text:
# The calorimetry at the future 𝐞⁺𝐞⁻ linear collider

## I Introduction

The physics programme for an electron-positron linear collider with center of mass energy ranging from 90 GeV to 800/1000 GeV, is largely dominated by events with final state containing many jets bib:jets  (essentially di-boson events with W,Z or Higgs decaying into jets). For an experiment on such an accelerator, the goal of the calorimeter can be either to measure well the total flow of energy (in jets) or to measure the photons, the neutral hadrons and to identify the leptons e, $`\mu `$ or $`\tau `$. The second option seems more difficult, but our contention is that its three items can be optimised together and that, by that time, the energy flow measurement is optimised far beyond the first solution capability. This is done through a so-called energy flow algorithm which employs not only the calorimeter but also the tracker. The studies described below use a full full simulation of the calorimeter named Mokka bib:mokka  based on GEANT4.

## II Physics programme and calorimeter performance

First we can review the impact of the jet resolution on the physics programme: This point has been looked at for few reactions up to now and needs a lot more work to assess it properly.

Parametrising the jet energy resolution as $`\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{E}_{\mathrm{jet}}=\alpha \sqrt{\mathrm{E}_{\mathrm{jet}}}`$, two possibilities have been used, one with $`\alpha `$ = 0.6 corresponds to a slightly improved LEP calorimeter, the other, with $`\alpha `$ = 0.3, corresponds to what has been obtained in a full simulation and reconstruction with the Si-W electromagnetic calorimeter and the digital hadron calorimeter described in the TESLA TDR bib:TDR .

First, the reaction  $`\mathrm{e}^+\mathrm{e}^{}`$ $``$Z H H which appears as 6 jet events. For an integrated luminosity of 1 ab-1, the signal is observed at 3 sigmas for 0.6 and at 6 sigmas for 0.3, the difference between missing or getting it bib:TDR .

A way to measure the impact of the resolution is to consider the amount of statistics, running time, needed to obtain the same significance. In the case of $`\mathrm{e}^+\mathrm{e}^{}`$ $``$ZH with Z into $`q\overline{q}`$ and H into WW, going from 0.3 to 0.6 corresponds to loosing 45 % of luminosity bib:jcbhenww . In the same way, when separating ZZ$`\nu \overline{\nu }`$ from WW$`\nu \overline{\nu }`$ the loss is of 40 % of luminosity. This is illustrated in figure . The impact on the measurement of the process $`\mathrm{e}^+\mathrm{e}^{}`$ $`t\overline{t}H`$ is under consideration. Considering the cost of running and the impact on physics of diluted runs this is impressive. It has nevertheless to be studied with full simulation and reconstruction and extended to many more reactions.

## III The ECAL design

Now that the physics case is painted, we can recall the basics of the analytical energy flow. The energy flow of a jet, or a system of jets, is written as the sum of its components P=PCh.particles \+ Pγ \+ P$`_{\mathrm{h}^0}`$ ($`\mathrm{h}^0`$ for neutral hadrons). The argument is as follows: the charged hadrons make about 60% of the jet energy and, being of rather low energy, are much better measured in the tracker than in the hadron calorimeter. This point has to be tempered when taking into account the track reconstruction efficiency, the generation of fake tracks, the decays of particles like K$`{}_{s}{}^{}{}_{}{}^{0}`$. Such a method relies more on separating properly the particles than on the intrinsic energy resolution. To get it, the calorimeter has to be far enough from the interaction but inside the coil, has to have a small radiation length, a small interaction length and a matched read-out granularity. Compact and granular. There is one implicit parameter, the ratio of radiation to interaction lengths. To measure properly the photons and to identify the electrons we need to separate the electromagnetic and the hadronic primary components. This is currently achieved up to a certain level longitudinally by going for a large ratio of radiation(LX0) over interaction lengths ($`\lambda _I`$). We can compare the values for the iron, the tungsten and the lead.

| material | $`\lambda _I`$ (cm) | LX0 (cm) | $`\lambda _I`$/ LX0 |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Fe | 16.8 | 1.76 | 9.5 |
| W | 9.6 | 0.35 | 27.4 |
| Pb | 17.1 | 0.56 | 30.5 |

The need of containing properly enough high energy electromagnetic showers drives us to about 24 X0. This is not extremely sensitive since the longitudinal size grows logarithmically with energy and that we still get information from the hadronic calorimeter behind. Clearly we desire an electromagnetic calorimeter with a tungsten radiator and a very compact detecting medium providing the adequate granularity, a size close to the Moli re radius. The only solution known by the authors is silicon diodes. A clear obstacle seems to be, more than the technical difficulty, a question of money. This will be discussed more thoroughly later.

The final parameters of the electromagnetic part we are left with are then:

\- The radiator sampling or equivalently the number of layers. This drives the intrinsic energy resolution and concurrently the price. We have considered 40 layers to reach a resolution close to 0.1, but, if we really care only of jet resolution, 20 may be enough as presented later.

\- The cell size which provides the separation and the number of channels. It has to be noted that a huge number of channels is a real technical challenge but has little impact on the price, driven by the silicon area. Currently we consider 1 to 1.5 cm2.

## IV The HCAL design

The same type of arguments, number of interaction lengths inside the coil, the shower size, leads to compactness and favour tungsten. Reasons of cost, of mechanical structure, and may be some lack of reflection, have lead to choosing for the current design stainless steel for radiator, the eddy currents generated by a magnet quench prohibiting copper. The structure is then 40 layers of 2cm thick iron plates equivalent to 4 $`\lambda _I`$. In fact this has to be worked out again playing with the $`\lambda _I`$/LX0 ratio and with the thickness. A hadronic shower can be seen as hadronic tracks connecting photon showers ($`\pi ^0`$). Playing with $`\lambda _I`$/ LX0 will change the occupancy of the electromagnetic subshowers with respect to the global hadronic shower. Reducing $`\lambda _I`$ will enhance the ability to separate the showers, but, for a given interaction length sampling, will degrade the resolution. An example is shown on figure 2 where the same jet is seen in iron and in ”expanded tungsten”. This is tungsten where the density has been modified to get the same fraction of interaction length in a plate as in the standard iron plate.

We need now to focus on the hadronic cell structure. There are two approaches, one, global, will match the cells to the hadronic shower width, the second tries to take advantage of the tree structure of the shower and plays the same game as the electromagnetic part, trying to isolate the electromagnetic component from the hadronic tracks. In the first method the energy collected in a cell has to be measured, in the second you would just basically continue the ECAL, the cost precludes such a solution but it happens that, for a proper granularity, a simple counting of the cells provides linearity of the response and an adequate energy resolution.

These two solutions correspond grossly to the two variants of the TESLA TDR, the variant with scintillator tiles varying in size between 5 and 20 cm, bib.morgunov , and the so-called digital variant with 1cm2 cells.

We can develop on the more original variant, the digital. Here the spatial information is preferred to the local energy measurement. The detecting medium is read in small cells, about 1cm2 which may make some 50 millions cells, but purely by yes/no. This provides an optimal information for separating the showers, hence an excellent muon identification in particular below 5 GeV where muon chambers are useless. This clearly provides also an easy way of handling halo muons. Then we can wonder about the jet energy resolution. This has been looked at with a simulation where the detecting medium is a perfect scintillator structured in 1cm2 cells. Pions of different energies are sent. The energy seen in the cells is summed, the number of cells is counted and also a neural net trained for energy resolution out of the cell distribution is used. Figure 4 shows the response as a function of energy.

It is clear that, for this size of cell with that sampling, the counting provides a better estimate of the energy than summing the cell energies. This a priori surprising result originates from the suppression of cell fluctuations by the counting. The jet resolution has been investigated at the Z peak leading to a resolution of 2.89 GeV as shown on figure , equivalent to an $`\alpha `$ of 0.3.

The main advantage of the method is nevertheless in the shower separation and has to demonstrate its power with boosted events. For that purpose, reactions like  $`\mathrm{e}^+\mathrm{e}^{}`$ $``$ $`\mathrm{W}^+\mathrm{W}^{}`$ at maximum energy (800 GeV) are under study. This is illustrated in figure 5 showing a W dijet in the view that best separates the jet components.

## V An affordable calorimeter

### V.1 The W-Si electromagnetic calorimeter

The more frequently asked questions about the ECAL are:
\- Is it affordable ?
\- By how much the performance is sensitive to the silicon diode quality ?
\- Does the number of channels (about 35 106) create specific problems for the calibration,uniformity,etc…

The questions of the silicon diodes quality
First, to simulate dead wafers, a fraction, up to 5%, of the wafers are not used in the reconstruction code . It is assumed that there is no geometrical correlation between the dead wafers. Because there is a good knowledge of the shower profile, (related to the number of layer), an efficient correction can be applied on the reconstructed photon/electron when there is dead wafer(s) in the shower path. As a consequence, the performances of the ECAL are alsmot unchanged; i.e. the energy resolution at 1 GeV grows from 10%/$`\sqrt{E}`$ (no dead wafer) to 10.2%/$`\sqrt{E}`$ (5% of dead wafers). It is important to note that accepting 5% of dead wafers in the production, may increase the industrial yield by a factor of 2 bib:merkin , which directly changes the overall cost of the ECAL by roughly the same amount.

The total area of silicon
A second test has been performed by changing the number of silicon layers from 40 (TDR) to 20. Using the deposited energy, the stochastic term of the energy resolution increases from 10% to 14%, but using in addition informations like the pad multiplicity, the shower profile,etc…, leads to a stochastic term of 12%. To see the impact on jets, the photon reconstruction code PFD04 bib:pfd04  has been adapted to the 20 layers geometry. The result, on figure 6, given in terms of the energy resolution on the photonic component of the jet energy, is an increase of only about 10%. Clearly, the case for the silicon-tungsten ECAL is largely unchanged when reducing the number of layers from 40 to 20, which almost reduces the overall cost of the ECAL by a factor two.

A very large number of channels
The total amount of readout pads in the ECAL is about 35 106. This very large number induces strong constraints on the level of the noise in the readout, the electronics cost,etc… It can also generate problems with the calibration, the non-uniformity,etc… The overall calibration is not a problem with the large number of processes involving electron(s), where the tracker can provide the momentum of the electron(s). It remains the intercalibration and more generally the effect of the non-uniformity of the detector. The main sources of non-uniformity are i) the electronics gains, ii) the depletion thickness of each diode and iii) the thickness/density of the tungsten. It has been pointed out previously bib:calib  that all these sources could be controlled, on-line for the point i) and at the production or construction time for the points ii) and iii). The residuals on the correction would come from the errors on the measurements. Under this condition, the type of distribution we expect for the dispersion is gaussian. Therefore, to do the study, the pad responses have been smeared by a gaussian centred at zero with a dispersion of 2% and then of 5%. The resolution on the final state photons in jet events increases by only 70 MeV for a non-uniformity of 5%, a value which seems largely within reach. The main concern remains the coherent noise, which will be studied by prototyping.

