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# Is the EGRET source 3EG J1621+8203 the radio galaxy NGC 6251?

## 1 Introduction

Surveys of the gamma-ray sky by the Energetic Gamma Ray Experiment Telescope (EGRET) on the Compton Gamma Ray Observatory (CGRO) in the 30 MeV to 10 GeV energy range have revealed 271 point sources of gamma rays (Hartman et al. 1999). Of these the largest group of identified sources are the active galaxies of the blazar class. Blazars are sources with high gamma-ray luminosity, which are characterized by flat radio spectra, rapid temporal variability at most frequencies, and a high degree of optical polarization. Besides the blazars, only two other extragalactic sources have been detected by EGRET, namely the radio galaxy Cen A, and the normal galaxy LMC. Most of the 65% other sources remain unidentified due to lack of convincing counterparts at other wavelengths.

EGRET sources have large error contours, typically $`0.5^{}1^{}`$, which makes identifications on the basis of position alone challenging. The principle method of identification of the EGRET sources relies on finding positional coincidences with flat-spectrum radio quasars (e.g. Thompson et al. 1995) or is based on the statistical evidence that blazars are the dominant population (e.g. Mattox et al. 1997; Mattox, Hartman & Reimer 2001), relying in part on the sources’ 5 GHz flux density. Often additional information from observations at other wavebands are used to aid in the identification of the EGRET sources. Progress has been made with recent studies in the X-ray band carried out for several EGRET fields (e.g. Roberts et al. 2001), and used to suggest counterparts for a few unidentified EGRET sources, such as 3EG J2227+6122 (Halpern et al. 2001a), 3EG J1835+5918 (Mirabal et al. 2000; 2001; Reimer et al. 2001), and 3EG J2016+2657 (Mukherjee et al. 2000; Halpern et al. 2001b).

In this article we present gamma-ray and X-ray observations of one unidentified EGRET source, 3EG J1621+8203. In particular, we examine the evidence in order to see if 3EG J1621+8203 could be a second radio galaxy to be detected in high energy gamma-rays by EGRET.

## 2 The Gamma Ray Observations

3EG J1621+8203 is a high latitude source located at $`l`$=115.53, $`b`$=31.77, with a 95$`\%`$ confidence error radius of $`0^{}.85`$ (Hartman et al. 1999). Recently, Mattox, Hartman, & Reimer (2001) have generated elliptical fits to the 95% confidence contours for the Third EGRET Catalog (3EG) sources. This analysis yields an error ellipse with semi-major and semi-minor axes of $`0^{}.97`$ and $`0^{}.74`$, respectively. Figure 1 shows the EGRET source position superimposed on the ROSAT X-ray image that is described in §3.

3EG J1621+8203 is not very bright in high energy gamma rays, and individual viewing periods yielded near-threshold detections by EGRET. In the cumulative exposure from multiple EGRET viewings, 3EG J1621+8203 was clearly detected and the measured flux above 100 MeV was $`1.1\times 10^7`$ photon cm-2 s-1 (Hartman et al. 1999).

The background-subtracted $`\gamma `$-ray spectrum of 3EG J1621+8203 was determined by dividing the EGRET energy band of 30 MeV – 10 GeV into 6 bins and estimating the number of source photons in each interval, following the EGRET spectral analysis technique of Nolan et al. (1993). The data were fitted to a simple power law model of the form $`F(E)=k(E/E_0)^\alpha `$ photon cm-2 s-1 MeV,-1 where $`F(E)`$ is the flux measured at an energy $`E`$. The photon spectral index $`\alpha `$ and the coefficient $`k`$ are the free parameters of the fit. The energy normalization factor $`E_0`$ is chosen so that the statistical errors in the power-law index and the overall normalization are uncorrelated. The fit to the gamma-ray spectrum of 3EG 1621+6203 yielded a photon spectral index of 2.27$`\pm `$0.53 and is shown in Figure 2. The majority of the high energy photons for this source are in the 100-500 MeV band.

## 3 The X-Ray Observations

Archival X-ray imaging observations were available for the field of the EGRET source 3EG J1621+8203. ROSAT (Roentgen Satellite) observations with the Position Sensitive Proportional Counter (PSPC) in the range 0.2 – 2.0 keV covered most of the error contour of 3EG J1621+8203. Additional partial coverage was also available from the ROSAT High Resolution Imager (HRI) and the ASCA (Advanced Satellite for Cosmology and Astrophysics) Gas Imaging Spectrometer (GIS). Historically, these fields have been studied in X-rays because they contained the radio-loud active galaxy NGC 6251 (e.g. Sambruna, Eracleous, & Mushotzky 1999; Turner et al. 1997; Mack, Kerp & Klein 1997; Birkinshaw & Worrall 1993), and the gamma-ray burst GRB 970815, which generated target-of-opportunity observations (Murakami et al. 1997).

FIG. 1.— ROSAT PSPC soft X-ray image of 3EG J1621+8203, exposure-corrected and smoothed with a $`3\times 3`$ top hat kernel. The scaling has been adjusted to highlight the faint emission. The circle corresponds to the $`95`$ % confidence contours from the 3EG catalog (Hartman et al. 1999). The dashed ellipse is the 95% error contour derived from elliptical fits to the 3EG data (Mattox, Hartman, & Reimer 2001). The numbers and letters correspond to sources described in §3 and Tables 1 and 2.

We have created ROSAT PSPC image of the field of 3EG J1621+8203 by co-adding exposure corrected sky maps of 14.7 ks of data taken during 1991 March 12-15, as shown in Fig. 1. The ROSAT HRI and ASCA GIS images of the partial field of 3EG J1621+8203 are shown in Fig. 3. The figures also show the EGRET positions for the source, both as derived from the 3EG catalog, as well as that from the elliptical fits to the EGRET data.

In the archival ROSAT and ASCA data overlapping the EGRET 95% error circle ellipse of 3EG J1621+8203 we find several faint X-ray point sources. In addition, we have also searched the ROSAT All Sky Survey (RASS) catalog for sources in the field of 3EG J1621+8203, particularly in the regions not covered by the pointed ROSAT PSPC and HRI data. The source positions are marked in figures 1 and 3, and listed in Table 1. Count rates for the ASCA and ROSAT sources were obtained following the method described in Gotthelf & Kaspi (1998). Photons were extracted using a $`2^{}`$ radius aperture and the background contribution was estimated using a large annulus away from the source.

FIG. 2.— Photon spectrum of 3EG J1621+8203 in the the 30 MeV to 10 GeV energy range with superimposed fit to a simple power-law model.

The ROSAT sources are listed in Table 1 along with their background subtracted count rates, detection significances, and hardness ratios. Sources with count rates below $`2.4\times 10^3`$ cts/s are not listed in the table. The faintest source in Table 1 is a detection at the $`3.0\sigma `$ level, with a background subtracted count rate of $`0.0020\pm 0.0006`$ cts/s in a 2.0 diameter circular aperture. For this analysis we report all sources down to the $`3\sigma `$ detection level. The sources listed reached a minimum detectable intrinsic flux of $`1.3\times 10^{14}`$ erg cm-2 s-1 in the 0.1 – 2.4 keV band, assuming a power-law photon spectral index of 2.0, and no absorption (estimated $`N_H`$ is $`5\times 10^{20}`$ cm,-2 is expected to have a small effect).

We have searched for optical and radio counterparts to the ROSAT and ASCA point sources shown in figures 1 and 3. Most of the X-ray point sources have possible optical counterparts, as listed in Table 1, and some are coincident with faint radio sources. Individual sources denoted by their source numbers in Table 1 are described in the following section.

## 4 Notes on Individual Sources

1. NGC 6251: This is the bright FR I radio galaxy (Bicknell 1994; Urry & Padovani 1995) at a redshift of 0.0234 (implied distance 91 Mpc for $`H_0=75`$ km s-1 Mpc-1). NGC 6251 is the parent galaxy of an exceptional radio jet from pc to Mpc scale which makes an angle of $`45^{}`$ to our line of sight (Sudou & Taniguchi 2000). High dynamic range observations of NGC 6251 with the VLBI show the presence of a bright core, and an asymmetric jet, that implies relativistic beaming in this source (Jones et al. 1986). The VLBI observations are described further in §6. NGC 6251 has been studied in X-rays in the past. A detailed investigation of the ROSAT PSPC data was carried out by Birkinshaw & Worrall (1993), who found the X-ray emission to be consistent with a point source at the position of the nucleus. Some extended X-ray emission surrounding the nucleus of NGC 6251 was noted, and a flat-spectrum power-law component (photon spectral index $`\mathrm{\Gamma }1`$) plus emission of a thermal plasma ($`kT0.5`$ keV) was found to fit the ROSAT data best. The X-ray jet was studied in some detail by Mack, Kerp & Klein (1997) who found that the X-ray emission in the jet is mostly due to bremsstahlung and line emission of hot, thin plasma, rather than synchrotron or inverse Compton scattering. The ASCA data for NGC 6251 were analyzed by Turner et al. (1997) and Sambruna, Eracleous, & Mushotzky (1999). The ASCA spectrum was best modelled with a hard power law $`\mathrm{\Gamma }=1.83_{0.18}^{+0.21}`$ plus a thermal plasma component $`kT=1.04_{0.18}^{+0.21}`$ keV that is harder than observed in the ROSAT data (Sambruna, Eracleous, & Mushotzky 1999).

2. RX J1641.2+8233: A galaxy cluster, at a redshift of 0.26, corresponding to the Einstein Imaging Proportional Counter (IPC) source 2E 1646.6+8238. This is an extended X-ray source with 90 galaxies within $`3^{}`$ of the X-ray centroid, and all within 3 magnitudes of the three brightest galaxies (Tucker, Tananbaum & Remillard 1995). Another X-ray point source, 2RXP J164016.6+823203 is located close to the galaxy cluster. It is not clear if this is a separate source or part of the cluster.

7. This is a possible QSO, based on its blue color and association with a weak radio source.

8. HD 153751: Also known as SAO 2770, this is the brightest X-ray source in the ROSAT image of 3EG J1621+8203. It is a variable star of the RS CVn type (Eker 1992). It has a $`B`$ magnitude of 5.098 and a $`V`$ magnitude of 4.22. Its spectral type is G5III.

10. WNB1630.5+8221: A weak radio source with a flux density of about 58 mJy at 0.925 GHz.

14. BD+82 477: Present only in a ROSAT HRI image of the region, it is also known as SAO 2659, and is a star of $`B`$ and $`V`$ magnitudes of 10.05 and 9.44, respectively, and spectral type G0 (Perryman et al. 1997).

17. 1AXG J163720+8207: Using the MDM 2.4m telescope we have spectroscopically identified this source with a reddened Seyfert 1 galaxy at z=0.0402. The coordinates of this galaxy are (J2000) 16 37 27.3, +82 07 07.5. (It should not be confused with its physical companion, the galaxy IRAS F16419+8213, which lies $`1^{}.3`$ away and has the same redshift, but only H II region emission lines.) This X-ray source is therefore unlikely to be the EGRET source.

Source 5 was imaged on the MDM 1.3 m, and an object with $`R=20.0`$ and $`B=20.2`$ was found in the field. Such color is typical of a QSO. The field of source 15 was empty in the optical down to the DSS limit. We have observed this field at the MDM, and there is no optical counterpart to a $`V`$ magnitude limit of 24.3. Source 15 is the possible afterglow of GRB 970815 (Smith et al. 1999; Murakami et al. 1997). The ASCA and ROSAT fields were observed as a result of the target of opportunity generated by the gamma-ray burst. Source 15 is a weak X-ray source seen both in the ASCA and ROSAT images, and is slightly outside the error box of the GRB event, as reported by the RXTE/ASM (Smith et al. 1997). ASCA observed the source three days after the GRB event, and the flux of source 15 remained stable at $`3\times 10^{13}`$ erg cm-2 s-1 during the observations. The association of source 15 with GRB 970815 remains uncertain.

