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# Eigenstates Ignoring Regular and Chaotic Phase-Space Structures

## Abstract

We report the failure of the semiclassical eigenfunction hypothesis if regular classical transport coexists with chaotic dynamics. All eigenstates, instead of being restricted to either a regular island or the chaotic sea, ignore these classical phase-space structures. We argue that this is true even in the semiclassical limit for extended systems with transporting regular islands such as the standard map with accelerator modes.

For a complete description of a quantum system the knowledge of its spectrum and eigenstates is necessary. It is a long standing goal to obtain as much information about these fundamental quantum mechanical objects as possible from the properties of the corresponding classical system Ein17 ; Gut90 ; Haake . The semiclassical eigenfunction hypothesis Per73 ; Ber77  states that in the semiclassical limit almost all eigenstates are either regular or chaotic, i.e. their phase-space representations are concentrated on regions with either regular or chaotic classical dynamics, as illustrated in Figs. 1b and 1c. Exceptions are of measure zero in the semiclassical limit and occur, e.g., at avoided level crossings where regular and chaotic states can hybridize. The semiclassical eigenfunction hypothesis is supported by convincing numerical and experimental data and forms the basis of the present understanding of spectral and dynamical properties of finite systems with a mixed phase space BR84 ; BTU93 ; PR93c ; HT93 ; K+00 ; nobel ; S+01 .

We study extended systems with transporting regular islands, i.e., with a chain of islands which are traversed sequentially in time (arrows in Fig. 1a). Transporting islands are ubiquitous in physical systems. In particular, they occur in spatially periodic systems with time periodic driving, like Hamiltonian ratchets S+01 , atom-optic experiments ST+01 ; H+01 , or in the paradigmatic model of quantum chaos – the standard map Izr90 , where they are called accelerator modes.

In view of the common confidence in the semiclassical eigenfunction hypothesis and its importance, our result comes as a considerable surprise: The very concept of regular and chaotic states does not apply in the presence of transporting regular islands. Instead, we find that all eigenstates spread over regular islands as well as the chaotic sea of classical phase space. An example of such an ”amphibious” eigenstate can be seen in Fig. 1a. We argue that even in the semiclassical limit all eigenstates will ignore classical phase-space structures as soon as transporting islands are present and we will discuss a number of questions raised by this failure of the semiclassical eigenfunction hypothesis for extended systems.

In order to allow for an efficient calculation of quantum eigenstates for systems with transporting islands we consider one-dimensional kicked Hamiltonians

$$H=T(p)+V(x)\underset{n}{}\delta (tn)$$
(1)
with a classical time-evolution described by the map

$$x_{t+1}=x_t+T^{}(p_t),p_{t+1}=p_tV^{}(x_{t+1}).$$

We are interested in spatially periodic dynamics of period 1 and consider the simple situation where also $`T(p+1)=T(p)`$ with a cyclic momentum variable, $`pp+1`$. This ensures that the phase-space averaged current is zero. We choose the functions $`V^{}(x)`$ and $`T^{}(p)`$ such that they give rise to a large regular island transporting in $`x`$-direction mapasym  as can be seen in Fig. 1a. This makes the semiclassical regime, where the island area is bigger than Planck’s constant $`h`$, numerically more easily accessible.

The quantum mechanical time-evolution operator for one period,

$$\widehat{U}|\varphi (t)=|\varphi (t+1),$$
(2)
is given by $`\widehat{U}=\mathrm{exp}(2\pi iT(\widehat{p})/h_{\text{eff}})\mathrm{exp}(2\pi iV(\widehat{x})/h_{\text{eff}})`$, where $`h_{\text{eff}}`$ is dimensionless and irrational, denoting the ratio of Planck’s constant $`h`$ to the phase-space area of a unit cell. The irrationality of $`h_{\text{eff}}`$ makes this quantum system aperiodic and excludes the applicability of Bloch’s theorem which otherwise would lead to spatially periodic eigenstates. We thereby model the experimentally relevant situation of spatially periodic systems with some disorder rational . The eigenstates $`|\psi `$ of $`\widehat{U}`$,

$$\widehat{U}|\psi =e^{iϵ}|\psi ,$$
(3)
are the objects of our interest.

These eigenstates can be represented in phase space (Husimi representation H+84a ) and are compared with the classical phase-space portrait in Fig. 1. In contrast to the semiclassical eigenfunction hypothesis we find that all eigenstates are amphibious in all spatial unit cells, living on regular islands as well as in the chaotic sea. For comparison, we present in Figs. 1b and 1c a system which is equivalent in terms of phase-space portrait, island size, and effective Planck’s constant $`h_{\text{eff}}`$, but with non-transporting islands. In this case the eigenstates can be categorized as chaotic (Fig. 1b) or regular (Fig. 1c) in agreement with the semiclassical eigenfunction hypothesis. This demonstrates that the mere presence of transporting regular islands leads to a failure of the semiclassical eigenfunction hypothesis.

While Fig. 1 shows the local structure of the eigenstates on the scale of a few unit cells, amphibious eigenstates are also distinguished from chaotic eigenfunctions from a global perspective. We find that they are localized with a much larger localization length than without transporting islands (Fig. 2), as anticipated from previous studies of wave packet dynamics H+84 ; SZ99 ; IZ00 ; IFZ02 . This localization length of the eigenfunctions is determined by the tunneling out of the island: A wave packet initialized at the center of a regular island initially follows the classical dynamics (Fig. 3). Its weight inside the island, however, decays as $`P(t)=\mathrm{exp}(\gamma t)`$, where $`\gamma `$ is the tunneling rate between the regular island and the chaotic sea H+84 . During the time scale $`1/\gamma `$ of this decay the wave packet is transported with the velocity $`v=1`$ of the island. We thus estimate the localization length as $`\lambda =v/\gamma `$. We determined the tunneling rate $`\gamma =\mathrm{9.885\hspace{0.25em}10}^4`$ from the wave packet dynamics. The localization length of the amphibious eigenstates agrees well with the length $`\lambda =1011`$ estimated from this tunneling rate, as can be seen in Fig. 2. The scaling of the tunneling rate $`\gamma \mathrm{exp}(C/h_{\text{eff}})`$ H+84 , with some constant $`C`$, yields a localization length $`\lambda \mathrm{exp}(C/h_{\text{eff}})`$ that increases exponentially with decreasing $`h_{\text{eff}}`$. As a numerical computation of eigenstates requires a system size of several localization lengths, this scaling implies that approaching the semiclassical limit of small $`h_{\text{eff}}`$ in the presence of transporting islands entails an enormous increase in numerical effort. Note that in the non-transporting case, $`v=0`$, the above estimate for the localization length breaks down and the usual dynamical localization with $`\lambda h_{\text{eff}}^1`$ takes place.

An intuitive understanding of why transporting islands lead to amphibious eigenstates can be gained in the following way: The quantum mechanical continuity equation of a state $`\phi `$ is

$$\frac{}{t}|\phi (x,t)|^2+\frac{}{x}J_\phi (x,t)=0,$$
(4)
where $`J_\phi `$ is the probability current of $`\phi `$ discrete . Integration over one temporal period leads to

$$|\phi (x,t+1)|^2|\phi (x,t)|^2=\frac{}{x}_t^{t+1}𝑑tJ_\phi (x,t).$$
(5)
The left-hand side vanishes for eigenstates $`|\psi `$ of the time-evolution operator over one period, Eq. (3). Thus their temporally averaged current is spatially constant. Moreover, this constant is zero, because all eigenstates are localized and thus have a vanishing overall current. Therefore, the probability current

$$_t^{t+1}𝑑tJ_\psi (x,t)0,$$
(6)
vanishes for all $`x`$. We can use this condition to infer the local structure of the eigenstates in the semiclassical regime, where the quantum probability current $`J_\psi `$ is close to the classical current. In particular, we can immediately exclude regular eigenstates that are mainly concentrated on the transporting islands and thus would show a considerable current. Similarly, chaotic eigenstates can be excluded, as the chaotic sea also shows a non-zero current in the opposite direction S+01 . The amphibious eigenstate presented in Fig. 1a, however, is distributed uniformly over the phase-space regions with opposing classical currents. It fulfills the requirement of a vanishing current of Eq. (6) because the phase space averaged classical current is zero. Hence we can conclude that even in the semiclassical limit all eigenstates spread simultaneously over regular and chaotic regions of the phase space in all spatial unit cells.

It is illuminating to point out where the arguments leading to the semiclassical eigenfunction hypothesis fail in the case of transporting islands. In the semiclassical limit the tunneling rate $`\gamma `$ between the center of a regular island and the chaotic sea decreases to arbitrarily small values. Perturbation theory in $`\gamma `$ can be used to calculate the eigenstates provided that the dimensionless coupling is small, $`\gamma /\mathrm{\Delta }1`$, where $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ denotes the mean level spacing of those unperturbed states that will be coupled by tunneling. In extended systems it is crucial to understand the dependence of $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ on the system size $`L`$: In the absence of classical transport the unperturbed regular and chaotic states are localized, and the tunneling out of the island may couple only groups of states that are spatially close. In particular, the number of these states and their mean level spacing is fixed for given $`h_{\text{eff}}`$ and does not depend on the system size, leading to $`\mathrm{\Delta }h_{\text{eff}}`$. Using $`\gamma \mathrm{exp}(C/h_{\text{eff}})`$ we see that perturbation theory is applicable $`(\gamma /\mathrm{\Delta }1)`$ for small $`h_{\text{eff}}`$. Hence the semiclassical eigenfunction hypothesis is valid. In the presence of transporting islands, however, the unperturbed regular states are extended and all of them will be coupled to all chaotic states. The mean level spacing of the unperturbed states is now inversely proportional to the system size, $`\mathrm{\Delta }h_{\text{eff}}L^1`$, and perturbation theory breaks down $`(\gamma /\mathrm{\Delta }1)`$ as soon as $`Lh_{\text{eff}}/\gamma `$. In particular, we conclude that for an infinite system, transporting regular and chaotic regions are strongly coupled even in the semiclassical limit Thou . From the breakdown of perturbation theory alone, however, we cannot conclude the locally amphibious nature of eigenstates which we find numerically and deduce from the condition of vanishing current Eq. (6).

What do eigenstates look like if one has several transporting islands with different velocities? Let us illustrate this question with the important case of a symmetric phase space containing equivalent islands transporting in opposite directions (arrows in the lower inset of Fig. 4), as in the standard map with accelerator modes Izr90 . In this case regular eigenstates that are supported simultaneously by both islands would fulfill the condition of vanishing current, Eq. (6). However, due to the breakdown of the perturbation theory, we do not expect such states. A numerical investigation of the eigenstates reveals a structure which is consistent with all our arguments but surprisingly complicated: We find that all eigenstates are of a mixed type – in some unit cells they are concentrated on both regular islands, in some they spread over the chaotic sea, and in some unit cells they are amphibious (Fig. 4). This unexpected finding calls for further exploration.

