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# Fast Hands-free Writing by Gaze Direction

Nature 418, p. 838 (22nd August 2002). www.nature.com

We describe a method for text entry based on inverse arithmetic coding that relies on gaze direction and which is faster and more accurate than using an on-screen keyboard. These benefits are derived from two innovations: the writing task is matched to the capabilities of the eye, and a language model is used to make predictable words and phrases easier to write.

For people who cannot use a standard keyboard or mouse, the direction of gaze is one of the few ways of conveying information to a computer. Many systems for gaze-controlled text entry provide an on-screen keyboard whose buttons are ‘pressed’ by staring at them. But eyes did not evolve to push buttons, and this method of writing is exhausting.

Moreover, on-screen keyboards are inefficient because typical text has considerable redundancy. Although a partial solution to this defect is to include word-completion buttons as alternative buttons alongside the keyboard, a language model’s predictions can be better integrated into the writing process. By inverting an efficient method for text compression – arithmetic coding – we have created an efficient method for text entry, one that is also well matched to the eye’s natural talent for search and navigation.

One way to write a piece of text is to go into the library that contains all possible books, and find the book that contains exactly that text. Writing thus becomes a navigational task. In our idealized library, the ‘books’ are arranged alphabetically on one enormous shelf. As soon as the user looks at a part of the shelf, the view zooms in continuously on the point of gaze. To write a message that begins ‘hello’, one first steers towards the section of the shelf marked h, where all the books beginning with h are found. Within this section are sections for books beginning ha, hb, hc, etc.; one enters the he section, then the hel section within it, and so forth.

To make the writing process efficient we use a language model, which predicts the probability of each letter’s occurring in a given context, to allocate the shelf-space for each letter of the alphabet (figure 1a). When the language model’s predictions are accurate, many successive characters can be selected by a single gesture.

We previously evaluated this system, which we call Dasher, with a mouse as the steering device. Novices rapidly learned to write and an expert could write at 34 words per minute. All users made fewer errors than when using a standard qwerty keyboard.

Figure 1b shows an evaluation of Dasher driven by an eyetracker, compared with an on-screen keyboard. After an hour of practice, Dasher users could write at up to 25 words per minute, whereas on-screen keyboard users could write at only 15 words per minute. Moreover, the error rate with the on-screen keyboard was about five times that of Dasher.

Users of both systems reported the on-screen keyboard more stressful than Dasher, for two reasons. First, they often felt uncertain whether an error had been made in the current word (the word-completion feature works only if no errors have been made); an error can be spotted only by looking away from the keyboard. Second, a decision has to be made after ‘pressing’ each character on whether to use word completion or to continue typing; looking in the word-completion area is a gamble as it is not guaranteed that the required word will be there; finding the right completion requires a switch to a new mental activity. By contrast, Dasher users can see simultaneously the last few characters they have written and the most probable options for the next few. Furthermore, Dasher makes no distinction between word-completion and ordinary writing.

Dasher works in most languages; the language model can be trained on example documents, and adapts to the user’s language as she writes. It can also be operated with other pointing devices such as a touch screen or rollerball. Dasher is potentially an efficient, accurate, and fun writing system not only for disabled computer users but also for users of mobile computers.

David J. Ward and David J.C. MacKay
Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge, CB3 0HE
mackay@mrao.cam.ac.uk


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# Comment on “Anisotropic 𝑠-wave superconductivity in MgB2”

## Abstract

An analytical result for renormalization of the jump of the heat capacity $`\mathrm{\Delta }C/C_N`$ by the anisotropy of the order parameter is derived in the framework of the model proposed by Haas and Maki \[Phys. Rev. B 65, 020502(R) (2001)\], for both prolate and oblate anisotropy. The graph of $`\mathrm{\Delta }C/C_N`$ versus the ratio of the gaps on the equator and the pole, $`\mathrm{\Delta }_e/\mathrm{\Delta }_p`$, of the Fermi surface allows a direct determination of the gap anisotropy parameter $`\mathrm{\Delta }_e/\mathrm{\Delta }_p`$ using data from specific heat measurements.

In a recent Rapid Communication, Haas and Maki Haas:01  discuss a model for the gap anisotropy in MgB2, a material which has attracted a lot of attention from condensed matter physicists in the past two years. A central issue in this work is to propose an analytic model for analyzing the thermodynamic behavior. Assuming a spherical Fermi surface a simple gap anisotropy function is suggested, $`\mathrm{\Delta }(𝐤)1+az^2`$, where $`z=\mathrm{cos}\theta `$, and $`\theta `$ is the polar angle. This angular dependence is a natural linear combination of spherical harmonics (Legendre polynomials $`P_0(z)`$ and $`P_2(z)`$), and can therefore be interpreted in terms of an s+d model.

This model leads to useful results for the temperature dependence of the upper critical field $`H_{c2}`$ and of the specific heat, which can be fitted to the experimental data, thereby determining the optimal anisotropy parameter $`a`$. Note that $`a=\mathrm{\Delta }_p/\mathrm{\Delta }_e1`$, with $`\mathrm{\Delta }_p=\mathrm{\Delta }(z=1)`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }_e=\mathrm{\Delta }(z=0)`$. For example, the dimensionless ratio $`\mathrm{\Delta }C/C_N`$ of the specific heat jump at $`T_c`$ relative to the normal state specific heat, measured by Wang et al.Wang:01  is a tool for estimating $`a`$. Haas and Maki Haas:01  focused on the case $`a>0`$.

For oblate-shaped gap anisotropy ($`\mathrm{\Delta }_e>\mathrm{\Delta }_p`$), indicated by recent experiments on the critical field anisotropy,Xu:01 ; Angst:02  we take $`a<0`$. The sign of $`a`$ is relevant for this physical property, but irrelevant for the jump of the heat capacity. Note that for $`a<1`$ the model gives a gapless superconductor, which is not applicable for MgB2. Following the weak-coupling BCS approach by the authors Haas:01  we derived the analytic expression

$`{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Delta }C}{C_N}}`$ $`={\displaystyle \frac{12}{7\zeta (3)}}{\displaystyle \frac{1+4a/3+38a^2/45+4a^3/15+a^4/25}{1+4a/3+6a^2/5+4a^3/7+a^4/9}},`$
$`a`$ $`={\displaystyle \frac{1}{\mathrm{\Delta }_e/\mathrm{\Delta }_p}}1,\mathrm{\Delta }_e/\mathrm{\Delta }_p={\displaystyle \frac{1}{1+a}}`$ (1)
valid for arbitrary $`a`$. This expression can be used in experimental data analysis and may lead to *two* solutions (oblate, $`a<0`$; prolate, $`a>0`$), for a given specific heat jump. The relevant example is shown in Fig. 1.

For the jump $`\mathrm{\Delta }C/C_N1.18`$ considered by the authors, Haas:01  we recall $`a=1`$ and contribute $`a=0.6877`$. The corresponding anisotropies are $`\mathrm{\Delta }_e/\mathrm{\Delta }_p=1/2`$ (prolate) and $`\mathrm{\Delta }_e/\mathrm{\Delta }_p=3.202>1`$ (oblate solution).

This paper was supported by the Flemish programmes VIS, IUAP and GOA.


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# Can vacancies lubricate dislocation motion in aluminum?

## Abstract

The interaction of vacancy with dislocations in Al is studied using the Semidiscrete Variational Peierls-Nabarro model with ab initio determined $`\gamma `$-surface. For the first time, we confirm theoretically the so-called vacancy lubrication effect on dislocation motion in Al, a discovery that can settle a long-standing controversy in dislocation theory for fcc metals. We provide insights on the lubrication effect by exploring the connection between dislocation mobility and its core width. We predict an increased dislocation splitting in the presence of vacancy. We find that on average there is a weak repulsion between vacancies and dislocations which is independent of dislocation character.

Defects and their mutual interactions dominate the properties of materials that host them. Vacancies as point defects, have long been known to strongly interact with dislocations (line defects), and the study of their interactions represents one of most challenging problems in material science and engineering balluffi . More than a decade ago, Benoit et al. discovered an interesting phenomenon in ultra-high-purity aluminum deformed at low temperature of 4.2 K. They observed a marked decrease of elastic modulus in cold-worked Al, which they attributed to vacancy enhanced dislocation mobility in Al, a novel phenomenon they termed dislocation lubrication effect lauzier ; benoit . Corroborative experimental evidence led these authors to conclude that vacancies, generated from cold-work or irradiation, are solely responsible for the enhanced dislocation mobility. This indeed is a quite intriguing result because traditionally vacancies are thought to lock dislocation motion by forming atmospheres around the dislocation nabarro . Furthermore the lubrication effect may hold the key to resolve the long-standing controversy for Peierls stress ($`\sigma _p`$) estimated from plastic deformation and from internal friction measurements. It is generally believed that kink pair formation (KPF) of dislocations is responsible for the Bordoni peaks observed in internal friction measurements of fcc metals seeger ; fantozzi . However $`\sigma _p`$ derived from KPF mechanism is in the order of 10$`{}_{}{}^{3}\mu `$ ($`\mu `$ is the shear modulus) far greater than the critical resolved shear stress (CRSS) estimated from plastic deformation experiments, which is around 10-5 to 10$`{}_{}{}^{4}\mu `$ seeger2 . This has been regarded as a serious problem because it casts doubt on the well accepted KPF theory for the Bordoni peak in fcc metals. The controversy is particularly troublesome in light of the good agreement found in bcc and ionic crystals regarding $`\sigma _p`$ measured from internal friction and low temperature CRSS experiments fantozzi . Therefore the vacancy lubrication effect may settle the controversy by proposing that vacancies strongly interact with dislocations and as a consequence lower their $`\sigma _p`$ to the level that is consistent with the low temperature CRSS experiments and thus bridge the gap in $`\sigma _p`$ lauzier ; benoit . Finally if the lubrication mechanism turns out to be general, it may lead to an innovation in molding technology for materials with high $`\sigma _p`$ by introducing vacancies to the materials kosugi . However interesting the lubrication effect may seem to be, it has not been widely accepted, which in our opinion, is due to poor understanding of the phenomenon. In fact, there is no complete theoretical work ever published to address this problem, to the best of our knowledge. Therefore it is the purpose of this paper to present the first ab initio study of the problem. As we will show in the following, our calculations not only provide theoretical support for the lubrication effect, they also reveal other important difference in dislocation properties that are associated with the presence of vacancies.

In this paper, we employed the recently developed Semidiscrete Variational Peierls-Nabarro (SVPN) model bulatov ; lu1  in conjunction with ab initio determined $`\gamma `$-surfaces gamma . The SVPN model provides an ideal framework for multiscale simulations of dislocation properties, and it combines an atomistic (ab initio) treatment of the interactions across the slip plane and an elastic treatment of the continua on either side of the slip plane. The model has been shown to be quite successful in predicting dislocation properties by comparing its predictions against the direct atomistic simulations results bulatov ; lu1 . For example, by using the $`\gamma `$-surface calculated from Embedded Atom Method (EAM), we obtained $`\sigma _p`$ for dislocations in Al that are in excellent agreement with that from direct atomistic simulations employing the same EAM potential lu1 . More remarkably, a good agreement is also achieved for dislocations in Si bulatov  where the classic Peierls-Nabarro model fails owing to the its insufficiency to deal with narrow dislocations, such as dislocations in Si. Since one has no a priori knowledge regarding the size of dislocations in the presence of vacancies, the SVPN model seems to be particularly useful to explore the interaction of vacancy with dislocations. Besides $`\sigma _p`$, the model can also provide reliable results for other dislocation properties, such as partial separation distance and core width lu1 , as they are compared to direct atomistic simulations bulatov2 ; fang . Thus the strength of this approach, when combined with ab initio calculations for $`\gamma `$-surface is that it produces essentially an atomistic simulation for dislocation properties without suffering from uncertainties associated with empirical potentials.

