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# Untitled Document

Dissociation of a boosted quarkonium in quark-gluon plasma

Sidi Cherkawi Benzahra111sidi.benzahra@ndsu.nodak.edu

North Dakota State University

Fargo, North Dakota 58105

## Abstract

I consider the dissociation of a boosted quarkonium in a quark-gluon plasma. This dissociation is due to absorption of a thermal gluon. I discuss the dissociation in terms of the velocity of the quarkonium and the temperature of the quark-gluon plasma. I compare this dissociation rate to the one calculated without including the velocity of the quarkonium.

In a quark-gluon plasma, the quark or the anti-quark of the quarkonium can be struck by a high energy gluon and the quarkonium can dissociate into other elements . The medium, the quark-gluon plasma, is full of gluons that can cause this dissociation, and this can happen by exciting a color-singlet $`q\overline{q}^{(1)}`$ into a color-octet continuum state$`q\overline{q}^{(8)}`$ . The quark absorbs energy from the gluonic field of the quark-gluon plasma, but there is a threshold energy that the gluon has to have in order to dissociate the quarkonium in the quark-gluon plasma. For example, in free space, there is a threshold energy of about 850 MeV  for the dissociation of the upsilon meson into two highly-energetic bottom quarks. I choose the upsilon meson, $`\mathrm{{\rm Y}}`$, for simplicity, since it is heavy and its binding energy is large compared to other mesons such as the pion or the $`J/\psi `$ which dissociate fast and at relatively low temperature . Moreover, in an experiment which produces a very high temperature quark-gluon plasma, the $`J/\psi `$ will break down at a faster rate compared to the $`\mathrm{{\rm Y}}`$ and only a few of the $`J/\psi `$’s will survive. This makes it hard for the experimentalist to detect the $`J/\psi `$ in order to confirm that a quark-gluon plasma had materialized. On the other hand, the $`\mathrm{{\rm Y}}`$ will survive the high temperature of the quark-gluon plasma and therefore it will be easy to detect. Moreover, the upsilon meson is small in size compared to the $`J/\psi `$ so it needs a higher density plasma for it to dissociate. In this kind of dissociation, we state that the $`\mathrm{{\rm Y}}`$ is no longer bound in the singlet state. In quark-gluon plasma the threshold energy will become less than the one in free space. Only gluons with energy exceeding the threshold energy in quark-gluon plasma can dissociate the quarkonium. So the relevant energy density is not just the average energy density, but the energy of the gluons which have an energy higher than the threshold energy. In deconfined matter, such as quark-gluon plasma, we expect gluons in a medium of 200 MeV temperature to have an average energy of 600 MeV , which can dissociate the quarkonium.

The effect of screening can also cause the meson to dissociate. A screen of quarks and gluons builds up between the quark and the anti-quark of the quarkonium and the two quarks cannot feel each other’s attraction and the quarkonium dissociates. This kind of screening is called Debye screening  and I discussed it in a previous work . In regards to screening, once we take the motion of the quarkonium into consideration, the dielectric properties of the medium , which is the quark-gluon plasma, gets introduced and the physics becomes somewhat involved.

When the heavy quark and anti-quark of the quarkonium are close to each other, asymptotic freedom comes into play, and the binding energy can be derived the same way we derive it for the hydrogen atom. To an approximation, there is a parallelism between the two physics .

The wavelength of the gluon that dissociates this state fits the radius of the singlet state of $`\mathrm{{\rm Y}}`$ to a good approximation. The S matrix in this case is:

$$S_{fi}=i_{\mathrm{}}^{\mathrm{}}𝑑t\mathrm{octet}grE^a\mathrm{cos}\theta \mathrm{singlet}$$
(1)
where $`E^a`$ is the color electric field and $`g`$ is the color charge. It is worked out in  that the dissociation rate of the upsilon meson becomes:

$$\mathrm{\Gamma }_{dis}\frac{2}{3}\pi ^3\alpha _sa^2n,$$
(2)
where $`a`$ is the radius of the singlet state of the quarkonium, and $`n`$ is the number density of gluons in the quark-gluon plasma. Since we are considering thermalization, this dissociation rate can be calculated in terms of the temperature of the quark-gluon plasma. But I will only include the gluons with energy exceeding the threshold energy of dissociation, $`\omega _{\mathrm{min}}`$. For a medium of gluons

$$n=N/V=\frac{1}{2\pi ^2}_{\omega _{\mathrm{min}}}^{\mathrm{}}𝑑\omega \frac{\omega ^2}{\mathrm{exp}(\omega /T)1},$$
(3)
which gives us

$$\tau _{dis}\frac{4\alpha _s}{3\pi }\frac{m_Q^2}{_{k=1}^{\mathrm{}}\left[\left(\frac{T}{k}\right)\omega _{\mathrm{min}}^2+2\left(\frac{T}{k}\right)^2\omega _{\mathrm{min}}+2\left(\frac{T}{k}\right)^3\right]e^{k\omega _{\mathrm{min}}/T}},$$
(4)
where $`\tau _{dis}`$ is the dissociation time of the quarkonium. The minimum temperature required to achieve deconfinement is generally understood to be about 150 to 200 MeV. RHIC, the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider, is the first collider designed to specifically create this plasma. It may reach a temperature of 500 MeV. CERN is trying to reach a temperature of 1 GeV by colliding heavy nuclei in the Large Hadron Collider. Inserting a temperature of 500 MeV and a threshold energy $`\omega _{\mathrm{min}}`$ of 10 MeV into eq.(4), I get a dissociation time of 23 fm/c, which is somewhat comparable to the lifetime of the quark-gluon plasma–a typical lifetime of a quark-gluon plasma is about 10-20 fm/c . If I use the CERN 1 GeV temperature, I get $`\tau _{\mathrm{dis}}3\text{fm/c}`$. We should remember that I used the threshold energy of 10 MeV as the binding energy of the upsilon quarkonium. This is due to screening, and to the fact that the medium is hot.

In the case of a moving quarkonium, we have to consider the velocity when calculating for the dissociation time. And since the quarkonium is moving in the frame of the gluons, the gluons will be relatively moving in the frame of the quarkonium. So in this case, the momentum, $`\omega `$, of the gluon will change into $`\omega ^{}=\gamma \omega (1v\mathrm{cos}\theta ),`$ where $`\theta `$ is the angle between the velocity vector of the meson and the momentum vector of the gluon, and $`v`$ is the relative velocity of the quarkonium in the quark-gluon plasma. The new number density of gluons in quark-gluon plasma, in this case, is:

$$n^{}=\frac{1}{2\pi ^2}_{\omega _{min}}^{\mathrm{}}𝑑\omega _1^1d(\mathrm{cos}\theta )\frac{\omega ^2}{\mathrm{exp}(\frac{\gamma \omega (1\beta \mathrm{cos}\theta )}{\mathrm{T}})1},$$
(5)
Integrating the number density over $`\omega `$ and $`\mathrm{cos}\theta `$, we get a dissociation time of the form

$$\tau _{dis}\frac{4\alpha _s}{3\pi }\frac{m_Q^2}{_{k=1}^{\mathrm{}}\left\{f(v,T)\left(\frac{1}{\beta }\right)\mathrm{sinh}(\frac{k\gamma \beta \omega }{T})+g(v,T)\mathrm{cosh}(\frac{k\gamma \beta \omega }{T})\right\}e^{\frac{k\gamma \omega _{\mathrm{min}}}{T}}}.$$
(6)
where

$$f(v,T)=\left\{\left(\frac{T}{k}\right)^2\omega _{\mathrm{min}}+\gamma \left(1+\beta ^2\right)\left(\frac{T}{k}\right)^3\right\}$$

and

$$g(v,T)=\left\{\left(\frac{T}{k}\right)^2\omega _{\mathrm{min}}+2\gamma \left(\frac{T}{k}\right)^3\right\}$$

The latter equation of the dissociation time indicates that the quarkonium breaks down faster when its velocity increases in the quark-gluon plasma–we have to be careful here because this might not happen in the case of screening. Although the velocity of the quarkonium is small, its dissociation time with respect to its velocity should not be ignored. For example, at a quark-gluon plasma temperature of 1 GeV, a non-moving quarkonium dissociates in a time duration of 3 fm/c, but if its velocity reaches 0.5 c, for instance, its dissociation time will decrease to 2.64 fm/c. If a quarkonium can reach a velocity of 0.9 c in 1 GeV quark-gluon plasma, which is unlikely to happen, because the transversal momentum, $`P_Tv\gamma m_{\mathrm{meson}}`$ can only be in the range of 5 GeV  due to beam constrains, the quarkonium dissociates in a time duration of 1.48 fm/c. It is easy to check that in the limit $`v0,`$ the dissociation time of Eq.(6) reduces to that of Eq.(4).

In conclusion, the quarkonium binding energy weakens with the increase of the temperature of the quark-gluon plasma and with the increase of the velocity of the quarkonium. But the velocity effect is smaller compared to that of the temperature. Thermalized gluons can play a major role in dissociating quarkonia, but since hard gluons can also be produced in quark-gluon plasma , dissociation of quarkonia due to collision with hard gluons needs to be investigated. This is a tricky problem though because we have to take into consideration the expansion of the plasma, and we cannot make use of the temperature because hard gluons escape the quark-gluon plasma before thermalization.

Acknowledgment

I am indepted to Joseph Kapusta and Berndt Mueller for their help and advice on this paper. I am also indepted to Benjamin Bayman for his general help. I also want to thank Steve Estvold, Scott Tollefson, Claudio Verdozzi, and Anthony Wald for their help on this paper.

References

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 H. Satz, Nucl. Phys. A $`\mathrm{𝟒𝟏𝟖}`$ (1984) 447c.
 S. C. Benzahra, Phys. Rev. C $`\mathrm{𝟔𝟏}`$ 064906 (2000).
 M.C. Chu and T. Matsui, Phys. Rev. D $`\mathrm{𝟑𝟗}`$, 1892 (1989).
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# Nonstandard proofs of Eggleston like theorems

## 1. Introduction

We use standard set theoretical notation. By $`\omega `$ we denote the set of natural numbers. The cardinality of a set $`X`$ we denote by $`|X|`$.

