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# Nonlinear spin-polarized transport through a ferromagnetic domain wall

## Abstract

A domain wall separating two oppositely magnetized regions in a ferromagnetic semiconductor exhibits, under appropriate conditions, strongly non linear I-V characteristics similar to those of a $`p`$-$`n`$ diode. We study these characteristics as functions of wall width and temperature. As the width increases or the temperature decreases, direct tunneling between the majority spin bands reduces the effectiveness of the diode. This has important implications for the zero-field quenched resistance of magnetic semiconductors and for the design of a recently proposed spin transistor.

It has recently been reported that some doped semiconductors, such as Ga1-xMnxAs OhnoRTD  and Ti1-xCoxO2 Matsumoto , undergo ferromagnetic transitions at temperatures as high as $`110`$ K and $`300`$ K respectively, while others ($`n`$-doped Zn1-xMnxSe BeMnZnSe ) are almost completely spin polarized by the application of a relatively modest magnetic field. These findings have raised hopes for the realization of semiconductor-based magnetoelectronic devices review .

In a ferromagnetic semiconductor, the up- and down- spin components of just one carrier type are quite analogous to majority and minority carriers in ordinary doped semiconductors. Accordingly, a domain wall separating two ferromagnetic regions with opposite magnetizations is the analogue of a $`p`$-$`n`$ junction, while two consecutive domain walls correspond to a $`p`$-$`n`$-$`p`$ transistor. In a recent paper FV  we have exploited this analogy to show that nonlinear amplification of a spin-polarized charge current is indeed possible in the “$`p`$-$`n`$-$`p`$” configuration, and can be controlled by a magnetic field or a voltage applied to the “base” region between the two domain walls. However, the analysis of Ref. FV  was based on the assumption that the probability of a carrier flipping its spin while crossing the domain wall is negligible. This corresponds to assuming the resistivity of the domain wall is large compared to that of the bulk material.

The resistance of a domain wall between ferromagnetic materials has been examined several times from different perspectives since the pioneering work of Cabrera and Falicov Falicov . These authors found that the resistance was very small, and later calculations Zhang ; Simanek  have supported that result for metallic magnets. A far different regime is possible, however, when the spin polarization is or approaches $`100\%`$. For example, experimental and theoretical resultsMathur  indicate that domain walls in La0.7Ca0.3MnO3 may dominate the resistance in thin films. Magnetic semiconductor systems, due to their very small bandwidths, are also likely to be $`100\%`$ spin polarized, and thus their domain walls should be highly resistive in the absence of spin-flip transport processes across them.

A key question that has not been addressed so far is how the nonlinear current-voltage (I-V) characteristics of the domain wall are affected by spin-flip processes as the width of the domain wall increases. Note that the width of a domain wall can now be directly measured magneticSTM  and, in principle, geometrically controlled Bruno . Our analytical theory of transport across the domain wall should therefore be useful in designing devices with optimal values of the controllable parameters. Certainly such a theory would be crucial to understanding the zero-field quenched resistance and the low-field magnetoresistance of magnetic semiconductors as well as to the realization of the “unipolar spin transistor” proposed in FV .

Here we present a quantitative study of the nonlinear I-V characteristics of a magnetic domain wall. The main issue is the competition between minority spin injection, which is responsible for the nonlinear spin-diode behavior, and majority spin transmission, which tends to suppress it. We shall show that the latter dominates when either the temperature is low, or the domain wall is thick. Assuming that the motion of carriers through the domain wall is ballistic, we derive analytic expressions for the charge and spin currents as functions of applied voltage, width of the domain wall, and temperature. We further identify a new transport regime for intermediate wall thicknesses, in which carriers are ballistically transported across the domain wall (characterized by nonlinear charge currents), but most spin polarization is lost.

Our model is schematically depicted in Fig. 1(a). The two ferromagnetic regions $`F1`$ and $`F2`$ are connected by a domain wall region of width $`d`$, $`d/2<x<d/2`$. The exchange field $`B(x)`$ has the form

$$\stackrel{}{B}(x)=B_0[\mathrm{cos}\theta (x)\widehat{x}+\mathrm{sin}\theta (x)\widehat{y}],$$
(1)
where $`\widehat{x}`$, $`\widehat{y}`$ are unit vectors in the direction of $`x`$ and $`y`$, and the angle $`\theta (x)`$ varies linearly from $`\theta =\pi /2`$ in $`F2`$ to $`\theta =\pi /2`$ in $`F1`$ footnote1 .

We assume that $`d`$, while possibly large in comparison to a typical carrier wavelength, is smaller than the mean free path and the spin diffusion length $`L_s`$, which is in turn smaller than the geometric size of the system. A charge current $`J_q`$ is injected from the left: our objective is to calculate the voltage $`V`$ that develops across the domain wall and the spin current $`J_s`$ due to the flow.

Let $`\mu _>`$ and $`\mu _<`$ be the quasi-chemical potentials, which control the nonequilibrium densities of majority and minority spin carriers respectively footnote2 . Far from the wall we have $`\mu _>=\mu _<`$ and the carrier densities have the equilibrium values $`n_>^{(0)}`$ and $`n_<^{(0)}`$, with $`n_>^{(0)}>>n_<^{(0)}`$. Density variations from equilibrium $`\mathrm{\Delta }n_{>(<)}n_{>(<)}n_{>(<)}^{(0)}`$ are related to the difference of the quasichemical potentials $`\mathrm{\Delta }\mu \mu _<\mu _>`$ near the domain wall. Since, by charge neutrality, $`\mathrm{\Delta }n_<\mathrm{\Delta }n_>`$ we see that the relative change in the minority spin density is always much larger than the corresponding relative change in the majority spin density. This implies that $`\mu _>`$ is essentially pinned to its bulk value, while $`\mu _<`$ varies significantly in a region of length $`L_s`$ on either side of the domain wall. We can therefore set $`\mu _>0`$ throughout $`F1`$ and $`\mu _>eV`$ throughout $`F2`$, where $`V`$ is the electrostatic potential of $`F1`$ relative to $`F2`$ (see Fig. 1(b)) and the carriers are assumed to be electrons. The density variations are

$$\mathrm{\Delta }n_<(x)=n_<^{(0)}\left[e^{\mathrm{\Delta }\mu (x)/k_BT}1\right],$$
(2)
where $`k_B`$ is the Boltzmann constant and $`T`$ is the temperature.

The charge currents for majority and minority spin orientations must satisfy the condition $`J_>+J_<=J_q`$ where the total charge current $`J_q`$ is independent of position. In addition, the minority carrier current $`J_<`$ is almost entirely a diffusion current, and is given by the classical relation $`J_<(x)=eDdn_<(x)/dx`$, where $`D`$ is the diffusion constant. Because the spin density relaxes to equilibrium exponentially on the scale of $`L_s`$ ( i.e., $`\mathrm{\Delta }n_<(x)=\mathrm{\Delta }n_<(\pm d/2)e^{|xd/2|/L_s}`$ where the lower sign holds in $`F1`$ and the upper sign in $`F2`$), the minority carrier current at $`x=\pm d/2`$ can be written as $`J_<(\pm d/2)=eD\mathrm{\Delta }n_<(\pm d/2)/L_s`$, or, with the help of Eq. (2),

$$J_<(\pm d/2)=\frac{eDn_<^{(0)}}{L_s}\left[e^{\mathrm{\Delta }\mu (\pm d/2)/k_BT}1\right].$$
(3)
It will be argued below that for nondegenerate carriers the quasi-chemical potential of minority spin electrons on each side of the domain wall adjusts to the quasichemical potential of majority spin electrons on the opposite side, so that $`\mu _<(d/2)eV`$, $`\mu _<(d/2)0`$ (see Fig. 1(b)), and

$$\mathrm{\Delta }\mu (\pm d/2)=eV.$$
(4)
Under the same assumption of nondegeneracy, it will also be shown that the matching condition for the spin current $`J_s(x)J_{}(x)J_{}(x)`$ is

$$\frac{J_s(d/2)}{J_s(d/2)}=\frac{\overline{t}_{}+\overline{t}_+e^{eV/k_BT}}{\overline{t}_++\overline{t}_{}e^{eV/k_BT}}$$
(5)
where $`\overline{t}_\pm =\overline{t}_{nf}\pm \overline{t}_{sf}`$, and $`\overline{t}_{sf}`$ and $`\overline{t}_{nf}`$ are population-averaged transmission coefficients, with and without spin flip (see Fig. 1(c)), which will be defined more precisely below. Thus, the spin current is conserved across a sharp domain wall ($`\overline{t}_+=\overline{t}_{}`$), but reverses its sign across a smooth one ($`\overline{t}_+=\overline{t}_{}`$).

Combining Eqs. (3-5), and using current conservation we arrive at our main results. First

$$\frac{J_q}{J_0}=\mathrm{sinh}\left(\frac{eV}{k_BT}\right)\left[1+\frac{\overline{t}_{sf}}{\overline{t}_{nf}}\mathrm{tanh}^2\left(\frac{eV}{2k_BT}\right)\right],$$
(6)
where $`J_02eDn_<^{(0)}/L_s`$. For $`\overline{t}_{sf}=0`$ this reduces to the equation Streetman  derived in (FV ), while for $`\overline{t}_{nf}=0`$ we get $`V=0`$ as expected for a ballistic conductor. In the linear regime $`eV/k_BT<<1`$ this formula leads to the well-known interfacial resistance of Fert and Valet Fert . Second, in the immediate vicinity of the domain wall the spin current is given by

$$\frac{J_s}{J_0}=2\mathrm{sinh}^2\left(\frac{eV}{2k_BT}\right)\left[1\pm \frac{\overline{t}_{sf}}{\overline{t}_{nf}}\mathrm{tanh}\left(\frac{eV}{2k_BT}\right)\right],$$
(7)
where the upper sign holds in $`F2`$ and the lower sign in $`F1`$. We see that spin-flip processes cause the appearance of an odd-in-voltage component of the spin-current, whereas, for $`t_{sf}=0`$, the spin-current is an even function of $`V`$ FV . Shown in Fig. 2 is (a) the spin current in $`F1`$, (b) the charge current, and (c) the ratio of the two. The curves correspond to several different values of $`\overline{t}_{nf}/\overline{t}_{sf}`$. The trends for the spin and charge current described above are evident in Fig. 2; specifically the charge current is always odd in $`V`$ whereas the spin current is even in the absence of spin-flip. When spin-flip dominates the spin current becomes odd as well. The spin current in $`F2`$ is related to that in $`F1`$ according to the following relation: $`J_s(F2;V)=J_s(F1;V)`$. As $`\overline{t}_{nf}/\overline{t}_{sf}`$ becomes smaller, the “leakage current” between the two majority bands becomes significant, and the odd in $`V`$ term in the spin current begins to dominate. Over the entire range shown of $`\overline{t}_{nf}/\overline{t}_{sf}`$ the relationship between $`J_q`$ and $`V`$ is highly nonlinear indicating ballistic transport. Thus ballistic transport itself is not a sufficient condition for maintaining spin polarization in transport across a domain wall.

Assuming ballistic transport in the wall region, we calculate the transmission/reflection coefficients from the exact numerical solution of the Schrödinger equation

$$\left[\frac{\mathrm{}^2}{2m}\frac{^2}{x^2}\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }}{2}\left(\begin{array}{cc}0& e^{i\theta (x)}\\ e^{+i\theta (x)}& 0\end{array}\right)\right]\left(\begin{array}{cc}\psi _{}& \\ \psi _{}& \end{array}\right)=E\left(\begin{array}{cc}\psi _{}& \\ \psi _{}& \end{array}\right),$$
(8)
where $`\mathrm{\Delta }=g\mu _BB`$ is the exchange spin-splitting. The technique of solution is the same as used in Ref. Zhang . Sample results are shown in Fig. 3(a)-(c) for three different values of the dimensionless parameter $`\xi =\mathrm{}\pi /2d\sqrt{2m\mathrm{\Delta }}=10`$, $`1`$, and $`0.1`$, corresponding to sharp, intermediate, and smooth domain walls respectively. smooth domain walls respectively. Recent experiments magneticSTM  suggest the width of domain walls in artificial nanostructures can be as small as $`1`$ nm, giving $`\xi 1`$ for an effective mass $`m`$ equal to the electron mass and a spin splitting $`\mathrm{\Delta }=100meV`$. Domain walls thinner than $`20`$ nm have already been inferred in thin GaMnAs layersSchiffer .

