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# New Era in Likelihood Analyses of the Local Group Acceleration

## 1. Introduction

Comparisons between the CMB dipole and the Local Group (LG) gravitational acceleration can serve not only as a test for the kinematic origin of the former but also as a constraint on cosmological parameters. A commonly applied method of constraining the parameters by the LG velocity–gravity comparison is a maximum-likelihood analysis (Strauss et al. 1992, hereafter S92). In such an analysis, a proper object describing nonlinear effects is the coherence function (CF),

$$C(𝐤)=\frac{𝐠_𝐤𝐯_𝐤^{}}{|𝐠_𝐤|^2^{1/2}|𝐯_𝐤|^2^{1/2}},$$
(1)
where $`𝐠_𝐤`$ and $`𝐯_𝐤`$ are the Fourier components of the gravity and velocity fields, and $`\mathrm{}`$ means the ensemble averaging.

## 2. Results of numerical simulations

We model cold dark matter as a pressureless fluid. We chose to use a grid-based code rather than a $`N`$-body code because it directly produces a volume-weighted velocity field, as required here.

We checked that the CF depends on $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m`$ very weakly. Next, we tested its dependence on the normalization of the power spectrum. We found that the dependence of the function on $`\sigma _8`$ and the wavevector can be well modelled as

$$C(k)=\mathrm{exp}(ak),$$
(2)
where

$$a=\{\begin{array}{cc}0.757\sigma _8^2\hfill & \text{for }\sigma _80.3,\hfill \\ 0.059+0.423\sigma _8\hfill & \text{for }0.3<\sigma _81.0.\hfill \end{array}$$
(3)
In the left panel of Figure 1 we show the CF for the values of $`\sigma _8`$ given by the cluster normalization, for flat models with $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m=1`$ and $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m=0.3`$, respectively. Dotted lines show the function from numerical simulations, while solid ones are our fits. The fits are good; we checked that for other values of $`\sigma _8`$ they are as good as those shown here.

The CF has been modelled by S92, who calibrated it so as to fit the results of N-body simulations of a standard CDM cosmology. In the right panel of Figure 1 we show S92’s prediction for the function, as well as our results, for the standard CDM power spectrum and $`\sigma _8`$ normalization of S92 ($`0.625`$). The discrepancy of our results with the formula of S92 is drastic! Instead of a characteristic decoherence scale of $`4.5`$ $`h^1\text{Mpc}`$ (S92), our formula suggests a fraction of a megaparsec.

Greater coherence of the LG velocity with the LG gravity implies tighter constraints on cosmological parameters that can be obtained from their comparison. Thus, in likelihood analyses of the LG acceleration, the value of $`\beta `$ can be determined with significantly greater precision than is currently believed.

## References

Strauss M.A., Yahil A., Davis M., Huchra J.P., Fisher K., 1992, ApJ, 397, 395 (S92)


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# Scaling behavior of the order parameter and its conjugated field in an absorbing phase transition around the upper critical dimension

## I Introduction

Recently Rossi et at. introduced a conserved lattice gas (CLG) with a stochastic short range interaction that exhibits a continuous phase transition from an active state to an absorbing non-active state at a critical value of the particle density Rossi et al. (2000). The CLG model is expected to belong to a new universality class of absorbing phase transitions characterized by a conserved field. Similar to the well known universality hypothesis of directed percolation H. K. Janssen (1981); Grassberger (1982) the authors conjectured that ”all stochastic models with an infinite number of absorbing states in which the order parameter evolution is coupled to a nondiffusive conserved field define a unique universality class” Rossi et al. (2000). In order to check this hypothesis the scaling behavior, i.e. the values of the corresponding critical exponents, has to be determined. The order parameter exponent as well as the exponent of the order parameter fluctuations were determined in Lübeck (2001). Furthermore a modified CLG model with random particle hopping was introduced in Lübeck and Hucht (2001) which mimics the mean-field scaling behavior of the system.

In this work we investigated for the first time the CLG model in an external field. The external field is conjugated to the order parameter, i.e. it is realized as a spontaneous creation of active particles. Of course a spontaneous creation of active particles destroys the absorbing state and thus the absorbing phase transition at all. But analogous to ferromagnetic phase transitions the order parameter can be described as a generalized homogeneous function of the control parameter and of the conjugated field in the critical regime. This scaling behavior is examined below ($`D=2,3`$), above ($`D=5`$), and at the so-called upper critical dimension ($`D=4`$).

## II Model and scaling behavior

We consider the CLG model on $`D`$-dimensional cubic lattices of linear size $`L`$. Initially one distributes randomly $`N=\rho L`$ particles on the system where $`\rho `$ denotes the particle density. In order to mimic a repulsive interaction a given particle is considered as active if at least one of its $`2D`$ neighboring sites on the cubic lattice is occupied by another particle. If all neighboring sites are empty the particle remains inactive. Active particles are moved in the next update step to one of their empty nearest neighbor sites, selected at random. In the steady state, the system is characterized by the density of active sites $`\rho _\text{a}`$. The density $`\rho _\text{a}`$ is the order parameter of the absorbing phase transition, i.e., it vanishes if the control parameter $`\rho `$ is lower than the critical value $`\rho _\text{c}`$. In the thermodynamic limit the order parameter scales for zero field and for $`\rho >\rho _\text{c}`$ as

$$\rho _\text{a}(\delta \rho ,h=0)\delta \rho ^\beta $$
(1)
with $`\delta \rho =\rho /\rho _\text{c}1`$.

In this work we consider the CLG model in an external field $`h`$ conjugated to the order parameter, i.e., the field spontaneously creates active particles. Clearly the particular implementation of the spontaneous creation of active particles has to obey the particle conservation of the CLG model which is believed to be a relevant parameter, determining the universality class. Instead of a creation of additional particles we realize the external field by particle movements which do not change the total number of particles. Therefore we choose randomly $`L^Dh`$ particles on the lattice. Each of these particles is then moved to one of its empty next neighbors. In this way inactive particles may be activated and the number of active sites is increased.

In our simulations we start with randomly distributed particles. The system is updated according to the above rules in the following way. One lists all active sites and updates these sites in a randomly chosen sequence. Then one moves $`L^Dh`$ randomly chosen inactive particles to one of its empty next neighbors. In the case that these movements create active particles, these particles are added to the list of active particles and will be updated in the following update step. Thus one update step contains both, the update of active sites and the additional movements of inactive particles which mimics the external field.

In Fig. 1 we plot the density of active sites vs. time (number of update steps) at $`\rho _\text{c}`$ for two different values of the driving field. After a certain relaxation time the system reaches a steady state where the density of active sites fluctuates around the average value $`\rho _\text{a}(\delta \rho ,h,t)`$ which is interpreted as the order parameter $`\rho _\text{a}(\delta \rho ,h)`$. Decreasing the external field below a certain value finite-size effects occur which results in strong fluctuations. Two of these strong fluctuations events can be seen in the lower curve of Fig. 1. The origin of these effects is that the number of particle movements ($`L^Dh`$) create too few active particles and the system tends to the absorbing state. As a results the measured order parameter is shifted to lower values. To avoid these finite-size effects we increase the system size before these fluctuation events occur.

The spontaneous creation of active particles destroys the absorbing state and thereby the phase transition itself. Although the external field drives the system away from criticality the order parameter obeys certain scaling laws for sufficiently small fields. At the critical density the order parameter is expected to scale with the field as (see for instance Hinrichsen (2000))

$$\rho _\text{a}(\delta \rho =0,h)h^{\beta /\sigma }.$$
(2)
As usual in critical phenomena the order parameter is assumed to be a generalized homogeneous function of the control parameter $`\delta \rho `$ and the applied field $`h`$

$$\rho _\text{a}(\delta \rho ,h)=\lambda \stackrel{~}{r}(\delta \rho \lambda ^{1/\beta },h\lambda ^{\sigma /\beta })$$
(3)
with the scaling function $`\stackrel{~}{r}`$. Choosing $`\delta \rho \lambda ^{1/\beta }=1`$ at zero field one recovers Eq. (1) whereas $`h\lambda ^{\sigma /\beta }=1`$ leads to Eq. (2) at the critical density, respectively.

Furthermore we consider the fluctuations of the order parameter

$$\mathrm{\Delta }\rho _\text{a}(\delta \rho ,h)=L^D\left[\rho _\text{a}(\delta \rho ,h,t)^2\rho _\text{a}(\delta \rho ,h,t)^2\right].$$
(4)
For zero field the fluctuations are known to diverge approaching the critical point Lübeck (2001)

$$\mathrm{\Delta }\rho _\text{a}(\delta \rho ,h=0)\delta \rho ^\gamma ^{}.$$
(5)
The fluctuation exponent $`\gamma ^{}`$ fulfill the scaling relation Jensen and Dickman (1993)

$$\gamma ^{}=\nu _{}D\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2}\beta ,$$
(6)
where the exponent $`\nu _{}`$ describes how the spatial correlation length diverges at the transition point. In the critical regime we assume that the fluctuations obey the scaling ansatz

$$\mathrm{\Delta }\rho _\text{a}(\delta \rho ,h)=\lambda ^\gamma ^{}\stackrel{~}{d}(\delta \rho \lambda ,h\lambda ^\sigma )$$
(7)
Setting $`\delta \rho \lambda =1`$ one recovers Eq. (5) for $`h=0`$.

Analogous to equilibrium phase transitions the susceptibility is defined as the derivative of the order parameter with respect to the conjugated field

$`\chi (\delta \rho ,h)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{}{h}}\rho _\text{a}(\delta \rho ,h)`$ (8)
$`=`$ $`\lambda ^{1\sigma /\beta }\stackrel{~}{c}(\delta \rho \lambda ^{1/\beta },h\lambda ^{\sigma /\beta }).`$
Approaching the transition point the susceptibility diverges for zero field as

$$\chi (\delta \rho ,h=0)\delta \rho ^\gamma .$$
(9)
This result can be recovered from Eq. (8) by setting $`\delta \rho \lambda ^{1/\beta }=1`$ for $`h=0`$ and one gets the scaling relation

$$\gamma =\sigma \beta $$
(10)
which corresponds to the well known Widom equation of equilibrium phase transitions. Using this scaling relation we calculate in the following the value of the susceptibility exponent $`\gamma `$ from the obtained values of $`\beta `$ and $`\sigma `$. Notice that in contrast to the scaling behavior of equilibrium phase transitions the non-equilibrium absorbing phase transition is characterized by $`\gamma \gamma ^{}`$.

## III Below the critical dimension

### III.1 D=2

At the beginning of our analysis we consider the two-dimensional CLG model at the critical density $`\rho _\text{c}`$ for various values of the driving field $`h`$ where the value of the critical density is obtained from Lübeck (2001). The field dependence of the order parameter $`\rho _\text{a}(\delta \rho =0,h)`$ is shown in a log-log plot Fig. 2. Approaching the critical point ($`h0`$) the order parameter vanishes algebraically in agreement with Eq. (2). A regression analysis of the data yields the estimation $`\beta /\sigma =0.286\pm 0.001`$. Using the value of the order parameter exponent $`\beta =0.637\pm 0.009`$ Lübeck (2001) we get $`\sigma =2.227\pm 0.032`$.