By $`[0,1]`$ we denote the unit interval of the real line. By $`\text{Perf}([0,1])`$ we denote the Polish space of all non-empty perfect subsets of the interval $`[0,1]`$ with the Hausdorff metric. Similarly, by $`\text{Perf}()`$ we denote the Polish space of all non-empty perfect subsets of the real line. By $`\text{F}_\sigma `$ we denote the family of all $`F_\sigma `$ subsets of the unit interval. By $`\text{G}_\delta `$ we denote the family of all $`G_\delta `$ subsets of the unit interval.

By $`\lambda `$ we denote Lebesgue measure on the real line, by $`\lambda ^2`$ — Lebesgue measure on the plane. $`𝕃`$ denotes the $`\sigma `$-ideal of null sets ($`𝕃=\{A:\lambda (A)=0\}`$). By $`𝕃^+`$ we denote the family of positive Lebesgue measure sets. $`𝕂`$ denotes the $`\sigma `$-ideal of first Baire category sets. $`𝕂^+`$ denotes the family of Baire measurable sets of second Baire category. Let us recall that if $`𝒥`$ is a proper $`\sigma `$-ideal then $`𝒥`$ is a base of $`𝒥`$ iff $`(J𝒥)(B)JB`$. Furthermore, we consider a cardinal number $`\text{cof}(𝒥)`$ defined as follows:

$$\text{cof}(𝒥)=\mathrm{min}\{||:\text{ is a base of }𝒥\}.$$

It is well known that we can extend every countable standard transitive model of ZFC via forcing extension to a model of $`\text{ZFC}+(\text{cof}(𝕃)=\omega _1)+(2^\omega =\omega _2)`$. We can also extend every countable standard transitive model of ZFC via forcing extension to a model of $`\text{ZFC}+(\text{cof}(𝕂)=\omega _1)+(2^\omega =\omega _2)`$.

We can code Borel subsets of the real line by functions from $`\omega ^\omega `$ in an absolute way (see ). Functions which code Borel sets are called Borel codes. We use the folowing notation: if $`f\omega ^\omega `$ is a Borel code, then $`\mathrm{\#}f`$ is a set coded by $`f`$.

By a canonical Polish space, we understand a countable product of spaces $`\{0,1\}^\omega `$, $`\omega ^\omega `$, $`[0,1]`$, $`\text{Perf}([0,1])`$ and so on. A sentence $`\phi `$ is a $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_2^1`$-sentence if for some canonical Polish spaces $`X`$, $`Y`$ and some Borel subset $`BX\times Y`$ we have $`\phi =(xX)(yY)(x,y)B`$. Spaces $`X`$, $`Y`$ and the set $`B`$ are called “parameters” of the sentence $`\phi `$. We shall use the following classical theorem about absoluteness of $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_2^1`$-sentences (see ):

###### Theorem 1 (Shoenfield).

Suppose that $`MN`$ are standard transitive models of the theory ZF such that $`\omega _1^NM`$. Let $`\phi `$ be a $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_2^1`$-sentence with parameters from the model $`M`$. Then

$$M\phi N\phi .$$

Notice that if the model $`N`$ is a generic extension of the standard transitive model $`M`$ then both models $`M`$ and $`N`$ have the same ordinal numbers, so the inclusion $`\omega _1^NM`$ trivially holds.

Let us note that if $`A`$ is a coanalytic subset of a Polish space and $`|A|>\omega _1`$ then there exists a nonempty perfect subset of $`A`$. Indeed, there exists a family $`\{B_\alpha \}_{\alpha <\omega _1}`$ of Borel sets such that $`A=_{\alpha <\omega _1}B_\alpha `$ (see ). Hence, if $`|A|>\omega _1`$ then there exists $`\alpha <\omega _1`$ such that $`|B_\alpha |>\omega _1`$, so $`B_\alpha `$ has a nonempty perfect subset.

## 2. Main result

We give a new proof of Eggleston’s theorem (see ) and then by a simple modification of this proof we get new results about inscribing special rectangles into “big sets” in the sense of measure or category.

### 2.1. Measure case

In the paper  we can find the following result:

###### Theorem 2 (Cichoń, Kamburelis, Pawlikowski).

There exists a dense subset of the measure algebra $`\text{Borel}()/𝕃`$ of cardinality $`\text{cof}(𝕃)`$.

Using this theorem we can deduce the following fact:

###### Fact 1.

There exists a family $`\text{Perf}()𝕃^+`$ such that $`||=\text{cof}(𝕃)`$ and

$$(A)\left(\lambda (A)>0(P)PA\right).$$

Using this fact, we can obtain a simple proof of the following theorem from :

###### Theorem 3 (Eggleston).

Let $`A`$ be a subset of the plane of positive Lebesgue measure. Then we can find perfect subsets of the real line $`P`$, $`Q`$ such that $`\lambda (P)>0`$ and $`P\times QA`$.

###### Proof.

Without loss of generality we can assume that $`A`$ is a Borel set. Let $`V^{}`$ be a generic extension of the universe $`V`$ such that

$$V^{}\text{ZFC}+(\text{cof}(𝕃)=\omega _1)+(2^\omega =\omega _2).$$

For a while we will work in the universe $`V^{}`$. For $`y`$ let $`A^y=\{x:(x,y)A\}`$ and we put

$$Y=\{y:\lambda (A^y)>0\}.$$

It follows from Fubini’s theorem that $`\lambda (Y)>0`$. In particular $`|Y|=\omega _2`$. Using Fact 1 we get a family $`\text{Perf}()𝕃^+`$ such that

$$(A)\left(\lambda (A)>0(P)PA\right)$$

and $`||=\text{cof}(𝕃)=\omega _1`$. For every $`yY`$ we can find $`P`$ such that $`PA^y`$. So there exists $`P\text{Perf}()𝕃^+`$ such that $`|\{yY:PA^y\}|=\omega _2`$. But $`\{yY:PA^y\}`$ is a coanalytic set of cardinality $`\omega _2`$ so we can find a perfect set $`Q`$ such that $`Q\{yY:PA^y\}`$. It means that in the universe $`V^{}`$ the following sentence holds:

$$(P,Q\text{Perf}())(r^2)\lambda (P)>0(rP\times QrA).$$

But this is a $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_2^1`$-sentence, hence it is also true in the original universe V. ∎

Now, we show the theorem about inscribing special rectangles into sets of full Lebesgue measure. At first, we have to formulate the following fact:

###### Fact 2.

There exists a family $`\text{F}_\sigma `$ of measure one subsets of the unit interval such that $`||=\text{cof}(𝕃)`$ and

$$(A[0,1])\left(\lambda (A)=1(F)FA\right).$$

Using this fact, we prove the following theorem:

###### Theorem 4.

Let $`A`$ be a subset of $`[0,1]^2`$ such that $`\lambda ^2(A)=1`$. Then we can find two sets $`F`$, $`Q[0,1]`$ such that $`F`$ is a $`F_\sigma `$ set, $`\lambda (F)=1`$, $`Q`$ is a perfect set and $`F\times QA`$.

###### Proof.

Without loss of generality $`A`$ is a Borel set. Let $`V^{}`$ be a generic extension of the universe $`V`$ such that

$$V^{}\text{ZFC}+(\text{cof}(𝕃)=\omega _1)+(2^\omega =\omega _2).$$

Similarly as in the proof of theorem 3, using Fact 2, we deduce that in the universe $`V^{}`$ the folowing sentence holds

$$(F\text{F}_\sigma )(Q\text{Perf}([0,1]))\lambda (F)=1F\times QA.$$

But we can formulate this sentence in the folowing way

$$(f\omega ^\omega )(Q\text{Perf}([0,1]))f\text{ codes }F_\sigma \text{ set }\lambda (\mathrm{\#}f)=1\mathrm{\#}f\times QA.$$

This is also a $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_2^1`$-sentence, hence it is true in the original universe $`V`$. ∎

### 2.2. Category case

Now, we will formulate and prove theorems about inscribing special rectangles into “big sets” in the sense of category. We start with two observations (similar to Fact 1 and 2). Namely, we have the following facts:

###### Fact 3.

There exists a family $`𝒢\text{G}_\delta 𝕂^+`$ such that $`|𝒢|=\text{cof}(𝕂)`$ and

$$(A𝕂^+)(G𝒢)GA.$$

###### Fact 4.

There exists a family $`𝒞\text{G}_\delta `$ of comeagre subsets of the unit interval such that $`|𝒞|=\text{cof}(𝕂)`$ and

$$(A[0,1])\left(A\text{ is comeagre}(C𝒞)CA\right).$$

Using these facts, we prove the following theorems:

###### Theorem 5.

Let $`A[0,1]^2`$ be a Baire measurable set of second Baire category. Then we can find two sets $`G`$, $`Q[0,1]`$ such that $`G`$ is a $`G_\delta `$ set of second Baire category, $`Q`$ is a perfect set and $`G\times QA`$.

###### Theorem 6.

Let $`A[0,1]^2`$ be a comeagre set. Then we can find two sets $`C`$, $`Q[0,1]`$ such that $`C`$ is a comeagre $`G_\delta `$ set, $`Q`$ is a perfect set and $`C\times QA`$.

###### Proof of Theorem 5 and Theorem 6.

We start with extending the universe $`V`$ to $`V^{}`$ (by generic extension) such that

$$V^{}\text{ZFC}+(\text{cof}(𝕂)=\omega _1)+(2^\omega =\omega _2).$$

Similarly as in the proof of Theorem 3 (naturally using Facts 3, 4 respectively for Theorem 5 and 6), we deduce that if $`A`$ is a Baire measurable second Baire category set (Theorem 5) then in the model $`V^{}`$ the following sentence holds:

$$(G\text{G}_\delta )(Q\text{Perf}([0,1]))G𝕂^+G\times QA.$$

When $`A`$ is comeagre (Theorem 6) then in the universe $`V^{}`$ the following sentence holds:

$$(C\text{G}_\delta )(Q\text{Perf}([0,1]))C\text{ is comeagre }C\times QA.$$

Similarly as in the proof of Theorem 4, we can use Borel coding for replacing quantifiers of the type $`(A\text{G}_\delta )`$ by

$$(a\omega ^\omega )a\text{ codes }G_\delta \text{ set}$$

and replace $`A`$ by $`\mathrm{\#}a`$. After this modification we obtain equivalent sentences, which are $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_2^1`$-sentences, hence they are true in the original universe $`V`$. ∎


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# Ultrafast Dynamics of Interfacial Electric Fields in Semiconductor Heterostructures Monitored by Pump-Probe Second Harmonic Generation

\[

## Abstract

We report first measurements of the ultrafast dynamics of interfacial electric fields in semiconductor multilayers using pump-probe second harmonic generation (SHG). A pump beam was tuned to excite carriers in all layers of GaAs/GaSb and GaAs/GaSb/InAs heterostructures. Further carrier dynamics manifests itself via electric fields created by by charge separation at interfaces. The evolution of interfacial fields is monitored by a probe beam through the eletric-field-induced SHG signal. We distinguish between several stages of dynamics originating from redistribution of carriers between the layers. We also find a strong enhancement of the induced electric field caused by hybridization of the conduction and valence bands at the GaSb/InAs interface.

