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# 1 Volcano potential in 𝑑𝑆 brane for Λ>0

DPNU-02-08

hep-th/0204113

Localized gravity on de Sitter brane in five dimensions

Masato ITO ***E-mail address: mito@eken.phys.nagoya-u.ac.jp

Department of Physics, Nagoya University, Nagoya, JAPAN 464-8602

## Abstract

We consider a single brane embedded in five dimensions with zero and positive cosmological constant. In this setup, the existence of $`dS_4`$ brane is allowed. We explore the gravitational fluctuations on the brane, it is pointed out that the usual four-dimensional gravity can be reproduced by a normalizable zero mode and that the continuous massive modes are separated by a mass gap from zero mode. We derive the relation among the cosmological constant in the brane, the five dimensional fundamental scale and Planck scale. Finally we show that nonzero small observed cosmological constant cannot be obtained in this setup.

Recent observation has indicated that the cosmological constant $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_4`$ is a sufficiently small positive value, $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_4(10^3\mathrm{eV})^4`$ . Consequently it is natural to assume that we live in a de Sitter universe. However it is difficult to explain the reason for the smallness of $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_4`$, so called cosmological constant problem. By using the warped extra dimension scenario by Randall and Sundrum , new suggestion for the cosmological constant problem was proposed.

Based on the assumption that physics of four dimensions should be explained by higher dimensional theory, the warped braneworlds with an infinite extra dimension are remarkable scenarios in the field of particle physics. Ref.  has led the conclusion that the gravity can be localized on flat $`3`$-brane embedded in $`AdS_5`$, the usual four-dimensional gravity can be reproduced at large distance scale. This is because a normalizable zero mode exists and the effective four-dimensional Planck scale is finite. Due to fine-tuning between the bulk cosmological constant and the brane tension, the four-dimensional cosmological constant is vanishing. Furthermore, the close relation between $`AdS`$/CFT correspondence and the Randall-Sundrum model is explored in the last couple of years . Moreover it is expected that the warped braneworlds provide new scenario in the framework of phenomenological model buildings and cosmologies. We made the extension of the five-dimensional Randall-Sundrum model to $`(5+n)`$-dimensions, and analyzed the localization of gravity and the small correction terms to four-dimensional Newton’s law . Thus it is important to investigate the behavior of gravity in the warped braneworlds . For instance, Karch and Randall had explored the behavior of the gravity on $`dS_4`$ brane and $`AdS_4`$ brane embedded in $`AdS_5`$ background . In the case of $`dS_4`$, a normalizable zero mode of gravity exists. In the case of $`AdS_4`$, zero mode don’t exist and massive modes have discrete eigenvalues due to the box-like volcano potential in Schr$`\ddot{\mathrm{o}}`$dinger equation.

Thus an important feature of the warped braneworld is the localization of gravity on the brane. Moreover, it is interesting to study whether nonzero small cosmological constant $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_4`$ in brane can be obtained or not.

In this letter, we consider the braneworlds with zero and positive bulk cosmological constant in contrast to Karch and Randall . Solving the Einstein equation of this setup, it is shown that there only exists the solution of $`dS_4`$ brane. We examine the resultant volcano potential in order to study the fluctuations of linearized gravity on a single $`dS_4`$ brane. Furthermore, we investigate the value of the cosmological constant $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_4`$ in $`dS_4`$ brane.

The action of the setup, a single $`3`$-brane with the brane tension $`V`$ is located at $`y=0`$, is given by

$`S={\displaystyle d^4x𝑑y\sqrt{G}\left(\frac{1}{2\kappa _5^2}\mathrm{\Lambda }\right)}{\displaystyle d^4x\sqrt{g}V},`$ (1)
where $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ is the cosmological constant in the bulk and $`\kappa _5^2`$ is the five dimensional gravitational constant. The ansatz for metric in five dimensions is given by

$`ds^2=a^2(y)g_{\mu \nu }dx^\mu dx^\nu +dy^2G_{MN}dx^Mdx^N,`$ (2)
where $`a(y)`$ is a warp factor, it is assumed that the fifth dimension $`y`$ satisfies the $`Z_2`$ symmetry. The four-dimensional slice has a de Sitter metric as follows,

$`g_{\mu \nu }dx^\mu dx^\nu =dx_0^2+e^{2\sqrt{\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }}}x_0}\left(dx_1^2+dx_2^2+dx_3^2\right).`$ (3)
Here we define $`3\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }}\mathrm{\Lambda }_4/M_{\mathrm{pl}}^2`$, where $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_4`$ and $`M_{\mathrm{pl}}`$ are four-dimensional cosmological constant and Planck scale, respectively. Moreover, Anti-de Sitter slices can be obtained by the following transformations: $`x_0ix_3`$, $`x_3ix_0`$, and $`\sqrt{\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }}}i\sqrt{\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }}}`$. Einstein equations of this setup are explicitly expressed as

$`\left({\displaystyle \frac{a^{}}{a}}\right)^2{\displaystyle \frac{\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }}}{a^2}}={\displaystyle \frac{\kappa _5^2}{6}}\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ (4)
and

$`{\displaystyle \frac{a^{\prime \prime }}{a}}={\displaystyle \frac{\kappa _5^2}{6}}\mathrm{\Lambda }{\displaystyle \frac{\kappa _5^2}{3}}V\delta (y).`$ (5)
Using the above equations, we can obtain the warp factor for $`\mathrm{\Lambda }<0`$, $`\mathrm{\Lambda }=0`$, and $`\mathrm{\Lambda }>0`$. The solutions to the equations were first investigated in Ref.  which investigated the Einstein equations for a single brane or two branes embedded in the curved background.

For $`\mathrm{\Lambda }<0`$, the solutions to $`dS`$ $`(\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }}>0)`$ brane and $`AdS`$ $`(\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }}<0)`$ brane have been analyzed by Karch and Randall . Moreover, the case of $`\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }}=0`$ corresponds to the original Randall-Sundrum model . For this reason, in this letter, we don’t discuss the localization of gravity in the braneworlds with negative bulk cosmological constant.

For $`\mathrm{\Lambda }=0`$, the solution of $`AdS`$ $`(\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }}<0)`$ brane cannot exist. Although the solution of $`\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }}=0`$ is allowed, the warp factor becomes a constant. Namely, the case is not interesting because of non-warped metric. However, the solution of $`dS`$ $`(\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }}>0)`$ brane exists. The warp factor is given by

$`a(y)=\sqrt{\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }}}\left(c|y|\right),`$ (6)
where $`c`$ is a positive integration constant. From Eq.(5), the jump condition at $`y=0`$ leads to the brane tension

$`V={\displaystyle \frac{6}{\kappa _5^2c}}.`$ (7)
The form of warp factor in Eq.(6) yields the system of positive tension brane.

For $`\mathrm{\Lambda }>0`$, the solution of $`dS`$ $`(\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }}>0)`$ brane is allowed. The warp factor can be expressed as

$`a(y)=L\sqrt{\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }}}\mathrm{sin}{\displaystyle \frac{c|y|}{L}},L=\sqrt{{\displaystyle \frac{6}{k_5^2\mathrm{\Lambda }}}}.`$ (8)
From Eq.(4), note that the solutions of $`\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }}=0`$ and $`\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }}<0`$ cannot be allowed. Furthermore, the brane tension takes the form as follows

$`V={\displaystyle \frac{6}{\kappa _5^2L}}\mathrm{cot}{\displaystyle \frac{c}{L}}.`$ (9)
Thus the positive tension brane can be obtained by taking positive constant $`c`$. From Eqs.(6) and (8), it implies that $`c`$ is the distance between the brane and the horizon. Moreover, the normalization condition of $`a(0)=1`$ leads to the relation between $`\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }}`$ and $`c`$. Consequently, we have $`\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }}=c^2`$ for $`\mathrm{\Lambda }=0`$, and $`\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }}=L^2\mathrm{sin}^2c/L`$ for $`\mathrm{\Lambda }>0`$. From Eqs.(7) and (9), we have $`\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }}=(\kappa _5^2V/6)^2`$ for $`\mathrm{\Lambda }=0`$ and $`\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }}=(\kappa _5^2V/6)^2+L^2`$ for $`\mathrm{\Lambda }>0`$. Taking the limit of large $`L`$ (small $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$), the warp factor of Eq.(8) approaches the one of Eq.(6). For the limit of $`c/L1`$, Eq.(9) is consistent with Eq.(7).