In the SVPN approach, the equilibrium structure of a dislocation is obtained by minimizing the dislocation energy functional bulatov ; lu1

$$U_{disl}=U_{elastic}+U_{misfit}+U_{stress}+Kb^2\mathrm{ln}L,$$
(1)
where

$$U_{elastic}=\underset{i,j}{}\frac{1}{2}\chi _{ij}[K_e(\rho _i^{(1)}\rho _j^{(1)}+\rho _i^{(2)}\rho _j^{(2)})+K_s\rho _i^{(3)}\rho _j^{(3)}],$$
(2)
$$U_{misfit}=\underset{i}{}\mathrm{\Delta }x\gamma (\stackrel{}{f_i}),$$
(3)
$$U_{stress}=\underset{i,l}{}\frac{x_i^2x_{i1}^2}{2}\rho _i^{(l)}\tau ^{(l)},$$
(4)
with respect to the dislocation Burgers vector density $`\rho _i`$. Here, $`\rho _i^{(1)}`$, $`\rho _i^{(2)}`$ and $`\rho _i^{(3)}`$ are the edge, vertical and screw components of the general Burgers vector density defined at the $`i`$th nodal point as $`\rho _i=(f_if_{i1})/(x_ix_{i1})`$, where $`f_i`$ and $`x_i`$ are the displacement vector and the coordinate of the $`i`$th nodal point (atomic row). $`\gamma (\stackrel{}{f}_i)`$ is the $`\gamma `$-surface that is determined from ab initio calculations. $`\tau ^{(l)}`$ is the external stress component interacting with the corresponding Burgers vector density $`\rho ^{(l)}`$. $`\chi _{ij}`$ is the discretized elastic energy kernel, and $`K`$, $`K_e`$ and $`K_s`$ are the pre-logarithmic elastic energy factors bulatov ; lu1 . The quantity $`L`$ entering the last term is the outer cutoff radius for the configuration-independent part of the elastic energy hirth . We identify the dislocation configuration-dependent part of the elastic energy and the misfit energy as core energy, i.e., $`U_{core}=U_{elastic}+U_{misfit}`$. The response of a dislocation to an external stress is achieved by minimization of the energy functional at the given value of the applied stress. An instability is reached when an optimal solution for the Burgers vector density distribution no longer exists, which is manifested numerically by the failure of the minimization procedure to convergence. $`\sigma _p`$ is then identified as the critical value of the applied stress giving rise to this instability.

In order to examine how vacancies change dislocation core structure by modifying atomic bonding across the slip plane, we carry out ab inito calculations for the $`\gamma `$-surface of Al with vacancies at the slip plane. Specifically, we select a supercell containing six Al layers in  direction with four atoms per layer, and remove one Al atom from the top layer (right below the designated slip plane) of the supercell to simulate a vacancy concentration at 4 at.%. We should emphasize that 4 at.% represents the vacancy concentration at the dislocation core region that we are interested, therefore it is much greater than the average vacancy concentration of the bulk material. The ab initio calculations are based on the pseudopotential plane-wave method with local density approximation kohn  to the exchange-correlation functional perdew . A kinetic energy cutoff of 12 Ry for the plane-wave basis is used and a $`k`$-point mesh consisting of (8,8,4) divisions along the reciprocal lattice vectors is sampled for the Brillouin zone integration. Atomic relaxation is performed before we initiate the sliding. During the sliding process, atoms are allowed to move only along  direction while the atoms at the innermost two layers are held fixed. Volume relaxation is also performed for each sliding distance to minimize the tensile stress on the supercell.

The ab initio determined $`\gamma `$-surface for Al with and without vacancies is presented in Fig. 1. In order to highlight the vacancy effect on $`\gamma `$-surface, we also summarize in Table I some important stacking fault energies for both Al and Al+V (Al with vacancies) systems. These special stacking faults correspond to the various extremes along \[12$`\overline{1}`$\] and  directions of the $`\gamma `$-surface. It is clear that the vacancy lowers the intrinsic and unstable stacking fault energy along \[12$`\overline{1}`$\] direction while increases the run-on stacking fault energy and unstable stacking fault energy along  direction. Therefore it is not immediately clear how dislocation core structure can be changed by vacancies, and a detailed analysis based on SVPN model is needed. Since the experiments lauzier  have concluded that the change in elastic constants due to vacancies is not responsible for the observed lubrication effect, we will simply use the experimental elastic constants of pure Al in our calculations for Al+V system lu1 .

Having determined all the necessary parameters entering the model, we can study the interaction of vacancy and dislocations using the SVPN model. We select four, namely, screw (0), 30, 60 and edge (90) dislocations, all with the same Burgers vector, but different orientations, in our calculations. $`\sigma _p`$ calculated from the SVPN model for the dislocations with and without vacancies is listed in Table II. $`\sigma _p`$ represents the intrinsic mobility of a straight dislocation, and it relates to the kink pair formation energy, 2$`W_k`$, by

$$2W_k=\frac{(16\mu b^3a^3\sigma _p)^{1/2}}{\pi },$$
(5)
where $`b`$ is the Burgers vector and $`a`$ the distance between neighboring Peierls valleys seeger ; fantozzi ; benoit2 . The corresponding values for Al are $`\mu `$ = 28.8 GPa, $`b=2.85`$ Å and $`a=2.47`$Å. By measuring $`2W_k`$ (the activation energy for the Bordoni peak) in internal friction experiments, one can derive $`\sigma _p`$ according to Eq. (5) for the relevant dislocation. For example, using the experimentally measured value of $`2W_k`$ (0.21 eV) for a screw dislocation, one obtains $`\sigma _p`$ = 8$`\times 10^3\mu `$ (224 MPa) for the screw dislocation in pure Al fantozzi ; benoit2 . This value of $`\sigma _p`$ is in excellent agreement with our model result, 8.82$`\times 10^3\mu `$ for the same dislocation (Table II). Furthermore, the less definite measurement for the subsidiary peak (B1 peak) yields an activation energy ranging from 0.12 to 0.16 eV, which corresponds to $`\sigma _p`$ in the range of 2.8 to 4.6$`\times 10^3\mu `$ (80 to 130 MPa) for the 60 dislocation. This value also agrees well with our result for the same dislocation (3.40$`\times 10^3\mu `$). The overall consistency between the theoretical and experimental values for $`\sigma _p`$ indicates the reliability of our model and establishes the basis for further study of vacancy effect.

When vacancies are introduced at the slip plane but are not adsorbed by a dislocation line, we find that $`\sigma _p`$ for various dislocation is lowered by more than one order of magnitude (except for the edge dislocation), as shown in Table II. Therefore we have confirmed the vacancy lubrication effect theoretically for the first time since its proposal. The fact that this lubrication effect is observed for various dislocations suggests a generic nature of the underlying mechanism. In order to shed light on this general mechanism, we have calculated dislocation core width which is defined as the atomic spacing over which the relative displacement of the dislocation changes from 1/4$`b`$ to 3/4$`b`$ lu1 . It is generally believed that $`\sigma _p`$ is exponentially lowered with the increase of dislocation half-width according to the Peierls-Nabarro model hirth ; lu1 . The calculated dislocation half core width ($`\zeta `$) is presented in Table II. It is found that in the presence of vacancy, dislocation becomes 60% to 90% wider, which we believe is due to the reduced slope of the $`\gamma `$-surface along \[12$`\overline{1}`$\] direction as vacancies are introduced. Since lattice restoring force, represented by the slope of $`\gamma `$-surface, is weakened by the vacancies, the repulsive elastic force resulting from the continuous distribution of infinitesimal dislocations dominates, leading to a wider dislocation core and therefore enhanced dislocation mobility. Although the vacancy lubrication effect may be qualitatively understood from above argument by a careful inspection of the $`\gamma `$-surface, one has to resort to SVPN model to obtain reliable values of $`\sigma _p`$ in order to make a quantitative comparison. As shown in Table II, vacancies can bring $`\sigma _p`$ down to the values derived from the plastic deformation experiments (10-5 to 10$`{}_{}{}^{4}\mu `$), therefore bridge the gap for $`\sigma _p`$ between the internal friction measurement and the measurement of CRSS at low temperature.

In order to gain more insights into the interaction of vacancy and dislocations, we have calculated dislocation Burgers vector density for pure Al and Al+V, shown in Fig. 2. It is found that dislocations tend to dissociate more into partials in the presence of vacancy. This behavior is obviously associated with the fact that the intrinsic stacking fault energy is reduced by vacancy. The result cautions us to be more careful in interpreting TEM data for partial separation distances because accidentally introduced vacancies could change the result significantly. We have also calculated binding energies of vacancies to dislocation cores, summarized in Table II. The binding energy is defined as difference between dislocation core energy with and without the presence of vacancy. Overall we find that the binding energies are not sensitive to dislocation character, and more importantly they are all marginally positive. The positive binding energy indicates that dislocation is energetically less stable with vacancies nearby. Our result for positive value of binding energy qualitatively agrees with the findings from atomistic simulations carried out for Cu balluffi . The small value of binding energy we found in Al may relate to the fact that the dislocations are dissociated into partials in Al. It is believed that the vacancy binding energy to dissociated dislocations is considerably lower than that to the same dislocations in the non-dissociated condition balluffi . Of course one has to bear in mind that the binding energy we obtained represents an average value over all possible sites for a vacancy at the core of the dislocation.

To conclude, we have studied the interaction of vacancy with dislocations in Al using the SVPN model with ab initio determined $`\gamma `$-surface. We confirm the experimental finding of vacancy lubrication effect in Al. We propose that vacancies can weaken the lattice restoring force across the slip plane, which leads to a wider dislocation spreading, and thus higher dislocation mobility. We find that $`\sigma _p`$ of the dislocations is lowered by more than one order of magnitude in the presence of vacancy, which bridges the gap between $`\sigma _p`$ observed from different experiments, resolving one of the long-standing problems in dislocation theory. This work represents the first theoretical effort to challenge the traditional point of view that regards vacancy as a locking agent for dislocation motion. We predict that vacancies can increase partial separation distance in Al, and finally we find there exists a weak repulsion between dislocations and vacancy, which is independent of the dislocation character.

###### Acknowledgements.

We acknowledge the support from Grant No. F49620-99-1-0272 through the U.S. Air Force Office for Scientific Research.