\]

The ultrafast dynamics of optically excited carriers in semiconductors is an important issue in solid-state physics. The knowledge of processes governing the carrier relaxation in solids is essential for designing novel multifunctional high-speed electronic and optoelectronic devices. This is particularly important for MBE grown multilayer semiconductor structures which offer the greatest promise for nanoscale electronics. Quantum confinement is known to significantly affect the carrier thermalization dynamics in quantum wells and quantum dots. On the other hand, one should expect that the interface between different semiconductors will influence the carrier dynamics even in non-quantum-confined structures. This is especially the case when the band offsets of adjacent semiconductor layers are significant. During the fast relaxation due to electron-electron ($`<200`$ fs) and electron-phonon ($`1`$ ps) scattering processes, the electrons and holes tend to accumulate at different sides of the interface. The resulting charge separation gives rise to the interfacial electric fields which can, in principle, change the initial band alignment and give rise to interlayer transport phenomena, In such situations, the adequate description of carrier dynamics should take into account both optically-induced interfacial electric fields and carrier population.

The techniques typically used for monitoring the ultrafast carrier dynamics in semiconductors are pump-probe transmission or reflection spectroscopy, These methods rely on the linear response of the electron-hole subsystem, excited by pump pulse, to the probing light. As a result, they give an accurate account of the carrier population dynamics, while being insensitive to the interfacial fields. On the other hand, nonlinear (in probing light) optical methods such as second harmonic generation (SHG) are known to be extremely sensitive to electric fields occurring at the surfaces and interfaces. This unique feature of SHG was employed to study the carrier relaxation dynamics at the silicon-oxide interface. In particular, the excited electrons and holes were trapped at different sides of the interface and the resulting long-time dynamics (of the order of minutes) was monitored by the electric-field-induced SHG (EFISHG) signal. Note that in such systems, the electric fields are fairly uniform and are well described within dipole approximation.

In this paper we report the first measurements of the ultrafast dynamics of the optically-induced interfacial electric fields in semiconductor multilayers using time-resolved pump-probe SHG spectroscopy. The measurements were performed on GaAs/GaSb and GaAs/GaSb/InAs heterostructures. The crucial advantage of our technique as compared to the usual pump-probe spectroscopy lies in its sensitivity to spatially separated regions of heterostructures. Therefore, the pump-probe SHG allows us to simultaneously monitor the dynamics at different interfaces of the same sample. In particular, by tracking the evolution of different interfacial fields contributing to total EFISHG signal we are able to study the redistribution of carriers between the layers due to electron transport across interfaces. Note that the carrier transverse diffusion on GaAs surface plane was demonstrated previously in pump-probe spatially separated SHG experiment. However, to the best of our knowledge, the optical detection of interlayer electron transport in semiconductor heterostructures has not been reported before.

The GaSb/InAs spatial interface is of special interest because of an unusual hybridization of the conduction InAs and valence GaSb band states. In semimetallic samples, the effect of band mixing was observed in an appearance of energy gaps in capacitance-voltage and quantum Hall measurements as well as in a splitting of cyclotron resonance peak measured using far-infrared spectroscopy. In our experiment, we find that the band hybridization results in a strong enhancement of the EFISHG signal.

We have investigated four heterostructures grown by molecular beam epitaxy: (1) GaAs/GaSb(20 nm); (2) GaAs/GaSb(400 nm); (3) GaAs/GaSb(500 nm)/InAs(20 nm), with an InSb interface between GaSb and InAs layers; and (4) GaAs/GaSb(500 nm)/InAs(20 nm), with a GaAs interface between GaSb and InAs. In all samples, the thickness of GaAs layer was 100 nm. Samples were grown on semi-insulating (100) GaAs substrates. Prior to GaSb or GaSb/InAs deposition the substrates were cleaned in situ by oxide desorption, by heating to 600 C, after which a GaAs buffer layer was grown at 590 C. In deposition of the overlayers, we used 490 C for GaSb growth and 450C for InAs.

A pump-probe configuration with linearly-polarized pump and probe beams was used in our measurements. The observed EFISHG signal was monitored as a function of probe-to-pump delay times. All optical measurements were carried out in a liquid helium cryostat at 4.3 K. The initial beam of 150-fs pulses from a mode-locked Ti:Al2O3 laser (Mira 900) at the wavelength of 800 nm (1.55 eV) and a repetition rate of 76 MHz was split into pump and probe beams. The probe beam of 120-mW-average power has passed through an optical delay stage. The pump beam, after being chopped at a frequency of 400 Hz, was of the same average power. The overlap spot of the pump and probe beams on the sample was 100 $`\mu m`$ in diameter. The pump beam was incident normally on the sample with either $`p`$ or $`s`$ polarization. The probe beam (also $`p`$ or $`s`$ polarized) was directed to the sample surface at the angle of 75. The SHG signal was optically separated from the reflected fundamental probe beam and measured by a photomultiplier tube through a “lock-in” amplifier triggered by the chopped pump pulses.

Figures 1 and 2 show pump-induced SHG signals measured for a GaAs/GaSb heterostructure (sample 2) in comparison with those taken for GaAs/GaSb/InAs with an InSb interface (samples 3) and with a GaAs interface (sample 4), respectively. Note that the signal is observed only for $`p`$-polarized probe beam. Switching the pump polarization from $`p`$ to $`s`$ does not affect significantly neither the time dependence of signals nor their intensities. No pump-induced SHG signal was observed for GaAs/GaSb sample with thinner (20 nm) GaSb layer (sample 1).

The measured signals were fitted by a combined exponential rise/decay function as shown in Figs. 1 and 2 by solid lines. According to the fit, the pump-induced SHG signals taken with either $`p`$ or $`s`$ pump polarization for GaAs/GaSb heterostructure (sample 2) is described by a single rise-time constant $`\tau _{R_1}2(\pm 1)`$ ps and two decay-time constants $`\tau _{D_1}15(\pm 3)`$ ps and $`\tau _{D_2}100(\pm 10)`$ ps. In sharp contrast, the evolution of the pump-induced SHG signal for GaAs/GaSb/InAs heterostructures shows two stages in the signal rise. The fast-rising component is characterized by the same rise-time constant as that measured for GaAs/GaSb sample ($`\tau _{R_1}2`$ ps). The additional slower-rising component in both GaAs/GaSb/InAs samples has rise-time constant $`\tau _{R_1}10(\pm 2)`$ ps which is slightly smaller than $`\tau _{D_1}`$. At the same time, the decay-time constants for GaAs/GaSb/InAs and GaAs/GaSb samples are similar.

The intensity of pump-induced SHG signals measured for GaAs/GaSb/InAs heterostructures shows strong dependence on the interface type between GaSb and InAs layers. For sample 3 (with InSb interface), the signal amplitude is significantly larger than for GaAs/GaSb structure (Fig. 1) while for sample 4 (with GaAs interface) the signal is comparable to that for GaAs/GaSb (Fig. 2). Moreover, despite similar decay-time constants for both GaAs/GaSb/InAs samples, there is considerable long-time (delay-time $`>250`$ ps) constant background for sample 3 while it is significantly smaller for sample 4.

An apparent presence of several stages in the evolution of measured SHG signal together with its sensitivity to the interface type of GaAs/GaSb/InAs heterostructures indicate a rather complex dynamics of interfacial electric fields originating from a redistribution of carriers between the interfaces. The induced local electric fields, $`_1(t)`$ and $`_2(t)`$ (subscripts $`1`$ and $`2`$ refer to GaAs/GaSb and GaSb/InAs interfaces, respectively), depend on the number of carriers as well as on their spatial distribution near each interface at a given time. The observed EFISHG signal is determined by contributions from all interfacial electric fields. Retaining only linear terms in $`_i(t)`$, the nonlinear polarization can be written as

$$P^{NL}(2\omega ,t)=\left[\chi ^{(2)}+\chi _1^{(3)}_1(t)+\chi _2^{(3)}_2(t)\right][E(\omega )]^2,$$
(1)
where $`E(\omega )`$ is the electric field component of the incident probe light, $`\chi ^{(2)}`$ is the second-order bulk susceptibility, and $`\chi _i^{(3)}`$ are the third-order susceptibilities at the interfaces. In general, a third-order nonlinear polarization $`P^{(3)}(2\omega ,t)`$ at the frequency $`2\omega `$ is generated only when the induced field $`_i(t)`$ and the optical field $`E(\omega )`$ have the same polarization. In our case, only $`p`$-polarized light exhibits an EFISHG signal since the interfacial electric fields are directed along the normal to the interface. In fact, the EFISHG signal is not very sensitive to the pump polarization because the interfacial fields arise as a result of incoherent relaxation of carriers. Note that the latter is the reason for the absence of signal at negative delay-times which originates from coherent effects in the population dynamics. The measured EFISHG intensity, $`\mathrm{\Delta }I^{(2\omega )}=I^{(2\omega )}I_0^{(2\omega )}`$, which is obtained by subtracting the bulk contribution $`I_0^{(2\omega )}=|\chi ^{(2)}|^2|E(\omega )|^4`$ from the total intensity, $`I^{(2\omega )}=|P^{NL}(2\omega )|^2`$, has the following form (after neglecting higher-order nonlinear in $`_i(t)`$ terms)

$$\mathrm{\Delta }I^{(2\omega )}\chi _1^{(3)}_1(t)+\chi _2^{(3)}_2(t)$$
(2)
The third-order susceptibilities $`\chi _i^{(3)}`$ are determined by the energy spectrum of carriers near the two interfaces, GaAs/GaSb and GaSb/InAs. Usually, the electrons and holes at the interface are separated by several atomic layers and, in this case, the susceptibilities for the corresponding bulk material can be used with a good accuracy. However, for the GaSb/InAs interface with InSb bonding, the change in the energy dispersion at the interface vicinity is found to have a significant effect.

