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# The nuclear shell effects near the r-process path in the relativistic Hartree-Bogoliubov theory

## I Introduction

A knowledge of the shell effects near the r-process path is important to discerning astrophysical scenario of nucleosynthesis . The question whether the shell effects near the drip lines are strong or do quench has become crucial to understanding the nucleosynthesis of heavy nuclei. The $`N=82`$ nuclei at the r-process path are assumed to play a significant role in providing nuclear abundances about $`A130`$. Since nuclei contributing to this peak are extremely neutron-rich and are not accessible experimentally, it has not been possible to ascertain the nature of the shell effects in the vicinity of the r-process path. Due to the lack of experimental data, there prevail conflicting view points  on the strength of the shell effects near the r-process path.

In ref.  the shell effects in the region of the r-process path at $`N=82`$ were studied on the basis of the Relativistic Mean-Field (RMF) theory using a successful nuclear interaction. It was predicted  that the shell effects at $`N=82`$ in Zr nuclei are strong. In contrast, the shell effects were suggested  to be quenched on the basis of the Hartree-Fock-Bogoliubov (HFB) calculations using the density-dependent Skyrme force SkP. In the absence of experimental data on the shell effects for $`N=82`$ nuclei near the r-process path, however, it is difficult to verify either of the two predictions. In view of this, we first attempt to reproduce the available data on the shell effects in the known regions and then extrapolate the method to the inaccessible region.

In this paper, we examine how the shell effects evolve with isospin in the region of the astrophysically important magic number $`N=82`$ near the r-process path. Using the experimental data available on the waiting-point nucleus 80Zn ($`N=50`$), we explore the shell effects near the r-process path in the framework of the Relativistic Hartree-Bogoliubov (RHB) theory with the self-consistent finite-range pairing. In order to improve the description of the shell effects, we have also introduced the vector self-coupling of $`\omega `$ meson in addition to the non-linear scalar coupling of the $`\sigma `$-meson in the RHB theory. It has been shown that with this approach the high-precision experimental data on the shell effects about the stability line can be reproduced well . This forms our basis to be able to predict as to how the shell effects evolve in the unknown region.

The shell effects are known to manifest strongly in terms of the magic numbers. This is signified by a prominent kink about the major magic numbers as can be seen vividly in the 2-neutron separation energies ($`S_{2n}`$) all over the periodic table . This is a demonstration of the existence of large shell gaps at the magic numbers in nuclei about the stability line. Here the spin-orbit interaction is pivotal in the creation of the magic numbers . In the RMF theory  the spin-orbit term arises naturally as a consequence of the Dirac-Lorentz structure of nucleons. This has shown much usefulness in explaining properties which involve shell effects such as anomalous isotope shifts in stable nuclei . The form of the spin-orbit interaction in the RMF theory has been found to be advantageous over that in the non-relativistic approaches .

For nuclei near the drip line, a coupling to the continuum is required. A self-consistent treatment of pairing is also desirable. The framework of the RHB theory provides an appropriate tool to include both these features. Thus, in the RHB theory the advantage of a relativistic description of the RMF approach in the Hartree channel is combined with that of a self-consistent finite-range pairing force. We provide a short summary of the RHB theory in the next Section. In section III we give the details of the calculations. The ensuing results are presented and discussed in Section IV. Here a detailed comparison of the shell effects using different forces and approaches is made. The single-particle levels are used to illustrate the nature of the shell effects in the different approaches. The last section concludes the results of the paper.

## II The Relativistic Hartree-Bogoliubov Theory

The RMF Lagrangian which describes the nucleons as Dirac spinors moving in meson fields is given by

$``$ $`=`$ $`\overline{\psi }\left(\text{/}pg_\omega \text{/}\omega g_\rho \text{/}\stackrel{}{\rho }\stackrel{}{\tau }{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}e(1\tau _3)\text{ /}Ag_\sigma \sigma M_N\right)\psi `$ (3)
$`+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}_\mu \sigma ^\mu \sigma U(\sigma ){\displaystyle \frac{1}{4}}\mathrm{\Omega }_{\mu \nu }\mathrm{\Omega }^{\mu \nu }+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}m_\omega ^2\omega _\mu \omega ^\mu `$
$`+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}g_4(\omega _\mu \omega ^\mu )^2{\displaystyle \frac{1}{4}}\stackrel{}{R}_{\mu \nu }\stackrel{}{R}^{\mu \nu }+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}m_\rho ^2\stackrel{}{\rho }_\mu \stackrel{}{\rho }^\mu {\displaystyle \frac{1}{4}}F_{\mu \nu }F^{\mu \nu }`$
where $`M_N`$ is the bare nucleon mass and $`\psi `$ is its Dirac spinor. In addition, we have the scalar meson ($`\sigma `$), isoscalar vector meson ($`\omega `$), isovector vector meson ($`\rho `$) and the electromagnetic field $`A^\mu `$, with the masses $`m_\sigma `$, $`m_\omega `$ and $`m_\rho `$ and the coupling constants $`g_\sigma `$, $`g_\omega `$, and $`g_\rho `$, respectively. The field tensors for the vector mesons are given as $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{\mu \nu }=_\mu \omega _\nu _\nu \omega _\mu `$ and by similar expressions for the $`\rho `$-meson and the photon. For a realistic description of nuclear properties a nonlinear self-coupling $`U(\sigma )=\frac{1}{2}m_\sigma ^2\sigma ^2+\frac{1}{3}g_2\sigma ^3+\frac{1}{4}g_3\sigma ^4`$ for $`\sigma `$-mesons has become standard. We have added the non-linear vector self-coupling of $`\omega `$-meson , which is represented by the coupling constant $`g_4`$.

Using Green’s function techniques  it has been shown in ref.  that a relativistic Hartree-Bogoliubov theory can be implemented using such a Lagrangian. Neglecting retardation effects one obtains a relativistic Dirac-Hartree-Bogoliubov (RHB) equations

$$\left(\begin{array}{cc}h& \mathrm{\Delta }\\ \mathrm{\Delta }^{}& h^{}\end{array}\right)\left(\begin{array}{c}\hfill U\\ \hfill V\end{array}\right)_k=E_k\left(\begin{array}{c}\hfill U\\ \hfill V\end{array}\right)_k,$$
(4)
where $`E_k`$ are the quasiparticle energies and the coefficients $`U_k`$ and $`V_k`$ are four-dimensional Dirac spinors normalized as

$$(U_k^+U_k^{}+V_k^+V_k^{})d^3r=\delta _{kk^{}}.$$
(5)
The average field

$$h=𝜶𝒑+g_\omega \omega +\beta (M+g_\sigma \sigma )\lambda $$
(6)
contains the chemical potential $`\lambda `$ which is adjusted to the proper particle number. The meson fields $`\sigma `$ and $`\omega `$ are determined self-consistently from the Klein Gordon equations:

$`\left\{\mathrm{\Delta }+m_\sigma ^2\right\}\sigma `$ $`=`$ $`g_\sigma \rho _sg_2\sigma ^2g_3\sigma ^3,`$ (7)
$`\left\{\mathrm{\Delta }+m_\omega ^2\right\}\omega `$ $`=`$ $`g_\omega \rho _v+g_4\omega ^3,`$ (8)
with the scalar density $`\rho _s=_k\overline{V}_kV_k`$ and the baryon density $`\rho _v=_kV_k^+V_k`$. The sum on $`k`$ runs only over all the particle states in the no-sea approximation. The pairing field $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ in Eq. (4) is given by

$$\mathrm{\Delta }_{ab}=\frac{1}{2}\underset{cd}{}V_{abcd}^{pp}\kappa _{cd},$$
(9)
where $`V_{abcd}^{pp}`$ are the matrix elements of a general two-body pairing interaction, and the pairing tensor is defined as

$$\kappa _{cd}(𝐫,𝐫^{})=\underset{E_k>0}{}U_{ck}^{}(𝐫)V_{dk}(𝐫^{}).$$
(10)
The RHB equations (4) are a set of four coupled integro-differential equations for the Dirac spinors $`U(r)`$ and $`V(r)`$ which are obtained self-consistently. The solution of the Dirac-Hartree-Bogoliubov eigenvalue equations and the meson-field equations determines the nuclear ground state.