FIG. 3.— (Top) ROSAT HRI image and (Bottom) ASCA image in the field of 3EG J1621+8203. The circles corresponds to the $`95`$ % confidence contours from the 3EG catalog (Hartman et al. 1999). The dashed ellipses are the 95% error contours derived from elliptical fits to the 3EG data (Mattox, Hartman & Reimer 2001). The numbers and letters correspond to sources described in §3 and Tables 1 and 2.

The remaining numbered sources, except for 13, have positional correspondences with objects in the USNO star catalog. Their $`R`$ and $`B`$ magnitudes are included in Table 1.

ROSAT All Sky Survey Sources (RASS): In addition to the point sources in Table 1, Figs. 1 and 3 also show the locations of faint sources from the RASS catalog (Voges et al. 2000) not detected in the pointed PSPC and HRI data. The RASS field covers the entire EGRET error circle, even the areas not covered or detected by the pointed PSPC and HRI data sets. The RASS sources are marked with crosses and listed in Table 2. Except for the source marked “f” all the sources in Table 2 are positionally coincident with objects from the USNO catalog. Source “g” was determined to be a dMe star from spectroscopic observation on the MDM 2.4m.

## 5 The Radio Observations

We have searched the NRAO/VLA Sky Survey (NVSS) catalog (Condon et al. 1998) for possible 1.4 GHz radio counterparts to the X-ray point sources. There were 111 radio sources in the field of 3EG J1621+8203 of which only 10 had integrated radio fluxes $`>100`$ mJy. These are shown in Fig. 4 and listed in Table 3. Of these, $`B_1`$ is NGC 6251 and $`B_2\mathrm{}B_5`$ probably correspond to emission from the jet of NGC 6251. No significant X-ray emission is seen at the positions of the other sources and the NASA Extragalactic Database (NED) reveals that these are steep spectrum radio sources. Mack, Kerp & Klein note another X-ray/radio coincidence east of source 7 at RA: 16 26 24.8 and Dec: 82 35 07. This source is 8C 1631+826, and has an X-ray flux density of $`(9.8\pm 2.9)\times 10^3`$ $`\mu `$Jy.

It should be noted that that the most effective way to look for radio candidates for gamma-ray sources is to start not with the NVSS, but with a high-frequency radio catalog that is most likely to isolate the flat-spectrum, blazar candidates. The best such catalog in the northern hemisphere is the Becker, White, & Edwards (1991) 4.85 GHz survey. However, it covers only declinations between 0 and +75, which excludes this field.

## 6 Discussion

Our analysis of the archival X-ray data of the field containing 3EG J1621+8203 reveals that the region contains several bright stars, weak radio sources, a radio galaxy, and a galaxy cluster. We note that unlike the majority of the identified EGRET sources, 3EG J1621+8203 lacks a radio-loud, spectrally flat, blazar-like source catalogued within its error circle that could be its potential counterpart. No radio counterpart search was carried out by Mattox, Hartman and Reimer (2001) for this source, as it is in a region of sky not covered by the 5 GHz Green Bank survey. Of the notable X-ray sources in Table 1 the brightest is the RS CVn star, source # 8. X-ray emission from such stars is believed to arise from coronal loop structures (Rosner et al. 1978), or perhaps as a result of interaction between the mass transfer stream and the mass gaining star in a binary system (Welty & Ramsey 1995). RS CVn stars are not known to be gamma-ray emitters, and thus we reject source # 8 as a counterpart to the EGRET source. Similarly, none of the other stars listed in Table 1 is likely to correspond to the gamma-ray source.

FIG. 4.— Contour map of NVSS sources in the field of the EGRET source 3EG J1621+8203 superimposed on the ROSAT PSPC image (grey scale). The source positions are listed in Table 3. Source B9, which is within the EGRET error contour but outside the X-ray image, is not shown. X-ray sources 7 and 10 are coincident with weak radio sources listed in Table 1.

The two sources of interest in Table 1, however, are the galaxy cluster 2E 1646.6+8238 and the radio galaxy NGC 6251. The question of whether gamma-ray emission above 100 MeV is possible from X-ray clusters is not yet resolved. It has been suggested that some of the unidentified EGRET sources at high latitudes could be gamma-ray clusters, perhaps a new population of gamma-ray emitting sources (Totani & Kitayama 2000). Gamma-ray emission in clusters is presumably due to the inverse Compton scattering of the cosmic microwave background photons off high energy electrons accelerated in the shock waves produced during cluster formation. However, Totani & Kitayama (2000) note that there is no statistically significant association of clusters from either the Abell catalog (Abell, Corwin & Olowin 1989) or the catalog of ROSAT Brightest Cluster Sample (Ebeling et al. 1998) with the error circles of the unidentified EGRET sources at high latitudes. In fact, the X-ray surface brightness and surface number density of galaxies in gamma-ray clusters are expected to be lower by a factor of about 200 and 30, respectively, than those of ordinary clusters (Totani & Kitayama 2000), and the likelihood of finding gamma-ray clusters in past X-ray and optical surveys is small. Brighter, closer sources of this class have not been previously detected by EGRET. In this case it is unlikely that the gamma-ray emission in 3EG J1621+8203 is due to the galaxy cluster 2E 1646.6+8238, despite the positional coincidence. Perhaps deeper searches with more sensitive X-ray and gamma-ray instruments (e.g. GLAST) will resolve this issue conclusively in the future.

Based on the present X-ray data, NGC 6251 appears to be the most likely candidate identification for the EGRET source 3EG J1621+8203. In that case, NGC 6251 would be the second radio galaxy to be detected by EGRET. In the 3EG catalog, Cen A (NGC 5128) is the only candidate detection of a radio galaxy at energies above 100 MeV (Sreekumar et al. 1999). Its derived gamma-ray luminosity is weaker by a factor of $`10^5`$ compared to the typical EGRET blazar. All other active galaxies identified with EGRET sources are blazars, which are believed to have nearly aligned jets along our line-of-sight. Cen A has a jet that is offset by an angle of about $`70^{}`$ (Bailey et al. 1986; Fujisawa et al. 2000). Cen A happens to be the brightest and nearest radio galaxy ($`z=0.0018`$, $`3.5`$ Mpc). It has a double-lobed radio morphology, as evidenced from radio studies and shows the presence of a one-sided X-ray jet, collimated in the direction of the giant radio lobes. Cen A has a relatively weak radio luminosity $`10^{40}`$ ergs s-1, and is classified as a FR I radio galaxy. In the past Cen A was believed to be a misaligned blazar (Bailey et al. 1986).

High dynamic range VLBI and VLA maps are available for NGC 6251 at 6, 13, and 18 cm, showing a bright core, a jet/counterjet brightness ratio of $`80`$ to 1 (Jones et al. 1986). The fact that the source has a nuclear structure and a large scale radio morphology, implies relativistic beaming. Blazars detected by EGRET are compact radio sources, with radio spectral indices $`0.5`$. The kpc-scale jet of NGC 6251 has a slightly smaller spectral index (-0.64) (Saunders et al. 1981), but it could account for relativistic electrons and inverse Compton emission in this source (Jones, et al. 1986).

Figure 5 shows the spectral energy distribution of NGC 6251 assuming that it is the counterpart to 3EG J1621+8203. The radio through optical data for the plot are from Ho (1999) and the references therein. The ROSAT data is from Worrall & Birkinshaw (1994) who find that 90% of the total PSPC flux comes from an unresolved component of diameter $`4^{\prime \prime }`$. The ASCA data is from Sambruna, Eracleous & Mushotzky (1999) and agrees with the continuum model of Turner et al. (1997) who analyzed the data previously. We have also included VLBI and VLA data at 2.22, 6, and 18 cm (Jones et al. 1986). Similar to Cen A, the high energy gamma-ray emission from 3EG J1621+8203 represents a lower luminosity ($`3\times 10^{43}`$ ergs/s) than that of other EGRET blazars (typically $`10^{45}`$ to $`10^{48}`$ ergs/s). Sreekumar et al. (1999) note that Cen A has a gamma-ray photon spectral index of $`2.40\pm 0.28`$, which is steeper than the average power-law spectrum from gamma-ray blazars ($`2.15\pm 0.04`$), and the spectrum of the extragalactic gamma-ray background ($`2.10\pm 0.03`$). The gamma-ray spectral index of 3EG J1621+8203 has a larger error (2.27$`\pm `$0.53), but it may be worth noting that it too is probably steeper than the average blazar spectrum. Unlike Cen A, however, NGC 6251 has not been detected by either COMPTEL or OSSE. There is no upper limit for this source in the first COMPTEL source catalog (Schönfelder et al. 2000).

FIG. 5.— Broad-band spectral energy distribution plot of NGC 6251, assuming that it is the counterpart to 3EG 1621+8203. The radio through optical data are obtained from a compilation by Ho (1999).

The sensitivity of EGRET to off-axis emission from AGN, whose jets are pointed away from our line-of-sight, needs to be addressed. The total amount of scattered energy, $`F_1`$, as a function of viewing angle for an active galaxy may be estimated using the relation (see Dermer, Schlickeiser, Mastichiadis 1992; Weferling & Schlickeiser 1999),

$$F_1(s,\mu _s^{})=D^{3+s}(1\mu _s^{})^{(s+1)/2}$$
$`(1)`$
where the gamma-ray flux seen by the observer is due to the scattered inverse Compton emission of ambient low energy photons by highly relativistic particles in the jet. In this case, the particles are assumed to be electrons and positrons, distributed in energy as a power-law with a spectral index of $`s`$. $`\mu _s^{}`$ is the cosine of the angle between the jet axis and the direction to the observer, and $`D`$ is the Doppler factor of the blob, defined as $`D=\mathrm{\Gamma }^1(1\beta \mu _s^{})^1`$, where $`\beta c`$ is the bulk velocity of the plasma.

Figure 6 shows the decrease in scattered energy for off-axis emission, using the above relation, for different viewing angles, corresponding to two typical values of Lorentz factors ($`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$) seen in blazars. The figure shows that a decrease in observer angle from $`70^{}`$ (e.g. Cen A) to $`45^{}`$ (e.g. NGC 6251) corresponds to an increase in the scattered energy by about a factor of 10, all other things assumed equal. Cen A ($`z=0.0018`$) is the only source to be detected by EGRET with a large inclination angle, presumably due to its proximity to Earth. NGC 6251 ($`z=0.0234`$) is much further away, but it is possible that the source is still detectable by EGRET due to its smaller jet angle.

FIG. 6.— Decrease in the observed emission from a blazar as a function of jet orientation with respect to the observer (Weferling & Schlickeiser 1999; Sreekumar 1999).

The threshold sensitivity of EGRET ($`>100`$ MeV) for a single 2-week observation was $`3\times 10^7`$ photons cm-2 s-1 (Thompson et al. 1993). Due to the intrinsically low luminosity of radio galaxies and the limitations of EGRET’s sensitivity, it is not surprising that many radio galaxies have not been detected as gamma-ray sources above 100 MeV thus far. It is very likely that more distant radio-loud AGN with intermediate inclination angles will be detected in the future with higher sensitivity gamma-ray instruments. FR I galaxies have been hypothesized to be the likely parent populations of BL Lac objects, which are believed to be beamed FR I galaxies (Padovani & Urry 1990; Ghisellini et al. 1993). Since the number density of radio-loud FR I sources is nearly 1000 times larger than FSRQs and BL Lac objects, the possibility that such sources could form a new source class for future instruments like VERITAS (e.g. Weekes et al. 2000) or GLAST (e.g. Gehrels & Michelson 1999) is an exciting one. NGC 6251=3EG J1621+8203 and Cen A=3EG J1324-4314 could be examples of such sources. In fact, there exists the likelihood that such “misaligned blazars” could contribute to the extragalactic gamma-ray background around 1 MeV (Stienle et al. 1998; Sreekumar et al. 1999; Watanabe & Hartmann 2001). Gamma-ray sources not resolved by present-day detectors must contribute to the extragalactic gamma-ray background detected by EGRET in the 30 MeV to 100 GeV range. The contribution of misaligned blazars to the gamma-ray background has been calculated by Weferling & Schlickeiser (1999) where the authors modeled the EGRET-detected extragalactic gamma-ray background. The misaligned blazars clearly outnumber the aligned ones, but direct observation of these sources may only be possible in the future with more sensitive gamma-ray instruments.

