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# 1 Introduction

## 1 Introduction

Much progress has been made in our understanding of Liouville quantum field theory since Polyakov discovered its relevance to subcritical string theory . In particular, bootstrap ideas have led to proposals for the exact three point correlators

$`e^{2\alpha _1\varphi (x_1)}e^{2\alpha _2\varphi (x_2)}e^{2\alpha _3\varphi (x_3)}=|x_{12}|^{2\gamma _3}|x_{23}|^{2\gamma _1}|x_{31}|^{2\gamma _2}C(\alpha _1,\alpha _2,\alpha _3)`$ (1)
of the exponentials of the Liouville field, whose dynamics is given by the Lagrangian

$`={\displaystyle \frac{1}{4\pi }}(\varphi )^2\mu e^{2b\varphi }.`$ (2)
Here the Liouville field theory is imagined to be defined on a two dimensional sphere.

Many years ago, a systematic weak coupling expansion for the Liouville theory, defined on a flat cylinder and quantized using standard canonical methods, was developed by Braaten, Curtright, Ghandour, and Thorn . In this treatment the zero mode of the Liouville field was treated exactly by its Liouville quantum mechanics, but the nonzero modes were treated perturbatively. In this way a weak coupling ($`b0`$) expansion to any finite order could be developed for matrix elements of products of an arbitrary number of operators $`e^{2b\sigma _i\varphi (x_i)}`$ between energy eigenstates. In particular, the matrix element of $`e^{2b\sigma \varphi }`$ between energy eigenstates with energies of order $`O(b^2)`$ was expanded up to and including $`O(b^{10})`$ terms. Since this matrix element is directly related to the three point correlator for which an exact answer has been proposed, we thought it would be useful to check whether the exact proposal agreed with the much older weak coupling calculation. In this brief note we show that there is exact detailed agreement to the order calculated. This is important, first because it gives another piece of evidence in favor of the proposed exact formula, and secondly because it confirms the reliability of standard canonical methods in the quantization of quantum field theory.

The matrix element of a product of $`n2`$ exponentials on the cylinder is related to the correlator of $`n`$ exponentials on a sphere by associating the states with two points on the sphere represented on the complex plane by, say $`x_1=0`$ and $`x_n=\mathrm{}`$. Putting $`\alpha _1=Q/2+iP`$ and $`\alpha _n=Q/2+iP^{}`$, with $`P,P^{}`$ real, the energies of the two states participating in the matrix element are given by $`E=2P^2`$ and $`E^{}=2P^2`$. Then the matrix elements calculated in Ref.  were those of the operator $`e^{2b\sigma \varphi }`$ between states with $`P=bk`$ and $`P^{}=bk^{}`$, and they were expanded in an asymptotic series in the limit $`b0`$. In the following section we first develop the special function $`\mathrm{{\rm Y}}(b\sigma )`$, which figures in the proposed formula for the exact three point function, in an asymptotic series for $`b0`$ with $`\sigma `$ fixed. Using this result in the exact formula, we then expand the proposed three point function to $`O(b^{10})`$ and find complete agreement with the results of .

## 2 The Comparison

### 2.1 The Upsilon Function

The construction of the Liouville three point function  (for a recent review of Liouville Theory, see ) employs the the special function $`\mathrm{{\rm Y}}(x)`$ which satisfies the functional relations

$`\mathrm{{\rm Y}}(x+b)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }(bx)}{\mathrm{\Gamma }(1bx)}}b^{12bx}\mathrm{{\rm Y}}(x)`$ (3)
$`\mathrm{{\rm Y}}(x+1/b)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }(x/b)}{\mathrm{\Gamma }(1x/b)}}b^{1+2x/b}\mathrm{{\rm Y}}(x).`$ (4)
To analyze the limit $`b0`$ define $`g(x)=b^{x^2bx}\mathrm{{\rm Y}}(x)`$. Then it is appropriate to focus on the first of these relations which becomes in terms of $`g`$

$`g(x+b)={\displaystyle \frac{b\mathrm{\Gamma }(bx)}{\mathrm{\Gamma }(1bx)}}g(x).`$ (5)
First examine the $`b0`$ limit with $`\sigma =x/b`$ fixed. Define $`f(\sigma )=b^\sigma \mathrm{\Gamma }(\sigma )g(b\sigma )`$ so we have

$`f(\sigma +1)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }(1+b^2\sigma )}{\mathrm{\Gamma }(1b^2\sigma )}}f(\sigma )`$ (6)
$`=`$ $`f(\sigma )\mathrm{exp}\left\{2\gamma b^2\sigma 2{\displaystyle \underset{n=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}{\displaystyle \frac{\zeta (2n+1)}{2n+1}}(b^2\sigma )^{2n+1}\right\}.`$ (7)
We can develop a solution of this equation in perturbation theory by making the ansatz

$`f(\sigma )=f_0\mathrm{exp}\left\{b^2\gamma \varphi _1(\sigma )+{\displaystyle \underset{n=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}b^{2(2n+1)}{\displaystyle \frac{\zeta (2n+1)}{2n+1}}\varphi _{2n+1}(\sigma )\right\}`$ (8)
with $`\varphi _n(\sigma )`$ a polynomial of order $`n+1`$, vanishing at $`\sigma =0`$ and satisfying the relation

$`\varphi _n(\sigma +1)`$ $`=`$ $`\varphi _n(\sigma )2\sigma ^n`$ (9)
A generating function for the $`\varphi `$’s is

$`{\displaystyle \underset{n=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}{\displaystyle \frac{\eta ^n}{n!}}\varphi _n(\sigma )2{\displaystyle \frac{e^{\eta \sigma }1}{e^\eta 1}}.`$ (10)
Since this generating function has a finite radius of convergence, determined by the singularities closest to the origin ($`\eta =\pm 2\pi i`$), it follows that the $`\varphi _n(\sigma )`$ grow like $`n!`$ so the perturbation series diverges for finite $`b`$ and is only an asymptotic series. We list the first 3 $`\varphi _{2n+1}`$:

$`\varphi _1(\sigma )`$ $`=`$ $`\sigma (1\sigma )`$ (11)
$`\varphi _3(\sigma )`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\sigma ^2(1\sigma )^2`$ (12)
$`\varphi _5(\sigma )`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{6}}\sigma ^2(1\sigma )^2(2\sigma ^22\sigma 1)`$ (13)
Summarizing, we have obtained the asymptotic expansion, for $`b0`$ and $`\sigma `$ fixed:

$`\mathrm{{\rm Y}}(b\sigma )=b\mathrm{{\rm Y}}_0{\displaystyle \frac{b^{b^2\sigma ^2+(b^21)\sigma }}{\mathrm{\Gamma }(\sigma )}}\mathrm{exp}\left\{b^2\gamma \varphi _1(\sigma )+{\displaystyle \underset{n=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}b^{2(2n+1)}{\displaystyle \frac{\zeta (2n+1)}{2n+1}}\varphi _{2n+1}(\sigma )\right\}`$ (14)
where we have determined $`f_0`$ in terms of $`\mathrm{{\rm Y}}_0\mathrm{{\rm Y}}^{}(0)`$ via $`f_0=b\mathrm{{\rm Y}}_0`$

The conditions so far imposed to get this result would also be satisfied if (8) and hence (14) were multiplied by a periodic function $`X(\sigma )=X(\sigma +1)`$, with $`X(0)=1`$We thank J. Teschner for raising this issue. To show that in fact $`X(\sigma )1`$, we refer to the theory of double gamma functions , which defines them by

$`{\displaystyle \frac{d^3}{dz^3}}\mathrm{ln}\mathrm{\Gamma }_2(z|\omega _1,\omega _2)`$ $``$ $`2{\displaystyle \underset{m,n=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{(z+m\omega _1+n\omega _2)^3}}`$ (15)
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{d^3}{dz^3}}\mathrm{ln}\mathrm{\Gamma }(z/\omega _1){\displaystyle _0^{\mathrm{}}}𝑑t{\displaystyle \frac{t^2e^{zt}}{(e^{\omega _2t}1)(1e^{\omega _1t})}}.`$
The function $`\mathrm{{\rm Y}}`$ is defined in terms of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_2(z|b,1/b)`$. Clearly, this equation fixes $`\mathrm{ln}\mathrm{\Gamma }_2`$ only up to an additive quadratic polynomial in $`z`$, which is fixed by the functional relations $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_2`$ must satisfy. Nevertheless, setting $`\omega _1=b=1/\omega _2`$, the right side of (15) can be developed in an expansion for small $`b^2>0`$ which can be seen to be consistent with the detailed ansatz (8), up to an undetermined additive quadratic polynomial in the exponent. Since this ansatz led uniquely to (14), we conclude that $`X(\sigma )=\mathrm{exp}(\alpha \sigma ^2+\beta \sigma )`$. Periodicity in $`\sigma `$ with period $`1`$ implies then that $`\alpha =0`$ and $`\beta =2\pi Ni`$ for some integer $`N`$. But since $`\mathrm{{\rm Y}}`$ is a real analytic function, we conclude that in fact $`N=0`$ so (14) is indeed the correct asymptotic expansion for small $`b`$.

### 2.2 Formula for the Liouville Three Point Function

Ref.  propose the following three point function for Liouville quantum field theory:

$`C(\alpha _1,\alpha _2,\alpha _3)`$ $`=`$ $`\left[\pi \mu b^{2b^2}{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }(1+b^2)}{\mathrm{\Gamma }(1b^2)}}\right]^{(Q{\scriptscriptstyle \alpha _i})/b}`$ (16)
$`\times {\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{{\rm Y}}_0\mathrm{{\rm Y}}(2\alpha _1)\mathrm{{\rm Y}}(2\alpha _2)\mathrm{{\rm Y}}(2\alpha _3)}{\mathrm{{\rm Y}}(\alpha _1+\alpha _2+\alpha _3Q)\mathrm{{\rm Y}}(\alpha _1+\alpha _2\alpha _3)\mathrm{{\rm Y}}(\alpha _1+\alpha _2+\alpha _3)\mathrm{{\rm Y}}(\alpha _1\alpha _2+\alpha _3)}}`$
We would like to compare this formula with the perturbation expansion of Liouville on a cylinder given by Braaten, Curtright, Ghandour, and Thorn . For that purpose two of the $`\alpha `$’s, say 1 and 3, must be of the form $`iP+Q/2`$ with $`P`$ real. These would represent the states at $`t=\pm \mathrm{}`$. So write $`\alpha _1=ibk+Q/2`$ and $`\alpha _3=ibk^{}+Q/2`$. The third one is taken to be of $`O(b)`$: $`\alpha _2=b\sigma `$. Then the arguments of all of the $`\mathrm{{\rm Y}}`$’s are small after exploiting the identity $`\mathrm{{\rm Y}}(x)=\mathrm{{\rm Y}}(Qx)`$. We have

$`2\alpha _1=Q+2ibk2ibk,2\alpha _2`$ $`=`$ $`2b\sigma ,2\alpha _3=Q+2ibk^{}2ibk^{}`$ (17)
$`\alpha _1+\alpha _2+\alpha _3Q`$ $`=`$ $`ib(k+k^{})+b\sigma `$ (18)
$`\alpha _1+\alpha _2+\alpha _3`$ $`=`$ $`ib(k^{}k)+b\sigma `$ (19)
$`\alpha _1+\alpha _2\alpha _3`$ $`=`$ $`ib(k^{}k)+b\sigma `$ (20)
$`\alpha _1\alpha _2+\alpha _3`$ $`=`$ $`Q+ib(k^{}+k)b\sigma ib(k^{}+k)+b\sigma `$ (21)
Inserting these results into the formula gives

$`C(\alpha _1,\alpha _2,\alpha _3)`$ $`=`$ $`\left[\pi \mu b^{2b^2}{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }(1+b^2)}{\mathrm{\Gamma }(1b^2)}}\right]^{\sigma ikik^{}}`$ (22)
$`\times {\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{{\rm Y}}_0\mathrm{{\rm Y}}(2ibk)\mathrm{{\rm Y}}(2b\sigma )\mathrm{{\rm Y}}(2ibk^{})}{\mathrm{{\rm Y}}(b(\sigma +ik+ik^{}))\mathrm{{\rm Y}}(b(\sigma ikik^{}))\mathrm{{\rm Y}}(b(\sigma +ikik^{}))\mathrm{{\rm Y}}(b(\sigma ik+ik^{}))}}`$
Let us note that a factor of the form $`e^{\xi x^2}`$ contributing to $`\mathrm{{\rm Y}}(x)`$ will always cancel in the three point formula between numerator and denominator. This is simply because

$`(\sigma +ik+ik^{})^2+(\sigma ikik^{})^2+(\sigma +ikik^{})^2+(\sigma ik+ik^{})^2=(2\sigma )^2+(2ik)^2+(2ik^{})^2,`$
the cross terms all canceling. On the other hand, a factor of the form $`e^{\xi x}`$ does not cancel between numerator and denominator, and it yields a net factor $`e^{b\xi (2ik2ik^{}2\sigma )}`$.