Nuclei which are known to show strong pairing correlations are treated appropriately within the framework of the RHB approach. This is especially important when the pairing correlations in the middle of a shell become significant. On the other hand, the pairing correlations for nuclei 2 neutrons less or more than a magic number can be expected to be similar in the RHB and the BCS approach. This is due to the reason that the pairing correlations in such nuclei are reduced to a minimal level. However, in the present work, we have performed the RHB calculations for all nuclei. For the pairing channel, we have taken the finite-range Gogny force D1S. It is known to represent the pairing properties of a large number of finite nuclei appropriately .

The RHB approach becomes important while dealing with nuclei far away from the stability line and in particular for those in the vicinity of the drip lines where the Fermi level is usually very close to the continuum. The RHB theory which is based upon the quasi-particle scheme employing Bogoliubov transformations takes into account the coupling between the bound states and the states in the continuum. The pairing and the coupling to the continuum can be important in nuclei with a pair of particles above the shell closure in determining the shell effects especially as the Fermi surface is very close to the continuum. Therefore, the RHB theory with the self-consistent pairing serves as an ideal scheme for this purpose.

## III Details of the Calculations

The RHB calculations have been performed for nuclei in the neighbourhood of the waiting-point Zn nuclei and for nuclei from r-process path to the neutron drip line. Nuclei are treated within a spherically symmetric configuration. The method of expansion of the wavefunctions into the harmonic oscillator basis is employed . We have taken 20 shells both for the fermionic as well as bosonic wavefunctions for the expansion.

A comparative study is made between the Lagrangian model with the non-linear scalar self-coupling of the $`\sigma `$ meson and the Lagrangian with both the non-linear scalar self-coupling of $`\sigma `$ and the vector self-coupling of $`\omega `$ meson. For the former, we have used the force NL-SH which is a typical representative for this Lagrangian model. In a large number of studies it has been shown that the force NL-SH  is able to provide a very good description of the ground-state properties of nuclei all over the periodic table. It has been found to be especially useful for exotic nuclei near the drip lines. Recently, the force NL3  has been brought out with a view to improve the description of the giant monopole resonance. However, as shown in ref.  ground-state properties of nuclei predicted by NL3 are very similar to those of NL-SH.

For the Lagrangian with the non-linear vector self-coupling of $`\omega `$ meson which is in addition to the usual non-linear scalar self-coupling of $`\sigma `$ meson, we have used the forces NL-SV1 and NL-SV2. These forces have been developed recently  with a view to bring about an improvement in the ground state properties of nuclei vis-a-vis the scalar self-coupling. Consequently, it has been shown by Sharma et al.  that the introduction of the vector self-coupling was a remedial measure in respect of the shell effects in nuclei about the stability line. In addition, the high-density equation of state (EOS) of the nuclear matter becomes softer as compared to that with the scalar self-coupling only. This would make the Lagrangian model with the vector self-coupling compatible with the neutron star masses. The detailed properties of these forces will be provided elsewhere .

## IV Results and Discussion

In our attempt to scrutinize the shell effects, we started our investigation  of the shell effects in nuclei at the stability line, where we examined the role of $`\sigma `$\- and $`\omega `$-meson couplings on the shell effects in Ni and Sn isotopes. It was observed that the existing nuclear forces based upon the nonlinear scalar self-coupling of $`\sigma `$-meson exhibit shell effects which were stronger than suggested by the experimental data. In order to remedy this problem, the nonlinear vector self-coupling of $`\omega `$-meson in the RHB theory was introduced. As a result of this, the experimental data on the shell effects in Ni and Sn nuclei on the stability line were reproduced well .

### A The Zn nuclei near N=50

Having established the functional basis, we consider nuclei around 80Zn ($`N=50`$) in the present work. The isotope 80Zn is assumed to be a waiting-point nucleus in the chain of r-process nucleosynthesis and comes closest to the $`\beta `$-stability line for nuclei with $`N=50`$. The experimental $`S_{2n}`$ value for this nucleus is about 11 MeV. The nuclei 80Zn and 82Zn being very rich in neutrons would serve to test the theoretical models far away from the stability line. Here, we present the results on the shell effects in the waiting-point Zn nuclei about $`N=50`$ using different model Lagrangians. The $`S_{2n}`$ values for the Zn isotopes obtained from the RHB calculations are shown in Fig. 1. The experimental data is taken from the 1995 mass tables . Because the mass of the nucleus 82Zn is based upon the systematics, there may be a slight uncertainty in the $`S_{2n}`$ value of the nucleus 82Zn. Thus, the data point for 82Zn is shown in Fig. 1 enclosed within a diamond.

The RHB calculations \[Fig. 1(a)\] with NL-SH (scalar self-coupling only) show a very large kink at $`N=50`$ implying that the shell effects with NL-SH are much stronger than exhibited by the available data. In comparison, the shell gap with NL-SV2 (both the scalar and vector self-couplings) is reduced as compared to NL-SH. It is, however, still larger than the data shown. The reduction in the shell gap with the vector self-coupling is consistent with that observed in Ni nuclei at the stability line vis-a-vis the scalar self-coupling only.

We show in Fig. 1(b) the $`S_{2n}`$ values obtained with the other vector self-coupling force NL-SV1. The slope of the kink shows that the shell gap with NL-SV1 agrees well with the available data. Thus, RHB with the vector self-coupling Lagrangian NL-SV1 is able to reproduce the available data on the shell effects in the waiting-point region satisfactorily. We also show in Fig. 1(b) the non-relativistic HFB calculations with the Skyrme force SkP . The SkP results produce nearly a straight line passing through the $`N=50`$ point. A comparison of these results with the data shows that the shell effects with SkP are quenched strongly. This is reminiscent of the behaviour of SkP as observed in ref.  at the stability line, where the shell effects were found to be quenched strongly in Ni isotopes at $`N=28`$ in contrast to the experimental data. This feature of SkP is evidently due to its high effective mass $`m^{}1`$ which increases the level density near the Fermi surface and thus suppresses the shell gaps significantly .

### B Nuclei about N=82 near the r-process path

Nuclei in the vicinity of $`Z=40`$ with the magic neutron number $`N=82`$ are expected to lie on or close to the r-process path. We have chosen the isotopic chains $`Z=3646`$ with neutron numbers running across the magic number $`N=82`$. The r-process path is expected to pass through these nuclei especially those with the higher $`Z`$ values. Some nuclei in these chains are close to the neutron drip-line as the neutron separation energy approaches a vanishing value.