The question of the cost
Summarizing informations on the question of the cost of the ECAL, when compared to the LHC microstrip tracker or pre-shower, it can be stated that :
$``$ the macroscopic size of the silicon detector (1cm2) leads to an easier production;
$``$ the number of masks to produce the silicon matrices is about 2 times smallerbib:merkin ;
$``$ the industrial yield should be 2 times larger;
In addition, if needed for the cost, the number of layers could be decreased by a factor 2, with only a modest degradation of the performances on jets. From all these points, the conclusion is that  the cost is not a killing factor for the silicon-tungsten ECAL.

### V.2 The digital hadronic calorimeter

When speaking of large area of possible digital chambers in recent experiment, the example of Belle detectorbib:belle , with 4000 m2 of RPC’s can be taken. As a matter of fact, the technical solutions for the detecting device are under investigation, in particular at IHEP-Protvino. The possibility to use RPC’s or gas wire chambers makes the solution quite inexpensive and robust. The yes/no electronics makes even such a large number of channels inexpensive. There is still much work to be done.

A full description of the mechanical and electronic solutions for the W-Si ECAL as well as for the two options of the HCAL can be found in the TDR bib:TDR  and at the CALICE web site bib:calice .

## VI Conclusions

The electromagnetic calorimeter as a sandwich of tungsten and silicon appears to be adequate from the point of view of physics, it remains to be fully proven technologically. As described in the TDR it may look financially difficult but compromises are possible which do not harm deeply the physics performances and reduce very substantially the cost.

For the hadronic part a choice has to be made between the two variants and will be made on the basis of full simulation and reconstruction as well as some prototyping. Nevertheless, aside that point, many parameters have to be tuned properly like the choice of radiator material.

Mastering the design of a calorimeter for a linear collider needs still considerable effort on the technical side but also on the software development and on the physics validation of the performances.


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# THE COLOURED QUANTUM PLANE

## 1. Introduction

Manin’s approach  to quantum groups is based on the fact that these structures can be considered as comodule algebras for the so-called quantum or Manin plane. In analogy with the classical case, a quantum group also acts upon a formal vector space called the quantum vector space, or simply quantum space. For the simplest example of the two-dimensional case, this is generated by elements $`x`$ and $`y`$ satisfying the nontrivial commutation relation

(1)
$$xy=qyx$$

where $`q1`$ is the quantum deformation parameter and $`\{x,y\}`$ commute with the generating elements of the quantum group $`GL_q(2)`$. In the past decade or so, the study of quantum planes and quantum spaces has been at the forefront of mathematical physics research. One of the most interesting aspects is the formulation of a consistent differential calculus on the quantum plane, a powerful procedure given by Wess and Zumino . An immediate consequence is the $`q`$-deformation of the quantum mechanical phase space, also given in . Since then, extensive effort has been directed towards investigating the algebraic and differential geometric structure of quantum planes and quantum spaces in the noncommutative setting such as development of noncommutative gauge theories and quantum field theories. The study of such geometric structures also lies at the interface of Connes’ noncommutative differential geometry and the theory of quantum groups. The Wess-Zumino formalism admits interesting multiparametric generalisations  and the technique has also been successfully applied to the $`h`$-planes  associated with the nonstandard $`h`$-deformations.
More recently, ‘coloured’ quantum groups have been studied  in the context of generalisation of the basic theory of quantum groups by parametrising the corresponding generators by some continuously varying colour parameters. Emerged originally as non-additive solutions of the spectral parameter dependent quantum Yang-Baxter equation in the study of integrable systems, coloured quantum groups are infinite-dimensional algebras. This is an interesting feature since on the one hand these are examples of infinite-dimensional Hopf algebras, now known as coloured Hopf algebras, while on the other hand they can be couched in the language familiar to those for the finite-dimensional ones. These are also related to invariants of knots and braid group respresentations similar to the usual uncoloured quantum groups. For further motivation see  and references therein.
Despite the interest generated in the study of the coloured extension of quantum groups, little is known about the quantum planes or quantum spaces associated to these structures and the whole theory remains pretty much in its embryonic stage. In a recent work , the coloured quantum group $`GL_q^{\lambda ,\mu }(2)`$ was investigated to establish a duality between the coloured algebra of quantised functions on the group and that of its universal enveloping algebra, i.e., its dual. In , the author also gave a coloured generalisation of the $`R`$-matrix approach to construct a bicovariant differential calculus on $`GL_q^{\lambda ,\mu }(2)`$. A natural question that arises at this stage pertains to the quantum spaces upon which coloured quantum groups act. It is the purpose of this paper, therefore, to present a differential calculus on the coloured quantum planes associated to $`GL_q^{\lambda ,\mu }(2)`$. This is carried out by generalising the Wess-Zumino formalism and leads to the concept of a coloured quantum space.

## 2. Coloured $`FRT`$ algebra

It is well-established  that $`GL_q^{\lambda ,\mu }(2)`$ provides a coloured generalisation of $`GL_q(2)`$ resulting in a coloured Faddeev-Reshetikhin-Takhtajan $`(FRT)`$  algebra. As already mentioned, the corresponding generators are parametrised by continuously varying colour parameters $`\lambda `$ and $`\mu `$, and as such the whole algebra becomes infinite-dimensional. Recall that the $`GL_q^{\lambda ,\mu }(2)`$ commutation algebra is given as

(2)
$$\begin{array}{cc}a_\lambda b_\mu =q^{1+2\lambda }b_\mu a_\lambda \hfill & a_\lambda c_\mu =q^{12\lambda }c_\mu a_\lambda \hfill \\ b_\lambda c_\mu =q^{2(\lambda +\mu )}c_\mu b_\lambda \hfill & b_\lambda d_\mu =q^{12\mu }d_\mu b_\lambda \hfill \\ d_\lambda c_\mu =q^{12\lambda }c_\mu d_\lambda \hfill & [a_\lambda ,d_\mu ]=(qq^1)q^{\lambda +\mu }b_\mu c_\lambda \hfill \end{array}$$

(3)
$$\begin{array}{cc}a_\lambda b_\mu =q^{\lambda \mu }a_\mu b_\lambda \hfill & a_\lambda c_\mu =q^{\mu \lambda }a_\mu c_\lambda \hfill \\ b_\lambda c_\mu =b_\mu c_\lambda \hfill & b_\lambda d_\mu =q^{\lambda \mu }b_\mu d_\lambda \hfill \\ c_\lambda d_\mu =q^{\mu \lambda }c_\mu d_\lambda \hfill & a_\lambda d_\mu =a_\mu d_\lambda \hfill \end{array}$$

(4)
$$\begin{array}{ccc}a_\lambda a_\mu \hfill & =\hfill & a_\mu a_\lambda \hfill \\ b_\lambda b_\mu \hfill & =\hfill & q^{2(\lambda \mu )}b_\mu b_\lambda \hfill \\ c_\lambda c_\mu \hfill & =\hfill & q^{2(\mu \lambda )}c_\mu c_\lambda \hfill \\ d_\lambda d_\mu \hfill & =\hfill & d_\mu d_\lambda \hfill \end{array}$$

which is obtained from the coloured $`RTT`$ relations where

(5)
$$R(\lambda ,\mu )=\left(\begin{array}{cccc}q^{1\lambda +\mu }& 0& 0& 0\\ 0& q^{\lambda +\mu }& 0& 0\\ 0& qq^1& q^{\lambda \mu }& 0\\ 0& 0& 0& q^{1+\lambda \mu }\end{array}\right)$$

is non-additive and satisfies the coloured quantum Yang-Baxter equation, and $`T_\lambda =\left(\begin{array}{cc}a_\lambda & b_\lambda \\ c_\lambda & d_\lambda \end{array}\right)`$ and $`T_\mu =\left(\begin{array}{cc}a_\mu & b_\mu \\ c_\mu & d_\mu \end{array}\right)`$ are quantum matrices of the generators. The coalgebra structure is given by $`\mathrm{\Delta }(T_\lambda )=T_\lambda \dot{}T_\lambda `$, $`\epsilon (T_\lambda )=\mathrm{𝟏}`$. The quantum determinant is $`D_\lambda =a_\lambda d_\lambda q^{12\lambda }c_\lambda b_\lambda `$ and the antipode is

(6)
$$S(T_\lambda )=D_\lambda ^1\left(\begin{array}{cc}d_\lambda & q^{1+2\lambda }b_\lambda \\ q^{12\lambda }c_\lambda & a_\lambda \end{array}\right)$$

Clearly, the colourless $`GL_q(2)`$ $`FRT`$ algebra is retrieved with vanishing of the colour parameters.

## 3. Coloured quantum plane

In analogy with the standard uncoloured quantum group $`GL_q(2)`$, its coloured version $`GL_q^{\lambda ,\mu }(2)`$ can be considered as an endomorphism of a pair of quadratic algebras $`𝒜_q^{2|0}`$ and $`𝒜_q^{0|2}`$ (its dual) in the sense of Manin . The algebra $`𝒜_q^{2|0}`$ is generated by elements $`\{x_\lambda ,x_\mu ,y_\lambda ,y_\mu \}`$, the ‘coloured’ coordinates, such that

(7)
$$\begin{array}{ccc}x_\lambda x_\mu \hfill & =\hfill & q^{\lambda \mu }x_\mu x_\lambda \hfill \\ x_\lambda y_\mu \hfill & =\hfill & q^{1\lambda \mu }y_\mu x_\lambda \hfill \\ x_\lambda y_\mu \hfill & =\hfill & x_\mu y_\lambda \hfill \\ y_\lambda y_\mu \hfill & =\hfill & q^{\mu \lambda }y_\mu y_\lambda \hfill \end{array}$$

This is the so-called coloured quantum plane suggested in  and defines a left coaction

(8)
$$\mathrm{\Delta }_L:𝒜_q^{2|0}GL_q^{\lambda ,\mu }(2)𝒜_q^{2|0}$$

i.e.

(9)
$$\begin{array}{ccc}\mathrm{\Delta }_L\left(\begin{array}{c}x_\lambda \\ y_\lambda \end{array}\right)\hfill & \hfill & \left(\begin{array}{cc}a_\lambda & b_\lambda \\ c_\lambda & d_\lambda \end{array}\right)\left(\begin{array}{c}x_\lambda \\ y_\lambda \end{array}\right)\hfill \\ \mathrm{\Delta }_L\left(\begin{array}{c}x_\mu \\ y_\mu \end{array}\right)\hfill & \hfill & \left(\begin{array}{cc}a_\mu & b_\mu \\ c_\mu & d_\mu \end{array}\right)\left(\begin{array}{c}x_\mu \\ y_\mu \end{array}\right)\hfill \end{array}$$

where the coloured quantum matrices $`T_\lambda `$ and $`T_\mu `$ commute with the coloured coordinates $`\{x_\lambda ,x_\mu ,y_\lambda ,y_\mu \}`$. In general, this can be written as

(10)
$$x_\lambda ^ix_\mu ^j=B_{kl}^{ij}x_\mu ^kx_\lambda ^l$$

where

(11)
$$B_{kl}^{ij}=\{\begin{array}{c}B(\lambda ,\mu )=\frac{1}{q}\widehat{R}(\lambda ,\mu );i<j\hfill \\ B(\mu ,\lambda )=\frac{1}{q}\widehat{R}(\mu ,\lambda );i=j\hfill \end{array}$$

and

(12)
$$\widehat{R}(\lambda ,\mu )=\left(\begin{array}{cccc}q^{1\lambda +\mu }& 0& 0& 0\\ 0& qq^1& q^{\lambda \mu }& 0\\ 0& q^{\lambda +\mu }& 0& 0\\ 0& 0& 0& q^{1+\lambda \mu }\end{array}\right)$$

is the coloured braided $`R`$-matrix which solves the coloured braided Yang-Baxter equation. The right coaction is given by $`𝒜_q^{0|2}`$, the algebra dual to $`𝒜_q^{2|0}`$

(13)
$$\mathrm{\Delta }_R:𝒜_q^{0|2}𝒜_q^{0|2}GL_q^{\lambda ,\mu }(2)$$

i.e.