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# Production of ring-like structure in the cocoon of Hercules A

## 1 Introduction

Hercules A (3C 348) is a luminous radio galaxy (Dreher & Feigelson 1984; Mason et al. 1988) at a redshift of $`z=0.154`$, in a cluster of uncertain richness (Greenstein 1962; Owen & Laing 1989; Yates et al. 1989; Allington-Smith et al. 1993). Its power density at $`5\mathrm{GHz}`$, $`P_{5\mathrm{G}\mathrm{H}\mathrm{z}}6.9\times 10^{25}\mathrm{W}\mathrm{Hz}^1\mathrm{sr}^1`$ for $`H_0=65\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1\mathrm{Mpc}^1`$ (Gizani & Leahy 1999; Gizani et al. 2000). In optical observations, the elliptical galaxy is found to have a double nucleus (with a separation $`4^{\prime \prime }`$) and tail-like distortions of the stellar isophotes implying a merger of galaxies (Minkowski 1957; Sadun & Hayes 1993).

The X-ray emitting cluster medium was the subject of ASCA and ROSAT observations by Siebert et al. (1999) and ROSAT observations by Gizani & Leahy (1999). The diffuse X-ray distribution is elongated in the direction of the radio source axis, suggesting an interaction with the radio lobes. The medium is otherwise well described by a $`\beta `$-model profile with best-fit parameters $`\beta 0.63`$ and core radius $`r_\mathrm{c}35\pm 3^{\prime \prime }`$ (Siebert et al. 1999). The contribution from the nucleus is $`3\%`$ of total X-ray luminosity, but the cluster surface brightness may be centrally peaked (Gizani & Leahy 1999). However there may actually be two thermal X-ray emitting components present, as the ASCA spectrum suggests a temperature $`kT4.3\mathrm{keV}`$ and a central electron density of $`n_09.1\times 10^3\mathrm{cm}^3`$ (Siebert et al. 1999), whereas the ROSAT/PSPC spectrum suggests $`kT2.4\mathrm{keV}`$. ROSAT observations by Gizani et al. (2002) determined a temperature $`kT=2.45\mathrm{keV}`$ and $`n_0=7.8\times 10^3\mathrm{cm}^3`$. Trussoni et al. (2001) presented BeppoSAX observations indicating a temperature $`4`$$`5\mathrm{keV}`$ on scales of several arcminutes with the possibility of an additional $`3\mathrm{keV}`$ component.

In VLA observations, Gizani & Leahy (1999) found that the cluster medium affects the depolarization of the radio features: the western side exhibits greater depolarization than the east. As the more distant jet and lobe are seen through a thicker column of the cluster medium, they deduced a jet inclination of $`\theta 50^{}`$ to the line of sight. Thus Hercules A exhibits a classical Laing-Garrington effect (Laing 1988; Garrington et al. 1988).

The radio lobes span $`3^{}`$ and in overall shape they are symmetric about the nucleus (see the upper panel of Figure 1). However, the eastern lobe accounts for $`3/4`$ of the total radio luminosity. Although the radio power of Hercules A is in the range of FR 2 sources (See Fanaroff & Riley 1974) the morphology of the radio lobes belongs ambiguously to the FR 1 class. Most notably, neither lobe shows a hot-spot near its outer extremity.

The western radio lobe (on side of the receding jet) contains a sequence of arc-like and ring-like features that are brighter than the lobe, and which are approximately concentric with the jet axis (Dreher & Feigelson 1984; Mason et al. 1988). Some of the ring-like features are partially filled; some are open; some are incomplete. The most distinct of these features, and the furthest from the nucleus, is a “semi-ring” that is bright on only one side. Radio emission from the rings is linearly polarised: up to $`50\%`$ in the two outer rings (Dreher & Feigelson 1984). The radio spectral indices are flatter in the jets and rings ($`\alpha 1.1`$ where $`S_\nu \nu ^\alpha `$) than in the radio lobes generally ($`\alpha 1.6`$), indicating that the radio emitting plasma in the rings is younger than the background (Gizani & Leahy 1999; Gizani et al. 2002). The eastern (approaching) jet shows “helical” features, which may be a projected superposition of rings (Gizani et al. 2002).

The radio lobes of some other galaxies display ring-like internal structures, which have been likened to the rings in the western lobe of Hercules A (Morrison & Sadun 1996). The source 3C 310 also shows several circular features in both the northern and southern lobes; these rings are larger in proportion to the lobes than those of Hercules A (van Breugel & Fomalont 1984; Morrison & Sadun 1996). Other radio galaxies with ring-like features include $`\mathrm{MG}0248+0641`$ (Conner et al. 1998) and 3C 219 (Perley et al. 1980).

Several explanations have been offered for the nature and origin of the rings. Dreher & Feigelson (1984) suggested that the rings in Hercules A originate as distinct ejections from the nucleus, or interruptions of the jet due to either intrinsic pinching instabilities or collisions with clouds straying into the jet axis. In that case, the bright rings are surfaces where the ambient radio lobe or cluster medium contacts and interacts with a cloud.

Mason et al. (1988) proposed that the jet loses collimation at the point where the radio structure widens, and that concentrated streams of relativistic protons intermittently cross or self-cross, causing energetic particle bursts which deposit kinetic energy in the plasma at that site. These disturbances expand spherically, as they drift outwardly within the medium of the radio lobe. In this scenario, the rings are the projected edges of the spheres. This would account for the approximately linear relation between ring radius and displacement from the core.

Morrison & Sadun (1996) proposed a qualitatively similar theory in which uniformly expanding spheres originate as acoustic disturbances carried outwardly in a galactic wind. The subsequent onset of jet activity then floods the region with radio-emitting material. Radio-bright plasma interacts with the shells and tends to concentrate on the surfaces of these structures. One implication of this model is that the extensive wind has an age of Gigayears. However, this requirement would be difficult to reconcile with the likely disturbances in the cluster environment of Hercules A, especially related to the merger of another galaxy with Hercules A (as implied by the double nucleus and stellar tail, Sadun & Hayes 1993). Thus, models for the radio structure of Hercules A in which the formation of rings is intrinsic to the jet and lobe dynamics seem to have more appeal.

Meier et al. (1991) proposed such a model, based on extensive numerical simulations, in which an over-dense jet undergoes a sudden expansion when it becomes highly over-pressured some $`20^{\prime \prime }`$ from the core and subsequently expands conically giving rise to the “ice-cream cone” shape of the lobe. Meier et al. (1991) offered a qualitative explanation for the prominent rings in the western lobe as being the result of weak spherical shocks. Our difficulty with this model, which is really a difficulty with all models involving dense jets, is that the implied jet energy flux under most circumstances is too large. This is most likely the case for Hercules A. Moreover, the implied Mach number is also very large. In the next section, therefore, we examine the case for $`\eta 1`$ in some detail and in so doing we present our case for a more conventional range of $`\eta 1`$.

## 2 Choice of parameters

Useful constraints on the parameters of jets may be obtained by relating the energy flux to the observed radio power. The energy flux of a relativistic jet consisting of cold matter plus relativistic particles is given by the following: Let $`\beta _{\mathrm{jet}}=v_{\mathrm{jet}}/c`$, $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ be the jet Lorentz factor, $`p_{\mathrm{jet}}`$ be the jet pressure, $`\chi =\rho c^2/4p_{\mathrm{jet}}`$ where $`\rho _{\mathrm{jet}}`$ is the cold matter rest-mass density and $`A_{\mathrm{jet}}=\pi D_{\mathrm{jet}}^2/4`$ be the jet cross-sectional area for diameter $`D_{\mathrm{jet}}`$. Then, the energy flux, $`F_E`$ is given by:

$$F_E=4p_{\mathrm{jet}}c\beta _{\mathrm{jet}}A_{\mathrm{jet}}\mathrm{\Gamma }^2\left[1+\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }1}{\mathrm{\Gamma }}\chi \right]$$
(1)
Bicknell (1994). The parameter, $`\chi `$ can be expressed in terms of $`\eta `$, the ratio of jet to ISM pressures and the ISM temperature, $`T_{\mathrm{ism}}=10^7T_7\mathrm{K}`$ as

$$\chi =\eta \left(\frac{p_{\mathrm{ism}}}{p_{\mathrm{jet}}}\right)\left(\frac{\mu m_pc^2}{kT_{\mathrm{ism}}}\right)1.7\times 10^5\left(\frac{p_{\mathrm{ism}}}{p_{\mathrm{jet}}}\right)\eta T_7^1$$
(2)
Numerically, the energy flux is

$`F_E`$ $``$ $`9.0\times 10^{42}\left({\displaystyle \frac{p_{\mathrm{ism}}}{10^{11}\mathrm{dyn}\mathrm{cm}^2}}\right)\left({\displaystyle \frac{D_{\mathrm{jet}}}{\mathrm{kpc}}}\right)^2\mathrm{\Gamma }^2\beta _{\mathrm{jet}}`$ (3)
$`\times `$ $`\left[{\displaystyle \frac{p_{\mathrm{jet}}}{p_{\mathrm{ism}}}}+1.7\times 10^5{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }1}{\mathrm{\Gamma }}}\eta T_7^1\right]\mathrm{erg}\mathrm{s}^1`$
We have chosen a fiducial value of 1 kpc for $`D_{\mathrm{jet}}`$ since the $`0.5^{\prime \prime }`$ resolution limit of the observations (e.g. Dreher & Feigelson 1984) implies an upper limit on the unresolved jet diameter of about $`1.3\mathrm{kpc}`$. On the other hand the jet diameter at $`20^{\prime \prime }`$ is probably not much less than $`0.5^{\prime \prime }`$ since that corresponds to an opening angle of $`0.6^{}`$. In the non-relativistic limit, for a hypersonic jet,

$$F_E\frac{1}{2}\rho _{jet}v_{\mathrm{jet}}^3A_{\mathrm{jet}}1.1\times 10^{48}\eta \left(\frac{n_{\mathrm{ism}}}{10^2\mathrm{cm}^3}\right)\beta _{\mathrm{jet}}^3\left(\frac{D_{\mathrm{jet}}}{\mathrm{kpc}}\right)^2\mathrm{erg}\mathrm{s}^1$$
(4)
and this expression serves as a reasonable order of magnitude estimate of the effects of various parameters. We should compare these expressions for the jet energy flux to estimates of this parameter obtained from the radio power.