This research has made use of data obtained from HEASARC at Goddard Space Flight Center and the SIMBAD astronomical database. R.M. acknowledges support from NSF grant PHY-9983836. E.V.G. is supported by NASA LTSA grants NAG 5-22250.

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text:
# Chainable subcontinua

## Abstract.

This paper is concerned with conditions under which a metric continuum (a compact connected metric space) contains a non-degenerate chainable continuum.

###### Key words and phrases:

chainable continuum  Edwin Duda, Chainable subcontinua, Proceedings of the Ninth Prague Topological Symposium, (Prague, 2001), pp. 71–73, Topology Atlas, Toronto, 2002

This paper is concerned with conditions under which a metric continuum (a compact connected metric space) contains a non-degenerate chainable continuum.

By R.H. Bing’s theorem eleven  if a metric continuum $`X`$ contains a non-degenerate subcontinuum $`H`$ which is hereditarily decomposable, hereditarily unicoherent, and atriodic, then $`H`$ is chainable.

The following papers give examples of continua with the property that each non-degenerate subcontinuum is not chainable. G.T. Whyburn . R.D. Anderson and G. Choquet . A. Lelek  gives an example of a planar weakly chainable continuum each non-degenerate subcontinuum of which separates the plane and thus contains no non-degenerate chainable subcontinuum. W.T. Ingram  gives an example of an hereditarily indecomposable tree-like continuum such that each non-degenerate subcontinuum has positive span and hence is not chainable.

C.E. Burgess in  shows if a continuum $`M`$ is almost chainable and $`K`$ is a proper subcontinuum of $`M`$ which contains an endpoint $`p`$ of $`M`$, then $`K`$ is linearly chainable with $`p`$ as an end point. A continuum $`M`$ is almost chainable if, for every positive number $`\epsilon `$, there exists an $`\epsilon `$-covering $`G`$ of $`M`$ and a linear chain $`C(L_1,L_2,\mathrm{},L_n)`$ of elements of $`G`$ such that no $`L_i`$ $`(1i<n)`$ intersects an element of $`GC`$ and every point of $`M`$ is within a distance $`\epsilon `$ of some element of $`C`$. He also shows if $`M`$ is almost chainable, then $`M`$ is not a triod and $`M`$ is unicoherent and irreducible between some two points. Examples show $`M`$ can contain a triod or a non-unicoherent subcontinuum.

If $`X`$ and $`Y`$ are metric continua and if $`X`$ can be $`\epsilon `$-mapped onto $`Y`$ for all positive $`\epsilon `$ and $`Y`$ has a non-degenerate chainable continuum then so does $`X`$. This result suggests considering inverse limit spaces. At this stage we refer to a result from the paper of S. Mardes̆ić and J. Segal  Theorem 1, p. 148: “Every $`\pi `$-like continuum $`X`$ is the inverse limit of an inverse sequence $`\{P_i;\pi _{ij}\}`$ with bonding maps $`\pi _{ij}`$ onto and with polyhedra $`P_i\pi `$. A continuum is $`\pi `$-like if it can be $`\epsilon `$-mapped onto some polyhedron in $`\pi `$ for each positive $`\epsilon `$. E. Duda and P. Krupski  showed that a $`k`$-junctioned metric continuum, $`k`$ a non-negative integer, has at most $`k`$ points such that any continuum which contains none of the $`k`$ points is chainable. A metric continuum is said to be $`k`$-junctioned if it is the inverse limit of graphs each of which has at most $`k`$ branch points, with surjective bonding maps. A continuum is called finitely junctioned if it is $`k`$-junctioned for some non negative integer $`k`$.

Suppose now $`X`$ is a tree-like continuum. Then for each $`\epsilon >0`$ $`X`$ can be mapped onto a tree. By a result quoted above $`X`$ is the inverse limit of a sequence of trees with surjective bonding maps. $`X=\underset{}{lim}\{T_n,f_{nm}\}`$. Let $`f_n:XT_n`$ be the standard projection map and let

$$P_n=U\{f_n^1(q)|q\text{is a branch point}\}.$$

Since $`T_n`$ has at most a finite number of branch points (points of order $`2`$) $`P_n`$ is closed in $`X`$. If the union of the $`P_n`$ is not dense in $`X`$ then $`X`$ contains a non-degenerate chainable continuum. Actually it is sufficient that $`\{P_n\}`$ have a subsequence whose union is not dense in $`X`$.

Lets now consider a non-degenerate metric continuum in $`X`$ with span equal to zero. The notion of span was defined by A. Lelek . In the paper  he showed continua with span zero are atriodic and tree-like.

There is a series of papers by L.G. Oversteegen and E.D. Tymchatyn which develop properties of spaces with spans equal to zero or sufficient conditions that a space have a span equal to zero . Also by L.G. Oversteegen .

It is interesting to note that a chainable continuum $`X`$ can be $`\epsilon `$-mapped onto any fixed dendrite. Thus for any tree $`T`$, by the result of Mardes̆ić and Segal quoted above, $`X`$ is the inverse of a sequence of $`T`$’s.

In the paper  P. Minc shows an inverse limit of trees with simplicial bonding maps having surjective span zero is chainable.


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# Why an ac magnetic field shifts the irreversibility line in type-II superconductors

## Abstract

We show that for a thin superconducting strip placed in a transverse dc magnetic field - the typical geometry of experiments with high-$`T_c`$ superconductors - the application of a weak ac magnetic field perpendicular to the dc field generates a dc voltage in the strip. This voltage leads to the decay of the critical currents circulating in the strip, and eventually the equilibrium state of the superconductor is established. This relaxation is not due to thermally activated flux creep but to the “walking” motion of vortices in the two-dimensional critical state of the strip with in-plane ac field. Our theory explains the shaking effect that was used for detecting phase transitions of the vortex lattice in superconductors with pinning. Some recent experiments on this subject are discussed.

Experimental investigation of the equilibrium properties of type-II superconductors can be performed only in the reversible region of the magnetic field ($`H`$) versus temperature ($`T`$) plane. But often strong flux-line pinning prevents the measurement of equilibrium properties. In this context, Willemin et al. recently made an interesting observation. Their experiments revealed that application of an additional small oscillating magnetic field perpendicular to the main dc field leads to a fast decay of the currents circulating in the critical state of various high-$`T_c`$ superconductors. This effect dramatically extends the observable reversible domain in the $`H`$-$`T`$ plane. The relaxation of the irreversible magnetization in these experiments was exponential in time, and thus was obviously different from thermally activated flux creep, which leads to a logarithmic time law. Using this vortex-shaking process, the melting transition of the vortex lattice in $`\mathrm{YBa}_2\mathrm{Cu}_3\mathrm{O}_{7\delta }`$ crystals was detected at temperatures very close to the critical temperature $`T_c`$, where the melting could not be investigated before. With the same shaking method, it was discovered  that the order-disorder transition in the vortex lattice of $`\mathrm{Bi}_2\mathrm{Sr}_2\mathrm{CaCu}_2\mathrm{O}_8`$ is of the first order at low temperatures, where vortex pinning usually masks the corresponding jump in the equilibrium magnetization. Thus, the vortex-shaking process opens new possibilities in experimental investigation of the $`H`$-$`T`$ phase diagrams of superconductors. Nevertheless, the nature of this important effect so far remained unclear.

In this paper we give a quantitative explanation of this vortex-shaking effect for thin strips. It is shown that the relaxation is caused by the generation of a dc electric field by the ac magnetic field. We obtain this result in the framework of a quasistatic approach based on the standard critical state concept. Therefore, this effect is quite general and should occur in all type-II superconductors, not only in high-$`T_c`$ materials. In contrast to the generation of an electric field in the case when the ac and the dc magnetic fields are parallel, the above electric field appears in superconductors without a transport current. We also point out a new way of measuring the critical current density $`j_c`$ in superconductors.

The dc electric field in general depends on the orientation of the ac magnetic field with respect to the currents circulating in the superconductor. In the following we shall analyze the simplest situation: A thin superconducting strip fills the space $`|x|w`$, $`|y|<\mathrm{}`$, $`|z|d/2`$ with $`dw`$; the constant and homogeneous external magnetic field $`H_a`$ is directed along $`z`$, while the ac magnetic field $`h\mathrm{cos}\omega t`$ is applied along $`x`$, i.e., perpendicular to $`H_a`$ and to the currents in the sample (Fig. 1). We also make here the usual Bean assumption that the critical current density $`j_c`$ does not depend on the local induction $`B`$. The field $`H_a`$ is assumed to be sufficiently large to exceed both the field of full penetration for the strip, $`H_p=(j_cd/\pi )\mathrm{ln}(2ew/d)`$, and the lower critical field $`H_{c1}`$, and so we may put $`B=\mu _0H`$.

A qualitative explanation of the shaking effect is as follows: The currents flowing in the critical state of the strip generate a nonuniform distribution of the magnetic induction $`B_z(x)`$. The ac field periodically tilts the vortices in this state. However, at each point $`x`$ with a nonzero sheet current $`J(x)`$ (the current density integrated over the thickness $`d`$), the tilt is not symmetric relative to the central plane of the strip $`z=0`$, and during each cycle of the ac field, the asymmetry leads to a shift of vortices towards the center $`x=0`$ of the strip. This shift tends to equilibrate $`B_z(x)`$, and it also generates a dc electric field which decreases $`J(x)`$. When $`J(x)`$ reaches zero, the asymmetry disappears, and the process stops.

It will be shown below that the generated dc electric field is proportional to the thickness of the sample, $`d`$. Thus, to describe the effect, the strip cannot be considered as infinitely thin, and the appropriate critical state problem is two dimensional. However, according to the approach of Ref. , the smallness of the parameter $`d/w`$ enables us to split the problem into two simpler problems: A one-dimensional problem across the thickness of the sample, and a problem for the infinitely thin strip. Namely, we first interpret a small section of the strip around an arbitrary point $`x`$ (see Fig. 1) as an “infinite” slab of thickness $`d`$ placed in a perpendicular dc magnetic field $`B_z(x)`$ and in a parallel ac field $`h\mathrm{cos}\omega t`$ and carrying a sheet current $`J(x)`$. The resulting dc electric field $`E_y=E_y(J,B_z,h)`$ for the slab we then use as the local electric field $`E_y(x)`$ for an infinitely thin strip, to calculate the temporal evolution of the sheet current $`J(x)`$ and induction $`B_z(x)`$ in this strip by the method of Ref. .