How the shell effects behave in nuclei near the r-process path is an open question ? This is due to the fact that the $`N=82`$ nuclei near the r-process path possess an extremely large neutron-to-proton ratio. Although a tremendous progress has been made in the last decade in synthesizing very neutron-rich nuclei in the laboratory, such nuclei are still very far from being realized. The last such nucleus attained in this region in the laboratory is 130Cd ($`Z=48`$ and $`N=82`$). The mass of the nucleus 132Cd with $`N=84`$ is still not known. The knowledge of the latter would allow to discern the shell effects in regions far away from the stability line. For $`N=82`$ nuclei with $`Z<48`$, i.e., in the region of Zr ($`Z=4044`$), the magnitude of the nuclear isospin becomes increasingly large and hence the difficulty in producing these nuclei. In the present paper, we examine the shell effects in these nuclei, therefore, in the light of the data available in the other regions. We also study how the shell effects evolve as one approaches the continuum in moving from the r-process path towards the neutron drip-line.

Having described the available data on the waiting-point Zn nuclei by the forces with the vector self-coupling as shown in Fig. 1, we extend our formalism to explore the inaccessible region of the r-process path and the neutron drip-line about $`N=82`$. With a view to visualize the evolution of the shell effects with the isospin, we show our RHB results on the $`S_{2n}`$ values for the isotopic chains from the higher $`Z`$ to the lower ones using the two Lagrangian models. Fig. 2 shows the corresponding values for the Pd ($`Z=46`$) and Ru ($`Z=44`$) nuclei across the magic number $`N=82`$.

The results \[Fig. 2\] with the non-linear scalar self-coupling (NL-SH) for the Pd and Ru isotopic chains show a shell gap at $`N=82`$, which is largest amongst all the forces shown here. With the force NL-SV2 with the vector self-coupling of the $`\omega `$-meson, the shell effects are milder as compared to NL-SH. This feature is similar to that observed at the stability line  and also in Fig. 1. Furthermore, the results with the force NL-SV1 show that the shell gap at $`N=82`$ is reduced as compared to NL-SV2. This is again similar to that seen for the Zn isotopes. For a comparison, we also show the HFB results obtained with the interaction SkP. The shell gap with SkP is much reduced as compared to the forces with the vector self-coupling. Thus, the shell effects with NL-SV1 are stronger as compared to the HFB+SkP results shown in the figure. It is interesting to note that there is a remarkable agreement in the results below and up to the magic number for all the forces except for NL-SH. The neutron separation energy from these results for $`N=82`$ Pd and Ru nuclei is about 3-4 MeV. Accordingly, these nuclei are expected to lie well on the r-process path as per the conventional wisdom.

We show the RHB results for the isotopic chains of Mo ($`Z=42`$) and Zr ($`Z=40`$) in Fig. 3. From the argument of the neutron separation energy, the Mo and Zr nuclei about the magic number are also expected to lie along the r-process path. Thus, both the Figs. 2 and 3 portray how the shell effects evolve in moving to nuclei with larger neutron excess. The main feature that the shell effects with NL-SH are strong is also displayed by Fig. 3. It is worth reminding that the force NL-SH was also used in an earlier work  to calculate the shell effects at $`N=82`$ in Zr nuclei about the drip line. The shell effects with NL-SH were noted to be similarly strong in the previous results. However, the previous results with NL-SH were based upon the BCS pairing and there was no mechanism in place to include the effects of the coupling to the continuum. The qualitative behaviour that the shell effects with NL-SH are strong is reproduced here also in the present RHB calculations. The reason for this overestimation of the shell effects as also noted in ref.  is that the properties which were considered mainly in constructing these forces such as NL-SH and others were the binding energies and charge radii of nuclei. The shell effects as such were not included in such considerations heretofore. As shown in ref. , the shell effects emerge as an observable which should be employed to constrain the nuclear interaction.

With the force NL-SV2 with the vector self-coupling of the $`\omega `$-meson, the shell effects \[Figs. 2-3\] are milder as compared to NL-SH for all the chains. This is similar to that observed at the stability line  and also in Fig. 1(a). The results with our benchmark force NL-SV1 show that the shell gap at $`N=82`$ is reduced as compared to NL-SV2. This is again similar to that observed for the Zn isotopes. The $`S_{2n}`$ values obtained with the HFB calculations using the Skyrme interaction SkP are also shown for comparison. The magnitude of the kink at N=82 shows that the shell effects with HFB+SkP are much weaker as compared to NL-SV1. The quenching predicted by SkP in this region is as expected. As noted earlier, HFB+SkP is known to exhibit a strong quenching at the stability line  and the same has also been observed about the waiting-point nucleus 80Zn as shown in Fig. 1(b) above. In comparison, the RHB approach with NL-SV1 reproduces the shell effects about the stability line  as well as in the waiting-point region at $`N=50`$.

For any given force, the shell gap at $`N=82`$ shows a steady decrease in moving from Pd ($`Z=46`$) to Zr ($`Z=40`$). As nuclei become increasingly neutron rich, the gradual decrease in the $`S_{2n}`$ values and also in the corresponding shell gap shows the evolution of the shell effects in going away from the r-process path towards the drip line. This reduction in the shell gap is largest for SkP which shows intrinsically weaker shell effects. As seen from Fig. 3(b) for the Zr isotopes, the curve for $`S_{2n}`$ has become nearly a straight line, implying a disappearance of magicity with SkP. This picture is at variance with that from NL-SV1. The persistence of the kink with NL-SV1 in Figs. 2 and 3 shows that with NL-SV1 the shell effects for the r-process nuclei at $`N=82`$ are much stronger than with SkP. Thus, notwithstanding the fact that NL-SV1 is commensurate with the available data along the stability line and in the waiting point region, it can be stated that the shell effects in $`N=82`$ nuclei on the r-process path still remain stronger.

### C Nuclei near the neutron drip-line

Nuclei become increasingly unbound and a coupling to the continuum arises in going to extremely large neutron to proton ratios. This situation is expected to arise naturally in going to $`N=82`$ nuclei below $`Z=40`$. For this situation, we show the results for Sr ($`Z=38`$) and Kr ($`Z=36`$) isotopes in Fig. 4. The results show that the $`S_{2n}`$ value for the $`N=82`$ nuclei decreases from $``$ 2.5 MeV for Sr isotopes to $``$ 1.5 MeV. The corresponding $`S_n`$ value would amount to a merely 1 MeV or less. On the basis of the $`S_n`$, the $`N=82`$ Kr nucleus represents the arrival of the drip line.

The shell effects with NL-SV1 are seen to become successively weaker (which is true for all the forces) as one moves to nuclei with higher isospin such as 120Sr \[Fig. 4(a)\] and 118Kr \[Fig. 4(b)\]. Here, the case of the Kr isotopes \[Fig. 4(b)\] deserves a mention. Except with NL-SH, all the other forces show that the shell effects are washed out significantly. This stems from the fact that for 118Kr the Fermi energy is very close to the continuum and the nucleus is pushed to the very limit of binding. The binding energy of an additional neutron is then close to zero and the shell gap ceases to exist. Thus, any semblance of the shell effects for 118Kr ($`N=82`$) is completely lost. This situation is destined to befall on a nucleus or nuclei for every magic number, leading to a termination of the corresponding shell gap. All the forces NL-SV2, NL-SV1 and SkP predict such a behaviour except NL-SH. This situation at the drip line at the magic number can be termed as terminus stratum.

The nuclei close to the drip line show no binding to an extra neutron to be able to form a higher mass isotope. Such nuclei at the drip line ($`\lambda _n0`$) would not contribute to the r-process nucleosynthesis. In view of this, it is therefore important to understand the nature of the shell effects for nuclei along the r-process path, which are assumed to play an important role in the nucleosynthesis, rather than those at the drip line.