(14)
$$\begin{array}{ccc}\mathrm{\Delta }_R\left(\begin{array}{cc}\xi _\lambda & \eta _\lambda \end{array}\right)\hfill & \hfill & \left(\begin{array}{cc}\xi _\lambda & \eta _\lambda \end{array}\right)\left(\begin{array}{cc}a_\lambda & b_\lambda \\ c_\lambda & d_\lambda \end{array}\right)\hfill \\ \mathrm{\Delta }_R\left(\begin{array}{cc}\xi _\mu & \eta _\mu \end{array}\right)\hfill & \hfill & \left(\begin{array}{cc}\xi _\mu & \eta _\mu \end{array}\right)\left(\begin{array}{cc}a_\mu & b_\mu \\ c_\mu & d_\mu \end{array}\right)\hfill \end{array}$$

The algebra $`𝒜_q^{0|2}`$ is generated by the coloured Grassmann variables $`\{\xi _\lambda ,\xi _\mu ,\eta _\lambda ,\eta _\mu \}`$ satisfying

(15)
$$\begin{array}{ccc}\xi _\lambda \xi _\mu \hfill & =\hfill & \eta _\lambda \eta _\mu =0\hfill \\ \xi _\lambda \eta _\mu \hfill & =\hfill & q^{(1+\lambda +\mu )}\eta _\mu \xi _\lambda \hfill \\ \xi _\lambda \eta _\mu \hfill & =\hfill & \xi _\mu \eta _\lambda \hfill \end{array}$$

and defines the coloured quantum hyperplane. This can also be expressed in a more general form

(16)
$$\xi _\lambda ^i\xi _\mu ^j=C_{kl}^{ij}\xi _\mu ^k\xi _\lambda ^l$$

where

(17)
$$C_{kl}^{ij}=\{\begin{array}{c}C(\lambda ,\mu )=q\widehat{R}(\lambda ,\mu );i<j\hfill \\ C(\mu ,\lambda )=q\widehat{R}(\mu ,\lambda );i=j\hfill \end{array}$$

Both sets of relations (7) as well as (15) of the coloured quantum plane satisfy the $`\lambda \mu `$ exchange symmetry and are invariant under the coaction of $`GL_q^{\lambda ,\mu }(2)`$. In other words, the coloured quantum group $`GL_q^{\lambda ,\mu }(2)`$ acts on a quantum vector space generated by the coloured variables $`\{x_\lambda ,x_\mu ,y_\lambda ,y_\mu \}`$ and this defines a ‘coloured quantum space’. In the limit of the vanishing colour parameters, we recover exactly the uncoloured two-dimensional quantum plane (1) corresponding to $`GL_q(2)`$.

## 4. Differential calculus

Before we proceed to the construction of a differential calculus on the coloured quantum plane, it is important to stress that equations (10) and (16) are coloured generalisations of the usual relations for the Manin plane and its exterior algebra, and so are the matrices $`B_{kl}^{ij}`$ and $`C_{kl}^{ij}`$. Therefore, the Wess-Zumino calculus  has to be modified in order to incorporate colour dependence. The resulting calculus is much more complicated, has colour copies of the various mathematical quantities and for convenience we follow the same notation as . For the derivatives, we define

(18) $`_{x_\lambda }={\displaystyle \frac{}{_{x_\lambda }}},_{x_\mu }={\displaystyle \frac{}{_{x_\mu }}}`$
(19) $`_{y_\lambda }={\displaystyle \frac{}{_{y_\lambda }}},_{y_\mu }={\displaystyle \frac{}{_{y_\mu }}}`$
and for the differentials

(20) $`\xi _\lambda =𝖽x_\lambda ,\xi _\mu =𝖽x_\mu `$
(21) $`\eta _\lambda =𝖽y_\lambda ,\eta _\mu =𝖽y_\mu `$
The differential calculus on the coloured quantum plane $`𝒜_q^{2|0}`$ is given by the commutation relations between the variables and the derivatives

(22)
$$_{j_\lambda }x_\mu ^i=\delta _j^i+C_{jl}^{ik}x_\mu ^l_{k_\lambda }$$

with matrix $`C`$ defined in (17). For $`i,j=\mathrm{1..2}`$, this yields for $`𝒜_q^{2|0}`$

(23)
$$\begin{array}{ccc}_{x_\lambda }y_\mu \hfill & =\hfill & q^{1+\lambda +\mu }y_\mu _{x_\lambda }\hfill \\ _{y_\lambda }x_\mu \hfill & =\hfill & q^{1\lambda \mu }x_\mu _{y_\lambda }\hfill \\ _{y_\lambda }y_\mu \hfill & =\hfill & 1+q^{2\lambda +\mu }y_\mu _{y_\lambda }\hfill \\ _{x_\lambda }x_\mu \hfill & =\hfill & 1+q^{2+\lambda \mu }x_\mu _{x_\lambda }+(q^21)y_\mu _{y_\lambda }\hfill \end{array}$$

In addition, the derivatives also satisfy relations among themselves

(24)
$$_{i_\lambda }_{j_\mu }=F_{ji}^{lk}_{k_\mu }_{l_\lambda };ij$$

where

(25)
$$F_{ji}^{lk}=F(\lambda ,\mu )=\frac{1}{q}\widehat{R}(\lambda ,\mu )$$

This gives

(26)
$$_{x_\lambda }_{y_\mu }=q^{(1+\lambda +\mu )}_{y_\mu }_{x_\lambda }$$

The differential calculus on the coloured quantum hyperplane $`𝒜_q^{0|2}`$ is given by the commutation relations between the variables and the differentials

(27)
$$x_\lambda ^i\xi _\mu ^j=C_{kl}^{ij}\xi _\mu ^kx_\lambda ^l$$

Again, the matrix $`C`$ has the same form as (17). Explicitly, for $`𝒜_q^{0|2}`$ we obtain

(28)
$$\begin{array}{ccc}x_\lambda \xi _\mu \hfill & =\hfill & q^{2+\lambda \mu }\xi _\mu x_\lambda \hfill \\ y_\lambda \xi _\mu \hfill & =\hfill & q^{1+\lambda +\mu }\xi _\mu y_\lambda \hfill \\ y_\lambda \eta _\mu \hfill & =\hfill & q^{2\lambda +\mu }\eta _\mu y_\lambda \hfill \\ x_\lambda \eta _\mu \hfill & =\hfill & q^{1\lambda \mu }\eta _\mu x_\lambda +(q^21)\xi _\mu y_\lambda \hfill \end{array}$$

Furthermore, the commutation relations between the derivatives and the differentials are

(29)
$$_{j_\lambda }\xi _\mu ^i=D_{jl}^{ik}\xi _\mu ^l_{k_\lambda }$$

where

(30)
$$D_{jl}^{ik}=\{\begin{array}{c}D(\lambda ,\mu )=C^1(\lambda ,\mu );i<j\hfill \\ D(\mu ,\lambda )=C^1(\mu ,\lambda );i=j\hfill \end{array}$$

So, we have for $`𝒜_q^{0|2}`$

(31)
$$\begin{array}{ccc}_{x_\lambda }\xi _\mu \hfill & =\hfill & \frac{1}{q^{2+\lambda \mu }}\xi _\mu _{x_\lambda }\hfill \\ _{x_\lambda }\eta _\mu \hfill & =\hfill & \frac{1}{q^{1\lambda \mu }}\eta _\mu _{x_\lambda }\hfill \\ _{y_\lambda }\xi _\mu \hfill & =\hfill & \frac{1}{q^{1+\lambda +\mu }}\xi _\mu _{y_\lambda }\hfill \\ _{y_\lambda }\eta _\mu \hfill & =\hfill & \frac{1}{q^{2\lambda +\mu }}\eta _\mu _{y_\lambda }+(\frac{1}{q^2}1)\xi _\mu _{x_\lambda }\hfill \end{array}$$

Finally, the exterior differential is defined as

(32)
$$\begin{array}{c}𝐝=\xi _\lambda ^i_{i_\lambda }=\xi _\mu ^i_{i_\mu }\\ 𝐝=\xi _\lambda _{x_\lambda }+\eta _\lambda _{y_\lambda }=\xi _\mu _{x_\mu }+\eta _\mu _{y_\mu }\end{array}$$

It can be checked that the exterior differential is nilpotent ($`𝐝^2=0`$) and satisfies the Leibniz rule $`𝐝(fg)=(𝐝f)g+f(𝐝g)`$. The full differential calculus on the coloured quantum plane and the hyperplane respects the $`\lambda \mu `$ exchange symmetry, satisfies all consistency conditions and is invariant under the coaction of the coloured quantum group $`GL_q^{\lambda ,\mu }(2)`$. Note that for vanishing colour parameters, the calculus reduces exactly to the calculus on the standard uncoloured two-dimensional quantum plane corresponding to $`GL_q(2)`$. It is also important to note that while we have treated the coloured version of the two-dimensional quantum plane, the result is actually infinite-dimensional since $`\lambda `$ and $`\mu `$ are continuously varying colour parameters. As such, not only are the coloured quantum planes infinite-dimensional but the differential calculus obtained here is also infinite-dimensional.

## 5. Coloured $`h`$-plane

We now look at the nonstandard (or Jordanian) counterpart of the $`q`$-plane, known as the $`h`$-plane . Motivated by the observation that coloured Jordanian quantum groups can be obtained from their $`q`$-deformed counterparts  using the well-known contraction procedure, we perform the contraction on the coloured $`q`$-plane discussed above. We consider the transformation on the coloured coordinates

(33)
$$\left(\begin{array}{c}x_\lambda \\ y_\lambda \end{array}\right)g\left(\begin{array}{c}x_\lambda \\ y_\lambda \end{array}\right)\text{and}\left(\begin{array}{c}x_\mu \\ y_\mu \end{array}\right)g\left(\begin{array}{c}x_\mu \\ y_\mu \end{array}\right)$$

where $`g`$ is the two-dimensional transformation matrix

(34)
$$g=\left(\begin{array}{cc}1& \alpha \\ 0& 1\end{array}\right)$$

and $`\alpha =\frac{h}{q1}`$ depends on both ‘$`q`$’ and the ‘$`h`$’ deformation parameters. Applying this transformation to the coloured $`q`$-plane (7), we obtain in the singular limit $`q1`$

(35)
$$[x_\lambda ,y_\mu ]=h(12\mu )y_\lambda y_\mu $$

i.e. the coloured $`h`$-plane corresponding to the coloured Jordanian quantum group $`GL_h^{\lambda ,\mu }(2)`$ . Again, for vanishing colour parameters, this reduces to the well-known $`h`$-plane $`[x,y]=hy^2`$ for the Jordanian quantum group $`GL_h(2)`$. While performing the above transformation, we also obtain a ‘hybrid’ standard-nonstandard quantum plane

(36)
$$x_\lambda y_\mu q^{1\lambda \mu }y_\mu x_\lambda =h[12\mu ]_qy_\lambda y_\mu =hq^{\mu \lambda }[12\mu ]_qy_\mu y_\lambda $$

which we call the ‘coloured $`(q,h)`$-plane’, where $`[x]_q=\frac{1q^x}{1q}`$ is the basic number from $`q`$-analysis.