As mentioned above, in setup considered here, it turns out that a $`dS_4`$ brane can be allowed in five dimensions with zero and positive cosmological constant. Below, in order to study the behavior of gravity we examine the potential in wave equation for gravitational fluctuation.

Taking $`g_{\mu \nu }+a^2(y)h_{\mu \nu }(x,y)`$ as the gravitational fluctuation around the background metric, we can obtain the wave equation for gravity. By imposing transverse-traceless gauge conditions for these fluctuations, a separation such as $`h_{\mu \nu }(x,y)=h_{\mu \nu }(x)\psi (y)`$ yields the wave function for gravity as follows

$`{\displaystyle \frac{d^2}{dy^2}}\psi +\left[2{\displaystyle \frac{a^{\prime \prime }}{a}}2\left({\displaystyle \frac{a^{}}{a}}\right)^2+m^2a^2\right]\psi =0.`$ (10)
Here we used wave equation of the four-dimensional gravity in curved background, $`(\mathrm{}+2\mathrm{\Lambda }_4/M_{\mathrm{pl}}^2)h_{\mu \nu }=m^2h_{\mu \nu }`$, where $`\mathrm{}`$ is the four-dimensional covariant d’Alembertian and $`m^2`$ corresponds to the mass of four-dimensional gravity. Transforming to conformally flat coordinate $`z=𝑑ya^1(y)`$ and performing replacement of $`\psi (y)=a^{1/2}(y)\stackrel{~}{\psi }(z)`$, we have the familiar Schr$`\ddot{\mathrm{o}}`$dinger equation. For the cases of $`\mathrm{\Lambda }=0`$ and $`\mathrm{\Lambda }>0`$, we show that the relation between $`y`$-coordinate and $`z`$-coordinate and the resultant volcano potential in the Schr$`\ddot{\mathrm{o}}`$dinger equation. The conformally $`z`$ coordinate is given by

$`\mathrm{\Lambda }=0`$ $`:`$ $`z(y)=sgn(y){\displaystyle \frac{1}{\sqrt{\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }}}}}\left\{\mathrm{log}\left({\displaystyle \frac{1}{c|y|}}\right)z_0\sqrt{\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }}}\right\}`$ (11)
$`\mathrm{\Lambda }>0`$ $`:`$ $`z(y)=sgn(y){\displaystyle \frac{1}{\sqrt{\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }}}}}\left\{\mathrm{arc}\mathrm{cosh}\left({\displaystyle \frac{1}{\mathrm{sin}\frac{c|y|}{L}}}\right)z_0\sqrt{\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }}}\right\},`$ (12)
where the constant $`z_0`$ is given by

$`\mathrm{\Lambda }=0`$ $`:`$ $`z_0={\displaystyle \frac{1}{\sqrt{\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }}}}}\mathrm{log}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{c}}`$ (13)
$`\mathrm{\Lambda }>0`$ $`:`$ $`z_0={\displaystyle \frac{1}{\sqrt{\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }}}}}\mathrm{arc}\mathrm{cosh}\left({\displaystyle \frac{1}{\mathrm{sin}\frac{c}{L}}}\right).`$ (14)
Thus the $`z`$ coordinate runs from $`\mathrm{}`$ to $`+\mathrm{}`$. The warp factors can be rewritten in terms of $`z`$, accordingly, $`a(z)=e^{\sqrt{\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }}}|z|}`$ for $`\mathrm{\Lambda }=0`$ and $`a(z)=L\sqrt{\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }}}/\mathrm{cosh}(\sqrt{\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }}}(z_0+|z|))`$ for $`\mathrm{\Lambda }>0`$. Using Eqs.(6) and (8), Eq.(10) is expressed in terms of $`z`$

$`\left[{\displaystyle \frac{d^2}{dz^2}}+V(z)\right]\stackrel{~}{\psi }=m^2\stackrel{~}{\psi },`$ (15)
where the volcano potential for $`\mathrm{\Lambda }=0`$ and $`\mathrm{\Lambda }>0`$ is given by

$`\mathrm{\Lambda }=0`$ $`:`$ $`V(z)={\displaystyle \frac{9}{4}}\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }}3\sqrt{\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }}}\delta (z)`$ (16)
$`\mathrm{\Lambda }>0`$ $`:`$ $`V(z)={\displaystyle \frac{9}{4}}\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }}{\displaystyle \frac{15}{4}}{\displaystyle \frac{\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }}}{\mathrm{cosh}^2\sqrt{\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }}}\left(z_0+|z|\right)}}3\sqrt{\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }}}\mathrm{tanh}z_0\sqrt{\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }}}\delta (z).`$ (17)
In the case of $`\mathrm{\Lambda }=0`$ the volcano potential is a positive constant. In the case of $`\mathrm{\Lambda }>0`$ as shown in Fig.1, the potential approaches a non-zero constant $`9\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }}/4`$ for $`|z|\mathrm{}`$. Note that there is no blow-up at the horizon in contrast to setup of $`AdS_4`$ brane embedded in $`AdS_5`$ analyzed by Karch and Randall . Since the Hamiltonian in Eq.(15) is a positive definite value, the eigenvalue $`m^20`$ .

For $`\mathrm{\Lambda }=0`$, solving the Schr$`\ddot{\mathrm{o}}`$dinger equation imposed by the jump condition at $`z=0`$, the zero mode wave function is given by $`\stackrel{~}{\psi }_0(z)=(3\sqrt{\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }}}/2)^{1/2}e^{\frac{3}{2}\sqrt{\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }}}|z|}`$. Since there is a normalizable zero mode wave function, the localization of gravity occurs on the brane. Namely, the effective four-dimensional Planck scale is finite value. The massive mode wave functions for $`0<m^2<9\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }}/4`$ are given by $`\stackrel{~}{\psi }_m\mathrm{exp}[\sqrt{9\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }}/4m^2}|z|]`$, however, these modes do not exist there. This is because these modes aren’t consistent with jump condition. For $`m^29\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }}/4`$, the wave functions become plane waves with continuous modes. Thus a zero mode mode is separated by a mass gap $`9\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }}/4`$ from the continuous massive modes. The gravitational potential between two unit masses via zero mode is given by $`V(r)\kappa _5^2|\stackrel{~}{\psi }_0(0)|^2/r=3\kappa _5^2\sqrt{\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }}}/2r`$. The contributions of massive modes are described in summary. Therefore we can obtain the effective four-dimensional Planck scale $`M_{\mathrm{pl}}^2=3\kappa _5^2\sqrt{\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }}}/2`$. Consequently, the four-dimensional cosmological constant $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_4`$ is given by

$`\mathrm{\Lambda }_4={\displaystyle \frac{4}{9}}M_{\mathrm{pl}}^4\left({\displaystyle \frac{M}{M_{\mathrm{pl}}}}\right)^6.`$ (18)
Here we used $`\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }}\mathrm{\Lambda }_4/M_{\mathrm{pl}}^2`$ and $`\kappa _5^2M^3`$, where $`M`$ is the fundamental scale of five dimensions. Note that $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_4`$ is in proportion to sixth powers of ratio $`M/M_{\mathrm{pl}}`$, Eq.(18) is consistent with $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_4`$ in warped compactification of Type IIB string theory . The observed value of $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_4`$ leads to the ratio $`M/M_{\mathrm{pl}}10^{20}`$, namely, we obtain $`M=𝒪(100\mathrm{MeV})`$. Thus this case is phenomenologically ruled out. Setting $`M=𝒪(\mathrm{TeV})`$, the cosmological constant in brane cannot be consistent with the observed value.