In making these comparisons, first note that the ISM parameters obtained from X-ray observations summarised in the introduction, are reasonably well determined. The central electron number density density, $`n_e`$, of the interstellar medium is approximately $`7.8\times 10^3\mathrm{cm}^3`$ with a corresponding total number density, $`n_{\mathrm{ism}}1.5\times 10^2\mathrm{cm}^3`$; the temperature is $`2.45\mathrm{keV}2.8\times 10^7\mathrm{K}`$; the corresponding pressure, $`p_{\mathrm{ism}}5.7\times 10^{11}\mathrm{dyn}\mathrm{cm}^2`$. We use these central estimates of density and pressure within the core radius $`35^{\prime \prime }`$ of the hot gas distribution. Second, although we have allowed for a difference between jet and ISM pressure, we evaluate the above expressions for energy flux in the region within $`20^{\prime \prime }`$ of the core where both Meier et al. and we assume that the jet is confined. The jet is unresolved in this region so that we only know that $`D500\mathrm{pc}`$; we have taken a fiducial value of 100 pc. Third, given that we are dealing with a supersonic jet, it is highly likely that the jet is at least mildly relativistic for the following reason. There currently seems to be little doubt that jets in radio loud objects are initially relativistic. Given that this is the case, a jet that is supersonic on the kpc scale has a velocity of at least $`0.3\mathrm{c}`$ (Bicknell 1994). Using the flux density given in Kellermann et al. (1969), the total power of Hercules A at 1.4 GHz is approximately $`3.1\times 10^{27}\mathrm{W}\mathrm{Hz}^1`$. For reasonable limits on the ratio of radio power to jet energy flux, $`\kappa _{1.4}10^{12}10^{11}\mathrm{Hz}^1`$ (Bicknell 2000), the jet power is between $`2\times 10^{45}`$ and $`2\times 10^{46}\mathrm{erg}\mathrm{s}^1`$. For $`\beta =0.5`$, and $`\eta =1`$, the energy flux given by equation (3) is approximately $`3\times 10^{47}\mathrm{erg}\mathrm{s}^1`$, about an order of magnitude too large.

Another problem with $`\eta 1`$ is that the implied Mach number is enormous. For example, in the non-relativistic approximation, the jet Mach number, $`M_{\mathrm{jet}}710\beta _{\mathrm{jet}}T_7^{1/2}\eta ^{1/2}`$ and the Mach number of 210 implied by $`\beta _{\mathrm{jet}}0.5`$, and $`\eta 1`$ is much larger than the value of 6 preferred by (Meier et al. 1991) in their explanation for the rings. Moreover, simulations with such a high Mach number are likely to be quite different from the ones presented by Meier et al. We expect that the jet and its cocoon would be much more needle-like in this case.

Another useful way to constrain the parameters of the jets in Hercules A is to express the energy flux in terms of $`\eta `$ and $`M_{\mathrm{jet}}`$. For a hypersonic, non-relativistic jet

$`F_E`$ $``$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\rho _{\mathrm{ism}}\left({\displaystyle \frac{p_{\mathrm{jet}}}{p_{\mathrm{ism}}}}\right)^{3/2}\left({\displaystyle \frac{4kT_{\mathrm{ism}}}{3\mu m_p}}\right)^{3/2}\eta ^{1/2}M^3A_{\mathrm{jet}}`$ (5)
$``$ $`2.9\times 10^{44}\left({\displaystyle \frac{p_{\mathrm{jet}}}{p_{\mathrm{ism}}}}\right)^{3/2}\left({\displaystyle \frac{n_{\mathrm{ism}}}{10^2\mathrm{cm}^3}}\right)\left({\displaystyle \frac{\eta }{10^4}}\right)^{1/2}T_7^{3/2}\left({\displaystyle \frac{M}{10}}\right)^3\left({\displaystyle \frac{D}{\mathrm{kpc}}}\right)^2\mathrm{erg}\mathrm{s}^1`$
where $`T_72.8`$ in Hercules A. As we have seen above, and this expression confirms it, a value of $`\eta 1`$ requires a Mach number $`70150`$ to attain an energy flux $`2\times 10^{4546}\mathrm{erg}\mathrm{s}^1`$. Again, these values considerably exceed the value of 6 favored by Meier et al. (1991). Conventional values of $`\eta 1`$ are able to provide the requisite energy flux for more modest Mach numbers. For example, $`\eta 10^4`$ and $`M1012.5`$ gives an energy flux of $`2\times 10^{4546}\mathrm{erg}\mathrm{s}^1`$. For these reasons, therefore, we have restricted our simulations to (fairly wide) ranges in Mach number of 2 - 50 and density ratio of $`10^4`$ \- $`10^2`$. As we shall see, there is some indication that the Mach number may be close to transonic and that correspondingly, the density ratio may be even lower than $`10^4`$. However, we have not carried out simulations for $`\eta <10^4`$ since computationally, these are prohibitively expensive as a result of the Courant condition.

An appealing aspect of the Meier et al. (1991) simulations is that, at approximately $`20^{\prime \prime }`$ from the core, the western jet becomes over-pressured. Indeed, inspection of the most recent image Gizani et al. (2000) shows that the western jet may be behaving like a classical over-pressured jet over at least part of the region between $`20^{\prime \prime }`$ and $`60^{\prime \prime }`$. The knots of emission in this region could well be the result of particle acceleration at reconfinement shocks. The characteristic expansion and compression of the jet is especially manifest in the lower panel of Figure 1 where the brightness and contrast of the Gizani et al. (2000) image has been adjusted to highlight faint features. Reconfinement features are also present in our simulations since the production of periodic shocks is relatively easy in a supersonic jet. The X-ray data (e.g. Siebert et al. 1999) provide a natural explanation for the jet becoming over-pressured in this region since the core radius is approximately $`35^{\prime \prime }`$ and $`20^{\prime \prime }`$ deprojected is approximately $`26^{\prime \prime }`$. At this point the background confining pressure would be starting to decrease from the central value. However, there is nothing in the X-ray data to suggest that the jet is becoming extremely overpressured at this point as required by the Meier et al. (1991) models.

Thus, for the above reasons, we have opted for a model for Hercules A in which the jet density ratio is much less than unity, the Mach number is not excessively large and the jet is initially confined. In Saxton et al. (2002) we simulated the interactions of a hypersonic, low density jet with its turbulent cocoon, covering a parameter-space with two orders of magnitude in jet density and Mach numbers from $`5`$ to $`50`$. We considered the dynamics of point-like and ring-like shocks near the head of the jet, in order to model and interpret the complex shock structures observed near the western hot-spot of Pictor A. In the present paper, we use this simulation database, augmented by some additional simulations, to generate synthetic radio maps resembling the morphology and brightness distribution of the features of Hercules A. Our model for some of the observed radio rings is that they are open or partially filled annular shocks propagating in the cocoon backflow in the western radio lobe. It is feasible that other features that have been described as rings are in fact either related to jet reconfinement or recessed hot-spots in the lobe. At this stage we have not attempted to model the effects of reconfinement shocks, and we have concentrated on the production of rings near the head of the lobe. Therefore, we assume a constant background density in our simulations.

It is useful at this stage to refer to the lower panel of Figure 1 where we have labeled some of the regions in the western lobe according to our model and have shown the effects of ellipse fitting to the features that could be interpreted as rings. Note that these fits are not tightly constrained and depend to some extent upon what parts of the radio surface brightness are deemed to belong to a particular ring. We discuss the elliptical rings further in § 5.3 with respect to the orientation of the jets.

## 3 Simulations

The hydrodynamic simulations were conducted using the Piecewise Parabolic Method (PPM) (Colella & Woodward 1984) implemented in a code based on the VH-1 code (Blondin & Lukfin 1993). An advantage of PPM for this type of simulation is its excellent shock-capturing properties. We have enhanced the code to achieve greater efficiency, have included code to correct for a numerical shock instability and have added a scalar tracer variable $`\phi `$ that is passively advected with the flow. By assigning $`\phi =1`$ within jet plasma entering the grid, and initially $`\phi =0`$ in the background medium, we use this variable to distinguish and follow the evolution of the constituents of the physical system.

Our images of simulated radio surface brightness were rendered by a ray-tracing program that projects three-dimensional structures obtained from the PPM output. Assuming that the magnetic pressure is approximately proportional to the hydrodynamic pressure, $`p`$, the volumetric emissivity, $`j_\nu \phi p^{(3+\alpha )/2}`$. This ansatz is only valid at a frequency that is less than any cooling-induced break in frequency so that to be consistent we choose a value of $`\alpha =0.6`$. This is flatter than the observed spectral index in, for example, the rings wherein $`\alpha =1.1`$ (Gizani et al. 2002) indicating that these features are older than the synchrotron cooling time. Our assumption of $`\alpha =0.6`$ means that the relative contrast of features will be affected. However, the resulting images obtained by integrating $`j_\nu `$ along given lines of sight for each pixel of the simulated intensity map, should give a good qualitative indication of the appearance of the flow and also give a good indication of the relative contrast of features as a function of jet parameters. (This is an important point that is discussed below in § 5.2.)

Despite the importance of synchrotron and/or inverse Compton cooling for the radio spectrum, cooling does not affect the hydrodynamics of the flow since the lowest energy particles that dominate the internal energy are unaffected. Therefore, the way the system behaves depends on dimensionless parameters such as the density ratio of jet to ambient gas, $`\eta `$, the corresponding jet to ambient pressure ratio (assumed equal to one), and the Mach number of the jet, $`M\eta ^{1/2}v_{\mathrm{jet}}/c_{\mathrm{s},\mathrm{ism}}`$ where $`c_{\mathrm{s},\mathrm{ism}}`$ is the sound speed in the interstellar medium. Our simulations cover a parameter space defined by $`\eta =10^2,10^3,10^4`$ and $`M=2,5,10,50`$. Adopting the cooler estimate of the temperature and density in the ambient cluster medium as fiducial scales for our simulations, the thrust and power of the simulated jets are given in Table 1. These are classical values, and can be related to parameters of relativistic jets with equivalent thrust or power (e.g. Rosen et al. 1999; Carvalho & O’Dea 2001). The time interval between output frames of the hydrodynamic data was set so that approximately $`600`$ frames were generated before the jet reached the right side (large $`z`$) boundary of the grid.

We assume that the outer boundaries of the computational grid are open to outflow, except at the base of the jet at the left (low-$`z`$) boundary. The initial properties of the jet are copied to those cells at the start of each time step, in order to maintain a jet with constant mass flux, thrust and power. In Saxton et al. (2002) we concentrated on cases in which a reflecting condition applies at the left boundary, representing effects near the plane of symmetry near the nucleus producing equally strong, opposite jets. The closed boundary condition was found to lead to a conical cocoon which is typically much wider than the cylindrical cocoons that develop about jets in simulations with an open left boundary. The latter represent the effects of systems where the head of the jet is causally distant from the nucleus and the plane of symmetry about the galaxy. We will initially focus our discussion on simulations with this type of boundary condition, as this seems physically appropriate for Hercules A, since the radio lobes extend hundreds of kiloparsecs from the galaxy.

## 4 Results

### 4.1 Morphology

The morphology of our simulated brightness maps is determined by the distribution of bright shock features. The termination shock of the jet is often, but not always, the brightest of such features. Biconical (“diamond”) shocks also occur within the jet, initiated by disturbances from turbulence in the surrounding cocoon. These shocks are similar to reconfinement shocks and indeed involve regions of overpressure and underpressure in the jet. Transient annular shocks also occur in the inner parts of the jet backflow; these features are particularly frequent near the head of the jet.

In order to show the effect of orientation on the appearance of the lobe, we show, in Figure 4, a logarithmically scaled density image, together with synthetic radio images at orientations of $`0^{}90^{}`$ at intervals of $`15^{}`$. As shown in Saxton et al. (2002) jets rendered at orientations almost in the plane of the sky, $`70^{}\theta 90^{}`$, may show round hot-spots and knots on the jet axis, as well as more spatially extended and transient shock features that appear almost linear in projection. These do not resemble the arcs of Hercules A. Neither do we find morphologies resembling Hercules A when jets are rendered at a small angle to the line of sight, $`\theta 30^{}`$: in such cases the extended shock features appear in projection as a clutter of tightly overlapping circles and knots. We find the best resemblance in frames rendered at $`\theta 45^{}`$.