### D The single-particle levels

We show in Fig. 5 the neutron single-particle levels obtained with NL-SV1 for $`N=80`$ nuclei from a few chains. Our focus is the evolution of the shell gap at $`N=82`$ as one approaches the drip line ($`\lambda _n0`$) from the r-process path. As discussed in the subsection above, the Mo and Zr nuclei are expected to lie on the r-process path, whereas the Sr and Kr nuclei should be very close to the drip line. The single-particle levels shown in this figure portray essentially the results of Figs. 3-4. The Fermi energy (shown by the dashed lines) approaches the continuum as one moves towards a larger neutron to proton ratio. The shell gap ($`N=82`$) shows a constant decrease as the last neutrons become more and more unbound in going from Mo to Kr. For 118Kr ($`N=82`$) the Fermi energy is close to zero and the shell gap merges into the continuum. However, for nuclei on the r-process path such as Mo and Zr shell gaps do remain large. For the corresponding nuclei of Pd and Ru, the shell gaps are (not shown here) even larger than that for Mo.

The difference in the response of the various forces near the drip line is illustrated in the single-particle levels shown for 120Zr in Fig. 6. Since this nucleus has 2 neutron less than the magic numbers, all the occupied levels are bound. Moreover, we do not see any indication of a partial occupancy of any level above the Fermi energy, which might arise out of the Bogoliubov pairing. The figure shows that the $`N=82`$ shell gap is largest with NL-SH and it shows a reduction in going to NL-SV1. This is consistent with the general behaviour of the shell effects from NL-SH to NL-SV1 as seen in Figs. 2-4. On the other hand, the shell gap with SkP is reduced significantly as compared to NL-SV1. The reduced shell strength with SkP seems to be generic as shown above.

In Fig. 7 we have shown the neutron single-particle levels for the nucleus 124Zr with 2 neutrons more than the magic number $`N=82`$. Here we have made a comparison of the levels for NL-SH, NL-SV1 and SkP. The shell gap at $`N=82`$ shows a decreasing trend from NL-SH to SkP as seen also in Fig. 6. However, it can be noticed that the extra 2 neutrons above the magic number go to the levels in the continuum and therefore with the force NL-SH and NL-SV1 this nucleus is unbound. This should imply that 124Zr is already a drip line nucleus, whereas the same is not the case for 120Zr (see Fig. 6). The single-particle levels with SkP show a remarkable difference from those of the RMF forces. With SkP the $`2f_{7/2}`$ level is below the continuum and the extra 2 neutrons occupy this level predominantly. Thus, the nucleus 124Zr is bound within the HFB+SkP calculations in contrast to the RMF forces.

### E The spin-orbit potential

The spin-orbit potential is the key ingredient of the nuclear interaction responsible for creation of the magic numbers and the shell gaps. As mentioned earlier, the spin-orbit interaction arises naturally in the RMF theory as a result of the Dirac-Lorentz structure of nucleons. The $`\sigma `$ and $`\omega `$ potentials contribute constructively to generate the required spin-orbit strength . This is able to reproduce the experimental data on spin-orbit splittings in nuclei such as 16O and 40Ca. It has been shown by several authors  that the effective mass in the RMF theory can be constrained by the spin-orbit splittings in light nuclei to a value close to 0.60. However, the shell gaps and thus the shell effects in heavier nuclei can not be addressed adequately by fixing the spin-orbit splittings in 16O only. This becomes clear by examining the successful RMF forces such as NL-SH and NL3 which show stronger shell effects as compared to the experimental data in heavy nuclei . This implies that the shell effects in heavier nuclei need to be taken into account in order to make a successful nuclear interaction. In this respect, the experimental data on $`S_{2n}`$ values around the shell closure provide an additional useful ground-state observable.

The advantage which the RMF theory derives from its intrinsic spin-orbit interaction is not enjoyed by the non-relativistic approaches such as the Hartree-Fock Skyrme theories. The spin-orbit potential is usually added on an ad-hoc basis and the strength of the spin-orbit potential is fitted in order to reproduce the spin-orbit splittings in light nuclei in these approaches. This may, however, not suffice for the shell effects in heavy nuclei as illustrated for the case of the RMF theory.

The spin-orbit (s.o.) potential plays a central role in determining the magnitude of the spin-orbit splittings in nuclei. We show in Fig. 8 the spin-orbit potential obtained in the RHB theory for the Lagrangian parameters NL-SH, NL-SV2 and NL-SV1. The contribution of the $`\sigma `$ and $`\omega `$ terms add together to give rise to the spin-orbit potential which is predominant in the surface region of the nucleus . The s.o. potential is largest for the non-linear scalar force NL-SH. This is consistent with the strong shell effects observed with NL-SH at the shell closures in nuclei. The depth of the s.o. potential is reduced by about 10 % for the force NL-SV2. It is reduced further with NL-SV1. This reduction from NL-SH to NL-SV2 and to NL-SV1 is consistent with all the results we have discussed on the shell effects with these forces in this work. This underlines the point that the spin-orbit interaction plays a key role in determining the strength of the shell effects. This would require a an adjustment of both the $`\sigma `$ and the $`\omega `$ fields in order to produce a suitable spin-orbit field.

## V Conclusion

We have investigated the evolution of the shell effects in nuclei from the r-process path to the neutron drip line. The theoretical approach that is employed in the present work is that of the Relativistic Hartree-Bogoliubov theory based upon the quasi-particle scheme with the self-consistent pairing. The RHB approach with the inclusion of the vector self-coupling of $`\omega `$ meson was developed with a view to remedy the problem of the strong shell effects with the Lagrangian with the scalar self-coupling only. Having reproduced the shell effects with the vector self-coupling at the stability line in our earlier work , we have attempted to reproduce the available data on the shell effects in the waiting-point region of 80Zn. The available data on Zn isotopes are reproduced well within the RHB approach with the vector self-coupling. This establishes further the reliability of the working basis we employ.

With the above approach we have carried out the RHB calculations for nuclei along the r-process path and near the neutron drip-line using the two different Lagrangian models. It is shown that the shell effects with the vector self-coupling are in general softer than those with the scalar self-coupling. This is found to be the case over a broad range of nuclei considered in our work. This implies that the shell structure near the Fermi surface with the vector self-coupling forces is denser than with the Lagrangian with the scalar self-coupling. This is consistent with what was found to be the case also for nuclei about the stability line.

The shell gap at $`N=82`$ shows a gradual decrease in going from the r-process path towards the neutron drip line for all the forces considered. This is the natural behaviour for the shell gaps to evolve with the isospin. However, we show that for nuclei on the r-process path, the shell effects at $`N=82`$ still remain strong vis-a-vis a quenching exhibited by HFB+SkP. This quenching with SkP has been discussed extensively in the literature . The origin of the shell quenching stems primarily from the very large effective mass of SkP which leads to a significant compression of the shell structure near the Fermi surface. A quenching has been requested for an improved fit to the global r-process abundances . However, a quenching does not seem not to be compatible with the data at the stability line and in the waiting-point region.

In moving away from the r-process path where nuclei are expected to have $`S_n24`$ MeV to nuclei where $`S_n`$ is vanishingly low, the shell gap at N=82 merges into the continuum. Consequently, the ensuing shell structure above N=82 is washed out significantly. Since a nucleus can not take on any more neutrons, nuclei in the vicinity of the drip line are, therefore, not expected to contribute to the r-process nucleosynthesis.

This work is supported by the Research Administration Project No. SP056 of the Kuwait University. We thank Karlheinz Langanke for fruitful discussions.