For $`\mathrm{\Lambda }>0`$, the general solution of the Schr$`\ddot{\mathrm{o}}`$dinger equation with potential of Eq.(17) is expressed as

$`\stackrel{~}{\psi }_m(z)=A\left[\mathrm{cosh}\sqrt{\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }}}(z_0+|z|)\right]^\rho {}_{2}{}^{}F_{1}^{}(\rho {\displaystyle \frac{3}{2}},\rho +{\displaystyle \frac{5}{2}};1+\rho ;{\displaystyle \frac{1\mathrm{tanh}\sqrt{\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }}}(z_0+|z|)}{2}})`$
$`+B\left[\mathrm{cosh}\sqrt{\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }}}(z_0+|z|)\right]^\rho {}_{2}{}^{}F_{1}^{}(\rho {\displaystyle \frac{3}{2}},\rho +{\displaystyle \frac{5}{2}};1\rho ;{\displaystyle \frac{1\mathrm{tanh}\sqrt{\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }}}(z_0+|z|)}{2}})`$ (19)
where $`\rho =\sqrt{9/4m^2/\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }}}`$ and $`A,B`$ are the normalization factors. Taking account into the divergence at $`|z|\mathrm{}`$, both $`B=0`$ and $`3/2\rho =n`$ can be required by the finiteness of hypergeometric function, where $`n𝐙_0^+`$. Namely, the cases of $`n=0,1`$ are allowed. For $`n=0`$ $`(\rho =3/2,m^2=0)`$, this corresponds to a zero mode of gravity and the corresponding wave function is given by $`\stackrel{~}{\psi }_0(z)\mathrm{cosh}^{3/2}\sqrt{\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }}}(z_0+|z|)`$, which is consistent with the jump condition at $`z=0`$. For $`n=1`$ $`(\rho =1/2,m^2=2\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }})`$, the massive modes take the following form, $`\stackrel{~}{\psi }_m\mathrm{sinh}\sqrt{\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }}}(z_0+|z|)\mathrm{cosh}^{3/2}\sqrt{\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }}}(z_0+|z|)`$, however, the wave function isn’t consistent with the jump condition. Namely, in the region of $`0m^2<9\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }}/4`$, there is a normalizable zero mode. For $`m^2>9\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }}/4`$, since $`\rho `$ is imaginary number, the solutions of Eq.(19) are plane waves with continuous modes at large $`z`$. Also in this case there exists a mass gap between the zero mode and massive modes, the onset of massive mode starts from $`\sqrt{9\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }}/4}`$. The behavior of Newton potential via massive modes is described in summary. At $`rr_0=2/3\sqrt{\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }}}`$, a zero mode generates the usual Newton’s law. Estimating the normalization factor of zero mode wave function, we can obtain the cosmological constant $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_4`$ in $`dS`$ brane as follows,

$`\mathrm{\Lambda }_4=M_{\mathrm{pl}}^4\left({\displaystyle \frac{M}{M_{\mathrm{pl}}}}\right)^6(1+ϵ^2)^3\left({\displaystyle \frac{\pi }{2}}{\displaystyle \frac{ϵ}{1+ϵ^2}}\mathrm{arc}\mathrm{tan}ϵ\right)^2,ϵ{\displaystyle \frac{LV}{6M^3}}.`$ (20)
Note that the value of $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_4`$ is determined by the bulk curvature $`L`$ when $`M`$ and $`V`$ are fixed. For instance, the limit of $`ϵ\mathrm{}`$ leads to

$`\mathrm{\Lambda }_4={\displaystyle \frac{4}{9}}M_{\mathrm{pl}}^4\left({\displaystyle \frac{M}{M_{\mathrm{pl}}}}\right)^6,`$ (21)
where this situation corresponds to the case of $`\mathrm{\Lambda }=0`$. Moreover the case of $`ϵ=0(\mathrm{\Lambda }\mathrm{})`$ leads to

$`\mathrm{\Lambda }_4={\displaystyle \frac{\pi ^2}{4}}M_{\mathrm{pl}}^4\left({\displaystyle \frac{M}{M_{\mathrm{pl}}}}\right)^6.`$ (22)
Thus, for arbitrary value of the cosmological constant in the bulk, we obtain approximately $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_4𝒪(1)\times M_{\mathrm{pl}}^4(M/M_{\mathrm{pl}})^6`$. Similar to the case of $`\mathrm{\Lambda }=0`$, we must set $`M=𝒪(100\mathrm{MeV})`$ in order to obtain the observed value of $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_4`$.

In summary, we considered a single positive tension $`3`$-brane embedded in five-dimensional world with zero $`(\mathrm{\Lambda }=0)`$ and positive $`(\mathrm{\Lambda }>0)`$ cosmological constant. Solving Einstein equations of the setup, $`dS`$ brane ($`\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }}>0`$) is allowed, and the cases of flat brane ($`\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }}=0`$) and $`AdS`$ brane ($`\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }}<0`$) are ruled out. Furthermore, we investigated whether nonzero small cosmological constant in brane can be obtained or not.

In the case of $`dS`$ brane in $`\mathrm{\Lambda }=0`$, the resultant volcano potential is a positive nonzero constant, and positive tension brane gives rise to a delta function of attractive force. Furthermore, there is a mass gap between zero mode and continuous massive mode. We derived the relation between the cosmological constant in the brane and the five-dimensional fundamental scale. In order to obtain nonzero small observed cosmological constant, it turns out that the five-dimensional fundamental scale must be the order of a few MeV scale.

In the case of $`dS`$ brane in $`\mathrm{\Lambda }>0`$, the resultant volcano potential approaches a positive non-zero constant at large conformally coordinate $`z`$. In similar to the above case, there exists a mass gap between zero mode and massive modes. It is shown that the cosmological constant in brane depends on the value of bulk curvature. Similar to the case of $`\mathrm{\Lambda }=0`$, nonzero small observed cosmological constant is tuned by the five dimensional scale of a few MeV scale.

We must describe some comments with respect to the behaviors of Newton potential via the massive modes. For $`\mathrm{\Lambda }=0`$ and $`\mathrm{\Lambda }>0`$, taking into account of the massive modes, the Newton potential on the $`dS`$ brane were investigated in Ref.. The continuous massive modes separated by the mass gap from zero mode give the correction terms to the Newton potential. At the distance larger than the inverse of lowest massive mode and smaller than Hubble scale $`H=\sqrt{\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }}}`$, the five dimensional gravity appears on the brane due to dominance of correction terms.

Thus the localization of gravity on the brane occurs in the setup considered here, however, nonzero small observed cosmological constant cannot be obtained. The setup of $`dS`$ brane embedded in $`\mathrm{\Lambda }=0`$ and $`\mathrm{\Lambda }>0`$ can be ruled out from the viewpoint of astrophysics measurements. Here we give some comments. Although de Sitter bulk may be unusual in the cosmological context, there are a number of investigations of $`dS`$/CFT correspondence inspired by $`AdS`$/CFT. There are many works exploring fully satisfactory $`dS`$ solution of string theory, it is expected that $`dS`$ may provide several solutions to the cosmological constant problem or quantum gravity.


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# Compactifications of topological groups

## 1. Introduction

This is a write-up of the lecture that I gave in the 9th Prague Topological Symposium on 24 August 2001.

Every topological group $`G`$ has some natural compactifications. They can be described as the maximal ideal spaces of certain function algebras, or as the Samuel compactifications for certain uniformities on $`G`$. Some compactifications of $`G`$ carry an algebraic structure, and may be useful for studying the group $`G`$ itself.

We consider, in particular, the following constructions: the greatest ambit $`S(G)`$ and the universal minimal compact $`G`$-space $`M_G`$ (Sections 2 and 3); the Roelcke compactification $`R(G)`$ (Section 4); the weakly almost periodic compactification $`W(G)`$ (Section 5). In the last case the canonical map $`GW(G)`$ need not be an embedding, as Megrelishvili has recently proved . In Section 6 we discuss the group of isometries of the Urysohn universal metric space $`U`$.

There are two important classes of topological groups: the groups of the form $`H(K)`$, $`K`$ compact, and of the form $`\mathrm{Is}(M)`$, $`M`$ metric. For a compact space $`K`$ let $`H(K)`$ be the topological group of all self-homeomorphism of $`K`$, with the compact-open topology (which is the same as the topology of uniform convergence, if $`K`$ is equipped with its unique compatible uniformity). For a metric space $`M`$ let $`\mathrm{Is}(M)`$ be the topological group of all isometries of $`M`$ onto itself. The topology that we consider on $`\mathrm{Is}(M)`$ is the topology of pointwise convergence or, equivalently, the compact-open topology – the two topologies coincide on $`\mathrm{Is}(M)`$. If $`B`$ is a Banach space, we use the symbol $`\mathrm{Is}_0(B)`$ to denote the topological group of all linear isometries of $`B`$. The pointwise convergence topology on $`\mathrm{Is}_0(B)`$ is also called the strong operator topology. The weak operator topology on $`\mathrm{Is}_0(B)`$ is the topology inherited from the product $`(B_w)^B`$, where $`B_w`$ is $`B`$ with the weak topology. The weak topology on $`\mathrm{Is}_0(B)`$ in general is not compatible with the group structure . On the other hand, if $`B`$ is reflexive, the weak and strong topologies on $`\mathrm{Is}(B)`$ agree , see Section 5 below.