We attribute the observed several stages of dynamics of interfacial electric fields to an interplay between relaxation of carriers and their transport across heterostructures. Because the laser light was tuned just above the GaAs bandgap, the electrons were excited in all the layers of heterostructures \[inset in Fig. 2(a)\]. Electrons with high excess energies relax to the lower-energy conduction band states in the GaAs and InAs layers, while the holes are accumulated in the GaSb layer. The resulting charge separation leads to an appearance of electric fields across the interfaces. The rise of interfacial fields manifests itself in the initial growth of the EFISHG signal characterized by fast rise-time constant $`\tau _{R_1}2`$ ps. Note here that in sample 1 with thinner (20 nm) GaSb layer, the carriers are accumulated predominantly in the GaAs layer, so the interfacial fields are weak and the corresponding EFISHG signal is undetectable. In all other samples, the majority of carriers are excited in the thickest GaSb layer leading to significant concentration of holes in that layer. The induced interfacial fields bend the initial energy profile and, in particular, lower the barrier at the GaAs/GaSb interface \[inset in Fig. 2(b)\]. As the negative charges at the GaAs side start to transfer through the barrier, the electric field at the GaAs/GaSb interface decreases. For GaAs/GaSb heterostructure (sample 2), such a decrease shows up in a fast decay of the EFISHG signal with decay-time constant $`\tau _{D_1}15`$ ps. The subsequent relaxation of the interfacial electric field, characterized by long decay-time constant $`\tau _{D_2}100`$ ps, is due to carrier migration away from the interface.

For GaAs/GaSb/InAs heterostructures, the situation is completely different. In this case, the electrons crossing the GaAs/GaSb interface accumulate in the InAs layer. The resulting increase in the GaSb/InAs interfacial field manifests itself as the additional rise component of the EFISHG signal with rise-time constant $`\tau _{R_2}10`$ ps. Note that this arrival time is comparable to the departure time in the GaAs/GaSb sample. A subsequent relaxation of the interfacial electric fields is characterized by similar $`\tau _{D_2}100`$ ps decay-time constant.

A striking feature observed for GaAs/GaSb/InAs heterostructures is a significantly more intense EFISHG signal for InSb type interface between GaSb and InAs layers than that for GaAs type. We attribute this difference to a larger overlap between InAs conduction and GaSb valence band envelope functions across the spatial GaSb/InAs interface with InSb bonds. In this case, the nonlinear susceptibility $`\chi ^{(3)}`$ can no longer be approximated by a corresponding bulk expression. The hybridization of conduction and valence bands leads to anticrossing of bands dispersions which was observed, in linear absorption, as satellites of the cyclotron resonance peak. Importantly, the band splitting also gives rise to low-energy transitions across the hybridization gap which enhance the nonlinear response to a slowly varying (compared to optical period) pump-induced electric field. On the other hand, for the GaAs type interface, electrons and holes are separated by several atomic layers, so the corresponding susceptibility $`\chi ^{(3)}`$ is bulk-like. Accordingly, the EFISHG signal intensities for sample 4 and for GaAs/GaSb heterostructure are comparable (Fig. 2). Note that the carriers are more strongly confined at the ”thin” GaSb/InAs interface so we observe a larger EFISHG signal constant background due to a residual electric field for sample with InSb than with GaAs type interface.

Finally, let us mention another possible contribution to the EFISHG signal. The usual description (1) relies on the dipole approximation for induced electric fields which applies if spatial dependence of $`(z,t)`$ is smooth. This approximation is standard for Si/SiO interface where the electric field extends over several atomic layers, and should also be applicable to semiconductor heterostructures with similar interface size. The bulk quadrupole terms, originating from the spatial variation of the SHG electric field, are smaller than dipole terms and can be neglected. However, in the case of GaSb/InAs (with InSb bonds) interface, the electric field strongly changes on scale of a single atomic layer, so that induced quadrupole terms of the form $`\chi ^{(Q)}_z(z,t)[E(\omega )]^2`$ should be, in principle, included in the nonlinear polarization (1). The available experimental data do not allow us to estimate the importance of such terms.

In summary, we have studied ultrafast dynamics of interfacial electric fields in GaAs/GaSb and GaAs/GaSb/InAs heterostructures using a pump-probe SHG technique. We observed a complex evolution of the interfacial fields originating from the redistribution of carriers between the interfaces. We also found a strong enhancement of the SHG signal caused by an interband mixing at the GaSb/InAs interface. The ability of the EFISHG signal to monitor spatially separated regions makes pump-probe SHG a unique tool for studying relaxation and transport phenomena in multilayer semiconductor structures.

This work was supported by ONR and by the DARPA/SPINS Program.


text:
# In-medium 𝑇 matrix for neutron matter

## Abstract

We calculate the equation of state of pure neutron matter, comparing the $`G`$-matrix calculation with the in-medium $`T`$-matrix result. At low densities, we obtain similar energies per nucleon, however some differences appear at higher densities. We use the self-consistent spectral functions from the $`T`$-matrix approach to calculate the $`{}_{}{}^{1}S_{0}^{}`$ superfluid gap including self-energy effects. We find a reduction of the superfluid gap by $`30\%`$.

Nuclear matter,superfluidity, neutron stars

In the interior of neutron stars, neutron rich nuclear matter is present in a range of densities up to several times the normal nuclear density. Two properties of the neutron matter are important for the modeling of neutron stars. The equation of state, which serves as an input for the calculation of the mass of the star, and the superfluid parameters of the dense matter, relevant for the cooling and the rotation of stars. Dense neutron matter cannot be studied directly in laboratory; therefore, it is important to have a reliable description of this many-body state from theoretical calculations. Very advanced methods based on the Brueckner-Hartree-Fock (BHF) approximation were applied for the calculation of neutron matter properties Baldo and Burgio (2001). Independently, approaches using the variational chain summation to tackle the nuclear many-body problem Wiringa et al. (1988); Akmal et al. (1998) have been developed to a high level of accuracy. For symmetric nuclear matter, these calculations have shown the need to introduce a three-body force to reproduce the phenomenological saturation point. Relativistic corrections have also been estimated Akmal et al. (1998). Variational and BHF methods allow to study the equation of state of neutron matter up to densities several times the normal nuclear matter density. Microscopic calculations of different pairing gaps in neutron matter are also available Lombardo and Schulze (2001); Tatsuga and Tamagaki (1993); Khodel et al. (1996).

An alternative many-body scheme for the calculation of the properties of nuclear matter is the self-consistent in-medium $`T`$ matrix Dickhoff (1998); Bożek (1999); Dickhoff et al. (1999); Dewulf et al. (2001); Bożek and Czerski (2001)

$$T=V+VGGT$$
(1)
where the Green’s functions $`G^1=\omega p^2/2m\mathrm{\Sigma }`$ in the ladder propagator are dressed by the self-consistent self-energy

$$i\mathrm{\Sigma }=Tr[T_AG].$$
(2)
The $`T`$-matrix approach is a conserving approximation Baym (1962) and gives consistent single-particle properties. The details of the equations and of the solution in the real time formalism can be found in Bożek (2002, 1999). Since the self-energy has a non-zero imaginary part, we obtain in the $`T`$-matrix approximation a nontrivial single-particle spectral function.

At low densities, the $`T`$-matrix ladder diagrams are dominated by the particle-particle propagators and therefore should reduce to the $`G`$-matrix result (if the influence of the nucleon dressing is small at low densities). However, at higher densities the $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$-derivable $`T`$-matrix approximation takes into account some diagrams of higher order in the hole-line expansion. It is then instructive to compare the results of the $`T`$-matrix calculation with the corresponding BHF calculation for a realistic interaction.

We perform self-consistent iterations of the $`T`$-matrix equations in pure neutron matter, using the separable Paris interaction Haidenbauer and Plessas (1984, 1985) and the same methods as in Ref. Bożek (2002). In Fig. 1 the resulting energy per nucleon is plotted as a function of the Fermi momentum. It is compared to the BHF calculation with the continuous choice of the single particle energy, using the same interaction and numerical grids. An excellent consistency of the two methods is found at low densities, as expected. This provides a powerful check of the methods used for the solution of integral equations, which for the $`T`$-matrix case involve refined numerical algorithms. At higher densities the neutron matter in the $`T`$-matrix calculation is less bound, leading to a considerably harder equation of state. It is known that the BHF results with the continuous choice are not modified considerably by $`3`$ hole-lines corrections Song et al. (1998); Baldo et al. (2000). The $`T`$-matrix approximation is a different summation of some of the $`3`$ and more hole-lines diagrams. We obtain the first quantitative estimate of the difference between the self-consistent $`T`$-matrix approximation and the BHF approach. Since the latter one is believed to be close to the converged result, we find an estimate of the accuracy of the $`T`$-matrix calculation. Below $`k_F=1.3\text{fm}^1`$ the difference in the energy per particle from the two calculations is less than $`2\text{MeV}`$. The discrepancy at higher densities could be attributed to the ring diagrams contribution. Also at higher densities meaningful results can be obtained only after inclusion of higher partial waves and three-body forces effects. In Fig. 1, results of modern variational calculations Akmal et al. (1998) and of a BHF calculation including contributions from 3 hole-lines diagrams Baldo et al. (2000) are also shown. Both methods are using a two-body Argonne V18 potential and give similar results. As shown in Ref. Baldo et al. (2000) the continuous BHF results are almost indistinguishable from the full BHF calculation with 3 hole-lines contributions included. Therefore, the difference between our BHF result (solid line in Fig. 1) and the variational or next order BHF results must be attributed to a different interaction used, and to the limited number of partial waves taken. The $`T`$-matrix energy per particle is larger than obtained in other approaches. Most importantly it is significantly larger than the continuous BHF calculation with the same interaction. It indicates that the $`T`$-matrix calculation does not give the correct energy per particle at higher densities.

For the analysis of superfluidity, we use the spectral function obtained in the $`T`$-matrix calculation. As noted above, the $`T`$-matrix approach gives reliable results for the single-particle properties in the medium. The effective mass in our calculation decreases from $`1.07`$ to $`1.02`$ nucleon masses with increasing density, which is only about $`0.05`$ more than the corresponding BHF effective mass.