We begin with the analysis of the dc electric field $`E_y`$ generated by the ac magnetic field, $`h\mathrm{cos}\omega t`$, in an infinite slab with sheet current $`J`$ and with a constant and homogeneous magnetic field $`B_z`$. At sufficiently small $`\omega `$ , the problem may be considered quasistatically: We solve the critical state equation for the slab, $`dB_x/dz=\mu _0j_{cr}(z,t)`$, at every moment of time $`t`$, and then find the shape of the flux lines at this moment from $`dx/B_x=dz/B_z`$ and the condition that the points on each line where $`j_{cr}`$ changes its sign cannot move. The critical current density $`j_{cr}`$ is always equal to $`j_c`$ or $`j_c`$, and its distribution over $`z`$ is just the well-known distribution in a slab in a parallel magnetic field and with current $`J`$. In particular, at $`t=0`$ and $`t=2\pi /\omega `$ one has $`j_{cr}=j_c`$ for $`z_{}<zd/2`$, and $`j_{cr}=j_c`$ for $`d/2z<z_{}`$ (see Fig. 1), while at $`t=\pi /\omega `$ one has $`j_{cr}=j_c`$ for $`z_+<zd/2`$, and $`j_{cr}=j_c`$ for $`d/2z<z_+`$ where $`z_+=z_{}=J/2j_c`$. An essential finding of this analysis is that during one half cycle ($`0t\pi /\omega `$) every flux line turns around a fixed “swivel point” with the coordinate $`z=z_+`$, while during the second half cycle ($`\pi /\omega t2\pi /\omega `$) the line turns around another fixed point with $`z=z_{}`$. As a result, the line “walks” along $`x`$, see Fig. 1. The shift of the vortices during one full cycle is

$$\mathrm{\Delta }x=\frac{2\mu _0J}{j_cB_z}[hh_p(J)],$$
(1)
where $`h_p(J)=(J_c|J|)/2`$ is the field of full penetration of parallel flux into a slab with current $`J`$, and $`J_c=j_cd`$ is the critical sheet current. Note that in deriving $`\mathrm{\Delta }x`$ we have assumed $`hh_p(J)`$. Else, the $`x`$ component of the magnetic field does not penetrate completely into the slab, a section of the flux line does not sway and hence does not move at all, and thus $`\mathrm{\Delta }x=0`$. The dc electric field generated by the above shift of the vortex lines is $`E_y=(\omega /2\pi )\mathrm{\Delta }xB_z`$, and hence we arrive at

$`E_y=`$ $`0`$ $`\mathrm{for}h<h_p(J),`$ (2)
$`E_y=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\mu _0\omega dJ}{\pi J_c}}[hh_p(J)]`$ $`\mathrm{for}hh_p(J).`$ (3)
The described mechanism for the generation of a dc electric field was proposed many years ago, and Eq. (2) is equivalent to the formula (2.8) of Ref. . Equation (2) also coincides with the corresponding result for the slab obtained in our paper, though in Ref.  the dc magnetic field lies in the plane of the slab. This coincidence is not surprising, since in both cases $`E_y`$ may be interpreted as generated by the transfer of the $`x`$ component of the flux across the slab thickness $`d`$.

In the derivation of $`E_y`$ we have assumed that $`J`$ and $`B_z`$ do not change during one cycle. This approximation is justified when the relaxation time of the profiles $`J(x)`$ and $`B_z(x)`$ considerably exceeds the period $`2\pi /\omega `$ of the ac field. As will be shown below, this condition is indeed fulfilled for thin samples, $`dw`$, and thus the approximation is self-consistent.

We now consider the temporal evolution of the profiles $`J(x)`$ and $`B_z(x)`$ in the infinitely thin strip. This evolution is caused by the slow “walking” of vortices toward the center of the strip and is given by the Maxwell equation:

$$\frac{B_z}{t}=\frac{E_y}{x},$$
(4)
with $`E_y`$ specified by formula (2). Since $`E_y=v_xB_z`$, where $`v_x`$ is the average velocity of the vortices, the above equation simply expresses the conservation law of their number inside the strip. On the other hand, the Biot-Savart law yields a relation between the sheet current $`J`$ and $`B_z`$:

$$\frac{B_z(x)}{\mu _0}=H_a+\frac{1}{2\pi }_w^w\frac{J(u)du}{ux}.$$
(5)
Equations (2)-(4) together with the initial condition

$$J(x)|_{t=0}=J_cx/|x|,$$
(6)
are sufficient to determine the temporal evolution of $`J`$, $`E_y`$, and $`B_z`$ in the strip, i.e., the functions $`J(x,t)`$, $`E_y(x,t)`$, and $`B_z(x,t)`$.

To proceed further, it is convenient to rearrange Eq. (3), (4) as follows: We invert Eq. (4), differentiate both sides of the result with respect to $`t`$, insert Eq. (3), and arrive at an equation for $`J(x,t)`$:

$$\frac{J(x,t)}{t}=\frac{2}{\pi \mu _0}_w^w\frac{du}{ux}\left(\frac{w^2u^2}{w^2x^2}\right)^{1/2}\frac{E_y(J)}{u}$$
(7)
with $`E_y(J)`$ given by formula (2). The right hand side of Eq. (6) is proportional to $`(d/w)\omega `$; this becomes evident if one introduces the dimensionless length $`x/w`$. Thus, the decrease of $`J/J_c`$ during one cycle is determined by the small parameter $`d/w`$, and the above assumption that $`J`$ and $`B_z`$ are constant over one cycle is well justified.

The numerical method of solving Eq. (6) is well elaborated, and we use it to analyze the evolution of the sheet current $`J(x,t)`$. In Fig. 2 we show the time dependence of the magnetic moment  per unit length of the strip, $`M(t)=_w^wJ(x,t)x𝑑x`$, at various amplitudes $`h`$ of the the ac magnetic field. If $`h/J_c>0.5`$, then $`|M(t)|`$ decreases almost exponentially with time, and eventually the equilibrium state is established since $`J0`$ everywhere in the strip; when $`h/J_c<0.5`$, the equilibrium state is not reached, Fig. 3. At large times $`t`$, the saturation value of the current in the sample, $`J_{\mathrm{}}`$, can be found from the condition $`E_y(J_{\mathrm{}})=0`$, yielding

$$J_{\mathrm{}}=J_c2h.$$
(8)
In the special case $`h=h^{}=0.5J_c`$, Eq. (2) gives $`E_yJ^2`$, and it follows from Eq. (6) that $`MJt^1`$. Thus, we conclude the following: When in an experiment the amplitude $`h`$ is fixed while $`j_c`$ increases due to a decrease of temperature $`T`$, then at some $`T`$ one has $`J_c=2h`$, and at lower $`T`$ the vortex-shaking will not lead to the equilibrium state. In other words, the greater is $`j_cd`$, the greater is the ac amplitude $`h`$ required for the equilibrium state to be reached. This feature of the vortex-shaking process was indeed observed in the experiments.

We consider now more closely the practically important case $`h>J_c/2`$. When $`J`$ decays, then, according to Eq. (2), the problem formally reduces to the Ohmic strip problem analyzed in Ref. , but with the resistivity now associated neither with free flux flow nor with thermally assisted flux flow, namely, $`E/j=\rho =\mu _0\nu d^2(2h/J_c1)=`$ const, $`\nu =\omega /2\pi `$. In this case the sheet current after some transient time tends to the following solution of Eq. (6):

$$J(x,t)=CJ_cf(x/w)\mathrm{exp}(t/\tau ),$$
(9)
where $`C`$ is a constant depending on the magnetic history, $`f(v)`$ is the normalized eigenfunction with lowest eigenvalue $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ of the integral equation,

$$\mathrm{\Lambda }f(v)=\frac{1}{\pi ^2}_1^1\frac{du}{uv}\left(\frac{1u^2}{1v^2}\right)^{1/2}\frac{df(u)}{du},$$
(10)
and the relaxation time $`\tau `$ is given by

$$\tau ^1=\mathrm{\Lambda }\frac{\omega d}{w}\left(\frac{2hJ_c}{J_c}\right).$$
(11)
Numerical analysis yields $`\mathrm{\Lambda }=0.6386`$. The odd function $`f(v)=f(v)`$ normalized to $`_0^1vf(v)𝑑v=\frac{1}{2}`$ is shown in Fig. 4. The magnetic moment per unit length of the strip, $`M=_w^wxJ𝑑x`$, is then $`M=Cw^2J_c\mathrm{exp}(t/\tau )`$, while in the fully penetrated critical state one has $`M=M_0=w^2J_c`$ and in the Meissner state $`M=\pi w^2H_a`$.

Thus, we obtain that at $`h>J_c/2`$ the decay of the current becomes exponential in time, in agreement with the experimental data, and the spatial profile of the current tends to the universal function $`f(x/w)`$, which is independent of the superconducting parameters and dimensions of the strip. It also follows from formula (10) that the rate of the decay increases with $`\omega `$ and $`h`$. However, for the above quasistatic analysis to be valid, $`\omega `$ should not be too large, while the condition $`(\tau \omega /2\pi )1`$ leads to $`(w/d)(J_c/h)1`$, or $`hj_cw`$. This puts an upper bound on $`h`$ up to which the above formulas are applicable.

Interestingly, with Eqs. (7) and (10), measurements of the amplitude $`h^{}`$ at which $`J_{\mathrm{}}=0`$, or of $`\tau `$ for $`h>h^{}`$, allow one to obtain $`j_c`$ at short times $`t\omega ^1`$ where $`j_c`$ is only weakly affected by thermally activated creep.

To conclude, we give a quantitative description of the vortex-shaking effect in a thin superconducting strip. It is shown that in the framework of the critical-state theory, the decay of the critical currents to zero, or the decrease of the magnetic moment of the strip to its equilibrium value, is due to the generation of a dc electric field by an ac magnetic field applied normal to the main dc magnetic field. This electric field originates only if the finite thickness of the strip is taken into account, and so the theoretical description of the vortex-shaking effect is, strictly speaking, a two-dimensional spatial problem. But the small value of the parameter $`d/w`$ enabled us to simplify the problem and to solve it explicitly for ac amplitude $`hj_cw`$. When the thin superconductor has a different shape, e.g. looks like a square platelet, there are regions where the ac magnetic field is parallel to the sheet current. In this case, the analysis of the problem becomes more complicated. Nevertheless, the obtained results explain the properties of the vortex-shaking effect observed in the experiments and also shed light on the origin of similar intriguing effects discovered earlier for slightly different geometries.


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# Charm mass corrections to the bottomonium mass spectrum

HU-EP-02/19

## Abstract

The one-loop corrections to the bottomonium mass spectrum due to the finite charm mass are evaluated in the framework of the relativistic quark model. The obtained corrections are compared with the results of perturbative QCD.

Recently effects of the finite mass of the charm quark in determining the bottomonium mass spectrum and the $`b`$ quark mass were considered within perturbative QCD hm ; h ; m ; bsv . Here we study these effects in the framework of the relativistic quark model taking into account the confining quark interaction. Since the $`b\overline{b}`$ bound system is rather far from being a Coulombic one (even in the ground state) we expect the size of these effects to differ noticeably from that predicted within perturbative QCD, where they were found to be substantial bsv . This report may be considered as completing our previous paper efg , where the mass spectra of heavy quarkonia were calculated with the account of the one-loop radiative corrections. Our model was also successfully applied for describing the heavy-light meson mass spectra and radiative and weak decays of heavy mesons gf ; egf .

In papers egf ; efg ; gf  a meson is described by the wave function of the bound quark-antiquark state, which satisfies the quasipotential equation of the Schrödinger type in the center-of-mass frame:

$$\left(\frac{b^2(M)}{2\mu _R}\frac{𝐩^2}{2\mu _R}\right)\mathrm{\Psi }_M(𝐩)=\frac{d^3q}{(2\pi )^3}V(𝐩,𝐪;M)\mathrm{\Psi }_M(𝐪),$$
(1)
where the relativistic reduced mass is

$$\mu _R=\frac{M^4(m_1^2m_2^2)^2}{4M^3},$$
(2)
and $`b^2(M)`$ denotes the on-mass-shell relative momentum squared

$$b^2(M)=\frac{[M^2(m_1+m_2)^2][M^2(m_1m_2)^2]}{4M^2}.$$
(3)
Here $`m_{1,2}`$ and $`M`$ are quark masses and a meson mass, respectively. For the $`b\overline{b}`$ bound system (bottomonium) $`m_1=m_2=m_b`$ and Eqs. (2), (3) take the form

$$\mu _R=\frac{M}{4},b^2(M)=\frac{M^2}{4}m_b^2.$$
(4)
The kernel $`V(𝐩,𝐪;M)`$ in Eq. (1) is the quasipotential operator of the quark-antiquark interaction. It is constructed with the help of the off-mass-shell scattering amplitude, projected onto the positive energy states. An important role in this construction is played by the Lorentz-structure of the confining quark-antiquark interaction in the meson. In constructing the quasipotential of the quark-antiquark interaction we have assumed that the effective interaction is the sum of the usual one-gluon exchange term and the mixture of vector and scalar linear confining potentials. The quasipotential is then defined by efg

$$V(𝐩,𝐪;M)=\overline{u}_1(p)\overline{u}_2(p)𝒱(𝐩,𝐪;M)u_1(q)u_2(q),$$
(5)
with

$$𝒱(𝐩,𝐪;M)=\frac{4}{3}\alpha _sD_{\mu \nu }(𝐤)\gamma _1^\mu \gamma _2^\nu +V_{\mathrm{conf}}^V(𝐤)\mathrm{\Gamma }_1^\mu \mathrm{\Gamma }_{2;\mu }+V_{\mathrm{conf}}^S(𝐤),$$
(6)
where $`\alpha _s`$ is the QCD coupling constant, $`D_{\mu \nu }`$ is the gluon propagator in the Coulomb gauge and $`𝐤=𝐩𝐪`$; $`\gamma _\mu `$ and $`u(p)`$ are the Dirac matrices and spinors. The effective long-range vector vertex is given by

$$\mathrm{\Gamma }_\mu (𝐤)=\gamma _\mu +\frac{i\kappa }{2m_b}\sigma _{\mu \nu }k^\nu ,k^\nu =(0,𝐤),$$
(7)
where $`\kappa `$ is the Pauli interaction constant characterizing the nonperturbative anomalous chromomagnetic moment of quarks. Vector and scalar confining potentials in the nonrelativistic limit reduce to

$$V_{\mathrm{conf}}^V(r)=(1\epsilon )Ar+B,V_{\mathrm{conf}}^S(r)=\epsilon Ar,$$
(8)
reproducing

$$V_{\mathrm{conf}}(r)=V_{\mathrm{conf}}^S(r)+V_{\mathrm{conf}}^V(r)=Ar+B,$$
(9)
where $`\epsilon `$ is the mixing coefficient.