Every topological group $`G`$ has a topologically faithful representation by homeomorphisms of a compact space or by isometries of a Banach space. This means that $`G`$ is isomorphic (as a topological group) to a subgroup of $`H(K)`$ for some compact $`K`$ and also to a subgroup of $`\mathrm{Is}_0(B)`$ for some Banach space $`B`$. (The term ‘topologically faithful’ was suggested in .) To see this, take for $`B`$ the Banach space $`\text{RUC }^b(G)`$ of all right uniformly continuous bounded complex functions on $`G`$. Recall that a function $`f`$ on $`G`$ is right uniformly continuous if

$$\epsilon >0V𝒩(G)x,yG(xy^1V|f(y)f(x)|<\epsilon ),$$

where $`𝒩(G)`$ is the filter of neighbourhoods of unity. The embedding $`G\mathrm{Is}_0(B)`$ comes from the action of $`G`$ on $`B`$ defined by $`gf(x)=f(g^1x)`$ ($`g,xG`$, $`fB`$). If $`K`$ is the unit ball of the dual space $`B^{}`$ with the weak-topology, then the natural map $`\mathrm{Is}_0(B)H(K)`$ is an isomorphic embedding, and we obtain a topologically faithful representation of $`G`$ by homeomorphisms of $`K`$.

All maps are assumed to be continuous, and ‘compact’ includes ‘Hausdorff’.

Most of the results and ideas presented in this note can be found in the excellent survey .

## 2. Greatest ambit $`S(G)`$

Let $`G`$ be a topological group. The Banach space $`B=\text{RUC }^b(G)`$ of all right uniformly continuous bounded complex functions on $`G`$ is a $`C^{}`$-algebra, and $`G`$ acts on $`B`$ by $`C^{}`$-algebra automorphisms. Let $`S(G)`$ be the (compact) maximal ideal space of $`B`$. It is the least compactification of $`G`$ over which all functions from $`B`$ can be extended. The topological group of all $`C^{}`$-algebra automorphisms of $`B`$ is naturally isomorphic to $`H(S(G))`$. It follows that $`G`$ acts on $`S(G)`$, and the natural homomorphism $`GH(S(G))`$ is a topological embedding.

The space $`S(G)`$ can also be described as the Samuel compactification of the uniform space $`(G,)`$. Here $``$ is the right uniformity on $`G`$. The basic entourages for $``$ are of the form $`\{(x,y)G\times G:xy^1V\}`$, where $`V𝒩(G)`$. The Samuel compactification of a uniform space $`(X,𝒰)`$ is the completion of $`X`$ with respect to the finest precompact uniformity which is coarser than $`𝒰`$.

We shall consider $`G`$ as a dense subpace of $`S(G)`$. The action $`G\times S(G)S(G)`$ extends the multiplication $`G\times GG`$.

A $`G`$-space is a topological space $`X`$ with a continuous action of $`G`$, that is, a map $`G\times XX`$ satisfying $`g(hx)=(gh)x`$ and $`1x=x`$ ($`g,hG`$, $`xX`$). A $`G`$-map is a map $`f:XY`$ between $`G`$-spaces such that $`f(gx)=gf(x)`$ for all $`xX`$, $`gG`$. The $`G`$-space $`S(G)`$ has a distinguished point $`e`$ (the unity), and the pair $`(S(G),e)`$ has the following universal property: for every compact $`G`$-space $`X`$ and every $`pX`$ there exists a unique $`G`$-map $`f:S(G)X`$ such that $`f(e)=p`$. Indeed, the map $`ggp`$ from $`G`$ to $`X`$ is $``$-uniformly continuous and hence can be extended over $`S(G)`$.

The space $`S(G)`$ (or the pair $`(S(G),e)`$) is called the greatest ambit of $`G`$. Let us show that $`S(G)`$ has a natural structure of a left-topological semigroup. A semigroup is a set with an associative multiplication. A semigroup $`X`$ is left-topological if it is a topological space and for every $`yX`$ the self-map $`xxy`$ of $`X`$ is continuous. (Some authors use the term right-topological for this.)

###### Theorem 2.1.

For every topological group $`G`$ the greatest ambit $`X=𝒮(G)`$ has a natural structure of a left-topological semigroup with a unity such that the multiplication $`X\times XX`$ extends the action $`G\times XX`$.

###### Proof.

Let $`x,yX`$. In virtue of the universal property of $`X`$, there is a unique $`G`$-map $`r_y:XX`$ such that $`r_y(e)=y`$. Define $`xy=r_y(x)`$. Let us verify that the multiplication $`(x,y)xy`$ has the required properties. For a fixed $`y`$, the map $`xxy`$ is equal to $`r_y`$ and hence is continuous. If $`y,zX`$, the self-maps $`r_zr_y`$ and $`r_{yz}`$ of $`X`$ are equal, since both are $`G`$-maps sending $`e`$ to $`yz=r_z(y)`$. This means that the multiplication on $`X`$ is associative. The distinguished element $`eX`$ is the unity of $`X`$: we have $`ex=r_x(e)=x`$ and $`xe=r_e(x)=x`$. If $`gG`$ and $`xX`$, the expression $`gx`$ can be understood in two ways: in the sense of the exterior action of $`G`$ on $`X`$ and as a product in $`X`$. To see that these two meanings agree, note that $`r_x(g)=r_x(ge)=gr_x(e)=gx`$ (the exterior action is meant in the last two terms; the middle equality holds since $`r_x`$ is a $`G`$-map). ∎

## 3. Universal minimal compact $`G`$-space

Let us define the universal minimal compact $`G`$-space $`M_G`$. A $`G`$-space $`X`$ is minimal if it has no proper $`G`$-invariant closed subsets or, equivalently, if the orbit $`Gx`$ is dense in $`X`$ for every $`xX`$. The universal minimal compact $`G`$-space $`M_G`$ is characterized by the following property: $`M_G`$ is a minimal compact $`G`$-space, and for every compact minimal $`G`$-space $`X`$ there exists a $`G`$-map of $`M_G`$ onto $`X`$. Since Zorn’s lemma implies that every compact $`G`$-space has a minimal compact $`G`$-subspace, it follows that for every compact $`G`$-space $`X`$, minimal or not, there exists a $`G`$-map of $`M_G`$ to $`X`$.

The existence of $`M_G`$ is easy: take for $`M_G`$ any minimal closed $`G`$-subspace of $`S(G)`$. The universal property of $`(S(G),e)`$ implies the corresponding universal property of $`M_G`$. It is also true that $`M_G`$ is unique, in the sense that any two universal minimal compact $`G`$-spaces are isomorphic . For the reader’s convenience we give a proof of this fact.

Let $`X=S(G)`$. For $`aX`$ let $`r_a`$ be the map $`xxa`$ of $`X`$ to itself.

###### Proposition 3.1.

If $`f:XX`$ is a $`G`$-self-map and $`a=f(e)`$, then $`f=r_a`$.

###### Proof.

We have $`f(x)=f(xe)=xf(e)=xa=r_a(x)`$ for all $`xG`$ and hence for all $`xX`$. ∎

A subset $`IX`$ is a left ideal if $`XII`$. Closed $`G`$-subspaces of $`X`$ are the same as closed left ideals of $`X`$. An element $`x`$ of a semigroup is an idempotent if $`x^2=x`$. Every closed $`G`$-subspace of $`X`$, being a left ideal, is moreover a left-topological compact semigroup and hence contains an idempotent, according to the following fundamental result of R. Ellis (see \[17, Proposition 2.1\] or \[2, Theorem 3.11\]):

###### Theorem 3.2.

Every non-empty compact left-topological semigroup $`K`$ contains an idempotent.

###### Proof.

Zorn’s lemma implies that there exists a minimal element $`Y`$ in the set of all closed non-empty subsemigroups of $`K`$. Fix $`aY`$. We claim that $`a^2=a`$ (and hence $`Y`$ is a singleton). The set $`Ya`$, being a closed subsemigroup of $`Y`$, is equal to $`Y`$. It follows that the closed subsemigroup $`Z=\{xY:xa=a\}`$ is non-empty. Hence $`Z=Y`$ and $`xa=a`$ for every $`xY`$. In particular, $`a^2=a`$. ∎

Let $`M`$ be a minimal closed left ideal of $`X`$. We have just proved that there is an idempotent $`pM`$. Since $`Xp`$ is a closed left ideal contained in $`M`$, we have $`Xp=M`$. It follows that $`xp=x`$ for every $`xM`$. The $`G`$-map $`r_p:XM`$ defined by $`r_p(x)=xp`$ is a retraction of $`X`$ onto $`M`$.