## 6. Conclusions

We have presented the coloured quantum plane and the hyperplane covariant under the action of the coloured quantum group $`GL_q^{\lambda ,\mu }(2)`$. Generalising the Wess-Zumino formalism, we have also constructed a consistent differential calculus on the coloured quantum plane within the framework of noncommutative geometry. In addition, we have performed a contraction on the coloured $`q`$-plane to obtain the coloured $`h`$-plane corresponding to the Jordanian quantum group $`GL_h^{\lambda ,\mu }(2)`$. The results obtained are valid also for higher-dimensional and multiparametric coloured quantum planes.
Before closing, it is pertinent to comment on a few applications of this work. Firstly, the calculus developed here equips us with essential ingredients necessary to develop further the notion of coloured quantum spaces vis-a-vis coloured version of the $`q`$-deformed quantum mechanical phase space. Secondly, it would be useful to construct a differential calculus on the coloured $`h`$-plane which could possibly be obtained by contraction of the calculus on the coloured $`q`$-plane presented here, and to investigate the intermediate coloured $`(q,h)`$-planes. One could then build up a whole class of differential calculi on various different coloured quantum planes including the supersymmetric (graded) versions. The coloured Manin plane also forms interesting example of quantum homogeneous spaces , the geometric nature of which is currently being studied from several aspects.
Besides, it will be useful to investigate differential geometric structure on the underlying coloured Hopf algebras, which arose in the knot theoretic context. Also important to address are issues such as ring theoretic and quantum matrix theory aspects of coloured quantum groups. It would be of interest to explore further relation with the already well-known $`q`$-Heisenberg algebras, as well as the possibility of coloured generalisation of some new quantum groups  given recently.


text:
# Radio Confusion on Cluster Sunyaev-Zel’dovich Effect

## 1 Introduction

The cosmic microwave background radiation (CMBR) provides a light source for exploration of the structure formation history. Before the CMBR photons reach the present epoch, they interact with the hot diffuse ionized gas residing in the galaxy clusters over a wide range of redshifts. This process results in subtle changes to the CMBR spectrum due to the inverse Compton scattering, the so-called Sunyaev-Zel’dovich (SZ) effect (Sunyaev & Zel’dovich, 1972; see Birkinshaw 1999 and Carlstrom et al. 2000 for reviews). In the past two decades the detection of SZ effects has been reported at an increasing rate (Grego et al. 2000; Carlstrom et al. 2000; Joy et al. 2001; Grego et al. 2001) and this effect can therefore provide a realistic powerful probe for cosmological and cluster studies. Since the SZ flux is not affected by the distance but depends only on the intrinsic thermal energy of hot gases contained in the system, the SZ observation, in conjunction with observations of other wavelengths, such as X-ray emitted from intracluster gas, and optical weak lensing measurements, enables us to determine the cosmological parameters by studying the high redshift galaxy clusters. The SZ blank sky surveys have been suggested (Bartlett & Silk 1994; Barbosa et al. 1996). Several works follow (Bartlett 2000; Holder et al. 2000; da Silva et al. 2000; Kneissl et al. 2001; Fan & Chiueh 2001; Xue & Wu 2001), and have predicted how the SZ cluster counts can be related to cosmological parameters. In addition, several next generation interferometric arrays are either under construction or have been proposed, e.g., AMI (Kneissl et al. 2001), SZA (Carlstrom et al. 2001), and AMiBA (Lo et al. 2001).

Radio point sources or radio galaxies are usually found in the galaxy clusters. Therefore, the accuracy of the millimeter to centimeter wavelength observations of the SZ effect can be contaminated by the emission from radio sources (Loeb & Refregier 1997). Below 218 GHz, at which the thermal SZ effect becomes null, one measures the SZ intensity or flux decrement. The radio sources, however, produce excess emission so that one can underestimate the measured SZ decrement, yielding systematic errors in the estimate of cosmological parameters. This confusion has been estimated by Cooray et al. (1998, hereafter CGHJC), who observed toward Abell 2218 at 28.5 GHz and concluded that the correction to the Hubble constant is less than $`6\%`$. In addition to point sources, diffuse cluster radio sources, i.e. halos and relics, (e.g., Giovannini et al. 1993; Röttgering et al. 1997) also lead to confusion on the cluster SZ.

With the requirement of accurate SZ maps, the radio source subtraction becomes essential for the low brightness (order of 100 $`\mu `$Jy and mJy) SZ measurements. For this reason, recent SZ observations are performed in combination with the measurements of radio sources (CGHJC; Komatsu et al. 1999; Pointecouteau et al. 2001). While one may remove strong sources as they can be detected above the flux limit, the faint sources below the flux threshold blend with the SZ signal, and result in inaccuracy. However, there have not been systematic surveys on the radio sources in high redshift clusters nor systematic surveys at frequencies higher than 30 GHz. In fact, the high-frequency (e.g. 90 GHz) radio survey at the mJy flux limit is a formidable task, as the present telescopes are not sufficiently efficient in conducting an unbiased survey with a wide field coverage and high sensitivity. In view of the lack of reliable information for estimating the radio contamination on the SZ cluster surveys at high frequencies, such as AMiBA (90 GHz), we are motivated to derive an empirical high-frequency cluster radio luminosity function (CRLF) by synthesizing available low-frequency data (Ledlow & Owen 1996, hereafter LO96; Slee et al. 1996, hereafter SRA96, and CGHJC). Unfortunately, the spectral evolution of radio sources is rather uncertain. Due to the uncertainties of redshift evolution, it is reasonable, as a first attempt, to adopt a no-evolution hypothesis to evaluate the radio flux in high redshift clusters. In this paper we aim to calculate the expected confusion of high-frequency radio point sources on the cluster SZ effect over substantial redshift and cluster mass ranges. In section 2, we briefly review the formulation of the SZ flux. Section 3 predicts the high frequency cluster radio luminosity functions (CRLFs) based on low frequency surveys. The expected high frequency radio flux are calculated in section 4. Finally, the conclusion is given in section 5. Throughout this paper, we use $`H_0=65`$ km s-1 Mpc-1, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{M}=0.35`$, and $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }=0.65`$.

## 2 SZ Flux

One may evaluate the total SZ flux by the procedure as follows (see also Barbosa et al. 1996, Xue & Wu 2001). For the CMB radiation passing through the intracluster hot gas, the change in CMB intensity by thermal SZ effect is

$$\mathrm{}I_\nu =j_\nu (\mathrm{x})\left(\frac{\mathrm{kT}_\mathrm{e}}{\mathrm{m}_\mathrm{e}\mathrm{c}^2}\right)\sigma _\mathrm{T}\mathrm{n}_\mathrm{e}\mathrm{dl},$$
(1)
where $`m_\mathrm{e}`$ is the electron rest mass, $`n_\mathrm{e}`$ is the electron number density, $`T_\mathrm{e}`$ is the electron temperature, and $`\sigma _\mathrm{T}`$ is the Thomson cross section. $`j_\nu (x)`$ represents the spectral dependence

$$j_\nu (x)=2\frac{(kT_0)^3}{(h_\mathrm{p}c)^2}\frac{x^4e^x}{(e^x1)^2}\left[x\mathrm{coth}\left(\frac{x}{2}\right)4\right],$$
(2)
in which $`xh_\mathrm{p}\nu /kT_0`$ and $`T_0`$=2.728 K is the CMB temperature. For $`\nu =90`$ GHz, $`x`$ 1.58. The total SZ flux of a cluster at redshift $`z`$ is the integral of the intensity over the solid angle subtended by the cluster

$$S_\nu =\frac{j_\nu (x)}{D_\mathrm{A}^2(z)}\left(\frac{\sigma _\mathrm{T}}{m_\mathrm{e}c^2}\right)kT_\mathrm{e}n_\mathrm{e}𝑑V,$$
(3)
where $`D_\mathrm{A}`$ is the angular diameter distance to the cluster. If we assume the gas is isothermal, then the total SZ flux depends only on the electron number, which can be replaced by the gas mass of the cluster. Introduce the gas fraction $`f_\mathrm{b}=M_{\mathrm{gas}}/M_{\mathrm{vir}}`$, where $`M_{\mathrm{vir}}`$ is the virial mass of the cluster, then the equation above becomes

$$S_\nu =\frac{j_\nu (x)}{D_\mathrm{A}^2(z)}\left(\frac{kT_\mathrm{e}}{m_\mathrm{e}c^2}\right)\left(\frac{f_\mathrm{b}\sigma _\mathrm{T}}{\mu _\mathrm{e}m_\mathrm{p}}\right)M_{\mathrm{vir}},$$
(4)
where $`\mu _\mathrm{e}=2/(1+X)`$, and X=0.768 is the hydrogen mass fraction in the primordial abundances of hydrogen and helium.

Define $`R_{\mathrm{vir}}`$ as the radius of the cluster within which the mean density is $`\mathrm{\Delta }_\mathrm{c}`$ times the critical density of the universe $`\rho _\mathrm{c}`$ at a certain redshift, i.e., $`M_{\mathrm{vir}}=4\pi R_{vir}^3\rho _\mathrm{c}\mathrm{\Delta }_\mathrm{c}/3`$, then the relation between temperature and mass is (Bryan & Norman 1998)

$$kT_\mathrm{e}=1.39f_\mathrm{T}\left(\frac{M_{\mathrm{vir}}}{10^{15}M_{}}\right)^{2/3}\left[h^2\mathrm{\Delta }_\mathrm{c}E(z)^2\right]^{1/3}\text{keV},$$
(5)
where $`E(\mathrm{z})^2=\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{M}(1+\mathrm{z})^3+\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{K}(1+\mathrm{z})^2+\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }`$, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{K}=1\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{M}\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }`$, and the redshift-dependent Hubble constant $`H(z)=100hE(z)`$ km s-1 Mpc-1. $`f_\mathrm{T}`$ is a normalization factor obtained by numerical simulations and about 1. $`\mathrm{\Delta }_\mathrm{c}`$ is the density contrast of the virialized spherical halo to the critical density of the universe at that redshift, which can be fitted as (Eke et al. 1996) $`\mathrm{\Delta }_\mathrm{c}=18\pi ^2+82[\mathrm{\Omega }(z)1]39[\mathrm{\Omega }(z)1]^2`$ for $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{K}=0`$, where $`\mathrm{\Omega }(z)=\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{M}(1+z)^3/E^2(z)`$.