Fig. 3(d)-(f) shows the behavior of the key ratio $`\overline{t}_{nf}/\overline{t}_{sf}`$ as a function of temperature and thickness. As expected $`\overline{t}_{nf}`$ vanishes at low temperature, because, in this limit, there are no incident states above the exchange barrier to provide minority spin-injection. The spin diode is a thermally-activated device (as a $`p`$-$`n`$ diode is), thus higher temperature is favorable to its performance. Fig. 3(d,e) supports this view by showing that minority spin injection only dominates above a certain temperature (depending on domain wall thickness). However the condition $`k_BT\mathrm{\Delta }`$ must be respected if the system is to be nearly $`100\%`$ spin-polarized. The conclusion is that there is a range $`T_{min}<T<T_{max}`$ in which unipolar spin diodes and transistors are expected to be operational.

We now come to the justification of the matching condition (5) and the calculation of the quasi-chemical potential offset. We begin with the former. In the spirit of the Landauer-Büttiker formalism we treat the ferromagnetic regions $`F1`$ and $`F2`$ as two reservoirs of spin polarized electrons at chemical potentials $`\mu _1=0`$ and $`\mu _2=eV`$ which inject up- and down-spin electrons, respectively, in the domain wall region. The small density of minority spin carriers is neglected in the following argument. The components of the current due to electrons with energies in the range $`(E,E+dE)`$ on the two sides of the domain wall are given (in units of $`e/h`$) by

$`j_{1>}(E)`$ $`=`$ $`(1r_{nf}(E))f_{1>}(E)+t_{sf}(E)f_{2>}(E)`$
$`j_{1<}(E)`$ $`=`$ $`r_{sf}(E)f_{1>}(E)+t_{nf}(E)f_{2>}(E)`$
$`j_{2>}(E)`$ $`=`$ $`(1r_{nf}(E))f_{2>}(E)t_{sf}(E)f_{1>}(E)`$
$`j_{2<}(E)`$ $`=`$ $`r_{sf}(E)f_{2>}(E)t_{nf}(E)f_{1>}(E),`$ (9)
where $`r_{nf}`$ and $`r_{sf}`$ are the non spin-flip and spin-flip reflection probabilities, related to $`t_{nf}`$ and $`t_{sf}`$ by the unitarity condition $`r_{nf}+r_{sf}+t_{nf}+t_{sf}=1`$, and $`f_{1>}`$ ,$`f_{2>}`$ are shorthands for the equilibrium distributions of majority spin carriers in $`F1`$ and $`F2`$ respectively. Note that, for nondegenerate carriers $`f_{1>}=f_{2>}e^{eV/k_BT}`$. We find that the spin-flip reflection coefficient $`r_{sf}`$ is extremely small at all energies and thicknesses, and can therefore be safely neglected. With this approximation, combined with the unitarity condition, it is easy to show that the energy-resolved currents are given by $`j_{s1(2)}(E)=(t_{(+)}(E)+t_{+()}(E)e^{eV/k_BT})f_{2>}(E)`$. Noting that $`f_{2>}(E)e^{E/k_BT}`$ and integrating over energy we see that the total current $`J_{s1}=_0^{\mathrm{}}j_{s1}(E)e^{e/k_BT}`$ is equal to $`A(\overline{t}_{}+\overline{t}_+e^{eV/k_BT})`$ where the average transmission coefficients are defined as

$$\overline{t}_{nf(sf)}=\frac{_0^{\mathrm{}}t_{nf(sf)}(E)e^{E/k_BT}𝑑E}{_0^{\mathrm{}}e^{E/k_BT}𝑑E},$$
(10)
and $`A`$ is a constant. Similarly $`J_{s2}=A(\overline{t}_++\overline{t}_{}e^{eV/k_BT})`$. The ratio $`J_{s1}/J_{s2}`$ is thus given by Eq. (5).

To justify the quasi-chemical potential offset condition, Eq. (4) we notice that the quasi-chemical potential $`\mu _{<,1}`$ of minority spin electrons near the left hand side of the domain wall is an average of the quasi-chemical potentials of right (+) and left (-) moving electrons : $`e^{\mu _{<,1}/k_BT}=[e^{\mu _{<,1}^+/k_BT}+e^{\mu _{<,1}^{}/k_BT}]/2`$. (A similar relation holds for the quasi-chemical potential $`\mu _{<,2}`$ of minority spin electrons near the right hand side of the domain wall). The quasi-chemical potentials for right and left movers on either side are determined by the conditions of continuity

$`e^{(E\mu _{>,2}^+)/k_BT}`$ $`=`$ $`qe^{(E\mu _{>,1}^+)/k_BT}+pe^{(E\mu _{<,1}^+)/k_BT}`$
$`e^{(E\mu _{<,2}^+)/k_BT}`$ $`=`$ $`qe^{(E\mu _{<,1}^+)/k_BT}+pe^{(E\mu _{>,1}^+)/k_BT}`$
$`e^{(E\mu _{<,1}^{})/k_BT}`$ $`=`$ $`qe^{(E\mu _{<,2}^{})/k_BT}+pe^{(E\mu _{>,2}^{})/k_BT}`$
$`e^{(E\mu _{>,1}^{})/k_BT}`$ $`=`$ $`qe^{(E\mu _{>,2}^{})/k_BT}+pe^{(E\mu _{<,2}^{})/k_BT},`$
where $`q=t_{sf}/(t_{sf}+t_{nf})`$ and $`p=t_{nf}/(t_{sf}+t_{nf})`$ are the relative probabilities of transmission with and without spin flip respectively. The first of these equations, for example, says that the density of right-moving up-spin electrons of energy $`E`$ on the right hand side of the domain wall is equal to the density of right-moving down-spin electrons of the same energy which enter from the left and flip their spin, plus the density of right-moving up-spin electrons which enter from the left and do not flip their spin. Because the quasi-chemical potentials of the majority spin carriers are essentially pinned to their bulk values, we can set $`\mu _{>,2}^+=\mu _{>,2}^{}=\mu _{>,2}=eV`$ and $`\mu _{>,1}^+=\mu _{>,1}^{}=\mu _{>,1}=0`$. Integrating Eqs. (Nonlinear spin-polarized transport through a ferromagnetic domain wall) over energy, and making use of $`p+q=1`$, we easily get $`\mu _{<,1}=eV`$ and $`\mu _{<,2}=0`$, as indicated in Fig. 1(b).

In summary, we have shown that both the thickness and the temperature have a profound influence on the nonlinear transport properties of a ferromagnetic domain wall. We have derived analytical formulas, Eqs. (6) and (7), for the charge and spin currents of this “magnetic junction” under physical assumptions similar to the ones from which the Shockley equations of a classical $`p`$-$`n`$ junction are derived. These formulae indicate a new transport regime, where charge transport is ballistic, but spin polarization is lost. Equations (6) and (7), together with microscopic calculation of the population-averaged transmission coefficients, can be used to assess the effectiveness of unipolar spin-diode devices in realistic circumstances.

We gratefully acknowledge support from NSF grants No. DMR-0074959 and from DARPA/ARO DAAD19-01-1-0490.


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# Nucleon-Nucleon Interactions on the Lattice

## Abstract

We consider the nucleon-nucleon potential in quenched and partially-quenched QCD. The leading one-meson exchange contribution to the potential is found to fall off exponentially at long-distances, in contrast with the Yukawa-type behaviour found in QCD. This unphysical component of the two-nucleon potential has important implications for the extraction of nuclear properties from lattice simulations.

preprint:  NT@UW-02-002
February 2002

It is hoped that lattice methods will ultimately lead to an understanding of nuclear physics directly from QCD. To date there exist two distinct approaches to investigating the nucleon-nucleon (NN) system using lattice QCD. The first approach makes use of Lüscher’s finite-volume algorithm, which expresses the energy of a two-particle state as a perturbative expansion in the scattering length divided by the size of the box . Practical computations require a sufficiently small box, which in turn should be larger than the scattering length. Hence Lüscher’s method is ideal for systems with “natural” scattering lengths – with size of order a characteristic physical length scale – and has been used to study $`\pi \pi `$ scattering . Of course in the NN system, the scattering lengths are much larger than the characteristic physical length scale given by $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_{QCD}^1`$. Nevertheless one may expect that at the unphysical values of the pion mass currently used in lattice simulations, the scattering lengths relax to natural values, thus allowing their determination from the lattice. Attempts have been made to compute NN scattering parameters in lattice QCD; Ref.  computes the $`{}_{}{}^{1}S_{0}^{}`$ and $`{}_{}{}^{3}S_{1}^{}`$ scattering lengths in quenched QCD (QQCD) using Lüscher’s method. A second, less-ambitious approach to the NN system on the lattice is to study the simplified problem of two interacting heavy-light particles . Here the hope is to extract information about the long-distance tail of the potential, which in nature is provided by one-pion exchange (OPE).

At present computational efforts are limited by the use of quark masses that are significantly larger than those of nature, typically $`m_\pi ^{\mathrm{latt}.}500\mathrm{MeV}`$. In order to make a connection between present (and near-future) lattice calculations and nature, an extrapolation to the physical values of the quarks masses is required. The technology which allows a systematic extrapolation has been developed for QQCD  and partially quenched QCD (PQQCD) . In this paper we will consider the potential between two nucleons at leading order (LO) in quenched chiral perturbation theory (Q$`\chi `$PT) and in partially-quenched chiral perturbation theory (PQ$`\chi `$PT), the low-energy effective field theories that describe QQCD and PQQCD, respectively.

We will be considering the extension from two-flavor QCD, where the three $`\pi `$’s are pseudo-Goldstone bosons associated with the breaking of chiral symmetry and the $`\eta `$ is the $`SU(2)`$ singlet meson whose mass arises mainly from the $`U(1)_A`$ axial anomaly, to QQCD and PQQCD. Essential to our discussion will be the modifications to the $`\eta `$ propagator which result from quenching and partial quenching. In QQCD the quarks, $`Q=(u,d,\stackrel{~}{u},\stackrel{~}{d})^T`$, live in the fundamental representation of $`SU(2|2)`$, with the bosonic quarks, $`\stackrel{~}{u},\stackrel{~}{d}`$, accounting for the graded structure of the symmetry group. The low-energy effective field theory (EFT) is Q$`\chi `$PT, whose degrees of freedom are constrained by the chiral group $`SU(2|2)_LSU(2|2)_R`$. In the isospin limit the $`\eta `$ propagator in Q$`\chi `$PT is given by

$`G_{\eta \eta }(q^2)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{i}{(q^2m_\pi ^2+iϵ)}}+{\displaystyle \frac{i(M_0^2\alpha _\mathrm{\Phi }q^2)}{(q^2m_\pi ^2+iϵ)^2}}.`$ (1)
The hairpin parameters $`M_0`$ and $`\alpha _\mathrm{\Phi }`$ characterize the dynamics of the singlet field and do not vanish in the chiral limit. The double-pole, or hairpin, structure is an unphysical artifact of quenching. Unfortunately QQCD is not related to QCD by any smooth variation of parameters. This is not the case in PQQCD where the quarks, (four fermionic and two bosonic) $`Q=(u,d,j,l,\stackrel{~}{u},\stackrel{~}{d})^T`$ live in the fundamental representation of the graded symmetry group $`SU(4|2)`$ and the low-energy EFT is PQ$`\chi `$PT, whose degrees of freedom are constrained by chiral $`SU(4|2)_LSU(4|2)_R`$. As the $`j,l`$ sea quarks become degenerate with the $`u,d`$ valence quarks, PQQCD smoothly maps to QCD. If the sea quark masses are taken to infinity, PQQCD formally goes to QQCD. In the isospin limit for both valence and sea quarks the $`\eta `$ propagator in PQ$`\chi `$PT is

$`G_{\eta \eta }(q^2)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{i(m_{\eta _j}^2m_\pi ^2)}{(q^2m_\pi ^2+iϵ)^2}},`$ (2)
where $`m_{\eta _j}`$ is the mass of the pseudo-Goldstone bosons composed of sea quarks. Clearly this unphysical double pole vanishes in the QCD limit. The hairpin structure resulting from (partial) quenching will have important implications for lattice simulations of heavy-heavy systems, such as the two-nucleon system or systems composed of two (or more) hadrons containing heavy quarks.