The quasipotential for the heavy quarkonia, including retardation, one-loop radiative corrections and expanded in $`p^2/m^2`$, can be found in Ref. efg . All the parameters of our model, such as quark masses, parameters of the linear confining potential, mixing coefficient $`\epsilon `$ and anomalous chromomagnetic quark moment $`\kappa `$, were fixed from the analysis of heavy quarkonium spectra efg  and radiative decays gf . The quark masses $`m_b=4.88`$ GeV, $`m_c=1.55`$ GeV, $`m_s=0.50`$ GeV, $`m_{u,d}=0.33`$ GeV and the slope of the linear potential $`A=0.18`$ GeV2 in our model have the fixed values which agree with the usually accepted. The constant term $`B=0.16`$ GeV may be adjusted producing the overall level shift. In Ref. fg  we have considered the expansion of the matrix elements of weak heavy quark currents between pseudoscalar and vector meson ground states up to the second order in inverse powers of the heavy quark masses. It has been found that the general structure of the leading, first, and second order $`1/m_Q`$ corrections in our relativistic model is in accord with the predictions of heavy quark effective theory. The heavy quark symmetry and QCD impose rigid constraints on the parameters of the long-range potential in our model. The analysis of the first order corrections fixes the value of the Pauli interaction constant $`\kappa =1`$ fg . The same value of $`\kappa `$ was found previously from the fine splitting of heavy quarkonia $`{}_{}{}^{3}P_{J}^{}`$\- states efg . The value of the parameter characterizing the mixing of vector and scalar confining potentials, $`\epsilon =1`$, was found from the analysis of the $`1/m_Q^2`$ corrections fg  and from considering radiative decays of heavy quarkonia gf .

The perturbative heavy quark potential to two loops including the effects of massive loop quarks can be found in Ref. m . In our model we take into account only one-loop contributions since the uncertainty brought by the confining interaction is larger then the two-loop contributions. The one-loop correction with the finite $`c`$ quark mass to the Coulomb potential can be included in the form m :

$`V(r,m_c)`$ $`=`$ $`C_F{\displaystyle \frac{\alpha _V(r,m_c)}{r}},`$ (10)
$`\alpha _V(r,m)`$ $`=`$ $`\alpha _s(\mu )\left[1+v_1(r,m,\mu ){\displaystyle \frac{\alpha _s(\mu )}{\pi }}\right],`$ (12)
$`v_1(r,m,\mu )`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{C_A}{4}}\left\{{\displaystyle \frac{31}{9}}+{\displaystyle \frac{22}{3}}\left[\mathrm{ln}(\mu r)+\gamma _E\right]\right\}{\displaystyle \frac{5}{9}}T_F+{\displaystyle \frac{T_F}{3}}\left[\mathrm{ln}{\displaystyle \frac{a_0m^2}{\mu ^2}}+2E_1(\sqrt{a_0}mr)\right],`$ (14)
where

$$E_1(x)=_x^{\mathrm{}}e^t\frac{dt}{t}=\gamma _E\mathrm{ln}x\underset{n=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\frac{(x)^n}{nn!},$$

the Euler constant $`\gamma _E0.5772`$ and $`C_A=3`$, $`C_F=4/3`$, $`T_F=1/2`$ in QCD. A simple representation for the vacuum polarization operator with $`a_0=5.2`$ was used m . Subtracting from $`v_1(r,m,\mu )`$ its value at $`m=0`$, namely

$$v_1(r,0,\mu )=\frac{31}{36}C_A\frac{5}{9}T_F+\left(\frac{11}{6}C_A\frac{2}{3}T_F\right)\left[\mathrm{ln}(\mu r)+\gamma _E\right],$$

we obtain

$$\mathrm{\Delta }v_1(r,m,\mu )=v_1(r,m,\mu )v_1(r,0,\mu )=\frac{2}{3}T_F\left[\mathrm{ln}(\sqrt{a_0}mr)+\gamma _E+E_1(\sqrt{a_0}mr)\right].$$
(15)
Thus the one-loop correction to the static $`Q\overline{Q}`$ potential in QCD due to the finite $`c`$ quark mass reads as:

$$\mathrm{\Delta }V(r,m_c)=\frac{4}{3}\frac{\alpha _s^2(\mu )}{\pi r}\mathrm{\Delta }v_1(r,m_c,\mu )=\frac{\alpha _s^2(\mu )}{\pi r}\frac{4}{9}\left[\mathrm{ln}(\sqrt{a_0}m_cr)+\gamma _E+E_1(\sqrt{a_0}m_cr)\right].$$
(16)
The charm mass correction to the bottomonium mass spectrum is then given by

$$\mathrm{\Delta }M=\mathrm{\Delta }V_{m_c},\alpha _s(m_b)=0.22,m_c=1.55\mathrm{GeV}.$$
(17)
For averaging we use both the wave functions obtained in calculating the heavy quarkonium mass spectra efg  and the Coulomb wave functions. The Coulomb averaging is carried out also for $`\alpha _s=0.3`$ sometimes used in the perturbative QCD description of bottomonium. The numerical values of this spin-independent correction for different $`b\overline{b}`$ states are presented in the Table 1.

The Table 1 shows that for a fixed value of $`\alpha _s`$ the averagings with and without confining potential substantially differ especially for the excited states. For growing $`n=n_r+L+1`$ the values of $`\mathrm{\Delta }V_{m_c}`$ slowly decrease in our model whereas for the Coulomb potential they fall rapidly. The growth of $`(\delta E_{b\overline{b}})_{m_c}^{(1)}\mathrm{\Delta }V_{m_c}_{\mathrm{Coul}}`$ in Ref. bsv  (Table I) is evoked by fast increasing values of $`\alpha _s(\mu )`$. For these values of $`\alpha _s(\mu )`$ we also reproduce all the corrections $`(\delta E_{b\overline{b}})_{m_c}^{(1)}`$ obtained in bsv . The values of the scale $`\mu `$ were fixed in Ref. bsv  from the stability conditions containing the corrections $`\delta m_b`$ to the $`b`$ quark mass which are absent in our model.

We estimate the uncertainty in calculating the spin-averaged mass spectrum of the bottomonium to be few MeV. Some of its sources are the uncertainties in the quark masses and confining potential as well as higher order relativistic and radiative corrections. The present knowledge of the spin-independent part of the heavy quark potential is rather uncertain since it strongly depends on the Lorentz structure of the confining potential. The calculated corrections partly may be absorbed in the definition of the constant term in the static potential (8). Nevertheless they may become essential in future when the long-range $`Q\overline{Q}`$ interaction will be known better. Then the heavy quark mass should be treated more self-consistently not as a fixed phenomenological parameter but as a scale-dependent one normalized from the heavy quarkonium mass spectrum.

The authors express their gratitude to N. Brambilla, M. Müller-Preussker and V. Savrin for support and discussions. Two of us (R.N.F and V.O.G.) were supported in part by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft under contract Eb 139/2-1, Russian Foundation for Fundamental Research under Grant No. 00-02-17768 and Russian Ministry of Education under Grant No. E00-3.3-45.


text:
# The dynamical models and the 𝑍→𝑏𝑏̄ asymmetry

## 1 Introduction

Most of the experiments are consistent with the predictions of the standard model(SM) with sufficient accuracy. Almost all of the experimental data are quite well explained in the context of the SM. However, in the most recent analysis of the precision electroweak data, the $`Zb\overline{b}`$ forward -backward asymmetry $`A_{FB}^b=0.0990(17)`$ is $`3.2\sigma `$ from the SM fit value, but there is just a hint of a disagreement, at the $`1.4\sigma `$ level, for the $`Zb\overline{b}`$ branching ratio $`R_b`$ $`[R_b=0.21664(68)]`$. The result presented by the recent experimental data are very puzzling. Certainly the result could be a statistical fluctuation or from unknown systematic error, but Ref has told us that this seems to be due to new physics(NP) beyond SM. In this note we shall assume that this is a signal of new physics(NP).

The effective $`Zb\overline{b}`$ vertex can be parameterized in terms of two form factors, the left-handed coupling $`g_L^b`$ and the right - handed coupling $`g_R^b`$:

$$\frac{e}{S_wC_w}[g_L^b\overline{b_L}\gamma ^\mu b_L+g_R^b\overline{b_R}\gamma ^\mu b_R]Z_\mu ,$$
(1)
where $`S_w=\mathrm{sin}\theta _w`$, $`\theta _w`$ is the Winberg angle. In order to determine the two form factors separately, we need two independent measurement of the $`Zb\overline{b}`$ vertex. One is provided by $`R_b`$ and the other by the forward-backward asymmetry $`A_{FB}^b`$. The deviations of the experimental data about $`R_b`$ and $`A_{FB}^b`$ from the SM predictions may be induced by the corrections of NP to the two from factors $`g_L^b`$ and $`g_R^b`$.

In this paper, we shall explore whether the corrections of NP to the two form factors can bring the theoretical predictions closer to the experimental results. We find that some kinds of NP can not fit both $`R_b`$ and $`A_{FB}^b`$ within the $`1\sigma `$ bounds of the recent experimental data at the same time. Some other kinds of NP might explain the recently experimental data about $`R_b`$ and $`A_{FB}^b`$. However, the free parameters of these kinds of NP must be severely constrained.

## 2 Constraints of the experimental data on $`g_L^b`$ and $`g_R^b`$

The two form factors $`g_L^b`$ and $`g_R^b`$ can be written as :

$$g_L^b=\frac{1}{2}+\frac{1}{3}S_w^2+\delta g_L^b,g_R^b=\frac{1}{3}S_w^2+\delta g_R^b.$$
(2)
Where $`\delta g_{L(R)}^b`$ contain the SM and the NP contributions at one loop order:

$$g_L^b=\frac{1}{2}+\frac{1}{3}S_w^2+\delta g_L^{b,SM}+\delta g_L^{b,N}=0.4208+\delta g_L^{b,N},$$
(3)
$$g_R^b=\frac{1}{3}S_w^2+\delta g_R^{b,SM}+\delta g_R^{b,N}=0.0774+\delta g_R^{b,N}.$$
(4)
Where the SM values are for $`m_t=174GeV`$ and $`M_H=100GeV`$. In principle, the corrections of NP to the $`Zb\overline{b}`$ vertex may give arise to one additional form factor, proportional to $`\sigma ^{\mu \nu }q^\nu `$. This magnetic moment-type form factor arises at one-loop and should be considered as well. However, its contributions to $`R_b`$ and $`A_{FB}^b`$ are very small. Thus, we have ignored it.