Although the amphibious eigenstates disregard the classical phase-space structure, our results do not contradict quantum-classical correspondence. For example, the wave packet of Fig. 3 follows the classical expectation for arbitrarily long times $`t\mathrm{}`$ , if the limit $`h_{\text{eff}}0`$ is taken first. It is well known that eigenstates, where the order of these limits is reversed, might differ from the semiclassically expected states, which are called quasimodes Arn72 ; Ber77a . A famous example is the symmetric double-well potential, where eigenstates must be symmetric or antisymmetric and thus live in both wells, while classically the dynamics is restricted to one of the wells. This is a very special situation, however, as quasimodes and eigenstates will again coincide if the symmetry of the double-well potential is weakly perturbed. Amphibious eigenstates are a non-trivial example for the difference between quasimodes and eigenstates. Moreover, for extended systems with transporting islands they are a generic phenomenon.

The failure of the semiclassical eigenfunction hypothesis and the appearance of amphibious eigenstates raise further questions: transporting island chains of arbitrary length exist even in systems with a finite phase space, such as in the neighborhood of the boundary circle enclosing a regular island. Will there be amphibious eigenstates? The statistical properties of chaotic eigenstates Haake  can be seen in conductance measurements on quantum dots Alh00 . What are the statistical properties of amphibious eigenstates? Are they similar to those of chaotic eigenstates or will there be specific correlations caused by the regular islands?

The recently developed techniques to observe atom dynamics in optical lattices ST+01 ; H+01  are perfectly suited for the experimental study of amphibious eigenstates. In such systems wave packets can be prepared on selected points in phase space, e.g. on the center of an island, and their long-time dynamics can be studied. A measurement of the phase-space distribution would reveal that the asymptotic wave packet is uniformly distributed over phase space, independent of the initial preparation. This is in sharp contrast to a system with non-transporting islands and would be a clear experimental signature of amphibious eigenstates.

We acknowledge discussions with T. Dittrich, D. Cohen, S. Fishman, A. Iomin, and F. Wolf.


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# §1 Introduction

## §1 Introduction

Let $`X`$ be a projective smooth variety over $``$. Let S be a finite set of primes such that $`X`$ has a projective smooth model $`𝒳`$ over $`U:=\text{spec}[\frac{1}{S}]`$. Then from the works of Bloch(\[Bl1\]) and Sherman, we have the following exact localization sequence in algebraic $`K`$-theory, using Gersten’s conjecture for $`𝒦_2`$ in a mixed characteristic setting that was proven by Bloch(\[Bl2\])

$$H^1(𝒳,𝒦_2)H^1(X,𝒦_2)\stackrel{}{}\underset{pU}{}Pic(X_p)CH^2(𝒳)CH^2(X)0$$

where $`X_p`$ is the fiber of $`𝒳`$ at the prime $`p`$.

A conjecture of Beilinson on the special values of $`L`$-function and Tate conjecture tell us that the cokernel of $``$ is torsion. See the remark after Theorem 2.5 in \[La\] for an account of this. This means there should be enough elements in $`H^1(X,𝒦_2)`$ so that any element of $`Pic(X_p)`$ is in the image of the map $``$. The purpose of this paper is to give a potential method to construct elements in $`H^1(X,𝒦_2)`$ in the case where $`X`$ is the product of a curve.

In this case a typical element of $`Pic(X_p)`$ which usually does not lift to the generic fiber is the graph of frobenius endomorphism of the fiber of the curve. For a certain curve $`C`$ of special type we construct a divisor $`DC\times C`$ such that the reduction $`D_p`$ of $`D`$ modulo $`p`$ contains the graph of frobenius endomorphism $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_\phi `$ as an irreducible component(Lemma 2.1).

Next task is to find a nice function $`g`$ on $`D`$ such that $`g`$ vanishes on $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_\phi `$ and not on other components of $`D_p`$, and that one can modify $`(g,D)`$ to an element $`\mathrm{\Sigma }H^1(X,𝒦_2)`$ by adding some elements. In this we have succeeded for the curve $`C`$ and for the prime 3. This is the main result of this paper (Theorem 2.3).

Although in this paper we are able to construct elements only for curves of very specific type, the idea of construction can be applied to more general curves, and we hope it gives a clue to construct more elements in more general situation.

When $`X`$ is the product of a modular curve there is a beautiful construction of elements in $`H^1(X,𝒦_2)`$ by Flach(\[Fl\]) and Mildenhall(\[Mi\]). However their elements are still not enough to show that coker($``$) is torsion for the products of general modular curves.

The author thanks S. Bloch and R. Sreekantan for discussions. This work was carried out while the author stayed at Department of Mathematics, University of Chicago. He is thankful to the people at Chicago for their hospitality.

## §2 Construction of an element in $`H^1(X,𝒦_2)`$

Let $`C`$ be a curve over $``$ defined as the normalization of the projective closure of the affine curve

$$y^m=t^n+1.$$

Here $`m`$ and $`n`$ are integers such that $`n5,(n,6)=1,(m,3)=1`$ and $`(m,n)=1`$. We denote its point at infinity by $`\mathrm{}`$. For a prime $`pmn`$, the curve $`C`$ naturally extends to a projective smooth model $`𝒞`$ over spec $`_{(p)}`$. We denote the special fiber of $`𝒞`$ by $`C_p`$. Let

$$\pi :𝒞_{_{(p)}}^1$$

be a map given by $`(y,t)(t)`$. Let $`F:_{_{(p)}}^1_{_{(p)}}^1`$ be a morphism given by $`tt^p.`$

Let $`f:=F\pi `$ and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_f𝒞\times _{_{(p)}}^1`$ be its graph. Let $`𝒟=(id\times \pi )^{}\mathrm{\Gamma }_f𝒞\times 𝒞`$. We denote the generic fiber of $`𝒟`$ by $`D`$ and the special fiber of $`𝒟`$ by $`D_p`$.

###### Lemma 2.1

The intersection

$$𝒟(𝒞\times \mathrm{}\mathrm{}\times 𝒞)$$

is supported on $`\mathrm{}\times \mathrm{}.`$

###### Demonstration proof

If $`x\times \mathrm{}D_p(\text{resp.}x\times \mathrm{}D)`$ for a closed point $`x`$ of $`C_p(\text{resp. of}C)`$ then $`x\times \pi (\mathrm{})=x\times \mathrm{}\mathrm{\Gamma }_f`$ so $`F\pi (x)=\mathrm{}`$, hence $`\pi (x)=\mathrm{},x=\mathrm{}.`$

Similarly, if $`\mathrm{}\times xD_p(\text{resp.}D)\mathrm{}\times \pi (x)\mathrm{\Gamma }_f,\pi (x)=f(\mathrm{})=\mathrm{},x=\mathrm{}.`$

###### Lemma 2.2

Let $`\kappa `$ be the field generated by a primitive $`m`$-th root of unity $`\xi `$ over $`𝔽_p`$. Then the divisor

$$D_p_{𝔽_p}\kappa =\underset{j=0}{\overset{m1}{}}\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\xi ^j\phi }.$$

Here $`\phi `$ is the frobenius endomorphism of $`C_p`$ and $`\xi `$ is the automorphism of $`𝒞`$ given by $`y\xi y.`$

###### Demonstration proof

Let $`𝒱:=(𝒞\backslash \{\mathrm{}\})\times _{_{(p)}}(𝒞\backslash \{\mathrm{}\})`$. We denote the generic fiber of $`𝒱`$ by $`V`$ and its specical fiber by $`V_p`$.

By lemma 2.1 it suffices to look at $`D_pV_p`$. On $`V_p`$, $`D_p`$ is defined by the equation $`t_2t_1^p=0`$. Here $`(y_1,t_1)\times (y_2,t_2)`$ is a set of coordinates on $`V_p`$. One can see that $`y_2^m(y_1^p)^m(t_2t_1^p)`$. ∎

###### Remark Remark

This construction of the divisor $`D`$ can be applied in general to curves which are cyclic cover of $`^1`$.

In the following we specify $`p`$ to 3. When $`m=2`$ and $`n=5`$ the curve $`C_3`$ over $`𝔽_3`$ is isomorphic to the curve $`t^5=y(y1)`$. In this case the characteristic polynomial of the action of $`\phi `$ on the Tate module of Jacobian of $`C_3`$ is $`T^4+9`$(\[Gr-Ro\] Lemma1.1). Since $`End(Jac(C))=`$, $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_\phi `$ does not lift to the generic fiber.

###### Theorem 2.3

There is an element $`\mathrm{\Sigma }H^1(C\times C,𝒦_2)`$ such that the factor of

$$(\mathrm{\Sigma })atp=\{\begin{array}{cc}& \mathrm{\Gamma }_\phi p=3\hfill \\ & 0p\text{spec}[\frac{1}{mn}],p3.\hfill \end{array}$$

###### Demonstration proof

Consider the function $`g:=y_2y_1^3`$ on $`D`$. We calculate div$`(g)V`$.

$`y_2y_1^3=0t_2^n+1(t_1^n+1)^3=0.`$

We write $`T=t_1^n`$. Then it follows $`T^3+1(T+1)^3=0,3(T^2+T)=0,T=0\text{or}1`$.

So $`t_1=0,\zeta ^\alpha ,\alpha =0,\mathrm{},n1.`$

Here $`\zeta `$ is a primitive $`n`$-th root of unity.

Hence div$`(g)`$ is suppoted on the set $`\{(\xi ^j,0)\times (\xi ^{3j},0)|j=0,\mathrm{},m1\}\{(0,\zeta ^\alpha )\times (0,\zeta ^{3\alpha })|\alpha =0,\mathrm{},n1\}\{\mathrm{}\}.`$

Here $`\xi `$ is a primitive $`m`$-th root of unity.

Let $`𝒮`$ be the set of points on $`C`$ given by

$$𝒮=\{(y,t)C\backslash \{\mathrm{}\}|y=0\text{or}t=0\}\{\mathrm{}\}.$$

We see that the support of div$`(g)𝒮\times 𝒮.`$

For any point $`x𝒮`$ the divisor $`(x)(\mathrm{})Pic^0C`$ is torsion, so we can construct an element $`\mathrm{\Sigma }H^1(C\times C,𝒦_2)`$ of the form

$$(g,D)+\underset{x_i𝒮}{}(f_i,C\times x_i)+(f_i^{},x_i\times C).$$

Since $`g=0`$ at the generic point of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_\phi `$ and $`g0`$ at the generic points of other irreducible components of $`D_3`$, we see that the factor of $`(\mathrm{\Sigma })`$ at $`p=3`$ is equal to $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_\phi .`$

###### Lemma 2.4

For any prime $`l\text{spec}[\frac{1}{mn}]`$ other than 3, the reduction $`D_l`$ of the divisor $`𝒟`$ mod $`l`$ is irreducible.