The EFT power-counting for NN scattering has been developed in Ref. . While details of the power-counting are channel dependent, LO for the low partial waves consists of OPE and a four-nucleon contact interaction with no derivatives or insertions of the quark mass matrix. This contact operator encodes information about short-distance physics. The EFT power-counting is readily generalized to QQCD and PQQCD, and there is no direct***We define direct (partial) quenching to be (partial) quenching beyond modifications to the singlet propagator. (partial) quenching of the NN potential at LO in the EFT. This is easily seen by assigning a conserved charge to the various quark types. We will consider PQQCD but the same argument applies to QQCD. For instance, consider the charge assignments $`q_V=(1/3,0,0)`$, $`q_S=(0,1/3,0)`$, $`q_G=(0,0,1/3)`$ for valence-, sea- and ghost-quark number, respectively. Here $`q_V`$ plays the role of ordinary baryon number. The NN initial state carries total quark-number charge $`(2,0,0)`$. Baryon states with two valence quarks and either one ghost quark or one sea quark carry charge $`(2/3,0,1/3)`$ or $`(2/3,1/3,0)`$, respectively, while meson states with one valence quark and either one ghost or one sea anti-quark carry charge $`(1/3,0,1/3)`$ or $`(1/3,1/3,0)`$, respectively. It follows that the NN potential must have NN in the initial and in the final state. Of course the potential is directly (partially) quenched, but only through loops, which appear beyond LO in the EFT, as in fig. (2b). Direct (partial) quenching modifies the tree-level potential through higher fock components. For instance, one can have a final state of one nucleon and one baryon composed of two valence quarks and one sea or ghost quark and one meson composed of one valence quark and one sea or ghost anti-quark. This contribution can arise either from meson-exchange graphs, as in fig. (2a), or from four-nucleon contact operators with one insertion of the quark mass matrix or one insertion of a chiral covariant derivative. In either case, the external meson legs at the level of the potential must be reabsorbed by the final state nucleons. In contrast with the “potential” pions exchanged between the baryons, these “radiation” pions generate contributions which are subleading in the EFT. Hence at LO there is no direct (partial) quenching and the NN potential is given by the one meson exchange graphs of fig. (1). However, there are hairpin contributions to the potential at LO.

For simplicity we work in the isospin limit for both the valence and the sea quarks. The diagrams in fig. (1) give the LO meson-exchange contributions to the NN potential. In coordinate space the NN potential is

$`V^{(Q)}(r)={\displaystyle \frac{1}{8\pi f^2}}\sigma _1\sigma _2\left(g_A^2{\displaystyle \frac{\tau _1\tau _2}{r}}+g_0^2{\displaystyle \frac{1\alpha _\mathrm{\Phi }}{r}}g_0^2{\displaystyle \frac{M_0^2\alpha _\mathrm{\Phi }m_\pi ^2}{2m_\pi }}\right)e^{m_\pi r},`$ (3)
in QQCD, where the axial coupling to the pions is $`g_A`$, while the coupling to the $`\eta `$ is $`g_0`$. However, one should keep in mind that there is no relation between axial couplings in QQCD and those of QCD. In PQQCD, we find that

$`V^{(PQ)}(r)={\displaystyle \frac{1}{8\pi f^2}}\sigma _1\sigma _2\left(g_A^2{\displaystyle \frac{\tau _1\tau _2}{r}}g_0^2{\displaystyle \frac{\left(m_{\eta _j}^2m_\pi ^2\right)}{2m_\pi }}\right)e^{m_\pi r},`$ (4)
where the couplings $`g_A`$ and $`g_0`$ in this potential should be perturbatively close to those of QCD. Notice that effects due to partial-quenching (but not quenching) disappear in the short-distance limit, and are irrelevant to the renormalization of the potential. This in turn implies that the four-nucleon contact operator, that appears in PQQCD at the same order in the EFT as OPE, is that of QCD . In contrast, the long-distance behaviour of the potentials are dominated by the hairpin contributions,

$`V(r){\displaystyle \frac{g_0^2}{16\pi f^2}}\sigma _1\widehat{𝐫}\sigma _2\widehat{𝐫}m_\pi e^{m_\pi r}\{\begin{array}{cc}\left(M_0^2\alpha _\mathrm{\Phi }m_\pi ^2\right),\hfill & \text{QQCD;}\hfill \\ \left(m_{\eta _j}^2m_\pi ^2\right),\hfill & \text{PQQCD    ,}\hfill \end{array}`$ (5)
which has both a central piece and a tensor piece. Both quenching and partial-quenching lead to an NN potential which falls off exponentially at long distances, as opposed to the physical Yukawa fall-off. In nature there is a fine-tuning between the long-distance Yukawa part of the potential due to OPE, and the short-distance part which is encoded in the contact operator which appears at the same order in the EFT. It is this fine-tuning which leads, for instance, to a shallowly bound deuteron. It is clear that this fine-tuning does not exist for QQCD, and quickly disappears in PQQCD as one moves away from the QCD limit.

In conclusion, multi-nucleon quenched and partially-quenched simulations on the lattice are complicated by the presence of a long-distance exponential tail, that disturbs a fine-tuning which is a key feature of nuclear physics. It has been shown in Ref.  that an understanding of the quark-mass dependence of the deuteron binding energy requires the matrix element of an operator that is not constrained by NN scattering data but which in principle can be obtained from lattice QCD. Any meaningful determination of this matrix element from a partially-quenched simulation will have to account for the unphysical, long-distance behavior highlighted in this work.

###### Acknowledgements.

This work is supported in part by the U.S. Dept. of Energy under Grant No. DE-FG03-97ER4014.


text:
# Journey to the edge of time: The GREAT mission.

## I Introduction

The Universe today is filled with fossil relics of the big bang. Studies of one of these relics - the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) - have revolutionized our understanding of the early Universe. But microwaves and other forms of electromagnetic radiation are unable to penetrate the hot plasma that filled the Universe until 300,000 years after the big bang. To see beyond this recombination barrier we need to study another fossil relic of the big bang - the Cosmic Gravitational wave Background (CGB). These gravitational waves were produced when the Universe first formed, and their extremely weak coupling to matter allowed them to propagate freely through the dense plasma that filled the early Universe. In most models of the early Universe the CGB has a quantum mechanical origin, making its detection a probe of quantum gravity.

It is not easy to detect waves that can pass virtually unattenuated through the densest matter in the Universe, but the task is not impossible. A GREAT detector consisting of two independent gravitational wave interferometers that are enhanced versions of the LISAlisa  instrument (Laser Interferometer Space Antenna) would have the sensitivity required to detect the Cosmic Gravitational wave Background predicted by standard inflation models. Indeed, the main challenge is not building a detector with sufficient sensitivity, but rather, picking out the CGB from the multitude of astrophysical sources of gravitational waves. The final design of the GREAT mission will depend on lessons learned from the LISA mission. LISA will serve as a stepping stone in the development of the advanced optical and drag free systems required by GREAT, while at the same time providing crucial data about the astrophysical foregrounds that GREAT will have to contend with.

## II Why go to space?

The gravitational wave spectrum is broadly divided into high and low frequencies, with one Hertz as the dividing line. Seismic, atmospheric and other environmental disturbances limit ground based gravitational wave detectors to the high frequency portion of the spectrum above 10 Hertz. In contrast, space based detectors can operate at practically any frequency.

Standard inflation theories predict that the amplitude, $`h`$, of the relic gravitational waves increases at low frequencies such that $`hf^\alpha `$, where $`f`$ is the frequency and $`\alpha 1.5`$. According to this prediction, the gravitational wave background in the frequency range accessible from space will have an amplitude thousands to trillions of times greater than in the frequency range accessible on Earth.

## III Science Potential

The CGB contains a wealth of information about the very early Universe. The amplitude and energy spectrum of the CGB provides a sensitive probe of the physical processes at work during the formation of the Universe. The gravitational waves produced during the big bang are expect to have a quantum origin, making the CGB a direct experimental test of quantum gravity. The leading theory of the early universe, Inflation, predicts that gravitational waves will be produced as the result of parametric amplification of quantum fluctuations in the gravitational field. More speculative string theory models of the early universe give a range of predictions for the CGB spectrum that differ significantly from standard Inflation models. A direct measurement of the CGB power spectrum would help to pin down the correct theory of quantum cosmology.

To date, observations have told us very little about the CGB power spectrum. The existing experimental bounds are shown in Fig. 1, along with the regions of the spectrum that will be probed by various gravitational wave detectors. Also shown is the prediction from standard Inflationturner  with a tensor-scalar ratio of $`0.01`$. The spectrum is expressed in terms of $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{gw}(f)`$ \- the energy density of gravitational waves, in units of the critical density, per logarithmic frequency interval. Neither the ground based LIGO (Laser Interferometric Gravitational Observatory) detectors, nor the space based LISA detector, will have the sensitivity required to detect the spectrum predicted by Inflation. To do so will require the GREAT detectors described in the next section.

If we can achieve this sensitivity, then the GREAT mission has the potential to probe physics at the Planck scale, test the inflationary paradigm and to detect the creation of matter at the electroweak phase transition. Next, we highlight four of the potential important science questions probed by GREAT.

### III.1 Inflationary models

The combination of a CMB polarization mission, such as CMBPOL, that measures gravity modes on the horizon sizepet  and the GREAT mission will enable us to probe the shape of the inflaton potential. Since the amplitude of the gravity wave signal depends on the Hubble parameter when the mode leaves the horizon, we will be able to directly probe inflationary physics. The lever arm provided by the two measurements will be very powerful. We will be probing the physics of inflation at two different scales and will be able to perhaps reconstruct the inflationary potential turner ; hut

### III.2 Probing the Planck Scale

String theorists suggest that Planck scale physics can produce a dramatic signature in the gravity wave background. Eather et al.eat  argue that the breakdown of locality in string theory can produce significant deviations in the amplitude and shape of the gravity wave spectrum. Kaloper et al.kal  show that even if string theory does not violate locality it will modify the Lagrangian by adding non-minimal coupling terms of order $`p^2/M^2`$ where $`M`$ is the string mass scale. They argue that string theories give rise to correction terms of order $`10^110^7`$ rather than the 10-11 amplitude terms that arise in inflationary models. These terms alter the relationship between the tensor mode slope and the ratio between the amplitude of the tensor mode signal and the amplitude of the scalar mode signal. Since these correction terms are scale dependent, they will have different effects on gravity waves at the two different scales. This scale dependance appears in many versions of string cosmology kal ; all ; men ; inf .

### III.3 TeV-PeV scale physics: the origin of matter and forces

After inflation, the universe begins to cool and slowly expand. GREAT is probing the physics of the universe when its temperature was in the GeV - PeV range. During this period, the universe underwent a series of phase transitions. These phase transitions, if they are violent enough, will produce a detectable signal in the gravity wave backgroundkos . In standard physics models, the universe went through two important phase transitions in the GREAT frequency range: the QCD phase transition during which quarks where bound into protons and neutrons and the electroweak phase transition that transformed the basic forces into the form that we observe them today. While the gravity wave signal in minimal electroweak models is too small for detection ($`h2\times 10^{27}`$ at a characteristic frequency of $`4\times 10^3`$ Hz), gravity waves from more strongly first-order phase transitions, including the electroweak transition in nonminimal models, have better prospects for detectionkam . Electroweak baryogensis requires non-minimal modelstrod , so that a gravity wave background detection could be a direct signal of the origin of matter itself!

In brane world models, the largest compact dimension can produce an imprint on the gravity wave background. In these models, the fundamental scale of gravity is only 1 - 1000 TeV. When the universe cooled through this temperature, it can generate gravity waves in the detectable range of LISA and GREATha ; hb

### III.4 Black hole Mergers: Science from the Foreground

The greatest obstacle to detecting the CGB - the astrophysical foregrounds - can also be viewed as a major science goal for the GREAT observatory. A very low frequency mission would be able to detect every compact supermassive black hole binary in the Universe, while an intermediate frequency mission could detect every compact Neutron star binary in the Universe. The supermassive black hole binaries would provide insight into galactic evolution and merger, while the Neutron star binaries would provide insight into the endpoint of stellar evolution.

## IV Mission Design

The GREAT detectors could potentially operate anywhere in the range $`10^710`$ Hz. Going below $`10^7`$ Hz is not practical as observing a single cycle would take over a year, while frequencies above 10 Hz are best handled by ground based detectors. The basic design of the detectors would be the same as for LISA: laser interferometers monitoring the separation of three or more free-floating proof masses that are shielded from non-gravitational disturbances by the surrounding spacecraft. The GREAT mission will likely differ from LISA in the number of interferometers, orbital configuration, baseline, laser power, optics, and drag-free performance. The technologies required are well beyond what are currently available, but there is no fundamanetal reason why the performance levels can not be reached.