The corrections of NP to $`R_b`$ and $`A_{FB}^b`$ can be expressed in terms of the form factors $`\delta g_L^{b,N}`$ and $`\delta g_R^{b,N}`$:

$$\frac{\delta R_b}{R_b^{SM}}=2(1R_b^{SM})\frac{g_L^{b,SM}\delta g_L^{b,N}+g_R^{b,SM}\delta g_R^{b,N}}{(g_L^{b,SM})^2+(g_R^{b,SM})^2},$$
(5)
$$\frac{\delta A_{FB}^b}{A_{FB}^{b,SM}}=\frac{4(g_L^{b,SM})^2(g_R^{b,SM})^2}{(g_L^{b,SM})^4(g_R^{b,SM})^4}(\frac{\delta g_L^{b,N}}{g_L^{b,SM}}\frac{\delta g_R^{b,N}}{g_R^{b,SM}}).$$
(6)
The 1$`\sigma `$ contours of $`R_b`$ and $`A_{FB}^b`$ are plotted in Fig.1. Since $`\frac{\delta R_b}{R_b^{SM}}`$ is more than one order of magnitude smaller than $`\frac{\delta A_{FB}^b}{A_{FB}^{b,SM}}`$, the expression $`g_L^{b,SM}\delta g_L^{b,N}+g_R^{b,SM}\delta g_R^{b,N}`$ is severely constrained. From this and that $`g_L^{b,SM}`$ is about $`5.5`$ times larger than $`g_R^{b,SM}`$ we can see that $`\frac{\delta A_{FB}^b}{A_{FB}^{b,SM}}`$ is dominated by the $`\frac{\delta g_R^{b,N}}{g_R^{b,SM}}`$ term. Thus, we find that the constraints of the 1$`\sigma `$ bounds of $`R_b`$ and $`A_{FB}^b`$ on $`\delta g_L^{b,N}/g_L^{b,SM}`$ and $`\delta g_R^{b,N}/g_R^{b,SM}`$ can be written as:

$$0.0002\frac{\delta g_L^{b,N}}{g_L^{b,SM}}+(\frac{g_R^{b,SM}}{g_L^{b,SM}})^2\frac{\delta g_R^{b,N}}{g_R^{b,SM}}0.0041,0.225\frac{\delta g_R^{b,N}}{g_R^{b,SM}}0.465.$$
(7)
Thus, if the deviations from the SM values about $`R_b`$ and $`A_{FB}^b`$ persist, the corrections to $`g_L^b`$ and $`g_R^b`$ from any kind of NP, which can fit both $`R_b`$ and $`A_{FB}^b`$ within the 1$`\sigma `$ bounds of the experimental at the same time, must satisfy Eq.(7). This is a very strong constraint.

In the following, we will explore whether the contributions of NP to the $`Zb\overline{b}`$ couplings $`g_L^{b,SM}`$, $`g_R^{b,SM}`$ can bring the SM predictions close to the experimental results and see whether there is any kind of NP satisfying Eq.(7). First we will mainly focus our attention on the class of models, in which the electroweak symmetry breaking (EWSB) and the large top mass is dynamically generated by the new strong interactions. In this paper, we will call this class of models as the dynamical models. Then, using effective lagrangean techniques, we discuss the corrections of NP to the form factors $`g_L^b`$ and $`g_R^b`$. This is a model independent analysis.

## 3 The dynamical models

To completely avoid the problems arising from the elementary Higgs field, various kinds of dynamical EWSB mechanisms have been proposed, and among which topcolor-assisted technicolor (TC2) theory is an attractive idea. TC2 theory generally predicts the existence of two kinds of new gauge bosons:(a) the extended technicolor (ETC) gauge bosons, (b) the topcolor gauge bosons including the color-octet colorons $`B_\mu ^A`$ and an extra $`U(1)_Y`$ gauge boson $`Z^{}`$. Furthermore, this kind of models predict a number of pseudo Goldstone bosons ($`PGB^{}s`$), including the technipions in the technicolor sector and the top-pions in the topcolor sector. All these new particles can give corrections to the form factors $`g_L^b`$ and $`g_R^b`$.

The main ETC corrections to $`g_L^b`$ and $`g_R^b`$ are from the ETC gauge boson contributions. It has been shown in Ref. that the negative diagonal ETC gauge boson contribution to $`g_L^b`$ is larger than that of the positive sideways gauge boson. There are $`\delta g_L^{b,E}<0`$ and $`\delta g_R^{b,E}0`$. The gauge bosons $`B_\mu ^A`$ and $`Z^{}`$ also have contributions to $`g_L^b`$ and $`g_R^b`$ and there are $`\delta g_L^{b,B}/g_L^{b,SM}=\delta g_R^{b,B}/g_R^{b,SM}>0`$, $`\delta g_L^{b,Z^{}}/g_L^{b,SM}>0`$ and $`\delta g_R^{b,Z^{}}/g_R^{b,SM}>0`$. Due to the strong coupling between the top-pion and the third generation quarks , the top-pions can give rise to a large positive correction to $`g_L^{b,SM}`$, i.e. $`\delta g_L^{b,\pi _t}/g_L^{b,SM}<0`$, $`\delta g_R^{b,\pi _t}0`$. In Ref. it is found that, by combining all of these corrections to $`g_L^b`$ and $`g_R^b`$, it is possible that TC2 models can make the theoretical predictions consistent with the experimental value of $`R_b`$. For $`A_{FB}^b`$, we have:

$$\frac{\delta A_{FB}^b}{A_{FB}^{b,SM}}=\frac{4(g_L^{b,SM})^2(g_R^{b,SM})^2}{(g_L^{b,SM})^4(g_R^{b,SM})^4}[\frac{\delta g_R^{b,B}}{g_R^{b,SM}}+\frac{\delta g_R^{b,Z^{}}}{g_R^{b,SM}}]$$
(8)
with

$$\frac{\delta g_R^{b,B}}{g_R^{b,SM}}=\frac{k_3}{6\pi }C_2(R)[\frac{m_Z^2}{M_B^2}\mathrm{ln}\frac{M_B^2}{m_Z^2}],\frac{\delta g_R^{b,Z^{}}}{g_R^{b,SM}}=\frac{k_1}{6\pi }(y_R^b)[\frac{m_Z^2}{M_Z^{}^2}\mathrm{ln}\frac{M_Z^{}^2}{m_Z^2}].$$
(9)
We have neglected the small $`\delta g_L^b`$ term in above equations. $`k_3`$ and $`k_1`$ are the coloron and the $`Z^{}`$ coupling constants, respectively, $`M_B`$ and $`M_Z^{}`$ are, respectively, the mass of $`B_\mu ^A`$ and $`Z^{}`$, $`C_2(R)=\frac{4}{3}`$ and $`Y_R^b=\frac{2}{3}`$. If we take $`k_3=2`$, $`k_1=1`$, and $`M_B=M_Z^{}=500GeV`$, we have $`\delta A_{FB}^b2.6\times 10^4`$, which is too small to explain the $`A_{FB}^b`$ experimental deviations from the SM prediction value. Thus, TC2 models can not fit both $`R_b`$ and $`A_{FB}^b`$ within the 1$`\sigma `$ bounds of the recent experimental data. If the deviation persist, TC2 models may be ruled out.

Several years ago, to generate a large top mass, a dynamical model was proposed in Ref. by B. Holdom. The model contains a fourth family, and members of the third and fourth families are composed of two ”families” of fermions $`f`$ and $`\underset{¯}{f}`$. The model also predicts the existence of the extra massive gauge boson $`\chi `$, which is a singlet under unbroken gauge symmetries and with a mass in the few hundred GeV to one TeV range. The gauge boson $`\chi `$ does not couple to the first and second families. It couples with a vector charge of $`g_\chi `$ to all members of the $`f`$ family and with a vector charge of -$`g_\chi `$ to all members of the $`\underset{¯}{f}`$ family. The mechanism producing a large top mass requires that the fourth family quark mass eigenstates $`t^{}`$ and $`b^{}`$ correspond to Dirac spinors of the form \[$`\underset{¯}{f}_L,f_R`$\], which are nearly degenerate. The t and b quarks correspond to \[ $`f_L`$, $`\underset{¯}{f}_R`$\], which implies that the gauge boson $`\chi `$ couples with the same axial coupling to the t and b quarks. The main effects of $`\chi `$ on the form factors $`g_L^b`$ and $`g_R^b`$ come from its mixing with the electroweak gauge boson $`Z`$, which can be written as :

$$\delta g_L^{b,\chi }=\delta g_R^{b,\chi }=\frac{e}{8S_wC_w}(\frac{m_t}{m_q^{}})^2,$$
(10)
where $`q^{}=(t^{},b^{})`$. If the dynamical $`t^{}`$ and $`b^{}`$ masses make the main contributions to the $`W`$ and $`Z`$ masses and the associated decay constant is $`F145GeV`$, then :

$$m_q^{}\sqrt{3}F\frac{m_\rho }{2f_\pi }1TeV.$$
(11)
Using Eq.(10) and (11), we can easily obtain $`\delta g_R^{b,\chi }/g_R^{b,SM}3.7\%`$, which is too small to explain the recent experimental data. The reason of generating too small corrections to $`g_R^b`$ is that EWSB is mainly induced by the dynamical $`t^{}`$ and $`b^{}`$ masses. If we change this assurance, this problem may be solved. In fact, EWSB may be induced by two or more kinds of new strong interactions at the same time or induced by the elementary scalar field. If we assume that EWSB is driven by the dynamical $`t^{}`$ and $`b^{}`$ masses and other strong interactions or a Higgs sector, we have:

$$3(xF)^2+\nu ^2=\nu _{w}^{}{}_{}{}^{2},$$
(12)
with $`x`$ is a free parameter, $`\nu _w246GeV`$ is the electroweak scale and $`\nu `$ represents the contributions of other strong interactions or a Higgs sector to EWSB. Then, the corrections of gauge boson $`\chi `$ to $`g_L^b`$ and $`g_R^b`$ can be approximately written as:

$$\delta g_L^{b,\chi }\delta g_R^{b,\chi }\frac{e}{8S_wC_wx^2}(\frac{m_t}{1TeV})^2.$$
(13)
Using the expression of $`\delta g_R^{b,N}/g_R^{b,SM}`$ in Eq.(7), we can constraint the free parameter $`x`$, which is in the range of $`0.280.41`$. This means that, to explain the recent experimental data of $`A_{FB}^b`$, the dynamical $`t^{}`$ and $`b^{}`$ masses must make only small contributions to EWSB and the associated decay constant is $`F_x4060GeV`$.

The equation (13) gives too large correction to $`\delta g_L^b`$ as compared to the constraint(7). But, if the scenario described above is indeed correct, it can predict the existence of new scalars with the decay constant $`F_x4060GeV`$. Similar to the top-pions, these new scalars have large Yukawa couplings to the third family quarks. Thus, these new scalars may have large positive contribution to $`g_L^b`$, which can partly cancel the large negative contributions of the extra gauge boson $`\chi `$ to $`g_L^b`$. So this new model might fit both $`R_b`$ and $`A_{FB}^b`$ within the 1 $`\sigma `$ bounds of the experimental data at the same time.

Other type of new models can also explain the recently experimental data. For example, the new model proposed by D. Chang et al is this case. This new model contains an exotic fourth family of quarks and leptons, which is free of anomalies, together with a heavy Higgs scalar triplet which supplies the neutrinos with Majorana masses. It has been shown  that if the top mass $`m_t`$ is actually larger than about 230 GeV, and the SM $`b_R`$ mixes with the exotic quark $`Q_1`$ of charge -$`\frac{1}{3}`$ of the doublet $`(Q_1,Q_4)_R`$, where $`Q_4`$ has charge -$`\frac{4}{3}`$, then this model can account for all the 1999 precision electroweak data . From Eq.(9) of Ref., we can see that this new model can fit both $`A_{FB}^b`$ and $`R_b`$ within the 1$`\sigma `$ bounds of the recent experimental data for $`0.035(\mathrm{sin}\theta _b)^20.072`$, where $`\theta _b`$ is the mixing angle of the SM $`b_R`$ and the exotic quark $`Q_1`$. The observed ”top quark” phenomenon at the Fermilab are assumed to be due to $`Q_4`$.