We now substitute Eq. 14 in the Eq. 22. Gathering the contributions of the factors multiplying the exponential in Eq. 14 and setting the $`b^2=0`$ in the gamma functions in the square brackets leads to the zeroth approximation

$`C_0(k,\sigma ,k^{})`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{b}}\left[\pi \mu b^{2b^2}\right]^{\sigma ikik^{}}b^{2(b^21)(\sigma +ik+ik^{})}`$ (23)
$`\times {\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }(\sigma +ik+ik^{})\mathrm{\Gamma }(\sigma ikik^{})\mathrm{\Gamma }(\sigma +ikik^{})\mathrm{\Gamma }(\sigma ik+ik^{})}{\mathrm{\Gamma }(2ik)\mathrm{\Gamma }(2\sigma )\mathrm{\Gamma }(2ik^{})}}`$
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{b}}\left[{\displaystyle \frac{b^2}{\pi \mu }}\right]^{\sigma +ik+ik^{}}{\displaystyle \frac{|\mathrm{\Gamma }(\sigma +ik+ik^{})\mathrm{\Gamma }(\sigma +ikik^{})|^2}{\mathrm{\Gamma }(2ik)\mathrm{\Gamma }(2\sigma )\mathrm{\Gamma }(2ik^{})}}`$ (24)
This is to be compared to Eq. (12) of Ref.  after translating the parameters of that work to the ones used here:

$`g=b\sqrt{2\pi },m=b\sqrt{\mu \pi },\alpha =2\sigma ,k^{},k^{\prime \prime }2k,2k^{}.`$ (25)
In this dictionary quantities on the left are those of Ref.  and those on the right are those of the current work. Then the formula from the older work becomes

$`2k^{}|e^{2g\sigma q}|2k`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2(2\pi )^{3/2}b}}\left[{\displaystyle \frac{b^2}{\pi \mu }}\right]^\sigma {\displaystyle \frac{|\mathrm{\Gamma }(\sigma +ik+ik^{})\mathrm{\Gamma }(\sigma +ikik^{})|^2}{\mathrm{\Gamma }(2\sigma )|\mathrm{\Gamma }(2ik)\mathrm{\Gamma }(2ik^{})|}}.`$ (26)
We see that the two formulae agree up to a phase redefinition of the initial and final states and an overall normalization constant independent of the states, operator, and coupling constant.

Next we turn to the perturbative corrections to the zeroth order result. These are contained in the ratio of gamma functions inside the square brackets as well as the contribution of the exponentials in Eq. 14 to the ratio of upsilon functions in (22). Define

$`\mathrm{\Phi }_{2n+1}`$ $``$ $`\varphi _{2n+1}(2\sigma )+\varphi _{2n+1}(2ik)+\varphi _{2n+1}(2ik^{})`$ (27)
$`2\mathrm{R}\mathrm{e}\varphi _{2n+1}(\sigma +ik+ik^{})2\mathrm{R}\mathrm{e}\varphi _{2n+1}(\sigma +ikik^{}).`$
Then the perturbative corrections are contained in a factor

$`F`$ $`=`$ $`\left[{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }(1+b^2)}{\mathrm{\Gamma }(1b^2)}}\right]^{\sigma ikik^{}}\mathrm{exp}\left\{b^2\gamma \mathrm{\Phi }_1+{\displaystyle \underset{n=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}b^{4n+2}{\displaystyle \frac{\zeta (2n+1)}{2n+1}}\mathrm{\Phi }_{2n+1}\right\}`$ (28)
$`=`$ $`\mathrm{exp}\left\{b^2\gamma (\mathrm{\Phi }_1+2(\sigma +ik+ik^{}))+{\displaystyle \underset{n=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}b^{4n+2}{\displaystyle \frac{\zeta (2n+1)}{2n+1}}\left(\mathrm{\Phi }_{2n+1}+2(\sigma +ik+ik^{})\right)\right\}`$ (29)
In the weak coupling calculations of  the factor $`F`$ was evaluated through order $`O(g^{10})`$, and it is of interest to compare those results with the exact proposal. So we work out the first three $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$’s:

$`\mathrm{\Phi }_1`$ $`=`$ $`2ik2ik^{}2\sigma `$ (30)
$`\mathrm{\Phi }_3`$ $`=`$ $`6(k^2k^2)^212\sigma (\sigma 1)(k^2+k^2)6\sigma ^4+4\sigma ^3+i8(k^3+k^3)`$ (31)
$`\mathrm{\Phi }_5`$ $`=`$ $`20(k^2k^2)^2(k^2+k^2)10(k^2k^2)^220\sigma ^6+28\sigma ^510\sigma ^432ik^532ik^5`$ (32)
$`20\sigma ^2(1\sigma )^2(k^2+k^2)20\sigma (1\sigma )(k^4+6k^2k^2+k^4)`$
We see that the first term in the exponent cancels so that $`F`$ simplifies to

$`F=\mathrm{exp}\left\{{\displaystyle \underset{n=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}b^{4n+2}{\displaystyle \frac{\zeta (2n+1)}{2n+1}}\left(\mathrm{\Phi }_{2n+1}+2(\sigma +ik+ik^{})\right)\right\}.`$ (33)
Thus we immediately confirm the structure found in  that through $`O(b^{10})`$ the only nonvanishing terms are $`O(b^6)`$ and $`O(b^{10})`$. In fact, after translating the parameters from the older work to the ones in the current work, the values of those terms agree exactly with what we have found here.

The weak coupling calculational program given in  can of course be carried out to any desired order. For the three point function we have the exact answer so perturbation theory gives no additional information. However the main virtue of perturbation theory is that it can be applied to an arbitrarily complicated process. Thus it can give complementary information to bootstrap approaches.

Acknowledgments: I am grateful to J. Teschner for stimulating my interest in this exercise and for very helpful comments and discussions. I also thank N. Seiberg for helpful comments on the manuscript. This work was supported in part by the Monell Foundation and in part by the Department of Energy under Grant No. DE-FG02-97ER-41029.


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# The relative entropy of entanglement of Schmidt correlated states and distillation

## Abstract

We show that a mixed state $`\rho =_{mn}a_{mn}|mn|`$ can be realized by an ensemble of pure states $`\{p_k,|\varphi _k\}`$ where $`|\varphi _k=_m\sqrt{a_{mm}}e^{i\theta _m^k}|m`$. Employing this form, we discuss the relative entropy of entanglement of Schmidt correlated states. Also, we calculate the distillable entanglement of a class of mixed states.

Quantum entanglement is at the heart of many aspects of quantum information theory and responsible for many quantum tasks such as teleportation , dense coding , quantum error correction  etc. In this sense, it is nowadays viewed as a quantum resource. Intensive theoretical efforts were made to understand the mathematical structure of entanglement, qualitatively and quantitively. Among the entanglement measures, the relative entropy of entanglement  plays an important role. For general mixed states, the relative entropy of entanglement is hard to calculate. However, it can be calculated explicitly for the Schmidt correlated states . In this note, employing the particular realization form of mixed states, we easily deduce the properties of Schmidt correlated states. Generally, orthogonal states may be distinguished perfectly only by means of global measurements since the global information of orthogonality may be encoded in entanglement that may not be extracted by local operations and classical communication (LOCC). Bennett et al.  showed that a set of nine pairwise orthogonal product states in $`33`$ cannot be reliably distinguished by LOCC. Recently, Walgate et al.  demonstrated that any two orthogonal multipartite pure states could be distinguished with certainty by only LOCC operations. In general, more than two orthogonal entangled states cannot be discriminated if only LOCC operations are allowed. Ghosh et al.  related the distinction process with the distillation one and showed that any three Bell states cannot be discriminated by LOCC operations. Also, they calculated the distillable entanglement of a certain class of mixed states whose distillable entanglement attains the relative entropy of entanglement. We will generalize their result to the Schmidt correlated states of high dimensions.

Before we discuss the Schmidt correlated states, we give a particular realization form of a mixed state, which is very helpful.

Lemma: For a general mixed state $`\rho =_{mn}a_{mn}|mn|`$, there exists an ensemble of pure states $`\{p_k,|\varphi _k\}`$ realizing $`\rho `$, where $`|\varphi _k`$ is of the form $`|\varphi _k=_m\sqrt{a_{mm}}e^{i\theta _m^k}|m`$.

Proof: If $`\rho `$ could be realized by the ensemble $`\{p_k,|\varphi _k\}`$, then

$$\underset{k}{}p_k|\varphi _k\varphi _k|=\underset{mn}{}\sqrt{a_{mm}a_{nn}}\underset{k}{}p_ke^{i(\theta _m^k\theta _n^k)}|mn|=\underset{mn}{}a_{mn}|mn|.$$
(1)
That is

$$\sqrt{a_{mm}a_{nn}}\underset{k}{}p_ke^{i(\theta _m^k\theta _n^k)}=a_{mn},$$
(2)
should hold. From the positivity of $`\rho `$, we know $`\sqrt{a_{mm}a_{nn}}|a_{mn}|`$. For $`\rho `$ is a $`2\times 2`$ matrix, it is sufficient to prove that there exists $`\{p_k,\theta _1^k,\theta _2^k\}`$ satisfying $`\sqrt{a_{11}a_{22}}_kp_ke^{i(\theta _1^k\theta _2^k)}=a_{12}`$. Regard each term in the sum as a vector in the complex plane, it is easy to see that we can always choose $`\{p_k,\theta _{12}^k\}`$ satisfying $`_kp_ke^{i\theta _{12}^k}=\frac{a_{12}}{\sqrt{a_{11}a_{22}}}`$. In fact, there exist infinite solutions. Note also that $`p_k,k=1,\mathrm{},K`$, where $`K`$ could be any large number. It is important for our induction. Suppose that it is true for the case of $`(L1)\times (L1)`$ matrix. Then in the case of $`L\times L`$ matrix, $`\rho _L=_{mn}^La_{mn}|mn|`$. From the positivity of $`\rho _L`$, $`\stackrel{~}{\rho }_{L1}=_{mn}^{L1}a_{mn}|mn|`$ is also positive and can be normalized as a density matrix $`\rho _{L1}=\frac{1}{N}_{mn}^{L1}a_{mn}|mn|`$, where $`N=_{m=1}^{L1}a_{mm}`$. According to the supposition, it can be realized by $`\{p_k,|\varphi _k\}`$, where $`|\varphi _k=\frac{1}{\sqrt{N}}_{m=1}^{L1}\sqrt{a_{mm}}e^{i\theta _m^k}|m`$. Now suppose $`\rho _L`$ could be expressed as $`\rho _L=_{k=1}^Kp_k|\psi _k\psi _k|`$, where $`|\psi _k`$ are chosen as the following form

$$|\psi _k=\sqrt{N}|\varphi _k+\sqrt{a_{LL}}e^{i\theta _L^k}.$$
(3)
If there exist solutions for $`\theta _L^k`$, then the proof is completed. The $`\theta _L^k`$ must satisfy the following equations,

$$\underset{k=1}{\overset{K}{}}p_ke^{i(\theta _m^k\theta _L^k)}=\frac{a_{mL}}{\sqrt{a_{mm}a_{LL}}},(m=1,\mathrm{},L).$$
(4)
It is clear that there always exist solutions of $`\theta _L^k`$ for $`K>L`$. And indeed, $`K`$ could be any large number. So the proof is completed.

Employing the lemma, a particular realization form can be obtained for Schmidt correlated states. A bipartite mixed state $`\rho `$ is called as Schmidt correlated state if it can be expressed as $`\rho =_{mn}a_{mn}|mmnn|`$. Now we see immediately that Schmidt correlated state could be realized by an ensemble $`\{p_k,|\varphi _k\}`$, where $`|\varphi _k=_m\sqrt{a_{mm}}e^{i\theta _m^k}|mm`$. Each $`|\varphi _k`$ has the same Schmidt coefficients. Using this form, we discuss the properties of the Schmidt correlated state which were investigated in the papers .