The gas fraction $`f_\mathrm{b}`$ varies with the cluster temperature by the empirical formula (Mohr et al. 1999)

$$f_{\mathrm{b},50}=(0.207\pm 0.011)\left(\frac{kT}{\text{6 keV}}\right)^{0.34\pm 0.22},$$
(6)
where the subscript $`50`$ denotes $`h=`$0.5. We may scale $`f_\mathrm{b}`$ by $`f_\mathrm{b}=f_{\mathrm{b},50}h_{50}^{1.5}`$ (White et al. 1993), and Eq.(4) and (6) will be used to compare with the radio flux calculated in the next section, so as to determine the radio confusion on the SZ flux. The reason for incorporating the temperature dependence of $`f_\mathrm{b}`$ is as follows. It is likely that preheating by supernovae and/or AGNs provides nongravitational heating to the intracluster gas, which makes the distribution of the hot gas extend to large radii (Wu et al. 1998, 2000). The effect is more significant in poor clusters than in rich ones because the former have a shallow gravitational potential, as evidenced by the steepening of the $`L_\mathrm{x}`$-$`T`$ relation (David et al. 1993; Wu et al. 1999) as well as the excess entropy in galaxy clusters (Ponman et al 1999).

## 3 CRLF and Radio Flux

To estimate the total flux of the radio galaxies in clusters, we adopt the CRLF given by LO96 (Paper VI). They did a series of surveys on a large sample of radio galaxies in Abell clusters using VLA, e.g., in Paper IV (Ledlow & Owen 1995a, hereafter LO95a), where the radio sample and cluster properties were presented; in Paper V (Ledlow & Owen 1995b), they did optical observation and investigated the optical properties toward their radio sample.

In LO96, the CRLF is for a complete sample of Abell clusters with $`z<0.09`$ and can be fitted by a continuous broken power law

$$\mathrm{log}f_{1.4}\mathrm{log}\frac{N_{\mathrm{radio}}(\mathrm{log}P_{1.4})}{N_{\mathrm{opt}}}=a+b\mathrm{log}P_{1.4},$$
(7)
in which $`N_{\mathrm{opt}}`$ represents the number of galaxies over all magnitudes brighter than $``$20.5 within 0.3 Abell radius of the cluster center and $`N_{\mathrm{radio}}(\mathrm{log}P_{1.4})`$ represents the number of radio galaxies which emit the radio power $`P_{1.4}`$ at 1.4 GHz. The coefficients $`b`$ and $`a`$ are fitted with the central values as $``$0.15 and 1.77 for $`P_{1.4}<10^{24.8}`$ WHz-1, and $``$1.43 and 33.67 for $`P_{1.4}>10^{24.8}`$ WHz-1, respectively.

We evaluate the predicted cluster radio luminosity functions at other frequencies, $`f_\nu `$, based on the 1.4 GHz survey by convoluting $`f_{1.4}`$ with the spectral index distribution $`n(\alpha )`$ as

$$\mathrm{log}f_\nu =(\mathrm{log}f_{1.4})n(\alpha )\delta \left[\mathrm{log}P_{1.4}\mathrm{log}P_\nu \alpha \mathrm{log}\left(\frac{\nu }{\text{1.4 GHz}}\right)\right]𝑑\alpha d\mathrm{log}P_{1.4},$$
(8)
where $`f_{1.4}`$ is the luminosity function given by Eq.(7). The spectral index distributions $`n(\alpha )`$ that we adopt are fitted by two Gaussians and normalized as

$$n(\alpha )=\{\begin{array}{cc}0.21e^{0.72(\alpha 1.14)^2}+1.06e^{11.0(\alpha 0.98)^2};\hfill & \text{SRA96 sample}\hfill \\ 0.95e^{8.33(\alpha 1.02)^2}+0.44e^{3.41(\alpha 0.57)^2};\hfill & \text{CGHJC sample}\hfill \end{array},$$
(9)
and are shown in Figure 1. The circles are from SRA96 and the crosses are from CGHJC. The two distributions are normalized to their total number of sources for comparison. The SRA96 sample contains 254 radio sources and its $`n(\alpha )`$ appears more regular than that of CGHJC sample, which contains 53 sources ($`\alpha `$ available) only in very massive clusters ($`M>10^{15}M_{}`$). Moreover, the spectral index in SRA96 sample is determined at lower frequencies ($`1.5`$ GHz $`<\nu <4.9`$ GHz), whereas CGHJC sample at higher frequencies ($`1.4`$ GHz $`<\nu <28.5`$ GHz). Despite these differences, the two $`n(\alpha )`$ do not differ much, at least in the main body of the distribution. We show in Figure 2 the predicted CRLFs using SRA96’s $`n(\alpha )`$ at $`\nu =28.5(1+z)`$ GHz, and $`90(1+z)`$ GHz for $`z`$=0.25, respectively. Note that the cosmological expansion has been considered, where the frequency of the predicted function has a redshift dependence $`\nu =\nu _0(1+z)`$, where $`\nu _0`$ is observed frequency. For simplicity in calculating the total flux, we fit the luminosity-weighted CRLFs by a broken power law,

$$\mathrm{log}(P_\nu f_\nu )=\{\begin{array}{cc}C_1(\nu )+\gamma _1(\nu )\mathrm{log}P_\nu ;\hfill & \mathrm{log}P<\mathrm{log}P_\mathrm{b}\hfill \\ C_2(\nu )+\gamma _2(\nu )\mathrm{log}P_\nu ;\hfill & \mathrm{log}P>\mathrm{log}P_\mathrm{b}\hfill \end{array},$$
(10)
where $`\mathrm{log}P_\mathrm{b}`$ is the break point of a continuous luminosity-weighted CRLF, and the fit coefficients are list in the Table 1. We see that both the break points of SRA96 and CGHJC vary slightly with frequency, and that the peak power of radio sources decreases with increasing frequency. But the fit coefficients from the two groups are not in good agreement, as shown below. This is due to that the sample of CGHJC has flatter spectra, and the resulting power is higher.

Assuming neither evolution effect on the spectral indices nor on the intrinsic brightness of radio sources, we obtain the best fit for the frequency dependence of these CRLFs coefficients,

$$\{\begin{array}{cc}C_1(\nu )=\hfill & 1.68+0.015\nu 2.1\times 10^5\nu ^2\hfill \\ \gamma _1(\nu )=\hfill & 0.850.0010\nu +1.91\times 10^6\nu ^2\hfill \\ C_2(\nu )=\hfill & 23.84+9.92e^{0.015\nu }\hfill \\ \gamma _2(\nu )=\hfill & 0.44e^{0.007\nu }2.9\times 10^4\nu \hfill \end{array};\text{SRA96’s }n(\alpha ),$$
(11)
and

$$\{\begin{array}{cc}C_1(\nu )=\hfill & 2.680.95e^{0.015\nu }\hfill \\ \gamma _1(\nu )=\hfill & 0.85e^{0.0027\nu }+1.49\times 10^3\nu \hfill \\ C_2(\nu )=\hfill & 30.42+3.29e^{0.025\nu }\hfill \\ \gamma _2(\nu )=\hfill & 0.43e^{0.0022\nu }6.14\times 10^4\nu \hfill \end{array};\text{CGHJC’s }n(\alpha ).$$
(12)
Figure 3 shows how the coefficients depend on frequencies and their best-fit curves. One may construct the CRLF of any redshift by interpolating the emitted frequency $`\nu `$, as $`\nu _0(1+z)`$, where $`\nu _0`$ is the observed frequency.

Taking an integral over the radio power range from $`10^{17}`$ to $`10^{26}`$ WHz-1 and multiplying it by the total number of cluster galaxies, we have the total radio power emitted from the radio galaxies within a single cluster

$$P_\nu ^{\mathrm{tot}}=N_{\mathrm{vir}}P_\nu f_\nu 𝑑P_\nu ,$$
(13)
where $`N_{\mathrm{vir}}`$ is the number of galaxies in a cluster of mass $`M_{\mathrm{vir}}`$. We estimate the total number of radio sources in a cluster by the mass-to-number relation for a given cluster mass $`M_{\mathrm{vir}}`$ (Carlberg et al. 1996). They use the CNOC Cluster Survey to derive the $`M_{\mathrm{vir}}/N_{\mathrm{gal}}`$ ratios using the sample with r-band absolute-magnitude limits from $`M_\mathrm{r}^\mathrm{K}=18.0`$ to $`20.0`$. To be consistent with $`N_{\mathrm{opt}}`$ in Eq.(7), which has the optical limiting magnitude at $``$20.5, we fit the mass-to-number relation derived by Carlberg et al. (1996), and extrapolate the limiting magnitude to $`M_\mathrm{r}^\mathrm{K}=20.5`$ to obtain $`M_{\mathrm{vir}}/N_{\mathrm{gal}}1.5\times 10^{13}h^1M_{}`$. For a given cluster mass $`M_{\mathrm{vir}}`$, we take this $`N_{\mathrm{gal}}`$ as the number of galaxies $`N_{\mathrm{vir}}`$ in Eq.(13).

To be compared with SZ flux, the total radio flux observed at frequency $`\nu _0`$ at redshift $`z`$ can be evaluated from the total power at frequency $`\nu `$ as

$$S_{\nu _0,\mathrm{obs}}=\frac{P_\nu ^{\mathrm{tot}}(1+z)}{4\pi D_\mathrm{L}^2(z)},$$
(14)
where $`D_\mathrm{L}(z)`$ is the luminosity distance to redshift $`z`$, $`D_\mathrm{L}(z)=(1+z)^2D_\mathrm{A}(z)`$, and radio sources are assumed to have no evolution. We combine Eq.(4) and Eq.(14) to determine the confusion.