The final design will depend on the frequency window that is chosen, and the choice of frequency window will depend on what we learn about astrophysical foregrounds in the next decade. Based on our current understanding of the foregrounds, there appear to be two distinct choices for the GREAT observatoryuv . The first is a very low frequency optioncl , operating in the range $`10^710^5`$ Hz, that exploits the expected increase in the amplitude of the CGB at low frequencies, and a tailing off in the amplitude of astrophysical sources below $`10^5`$ Hz. The second is an intermediate frequency option, operating in the range $`10^21`$ Hz, that exploits the transient nature of the astrophysical foregrounds at frequencies above $`10^2`$ Hz. Each option has its own set of pros and cons, and its own set of technical challenges. In either case, it is important that the noise level in the observatory is well below the CGB signal so that astrophysical foregrounds can be removed.

### IV.1 Very Low Frequency Mission

The key technology for low frequency operation is the drag-free system that shields the proof mass from non-gravitational disturbances. At the heart of the drag-free system are the acceleration detectors. For a very low frequency mission to be viable, accelerometer performance would need to improve by several orders of magnitude beyond that envisioned for the LISA mission. It is unlikely that accelerometer improvements alone will be enough to bridge the gap between LISA’s low frequency performance and the requirements of the GREAT observatory. The baseline of the interferometer will also have to be increased, which will necessitate a change in the type of orbit used. The LISA design employs a cartwheeling orbit with a five million kilometer baseline. Changing to circular orbits with the spacecraft arrayed about the Sun leads to a factor of 50 increase in the baseline while maintaining a one AU orbital radius. The main drawback of this orbital configuration is a lack of directional sensitivity compared to the LISA orbits. It may be necessary to increase the baseline further by increasing the orbital radius to Martian or even Neptunian scale. This has the added advantage of reducing thermal noise in the spacecraft, but at the cost of solar power to run the spacecraft. Contrary to ones natural intuition, the larger baseline missions do not require larger telescopes or more powerful lasers than the LISA mission.

To give a concrete example, a very low frequency GREAT observatory with a $`2.6\times 10^8`$ km baseline and accelerometers sensitive to accelerations of $`10^{18}`$ m s-2 Hz-1/2 would be able to detect a gravitational wave background generated during the inflationary epoch at frequencies between $`10^6`$ and $`10^5`$ Hz (Fig. 2).

Once the desired sensitivity has been reached, a method has to be found to distinguish between instrument noise and the CGB, as both produce a stochastic signal in the detector. One method is to simultaneously operate the observatory in what are know as Sagnac and Micheleson modes. The Sagnac mode is fairly insensitive to low frequency gravitational waves, making it a useful tool for monitoring the noise in the more sensitive Michelson modeaet . The advantage of this system is that it can be implemented using a single interferometer. The other alternative is to fly two independent interferometers and cross-correlate their outputc . The gravitational wave signal will be common to both interferometers, while the detector noise will be independent. Consequently, the signal to noise ratio grows as the square-root of the number of cycles observed. The drawback of operating at low frequencies is that few complete cycles can be observed in one year, making the cross correlation of two interferometers inefficient.

### IV.2 Intermediate Frequency Mission

An intermediate frequency mission would require significant improvements in laser, optical and drag-free technology. To accurately track the movements of the proof masses requires a large number of photons. The more photons the better the measurement. The position sensing improves as the square of the size of the telescopes used to transmit and receive the laser signals, and as the square root of the laser power. Larger telescopes also reduce the error caused by laser pointing instability. The baseline of an intermediate frequency mission has to be shorter than the LISA mission to avoid losing sensitivity to waves whose wavelength fits inside the interferometer.

As a concrete example, a GREAT observatory comprising two independent interferometers, each with $`5\times 10^5`$ Km baselines, 100 W lasers, 8 m telescopes, and accelerometers capable of detecting $`10^{17}`$ m s-2 Hz-1/2, would have the sensitivity required to detect gravitational waves produced during an inflationary epoch of the early universe (Fig. 3).

The increased laser power and large optics require a different spacecraft design from the LISA mission. The telescope design could be based on Next Generation Space Telescope (NGST) technology. To have two independent interferometers, a total of 8 spacecraft are required. They are arranged in a square with two spacecraft at each corner. The spacecraft would have one large telescope for sending and receiving signals along the interferometer arms, and a second smaller telescope for exchanging phase information between the corner pair (Fig. 4).

A more radical design option for an intermediate frequency mission would be to shorten the baseline further and use active postion control to operate the detector as a power-recyled Fabry-Perot interferometer, as is done at the Earth based observatories.


text:
# Magnetic and Transport Properties of 𝑁𝑖𝐹𝑒/𝑆𝑖𝑂₂/𝑁𝑖𝐹𝑒 Trilayers

## I. INTRODUCTION

Mass Storage, Sensing, Spintronics, Quantum computing and other applications of magnetic thin-film devices are driving the current interest in understanding the nature and extent of magnetic exchange interactions and coupling effects arising between layers and nanostructures. While most investigations have focused on metal-sandwiched multilayer systems like Fe/Cr and Co/Cu where the thickness of the metallic material between the ferromagnetic layers determines whether the interlayer coupling will be ferromagnetic or antiferromagnetic, this work is focused on ferromagnetic layers sandwiching an insulating or semiconducting spacer of variable thickness. These systems are of interest in the study of e.g. read heads made from multilayered films laminated with insulators (usually $`Al_2O_3`$) to prevent eddy currents or magnetic tunnel junctions using two magnetic layers with different coercivities, separated by a thin insulating layer (1 to 2 nm thick). One of the most striking effects of this coupling, is the reduction of coercivity of a single layer, attributed to reduced domain wall energy, that may alter drastically the device behavior.

Several possibilities exist and have been studied to describe interactions between two ferromagnetic layers across an insulating or semiconducting layer platt  (see Fig. 1). Pinholes generally mediate direct ferromagnetic coupling between neighbouring multilayers. They are viewed like shorts across the insulating or semiconducting layer. Néel proposed that conformal roughness (orange-peel model) at interfaces can result in ferromagnetic coupling for a moderate thickness of spacer material. Recently, an uncorrelated roughness model for biquadratic coupling has been proposed as well strijkers . In Néel model, roughness features on the surface of the bottom ferromagnetic layer propagate through the uppermost layers as they are deposited platt .

Magnetostatic coupling occurs between the roughness features or between domain walls in the two magnetic layers. In this case, stray flux fields from walls in one film can influence the magnetization reversal process in the other.

Slonczewski loose-spin model strijkers  is based on the change in angular momentum experienced by spin-polarized electrons tunneling across a spacer barrier resulting in a magnetic exchange coupling. The magnitude and sign of the coupling oscillates depending on the interfacial barrier properties.

This work aim is to collect various structural, layer morphology, magnetic (mainly BH loop and coercive field $`H_c`$ measurements) and transport evidences in order to discriminate among all these different models.

## II. SAMPLE PREPARATION

The trilayer samples in this study were grown by RF sputtering onto Corning 7059 Glass substrates at nominal room temperature. The wafers were mounted on a rotating substrate table that passes the wafers over individual sputtering guns. The sputtering gas used is $`3.10^3`$ mbar of Ar in a background pressure of $`1.10^6`$ mbar and an RF power density of 1W/cm2. The base magnetic layer is 480 Å of Permalloy ($`Ni_{81}Fe_{19}`$ alloy denoted as Py) with $`SiO_2`$ as the spacer material, and another top layer of Py 480 Å thick. Each magnetic film was sputtered from a composite target. The $`SiO_2`$ was also RF sputtered from an oxide target at a power density of 1W/cm2. The thickness of the Py layers was monitored precisely and kept constant. Its value was carefully chosen in order to minimise Hc for this type of structure (In Fig.2 the morphology of the trilayer is shown with a special High Resolution TEM technique). The magnetization of all the Py films was planar in all the samples studied.

Clearly, a small undulation is visible in the TEM image (with an average amplitude h $``$ 1 nm and wavelengh $`\lambda `$ 30 nm) indicating that the roughness of the $`SiO_2`$ layer at the two interfaces with the Py layers is conformal and might play a role in the physical properties as discussed later.

The amorphous nature of the structure is demonstrated by the X-Ray diagram shown in Fig.3. The sharp feature appearing in the diagram corresponds to the presence of microcrystallites of Py type with a textured growth along (111) direction.

## III. HYSTERESIS LOOP MEASUREMENT

The trilayers showed marked anisotropic magnetization behavior in hysteresis BH loop measurements. On the average, the anisotropy field observed in the the hard axis configuration of the BH loop was about 4 Oe. That is not the case of the easy axis coercivity as described in the next section. We believe that our samples possess a uniaxial anisotropy character as shown by Platt et al. platt  whose high-field torque measurements confirm the presence of a uniaxial anisotropy, under similar conditions.

Several sets of BH loop measurements were performed in addition to understand and assess the true nature of the coupling between the layers. We performed measurements on raw films, uncoupled layers, saturated layers and finally fully coupled layers.

## IV. COERCIVITY MEASUREMENTS

Magnetic coupling between double thin films separated by the insulating $`SiO_2`$ spacer layer is investigated with magnetization measurements (BH loop) under the conditions of variable $`SiO_2`$ spacer thickness ranging from 0 to $``$5000 Å.

The easy axis coercive field Hc displayed in Fig. 4 decreases, then shows a fine structure in the form of damped oscillations to increase again with the thickness of the $`SiO_2`$ spacer layer. The drop of the coercivity Hc compared to the free Py layer may attain a factor of 15 under certain conditions. For larger values of $`SiO_2`$ thickness, the magnetization reversal becomes sharper. In addition, when the spacer layer is thicker than 100 Å, separate reversal of the magnetic layers is observed in the hysteresis loop.

## V. TRANSPORT MEASUREMENTS

Magnetoresistive devices have transport properties that depend on the relative orientation of magnetic moments in neighboring grains or thin films. Application of an external magnetic field along different axes (easy and hard axes of Py) and with respect to the injected current direction J results in a specific dependence of scattering on spacer thickness. The key to understanding of the scattering is based on domain wall orientation in the layers viret .

The in-layer magnetic domain wall structure is the source of scattering for the injected electrical current in the structure. Fig. 5 displays, respectively, the easy axis (EA) coercive field Hc with a damped oscillating fine structure (for an $`SiO_2`$ thickness 0.6 to $``$3 nm) and the corresponding magnetoresistance ratio MR values defined as $`\text{MR}=\frac{R_SR_0}{R_0}=\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }R}{R_0}`$ where $`R_S`$ et $`R_0`$ are measured with and without the saturation magnetic field. Magneto-transport data were taken with a high resolution four-point probe with the current J flowing either parallel to the domain wall, i.e. parallel to the easy axis (EA) or perpendicular to the domain wall, i.e. parallel to the hard axis (HA). The magnetic field B is applied either parallel to the current J direction (B $``$  J) or perpendicular to J (B $``$ J). The coupling between the layers alters the domain wall configuration and thus modulates the scattering affecting the magnetoresistance. Different orientation of the domain walls for different thickness has been studied extensively in the past feldtkeller  and the transport data correlate well with Hc fine structure as discussed next.

## VI. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

Our study reveals that the EA coercivity field is a powerful probe to test magnetization reversal processes in magnetically ordered and artificially structured magnetic materials. For any given material Hc depends on coupling reflecting the average properties of the sample as well as local interactions such as wall-wall interaction or magnetization anisotropy dispersion (ripples), in addition to some intrinsic quantities (such as the effective anisotropy and saturation magnetization). This paves the way to manufacture ultra-soft artificial magnetic nanostructures, e.g. our structure was so soft (in comparison with a single layer of same thickness) that the fine structure in Hc may be viewed as some kind of magnetic imaging of wall topography in coupled thin films.

The observed decrease in Hc is more pronounced for the EA field direction, where the magnetization process is determined by domain wall motion. The internal flux closure of the Néel-wall like structures leads to a reduced interaction in the film and between walls in coupled layers, resulting in a drop of Hc. In addition, we believe that wall character changes are driven by coupling in the following way. If the magnetization is reversed by wall motion, the effect of the coupling will be that both Py film magnetizations are reversed simultaneously. This means that a wall in one film is always close to another in the other film. Because of the dipolar magnetic moment of the Néel-walls there will be a magnetostatic interaction between the walls (in addition to an eventual coupling in the case of loose spins at the interface or pinhole presence). Following feldtkeller , the resulting configurations are shown in Fig. 6.

Two principally different configurations must be considered, one with the magnetization of both walls parallel (Fig. 6a and c), and another with anti-parallel magnetizations. When the coupling is weak, the arrangement will be governed by magnetostatic interaction yielding the configuration shown in Fig. 6a and b. For a stronger coupling (due to a thinner intermediate layer (or with loose spins at interfaces or pinholes), the configurations shown in Fig. 6c and d must be expected. The configuration of Fig. 6c and d will have a wall energy larger than those of Fig. 6a and b. In addition, specific energy conditions in the film (generally of magnetostatic origin), favor a local ferro or antiferromagnetic-like coupling (see Fig. 5). We estimate following bobo  and by looking at Fig.2 that orange-peel coupling, induced by the roughness of the layers is negligible in our case.