In the following we analyse the order parameter as a function of the control parameter $`\delta \rho `$ for different fields from $`h=10^5`$ up to $`\mathrm{2\hspace{0.17em}10}^4`$. The applied field results in a rounding of the zero-field curve, i.e., the order parameter increases smoothly with the control parameter for $`h>0`$ (see inset of Fig. 3). According to the scaling ansatz of the order parameter \[Eq. (3)\] we choose $`h\lambda ^{\sigma /\beta }=1`$ and get the scaling form

$$\rho _\text{a}(\delta \rho ,h)=h^{\beta /\sigma }\stackrel{~}{r}(\delta \rho h^{1/\sigma },1).$$
(11)
Thus plotting $`\rho _\text{a}h^{\beta /\sigma }`$ as a function of $`\delta \rho h^{1/\sigma }`$ the curves for different values of the driving field have to collapse onto the scaling function $`\stackrel{~}{r}`$. Using the above determined values of $`\beta `$ and $`\sigma `$ one gets an excellent data collapse which is shown in Fig. 3.

Next we consider the scaling behavior of the order parameter fluctuations $`\mathrm{\Delta }\rho _\text{a}`$. The fluctuation data are shown for different values of the external field in the inset of Fig. 4. For finite fields the fluctuations display a peak. Approaching the transition point ($`h0`$) this peak becomes a divergence signalling the critical point. In order to analyze the scaling behavior of the fluctuations we use Eq. (7) and set $`h\lambda ^\sigma =1`$ which yields

$$\mathrm{\Delta }\rho _\text{a}(\delta \rho ,h)=h^{\gamma ^{}/\sigma }\stackrel{~}{d}(\delta \rho h^{1/\sigma },1).$$
(12)
Since $`\rho _\text{c}`$ and $`\sigma `$ are already determined one can estimate the exponent $`\gamma ^{}`$ by varying this exponent until one observes a data collapse of the different fluctuation curves. The best result is obtained for $`\gamma ^{}/\sigma =0.18\pm 0.02`$, leading to $`\gamma ^{}=0.402\pm 0.045`$, and the corresponding plot is shown in Fig.4. The value agrees with $`\gamma ^{}=0.384\pm 0.023`$ Lübeck (2001) obtained from a regression analysis according to Eq. (5).

Additionally the fluctuation exponent $`\gamma ^{}`$ can be estimated via the scaling relation Eq. (6). Using the estimation $`\nu _{}=0.78\pm 0.08`$ we get $`\gamma ^{}=0.286\pm 0.161`$ which again agrees with our result.

### III.2 D=3

Analogous to the two-dimensional case we first determine the exponent $`\sigma `$ for $`D=3`$. The field dependence of the order parameter is plotted in Fig. 5. A regression analysis yields $`\beta /\sigma =0.403\pm 0.004`$ which leads to the estimation $`\sigma =2.075\pm 0.043`$ if one uses the value $`\beta =0.837\pm 0.015`$ Lübeck (2001).

In order to investigate the scaling behavior of the order parameter we simulated the CLG model for field values from $`h=\mathrm{2\hspace{0.17em}10}^5`$ up to $`h=\mathrm{2\hspace{0.17em}10}^4`$. The corresponding curves as well as the zero-field order parameter curve is shown in the inset of Fig. 6. According to Eq. (11) we plot the rescaled order parameter in the same figure. Using $`\beta =0.837`$ and $`\sigma =2.075`$ we get again and excellent data collapse of the different curves.

Furthermore we analyse the scaling behavior of the fluctuations $`\mathrm{\Delta }\rho _\text{a}(\delta \rho ,h)`$ for the three-dimensional CLG model. The corresponding data are presented in the inset of Fig. 7. Similar to the two-dimensional case one tries to obtain a data collapse of these curves by varying the exponent $`\gamma ^{}/\sigma `$ \[Eq. (12)\]. The best result is obtained for $`\gamma ^{}/\sigma =0.10\pm 0.02`$ (see Fig. 7) which leads to $`\gamma ^{}=0.208\pm 0.042`$.

Previous investigations of the fluctuations $`\mathrm{\Delta }\rho _\text{a}`$ for zero-field showed that $`\mathrm{\Delta }\rho _\text{a}`$ diverges for $`\delta \rho 0`$. But the numerical data could be interpreted either as a power-law divergence \[Eq. (5)\] with an exponent $`\gamma ^{}=0.18\pm 0.06`$ or as a logarithmic growth Lübeck (2001). Our new results show that the fluctuations of the three-dimensional CLG model diverges algebraically at the transition point with the exponent $`\gamma ^{}=0.208\pm 0.042`$. Additionally, the above results allows to estimate the correlation length exponents via the scaling relation Eq. (6) and one obtains $`\nu _{}=0.627\pm 0.027`$.

## IV At the critical dimension

At the upper critical dimension $`D=4`$ the scaling behavior of the CLG model is affected by logarithmic corrections Lübeck (2001), i.e., the scaling ansatz Eq. (3) has to be modified. Motivated by the scaling behavior of the Ising model we assume that the order parameter obeys in leading order the ansatz (see Appendix)

$`\rho _\text{a}(\delta \rho ,h)=`$
$`\lambda |\mathrm{ln}\lambda |^l\stackrel{~}{r}(\delta \rho \lambda ^{1/\beta }|\mathrm{ln}\lambda |^b,h\lambda ^{\sigma /\beta }|\mathrm{ln}\lambda |^s),`$
where the exponents $`\beta `$ and $`\sigma `$ are given by the corresponding mean-field values $`\beta =1`$ and $`\sigma =2`$, respectively. Thus, for zero field the asymptotic scaling behavior of the order parameter obeys

$$\rho _\text{a}(\delta \rho ,h=0)\delta \rho |\mathrm{ln}\delta \rho |^\text{B}$$
(14)
with $`\text{B}=b+l`$. This behavior was already observed for the CLG model with the logarithmic correction exponent $`\text{B}=0.24`$ LUEB\_BLABLA .

According to the above scaling ansatz the asymptotic field dependence of the order parameter at the critical density is given by

$$\rho _\text{a}(\delta \rho =0,h)h^{1/2}|\mathrm{ln}h|^\mathrm{\Sigma }$$
(15)
with $`\mathrm{\Sigma }=s/2+l`$. In our analysis we plot $`\rho _\text{a}h^{1/2}`$ as a function of $`|\mathrm{ln}h|^\mathrm{\Sigma }`$ and vary the exponent $`\mathrm{\Sigma }`$ until one gets asymptotically a straight line. The best result is obtained for $`\mathrm{\Sigma }=0.41`$ and the corresponding plot is shown in Fig. 8.

Similar to the lower dimensions we consider the scaling behavior of the order parameter as a function of the control parameter for different external fields. In the inset of Fig. 9 we plot $`\rho _\text{a}`$ vs. $`\rho `$ for different fields from $`h=10^5`$ up to $`h=\mathrm{5\hspace{0.17em}10}^4`$. Choosing $`h\lambda ^{\sigma /\beta }|\mathrm{ln}\lambda |^s=1`$ the scaling ansatz \[Eq. (IV)\] yields in leading order

$$\rho _\text{a}(\delta \rho ,h)=h^{1/2}|\mathrm{ln}h|^\mathrm{\Sigma }\stackrel{~}{r}(x,1),$$
(16)
where the scaling argument $`x`$ is given in leading order by

$$x=\delta \rho h^{1/2}|\mathrm{ln}h|^{bs/2}$$
(17)
Varying the logarithmic correction exponents one gets a convincing data-collapse, which is shown in Fig. 9, for $`\mathrm{\Sigma }=0.49`$ and $`bs/2=0.17`$. The first value is in good agreement with $`\mathrm{\Sigma }=0.41`$ obtained from the scaling behavior at the critical density \[Eq. (15)\]. Using the average value $`\mathrm{\Sigma }=l+s/2=0.45`$ and $`bs/2=0.17`$ we get the estimation $`B=b+l=0.28`$ which agrees with $`B=0.24`$ obtained from numerical simulations in zero-field.

Furthermore we consider how the logarithmic corrections affect the scaling behavior of the fluctuations at the upper critical dimension. Similar to the order parameter \[Eqs. (16,17)\] we assume for the leading order of the fluctuations the scaling behavior

$$\mathrm{\Delta }\rho _\text{a}(\delta \rho ,h)=h^{\gamma ^{}/\sigma }|\mathrm{ln}h|^\mathrm{\Gamma }\stackrel{~}{d}(\delta \rho h^{1/\sigma }|\mathrm{ln}h|^\eta ,1)$$
(18)
with $`\sigma =2`$. It is known that the mean-field value of the fluctuation exponent is $`\gamma ^{}=0`$ which corresponds to a finite jump of $`\mathrm{\Delta }\rho _\text{a}`$ at the critical density Lübeck (2001); Lübeck and Hucht (2001). In order to avoid that $`\mathrm{\Delta }\rho _\text{a}`$ diverges for $`h0`$ at $`\delta \rho =0`$ the logarithmic correction exponent $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ has to be set to zero too. Therefore we try to obtain a data collapse of the fluctuation data according to the ansatz

$$\mathrm{\Delta }\rho _\text{a}(\delta \rho ,h)=\stackrel{~}{d}(\delta \rho h^{1/2}|\mathrm{ln}h|^\eta ,1).$$
(19)
A good data collapse is observed for $`\eta =0.39`$ and the corresponding plot is shown in Fig. 10.

## V Above the critical dimension

Above the critical dimension, i.e. $`D5`$, the scaling behavior of the CLG model is expected to obey again the scaling ansatz Eq. (3) where the exponents are given by the mean-field values $`\beta =1`$, $`\sigma =2`$, and $`\gamma ^{}=0`$ Lübeck (2001); Lübeck and Hucht (2001), independently of the particular dimension.

In Fig. 11 we plot the field dependence of the order parameter at the critical density. For sufficiently small values of the field ($`h10^4`$) we observe the expected scaling behavior $`\rho _\text{a}h^{1/2}`$. Thus the order parameter $`\rho _\text{a}(\delta \rho ,h)`$ is determined for various fields in this regime (from $`h=\mathrm{2\hspace{0.17em}10}^6`$ up to $`10^4`$). The curves are shown in the inset of Fig. 12. Rescaling these curves according to the ansatz Eq. (3) with $`\beta =1`$ and $`\sigma =2`$ one gets a good data collapse (see Fig. 12).

Finally we consider the fluctuations of the five-dimensional CLG model. The inset of Fig. 13 shows how the fluctuations are affected by the field $`h`$. With vanishing field the curves become steeper until one gets a jump Lübeck (2001); Lübeck and Hucht (2001) for $`h=0`$.

