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# Nested Bars and Associated Morphology of Central Kpc in Disk Galaxies

## 1. Introduction

The ‘barred’ branch dominates the Hubble’s fork. In the optical band, about 1/3 of all disk galaxies are strongly barred, and an equal fraction is designated as ‘intermediate barred’ (e.g., Sellwood & Wilkinson 1993). In the near-infrared (NIR), the majority of the disks, more than 2/3, appear to be barred (e.g., Mulchaey & Regan 1997; Knapen, Shlosman & Peletier 2000; Grosbol, these proceedings). The importance of bars stems from their decisive role in galactic dynamics: breaking the axial symmetry of host galaxies speeds up the dynamical and secular evolution in the disks. The influence of bars during the galaxy formation epoch, the part they play in coupling the disks to halo material and the evolution of bar fraction with redshift only recently have attracted attention.

Theoretical studies of bars have relied on the analysis of dominant families of stellar orbits supplemented by 2-D and 3-D numerical simulations of one- and two-component galactic disks embedded in ‘live’ or ‘frozen’ halos. The main effort has been directed towards understanding the intrinsic bar instability which leads to the radial mass redistribution as well as triggers and fuels the star formation in the disk, especially within the central kpc. The presence of large-scale bars is insufficient to maintain the nonstellar (AGN-type) activity within the central pc, and additional, most probably, dynamical factors are clearly necessary for this purpose (Shlosman, Begelman & Shlosman 1990).

Recent progress in ground-based instruments and the availability of the HST has allowed for the first time a meaningful analysis of central morphology and kinematics. Although our knowledge of the inner regions of disk galaxies is clearly incomplete, certain patterns in their dynamical evolution and their relationship to larger and smaller spatial scales have emerged.

At least dynamically, the inner parts of disk galaxies can be defined by the positions of the inner Lindblad resonances (ILRs), typically at about 1 kpc from the center. These resonances between the bar pattern speed and the precession rate of periodic orbits play an important role in filtering density waves, either stellar or gaseous, propagating between the bar corotation radius (CR) and the center. They are usually delineated by elevated star formation rates and the concentration of molecular gas in nuclear rings. These rings exhibit a rich morphology and can serve as cold gas reservoirs for fueling the central activity.

The resolved morphology of central kpc in barred galaxies has revealed additional grand-design spirals and bars. Defining nested bar systems as those with more than one bar, stellar or gaseous, we refer to large, kpc-scale bars as “primary,” while the sub-kpc bars as “secondary.” The theoretical rationale behind these definitions is that secondary bars are believed to form as a result of radial gas inflow along the large-scale bar and, therefore, are expected to be confined within the ILRs (Shlosman, Frank, & Begelman 1989). Below we review the properties of such nested bars and associated morphologies in disk galaxies, their dynamical states and the resulting gas flows on scales of $`100`$ pc$`10`$ kpc.

## 2. Nested Bars: Observations and Initial Statistics

By a simple analogy with the large-scale bars and their effect on the disk evolution, secondary bars are expected to dominate the dynamics inside the central kpc. Although the sub-kpc bars had been probably detected already by de Vaucouleurs (1974) and others as optical isophote twists in the central regions of barred galaxies, they have been interpreted as triaxial bulges. High resolution ground-based observations have revealed additional small bars residing within the large-scale stellar bars (Laine et al. 2002 and refs. therein).

While the first detections of sub-kpc bars were made in stellar light, these objects can contain arbitrary fractions of gas, and in extreme cases can be dynamically dominated by molecular gas, as evident from their detection in CO and the NIR lines of H2 emission (e.g., Ishizuki et al. 1990; Devereux, Kenney, & Young 1992; Forbes et al. 1994; Mirabel et al. 1999; Kotilainen et al. 2000; Maiolino et al. 2000). CO observations have a rather low spatial resolution, but do allow the determination of the offset angle between the large stellar and the small gaseous bars. It is not yet clear whether stellar- and gas-dominated sub-kpc bars have a common origin or describe a concurrent phenomenon. In this section we focus on nested stellar bars, as seen in NIR and optical starlight. Statistical properties of gaseous bars cannot be analyzed at present.

Embedded nuclear bars have been detected with the HST (e.g., Martini & Pogge 1999; Regan & Mulchaey 1999). The largest sample (112) of disk (S0-Sc) galaxies analyzed so far to infer statistical properties of nested bars in general, and in Seyferts and non-Seyferts in particular, is that of Laine et al. (2002). The Seyfert sample consists of most of the objects in the local universe ($`v_{\mathrm{hel}}`$ $`<`$ 6000 km s-1) observed with NICMOS, with the addition of a few well-known objects. Highly inclined galaxies have beed removed. But, unless the interaction has been accompanied by a strong morphological distortion, interacting galaxies have not been discarded. The Seyfert sample consisted of 56 objects and was matched by a control sample of 56 NICMOS non-Seyferts, in absolute $`B`$ magnitude, distance, axis ratio and morphological type. Ground-based data has been used for the outer disks. To classify a galaxy as barred, criteria set in Knapen et al. (2000) have been applied. Note, that this strictly conservative approach which was not ‘curved’ will lead to lower limits in the bar detection.

Laine et al. (2002) results have confirmed a substantial fraction of nested bars in disk galaxies, probably in excess of 20–25%, and that about 1/3 of barred galaxies host second bar. The observed nested bars in Seyferts and non-Seyferts have revealed an intriguing property — the existence of a critical physical length, $`l_{crit}`$ 1.6 kpc, which separates the primary and the secondary bars, resulting in a clear bimodal size distribution with only little overlap (Fig. 1b). When the bar sizes are normalized to those of the respective host galaxies, $`D_{25}`$, the overlap between the two bar species is further reduced and $`l_{crit}0.06`$ (Fig. 1a). Both critical sizes appear to be mutually consistent because the primary bar lengths exhibit a roughly linear correlation with the parent galaxy sizes, while the secondary bar lengths are independent from the sizes of their host galaxies (Fig. 7 in Laine et al.). The importance of this result can be inferred from the fact that only in this case the normalized bar lengths will preserve the identity of both bar groups and there will be no further mixing between the primary and secondary bars in the normalized size space. If, for example, both types have had a linear correlation with $`D_{25}`$ with non-zero slopes, the two bar groups would be separated in physical but mixed in the normalized space. This is the first time that such a clear separation of primary and secondary bar lengths has been shown observationally. Because the samples include all the Hubble types from S0 to Sc, the minimal overlap between the two bar classes means that this result stands regardless of the morphological class of the galaxy.

A simple explanation for a bimodal distribution of bar sizes can be put forward. The linear correlation of the primary bar with galaxy size means that bars extend to a fixed number of radial scalelengths in the disk (see also Athanassoula & Martinet 1980; Martin 1995). The absence of such a correlation for the secondary bars, together with their limited range of sizes, hints to a different physical nature of formation and dynamics compared to the primary bars.