The superfluid gap equation with full spectral functions is

$`\mathrm{\Delta }(p)={\displaystyle \frac{d\omega d\omega ^{^{}}d^3k}{(2\pi )^5}A(k,\omega )A_s(k,\omega ^{^{}})}`$
$`{\displaystyle \frac{\left[1f(\omega )f(\omega ^{^{}})\right]}{\omega \omega ^{^{}}}}V(p,k)\mathrm{\Delta }(k)`$ (3)
where $`A_s(p,\omega )`$ denotes the spectral function of the nucleon, including the diagonal self-energy $`\mathrm{\Sigma }(p,\omega )`$ (obtained in the $`T`$-matrix approximation) and the off-diagonal self-energy $`\mathrm{\Delta }(p)`$ (obtained from Eq. (In-medium $`T`$ matrix for neutron matter) itself); $`A(p,\omega )`$ is the spectral function of the nucleon dressed with the diagonal self-energy only. Self-energy effects in the gap equation were studied in a number of papers Baldo and Grasso (2000); Bożek (2000); Lombardo et al. (2001); Bozek (2002). It was found that generally the superfluid energy gap is reduced by the in-medium dressing of nucleons. The mechanism of this reduction can be understood easily from the effective quasiparticle gap equation Bożek (2000); Lombardo et al. (2001)

$`\widehat{\mathrm{\Delta }}(p)=`$
$`{\displaystyle \frac{d^3k}{(2\pi )^3}Z_kZ_pV(p,k)\frac{\left[12f(E_k)\right]}{2E_k}\widehat{\mathrm{\Delta }}(k)}`$ (4)
which is obtained as the quasiparticle limit of the gap equation with dressed propagators (In-medium $`T`$ matrix for neutron matter). The superfluid energy gap is

$$\widehat{\mathrm{\Delta }}(p)=Z_p\mathrm{\Delta }(p)$$
(5)
where

$$Z_p=\left(1\frac{\mathrm{\Sigma }(p,\omega _p)}{\omega }|_{\omega =\omega _p}\right)^1$$
(6)
and

$$E_p=\sqrt{(\omega _p\mu )^2+\widehat{\mathrm{\Delta }}(p)^2}.$$
(7)
The usual BCS equation is obtained by putting $`Z_p=1`$ in the above equations. In that case, the only influence of the medium comes through the modification of the dispersion relation $`\omega _p`$.

Dispersive self-energy corrections to the gap equation are twofold. First, the superfluid energy gap is multiplied by the quasiparticle strength $`Z_{p_F}<1`$ (5), and second, the interaction strength in the gap equation is reduced by a factor $`Z_pZ_k`$ (In-medium $`T`$ matrix for neutron matter). In the case of symmetric nuclear matter at normal density the reduction of the superfluid gap due to self-energy effects is of about one order of magnitude Bozek (2002).

In Fig. 2 we present the results of an analogous calculation for the $`{}_{}{}^{1}S_{0}^{}`$ pairing in neutron matter for two interaction potentials Machleidt et al. (1996); Wiringa et al. (1995). It is known that for the $`{}_{}{}^{1}S_{0}^{}`$ gap different interaction potentials lead to similar superfluid gaps Lombardo and Schulze (2001). We recall that the spectral functions and the single-particle energies used in the gap equation are obtained from a separate self-consistent calculation in the normal phase. We find the $`Z_p`$ factor at the Fermi momentum $`0.9`$ for the range of densities studied. It is close to the one obtained from the BHF calculation without rearrangement terms Lombardo et al. (2001). The rearrangement terms in the BHF approach reduce this value further Lombardo et al. (2001) (the $`T`$-matrix result includes the rearrangement contribution to the self-energy). We find a smaller $`Z`$ factor than the authors of reference Baldo and Grasso (2000). The obtained values of $`Z_p`$ translate directly into the resulting superfluid gap, which we find in between the results of Refs. Baldo and Grasso (2000) and Lombardo et al. (2001). The average reduction factor is $`0.7`$ in the region of the maximal gap. The effective gap equation (In-medium $`T`$ matrix for neutron matter) is an excellent approximation to the solution of the gap equation with full spectral functions (In-medium $`T`$ matrix for neutron matter). It is due to the fact that in this region of densities, the gap equation kernel is dominated by contributions close to the Fermi momentum, where the quasiparticle limit applies. We could not perform the self-consistent $`T`$-matrix calculation at densities below $`0.016\text{fm}^3`$; the expected disappearance of self-energy effects in the gap equation at low densities could not be explicitly demonstrated. This is in contrast to the results for the energy per particle where the BHF approach and the self-consistent $`T`$-matrix calculation merge at low density Fetter and Walecka (1971) (Fig 1).

In the gap closure region the ratio of the BCS gap to the gap obtained with dressed propagators is large. Such a strong reduction of the gap was found in symmetric nuclear matter at normal density Bozek (2002), which is close to gap closure for the $`{}_{}{}^{3}S_{1}^{}^3D_1`$ gap. Also the effective gap equation (In-medium $`T`$ matrix for neutron matter) and the gap equation with full spectral functions (In-medium $`T`$ matrix for neutron matter) give markedly different results.

In summary, we study pure neutron matter using the in-medium $`T`$-matrix approximation. We present a comparison of the energy per nucleon for neutron matter in the BHF and $`T`$-matrix approaches. We find similar binding energies at low densities, but a stiffer equation of state for the $`T`$-matrix calculation at higher densities. This is an explicit confirmation of the expected similarities and discrepancies between the two approaches.

We use self-consistent spectral functions in neutron matter to calculate the superfluid gap from the gap equation with dressed propagators. This allows us to test the accuracy of the effective gap equation (In-medium $`T`$ matrix for neutron matter), which incorporates to some extend self-energy effects. Using full spectral functions, we find, in the maximal gap region, a reduction of the gap of about $`30\%`$ and a very good agreement with the effective gap equation. In the gap closure region, we find a stronger reduction. In this region the effective gap equation (In-medium $`T`$ matrix for neutron matter) is a less reliable estimate of self-energy effects. It should be remembered that also other in medium effects modify the superfluid gap in neutron matter Clark et al. (1976); Wambach et al. (1993); Schulze et al. (1996, 2001).

###### Acknowledgements.

This work was partly supported by the KBN under Grant No. 2P03B02019.


text:
# Shock wave surfing acceleration

## Abstract

Dynamics of a charged relativistic particle in a uniform magnetic field and an obliquely propagating electrostatic shock wave is considered. The system is reduced to a two degrees of freedom Hamiltonian system with slow and fast variables. In this system, the phenomenon of capture into resonance can take place. Under certain condition, a captured phase point stays captured forever. This corresponds to unlimited surfing acceleration of the particle. The preprint is a more detailed version of a comment on the paper by D.Ucer and V.D.Shapiro USh , intended for the Comments section of Physical Reviews Letters.

In Letter USh , unlimited surfing acceleration of relativistic particles by a shock wave normal to a uniform magnetic field was considered. The mechanisms of surfing acceleration were studied in many papers, mainly in the case of acceleration by a harmonic wave. The aim of this comment is to point out that the methods developed in INV  allow for more detailed study and further progress in the topic of shock wave acceleration. In particular, the case of an oblique shock wave can be considered. Also, it can be shown that particles with initial velocities far from the shock wave velocity can also be captured in the mode of unlimited acceleration.

Like in USh , consider a charged relativistic particle of charge $`e`$ and rest mass $`m`$ in a uniform magnetic field $`𝐁`$ and an electrostatic shock wave of potential $`\mathrm{\Phi }=\mathrm{\Phi }_0\mathrm{tanh}(\mathrm{𝐤𝐪}\omega t)`$, where $`\mathrm{\Phi }_0>0,\omega >0,\omega /|𝐤|=u`$ is the phase velocity of the shock wave, $`𝐪`$ is the radius vector. Choose an orthogonal coordinate system $`(q_1,q_2,q_3)`$ such that $`𝐁=B_0𝐞_\mathrm{𝟑}`$ is along the $`q_3`$-axis and $`𝐤`$ lies in the $`(q_1,q_3)`$-plane, $`𝐤=(k_1,0,k_3)`$. The Hamiltonian function of the particle is

$$H=(m^2c^4+c^2p_1^2+c^2p_3^2+(c𝒫_2eB_0q_1)^2)^{1/2}e\mathrm{\Phi }_0\mathrm{tanh}(k_1q_1+k_3q_3\omega t),$$
(1)
where $`𝒫_2=p_2+eB_0q_1/c`$ and $`𝐩=(p_1,p_2,p_3)`$ is the particle’s momentum. Introduce notations:

$$\omega _c=\frac{eB_0}{mc},k=(k_1^2+k_3^2)^{1/2},\epsilon =\frac{e\mathrm{\Phi }_0}{mc^2},\mathrm{\Omega }_c=\omega _c/\epsilon ,\mathrm{sin}\alpha =k_3/k.$$

Consider the problem in the following range of parameters: $`|𝐩|/(mc)1,\omega /(kc)1,\epsilon 1,\omega _c/\omega \epsilon `$. Rescale the variables: $`\stackrel{~}{p}_{1,3}=p_{1,3}/(mc),\stackrel{~}{q}_{1,3}=\epsilon q_{1,3}/c,\stackrel{~}{k}_{1,3}=k_{1,3}c,\stackrel{~}{H}=H/(mc^2)`$. Following INV , one can canonically transform (1) into the form (tildes are omitted):

$$=\omega I+\left[1+k^2(I+p\mathrm{cos}\alpha /k)^2+p^2\mathrm{sin}^2\alpha +\mathrm{\Omega }_c^2q^2\right]^{1/2}\epsilon \mathrm{tanh}\varphi _0\epsilon \mathrm{tanh}\varphi ,$$
(2)
where canonically conjugated pairs of variables are $`(p,\epsilon ^1q)`$ and $`(I,\varphi )`$, $`\varphi =k_1q_1+k_3q_3\omega t`$. The corresponding Hamiltonian equations of motion imply that while $`\dot{\varphi }0`$, total change in variable $`I`$ is a value of order $`\epsilon `$, and hence the trajectory of the particle in the $`(p,q,I)`$-space lies in a vicinity of the intersection of a second order surface $`_0=`$const and a plane $`I=`$const. This intersection is an ellipse corresponding to the Larmor motion. However, along a trajectory that crosses the resonance $`\dot{\varphi }=_0/I=0`$ the value of $`I`$ can change significantly.