###### Demonstration proof

One can show that

$$D_l(\mathrm{}\times C_lC_l\times \mathrm{})$$

is supported on $`\mathrm{}\times \mathrm{}`$ in the same way as the proof of Lemma 2.1. So it suffices to show that $`D_l(C_l\backslash \{\mathrm{}\})\times (C_l\backslash \{\mathrm{}\})`$ is irreducible. On $`(C_l\backslash \{\mathrm{}\})\times (C_l\backslash \{\mathrm{}\})`$, $`D_l`$ is the scheme

$$\text{spec}𝔽_l[y_1,t_1,y_2]/(y_1^mt_1^n1,y_2^m(y_1^m1)^31).$$

So $`D_l`$ is reducible if and only if $`y_2^m(y_1^m1)^31`$ is reducible. There is a point $`sC_l(\overline{𝔽_l})`$ at which the function $`(y_1^m1)^3+1`$ vanishes to order 1. It follows that $`y_2^m(y_1^m1)^31`$ is irreducible from the following well known fact:

Let $`𝒪`$ be a discrete valuation ring and denote its maximal ideal by $`𝔪`$. Let $`f(x)=x^k+a_{k1}x^{k1}+\mathrm{}+a_0𝒪[x]`$ be a polynomial. If $`a_j𝔪`$ for $`j=0,\mathrm{},k1`$ and $`a_0`$ generates $`𝔪`$, then $`f(x)`$ is irreducible.

The above argument and Lemma 2.4 show the existance of $`\mathrm{\Sigma }`$ as stated in the theorem. ∎


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# Large In-plane Anisotropy on Resistivity and Thermopower in The Misfit Layered Oxide Bi2-xPbxSr2Co2Oy

## Abstract

We investigated the in-plane anisotropy on the resistivity and thermopower of Bi2-xPbxSr2Co2Oy single crystals, which have a misfit structure between the hexagonal CoO2 layer and the rock salt Bi2Sr2O4 layer. The resistivity and thermopower show significantly large anisotropy, which exceeds two at maximum. This anisotropy would come from the anisotropic pseudogap formation enhanced by the misfit structure. The thermopower changes with Pb doping to take a maximum at $`x`$=0.4. The misfit structure improves the thermoelectric properties through chemical pressure. The power factor is as large as 9 $`\mu `$W/cmK2 at 100 K for $`x`$=0.6, which is the highest value for thermoelectric oxides at 100 K.

The strongly correlated electron systems in oxide often show unusual physical properties, such as high-$`T_c`$ superconductivity in cuprates and colossal magneto-resistance in manganites. Recently, layered cobalt oxides NaCo2O4 terra1 , Ca-Co-O CaCo1 ; CaCo2 , Bi-Sr-Co-O BiCo ; ito , and Tl-Sr-Co-O TlCo  were found to show a large thermoelectric power, and exibited a potential advantage for thermoelectric material. We have previously pointed out that the high thermoelectric performance of the layered cobalt oxides cannot be explained by a conventional band picture, and proposed that the strong electron-electron correlation plays an important role in the large thermoelectric power terra2 .

The layered cobalt oxides with large thermoelectric power consist of the alternating stack of a conducting CoO2 layer and an insulating blocking layer. The Bi-Sr-Co-O system was first thought as having a structure isomorphic to that of the superconducting compound Bi2Sr2CaCu2O8+δ (Bi-2212). However, it turned out that the square Bi2Sr2O4 lattice lies on the triangular CoO2 lattice with a misfit along the $`b`$ axis raveau . Similar crystal structure was reported in ($`RX`$)x$`MX_2`$ ($`R`$ = La, Ce, Sm, Gd, Yb; $`M`$= Ti, V, Nb; $`X`$ = S, Se), where the square $`RX`$ layer was intercalated between the trianglar $`MX_2`$ layers Wiegers1 . These intercalated units weakly couple with conductive $`MX_2`$ layers via the van der Waals force. In the case of the Bi-Sr-Co-O system, the coupling between the Bi2Sr2O4 layer and the CoO2 layer is ionic and much stronger than these materials. Therefore, due to the subcells with different symmetries, the symmetry of the electronic states would be altered to induce in-plane anisotropy in physical properties. Moreover the misfit structure would induce chemical pressure along the $`b`$-axis direction. We further note that another structural feature in the Bi-Sr-Co-O system is a strongly modulated BiO layer, as is similarly seen in Bi-2212 matsui1  along the $`b`$ axis, which disappears with Pb doping matsui2 . Thus, Bi-Sr-Co-O system is very complicated with the misfit and modulation structures. It is interesting how the electric properties are affected by the misfit and modulation structures. Here, we report on the in-plane anisotropy on the resistivity and thermopower of the Bi-Sr-Co-O system.

Single crystals of (Bi,Pb)-Sr-Co-O were grown by a traveling solvent floating zone (TSFZ) method. Starting composition was Bi2-xPbxSr2Co2Oy ($`x`$=0, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8). The actual composition was analyzed through inductively coupled plasma-atomic emission spectroscopy (ICP) and energy dispersive X-ray analysis (EDX). Structural analysis was performed using four-circle X-ray diffractmeter (Cu Kα X-ray source) and transmission electron microscope (TEM). The resistivity was measured using a standard four probe method. The thermopower was measured using a steady-state technique.

The chemical compositions of the samples used for this study are listed against the nominal composition in Table 1(a). Hereafter, we will refer the samples as the nominal composition of Pb ($`x`$=0, 0.4, 0.6, and 0.8). The EDX and ICP data are in excellent agreement with each other, where (Bi+Pb) : Sr : Co $``$ 2.1 : 2.1 : 2.0. We can see that the actual composition of Pb is roughly equal to the nominal composition except for $`x`$=0.8. $`x`$=0.6 and $`x`$=0.8 exhibit no difference in the actual chemical composition, the lattice constant, and the transport properties, which indicates that the solubility limit of Pb is considered to be about $`x`$=0.6.

The lattice constants and the angle $`\beta `$ are listed in Table 1(b). With increasing Pb concentration, the $`c`$-axis length expands continuously from 29.84 Åof $`x`$=0 to 30.04 Åof $`x`$=0.6, whereas the $`b`$-axis length of the rock-salt layer $`b_{RS}`$ discontinuously shrinks from 5.38 Åof $`x`$=0 to 5.22 Åof $`x`$=0.4 with the $`a`$-axis length of the rock-salt layer $`a_{RS}`$ nearly unchanged (4.9 Å). This is in good agreement with the powder XRD measurement by Yamamoto $`et`$ $`al`$ yamamoto .

Figures 1(a) and (b) show the TEM diffraction patterns of $`x`$=0 and 0.4, respectively, which clearly show a rock-salt diffraction pattern from the Bi2Sr2O4 layer and a hexagonal diffraction pattern from the CoO2 layer. The $`a`$\- and $`b`$-axis length of the hexagonal CoO2 layer ($`a_H`$, $`b_H`$) is estimated to be about 2.8 Åand the angle between them is about 60, which is independent of $`x`$ within the resolution limit of the TEM image. From the above structural analysis, the prepared samples show the misfit structure along the $`b`$ axis (13 $`b_H`$ $``$ 7 $`b_{RS}`$ $``$ 36 Å), while the $`a`$-axis length of the rock-salt layer matches with that of the hexagonal layer ($`a_{RS}`$ $``$ $`\sqrt{3}`$ $`a_H`$ $``$ 4.9 Å). The TEM diffraction pattern of $`x`$=0 shows satellite reflection due to the modulation structure along the oblique direction (tilted about 45) from $`a_{RS}^{}`$ or $`b_{RS}^{}`$. In contrast, there is no satellite reflection in $`x`$=0.4, indicating that the modulation structure disappears in this compound. This modulation structure was also confirmed with the Laue transmission photographs (not shown here).

Figure 2 shows the temperature dependence of the $`a`$\- and $`b`$-axis resistivities (We refer the $`a`$\- and $`b`$-axis directions as the $`a_{RS}`$ and $`b_{RS}`$ directions). All the samples show a metallic behavior at room temperature. With Pb doping, the magnitude of the resistivity continuously decreases, suggesting that carriers are doped through the substitution of divalent Pb2+ for trivalent Bi3+ yamamoto ; ito . Note that the magnitude of resistivity for all samples is unusually large for a metal. The large $`\rho `$ comes from a short in-plane mean free path ($``$ 3 Åat 300 K) which is comprable to the Co-Co bond length, and suggests the incherent nature of the metallic behavior (These materials are called bad metal) emery .

The in-plane anisotropy of the resistivity ($`\rho _b`$/$`\rho _a`$) is shown in the inset of Fig. 2. Contrary to the relatively small $`\rho _b`$/$`\rho _a`$ for $`x`$=0, $`\rho _b`$/$`\rho _a`$ of $`x`$=0.4 increases strongly below 50 K. This comes from the different temperature dependence; $`\rho _b`$ shows an upturn below 50 K, whereas $`\rho _a`$ remains metallic down to 4.2 K. Pb substitution for Bi strongly suppresses the low-temperature upturn and $`x`$=0.6 is again less anisotropic. (Since $`\rho _a`$ is sensitive to the current direction, a small upturn of $`\rho _a`$ of $`x`$=0.6 is possibly due to the misalignment of the contacts.) Since the triangular CoO2 layer itself shows no in-plane anisotropy, the observed anisotropy is anomalously large from the viewpoint of group theories. This is considered to come from the rock-salt Bi2Sr2O4 layers of different symmetry. Actually, Bi-2212, which consists of the square CuO2 and the rock-salt Bi2Sr2O4 layers, shows much less in-plane anisotropy in the resistivity fujii . We have previously proposed the pseudogap formation in Bi-Sr-Co-O at low temperatures ito , and have attributed the upturn of the low temperature resistivity to the decrease in the density of states. Accordingly, the in-plane anisotropy suggests that the pseudogap is anisotropic (nearly zero along the $`a`$ axis).

Figures 3(a), (b) and (c) show the temperature dependence of the $`a`$ and $`b`$ axis thermopower for $`x`$=0, 0.4 and 0.6 respectively. Pb substitution for Bi enhances the thermopower in both directions from $`x`$=0 to 0.4. For example, the magnitude of the $`a`$-axis thermopower increases from 140 to 160 $`\mu `$V/K at room temperature in going from $`x`$=0 to 0.4. However, it decreases down to 140 $`\mu `$V/K for $`x`$=0.6. We have claimed that the large thermopower in Co oxides is attributed to the strong electron-electron correlation ito . The increase of the thermopower from $`x`$=0 to 0.4 is considered to be due to the discontinuous shrink of the $`b_{RS}`$ axis, which causes a chemical pressure along the $`b`$ axis. A similar phenomenon is seen in the Ce-based compounds terra2 , where the thermopower increases with increasing pressure jaccard . The decrease of the thermopower from $`x`$=0.4 to 0.6 is possibly due to the increase of the carrier density, because the $`b`$-axis length is nearly unchanged.