Numerical simulations of nested bars show that the secondary bars are confined to within the ILRs of the primary bars. The outer ILR develops close to the radius of velocity turnover, or more basically, where the mass distribution in the inner galaxy switches from 3D to 2D, $``$ 1–2 kpc is a reasonable estimate. For the early Hubble type galaxies (S0-Sb), this leads to the appearance of an ILR at about the bulge radius. For the later Hubble type galaxies or early types with small bulges, the height of the disk becomes comparable to the radius of the disk at a point where the 2D disk approximation breaks down.

If primary and secondary bars had a similar evolutionary history, one should expect a linear correlation between the secondary bar length and $`D_{25}`$, because of the observed correlations between the disk, large-scale bar, and bulge sizes. However this correlation is clearly ruled out by the present data. Large-scale bars are also known to extend just short of their CR, based on the shapes of their offset dust lanes (Athanassoula 1992). However, the secondary bars are not expected to follow this rule or to possess offset dust lanes (Shlosman 2001; Shlosman & Heller 2002; Maciejewski et al. 2002). As discussed in section 3, they must be short of their CR. This property of secondary bars is expected to destroy any correlation between their size and that of the parent galaxy.

Laine et al. (2002) have compiled a sample of 62 galaxies with nuclear rings (mostly from Buta & Crocker 1993) and determined their normalized size distribution (Fig. 2). It peaks at $`r_{\mathrm{ring}}/D_{25}=0.06`$, further supporting the view that the value 0.06 acts as the dynamical separator between secondary and primary bars. This result is consistent with the secondary bars being limited by the size of the ILR, since nuclear rings are associated with the ILRs.

To summarize: $`(i)`$ nested bars exhibit a bimodal size distribution with a possibility that ILRs serve as dynamical separators between primary and secondary bars; $`(ii)`$ single and primary bars show a correlation between the ellipticity and the bar length. This result is extended here for galaxies from S0 to Sc; $`(iii)`$ only few single bars appear shorter than $`l_{crit}=0.06`$. Single bars also have higher average ellipticities than nested bars, and a different distribution in morphological types; $`(iv)`$ Seyferts have an excess of bars, 73% $`\pm `$ 6% of Seyferts have at least one bar, against only 50% $`\pm `$ 7% of non-Seyferts. The statistical significance of this is at the 2.5$`\sigma `$ level, and strengthens the result of Knapen et al. (2000) which was based on smaller samples. Overall it seems that NIR isophote fitting shows difficulties when applied to sub-kpc bars, resulting from localized and distributed sites of dust extinction and bright stars within the central kpc, leading to a substantial underestimate of bar fraction.

## 3. Gas Response in Nested Bar Systems

Observational studies of secondary bars customarily assume that their properties, e.g., gas dynamics and appearance of characteristic offset dust lanes, are identical to those of large-scale bars (e.g., Martini & Pogge 1999; Regan & Mulchaey 1999). Theoretically, gas response to the double bar torquing has been only recently analyzed, when the pattern speed of the secondary bar, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_s`$ substantially exceeds that of the primary bar, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_p`$ (Shlosman 2001; Shlosman & Heller 2002; Maciejewski et al. 2002). These simulations and general theoretical considerations support the view that secondary bars are not scaled-down versions of large bars, and the gas response in nested bars differs profoundly from that in single bars. The gas flow in time-dependent nested-bar potentials is subject to dynamical constraints, such as conditions minimizing chaos. In order to decrease the fraction of chaotic orbits in the system, CR of the secondary bar must lie in the vicinity of the primary-bar ILR (Tagger et al. 1987; Pfenniger & Norman 1990), constraining $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{s}`$. Such a dynamical configuration, in principle, poses a problem for uninterrupted gas inflow towards smaller radii: the gas flow is repelled from the small bar CR, because of the rim formed by the effective potential there. Shlosman et al. (1989) have argued, in essence, that it is the gas self-gravity that overcomes such repulsion by modifying the underlying potential. In fact, even in the limit of neglibigle self-gravity in the gas, the flow is capable of crossing the bar–bar interface, but not in a steady manner and only for a restricted range of azimuthal angles (Shlosman & Heller 2002).

To analyze the gas flow in nested bars, one can define the following three regions: $`(i)`$ the primary-bar region (outside its ILR), $`(ii)`$ the bar–bar interface (hereafter the interface) encompassing the outer ILR of the large bar and the outer part of the secondary bar, and $`(iii)`$ the interior of the secondary bar. In the first region, the gas responds by forming a pair of large-scale shocks and flows inwards across the interface. The flow in the primary bar, outside the interface, is steady and the shock strength and shape are nearly independent of time. In the second region, the flow is time-dependent due to the perturbative effects of the secondary bar and changing background potential. The inflow proceeds on the average along the primary-bar minor axis, while an outflow (albeit at a smaller rate) is directed along its major axis. This happens because the inflow is driven mainly along the large-scale shocks penetrating the interface. At the same time the outflow is detected at angles which ‘avoid’ the large-scale shocks. The gas, which is repelled by the secondary bar is found to enter large-scale shocks while still moving out, increases the mixing of material with different angular momenta. The net effect is an inflow across the CR of the secondary bar (Fig. 3 in Shlosman & Heller 2002). The inflow shows the beat frequency clearly identified with the secondary bar tumbling. The corresponding mass influx rate is of the order of $`0.3M_{\mathrm{gas},9}M_{}`$ yr-1, where $`M_{\mathrm{gas},9}`$ is the total gas mass in the disk in units of $`10^9M_{}`$ within the CR of the large bar.

Crossing the bar interface, the gas falls towards the third region, the inner 1/2–1/3 of the bar where the flow is very relaxed, with uniform dissipation (well below the maximum dissipation in the large-scale shocks), and no evidence for grand-design shocks. A “limb brightening” can be noted at the edge of the small bar revealing an enhanced density of above-average dissipating particles outside the oval-shaped central region, which results from the gas joining the bar from all azimuths. The pattern of shock dissipation in nested bars (Fig. 3) allows one to separate the incoming large-scale shocks from those driven by the secondary bar. Note that two systems of spiral shocks occur. The shapes of the shocks depend on the angle between the bars. These spiral shocks driven by the secondary bar may have observational counterparts.

A number of factors characterize the gas dynamics in the decoupled bars: $`(i)`$ the time-dependent nature of the gravitational potential; $`(ii)`$ the nonsteady gas injection into the secondary bar which proceeds through the primary shocks penetrating the bar–bar interface. This phenomenon is absent at the CR of the primary bars. Unstable orbits in the interface region preclude the secondary bars from extending to their CR (El-Zant & Shlosman 2002); $`(iii)`$ a fast-tumbling secondary bar which prevents the secondary ILRs from forming. Even in the case of a long-lived decoupled phase secondary bars are not expected to slow down. The gas inflow across the interface and the resulting central concentration can speed-up the bar (Heller, Noguchi, & Shlosman 1993, unpublished). The low-Mach-number gas flow is well organized and capable of following these orbits with little dissipation. Non-linear orbit analysis reveals that, in the deep interior of the secondary bar, the $`x_1`$ orbits have a mild ellipticity and no end-loops. This result is robust. No offset large-scale shocks form under these conditions.