The relative entropy of entanglement for a bipartite quantum state $`\rho `$ is defined by

$$E_r(\rho )=min_{\sigma 𝒟}S(\rho \sigma ),$$
(5)
where $`𝒟`$ is the set of all separable states, and $`S(\rho \sigma )=tr\rho (log\rho log\sigma )`$. Vedral and Plenio proved that $`E_r(\rho )`$ reduced to the von Neumann entropy of the reduced state of either side for pure bipartite state $`|\varphi _k=_m\sqrt{a_{mm}}|mm`$ and the optimal separable matrix $`\sigma ^{}=_ma_{mm}|mmmm|`$. Also, they showed that if $`\sigma ^{}`$ is optimal for $`\rho `$, then it is also optimal for $`\rho ^{^{}}=p_1\rho +p_2\sigma ^{}`$. Now we extend their theorem further.

Extended Vedral-Plenio theorem: If $`\rho _i`$ have the same $`\sigma ^{}𝒟`$ which minimize $`S(\rho _i\sigma ^{})`$, then $`\sigma ^{}`$ is also the optimal operator for $`\rho =_ip_i\rho _i`$.

Proof: From the definition of $`S(\rho \sigma )`$, it is sufficient to minimize $`tr\rho log\sigma =_ip_itr\rho _ilog\sigma `$. As $`\sigma ^{}`$ is optimal for $`\rho _i`$, we know

$$tr\rho _ilog\sigma ^{}=\underset{\sigma 𝒟}{inf}(tr\rho _ilog\sigma )tr\rho _ilog\sigma .$$
(6)
So $`\sigma ^{}`$ is optimal for $`\rho `$. It is clear to see the physical meaning of $`E_r(\rho )`$ after explicitly writing the expression of $`E_r(\rho )`$

$$E_r(\underset{i}{}p_i\rho _i)=\underset{i}{}p_iS(\rho _i\sigma ^{})\underset{i}{}p_iS(\rho _i\rho ).$$
(7)
The first term is the average quantum entanglement, while the second term is the lost classical information caused by mixing process. From the particular realization form of Schmidt correlated state and the extended Vedral-Plenio theorem, we immediately calculate the relative entropy of entanglement of Schmidt correlated states.

Corollary 1: For Schmidt correlated state $`\rho =_{mn}a_{mn}|mmnn|`$, the relative entropy of entanglement $`E_r(\rho )=S(\rho \sigma ^{})`$, where $`\sigma ^{}=_ma_{mm}|mmmm|`$.

Note that the same result has been obtained by Rains and Wu et al. Furthermore, we investigate the additivity of the relative entropy of entanglement of Schmidt correlated states.

Corollary 2: The relative entropy of entanglement for Schmidt correlated states are additive, i. e. for any two Schmidt correlated states $`\rho _1,\rho _2`$, $`E_r(\rho _1\rho _2)=E_r(\rho _1)+E_r(\rho _2)`$. Proof: The Schmidt correlated states $`\rho _1`$ and $`\rho _2`$ can be realized by $`\{p_i,|\varphi _i\}`$ and $`\{q_j,|\psi _j\}`$ respectively.

$$|\varphi _i=\underset{m}{}\sqrt{a_{mm}}e^{i\theta _m^i}|mm,|\psi _j=\underset{n}{}\sqrt{b_{nn}}e^{i\theta _n^j}|nn,$$
(8)
where $`a_{mm}`$ and $`b_{nn}`$ are the diagonal elements of $`\rho _1`$ and $`\rho _2`$, $`|m,|n`$ are two basis and not necessarily the same. All the $`|\varphi _i`$ have the same optimal separable state $`\sigma _1^{}=_ma_{mm}|mmmm|`$ as $`\rho _1`$ and$`|\psi _i`$ have $`\sigma _2^{}=_na_{nn}|nnnn|`$ as $`\rho _2`$.

$$\rho _1\rho _2=\underset{ij}{}p_iq_j|\varphi _i\varphi _i||\psi _j\psi _j|.$$
(9)
$`\rho _1\rho _2`$ is also a Schmidt correlated state. And $`\sigma _1^{}\sigma _2^{}`$ is the optimal separable state for the product pure states $`|\varphi _i|\psi _j`$, so it is the optimal one for $`\rho _1\rho _2`$.

$`E_r(\rho _1\rho _2)`$ $`=`$ $`S(\rho _1\rho _2\sigma _1^{}\sigma _2^{}),`$ (10)
$`=`$ $`tr\rho _1\rho _2log\rho _1\rho _2{\displaystyle \underset{ij}{}}p_iq_j|\varphi _i\varphi _i||\psi _j\psi _j|log\sigma _1^{}\sigma _2^{},`$ (11)
$`=`$ $`tr\rho _1(log\rho _1log\sigma _1^{})+tr\rho _2(log\rho _2log\sigma _2^{}),`$ (12)
$`=`$ $`E_r(\rho _1)+E_r(\rho _2).`$ (13)
So the relative entropy of entanglement is additive for Schmidt correlated states. The conclusion has been proved by Rains.

The subspace spanned by all the states in the range of any Schmidt correlated state $`\rho `$ is called as Schmidt correlated subspace of the state $`\rho `$. It is clear that all the pure states in the Schmidt correlated subspace have the same Schmidt basis in the Schmidt decomposition form. A set of pure states is called Schmidt correlated if they lie in the same Schmidt correlated subspace. Virmani et al.  discussed the notion of Schmidt correlated pure states, which was introduced by Rains as maximal correlated states. A set of Schmidt correlated pure states can always be discriminated locally as well as globally, regardless of which figures of merit are chosen. They investigated the conditions under which two pure states can be written in Schmidt correlated form and showed that any two maximally entangled states can always be expressed in Schmidt correlated form, thus showing that two maximally entangled states can always be discriminated locally according to any figures of merits. In the following, we will discuss a class of mixed states whose distillable entanglement can be calculated explicitly. This generalizes the result of Ghosh et al. In , the distillable entanglement of the mixed state of the form

$$\rho =\frac{1}{2}(|\mathrm{\Phi }_i^2\mathrm{\Phi }_i|+|\mathrm{\Phi }_j^2\mathrm{\Phi }_j|),$$
(14)
is shown to be one ebit, where $`|\mathrm{\Phi }_i,|\mathrm{\Phi }_j`$ are two different Bell states. We know any two Bell states are Schmidt correlated. If a set of Schmidt correlated pure states are orthogonal, they can be distinguished perfectly by local operations and classical communication even if they are entangled. We give the example in $`3\times 3`$ and it is easy to generalize to high dimensions. Three orthogonal states in the Schmidt correlated subspace $`V`$ spanned by $`\{|00,|11,|22\}`$ are generally of the form:

$$|e_i=\underset{j}{}u_{ij}|jj,i,j=0,1,2$$
(15)
where $`u_{ij}`$ are the elements of a unitary matrix. Under another basis $`\{|i^{^{}}\}`$

$`|0`$ $`=`$ $`|0^{^{}}+|1^{^{}}+|2^{^{}},`$ (16)
$`|1`$ $`=`$ $`|0^{^{}}+e^{i\frac{2}{3}\pi }|1^{^{}}+e^{i\frac{4}{3}\pi }|2^{^{}},`$ (17)
$`|2`$ $`=`$ $`|0^{^{}}+e^{i\frac{4}{3}\pi }|1^{^{}}+e^{i\frac{2}{3}\pi }|2^{^{}},`$ (18)
$`|e_i`$ can be expressed as

$`|e_i=|0^{^{}}(u_{i0}|0+u_{i1}|1+u_{i2}|2)+|1^{^{}}(u_{i0}|0+u_{i1}e^{i\frac{2}{3}\pi }|1+u_{i2}e^{i\frac{4}{3}\pi }|2)`$ (19)
$`+|2^{^{}}(u_{i0}|0+u_{i1}e^{i\frac{4}{3}\pi }|1+u_{i2}e^{i\frac{2}{3}\pi }|2),i=0,1,2.`$ (20)
The first party performs measurement in the basis $`\{|i^{^{}}\}`$, any outcome would project the second side onto an orthogonal basis. So the second party does measurement in the corresponding basis and tells which the state is. Now we calculate the distillable entanglement of a class of mixed states that are classical correlated between two sets of Schmidt correlated pure states,

$$\rho _{A1A_2B_1B2}=\frac{1}{N}\underset{i=1}{\overset{N}{}}|e_i_{A_1B_1}e_i||\varphi _i_{A_2B_2}\varphi _i|,$$
(21)
where $`|e_i=_ju_{ij}|jj`$ are an orthogonal basis in a Schmidt correlated subspace and $`|\varphi _i=_k\sqrt{\lambda _k}e^{i\theta _k^i}|kk`$. All the $`|\varphi _i`$ have the same optimal separable state $`\sigma ^{}=_k\lambda _k|kkkk|`$. Employing the distinction process for the distillation protocol, the distillable entanglement of $`\rho `$ in the bipartite cut of $`A_1A_2:B_1B_2`$ is at least $`S(|\varphi )`$, where $`S(|\varphi )=p_i\mathrm{log}p_i`$ is the entanglement of the pure state $`|\varphi `$. So we have an inequality

$$E_d(\rho )S(|\varphi )=\underset{i}{}\lambda _ilog\lambda _i.$$
(22)
The relative entropy of entanglement of $`\rho `$ can be explicitly calculated since $`\rho `$ is a Schmidt correlated state.

$$E_r(\rho )=S(|\varphi )=\underset{i}{}\lambda _ilog\lambda _i.$$
(23)
We know that the relative entropy of entanglement is an upper bound on the distillable entanglement, that is

$$E_r(\rho )E_d(\rho ).$$
(24)
So $`E_d(\rho )=E_r(\rho )`$ is obtained. The same reasoning has also been employed in . Notice that in order to discriminate the orthogonal pure states in the Schmidt correlated subspace, the entanglement has to be destroyed completely. This gives us a clue for calculating the distillable entanglement of the general Schmidt correlated state. We will investigate this problem further.

In summary, we find a particular realization form for a mixed state and employ it to discuss the relative entropy of entanglement of Schmidt correlated state. Also we provide a class of mixed states whose distillable entanglement can be calculated.

D. Yang thanks S. J. Gu and H. W. Wang for helpful discussion. The work is supported by the NNSF of China, the Special NSF of Zhejiang Province (Grant No.RC98022) and Guang-Biao Cao Foundation in Zhejiang University.


text:
# THE TARGET SILICON DETECTOR FOR THE FOCUS SPECTROMETER

## 1 Introduction

FOCUS is a Fermilab fixed target photoproduction (Average $`E_\gamma 180`$ GeV) experiment which has been configured to investigate the production and decay of charmed particles. The FOCUS experiment is an upgraded version of Fermilab experiment E687 . One of the significant improvements made to the E687 detector is the segmentation of the target and the installation of four supplementary silicon planes called the Target Silicon Strip Detector (TSSD).

In photoproduction, relatively long lived charm particles are principally identified by the separation between the primary production point within the target material and the secondary decay vertices of the charm particle and the anti-charm particle. Generally, only one of the two secondary vertices is identified. Secondary vertices which are identified outside of the target material are mainly due to particle decays. Inside the target material secondary vertices can result from secondary hadronic interactions as well as from decays. By searching for decays outside of the target material there is a significant improvement in signal to noise in charm particle mass plots. We used a target composed of beryllium oxide (BeO) because of its relatively high density, 3.0 gm/cm3, which allows for a compact target, and its low number of atomic electrons, which reduces the number of radiation lengths per interaction length. The principal drawback to a segmented target arrangement is that the target interaction region grows in length. If the only tracking measurements are made downstream of the target, then the spatial resolution of vertices is degraded as the decays occur more and more upstream. This loss in resolution can be reduced if additional silicon strip measurements are made inside the target region.

The FOCUS target region layout is schematically displayed in Fig. 1 and reconstructed vertices from charm are shown in Fig. 2. Each of the four BeO target segments is 3.0 cm square and 6.75 mm long. A 1.0 cm decay region follows each target segment. Two sets of TSSD plane doublets are located behind the second BeO target and behind the most downstream BeO target. The transverse size of the BeO target segments was chosen to match the photon beam profile. The TSSD planes are followed by a scintillator (TR1) used for triggering, four stations of Silicon Strip Detectors (SSD’s) with each station consisting of three silicon microvertex planes, and a second scintillator, (TR2). By demanding a hit in the TR1 scintillator we attempt to select interactions that occurred in the target region. A coincidence hit in TR2 reduces the number of spurious noise hits in TR1. The main vertex tracking is accomplished in the SSD’s and is described in detail in reference 3.