Examples from simulations with a range of jet parameters $`(\eta ,M)`$ are shown<sup>1</sup><sup>1</sup>1 Animations of the ray-traced frames from all our choices of the system parameters are presented at http://maker.anu.edu.au/radiojets/herculesa/. in Figures 5-8. These are discussed further below.

### 4.2 Entrainment

As detailed in Saxton et al. (2002), the hot-spot vanishes and reforms in an irregular cycle in which the jet is pinched off and temporarily obstructed by turbulence and/or the entrainment of dense gas in the cocoon, followed by the jet burrowing forward again. The effect of turbulence was documented in Saxton et al. (2002). This surging is most extensive and frequent for jets with low $`\eta `$. In the present paper, we also show in Figure 3, the effect of entrainment. Dense gas is swept into the cocoon and directly impedes the jet. This effect is particularly prominent at low Mach numbers, as one would expect from the Mach number dependence of the classical Kelvin-Helmholtz instability. In the density images in the figure we show a time series of snapshots that show dense (white) fingers of gas entrained into the lobe and partially, then totally, obstructing the passage of an $`(\eta ,M)=(10^4,2)`$ jet. For a time, the extreme end of the lobe is being starved of jet plasma and consequently does not show a hot-spot.

In a significant fraction of instants in each of our simulations of light jets, the hot-spot is temporarily absent or dimmer than one or more brighter shock structures in the backflow, such as the annular rings. This occurs approximately $`20\%50\%`$ of the time at all Mach numbers. To quantify the location of the hot-spot, we show in Figure 2 the trends in the cumulative distributions of the ratios of the hot-spot to bow shock locations. That is, the plots show the probability that the ratio of hot-spot distance to bow-shock distance is less than a certain value. Note that the probability of a embedded hot-spot is greater at $`M=2`$ and also, for a given Mach number, at lower $`\eta `$.

### 4.3 Dependence on the Mach number and density ratio

Let us discuss some of the features of the simulations and in particular their dependence on Mach number and density ratio. The jet Mach number has a substantial effect on the typical brightness contrast between the background radio lobe and the shock features near the head of the jet. As expected on general theoretical grounds, and as shown in our previous studies (Saxton et al. 2002), for a given value of $`\eta `$ the cases with a larger jet Mach number show a greater brightness contrast. As $`M`$ increases, the ray-traced intensity maps are increasingly dominated by the transient frontal shock features near the head of the jet: a bright hot-spot comprising the jet termination shock, one of the nearer biconical shocks within the jet, or else a singularly bright annular shock emerging from the division of an older hot-spot. The background emission of the cocoon and secondary rings at lower $`z`$ positions, are relatively faint.

### 4.4 Extracts from the simulations

It is not feasible to show all of the frames from all of the simulations that we have carried out. In this subsection we show a small sample that is designed to illustrate the trends with Mach number and density ratio that we have noticed.

Snapshots from an $`(\eta ,M)=(10^4,50)`$ simulation that exhibit ring structure are shown in Figure 5. Although approximately $`3\%10\%`$ of the frames from the entire simulation are qualitatively similar to the multi-ringed morphology of Hercules A, the brightness contrast is too great. Where there appears a prominent ring, it is usually a lone product of a hot-spot’s temporary disruption, and there are no other features of comparable brightness.

Simulations with lower Mach number produce a multiple ring morphology typically with a lower brightness contrast than for higher Mach numbers. In Figures 6 and 7 we show snapshots of the $`(\eta ,M)=(10^4,5)`$ and $`(\eta ,M)=(10^2,5)`$ simulations that again illustrate the production of multiple rings of comparable brightness, separated appreciably along the length of the jet. The rings occurring furthest behind the head of the jet often appear in proximity to diamond shocks in the jet. Approximately $`7\%15\%`$ of the $`M=5`$ images are qualitatively similar to Hercules A. The contrast between the bright features in the lobe compared to the rest of the lobe is less than for $`M=50`$. Nevertheless, note that the $`\eta =10^2`$ images display a larger contrast than $`\eta =10^4`$. This is a definite trend that is also evident in the intermediate $`\eta =10^3`$ images (not shown).

In the $`(\eta ,M)=(10^4,2)`$ simulation (Figure 8) the rings have a brightness contrast relative to the cocoon that is less than or equal to the observed factor ($`3`$). Compared to the hot-spots in the simulations with higher $`M`$, the brightest point on the jet axis is typically quite far to the left of the brightest rings. In $`M=2`$ simulations, the cocoon and hot-spot together are dim enough that the jet itself appears prominent in comparison. This reduced contrast is obvious in all $`M=2`$ simulations. The dependence on $`\eta `$ is not as marked as it is for higher Mach numbers.

## 5 Discussion and Conclusions

### 5.1 Morphology

Our simulations show that a jet with constant fluxes of mass, momentum and energy may nonetheless vary dramatically in its morphology and extent within a jet dynamical time scale, $`t_{\mathrm{dyn}}2r_\mathrm{j}/c_{\mathrm{s},\mathrm{j}}`$. In extremely light, low Mach number simulations, e.g. with $`(\eta ,M)=(10^4,2)`$, turbulence and dense obstructions in the backflow are sufficiently important that they can pinch and break the jet essentially anywhere along its length. The disconnected forward parts of the jet are then rapidly mixed into the rest of the cocoon. A new hot-spot occurs at the new, recessed, jet terminus and this hot-spot gradually burrows forward through the cocoon until it reaches the forward working surface of the lobe once more. In the transitions of these extreme surging events, arrays of ring-like shocks, derived from the disconnected jet plasma, often exceed in brightness the hot-spots and diamond shocks within the jet. This is our explanation for the rings of enhanced radio intensity in the western lobe of Hercules A.

The surging jet dynamics revealed in simulations puts the western radio emitting structures into a new perspective. If we overlook the distraction of the rings and outer parts of the western radio lobe, the innermost “shell” identified in Mason et al. (1988) and Morrison & Sadun (1996) actually resembles a hot-spot in a traditional FR 2 radio source. This is located at approximately $`46\%`$ of the distance from the nucleus to the outer edge of the lobe. This may be the present western hot-spot, and the larger, outer western radio lobe may be the product of an earlier stage when the jet was not disrupted and reached out to a larger distance.

The apparent absence of hot-spots near the outer edges of the radio lobes of Hercules A is a distinctive feature reproduced in many instants in all of our simulations. However, this phenomenon is most dramatic at $`M=2`$. Moreover, the occurrence of recessed hot-spots in the $`M=2`$ simulations is greatest for $`\eta =10^4`$. The probability of an $`(\eta ,M)=(10^4,2)`$ jet showing a jet terminus located at less than $`50\%`$ of the distance to the outer edge of the lobe, is approximately $`0.4`$.

The differences between the $`M=2`$ and $`M5`$ simulations probably lies in the effective entrainment of matter at lower Mach numbers that is reflected in the higher rate of growth of unstable modes for low $`M`$. The minor dependence on $`M5`$ of the cumulative distribution functions shown in Figure 2 may be due to the increasingly vigorous nature of turbulent eddies in the cocoon. For these Mach numbers, as well, the lower $`\eta `$ jets are more prone to disruption.

The notion of a low Mach number in Hercules A is also consistent with the morphology of the eastern jet, since both jets presumably have similar properties when they emerge from the nucleus. However, inherent instabilities may cause differences of appearance at any particular moment on arcminute scales. The long “helical” portion of the eastern jet (upper panel of Figure 1) has the appearance of a jet that has become unstable, that is possibly decelerating to a transonic velocity and, as a result, becoming turbulent. The transition of a relativistic jet to turbulent transonic flow occurs when $`\rho _\mathrm{j}c^24p`$ (Bicknell 1995), which implies $`\eta =\eta _{\mathrm{crit}}4\mathrm{k}T/\mu m_\mathrm{p}c^210^4`$. For jets that have not made the transition to turbulent flow, $`\eta <\eta _{\mathrm{crit}}`$. If the eastern jet is indeed transonic at the base of the eastern lobe, then both jets may emerge from the galaxy with a low Mach number, perhaps $`2M5`$. Since the western jet does not appear to have become fully turbulent, $`\eta <10^4`$ confirming our preference for parameters for the Western jets that involve both a low Mach number and density ratio.

The brightness asymmetry of the prominent outer ring in the western lobe is an important characteristic that is reproduced in many bright shocked rings appearing in our simulations. This effect occurs because some shock-rings are ribbon-like, i.e. flat in cross-section, with the rings tilted in the $`rz`$ plane. If the greater length of the cross-section is not exactly parallel to the $`z`$ axis then one side of the ring presents the observer with a wider projected area than the opposite side, at a particular orientation. The side with the narrower projected area is more extended along the line of sight, and therefore appears brighter than the side that is viewed at a less grazing angle. Therefore simple orientation effects are sufficient to explain the ring morphology of Hercules A, without resort to radical departures from axisymmetry. Nor is it necessary to consider the possibilities of directed Doppler boosting of emission from shocked plasma moving at highly relativistic velocities within the cocoon (c.f. discussion of the hot-spot of Pictor A in Saxton et al. 2002).

The relative sizes of the rings also naturally occurs as a result of the flow dynamics described here. As Figures 5-8 show, ring shocks appear with different relative sizes in different instances. In particular, the smallest “ring” in the observations corresponds to the structure surrounding a recessed hot-spot.

### 5.2 Radio brightness contrast

The high-resolution radio intensity maps of Hercules A (Dreher & Feigelson 1984; Gizani et al. 2002) indicate that the brightest parts of the rings are on the order of $`25`$ times the intensity of the radio lobe background. The flatter radio spectra of the rings indicates that they are indeed shock features like those that we have modeled in simulations. Note however, that the ring spectra are not as flat as what we expect from shocked plasma. This may indicate that they are relatively long-lived structures (in terms of synchrotron time-scales) and this is also consistent with the rings lasting longer in the lower Mach number simulations. However, assessment of this possibility must await the publication of more detailed surface brightness and spectral index observations.

If the bright part of the ring is the thinnest projected area of the underlying ribbon-like annular shock, then by inspection, the outer ring has a thickness $`0.08`$ times the diameter of the radio lobe in that vicinity. The surface brightness enhancement of the ring over the lobe $`2.5`$; hence the volumetric emissivities of material in average conditions within the ring and within the lobe generally has a ratio $`j_{\nu ,\mathrm{ring}}/j_{\nu ,\mathrm{lobe}}31`$. This contrast suggests shocks of a certain strength, since $`j_\nu \phi p^{(3+\alpha )/2}`$ where $`\alpha `$ is the radio spectral index. The shock pressure increases by a factor $`M^2`$. This implies that the Mach number of the ring shocks is $`3`$. Our simulations with $`M=2,5`$ are the best matches for this strength of shocks in the cocoon. This conclusion is constrained by the assumptions of the emissivity model (see § 3); however it is probably indicative.