###### Proposition 3.3.

Every $`G`$-map $`f:MM`$ has the form $`f(x)=xy`$ for some $`yM`$.

###### Proof.

The composition $`h=fr_p:XM`$ is a $`G`$-map of $`X`$ into itself, hence it has the form $`h=r_y`$, where $`y=h(e)M`$ (Proposition 3.1). Since $`r_pM=\text{Id}`$, we have $`f=hM=r_yM`$. ∎

###### Proposition 3.4.

Every $`G`$-map $`f:MM`$ is bijective.

###### Proof.

According to Proposition 3.3, there is $`aM`$ such that $`f(x)=xa`$ for all $`xM`$. Since $`Ma`$ is a closed left ideal of $`X`$ contained in $`M`$, we have $`Ma=M`$ by the minimality of $`M`$. Thus there exists $`bM`$ such that $`ba=p`$. Let $`g:MM`$ be the $`G`$-map defined by $`g(x)=xb`$. Then $`fg(x)=xba=xp=x`$ for every $`xM`$, therefore $`fg=1`$ (the identity map of $`M`$). We have proved that in the semigroup $`S`$ of all $`G`$-self-maps of $`M`$, every element has a right inverse. Hence $`S`$ is a group. (Alternatively, we first deduce from the equality $`fg=1`$ that all elements of $`S`$ are surjective and then, applying this to $`g`$, we see that $`f`$ is also injective.) ∎

We are now in a position to prove

###### Theorem 3.5.

Every universal compact minimal $`G`$-space is isomorphic to $`M`$.

###### Proof.

We noted that the minimal compact $`G`$-space $`M`$ is itself universal: if $`Y`$ is any compact $`G`$-space, there exists a $`G`$-map of the greatest ambit $`X`$ to $`Y`$, and its restriction to $`M`$ is a $`G`$-map of $`M`$ to $`Y`$. Now let $`M^{}`$ be another universal compact minimal $`G`$-space. There exist $`G`$-maps $`f:MM^{}`$ and $`g:M^{}M`$. Since $`M^{}`$ is minimal, $`f`$ is surjective. On the other hand, in virtue of Proposition 3.4 the composition $`gf:MM`$ is bijective. It follows that $`f`$ is injective and hence a $`G`$-isomorphism between $`M`$ and $`M^{}`$. ∎

Thus we have associated with every topological group $`G`$ the compact $`G`$-space $`M_G`$. The question arises: what is this space? If $`G`$ is discrete, then $`M(G)`$, being a retract of $`S(G)=\beta G`$, is extremally disconnected. If $`G`$ is locally compact, the action of $`G`$ on $`S(G)`$ is free  (see also \[15, Theorem 3.1.1\]), that is, if $`g1`$, then $`gxx`$ for every $`xS(G)`$. It follows that the action of $`G`$ on $`M_G`$ also is free. In some cases, the space $`M(G)`$ can be described explicitly. For example, let $`E`$ be a countable infinite dicrete space, and let $`G=\mathrm{Symm}(E)E^E`$ be the topologicall group of all permutations of $`E`$. Then $`M(G)`$ can be identified with the space of all linear orders on $`E`$ (Glasner–Weiss). Every linear order is considered as a subset of $`E\times E`$, and the set of all subsets of $`E\times E`$ is identified with the compact space $`2^{E\times E}`$. It is not clear whether a similar result holds true if $`E`$ is uncountable.

Another example, due to V.Pestov, of a group $`G`$ for which $`M(G)`$ has an explicit description is the following. Let $`S^1`$ be a circle, and let $`G=H_+(S^1)`$ be the group of all orientation-preserving self-homeomorphisms of $`S^1`$. Then $`M_G`$ can be identified with $`S^1`$ \[12, Theorem 6.6\]. Pestov asked whether a similar assertion holds for the Hilbert cube $`Q=I^\omega `$, where $`I=[0,1]`$: if $`G=H(Q)`$, are $`M_G`$ and $`Q`$ isomorphic as $`G`$-spaces?

The answer is no : there exists a compact $`G`$-space $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$ such that there is no $`G`$-map $`Q\mathrm{\Phi }`$, hence $`M(G)`$ is not isomorphic to $`Q`$ as a $`G`$-space. (I do not know whether $`M(G)`$ is homeomorphic to $`Q`$, or whether $`M(G)`$ is metrizable.) One can take for $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$ the space of all maximal chains of closed subsets of $`Q`$. Thus $`\mathrm{\Phi }\mathrm{Exp}\mathrm{Exp}Q`$, where $`\mathrm{Exp}K`$ denotes the space of closed subsets of a compact space $`K`$, equipped with the Vietoris topology.

A similar argument works in a more general situation. Let us say that the action of a group $`G`$ on a $`G`$-space $`X`$ is 3-transitive if $`|X|3`$ and for any triples $`(a_1,a_2,a_3)`$ and $`(b_1,b_2,b_3)`$ of distinct points in $`X`$ there exists $`gG`$ such that $`ga_i=b_i`$, $`i=1,2,3`$. Suppose $`K`$ is compact and $`GH(K)`$ is a 3-transitive group. Then there is no $`G`$-map from $`K`$ to $`\mathrm{\Phi }(K)`$, the space of all maximal chains of closed subsets of $`K`$. It follows that $`M(G)K`$. This argument implies

###### Theorem 3.6 ().

For every topological group $`G`$ the action of $`G`$ on the universal minimal compact $`G`$-space $`M_G`$ is not 3-transitive.

For example, if $`K`$ is a compact manifold of dimension $`>1`$ or a compact Menger manifold and $`G=H(K)`$, then $`M(G)K`$, since the action of $`G`$ on $`K`$ is 3-transitive. It would be interesting to understand what is $`M(G)`$ in this case.

Let $`P`$ be the pseudoarc (= the unique hereditarily indecomposable chainable continuum) and $`G=H(P)`$. The action of $`G`$ on $`P`$ is transitive but not 2-transitive, and the following question remains open:

###### Question 3.7.

Let $`P`$ be the pseudoarc and $`G=H(P)`$. Can $`M_G`$ be identified with $`P`$?

Note that the argument involving the space $`\mathrm{\Phi }(K)`$ of maximal chains used above to prove that $`M_GK`$ for every 3-transitive group $`GH(K)`$ supports the conjecture that $`M_G=P`$ for $`G=H(P)`$, where $`P`$ is the pseudoarc: there exists a $`G`$-map $`P\mathrm{\Phi }(P)`$. Indeed, for every $`xP`$ let $`C_x`$ be the collection of all subcontinua $`FP`$ such that $`xF`$. Since any two subcontinua of $`P`$ are either disjoint or comparable, $`C_x`$ is a chain. The chain $`C_x`$ can be shown to be maximal, and the map $`xC_x`$ from $`P`$ to $`\mathrm{\Phi }(P)`$ is a $`G`$-map.

Pestov’s example ($`G=H_+(S^1)`$, $`M_G=S^1`$) shows that the action of $`G`$ on $`M_G`$ can be 2-transitive. Observe that there are precisely two $`G`$-maps $`S^1\mathrm{\Phi }(S^1)`$, which assign to every $`xS^1`$ the chain of all closed arcs which either “start at $`x`$” or “end at $`x`$”, respectively.

The space $`M_G`$ is a singleton for many naturally arising non-locally compact groups $`G`$. This property of $`G`$ is equivalent to the following fixed point on compacta (f.p.c.) property: every compact $`G`$-space has a $`G`$-fixed point. (A point $`x`$ is $`G`$-fixed if $`gx=x`$ for all $`gG`$.) For example, if $`H`$ is a Hilbert space, the group $`U(H)`$ of all unitary operators on $`H`$, equipped with the pointwise convergence topology, has the f.p.c. property (Gromov-Milman); another example of a group with this property, due to Pestov, is $`H_+()`$, the group of all orientation-preserving self-homeomorphisms of the real line. We refer the reader to V. Pestov’s papers  on this subject.