Considering the scaling behavior one has to taken into account that the jump corresponds to $`\gamma ^{}=0`$. Therefore, we plot the fluctuations $`\mathrm{\Delta }\rho _\text{a}`$ as a function of $`\delta \rho h^{1/2}`$. The resulting data collapse is shown in Fig. 13 and confirms the assumed scaling behavior.

## VI Conclusions

We introduced a method which allows to apply an external field in the CLG model. The external field obeys the particle conservation and is conjugated to the order parameter, i.e., it is realized as a spontaneous creation of active particles. We considered the order parameter as well as its fluctuations of the CLG model as a function of an external field in various dimensions ($`D=2,3,4,5`$). Although the external field drives the system away from criticality the order parameter obeys certain scaling laws for sufficiently small values of the external field. These scaling laws are investigated and the corresponding exponents are determined numerically. The obtained values of the field exponent $`\sigma `$ are listed together with other critical indices in Table 1. At the upper critical dimension $`D_\text{c}=4`$ the usual scaling behavior has to be modified by additional logarithmic corrections.

###### Acknowledgements.

I would like to thank A. Hucht for helpful discussions and useful comments on the manuscript.

## VII Appendix

Recently, the scaling behavior of the well known Ising model was investigated at the upper critical dimension ($`d_\text{c}=4`$) and it was argued that the singular part of the free energy obeys the finite-size scaling ansatz Aktekin (2001)

$$f_L(t,h)=L^4\stackrel{~}{f}(tL^2\mathrm{ln}^{1/6}L,hL^3\mathrm{ln}^{1/4}L)$$
(20)
where $`t`$ denotes the reduced temperature ($`t=T/T_\text{c}1`$), $`h`$ an applied magnetic field and $`L`$ denotes the system size. Thus we assume that the free energy is a generalized homogeneous function

$`f(t,h,L)=`$
$`\lambda \stackrel{~}{f}(t\lambda ^{1/2}|\mathrm{ln}\lambda |^{1/6},h\lambda ^{3/4}|\mathrm{ln}\lambda |^{1/4},L\lambda ^{1/4})`$
with $`\lambda >0`$. Of course for $`\lambda =L^4`$ one recovers Eq. (20). This ansatz can be checked in the following way: the derivative of the free energy with respect to the applied field leads to the scaling equation of the magnetization

$`m(t,h,L)=\lambda ^{1/4}|\mathrm{ln}\lambda |^{1/4}`$ (22)
$`\stackrel{~}{m}(t\lambda ^{1/2}|\mathrm{ln}\lambda |^{1/6},h\lambda ^{3/4}|\mathrm{ln}\lambda |^{1/4},L\lambda ^{1/4}).`$
Choosing $`t\lambda ^{1/2}|\mathrm{ln}\lambda |^{1/6}=1`$ one gets in leading order for the order parameter in the thermodynamic limit at zero field

$$m(t,h=0)t^{1/2}|\mathrm{ln}t|^{1/3}.$$
(23)
The field dependence of the magnetization at the critical temperature ($`t=0`$)

$$m(t=0,h)h^{1/3}|\mathrm{ln}h|^{1/3}$$
(24)
is obtained by setting $`h\lambda ^{3/4}|\mathrm{ln}\lambda |^{1/4}=1`$. Analogous one gets in leading order for the susceptibility and specific heat

$$\chi (t,h=0)t^1|\mathrm{ln}t|^{1/3}$$
(25)
and

$$c(t,h=0)|\mathrm{ln}t|^{1/3},$$
(26)
respectively. In this way the ansatz Eq. (VII) leads directly to the Eqs. (23,24,25,26) which were already derived in the 1970s by Wegner and Riedel using renormalization group techniques F. J. Wegner and E. K. Riedel (1973). It is worth to mention that these are exact results within the renormalization group theory, i.e., neither the values of the mean-field exponents nor the values of logarithmic correction exponents are obtained from approximation schemes like $`ϵ`$\- or $`1/n`$-expansions.

In the case of the CLG model we choose a scaling ansatz for the leading order of the order parameter \[Eq. (IV)\] with corresponds to Eq. (22).


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# Quantum Nyquist Temperature Fluctuations

## Abstract

We consider the temperature fluctuations of a small object. Classical fluctuations of the temperature have been considered for a long time. Using the Nyquist approach, we show that the temperature of an object fluctuates when in a thermal contact with a reservoir. For large temperatures or large specific heat of the object $`C_v`$, we recover standard results of classical thermodynamic fluctuations $`\mathrm{\Delta }T^2=\frac{k_BT^2}{C_v}`$. Upon decreasing the size of the object, we argue, one necessarily reaches the quantum regime that we call quantum temperature fluctuations. At temperatures below $`T^{}\mathrm{}/k_B\tau `$, where $`\tau `$ is the thermal relaxation time of the system, the fluctuations change the character and become quantum. For a nano-scale metallic particle in a good thermal contact with a reservoir, $`T^{}`$ can be on a scale of a few Kelvin.

Classical thermodynamic fluctuations have been studied for more than two centuries. The Gibbs canonical distribution function, $`P(\alpha )d\alpha \mathrm{exp}[E(\alpha )/k_BT]d\alpha `$, is one of the most fundamental concept in statistical physics. All thermodynamic variables can be obtained from this distribution function. According to the initial assertion of Gibbs, the temperature of a canonical ensemble is constant and thus does not fluctuate. Therefore, the temperature fluctuation cannot be generically represented by the above distribution function. Instead it is derived from energy fluctuations ($`\delta E`$). Alternatively, the von Laue approach LL80  to fluctuating system thermodynamics via the minimal work can also lead to the temperature fluctuation ($`\delta T`$). In recent years, there has been increasing interest in the nano-scale problems such as the glass transition KTW89 , nucleation Ring2001 , and protein folding Matt00 . Of device importance, the mechanical resonators are being pushed to the nanometer scale CR98 ; CR01 . For these nano-scale systems, the temperature fluctuation can be large. Recently, it has been shown DHS00  that the von Laue approach gives much more reasonable results for the temperature fluctuation in a confined geometry than the treatment with the Gibbs distribution function. To the best of our knowledge, the existing study has been limited to the classical regime. We know that any classical variable, say coordinate, force, etc., has its corresponding standard quantum limit where quantum fluctuations dominate. Similarly, we expect temperature $`T`$ will have its quantum limit. Here we argue that when the temperature is below $`T^{}\mathrm{}/\tau `$, where $`\tau `$ is the thermal relaxation time of the nano-scale particle, a quantum temperature fluctuation regime emerges.

Consider an experiment in which we are going to measure the temperature fluctuation of an ensemble of increasingly small objects. Without loss of generality consider a set of quantum dots, as shown in Fig. 1. Assume these dots to be similar in the number of contained particles, size, etc. In addition, each dot has discrete levels, which are filled by a sufficient number ($`N1`$) fermions (e.g., electrons) or bosons (e.g., 4He atoms). All these dots are in contact with a substrate (large plate) which plays the role of a thermal reservoir. The reservoir is kept at a certain temperature $`T`$. The thermal contact between the dots and the reservoir will cause the thermal fluctuations in the dots. As a result, the heat flows to/from the reservoir. The relaxation time for the thermal process between the dots and the reservoir is $`\tau `$.

Let us first briefly recall the derivation of the temperature fluctuation from the von Laue approach LL80 . The propability $`w`$ for a fluctuation is proportional to $`\mathrm{exp}(R_{min}/k_BT)`$, where $`R_{min}`$ is the minimum work needed to fulfill reversibly the given change in the thermodynamic quantities in the quantum dot and $`k_B`$ is Boltzmann’s constant. For simplicity, we assume the volume of each dot be fixed so that $`R_{min}=\mathrm{\Delta }ET\mathrm{\Delta }S`$, where $`\mathrm{\Delta }E`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }S`$ are respectively the changes in the energy and entropy. Therefore we have:

$$w=𝒩_0\mathrm{exp}[\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }ET\mathrm{\Delta }S}{k_BT}],$$
(1)
where $`𝒩_0`$ is the normalization constant. For small fluctuations, by expanding $`\mathrm{\Delta }E`$ to the second order in $`\mathrm{\Delta }S`$, and noticing that $`\mathrm{\Delta }S=(C_v/T)\mathrm{\Delta }T`$ with $`C_v`$ the specific heat, it is found:

$$w=𝒩_1\mathrm{exp}[\frac{C_v\mathrm{\Delta }T^2}{2k_BT}],$$
(2)
where $`𝒩_1`$ is a new renormalization constant. It follows immediately that the average square fluctuation of temperature at a constant volume is:

$$\mathrm{\Delta }T^2=T^2/C_v.$$
(3)
This is the result from the standard classical theory of thermodynamic fluctuations. However, it has to be kept in mind that for the starting equation (1) to be valid, the temperature has to be much bigger than the thermal relaxation rate, i.e.:

$$k_BT\mathrm{}/\tau ,$$
(4)
which also means when the temperature is too low or $`\tau `$ is too small, the fluctuations can no longer be treated classically.

Here we propose the use of the Nyquist approach Nyquist28  to treat the temperature fluctuation. First consider a generalized coordinate $`x`$ and its relaxation $`\frac{dx}{dt}=\lambda (xx_0)`$, where $`x_0`$ is its equilibrium value. The external force $`F`$, conjugated to the coordinate $`x`$, determines the equilibrium $`x_0`$. Now, in case there are fluctuations in the external force $`F`$, equilibrium value $`x_0=\overline{x}_0+\mathrm{\Delta }x_0`$ fluctuates around its steady state position $`\overline{x}_0`$ by $`\mathrm{\Delta }x_0=\frac{x}{F}|_{\overline{x}_0}\mathrm{\Delta }F`$. For the equation of motion we get

$$\frac{dx}{dt}=\lambda (x\overline{x}_0\frac{x}{F}|_{\overline{x}_0}\mathrm{\Delta }F)$$
(5)
Assume now temperature $`T=x`$ to play the role of a generalized coordinate and the entropy $`S=F`$ the role of the generalized fluctuating force. The relaxation process of the temperature can be described by a linearized macroscopic “equation of motion”:

$$\frac{d\mathrm{\Delta }T}{dt}=\lambda (\mathrm{\Delta }T\frac{T}{S}|_{\overline{T}_0}\mathrm{\Delta }S),$$
(6)
where $`\lambda =1/\tau `$, and $`\mathrm{\Delta }T=T\overline{T}_0`$, and is the deviation of the equilibrium temperature $`T`$ as a result of the fluctuating force $`\mathrm{\Delta }S`$. Equation (6) is valid for the positive time and can be extended to the negative time by changing sign of the derivative. Performing the Fourier transform for $`\mathrm{\Delta }T`$

$$\mathrm{\Delta }T(t)=\frac{1}{2\pi }𝑑\omega \mathrm{\Delta }T_\omega e^{i\omega t},$$
(7)
and similarly for $`\mathrm{\Delta }S`$, we can arrive at