Inspection of the synthetic radio images shows that in cases with $`M=10`$ or $`M=50`$, the contrast between the rings and the cocoon is typically much greater than the observationally required value $`3`$. Many of the morphologically selected instances from the $`M=2`$ and $`M=5`$ simulations show the appropriate contrast. For each choice of $`M`$, the densest jets, $`\eta =10^2`$ produce more frames showing excessive contrast in the shock features near the terminus of the jet, relative to the secondary rings. Cases with $`\eta =10^4`$ give the more frames with the desired contrast relationship between rings, and we expect this to be so for a real jet that is lighter than the parameter regime our calculations could attain, $`\eta 10^4`$. Thus, on this basis, the simulations reinforce the suggestion that the jets of Hercules A are very light and have Mach number in the range $`2M5`$.

### 5.3 Orientation of Hercules A

The spherical shell models of Mason et al. (1988) and Morrison & Sadun (1996) imply geometric constraints on the orientation of the trail of shells. Assuming that such a model is correct, the shells probably are not in physical contact, otherwise their spherical form and brightness distribution would be affected greatly. If consecutive shells of radius $`r_n`$ and $`r_{n+1}`$ do not intersect in three dimensions, and yet are partially superimposed in projection on the sky, then they are aligned on a line at an inclination $`\theta `$, which is constrained by the inequality

$$\mathrm{sin}\theta <\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }z_{n,n+1}^{}}{r_n+r_{n+1}}$$
(6)
where $`\mathrm{\Delta }z_{n,n+1}^{}=z_{n+1}^{}z_n^{}`$ is the separation of the shell origins projected onto the plane of the sky. For Hercules A, the constraints are $`\theta <46^{},47^{},23^{}`$ for the pairs of visually overlapping rings (assumed to be circular) as shown in the Figures 2(a) and 3(a) of Morrison & Sadun (1996).

However in our model, the luminous radio-emitting rings may in principle be separated by distances much less than their radii, and larger values of $`\theta `$ are feasible. On the other hand, our model explains the non-circularity of the rings, implying that $`\mathrm{cos}\theta b^{}/a^{}`$ where $`a^{}`$ and $`b^{}`$ are the semi-major and semi-minor axes of the elliptical projection of a circular ring onto the plane of the sky. Apart from the innermost bright feature which we re-identify as a buried hot-spot or reconfinement shock, we distinguish up to five rings clearly in the radio images, (lower panel of Figure 1) from east to west: a partially filled ellipse, one dimmer partial elliptical arc, a bright nearly filled ellipse, a relatively dim ring and then the bright half-ring. In the lower panel of Figure 1 we exhibit the elliptical fits to some of the observed features, and we infer inclinations of $`\theta 45^{}\pm 10^{}`$. These fits are demonstrative but not unique; the thickness of the radio structures allows some freedom in fitting ellipses as does the inclusion or exclusion of other faint filamentary features near each ring. However the fitted ellipses of projected ring-shocks, with their projected major axes approximately locally perpendicular to the jet are consistent with our model.

### 5.4 Implications for the cluster environment

The two temperatures of diffuse X-ray emission from the cluster medium surrounding Hercules A may reflect the different states of gas upstream and downstream of the bow shock driven by the outer radio lobes. The observed temperature ratio is $`1.7T/T_{\mathrm{ism}}2.1`$, which is comparable to the temperature ratios of the shocked thermal gas in some of our simulations. In Table 2 we show temperature ratios found at the point of the bow shock, and on the sides of the bow shock parallel to the jet axis. The tabulated temperature ratios indicate a lower Mach number $`5`$, if this explanation for the two-temperature structure of the local cluster medium is correct. The temperature ratios are too small ($`1`$) for the $`M=2`$ simulations.

### 5.5 Closing remarks

We have presented a model for the western lobe of Hercules A in which the ring structures are explained as shocks in the jet cocoon, with a ribbon-like, approximately annular geometry. The absence of a strong hot-spot at the extremity of the radio lobe may be attributed to the surging of the head of the jet on length scales of $`10^2\mathrm{kpc}`$, as a result of the dynamics of the turbulent and entraining backflows in the radio lobe. The lack of a hot-spot near the edge of the lobe, the low contrast of the radio rings and the appearance of the Eastern jet all suggest a low Mach number $`M25`$, low density ratio $`\eta <10^4`$ jet. In order that the jet power be consistent with the luminosity of the source, $`\eta `$ may be as low as $`10^6`$ and this is consistent with our view of radio galaxy jets as being composed of relativistic plasma. We have suggested that the recessed hot-spot may be associated with one of the bright knots some $`35^{\prime \prime }`$ west of the core. Another possibility is that this knot is associated with a reconfinement shock and the hot-spot could well be absent. However, the fraction of the time when a hot-spot is entirely absent in these simulations is small.

Another appealing aspect of our modelling is that we have estimated an orientation such that the eastern jet makes an acute angle to the line of sight, $`30^{}\theta <70^{}`$, consistent with the value $`\theta 50^{}`$ determined from the radio depolarization measurements of Gizani & Leahy (1999).

With the simulations that we have carried only three out of the twelve have an energy flux that is close to the range of $`2\times 10^{4546}\mathrm{erg}\mathrm{s}^1`$ identified in § 2. However, the other nine simulations are useful in that their morphologies and contrasts serve to identify a trend towards the low Mach numbers and density ratios that is consistent with the region of parameter space defined by the energy budget.

The notion of a reasonably low Mach number for the western jet in this source is compatible with the appearance of both sides. Both jets seems to be on the verge of a transition to full turbulence. It is noteworthy that this may be occurring in a source which is so much more powerful than borderline FR 1/FR 2 sources. The production of turbulent jets in Hercules A is most likely the result of the large core-radius of the hot X-ray emitting gas that gradually decelerates the initially relativistic jets to a low Mach number. Normally one expects the X-ray core-radius to be of the order of the optical core radius since at small radii the matter distribution is dominated by the optical potential. At present we can only speculate that the large X-ray core radius in Hercules A is related to the merger apparent in the optical observations. (Minkowski 1957; Sadun & Hayes 1993).

Finally we should comment on the relevance of two-dimensional simulations. These are justified a priori on the basis of observed ring-like structure and the simulations seem to capture a lot of the physics that is relevant to the observations. Nevertheless, it would be desirable to carry out three-dimensional simulations and test some of the features of the present work. For example, how much of a perturbation from axi-symmetry is allowable before the ring structure is destroyed and how sensitive is the Mach number dependence of the entrainment effects to the dimensionality of the simulations?

## Acknowledgments

This work was supported by an Australian Research Council Large Grant, A69905341 and grants of computing time from the ANU Supercomputer Facility. We are grateful to Drs N. Gizani, M. Garrett and P. Leahy for permission to publish their radio image (Figure 1).


text:
# Adaptive homodyne measurement of optical phase

(March 31, 2002)

## Abstract

We present an experimental demonstration of the power of real-time feedback in quantum metrology, confirming a theoretical prediction by Wiseman Wise95  regarding the superior performance of an adaptive homodyne technique for single-shot measurement of optical phase. For phase measurements performed on weak coherent states with no prior knowledge of the signal phase, we show that the variance of adaptive homodyne estimation approaches closer to the fundamental quantum uncertainty limit than any previously demonstrated technique. Our results underscore the importance of real-time feedback for reaching quantum performance limits in coherent telecommunication, precision measurement and information processing.

Quantum mechanics complicates metrology in two complementary ways. First it forces us to accept the existence of intrinsic uncertainty in the value of observables such as the position, momentum, and phase of an oscillator. Such quantum uncertainty exists even when the state of the system being measured has been prepared in a technically flawless way. Even the vacuum state of a single-mode optical field, for example, exhibits ‘zero-point’ fluctuations in the amplitudes of its electric and magnetic components. The same is true of the optical coherent states representative of the output of an ideal laser. These uncertainties limit the sensitivity of ubiquitous measurement techniques such as laser interferometry. Squeezed states of light are challenging to produce but have reduced uncertainties that can in principal be exploited for improved sensitivity in optical metrology Ref2 . To date, however, the achievable performance gains have not been sufficient to motivate their use in practical applications.

Quantum mechanics presents a second major obstacle to precision measurement by making it generally quite difficult to realize ideal measurement procedures, whose inherent inaccuracy is small enough to reveal the intrinsic uncertainty limits associated with quantum states. Let us refer to such ideal measurements as being Uncertainty-Limited (UL). Clearly, the implementation of UL measurement procedures is essential for any application that seeks to take advantage of exotic quantum states with reduced intrinsic uncertainties. In connection with squeezed states of light, measurements of optical quadrature amplitudes do constitute an important class of UL measurements that actually can be implemented in practice (via homodyne detection). But this is an unusual case as UL measurement schemes have not previously been demonstrated even for closely related observables such as optical phase, despite intense historical interest in their quantum properties Ref3 ; Ref4 . This shortcoming is not merely one of achievable signal-to-noise ratio in realistic experiments – there has yet to be any demonstration of a measurement procedure that is capable even in principle of achieving UL estimation of true optical phase (as opposed to phase-quadrature amplitude), for coherent or any other pure states of an optical field.

In this article we present an experimental demonstration of the surprising efficacy of real-time feedback in the development of UL measurement procedures. We do this in the context of measuring the optical phases of weak pulses of light, following a theoretical proposal by Wiseman Wise95 . This metrological task can be motivated by a coherent optical communication scenario in which information is encoded in the phase of laser pulses that must travel long distances between the sender and receiver. In such a context the receiver is likely to be faced with decoding information carried by optical wave-packets whose quantum states correspond to coherent states with low mean photon number (as a result of optical attenuation). If the sender is encoding information in an efficient manner, the variation of phase from one optical wave-packet to the next should be uniformly distributed over the entire interval from zero to $`2\pi `$. Hence, the receiver would ideally like to implement a single-shot UL measurement procedure for estimating the phase of each individual pulse Ref5 . The variance of such optimal phase estimates should be limited only by the intrinsic quantum uncertainty associated with optical coherent states of the given mean photon number.

There is no known experimental procedure to accomplish this goal exactly. Prior to Wiseman’s proposal Wise95  it had been widely believed Ref6  that the best feasible strategy for single-shot phase decoding should be heterodyne detection, which for coherent signal states can in principle achieve a measurement variance that is only a factor of two greater than the intrinsic uncertainty limit Ref7 . In what follows we will thus consider heterodyne phase estimation as the benchmark we need to surpass. It is important to compare the current measurement scenario with what arises in applications such as the implementation of optical frequency standards (optical clocks), where optical phases must also be measured optimally but where there is a guarantee that the phases vary only over a range much less than $`\pi /2`$. In such cases, as mentioned above, essentially UL measurement can be achieved by employing fixed-quadrature homodyne detection with a local oscillator whose phase is held at an offset of $`\pi /2`$ radians from the expected signal phase. Real-time feedback can thus be seen as a key ingredient in formulating an UL scheme for measurement scenarios in which we have no prior knowledge of the signal phase – feedback enables protocols in which the local oscillator phase is adapted, in real time, to the phase of each individual signal pulse Ref8 . As each optical pulse has some spatiotemporal extent, the measurement signal generated by the leading edge of a given pulse can be used to form a preliminary estimate of its phase, which is used promptly to adjust the local oscillator settings to be optimal for that pulse. (Note that this essentially amounts to the implementation of a quantum-noise limited phase-lock loop; the scheme relies on lock acquisition from the first one or two photons of signal in each pulse.) Detailed theoretical analyses of such schemes by Wiseman and co-workers have led to the striking realization that, despite extremely low signal-to-noise ratio in the feedback loop, adaptive homodyne measurement can be essentially UL for optical pulses with mean photon number of order ten (or greater), and benefits of real-time adaptation should still be evident for mean photon numbers $`1`$. We turn now to our experimental test of these predictions.