* The $`S_{2n}`$ values for Zn isotopes in the waiting-point region obtained with RHB using (a) the scalar self-coupling force NL-SH and the vector self-coupling force NL-SV2 and (b) with the vector self-coupling force NL-SV1 along with the nonrelativistic HFB+SkP results. The experimental data is shown for comparison. The datum on 82Zn is adopted from the mass systematics  and is shown enclosed within a diamond.
* The RHB results on the shell effects at $`N=82`$ in the r-process nuclei of (a) Pd and (b) Ru. The HFB+SkP results are also shown for a comparison.
* The same as Fig. 2 for the r-process nuclei (a) Mo and (b) Zr. The $`S_{2n}`$ values and shell gaps show a gradual decline in moving from Pd to Zr.
* The same as Fig. 2 for the drip line nuclei near $`N=82`$ for the Sr and Kr isotopic chains. The shell gap and the $`S_{2n}`$ values show a vanishing trend for the Kr isotopes about $`N=82`$.
* The neutron single-particle levels for the Mo, Zr, Sr and Kr nuclei ($`N=80`$) showing an evolution of the shell gap in moving from the r-process path towards the drip line, with the force NL-SV1. The Fermi energy is shown by the dashed lines. The Fermi energy for the Kr nucleus near the drip line is seen to merge with the continuum.
* The shell gap $`N=82`$ for the nucleus 120Zr using the various interactions.
* The neutron single-particle levels for the nucleus 124Zr with 2 neutrons above the closed shell. The reduction of the $`N=82`$ shell gap from NL-SH to NL-SV1 to SkP is clearly evident. In contrast to the RMF forces, the $`2f_{7/2}`$ level is bound with SkP.
* The neutron spin-orbit potential for 120Zn obtained in the RHB calculations with the various RMF forces. The predominance of the spin-orbit potential in the surface region is clearly evident.


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# ASCA Observations of the Supernova Remnant IC 443: Thermal Structure and Detection of Overionized Plasma

## 1 Introduction

Supernova remnants (SNRs) have been traditionally classified into three categories: shell-like, Crab-like (Plerionic; its emission mainly originates from a pulsar nebula), and composite (shell-like containing a Plerion). These SNRs usually have similar X-ray and radio morphologies. In addition to these, there is a recently established class characterized by a center-filled morphology and thermal emission in the X-ray band, contrasting with a shell-like structure in the radio and optical bands. Rho & Petre (1998) termed these “mixed-morphology” SNRs (MM SNRs). The distinctive characteristics of this category are: (i) the dominant X-ray emission mechanism is thermal despite an X-ray morphology similar to Crab-like SNRs; (ii) the emission arises primarily from the swept-up interstellar material (ISM), not from ejecta; and (iii) they are usually near or interacting with molecular clouds or other large ISM structures.

Rho & Petre (1998) identified two formation mechanisms that might explain the properties of MM SNRs. One is the cloud evaporation model, in which the interior X-ray emission arises from the gas evaporated from shocked clouds (White & Long, 1991). For this model to match the properties of MM SNRs, the clouds must be numerous, small in size, and of sufficient density to survive in the passage of a strong shock. They pass into the hot interior of the remnant, gradually evaporating and emitting X-rays. The other is the thermal conduction model (Cox et al., 1999; Shelton et al., 1999). In this model, the shell of an expanding SNR cools below $``$106 K and its X-ray emission becomes too soft to be detected through the absorbing ISM. The thermal energy stored in the shocked interior gas is conducted outward, producing the observed uniform interior temperatures. This model requires sufficient interior density for conduction to be viable.

IC 443 (G189.1+3.0) is one of the prototypical MM SNRs. It has a $``$45′ diameter and is located at the distance of 1.5 kpc (Fesen, 1984). It is strongly interacting with a foreground molecular cloud and an H I cloud to the east (Cornett, Chin, & Knapp, 1977; Giovanelli & Haynes, 1979). It is a candidate for the CGRO EGRET $`\gamma `$-ray source 3EG J0617+2238 (Hartman et al., 1999). Its X-ray morphology was observed by Einstein to be center-filled, which is highly atypical of a SNR in the adiabatic phase, with little correlation with the radio or optical image. The spectrum of the brightest area was well described by either a 1.5 keV non-equilibrium ionization (NEI) plasma or 0.2 keV and 0.95 keV ionization equilibrium plasma components (Petre et al., 1988). Asaoka & Aschenbach (1994) analyzed ROSAT all-sky survey and pointing data, and found another partially overlapping SNR of $``$105 yr age, which they called G189.6+3.3. They reproduced the spectra for the regions excluding the part overlapping with G189.6+3.3 by a two-temperature (1 keV and $``$0.3 keV) ionization equilibrium plasma model.

Using Ginga, Wang et al. (1992) found a hard X-ray component in the spectrum of IC 443 extending up to 20 keV. They suggested that this component originates from a very high temperature ($``$108 K) plasma and thus the remnant’s age is about 103 yr instead of the previous estimate of 104 yr. However, ASCA and BeppoSAX revealed that this hard component is non-thermal and originates in two small regions along the southern edge of the radio shell where the SNR-molecular cloud interaction is strongest (Keohane et al., 1997; Bocchino & Bykov, 2000). Using Chandra data, Olbert et al. (2001) determined that one of the regions is a synchrotron nebula powered by a compact source (probably a neutron star), whose kick velocity is consistent with an age of 3$`\times `$104 yr.

In this paper, we first present the ASCA GIS images and softness ratio map (§ 3.1). This reveals the existence of a soft, shell-like structure. We compare the SIS spectra of the north region near the shell with that of the central region (§ 3.2) and then perform the spectral fitting (§ 3.3). Finally, we discuss a possible mechanism that can account for our results on the ionization state of IC 443 (§ 4).

## 2 Observations

ASCA has two Solid-state Imaging Spectrometers (SIS0, SIS1) and Gas Imaging Spectrometers (GIS2, GIS3) at the focal planes of the X-ray telescopes (XRT). For IC 443, three observations were carried out. Figure 1 shows the fields of view (FOVs) of the observations in the current analysis (20′ radius region in GIS and entire SIS FOV) overlaid on the Palomar Observatory Sky Survey red image. The relevant information about these observations is given in Table 1. We extracted these data from the ASCA public archive. We used all available GIS data. During the AO-1 phase, the GIS3 pulse height analyzer suffered from an on-board processing problem: the least significant PHA bits were stuck, resulting in a loss of spectral resolution. Therefore the GIS3 AO-1 data used here have only 8 binned PHA channels. For the SIS, we used only the PV phase observation data. There are enough photons from this observation to allow investigation of the spatial variation of the X-ray spectra with good energy resolution.

For the most part, the NASA/GSFC revision 2 standard data processing criteria were used for screening all the GIS and SIS data. The lone exception was for the earth elevation angle for the SIS: in order to avoid contamination by stray light, we used only SIS0 data taken at angles $`>`$25° and SIS1 data taken at angles $`>`$20°. Since the PV phase SIS data show no radiation damage effects, we did not apply the Residual Dark Distribution (RDD) correction.

As IC 443 is located in the Galactic anti-center region ($`l`$,$`b`$) = (189.1°, 3.0°) where the Galactic Ridge emission is negligible, we used blank-sky data that include the cosmic X-ray background (CXB) and the non-X-ray Background (NXB) for background subtraction. The PV phase GIS data, with no spread discriminator application, contain more NXB events than those in subsequent observations. For these data, we used the background datasets that are applicable to observations performed when the GIS spread discriminator was turned off.

In the present analysis, we used DISPLAY45 version 1.90 for the image analysis, and XSPEC version 11.0 for the spectral analysis.

