where $`a>0`$, $`b>0`$, $`\mathrm{tan}\delta _ϵ0`$ and $`\mathrm{tan}\delta _\mu 0`$ are real–valued, and we impose the condition of low loss (i.e., $`\mathrm{Im}\left[\gamma _{1,2}\right]\mathrm{Re}\left[\gamma _{1,2}\right]`$). The upper signs in the foregoing equations hold for the normal case, the lower for the case suggested by the experimental results of Shelby et al. . The permeability and the permittivity of free space are denoted, respectively, by $`\mu _0`$ and $`ϵ_0`$.

Correct to the first order in both $`\mathrm{tan}\delta _ϵ`$ and $`\mathrm{tan}\delta _\mu `$, we obtain

$$\gamma _1\frac{k_0m}{1k_0m\beta }\left[1\pm \frac{i}{1k_0m\beta }\frac{\mathrm{tan}\delta _\mu +\mathrm{tan}\delta _ϵ}{2}\right]$$
(7)
and

$$\gamma _2\frac{k_0m}{1+k_0m\beta }\left[1\pm \frac{i}{1+k_0m\beta }\frac{\mathrm{tan}\delta _\mu +\mathrm{tan}\delta _ϵ}{2}\right]$$
(8)
from (3) and (6), where $`k_0=\omega \sqrt{(ϵ_0\mu _0)}`$ is the free–space wavenumber and $`m=+\sqrt{(ab)}`$. Therefore, the right side of (4) can be approximated as follows:

$$\delta +i\psi \frac{k_0^2m^2}{1k_0^2m^2\beta ^2}\left[1\pm i\frac{\mathrm{tan}\delta _\mu +\mathrm{tan}\delta _ϵ}{1k_0^2m^2\beta ^2}\right]\beta .$$
(9)
In the same way,

$$\eta \sqrt{(b/a)}\left[1\pm i\frac{\mathrm{tan}\delta _\mu \mathrm{tan}\delta _ϵ}{2}\right]\eta _0,$$
(10)
where $`\eta _0=\sqrt{(\mu _0/ϵ_0)}`$ is the intrinsic impedance of free space.

## 3 Conclusions

Equation (9) shows that the optical rotation remains unaffected if the real parts of both the permittivity and the permeability change signs, but the circular dichroism reverses in sign. This conclusion holds provided $`\mathrm{Im}\left[\beta \right]`$ can be ignored, i.e, at frequencies away from a circular dichroism band . Otherwise, optical rotation is also affected. Equation (10) shows that only the imaginary part of $`\eta `$ changes sign, if the signs of the real parts of both the permittivity and the permeability are altered.

Suppose two ICMs labeled p and q possess identical response properties at a certain frequency — except that $`0<\mathrm{Re}\left[ϵ_p\right]=\mathrm{Re}\left[ϵ_q\right]`$ and $`0<\mathrm{Re}\left[\mu _p\right]=\mathrm{Re}\left[\mu _q\right]`$. Correct to the zeroth order in both $`\mathrm{tan}\delta _ϵ`$ and $`\mathrm{tan}\delta _\mu `$, the two ICMs are isoimpedant as well as isorefractive; yet, they could be distinguished from each other by employing obliquely incident plane waves. Of course, (9) and (10) show that the two ICMs are neither isoimpedant nor isorefractive, correct to the first order in $`\mathrm{tan}\delta _ϵ`$ and $`\mathrm{tan}\delta _\mu `$.


text:
# Periodic and Nonperiodic Phenomena in AGB Stars1

## 1. Introduction

The structure of the atmospheres of Asymptotic Giant Branch (AGB) stars is dominated by stellar pulsations and therefore varies strongly during the light cycle. High resolution infrared spectroscopy has turned out to be a very powerful tool to investigate the dynamics of AGB star atmospheres caused by the stellar pulsation (Hinkle et al., 1982). The rich vibrational-rotational molecular spectrum of these stars offers a wide variety of lines of different excitation originating in different layers of the atmosphere. These lines can be used to monitor the dynamics at different depths in the stellar atmosphere. However, so far only a small sample of AGB variables and only a small number of molecular species have been investigated in detail (e.g. Hinkle et al., 1984).