The data plotted in Fig. 1A demonstrate the superiority of an adaptive homodyne measurement procedure (‘adaptive’) to the benchmark heterodyne measurement procedure (‘heterodyne’) for making single-shot estimates of optical phase. As described in detail below, we perform these measurements on optical pulses of 50 $`\mu `$s duration derived from an intensity-stabilized cw laser. We have also plotted the theoretical prediction for the variance of ideal heterodyne measurement, both with (thin solid line) and without (dotted line) correction for a small amount of excess electronic noise in the balanced photocurrent. The excellent agreement between the heterodyne data and theory indicates that we have no excess phase noise (technically-ideal preparation of coherent signal states) and validates electronic calibrations involved in our data analysis Ref9 . In the range of $`10300`$ photons per pulse, most of the adaptive data lies below the absolute theoretical limit for heterodyne measurement (dotted line), and all of it lies below the curve that has been corrected for excess electronic noise (which also has a detrimental effect on the adaptive data). Quantitatively, we note that for $`50`$ photons per pulse the adaptive data point sits 6.5 standard deviations below the absolute heterodyne limit (note logarithmic scale).

For intermediate values of the photon number the adaptive variances should ideally be even lower, but the performance of our experiment is limited by finite feedback bandwidth. For signals with large mean photon number, the adaptive scheme is inferior to heterodyne because of excess technical noise in the feedback loop. As the intrinsic phase uncertainty of coherent states becomes large for very low photon numbers, the relative differences among the expected variances for adaptive, heterodyne, and ideal estimation become small. Accordingly, we have been unable to beat the heterodyne limit for phase-estimation variances with adaptive homodyne measurement for mean photon numbers $`N8`$. (Note that all theoretical curves in Fig. 1A correspond to asymptotic expressions valid for large mean photon numbers; corrections are small for $`N10`$.) However, we are able to show that the estimator distribution for adaptive homodyne remains narrower than that for heterodyne detection even for pulses with mean photon number down to $`N0.8`$. In Fig. 1B we display the adaptive and heterodyne phase-estimator distributions for a signal size corresponding to $`2.5`$ photons. Note that we have plotted the distributions on a logarithmic scale, and that the mean phase has been subtracted off so that the distributions are centered at zero. The horizontal axis can thus be identified with estimation error. The adaptive phase distribution has a smaller ‘Gaussian width’ than the heterodyne distribution, but exhibits rather high tails. The observed shape of the adaptive distribution agrees qualitatively with predictions Ref10  based on quantum estimation theory. Theoretical analysis suggests that the high tails are a consequence of changes in the sign of the photocurrent caused by vacuum fluctuations of the optical field, which become comparable to the coherent optical signal for $`N1`$. The feedback algorithm responds to these photocurrent inversions by locking to incorrect phase values with an error that tends towards $`\pi `$.

Accurately assessing the performance of a single-shot measurement requires many repetitions of the measurement under controlled conditions. Fig. 2A shows a schematic of our apparatus. Light from a single-mode cw Nd:YAG laser is first stripped of excess intensity noise by passage through a high-finesse Fabry-Perot cavity (not pictured) with ringdown time $`16`$ $`\mu `$s; the transmitted beam is shot-noise limited above $`50`$ kHz. This light enters the Mach-Zehnder interferometer (MZI) at beam-splitter 1 (BS1), creating two beams with well-defined relative phase. The local oscillator (LO) is generated using an acousto-optic modulator (AOM) driven by an RF synthesizer RF1 at 84.6 MHz, yielding $`230`$ $`\mu `$W of frequency-shifted light. The signal beam corresponds to a frequency sideband created by an electro-optic modulator (EOM) driven by an RF synthesizer (RF2) that is phase locked to RF1. The power (5 fW to 5 pW) and pulse length (50 $`\mu `$s) of the signal beam are controlled by changing the amplitude of RF2 and by switching it on/off. A pair of photodetectors collect the light emerging from the two output ports of the final 50/50 beam-splitter (BS2); the difference of their photocurrents (balanced photocurrent) provides the basic signal used for either heterodyne or adaptive phase estimation. At our typical LO power, the photodetectors supply 6 dB of shot noise (over electronic noise) in the difference photocurrent from to $`1`$ kHz to 10 MHz. We perform adaptive homodyne measurement by feedback to the phase of RF2, which sets the (instantaneous) relative phase between signal and LO Ref12 . Our feedback bandwidth $`1.5`$ MHz is limited by the maximum slew rate of RF2. Real-time electronic signal processing for the feedback algorithm is performed by a Field Programmable Gate Array (FPGA) that can execute complex computations with very low latency Ref13 . Our feedback and phase estimation procedures correspond to the ‘Mark II’ scheme of Wiseman and co-workers Ref10 , in which the photocurrent is integrated with time-dependent gain to determine the instantaneous feedback signal. The final phase estimate depends on the full history of the photocurrent and feedback signal. For heterodyne measurements we turn off the feedback to RF2 and detune it from RF1 by 1.8MHz; phase estimates are made by the standard method of I/Q demodulating the photocurrent beat note. For both types of measurement we store the photocurrent $`I(t)`$ and feedback signal $`\mathrm{\Phi }(t)`$ on a computer for post-processing.

In Fig. 2B we show the photocurrent and feedback signal of three consecutive adaptive phase measurements for $`N8`$. At the beginning of each measurement, feedback of the photocurrent shot noise causes the relative phase between the signal and LO to vary randomly. As more of the pulse is detected, the information gained is used to drive the signal-LO phase towards an optimal value. Phase estimation variances are established using ensembles of $`150`$ consecutive single-shot measurements. Although each optical pulse is the subject of an independent single-shot measurement, we fix the signal phase over the length of each ensemble in order to accurately determine the estimation variance. It is important to note that each data point in Fig. 1A corresponds to an average of variance estimates from many ensembles, each with a different (random) signal phase.

Ideally, the performance of a single-shot phase measurement procedure should be independent of the signal phase. In our experiment, this implies that the measurement variances should be independent of the initial relative phase between signal and local oscillator. In Fig. 1C we display a polar plot of the adaptive variance (radial) versus initial signal phase (azimuth). The data were taken using signals with mean photon number $`50`$. Each data point corresponds to the variance of an ensemble of phase measurements taken at a fixed phase. The double solid lines indicate the (one sigma) performance of our heterodyne measurements. It is clear from this data that the performance of the adaptive homodyne scheme is essentially independent of initial phase, and is consistently superior to heterodyne measurement.

The photon number per pulse, $`N`$, is determined by extracting optical amplitude information from the balanced photocurrent in heterodyne mode. The typical experimental procedure is to fix the signal amplitude, take an ensemble of heterodyne measurements (which yields both heterodyne phase estimates and an estimate of $`N`$), and then take an ensemble of adaptive homodyne measurements. The photon number assigned to the subsequent ensemble of adaptive measurements is $`0.95N`$, where the relative calibration factor arises from the measured response of the EOM.

In conclusion, we have presented an experimental demonstration of adaptive homodyne phase measurement. For pulses with mean photon number $`10300`$ our measured variances approach closer to the intrinsic phase-uncertainty limit of coherent states than any previously demonstrated technique, including ideal heterodyne detection. These results establish the technical feasibility of broadband quantum-noise-limited feedback for adaptive quantum measurement Ref14 , quantum feedback control Ref15 , quantum error correction Ref16 , and studies of conditional quantum dynamics Ref17 ; Ref18 .

###### Acknowledgements.

This work was supported by the NSF (PHY-9987541, EIA-0086038) and ONR (N00014-00-1-0479). JKS acknowledges the support of a Hertz Fellowship.


text:
# Magnetic moment of welded HTS samples: dependence on the current flowing through the welds

## I Introduction

Practical applications of high-temperature superconductors (HTS) are based on the HTS ability to generate and to carry a current which produces magnetic field trying to compensate an external field Murakami . Thus, the HTS performance may be improved by increasing both the critical current density $`j_c`$ and the length scale $`d`$ over which a current flows Bean . An introduction of the melt-textured (MT) growth process MTG  generally allowed to escape large-angle grain boundaries and to reach thereby quite suitable values of $`j_c`$ ($`10^5A/cm^2`$ at $`T=77K`$). So, over the last decade one spared no efforts to enlarge the sizes of HTS domains. Since a conventional growth of extra-large MT crystals ISTEC  usually requires higher growth temperature (to avoid parasite-grain nucleation) and, hence, continues a very long time, various techniques to join separate HTS blocks were recently proposed Schatzle ; Philip ; Zheng98 ; Zheng99 ; Karapetrov ; Freyhardt ; Harnois ; Puig ; Bradley ; Noudem ; Prikhna . It stimulated a rapid development of experimental methods describing a quality of the superconducting joint, i.e. the density $`j_w`$ of critical current which may flow through it. Direct transport current measurements Philip ; Bradley ; Noudem , levitation force technique Zheng98 ; Zheng99 ; Kord , magneto-optical image analysis Zheng99 ; Puig  and the Hall-probe magnetometry Philip ; Karapetrov ; Freyhardt ; Harnois ; Puig ; Prikhna  were already used for these purposes.

Each of these methods has its merits and faults. Direct transport measurements, for example, are suitable only for relatively small and/or bad welds which critical current $`Ij_wS`$ still does not heat the sample because of the ohmic losses in the current pads. The common problems for the other, contactless techniques are their semi-quantitative nature and low functionality in strong magnetic fields. The scanning Hall-probe magnetometry, for example, to which these problems regard in the least degree, seems too sensitive to the test-bench geometry. Since the currents, which flow on different distances under the scanned sample surface, “smeared” a distribution of magnetic flux density above the weld, experimental data appear quite hard to interpret Matthias  unless, certainly, the sample has the ideal geometric shape, i.e. flat, thin ring Zheng99 ; Karapetrov .

Meanwhile, both problems do not appear at all for the usual vibrating-sample magnetometry. The reason why it has so far mainly used for qualitative description of superconducting joints Philip ; Zheng99  and not gained a respectable reputation of an exact, quantitative method may be the following. Re-calculation of the critical current flowing through the weld(s) requires to know the magnetic moment of the sample divided onto parts/grains. In this work we present simple analytical equations for magnetic moments of split samples having some, most popular geometrical shapes. The approach is generalized for the case of $`n`$-slits and arbitrary sizes.