## 3 Data Analysis and Results

### 3.1 Image Analysis

We generated a complete image of IC 443 using GIS data. The three GIS2 and GIS3 images were overlaid, and an exposure-corrected blank-sky image was subtracted from it. We multiplied the simulated XRT efficiency map by the GIS grid map to form the vignetting image. Each map is smoothed by the corresponding point spread function (PSF). We constructed the exposure-corrected vignetting image, and divided it into the source image to create a vignetting- and exposure-corrected composite image. Figure 2(a) shows the resultant GIS image in the 0.7–10.0 keV band with ASCA FOVs.

In every energy band, the composite image shows IC 443 to have a centrally-filled morphology. The remnant is larger in images below 1.5 keV than in higher energy bands. Thus a softness-ratio ($`F_{0.71.5\mathrm{keV}}/F_{1.510.0\mathrm{keV}}`$) map reveals a shell-like structure, contrasting with the center-filled appearance in the X-ray maps (see Fig. 2(b)). As shown in Figure 2(c), the soft shell corresponds well with the bright optical emission in the northeast and southwest. The contours are limited at the FOV edge along the northwest boundary, indicating that it extends further. The absence of the softness-ratio shell in the southeast and its low contrast in the northwest may be due to the absorption by the molecular cloud in front of IC 443 (Cornett, Chin, & Knapp, 1977).

In Figure 3 we show background-subtracted and exposure- and vignetting-corrected SIS images in the 0.5–1.0 keV and 1.0–2.0 keV bands. The SIS FOV includes both the X-ray brightest region of IC 443 and a part of the northeast shell. The peak surface brightness of the soft (0.5–1.0 keV) component appears to the north of that of the hard (1.0–2.0 keV) component (i.e. closer to the rim).

Therefore, both the GIS and SIS images suggest that a soft ($``$1.0 keV) X-ray component dominates near the shell while a hard ($``$1.5 keV) one dominates in the interior.

### 3.2 Difference between Two Regions

We therefore searched for a spectral variation from the interior to the rim. We used only SIS data for the spectral analysis because the SIS has superior energy resolution to the GIS (FWHM of 5% at 1.5 keV during the observation (Tanaka, Inoue, & Holt, 1994)) and a larger effective area below 1 keV. We extracted spectra from the two regions indicated by boxes in Figure 3: a region near the northern rim (hereafter North) where the soft X-ray emission is stronger, and an interior region (hereafter Center) where the hard emission is stronger. Neither region overlaps G189.6+3.3, and stray light from the outside of the SIS FOV is negligible as shown in Figure 2(a). The spectra and their ratio are shown in Figure 4.

Above 1.4 keV, the shapes of the spectra appear similar to each other (see Fig. 4(b)), and are in good agreement with the spectrum from a thin thermal plasma with a temperature of about 1 keV. Below 1.4 keV, on the other hand, the North spectrum has relatively stronger emission than the Center, and shows the Ne IX emission line at 0.92 keV. The intensity ratio of the Center spectrum to the North below 1.4 keV is proportional to the energy, as shown in Figure 4(b). This ratio would be an exponential function of energy if the difference were due to higher column density. Therefore, it is difficult to explain this difference as a result of column density variation.

### 3.3 Spectral Analysis

In order to characterize the spectral properties and evaluate the difference between the two regions quantitatively, we performed model fittings; first with a one-component plasma model, and then with a two-component plasma model. Since the SIS quantum efficiency changes greatly at the energy of the oxygen edge (0.53 keV), we did not use the data below 0.6 keV.

#### 3.3.1 One-Component Plasma Model

We first applied a simple single-temperature, single-ionization-timescale, non-equilibrium ionization (NEI) plasma model (NEI in XSPEC, Borkowski (2000)) that was favored in the previous IC 443 analysis (Petre et al., 1988). However, the minimum values of reduced $`\chi ^2`$ were 924/118 for the North and 1337/128 for the Center, even with variable abundances, which are hardly acceptable.

We therefore tried an ad-hoc model consisting of thermal bremsstrahlung, plus 12 Gaussian profiles to represent the most prominent emission lines above 0.9 keV. The line widths and strengths were all left free. Such models have been used previously to model ASCA spectra for other remnants (e.g. Miyata et al. (1994); Holt et al. (1994)). Both H-like and He-like K$`\alpha `$ lines of Mg, Si, and S were well fitted with negligible line widths compared with the energy resolution of the SIS.

The flux of each Gaussian profile is proportional to the emissivity of the line component. The line intensity ratio of H-like K$`\alpha `$ to He-like K$`\alpha `$ (hereafter $`R_{\mathrm{H}/\mathrm{He}}`$) provides a measure of the degree of ionization of a given element, and depends on both the electron temperature and the ionization timescale. We evaluated the $`R_{\mathrm{H}/\mathrm{He}}`$ for Mg, Si, and S through comparison with the theoretical values (Mewe, Gronenschild, & van den Oord, 1985) as shown in Figure 5, and found that it is impossible to explain the degree of ionization of all elements with the same ionization temperature in each region. This suggests that more than one plasma component is required.

#### 3.3.2 Two-Component Plasma Model

We next applied a two-component plasma model. The continuum components above 1.4 keV of the two spectra have a shape consistent with a temperature of 1 keV, as mentioned previously. In addition, Si and S appear to be ionized enough to apply a collisional ionization equilibrium (CIE) model at this temperature (see Fig. 5). We thus used the CIE plasma model (VRAYMOND in XSPEC, Raymond & Smith (1977)) as the high temperature plasma. On the other hand, we used the generalized NEI model with varying temperature (VGNEI in XSPEC, Borkowski (2000)) as the low temperature plasma. All abundances were treated as variables, and those of two components linked together. This model failed to reproduce the K$`\alpha `$ lines of Ne X, Si XIV, and S XVI (and K$`\beta `$ line of Ne X in Center), so we added several narrow Gaussian components.

We were able to fit reasonably both North and Center spectra (except for the energies around the emission lines of Si and S) with a model consisting of $``$0.2 keV NEI and $``$1.0 keV CIE plasma with a column density of 7.4$`\times `$1021 cm-2 as shown in Figure 6. The best-fit parameters of the model are listed in Table 2. All abundances are smaller than the solar values (Anders & Grevesse, 1989), which suggests that the X-rays originate from the shocked ISM. Although these fits are not formally acceptable, the result implies that the spectrum can be generally described by two plasma components: Figure 6 suggests that the spectra below 1.4 keV are well reproduced by the low temperature ($``$0.2 keV) plasma, whereas those above 1.4 keV show the features of the 1.0 keV plasma.

Almost all fitted parameters for the two spectra are consistent with each other within the 90 % confidence range. This suggests that the plasma properties in the two regions are similar. The sole significant difference is the ratio of the emission measures of the 0.2 keV plasma to the 1.0 keV one: it is substantially higher in the North (185$`{}_{68}{}^{}{}_{}{}^{+102}`$) than in the Center (48$`{}_{24}{}^{}{}_{}{}^{+39}`$). Hence, we suggest that the difference of the intensity ratio between two plasma components produces the apparent difference of the spectra shown in Figure 4.

While the two component model accounts reasonably well for the gross spectral features, it leaves an important detail unresolved. The H-like lines of Ne, Si and S are so strong that it is necessary to add Gaussian components to represent them.