With no ILRs in a large bar, the offset shocks weaken and recede to its major axis, becoming “centered,” but do not disappear completely (Athanassoula 1992). Only two examples of centered shocks have been found from more than a hundred bars. During the last decade only one more potential example has been added to this list (Athanassoula, private communication). It seems plausible that centered shocks are very rarely observed because they are so weak.

Knapen et al. (1995) have analyzed the shock dissipation in a self-consistent gravitational potential of “live” stars and gas before decoupling, when both bars tumble with the same pattern speeds, and when the gas self-gravity is accounted for. No offset shocks have been found in this configuration either.

We conclude that no large-scale shocks and consequently no offset dust lanes will form inside secondary bars, whether they are dynamically coupled or decoupled. The time-dependent, “anisotropic” gas inflow across the interface found here is a completely new phenomenon inherent to nested bars. The fate of the gas settling inside secondary bars cannot be decided without invoking its global self-gravity that will completely change the nature of the flow. Under the observed conditions in numerical simulations (gas masses and surface densities) the gas self-gravity should exert a dominating effect on its evolution (section 4.2).

## 4. Nested Bars: Dynamical Decoupling

Probably the most intriguing property of nested bars is their theoretically anticipated stage of a decoupling, when each bar exhibits a different pattern speed (Shlosman et al. 1989). Decoupling is indirectly supported by the observed random orientation of nested bars. In principle, the following options exist for secondary bar rotation. First, both bars corotate, being completely synchronized. This configuration of nearly orthogonal bars can be a precursor to the future decoupled phase or continue indefinitely. A simple explanation of this phenomenon lies in the existence two main families of periodic orbits in barred galaxies. The gas responding to the gravitational torques from the primary bar flows towards the center and encounters the region of $`x_2`$ orbits, which it populates. The forming secondary bar may be further strengthened by the gas gravity, which drags stars into $`x_2`$ orbits. The amount of gas accumulating in the ILR resonance region may be insufficient to cause the dynamical runaway.

Next, if the secondary bar forms via self-gravitational instability (in stellar or gaseous disks), it must spin in the direction of the primary bar with $`\mathrm{\Omega }_s>\mathrm{\Omega }_p`$ (Shlosman et al. 1989; Friedli & Martinet 1993; Combes 1994; Heller & Shlosman 1994). The presence of gas appears to be imperative for this to occur. Both bars are dynamically decoupled and the angle between them is arbitrary. Lastly, the secondary bar can rotate in the opposite sense to the primary bar, resulting from merging (Sellwood & Merritt 1994). This appears to be a non-recurrent configuration.

Although above options make specific predictions verifiable observationally, the triggering mechanism(s) for decoupling require better understanding. The computational effort has so far gone into analyzing self-gravitating systems (e.g., Friedli 1999; Shlosman 1999). However, dynamical evolution proceeds beyond the formation of two coupled bars, even when gas self-gravity is neglected (Heller et al. 2001): partial or complete decoupling of a gaseous bar, depending on the degree of viscosity in the gas, can be triggered for a prolonged period of time (section 4.1). Both regimes are likely to be encountered in nature.

4.1. Decoupling of Non-Self-Gravitating Bars. The actual degree of viscosity in the ISM is largely unknown. Heller et al. (2001) have investigated the effect of viscosity on the gas settling in the ILR region of a single large-scale stellar bar. Using identical initial conditions, the non-self-gravitating gas was evolved by means of a 2D version of the SPH code (Heller & Shlosman 1994), or, alternatively, using the grid code ZEUS-2D, exhibiting similar results.

The most spectacular evolution occurred in the low-viscosity model, although all the models showed similar initial evolution, during which the gas accumulated in a double ring, corresponding roughly to two ILRs. In all the models the rings interact hydrodynamically and merge (Fig. 4). After merging, a single oval-shaped ring corotates with the primary bar, leading it by $`\varphi _{\mathrm{dec}}`$, the decoupling angle whose value depends on the gas viscosity. In all the models, the remaining ring becomes increasingly oval and barlike (Figs. 4, 5), its pattern speed changes abruptly, and it swings towards the primary bar, against the direction of rotation. In the inertial frame, this forming gaseous bar spins in the same sense as the main bar, albeit with $`\mathrm{\Omega }_s<\mathrm{\Omega }_p`$, but in the primary-bar frame it tumbles in the retrograde direction! This is sustained for about 60 dynamical times, $``$ 2–3 $`\times 10^9`$ yr, until it is captured again by the primary potential. The shape of the decoupled bar and $`\mathrm{\Omega }_s`$ depend on bar orientation. The eccentricity, $`ϵ`$, reaches a maximum when bars are aligned (Fig. 5). In standard and high-viscosity models, the secondary bar only librates about the primary bar.

The key to understanding this behavior lies in the distribution of gas particles with Jacobi energy, $`E_\mathrm{J}`$. After merging the ring is positioned close to the energy where the transition from $`x_2`$ to $`x_1`$ (at the inner ILR) occurs. The exact value of this transition energy is model-dependent, but this is of no importance to the essence of the decoupling. The crucial difference between the models comes from $`(i)`$ the position of the forming gaseous bar on the $`E_\mathrm{J}`$ axis after ring merging and $`(ii)`$ the value of $`\varphi _{\mathrm{dec}}`$. We note that the role of viscosity here is fundamentally different from that in nearly axisymmetric potentials (planetary rings, galactic warps, etc.), where it acts to circularize the orbits.

As the gaseous bar forms at the angle $`\varphi _{\mathrm{dec}}`$ to the primary bar, gravitational torques act to align the bars. In the low-viscosity model, gaseous bar resides on purely $`x_2`$ orbits and, therefore, responds to the torque by speeding up its precession while being pulled backwards, until it is almost at right angles to the bar potential valley. The decoupling happens abruptly when $`1/2`$ of the gas finds itself at $`E_\mathrm{J}`$ below the inner ILR. The absence of $`x_2`$ orbits at these $`E_\mathrm{J}`$ means that the gas loses its stable orientation along the primary-bar minor axis. The gaseous bar has a much smaller $`ϵ`$ in the fourth quadrant than in the first. Such an asymmetry with respect to the primary-bar axis ensures that the torques from the primary bar are smaller in the fourth quadrant. But only for the least viscous model this becomes crucial, and the torques are unable to confine the bar oscillation, which continues for a full swing of $`2\pi `$. The nuclear bar is trapped again at $`\tau 211`$, after few rotations with respect to the large-scale bar.

Correlation between $`ϵ`$ of the gaseous bar and its orientation can be tested observationally. Two additional effects should have observational consequences to decoupling and the periodic increase in $`ϵ`$. First, the gas will cross the inner ILR on a dynamical timescale. Shlosman et al. (1989) pointed out that ILRs present a problem for radial gas inflow because the gas can stagnate there. A solution was suggested in the form of a global self-gravitational instability in the nuclear ring or disk, which will generate gravitational torques in the gas, driving it further in. Recently Sellwood & Moore (1999) resurrected the idea that ILRs would “choke” the gas inflow. However, as we see here, even non-self-gravitating nuclear rings are prone to dynamical instability which drives the gas inwards. Moreover, the gas inflow is expected to be accompanied by star formation along the molecular bar, having a quasi-periodic, bursting character.