Groups with the f.p.c. property are also called extremely amenable. Recall that a group $`G`$ is amenable if every continuous action of $`G`$ by affine transformations on a convex compact subset of a locally convex vector space has a $`G`$-fixed point. (This definition is equivalent to the usual definition of amenability involving the existence of invariant means). While every abelian topological group is amenable, it may be or may be not extremely amenable. For example, a discrete group $`G\{1\}`$ is not extremely amenable; on the other hand, there exist extremely amenable group topologies on the group $``$ of integers . A necessary condition for a group $`G`$ to be extremely amenable is that there be no non-constant continuous characters $`\chi :G𝕋`$, where $`𝕋=\{z:|z|=1\}`$ is the unit circle. Indeed, if $`\chi :G𝕋`$ is a character, $`\chi 1`$, then $`G`$ admits a fixed-point free action on $`𝕋`$ given by $`(g,x)\chi (g)x`$. It is not known whether for abelian groups (or for the group $``$) the above necessary condition is also sufficient:

###### Question 3.8 (Glasner).

Let $`G`$ be an abelian topological group. Suppose that $`G`$ has no non-trivial continuous characters $`\chi :G𝕋`$. Is $`G`$ extremely amenable?

For cyclic groups the question can be reformulated as follows. Let $`K`$ be a compact space, and let $`fH(K)`$ be a fixed-point free homeomorphism of $`K`$. Let $`G`$ be the cyclic subgroup of $`H(K)`$ generated by $`f`$. Does there exist a complex number $`a`$ such that $`|a|=1`$, $`a1`$, and the homomorphism $`\chi :G𝕋`$ defined by $`\chi (f^n)=a^n`$ is continuous?

If $`K`$ is a circle, the answer is yes: for every orientation-preserving homeomorphism $`f`$ of a circle the rotation number is defined which gives rise to a non-trivial continuous character on the group generated by $`f`$.

A positive answer to Glasner’s question would imply the solution of the following long-standing problem : is it true that for every big set $`S`$ of integers the set $`SS`$ contains a neighbourhood of zero for the Bohr topology on $``$? A set $`S`$ of integers is said to be big (or syndetic) if $`S+F=`$ for some finite $`F`$; this means that the gaps between consequtive terms of $`S`$ are uniformly bounded. The Bohr topology on $``$ is generated by all characters $`\chi :𝕋`$. It is known that for every big subset $`S`$ the set $`SS+S`$ contains a Bohr neighbourhood of zero \[15, Corollary 3.25\].

Extremely amenable groups can be characterized in terms of big sets . A subset $`S`$ of a topological group $`G`$ is big on the left, or left syndetic, if $`FS=G`$ for some finite $`FG`$.

###### Theorem 3.9 (Pestov \[13, Theorem 8.1\]).

A topological group $`G`$ is extremely amenable if and only if whenever $`SG`$ is big on the left, $`SS^1`$ is dense in $`G`$.

There are other useful characterization of extremely amenable groups, also due to Pestov , based on the notions of concentration and the Ramsey-Dvoretzky-Milman property. The reader is invited to consult ,  for details. We confine ourselves by formulating a criterion of extreme amenability from :

###### Theorem 3.10 (\[16, Theorem 5.5\]).

A topological group $`G`$ is extremely amenable if and only if for every bounded left uniformly continuous function $`f`$ from $`G`$ to a finite-dimensional Euclidean space, every $`\epsilon >0`$, and every finite (or compact) $`KG`$ there exists $`gG`$ such that $`\mathrm{diam}f(gK)<\epsilon `$.

One of the main results in  is the following: the group $`\mathrm{Is}(U)`$ is extremely amenable. Here $`U`$ is the Urysohn universal metric space. We shall consider the group $`\mathrm{Is}(U)`$ in Section 6.

## 4. Roelcke compactifications

For a topological group $`G`$ let $`R(G)`$ be the maximal ideal space of the $`C^{}`$-algebra of all bounded complex functions on $`G`$ which are both left and right uniformly continuous. The space $`R(G)`$ is the Samuel compactification of the uniform space $`(G,)`$, where $``$ is the left uniformity on $`G`$, $``$ is the right uniformity, and $``$ is the Roelcke uniformity on $`G`$, the greatest lower bound of $``$ and $``$. We call $`R(G)`$ the Roelcke compactification of $`G`$.

While the greatest lower bound of two compatible uniformities on a topological space in general need not be compatible, the Roelcke uniformity is compatible with the topology of $`G`$. The covers of the form $`\{UxU:xG\}`$, $`U𝒩(G)`$ constitute a base of uniform covers for the Roelcke uniformity.

If $`G`$ is abelian, $`R(G)=S(G)`$. In general, $`R(G)`$ is a $`G`$-space, and the identity map of $`G`$ extends to a $`G`$-map $`S(G)R(G)`$. A group $`G`$ is precompact if one of the following equivalent properties holds: $`(G,)`$ is precompact; $`(G,)`$ is precompact; $`G`$ is a subgroup of a compact group. It can be shown that $`G`$ is precompact if and only if for every neighbourhood $`U`$ of unity there exists a finite $`FG`$ such that $`G=FUF`$. Let us say that $`G`$ is Roelcke precompact if the Roelcke uniformity $``$ is precompact. This means that for every neighbourhood $`U`$ of unity there exists a finite $`FG`$ such that $`G=UFU`$. There are many non-abelian non-precompact groups which are Roelcke precompact. For example, the symmetric group $`\mathrm{Symm}(E)`$ of all permutations of a discrete space $`E`$, or the unitary group $`U(H)_s`$ on a Hilbert space $`H`$, equipped with the strong operator topology, are Roelcke precompact. The Roelcke compactifications of these groups can be explicitly described with the aid of the following construction.

Suppose that $`G`$ acts on a compact space $`K`$. For $`gG`$ let $`\mathrm{\Gamma }(g)K^2`$ be the graph of the $`g`$-shift $`xgx`$. The map $`g\mathrm{\Gamma }(g)`$ from $`G`$ to $`\mathrm{Exp}K^2`$ is both left and right uniformly continuous (if the compact space $`\mathrm{Exp}K^2`$ is equipped with its unique compatible uniformity), hence it extends to a map $`f_K:R(G)\mathrm{Exp}K^2`$. If the action of $`G`$ on $`K`$ is topologically faithful, the map $`f_K`$ often happens to be an embedding, in which case $`R(G)`$ can be identified with the closure of the set $`\{\mathrm{\Gamma }(g):gG\}`$ in $`\mathrm{Exp}K^2`$. For example, this is the case if $`K=S(G)`$ or $`K=R(G)`$.

The space $`\mathrm{Exp}K^2`$ is the space of all closed relations on $`K`$. It has a rich structure, since relations can be composed, reversed, or compared by inclusion. This structure is partly inherited by $`R(G)`$. Let us consider some examples.

###### Example 4.1.

Let $`G=\mathrm{Symm}(E)`$ be the topological symmetric group. It acts on the compact cube $`K=2^E`$. The natural map $`f_K:R(G)\mathrm{Exp}K^2`$ is an embedding.

###### Example 4.2 ().

Let $`G`$ be the unitary group $`U(H)_s`$ of a Hilbert space $`H`$, equipped with the strong operator topology (this is the topology of pointwise convergence inherited from the product $`H^H`$). Let $`K`$ be unit ball of $`H`$. Equip $`K`$ with the weak topology. Then $`K`$ is compact. The unitary group $`G`$ acts on $`K`$, and the map $`R(G)\mathrm{Exp}K^2`$ is an embedding.

The space $`R(G)`$ has a better description in this case: $`R(G)`$ can be identified with the unit ball $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ in the Banach algebra $`(H)`$ of all bounded linear operators on $`H`$. The topology on $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ is the weak operator topology: the map $`AA|_K`$ which assigns to every operator of norm $`1`$ its restriction to $`K`$ is a homeomorphic embedding of $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ into the compact space $`K^K`$. Thus $`R(G)`$ has a natural structure of a semitopological semigroup. This can be used to deduce Stoyanov’s theorem: the group $`G`$ is minimal. Let us sketch the idea (see  for details). Let $`f:GH`$ be continuous homomorphism of $`G`$ onto a topological group $`H`$. We want to prove that $`f`$ is open. To this end, extend $`f`$ over $`R(G)`$. We get a map $`F:\mathrm{\Theta }R(H)`$. Let $`S=F^1(e_H)`$ be its kernel. Then $`S`$ is a compact semigroup of operators. If $`SG`$, then $`G=F^1(H)`$ and $`f`$ is perfect, hence quotient. For group homomorphisms ‘quotient’ is equivalent to ‘open’. If $`S`$ contains non-invertible operators, then $`S`$ contains idempotents (= orthogonal projectors) other than 1. Since $`S`$ is invariant under inner automorphisms of $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$, it follows that $`S`$ contains 0, and this yields $`H=\{e_H\}`$.