$$\mathrm{\Delta }T_\omega =\alpha (\omega )\mathrm{\Delta }S_\omega ,$$
(8)
where the response function or generalized susceptibility reads:

$$\alpha (\omega )=\frac{\lambda T}{C_v(i\omega +\lambda )},$$
(9)
where we have used $`\frac{T}{S}|_{\overline{T}_0}=\frac{T}{C_v}`$. Using the fluctuation-dissipation theorem as developed by Callen and Welton, which relates the fluctuation of a thermodynamic quantity to the imaginary part of the susceptibility $`\alpha (\omega )`$ LL80 ; Callen51 ; GP87 , it immediately follows:

$$\mathrm{\Delta }T^2_\omega =\mathrm{}\mathrm{coth}(\mathrm{}\omega /2k_BT)\alpha ^{\prime \prime }(\omega ),$$
(10)
where the imaginary part of $`\alpha (\omega )`$:

$$\alpha ^{\prime \prime }(\omega )=\frac{\lambda T}{C_v}\frac{\omega }{\omega ^2+\lambda ^2}.$$
(11)
For the average quadratic fluctuation of $`T`$, it can be found:

$$\mathrm{\Delta }T^2=\frac{\mathrm{}\lambda T}{2\pi C_v}_{\mathrm{}}^{\mathrm{}}𝑑\omega \frac{\omega }{\omega ^2+\lambda ^2}\mathrm{coth}(\mathrm{}\omega /2k_BT).$$
(12)
The integral on the right side of Eq. (12) depends on the ratio of $`k_BT/\mathrm{}\lambda `$. When $`k_BT/\mathrm{}\lambda 1`$, by expanding $`\mathrm{coth}(\mathrm{}\omega /2k_BT)=2k_BT/\mathrm{}\omega +\mathrm{}\omega /6k_BT`$ for $`\mathrm{}\omega /2k_BT1`$, we have

$$\mathrm{\Delta }T^2=\frac{k_BT^2}{C_v}\left[1+\frac{\mathrm{}\lambda }{\pi k_BT}\mathrm{ln}\frac{\mathrm{}\omega _c}{k_BT}\right],$$
(13)
where we have introduced an upper band cutoff $`\omega _c1/\tau _1`$ on the order of the relevant bandwidth since at the high frequency the integral $`_0^{\omega _c}𝑑\omega \frac{\omega }{\omega ^2+\eta ^2}=\mathrm{ln}(\omega _c/\eta )`$ is logarithmically divergent as $`\omega _c\mathrm{}`$. One can recognize immediately that Eq. (13) is the classical limit of the temperature fluctuations as derived above from the von Laue approach. In the opposite limit of low temperatures, $`\mathrm{}\lambda k_BT`$, one finds:

$$\mathrm{\Delta }T^2=\frac{\mathrm{}\lambda T}{\pi C_v}\mathrm{ln}\frac{\omega _c}{\lambda }.$$
(14)
Therefore, we find that at low temperatures the temperature fluctuations would acquire a distinctly quantum character with $`\mathrm{}/\tau `$ entering into the magnitude of $`\mathrm{\Delta }T^2`$. From ergodicity assumption, it follows that the time averaged temperature of each particular dot is equal to the average value of $`T`$. Any fluctuation, described by Eq.(14), happen on a characteristic time scale $`\tau `$.

The high temperature expansion in Eq. (13) has already indicated the crossover temperature

$$T^{}=\frac{\mathrm{}\lambda }{k_B\pi }\mathrm{ln}\frac{\omega _c}{\lambda },$$
(15)
at which there is a change of the regime from the classical to quantum fluctuations. Physically, $`T^{}\mathrm{}/k_B\tau `$ corresponds to the uncertainty in energy associated with the relaxation process in the subsystem. The reservoir is attached to a subsystem via a thermal contact that has its own bandwidth $`\mathrm{}/\tau `$ and any temperature fluctuation will relax on the scale of $`\tau `$. Once $`TT^{}`$, the intrinsic bandwidth of the contact rather than the temperature will dominate the Gaussian fluctuations. As stressed in Ref. LL80 , fluctuations cannot be treated classically if a fluctuating quantity is changing too rapidly or if the subsystems are too small.

Our derivation, which is essentially identical to the classical to quantum Nyquist crossover in the standard Nyquist theory, provides the description of a quantum regime of the temperature fluctuations. There are few possible limitations of this description. One is that our approach in not applicable to the systems outside of thermal equilibrium, say hot electrons and cold phonon bath, as sometimes is the case. Another restriction is that the typical energy level spacing $`\delta 1/L^d`$, $`d`$ is the dimensionality of the dots, should be small compared to $`T`$. If the temperature is much smaller than the level spacing, there will be no thermally excited states and the notion of the thermodynamic equilibrium is not applicable to this system. We should also point out that for small particles there are mesoscopic corrections to the total energy of particle, that can be related to the temperature fluctuations. These mesoscopic fluctuations have a typical temperature scale given by Thouless energy $`k_BT_{Th}=D/L^2`$, $`L`$ \- is the typical size of the particle, $`D`$\- is diffusion coefficient, and occur in addition to the fluctuations we consider here. We assume here that $`T^{}>T_{Th}`$.

Experiments on the temperature-dependent fluctuations of magnetization of small paramagnet were performed by Chui et al. Chui92 . Experimentally observed spectral density $`\mathrm{\Delta }T^2_\omega `$ was shown to be of the form given by the high temperature expansion of Eq. (10). The thermal relaxation time was $`\tau 1`$ second for the considered size of the paramagnet (about 1 cm3). The total temperature fluctuation $`\mathrm{\Delta }T^2=T^2/C_v`$ was also claimed as a result of the integration over Eq. (10). Therefore we can regard this result as an experimental evidence for the classical temperature fluctuation in the canonical ensemble according to Eq. (10). The obvious next step is to extend these measurements to the samples of much smaller sizes, down to 1 $`\mu `$m in its linear size and study the temperature dependence of the fluctuation spectrum at low temperatures.

Now let us estimate the crossover temperature $`T^{}`$ for a metallic dot and for a 4He droplet. The low temperature limit $`T\mathrm{}\lambda /k_B`$ implies that the relaxation time of the thermal object has to be short enough. Since the thermal relaxation time $`\tau =C_vR_T`$, where $`R_T`$ is the thermal resistance of the contact between the object and the thermal reservoir. The easiest way to achieve a short thermal relaxation time is to work with the smaller objects (smaller $`C_v`$) with good enough thermal contact with the reservoir.

(i) For the metallic system, we consider a nanometer mechanical resonator, which is a cylindrical gold (Au) rod of 1 $`\mu \text{m}`$ in length $`L`$ and 15 nm in radius $`r`$. The mass of this Au rod is $`m_{Au}=\rho _{Au}L𝒜=1.36\times 10^{14}\text{g}`$, where the mass density of Au $`\rho _{Au}=19.3\text{g}/\text{cm}^3`$, and $`𝒜=\pi r^2`$ is the cross-section area. The mole mass of Au is 196.97 g/mole, we thus find the specific heat constant for Au per gram is $`\gamma _{Au}=0.73\text{mJ}/\text{mol}\text{K}^2=3.7\times 10^6\text{J}/\text{g}\text{K}^2`$. At $`T=0.1`$ K, $`C_v^{Au}=m_{Au}\gamma _{Au}=4.76\times 10^{21}\text{J}/\text{K}`$. The thermal conductivity of Au at $`T=0.1\text{K}`$ is about $`\kappa _T=1`$ Watt/K m. The thermal resistance is $`R_T=\frac{1}{\kappa _T}\frac{L}{𝒜}=1.4\times 10^9\text{K}\text{Second}/\text{J}`$. One then finds $`\tau 6.7\text{psec}`$, and $`T^{}1`$ K, respectively, which is now experimentally accessible. In practice, the thermal impedance mismatch at the interface between the nano-scale subsystem and the reservoir would lead to a much lower conductance and a longer $`\tau `$. To estimate the role of the “bottleneck”, one would need a specific model. However, from the above estimate, one gets an impression that, regardless of the experimental constraints, the quantum temperature fluctuation below $`T^{}`$ is observable.

(ii) For the case of a small bosonic system, we consider a droplet of 4He, which is enclosed in a metallic container such as lead. The size of the droplet is taken to be $`0.1\mu \text{m}`$. Below the superfluid transition temperature, the specific heat of 4He is dominated by phonons, which follows the power law as $`0.02\times T^3\text{J}/\text{g}\text{K}^4`$ Wilks87 . For the above given size of the droplet and at $`T0.3`$ K, the specific heat $`C_v=2.7\times 10^{18}\text{J}/\text{K}`$. At these temperatures, the thermal resistance is dominated by a surface resistance due to the contact of the droplet with the metal. From Fig. 8.6 in Ref. Wilks87 , we estimate the thermal resistivity $`R_T2\text{K}\text{cm}^2/\text{Watt}`$ between the 4He droplet and the metal surface. One then obtains the relaxation times $`\tau 6.9\times 10^8`$ second, which corresponds to $`T^{}10^3\text{K}`$, which is small for the given size of the droplet.

Experimentally the proposed crossover to quantum regime can be seen as a change in temperature dependence of noise of some observable. The choice depends on a specifics of the experiment obviously, e.g for an oscillating clamped beam CR01  it can be a noise of the mechanical oscillatior. In the case of magnetization noise Chui92 , one would desire to measure noise in the SQUID at relevant frequencies $`1/\tau `$.

In summary, we have used the Nyquist approach to study the temperature fluctuation of an object in thermal contact with a reservoir. It is shown for the first time that when at temperatures below a characteristic value $`T^{}\mathrm{}/k_B\tau `$, the temperature fluctuation would acquire a distinctly quantum character. For a nano-scale particle, $`T^{}`$ is on the order of a few Kelvin. In light of recent advances in nano-technology, the quantum fluctuation regime should be experimentally accessible and might be relevant for the experiments on nanoscale systems.

Acknowledgments: We wish to thank B. Altshuler, J. Clarke, J. C. Davis, S. Habib, H. Huang, A. J. Leggett, R. Movshovich, R. de Bruyn Ouboter, and B. Spivak for useful discussions. This work was supported by the Department of Energy.


text:
# New light and shadows on Stephan’s Quintet

## 1 Introduction

Stephan’s Quintet (SQ) was discovered in 1877 and is one of the most popular and studied groups of galaxies. It is classified as a compact group (HCG 92) in the Hickson (1982) catalog. The core of the group is formed by three galaxies (NGC 7319, NGC 7318A, and NGC 7317), which have recessional velocities $``$ 6600 km s-1 with very low velocity dispersions. The other members of the group are NGC 7318B, at $``$ 5700 km s-1, and NGC 7320 at $``$800 km s-1. According to the orthodox view, NGC 7320 is a foreground galaxy, while NGC 7318B which has a difference in velocity of $``$1000 km s-1 with respect to the core of the group, shows clear signs of strong distortions which indicate ongoing interaction with the group. Two other galaxies NGC 7320C ($``$ 6000 km s-1) and NGC 7331 ($``$ 800 km s-1) are not considered in the Hickson scheme as members of the group, but their apparent proximity and several reasons that we will discuss in this paper make it convenient to consider them here. A diagram showing the relative positions of the galaxies in the SQ and NGC 7331 can be found in Moles, Sulentic, & Marquez (1997).