4.2. Decoupling of Self-Gravitating Bars. Gas self-gravity plays a crucial role in the formation and decoupling of bars, securing $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{s}>\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{p}`$ (Shlosman et al. 1989; Shlosman 2001). Simulations which tackle this issue have been very limited so far. Friedli & Martinet (1993, and priv. communication) and Combes (1994) experienced difficulties in decoupling pure stellar or gaseous disks. The inner bar in this case is very transient, which may be a result of an insuffient number of particles. For a mixed system the decoupled stage is more prolonged. Simulations explicitly demonstrate the necessity for gas to be present, in addition to stars, and confirm that an increased central-mass concentration is important for the dynamical separation of the outer and inner parts. This can be achieved by moving the gas along the large-scale bar, accumulating it inside the ILR on the $`x_2`$ orbits, modifying the local potential and forming a double ILR. The gravity of the gas settling into these orbits is sufficient to “drag” the stars along, but such a configuration still corotates with the primary bar. The ability of the gas to settle into the $`x_2`$ orbits depends upon its sound speed and viscosity. When the gas is too viscous or hot, it will avoid the ILRs completely and remain on the $`x_1`$ orbits aligned with the bar (Englmaier & Gerhard 1997; Englmaier & Shlosman 2000; Patsis & Athanassoula 2000). Moderately viscous gas will settle into the innermost $`x_2`$ orbits. The evolution of nuclear regions in disks, therefore, depends on the (unknown) equation of state of the ISM. The inclusion of star formation in nuclear rings has already demonstrated how the resulting increase in viscosity leads to the mass transfer across the ILRs (Knapen et al. 1995).

Englmaier & Shlosman (Shlosman 2001) have accounted for gravitational effects in the gas. Ring evolution was similar to that described in 4.1, including the swing towards the primary bar. But this was followed by the rapid growth of prograde self-gravitating modes with $`m=2`$ and 4 with the pattern speed much larger than $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{p}`$, resulting in an avalanche-type inflow. A model with the seed supermassive BH revealed that inflowing gas feeds the BH at peak rates, increasing its mass tenfold. A big unknown is the concurrent star formation, which was neglected in these simulations. Note, however, that the star formation has low efficiency and can hardly halt this runaway collapse toward the center.

## 5. Nested Bars at Higher Redshifts?

Although galactic disks show little evolution for $`z<1`$ (Le Fevre et al. 2000), at higher redhifts the situation is expected to change. Disk formation and stability should depend on halo shape and its cuspiness. Analysis of bar dynamics in cuspy axisymmetric halos has revealed their strong trend to brake (Debattista & Sellwood 2000) and the cusp leveling (Weinberg & Katz 2002). One should question the very existence of large-scale bars in this environment. Even if the cusps can be dissolved by the very same processes which form the disks (El-Zant, Shlosman & Hoffman 2001), unless the halos are perfectly axisymmetric, they would impede growth of large bars (El-Zant & Shlosman 2002). Hence, first bars may be confined to within the central kpc of growing disks, at redshifts corresponding to galaxy formation epoch. The characteristic timescales, dynamical or secular, over which the disks acquire their present size are not known. One can conjecture that the formation of disks at large (on $`10`$ kpc scale) can be decoupled from dynamics of central kpc, resulting in bildup of nested bars in the reverse order, i.e., from smaller to larger spatial scales. The observational verification of this scenario should probably wait for the NGST and is unrelated to the reported deficiency of large-scale bars for $`z0.50.8`$ (e.g., Abraham et al. 1999) which may have an alternative explanation (Jogee et al. 2002).

## 6. Conclusions

The lifetime of nested bars is not clear at present and the configuration itself can be recurrent. The secondary bars can be responsible for accelerating dynamical and secular evolution within the central kpc, fueling stellar and nonstellar activity there, and driving the nuclear spiral arms. Their role in the formation and initial evolution of galactic disks is far from being understood. Simulations will clarify the issues related to nested bar formation and the role of self-gravitating gas in this process. Coupled with new observational techniques and instruments at longer wavelengths, they will shed light on the intricate evolution of central regions within the general context of cosmological evolution.

### Acknowledgments.

I am grateful to my collaborators Amr El-Zant, Peter Englmaier, Clayton Heller, Shardha Jogee, Johan Knapen, Seppo Laine and Reynier Peletier, and to my colleagues, too numerous to list here, for many in-depth discussions on this subject. This work is supported in part by NASA grants NAG 5-10823, HST GO-08123.01-97A, and WKU-522762-98-6.

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# Magnetic and superconducting phase diagram of electron-doped Pr1-xLaCexCuO4

## Abstract

We have investigated the magnetism and the superconductivity of the electron-doped Pr1-xLaCexCuO4 (PLCCO) by means of zero-field muon spin rotation/relaxation (ZF-$`\mu `$SR) and magnetic susceptibility measurements. At low temperatures, a well-defined muon spin rotation free from the effect of rare earth moments was observed for samples with x$``$0.08 corresponding to the antiferromagnetic (AF) order of Cu spins. Bulk superconductivity was identified in a wide Ce concentration range of 0.09$``$x$``$0.20 with a maximum transition temperature of 26 K. Abrupt appearance of the superconducting (SC) phase at x$``$0.09 is concomitant with a destroy of the AF ordered phase, indicating the competitive relation between two phases. Possible relation between the wide SC phase and the lattice spacing is discussed.

Electron-hole symmetry of a pairing mechanism is one of the central issues in a research on high-Tc superconductivity. It is widely believed that a universal role of magnetism exists because either type of carrier doping into Mott insulators induces superconductivity. For understanding the relationship between magnetism and superconductivity, electronic phase diagrams provide important clues. In the hole-doped La2-xSrxCuO4 (LSCO) system, antiferromagnetic (AF) and superconducting (SC) phases are well separated: SC phase exists in a wide range of 0.06$``$x$``$0.27 with a parabolic doping dependence of the SC transition temperature, Tc, while AF phase is located in a narrow range of x$``$0.02. Takagi89 ; Torrance  In contrast, in the electron-doped Nd2-xCexCuO4 (NCCO) and Pr2-xCexCuO4 (PCCO) systems, the optimum superconductivity adjoins a broad AF phase (0$``$x$``$0.14) and the SC phase exists in a narrow doping range of 0.14$``$x$``$ 0.18. Takagi ; Luke\_nature ; Luke  Therefore, it is important to clarify the origin of electron-hole doping asymmetry seen in the phase diagram and to reveal the universal feature in the relation between magnetism and superconductivity irrespective of types of carrier.