The resonant condition $`_0/I=0`$ defines a surface $`I=I_{res}(p,q)`$ in the $`(p,q,I)`$-space, called the resonant surface. The condition implies that projection of the particle’s velocity onto the direction of vector $`𝐤`$ equals the phase velocity of the wave. Intersection of the resonant surface and the surface $`_0=`$const is a second order curve whose kind depends on the parameter values (see INV ). This curve is called the resonant curve. The motion in a neighborhood (of the width of order $`\sqrt{\epsilon }`$) of the resonant surface possesses certain universal properties (INV , N98 ). In particular, the Hamiltonian $`F=/\epsilon `$ of the particle in this neighborhood can be written in the form:

$$F=\epsilon ^1\mathrm{\Lambda }(p,q)+F_0(P,\varphi ,p,q)+O(\sqrt{\epsilon }),$$
(3)
where $`\mathrm{\Lambda }(p,q)`$ is $`_0`$ restricted onto the resonant surface, $`P=(II_{res}(p,q))/\sqrt{\epsilon }+O(\sqrt{\epsilon })=O(1)`$, and canonically conjugated pairs of variables are $`(P,\varphi )`$ and $`(p,\epsilon ^{3/2}q)`$. The function $`F_0`$ is so-called “pendulum-like” Hamiltonian, and in the case under consideration it is $`F_0=g(p,q)P^2/2\mathrm{tanh}\varphi +b(p,q)\varphi `$, where

$$b(p,q)=\frac{\mathrm{\Omega }_c^2\mathrm{cos}\alpha }{(k^2\omega ^2)^{1/2}}\frac{q}{(1+p^2\mathrm{sin}^2\alpha +\mathrm{\Omega }_c^2q^2)^{1/2}},g(p,q)=\frac{k^2(1(\omega /k)^2)^{3/2}}{(1+p^2\mathrm{sin}^2\alpha +\mathrm{\Omega }_c^2q^2)^{1/2}},$$
(4)
In the system defined by $`F`$, variables $`(p,q)`$ are slow and variables $`(P,\varphi )`$ are fast. Slow evolution of $`(p,q)`$ is determined by a system with Hamiltonian $`\sqrt{\epsilon }\mathrm{\Lambda }`$. This system defines a flow on the resonant surface, called resonant flow. The $`(P,\varphi )`$ variables evolve according to the subsystem with Hamiltonian $`F_0`$. If $`0<b<1`$, there is a separatrix surrounding the oscillation region on the phase portrait of this subsystem (see Figure 1). If $`b<0`$ or $`b>1`$, there is no oscillation region.

The area of the oscillation region $`S`$ is a function of the slow variables: $`S=S(p,q)`$. If $`S(p,q)`$ enlarges along the resonant flow, additional area appears inside the oscillation region. Hence, phase points cross the separatrix and enter the oscillation region. This is a capture into resonance. A captured phase point leaves a vicinity of the curve $`I=`$const, $`_0=`$const and continues its motion following approximately the resonant curve. Note, that phase points with arbitrarily large initial values of $`P`$ can be captured provided they are close enough to the incoming invariant manifold of the saddle point of the “pendulum-like” system. This corresponds to the fact that a particle can be trapped in the mode of surfing acceleration even in the case that initially it is far from the resonance.

The area bounded by the trajectory of a captured phase point in the $`(P,\varphi )`$-plane is an adiabatic invariant of the “pendulum-like” system. Hence, if $`S(p,q)`$ contracts along the resonant flow, some phase points leave the oscillation region and leave the resonant zone. This is an escape from the resonance. If $`S`$ monotonically grows along the resonant curve, none of phase points leave the oscillation region. In this case, captured phase points stay captured forever.

If the resonant curve is a hyperbola ($`k_3<\omega `$, INV ) or a parabola ($`k_3=\omega ,_0<0`$, INV ), a captured phase point may go to infinity. In this motion the energy of the particle $`H`$ (see (1)) tends to infinity. Therefore, this motion produces unlimited surfing acceleration of particles. This acceleration is possible, if $`S(p,q)`$ grows as $`p,q\mathrm{}`$ along the resonant curve. Calculations (see INV ) give the following necessary condition of possibility of unlimited acceleration:

$$\frac{\mathrm{\Omega }_c(\omega ^2k^2\mathrm{sin}^2\alpha )^{1/2}}{\omega (k^2\omega ^2)^{1/2}}<1.$$
(5)
This condition was first obtained in ChScN  for acceleration by a harmonic wave. In the case of perpendicular propagation, it is equivalent to the condition of Katsouleas and Dawson KatsDaw , also mentioned in USh .

Consider a hyperbolic resonant curve under assumption that (5) is valid. At $`q<0`$, $`b(p,q)<0`$ (see (4)) and $`S(p,q)=0`$. At $`q=0`$, function $`S(p,q)`$ has a singularity and at small positive $`q`$ it is very large. As $`q`$ grows along the resonant curve, $`S(p,q)`$ first decreases and then, as $`q\mathrm{}`$, $`S(p,q)\mathrm{}`$. Hence, at a certain $`q=q_m`$, function $`S(p,q)`$ has minimum $`S=S_m`$ along the resonant curve. Consider a phase point that is initially captured into the resonance at small positive value of $`q`$. Let the area bounded by its trajectory be $`S_0`$ and $`S_0>S_m`$. Then in the course of motion along the resonant curve this phase point escapes from the resonance. If $`S_0<S_m`$, the phase point stays captured forever and undergoes unlimited acceleration. This explains Fig. 5 in USh . The number of bounces in this figure corresponds to the number of oscillations of the phase point inside the oscillatory region of the “pendulum-like” system, performed before the phase point escapes from the resonance.

The author thanks A.I.Neishtadt for useful discussions. The work was partially supported by grants RFBR 00-01-00538 and INTAS 00-221.


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# High-accuracy wavemeter based on a stabilized diode laser

## Abstract

We have built a high-accuracy wavelength meter for tunable lasers using a scanning Michelson interferometer and a reference laser of known wavelength. The reference laser is a frequency stabilized diode laser locked to an atomic transition in Rb. The wavemeter has a statistical error per measurement of 5 parts in $`10^7`$ which can be reduced considerably by averaging. Using a second stabilized diode laser, we have verified that systematic errors are below 4 parts in $`10^8`$.

The use of diode lasers has become very common in the fields of optics and atomic physics . The principal advantages of these lasers lie in their low cost, narrow spectral width, tunability over several nm, efficient power consumption, reliability, and ease of operation. Single transverse mode laser diodes are available over most of the near-infrared spectrum from 600–2000 nm. Furthermore, by placing the diode in an external cavity and using optical feedback from an angle-tuned grating, they can be made to operate at single frequency (single longitudinal mode) with linewidths of order 1 MHz . Such frequency-stabilized diode lasers have increased the access of researchers to experiments which have previously required expensive ring-cavity dye or Ti-sapphire lasers. In particular, the field of laser cooling has blossomed in the past decade as several alkali atoms and alkali-like ions have cooling transitions in the infrared which are accessible with diode lasers . However, to use lasers in these applications effectively it is important to know their absolute wavelength accurately. In many cases, this is achieved by locking the laser to a known atomic or molecular transition in a vapor cell. But this may not always be possible, especially when working with short-lived radioactive species or trapped ions. One solution is to measure the wavelength of the laser precisely by beating its frequency against that of a reference laser in a scanning optical interferometer.

In this Letter, we present a design for such a wavemeter in which the reference laser is a frequency-stabilized diode laser locked to an atomic transition. This gives the reference laser the desired frequency stability of 1 MHz and the required wavelength calibration for absolute measurements. While expensive commercial wavemeters that use a stabilized He-Ne laser as the reference are available, our wavemeter is built in-house around a low-cost laser diode and the entire instrument has a component cost of less than $1500. To characterize the accuracy of the instrument, we have measured the wavelength of a second stabilized diode laser system. The results indicate an accuracy of $`5\times 10^7`$ with a 25 cm scan distance, and that systematic errors are below $`4\times 10^8`$.

The wavemeter, shown schematically in Fig. 1, is based on a design first reported by Hall and Lee . The basic idea is to obtain the wavelength of an unknown laser in terms of the wavelength of the reference laser using a scanning Michelson interferometer where both lasers traverse essentially the same path. As the interferometer is scanned, the interference pattern on the detectors goes alternately through bright and dark fringes. Since both lasers traverse the same path, the ratio of the number of fringes counted after scanning through a certain distance is the ratio of the two wavelengths. The ratio obtained is a wavelength ratio in air, however, the wavelength ratio in vacuum (or equivalent frequency ratio) is easily calculated by making a small correction for the dispersion of air  between the two wavelengths. Thus, if the absolute wavelength of the reference laser is known, the wavelength of the unknown laser can be determined.

The interferometer consists of a beamsplitter, two end mirrors, and two retro-reflectors mounted back-to-back on a movable cart. The retro-reflectors, made of three mutually orthogonal mirrors, ensure that the return beams are displaced from the input beams and do not feed back into the laser. The movable cart is a brass block riding on a pressurized air-bearing which allows it to slide freely over a distance of about 100 cm. The push-pull design of the interferometer, with the two retro-reflectors mounted back-to-back, has the advantage that the interference pattern goes through a complete fringe cycle for every $`\lambda /4`$ displacement of the cart, a factor of two improvement over designs where only one arm of the interferometer is scanned. The interferometer produces two output beams; of these the one on the opposite side of the beamsplitter from the input beam has near-perfect contrast ($`>90\%`$ in our case) because it is a combination of beams each of which is once reflected and once transmitted through the beamsplitter . This beam is detected for both the reference laser and the unknown laser by Si PIN photodiodes and the two signals fed into a frequency counter. The counter has a ratio function and directly displays the ratio of the two inputs with user-settable integration times of up to 10 s.