Next, we consider the anisotropy in the thermopower. In the inset of Fig. 3(b), we show the in-plane anisotropy of the thermopower ($`S_b`$/$`S_a`$). All the samples exhibit a large anisotropy which is characterized by a larger $`b`$-axis thermopower below 100 K. At around 50K, the $`b`$-axis thermopower of $`x`$=0.4 is about two times larger than the $`a`$-axis thermopower. Note that the temperature dependence of $`S_b/S_a`$ roughly corresponds to that of $`\rho _b/\rho _a`$. The magnitude of $`S_b/S_a`$ also agrees with that of $`\rho _b/\rho _a`$, where $`x`$=0.4 shows the largest value of two. These results strongly suggest that $`S_b/S_a`$ and $`\rho _b/\rho _a`$ are predominantly determined by the density of states, and that the scattering time is essentially temperature-independent, which is consistent with the bad-metal picture. In this context, $`S_b/S_a`$ comes from the anisotropic density of states induced by the anisotropic pseudogap. One may notice that the anisotropy of the resistivity is smaller than that of the thermopower for $`x`$=0. We attribute this to the modulation structure, which works as anistropic scattering center for Bi-2212 fujii .

The power factor ($`S^2/\rho `$) is a measure of the thermoelectric properties, which means that large themopower and low resistivity are required to thermoelectric materials. The power factor along the $`b`$ axis for $`x`$=0.6 is more than two times as large as that along $`a`$ axis at around 50 K (Inset of Fig. 3(c)), which indicates that the thermoelectric properties can be improved (doubled in the present case) with controlling the misfit structure. The magnitude reaches as large as 9 $`\mu `$W/cmK2 that is highest for thermoelectric oxides at 100 K.

Finally, let us discuss the origin of the anisotropic pseudogap. We have previously proposed that a spin-density-wave (SDW)-like state is a possible origin for the pseudogap in NaCo2O4 terra3 . SDW is closely related to the topology of the Fermi surface and its nesting, and thus the pseudogap is favorable to open along a nesting vector. Assuming that the hexagon-like Fermi surface calculated for NaCo2O4 shin  is also applicable for the Bi-Sr-Co-O system, we expect that SDW is formed along the six-fold $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$-K direction. The misfit structure lowers the crystal symmetry of the CoO2 layer to suppress the nesting along the $`a`$-axis direction. Considering that disorder induces an SDW-like transition in NaCo2O4, we think that the misfit structure is likely to enhance the SDW instability in the Bi-Sr-Co-O system.

Another scenario is based on the fact that the in-plane anisotropy of the Bi-Sr-Co-O system is as large as that of YBa2Cu3Oy for the heavily oxygenated sample of $`y`$=7 and the oxygen deficient sample of $`y`$=6.35 ando . There are additional conductive CuO chains in $`y`$=7, which are responsible for the large anisotropy. With decreasing oxygen content, the CuO chains are progressively destroyed, and the orthorhombicity almost vanishes in $`y`$=6.35. The large anisotropy in $`y`$=6.35 is attributed to a self-organization of the two-dimensional electrons, such as a charge stripe. In this sense, there is a possibility that the in-plane anisotropy in the Bi-Sr-Co-O system comes from a charge stripe.

In conclusion, we grew single crystals of Bi2-xPbxSr2Co2Oy by a TSFZ method. From the structural analysis, we confirmed that they have a misfit structure along the $`b`$ axis, and that $`x`$=0 exhibits a modulation structure, whose direction is tilted by about 45 from the $`a`$\- and $`b`$-axes. We found that the resistivity and thermopower shows a large anisotropy, which would come from the anisotropic pseudogap formation. Accordingly the pseudogap in the $`b_{RS}`$-axis direction makes the resistivity nonmetallic, and the thermopower larger at low temperatures. Aside from the pseudogap, the misfit structure enhances the thermopower through chemical pressure, and we suggest that we can improve the thermoelectric properties by controlling the misfit structure. The maximum power factor is as large as 9 $`\mu `$W/cmK2 at 100 K for $`x`$=0.6 along the $`b`$ axis, which is the highest value at 100 K among various thermoelectric oxides.


text:
# Galaxy groups in the 2dF redshift survey: The catalogue

## 1 Introduction

The study of galaxy groups is a very interesting area of research because these density fluctuations lay between galaxies and clusters of galaxies and may provide important clues to galaxy formation.

Since the appearing of large galaxy redshift surveys more reliable detection of group of galaxies have been possible. Two pioneer works develop the main identification algorithms. The first was introduced by Huchra & Geller (1992) and the second was proposed by Nolthenius & White (1987); both are friends-of-friends algorithms, differing only in the scaling of the linking lengths. Frederic (1995) perform an extensive study of these algorithms using N-body simulations, concluding that neither of them is intrinsically superior to the other, and the choice of one of them depends on the purpose for which groups are to be studied. Recently several catalogues have been constructed from different large galaxy redshift surveys using these algorithms. Merchán et al. (2000) use the Updated Zwicky Catalogue (Falco et al. 1999) generating a sample of 517 galaxy groups. Using the Nearby Optical Galaxy Sample, Giuricin et al. (2000) construct one of the large catalogue of loose groups and Tucker et al. (2000) found 1495 groups in the Las Campanas Redshift Survey. Finally, Ramella et al. (2002) generate a group catalogue of 1168 members from the combination of the Updated Zwicky Catalogue and the Southern Sky Redshift Survey (da Costa et al. 1998).

At the present, the largest sample of galaxies with spectroscopic redshifts ($`100000`$) is the Anglo-Australian two degree field galaxy redshift survey (hereafter 2dFGRS, Colless et al. 2001). The survey covers $`2000deg^2`$ and has a median depth $`\overline{z}=0.11`$.

Several studies were done with this preliminary sample by the 2dFGRS Team. Some of then are the power spectrum of galaxies (Percival et al. 2001), the projected two point correlation function of galaxies for different volume limited samples (Norberg et al. 2001a), and the estimation of the $`b_J`$ band galaxy luminosity function (Norberg et al. 2001b). Another study related with system of galaxies in the 2dFGRS has been carried out by De Propris et al. (2002) where they present an study of 3-dimensional galaxy clusters based on well known bidimensional galaxy clusters.

The large number of galaxies and the depth of the 2dFGRS make it very suitable for galaxy groups identification. Nevertheless the present release of the sample is not uniform due to variations in sky coverage which make difficult the analysis of the data.

The main objective of this work is the identification of groups in the 2dFGRS and estimation of their physical properties (number of members, velocity dispersion, virial radius and mass). In order to take into account the variation in the sky coverage of the 2dFGRS we introduce a couple of modifications to the group-finding algorithm developed by Huchra & Geller (1982). The first one deals with the apparent magnitude limit variation across the sky and the second is related to redshift completeness. These modifications are tested using mock catalogues which reproduce each effect separately. We also use these mock catalogues to explore the space of linking parameters to maximize group identification accuracy.

The paper is structured as follows. The catalogue is described in section 2. In section 3 we describe the group finder algorithm used to identify galaxy groups in the 2dFGRS. A detailed test of the method is performed in section 4. Finally, the 2df group catalogue is presented in section 5 followed by conclusions in section 6 .

## 2 The galaxy catalogue

The complete 2dFGRS will consist of approximately 250000 galaxies with redshifts in two declination strips plus 100 random 2-degree fields. All targets are selected in the photometric $`b_j`$ band from the APM galaxy survey (Maddox et al. 1990a,b;1996). The southern strip (SGP) covers approximately 1275 square degrees ($`37^{}.5\delta 22^{}.5`$; $`21^h40^m\alpha 3^h30^m`$) and the northern strip (NGP) covers 750 square degrees ($`7^{}.5\delta 2^{}.5`$; $`9^h50^m\alpha 14^h50^m`$) while the 100 random fields are spread uniformly over the 7000 square degrees in the southern region.

In our analysis we use the 2dF public 100K data release of galaxies with the best redshift estimates within the two main strips (NGP and SGP) of the catalogue. Given the status of the project, the sky coverage of the sample is not uniform, so a detailed completeness description is needed (see Figure 1). For this purpose, we use in our analysis the 2dFGRS mask software constructed by Peder Norberg and Shaun Cole which take into account both the magnitude limit and the redshift completeness (see also Figure 13 and 15 of Colless et al. 2001). The redshift completeness was defined with the $`2^{}`$ field used to tile the survey region for spectroscopic observations. This quantity is the ratio of the number of galaxies for which redshifts have been obtained to the total number of objects contained in the parent catalogue and has a mean value of $`0.75`$ for the whole sample. On the other hand, the magnitude limit mask corresponds to variations of the parent survey magnitude limit with the position on the sky. This variation span over a magnitude limit range of $`m=18.9519.55`$ for the NGP and a range of $`m=19.319.55`$ for the SGP. This sample comprise 102426 galaxies with final $`b_j`$ magnitudes corrected for galactic extinction.

## 3 The group-finding algorithm

For group identification we use a friends-of-friends algorithm similar to that described by Huchra & Geller (1982) modified in order to take into account redshift completeness and magnitude limit variations.

If we have a pair of galaxies with mean radial velocity $`V=(V_1+V_2)/2`$ and angular separation $`\theta _{12}`$, our algorithm links galaxies when the following conditions are satisfied:

$$D_{12}=2\mathrm{sin}\left(\frac{\theta _{12}}{2}\right)\frac{V}{H_0}D_L$$
(1)
and

$$V_{12}=|V_1V_2|V_L$$
(2)
where $`D_{12}`$ is the angular separation and $`V_{12}`$ is the line-of-sight velocity difference. The transverse $`D_L`$ and radial linking lengths $`V_L`$ are scaled as $`D_0R`$ and $`V_0R`$ respectively in order to compensate for the decline of the selection function with distance. The scaled factor is computed as

$$R=\left[\frac{_{\mathrm{}}^{M_{12}}\varphi (M)𝑑M}{_{\mathrm{}}^{M_{lim}}\varphi (M)𝑑M}\right]^{1/3}$$
(3)
where $`M_{lim}`$ and $`M_{12}`$ are the absolute magnitude of the brightest galaxy visible at a distance $`V_f/H_0`$ and $`V/H_0`$ respectively. In these equations, $`D_0`$ and $`V_0`$ are the linking cutoffs at the fiducial velocity $`V_f`$, and $`\varphi (M)`$ is the galaxy luminosity function of the sample.

In the special case of the 2dFGRS, we should take into account the magnitude limit and completeness variations through the sky. The adopted way to solve this issue consists in defining an average magnitude limit for each pair

$$m_{lim}=(m_{lim}^1+m_{lim}^2)/2$$
(4)
and redefining the scale factor $`R`$ as

$$R=\left[\frac{_{\mathrm{}}^{M_{12}}\varphi (M)𝑑M}{_{\mathrm{}}^{M_{lim}}\varphi (M)𝑑M}\frac{(C_1+C_2)}{2}\right]^{1/3}$$
(5)
where $`C_1`$ and $`C_2`$ are the corresponding completeness values for each galaxy position on the sky.

## 4 Testing the method

### 4.1 Mock Catalogues

To examine the degree of accuracy of our algorithm we use a set of mocks catalogues constructed from a gravitational numerical simulation of a flat low density cold dark matter universe. We perform this simulation using the Hydra Nbody code developed by Couchman et. al (1995) with $`128^3`$ particles in a cubic comoving volume of 180 $`h^1`$ Mpc per side starting at z=50. The adopted cosmological model was a universe with $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m=0.3`$, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }=0.7`$, Hubble constant $`h=0.7`$ and a relative mass fluctuation of $`\sigma _8=0.9`$.