In conclusion, our work illustrates the detailed study of the nature of the coupling between two magnetic layers separated by an insulator spacer of variable thickness.

Acknowledgements: The authors thank J. Ostorero, F. Michaud and X. Castel for the X-Ray measurements and E. Snoeck for the cross section TEM microscopy.


text:
# In Search of the 𝑓₀ (or “𝜎”) Meson: New data on 𝜋⁰𝜋⁰ Production by 𝜋⁻ and 𝐾⁻ on Hydrogen11footnote 1Contribution to the International Workshop on Chiral Fluctuations in Hadronic Matter, Orsay, France, September 2001.

## 1 INTRODUCTION

The $`f_0(4001200)`$ state, $`I^G(J^{PC})=0^+(0^{++})`$, is the chiral partner of the $`\pi `$ meson. The original symbol for the $`f_0`$ is the $`\sigma `$. To minimize mixups when discussing the production of the $`\sigma `$ and the $`\mathrm{\Sigma }`$ in the same reaction we will use the symbol $`f_0`$. This is the notation employed by the Particle Data Group . The $`f_0`$ is a broad and not well-determined state; recommended in  are a mass around 500 MeV and width in the vicinity of 500 MeV also. The large width ensures that the $`f_0`$ decays inside the nucleus in which it is produced. The $`f_0`$ is a prime candidate to investigate hadron medium modifications which have been the subject of much theoretical discussion as witnessed in this workshop. The medium modifications include a change in the mass and width when the hadron is embedded in nuclear matter of sufficiently high density. The $`f_0`$ decays $`100\%`$ into two pions. The $`\pi ^0\pi ^0`$ decay mode is particularly attractive as two $`\pi ^0`$’s must be in an even $`I`$ and $`J`$ state. This avoids the troublesome $`I`$=1 $`\rho `$ contribution which is present in experiments with the $`\pi ^+\pi ^{}`$ final state. Furthermore, $`\pi ^0`$’s can be measured by the 2$`\gamma `$ decay at all kinetic energies down to $`T_\pi =0`$ MeV. This leads to a high and uniform acceptance for the $`\pi ^0\pi ^0`$ system at all invariant masses down to 270 MeV.

We present preliminary results on $`\pi ^0\pi ^0`$ production in the process $`\pi ^{}p\pi ^0\pi ^0n`$ from threshold to $`p_\pi =750`$ MeV/$`c`$, and for $`K^{}p\pi ^0\pi ^0\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ and $`K^{}p\pi ^0\pi ^0\mathrm{\Sigma }^0`$ at $`p_K=520750`$ MeV/$`c`$. These three reactions, together with flavor symmetry, are very useful for probing the reaction mechanism responsible for $`2\pi ^0`$ production. It will help in the investigation of the unexpected claim  that medium modification of the $`f_0`$ meson was sighted in $`\pi ^+\pi ^{}`$ production by $`\pi ^+`$ at $`p_\pi `$ 400 MeV/$`c`$ on ordinary nuclei of standard nuclear density.

## 2 THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS

At the beam momenta of this experiment the $`2\pi ^0`$ production process,

$$\pi ^{}p\pi ^0\pi ^0n,$$
(1)
is expected to be dominated by $`s`$-channel amplitudes leading to $`N^{}`$ formation. The subsequent $`N^{}`$ decay can occur in two different ways:

* by the decay of an intermediate state meson, the $`f_0`$:

$$\pi ^{}pN^{}f_0n\mathrm{followed}\mathrm{by}f_0\pi ^0\pi ^0;$$
(2)
* via the decay of a second intermediate state baryon resonance, the $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$:

$$\pi ^{}pN^{}\pi ^0\mathrm{\Delta }^0\mathrm{followed}\mathrm{by}\mathrm{\Delta }^0\pi ^0n.$$
(3)

The pole and contact terms are small and may be ignored. Reactions (2) and (3) are interwoven with one another by final state interactions which are energy dependent. The $`\pi ^0\pi ^0`$ interaction is dominated by $`s`$-wave scattering controlled by the $`\delta _0^0`$ phase. The cross section for $`\pi ^0\pi ^0`$ scattering increases monotonically from threshold to the peak of the $`f_0`$, presumably around 500 MeV. $`\pi N`$ scattering reaches a huge peak when $`m(\pi N)`$ = 1232 MeV which corresponds to $`p_\pi `$ = 227 MeV/$`c`$ in the c.m. At low energy we expect the $`\pi ^0\pi ^0`$ scattering to be bigger than $`\pi ^0n`$ scattering, and the reverse at higher energies.

The final state of the $`\pi ^{}p\pi ^0\pi ^0n`$ reaction will be described using a Dalitz plot in which the vertical axis is the invariant mass squared of the $`\pi ^0\pi ^0`$ system, $`m^2(\pi ^0\pi ^0)`$, and the horizontal axis is the invariant mass squared of the $`\pi ^0n`$ system, $`m^2(\pi ^0n)`$. The final state features two identical $`\pi ^0`$’s. Thus, if the process is $`\pi ^{}p\pi _1^0\mathrm{\Delta }^0`$ followed by $`\mathrm{\Delta }^0\pi _2^0n`$ we don’t know which $`\pi ^0`$ is $`\pi _1^0`$ or $`\pi _2^0`$. This complication can be handled by making two entries in the Dalitz plot, recording both the $`m^2(\pi _1^0n)`$ and $`m^2(\pi _2^0n)`$ options. All our Dalitz plots have $`2\pi ^0`$ and are handled this way.

Figure 1a shows a Monte Carlo, MC, generated Dalitz plot, DP, for $`\pi ^{}pf_0n\pi ^0\pi ^0n`$ for $`m(f_0)=0.4`$ GeV and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }(f_0)=0.1`$ GeV with a Breit-Wigner shape at $`p_\pi =0.75`$ GeV/$`c`$.

This DP is characterized by a strong horizontal band around $`m^2(\pi ^0\pi ^0)=(0.4\mathrm{GeV})^2`$, which has a uniform density along the $`m^2(\pi ^0n)`$ axis. The uniform density is a typical feature of the $`s`$-wave decay of the $`f_0`$ state without interference.

Figure 1b shows another MC DP, for $`m(f_0)=0.7`$ GeV, $`\mathrm{\Gamma }(f_0)=0.4`$ GeV, also with a Breit-Wigner shape at $`p_\pi =0.75`$ GeV/$`c`$. There is a broad horizontal band which is uniform in horizontal slices. The density increases with increasing $`m^2(\pi ^0\pi ^0)`$, it is the consequence of choosing $`m(f_0)=`$ 0.7 GeV.

The expected DP for pure $`\mathrm{\Delta }(1232)`$ production, Eq. 3, is shown in Fig. 2.

For the MC we used a Breit-Wigner shape of the $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ with $`m(\mathrm{\Delta })=`$1.2 GeV and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }(\mathrm{\Delta })=`$0.1 GeV. For simplicity, we used an isotropic decay of the $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$. Since the MC calculation $`\mathrm{`}\mathrm{`}`$knows” which of the two $`\pi ^0`$’s belongs to the $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ we can investigate the consequences of our way of handling the two identical $`\pi ^0`$’s. For the correct $`\pi ^0`$ choice, shown in Fig. 2a, one finds the expected, uniform *vertical* band. The wrong $`\pi ^0`$ choice results in a slightly slanted vertical band, see Fig. 2b. This wrong band may be constructed as the reflection of the correct band on the symmetry line that characterizes every DP in which two particles are identical. The symmetry line is a straight line connection $`m_{\mathrm{𝑚𝑎𝑥}}^2(\pi ^0\pi ^0)`$ to $`m_{\mathrm{𝑚𝑖𝑛}}^2(\pi ^0\pi ^0)`$. For every event one entry will be on the left, the other on the right side of the symmetry line at equal distance. The sum of Figs. 2a and 2b is shown in Fig. 2c. It is a broadened, somewhat less slanted band than in Fig. 2b. It is clear now that the projection of the Dalitz plot content on the $`m^2(\pi ^0n)`$ axis does not show the correct mass and width of the $`\mathrm{\Delta }!`$ These may be obtained by unfolding the double entry feature of the DP, which we will do using a Monte Carlo based technique.

As the $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ decay is simulated with an isotropic distribution, the bands in Figs. 2a and 2b are of uniform density. Since the production reaction is actually via $`N^{}\pi ^0\mathrm{\Delta }^0`$ the DP density distribution must reflect the angular momentum involved in the $`N^{}`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ decay. The intermediate state $`N^{}`$ resonance can be the Roper, $`N(1440)\frac{1}{2}^+`$, which requires an $`\mathrm{}=1`$ transition to the $`\pi \mathrm{\Delta }`$ state. It could also be the $`N(1520)\frac{3}{2}^{}`$ which implies $`\mathrm{}=0`$ and even the $`N(1535)\frac{1}{2}^{}`$ which needs $`\mathrm{}=2`$.

The energy dependence of the total cross section for $`2\pi ^0`$ production should reflect the production rate of the different $`N^{}`$ resonances. Thus, we expect that $`\sigma _{tot}(\pi ^{}p\pi ^0\pi ^0n)`$ will show a steady increase from threshold to our maximum beam momentum of 750 MeV/$`c`$.

The full QCD Lagrangian, $`_{QCD}`$, may be divided into two parts,

$$_{QCD}=_0+_m.$$
(4)
The first part, $`_0`$, depends only on the quark and gluon fields, but not on the quark masses; the second part, $`_m`$, depends on the magnitude of the current quark masses. In the limit of massless quarks $`_{QCD}`$ is equal to $`_0`$ which is the same for all quarks. This is the famous (quark) flavor symmetry of QCD. It implies that in the limit of massless quarks the interaction of two systems of particles which differ only by the replacement of a $`d`$-quark by a $`s`$-quark but otherwise have the same $`SU(3)`$ flavor symmetry are described by the same $`_0`$ and thus have identical strength. This means that both reactions will have the same cross section, identical DP’s, polarizations, and so forth. In the real world the quarks have masses and flavor symmetry is broken. The breaking is given by the mass term $`_m`$ of the full $`_{QCD}`$. Limiting ourselves to the three light quarks it is simply

$$_m=\overline{u}m_uu\overline{d}m_dd\overline{s}m_ss$$
(5)
$`_m`$ acts mainly as a correction to $`_0`$. In the following we will make the quark-model assumption that light mesons are $`q\overline{q}`$ and light baryons $`qqq`$ states. Recently a stunning case of the applicability of (broken) $`SU(3)`$ flavor symmetry was observed. It is the (semi) quantitative agreement between the characteristics of threshold $`\eta `$ production, $`\sigma _{tot}`$, $`d\sigma /dE`$, $`d\sigma /d\mathrm{\Omega }`$, etc. of the flavor-symmetric reactions $`\pi ^{}p\eta n`$ and $`K^{}p\eta \mathrm{\Lambda }`$ .