In spite of the large observational effort dedicated to the study of SQ from the radio to the X ray continuum, there are many points which yet require further attention. In particular, in this paper we address the following specific questions: i) whether the apparent proximity of NGC 7320 to the other members of SQ is merely a projection effect; ii) whether there is any evidence of interaction between SQ (specifically NGC 7320) and NGC 7331 that could explain the particular kinematics of this galaxy (Prada et al. 1996); and iii) whether the core of SQ (NGC 7318A, NGC 7318B and NGC 7319) is connected with NGC 7320C. We have tried to answer these questions by conducting an observational program of broad- and narrow-band imaging. The narrow-band H$`\alpha `$ images analyzed in this paper cover velocities in the range 0–8000 km s-1, while the broad-band $`R`$ observations correspond to two different regions: the south part of NGC7331 and SQ respectively, covering a total area $``$650 square arcminutes. With the $`R`$ images we have investigated the possible presence of bridges between NGC 7331 and SQ, and with the narrow-band observations we have mapped the H$`\alpha `$ and derived a map with the velocity field of this emission in SQ.

Section 2 of this paper summarizes our present knowledge and previous observations of SQ. Section 3 presents the observations and data processing. In Sections 4 and 5 we analyze the broad- and narrow-band images, respectively. Section 6 discusses our results in the context of earlier observations. Our conclusions are given in Section 7.

## 2 Present status of observations of Stephan’s Quintet

### 2.1 Optical and near IR

Recent studies have been conducted in the optical and near infrared from ground-based telescopes and from ISO and the Hubble Space Telescope (HST). From HST broad-band images, Gallagher et al. (2001) have recently claimed the discovery of a large number of young star clusters at distances up to 20 kpc from the galactic center in the tidal debris of NGC 7319. This is in agreement with the standard dynamical picture (Moles, Marquez, & Sulentic 1998), in which the ongoing interaction with NGC 7319 is older than that occurring now between NGC 7318A and NGC 7318B.

Ohyama et al. (1998) have discovered two emission-line regions in the tidal arm of NGC 7318B in a position which coincides with previously discovered radio continuum emission. The lines in these two region are at 6560 and 6720 km s-1, respectively, and much wider (900 km s-1) than the normal H ii regions in NGC 7318B and NGC 7319. From this, and from the the ratio between the S ii and the H$`\alpha `$ emission, they conclude that the emission is the remnant of a large number of recent supernovae. Plana et al. (1999) have presented H$`\alpha `$ observations in SQ with a Fabry–Perot interferometer. From these, they have detected and derived the velocities for 23 H$`\alpha `$ regions with velocities in the range 5540–6700 km s-1. Mendes de Oliveira et al. (2001) and Iglesias-Páramo & Vílchez (2001) have recently presented evidence that some of this emission corresponds to dwarf galaxies located within tidal tails in the SQ.

Yun et al. (1997) have demonstrated that SQ is deficient in molecular gas. CO emission is detected only in NGC 7319 and is concentrated mostly in a region 8 kpc north of the center of the galaxy. This asymmetry could be produced by recent tidal disruptions. However Gao & Xu (2000), using BIMA, have detected a larger abundance of CO in NGC 7319, and also in NGC 7318B and the intergroup starburst region. Finally, Smith & Struck (2001) have detected CO in a tail located to the north of SQ at 6000 and 6700 km s-1. This emission has H i and H$`\alpha `$ counterparts, and the velocities suggest that this gas corresponds to material removed from NGC 7318B and NGC 7319.

The IRAS data (Yun et al. 1997) show that the far-infrared emission in SQ is more extended than in other groups and is remarkably similar to the X-ray emission (see below). This could indicate the presence of warm dust in the intragroupo gas.

### 2.2 Radio

Kaftan-Kassim & Sulentic (1974) observed the radio continuum at 318, 430, and 606 MHz and built a map of the emission which shows a connection between NGC 7331 and the source 4C33.56 across SQ. However von Kap-Herr, Haslam, & Wielebinski (1977) observed the same region at 2695 MHz and found no evidence of such a connection.

Allen & Sullivan (1980) observed in the SQ region the 21 cm H i at 750 km s-1 and 6700 km s-1 and concluded that the low redshift H i is entirely associated with NGC 7320, and that the high-redshift H i is concentrated in the range 6570–6630 km s-1. However, Sulentic & Arp (1983) have measured the neutral hydrogen at low velocity ($`v2200`$ km s-1) and found that it is displaced from the optical position of NGC 7320; they argued that this has been produced by interaction between NGC 7320 and the other members of SQ. Peterson & Shostak (1980) have observed several positions of the 21 cm line in the inner and outer parts of SQ and found three extended systems at velocities 5700, 6000, and 6600 km s-1. The galaxies are enveloped by a cloud of H i with a size of $``$ 100 kpc (Sullivan 1980; Peterson & Shostak 1980). Shostak, Sullivan & Allen (1984) mapped the H i line in the region of SQ with a resolution of 35′′. They built a map of the gas with resolution of 50 km s-1 and confirmed the existence of three systems at velocities 5700, 6000, and 6600 km s-1. Most of the emission comes from the outer parts of the galaxies. The authors argued that the stripping of gas from the disks is due to a tidal encounter in the past and a present collision. Gillespie (1974, 1977) have found several radio sources $``$ 15 arcminutes to the north of SQ. However, the most probable interpretation is a group of radio sources at $`z`$ 0.5 without any relation with SQ.

### 2.3 X-Ray

X-ray emission in SQ was detected (Bahcall, Harris, & Rood 1984) by the Einstein Observatory. Other more recent observations have been obtained with ROSAT (Sulentic, Pietsch, & Arp 1995; Pietsch et al. 1997), and ASCA (Awaki et al. 1997). Pietsch et al. (1997) obtained high spatial resolution X-ray images of SQ with the ROSAT HRI detector. This tidal emission amounts to $`5\times 10^{41}`$ erg s-1 and is distributed among the following components: $`a`$) the galaxies NGC 7319 and NGC 7318A, $`b`$) the intergalactic feature between NGC 7319 and NGC 7318B, $`c`$) a region situated $`1^{\prime \prime }`$ to the north of NGC 7318A,B, and $`d`$) diffuse hot gas (amounting to one third of the total emission).

### 2.4 Physical picture

The discrepant redshift of NGC 7320 has received special attention in the past. In the orthodox view, this is just a chance projection similar to those found in a large numbers of Hickson compact groups. However, some authors (Arp 1973; Burbidge & Burbidge 1961; Sulentic & Arp 1983) have claimed the existence of a physical connection between the low- and high-redshift galaxies of SQ. This claim is based on statistical arguments or on the numerous signs of distortions found in optical, IR and radio images of SQ. Recently, the Hubble Space Telescope has obtained images of SQ with high resolution (see http://spaceflightnow.com/news/n0010/26hststephen). It has been claimed (Moles 2001) that these images have definitely solved the question of the redshift discrepancy of NGC 7320 because it is possible to resolve individual stars in this galaxy, showing that it is closer than the rest of the galaxies of the group. However, Arp (2001) (private comm.), in strong disagreement with this, claims that in these images it is also possible to resolve individual stars in the high-redshift members of the group. Furthermore, using the luminosity of the H ii region as a distance indicator, Arp (2001) (private comm.) points out that the low- and high-redshift galaxies of SQ should be at the same distance.

The other relevant fact in the discussion on SQ is the large difference in velocity ($`1000`$ km s-1) between NGC 7318B and the rest of the high-$`z`$ members of SQ. Moles et al. (1998) argue that NGC 7318B is crossing the group now; as this galaxy has kept its gas, this current crossing should be occurring for the first time. As a consequence of this encounter, the interstellar medium of NGC 7318B is shocking the intragroup medium, especially in the Northern Starburst Forming (NSF) region (Gallagher et al. 2001) and in the tidal tail of NGC 7319. As is expected from numerical simulations and as an increasing number of observations show, this interaction is producing intense starbursts in several regions of the group. There are several features indicating that this interaction is in fact in progress; for instance: i) optically, NGC 7318A and NGC 7318B look like a typical pair merging, ii) there is radio emission associated with the interaction between NGC 7319 and NGC 7318B, and iii) a large number of knots has been observed in the arms of NGC 7318B. However, Arp (1973) has suggested that with this difference in velocities the group would dissipate over a very short timescale so that it would be very unlikely to see them together.

In the standard picture (Moles et al. 1998), NGC 7320C crossed the group 108 years ago producing considerable disruptions; for instance, it removed the H i in NGC 7319 creating a visible tail seen today in this galaxy, with part of the gas being deposited in a region northeast of NGC 7319. The interaction was also probably responsible for the Seyfert 2-type nuclear activity of NGC 7319. In this paper, we will show more evidence of the connection between NGC 7320C and the other galaxies in SQ.

## 3 Observations and data reduction

The observations analyzed in this paper were obtained during several runs between 1997 and 2000 on the 0.8 m IAC 80 telescope at Teide Observatory111The IAC 80 is operated by the Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias at Teide Observatory on the island of Tenerife (Spain)., the 2.2 m telescope at Calar Alto222The German–Spanish Astronomical Centre, Calar Alto, is operated jointly by the Max-Planck-Institute for Astronomy, Heidelberg, and Spain’s National Commission for Astronomy., and the 2.5 m Isaac Newton Telescope (INT) at Roque de los Muchachos Observatory on La Palma (Spain)333The INT is operated by the Isaac Newton Group.. The observations taken with the IAC 80 and the 2.2 m telescope, we concentrated specifically on the H$`\alpha `$ emission in SQ (the $`R`$ images taken with the IAC 80 were used only for continuum subtraction of the H$`\alpha `$ images). The south of NGC 7331 and SQ were observed in the $`R`$-band with the wider field of the WFC on the INT, with a total exposure time $`2000`$ s each. Typical seeing was $``$ 2 arcsec in the narrow band images, and $`1`$ arcsec for the $`R`$-band observations. Table 1 summarizes the observations. The spectral response of the narrow-band filters can be found at http://www.iac.es/telescopes/ten.html and http://www.caha.es/CAHA/Instruments/filterlist.html. We performed standard data reduction: bias subtraction, flat-field correction, coaddition of images for the same filter, and sky subtraction. Only the observations at the INT have been photometrically calibrated, using stars from the catalog of Landolt et al. (1992). For the observations in the H$`\alpha `$ narrow bands we subtracted the continuum using the images in $`R`$ taken with the IAC 80 or in a different redshifted H$`\alpha `$, scaling according to the flux measured in field stars.