## 4 Result

In Figure 4, we plot the total radio flux v.s. the virial mass of a galaxy cluster (or group) at redshift $`z`$=0.25, 0.5, and 1.0. The left panels are for the observed frequency 28.5 GHz (operated in SZA) and the right for 90 GHz (operated in AMiBA). The $`1\sigma `$ error bars result primarily from the variance of the predicted luminosity-weighted function $`P_\nu f_\nu `$, and are much larger than the observational errors of $`f_{1.4}`$ and $`n(\alpha )`$, which are neglected. These large error bars are due to the broad scattering of the distribution of the spectral index $`\alpha `$. As a consistency check, we compared our estimate flux at 28.5 GHz with the CGHJC sources in Figure 4, and at 1.4 GHz with the LO95a sources in Figure 5. The dash lines are our predicted mean flux, and the data points are the radio flux provided by LO95a. We have investigated the redshift and the X-ray temperature of their selected clusters (c.f. Ebeling et al. 1996, 1998) and converted the cluster temperature to the virial mass by Eq.(5) to obtain the coordinates of the data points in Figure 4 and 5. It shows that the total radio flux at 28.5 GHz of most but few clusters in their sample are consistent with our predictions within $`1\sigma `$. The same agreement is also found at 1.4 GHz. Since the measured clusters of CGHJC are massive, their sample may have some selection bias. It may result in asymmetry in their spectral index distribution $`n(\alpha )`$, leading to the predicted radio flux higher than those from SRA96, by almost a constant factor $`2.53`$ throughout all frequencies of interest. It is instructive to examine the averaged spectral index $`\alpha `$ derived from each individual $`n(\alpha )`$ given by SRA96 and by CGHJC. It is found that

$$\alpha \frac{\mathrm{ln}[(P_\nu f_\nu )d\mathrm{log}P_\nu \text{const.}]}{\mathrm{ln}\nu }=\{\begin{array}{cc}1.15;\hfill & \text{for SRA96}\hfill \\ 0.9;\hfill & \text{for CGHJC}\hfill \end{array}.$$
(15)
The $`\alpha `$ value for CGHJC is somewhat higher than that for SRA96, but is lower than the $`\alpha `$ value, $``$0.77, given by CGHJC based solely on their 53 sources. The flatter spectrum signifies the somewhat different radio sources in massive clusters from in average clusters.

The flux ratios v.s. the cluster mass are shown in Figure 6. Note that the SZ flux are represented in positive values. The flux ratio decreases with mass, since the SZ flux increases with $`M_{\mathrm{vir}}`$ faster than the radio flux does. The flux ratio also decreases with redshift under the presently adopted no-evolution hypothesis. Moreover, at $`\nu `$ 30 GHz, the radio flux are higher and the SZ flux are lower than those at 90 GHz, and therefore the flux ratios of the two frequencies differ by a large margin. In SZ surveys for cluster mass ranging from $`M2\times 10^{14}M_{}`$ to $`2\times 10^{15}M_{}`$, the radio contamination at 30 GHz should be a serious concern for small clusters even at $`z`$=1 ($`10\%`$), whereas the contamination for small clusters at 90 GHz is lower than $`10\%`$ even at $`z`$=0.25.

## 5 Conclusion

We study the CRLFs from 1.4 GHz to 180 GHz, based on the flux-limited 1.4 GHz observation in conjunction with studies of radio spectral index at higher frequencies. The lack of comprehensive radio spectra of galaxy clusters remains a problem for predicting the radio confusion on the cluster SZ effect. In our analysis, the cluster radio luminosity functions at high frequencies are obtained by converting the observed low-frequency ones with the observed spectral index distributions of radio sources. We obtain the frequency dependence of the CRLF from two spectral index studies. Assuming that CRLFs do not evolve, the redshift dependence of CRLFs can be derived as well. Based on this information, we calculate the total flux of radio point sources in a cluster for mass ranging from $`M=1\times 10^{14}M_{}`$ to $`5\times 10^{15}M_{}`$ at high frequencies and various redshifts. Apart from few exceptional clusters, our predictions agree with LO95a (at 1.4 GHz) and CGHJC (at 28.5 GHz) observations in a self-consistent manner.

We also give estimates of the confusion from radio point sources to the SZ flux. As demonstrated in Figure 6, the radio confusion to lower frequency ($`\nu 30`$ GHz) SZ measurements poses a severe problem for cluster of $`M10^{15}M_{}`$, whereas at higher frequency ($`\nu 90`$ GHz) the radio confusion causes less a problem even for small clusters ($`M10^{14}M_{}`$). For observed frequencies substantially lower than 30 GHz, such as 15 GHz proposed to be operated at AMI, one may use Eq.(15) to estimate the expected level of radio confusion. Take $`\alpha =1`$; the 15 GHz radio flux is twice higher but the SZ flux is 4 times weaker (due to the $`\nu ^2`$ Rayleigh-Jeans tail) than those in the 30 GHz observation, and the confusion flux ratio becomes 8 times higher than that of 30 GHz.

The estimate for the expected total confusion to a cluster of given virial mass can be translated to the expected loss of SZ signals, which results in reducing the cluster count and in turn affecting the inferred values of cosmological parameters. As has already been demonstrated, the amplitude of density fluctuations averaged over 8$`h^1`$ Mpc, $`\sigma _8`$, is most sensitive to the SZ cluster count (Fan & Chiueh 2001). The radio confusion thus yields a lower value of the inferred $`\sigma _8`$. Nevertheless, with the aid of a sensitive telescope for pointed observation, the radio confusion can partially be removed by subtraction, when the radio sources are sufficiently strong. However weak radio sources remain to be a problem as they are bound to blend into the SZ signals and cannot be subtracted away. The spectral-index distribution $`n(\alpha )`$ can in principle reveal the relative population of strong and weak sources at high frequencies. But this problem can be assessed in a different way. We have compared the observed radio flux of CGHJC (28.5 GHz) and LO95a (1.4 GHz) with the predicted total radio flux in Figure 4 and 5, and the data show large scatters around the expected flux. It suggests that many sources are weak and can be difficult to get removed by subtraction. Therefore, a good SZ observing strategy is probably to set the SZ flux limit substantially higher than the expected flux of radio sources in a cluster. For 90 GHz observations, a mJy flux limit is adequate for this purpose.

This work was supported in part by NSC 90-2112-M-002-026 from the National Science Council, R.O.C. and by the National Science Foundation of China.


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# Dwarf Nova Oscillations and Quasi-Periodic Oscillations in Cataclysmic Variables: I. Observations of VW Hyi

## 1 Introduction

Dwarf nova oscillations (DNOs) were first discovered in outbursts of the dwarf novae CN Ori and Z Cam, and in the nova-like variable UX UMa (Warner & Robinson 1972). They have since been observed in about 15 dwarf novae and 4 nova-likes (see Table 8.2 of Warner 1995a). The DNOs are low amplitude, moderately coherent luminosity variations with periods in the range of 5–40 s. In the same kinds of cataclysmic variable (CV) stars there are also occasionally luminosity modulations of longer period ($``$50–1000 s) and poor coherence, known as quasi-period oscillations (QPOs), first discussed by Patterson, Robinson & Nather (1977).

A variety of statistical analyses and physical models have been produced for the DNOs and QPOs (see review by Warner 1995a), but no generally accepted model yet exists. Although there has been significant progress, at least in restricting possible models, by observations made in the far ultraviolet, it is still the case that further informative observations are to be encouraged. Here we present new and archival observations of VW Hyi, and discuss their implications. But first, in Sections 2 and 3, we review the status quo of observations and interpretations of DNOs and QPOs. In Section 4 we present and analyse the observations of VW Hyi. In a subsequent paper (Warner & Woudt 2002, hereafter Paper II), we develop a model to explain these observations, and apply it to other systems.

## 2 DNO Phenomenology

In the optical, DNOs are low amplitude, usually sinusoidal modulations in brightness of moderate stability (‘Q’ factors = $`\dot{P}^1`$ of 104–106). Although not present in all dwarf nova outbursts, when they are observable they usually appear about midway up the rising branch of outburst and disappear at a comparable brightness on the descending branch. Their coherence is maximal at the brightest phase of outburst; on the descending branch they become less coherent and difficult to detect above the noise in the Fourier transforms.

There is a very strong correlation between oscillation period $`P`$ and system brightness (Warner & Robinson 1972), such that $`P`$ passes through a minimum about one day after visual maximum, which is when the EUV luminosity reaches maximum (Mauche 1996a,b). At this time, the rate of mass transfer $`\dot{M}`$ in the inner disc (and onto the white dwarf primary) reaches its maximum (Cannizzo 1993). Both the short periods of the DNOs and their correlation with $`\dot{M}`$ in the inner disc show that they have their origin near the surface of the primary (Warner 1995b).

The amplitude and phase changes of the optical DNOs observed during eclipses show that in the optical the entire disc is in some manner involved. This is interpreted as implying that modulated high energy radiation from the central regions of the disc is reprocessed by the whole disc. The phase variations can be understood only by an anisotropic radiation pattern revolving at the period of the DNOs (Warner 1987); this limits physical models to bright regions revolving on the surface of the primary or in the inner disc.

Optical DNOs in some nova-like variables are intermittently present (e.g. in UX UMa, HL Aqr, V3885 Sgr), with periods that wander slowly over ranges of a few seconds (Warner & Nather 1972; Knigge et al. 1998). DNOs are, however, not ubiquitous: despite intensive observation none have been detected in RW Sex, nor in some other less well-observed nova-likes.

DNOs have been observed in the soft X-ray region of SS Cyg, VW Hyi, SU UMa and HT Cas during outbursts (see Warner 1995a for references; and van Teeseling 1997), in the EUV of SS Cyg (Mauche 1996a,b, 1998) and in the UV of UX UMa and OY Car with the use of HST (Knigge et al. 1998; Marsh & Horne 1998). In general the oscillations are monoperiodic and sinusoidal; recently noted exceptions are OY Car where two periodicities are observed, one of which has a strong harmonic (Marsh & Horne 1998), SS Cyg where a low amplitude first harmonic is seen (Mauche 1997) and V2051 Oph where two periods and a harmonic are seen (Steeghs et al. 2001). At times, the soft X-ray modulations can be as large as 100%.

The temporal behaviour of DNOs, as observed both in optical and X-rays, has features which constrict possible models. In dwarf nova outbursts, superposed on the luminosity-related systematic changes in $`P`$ are intervals of 1–2 h during which a constant period (with some phase noise) exists, followed by an abrupt change to another stable period. This behaviour is well illustrated in Fig. 13 of Warner, O’Donoghue & Wargau (1989), Fig. 6 of Cordova et al. (1980) and Fig. 11 of Jones & Watson (1992). As pointed out by Warner (1995b), these abrupt changes (occurring within 100 s) are not accompanied by any noticeable increase or decrease of luminosity and therefore cannot be ascribed to a change in rotation period of any substantial ($`10^{12}`$ M) mass. The SS Cyg X-ray observations show jumps of up to 0.07 s (Jones & Watson 1992); those of VW Hyi showed $`P`$ changing abruptly from 14.34 to 14.26 s (van der Woerd et al. 1987); the abrupt changes of the $``$25 s oscillations in TY PsA near outburst maximum are of $``$0.15 s relative to the slow secular change in $`P`$ (Warner et al. 1989). DNOs alternating between 11.58 and 11.66 s have been seen in RU Peg in outburst (Patterson et al. 1977).

Marsh & Horne (1998) have found DNOs in OY Car towards the end of a superoutburst. Their HST observations show two periods near 18 s simultaneously present in the UV with a separation of 0.22 s. Although a rare occurrence, such pairs of periodicities have been seen before in optical DNOs. We note in particular that periods of 29.08 and 30.15 s were found in the nova-like V3885 Sgr (Hesser, Lasker & Osmer 1974), but the former is normally the only (if any) period present (Warner 1973); evidence for 26.42 and 26.73 s oscillations simultaneously present in KT Per during outburst is given by Robinson (1973); and the dwarf nova WZ Sge in quiesence shows 27.87 and 28.97 s periodicities, sometimes together and at other times separately (Robinson, Nather & Patterson 1978). Recently Steeghs et al. (2001) found 59.54 s, 29.77 s and 28.06 s oscillations in the optical continuum of V2051 Oph on the decline from a normal outburst.