In order to reproduce the same radial distribution as in the 2dFGRS, we adopt a galaxy luminosity function fitted by a Schechter function with $`M_{b_j}^{}5log_{10}h=19.66`$, $`\alpha =1.21`$, $`\mathrm{\Phi }^{}=1.68\times 10^2h^3Mpc^3`$ and a model of the average k+e correction given by the formula

$$k(z)+e(z)=\frac{z+6z^2}{1+20z^3}$$
(6)
(see Norberg et al. 2001b). Combining these models and using the positions from the simulation we generate an apparent magnitude

$$m=k+e+5\mathrm{log}_{10}(d_L/h^1Mpc)+25+(M_{b_j}5\mathrm{log}_{10}h)$$
(7)
for each particle inside the angular mask described in section 2. We construct four mock catalogues with different sky coverage:

* in the first mock we introduce a fixed faint survey magnitude limit ($`m`$);
* the second mock has a fixed faint survey magnitude limit and the effect of redshift completeness as in the real survey ($`cm`$);
* the third mock has a faint survey magnitude limit which changes with the angular position of a particle in the same way as the magnitude limit mask of the 2dFGRS ($`m_v`$);
* finally, the fourth mock have both effects, the magnitude limit mask and the redshift completeness mask ($`cm_v`$).

### 4.2 Identification Accuracy

From the mock catalogues described in the previous section, we identify groups in real and redshift spaces. The former identification is carried out using the same linking length in both directions ($`V_0=D_0`$) whereas different linking lengths are used in redshift space. The fiducial velocity $`V_f`$ is adopted as 1000 $`km`$ $`s^1`$ in all identifications. The linking lengths are selected spanning the space parameter ($`V_0`$, $`\delta \rho /\rho `$) where the later is the number density contour surrounding a group and corresponds to a fixed number density enhancement relative to the mean number density of

$$\frac{\delta \rho }{\rho }=\frac{3}{4\pi D_0^3}\left(_{\mathrm{}}^{M_{lim}}\mathrm{\Phi }(M)𝑑M\right)^11$$
(8)
The selected values are:

* $`V_0`$ : 100, 200, 300, 400 and 500 $`km`$ $`s^1`$
* $`\delta \rho /\rho `$ : 20, 40, 80 and 160

To quantify how good are the groups identified in redshift space we implement a method to match the center of mass of these groups with the center of mass of groups in real space. Our method seeks for groups in real space within a projected and a radial distance having its origin in the center of mass of each group in redshift space. We choose the searching parameters in order to maximize the matching, nevertheless the results are very stable around the chosen values. The results show that almost all groups have one match inside the limits and only a few are related with two or three groups in real space. In the later situation we choose to associate the group in redshift space with that group in real space with more shared particles.

The first result from this comparison is that the percentage of spurious groups identified is remarkably higher when we include groups in redshift space with 3 members ($`40\%`$). Ramella, Geller & Huchra (1989) and Frederic (1995) obtain that one-third or more of the groups identified in redshift space with N=3 are spurious, which is roughly consistent with our result. Consequently, we adopt as the main catalogue all groups identified in redshift space with more than 4 members. Figure 2 shows the number of groups which match with one group in real space relative to the total number of groups in the main catalogue. The analysis comprises all mock and identification parameters under consideration. The complementary percentage in each case represents the spurious groups in the main catalogue. We consider spurious those groups which do not have any match or are associated with a binary or a triplet in real space. The individual percentages for these spurious groups for the $`cm_v`$ mock are shown in Table 1 where the first line represents no matched groups, the second and third lines correspond to binaries and triplets respectively.

We also analise the percentage of the group catalogue in real space associated with matched groups in the main catalogue. That percentage is plotted in Figure 3 for all the options as in Figure 2. Despite the percentage of matched groups in the main catalogue seems to be the highest for a velocity of 100 $`km`$ $`s^1`$ and density contrast of 160, it can be seen from Figure 3 that this choice represents one of the lowest percentages of the group catalogue in real space. Combining the two figures we can conclude that the best options are a velocity of 200 $`km`$ $`s^1`$ and density contrast of 80 or 160. We choose a density contrast of 80 because the total number of groups identified is greater and the matching accuracy is roughly similar.

The resulting value of $`\delta \rho /\rho =80`$ is in agreement with that obtained by Ramella et al. (1997) for the CfA2 Redshift Survey, whereas our optimal velocity linking parameter $`V_0=200kms^1`$ differs from his choice ($`V_0=350kms^1`$). Should be taken into account that equal $`\delta \rho /\rho `$ correspond to different values of $`D_0`$ depending of the apparent magnitude limit of the survey. Particularly, the the apparent magnitude limits for the 2dFGRS and the CfA2 Redshift Survey are $`19.4`$ and $`15.5`$ respectively. Consequently, the higher number density of the 2dFGRS implies smaller linking parameters than those obtained for the CfA2 Redshift Survey.

From the comparison between the four kind of mock catalogues we conclude that implemented modifications keep the behavior of the original algorithm, showing the ability of these modifications to deal with an inhomogeneous galaxy samples like the 2dFGRS.

To examine the degree of agreement between members of groups in real and redshift space we perform an analysis similar to Frederic (1995) for matched groups in the main catalogue. If we define the total number of members of a given group in redshift space as $`N_{tot}`$, we search how many members of this group are in the associated group in real space $`N_m`$ and compute the ratio $`=N_m/N_{tot}`$. Figure 4 shows the fraction of groups of a given richness $`N_{tot}`$ with $``$ for several values: 1 (cross hatched regions), $`0.75<1`$ (single narrow hatched regions), $`0.5<0.75`$ (single wide hatched regions) and $`0.25<0.5`$ (no hatching regions). For richness 10 we include all groups with 10 or more members. As it can be seen, more than $``$65% of the groups have a ratio $``$ greater than 0.75 for all kind of mocks. It also should be noticed that the implemented modifications keep the performance of the original Huchra & Geller algorithm.

We still need to test that our modifications to the Huchra & Geller algorithm improve the detection of galaxy groups. In order to prove the modification which take into account the redshift completeness we compare the results of the identification using both, modified and original Huchra & Geller algorithms on the $`cm`$ mock catalogue. As result, we find that the identification using our modification produce $`263`$ ($`11\%`$ of the total sample) more groups than the corresponding to the plain algorithm version. On the other hand, the wide apparent magnitude limit range implies a variation in the local number density, which produce a similar effects as the redshift completeness. This effect was tested applying a similar procedure as the former but using the $`m_v`$ mock catalogue. The results show a difference of $`89`$ groups using our modified algorithm against the original Huchra & Geller one. The effect due to the apparent magnitude limit is smaller than the observed for the redshift completeness because the magnitude limit distribution have a mean value of $`19.4`$ tending to the upper limit of the whole range. Finally, we test the joint effects applying the same procedure to the $`cm_v`$ mock catalogue, showing that our modification identify $`280`$ more groups ($`14\%`$ of the total sample). As we have shown in the previous tests, the modified algorithm keep the performance of the original Huchra & Geller method, then the $`70\%`$ of these differences correspond to real groups for the chosen linking parameters.

## 5 Galaxy group identification in the 2dFGRS

To identify groups in the 2dF survey (2dFGGC), we adopt the values $`\delta \rho /\rho =80`$ and $`V_0=200`$ $`km`$ $`s^1`$ which maximize the group accuracy as shown in section 4.

The resulting groups catalogue contains systems with at least 4 members, mean radial velocities in the range $`900kms^1V75000kms^1`$ and a total number of 2209 groups. It represents the largest sample to the present and provides a suitable data set to analise the clustering properties of galaxy systems of low richness. As discussed in the previous section, the limit adopted in the number of members in galaxy groups is necessary in order to avoid pseudo-groups.

Figure 5 shows the cone diagrams for galaxies (points) and groups (open circles) in the 2dF survey.

Estimation of the virial mass for galaxy groups is carried out using the following equation

$$M_{vir}=\frac{\sigma ^2R_V}{G}$$
(9)
where $`R_V`$ is the virial radius of the system and $`\sigma `$ is the velocity dispersion of member galaxies (Limber & Mathews 1960). The virial radius is estimated as

$`R_V`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\pi }{2}}R_{PV}`$ (10)
$`R_{PV}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{N_g(N_g1)}{_{i>j}R_{ij}^1}}`$ (11)
where $`R_{PV}`$ is the projected virial radius, $`N_g`$ is the number of galaxies members and $`R_{ij}`$ the galaxy projected distances. The velocity dispersion $`\sigma `$ is estimated using their observational counterpart, the line-of-sight velocity dispersion $`\sigma _v`$, $`\sigma =\sqrt{3}\sigma _v`$. In particular we use the methods described by Beers, Flynn & Gebhardt (1990) to obtain a robust estimation of the radial velocity dispersion. We apply the biweight estimator for groups with richness $`N_{tot}15`$ and the gapper estimator for poorer groups (Girardi et al. 1993, Girardi & Giuricin 2000). Despite these methods improve the velocity dispersion estimation in terms of efficiency and stability when dealing with small groups, it should be taken into account that small errors in the estimate of the velocity dispersion results in correspondingly larger errors in the derived mass.

The group properties estimation could be biased by the geometrical and sampling effects in the 2dF catalog. To deal with border effects we create a simple magnitude limited mock catalogue where limits in declination and right ascension exceed the corresponding to the 2dF catalog. Consequently we identify groups in this mock catalogue keeping those inside the 2dF border and we confront them with groups identified in a mock catalogue which emulate the 2dF geometry. As result, we observe no differences between the distribution of physical properties ($`R_V`$,$`\sigma `$ and $`M`$) of these samples, showing that the complex geometry of the 2dF border do not affect group properties.

Another source of bias could be the variation of redshift completeness across the sky producing a wrong estimation of the physical properties in low completeness regions. In order to quantify this possible bias, we compare the physical properties of both, $`cm`$ and $`m`$ mock catalogues described in section 4, splitting these samples in high and low redshift completeness. In Figure 6 we show the histogram of $`R_V`$, $`\sigma `$ and $`M`$ for low ($`<0.6`$,upper panels) and high ($`0.6`$,lower panels) completeness. Dotted lines correspond to $`m`$ mock catalogue whereas the solid lines correspond to $`cm`$ one. As it can be seen, only the virial radius in the low redshift completeness regions show some differences, nevertheless they do not produce any significant effect in the mass estimation.

Finally the distribution of the estimated physical properties are shown in Figure 7. In the upper-left panel we plot the redshift distribution with a mean redshift of $`z0.1`$, the lower-left panel shows the virial mass distribution, the upper-right panel correspond to the velocity dispersion distribution, and the virial radii distribution is shown in the remainder plot. The mean values of the 2dFGGC are quoted in Table 1.