## 4 Broad-band imaging

Images in the $`R`$ band were taken with the Wide Field Camera at the 2.5 m INT at Roque de los Muchachos Observatory in 1997 August. The observations covered $``$ 1800 square arcminutes from which we have selected $`650`$ square arcminutes corresponding to the SQ region and the southern part of the galaxy NGC 7331. We had two objectives: the first was to delineate the halo of SQ, and the second was to search for possible evidence of interaction between NGC 7331 and the other SQ galaxies. The limiting 3$`\sigma `$ magnitude per 0.37 square arcsecond pixels was $``$ 25.2 mag/arcsec2. However, the structures that we wanted to map were diffuse and spatially very extended, so we binned the images to a resolution $``$ 2.5 arcsecs, this permits an enhancement of the signal-to-noise ratio by a factor $``$7, that is, we go almost two magnitudes deeper, being now the 3-$`\sigma `$ limiting magnitude 27.3 mag/arcsec2. Figures 1$`a,b`$ present the gray-scale and isophotal map obtained around SQ and in the southern part of NGC 7331 respectively. Figure 1$`a`$ shows that the halo is considerable more extended that it was revealed in the observations by Moles et al. (1998). For the first time, we have found evidence of a clear connection in the form of diffuse light between SQ and the galaxy NGC 7320C. In particular the SW tail which emerges from SQ seems to extend to this galaxy. We think that this supports the previously suspected connection between SQ and NGC 7320C. We have traced the emission up to the isophote at 26.7 mag/arcsec2 and 25.5 mag/arcsec2 around the SQ and NGC 7331 respectively. The 25.5 mag/arcsec2 isophote surrounds and seems to enclose NGC 7331. These numbers are conservative with respect to the sensitivity of the image and take into account the uncertainties in the estimation of the sky level, particularly difficult in the observations of the region around NGC 7331.

There are no signs of past or present interaction in the form of tails, bridges, etc., between SQ and NGC 7331. We would remark that the last isophote surrounding SQ is not associated with any individual galaxy, but instead corresponds to the diffuse halo of the group, while the last isophote detected around NGC 7331 is more regular, roughly following the shape of the galaxy, and seems to be associated with the disk (and halo) of this galaxy.

## 5 H$`\alpha `$ maps and velocity field

To differentiate the emission coming from the low-z (at the systemic velocity of NGC 7320) and high-z (the other galaxies of SQ) respectively, we decided to take H$`\alpha `$ images redshifted at the velocities of both components (see Section 3). Figure 2 presents the $`R`$ band (gray-scale) and the total H$`\alpha `$ (contours). The H$`\alpha `$ maps presented here are a combination of the emission associated with the low- and high-$`z`$ components. To enhance the signal with respect to the noise we binned the data to a common pixel size of 1.06 arcsec; this produces a slight degradation in resolution. There are many spurious H$`\alpha `$ features associated with residuals due to imperfect continuum subtraction in the stars of the field. In general, there is no ambiguity in distinguishing between these residuals and real H$`\alpha `$ emission because the latter is specifically associated with several extended features that we discuss below. Figure 3 presents the images in the narrow filters observed combining the H$`\alpha `$ low-$`z`$ (contours) and high-$`z`$ (gray-scale) filters, respectively. The size of the images is $`6\times 6`$ arcmin2. From these images, it is clear that the low-$`z`$ emission is associated with NGC 7320. The high-$`z`$ emission is concentrated in three well differentiated structures: $`i`$) the center of NGC 7319, $`ii`$) an intergroup feature in the NS direction between NGC 7318B and NGC 7319, and $`iii`$) a structure to the north of the aforementioned feature, which corresponds to features previously identified by Xu, Sulentic, & Tuffs (1999) and Gallagher et al. (2001). Apart from these components, there are several other high-$`z`$ H$`\alpha `$ features in the tidal tails produced by the strong interaction within the group. From Fig. 3, we see that the low- and high-$`z`$ emission are associated with different spatial regions, and that there are no regions in which both types of emission overlap. Although our spatial resolution is poor and the H$`\alpha `$ emission is diffuse, using the algorithm SExtractor (Bertin & Arnouts 1996) and eliminating the spurious detections associated with star residuals, we identified about 20 and 30 separated regions in the low- and high-$`z`$ maps, respectively. The low-$`z`$ structures are symmetrically distributed in the disk of NGC 7320 (see however Section 6.1) and tend to be isolated and compact. The high-$`z`$ emission tends to be more diffuse than the low-$`z`$ component. This is in agreement with the standard picture in which components $`ii`$ and $`iii`$ (see above) of the high-$`z`$ emission are associated with the intergroup medium formed by material stripped by recent and ongoing strong interaction involving the galaxies NGC 7318A, NGC 7318B, NGC 7319, and NGC 7320C.

We may consider the set of H$`\alpha `$ images as a two-dimensional spectrum with very low resolution. It then makes sense to compute the centroid and dispersion of a given feature. From this, it is straightforward to produce a two-dimensional velocity map. We proceed as follows. A single wavelength, $`\lambda _i`$, was assigned to the $`i`$th pixel of the image:

$$\lambda _i=\frac{_jF_{ij}\times \lambda _j}{_jF_{ij}}$$
(1)
where $`F_{ij}`$ the flux in pixel $`i`$ and filter $`j`$, and $`\lambda _j`$ is the central wavelength in pixel $`i`$. To eliminate most of the residuals due to stars, only fluxes at a level above 2$`\sigma `$ were considered. From this, we computed the associated velocity as $`v_i=(\lambda _i\lambda _0)/\lambda _0`$ ($`\lambda _0=6562`$ Å). Figures 4$`a`$ and $`b`$ show the velocity and the associated error map, respectively. Overplotted in Fig. 4$`a`$ is the ellipse which fits the outer isophote of NGC 7320 in the $`R`$-band. An important result is that the velocities derived are in two well separated ranges: one from 5500 to 7500 km s-1, and the other from 700 to 1000 km s-1. No features at intermediate velocities that could suggest a Doppler redshift as the origin of the difference in velocities between NGC 7320 and the rest of the SQ have been detected. However, some points concerning the relationship between these two features are unexplained and are discussed in next section.

## 6 Discussion

The relation between NGC 7331 and NGC 7320 is clear according to their relative positions and systemic velocities. From the H i line the difference in velocities between both galaxies is $`45`$ km s-1 (de Vaucouleurs et al. 1991). Their projected separation is $`100`$ kpc, and the magnitudes in the $`B`$ band are 9.38 and 13.56 for NGC 7331 and NGC 7320, respectively. These allow us to classify NGC 7320 as a satellite of NGC 7331 according to the criteria defined by Zaritsky et al. (1997). We have searched the NED for objects at less than 500 kpc from NGC 7331 and with recessional velocities similar to that of this galaxy and found another two galaxies besides NGC 7320. These galaxies seem to constitute one of the loose groups identified by Trasarti-Battistoni (1998). At angular distances $`1`$ degree ($`2`$ Mpc) from SQ, there are about ten other galaxies with measured redshifts and with recessional velocities in the range 5500–7500 km s-1; they form another loose group with 9 members identified by Trasarti-Battistoni (1998); a subgroup of such galaxies (NGC7335, NGC7337, and NGC7340) at the East of NGC7331 has been classified as a poor cluster by White et al. (1999).

One of the mechanisms proposed to explain the counter-rotating core found in NGC 7331 (Prada et al. 1996) is the interaction of this galaxy with a small satellite. Although this could really be the origin of such kinematics, in our deep $`R`$ images we have found no evidence (bridges, tails, etc.) to $`R26.7`$ mag/arcsec2 supporting such an interaction between NGC 7331 and NGC 7320.

We have carried out a comparative study between the features detected in our velocity map and the results by Plana et al. (1999). The position of these common H$`\alpha `$ regions is indicated in Fig. 3. We have indicated also in the figure two features in one of the tails connecting NGC 7320c with the rest of SQ. The comparison with the results by Plana et al. (1999) shows that we have detected and estimated the velocities of the regions detected by these authors (the detection of region number 23 it is not completely clear in our data), although we have found a systematic difference of $`+300`$ km s-1 in the estimated velocities. This is consistent with the uncertainties expected from the typical width of the H$`\alpha `$ filters used in our analysis. In Table 2 we present our estimate of the velocities of H$`\alpha `$ regions detected by Plana et al. (1999) (we have adopted the notation used by these authors). This uncertainty is too large to distinguish between the components associated with NGC 7319 and the other three galaxies (NGC 7318A, NGC 7318B, and NGC 7317), but is small enough to distinguish between emission associated with the above four galaxies and NGC 7320. Due to the technique used, in some cases Plana et al. (1999) were not able to measured unambiguously the velocities, so our observations represent the first determination of such velocities. Our analysis allows us to distinguish only one component in velocity in each position. If there were more than one, this should reveal itself in our velocity map as an increase in the pixel-to-pixel rms according to the importance of one or other component. This seems to be the case for region 13 (in the notation of Plana et al. 1999) in which these authors detected two different components, and which shows up in our map as a large variation in velocity from pixel to pixel.

Some of these features are in the tidal tails resulting from the strong interaction within the group. This is in perfect agreement with the results of Iglesias-Páramo & Vílchez (2001), who identified these features as dwarf galaxies. The above results are also in agreement with the predictions from numerical simulations (Barnes 1988) in which dwarf galaxies can form in tidal tails resulting from the interaction of two disk galaxies.

Our broad-band observations reveal a bigger halo that was previously observed. As pointed out by Moles et al. (1998), this light is not associated with the individual galaxies, but is instead diffuse light associated with present and past interactions within the group. In particular it indicates large transversal motions of NGC 7317 and NGC 7320C. The interaction with this galaxy seems to be responsible for the diffuse light observed to the north of SQ. The extension of the SW tail to NGC 7320C strongly supports the standard scenario proposed by Moles et al. (1998), in which the galaxy crossed SQ and created this tail, which runs in parallel to a second tail which emerges from one of the arms of NGC 7319. This second tail is brighter as it would be expected if it corresponds to a past encounter with the core from which most of the gas associated with NGC 7319 (and partially with NGC 7320C) was stripped.

### 6.1 A remark on some odd coincidences

Apart from all the positive facts which suggest that NGC 7320 is unrelated to the rest of the components of SQ, as we have argued above, there is one further observational aspect whose interpretation is not clear in the light of the orthodox view: there is an H$`\alpha `$ bridge (see Figs. 3, 4$`a`$ and 4$`c`$) which is a continuation of the intergalactic gas of the high-redshift galaxies of SQ pointing to NGC 7320 and extending throughout this galaxy. In particular, we would like to remark:

* The emission of H$`\alpha `$ at 6500 km/s is in a region of NGC7320 where there is no emission of H$`\alpha `$ at 800 km/s. Assuming elliptical symmetry for NGC 7320 (such symmetry exists in the $`R`$-band), we would expect to observe H$`\alpha `$ emission with both velocities (6500 km s-1 and 800 km s-1) superposed in the region of the bridge. Instead of that, we observe a gap in the H$`\alpha `$ emission at 800 km/s precisely where the bridge at 6500 km/s is present.
* Exactly in the point where the bridge of 6500 km/s finishes, HII regions at 800 km/s begin. We might think that the opacity of these HII regions does not allow to see what is behind. However, it is not only in the position of the HII regions at 800 km/s, but also in the gaps between them, where we do not find any emission at 6500 km/s.