The components of the Target Silicon Strip Detector consist of 4, 25 micron pitch, 300 micron thick planes of silicon microstrip detector and the electronics necessary to amplify, digitize, and store the information. In Section 2 we describe the physical layout of a Target Silicon Strip plane and how the planes and target segments were mounted. In Section 3 we describe the readout electronics. In Section 4 we discuss how the hit information in the TSSD’s is matched up with the tracking information from the downstream SSD planes. In Section 5 we describe the performance of the TSSD. In section 6 we detail the use of the detector as a target rather than as an active detector.

## 2 Physical Description of the TSSD’s

Each target silicon wafer of 2048 channels has an active area of 5 cm square. The silicon wafer is wire-bonded onto a 15 cm square, 1 mm thick quartz plate. The central 1024 channels of the silicon wafer are fanned out on the quartz plate and wire-bonded to two flexible ribbons made of very thin circuit board material. The outer 1024 (512 on a side) channels are tied together and grounded making the effective active area of each plane 2.5 cm $`\times `$ 5 cm. The outer edge of each flexible ribbon is attached to a 132 pin Connei connector. A front and side view of a single plane is shown in Fig. 3. The planes were fabricated by MICRON SEMICONDUCTOR Limited  in England and were adapted from a WA85 Chip design. In order to provide greater rigidity and to allow for alignment the quartz plate is mounted onto a G-10 frame. Finally, two G-10 frames from a doublet are mounted onto a holding fixture. The holding fixture is held by bushings on low carbon steel rods which are fixed to a granite mounting. The segmented targets and the two doublets are supported by the steel rods. Precise location along the beam direction is performed using spacers on the steel rods. Finally, the planes and support structures were mounted inside a Faraday shielded, temperature controlled hut.

The two planes in each doublet are aligned at $`\pm `$45 degrees to the horizontal. Each plane has a coordinate in the same view as one of the views in the external SSD silicon array. The ribbons from each doublet of detectors are attached to an aluminum housing which has a separate connection to the granite support. The aluminum housing holds the individual Connei connectors and supports the front-end electronics. The advantage of this arrangement is that the front-end electronics support is disconnected from the individual silicon plane support and allows for the removal of the pre-amplifiers without damaging the wafer alignment.

We purchased five planes from MICRON SEMICONDUCTOR Limited in order to have one spare plane. All planes had a typical strip breakdown voltage in excess of 100 V. Other electrical properties for the five planes are presented in Table 1. We operated the planes with higher bias voltages (over-depletion) than the factory specified full depletion voltage listed in Table 1.

## 3 Readout Electronics of the TSSD’s

The signals from each of the individual silicon strips are fed through Connei connectors into MSP1 pre-amplifiers . The amplifiers are mounted on the aluminum support housing as shown in Fig. 4. The MSP1 pre-amplifiers have an intrinsic 20 ns rise time and about a 100 ns wide response to a 7 ns wide square pulse and have a good noise figure even in the presence of a high input capacitance (50 pF).222Both the added capacitance of a detector and resistance in the readout serve to increase the noise coming from a pre-amplifier.

The differential output signals from each group of MSP1’s are sent over 40 ft. long twisted pair cables that are bundled together and shielded with aluminum foil and clear packing tape. These bundles are then split into groups of 64 channels and read into electronics boards (AMP/DIG) that amplify and digitize the analog signals coming from the MSP1’s.

In the AMP/DIG boards, the signals pass through a 1:1 transformer to enhance isolation from the upstream electronics, and then are amplified by a factor of 50 using an AD8002 amplifier. The charge is integrated using an OPA660 diamond transistor as a non-feedback ns-integrator  to produce a voltage level for the CDX1172AM FADC chip (see Fig. 5). This voltage is sampled every 54 ns (3 accelerator buckets) and stored in a buffer memory. The RC decay time for the signal was chosen to be about 800 ns to lessen the variation of signal size for the 3 accelerator buckets covered by each sample.

When the experimental trigger fires, two signals in the buffer memory, one in–time and one 3 samples ($`162\mathrm{ns}`$) early, are fed into an arithmetic logic unit (ALU). The earlier sample is subtracted from the in–time sample.333The baseline subtraction helps reject low frequency common-mode noise as well as reduce the effects of pile-up. If the difference exceeds the threshold stored in the ALU for that channel, the FADC information is given a channel address and stored in an output buffer. Output buffers are read out sequentially across a crate of AMP/DIG boards.

The AMP/DIG boards are organized so that each silicon plane can be read out by one crate of electronics. Each crate holds 16 9U$`\times `$280 mm VME boards. Constants for each board are downloaded from a CAMAC controller board specially designed to both control a crate of AMP/DIG boards and organize the information from a crate into an event record. Each event record consists of 16 bit data words, a crate identification word, and a word count. The event records from all 4 crates are transmitted from the experimental hall to the counting house at ECL levels on a single twisted flat cable. Typically, all 4 crates are read out in less than $`15\mu \mathrm{s}`$. An average event record for a target silicon plane due to a charm containing event consists of about 6 channels of electronics noise which exceeds threshold, an additional 7 channels due to $`e^+e^{}`$ pair contamination, and 14 channels due to the particles created from the charm.

The profile of hits from regular photon data is presented in Fig. 6. The number of missing and inefficient channels is of order 1-2%. Due to charge sharing, a missing channel does not necessarily translate to a loss in efficiency but rather a loss in resolution.

## 4 Hit Reconstruction

To incorporate the TSSD’s in the track reconstruction, we refit existing SSD tracks in a staged process. The information from the closest (most downstream) planes of the TSSD is used first. Once refit with any available information from the downstream target silicon planes, the tracks are then extrapolated to the most upstream planes and refit again. All three categories of tracks, the original SSD track, the tracks refit using the downstream TSSD information (if any), and the tracks refit using information from all TSSD planes (if any) are saved for later vertex determination. This approach allows us to include multiple coulomb scattering effects in a natural way, use the well tested SSD tracking algorithm in a seamless way, and find the best solution for the refit track at a point nearest the decay and/or production vertex.

To begin the process, the SSD tracks are first refit taking into account multiple coulomb scattering in such a manner as to find the best fit for tracks entering the SSD system.444 SSD Tracks are originally fit to optimize momentum determination, i.e. to find the best parameters for tracks leaving the SSD system.

The refit SSD tracks are extrapolated to the two most downstream target silicon planes and a three sigma search radius (about 1-2 strips typically) is identified to search for hits. The search is not allowed to extend for more than $`\pm 40`$ strips.

The closest non-zero (zero count ADC hits are hits that just exceed the baseline subtraction) ADC hit to an extrapolation is used as a seed to determine the number of adjacent strips that fired for the extrapolated SSD track. Once the hits are determined, a simple linear weighting between the seed hit and the adjacent hit with the largest signal is used to determine the centroid. If more than 2 hits are found, none of the hits are used in the refit, although the number of hits, the summed ADC information, and the centroid are saved. The ADC pulse height distribution for the hits found during the refit to the extrapolated SSD tracks is plotted in Fig. 7. A minimum ionizing peak is clearly observed in all planes.

To further reduce confusion the extrapolations of other SSD tracks are checked to see if there is overlap with the SSD track used to find the seed hit. No hits are allowed to be shared in the most upstream planes, but single hits in each downstream plane are allowed to be shared with another SSD track. The number of ADC hits used, and the number of overlapping SSD track extrapolations are used to determine the resolution error used in the refit.

At the end of this refit process, we use the SSD tracks and the E687 free form vertexing method  to determine the most likely location of the production vertex. If this vertex occurs upstream of one or both of the TSSD doublets, SSD tracks are replaced with tracks refit using the TSSD. Finally, the vertex location is used to calculate the amount of multiple coulomb scattering to include in the analysis of the event. Further refinements are possible, such as for neutral kaons that decay relatively far from the production vertex, but seldom necessary for charm reconstruction.

## 5 TSSD Performance

The FOCUS experiment took data during the 1996-1997 fixed target run at Fermilab from September 1996 to September 1997. The TSSD was installed in the middle of data taking during the holiday (Dec.–Jan.) shutdown of the Fermilab Tevatron. The information from the TSSD is present for about $`70\%`$ of the FOCUS data. For a short period (less than $`10\%`$ of the data containing TSSD information) after the installation, plane number 1 had readout problems that resulted in a loss of resolution and some efficiency for this plane. Otherwise, the TSSD performed consistently at high efficiency for the duration of its use. The reconstructed data, as well as the simulation of the TSSD, have been thoroughly tested and utilized in all published FOCUS physics analyses to date . With the additional information from the TSSD we significantly improved tracking resolution in the target region of the FOCUS spectrometer. The improvement is demonstrated in several tests using a representative subsample of the data.

In Fig. 8 we show the normalized transverse impact parameters in two views and for two momentum regions. Vertices with three or more tracks are refit after removing one of the tracks. This removed track is projected back to the reconstructed vertex and the transverse miss distance between the track and the vertex determined and normalized using the computed error for the miss. In order to show the improvement in resolution using the TSSD, the same error estimate is used for the case with and without the TSSD included in the tracking information. It is clear that using the TSSD information improves the position resolution.

In Fig. 9 we present a plot of the charm yield for the decay $`D^0K^{}\pi ^+`$ using the SSD system alone and then in conjunction with the TSSD system. By making an exponential fit to drop off in yield as a function of detachment we find that we have improved lifetime resolution by $`35\%`$. It is obvious that the charm decays have a better signal/noise ratio with higher yields for the same significance of separation.

In Fig. 10 we present a background subtracted plot of the proper time resolution and the $`(L/\sigma _L)`$ evolution for the decay $`D^0K^{}\pi ^+`$ using a representative subset of the data from different running periods of the FOCUS experiment. During the running without the TSSD planes installed, the Be0 targets were moved about 1 cm closer to the SSD system. In addition to compensating for the shift of the targets away from the SSD, using the target silicon information significantly enhances the proper time resolution.

We have developed software to reconstruct long lived $`D^+`$ mesons tracks using the charm production vertex and information from the target silicon planes. In Fig. 11 we present two mass distributions of $`D^+K^{}\pi ^+\pi ^+`$ where the primary and secondary vertex information indicated that the $`D^+track`$ passed through one of the Target Silicon doublets. It is evident that the signal to noise is substantially improved when confirming TSSD hits are found.

Tracks from $`D^+`$ candidates have also been reconstructed using just the $`D^+`$ information in the silicon and a single track from the decay vertex. Such a technique could be used for determining the $`D^+`$ direction for a form factor analysis of the decay $`D^+K_s^o\mu ^+\nu _\mu `$. In this instance, the $`D^+K^{}\pi ^+\pi ^+`$ decays are used again to test the technique. Briefly, putative D tracks are formed using the primary vertex and target silicon hits. The D track with the highest confidence level to form a vertex with the single track from the decay vertex is retained and refit using adjacent hits (if any) in the target silicon. In Fig. 12 we show that the resolution of the D direction with this technique is comparable to a more traditional approach using the vector connecting a fully reconstructed decay vertex to the primary vertex. Since the resolutions of the two methods are highly correlated, it should be possible to make improvements, such as a better determination of the primary vertex (see Section 6 below), that benefit both techniques.

## 6 Target Silicon Planes as Target Elements

One way to improve both the direction resolution of a partially reconstructed charm decay, and the lifetime resolution for a fully reconstructed charm decay, is to improve the resolution of the primary vertex. Since two hadrons containing charm are created at the primary vertex, tracks associated with a partially reconstructed decay are sometimes included in the reconstruction of the primary vertex. Due to the finite lifetime of the charm hadrons involved, the primary vertex tends to be reconstructed downstream of its true location. One way to reduce this bias is to use a very thin target and constrain the primary vertex to be included in the target material during reconstruction. Using a full simulation of the E831 spectrometer, we have studied the improvement possible if one uses the target silicon planes as passive targets rather than a detector. In Fig. 13 we show the results of the technique. In our simulation, we find that the pull in the primary vertex location is reduced and the lifetime resolution substantially improved when we employ this technique.

## 7 Summary and Conclusions

We have briefly described one of the first silicon strip systems to be used inside of an experimental target. The use of the system significantly improved our lifetime and vertex resolution. We believe that our experience will prove useful to future experiments. One can imagine, for instance, a future fixed target charm experiment employing many silicon (or active diamond) planes in the target region to take advantage of the techniques presented in this paper.