## II Results and discussion

To generalize the estimation procedure for a quality $`f=j_w/j_m`$ of superconducting joints, where $`j_w`$ and $`j_m`$ are the densities of the critical current which may flow through a weld (intragrain current) and the original HTS material (intergrain current), let us first introduce the function $`Q(f)=M(f)/M(f=1)`$ which numerator and denominator are the magnetic moments of the welded samples with $`j_wj_m`$ and $`j_w=j_m`$, respectively. One can readily predict that $`Q`$ generally depends on the sample geometry as well as on a quantity $`n`$ and a quality $`f`$ of superconducting joints. Having no aims to embrace the whole variety of shapes, we shall consider three common types presented in Figure 1, viz., the slabs split/welded along their short ($`2a`$) and long ($`2b`$) sides, which will hereafter be named $`a`$\- and $`b`$-slabs, and the ring. By introducing the asymmetry factor

$`w=\{\begin{array}{cc}a/b,\hfill & \text{slabs}\hfill \\ (R_2R_1)/(R_2+R_1),\hfill & \text{ring}\hfill \end{array}`$ (3)
we intend to calculate the functions $`Q(w,n,f)`$ and to answer thereby the questions:

What geometry is the more sensitive to the current flowing through the joint(s)?

How to reconstruct its density $`j_w`$ proceeding from magnetic moment of the sample?

To obtain $`Q(w,n,f)`$ in simple analytical form which could be convenient for the experimental $`j_w`$ estimation, the following assumptions will be taken into account:

the Bean’s critical state is valid, i.e. the currents penetrate all over the sample, their density everywhere equals to the critical current density of the HTS material which is independent of applied magnetic field $`j_m(B)=Const`$ and, finally, there is no flux creep.

the joints are homogeneous over the whole joining surface, they have no width and separate the sample onto identical parts/grains;

the welding process does not change the critical current density $`j_m`$ of the material itself.

### II.1 Search for the preferable geometry

Since the joints were accepted to have no width, no additional increase of magnetic moment should be expected when $`j_w`$ exceeds $`j_m`$ ($`f1`$). The functions $`Q(w,n,f)`$ must, therefore, cover the range between their minima, $`Q(w,n,f=0)`$, and unity. The more wide this range, the more sensitive appears a certain geometry to the current flowing through the joint(s). So, let us estimate the values of $`Q(w,n,f=0)`$ for chosen geometrical shapes.

Provided the assumptions (A1) are valid, the magnetic moment of homogeneous slab ($`n=0`$ or $`f=1`$) is presented Gyorgy ; Murakami  by the simple equation

$$M(1)=V_sj_ma\left[1w/3\right]/2,$$
(4)
where $`V_s=2a\times 2b\times h`$ is its volume and $`w=a/b1`$ is its asymmetry factor. Since $`n`$ slits ($`j_w=0`$) were presumed to split the original slab onto $`N=n+1`$ identical grains, the total moment of the split sample equals $`N`$ magnetic moments of each separate part. Thus, for $`b`$-slabs one can readily write

$`M(0)`$ $`=`$ $`V_sj_ma\left[1w/(3N)\right]/(2N),`$ (5)
$`Q(0)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{3Nw}{(3w)N^2}}.`$ (6)
Taking into account that numerous splitting of the $`a`$-slab may reverse long $`2b/N`$ and short $`2a`$ sides of its parts, one has to consider two cases

$`M(0)`$ $`=`$ $`V_s{\displaystyle \frac{j_m}{2}}{\displaystyle \frac{b}{N}}\left[1{\displaystyle \frac{1}{3wN}}\right],wN1`$
$`M(0)`$ $`=`$ $`V_s{\displaystyle \frac{j_m}{2}}a\left[1{\displaystyle \frac{wN}{3}}\right],wN1`$ (7)
which give

$`Q(0)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{3wN1}{(3w)w^2N^2}},wN1`$
$`Q(0)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{3wN}{3w}},wN1`$ (8)
Homogeneous ring ($`n=0`$ or $`f=1`$) may naturally be approximated by a superconducting turn which height, inner and outer radii are, respectively, $`h`$, $`r_i`$ and $`r_o`$. The turn cross-section $`h(r_or_i)`$ allows to carry a current $`I=j_mh(r_or_i)`$. The turn effective area $`\overline{S}=\pi \overline{r}^2`$ and its effective radius $`\overline{r}`$ are easy to obtain by standard averaging procedure of the function $`S(r)=\pi r^2`$ over the range $`r_irr_o`$

$`\overline{S}`$ $`=`$ $`\left({\displaystyle _{r_i}^{r_o}}S(r)𝑑r\right)/(r_ir_o)={\displaystyle \frac{\pi }{3}}{\displaystyle \frac{r_i^3r_o^3}{r_ir_o}},`$
$`\overline{r}`$ $`=`$ $`\sqrt{(r_i^2+r_ir_o+r_o^2)/3}.`$ (9)
On substituting $`r_i=R_1`$ and $`r_o=R_2`$, the ring magnetic moment $`M=I\overline{S}`$ fits the equation

$$M(1)=\pi hj_m(R_2^3R_1^3)/3,$$
(10)
that appears from the well-known expression Brandt

$$M=\pi _{h/2}^{+h/2}𝑑z_{R_1}^{R_2}r^2j_c(r,z)𝑑r,$$
(11)
describing any conductors which remain invariant to their rotation around the $`z`$-axis, e.g. toroids, disks, etc.

Similar approach may be applied to split rings or, at least, to those of them which are thin enough $`w1`$ and contain $`n<\pi /(2w)`$ slits. Figure 1 clearly shows that slits separate such rings onto two nearly full turns which carry the same circular currents $`I=j_mh(R_2R_1)/2`$, but flowing in opposite directions. Since non-circular currents on the left and right sides of each slit (the diamond-shaped areas in Figure 1) are antiparallel and, hence, nearly compensate each others, the magnetic moment of the split ring may be written as $`M(0)=I(\overline{S_1}\overline{S_2})[1n\delta ]`$, where the small amendment $`\delta w/(2\pi )`$ responds for reduction of the effective turn surfaces around each of $`n`$-slits. Substituting the inner and outer radii of the turns which are, respectively, equal to $`R_1`$ and $`(R_1+R_2)/2`$ (for inner turn) and $`(R_2+R_1)/2`$ and $`R_2`$ (for outer one) into Equations (9), one has

$`M(0)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{4}}V_rj_m(R_2R_1)\left[1{\displaystyle \frac{wn}{2\pi }}\right],`$ (12)
$`Q(0)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{3}{4}}{\displaystyle \frac{k^21}{k^2+k+1}}\left[1{\displaystyle \frac{wn}{2\pi }}\right],`$ (13)
where the ring volume $`V_r`$ and its relative thickness $`k`$ are, respectively, $`\pi (R_2^2R_1^2)h`$ and $`k=R_2/R_1=(1+w)/(1w)`$.

Split rings may also be approximated by replacing the radial arcs between the slits (see Figure 1) with slabs of the same sizes, viz., $`(R_2R_1)`$ and $`\pi (R_2+R_1)/n`$. Then, by analogy with Equations (7) and (8), one writes

$`M(0)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\pi }{4n}}V_rj_m(R_2+R_1)\left[1{\displaystyle \frac{\pi }{3nw}}\right],nw\pi `$
$`M(0)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{4}}V_rj_m(R_2R_1)\left[1{\displaystyle \frac{wn}{3\pi }}\right],nw\pi `$ (14)
$`Q(0)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{3\pi }{4n}}{\displaystyle \frac{(k+1)^2}{k^2+k+1}}\left[1{\displaystyle \frac{\pi }{3nw}}\right],nw\pi ,`$
$`Q(0)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{3}{4}}{\displaystyle \frac{k^21}{k^2+k+1}}\left[1{\displaystyle \frac{wn}{3\pi }}\right],nw\pi .`$ (15)
Certainly, both the method of “opposite turns” (13) and that of “squared arcs” (15) give more accurate results for relatively thin rings $`wn<1`$. Fortunately, real rings usually satisfy this condition. Besides, the $`Q(0)`$ dependencies vs the sample asymmetry $`w`$ and these vs the slit number $`n`$ (see Figure 2) clearly indicate that within the range $`wn>1`$ definitely lower values of $`Q(0)`$ and, thus, better accuracy for the experimental $`j_w`$ calculation are provided by the $`b`$-slab geometry. Thus, further corrections for the rings with $`wn1`$ will scarcely have a practical value.

At last, one has to emphasize that the $`a`$-slabs ensure the worse accuracy. Moreover, their magnetic moments at $`wn<0.1`$ are almost independent of whether the intragrain current exists ($`f>0`$) or not ($`f=0`$).

### II.2 Experimental method and its discussion

We have just obtained analytical solutions for the functions $`Q(w,n,f)`$ in the frontier points, $`f=0`$ and $`f=1`$. The range between them, $`0<f<1`$, may generally correction  be represented by the linear combination

$$Q(f)=fQ(1)+(1f)Q(0),$$
(16)
where the coefficient $`(1f)`$ appears from an evident condition that the net (intergrain + intragrain) current can not exceed the critical current of the HTS material.

Thus, to estimate the target value of $`j_w`$, one has to know (i) magnetic moment of the welded sample, $`M(f)`$, as well as (ii) the critical current density $`j_m`$ of the HTS material. Within the suggestion (A3), it does not matter which experimental data, $`M(1)`$ or $`M(0)`$, are used to calculate $`j_m`$. Meantime, heating of MT HTS crystals up to the temperatures close to their peritectic points, what actually is the joining procedure Schatzle ; Philip ; Zheng98 ; Zheng99 ; Karapetrov ; Freyhardt ; Harnois ; Puig ; Bradley ; Noudem ; Prikhna , may sometimes lead to either reversible (e.g., the oxygen losses) or irreversible (e.g., the appearance of cracks and/or their expanding) changes in the HTS structure. If the latter yet happens, one may, as a last resort, propose to cut the welded sample again, to measure $`M(0)`$ and to recover both the genuine, “after-the-welding” value $`j_m`$ and the moment $`M(1)`$, in which this density could result, with aid of simple relations, (5)-(8) or (12)-(15). Finally, by substituting the obtained values, (i) $`Q(f)=M(f)/M(1)`$ and (ii) $`j_m`$, into equation

$$j_w=j_m\frac{Q(f)Q(0)}{1Q(0)},$$
(17)
we have the density of the current which flows through the weld(s). Respectively of the obtained quality, either $`j_w<j_m`$ or $`j_w=j_m`$, this current presents the critical current of the weld or of the HTS itself. The same remains valid for the other techniques and points out a vital necessity for experimenters to use a *quantitative* description, rather than to restrict themselves by qualitative comparison of superconducting welds with their unique HTS material. An ability of our method to discern the cases $`j_w<j_m`$ and $`j_w=j_m`$ and to give, at least, the lower estimate for the target value $`j_w`$ seems a worth compensation for twofold measurements of the magnetic moment.

There are other features, which favorably distinguish this approach, e.g., its good functionality in wide range of temperatures and magnetic fields, low requirements for the samples preparation as well as, generally speaking, the other advantages which *de facto* turned the magnetic moment measurements into the world-wide standard to study the superconducting properties.

## Acknowledgements

This work was supported by the German BMBF under the project No 13N6854A3. The authors are grateful to T. A. Prikhna for valuable discussions.