On the other hand, recent intensive studies on the LSCO system by $`\mu `$SR Weidinger ; Niedermayer , nuclear magnetic resonance Julien  and neutron scattering Fujita  techniques have claimed that a short-range AF ordered phase above x=0.02 persists in under-doped regions, and therefore coexists or phase separates with superconductivity. This penetration seems to be a contrastive feature with an incompatible relation between AF and SC phases in the electron-doped systems, suggested in the aforementioned phase diagram. Universal feature in the phase diagram of electron-doped system, however, is still controversial due to the limited number of comprehensive studies on both magnetism and superconductivity, and the difficulties in preparing samples, especially single crystals.Kurahashi

In this paper, we present the phase diagram of the electron-doped PLCCO systemIsawa  over a wide Ce concentration range obtained by ZF-$`\mu `$SR and magnetic susceptibility measurements. An advantage of this system is that the SC phase is extending to a lower doping region compared to the case of PCCO system. Koike ; Garcia  Thus, by investigating the magnetic phase in the system, the relation between AF and SC phases can be clarified. Furthermore, compared to the NCCO system, a considerably smaller effect of the rare-earth moment is suitable for studying the inherent nature of Cu2+ spins. Present study yields important information on the relation between the AF and SC phases: (i) Upon Ce doping the AF ordered phase is drastically suppressed at x $``$0.09 where the SC phase abruptly appears at the ground state, suggesting a competition between the two phases, and (ii) The SC region of the PLCCO (0.09$``$x$``$0.20) is extending to both lower and higher doping region compared with that of PCCO (0.14$``$x$``$0.18).

Single crystals (x=0.08, 0.09, 0.11, 0.13, 0.15, 0.17, 0.18 and 0.20) and powder samples (x=0.04, 0.06, 0.09 and 0.11) are grown using a traveling-solvent floating-zone method and a solid-state reaction, respectively. All samples are carefully annealed under argon gas flow at 900-950 C for $``$10 h and single crystals are subsequently annealed under O2 gas-flow at 500 C for $``$10 h. Removed oxygen content per unit formula from as-grown samples was determined to be 0.03-0.05 from the weight loss of the sample after the annealing treatment. For the characterization of samples, we examined the Ce content and the lattice constants by the inductively coupled plasma (ICP) spectrometer and the X-ray powder diffractometer, respectively. Evaluated Ce concentrations are approximately the same as the nominal concentrations.

At room temperature both a and c-axis lattice constants, which are larger than those in PCCOKuroshima , change monotonically with x. Details of the sample preparation and the characterization will be presented in a separate paper.Fujita\_unpub

In order to determine Tc, we measured the diamagnetic susceptibility by a SQUID magnetometer. Figure 1 shows the susceptibility for the annealed single crystal samples in an applied field of 10 Oe after the zero-field-cooling process. SC transitions are observed in the wide Ce concentration range of 0.09$``$x$``$0.20, while no bulk superconductivity is detected for 0.08$``$x samples. Based on these results the lower critical concentration of the bulk superconductivity is estimated to be between x=0.08 and 0.09. Note that onset Tcs of the x=0.09 and 0.11 powder samples are identical with those of single crystals and superconducting transition was not observed in the 0.04 and 0.06 samples. Thus, we concluded that the phase diagram for x$``$0.11 can be well characterized by using either powder or single crystal samples. We also note that the uniform magnetic susceptibility of PLCCO above Tc is only $``$$`1\%`$ of that of NCCO, demonstrating an advantage of the PLCCO system for elucidation of magnetic properties of Cu spin.

$`\mu `$SR measurements are performed on powder (x=0.04, 0.06, 0.09 and 0.11) and single crystal (x=0.08) samples at the pulsed muon source, RIKEN-RAL Muon Facility, Rutherford Appleton Laboratory in UK. These chosen values for x span the boundary between AF and SC phases. Positive surface-muons with perfectly polarized spins parallel to the beam and with the momentum of 29.8 MeV/c are implanted into sample. Then muon spins are depolarized by precessing around a local magnetic field at the muon sites. Therefore, the time evolution of muon spin polarization ($`\mu `$SR time spectrum) obtained by the asymmetry of the decay positron emission rate between forward and backward counters, A(t), provides information on the distribution and/or the fluctuation of the local magnetic field and the volume fraction of the magnetically ordered phase.Hayano

In Fig. 2, the normalized $`\mu `$SR time spectra after subtracting time-independent background are shown for non-SC (x=0.08) and SC (x=0.11) samples. In both samples, a Gaussian depolarization is formed in the time spectra at high temperatures consistent with a static nuclear-dipole field and the rapid fluctuation of Cu2+ spins.

At lower temperatures, the time spectra change from a Gaussian-type depolarization to an exponential one in both samples. This change suggests the appearance of static or quasistatic internal magnetic field at muon sites possibly due to the development of Cu spin correlation and the slowing down of spin fluctuations. Upon further cooling to 4K, an additional muon spin rotation corresponding to the magnetic order appears in the x=0.08 sample, while such a clear rotation is not observed in the x=0.11 sample. Therefore, magnetic property changes near the phase boundary upon electron-doping. Flat time spectrum beyond $``$1 $`\mu `$sec is clearly seen in x=0.08 sample at 4K, meaning a negligible effect of the Pr spin fluctuation in contrast to the case of NCCO.Uefuji ; Watanabe

For the qualitative analysis of the time spectra, we first assumed a combination of Gaussian and exponential functions:

$$A(t)=A_\mathit{1}\mathrm{𝑒𝑥𝑝}(\lambda _\mathit{1}t)+A_\mathit{2}\mathrm{𝑒𝑥𝑝}(\lambda _\mathit{2}^\mathit{2}t^\mathit{2}),$$
(1)
with A1+A2=1, where A1 and $`\lambda `$1, A2 and $`\lambda `$2 are the initial asymmetry at t=0 and the depolarization rate for the exponential and Gaussian components, respectively.

The time spectra at the higher temperatures ($``$80 K) are well reproduced by this function. (In Figs. 2(a) and (b), solid lines for the time spectra at the highest temperature are the fitted results by Eq. (1). ) With decreasing the temperature, A1 increases due to the development of spin correlation. We defined a characteristic temperature as TN1 where A1 exceeds 0.5 or the exponential component dominates. (See Fig. 3(a).) Then, to get more information regarding the ordered phase at low temperatures, the time spectra below TN1 were again fitted to the following equation:

$$A(t)=A_\mathit{3}\mathrm{𝑒𝑥𝑝}(\lambda _\mathit{3}t)+A_\mathit{4}\mathrm{𝑒𝑥𝑝}(\lambda _\mathit{4}t)\mathrm{𝑐𝑜𝑠}(\mathit{2}\pi \mathrm{𝑓𝑡}+\varphi ),$$
(2)
with A3+A4=1, where the first and second terms express components of relaxation and rotation of muon spin. The parameters A3 and $`\lambda `$3 are the initial asymmetry and the depolarization rate of exponential relaxation, respectively. A4 and $`\lambda `$4 are those of rotation component and f and $`\varphi `$ are the frequency and the initial phase of rotation. Solid lines for the time spectra at lower two temperatures in Figs. 2(a) and (b) are the fitted results by Eq. (2).