## Acknowledgments

We wish to acknowledge the assistance of the staffs of Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory, the INFN of Italy, and the physics departments of the collaborating institutions. This research was supported in part by the U. S. National Science Foundation, the U. S. Department of Energy, the Italian Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare and Ministero dell’Università e della Ricerca Scientifica e Tecnologica, the Brazilian Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico, CONACyT-México, the Korean Ministry of Education, and the Korean Science and Engineering Foundation.


text:
# 1 contributions to 𝛽̃ coefficients in (N=2) supersymmetric standard model. Extra 𝐸₆ multiplets 𝐿₁ and 𝐿₂ contribute same as L and 𝐷₁ and 𝐷₂ contribute same as 𝐷̄

SINP/TNP/02-14

$`E_6`$ multiplets and unification in extra dimensions
Biswajoy Brahmachari111Adress before August 2002: Theoretical Physics Division, Saha Institute of Nuclear Physics, Kolkata-64, India

Department of Physics, Vidyasagar Evening College,
39, Sankar Ghosh Lane, Kolkata 700006, India

Abstract

We study the effect of all matter multiplets contained in 27 representation of $`E_6`$ GUT on gauge coupling unification in extra dimensions. Extra members of 27 multiplets of all three generations have their ‘zero modes’ near $`m_t`$ such that they can be directly probed. From TeV scale onwards extra dimensions open up, theory becomes N=2 supersymmetric and gauge couplings unify or they do not depending on how we distribute matter fields and gauge fields in bulk and brane. We find three such possible embedding which will lead to perfect gauge coupling unification below 100 TeV region for one extra dimension and lower than that if number of extra dimensions is larger.

Supersymmetry breaking is a hard problem. However attempts have been made to link lightness of supersymmetry breaking scale to some large radius of compactifications in string theory. Independently large extra dimensions of millimeter size have been invoked to stabilize gauge hierarchy problem as proposed in Ref.. This way to tackle hierarchy problem is independent of the existence of low energy supersymmetry. Moreover special features of open string theory have also been used to try and bring down the fundamental string scale itself to TeV region. All these new results give good motivation for studying theories where extra dimensions show up much below $`10^{18}`$ GeVs. One possible consequence of such large extra dimensions is that gauge coupling unification can happen in $`M_X=`$ few tens of TeVs. Then even though our unified theory in extra dimensions is non-renormalizable gauge coupling unification happens close enough to the low lying string scale in such a way that three gauge forces unify with gravity and side by side divergences of non-renormalizable effective gauge theory are properly handled by full string theory which takes over almost immediately.

Here we will study gauge coupling unification in $`E_6`$ Grand Unified Theory (GUT) in extra dimensions. We know that fermions are unified in the 27 representation of $`E_6`$ which can be decomposed as

$`E_6`$ $`SU(3)\times SU(2)\times U(1)`$
$`27`$ $`\stackrel{10ofSU(5)}{\stackrel{}{(3,2,1/6)+(\overline{3},1,2/3)+(1,1,1)}}+\stackrel{\overline{5}ofSU(5)}{\stackrel{}{(\overline{3},1,1/3)+(1,2,1/2)}}+\stackrel{RHneutrino}{\stackrel{}{(1,1,0)}}`$
$`\underset{exoticfermions}{\underset{}{+(\overline{3},1,1/3)+(3,1,1/3)+(1,2,1/2)+(1,2,1/2)+(1,1,0)}}.`$
Because two extra singlets will not affect gauge coupling unification we will work with low energy multiplets that can be thought as $`5+\overline{5}`$ of SU(5). We know that in 4 dimensions introduction of complete SU(5) multiplets do not affect gauge coupling unification but the unified coupling can become non-perturbative before GUT scale is reached. However as we will learn below this is not necessarily the case in the presence of extra dimensions. Because this is a three generation analysis we can have full three copies of $`5+\overline{5}`$ hanging well below the GUT scale due to $`E_6`$ symmetry. That is $`5+\overline{5}`$ do not pair up and become as heavy as the GUT scale. Then we have four possible types of extra matter multiplets. We assume that their masses are near the top quark mass $`m_t`$. In extra dimensional models we use the terminology that their ‘zero modes’ are near $`m_t`$. At the scale $`\mu _0=1`$ TeV $`\delta `$ number of extra dimensions open up and excited Kaluza-Klein states starts to show. Under standard model gauge group we label extra matter superfields as,

$$L_1=(1,2,1/2);D_1=(\overline{3},1,1/3);L_2=(1,2,1/2);D_2=(3,1,1/3).$$
(1)
Contribution of $`L_1`$ and $`L_2`$ to beta coefficients will be same as usual lepton doublet whereas contribution of $`D_1`$ and $`D_2`$ will be same as down type antiquark.

Gauge couplings evolve with energy via the following equation where we have redefined $`t=\frac{1}{2\pi }\mathrm{ln}(\mathrm{\Lambda })`$, $`t_0=\frac{1}{2\pi }\mathrm{ln}(\mu _0)`$ and $`\alpha =g^2/4\pi `$. Here $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ is the cut-off scale where couplings are being evaluated.

$$\frac{d\alpha _i}{dt}=[(\beta _i\stackrel{~}{\beta }_i)+\stackrel{~}{\beta }_iX_\delta e^{2\pi \delta (tt_0)}]\alpha _i^2\mathrm{and}X_\delta =\frac{\pi ^{\delta /2}}{\mathrm{\Gamma }(1+\delta /2)}.$$
(2)
$`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ is Euler Gamma function. Note that we must recover familiar Renormalization Group Equations (RGE) in the limit of either $`\stackrel{~}{\beta }=0`$ or $`\delta =0`$. We have used the usual notation that $`\beta `$s are 4-dimensional coefficients whereas $`\stackrel{~}{\beta }`$s are higher dimensional coefficients. Expressions of $`\stackrel{~}{\beta }`$s are given in detail in Tables (1) for N=2 supersymmetric standard model.

Let us quickly review the minimal scenario given by Dines Dudas and Gherghetta which will set all our notations. There only gauge bosons and Higgs have bulk excitations whereas fermions remain at fixed points. Two Higgs doublets $`H_1`$ and $`H_2`$ are embedded in a single $`N=2`$ Higgs superfield. All $`\delta `$ extra dimensions open up simultaneously at scale $`\mu _0`$ which is a free parameter. Below the scale $`\mu _0`$ we have N=1 supersymmetry whereas above $`\mu _0`$ we have N=2 supersymetry. In this case $`\beta =(\frac{33}{5},1,3)`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{\beta }=(\frac{3}{5},3,6)`$. Following Eqn.(2) we write

$`{\displaystyle \frac{d\alpha _Y}{dt}}`$ $`=`$ $`[6+3/5X_\delta e^{2\pi \delta (tt_0)}]\alpha _Y^2,`$
$`{\displaystyle \frac{d\alpha _2}{dt}}`$ $`=`$ $`[43X_\delta e^{2\pi \delta (tt_0)}]\alpha _2^2,`$
$`{\displaystyle \frac{d\alpha _3}{dt}}`$ $`=`$ $`[36X_\delta e^{2\pi \delta (tt_0)}]\alpha _3^2.`$ (3)
Using two loop renormalization group equations for the gauge couplings below $`\mu _0`$ we can solve Eqn. (3) numerically, the results are given in Fig. (1) CASE 1. Now let us examine the unification condition discussed by DDG by defining ratio

$$R_{ij}=\frac{\stackrel{~}{\beta }_i\stackrel{~}{\beta }_j}{\beta _i\beta _j}.$$
(4)
Then unification is achieved when we have,

$$R_{12}=R_{13}=R_{23}.$$
(5)
For DDG case we have $`\frac{R_{12}}{R_{13}}=0.94`$ and $`\frac{R_{13}}{R_{23}}=0.92`$. Thus gauge coupling unification is only approximate. Let us examine scenario 3 discussed by Carone. There are two $`5+\overline{5}`$ of which leptons have bulk excitations (total 5 N=1 pairs) and one generation of electron have bulk excitation (1 N=1 pair). All fermions have zero modes at scale O($`m_W`$). SU(3) gauge bosons stay on the boundary. Then we have $`R_{12}=R_{13}=R_{23}=1/2`$ which gives perfect unification. We see this case is very similar to our $`E_6`$ scenario except that we want to keep zero modes of all three generations of 27 near $`m_t`$. This fixes $`\beta `$ coefficients below $`\mu _0`$ to be $`\beta =(48/5,4,0)`$. However adding one more $`5+\overline{5}`$ near $`m_t`$ will keep the difference $`\beta _i\beta _j`$ unchanged which occurs in the denominator in Eqn. (4). Thus couplings will still unify. Keeping only SU(2) and U(1) gauge bosons in the bulk we calculate unification condition using Eqn. (5),

$$\eta _E=\frac{3\eta _L13}{2}.$$
(6)
For $`\eta _L=5,\eta _E=1`$ we get CASE 2

$$\beta =(48/5,4,0),\stackrel{~}{\beta }=(24/5,2,0)$$
(7)
Then three generations of full 27 multiplets contribute to evolution of gauge couplings from the scale $`m_t`$ onwards and changes coefficient $`\beta `$ even though their effect does not show up in the difference $`\beta _i\beta _j`$ which appears in the quantity $`R_{ij}`$.

Next let us consider the case when above $`\mu _0`$ SU(3) and U(1) gauge bosons have bulk excitations but SU(2) do not. Again because bulk matter transform under bulk gauge group only $`\overline{U},\overline{D}`$ and $`\overline{E}`$ can have bulk excitations. Then we calculate unification condition using Eqn. (5)

$$\eta _D=\frac{142\eta _E5\eta _U}{3}.$$
(8)
and two pairs of $`\overline{E}`$ and two pairs of $`\overline{U}`$ can have bulk excitations. Then below and above $`\mu _0`$ the beta coefficients are

$$\beta =(48/5,4,0),\stackrel{~}{\beta }=(28/5,0,4).$$
(9)
In this scenario we get,

$$R_{12}=R_{13}=R_{23}=1.$$
(10)
The unification picture is given in Fig (1) CASE 3. Second case is when three $`\overline{D}`$ pairs and one $`\overline{U}`$ pair have bulk excitations. In this case we get,

$$\beta =(48/5,4,0),\stackrel{~}{\beta }=(14/5,0,2).$$
(11)
In this scenario we get,

$$R_{12}=R_{13}=R_{23}=1/2.$$
(12)
The unification picture is given in Fig (1) CASE 4.

Even though strictly speaking Eqn(5) is valid at one loop, below $`\mu _0`$ we have used two loop running assuming all superpartners and extra $`E_6`$ matter near the scale $`m_t`$. This does not affect gauge coupling unification appreciably as we see from Fig (1). Also form Fig (1) we see that for $`\delta =2`$ unification scale is much lower than $`\delta =1`$ case. We would like to stress that we have not introduced any new multiplet in adhoc basis. We have only concentrated on multiplets contained within 27 representation of $`E_6`$ group. In next generation colliders ‘zero modes’ of these the $`E_6`$ exotic particles may be discovered. Furthermore excited Kaluza-Klein modes of gauge bosons and matter fields will also be rigorously searched  in near future.

We have ignored heavy threshold corrections in the paper. This is because we have assumed that heavy GUT multiplets exist at or above the unification scale and they are degenerate in mass. This is in the spirit of an extended survival hypothesis in convensional unified models. However in case some odd members of a heavy GUT multiplets have masses below the unification scale we will need to include heavy threshold corrections to our results.

In a recently updated study Kang and Langacker have studied the discovery limits of exotic $`E_6`$ multiplets in Fermilab Tevatron and CERN LHC. They conclude that multiplets as light as 200 GeV can be probed directly in Tevatron and as light as 1 TeV in LHC. A natural question in this context is that are we allowed to put exotic $`E_6`$ multiplets will masses near $`m_t`$? In another words are they excluded by direct and indirect experimental searches? The answer is that with present experimental accuracy exotic $`E_6`$ multiplets are allowed at around the scale $`m_t`$.