The diode laser system used as the reference laser is built around a commercial single-mode laser diode (Mitsubishi ML60125R-01) with a nominal operating wavelength of 785 nm and cw output power of 30 mW. The light is collimated using a 4.5 mm, 0.55 NA aspheric lens. The laser is frequency stabilized in a standard external cavity design (Littrow configuration)  using optical feedback from an 1800 lines/mm diffraction grating mounted on a piezoelectric transducer (see inset of Fig. 1). Using a combination of temperature and current control, the diode is tuned close to the 780 nm $`D_2`$ line in atomic Rb ($`5S_{1/2}5P_{3/2}`$ transition). A part of the output beam is tapped for Doppler-free saturated-absorption spectroscopy in a Rb vapor cell . The various hyperfine transitions in the two common isotopes of Rb (85Rb and 87Rb) are clearly resolved, as shown in the inset of Fig. 1. The linewidth of the hyperfine peaks is 15–20 MHz; this is somewhat larger than the 6.1 MHz natural linewidth and is primarily limited by power broadening due to the pump beam . The injection current into the laser diode is modulated slightly to obtain an error signal and the laser is locked to the $`F^{}=(3,4)`$ crossover resonance in 85Rb, i.e. 60 MHz below the $`F=3F^{}=4`$ transition. From the Rb energy level tables  and measured hyperfine shifts , this corresponds to a frequency of $`3.8422958\times 10^{14}`$ Hz. The elliptic laser beam (5.8 mm$`\times `$1.8 mm $`1/e^2`$ dia) is directly fed into the interferometer. The large Rayleigh ranges ($``$34 m and $``$3 m, respectively) ensure that the beam remains collimated over the length of the interferometer.

To characterize the wavemeter, we have measured the wavelength of a second identical diode laser system but which was locked to a different hyperfine transition in 85Rb. The measurement serves two purposes: first, the scatter in the data gives an estimate of the statistical error associated with our instrument since both the reference laser and the unknown laser are stabilized to linewidths below 1 MHz (about 3 parts in $`10^9`$), and second, the data tells us if there are any systematic errors associated with our instrument because the difference between the two laser frequencies is already known very precisely . The measurements were done with the second laser locked to a hyperfine transition in 85Rb that was 2944 MHz higher than the frequency of the reference laser. This implies that the measured ratio should be 1.00000766. The actual values obtained are shown in Fig. 2 as a histogram plot. The data have a fairly good Gaussian distribution and the fit yields a mean value of 1.00000763(4) and a spread of $`5.3\times 10^7`$.

Statistical errors in the measured data arise mainly because the frequency counter only detects zero-crossings and does not count fractional fringes. The total number of fringes counted depends on the fringe rate (or cart speed) coupled with the 10 s integration time. Currently our photodiode electronics limits the cart speed so that we can use only about 25 cm of cart travel per measurement. This results in the single shot statistical error of 5 parts in $`10^7`$ in the data . However, the mean value has an error of only $`4\times 10^8`$ since it is an average of more than 100 individual measurements. With some improvements in the counting electronics, it should be possible to use 50–100 cm of cart travel for each measurement and thereby reduce the statistical error per measurement below $`1\times 10^7`$. Resolution enhancement is also possible by phase-locking to the fringe signal, as described in Ref. . This allows fractional fringes to be counted accurately and the statistical error to be reduced for the same cart travel. Finally, data contamination can occur if partial fringes are counted when the cart turns around at the end of its travel. We therefore take data only when the cart is travelling in one direction.

It is important to eliminate all sources of systematic error when aiming for such high accuracy. The chief cause of systematic error is non-parallelism of the two beams in the interferomter. Any misalignment would cause an increase in the measured ratio given by $`1/\mathrm{cos}\theta `$, where $`\theta `$ is the angle between the beams. We have tried to minimize this error by using the unused output beam of the reference laser (the one on the same side of the beamsplitter as the input beam) as a tracer for aligning the unknown laser beam, and checking for parallelism over a distance of about 2 m . The consistency of the mean value of 1.00000763(3) with the expected value (1.00000766) shows that this method works quite well for accuracies up to $`4\times 10^8`$. We have also found it useful to check for parallelism by looking for a minimum in the measured ratio as the angle of the unknown beam is varied. This works because the measured value is always larger than the correct value, whether $`\theta `$ is positive or negative, and becomes minimum when $`\theta =0`$.

In conclusion, we have built a high-accuracy wavemeter using a scanning Michelson interferometer and a reference diode laser. The frequency-stabilized diode laser is locked to an atomic transition in Rb for absolute calibration. Using a second stabilized diode laser, we have shown that the statistical error in each measurement is 5 parts in $`10^7`$, and the systematic error is less than 4 parts in $`10^8`$. We have recently used this wavemeter to measure the wavelength of a diode laser tuned to the 795 nm $`D_1`$ line in Rb ($`5S_{1/2}5P_{1/2}`$ transition) , which yields a precise value for the fine-structure interval in the $`5P`$ state of Rb. The precision obtained is an order of magnitude better than published values  and demonstrates the power of the instrument for precision spectroscopy experiments. Hyperfine splittings, which are of order GHz, are more accessible to techniques such as microwave resonance or heterodyne measurements . On the other hand, fine-structure splittings are of order THz and our technique is uniquely suited for precise measurements in this range of frequency differences.

We are grateful to S. Navaneetha for machining the mechanical components of the wavemeter. This work was supported by research grants from the Board of Research in Nuclear Sciences (DAE), and the Department of Science & Technology, Government of India.


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# Brownian motion exhibiting absolute negative mobility

## Abstract

We consider a single Brownian particle in a spatially symmetric, periodic system far from thermal equilibrium. This setup can be readily realized experimentally. Upon application of an external static force $`F`$, the average particle velocity is negative for $`F>0`$ and positive for $`F<0`$ (absolute negative mobility).

PACS: 05.40.-a, 05.60-k, 02.50Ey

When a system at rest is perturbed by a static force, we expect that it responds by moving into the direction of that force. The rather surprising opposite behavior in the form of a permanent motion against a (not too large) static force of whatever direction is called absolute negative mobility (ANM) . If the unperturbed system is at thermal equilibrium then ANM is impossible since it could be exploited to construct a perpetuum mobile of the second kind. Legendary but quite complex non-equilibrium systems which do exhibit ANM are “donkeys” . In this Letter we demonstrate that even a simple, structureless Brownian particle can exhibit ANM away from thermal equilibrium in a setup which can be easily realized experimentally — a scenario hitherto commonly considered as impossible.

Going in medias res, let us consider the overdamped 2-dim. Brownian motion

$`\eta \dot{x}(t)`$ $`=`$ $`_xV(x(t),y(t))+\xi _x(t)`$ (1)
$`\eta \dot{y}(t)`$ $`=`$ $`_yV(x(t),y(t))+\xi _y(t)+F,`$ (2)
where $`\eta `$ is the viscous friction coefficient and $`V(x,y)`$ is the hard-wall potential from Fig. 1a, confining the Brownian motion to a “corridor” along the $`y`$-axis with symmetric, periodic obstacles. Further, $`\xi _x(t)`$ are thermal fluctuations, modeled by unbiased Gaussian white noise with $`\xi _x(t)\xi _x(s)=2\eta k_BT\delta (ts)`$, where $`k_B`$ denotes Boltzmann’s constant and $`T`$ the temperature. If $`\xi _y(t)`$ is an independent, second thermal white noise source then (2) is an equilibrium system and the average particle current

$$\dot{y}:=\underset{t\mathrm{}}{lim}\frac{y(t)y(t_0)}{tt_0}$$
(3)
always runs into the direction of the static force $`F`$. Fig. 1b depicts the corresponding $`\dot{y}`$-$`F`$-characteristics for the simplest non equilibrium model, namely a symmetric dichotomous noise $`\xi _y(t)`$, with the promised ANM as its most outstanding feature.

Our first remark is that the so-called ratchet effect  is characterized by a current $`\dot{y}`$ which is non-zero for $`F=0`$ and does not change its direction within an entire neighborhood of $`F=0`$. This effect thus inevitably involves some kind of asymmetry (for $`F=0`$), whereas our present system is perfectly symmetric. Second, so-called differential negative mobility (or resistance)  is typified by a negative slope of the $`\dot{y}`$-$`F`$-characteristics away from $`F=0`$. Thus, in both cases the salient feature of ANM is absent, namely a current $`\dot{y}`$ which is always opposite to the (not too large) force $`F`$, independently of whether $`F`$ is positive or negative. Finally, we mention that ANM has also been observed in semiconductor devices  and in models for coupled Brownian motors . However, in the first case it has an entirely quantum mechanical origin and in the second case it is a genuine collective effect, without leaving room for any kind of classical, single-particle counterpart. Accordingly, the respective physical mechanisms are completely different from ours.

Returning to the ANM in Fig. 1b, its origin can be understood as follows: Consider a (moderately large) time interval $`\tau `$ during which the dichotomous noise $`\xi _y(t)`$ in (2) is constant and $`F_{tot}:=\xi _y(t)+F>0`$. When starting in one of the “corners” between the right “corridor wall” and any of the adjacent obstacles (see Fig. 1a), the particle first closely follows the right “corridor wall” until it hits the next obstacle, then “slides down the back” of that obstacle, and afterwards performs a “free fall” in the $`y`$-direction. Since the lateral extension of the obstacles $`b`$ exceeds half the corridor width $`B/2`$ the particle then hits with a high probability $`q`$ the next obstacle on its way and ends up by being trapped in the corresponding (left) “corner”. In order to avoid this trap, the particle has to thermally diffuse at least over a distance $`b(Bb)=2bB`$ in the positive $`x`$-direction during its “free fall” in the $`y`$-direction. With increasing force $`F_{tot}`$, the available time and therefore the probability $`p:=1q`$ of such a diffusive displacement decreases, implying that the particle travels on the average a shorter distance along the $`y`$-axis during the time $`\tau `$. Since an analogous consideration applies for time-intervals $`\tau `$ with $`F_{tot}=\xi _y(t)+F<0`$, the particle motion on the average acquires a bias in the direction opposite to the static force $`F`$, i.e. it exhibits ANM.