## 6 CONCLUSIONS

In this paper we present a new catalogue of galaxy groups derived from the 2dFGRS, the largest sample of galaxies with spectroscopic redshifts at the present. The construction of this catalogue of groups (2dFGGC) was carried out introducing some modifications in the friend of friends algorithm developed by Huchra & Geller (1982) in order to take into account the different sky coverage variations in the sample. We have tested these modifications taking advantage of mock catalogues which allow us to explore the space parameter looking for the best values to maximize the group identification accuracy in redshift space. With these parameters ($`\delta \rho /\rho =80`$ and $`V_0=200`$ $`km`$ $`sec^1`$) we obtain that $`90\%`$ of groups in real space match some group with at least four members in redshift space. Furthermore, the $`30\%`$ of groups in redshift space are spurious (no matched groups $`6\%`$ and groups associated with a binary or triplet $`24\%`$). We also find that the introduced modifications are able to detect $`14\%`$ more groups than the obtained by the original Huchra & Geller algorithm. Additionally, we explore the border effect and a possible bias due to redshift completeness on the physical properties, finding that none of them produce significant effects on the final estimations.

Using the optimal identification parameters, the final group sample for the 2dF survey comprise 2209 groups of galaxies with mean redshift of $`\overline{z}0.1`$ and a mean velocity dispersion of $`\overline{\sigma }`$=261 km/s. From the estimation of the virial masses for the galaxy groups we obtain a mean mass $`\overline{M}=`$ $`8.5\times 10^{13}`$ $`h^1`$ $`M_{}`$ with a mean virial radius $`\overline{R_V}=1.12`$ $`h^1Mpc`$.

The new galaxy group catalogue is one of the largest groups samples until the present. For this reasons the new sample is more suitable for statistical studies than has been previously available.

## Acknowledgments

We want warmly thank to Carlton Baugh for reading the manuscript and helpful suggestions. We also thank to Peder Norberg and Shaun Cole for kindly providing the software describing the mask of the 2dFGRS and to the 2dFGRS Team for having made available the actual data sets of the sample. This work has been partially supported by Consejo de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas de la República Argentina (CONICET), the Secretaría de Ciencia y Técnica de la Universidad Nacional de Córdoba (SeCyT), the Consejo de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnológicas de la Provincia de Córdoba (CONICOR) and Fundación Antorchas, Argentina.


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# On the Dyadosphere of Black Holes

## Abstract

Basic energy requirements of Gamma Ray Burst(GRB) sources can be easily accounted for by a pair creation process occurring in the “Dyadosphere” of a Black Hole endowed with an electromagnetic field (abbreviated to EMBH for “electromagnetic Black Hole”). This includes the recent observations of GRB971214 by Kulkarni et al. The “Dyadosphere” is defined as the region outside the horizon of an EMBH where the electromagnetic field exceeds the critical value for $`e^+e^{}`$ pair production. In a very short time $`O(\frac{\mathrm{}}{mc^2})`$, very large numbers of pairs are created there. Further evolution then leads naturally to a relativistically expanding pair-electromagnetic-pulse (PEM-pulse). Specific examples of Dyadosphere parameters are given for $`10M_{}`$ and $`10^5M_{}`$ EMBH’s. This process does occur for EMBH with charge-to-mass ratio larger than $`2.210^5`$ and strictly smaller than one. From a fundamental point of view, this process represents the first mechanism proved capable of extracting large amounts of energy from a Black Hole with an extremely high efficiency (close to $`100\%`$).

It is now generally accepted that Black Holes are uniquely characterized by their total mass-energy $`E`$, charge $`Q`$, and angular momentum $`L`$. The uniqueness theorem has finally been proved after some twenty five years of mathematical work by numerous authors recently reviewed in . The Christodoulou-Ruffini mass formula for Black Holes gives

$`E^2`$ $`=`$ $`M^2c^4=\left(M_{\mathrm{ir}}c^2+{\displaystyle \frac{Q^2}{2\rho _+}}\right)^2+{\displaystyle \frac{L^2c^2}{\rho _+^2}},`$ (1)
$`S`$ $`=`$ $`4\pi \rho _+^2=4\pi (r_+^2+{\displaystyle \frac{L^2}{c^2M^2}})=16\pi \left({\displaystyle \frac{G^2}{c^4}}\right)M_{\mathrm{ir}}^2,`$ (2)
with

$$\frac{1}{\rho _+^4}\left(\frac{G^2}{c^8}\right)\left(Q^4+4L^2c^2\right)1,$$
(3)
where $`M_{\mathrm{ir}}`$ is the irreducible mass, $`r_+`$ is the horizon radius, $`\rho _+`$ is the quasi spheroidal cylindical coordinate of the horizon evaluated at the equatorial plane, $`S`$ is the horizon surface area, and extreme Black Holes satisfy the equality in eq. (3). \[We shall use c.g.s. units.\] From eqs. (1) and (3) it follows that up to 29$`\%`$ of the mass-energy of an extreme rotating Black Hole with angular momentum $`L_{\mathrm{max}}=2\rho _+^2c^3/G`$ can be stored in its rotational energy and gedanken experiments have been conceived to extract such energy. Other processes of rotational energy extraction of astrophysical interest based on magnetohydrodynamic mechanism occurring around a rotating Black Hole have also been advanced though their reversibility as defined in ref., and consequently their efficiency of energy extraction is hard to assess precisely. In the case of Black Holes endowed with an electromagnetic field (EMBH’s), it follows from the same equations that up to 50$`\%`$ of the mass energy of an extreme EMBH with $`Q_{\mathrm{max}}=\rho _+c^2/\sqrt{G}`$ can be stored in its electromagnetic field. We will give here details of a process which can reach almost total reversibility, in the sense of ref., and very high efficiency of energy extraction from a EMBH and can be the energy source of GRB’s.

By applying the classic work of Heisenberg and Euler  as reformulated in a relativistic-invariant form by Schwinger, Damour and Ruffini showed that a large fraction of the energy of an EMBH can be extracted by pair creation. This energy extraction process can only work for EMBH black holes with $`M_{\mathrm{ir}}10^6M_{}`$. They also claimed that such an energy source may lead to a natural explanation for GRB’s and for ultra high energy cosmic rays.

The recent observations of the Beppo-SAX satellite, the discovery of a very regular afterglow to GRB’s, the fact their x-ray flux varies regularly with time according to precise power laws, and especially the optical identification of these sources (see e.g. ref., for GRB971214 ref. and in the infrared by ref.) have established the correct cosmological setting of GRB’s and have determined their formidable energy requirements. All these reasons have motivated us to reconsider the above theoretical results and to develop a detailed model for a direct confrontation with the observational results.

The general considerations presented in Damour and Ruffini are correct. However, that work has an underlying assumption which only surfaces in the very last formula: that the pair created in the process of vacuum polarization is absorbed by the EMBH. That view is now fundamentally modified here by the introduction of the novel concept of the Dyadosphere of an EMBH and by the considerations which follow from its introduction.

For simplicity we use the nonrotating Reissner-Nordstrom EMBH to illustrate the basic gravitational-electrodynamical process. The details on the reversibility, in the sense of Christodoulou-Ruffini, of pair creation process in the Dyadosphere as well as the breaking of spherical symmetry due to presence of rotation and of an axilly symmetric magnetic field will be presented elsewhere.

It is appropriate to note that even in the case of an extreme EMBH the charge-to-mass ratio is $`10^{18}`$ smaller than the typical charge-to-mass ratio found in nuclear matter, owing to the different strengths and ranges of the nuclear and gravitational interactions. This implies that for an EMBH to be extreme, it is enough to have a one quantum of charge present for every $`10^{18}`$ nucleons in the collapsing matter.

By introducing the dimensionless mass and charge parameters $`\mu =\frac{M}{M_{}}>3.2`$, $`\xi =\frac{Q}{Q_{\mathrm{max}}}1`$, the horizon radius may be expressed as

$$r_+=\frac{GM}{c^2}\left[1+\sqrt{1\frac{Q^2}{GM^2}}\right]=1.4710^5\mu (1+\sqrt{1\xi ^2})\mathrm{cm}.$$
(4)
Outside the horizon the electromagnetic field measured in the orthonormal tetrad of an observer at rest at a given point $`r`$ in the usual Boyer-Lindquist coordinates (see e.g. ) has only one nonvanishing component $`𝐄=\frac{Q}{r^2}\widehat{r}`$ along the radial direction. We can evaluate the radius $`r_{\mathrm{ds}}`$ at which the electric field strength reaches the critical value $`_\mathrm{c}=\frac{m^2c^3}{\mathrm{}e}`$ introduced by Heisenberg and Euler, where $`m`$ and $`e`$ are the mass and charge of the electron. This defines the outer radius of the Dyadosphere, which extends down to the horizon and within which the electric field strength exceeds the critical value. Using the Planck charge $`q_\mathrm{c}=(\mathrm{}c)^{\frac{1}{2}}`$ and the Planck mass $`m_\mathrm{p}=(\frac{\mathrm{}c}{G})^{\frac{1}{2}}`$, we can express this outer radius in the form

$$r_{\mathrm{ds}}=\left(\frac{\mathrm{}}{mc}\right)^{\frac{1}{2}}\left(\frac{GM}{c^2}\right)^{\frac{1}{2}}\left(\frac{m_\mathrm{p}}{m}\right)^{\frac{1}{2}}\left(\frac{e}{q_\mathrm{p}}\right)^{\frac{1}{2}}\left(\frac{Q}{\sqrt{G}M}\right)^{\frac{1}{2}}=1.1210^8\sqrt{\mu \xi }\mathrm{cm},$$
(5)
which clearly shows the hybrid gravitational and quantum nature of this quantity. The radial interval $`r_+rr_{\mathrm{ds}}`$ describing the Dyadosphere as a function of the mass is illustrated in Fig. 1 for selected values of the charge paramter $`\xi `$. It is important to note that the Dyadosphere radius is maximized for the extreme case $`\xi =1`$ and that the region exists for EMBH’s with mass larger than the upper limit for neutron stars, namely $`3.2M_{}`$ all the way up to a maximum mass of $`610^5M_{}`$. Correspondingly smaller values of the maximum mass are obtained for values of $`\xi =0.1,0.01`$ as indicated in this figure. For EMBH’s with mass larger than the maximum value stated above, the electromagnetic field (whose strength decreases inversely with the mass) never becomes critical.