###### Example 4.3 ().

Let $`K`$ be a zero-dimensional compact space such that all non-empty clopen subsets of $`K`$ are homeomorphic to $`K`$. (For example, $`K`$ may be the cube $`2^\kappa `$ for some cardinal $`\kappa `$.) Let $`G=H(K)`$. The natural map $`f_K:R(G)\mathrm{Exp}K^2`$ is an embedding. Moreover, the image of $`f_K`$, which is the closure of the set of all graphs of self-homeomorphisms of $`K`$, is the set $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ of all closed relations on $`K`$ whose domain and range are equal to $`K`$. Thus $`R(G)`$ can be identified with $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$.

This time $`R(G)`$ is an ordered semigroup, but not a semitopological semigroup, since the composition of relations is not a separately continuous operation. As in the previous example, one can use the space $`R(G)`$ to prove that $`G`$ is minimal. Moreover, every non-constant onto group homomorphism $`f:GH`$ is an isomorphism of topological groups. To prove this, we proceed as before: extend $`f`$ to $`F:\mathrm{\Theta }R(H)`$ and look at the kernel $`S=F^1(e_H)`$. Zorn’s lemma implies the existence of maximal idempotents in $`S`$ (with respect to inclusion). Symmetric idempotents above the unity 1 (= the identity relation = the diagonal in $`K^2`$) in $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ are precisely closed equivalence relations on $`K`$. Since there are no non-trivial $`G`$-invariant closed equivalence relations on $`K`$, there are no non-trivial choices for $`S`$: either $`S=\{1\}`$ or $`S=\mathrm{\Theta }`$. See  for details.

###### Example 4.4.

Let $`G=H_+(I)`$ be the group of all orientation-preserving homeomorphisms of the closed interval $`I=[0,1]`$. The map $`f_G:R(G)\mathrm{Exp}I^2`$ is a homeomorphic embedding. Thus $`R(G)`$ can be identified with the closure of the set of all graphs of strictly increasing functions $`h:II`$ such that $`h(0)=0`$ and $`h(1)=1`$. This closure consists of all curves $`CI^2`$ which lead from $`(0,0)`$ to $`(1,1)`$ and look like graphs of increasing functions, with the exception that $`C`$ may include both horizontal and vertical segments.

There seems to be no natural semigroup structure on $`R(G)`$. This observation leads to an important result, due to M. Megrelishvili: the group $`G`$ has no non-trivial homomorphisms to compact semitopological semigroups and has no non-trivial representations by isometries in reflexive Banach spaces. We discuss this result in the next section.

###### Question 4.5.

Let $`G=H(Q)`$, where $`Q=I^\omega `$ is the Hilbert cube. Is the map $`f_Q:R(G)\mathrm{Exp}Q^2`$ a homeomorphic embedding? Is the group $`G`$ minimal?

## 5. WAP compactifications

Let $`S`$ be a semigroup and a topological space. If the multiplication $`(x,y)xy`$ is separately continuous (this means that the maps $`xax`$ and $`xxa`$ are continuous for every $`aS`$), we say that $`S`$ is a semitopological semigroup.

For a topological group $`G`$ let $`f:GW(G)`$ be the universal object in the category of continuous semigroup homomorphisms of $`G`$ to compact semitopological semigroups. In other words, $`W(G)`$ is a compact semitopological semigroup, and for every continuous homomorphism $`g:GS`$ to a compact semitopological semigroup $`S`$ there exists a unique homomorphism $`h:W(G)S`$ such that $`g=hf`$.

The existence of $`W(G)`$ follows from two facts \[3, Ch.4\]: (1) arbitrary products are defined in the category of compact semitopological semigroups; (2) the cardinality of a compact space has an upper bound in terms of its density. The space $`W(G)`$ can also be defined in terms of weakly almost periodic functions. Recall the definition of such functions.

Let a topological group $`G`$ act on a space $`X`$. Denote by $`C^b(X)`$ the Banach space of all bounded complex-valued continuous functions on $`X`$ equipped with the supremum norm. A function $`fC^b(X)`$ is called weakly almost periodic (w.a.p. for short) if the $`G`$-orbit of $`f`$ is weakly relatively compact in the Banach space $`C^b(X)`$.

In particular, considering the left and right actions of a group $`G`$ on itself, we can define left and right weakly almost periodic functions on $`G`$. These two notions are actually equivalent \[4, Corollary 1.12\], so we can simply speak about w.a.p. functions on a group $`G`$. The space WAP of all w.a.p. functions on $`G`$ is a $`C^{}`$-algebra, and the maximal ideal space of this algebra can be identified with $`W(G)`$. Thus the algebra WAP is isomorphic to the algebra $`C(W(G))`$ of continuous functions on $`W(G)`$. Call $`W(G)`$ the weakly almost periodic (w.a.p.) compactification of the topological group $`G`$.

###### Remark 5.1.

In this section, by a compactification of a topological space $`X`$ we mean a compact Hausdorff space $`K`$ together with a continuous map $`j:XK`$ with a dense range. We do not require that $`j`$ be a homeomorphic embedding.

For every reflexive Banach space $`X`$ there is a compact semitopological semigroup $`\mathrm{\Theta }(X)`$ associated with $`X`$: the semigroup of all linear operators $`A:XX`$ of norm $`1`$, equipped with the weak operator topology. Recall that a Banach space $`X`$ is reflexive if and only if the unit ball $`B`$ in $`X`$ is weakly compact. If $`X`$ is reflexive, $`\mathrm{\Theta }(X)`$ is homeomorphic to a closed subspace of $`B^B`$ (where $`B`$ carries the weak topology) and hence compact.

It turns out that every compact semitopological semigroup embeds into $`\mathrm{\Theta }(X)`$ for some reflexive $`X`$:

###### Theorem 5.2 (Shtern , Megrelishvili ).

Every compact semitopological semigroup is isomorphic to a closed subsemigroup of $`\mathrm{\Theta }(X)`$ for some reflexive Banach space $`X`$.

The group of invertible elements of $`\mathrm{\Theta }(X)`$ is the group $`\mathrm{Is}_w(X)`$ of isometries of $`X`$, equipped with the weak operator topology. This topology actually coincides with the strong operator topology:

###### Theorem 5.3 (Megrelishvili ).

For every reflexive Banach space $`X`$ the weak and strong operator topologies on the group $`\mathrm{Is}(X)`$ agree.

In particular, the group of invertible elements of $`\mathrm{\Theta }(X)`$ is a topological group. The natural action of this group on $`\mathrm{\Theta }(X)`$ is (jointly) continuous. This can be easily deduced from the fact (which follows from Theorem 5.3) that the topological groups $`\mathrm{Is}_s(X)=\mathrm{Is}_w(X)`$ and $`\mathrm{Is}_s(X^{})=\mathrm{Is}_w(X^{})`$ are canonically isomorphic. In virtue of Theorem 5.2, similar assertions hold true for every compact semitopological semigroup $`S`$: the group $`G`$ of invertible elements of $`S`$ is a topological group, and the map $`(x,y)xy`$ is jointly continuous on $`G\times S`$ (this is the so-called Ellis-Lawson joint continuity theorem ). Thus $`S`$ is a $`G`$-space.

It follows that for every topological group $`G`$ the compact semitopological semigroup $`W(G)`$ is a $`G`$-space, hence there exists a $`G`$-map $`S(G)W(G)`$ extending the canonical map $`GW(G)`$. In terms of function algebras this means that every w.a.p. function on $`G`$ is right uniformly continuous. Since the algebra WAP is invariant under the inversion on $`G`$, w.a.p. functions are also left uniformly continuous and hence Roelcke uniformly continuous. It follows that there is a natural map $`R(G)W(G)`$.

If $`G=U(H)`$ is the unitary group of a Hilbert space $`H`$, then $`R(G)=\mathrm{\Theta }(H)`$ is a compact semitopological semigroup, and therefore the canonical map $`R(G)W(G)`$ is a homeomorphism. Thus $`W(G)=\mathrm{\Theta }(H)`$. The canonical map $`S(G)W(G)`$ is a homeomorphism if and only if $`G`$ is precompact .