In this paper we present a summary of our recent work on the dynamics of AGB star atmospheres obtained by means of time series high resolution infrared spectra of a large sample of AGB stars. We extended the existing data material significantly, investigating the behavior of a large variety of molecular lines in AGB variables of different types.

## 2. Observations

Time series of high resolution spectra of several parts of the 1.5 to 4 $`\mu `$m region have been obtained at Kitt Peak National Observatory with the FTS, the NICMASS- and the PHOENIX-spectrograph. Spectral resolution was typically 40000 or better. Line positions have been measured for a selection of atomic and molecular species. The derived velocities have an accuracy of at least 0.3 kms-1. Several lines exhibit at some phases multiple absorption and/or emission components. Each of these components has been measured. Their reality has been checked using averaged line profiles (Lebzelter, Hinkle, & Aringer 2001).

## 3. Results

The deep atmospheric layers of miras monitored by e.g. high excitation CO lines at 1.6 $`\mu `$m show a periodic variation with typical indications of radial pulsation and the occurence of shocks (discontinuous velocity curves). They indicate the pulsation of the star that is also visible in the visual light change. With the help of our large sample we are now able to derive mean velocity curves for these layers in LPVs. All miras (Fig. 1, left panel) show the same type of velocity variations. Velocity amplitudes are very similar. Our sample of miras covers a period range between 145 and 470 days, and includes stars of spectral type M, S and C. No dependency on period, metallicity or chemistry was found (Hinkle et al., 1997; Lebzelter et al., 1999).

Semiregular variables (SRVs) have continuous velocity curves with the maximum velocity occuring at light minimum (Fig. 1, right panel). The velocity changes show the same type of semiregular behaviour found in the light curves of these stars. Amplitudes range from 2 to 15 kms-1 (Hinkle et al. 1997; Lebzelter 1999). A strong asymmetry relative to the center of mass velocity is observed in most of the SRVs which is not understood yet (Lebzelter, 1999, Lebzelter et al., 2000). One possible explanation, long term variations due to pulsation or binarity, is discussed by Lebzelter et al. (these proceedings).

The outer atmospheric layers of these stars, investigated with the help of molecules like SiO or H2O, do not always follow the period defined by the visual light change, i.e. line profiles obtained at similar phases can differ significantly from each other. These variations may be nonperiodic or periodic on a longer timescale than the main period. An example is given in Fig. 2 for the velocities of high excitation H2O lines in R Cas plotted against time. It can be seen that the velocity curve starting at the beginning of the observed time series shows the same shape as the typical mira velocity curves, but lasts considerably longer than the light cycle. The next cycle shows again a velocity curve following the stellar period. The observed difference between the two cycles indicates that either the accelaration of the H2O line forming layer was higher or the deceleration lower. Both possibilities may be connected to a non-continuous mass loss in this star (Lebzelter et al., 2001). A similar behaviour was found in a second star, $`\chi `$ Cyg. In both cases the outstanding velocity behaviour followed a very bright light maximum. This suggests that these two phenomena are related to each other. Richter & Wood (2001) showed a similar connection between bright maxima and outstanding behaviour of the UV spectrum which is, as the 4 $`\mu `$m lines, formed in the outer parts of the atmosphere. However, this phenomenon seems to affect only the outer layers of the star as such a behaviour is not observed e.g. in the 1.6 $`\mu `$m CO lines. It is therefore not due to a stronger pulsation of the star.

## 4. Conclusions and outlook

Periodic and nonperiodic velocity variations are found in AGB variables. The inner layers close to the pulsation driving zone show a periodic and highly similar velocity curve in all types of miras. This fact makes it very unlikely that some of the miras pulsate in a different pulsation mode than the others as has been discussed in the literature (e.g. Barthes, 1998). In the outer layers nonperiodic effects occur and the observed stars show a strong diversity in their line profile changes.

Our observational results allow a first overview on the pulsational properties of the whole atmosphere of an AGB star. This can now be compared with recent dynamic model atmospheres (Höfner, 1999). Both periodic and nonperiodic phenomena are predicted by the models. A detailled comparison of models and observations has been started.

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