We turn now to the crucial issue of the number and energy densities of pairs created in the Dyadosphere. If we consider a shell of proper thickness $`\delta \frac{MG}{c^2}`$, the electric field is aproximately constant. We can then at each value of the radius $`r`$ model the electric field as created by a capacitor of width $`\delta `$ and surface charge density,

$$\sigma (r)=\frac{Q}{4\pi r^2}.$$
(6)
If we now turn to the process of pair creation in order to apply the QED results, we assume $`\delta =\frac{\mathrm{}}{mc}`$ and we can express the rate of pair creation at a given radius $`r`$ by

$$\frac{dN}{\sqrt{g}d^4x}=\frac{1}{4\pi c}\left(\frac{eE}{\pi \mathrm{}}\right)^2e^{\frac{\pi E_c}{E}}=\frac{1}{4\pi c}\left(\frac{4e\sigma }{\mathrm{}}\right)^2e^{\frac{\pi \sigma _c}{\sigma }},$$
(7)
where $`E=4\pi \sigma `$, $`\sigma _c=\frac{1}{4\pi }_\mathrm{c}`$ is the critical surface charge density and $`\sqrt{g}d^4x`$ is the invariant four volume. We have for each value of the radius $`r`$, the rate of pair creation per unit proper time

$$\frac{dN}{d\tau }=\frac{1}{4\pi c}\left(\frac{4e\sigma }{\mathrm{}}\right)^2e^{\frac{\pi \sigma _c}{\sigma }}4\pi r^2\left(\frac{\mathrm{}}{mc}\right).$$
(8)
The pair creation process will continue until a value of the field $`E_\mathrm{c}`$ is reached, or correspondingly, in the capacitor language, till the surface charge density reaches the critical value $`\sigma _c`$. For $`E<_\mathrm{c}`$ or $`\sigma <\sigma _c`$ the pair creation process is exponentially supressed. We then have

$$\sigma \sigma _c=\frac{e}{4\pi r^2}\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }N}{\mathrm{\Delta }\tau }\mathrm{\Delta }\tau .$$
(9)
Based on eq.(8), one can get,

$$\mathrm{\Delta }\tau =\frac{\sigma \sigma _c}{\frac{e}{4\pi c}\left(\frac{4e\sigma }{\mathrm{}}\right)^2e^{\frac{\pi \sigma _c}{\sigma }}\left(\frac{\mathrm{}}{mc}\right)}1.99\left(\frac{\mathrm{}}{mc^2\alpha }\right)=1.7610^{19}\mathrm{sec}.,$$
(10)
where $`\alpha =\frac{e^2}{4\pi \mathrm{}c}`$ is the fine structure constant. ( Details are given in ref..) The time given by eq.(10) is so short, that the light travel time is smaller or aproximately equal to the width $`\delta `$. Under these circumstances the correlation between shells can be approximately neglected, thus we can justify the aproximation of describing the pair creation process shell by shell.

If we now turn to the Dyadosphere its extension goes from the horizon $`r_+`$ all the way to a radius $`r_{ds}`$ where $`\frac{Q}{4\pi r_{ds}^2}=_\mathrm{c}`$. The inner layer of the first shell of width $`\delta `$, consisting of charges opposite to the one of EMBH’s, will be captured by the horizon $`r_+`$, leading to a new EMBH with charge $`Q_c=4\pi r_+^2_\mathrm{c}`$. The outer layer, of oppositely charged particles, will enter the Dyadosphere. The remaining $`(r_{ds}r_+)/\frac{\mathrm{}}{mc}`$ shells will also contribute to the plasma constituting the Dyadosphere. It is noteworty to stress the the number of pair created is not, as nively expected $`N_{e^+e^{}}=\frac{QQ_c}{e}`$, but the number is tremendously amplified. In the limit $`r_{ds}\frac{GM}{c^2}`$, we have

$$N_{e^+e^{}}\frac{QQ_c}{e}\left[1+\frac{(r_{ds}r_+)}{\frac{\mathrm{}}{mc}}\right].$$
(11)
We can now estimate from eq.(9) the number of pairs created at a given radius $`r`$ in a shell volume of proper thickness $`\delta =\frac{\mathrm{}}{mc}`$

$$\mathrm{\Delta }N=\frac{4\pi r^2}{e}(\sigma \sigma _c)=\frac{Q}{e}\left[1\left(\frac{r}{r_{ds}}\right)^2\right],$$
(12)
and correspondingly the number density of pairs created as a function of the radial coordinate

$$n_{e^+e^{}}(r)=\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }N}{4\pi r^2\left(\frac{\mathrm{}}{mc}\right)}=\frac{Q}{e4\pi r^2\left(\frac{\mathrm{}}{mc}\right)}\left[1\left(\frac{r}{r_{ds}}\right)^2\right].$$
(13)
As shown in , these pairs will leave the vicinity of the Black Hole by creating an enormous PEM-pulse which expands relativistically out to infinity. The Black Hole will then be left with a charge $`Q_\mathrm{c}`$.

Knowing the initial electrostatic energy density and the final electric field value $`E_\mathrm{c}(r)=\frac{Q_\mathrm{c}}{r^2}`$ holding after the evolution of the Dyadosphere, we compute the energy density of pairs created as a function of the radial coordinate by evaluating difference between the initial and final field configurations in the Dyadosphere

$$\rho _{e^+e^{}}=\frac{1}{8\pi }(E^2(r)E_c^2).$$
(14)
Their total energy is then

$$E_{e^+e^{}}^{\mathrm{tot}}=\frac{1}{2}\frac{Q^2}{r_+}(1\frac{r_+}{r_{\mathrm{ds}}})(1\left(\frac{r_+}{r_{\mathrm{ds}}}\right)^4).$$
(15)
By taking the ratio of eq.(14) and eq.(13), we obtain the average energy per pair at each value of the radial coordinate. Fig. 2 plots this quantity for an EMBH of $`10M_{}`$ and Fig. 3 for an EMBH of $`10^5M_{}`$. In the first case the energy of pairs near the horizon can reach $`10`$GeV, while in the second case it never goes over a few MeV. These two values of the mass were chosen to be representative of objects typical of the galactic population or for the nuclei of galaxies compatible with our upper limit of the maximum mass of $`610^5M_{}`$.

Finally we can now estimate the total energy extracted by the pair creation process in EMBH’s of different masses for selected values of the charge parameter $`\xi `$ and compare and contrast these values with the maximum extractable energy given by the mass formula for Black Holes (see eqs. (1) and (3)). This comparison is summarized in Fig. 4. The efficiency of energy extraction by pair creation sharply decreases as the maximum value of the EMBH mass for which vacuum polarization occurs is reached. In the opposite limit the energy of pair creation processes (solid lines in Fig. 4) asymptotically reaches the entire electromagnetic energy extractable from EMBH’s given by eq.(1), leading in the limit to fully reversible transformations in the sense of ref., $`\delta M_{ir}=0`$, and $`100\%`$ efficiency.

It is important to emphasize that this process works for $`E(r_+)>_c`$. This, in turn, implies that the charge-to-mass ratio for the EMBH ranges between $`6.910^6\mu \frac{Q}{\sqrt{G}M}<1`$ or $`2.210^5\frac{Q}{\sqrt{G}M}<1`$, assuming for the minimum mass of the EMBH the $`3.2M_{}`$ limit of Rhoades and Ruffini. The value $`Q=\sqrt{G}M`$ is excluded and can only be approached in the limit, since no reversible transformations exist for an extreme EMBH as pointed out in Christodoulou and Christodoulou and Ruffini.

In order to confront the theoretical model with observations, we must first identify the gross parameters of the energetics and then refine the analysis. The general energetics requirements of GRB’s, estimated from their energy flux and their distance (see e.g. ref. and for GRB971214, refs.) can be directly confronted with integrated results given in Fig. 4. From the resulting limits on the mass and the charge parameter $`\xi `$ of EMBH’s, we can proceed to estimate the extent of the Dyadosphere shown in Fig. 1, the density of pairs created, and finally the energy distribution in the Dyadosphere shown in Fig. 2 for $`10M_{}`$ and Fig. 3 for $`10^5M_{}`$ (see also ref.).

Our model of GRB’s, based on the results presented in this letter, is very different from the ones debated in the last ten years in the scientific literature, it can overcome some of their basic difficulties and on some specific aspects it can also have important analogies:

* the EMBH drastically differs from the most popular binary neutron stars model debated in the last 16 years. It presents over those models the distinct advantage of not having the recognized difficulty of explaining the energetic of GRB’s, and especially offers the possibility of computing explicitly and uniquely the details of the initial conditions by the energetic of the Dyadosphere as given in the above Fig. 2 and Fig. 3 .
* the further evolution of the Dyadosphere (the PEM pulse), has been analyzed by a variety of theoretical models based on relativistic hydrodynamics equations both on semi- analytical-numerical idealized models as well as with the help of a fully general relativistic hydrodynamical code. The combined results are at variance with many of the considerations in the current published papers dealing with fireballs and relativistic winds, though for a few aspects they present striking analogies. Details are given in ref..
* our above two treatments lead uniquely to the computation of the further evolution of the PEM Pulse in the afterglow era and again these specific analysis which can be uniquely derived from the above assumptions are at variance with the ones in the existing literature though they present some interesting analogies and they appear to be consistent with the latest observations.

If our basic scenario is confirmed by observation, additional fundamental problems should be addressed: (i) the origin of the Dyadosphere, and (ii) the astrophysics of the remnant EMBH’s.

The understanding of the origin of the Dyadosphere implies the solution of two fundamental problems: (a) the development of relativistic magneto-hydrodynamical processes occurring in the accreting material with special attention to processes of charge separation as well as to the identification of physical processes leading to the formation of a charge depleted region with an electric field sufficient to polarize the vacuum, and (b) finding the astrophysical conditions leading to the gravitational collapse of masses of $`MO(10^5M_{})`$, if the observations support the existence of such objects.

The remnant EMBH’s that result from such catastrophic events still have such a large amount of stored energy and such electrodynamical properties that they can be the source of the ultra high energy tail of cosmic rays ($`E10^{16}`$eV) as originally suggested. An entire new problematic arises if the remnant is accreting, leading to the interesting possibility for a new mechanism for the formation of jets.

Note added: This paper presented a fundamental concept of the dyadosphere of black holes. This work and ref. provide a fundamental basis for the theoretical model explaning Gamma-Ray-Bursts phenomenon.


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# RELATIONSHIP OF THE ³𝑃₀ DECAY MODEL TO OTHER STRONG DECAY MODELS

## 1 Introduction

The $`{}_{}{}^{3}P_{0}^{}`$ decay model, first introduced by Micu, has been subsequently applied to the description of many processes by Le Yaouanc et al.. Since then, it has been used extensively with a reasonable success, especially for the hadronic decays of mesons. Being described by a one-body operator, the model can be employed easily, while its strength is generally fitted to experiment. In these conditions, the agreement is not much better than a factor 2, which is too large to make stringent tests of the description of hadrons for instance. Improvements should therefore be introduced. This however requires to understand what the model accounts for. After reviewing the model, we will consider possible improvements, based on a microscopic description of a quark–anti-quark pair creation.

## 2 The $`{}_{}{}^{3}P_{0}^{}`$ decay model

The $`{}_{}{}^{3}P_{0}^{}`$ decay model assumes a creation of a quark–anti-quark pair from the vacuum with the corresponding quantum numbers, $`J=0`$, $`L=1`$, $`S=1`$, $`T=0`$. Represented in Fig. 1a for a meson decay, it may be described by the following operator:

$`H_{pair}=\gamma {\displaystyle \underset{i,j}{}}a_i^{}(\stackrel{}{p})b_j^{}(\stackrel{}{p}^{}){\displaystyle \frac{\stackrel{}{\sigma }(\stackrel{}{p}\stackrel{}{p}^{})}{2\sqrt{2\pi }}}(2\pi )^3\delta (\stackrel{}{p}+\stackrel{}{p}^{})+h.c.`$ (1)
In comparison with the elementary emission model shown in Fig. 1b, where a meson is emitted from a quark line, it offers the considerable conceptual advantage that all hadrons are considered on the same footing.