I would like to thank M. S. Berger for communications on Eqn (2). COPYRIGHT HOLDER OF THIS ARTICLE IS ACTA PHYSICA POLONICA B


text:
# Variable stars in nearby galaxies.Based on observations collected at ESO-La Silla

## 1 Introduction

Cepheids are variable stars that are used to measure distances of galaxies in the Local Group and nearby clusters, and are the primary calibrators for the secondary standard candles that are applied at much greater distances. However, they are important also for testing the theories on the internal constitution of stars and stellar evolution. In particular, the study of Cepheids in nearby galaxies is important to understand the effects of different metallicities and corresponding mass–luminosity relations on the pulsational characteristics. The purpose of our project was to obtain good light curves of Cepheids in IC 1613 and NGC 6822. In order to make best use of telescope time and reach fainter magnitudes, our strategy was to observe in white light, i.e. without filter ($`Wh`$ photometry). The results of the survey for variable stars in four fields of IC 1613 were reported in the previous papers of this series (see Mantegazza et al. pa4 (2001), Paper IV, and references therein), while the properties of population I and II Cepheids observed in a field were discussed by Antonello et al. (1999b , Paper II). Recently, the first results for NGC 6822 have also been presented (Antonello et al. pa5 (2001), Paper V). In another paper (Antonello et al. 2000b ), the light curves of the Cepheids with period near 10 d of IC 1613 were analyzed and compared with those of the corresponding objects in the Galaxy and in the Magellanic Clouds. In the present paper we summarize the characteristics of the Cepheids observed in IC1613 and make a comparison with other galaxies containing a large number of such stars, taking into account the results of other recent surveys. We will update the discussion about observational evidence for a dip in the frequency–period distribution near 8 - 10 d, that is seen preferentially in metal rich galaxies. Presently there are three different interpretations of such dips.

1) In their extensive study on the frequency-period distribution of Cepheid variables, Becker et al. (bit (1977); hereafter BIT) concluded that it is not compatible with a standard birthrate function, and can only be explained if an ad hoc two-component birthrate function is adopted. The primary component is a time–averaged “background” rate which reproduces the main peak of the distribution (e.g. that in the Milky Way). The second component is produced by recent star formation (e.g. in OB associations) and is characterized by some cutoff below a critical mass; this component reproduces the secondary peak and the cutoff explains the dip.

2) Chiosi (chi (1989)) noted that, since the blue band of core He-burning of models with relatively large mass ($`9M_{\mathrm{}}`$) tend to move back to the red giant region (a tendency enhanced by increasing metallicity), such masses would spend a large fraction of the blue band lifetime within the instability strip; therefore the excess of long $`P`$ Cepheids would be intrinsic to the stellar models and a two-component birthrate is not needed.

3) Buchler et al. (bu1 (1997)) suggested that the dip could be a real deficiency of stars caused by the instability of the nonlinear fundamental pulsation cycle in this period range, and such stars that cannot pulsate in the fundamental mode actually pulsate in the first overtone one.

We recall a wish expressed more than twenty years ago by BIT (p. 649) in relation to the Cepheids in the seven galaxies, Milky Way, LMC, SMC, M31, M33, IC 1613 and NGC 6822: “The Cepheids in M33, NGC 6822 and IC 1613 have only begun to be studied, and much more work needs to be done. Further information on the frequency–period distribution of any of these seven galaxies would be very helpful”.

## 2 Cepheids in IC 1613

### 2.1 Generalities

Details of the $`Wh`$ CCD observations (performed with the ESO Dutch 0.9 m telescope) and reduction methods were reported in the previous papers of this series, along with the lists of variable stars and their coordinatae (Antonello et al 1999a ; Antonello et al. 2000a ; Mantegazza et al. pa4 (2001)). The finding charts of the variable stars are available upon request to the authors, or can be found in the Archive at the site http://www.merate.mi.astro.it/$``$fugazza/cepheids.html. The analysis of the $`Wh`$ light curves was performed as in Paper II, and the Fourier parameters were used to identify the pulsation mode of shorter $`P`$ Cepheids. The mode classification of the objects for each field was reported in the previous papers; we have however revised it by using homogeneous criteria, and in particular we tried to classify the stars previously reported with uncertain modes. The result is that the $`F`$ mode pulsators include also the following stars: V0236A, V2991B, V3277B, V3782B, V0793D, V1307D, and the $`1OT`$ pulsators include also the following stars: V0178A, V0524A, V1296A, V1289A, V0223B, V0987B. We recall that, owing to the uncertainties on the parameters, the mode identification for the shorter $`P`$ stars is only preliminary.

In the lower panel of Fig. 1 the $`PL`$ relation is shown for the whole set of stars, which includes 82 $`F`$ mode, 34 $`1OT`$ mode, 3 suspected second overtone mode pulsators, and 5 Cepheids with uncertain mode. In the upper panel we show the diagram of amplitude vs. $`P`$. The three $`F`$ mode Cepheids marked with a cross in a circle have the lowest amplitude and are the brightest stars among those with similar $`P`$; we suspect that they are binary systems or there is a blending effect. An analysis of all the Fourier parameters indicates that, for $`P`$ less than about 4 d, the formal errors can be relatively large, and the resulting relation between the phase difference $`\varphi _{21}=\varphi _22\varphi _1`$ (of the second and first Fourier component) and $`P`$ is relatively scattered. Therefore, this does not allow us to compare reliably such parameters of short $`P`$ fundamental mode Cepheids in IC 1613 with those of similar stars in other galaxies, when looking for slight differences due to different metallicities. In other words, with the present data, useful comparisons should be limited to stars with $`P4`$ d (e.g. Antonello et al. 2000b ), instead of attempting a general comparison, as done in Paper II.

### 2.2 Comparison with OGLE survey

Recently, the OGLE project made a survey of Cepheids in IC 1613, in the $`V`$ and $`I`$ bands (Udalski et al. uda5 (2001)), using a 1.3 m telescope. Owing to the larger field of view (14$`\stackrel{}{.}`$), they observed almost the whole galaxy and found about 135 population I Cepheids, with a limiting average magnitude $`V22.6`$. In the $`V`$ band the total exposure time was 900 sec, and the seeing conditions were much better than those of our project; in fact the Dutch 0.9 m telescope suffered from focusing problems. In our four selected fields we found about 128 Cepheids, with a limiting magnitude of $`V23`$. We verified that, in the same four fields, OGLE detected about 75 Cepheids; there are 64 Cepheids in common with us. The comparison shows that there are systematic differences of some arcsec in the declination and right ascension between OGLE and our lists. The $`P`$ values are reasonably in agreement. The largest discrepancies were found for three stars with $`P`$ close to 2 d, in which case it is difficult to distinguish between the true $`P`$ and the alias produced by the one–day separation of observations. Indeed, in the power spectrum there is a significant peak at both $`f=1/P`$ d-1 and $`f=11/P`$ d-1. We merged our and OGLE dataset after correcting for the different mean magnitude and different amplitude, and we got for $`V0122B`$=$`OGLE12044`$ 2.032 d, for $`V0987B`$=$`OGLE05209`$ 2.094 d, and for $`V0231C`$=$`OGLE01092`$ 1.802 d.

We also analysed several merged data sets, containing about 90 – 100 $`Wh`$ and $`V`$-corrected data points each, but we were not able to improve the accuracy of the light curve Fourier parameters of shorter $`P`$ stars. In particular we cannot confirm the possible indications for the resonance effects in $`1OT`$ pulsators reported in Paper II. The conclusion is that the accurate study of the light curves of Cepheids fainter than $`V22`$ requires a larger telescope than that adopted by us or by the OGLE project.

Finally we mention the deep HST imaging of a field in the halo of IC 1613 performed by Dolphin et al. (dol (2001)); they found 11 short $`P`$ Cepheids and 13 RR Lyrae stars.

## 3 Period distribution

The $`P`$ distribution is shown in Figs. 2, 3 and 4 and is compared with those of other galaxies in the Local Group. In Fig. 2 the histogram of all the classical Cepheids is reported, while in Fig. 3 the stars are separated according to the pulsation mode; finally, Fig. 4 shows the homogeneous distribution when the $`P`$ of $`1OT`$ pulsators is multiplied by an average period ratio $`P_0/P_11/0.7`$. The adopted bin size is $`\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{log}P=0.05`$; for IC 1613 in Figs. 3 and 4 it is $`\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{log}P=0.1`$. Since we are interested in pointing out the new results with respect to previous studies, the histograms are focused on intermediate and shorter $`P`$ Cepheids ($`P50`$ d); a comment on longer $`P`$ stars is however reported as a conclusive note in the Discussion.

IC 1613. The histogram shown in Fig. 2 includes all the known 209 Cepheids, while the sample in Figs. 3 and 4 is based on our survey and it includes the stars found by Dolphin et al. (dol (2001)). The samples should be considered almost complete for $`P`$ longer than about 2 - 2.5 d ($`\mathrm{log}P0.4`$). Probably there are no $`1OT`$ Cepheids with $`P3`$ d.

Milky Way. For the histogram in Fig. 2 we considered 504 stars in the Galactic Cepheid Database (Fernie et al. fer (1995)). For Fig. 3 we have used the results on the 348 stars with good light curves analyzed by the Brera-Merate group (e.g. Poretti por (1994), Antonello & Morelli am (1996), and references therein), which include 36 identified $`1OT`$ pulsators. We recall that it is possible to discriminate between $`1OT`$ mode and $`F`$ mode stars using light curve Fourier parameters only when the $`P`$ is shorter than about 5.5 d, since above this value the light curves tend to be similar. Therefore no identified $`1OT`$ mode stars exist with longer $`P`$. On the other hand, the identified $`1OT`$ Cepheids whose distribution is shown in Fig. 3 should constitute a fairly complete sample of these stars with $`P5.5`$ d in the vicinity of the Sun.

LMC and SMC. The data for stars in LMC and SMC were taken from OGLE data archive (Udalski et al. 1999a , Udalski et al. 1999b , Udalski et al. 1999c , Soszynski et al sos (2000)); they include also the double mode Cepheids (DMC). For SMC we have 1343 $`F`$ stars (24 of them are DMCs pulsating in $`F`$ and $`1OT`$ mode), and 890 $`1OT`$ stars (71 DMCs pulsating in $`1OT`$ and $`2OT`$ mode). For the LMC we have 791 $`F`$ stars (20 DMCs pulsating in $`F`$ and $`1OT`$ mode), and 569 $`1OT`$ stars (61 DMCs pulsating in $`1OT`$ and $`2OT`$ mode). Owing to OGLE observational constraints, the sample does not contain stars with $`P`$ longer than about 40 d; however this is not an issue for the problem we will discuss here. On the other hand, the sample is fairly complete as regards the shorter $`P`$ stars, and is well representative of the Cepheid population in the surveyed fields of the LMC and SMC. The distributions of LMC Cepheids show a long tail at shorter $`P`$, given by $`1OT`$ pulsators.

M31. After an analysis of DIRECT M31 data archive (Mochejska et al. m31 (1999) and references therein), we preferred to adopt the previous results on 392 stars reported in the GCVS (Samus sam (1995)). The reason is that DIRECT sample appears incomplete for $`P`$ shorter than about 6 d, where the old data distribution shows a prominent maximum; the difference is not due to possible different observed regions of the galaxy. As discussed by BIT, the sample produced by the photographic data should be considered representative for $`\mathrm{log}P0.7`$. We note in passing that there is not yet information available on the existence of $`1OT`$ pulsators in this galaxy.

M33. For M33 we adopted the results of the DIRECT survey published by Macri et al. (mac (2001)), Mochejska et al. (2001a ) and Mochejska et al. (2001b ); the Cepheid lists were checked for the presence of the same star in different lists, on the basis of stellar coordinatae. The sample contains 654 stars. Given the adopted observational techniques, the Cepheids with $`P>14`$ d are partially underestimated. On the whole, keeping in mind this possible selection effect, we think the sample is representative of the Cepheid population for $`\mathrm{log}P0.5`$. Unfortunately the authors do not report the mode classification, even if uncertain; the $`PL`$ relation for M33 shows the very probable presence of $`1OT`$ mode pulsators with $`P`$ up to 7 - 8 d. We have adopted the separation line reported in their Figure 11 for discriminating between $`F`$ and candidate $`1OT`$ mode stars. Of course, the results of the analysis should be considered only as preliminary.