Now we would like to compare $`2\pi ^0`$ production via the $`f_0`$-meson intermediate state:

$`\pi ^{}pN^{}f_0n\pi ^0\pi ^0n,`$ (6)
$`K^{}p\mathrm{\Lambda }^{}f_0\mathrm{\Lambda }\pi ^0\pi ^0\mathrm{\Lambda },`$ (7)
$`K^{}p\mathrm{\Sigma }^{}f_0\mathrm{\Sigma }^0\pi ^0\pi ^0\mathrm{\Sigma }^0.`$ (8)
The incident $`\pi ^{}`$ and $`K^{}`$ belong to the same $`SU(3)`$ pseudoscalar meson octet. The final state $`n,\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ and $`\mathrm{\Sigma }`$ belong to the same $`\frac{1}{2}^+`$ baryon octet. The allowed $`N^{}`$, $`\mathrm{\Lambda }^{}`$, and $`\mathrm{\Sigma }^{}`$ intermediate states also belong to the same $`SU(3)`$ baryon octets, see table 1. Thus, if $`2\pi ^0`$ production would occur dominantly via the $`f_0`$ intermediate state, we would expect that the three reactions in Eqs. 6–8 have similar DP density distributions and comparable cross sections. Specifically, without correcting for the different SU(2) and SU(3) C-G coefficients and phase spaces, we have

$$\sigma _{tot}(\pi ^{}p\pi ^0\pi ^0n)=\sigma _{tot}(K^{}p\pi ^0\pi ^0\mathrm{\Lambda })=\sigma _{tot}(K^{}p\pi ^0\pi ^0\mathrm{\Sigma }^0).$$
(9)
On the other hand, $`2\pi ^0`$ production may occur by sequential baryon resonance deexcitation:

$`\pi ^{}pN^{}\pi ^0\mathrm{\Delta }^0(1232)\pi ^0\pi ^0n,`$ (10)
$`K^{}p\mathrm{\Lambda }^{}\pi ^0\mathrm{\Sigma }^0(1385)\pi ^0\pi ^0\mathrm{\Lambda }^0,`$ (11)
$`K^{}p\mathrm{\Sigma }^{}\pi ^0\mathrm{\Lambda }(1405/1520)\pi ^0\pi ^0\mathrm{\Sigma }^0.`$ (12)
The initial and the final states are flavor symmetric. The $`\mathrm{\Delta }(1232)\frac{3}{2}^+`$ and $`\mathrm{\Sigma }(1385)\frac{3}{2}^+`$ in Eqs. 10 and 11 belong to the same $`SU(3)`$ decuplet thus they are flavor symmetric. We predict that the DP’s and cross sections will be similar for $`\pi ^{}p\pi ^0\pi ^0n`$ and $`K^{}p\pi ^0\pi ^0\mathrm{\Lambda }`$. $`SU(3)`$ breaking may be accounted for by comparing at incident beam momenta such that both reactions have the same $`m_{\mathrm{𝑚𝑎𝑥}}(\pi ^0\pi ^0)`$. Also, we predict that the $`\mathrm{\Delta }(1232)`$ band in the DP should have three times the width of the $`\mathrm{\Sigma }(1385)`$band because $`\mathrm{\Gamma }(\mathrm{\Delta }^0)3\mathrm{\Gamma }\{\mathrm{\Sigma }^0(1385)\}`$. We also predict that

$$\sigma _{tot}(K^{}p\pi ^0\pi ^0n)=(2\pm 0.5)\sigma _{tot}(K^{}p\pi ^0\pi ^0\mathrm{\Lambda }),$$
(13)
where $`(2\pm 0.5)`$ is the product of the $`SU(2)`$ and $`SU(3)`$ Clebsch-Gordan coefficients and a phase space correction factor. The $`\mathrm{\Lambda }(1405)\frac{1}{2}^{}`$ and $`\mathrm{\Lambda }(1520)\frac{3}{2}^{}`$ are $`SU(3)`$ singlet states. There is *no* flavor symmetry between Eqs. 11 and 12, and we predict that the $`\pi ^0\pi ^0\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ and $`\pi ^0\pi ^0\mathrm{\Sigma }^0`$ DP’s will be different and also that

$$\sigma _{tot}(K^{}p\pi ^0\pi ^0\mathrm{\Lambda })\sigma _{tot}(K^{}p\pi ^0\pi ^0\mathrm{\Sigma }^0).$$
(14)
## 3 Experiment

2$`\pi ^0`$ production has been measured at the AGS at Brookhaven National Laboratory in the C6 line using a range of separated $`\pi ^{}`$ and $`K^{}`$ beams up to 750 MeV/$`c`$. The uncertainty in the absolute value of the incident beam momentum is $`<1\%`$; $`\mathrm{\Delta }p/p`$ is typically $`3.5\%`$. The detector was the Crystal Ball (CB) multiphoton spectrometer, which consists of 672 separate NaI counters, 16 $`X_0`$ deep, it covers $`93\%`$ of the full $`4\pi `$ solid angle. The CB has good energy and angular resolutions: $`\sigma _E/E=1.7\%/\{E(GeV)\}^{0.4}`$and $`\sigma _\theta =2^{}3^{}`$. A liquid $`H_2`$ target is located in the hollow center of the ball. The target is surrounded by a plastic veto counter system for triggering on neutral final states. Details of the CB and the analysis are given in Ref. . To measure $`\pi ^{}p\pi ^0\pi ^0n`$ it is sufficient to detect the four gammas from the $`2\pi ^0`$ decay. They are part of the four-gamma-cluster event sample. The $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ is detected by the $`\pi ^0`$ from its $`n\pi ^0`$ decay, thus the $`\pi ^0\pi ^0\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ final state is found in the six-cluster events. The $`\mathrm{\Sigma }^0`$ has one more gamma from $`\mathrm{\Sigma }^0\mathrm{\Lambda }\gamma `$ decay, thus the $`\pi ^0\pi ^0\mathrm{\Sigma }^0`$ final state is a seven-photon cluster event.

## 4 The total Cross Sections for $`2\pi ^0`$ Production

The preliminary results obtained in the Crystal Ball experiment for $`\sigma _{tot}(\pi ^{}p\pi ^0\pi ^0n)`$ at 17 incident $`\pi ^{}`$ momenta, and for $`\sigma _{tot}(K^{}p\pi ^0\pi ^0\mathrm{\Lambda })`$ and $`\sigma _{tot}(K^{}p\pi ^0\pi ^0\mathrm{\Sigma }^0)`$ at eight incident $`K^{}`$ momenta are shown in Fig. 3.

The variable which we use on the abscissa is the *equivalent total energy* $`\sqrt{s_{eq}}`$, where $`s_{eq}`$ for incident pions is the standard $`s`$. For incident kaons we define $`\sqrt{s_{eq}}\sqrt{s}(m_sm_d)`$. This is one of several ways for incorporating a correction for the $`s`$-$`d`$ quark mass difference. We will use $`m_sm_d=157`$ MeV obtained from the systematics of the baryon-multiplet masses . Experimentally we have found that

$$\sigma _{tot}(\pi ^{}p\pi ^0\pi ^0n)=(2\pm 0.4)\sigma _{tot}(K^{}p\pi ^0\pi ^0\mathrm{\Lambda })$$
(15)
in the $`\sqrt{s_{eq}}`$ span of 1.41 to 1.53 GeV. The difference in the phase space of the $`2\pi ^0n`$ and $`2\pi ^0\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ final states is small and can be ignored here. Another way to correct for the $`s`$-$`d`$ quark mass difference is by comparing at those incident beam momenta for which $`m_{max}(\pi ^0\pi ^0)`$ is the same. In the case at hand it gives very similar results to Eq. 15.

The agreement between the prediction presented in Eq. 13 and the data given in Eq. 15 demonstrates the applicability of flavor symmetry in $`2\pi ^0`$ production. This is a remarkable result as we are comparing the dynamics of three-body final-state reactions.

Figure 3 illustrates that $`\sigma _{tot}(K^{}p\pi ^0\pi ^0\mathrm{\Sigma }^0)`$ is smaller than $`\sigma _{tot}(K^{}p\pi ^0\pi ^0\mathrm{\Lambda })`$ by a factor of 6 and more at the same $`\sqrt{s}`$. If these reactions would occur via $`f_0`$ production in the intermediate state their cross sections should be comparable, see Eq. 9. Our results are consistent with $`2\pi ^0`$ production by $`K^{}`$ occuring by sequential baryon-resonance decay, Eqs. 1012. After correcting for the $`\mathrm{\Lambda }\mathrm{\Sigma }^0`$ mass difference our data give for the corrected total cross sections $`\sigma _{tot}^c`$

$$\sigma _{tot}^c(K^{}p\pi ^0\pi ^0\mathrm{\Lambda })=(5\pm 1)\sigma _{tot}^c(K^{}p\pi ^0\pi ^0\mathrm{\Sigma }^0),$$
(16)
using either the method of comparing at the $`\sqrt{s}`$ after correcting for the difference in the $`2\pi ^0\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ and $`2\pi ^0\mathrm{\Sigma }`$ final states, or by comparing at the same $`m(\pi \pi )`$, the latter is shown in Fig. 4.

We conclude from our data on $`2\pi ^0`$production by $`K^{}`$ that the $`f_0`$ does not play a major role. From Eq. 16 we may conclude that there is at most 20% $`f_0`$ production. Analysis of the Dalitz Plots in the following sections shows it is actually even smaller. To investigate the possible onset of chiral restoration it would be of interest to measure $`\pi ^0\pi ^0\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ and $`\pi ^0\pi ^0\mathrm{\Sigma }^0`$ production by $`K^{}`$ on complex nuclei.

## 5 The $`\pi ^0\pi ^0n`$ Dalitz Plots

The DP’s for $`\pi ^{}p\pi ^0\pi ^0n`$ at 8 incident $`p_\pi `$ are shown in Fig. 5.

For convenience in the analysis we have divided the data into 2 sets of $`p_\pi `$, a high and a low $`p_\pi `$.

The high $`p_\pi `$ set covers $`p_\pi `$ from 650 to 750 MeV/$`c`$ when $`m(\pi \pi )`$ extends from threshold at 0.27 GeV to 0.59 GeV, while $`m(\pi n)`$ goes from threshold at 1.08 GeV to 1.40 GeV, thus, the $`\mathrm{\Delta }(1232)`$ is near the center of the DP. We have measured a total of nine DP’s in this range, but only five are shown in Fig. 5. All DP’s of the high $`p_\pi `$ set have the same gross features: the density is very non-uniform along both the horizontal and vertical axes. There is a high density region called an “island” located at $`m^2(\pi ^0n)(1.2\mathrm{GeV})^2`$ in the upper part of the DP’s near the maximum allowed $`m^2(\pi ^0\pi ^0)`$ value. There is also a minor enhancement, it is called the “reef” at $`m^2(\pi ^0n)(1.3\mathrm{GeV})^2`$ in the lower part of the DP’s near the $`m(\pi ^0\pi ^0)`$ threshold. There is no evidence for a horizontal band of uniform density which would reveal dominant $`2\pi ^0`$ production via the $`f_0`$. The island and reef together form a slightly slanted vertical band along the line of symmetry of each DP which is shown as a dotted line in each of the DP’s of Fig. 5. If $`2\pi ^0`$ production takes place exclusively via the sequence

$$\pi ^{}pN^{}\pi _1^0\mathrm{\Delta }^0\pi _1^0\pi _2^0n,$$
(17)
the centroid of the $`m^2(\pi _2^0n)`$ distribution is the centroid of the $`\mathrm{\Delta }^0`$ distribution which is indicated by a dashed *vertical* line. Since it is not known which $`\pi ^0`$ is $`\pi _1^0`$ or $`\pi _2^0`$ we have plotted the $`m^2(\pi _1^0n)`$ distribution as well, its maximum is shown by the slanted dashed dotted line. Note that the $`m^2(\pi _1^0n)`$ distribution is the reflection of $`m^2(\pi _2^0n)`$ on the line of symmetry. The structrue of the DPs indicates that the reaction chain of Eq. 10 is the dominant one. The difference between Figs. 2 and 5 is likely the forward-backward asymmetry of $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ decay which is seen in Fig. 5 as the island and the reef in each DP. The origins of this asymmetry are several, they include the angular momentum changes in the two decays in Eq. 10. This is the subject of a separate analysis.

For a simple qualitative analysis we have divided the DP’s at $`p_\pi =`$ 750, 730 and 650 MeV/$`c`$ into an upper half which contains the island, and a bottom half which includes the reef. We reproduced all six $`m^2(\pi ^0n)`$ distributions by a Monte Carlo simulation in which we use the same value for the $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ mass, namely 1.21 GeV and the same width of 0.10 GeV. These values are the pole position of the $`\mathrm{\Delta }(1232)`$ resonance.

The set of DP’s at low incident pion momentum ($`p_\pi 470`$ MeV/$`c`$) covers $`m(\pi ^0\pi ^0)`$ from 270 to 415 MeV and $`m(\pi ^0n)`$ from 1.07 to 1.21 GeV. The latter implies that only the lower tail of the $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ peak can contribute. Qualitatively, there is a large excess of events over phase space in the upper half, the island is broadened and the reef appears to be gone. The quantitative analysis of these DP’s is not yet completed.

## 6 The Dalitz Plots for $`K^{}p\pi ^0\pi ^0\mathrm{\Lambda }`$

Figure 6 shows the DP’s of our $`K^{}p\pi ^0\pi ^0\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ data for all eight $`K^{}`$ beam momenta.

The similarity in the density distribution of the $`\pi ^{}p\pi ^0\pi ^0n`$ DP’s (see Fig. 5), at similar $`\sqrt{s_{eq}}`$ (which is this case also means similar $`m(\pi ^0\pi ^0)`$) is stunning. It is a major triumph for flavor symmetry to relate the dynamics of two three-body final-state reactions. The chief difference between Figs. 5 and 6 is in the location of the center and in the width of the islands and reefs. The differences originate in the mass and width differences of the $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ and $`\mathrm{\Sigma }^{}`$, namely $`m(\mathrm{\Delta })=1.21`$ GeV and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }(\mathrm{\Delta })=0.10`$ GeV, while $`m(\mathrm{\Sigma }^{})=1.38`$ GeV and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }(\mathrm{\Sigma }^{})=0.05`$ GeV.