In order to quantify this argument, we first note that the above mentioned probability $`p`$ of avoiding a trap (for $`F_{tot}>0`$) can be approximated as

$$p(F_{tot})=\frac{1}{2}\frac{1}{2}\text{erf}\left(\frac{2bB}{\sqrt{2Lk_BT}}\sqrt{F_{tot}}\right)$$
(4)
where $`\text{erf}(x):=2\pi ^{1/2}_0^xe^{y^2}𝑑y`$. With probability $`p`$, a particle thus covers in addition to the “basic distance” of approximately $`3L/2`$ another period $`L`$ (see Fig. 1a). It then avoids the second trap on its way with approximately the same (relative) probability $`p`$ as in (4), i.e. a second period $`L`$ is covered with (absolute) probability $`p^2`$ etc., see Fig. 1a. If the maximal traveling distance (avoiding all traps) is of the form $`(3/2+N)L`$ with $`N`$, the average traveling distance $`\mathrm{\Delta }y(\tau ,F_{tot})`$ thus follows as $`L[3/2+p+p^2+\mathrm{}+p^N]`$. Neglecting that the “free traveling speed” $`v_y:=F_{tot}/\eta `$ is slightly reduced when the particle “slides down the back” of an obstacle, we obtain $`(3/2+N)L=v_y\tau `$ and hence

$$\mathrm{\Delta }y(\tau ,F_{tot})=L\left\{\frac{1}{2}+\frac{1[p(F_{tot})]^{\frac{F_{tot}\tau }{\eta L}\frac{1}{2}}}{1p(F_{tot})}\right\}.$$
(5)
This expression remains a decent interpolation even if $`v_y\tau `$ is not of the form $`(3/2+N)L`$. Symmetrically, for $`F_{tot}<0`$ the average traveling distance is $`\mathrm{\Delta }y(\tau ,F_{tot})`$, implying for the net average current (3) the approximation

$$\dot{y}=\frac{_0^{\mathrm{}}𝑑\tau \rho (\tau )[\mathrm{\Delta }y(\tau ,A+F)\mathrm{\Delta }y(\tau ,AF)]}{2_0^{\mathrm{}}𝑑\tau \rho (\tau )\tau },$$
(6)
where $`\pm A`$ are the two states of the dichotomous noise $`\xi _y(t)`$ and $`\rho (\tau )=\gamma e^{\gamma \tau }`$ is the distribution of sojourn times, i.e. $`\gamma `$ is the flip rate.

The agreement of our analytic prediction (6) with the simulations in Fig. 1b is remarkably good in view of the various underlying approximations. In particular, our assumption that the particle covers at least a distance $`3L/2`$ during the time $`\tau `$ renders (5) doubtful unless $`v_y\tau =F_{tot}\tau /\eta >3L/2`$. To fulfill this condition for all the forces $`F_{tot}=A\pm F`$ notably contributing in (6) requires that $`A|F|>3\gamma \eta L/2`$. Indeed, for $`A<3\gamma \eta L/2`$ ANM is found to disappear in numerical simulations of (2).

On the other hand, ANM is expected to subsist for numerous generalizations of our original model (2). Fig. 2 exemplifies a setup with a 2-dim. array of obstacles. For symmetry reasons, the current (3) remains exactly the same as in Fig. 1, but the parallelization now admits to simultaneously transport a much larger number of particles. Such a device can be readily realized by a modification of those studied experimentally in  and theoretically in . We emphasize that while these modifications of the experimental setups are straightforward, the physics, however, is completely different. A further step towards a realistic experimental system is achieved by choosing

$$\xi _y(t)=\xi _{th}(t)+f(t),$$
(7)
where $`\xi _{th}(t)`$ is another thermal white noise like $`\xi _x(t)`$ (but statistically independent) and $`f(t)`$ switches periodically between $`\pm A`$ with $`\rho (\tau )=\delta (\tau \tau _{ac})`$. For not too weak driving $`f(t)`$ and with the appropriately adjusted definition $`F_{tot}:=f(t)+F`$, the corrections in (4), (5) due to the thermal noise $`\xi _{th}(t)`$ are small and thus (6) remains a valid approximation provided $`A|F|>3\eta L/2\tau _{ac}`$.

An experimental realization of the system (2), (7) along the lines of  is presently under construction in the labs of C. Bechinger and P. Leiderer. Henceforth, we focus on such experimentally realistic parameter values in our quantitative examples, see Fig. 3. In particular, the agreement of (6) with the numerical simulations in Fig. 3a for $`\tau _{ac}=1s`$ is again rather good in the parameter range $`|F|<0.14pN`$ compatible with $`A|F|>3\eta L/2\tau _{ac}`$.

In (5), we have completely neglected the possibility that a trapped particle may escape from the trap due to the ambient thermal noise. This is justified as long as $`\tau `$ is much smaller than the mean escape time $`\tau _{esc}(F_{tot})`$ out of a trap. Turning to the opposite case $`\tau \tau _{esc}(F_{tot})`$, we start by calculating the time which a particle needs to advance by one period $`L`$ along the $`y`$-axis for $`F_{tot}>0`$: This time is approximately $`L/v_y`$ if the trap within such a period is avoided and $`L/v_y+\tau _{esc}(F_{tot})`$ otherwise. The respective probabilities are $`p`$ and $`1p`$, approximated by (4), i.e. the average time to cover one period $`L`$ is $`pL/v_y+[1p][L/v_y+\tau _{esc}(F_{tot})]`$. The resulting average traveling distance during the (large) time $`\tau \tau _{esc}(F_{tot})`$ is

$$\mathrm{\Delta }y(\tau ,F_{tot})=\frac{\tau L}{\frac{L\eta }{F_{tot}}+[1p(F_{tot})]\tau _{esc}(F_{tot})}.$$
(8)
Thus, if those large $`\tau `$ dominate, $`\mathrm{\Delta }y/\tau `$ becomes independent of $`\tau `$ and (6) can be rewritten as

$$\dot{y}=\frac{1}{2}\left[\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }y(\tau ,A+F)}{\tau }\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }y(\tau ,AF)}{\tau }\right],$$
(9)
independent of $`\rho (\tau )`$. For small $`F_{tot}>0`$, the first term in the denominator of (8) dominates and hence $`\mathrm{\Delta }y`$ increases in the expected linear response manner with increasing $`F_{tot}`$. As $`F_{tot}`$ gets larger, $`1p`$ approaches $`1`$ (cf. (4)) and the escape time $`\tau _{esc}`$ increases very fast (cf. (11) below), implying the existence of a maximum and a subsequent decay of $`\mathrm{\Delta }y`$. As a consequence of this increasing “stickiness” of the traps with increasing $`F_{tot}`$ , we recover once again ANM in (9) provided $`A`$ is sufficiently large.

Focusing on the model (2), (7), one can approximate $`\tau _{esc}(F_{tot})`$ by the mean first passage time from $`x=0`$ to $`x=b/\mathrm{sin}\theta `$ of the auxiliary 1-dim. dynamics $`\eta \dot{x}(t)=F_{tot}\mathrm{cos}\theta +\xi _x(t)`$ with a reflecting boundary at $`x=0`$, reading

$`\tau _{esc}(F_{tot})={\displaystyle \frac{b^2\eta }{k_BT}}{\displaystyle \frac{e^\alpha \alpha 1}{\alpha ^2\mathrm{sin}^2\theta }}`$ (10)
$`\alpha :=bF_{tot}\mathrm{cot}\theta /k_BT.`$ (11)
The agreement of (8)-(11) with the numerical simulations in Fig. 3a for $`\tau _{ac}=25s`$ is quite satisfactory. In particular, the predicted ANM is indeed recovered.

We emphasize that the basic physical origins of ANM are completely different in the small- and large-$`\tau `$ regimes as quantified by (5), (6) and (8), (9), respectively: In the former case, escapes out of the traps are negligible, while transient “first-trapping events” after each jump of $`F_{tot}`$ provide the crucial mechanism for ANM. In the latter case, these transients are negligible, while the “re-escape events” are now at the origin of ANM. This remarkable feature that two completely different physical mechanisms both support one and the same phenomenon, suggests that ANM will also be present in the so far disregarded intermediate-$`\tau `$ regime. Furthermore, on the basis of our above physical insight an immediate educated guess is to add up (5) and (8) and then evaluate (6). Both these predictions are nicely confirmed by Fig. 3b.

A more sophisticated analysis can again be based on our usual assumption that a particle always closely passes by the leftmost edge of any obstacle attached to the “right corridor wall” when $`F_{tot}>0`$, as indicated in Fig. 1a. Consequently, the traveling times through any period $`L`$ are governed by one and the same probability distribution $`\psi (t)`$, independent of the particle’s past (Markov property). Similarly as in (8), this distribution is approximately given by

$$\psi (t)=p\delta (t\tau _1)+(1p)\mathrm{\Theta }(t\tau _1)\frac{e^{(t\tau _1)/\tau _{esc}}}{\tau _{esc}},$$
(12)
where $`\mathrm{\Theta }(t)`$ is the Heaviside function and $`\tau _1:=L/v_y`$. In this way, the original 2-dim. problem can be approximately reduced to a 1-dim., uni-directional hopping process characterized by $`\psi (t)`$. Such processes have been analyzed in detail in the context of renewal theory . Along these lines, we obtain for the Laplace transformed displacement $`\mathrm{\Delta }\stackrel{~}{y}(s,F_{tot}):=_0^{\mathrm{}}𝑑t\mathrm{\Delta }y(t,F_{tot})e^{ts}`$ the result

$$\mathrm{\Delta }\stackrel{~}{y}(s,F_{tot})=\frac{L}{s}\frac{\stackrel{~}{\psi }(s)}{1\stackrel{~}{\psi }(s)}\frac{e^{\tau _1s}1}{\tau _1s}$$
(13)
where $`\stackrel{~}{\psi }(s)`$ is the Laplace transform of $`\psi (t)`$. While the first two factors on the right hand side of (13) are well known , the last factor accounts for the fact that the particle actually proceeds continuously rather than in discrete jumps of length $`L`$. Moreover, after the Laplace back-transformation of (13), a final transformation $`\mathrm{\Delta }y(\tau ,F_{tot})\mathrm{\Delta }y(\tau 3L/2v_y,F_{tot})+3L/2`$ is required since the “basic distance” $`3L/2`$, which the particle covers before encountering the first trap (see Fig. 1a and below (4)), is not yet taken into account by (13). For very small and large $`\tau `$-values one then recovers our previous results (5) and (8), respectively, while for more general $`\tau `$-values, a numerical evaluation of the Laplace back-transformation is necessary. A more detailed derivation of these analytical results will be presented elsewhere. A typical example is depicted in Fig. 3b, in good agreement with the numerical simulations.

In conclusion, we have demonstrated that a single, classical Brownian particle in a periodic, symmetric 2-dim. potential landscape can exhibit the prima facie quite astonishing phenomenon of absolute negative mobility under suitable far from equilibrium conditions. In general, the effect is simultaneously supported by two completely different physical mechanisms and, in contrast to , is not restricted to adiabatically slow non-equilibrium perturbations. The phenomenon is moreover robust against modifications of the potential. It can occur in practically any potential landscape that provides “traps” with increasing “stickiness” as external force strengths increase. The setup discussed here is particularly suitable for an experimental realization along the lines of .

This work has been supported by the DFG-Sachbeihilfe HA1517/13-4 and the Graduiertenkolleg GRK283.