## 4 Discussion and Conclusion

We are trying to compare the frequency–period distribution in different galaxies even if the samples have different degrees of completeness. The possible selection effects that hinder attempts to achieve complete samples were discussed by BIT, and we can revise them, taking into account the progresses made in the last twenty years. Variables with large amplitude variations are more likely to be discovered than those with small amplitude variations. Since the amplitude is related to the $`P`$, the discovery of stars in the $`P`$ ranges where the amplitude is larger is favored. The photographic technique made it difficult to find Cepheids with amplitudes less than about 0.5 mag; for the CCD technique this limit is much lower (for example, this has allowed the detection of $`1OT`$ pulsators in galaxies beyond the Magellanic Clouds). The main selection effect is therefore the limiting magnitude of each survey, coupled with the detectable amplitude (which is related to the error of the measurements). This favors the selection of Cepheids with longer $`P`$ since they are brighter, while the detectable Cepheids with shorter $`P`$ and for a given pulsation mode tend to be those with larger amplitudes. In Sect. 3 we have reported for each galaxy the estimated shorter $`P`$ limit, and a reliable comparison between galaxies can be done above such a value. Finally, we mention the ever–present problem of discovering variables with $`P`$ close to 1 d; this difficulty is related to the constraint of observing at one-day intervals.

Many of the differences among the various galaxies in Figs. 2, 3 and 4 can be interpreted in terms of different average metallicity. According to the data collected by van den Bergh (vdb (2000)), the metallicity indicator values (for young population I stars) can be summarized as in Table 1. As is well known (see e.g. BIT), the location of the maximum of the frequency–period distribution increases with increasing metallicity.

As regards IC 1613, taking into account the incompleteness of the sample, the distributions are in part similar to those of SMC. The maximum of the distribution in Fig. 2 would be probably located at $`P`$ 1.6 d ($`\mathrm{log}P0.2`$), and we should expect a larger number of stars with $`P2`$ d yet to be discovered. The peak at $`\mathrm{log}P=0.4`$ is intriguing, but we cannot give it much weight. It is interesting to compare the LMC and SMC in Figs. 2 and 4; after roughly correcting for the different pulsation modes, the shape difference of the distributions (Fig. 2) decreases significantly (Fig. 4). On the other hand, the similarity of the shape of the distributions of $`1OT`$ and $`F`$ pulsators in LMC (Fig. 3) appears rather unique among galaxies.

In spite of the different metallicities, the location of primary and secondary maxima of M31, Milky Way and M33 are practically the same. We can see in Fig. 2 that they are located at about 5 d ($`\mathrm{log}P0.7`$) and 13 d ($`\mathrm{log}P1.1`$; more exactly, between 12.6 and 14.1 d), respectively. The recent observations of M33 made by the DIRECT project give us the opportunity to update the study on the possible origin of the dip located at about 8 - 10 d ($`\mathrm{log}P0.91.0`$). According to the interpretation of Buchler et al. (bu1 (1997)), in the Milky Way a deficiency of $`F`$ mode pulsators in this $`P`$ range is expected owing to the instability of the pulsation cycle; since such stars will actually pulsate in the $`1OT`$ mode, the deficiency must be compensated by an excess of $`1OT`$ pulsators in the $`P`$ range of about 5.6 - 7 d. As noted in the previous Section 3 (Milky Way), it is not possible to discriminate the pulsation mode for $`P5.5`$ d using light curve parameters alone, therefore for the present we cannot say how many $`1OT`$ pulsators are actually located between $`\mathrm{log}P0.75`$ and $`0.84`$ in the Milky Way. In M33, according to the $`PL`$ diagram reported by Mochejska et al. (2001b ), there are some probable $`1OT`$ stars located in such $`P`$ range (Fig. 3), but it is difficult to affirm that there exists an excess of $`1OT`$ stars; on the other hand also the dip, which is located near 10 d, is not very pronounced. The exercise shown in Fig. 4 indicates that indeed the dip tends to be filled by the $`1OT`$ pulsators, if we change their $`P`$ to that of the $`F`$ mode one, but in any case there is still a bimodal distribution, i.e. there is an excess of stars with $`\mathrm{log}P1.1`$ which must be explained. Finally, it is instructive to look at M31 even if there is no information on the $`1OT`$ pulsators. In this case, even assuming a certain number of $`1OT`$ pulsators with $`P`$ within 5.6 - 7 d which more or less fill the dip, they will never cancel the evident bimodal distribution. It is important to remark that we do not exclude the effect proposed by Buchler et al. (bu1 (1997)). We just say that it does not look sufficient to explain the bimodal distribution.

It is difficult to verify which of the two interpretations, BIT or Chiosi’s (chi (1989)) one, would be more acceptable. Roughly speaking, M33 data confirm the expectation of both that the secondary component depends on the metallicity of the galaxy. If we make the reasonable assumption that the samples are fairly complete for a sufficiently long $`P`$ (e.g. above 6 - 7 d), and we consider normalized distributions of M33, Milky Way and M31, the data indicate that this component increases montonically with the metallicity. Then the question is which of the two hypotheses predicts this relationship. The answer requires a more detailed study.

The clarification of some of these problems requires more accurate photometric data of Cepheids in the Local Group galaxies. Moreover, the longer $`P`$ $`1OT`$ Cepheids in the Milky Way have yet to be identified; a useful technique for such an identification could be the analysis of the radial velocity curves. The preliminary results obtained by Moskalik & Ogloza (mo1 (2000)) suggest indeed that the Fourier parameters of radial velocity curves and also the phase lag between light and radial velocity curves could be mode discriminators for $`P5`$ d. This is a necessary study before beginning a reliable discussion of the Cepheids in the Milky Way. Unfortunately, we think there is a further dilemma: assuming the excess of $`1OT`$ pulsators does exist, should it be the expected signature of the pulsational stability or would it be just the bimodal distribution of the $`1OT`$ pulsators?

As a final remark we note that, with respect to BIT, there are few new observational results on very long ($`P>100`$ d) Cepheids. The HST Key Project on $`H_0`$ determination was a good opportunity for a statistics on a large sample of galaxies, but unfortunately the observations were limited to periods shorter than 100 d. According to BIT, Cepheids with $`\mathrm{log}P>2.0`$ are probably massive stars burning carbon in their cores, and those authors infer that a whole galaxy such as M31 would have to be searched to find just one Cepheid in the core–carbon–burning phase. However, these stars are present in dwarf irregular galaxies such as LMC, SMC, IC 1613 and, as recently observed, also in NGC 6822 (Antonello et al. pa5 (2001)). BIT interpreted the discrepancy as further support for their suggestion of a two–component birthrate function, the second component giving 5 – 50 times as many massive stars as indicated by the one–component model. However, the nonlinear pulsation characteristics could also play a role in this case. Aikawa & Antonello (aa (2000)) found that the nonlinear pulsation cycle for $`P>100`$ d is stable only for low metallicity values, therefore the very long $`P`$ Cepheids should be preferably detected in metal–poor galaxies such as dwarf irregulars. This would be a simple explanation of what is actually observed.


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# Zener Tunneling Between Landau Orbits in a High-Mobility Two-Dimensional Electron Gas

## Abstract

Magnetotransport in a laterally confined two-dimensional electron gas (2DEG) can exhibit modified scattering channels owing to a tilted Hall potential. Transitions of electrons between Landau levels with shifted guiding centers can be accomplished through a Zener tunneling mechanism, and make a significant contribution to the magnetoresistance. A remarkable oscillation effect in weak field magnetoresistance has been observed in high-mobility 2DEGs in GaAs-AlGa0.3As0.7 heterostructures, and can be well explained by the Zener mechanism.

Scattering and dissipation are central issues in quantum transport in electronic systems. Of particular interest are the peculiar phenomena in a quantum Hall (QH) system, realized when a two-dimensional electron gas (2DEG) is subject to a strong magnetic field, $`B`$. In the integer quantum Hall effect (IQHE) regime the Hall plateau is formed and the longitudinal transport is dissipationless Prange1990 . It has been known for quite sometime that, when a substantial current is passed through the 2DEG, the IQHE tends to break down. Above a certain critical current density the quantized Hall plateau disappears and the transport in this regime becomes dissipative. Such phenomena have been observed in confined QH systems, such as Hall bar Ebert\_Cage1983  or Corbino geometries Simon1986 .

The mechanism leading to the breakdown effect is still under debate. Among the possible explanations, the Zener tunneling mechanism was originally proposed by Tsui et al Tsui1983 . In essence, if a sufficient Hall field, $`E_y`$, is established in a laterally confined QH system, the degeneracy of the Landau orbits is lifted. Zener tunneling can occur between the occupied Landau orbits below the Fermi level, $`E_F`$, and the empty orbits above the $`E_F`$, separated at a distance equivalent to the cyclotron diameter, $`2R_c`$. The condition for energy conservation is satisfied whenever $`2R_ceE_y=l\mathrm{}\omega _c`$, where $`l=1,2,3\mathrm{}`$ integers, $`\omega _c=eB/m^{}`$ the cyclotron frequency, and $`m^{}`$ the electron effective mass. By this mechanism, a critical current density of $`j60A/m`$ is needed to initiate the IQHE breakdown in GaAs, at a typical magnetic field of $`B10T`$ Tsui1983 . In the breakdown effect of IQHE, such tunneling events are likely to take place near the edges of the QH system where a high field can build up.

Quite surprisingly, we have observed the Zener tunneling effect in a different regime. Specifically, our effect takes place in the bulk of a 2DEG subjected to a weak magnetic field. Remarkable magnetoresistance oscillations are observed in high-mobility Hall bar specimens. The period of oscillation, $`\mathrm{\Delta }(1/B)`$, is tunable by a dc bias current, $`J_{dc}`$: $`\mathrm{\Delta }(1/B)n_e^{1/2}/J_{dc}`$, where $`n_e`$ is the electron sheet density. This observation confirms a general selection rule for electron transport in a weak magnetic field, namely, $`\mathrm{\Delta }k_x2k_F`$ for momentum transfer between the initial and final Landau levels, where $`x`$ labels the direction of the current and $`2k_F`$ is the Fermi wave vector of the 2DEG at zero magnetic field. This selection rule in momentum space translates into $`\mathrm{\Delta }Y2R_c`$ in real space, where $`\mathrm{\Delta }Y`$ is the guiding center shift. Such a modulation of the scattering phase space is responsible for an oscillatory magnetoresistance, equivalent to a geometrical resonance Gerhardts\_Winkler1989  without a potential modulation.

We report in this letter the observations for the new oscillations, and propose a simple model which can account for all the major features. The roles played by the short-range scatterers in this effect, and possible experiments to explore Zener tunneling between composite fermion (CF) orbits in a half-filled Landau level Sarma1997  will be briefly discussed.

Our samples were cleaved from a wafer of a high-mobility GaAs-Al0.3Ga0.7As heterostructure grown by molecular-beam epitaxy, having an electron density $`n_e2`$ $`\times 10^{11}cm^2`$ and a mobility $`\mu 3\times 10^6cm^2/Vs`$ at a temperature $`T=4.2K`$. Such parameters were obtained after a brief illumination from a light-emitting diode. The distance between the electrons and the Si $`\delta `$-doping layer is $`d_s70nm`$. Four Hall bar specimens of width $`w=200,100,50`$, and $`20\mu m`$ were processed by photolithography and wet etching. The 50 $`\mu m`$ specimen has a NiCr front gate so that its electron density can be tuned between 1.9 and $`4.0\times 10^{11}cm^2`$. The experiments were performed in a sorption-pumped $`{}_{}{}^{3}He`$ cryostat equipped with a superconducting magnet.

In principle, the Zener tunneling effect can be detected in standard magnetoresistance, $`R_{xx}(B)`$. However, in order to increase the sensitivity, a differential resistance $`r_{xx}`$ was measured in the following fashion. A constant dc current $`I_{dc}`$ was passed through the Hall bar, along with a small ($`100nA`$) low frequency ($`f=23Hz`$) modulation current, $`i_{ac}`$. The differential magnetoresistance at the given dc bias, $`r_{xx}=(V/I)_{I_{dc}}=v_{ac}/i_{ac}`$, was then recorded by a lock-in amplifier at the modulation frequency. A schematic circuit for the electrical measurement is shown in the inset of Fig. 1.

Our central finding concerns the strong oscillation in $`r_{xx}`$ in the weak magnetic field region, $`B<4kG`$. In Fig. 1 we show such features from a 50 $`\mu m`$ Hall bar measured at $`T=0.33K`$, for $`I_{dc}=0,10,20,30,40,50\mu A`$, respectively. For a zero dc bias current, the trace shows well-resolved Shubnikov de-Haas (SdH) oscillations for $`B>0.5kG`$. New oscillations emerge when a finite $`I_{dc}`$ is applied to the specimen. Up to three orders of peaks can be clearly seen from the traces. Furthermore, the peaks shift towards higher $`B`$ with increasing $`I_{dc}`$. The weakening of the SdH effect can be attributed partially to electronic heating by the dc bias. In contrast to the SdH oscillation whose amplitude diminishes quickly at increasing temperatures, the new oscillations persist to a temperature up to $`T=4K`$.