In order to investigate the anomalous S line ratio, we fit the 2.2–6.0 keV spectra with a model consisting of a CIE plasma and three narrow Gaussian components (S XV K$`\alpha `$, S XVI K$`\alpha `$, S XV K$`\beta `$). (We can ignore the contribution of the 0.2 keV plasma component at the energies around the S lines.) The fits are acceptable as shown in Figure 7. The $`R_{\mathrm{H}/\mathrm{He}}`$ for S requires an ionization temperature (hereafter $`T_z`$) of about 1.5 keV in each region, higher than the continuum temperature (hereafter $`T_\mathrm{e}`$) of 1.0 keV as shown in Figure 8. The same can be concluded for Si. Ne X emits mostly around $`kT_\mathrm{e}`$ = 0.5 keV, which might indicate that the strong Ne X line comes from an intermediate temperature (0.2$`<kT_\mathrm{e}<`$1.0 keV) plasma.

To account for the higher ionization temperatures of Si and S, we replaced the Gaussians with a second, hotter (2.0 keV) CIE component, whose temperature is selected to maximize the emissivity of the H-like line of S. However, this component requires an extraordinarily large S abundance; more than 103 solar. Such a large abundance is not observed even in ejecta, and thus this model is physically implausible. Moreover, narrow band images at the energies corresponding to Si and S H-like K$`\alpha `$ lines show no conspicuous (e.g. clumpy) structure and are similar to those of other bands (e.g. images for Si and S He-like K$`\alpha `$ and continuum bands), indicating that the H-like lines are emitted from the same plasma that emits He-like lines.

Another possible source of the anomalous ratio between $`T_z`$ and $`T_\mathrm{e}`$ is a temperature distribution in the plasma, as observed in magnetic cataclysmic variables (Ezuka & Ishida, 1999). However, as in SNRs such plasma shows $`T_z<T_\mathrm{e}`$, and thus does not explain the higher $`T_z`$ of Si and S. Therefore, we suggest that the K$`\alpha `$ lines of H-like Si and S are emitted from an “overionized” 1.0 keV plasma (i.e., a plasma in which the degree of ionization is larger than that expected from the electron temperature assuming collisional ionization equilibrium).

## 4 Discussion

### 4.1 The Plasma Structure of IC 443

ASCA observations have revealed the following new X-ray features of IC 443; (1) the X-ray softness-ratio map shows a shell-like structure that correlates with the optical filaments, implying that the hard X-ray emission is more centrally concentrated than the soft; (2) the spectra include two plasma components with temperatures of 0.2 keV and 1.0 keV, and the intensity ratio of the former to the latter is larger in the outer region than that in the inner region.

These results suggest that IC 443 has the plasma structure that can be modeled by a central hot (1.0 keV) region, surrounded by a cooler (0.2 keV) shell. The mean electron densities within these regions are estimated from the observed emission measures. The emission measure of the 1.0 keV plasma, which is estimated from the GIS spectrum of the brightest region within 16′ radius (north-east part of IC 443 where most X-rays are emitted), is $`1.1\times 10^{58}(d/1.5\mathrm{kpc})^2`$ cm-3 ($`d`$ is the distance to IC 443). In contrast, that of the 0.2 keV plasma is $`5.4\times 10^{59}(d/1.5\mathrm{kpc})^2`$ cm-3, more than an order of magnitude larger. To estimate the densities of the two components, we assume that the 0.2 keV plasma extends to the north-east optical shell, and thus has an outer radius of $`\theta _2`$ = 16′. The radius of the region containing the 1.0 keV component is assumed to be $`\theta _1`$ = 10′, considering that the surface brightness of the 1.0 keV at this radius is 50 percent of its maximum (from the 2.0–3.5 keV band image). The densities of the 1.0 keV plasma ($`n_1`$) and the 0.2 keV plasma ($`n_2`$) are

$`n_1`$ $`=`$ $`1.0\left({\displaystyle \frac{\theta _1}{10\mathrm{}}}\right)^{3/2}\left({\displaystyle \frac{d}{1.5\mathrm{kpc}}}\right)^{1/2}\mathrm{cm}^3,`$ (1)
$`n_2`$ $`=`$ $`4.2\left({\displaystyle \frac{a^31}{3.096}}\right)^{1/2}\left({\displaystyle \frac{\theta _1}{10\mathrm{}}}\right)^{3/2}\left({\displaystyle \frac{d}{1.5\mathrm{kpc}}}\right)^{1/2}\mathrm{cm}^3,`$ (2)
where $`a=\theta _2/\theta _1`$. The cooler exterior shell is denser than the interior; the two components appear to be near pressure equilibrium, and consistent with a typical SNR predicted by the Sedov-Taylor solution, despite the fact that the X-ray image appears center-filled.

This structure is also consistent with the prediction of the conduction model for mixed morphology SNRs, developed for W44 (Cox et al., 1999; Shelton et al., 1999). These authors suggest that if a remnant, evolving in a fairly smooth ambient medium of moderate density with thermal conduction active in its interior, reaches the phase that radiative cooling is important, then it shows inner-hot and outer-cool regions of X-ray emission interior to the cold dense shell. IC 443 has similar characteristics to W44, including a partial H I shell, suggesting it is in the same evolutionary state.

### 4.2 Formation Mechanisms of the Overionized Plasma

Additionally, we found that the K$`\alpha `$ lines of H-like Si and S are unusually strong, indicating that the plasma in IC 443 is overionized. This is the first detection of evidence for an overionized plasma in a SNR. In SNRs, we are accustomed to consider the plasma underionized, as in a collisionally-ionized, shock-heated plasma, the ionization timescale is typically large compared with the time since the bulk of the gas was shock heated. Nevertheless, conditions can (and apparently do) exist in which a shock-heated, low-density plasma can become overionized. In this section, we discuss possible formation mechanisms for such a plasma.

We can consider two possible ways to produce an overionized plasma. One is that photoionization causes heavy elements to be more highly ionized than their collisional equilibrium level. A low-density plasma does not produce sufficient radiation to photoionize the heavy elements: the plasma needs a bright external radiation source. CXOU J061705.3+222127, with the 1–5 keV flux is $`2\times 10^{13}`$ erg cm-2 s-1 (Olbert et al., 2001; Bocchino & Bykov, 2001), is too faint to photoionize the 1.0 keV plasma to emit the “extra” H-like S flux of $`10^{13}`$ erg cm-2 s-1 shown in Table 2, even if it was at the center of the remnant in the past. Futhermore, there is no other evidence of such a strong source in IC 443 and it is implausible to consider that this plasma region is illuminated continuously by a hidden intense source.

The other way is that the gas cools faster than the ions can recombine. The three possible cooling mechanisms in the gas are radiation, expansion, and thermal conduction. Shelton (1998, 1999) has shown that inclusion of all three processes in hydrodynamic modeling of SNRs expanding in a very low density ISM leads to the development of an “overionized” plasma in the interior once a remnant has reached the radiative stage. The H I shell covering the eastern part of the remnant (Giovanelli & Haynes, 1979) suggests that at least part of IC 443 is in the radiative stage. Below we compare the cooling timescales of radiation, expansion, and conduction with the recombination timescale of heavy elements in the 1.0 keV plasma, and show that these are consistent with the formation of an overionized plasma in IC 443.

The recombination timescale of an element of atomic number $`Z`$, which is the characteristic timescale to reach ionization equilibrium, is calculated by Masai (1994). In the case of sulfur at a temperature of 1.0 keV, this is estimated to be

$$t_{\mathrm{recomb}}\underset{z=0}{\overset{Z}{}}\left(S_z+\alpha _z\right)^19\times 10^{11}\left(\frac{n_1}{1\mathrm{cm}^3}\right)^1\mathrm{s},$$
(3)
where $`S_z`$ and $`\alpha _z`$ represent the rate coefficients for ionization and recombination from an ion of charge $`z`$ to charge $`z`$+1 and $`z`$1, respectively. This is consistent with the expectation that collisional ionization equilibrium is approached for the ionization timescale value $`n_\mathrm{e}t10^{12}`$ cm-3 s.