Among improvements, it has been proposed to introduce some momentum dependence in the strength $`\gamma `$. A relativized version of the model has also been considered, involving the replacement of $`\stackrel{}{\sigma }(\stackrel{}{p}\stackrel{}{p}^{})`$ in Eq. (1) by $`2m\overline{u}(\stackrel{}{p})v(\stackrel{}{p}^{})`$. Some improvement is obtained but in absence of insight on the origin of the model, one cannot draw firm conclusions.

Although it should be used in the c.m. of the decaying system, the creation of a pair from the vacuum without relation to the other particles is difficult to imagine. Moreover, a term like Eq. (1) can be absorbed in a redefinition of the quarks and their masses, producing elementary quark-meson couplings for instance. Kokosky and Isgur discussed the possibility that the $`{}_{}{}^{3}P_{0}^{}`$ decay model could account for a flux-tube breaking in some limit. The strength is not known however. Another possibility is that the pair creation is closely related to the interaction between quarks. This hypothesis, that we will develop in the following, is illustrated in Fig. 2a for a meson decay.

## 3 A key relationship

The calculation of the decay amplitude of a hadron $`H`$ into another one $`H^{}`$ and a meson $`M`$, as depicted in Fig. 2a for a particular case, implies an expression like the following:

$$A_{(HH^{}+M)}\frac{d\stackrel{}{p}^{\prime \prime }}{(2\pi )^3}\psi _H^{}(\mathrm{})\psi _H^{}(\mathrm{})\frac{d\stackrel{}{q}^{}}{(2\pi )^3}V(\stackrel{}{q},\stackrel{}{q}^{})\varphi _M(\stackrel{}{q}^{}),$$
(2)
where $`\varphi _M(\stackrel{}{q})`$ represents the meson wave function. $`V(\stackrel{}{q},\stackrel{}{q}^{})`$ represents the interaction responsible for a pair creation. Quite generally, its expression is complicated and without relation to the interaction between quarks. In one case, however, such a relation can be established. For spin-less particles, both interactions are the same (non-relativistic approximation). One can then use the equation that the meson wave function has to fulfill:

$$\frac{d\stackrel{}{q}^{}}{(2\pi )^3}V(\stackrel{}{q},\stackrel{}{q}^{})\varphi _M(\stackrel{}{q}^{})=(E2e_q)\varphi _M(\stackrel{}{q}).$$
(3)
This can be used to replace the last factor in Eq. (2) by the wave function itself, obtaining:

$$A_{(HH^{}+A)}\frac{d\stackrel{}{p}^{\prime \prime }}{(2\pi )^3}\psi _H^{}(\mathrm{})\psi _H^{}(\mathrm{})\mathrm{`}\mathrm{`}(E2e_q)\mathrm{"}\varphi _A(\stackrel{}{q}),$$
(4)
where $`\stackrel{}{q}`$ has to be replaced appropriately in terms of the external momenta and $`\stackrel{}{p}^{\prime \prime }`$. This last expression looks very much like the one used when employing the $`{}_{}{}^{3}P_{0}^{}`$ decay model (spin put apart). It does not contain the interaction explicitly but involves a one-body operator. This one however appears with a well defined factor, $`\mathrm{`}\mathrm{`}E2e_q\mathrm{"}`$, providing a clue for both the strength and the momentum dependence, often introduced on a phenomenological basis.

The expression of the above amplitude corresponds to a particle–anti-particle pair creation that has the same form as the one appearing in a free-particle interaction. It however differs by essential features. As already mentioned, such a term can be absorbed into the redefinition of the particle fields. The functional dependence of the front factor, $`\mathrm{`}\mathrm{`}E2e_q\mathrm{"}`$, rules out this transformation here, since it cancels for free particles, consistently with the fact that it originates from an interaction term. This can solve one of the problems with the $`{}_{}{}^{3}P_{0}^{}`$ decay model, namely the creation of a pair without relation to the environment.

With the above respect, it is worthwhile to mention another example where an interaction effect can be turned into a single-particle contribution. It concerns the Z-type contribution to the emission of a photon shown in Fig. 2b. This one evidently involves the interaction. However when the full Feynman diagram corresponding to this figure is considered, it is found that the same contribution appears as a single-particle one. Consistency is achieved by the fact that this contribution involves a factor similar to the above one, $`\mathrm{`}\mathrm{`}E2e_q\mathrm{"}`$. The details can be checked by looking at a simple model.

When applying the above ideas to spin $`1/2`$ particles, one has to take into account that many terms of the order $`\stackrel{}{\sigma }\stackrel{}{p}`$ are produced by the interaction, besides those appearing at the vertex where a quark–anti-quark pair is created. While the latter ones can be accounted for by the $`{}_{}{}^{3}P_{0}^{}`$ decay model, the other ones cannot. For that particular contribution, which could represent some average one, the structure of the operator is obtained as above for spin-less particles and is given by the replacement in Eq. (1):

$$\gamma \frac{\stackrel{}{\sigma }(\stackrel{}{p}\stackrel{}{p}^{})}{2\sqrt{2\pi }}\mathrm{`}\mathrm{`}(E2e_q)\mathrm{"}\overline{u}(\stackrel{}{p})v(\stackrel{}{p}^{}).$$
(5)
If the meson is strongly bound ($`E`$ negligible) and $`e_q`$ approximated by the quark mass, the value $`2\sqrt{2\pi }5`$ is obtained for $`\gamma `$. This value compares well to the value that can be obtained from meson decays but is significantly smaller than the one derived from baryon decays. Within conventions, the sign that is required in some cases is also known.

A relativistic approach based on the description of mesons by Bethe-Salpeter amplitudes suggested some similarity with the quark-pair creation model. Comparison with the present work indicates a close relation which strongly supports the hypothesis that the $`{}_{}{}^{3}P_{0}^{}`$ decay model, as completed here, would implement boost effects that an approximate (non-relativistic) description of hadrons cannot account for. The possibility that it still accounts for other effects remains open however.


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# The r-Process and Chronometers

## The r-Process and Chronometers

John J. Cowan 1, Christopher Sneden 2 and James W. Truran 3
1 Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Oklahoma, Norman, OK 73019
2 Department of Astronomy and McDonald Observatory, University of Texas, Austin, TX 78712
3 Department of Astronomy & Astrophysics, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637

## 1 Introduction

We have been examining the abundance distributions in metal-poor Galactic halo stars trying to identify, and understand, the signatures of the slow- and rapid-neutron capture processes (i.e., the $`s`$\- and the $`r`$-process). Detailed studies have been made of the stars CS 22892–052  and HD 115444 . In our latest work we have added to this list the metal-poor (\[Fe/H\] = –2.0) halo star BD +173248 .

## 2 Observations and Abundance Trends in BD +173248

Using both ground-based (Keck and McDonald) and space-based (Hubble Space Telescope, HST) observations we have obtained high resolution, high signal-to-noise spectra of BD +173248. The element gold has been detected in BD +173248 as shown in Figure 1. This HST STIS observation shows a comparison between BD +173248 and HD 122563. While the spectra appear somewhat similar in this region, this is due to the complex set of absorption lines that contribute to the total feature near this wavelength. Specifically, there is an OH line near the 2675.94 Å gold line. This results in some blending of the gold feature for BD +173248. The OH absorption, however, is much stronger throughout the UV spectrum of HD 122563 and is solely repsonsible for the strong line at 2676.0 Å in this star. We note that the this gold detection in BD +173248 is the first in any metal-poor halo stars.

We show in Figure 2 the entire abundance distribution of BD +173248. This includes the element uranium. We have detected a weak line at 3859.60 Å in the spectrum of BD +173248 that we tentatively identify with this element. This would be only the second such detection, after Cayrel et al., in any metal-poor halo stars.

We note in Figure 2 that the heavier neutron-capture elements, Z$``$ 56, including now the 3rd $`r`$-process peak elements, all fall on the scaled solar system $`r`$-process distribution. This is the same pattern that was seen previously in CS 22892–052 and HD 115444 . This strongly suggests a robust process for the production of these heavier neutron-capture elements. Very recently the europium isotopic abundance fractions have been determined for BD +173248, CS 22892–052 and HD 115444 . Those fractions are all in excellent agreement with each other and with their values in the solar system. Thus, there appears to be a consistency in the production of the heavier neutron-capture elements and, at least for europium, the isotopes.

We also note the trend of the lighter neutron capture elements in Figure 2. Similarly to the case of CS 22892–052, the elements with Z $`=`$ 40–50 in BD +173248 fall below the scaled solar system curve that fits the heavier neutron-capture elements. This might be explained by a single $`r`$-process site with two regimes or sets of conditions, or perhaps two different sites for the lighter and heavier neutron-capture elements (see ).

## 3 r-Process Chronometers

The long-lived radioactive nuclei, such as 232Th and 238U, can be used as chronometers (or clocks) to determine the ages of stars. Thus, the detection of thorium in a number of halo stars has led to stellar radioactive age estimates. To minimize observational errors the ratio of the radioactive element thorium (formed entirely in the $`r`$-process) is normally compared to the stable ($`r`$-process) element europium. The detection of 3rd $`r`$-process peak elements such as Pt provides additional chronometric pairs, with the advantage that these elements are closer in atomic mass (than Eu) to Th. Furthermore, new stellar detections of U can provide a second chronometer and help constrain age determinations. Employing the newly detected Th, U and 3rd $`r`$-process peak element abundances Cowan et al. made chronometric age estimates for BD +173248. The average value of the various chronometric pairs suggests an age of 13.8 $`\pm `$ 4 Gyr for this star. This age estimate is consistent, within error limits, with other chronometric age determinations for metal-poor Galactic halo stars.

The still relatively large uncertainties reflect the sensitivity of the age estimates to both the observed and predicted (initial) abundance ratios. Additional stellar observations will help to reduce observational uncertainties. Even in cases where only upper limits on uranium may be avaialable (perhaps the norm for most stars), the upper limits to the U/Th ratio can already provide lower limits on the age estimates for the most metal-poor stars and hence constrain age determinations for the Galaxy . Additional theoretical studies, see , will also help to reduce the errors in the theoretical predictions for the initial abundances of the radioactive elements produced in the $`r`$-process. Despite any current uncertainties, this radioactive dating technique offers promise. It is independent of chemical evolution or cosmological models. It offers an alternative means of placing lower lmits on the ages of the Galaxy and the Universe.

## Acknowledgements

We thank our colleagues and collabortors for many helpful discussions. This research has been supported in part by STScI grants GO-8111 and GO-08342, NSF grants AST-9986974 (JJC), AST-9987162 (CS), and by the ASCI/Alliances Center for Astrophysical Thermonuclear Flashes under DOE contract B341495 (JWT).