## 4 Model independent analysis with dimension-six operators

In the last several years, many authors  have studied the effects of the dimension-six CP conserving $`SU(3)_C\times SU(2)_L\times U(1)_Y`$ invariant operators on the observables $`R_b`$ and $`A_{FB}^b`$ by using effective Lagrangean techniques. In this section, we will use this method to model independent analysis of the corrections of NP to the observables $`R_b`$ and $`A_{FB}^b`$ and compare them with the recent experimental data.

If we assume that EWSB is dynamical driven by new strong interactions. This kind of NP may predict the existence of the operators $`O_{qB}`$, $`O_{bB}`$, in the notation of Ref.. These operators arise from the extra $`U(1)_Y`$ gauge boson B, which may have significantly contributions to $`g_L^b`$ and $`g_R^b`$. The corrections of the operators $`O_{qB}`$ and $`O_{bB}`$ to $`g_L^b`$, $`g_R^b`$ can be explicitly written as:

$$\delta g_L^{b,B}=\frac{2S_w^2C_w}{e}\frac{C_{qB}}{\mathrm{\Lambda }^2}k^2,\delta g_R^{b,B}=\frac{2S_w^2C_w}{e}\frac{C_{bB}}{\mathrm{\Lambda }^2}k^2,$$
(14)
where $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ is the NP scale. $`k=p_b+p_{\overline{b}}`$ is the momentum of the electroweak gauge boson $`Z`$ and $`C_{ij}`$ are coupling coefficients which represent the coupling strengths of the operators $`O_{ij}`$. From Eq.(14), we can see that the experimental measurement values of $`R_b`$ and $`A_{FB}^b`$ can give severe constrain on the free parameters of NP. If we demand that NP can fit both $`R_b`$ and $`A_{FB}^b`$ with 1$`\sigma `$ bounds of the recent experimental data at the same time, the value of the coupling coefficients $`C_{ij}`$ can be obtained by using Eq.(7). Explicitly

$$0.136C_{qB}0.604,1.61C_{bB}3.32.$$
(15)
In above estimation, we have taken $`\mathrm{\Lambda }1TeV`$, Thus, as long as Eq.(15) is satisfied, it is possible that this kind of NP models could explain the deviations of the $`R_b`$ and $`A_{FB}^b`$ experimental values from the SM predictions.

If we assume that EWSB is driven by elementary scalar fields, the operators $`O_{\varphi q}^{(1)}`$, $`O_{\varphi q}^{(3)}`$ and $`O_{\varphi b}`$ might exist in this kind of NP. Certainly, the operators $`O_{bw\varphi }`$ and $`O_{Db}`$ might also exist. However, the contributions of these operators to $`R_b`$ and $`A_{FB}^b`$ are proportional to $`m_b`$ and hence are negligible. The corrections of the operators $`O_{\varphi q}^{(1)}`$, $`O_{\varphi q}^{(3)}`$ and $`O_{\varphi b}`$ to the form factors $`g_L^b`$ and $`g_R^b`$ can be written as:

$$\delta g_L^{b,\varphi }=\frac{2S_wC_w}{e}\frac{\nu _wm_Z}{\mathrm{\Lambda }^2}(C_{\varphi q}^{(1)}+C_{\varphi q}^{(3)}),\delta g_R^{b,\varphi }=\frac{2S_wC_w}{e}\frac{\nu _wm_Z}{\mathrm{\Lambda }^2}C_{\varphi b}.$$
(16)
Using Eq.(7) and (16), we can obtain:

$$0.108C_{\varphi q}^{(1)}+C_{\varphi q}^{(3)}0.024,0.287C_{\varphi b}0.593,$$
(17)
which is required to have the theoretical values of both $`R_b`$ and $`A_{FB}^b`$ to lie within the $`1\sigma `$ bounds of the recent experimental data.

From Eq.(16) and (17), we can see that the contributions of the operators $`O_{\varphi q}^{(1)}`$, $`O_{\varphi q}^{(3)}`$ and $`O_{\varphi b}`$ to $`R_b`$ and $`A_{FB}^b`$ are larger than those of the operators $`O_{qB}`$ and $`O_{bB}`$. The NP models which can predict the operators $`O_{\varphi q}^{(1)}`$, $`O_{\varphi q}^{(3)}`$ and $`O_{\varphi b}`$ are more severely constrained by the experimental data. However, with appropriate parameter values, all of two kinds of NP models can fit both $`R_b`$ and $`A_{FB}^b`$ within the $`1\sigma `$ bounds of the experimental data at the same time.

## 5 Conclusions

The effective $`Zb\overline{b}`$ vertex can be parameterized in terms of two form factors $`g_L^b`$ and $`g_R^b`$. These two form factors can be determined by the observables $`R_b`$ and $`A_{FB}^b`$. Thus, using the new results of $`R_b`$ and $`A_{FB}^b`$, we can obtain the constrains of the experimental data on $`\delta g_L^{b,N}`$ and $`\delta g_R^{b,N}`$. On this basis, we discuss the contributions of some kinds of NP to $`\delta g_L^b`$ and $`\delta g_R^b`$, we find that some models, such as TC2 models, can not fit both $`R_b`$ and $`A_{FB}^b`$ within the $`1\sigma `$ bounds of new experimental data at the same time. However, some kinds of NP, for example, some modification of the model proposed in Ref. might explain the deviations of the new experimental data about observables $`R_b`$ and $`A_{FB}^b`$ from the SM predictions. Certainly, in the framework of these kinds of NP, model building must be studied extensively in the future. Lastly, we use effective Lagrangean techniques to model independent analysis of the corrections of NP to the observables $`R_b`$ and $`A_{FB}^b`$ and compare them with the recent experimental data. We find that, with appropriate parameter values, some kinds of NP models can fit the experimental data of the observables $`R_b`$ and $`A_{FB}^b`$ at the same time.

Figure captions

The 1$`\sigma `$ contours for $`R_b`$ and $`A_{FB}^b`$ in the $`\delta g_L^b\delta g_R^b`$ plane. The solid line represents that the contribution of NP makes the SM prediction value of $`R_b`$ and $`A_{FB}^b`$ to the centre value of the experimental data.


text:
# Dynamic transitions and resonances in Josephson-junction arrays under oscillating magnetic fields

## Abstract

We investigate dynamic transitions and stochastic resonance phenomena in two-dimensional fully frustrated Josephson-junction arrays driven by staggered oscillating magnetic fields. As the temperature is lowered, the dynamic order parameter, defined to be the average staggered magnetization, is observed to acquire nonzero values. The resulting transition is found to belong to the same universality as the equilibrium $`\mathrm{Z}_2`$ transition for small driving amplitudes while large driving fields appear to induce deviation from the universality class. The transition is also manifested by the stochastic resonance peak of the signal-to-noise ratio, which develops above the transition temperature.

preprint: SNUTP 01-

The two-dimensional (2D) fully frustrated $`XY`$ model, which provides a good description of the fully frustrated Josephson-junction array (FFJJA), has attracted much attention for the past decades, with regard to the $`\mathrm{Z}_2`$ symmetry in addition to the U(1) symmetry present in the system.  Extensive studies have been devoted to the nature of the equilibrium transition in the system, leading to general consensus on double transitions with some controversy as to the critical behavior of the Z2 transition.  Recently, the kinetic Ising model, which is a prototype model with the Z2 symmetry, has been examined in the presence of oscillating magnetic fields.  It has been revealed that spontaneous symmetry breaking takes place for finite strength of the oscillating field  and that in two dimensions the transition belongs to the same universality class as the equilibrium 2D Ising transition.  The signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) has also been found to exhibit double peaks,  one above the transition temperature and the other below the transition temperature, the emergence of which has been explained in terms of the time-scale matching between the inherent relaxation time of the system and the external periodic driving.  Such interesting results in the kinetic Ising model invokes interest in the dynamics of the FFJJA, which possesses the same Z2 symmetry as the Ising model together with the additional continuous U(1) symmetry. Furthermore, unlike the Ising model, the FFJJA has real intrinsic dynamics derived from the Josephson relations and thus grants direct experimental realizations;  this makes the study of the FFJJA more attractive. It is a challenge to prepare oscillating fields which couples relevantly to the Z2 degrees of freedom in the FFJJA. One possible realization may be provided by a periodic array of magnetic particles  which is placed under the FFJJA and driven back and forth periodically.  There have been some studies on the dynamic properties of the FFJJA,  and very recently dynamic transitions were investigated in the FFJJA driven by uniform dc current.  However, no results are available yet about dynamic transitions and stochastic resonance (SR) phenomena in the presence of oscillating fields.

This paper investigates the dynamic behavior of the FFJJA in the presence of the transverse magnetic field, which is staggered in space and periodic in time, with attention paid to the dynamic transition and SR phenomena. At low temperatures the chirality in the FFJJA displays antiferromagnetic ordering, to which the staggered oscillating field plays the same role as the oscillating field in the kinetic Ising model. To describe the dynamic transition to the antiferromagnetic ordering, we define the dynamic order parameter as the staggered magnetization averaged over one period of the (staggered) driving field, and examine its behavior with respect to the amplitude and the frequency of the driving field as well as the temperature. For small driving amplitudes, the scaling plot strongly indicates that the transition belongs to the same universality as the equilibrium $`\mathrm{Z}_2`$ transition. On the other hand, as the driving amplitude is raised, apparent deviations can be observed in the scaling plot, suggesting a universality class different from the Z2 one. We also examine the SNR and find a peak above the transition temperature, disclosing the SR present in the system. The absence of the lower peak is discussed in relation to the relaxation time of the system.

We begin with the equations of motion for the phases $`\{\varphi _i\}`$ of the superconducting order parameters in superconducting grains forming an $`L\times L`$ square lattice. In the resistively-shunted-junction model with the fluctuating twist boundary conditions,  they read:

$$\underset{j}{}^{}\left[\frac{d\stackrel{~}{\varphi }_{ij}}{dt}+\mathrm{sin}(\stackrel{~}{\varphi }_{ij}𝐫_{ij}𝚫)+\eta _{ij}\right]=0,$$
(1)
where the primed summation runs over the nearest neighbors of grain $`i`$. We have used the abbreviations $`\stackrel{~}{\varphi }_{ij}\varphi _i\varphi _jA_{ij}`$ and $`𝐫_{ij}𝐫_i𝐫_j`$ with $`𝐫_i=(x_i,y_i)`$ denoting the position of grain $`i`$, and expressed the energy and the time in units of $`\mathrm{}I_c/2e`$ and $`\mathrm{}/2eRI_c`$, respectively, with the critical current $`I_c`$ and the shunt resistance $`R`$. The thermal noise current $`\eta _{ij}`$ is assumed to be white satisfying $`\eta _{ij}(t+\tau )\eta _{kl}(t)=2T\delta (\tau )(\delta _{ik}\delta _{jl}\delta _{il}\delta _{jk})`$ at temperature $`T`$ and the dynamics of the twist variables $`𝚫(\mathrm{\Delta }_x,\mathrm{\Delta }_y)`$ is governed by the equations

$$\frac{d\mathrm{\Delta }_a}{dt}=\frac{1}{L^2}\underset{ij_a}{}\left[\mathrm{sin}(\stackrel{~}{\varphi }_{ij}\mathrm{\Delta }_a)\frac{dA_{ij}}{dt}\right]+\eta _{\mathrm{\Delta }_a},$$
(2)
where $`L`$ is the system size, $`_{ij_a}`$ denotes the summation over all nearest-neighboring pairs in the $`a`$-direction $`(a=x,y)`$, and $`\eta _{\mathrm{\Delta }_a}`$ satisfies $`\eta _{\mathrm{\Delta }_a}(t+\tau )\eta _{\mathrm{\Delta }_a}(t)=(2T/L^2)\delta (\tau )`$. The gauge field $`A_{ij}(=A_{ji})`$, which incorporates the effects of the transverse magnetic field, takes the form