Seven of the eight DP’s belong to the high-incident-beam-momentum set, introduced in the previous section. This means each DP has an island and a reef which is determined by the mass and width of the $`\mathrm{\Sigma }(1385)`$ intermediate state resonance. The value of $`m(\pi ^0\pi ^0)`$ covered in this part of the experiment extends from 0.27 to 0.46 GeV.

## 7 Dalitz Plots for $`K^{}p\pi ^0\pi ^0\mathrm{\Sigma }^0`$

The DP’s for the eight CB measurements of $`K^{}p\pi ^0\pi ^0\mathrm{\Sigma }^0`$ are shown in Fig. 7.

Comparing Figs. 6 and 7 we see that the characteristic features of the $`\pi ^0\pi ^0\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ and $`\pi ^0\pi ^0\mathrm{\Sigma }^0`$ final state density distributions are very different. This can be expressed succinctly using the projection of the DP on the $`m^2(\pi ^0\pi ^0)`$ axis. This is exhibited in Fig. 8 for four $`K^{}`$ beam momenta.

Added to the figure for comparison are the phase space distributions. Note that the projection on the $`m^2(\pi ^0\pi ^0)`$ axis is not affected by the double entry of each event on account of the two identical $`\pi ^0`$’s. The projection plots for $`\pi ^0\pi ^0\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ have a substantial excess of events over phase space in the upper range of $`m^2(\pi ^0\pi ^0)`$, while for $`\pi ^0\pi ^0\mathrm{\Sigma }^0`$ a small excess occurs in the lower range. This excludes a sizable $`f_0`$ contribution for $`m(f_0)450`$ MeV to $`2\pi ^0`$ production. Furthermore, applying again flavor symmetry, we conclude that the $`f_0`$ contribution to $`K^{}p\pi ^0\pi ^0\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ and $`\pi ^{}p\pi ^0\pi ^0n`$ must be minor.

Figure 9 shows the DP projection on the $`m^2(\pi Y^{})`$ axis.

Recall that the spectra are distorted by the double entry of each event on account of the two identical $`\pi ^0`$s in the final state. At $`p_K=750`$ MeV/$`c`$ the peak in $`m^2(\pi ^0\mathrm{\Lambda })`$ is least distorted by the $`2\pi ^0`$ ambiguity, see Fig. 6. The position and width of this peak agree within error with the mass and width of the $`\mathrm{\Sigma }^{}(1385)`$ resonance, this reflects $`\mathrm{\Sigma }^{}`$ dominance in $`K^{}p\pi ^0\pi ^0\mathrm{\Lambda }`$. For lower incident $`p_K`$ the peak in $`m^2(\pi ^0\mathrm{\Lambda })`$ is broadened and is shifted to lower mass as expected, again see Fig. 6.

The large peak in $`m^2(\pi ^0\mathrm{\Sigma }^0)`$ centered around (1.4 GeV)<sup>2</sup> in the bottom row of Fig. 9 reflects the dominance of the $`\mathrm{\Lambda }^{}(1405)`$ resonance in $`K^{}p\pi ^0\pi ^0\mathrm{\Sigma }^0`$. The threshold for the production of this hyperon resonance is $`p_K=445`$ MeV/$`c`$. At our lowest $`p_K`$ of 520 MeV/$`c`$ we are close to threshold of the $`\mathrm{\Lambda }(1405)`$ and expect a small cross section. This explains the smallness of $`\sigma _{tot}(K^{}p\pi ^0\pi ^0\mathrm{\Sigma }^0)`$ at this energy, see Figs. 3 and 4. The decay $`\mathrm{\Lambda }(1405)\frac{1}{2}^{}`$ into $`\pi ^0\mathrm{\Sigma }^0(1193)\frac{1}{2}^+`$ is an $`\mathrm{}=0`$ transition while $`\mathrm{\Sigma }^0(1385)\frac{3}{2}^+`$ decaying to $`\pi ^0\mathrm{\Lambda }(1116)\frac{1}{2}^+`$ is $`\mathrm{}=1.`$ We speculate that this is at least in part responsible for the near uniform density of the $`\mathrm{\Lambda }(1405)`$ band in the $`\pi ^0\pi ^0\mathrm{\Sigma }^0`$ DP of Fig. 7 while there is a depletion (the island-reef structure) in the $`\pi ^0\pi ^0\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ DP of Fig. 6.

The $`m^2(\pi ^0\mathrm{\Sigma }^0)`$ projection at $`p_K`$ = 720 MeV shows not only the dominant peak due to the $`\mathrm{\Lambda }(1405)`$ in the final state but there are two other small enhancements. One is at $`m^2(\pi ^0\mathrm{\Sigma }^0)=(1.5\mathrm{GeV})^2`$; it is due to the $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$(1520) $`\frac{3}{2}^{}`$ resonance. The other enhancement occurs at $`m^2(\pi ^0\mathrm{\Sigma }^0)=(1.36\mathrm{GeV})^2`$; this is the predicted value for the reflection of the $`\mathrm{\Lambda }(1520)`$. The $`\mathrm{\Lambda }(1520)`$ threshold is at $`p_K=704`$ MeV/$`c`$. The onset of the $`\mathrm{\Lambda }(1520)`$ production explains the rise in $`\sigma _{tot}(K^{}p\pi ^0\pi ^0\mathrm{\Sigma }^0)`$ at the two highest $`p_K`$’s, see Figs. 3 and 4.

We conclude that $`K^{}p\pi ^0\pi ^0\mathrm{\Sigma }^0`$ is dominated by $`\mathrm{\Lambda }^{}`$ production, there is no direct evidence for $`f_0`$ production for $`m(f_0)`$ 450 MeV. From the Dalitz plot distribution we estimate that $`f_0`$ production is far less than 50%. Using the total cross sections and applying flavor symmetry this implies that $`f_0`$ production in $`K^{}p\pi ^0\pi ^0\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ as well as in $`\pi ^{}p\pi ^0\pi ^0n`$ is less than 10%. More precise values require more extensive analysis which is under way.

## 8 Summary and Conclusions

The reaction $`K^{}p\pi ^0\pi ^0\mathrm{\Sigma }^0`$ is dominated by $`\mathrm{\Lambda }^{}`$ production, specifically the $`\mathrm{\Lambda }(1405)\frac{1}{2}^{}`$ and for high $`p_K`$ also the $`\mathrm{\Lambda }(1520)\frac{3}{2}^{}`$ resonance. The $`m^2(\pi ^0\pi ^0)`$ spectrum peaks at low $`m(\pi ^0\pi ^0)`$, see Fig. 8. The shape is “opposite” to the spectrum expected if the $`f_0`$ (or “$`\sigma `$”) plays a significant role, that would result in a peak of the DP projection at high $`m(\pi ^0\pi ^0)`$. A very conservative upper limit for a possible direct contribution of a $`f_0`$ with $`m(f_0)450`$ MeV in $`K^{}p\pi ^0\pi ^0\mathrm{\Sigma }^0`$ is half, but likely it is much smaller. The comparison of the measured total cross sections, $`\sigma _{tot}(K^{}p\pi ^0\pi ^0\mathrm{\Lambda })=(5\pm 1)\sigma _{tot}(K^{}p\pi ^0\pi ^0\mathrm{\Sigma }^0)\frac{1}{2}\sigma _{tot}(\pi ^{}p\pi ^0\pi ^0n)`$ together with flavor symmetry places an upper limit of 10% on the $`f_0`$ contribution to $`K^{}p\pi ^0\pi ^0\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ and to $`\pi ^{}p\pi ^0\pi ^0n`$ for $`m(f_0)\stackrel{<}{}\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}550}`$ MeV. This is consistent with the DP distributions for these two reactions. The $`\pi ^0\pi ^0n`$ and $`\pi ^0\pi ^0\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ DP’s have very non-uniform density distributions which we have described as an “island” and a “reef”. They are due to the preponderance of the $`\mathrm{\Sigma }(1385)\frac{3}{2}^+`$ in the $`\pi ^0\pi ^0\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ final state and the $`\mathrm{\Delta }(1232)\frac{3}{2}^+`$ in $`\pi ^0\pi ^0n`$. The DP’s show that the distribution of events in the $`m^2(\pi ^0\pi ^0)`$ spectra are not due to the presence of an $`f_0`$ but due to the formation of either the $`\mathrm{\Sigma }(1385)`$ or the $`\mathrm{\Delta }(1232)`$.

Our results on $`2\pi ^0`$ production on hydrogen imply that the change in the shape of the $`m^2(\pi ^0\pi ^0)`$ distributions in $`2\pi ^0`$ production reported for some complex nuclei are not due in first order to a proposed modification of the $`f_0`$ of a mass of about 550 MeV in the nuclear medium. They are more likely the result of final state interactions of the pions and the recoil baryon states.

The remarkable similarity in the density distribution of the $`\pi ^0\pi ^0n`$ and $`\pi ^0\pi ^0\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ final states is a convincing proof of the applicability of flavor symmetry to appropriate three-body final state reactions, as is the relation

$$\sigma _{tot}(\pi ^{}p\pi ^0\pi ^0n)=(2\pm 0.5)\sigma _{tot}(K^{}p\pi ^0\pi ^0n).$$
(18)
Flavor symmetry does not apply to the $`\pi ^0\pi ^0\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ and $`\pi ^0\pi ^0\mathrm{\Sigma }^0`$ final states so we are not surprised that they have quite different DPs and unequal cross sections.


text:
# Probing Halo and Molecular States in Light, Neutron-Rich Nuclei

## 1 Introduction

Until relatively recently cluster studies have been confined to the region encompassing the line of beta stability. As clustering is expected to manifest itself most strongly near thresholds, exotic structures might be expected to form in the more weakly bound systems found in the vicinity of the driplines. Perhaps the most striking example of this are the halo nuclei.

In the present paper two topics are addressed. Firstly a brief review is given of the status of work on $`x\alpha `$:Xn molecular states. Secondly radiative capture of protons is investigated as a probe of clustering through the example provided by the reaction 6He(p,$`\gamma `$) at 40 MeV.

## 2 Molecular States

Owing to the strongly bound character of the 4He nucleus and the weakness of the $`\alpha `$-$`\alpha `$ interaction the $`\alpha `$-particle plays an important rôle in the structure of light $`\alpha `$-conjugate nuclei. Whilst an excess of neutrons (or protons) might naïvely be expected to dilute any underlying $`\alpha `$-cluster structures, theoretical and recent experimental work indicate that molecular-type structures such as $`\alpha `$-chains “bound” by valence nucleons also occur. The appearance of such cluster structures is well illustrated, as discussed here, by the beryllium isotopes, for which the $`\alpha `$-$`\alpha `$ system may be regarded as the basis.

As described at this symposium a variety of theoretical models exist. For example, the Molecular-Orbital Model (MO), in which valence nucleons are added to the single-particle orbits arising from the two-centre potential, provides a conceptually appealing framework within which to describe the properties of these nuclei. Moreover these orbits may be interpreted as the analogues of the $`\sigma `$ and $`\pi `$-orbitals associated with the covalent binding of atomic molecules. The development of fully fledged Antisymmeterised Molecular Dynamics calculations (AMD), as discussed by Kanada En’yo in her contribution to YKIS01, is of particular interest as the nucleus is modelled without any a priori imposition of an underlying cluster structure.

From an experimental perspective systematic evidence for the existence of dimers in 9-11Be and 9-11B has been compiled. In the case of 9Be, for example, many facets of the level structure may be understood in terms of a three-body $`\alpha `$:n:$`\alpha `$ molecular structure. In particular, the rotational bands based on the ground and low-lying states exhibit large deformations consistent with the associated molecular configurations.

In the case of 10Be, the experimental evidence for molecular configurations is rather less well documented. Beyond the established 0$`{}_{2}{}^{}{}_{}{}^{+}`$, 2$`{}_{2}{}^{}{}_{}{}^{+}`$ and 1$`{}_{1}{}^{}{}_{}{}^{}`$ – 4$`{}_{1}{}^{}{}_{}{}^{}`$ states, the locations of the J=5 and 6 members of the of the negative parity band, as well as the J=4 and 6 members of the positive parity band have been postulated following studies of the $`\alpha `$-6He breakup of 10Be. Recently, Curtis et al. have succeeded in determining the spins of the levels at 9.56 (J=2) and 10.15 MeV (J=3) As displayed in Fig. 1, the spin-energy trajectories for the bands based on the 0$`{}_{2}{}^{}{}_{}{}^{+}`$ and 1$`{}_{1}{}^{}{}_{}{}^{}`$ states at $``$6 MeV are consistent with large deformations ($`\mathrm{}^2/2\mathrm{}`$$``$0.23 MeV) as expected for molecular-like $`\alpha `$:2n:$`\alpha `$ structures. Theoretical support may be found in AMD calculations, whereby well developed $`\alpha `$:2n:$`\alpha `$ configurations are predicted for the 0$`{}_{2}{}^{}{}_{}{}^{+}`$ and 1$`{}_{1}{}^{}{}_{}{}^{}`$ bands. Furthermore, in extended MO model calculations the 0$`{}_{2}{}^{}{}_{}{}^{+}`$ state appears to be well characterised by valence neutrons occupying the $`\sigma `$-orbital.