In Figs. 3(b) and (c), the obtained parameters of A4 and f, which represent the AF volume fraction and the relative internal magnetic field at the muon site, respectively, are shown for the samples located near the boundary. We define TN2 as the onset temperature for the appearance of muon spin rotation, corresponding to the existence of static AF ordered state. At low temperature, both A4 and f decrease as x increases. However, as seen in Fig. 3(c) the internal magnetic field at muon sites decreases upon electron doping possibly due to the change in either the amplitude or the direction of staggered moment of Cu spins. In contrast, in the hole-doped LSCO system, f in the long-range AF ordered phase is constant for x$``$0.02Harshman ; Borsa  where the evidence of a phase separation between three-dimensional long-range-ordered phase and spin-glass phase was observed.Chou ; Matsuda  Therefore, the AF order degrades rather homogeneously in space upon electron-doping in contrast to the inhomogeneous degradation in the hole-doped system: In the electron-doped system, the magnetic structure and/or staggared moment are modified by doping, while in the hole-doped system, those of the undoped system persists in the slightly doped compound.Lavrov ; Matsuda  It should be noted that magnetic Bragg peaks were observed by elastic neutron-scattering measurements below TN1Fujita\_unpub\_2 , while no clear evidence for a static internal field at the temperature between TN1 and TN2 was obtained by longitudinal field $`\mu `$SR measurement.Kubo  Thus, individual Cu2+ spins are fluctuating faster compared to the time scale of $`\mu `$SR measurement (typically 10-6-10-11 sec), although there exists time-averaged ordered moment. (The state with time-averaged moment is defined to be N$`\stackrel{´}{e}`$el state. )

In Fig. 4 (a), the doping dependence of TN1, TN2 and Tc(onset) are summarized. Upon electron doping, bulk superconductivity with optimum Tc of 26 K abruptly appears at x$``$0.09 like a first order-transition and TN2 is dramatically suppressed at the same time. Therefore, at the ground state, SC phase appears concomitant with the disappearance of the AF ordered phase as seen in the NCCO system,Luke ; Uefuji  although two phases are partially overlapped due to coexistence or microscopic phase separation. This result combined with a relation between the doping dependences of A4 and the diamagnetic susceptibility, $`\chi `$, at low temperatures (Fig. 4(b)) clearly demonstrates a competitive relation between AF and SC phases. Abrupt onset of optimum superconductivity accompanied by the disappearance of AF phase is different from the result in the hole-doped system showing a penetration of short-range AF ordered phase into the under-doped SC one. Weidinger ; Niedermayer ; Julien ; Fujita

Now we turn to the discussion on the doping range of SC phase. As seen in Figs. 4(a), Tc is insensitive to the Ce concentration and this feature characterizes the wide SC phase. The wide SC phase would be related with the increase of effective carriers by La substitution suggested from resistivity and Seebeck coefficient measurements.Koike ; Garcia  Arima et al. reported a reduction of charge-transfer (CT) energy between Cu 3d and O 2p bands as stretching Cu-O bond, i.e. lattice spacing.Arima  If the reduction of the CT energy is greater than the loss from decreasing orbital overlapManthiram , then the gain in mobility would make the introduction of electrons into the CuO2 plane easier, resulting in the wider SC phase. In other words, the narrower SC phases in NCCO and PCCO compared to that in PLCCO originate from the short lattice spacing.

On the other hand, for the appearance of superconductivity in the 2-1-4 electron-doped systems, a reduction procedure such as heat treatment is necessary. Brinkmann et al. reported an extension of SC phase in PCCO by an improved reduction technique and Kurahashi et al. shows an occurrence of optimum superconductivity in the Nd1.85Ce0.15CuO4 by an adequate heat treatment.Brinkmann ; Kurahashi  Therefore, SC composition range depends on the reduction procedure. The slight difference in the SC composition range for present crystals and powder samples of PLCCO systemGarcia ; Isawa  possibly relates with differences in the heat treatment. In order to clarify the fundamental features in the electron doped superconductivity, further comprehensive studies on single crystals are required.

In conclusion, we have performed $`\mu `$SR and magnetic susceptibility measurements for the electron-doped PLCCO system. AF order was observed in the sample with 0.04$``$x$``$0.11. The AF order was dramatically suppressed at x $``$0.09 which corresponds to the onset of the significantly wide SC phase (0.09$``$x$``$0.20) upon doping. The obtained phase diagram combined with the doping dependences of AF volume fraction and internal magnetic field clearly demonstrates a competitive relation between AF and SC phases.

We thank M. Kofu and K. Hirota for technical assistance of ICP measurements at Tohoku University, and Isawa, G-q. Zheng and M. Matsuda for helpful discussion. This work was supported in part by the Japanese Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research on Priority Areas (Novel Quantum Phenomena in Transition Metal Oxides), for Scientific Research (A), for Encouragement of Young Scientists, and for Creative Scientific Research ”Collaboratory on Electron Correlations - Toward a New Research Network between Physics and Chemistry -”, by the Japan Science and Technology Corporation, the Core Research for Evolutional Science and Technology Project (CREST).


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# Thermal correction to resistivity of 2D electron (hole) gas in low-temperature measurements at 𝐵=0

## Abstract

We calculate the zero magnetic field resistivity, taking into account the degeneracy of the 2D electron (hole) gas and the thermal correction due to the combined Peltier and Seebeck effects. The resistivity is found to be universal function of temperature, expressed in units of $`\frac{h}{e^2}(k_Fl)^1`$.

Recently, a great deal of interest has been focussed on the anomalous behaviour of a wide variety of low-density 2D electron$`^{\text{[1]}\text{-}\text{[2]}}`$ and hole$`^{\text{[3]}\text{-}\text{[5]}}`$ systems, whose resistivity unexpectedly decreases as the temperature is lowered, exhibiting a behaviour generally associated with metals, rather than insulators. In particular, it has been found that, below some critical 2D electron density $`n_s^c`$, cooling causes an increase in resistivity, whereas at $`n_s>n_s^c`$ the resistivity decreases. Although numerous theories have been put forward to account for this effect, the origin of this metallic behaviour is still the subject of a heated debate.

In the present paper, we report on a study of low-temperature transport in 2D electron gas at zero magnetic field, taking into account both the electron degeneracy and the Peltier-effect-induced correction to resistivity.$`^{\text{[6]}\text{,}\text{[7]}}`$ It is well known that ohmic measurements are carried out at low current density in order to prevent heating. Usually, only the Joule heat is considered to be important. In contrast to the Joule heat, the Peltier and Thomson effects are linear in current. As shown in ,, the Peltier effect influences ohmic measurements and results in a correction to a measured resistance. When current is flowing, one of the sample contacts is heated, and the other cooled, because of the Peltier effect. The established temperature gradient is proportional to the current. The Thomson heat is then proportional to squared current and can therefore be neglected. Then, the voltage drop across the circuit includes the thermoelectromotive force induced by the Peltier effect, which is linear in current. Finally, there exists a thermal correction $`\mathrm{\Delta }\rho `$, to the ohmic resistivity, $`\rho `$, of the sample. As was demonstrated in , for degenerate electrons, $`\mathrm{\Delta }\rho /\rho (kT/\mu )^2`$ , where $`\mu `$ is the Fermi energy. Hence, the above correction may be comparable with the ohmic resistance of a sample when $`kT\mu `$. We further discuss the features of thermal correction within 2D electron-density-modulated low-temperature ohmic measurements.$`^{\text{[1]}\text{-}\text{[5]}}`$

Let us consider for clarity a 2DEG sample and dc current flowing in it. The 2DEG structure (MOS, quantum well, etc.) is arbitrary, electrons are assumed to occupy the first quantum-well subband with isotropic energy spectrum $`\epsilon (k)=\frac{\mathrm{}^2𝐤^2}{2m}`$. Here, $`m`$ is the electron effective mass, $`𝐩`$=$`\mathrm{}𝐤`$ is the electron quasi-momentum, and $`𝐤`$ is the wave vector. The sample is connected (see Fig.1, insert) by means of two identical leads to the current source. Both contacts are assumed to be ohmic. The voltage is measured between the open ends (”c” and ”d”) kept at the temperature of the external thermal reservoir. The sample is placed in a sample chamber (not shown) with mean temperature $`T_0`$.