We estimate the cooling timescale of the 1.0 keV plasma via radiation to be

$$t_{\mathrm{cool}}=\frac{3n_1kT_1V}{L_{\mathrm{rad}}}4\times 10^{14}\left(\frac{\theta _1}{10\mathrm{}}\right)^{3/2}\left(\frac{d}{1.5\mathrm{kpc}}\right)^{1/2}\mathrm{s},$$
(4)
where $`V`$ and $`L_{\mathrm{rad}}`$ are the volume and the luminosity of the 1.0 keV plasma respectively. The cooling timescale of equation (4) is more than two orders of magnitude larger than the recombination timescale of equation (3).

Rapid adiabatic cooling and the resultant overionization have been discussed by Itoh & Masai (1989) for a young remnant breaking out of the circumstellar matter into a rarefied medium. However, this is not the case for IC 443, which is presumed to be in its Sedov phase (expansion of the shocked ejecta is negligible compared to the blast wave). The shock temperature decreases with blast wave expansion. Even if the effect is taken into account, it is found that the electron temperature varies as slowly as $`T_\mathrm{e}t^{2/25}`$ with Coulomb collisions in the post-shock region (Itoh, 1978; Masai, 1994). Therefore, adiabatic expansion is unlikely to work, since the timescale is much longer than the recombination timescale.

We next calculate the energy transport rate by thermal conduction from the 1.0 keV interior to the 0.2 keV outer region. We assume a temperature gradient scale length, $`l_\mathrm{T}(\mathrm{grad}\mathrm{ln}T)^1`$, of (1–2)$`\times `$1019 cm, the distance from the approximate boundary between the 1.0 keV and the 0.2 keV components to the edge of the remnant. This distance is much longer than the mean free path of electrons $`\lambda _\mathrm{e}10^{18}\left(T_\mathrm{e}/10^7\mathrm{K}\right)^2\left(n_\mathrm{e}/1\mathrm{cm}^3\right)^1`$ cm. The total flow of heat to the outer plasma is estimated to be $`2\times 10^{38}(l_\mathrm{T}/10^{19}\mathrm{cm})^1(\theta _1/10\mathrm{})^2(d/1.5\mathrm{kpc})^2`$ erg s-1. The energy loss via radiation in the 0.2 keV plasma is 7$`\times `$1037 erg s-1 from the observed emission measure, comparable to the heat flow. In this circumstance, thermal conduction equilibrates the temperatures of the two components on the conduction timescale,

$`t_{\mathrm{cond}}`$ $``$ $`\left({\displaystyle \frac{d\mathrm{ln}T_\mathrm{e}}{dt}}\right)^1{\displaystyle \frac{n_\mathrm{e}l_\mathrm{T}^2k}{\kappa }}`$ (5)
$``$ $`2\times 10^{11}\left({\displaystyle \frac{n_1}{1\mathrm{cm}^3}}\right)\left({\displaystyle \frac{l_\mathrm{T}}{10^{19}\mathrm{cm}}}\right)^2\left({\displaystyle \frac{kT_1}{1.0\mathrm{keV}}}\right)^{5/2}\left({\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{ln}\mathrm{\Lambda }}{32.2}}\right)\mathrm{s},`$
where $`\mathrm{ln}\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ is the Coulomb logarithm. The gas in the 1.0 keV plasma cools on the timescale given by equation (5). This timescale is smaller than the recombination timescale, and is comparable to it even with $`l_\mathrm{T}=2\times 10^{19}`$ cm. This indicates that the strong gas cooling via conduction makes $`T_\mathrm{e}`$ lower than $`T_z`$. While the presence of a magnetic field will in principle reduce the heat flux, we ignore its effect, since the magnetic field is expected to be negligibly small in mature SNRs. We conclude from this argument that it is entirely possible in IC 443 and similar SNRs for the interior gas to be an overionized, recombining plasma.

Assuming both $`T_z`$ and $`T_\mathrm{e}`$ are $`e`$-folding with their characteristic timescales, we can estimate the age of the 1.0 keV plasma ($`t_{\mathrm{age}}`$) approximately by the following equation,

$$\frac{T_z}{T_\mathrm{e}}\frac{\mathrm{exp}\left[t_{\mathrm{age}}/t_{\mathrm{recomb}}\right]}{\mathrm{exp}\left[t_{\mathrm{age}}/t_{\mathrm{cond}}\right]}1.5,$$
(6)
to be (0.3–1)$`\times `$104 yr. This age is younger than that estimated by Chevalier (1999). It indicates at least that the 1.0 keV plasma is younger than $`t_{\mathrm{recomb}}3\times 10^4`$ yr; if this plasma is older than the age represented by the recombination timescale, we would expect $`T_z`$ to be comparable to $`T_\mathrm{e}`$.

Evidence of overionization has not been detected in any other SNR. We consider our detection in IC 443 to be plausible for the following reasons: (1) The interior of IC 443 was shocked long ago and has had no subsequent source of heating or ionization, and thus should be much nearer ionization equilibrium than newly shocked gas near the rim or in young SNR’s; (2) IC 443 has an interior plasma hot enough to give rise to strong thermal conduction; (3) ASCA SIS is the first detector with sufficient energy resolution to cleanly resolve the H-like and He-like lines of S from each other; (4) The signal-to-noise in the spectra is sufficiently high ((4–5)$`\times 10^4`$ counts in each region) for $`T_z`$ and $`T_\mathrm{e}`$ to be inferred with small errors. It should be noted, however, that no evidence of overionization is detected in W44, despite it having similar properties and comparable quality of ASCA spectra. The difference between the two remnants merits further investigation.

## 5 Conclusion

We have discovered a shell-like structure in the softness-ratio map and two distinct (0.2 keV and 1.0 keV) plasma components in IC 443. Using these results and the emission measures of the two components, we suggest that IC 443 has a plasma structure consisting of a central hot region surrounded by an envelope of a cool and denser plasma, that is, the typical structure of a SNR predicted by the Sedov-Tayler solution. In addition, we have detected strong line emission from H-like Ne, Si and S. The line intensity ratio of H-like K$`\alpha `$ to He-like K$`\alpha `$ of S requires a temperature of 1.5 keV, which is significantly higher than the continuum temperature of 1.0 keV. The same can be concluded for Si. Therefore, we suggest that the 1.0 keV plasma is “overionized.”

In order to produce an overionized thermal plasma, the gas cooling rate must be higher than the recombination rate of ions. Strong cooling due to thermal conduction from the hot (1.0 keV) remnant center to the cooler (0.2 keV) exterior could cause this.

IC 443 is the first SNR in which evidence for overionization has been found. The process of thermal conduction should arise in all SNRs. Therefore we expect that observations of other evolved SNRs (such as mixed-morphology types) should detect further evidence of overionized plasma. The apparent absence of overionized gas in the similar remnant W44 suggests that the interior plasma in other remnants may evolve differently from that in IC 443.

We thank Yasunobu Uchiyama for his thoughtful comments and suggestions. The Digitized Sky Survey was produced at the Space Telescope Science Institute under U.S. Government grant NAG W-2166. The images of these surveys are based on photographic data obtained using the Oschin Schmidt Telescope on Palomar Mountain and the UK Schmidt Telescope. The plates were processed into the present compressed form with the permission of these institutions.