These coincidences could be explained naturally if a bridge at 6500 km/s were in front of the galaxy at 800 km/s. Although the evidence is not conclusive, and difficult to fit in an ortodox view, we think that this is a new and interesting observational fact to consider in future studies of SQ.

## 7 Conclusions

1) We have obtained deep $`R`$ images in the region from SQ to the southern edge of the giant spiral NGC 7331. We have found no evidence of an optical connection in the form of tails, bridges, etc., between SQ and NGC 7331 above magnitudes $`26.7`$ mag/arcssec2.

2) We have delineated the halo of SQ up to the above magnitude showing that it extends to and contains the galaxy NGC 7320C. Additionally, in the $`R`$-band image, a tail connecting the core of SQ and NGC 7320C is seen. This is interpreted as a tidal tail produced by a past encounter between NGC 7320C and the core of the group.

3) With narrow-band images in the range 0–8000 km s-1, we have delineated the H$`\alpha `$ emission. We see that this is concentrated in a feature in the NS direction situated between NGC 7318B and NGC 7319, a region $`1`$ arcminute to the north of NGC 7318B and the nucleus of NGC 7319.

4) With the H$`\alpha `$ images, we have obtained a low-resolution velocity map of the SQ region. The H$`\alpha `$ images and the velocity map show evidence of emission in the tidal tail that is the result of the strong interaction within the group.

5) The velocity map derived from the H$`\alpha `$ images does not show features at intermediate velocities between the low- and the high-$`z`$ components.

6) A filament in H$`\alpha `$ at $`6500`$ km s-1 apparently connecting NGC 7320 (at $`800`$ km s-1) and the rest of SQ is seen. We think that this fact leaves the point of the possible relation between NGC 7320 and the rest of SQ still open and will require further attention.

We wish to thank J. Iglesias-Páramo, who kindly provided the H$`\alpha `$ images taken at the 2.2 m telescope in Calar Alto.

## Figures


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# Untitled Document

Z. Haba, Feynman Integral and Random Dynamics in Quantum Physics. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic, 1999. 364 p., price 135 Euro (hc) (Mathematics and Its Applications; 480). ISBN 0-7923-5735-3.

Useful as the Feynman or path integral may be, it seldom is a real integral to begin with, formally expressing a particle’s propagator as a sum of amplitudes $`e^{iS/\mathrm{}}`$ (with $`S`$ the classical action) over all continuous paths from initial to endpoint. Thus, the ‘integrand’ has unit modulus everywhere in the infinite-dimensional path space, and physically irrelevant trajectories have their contributions suppressed only by destructive interference, i.e., by rapid oscillations of the amplitude. This is unsatisfactory not only for the mathematician: it is also an obstacle to (numerical) approximation of the path integral, and thus the reason why many problems in quantum physics in fact still are too hard for us.

The best-known attempt at a resolution formulates the Schrödinger equation in imaginary time, where it becomes a diffusion equation amenable to Wiener integration. This route is particularly attractive, since the quantum-statistical operator $`e^{H/T}`$ (with $`H`$ the Hamiltonian and $`T`$ the temperature in energy units) is—incidentally or profoundly—an imaginary-time evolution operator. Many static problems can thus be analyzed, but a continuation back to real time is usually only possible for exact or perturbative analytic results (i.e., still better than claimed in the author’s foreword, stating that imaginary-time methods never lead to dynamic information).

Positive amplitudes, and hence a probabilistic interpretation, can also be obtained by keeping the time real, but rotating the *space* variables over $`\sqrt{i}=e^{i\pi /4}`$. This is the approach chosen in Haba’s book. Preliminary chapters deal with quantum and classical mechanics, probability theory and stochastic calculus, and the conventional approach to path integration through the Trotter product formula. Subsequently, the stochastic formulation in complex space is established, and applied to semi-classical expansions, nonlinear oscillations, quantum dynamics on analytic manifolds, dissipative systems (i.e., those which are open in that they interact with an environment), tunneling, field theory, and computer simulations. Thus, the covered field is vast, justifying the author’s intention to formulate exactly the mathematical problem but only outline the proofs.

However, in practice the level of precision falls well short of that. From the first page it is already conspicuous that literature citations have been executed sloppily. A discrete-time stochastic process is also called a Markov chain, as if the Markov property (which never is clearly defined) would be trivial in discrete time. The normalization of a Master equation’s transition rate is given just the wrong way round. Strikingly, ‘classical mechanics’ is formulated in terms of a flow on a manifold—in fact defining a generic classical dynamical system, where mechanics proper should have involved canonical coordinates $`p_i,q_i`$ or more abstractly a symplectic structure. As a result, the introduction of Hamilton–Jacobi theory, a cornerstone for the author’s semi-classical formalism, becomes unmotivated and *ad hoc*. A decent canonical set-up is finally given some 100 pages later in Chapter 8, i.e., after its use in the crucial stochastic approach to the Feynman integral (Ch. 6). The latter has issues of its own, for it proceeds in terms of a ‘quantum Hamilton–Jacobi function,’ reducing to the usual one from Chapter 1 for $`\mathrm{}0`$. However, the whole discussion in Chapter 6 concerns the semi-classical limit only, so that it is unclear if the distinction between classical and quantum Hamilton–Jacobi functions in fact is substantial.

A look at the bibliography shows that the author has published the bulk of the material underlying this book in the form of single-author papers. Especially in such a situation, a fresh editorial look at the manuscript would have been invaluable. A text of improved clarity and consistency would make it much easier to gauge the true power of the author’s methods. In any case, the nature of the subject does not merit a hasty publication.

In conclusion, the way in which this book has been produced does not justify its high price. Because of its wide scope, it may be of interest to those interested in stochastic formulations of quantum physics, and having sufficient background or determination not to be wrong-footed by the presentation. The book’s stated goal of introducing a wider audience to these stochastic methods is only partially met.


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# The Evolution of type 1 AGN in the IR (15𝜇m). The view from ELAIS-S1 Based on observations with the Infrared Space Observatory (ISO). ISO is an ESA project with instruments funded by ESA Member States (especially the PI countries: France, Germany, The Netherlands and the United Kingdom) and with the participation of ISAS and NASA.

## 1 Introduction

The measurement of the luminosity function (LF) of Active Galactic Nuclei (AGN) and its evolution provides fundamental information on the accretion history of the Universe, the physics related to it, how structures have been formed and on the contribution of this population to the Cosmic Background.

Historically, AGN have been classified using their optical characteristics and divided into two categories: type 1 (AGN1) and 2 (AGN2), according to the presence or absence of broad emission lines in their optical spectra (we will use this definition throughout this paper).

Unified models assume a dusty, IR emitting, torus around the central engine. These models distinguish AGN1 and AGN2 depending on the torus orientation; AGN1 are galaxies with low absorption from the mid-IR to the soft X-ray while AGN2 are objects with the largest column densities (e.g. Antonucci 1993; Urry & Padovani 1995).

The strength of the AGN1 LF evolution has been determined in the optical, soft and hard X-rays (e.g. Boyle et al. 2000; Miyaji et al. 2000; La Franca et al. 2002), while in the mid infrared (5-30 $`\mu `$m: mid-IR) it is still unknown. The only measure available at these wavelengths, for AGN1, is the local LF at 12 $`\mu `$m from IRAS data (Rush, Malkan & Spinoglio, 1993; RMS hereafter).

The situation for AGN2 is quite different because they are strongly absorbed and thus difficult to select and/or spectroscopically identify. Statistically significant samples of AGN2 need to be built up in the far infrared or the hard X-rays where absorption is less significant. However, in these cases the optical spectroscopic identification is also a difficult task.

For these reasons the contribution of AGN to the Cosmic Infrared Background (CIRB) is still unknown. The only estimate is based on AGN1 evolution measured at other wavelengths, under assumptions on the AGN spectral energy distribution (SED), and the AGN1/AGN2 ratio (e.g. Granato, Danese & Franceschini 1997).

We have spectroscopically identified 25 AGN1 at 15$`\mu `$m from the Preliminary Analysis (PA) catalogue of the European Large Area ISO Survey (ELAIS). Our spectroscopic sample is the only one able to probe the high redshift population of AGN1 in this waveband. Other published ISO samples (i.e. CFRS, Flores et al. 1999; ISO-HDF north, Aussel et al. 1999; ISO-HDF south, Oliver et al. 2002) do not have enough sources and/or spectroscopic identifications.

Here we present our measurement of the evolution of LF of AGN1 at 15$`\mu `$m using our data combined with the 12$`\mu `$m local sample from RMS. The data are presented in section 2. In section 3 we describe the method used to derive the LF, while the results are presented and discussed in section 4.

## 2 The Sample

ELAIS is the largest single open time project conducted by ISO (Oliver et al. 2000), mapping an area of 12 deg2 at 15$`\mu `$m with ISOCAM and at 90$`\mu `$m with ISOPHOT. Four main fields were chosen in order to reduce the effects of cosmic variance (N1, N2, N3 in the north hemisphere and S1 in the south) at high Ecliptic latitudes ($`|\beta |>40^o`$) on selected areas of low extinction.

A Preliminary Analysis (PA) catalogue was produced for the 4 main fields (Serjeant et al. 2000). The Final Analysis (FA) uses the Lari technique and the catalogue of the S1 field (J2000,$`\alpha :00^h34^m44.4^s,\delta :43\mathrm{°}28\mathrm{}12\mathrm{}`$, covering an area of 3.96 deg2) has been recently released by Lari et al. (2001).

Optical identifications were possible due to an extensive R-band CCD survey, performed with the ESO/Danish 1.5m and the ESO/MPE 2.2m telescopes. The spectroscopic follow-up program was carried out with the AAT at the Anglo-Australian Observatory (AAO), the 3.6m and NTT at ESO/La Silla. The selection of targets for spectroscopic identification was carried out randomly in order to cover uniformly $``$70% of the sources in the magnitude range $`17`$$`<`$R$`<`$$`20`$. The dominant class is star-forming galaxies (about 50%), however AGN (type 1 + 2) constitute a significant fraction of the identifications in this magnitude range ($``$30%). The ELAIS-S1 field has also been completely covered in the radio at 1.4 GHz down to 0.3 mJy (Gruppioni et al. 1999), and in 50$`\%`$ of its area in the X-rays with BeppoSAX (Alexander et al. 2001).

In order to assess our sample of optically identified PA sources, we took advantage of the already completed FA catalogue in the ELAIS-S1 region (Lari et al. 2001). The FA catalogue contains 462 sources at 5$`\sigma `$ confidence level, while the PA catalogue we used contains 762 sources, as it includes also less significant sources.