There is no clear evidence for the presence of more than two periodicities at a given time: some early claims (Warner & Robinson 1972) were later shown to be due to interference effects in the periodograms of signals with systematically changing periods (Warner & Brickhill 1978).

Finally, we note the perplexing optical behaviour of VW Hyi near the end of its outbursts where in one instance a 30 s DNO was observed to be modulated in amplitude by a QPO at a period of 413 s (Warner & Brickhill 1978) and on another occasion a 23.6 s DNO was modulated at 253 s (Robinson & Warner 1984). This cannot be simply a beat phenomenon between DNO periods separated by $``$2.2 s because the average (background) brightness is also modulated at the longer QPO period. This will become clearer below when we present the latest observations of VW Hyi.

## 3 QPO Phenomenology

QPOs in cataclysmic variables (see the compilation in Table 8.2 of Warner 1995a) can have a life of their own, independent of the DNOs. For example, QPOs with periods of $``$75 s and $``$150 s have been observed in U Gem (Robinson & Nather 1979) for which no optical DNOs have ever been detected. DNOs and QPOs are sometimes present at different times in the same outburst, e.g. TY PsA (Warner et al. 1989). However, the amplitude modulation of the DNOs in VW Hyi at the QPO period shows that some interaction between the two processes can occur.

The QPO amplitudes are usually only a few $`\times `$ 0.01 mag, but larger ranges have occasionally been seen. For example, the 413 s QPO in VW Hyi in its November 1974 outburst had a range of up to 0.12 mag (Warner & Brickhill 1978). Similarly large QPOs with a period of 370 s have been observed in SW UMa (Kato, Hirata & Mineshige 1992); these comprise a nearly sinusoidal variation of range 0.075 mag with an additional narrow dip of depth 0.05 mag. The superoutburst of T Crv in February 2001 also showed QPOs, with period $``$600 s and range 0.1 mag (VSNET 21 Feb 2001). We show below some QPOs in VW Hyi in which individual oscillations have a range of $``$0.4 mag.

The QPOs generally have average periods of 5 to 15 times the DNO periods in those stars where they occur simultaneously. This statement becomes more strongly based if it is noted that many of the shorter period ($`40`$ s) QPOs (Table 8.2 of Warner 1995a) should probably be reclassified as DNOs of low coherence.

Although QPOs are seen to change in (mean) period in a given object, unlike the DNOs no clear period-luminosity relationship has yet been deduced. Our new observations of VW Hyi provide the first evidence for such a relationship.

QPOs are rarely visible at high energies: four distinct possibilities are of 12% amplitude at 585 s in U Gem (Cordova & Mason 1984), of very low amplitude at 83 s in SS Cyg (Mauche 1997), of 2240 s in OY Car just after an outburst (Ramsay et al. 2001) and a modulation increasing in period from 63 s to 68 s and in amplitude from 14% to 21% in VW Hyi (van der Woerd et al. 1987). Wheatley et al. (1996) observed flux variations of large amplitude and time scale $``$500 s in Ginga (2-10 keV) X-ray observations of VW Hyi made at the end of outburst. As this is the place in the light curve where we see optical QPOs in VW Hyi, it is extremely probable that the X-ray observations are a different manifestation of the same phenomenon. We return to this later. Other possible X-ray QPOs are 290 s in AB Dra on the rise to outburst, 121 and 135 s in U Gem at quiescence and 254 s in the nova-like RW Sex (Cordova & Mason 1984).

It is possible that there is more than one cause for the QPOs. For example, it has been noted that the longest QPOs have periods close to the expected rotation periods at the outer edges of the accretion discs in CVs (Warner 1995a), and Lasota, Kuulkers & Charles (1999) have suggested a model for one of the DNOs in WZ Sge which uses a plasma blob at the disc rim. Nevertheless, it is also possible that all QPOs are caused by oscillations in the inner accretion disc. Perturbation analyses of such discs by Carroll et al. (1985), Lubow & Pringle (1993), and Collins, Helfer & van Horn (2000) show the possibility of a wide spectrum of non-radial oscillations, analogous to p-mode and g-mode oscillations in stars. The brightness oscillations are usually ascribed to intrinsic luminosity variations in the disc itself, but we point out in Paper II that they may also be caused by variation of intercepted radiation from the central high luminosity region of the disc, if there are vertical oscillations in thickness of some disc annuli.

## 4 Photometric Observations of VW Hyi

The dwarf nova VW Hyi is a rich source of short period luminosity modulations. It is the CV in which DNOs were first directly observable in the light curve (Warner & Harwood 1973) (rather than only in the Fourier transform). Unlike most dwarf novae, the optical DNOs in VW Hyi appear most conspicuously in the final stage of decline from an outburst (they could be present at a similar brightness at the start of an outburst, but no high time resolution photometry has been made that early) and follow a period-luminosity correlation over the range 20–36 s (Warner & Brickhill 1974, 1978; Robinson & Warner 1984; Haefner, Schoembs & Vogt 1979; Schoembs & Vogt 1980).

### 4.1 Evolution of DNOs and QPOs in VW Hyi

At the end of the November 1974 normal outburst and of the January 1978 normal outburst the QPO modulated DNOs already mentioned above were observed (Warner & Brickhill 1978, hereafter WB; Robinson & Warner 1984, hereafter RW). This behaviour has remained unique to VW Hyi, and is clearly of potential value in understanding both QPOs and DNOs. We now report a third and even more significant observation of this phenomenon, which has led us to reanalyse other observations made over the past three decades.

VW Hyi was observed on 5 February 2000 with the University of Cape Town CCD photometer attached to the 40 inch reflector at the Sutherland site of the South African Astronomical Observatory. 3 s integrations in white light were used, with a run length of 5h 16m, starting at 18h 40m UT. A low time resolution light curve, corrected for atmospheric extinction, is shown in Fig. 1. VW Hyi was in the final stages of decline from a normal outburst which had commenced on 3 February 2000. It was quickly apparent that in the light curve VW Hyi had DNOs with a period of 28 s (see the inset of Fig. 1) and that these were partly modulated in amplitude with a period near 450 s, thus producing only the third clear example of such behaviour to be captured in nearly thirty years of sporadic photometry.

The general form of the light curve is shown in Fig. 1 and is typical of the final decay phase of a dwarf nova outburst. There was a fall of 0.45 mag during the run; the prominent large humps are the orbital modulation (arising from differing aspects of a bright spot) beginning to be seen against the fading background of the disc. A light curve of one orbit duration obtained on the following night has a hump of approximately the same amplitude (on an intensity scale) as in Fig. 1, showing that there were no large changes in mass transfer rate from the secondary in the late stages of this normal outburst. Eliminating the orbital humps, VW Hyi was fading at 0.09 mag h-1 on our photometric system.

Also prominent in Fig. 1 are modulations with a time scale $``$7 min which are present throughout, riding happily over the orbital humps and maintaining a peak-to-peak range of $``$0.10 mag. These represent an approximately constant modulated fraction of the declining luminosity (if Fig. 1 is plotted on an intensity scale the $``$7 min modulation increases in amplitude by a factor of 2 through the run).

To illustrate more clearly the $``$7 min modulation, which is an example of a QPO, in Fig. 2 we have removed the mean, first order trend and orbital hump (represented by a sine wave and first harmonic at the orbital period) from the light curve and have plotted mean brightnesses averaged over 10 integration bins (i.e. 30 s), which concomitantly smooths over the $``$30 s DNOs described below. Fourier analysis of contiguous sections of the light curve shows that the mean period of the QPOs increases from $``$400 s to $``$600 s during the run. This variation is displayed in Fig. 3, and is the first clear example of a systematic dependence of QPO period on luminosity. However, the QPO period of the final section is omitted because it has halved. The average pulse shapes are shown in Fig. 4. In the penultimate section some first harmonic is visible; in the final section it has become almost entirely first harmonic.

In two of the three previously published studies of VW Hyi at the late phase of its outbursts (the November 1974 outburst: WB, and the January 1978 outburst: RW) the mean brightness (interpolated under the orbital humps) was nearly constant and the QPO periods averaged 413 s and 253 s respectively with no detectable systematic variations during the runs (which had durations of 4.91 h and 3.60 h respectively). The background-subtracted and binned light curves, showing the QPOs, are incorporated into Fig. 2. The mean amplitudes (half peak-to-peak) of the QPOs in those runs were $``$0.03 mag and $``$0.02 mag respectively. In our observations of the February 2000 outburst the mean amplitude is $``$0.02 mag. In all three cases individual cycles can have amplitudes from nearly zero to two or three times the average.

A third study (Warner & Brickhill 1974) was of VW Hyi at the end of a superoutburst and showed DNOs rapidly increasing in period. We have reanalysed the run and have incorporated the DNO evolution in Fig. 3. We also find low amplitude QPOs, not recognised in the earlier study. After the superoutburst the DNOs lengthen in period more slowly than after the normal outburst. The ratio of periods $`P_{QPO}/P_{DNO}`$ is nearly constant at $`15`$ in both runs.

### 4.2 DNOs and QPOs in VW Hyi: the overall picture

Stimulated by the newly recognised evolution of the DNOs and QPOs we decided to reinvestigate our archive of VW Hyi observations and to make new observations. In order to place each run in its respective position in the outburst we constructed a grand mean light curve. It has long been known that the decay parts of normal outbursts of a dwarf nova are very similar to each other (e.g. Bailey 1975), and alignments of superoutbursts of VW Hyi according to the final rise to supermaximum result in nearly identical outburst profiles (Marino & Walker 1979). Because we are interested here largely in the decay portion only, we have aligned these using a data file for the years 1969 – 2000 kindly made available by the Royal Astronomical Society of New Zealand. In performing this analysis we found that normal and superoutburst declines closely follow the same profile. We also found, incidentally, that the normal outbursts can be classified into three discrete groups, of different durations. Smak (1985) found correlations of outburst widths with outburst intervals, but not that outburst widths show signs of preference for certain values.

Fig. 5 shows the final ‘template’ which we used to define where our individual runs are positioned. The principal portion of the decay is identical independent of the type of outburst. The profiles near maximum, and the final decays and brightnesses at quiescence, show small differences. The zero of the time scale is an arbitrarily chosen point.

#### 4.2.1 The DNOs

In the process of analysing the runs we discovered previously overlooked features. Table 1 lists the runs which had significant results – including absence of DNOs (our upper limit on the DNO amplitude corresponds approximately to 3$`\sigma `$ significance) during outburst. We have omitted many of the runs made during quiescence which showed neither DNOs nor QPOs.