It is apparent that the new oscillations, observed here in $`r_{xx}`$, are roughly periodic in $`1/B`$. However, as can be shown, the exact resonance condition for Zener tunneling should correspond to peaks in its derivative, viz., in $`r_{xx}/|B|`$ traces data\_analysis . To illustrate this point, we show in Fig. 2(a) the $`r_{xx}/|B|`$ trace which is obtained by numerical differentiation performed on the $`r_{xx}(B)`$ trace from a 50 $`\mu m`$ sample with a bias $`I_{dc}=30\mu A`$. The inset, $`1/B_l`$ vs. $`l`$, confirms that the oscillation in $`r_{xx}/|B|`$ is strictly periodic in $`1/B`$.

Remarkably, the oscillation period is tunable by the bias current $`I_{dc}`$. In Fig. 2 (b) we plot the maximum positions $`B_l`$ (1, 2, 3), obtained from $`r_{xx}/|B|`$, against the current density $`J_{dc}=I_{dc}/w`$, for the four samples. Roughly, all data collapse according to

$$B_lJ_{dc}/l.$$
(1)
Such oscillations arise owing to a new scattering channel opened up by a tilted Hall potential. To begin with we consider a 2DEG system under crossed electric and magnetic fields, depicted in Fig. 3. The electric field is a Hall field along the $`y`$ direction, $`E_y=v_dB`$, induced by a dc current density $`J_{dc}=n_eev_d`$, where $`v_d`$ is the drift velocity of the electrons.

The 2DEG is quantized into a series of Landau levels and has a wave function Kahn1959 ; Calecki1977

$$|NY=L_x^{1/2}e^{ik_xx}\varphi _N(yY),$$
(2)
where $`N`$ is the index of Landau levels, and $`\varphi _N(yY)`$ is an oscillatory wave function centered at $`Y=l_B^2(k_xm^{}v_d/\mathrm{})`$, with $`l_B=\sqrt{\mathrm{}/eB}`$ the magnetic length.

The energy levels are given by

$$E_{NY}=(N+\frac{1}{2})\mathrm{}\omega _ceE_yY+\frac{1}{2}m^{}v_d^2.$$
(3)
Because of the potential of the Hall field, the degeneracy of Landau levels with respect to the guiding center $`Y`$ is lifted and the Landau levels are tilted spatially along the $`y`$ direction with a slope given by $`eE_y`$. Since the density of electrons is largely homogenous within the sample, the distribution function of electrons should not depend on $`Y`$ Calecki1977 , which means the Fermi level is also tilted along the $`y`$ direction with the same slope as that of the Landau levels Chaubet1995 . As a result, all the states within one Landau level with different guiding center $`Y`$ are equally occupied.

In the presence of elastic scattering, an electron may transfer a momentum $`q_x=k_xk_x^{}`$ to a scatterer, which is equivalent to a hopping (shifting of the guiding center) in the $`y`$ direction at a distance $`\mathrm{\Delta }Y=Y^{}Y=l_B^2q_x`$. This hopping gives a current density $`j_y`$ Calecki1977 ; Titeica1935 , hence a conductivity

$$\sigma _{yy}=\frac{j_y}{E_y}=\frac{1}{E_y}\frac{e}{2L_xL_y}\underset{\mu \mu ^{}}{}W_{\mu \mu ^{}}(Y^{}Y)(f_\mu f_\mu ^{}),$$
(4)
where $`\mu =(NY),\mu ^{}=(N^{}Y^{})`$, $`L_x`$ and $`L_y`$ the dimensions of the 2DEG, $`f_\mu =1/(e^{(E_\mu E_F)/k_BT}1)`$ the Fermi distribution of the electrons, and $`W_{\mu \mu ^{}}`$ the transition rate from the initial state $`|\mu `$ to final state $`|\mu ^{}`$ in the Born approximation Roth1966 :

$`W_{\mu \mu ^{}}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{2\pi }{\mathrm{}}}{\displaystyle \frac{n_i}{L_xL_y}}{\displaystyle \underset{q_x,q_y}{}}|V(q)|^2|\mu ^{}|e^{i\stackrel{}{q}.\stackrel{}{r}}|\mu |^2\delta (E_\mu E_\mu ^{})`$ (5)
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{n_i}{\mathrm{}L_xl_B}}\delta (E_\mu E_\mu ^{}){\displaystyle 𝑑Q_y\left|V\left(\frac{Q}{l_B}\right)\right|^2J_N^l(Q)},`$
where $`Qql_B=\sqrt{Q_x^2+Q_y^2},Q_x\mathrm{\Delta }Y/l_B,n_i`$ is the density of the random scatterers, $`V(q)`$ is the effective Fourier component of the scatterring potential seen by the 2DEG, and Zudov2001

$`J_N^l(Q)`$ $`=`$ $`\left|{\displaystyle e^{iq_yy}\varphi _N(yY)\varphi _{N+l}(yY^{})}\right|^2`$ (6)
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{N!}{(N+l)!}}\left({\displaystyle \frac{Q^2}{2}}\right)^le^{\frac{Q^2}{2}}\left[L_N^l\left({\displaystyle \frac{Q^2}{2}}\right)\right]^2,`$
with $`l=N^{}N`$ the index difference between involved Landau levels and $`L_N^l(x)`$ the generalized Laguerre polynomial.

In Eq. (5), the $`\delta (E_\mu E_\mu ^{})`$ accounts for the conservation of energy, which gives $`eE_y\mathrm{\Delta }Y=l\mathrm{}\omega _c`$. This means an electron hopping along $`y`$ direction should cause a transition between Landau levels, and the hopping distance is determined by

$$\mathrm{\Delta }Y_l=\frac{l\mathrm{}\omega _c}{eE_y}=l\frac{\mathrm{}}{m^{}v_d}=l\frac{e\mathrm{}n_e}{m^{}J_{dc}},$$
(7)
which does not depend on the magnetic field, and is fixed for a given current density $`J_{dc}`$. The selection rule of Eq. (7) is unusual, in that it only stems from the two dimensional nature of the electrons.

The resistivity along the $`x`$ direction (assume $`\mu B1`$) is $`\rho _{xx}=\sigma _{yy}/(\sigma _{xx}\sigma _{yy}+\sigma _{xy}^2)\rho _{xy}^2\sigma _{yy}`$. By working out $`\sigma _{yy}`$, finally we get

$$\rho _{xx}=\frac{h}{e^2}\frac{(2\pi )^3n_im^4v_d^2}{h^6n_e^2}\underset{Nl}{}(f_Nf_{N+l})P_{Nl}(Q_{xl}),$$
(8)
with $`Q_l\sqrt{Q_{xl}^2+Q_y^2},Q_{xl}\mathrm{\Delta }Y_l/l_B`$, and

$$P_{Nl}(Q_{xl})=\frac{Q_{xl}^5}{l^4}𝑑Q_y\left|V\left(\frac{Q_lQ_{xl}}{\mathrm{\Delta }Y_l}\right)\right|^2J_N^l(Q_l).$$
(9)
The function $`P_{Nl}(Q_{xl})`$ can be numerically evaluated for a given $`V(q)`$. We simply assume a constant $`V(q)`$, which is good for short-range scattering, to calculate this function. The results show that $`P_{Nl}`$ has a dominant maximum at the point

$$Q_{xl}=\gamma \sqrt{2N+1}\text{with}\gamma 2.0.$$
(10)
We need to consider only small $`l`$ because $`P_{Nl}(Q_{xl})`$ is a monotonically decreasing function of $`l`$, thus, the term $`f_Nf_{N+l}`$ in Eq. (8) means the transition should occur at the vicinity of Fermi level, i. e., we have $`NN_F`$ where $`N_F`$ is the Landau level index at the Fermi level. Therefore Eq. (10) is equivalent to

$$\mathrm{\Delta }Y_l=Q_{xl}l_B=\gamma R_c2R_c,$$
(11)
where $`R_c=\sqrt{2N_F+1}l_B=l_B^2\sqrt{2\pi n_e}`$. Comparing with Eq. (7), the condition Eq. (11) leads to

$$B_l=\gamma \frac{\sqrt{2\pi }m^{}}{e^2}\frac{1}{\sqrt{n_e}}\frac{J_{dc}}{l},$$
(12)
which explains well the result of Eq. (1).

From the slopes of the fan diagram in Fig. 2 (b), we obtain $`\gamma =1.72,1.63,1.88,2.05`$ for the Hall bars with width $`w=200,100,50,20\mu m`$ respectively. Such values, determinded experimentally, are close enough to the theoretical value $`\gamma 2.0`$, indicating the validity of our model even in a quantitative sense. Moreover, we measured the density dependence of the oscillation maxima, and plot the results in Fig. 4. It is clearly shown that peak positions $`1/\sqrt{n_e}`$.

The resonance condition Eq. (11) can be interpreted semiclassically as following. From Eq. (4), the conductivity $`\sigma _{yy}`$ is proportional to the transition rate $`W_{\mu \mu ^{}}`$ between two Landau levels near the Fermi level. The transition rate drastically goes to zero when $`\mathrm{\Delta }Y>R_N+R_N^{}2R_c`$ because within this region there is almost no overlap between the oscillatory wave functions, as shown in Fig. 3. Thus the furthest distance the electron can hop is around $`(\mathrm{\Delta }Y)_{\mathrm{max}}2R_c`$. Note that $`\sigma _{yy}`$ is proportional to $`\mathrm{\Delta }Y`$, so naturally a conductivity peak appears at $`\mathrm{\Delta }Y=(\mathrm{\Delta }Y)_{\mathrm{max}}2R_c`$.

The hopping at a distance $`2R_c`$ along $`y`$ direction is equivalent to a momentum transfer along $`x`$ direction $`\mathrm{\Delta }k_x=2R_cl_B^2=2k_F`$. It is interesting to point out that a similar momentum transfer mechanism has been used to account for the magneto-acoustic phonon resonance of a 2DEG Zudov2001 .

In a high-mobility 2DEG, the elastic scatterers for electrons are mainly ionized impurities in the remote doping layer, residual background ionized impurities throughout the material, interface roughness, and neutral impurities in the GaAs well Stormer1983 . The remote ionized impurity scattering is long ranged and in momentum space its potential is exponentially confined into a narrow range with a characteristic momentum $`q_s1/d_s`$ Ando1982 . In our samples $`d_s=70nm`$, equivalent to a $`q_s0.014nm^1`$ which is much less than $`2k_F0.22nm^1`$; therefore the remote ionized impurities are not likely to contribute to the oscillations. The other three mechanisms mentioned above are short ranged, and therefore in principle could contribute to the oscillations we are discussing. The scattering length of the interface roughness and neutral scatters are both at atomic scale, so their potential seen by the 2DEG in momentum space are all almost constant within the scale of $`2k_F`$. Our numerical result of Eq. (11) is modeled on this fact. It is usually assumed that the remote ionized impurities are the main sources of scattering for 2DEGs in GaAs/AlGaAs heterostructures. However, for high-mobility samples with a wide spacer, the residual impurities and interface roughness become important Saku1996\_Umansky1997 . Indeed, according to a theoretical study Mirlin2001 , the negative magnetoresistance as shown in the $`I_{dc}=0\mu A`$ trace of Fig. 1 is a strong evidence for the significance of such short-range scatterers in our samples.

In conclusion, we have observed a novel type of magnetoresistance oscillations in a laterally confined high-mobility 2DEG, which can be attributed to the spatial hopping of electrons between tilted Landau levels under a current-induced Hall field. Strong short-range scattering is needed for this class of oscillations to occur.

We comment on possible application of such measurements to the composite fermion regime in a half-filled Landau level Sarma1997 , where the Fermi surface effects have been well established but many interesting questions remain open. Due to the selection rules of both momentum and energy, the cyclotron energy (hence the effective mass) of the CF state could be explored by Zener resonance. From the Zener tunneling mechanism point of view, since such oscillations require a finite momentum transfer, observation of this effect with CF would allow a look into their short-range interactions. Furthermore, in the CF regime additional scattering mechanism such as fluctuations of the effective magnetic field would be interesting to investigate.

We benefit from valuable discussions with D. C. Tsui and J. M. Worlock for early work in Zener tunneling in 2DEG. This work was partially supported by NSF (C. L. Y., J. Z., and R. R. D.). The work at Sandia was supported by DOE.