All the PA sources with spectroscopic identifications were analyzed, and the flux recomputed with the Lari Technique at $`>4\sigma `$ confidence level: 23 out of 25 PA AGN1 were confirmed and used for our statistical analysis.

The fluxes of the PA catalogue were recomputed according to the FA calibration by using all the objects in common, plus the PA objects with existing spectroscopy and detected also with the Lari Technique at $`>4\sigma `$ confidence level. The effective area, as a function of flux, of our PA selected sample has been statistically estimated by comparing the PA “corrected” counts (i.e. including only those detected at $`>4\sigma `$ confidence level with the Lari Technique) with the counts derived from the FA catalogue by Gruppioni et al. (2002).

Our final sample consists of 21 AGN1 (0.3$`<`$$`z`$$`<`$3.2, see Figure 1) with $`f_{15\mu m}`$$`>`$$`1\mathrm{m}\mathrm{J}\mathrm{y}`$ and $`17`$$`<`$R$`<`$$`20`$ (two objects fainter than R=20 fall outside these limits).

To represent the local mid-infrared population of type 1 AGN we have combined our data with a sample of 41 AGN1 belonging to the RMS sample selected from the IRAS Faint Source Catalog, Version 2 (Moshir et al. 1991). This sample is complete down to 300 mJy at 12$`\mu `$m.

## 3 The Luminosity Function

In this work we define $`L_{15}`$ as $`\nu L_\nu `$ at 15$`\mu `$m. Detailed $`k`$-corrections (over the 15$`\mu `$m LW3 filter from ISO and the 12$`\mu `$m filter from IRAS) are necessary in order to derive the 15$`\mu `$m luminosities for our sources, as well as to convert the 12$`\mu `$m luminosity from the RMS sample into a 15$`\mu `$m luminosity. We adopted the mean spectral energy distribution (SED) of radio-quiet QSOs from Elvis et al. (1994) as representative of our AGN1 population. The standard $`k`$-correction was computed following Lang (1980). Figure 1 illustrates the luminosity-redshift space distribution of all AGN1 used in this study.

A parametric, unbinned maximum likelihood method was used to fit simultaneously the evolution and luminosity function parameters (Marshall et al. 1983) of the combined sample. Since ELAIS identifications were carried out in the R-band magnitude interval 17.0$`<`$R$`<`$20.0, a factor $`𝚯(z,L)`$, which takes into account the optical limits, was introduced into the likelihood function. $`𝚯(z,L)`$ represents the probability that a source with a given luminosity at 15$`\mu `$m ($`L_{15}`$) and redshift $`z`$, had a R-magnitude within the limits of the sample, and was derived taking into account the 1$`\sigma `$ internal spread in the assumed SED (Elvis et al. 1994). The R-band $`k`$-corrections were taken from Natali et al. (1998). In order to show the dependence of our sample completeness on the assumed SED we plot the expected relation (and its 1$`\sigma `$ spread) between the IR and optical fluxes (Figure 2). From this we estimate that our sample of AGN1 is about 76% complete. The missing fraction of objects is expected to be found in the interval 20.0$`<`$R$`<`$22.0. The function to be minimized can therefore be written as $`\mathrm{S}=2\mathrm{ln}`$, being $``$ the likelihood function,

$$\mathrm{S}=2\underset{i=1}{\overset{\mathrm{N}}{}}\mathrm{ln}[\mathrm{\Phi }(z_i,L_i)]+2\mathrm{\Phi }(z,L)\mathrm{\Omega }(z,L)𝚯(z,L)\frac{dV}{dz}𝑑z𝑑L$$

where N is the total number of sources in the two samples, $`\mathrm{\Omega }(z,L)`$ is the fractional area of the sky over which a source with luminosity $`L_{15}`$ and redshift $`z`$ could have been observed, $`(dV/dz)`$ is the differential comoving volume and $`\mathrm{\Phi }(z,L)`$ the space and luminosity density of the sources being considered.

Following studies of AGN1 in the optical and in the X-ray, we adopted a smooth double power-law for the space density distribution in the local Universe,

$$\frac{d\mathrm{\Phi }(L_{15},z=0)}{d\mathrm{log}L_{15}}=\frac{\mathrm{\Phi }^{}}{(L_{15}/L_{15}^{})^\alpha +(L_{15}/L_{15}^{})^\beta }$$

and tested a Pure Luminosity Evolution (PLE) model of the form:

$$L_{15}(z)=L_{15}(0)(1+z)^{k_L}.$$

Confidence regions for each parameter have been obtained by computing $`\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{S}(\mathrm{\Delta }\chi ^2)`$ at a number of values around the best-fitting ($`\mathrm{S}_{min}`$) parameter, while allowing the other parameters to float (see Lampton, Margon & Bowyer 1976). The 68% confidence levels quoted correspond to $`\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{S}=1.0`$. The normalization factor $`\mathrm{\Phi }^{}`$ was determined by requiring agreement with the observed total number of sources (ELAIS + RMS).

Bidimensional Kolmogorov-Smirnov (2D-KS) probabilities (see Peacock 1983; Fasano & Franceschini 1987) were derived for each of the best fitting PLE models.

We computed the LF both in a ($`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{m}`$,$`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }`$)=(1.0,0.0) and ($`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{m}`$,$`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }`$)=(0.3,0.7) cosmology, assuming $`H_0=75`$ $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1\mathrm{Mpc}^1`$.

## 4 Results and Discussion

Figure 3 and Table 1 show the results of the fit for the 2 cosmologies considered together with the 2D-KS probabilities. The points plotted in Figure 3 correspond to the space densities of the observed sources, corrected for evolution within the redshift intervals as explained in La Franca & Cristiani (1997).

Our ($`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{m}`$,$`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }`$)=(1.0,0.0) local LF is not fully consistent with the estimate of RMS. Our bright slope $`\beta 2.9`$ is steeper than the estimate $`\beta 2.1`$ of RMS. This difference can probably be attributed both to a steeper high-$`z`$ LF and to the effects of evolution on the brightest bins used by RMS.

The Mid-Infrared LF, for either cosmologies, is steeper than that observed in the optical and in the soft and hard X-ray. The faint 15$`\mu `$m slope is $`\alpha 1.1`$ while the bright slope is $`\beta 2.9`$. In the optical Boyle et al. (2000) found $`\alpha 0.5`$ and $`\beta 2.5`$ (here we quote slope-1 in order to convert to $`d\mathrm{\Phi }/d\mathrm{log}L`$ units). In the soft and hard X-rays the faint slope is $`\alpha 0.7`$ while the bright slope is $`\beta 2.0`$ (Miyaji, Hasinger & Schmidt 2000; La Franca et al. 2002).

According to the blue optical spectra of our identified AGN1, we can exclude the possibility that a different population has been selected. As a consequence this steepening at longer wavelength of the LF, taken at face value, would imply a dependence of the spectral energy distribution of AGN1 on luminosity and/or redshift. For example, a larger IR contribution from the SED of the fainter AGN1 (possibly caused by a more relevant contribution from the hosting galaxy) could be the origin of the observed behaviour. A more detailed discussion on this issue will be carried out when the results from the identifications of the FA catalogue from ELAIS are available.

Similarly to what has been observed in the optical, the evolution at 15$`\mu `$m is fairly well represented by a PLE model with $`k=3.03.3`$. Our data are not statistically significant enough to probe the presence of a cut-off in the evolution ($`z_{cut}`$) as observed in the optical and X-ray bands. As shown in Table 1, our fits are consistent with a typical value $`z_{cut}=2.0`$, similar to what has been found from optical and X-ray studies (e.g. Boyle et al. 2000; Miyaji et al. 2000). All the fits show a good 2D-KS probability, with larger values in a $`(\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{m},\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda })=(0.3,0.7)`$ Universe.

Our estimates of the 15$`\mu `$m LF allow us to compute the contribution of AGN1 to the 15$`\mu `$m CIRB. Direct measurements of the CIRB in the 5-100$`\mu `$m range are difficult. Hauser et al. 2001, report an upper limit of 470 and 500 $`\mathrm{nWm}^2\mathrm{sr}^1`$ at 12 and 25$`\mu `$m respectively, based on the attenuation of the $`\gamma `$-ray photons (see also Hauser et al. 1998). On the other hand, a lower limit of $`3.3\pm 1.3`$ $`\mathrm{nWm}^2\mathrm{sr}^1`$ at 15$`\mu `$m is found from the integrated light of source counts derived from observations with ISOCAM (Altieri et al. 1999).

The intensity of the Cosmic Background at 15$`\mu `$m is given by,

$$\mathrm{I}_\nu =\frac{1}{4\pi }𝑑L_{15}𝑑z\frac{dV}{dz}f_\nu (L_{15},z)\mathrm{\Phi }(L_{15},z)$$

where $`f_\nu (L_{15},z)`$ represents the observed flux density of a source with an intrinsic luminosity $`L_{15}`$ at redshift $`z`$. According to our derived PLE models, we estimate a contribution of the AGN1 to the CIRB at 15$`\mu `$m (in units of $`\nu I_\nu `$) in the range $`5.26.7\times 10^{11}\mathrm{Wm}^2\mathrm{sr}^1`$, depending on the cosmology adopted and on the existence or not of a redshift cut-off ($`z_{cut}`$, see Table 1). The integral has been computed for $`\mathrm{log}L_{15}(z=0)>42`$ up to $`z=5.0`$. These values correspond to about $`23\%`$ of the integrated light measured by Altieri et al. (1999). If we assume that the ratio of AGN2 to AGN1, which is about 4 locally (e.g. Lawrence 1991; Maiolino & Rieke, 1995), does not change substantially with redshift and that the shape and evolution of the luminosity function of AGN2 is similar to those of AGN1, the total contribution for AGN to the background measured by Altieri et al. (1999) would be $`1015\%`$. This value is in rough agreement with what is predicted by the models of dusty tori in AGN from Granato et al. (1997). The predictions from Xu et al. (2001) on the contribution of AGN to the CIRB at 15$`\mu `$m is about a factor of 2 lower than our estimate. This difference is probably due to two reasons. First, the slope of their local LF of AGN1+AGN2 is flatter than our estimates at faint luminosities. Second, their assumed evolution (a PLE with $`k_L`$=3.5 up to $`z`$=1.5 and then dropping as $`k_L`$=-3) has a lower $`z_{cut}`$ and a faster decay at high redshift.

## Acknowledgments

We acknowledge J. Kotilainen, A. Verma and M. Linden-Vernle for carrying out part of the CCD R-band photometric observations and data reduction. Based on observations collected at the European Southern Observatory, Chile. IM acknowledges the receipt of a fellowship within the CRA-OAP-IAC agreement. This research has been partly supported by ASI contracts ARS-99-75, MURST grants Cofin-98-02-32, Cofin-0002036 and EC TMR Network programme (FMRX-CT96-0068).