The first notable result is the presence of a DNO with period 14.06 s in the run made on 19 December 1982, on the plateau of a superoutburst at V $``$ 9.5, 9 days after the rise to maximum. Interestingly, it is at precisely the same period as that seen in the soft X-rays at V = 9.4 in the November 1983 superoutburst of VW Hyi (van der Woerd et al. 1987), which will be discussed in Section 3 of Paper II. Schoembs & Vogt (1980) found a 33.9 s DNO in the superoutburst of VW Hyi of 27 October 1978, also at V $``$ 9.5. This perplexed us at first, until we noticed that their time resolution was 10 s, which would place a 14 s period above the Nyquist frequency – but the beat period between 10 s and 33.9 s is 14.18 s, so there evidently was a 14.18 s DNO which appeared as a beat at considerably reduced amplitude. We also found a DNO at 14.29 s present for a short time in the superoutburst of 26 October 1984. The optical and X-ray coverage of VW Hyi has been quite extensive, so we conclude that these very stable 14 s DNOs are rare and of short duration.

Our Fourier transform for 19 December 1982 is shown in Fig. 6, in which the spike at 14.06 s is very narrow, denoting a stable period over the $``$2 h run. There is no significant power at the subharmonic or the first harmonic. In Fig. 7 we show O–C and amplitude variations, relative to a constant period of 14.06 s. Although there are slow variations in phase, these are limited in range and show none of the sudden jumps in period discussed below. This is the most stable DNO that we have observed in VW Hyi. The amplitude ($``$0.001 mag) is very low and would not be detected if the signal were much less stable. It is possible, therefore, that $``$14 s modulation is commonly present at maximum light but not detectable with common Fourier techniques.

There is a suggestion of sinusoidal variation of O–C in Fig. 7 with a period near the orbital period. The phasing relative to the position of the white dwarf in its orbit is in rough agreement with what might be expected of a light travel time effect, but the expected O–C range of $`2aq\mathrm{sin}i/c(1+q)`$, where $`q0.19`$ is the mass ratio, is only $``$0.032 P, whereas we see a range of $``$0.2 P. The O–C variations must therefore be ascribed to small intrinsic variations in DNO period over the 2 h run.

We also found three other examples of DNOs at periods (18 – 22 s), shorter than any hitherto recorded in optical observations.

In Fig. 8 we show the evolution of DNO periods through decline of outburst, based on the data in Table 1 and in Section 4.1. We have included the X-ray period (van der Woerd et al. 1987) and Schoembs & Vogt’s (1980) beat period in this diagram. For V $``$ 12.5 there is a clear correlation between brightness and period, similar to what is commonly seen in dwarf nova outbursts. The slope of this relationship is $`\alpha =\mathrm{d}\mathrm{log}P/\mathrm{d}\mathrm{log}L_{opt}0.15`$, which is just within the range $`\alpha =0.25\pm 0.1`$ seen in other systems (Warner 1995a). However, as VW Hyi fades through V = 12.5 the rapid increase in period illustrated in Fig. 3 takes over and the slope steepens to at least $`\alpha 2`$ when $`P`$ has increased to 40 s. We have not yet caught the end of this short-lived phase. Subsequently, shorter periods ($``$22 – 35 s) are seen, but whether there is a frequency doubling, and whether different outbursts behave differently, we do not have sufficient data to judge. At this stage of outburst (the final approach to quiescence) the DNOs are very incoherent.

Our observations provide the frequency histogram shown in Fig. 9, which displays the fractional success rate for detection of DNOs on the decline of the outburst. In the range $`12.5\mathrm{V}13.3`$ DNOs are almost always present. Earlier and later in outbursts their occurence falls away rapidly.

The DNOs present in the February 2000 light curve present the highest signal-to-noise and longest data train available to us. The detailed evolution of these DNOs is shown in Fig. 10 in which the upper and the lower panels show O–C curves, of $``$4 cycles of DNO with 75% overlap, relative to constants periods of 28.0 s and 33.0 s respectively for the first and last halves of the run. The central panel illustrates the central 50 percent, calculated with respect to a 30.5 s period. A few very uncertain points (because of small oscillation amplitude) have been omitted.

The quasi-cyclical variations of O–C that are readily visible in the central section of each panel are present throughout the run, and may be detected in the compression and rarefaction of points along the curves. These variations often correlate with QPO modulations and are described in Section 4.2.3. There are also, in this run as in most of our DNO observations, abrupt changes of period and occasional abrupt phase shifts. We illustrate in Fig. 11 some examples of these discontinuities, which are of the same kind as already mentioned for other CVs in Section 2. There are abrupt period changes at times 0.4645 and 0.4810, and phase discontinuities at 0.4690 and 0.4780. After 0.4810 the change in period is so large that the O–C values run off the top of the panel and ‘wrap around’. The O–C variations in this example do not correlate with the general brightness changes.

#### 4.2.2 The QPOs

A few runs have QPOs of large amplitude. These are listed in Table 1 and two average profiles are shown in Fig. 13. Although these QPOs are obvious in the light curves, their presence in VW Hyi (and, by implication, in the light curves of other CVs) has previously been ascribed to slow flickering. The most extreme examples are shown in the upper panel of Fig. 12, which shows the second run on VW Hyi made by the senior author at a time when QPOs had yet to be identified by Patterson et al. (1977), and which was used merely as part of the series of runs which first disclosed orbital modulation in VW Hyi (Warner 1975). The coherence of the apparent large flares and dips in the upper panel of Fig. 12 can be judged from the mean light curve (the lower profile) given in Fig. 13.

The question of coherence is an important one. By their very nature, QPOs of short coherence are difficult to detect in the Fourier transform. Fig. 14 shows the details of the 71 min of light curve obtained on 23 September 1984 near the end of a normal outburst. The QPO maxima, spaced 300 s apart, are shown by vertical bars. We can interpret the evolution of the QPO in this light curve as the growth and decay of a QPO (indicated by single vertical bars) over about 5 cycles, followed by growth and decay over 4 - 6 cycles of another QPO (double bars) of similar period, but phase shifted relative to the first QPO by $``$0.4 cycle. Such a phase shift leads to spread of power and lowering of peak amplitude in the Fourier transform.

A characteristic of large QPOs is that at their minima they drag the intensity well below the smooth lower envelope of the light curve.

We illustrate in the lower part of Fig. 12 another light curve, obtained near the end of a normal outburst, in which the QPO phenomenon is very strong as judged by the dips and flares. The Fourier transform of this light curve, Fig. 15, shows the fundamental, first and second harmonics of a period near 2100 s, which account for the repetitive narrow dips marked in Fig. 12. The predicted times of orbital hump maxima are shown in the light curve of 6 November 1990, the first predicted hump is absent and the third is of low amplitude. Rapid changes in hump size were also seen by WB and imply large variations of rate of mass transfer from the secondary at the end of outburst, perhaps the result of searching for stability after enduring a slightly increased rate through the effect of irradiation during the outburst.

The final entries in Table 1 list seven light curves in which, in the light of the experience of analysing QPOs in outburst, we see or suspect QPOs in VW Hyi at quiescence. This is the first claim of the presence of QPOs in quiescent light curves of a dwarf nova. We illustrate one of these light curves in Fig. 16, and its Fourier transform in Fig. 17. There is a QPO with a period near 600 s which is strong in the first half of the run but decreases in amplitude during the latter half. The average profiles of the QPO for the first and second halves are included in Fig. 16. There is some power at the first harmonic of the QPO, which shows in the departure from sinusoidality of these mean profiles.

#### 4.2.3 The interaction of DNOs and QPOs

Of greater interpretative value are the presence of what we will call QPO sidebands. Fig. 18 shows the power spectrum of the first 45 minutes of the light curve obtained on 3 November 1974. The DNO at 28.77 s has a companion at 31.16 s and there is a peak very close to half the period of the latter, giving physical authenticity to what might otherwise have been dismissed as a noise spike. The difference frequency of the two DNOs is very close to that of the 349 s QPO present in the light curve at that time. The sinusoidal profile of the 28.77 s signal, and the departure from sinusoidality of its companion (confirming the reality of the harmonic) are shown in Fig. 19. Clearly the 31.16 s signal is caused by interaction with the QPO signal – but is not due to amplitude modulation otherwise there would be two sidebands of equal amplitude. The effect is similar to the orbital sideband in intermediate polars (e.g. Warner 1986), where the lower frequency signal arises from reprocessing of a rotating beam (from the primary) periodically illuminating the secondary or bright spot region, which makes “QPO sideband” an appropriate description. In Paper II we suggest that the QPO sideband arises from a progradely rotating ‘wall’ in the inner disc.

These signals are only clearly present in the first part of the light curve. From an O–C analysis we find that at this time the DNOs show only relatively small jumps in period or phase, which is what allows the Fourier transform process to detect the signals easily. It is possible that in the remainder of this run, and in other similar runs, the QPO sideband and/or its harmonic may be physically present, but do not stay still long enough to be captured by our analysis techniques.

In the earlier studies by WB and RW examples were given of the amplitudes of the DNOs being modulated at the QPO period. We have found several further examples of this, though it is rare to find both oscillations of sufficient amplitude for this to be readily visible. There are also examples where the DNO amplitude is unaffected by the QPO modulation.

The examples are too numerous to show in their entirety, but reference to Fig. 14 illustrates some of these points. Some of the QPO maxima have large DNO amplitude associated with them – in a way that indicates the growth and decay of DNO amplitude over the QPO maximum. Other QPO maxima have DNOs of low amplitude. DNOs of large amplitude can be seen midway between the fourth and fifth QPO maxima. DNOs of nearly constant amplitude through a QPO cycle can be seen in the inset to Fig. 1.

To expand on these examples, and those given in WB and RW, we show detailed analyses in Figs. 20 and 21. Fig. 20 shows a positive correlation between DNOs and QPOs, in the sense that the DNOs have maximum amplitude at the peaks of the QPOs. During this run the DNO phases appear largely independent of the amplitude variations. In Fig. 21 the DNO amplitudes appear relatively uncorrelated with the large QPO modulation, but there is an overall anticorrelation between DNO phase and QPO. It is certainly noticeable that the time scale of the modulations of DNO phase is similar to that of the QPO variations.

## 5 Concluding Remarks

This study was stimulated by the lightcurve of VW Hyi at the end of outburst, obtained in February 2000 (Fig. 1). At first sight this light curve looks typical of the flickering seen in a CV late in outburst. But closer inspection shows that there is almost no flickering present – the light curve is made up of an orbital modulation plus variable amplitude DNOs and QPOs. The evolution of the DNO and QPO periods in this light curve has assisted in selection among the various models of DNOs and QPOs that have been proposed. It is evident that QPOs are more common than realised – their short coherence time results in a broad and noisy signal in the Fourier transform, where (as originally pointed out by Patterson et al. 1977), they are easily overlooked even though they may be obvious to the eye in the light curve. There is a need for an operational definition of QPOs, which can be applied objectively to the light curves of CVs.

## Acknowledgments

We thank the American Association of Variable Star Observers and the Royal Astronomical Society of New Zealand, specifically and respectively Janet Mattei and Frank Bateson, for supplying magnitudes of VW Hyi from their archives. We thank also Darragh O’Donoghue for the use of his EAGLE program. Many observers have contributed to the VW Hyi archive, in particular, and at our request, Gerald Handler. BW’s research is supported by funds from the Research Committee of the University of Cape Town, but not by the National Research Foundation. Financial support for PAW comes from strategic funds made available to BW by the University of Cape Town.