According to our basic assumption, the contacts ( “a” and “b”) may have different respective temperatures $`T_a`$ and $`T_b`$. With the temperature gradient term included, the current density $`𝐣`$ and the energy flux density $`𝐪`$ are given by

$`𝐣`$ $`=`$ $`\sigma (𝐄\alpha T),`$ ()
$`𝐪`$ $`=`$ $`(\alpha T\zeta /e)𝐣\varkappa T,`$ (1)
Here, $`𝐄=\zeta /e`$ is the electric field, and $`\zeta =\mu e\phi `$ is the electrochemical potential. Then, $`\sigma =Ne^2\tau /m`$ is the conductivity, $`N`$ is the 2D electron concentration, $`\tau `$ is the momentum relaxation time, $`\varkappa `$ is the thermal conductivity, and $`\alpha `$ is the 2DEG thermopower.

It is well known that the Peltier heat is generated by current flowing across the interface between two different conductors. At the contact ( “a” in Fig.1, insert ), the temperature $`T_a`$, electrochemical potential $`\zeta `$, normal components of the current $`I=jd`$, and energy flux $`qd`$ are continuous. Here, $`d`$ is the sample width. Then, there exists a difference of thermopowers $`\mathrm{\Delta }\alpha =\alpha _{me}\alpha `$, where $`\alpha _{me}`$ is the thermopower of the metal lead. For $`\mathrm{\Delta }\alpha >0`$ and the current direction depicted in Fig.1, contact “a” is heated, and contact “b” is cooled. Thus, the contacts are at different temperatures, and $`T_aT_b=\mathrm{\Delta }T>0`$.

In general, one can easily solve Eq.(()Thermal correction to resistivity of 2D electron (hole) gas in low-temperature measurements at $`B=`$), and then find $`\mathrm{\Delta }T`$ for an arbitrary circuit cooling. Since the electron-phonon coupling is weak below $``$1K, the heat conduction from 2DEG to mixing chamber could predominately occur through the ohmic contacts of the sample and the leads connected to them. However, the experimental observations in Ref. demonstrate that the electron gas is, in fact, the dominant thermal resistance in this problem. Actually, the cooling of 2D electrons with respect to bath is provided by thermal conductivity found to follow Wiedemann-Franz law. Accordingly, we neglect further the contact related cooling of 2D electron gas. Then, for actual $`I0`$ case we will omit the Joule heating. Let us suppose for a moment that the cooling conditions are adiabatic, with the 2D electron gas thermally insulated from the environment. These assumptions will be later justified for an actual 2DEG system. We emphasize that under the above conditions, the sample is not heated. Indeed, at small currents, $`T_aT_bT_0`$. Hence, the amount of the Peltier heat, $`Q_a=I\mathrm{\Delta }\alpha T_0`$, evolved at contact “a” and that absorbed at contact “b” are equal. If it is recalled that the energy flux is continuous at each contact, the difference of the contact temperatures is given by $`\mathrm{\Delta }T=I\mathrm{\Delta }\alpha T_0l_0/\varkappa d`$, where $`l_0`$is the sample length. As expected, $`\mathrm{\Delta }T`$ is linear in current.

As shown in Ref., standard ohmic measurements always result in a thermal correction to the resistance measured. Using Eq.(()Thermal correction to resistivity of 2D electron (hole) gas in low-temperature measurements at $`B=`$), we find for the voltage drop $`U`$ between ends “c” and “d”

$$U=RI+\underset{c}{\overset{d}{}}\alpha 𝑑T,$$
(2)
where $`R`$ is the total ohmic resistance of the circuit. The second term in Eq.(2) coincides with the expression for the conventional thermoelectromotive force, $`\epsilon _T`$, under zero current conditions. Let us assume that the temperature gradient is small. In this case $`\sigma `$, $`\alpha `$, and $`\varkappa `$ can be considered constant. The thermoelectromotive force is then given by $`\epsilon _T=\mathrm{\Delta }\alpha \mathrm{\Delta }T`$. Since $`\mathrm{\Delta }TI`$, there always exists a thermal correction to the ohmic resistance $`\mathrm{\Delta }R=\epsilon _T/I`$. Finally, the total resistivity of the 2DEG-sample is given by$`^{\text{[7]}}`$

$$\rho ^{tot}=\rho \left(1+\frac{\alpha ^2}{L}\right),$$
(2)
where $`\rho =1/\sigma `$ is the ohmic resistivity of the sample. In Eq.(2) we take into account that for the actual case of metal leads $`\mathrm{\Delta }\alpha \alpha `$. Then, for the low-temperature case in question we omit the phonon-related contribution to thermal conductivity. Therefore, $`\varkappa =LT\sigma ,`$ where $`L=\frac{\pi ^2k^2}{3e^2}`$ is the Lorentz number. It is noteworthy that the above result is valid for a 2D hole gas as well.$`^{\text{[7]}}`$

Using the conventional Gibbs statistics$`^{\text{[9]}}`$ and the energy spectrum specified above, the 2DEG concentration $`N=\left(\frac{\mathrm{\Omega }}{\mu }\right)_T`$ yields

$$N=N_0\xi ϝ_0(1/\xi )$$
(3)
where $`\mathrm{\Omega }=kT\underset{k}{}\mathrm{ln}(1+\mathrm{exp}(\frac{\mu ϵ}{kT}))`$ is the thermodynamic potential of the 2D electron gas, and $`\xi =kT/\mu `$ is dimensionless temperature. Then, $`N_0=\frac{m\mu }{\pi \mathrm{}^2}`$ is the density of strongly degenerate 2DEG, and $`ϝ_n(z)=\underset{0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}x^n[1+\mathrm{exp}(xz)]^1𝑑x`$ is the Fermi integral. In Fig.1, we plot the temperature dependence of the dimensionless concentration $`n=N/N_0`$ given by Eq.(3). In the classical Maxwell-Boltzman limit ($`\xi <0,\left|\xi \right|1`$), the 2D electron density is thermally activated, and, therefore, $`n=\left|\xi \right|\mathrm{exp}(1/\left|\xi \right|)`$. In the case of strongly degenerate electrons ($`\xi 1`$), we obtain $`n=1+\xi \mathrm{exp}(1/\xi )`$. Then, at elevated temperatures $`\xi 1`$, the dependence of the 2DEG concentration $`n=1/2+\xi \mathrm{ln}2`$ becomes linear in temperature. It is noteworthy that the 2D electron concentration $`N`$ may exceed the zero-temperature value $`N_0`$.