$$A_{ij}=\{\begin{array}{cc}0\hfill & \text{for }𝐫_j=𝐫_i+\widehat{𝐱},\hfill \\ \pi x_i+\pi (1)^{x_i+y_i}f_0\mathrm{sin}\mathrm{\Omega }t\hfill & \text{for }𝐫_j=𝐫_i+\widehat{𝐲},\hfill \end{array}$$
(3)
which corresponds to the combined uniform constant and staggered oscillating fields. The frustration, i.e., the flux in units of the flux quantum through the plaquette at the dual lattice site $`𝐑_i𝐫_i+(1/2)(\widehat{𝐱}+\widehat{𝐲})`$ thus consists of the uniform full dc component and the staggered ac component of amplitude $`f_0`$ and frequency $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$:

$$f_{𝐑_𝐢}=\frac{1}{2}+(1)^{x_i+y_i}f_0\mathrm{sin}\mathrm{\Omega }t.$$
(4)
For the study of the transition associated with the Z2 symmetry in the FFJJA, it is convenient to consider the chirality

$$C(𝐑,t)\mathrm{sgn}\left[\underset{P}{}\mathrm{sin}\left(\stackrel{~}{\varphi }_{ij}(t)𝐫_{ij}𝚫(t)\right)\right]$$
(5)
and the staggered magnetization

$$m(t)\frac{1}{L^2}\underset{𝐑}{}(1)^{x_i+y_i}C(𝐑,t),$$
(6)
where $`_P`$ denotes the directional plaquette summation of links around dual lattice site $`𝐑`$. To probe the dynamic transition in the presence of an oscillating field, we define the dynamic order parameter as the staggered magnetization averaged over the period of the field

$$Q=\frac{\mathrm{\Omega }}{2\pi }\left|m(t)𝑑t\right|.$$
(7)
In numerical simulations, the sets of equations of motion (1) and (2) have been integrated via the modified Euler method with time steps $`\mathrm{\Delta }t=0.05`$. We have followed an annealing schedule with the equilibration time at least 500 periods at each temperature.

In the fully frustrated array, it is well known that its Z2 symmetry produces two kinds of antiferromagnetic chirality ordering at zero temperature. The staggered driving field in Eq. (4), which favors one of the two ground states in the first half of a period and the other in the latter half, is expected to induce oscillations between the two ground states when the driving amplitude is sufficiently large. Figure 1 displays the time evolution of the staggered magnetization $`m(t)`$ at zero temperature, with the initial condition $`m(t=0)=1`$, for various amplitudes of the driving field. For $`f_0<f_c`$ (which is equal to 0.5 regardless of the driving frequency), the system remains in the state with $`m=1`$ even in the presence of the driving field. As the amplitude is increased beyond the critical value $`f_c`$, the system is driven out of the $`m=1`$ state, giving rise to oscillations in the staggered magnetization between $`m=\pm 1`$. It is interesting that the residence time in one state is different from that in the other. Accordingly, for $`f_0>f_c`$, although the dynamic order parameter is not unity, it still does not vanish. ¿From Eq. (4), we expect the array to stay at the $`m=1`$ state only during the interval given by $`f_0\mathrm{sin}\mathrm{\Omega }t<1/2`$; this leads to the dynamic order parameter for $`f_0>f_c`$,

$$Q(f_0)=1\frac{2}{\pi }\mathrm{cos}^1\frac{1}{2f_0},$$
(8)
which depends on the driving amplitude $`f_0`$ but not on the driving frequency $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$. In Fig. 2 we plot the dynamic order parameter $`Q`$ versus the amplitude $`f_0`$ at zero temperature. The numerical data indeed agree very well with the analytical results given by Eq. (8), establishing the validity of the analytical argument.

At sufficiently high temperatures, the influence of the oscillating field may be neglected and the staggered magnetization fluctuates randomly with time, resulting in the null value of the dynamic order parameter. Accordingly, we expect that there is a transition between the ordered state at low temperatures and the disordered state at high temperatures. Figure 3, in which the behavior of $`Q`$, the ensemble average of the dynamic order parameter, with the temperature is plotted for various driving frequencies, demonstrates clearly the existence of such a transition: The dynamic order parameter, starting from zero at high temperatures, develops as the temperature is reduced. It then grows rapidly around a certain temperature, from which the transition temperature $`T_c`$ can be inferred, and saturates eventually as the temperature approaches zero. The saturation value assumed by the dynamic order parameter at zero temperature is unity for $`f_0<f_c`$, as shown in Fig. 3(a); for $`f_0>f_c`$, it is given by Eq. (8) \[see Fig. 3(b)\]. It is indicated that in both cases the transition temperature becomes higher with the increase of the driving frequency $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$.

The transition temperature in the thermodynamic limit can be conveniently obtained from the consideration of Binder’s cumulant

$$U_L=1\frac{Q^4}{3Q^2^2}.$$
(9)
This quantity is known to be independent of the system size at the transition temperature $`T_c`$, which allows one to estimate the transition temperature by the crossing point of the cumulants for different sizes. \[See the inset of Fig. 4, in which the cumulant is plotted as a function of the temperature $`T`$ for various system sizes.\] In this manner we have estimated the transition temperature for various values of the driving amplitude $`f_0`$ and frequency $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$, and show in Fig. 4 the resulting phase diagram for the dynamic transition on the $`Tf_0`$ plane. For given frequency $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$, the transition temperature decreases monotonically with the driving amplitude $`f_0`$, similarly to the case of the kinetic Ising model. As $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ is increased, on the other hand, the transition temperature also increases, expanding the ordered region on the $`Tf_0`$ plane. It is thus concluded that high-frequency driving helps to establish order whereas large-amplitude one tends to suppress order. It should be noted here that the cooling and heating curves for the dynamic order parameter do not exhibit any hysteresis in the strong-field regime. This apparently indicates the absence of a tricritical point, above which the system undergoes a discontinuous transition, and contrasts sharply with the kinetic Ising models under oscillating fields both in the mean-field version  and in two dimensions.

Regarding the nature of the transition, it is revealing to recall that the system at zero temperature, residing in one of the two ($`m=\pm 1`$) states for $`f_0<f_c`$, displays oscillations between the two states as $`f_0`$ is raised beyond $`f_c`$. This suggests that the critical behavior near the transition may change qualitatively at $`f_0=f_c`$. To probe such possibility, we consider the scaling law for the dynamic order parameter

$$Q=L^{\beta /\nu }F((TT_c)L^{1/\nu })$$
(10)
with appropriate scaling function $`F(x)`$ and plot $`QL^{\beta /\nu }`$ versus $`(TT_c)L^{1/\nu }`$ in Fig. 5 for various sizes. Figure 5(a) shows the best collapse of the numerical data for $`f_0=0.3`$, yielding the critical exponents $`\beta =0.10\pm 0.02`$ and $`\nu =0.82\pm 0.05`$; these values provide good collapse in the whole range of $`f_0<f_c`$. Note the good agreement of the obtained exponents with those of the equilibrium transition , which strongly suggests that the dynamic transition at weak driving fields belongs to the same universality class as the equilibrium Z2 transition in the fully frustrated $`XY`$ model. Similar conclusion was also reached in the kinetic Ising model under oscillating fields.  For $`f>f_c`$, on the other hand, the scaling plot with the same critical exponents, apparently does not collapse into a single curve. Such dispersion, which begins to show up around $`f_0=f_c`$, indicates deviation of the critical behavior from that of the equilibrium Z2 transition, manifesting the expected change of the nature of the transition at $`f_0=f_c`$. Instead the data fit well to the scaling form in Eq. (10) with $`\beta =0.36\pm 0.08`$ and $`\nu =0.9\pm 0.1`$, as shown in Fig. 5(b) for $`f_0=0.8`$. These values of the exponents, estimated from the best collapse for $`f_0>f_c`$, turn out to be independent of $`f_0`$ within numerical errors.

Finally, to explore the possibility of the SR phenomena in the system, we compute the SNR defined to be

$$\mathrm{SNR}=10\mathrm{log}_{10}\left[\frac{S}{N}\right].$$
(11)
Here the signal $`S`$ is given by the peak value of the power spectrum of $`m(t)`$ at the driving frequency $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ while the background noise level $`N`$ is estimated by the average power spectrum around the signal peak. Figure 6 displays the SNR versus the temperature (a) for weak driving $`(f_0=0.1)`$ and (b) for strong driving $`(f_0=0.6)`$. For $`f_0<f_c`$ shown in (a), the SNR peak emerges above the transition temperature and signals the presence of the SR in the system, which is reminiscent of the SR behavior of the kinetic Ising field in weak oscillating fields.  For $`f_0>f_c`$ one may expect monotonic decrease of the SNR with the temperature since the array has inherent oscillations of the staggered magnetization $`m(t)`$ even at zero temperature. This expectation appears to be valid at low temperatures as shown in Fig. 6(b). As the temperature is raised, however, the SNR changes its behavior: Sharp decrease of the SNR turns into gradual increase seemingly at the transition temperature and into gradual decrease again above the transition temperature, giving rise to a small broad peak.

Here it is of interest that the system exhibits no peak below the dynamic transition, which seems to be in contradiction to the prediction of the double SR peaks, one below and the other above the dynamic transition temperature.  The origin of the double peaks is the time-scale matching between the external periodic driving and the relaxation time associated with the transition in the system. To disclose the origin of the discrepancy, we examine the relaxation of the system from random initial configurations at given temperatures, and estimate the relaxation time $`\tau `$ by fitting $`Q(t)Q`$ to the exponential form $`\mathrm{exp}[t/\tau ]`$ in the long-time scale. The inverse of the resulting relaxation time for $`f_0=0.1`$ is shown in Fig. 7. As expected, the inverse relaxation time increases with the temperature above $`T_c`$, which is consistent with the critical behavior

$$\tau ^1(TT_c)^{\nu z}$$
(12)
with the critical exponents given by the equilibrium values $`\nu =0.813\pm 0.005`$ and $`z=2.17\pm 0.04`$ Thus supported again is the proposition that the dynamic transition under weak driving fields belongs to the same universality class as the equilibrium transition. At low temperatures below $`T_c`$, on the other hand, it is observed that the relaxation time is enhanced enormously. Due to such enhancement of the relaxation time below $`T_c`$, the system fails to match the external time scale, which is estimated to be $`\tau ^10.032`$ from the SNR peak above $`T_c`$. The origin of the enhancement at low temperatures is not clear yet, but it can be attributed to the existence of a large number of metastable states associated with, e.g., domain-wall excitations, which cannot be observed in the mean-field system considered in Ref. . Indeed faceted domain walls have been pointed out to cause slow growth in the FFJJA below $`T_R0.3`$ where the enhancement of the relaxation-time data is conspicuous in Fig. 7. This strongly supports our argument concerning the failure of time-scale matching.

In summary, we have studied dynamic properties of the 2D FFJJA driven by staggered oscillating magnetic fields, paying attention to the dynamic transition and SR phenomena. To describe the dynamic transition to the antiferromagnetic ordering of the chirality in the system, we have introduced the dynamic order parameter, which is the staggered magnetization averaged over one period of the staggered driving field, and examined its behavior with respect to the amplitude and the frequency of the driving field as well as the temperature. The transition temperature has been computed by means of Binder’s cumulants for various driving amplitudes and frequencies, and as a result, the phase diagram displaying boundaries of the dynamic transition has been obtained on the plane of the temperature and the driving amplitude for various driving frequencies. While the scaling analysis for weak driving has demonstrated the universality of the equilibrium $`\mathrm{Z}_2`$ transition, a universality class different from the Z2 one has been suggested for strong driving. We have also examined the SNR and found a peak above the transition temperature, disclosing the SR present in the system. The absence of the lower peak has been discussed in relation to the relaxation time of the system and attributed to the striking increase at low temperatures.

This work was supported in part by the Ministry of Education of Korea through the BK21 Program (H.J.K and M.Y.C.) and by the Swedish Natural Research Council through Contract No. F 5102-659/2001 (B.J.K. and P.M.).