Given the existence of such molecular-type structures in 10Be, the question naturally arises as to the existence of similar structures in more neutron-rich systems. In this context we investigated the dripline nucleus 12Be via inelastic scattering at 35 MeV/nucleon. Evidence was found in these measurements for the breakup into 6He+6He and $`\alpha `$+8He of states (J=4, 6, 8) in the range Ex=10-20 MeV which exhibit spin-energy systematics characteristic of a rotational band. Moreover the inferred momenta of inertia – $`\mathrm{}^2/2\mathrm{}`$=0.15$`\pm `$0.04 MeV – and bandhead energy (10.8$`\pm `$1.8 MeV) are consistent with the cluster decay of a molecular structure which may be associated with $`\alpha `$:4n:$`\alpha `$ configurations. As reported at this symposium by Saito, an experiment using two neutron removal from an energetic 14Be beam has recently uncovered a probable 0+ state some 1.7 MeV (Ex=11.8 MeV) above the 6He+6He breakup threshold, as well as weaker evidence for the levels observed in our work. The location of this new level conforms reasonably well to the spin-energy systematics established in our original study and suggests, interestingly, that the bandhead lies above the 6He+6He threshold.

The theoretical investigation of molecular configurations in 12Be represents a more challenging venture than the lighter mass Be isotopes. Nevertheless, efforts are underway, as evidenced by the contribution of Ito to this symposium and recent papers by Itagaki et al. and Descouvemont and Baye.

As suggested by von Oertzen and more recently by Itagaki et al., the neutron-rich C isotopes may be expected to exhibit 3$`\alpha `$:Xn cluster structures. In this context, we have attempted to observe such states in the 12C(16C,16C$``$10,12Be+6,4He) reaction at 35 MeV/nucleon. Careful analysis of the associated 6He+6He+$`\alpha `$ and 8He+2$`\alpha `$ fragment coincidences could, however, only put an upper limit of some 2$`\mu `$b on the yield to states in these decay channels111An upper limit of 30$`\mu `$b could be put on the 10,12Begs+6,4He decay channels.. The inability to access such states by inelastic scattering may arise from a much smaller overlap between the 16C ground state and the cluster states than in the case of 12Be.

## 3 Radiative proton capture on 6He

A recent investigation of coherent bremsstrahlung production in the reaction $`\alpha `$(p,$`\gamma `$) at 50 MeV has demonstrated, as described in the accompanying contribution by Herbert Loehner, that the high-energy photon spectrum is dominated by capture to form 5Li. This result motivated us to extend the technique to probe clustering in more exotic systems. As a first test 6He was chosen owing to the relatively high beam intensities available and the fact that structurally it is the most well established two-neutron halo nucleus. Given a proton wavelength of 0.7 fm at 40 MeV, direct capture might be observed, as a quasi-free process, on the constituents ($`\alpha `$+n+n) of 6He in addition to capture into 7Li. Moreover, the different quasi-free capture (QFC) processes would lead to different $`E_\gamma `$ in the range 20–40 MeV.

Experimentally, a 40 MeV/nucleon 6He beam (5$`\times `$105 pps) was employed to bombard a solid hydrogen target (95 mg/cm2). The different charged reaction products were identified and momentum analysed using the SPEG spectrometer. The photons were detected using 74 elements of the “Château de Cristal” BaF2 array, with a total efficiency of some 70%. Further details including the analysis techniques may be found in ref..

Turning to the experimental observations, the reaction 6He(p,$`\gamma `$)7Li is unambiguously identified by the $`\gamma `$-rays in coincidence with 7Li (Fig. 2). In particular, the photon energy spectrum, as well as the 7Li momentum, is well described assuming a $`\gamma `$-ray line at 42 MeV. The energy difference between the two particle-stable states of 7Li – the g.s. and the first excited state at 0.48 MeV) – is too small for them to be distinguished in this experiment. A total cross section of $`\sigma =35\pm 2\mu `$b was deduced.

The 6He(p,$`\gamma `$)7Li cross section has been calculated using a microscopic cluster model. At 40 MeV, a cross section of $`\sigma =59\mu `$b was found, with 15$`\mu `$b going to the g.s. and 44$`\mu `$b to the first excited state. The calculation was restricted to the dominant E1 multipolarity, thus leading to an angular distribution symmetric about $`90^{}`$ (Fig. 2b). The cross section to the g.s. can also be estimated from photodisintegration measurements via detailed balance considerations and is $`9.6\pm 0.4\mu `$b. Given the predicted relative populations of the ground and first excited state, a total capture cross section of $`\sigma 38\mu `$b is obtained, in agreement with the value measured here.

QFC was investigated by searching for $`\gamma `$-rays in coincidence with fragments lighter than 7Li. The corresponding energy spectra (Fig. 3a,c,e) do indeed exhibit peaks below 42 MeV. In order to establish the origin of these fragment-$`\gamma `$ coincidences, QFC processes on the subsystems of 6He have been modelled as follows. The 6He projectile was considered as a cluster ($`A`$) plus spectator ($`a`$) system in which each component has an intrinsic momentum distribution, the corresponding energy $`E_A+E_am_{{}_{}{}^{6}\mathrm{He}}`$ being taken into account in the total available energy. The reaction may be denoted as $`a`$+$`A`$(p,$`\gamma `$)$`B`$+$`a`$, and the $`\gamma `$-ray angular distribution is assumed to be that given by the charge asymmetry of the entrance channel. The intrinsic momentum distribution of all the clusters was taken to be Gaussian in form ($`\mathrm{FWHM}=80`$ MeV/$`c`$). In order to explore the possibility that FSI may occur in the exit channel between the spectator, $`a`$, and the capture fragment, $`B`$, an extended version of the QFC calculation was developed. Here the energy in the system $`B`$+$`a`$ is treated as an excitation in the continuum of 7Li, which decays in flight.

In the case of 6Li-$`\gamma `$ coincidences, two lines were observed (Fig. 3a) at 30 and 3.56 MeV corresponding to the formation of 6Li and the decay of the second excited state. It was estimated that 6Li is formed almost exclusively ($`96_{24}^{+4}\%`$) in the 3.56 MeV excited state. The deduced cross section was $`\sigma =3.5\pm 1.3\mu `$b. The lines in Fig. 3a,b corresponds to QFC on 5He into 6Li(3.56 MeV). The $`\gamma `$-ray energy spectrum is well described, whilst the 6Li momentum distribution requires inclusion of 6Li-n FSI.

Evidence for QFC on the $`\alpha `$ core, whereby the two halo neutrons would behave as spectators, has also been searched for. The photon spectrum should resemble that observed for the $`\alpha `$+p reaction. Indeed such a $`\gamma `$-ray energy spectrum (Fig. 3c) was observed. The background, however, arising from 6He breakup, in which the $`\alpha `$ particle is detected in SPEG and the halo neutrons interact with the forward-angle detectors of the Château, is significant. In order to minimise this background, only the backward-angle detectors ($`\theta >110^{}`$) of the Château were used in the analysis. The $`\gamma `$-ray spectrum under this condition exhibits two components: a peak at $`E_\gamma =27`$ MeV and a $`1/E_\gamma `$ continuum similar to coherent $`\alpha `$+p bremsstrahlung.

Simulations indicate, however, that some back-scattered neutrons remain from breakup, which would also lead to a continuous component with a $`1/E`$ type spectrum in the Château. A single background component of this form (dotted line, Fig. 3c) was therefore added to the QFC process $`\alpha `$(p,$`\gamma `$)5Li. The photon energy spectrum is thus well described, as is the momentum distribution of the $`\alpha `$ particle. The cross section was estimated to be $`\sigma =4\pm 1\mu `$b. Additional support for this interpretation is found in $`\alpha `$-$`\gamma `$-n coincidences, for which 30 events were observed (open symbols, Fig. 3c).

Finally, d-$`\gamma `$ coincidences presenting a peak in the $`\gamma `$-ray energy spectrum, at $`E_\gamma `$21 MeV, were also observed (Fig. 3e). The relatively low statistics arose from the limited acceptances of the spectrometer for deuterons (Fig. 3f). The predictions for n(p,$`\gamma `$)d QFC on a halo neutron present a peak at 19 MeV (Fig. 3e) – the small shift may be attributable to the strong kinematic correlation between the deuteron momentum and the photon energy, as the detection of only a small fraction of the deuterons is predicted. As such no reliable estimate of the cross section was possible.

There are additional QFC channels, 2n(p,$`\gamma `$)t and t(p,$`\gamma `$)$`\alpha `$, that could have been observed with finite efficiency but were not. Perhaps the most interesting is QFC on the two halo neutrons. In the case of 6He, several theoretical models predict the coexistence of two configurations in the g.s. wave function: the so-called “di-neutron” and “cigar” configurations. Here one might expect that the different admixtures of these could be probed by the relative strength of the n,2n(p,$`\gamma `$)d,t QFC processes, whereby the corresponding free cross sections at 40 MeV, obtained from detailed balance considerations, are comparable: 9.6$`\mu `$b and 9.8$`\mu `$b, respectively. However, events registered in the Château in coincidence with tritons in SPEG have energies below 10 MeV, whereas the 2n(p,$`\gamma `$)t reaction should produce photons with $`E_\gamma 32`$ MeV.

As described above, the QFC with fragment FSI model describes well the observed monoenergetic $`\gamma `$-rays, as well as the momentum distribution of the capture fragment ($`B`$). The $`\gamma `$-ray lines are associated with specific energy distributions for the fragments in the exit channel. Therefore, such a process will exhibit the same kinematics as capture into continuum states above the corresponding threshold, 6He(p,$`\gamma `$)7Li$``$$`B`$+$`a`$, provided that the equivalent region of the continuum is populated. If, however, all the final states observed here were the result of radiative capture into 7Li, capture via the non-resonant continuum in 7Li might well be expected to occur. This would lead to a continuous component to the $`\gamma `$-ray energy spectra. Moreover, events corresponding to $`E_{{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}_{}^{}}=0.5`$–10 MeV have not been observed in either t-$`\gamma `$ coincidences or $`\alpha `$-$`\gamma `$ coincidences with $`E_\gamma =32`$–42 MeV, nor has the decay into $`\alpha `$+t for $`E_{{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}_{}^{}}>10`$ MeV. Within the picture of QFC on clusters, this is simply explained by the absence of the 2n(p,$`\gamma `$)t and t(p,$`\gamma `$)$`\alpha `$ QFC processes for the 4He-2n and t-t configurations, respectively, indicating that 4He-n-n is the dominant configuration in 6He. This is in agreement with the a recent neutron-neutron interferometry measurement we have performed ref..

## 4 Conclusions

An aperçu of $`x\alpha `$:X$`n`$ clustering has been presented and some examples from the neutron-rich Be isotopes discussed. In the very near future, transfer reactions using the combination of low-energy radioactive beams such as 6,8He and targets (6,7Li, 9Be, 12C) presenting $`\alpha `$-clustering will be investigated as a tool to access molecular-type states in neutron-rich nuclei. Additionally, it is hoped that partial decay widths may be determined.

Radiative proton capture has been explored as a probe of clustering in the ground states of nuclei far from stability through the example of a measurement on the halo nucleus 6He. In addition to 6He(p,$`\gamma `$)7Li, evidence for QFC on 5He, $`\alpha `$ and n was found. Of particular importance was the observation of events which correspond to the previously measured $`\alpha `$(p,$`\gamma `$) reaction, as well as the non-observation of capture on a di-neutron. Theoretically, models need to be developed to describe capture on the constituent clusters of exotic nuclei and, for comparison, capture on the projectile into unbound final states.

## Acknowledgments

I would like to underline the leading rôles played by Martin Freer (molecular states), Emmanuel Sauvan and Miguel Marqués (radiative capture). It is a pleasure also to thank the members of the E281 and E302 collaborations for their efforts and the SPEG crew for developing the hydrogen target.