We emphasize that the 2D electron density is a monotonic function of temperature (see Fig.1). Therefore, one might expect that the ohmic resistivity $`\rho (T)1/N`$ decreases with increasing temperature at constant carrier mobility. We now demonstrate that the total resistivity specified by Eq.(2) can, nevertheless, increase in a certain temperature range owing to the Peltier effect-related correction.

Following the conventional Boltzman equation formalism, the explicit formulae for the 2DEG thermopower (for the 3D case, see Pisarenko, 1940) can be written as follows

$$\alpha =\frac{k}{e}\left[\frac{2ϝ_1(1/\xi )}{ϝ_0(1/\xi )}\frac{1}{\xi }\right]$$
(4)
Here, we assume, for simplicity, that the electron scattering is characterized by energy-independent momentum relaxation time. For strongly degenerated 2DEG ($`0<\xi 1`$), we obtain the temperature dependence of the thermopower (Fig.1,b) as $`\alpha =\frac{k}{e}[\pi ^2\xi /3(1+3\xi )\mathrm{exp}(1/\xi )]`$. At elevated temperatures ($`\xi >1`$) the thermopower first grows with temperature, and then approaches an universal value $`\alpha _s=\frac{k}{e}\frac{\pi ^2}{6\mathrm{ln}2}`$. In the classical Maxwell-Boltzman limit ($`\xi <0,\left|\xi \right|1`$) the thermopower is given by the conventional formulae $`\alpha =`$ $`\frac{k}{e}(21/\xi )`$. Its worth noting that in the two last cases the thermopower is of the order of $`k/e`$. Accordingly, the thermal correction to resistivity $`\mathrm{\Delta }\rho =\rho \alpha ^2/L`$ may be of the order of the 2DEG ohmic resistivity.

In Fig.2, we plot the temperature dependence of the 2DEG resistivity given by Eq.(2) at different Fermi temperatures $`T_F=\mu /k`$. At fixed temperature, the resistivity decreases with increasing 2DEG degeneracy. Then, for a fixed Fermi energy (e.g., $`T_F=0.5`$ in Fig.2 ) the T-dependence of the resistivity exhibits metallic behaviour at $`T<T_F`$, and then becomes insulating ( i.e.$`\frac{d\rho }{dT}<0`$ ) at $`T>T_F`$. Within the low-temperature metallic region $`\xi 1`$, the 2DEG resistivity can be approximated (see dashed line in Fig.2 ) with $`\rho ^{tot}=\rho _0(1+\pi ^2\xi ^2/3)`$, where $`\rho _0=\frac{h}{e^2}(k_Fl)^1`$ is the resistivity at $`T0`$, $`k_F=\sqrt{2m\mu }/\mathrm{}`$ is the Fermi vector, and $`l=`$ $`\mathrm{}k_F\tau /m`$ is the mean free path. Then, for the high-temperature ($`\xi >1`$) insulating region we obtain the asymptote $`\rho ^{tot}=\rho _0\frac{1+\alpha _s^2/L}{\xi \mathrm{ln}2+1/2}`$, shown in Fig.2 by dotted line. This result is confirmed by recent experiments$`^{\text{[10]}\text{-}\text{[14]}}`$ shown that for temperatures well below the Fermi temperature the metallic region data obey a scaling law where the disordered parameter $`k_Fl`$ appears explicitly. These experimental observations$`^{\text{[10]}}`$ therefore rule out interactions, the shape of the potential well spin-orbit effects as possible origins of the metallic behaviour mechanism. Then, according to Ref. the ”metallic” state can not be associated with e-e induced quantum interference effects. We argue that the semi-classical mechanism discussed above may be responsible for observed T-behaviour of 2D resistivity.

Let us analyze in more detail the cooling conditions, which are known to influence the thermal correction to resistivity.$`^{\text{[6]}\text{,}\text{[7]}}`$ It will be recalled that in the case of adiabatic cooling the electron temperature differs from the bath temperature $`T_0`$. We now consider the opposite situation of electron cooling due to, for example, finite strength of electron-phonon coupling. Let the phonons are thermalized with respect to bath temperature $`T_0`$. Following Ref., below $``$0.6K in Si MOSFET’s the electron-to-phonon thermal exchange is given by $`a(T^3T_0^3)`$, where $`a=`$2.2 $`\times `$10-8W/K3cm2. When $`TT_0T_0`$, the thermal correction to the resistivity $`\mathrm{\Delta }\rho `$ is suppressed$`^{\text{[7]}}`$ by the factor $`\beta =\frac{\mathrm{tanh}\lambda }{\lambda }`$, where $`\lambda =l_0T_0\sqrt{3a/4\varkappa }`$ is a dimensionless parameter. Actually, $`\lambda `$ is the ratio of outgoing and internal heat fluxes associated with phonon related thermal leakage and electron heat diffusion, respectively.

When $`\lambda 1`$, the local cooling due to phonons can be neglected and the adiabatic approach is well justified. In the opposite case of intensive cooling ($`\lambda 1`$), the difference of the contact temperatures $`\mathrm{\Delta }T`$ becomes smaller, and, therefore, the thermal correction to resistivity $`\mathrm{\Delta }\rho `$ vanishes. For $`l_0=1`$mm, $`T_0=50`$mK, $`\sigma =2e^2/h=8\times 10^5`$Ohm-1( typical critical region conductance) we obtain $`\lambda =1.2`$, and, therefore, $`\beta =0.8`$. It worthwhile to notice that Peltier correction to resistivity becomes greater at ultra-low temperatures for short samples, since $`\lambda l_0T_0`$. In real experiments both the electron-phonon coupling and the sample-to-bath thermal exchange may be important.

We emphasize that both dc and ac ohmic measurements lead to a thermal correction. The correction is, however, strongly damped at high frequencies because of the thermal inertial effects. As demonstrated in Ref., the above quasi-static approach is valid below some critical frequency $`f_{cr}=\chi /l_0^2`$. For example, for degenerate electrons the thermal diffusion coefficient $`\chi `$ is of the order of the diffusion coefficient $`D=\frac{\sigma }{e^2}\left(\frac{dN_0}{d\mu }\right)^1`$. Assuming $`\sigma =e^2/h`$, $`l_0=1`$mm, for GaAs-based structure we obtain $`\chi \mathrm{}/m`$, hence $`f_{cr}=1.5`$kHz. We suggest that the spectral dependence of the 2D resistivity can be used to estimate the thermal correction.

In conclusion, low-temperature ohmic measurements of a 2D electron (hole) gas at $`B=0`$ involve a thermal correction caused by the Peltier effect. The magnitude of thermal correction depends on the 2DEG degeneracy and actual cooling conditions. The resistivity of 2DEG with thermal correction included is found to be universal function of temperature, expressed in units $`h/e^2(k_Fl)^1`$. This universal behaviour correlates with that found in experiments.

This work was supported by RFBR, INTAS (grant YSF 2001/1-0132), and the LSF program(Weizmann Institute). The author acknowledges the generous hospitality of the Institut fur Theorie der Kondensierten Materie, Karlsruhe.