In virtue of Theorems 5.2 and 5.3, the following two properties are equivalent for every topological group $`G`$: (1) the canonical map $`GW(G)`$ is injective; (2) there exists a faithful representation of $`G`$ by isometries of a reflexive Banach space. Similarly, the canonical map $`GW(G)`$ is a homeomorphic embedding if and only if $`G`$ is isomorphic to a topological subgroup of $`\mathrm{Is}(X)`$ for some reflexive Banach space $`X`$. Does every topological group have these properties? This long-standing question recently has been answered in the negative by Megrelishvili:

###### Theorem 5.4 ().

Let $`G=H_+(I)`$ be the group of all orientation-preserving homeomorphisms of $`I=[0,1]`$. Then $`W(G)`$ is a singleton. Equivalently, every w.a.p. function on $`G`$ is constant.

The proof is based on the description of the Roelcke compactification $`R(G)`$ given in the previous section. Recall that $`R(G)`$ can be identified with the space of “monotonic curves”. Since there is a canonical onto map $`R(G)W(G)`$, the semigroup $`W(G)`$ can be obtained as a quotient of $`R(G)`$. Megrelishvili proved that the only way to obtain a semitopological semigroup from $`R(G)`$ is to collapse the whole space to a point.

###### Question 5.5 (Megrelishvili).

Does there exist a non-trivial abelian topological group $`G`$ for which $`W(G)`$ is a singleton?

## 6. The group $`\mathrm{Is}(U)`$

In this section we consider a particular example of a topological group: the group $`\mathrm{Is}(U)`$ of isometries of the Urysohn universal metric space $`U`$.

Let us say that a metric space $`M`$ is $`\omega `$-homogeneous if every isometry between two finite subsets of $`M`$ extends to an isometry of $`M`$ onto itself. A metric space $`M`$ is finitely injective if it has the following property: if $`K`$ is a finite metric space and $`LK`$, then every isometric embedding $`LM`$ can be extended to an isometric embedding $`KM`$. The Urysohn universal space $`U`$ is the unique (up to an isometry) complete separable metric space with the following properties: (1) $`U`$ contains an isometric copy of any separable metric space; (2) $`U`$ is $`\omega `$-homogeneous. Equivalently, $`U`$ is the unique finitely-injective complete separable metric space. The uniqueness of $`U`$ is easy: given two separable finitely-injective spaces $`U_1`$ and $`U_2`$, one can use the “back-and-forth” (or “shuttle”) method to construct an isometry between countable dense subsets of $`U_1`$ and $`U_2`$; if $`U_1`$ and $`U_2`$ are complete, they are isometric themselves. The existence of $`U`$ was proved by Urysohn ; an easier construction was found by Katětov . If a metric on the set of integers is chosen at random, the completion of the resulting metric space will be isometric to $`U`$ with probability 1 .

Let $`G=\mathrm{Is}(U)`$. The group $`G`$ is a universal topological group with a countable base: every topological group $`H`$ with a countable base is isomorphic (as a topological group) to a subgroup of $`G`$ . The idea of the proof is first to embed $`G`$ into $`\mathrm{Is}(M)`$ for some separable metric $`M`$ and then to embed $`M`$ into $`U`$ in such a way that every isometry of $`M`$ has a natural extension to an isometry of $`U`$. Let us give some details.

Our construction is based on Katětov’s paper . Let $`(X,d)`$ be a metric space. We say that a function $`f:X_+`$ is Katětov if $`|f(x)f(y)|d(x,y)f(x)+f(y)`$ for all $`x,yX`$. A function $`f`$ is Katětov if and only if there exists a metric space $`Y=X\{p\}`$ containing $`X`$ as a subspace such that $`f(x)`$ for every $`xX`$ is equal to the distance between $`x`$ and $`p`$. Let $`E(X)`$ be the set of all Katětov functions on $`X`$, equipped with the sup-metric. If $`Y`$ is a non-empty subset of $`X`$ and $`fE(Y)`$, define $`g=\kappa _Y(f)E(X)`$ by

$$g(x)=inf\{d(x,y)+f(y):yY\}$$

for every $`xX`$. It is easy to check that $`g`$ is indeed a Katětov function on $`X`$ and that $`g`$ extends $`f`$. The map $`\kappa _Y:E(Y)E(X)`$ is an isometric embedding. Let

$$X^{}=\{\kappa _Y(E(Y)):YX,Y\text{ is finite and non-empty}\}E(X).$$

For every $`xX`$ let $`h_xE(X)`$ be the function on $`X`$ defined by $`h_x(y)=d(x,y)`$. Note that $`h_x=\kappa _{\{x\}}(0)`$ and hence $`h_xX^{}`$. The map $`xh_x`$ is an isometric embedding of $`X`$ into $`X^{}`$. Thus we can identify $`X`$ with a subspace of $`X^{}`$. If $`K`$ is a finite metric space, $`LK`$ and $`|KL|=1`$, then every isometric embedding of $`L`$ into $`X`$ can be extended to an isometric embedding of $`K`$ into $`X^{}`$.

Every isometry of $`X`$ has a canonical extension to an isometry of $`X^{}`$, and we get an embedding of topological groups $`\mathrm{Is}(X)\mathrm{Is}(X^{})`$. (Note that the natural homomorphism $`\mathrm{Is}(X)\mathrm{Is}(E(X))`$ in general need not be continuous.) Iterating the construction of $`X^{}`$, we get an increasing sequence of metric spaces $`XX^{}X^{}\mathrm{}`$. Let $`Y`$ be the union of this sequence, and let $`\overline{Y}`$ be the completion of $`Y`$. We have a sequence of embeddings of topological groups

$$\mathrm{Is}(X)\mathrm{Is}(X^{})\mathrm{Is}(X^{})\mathrm{}\mathrm{Is}(Y)\mathrm{Is}(\overline{Y}).$$

The space $`Y`$ is finitely-injective. The completion of a finitely-injective space is finitely-injective (Urysohn , see also ). Assume that $`X`$ is separable. Then $`Y`$ is separable, and $`\overline{Y}`$ is a complete separable finitely-injective metric space. Thus $`\overline{Y}`$ is isometric to $`U`$, and hence $`\mathrm{Is}(X)`$ is isomorphic to a topological subgroup of $`\mathrm{Is}(U)`$.

Every topological group $`G`$ with a countable base is isomorphic to a subgroup of $`\mathrm{Is}(X)`$ for some separable Banach space $`X`$: there is a countable subset $`A\text{RUC }^b(G)`$ which generates the topology of $`G`$, and we can take for $`X`$ the closed $`G`$-invariant linear subspace of $`\text{RUC }^b(G)`$ generated by $`A`$. We just saw that $`\mathrm{Is}(X)`$ is isomorphic to a subgroup of $`\mathrm{Is}(U)`$. Thus we have proved:

###### Theorem 6.1 ().

Every topological group with a countable base is isomorphic to a topological subgroup of the group $`\mathrm{Is}(U)`$.

Note that the group $`\mathrm{Is}(U)`$ is Polish (= separable completely metrizable). Another example of a universal Polish group is the group $`H(Q)`$ of all homeomorphisms of the Hilbert cube . To prove that every topological group $`G`$ with a countable base is isomorphic to a subgroup of $`H(Q)`$, it suffices to observe that: (1) $`G`$ is isomorphic to a subgroup of $`H(K)`$ for some metrizable compact space $`K`$ (proof: we saw that $`G`$ is isomorphic to a subgroup of $`\mathrm{Is}(B)`$ for some separable Banach space $`B`$, and we can take for $`K`$ the unit ball of the dual space $`B^{}`$, equipped with the $`w^{}`$-topology); (2) if $`K`$ is compact and $`P(K)`$ is the compact space of all probability measures on $`K`$, there is a natural embedding of topological groups $`H(K)H(P(K))`$; (3) if $`K`$ is an infinite separable metrizable compact space, then $`P(K)`$ is homeomorphic to the Hilbert cube. Until recently it remained unknown whether the groups $`H(Q)`$ and $`\mathrm{Is}(U)`$ are isomorphic or not. V. Pestov recently has proved that the group $`\mathrm{Is}(U)`$ is extremely amenable . It follows that the groups $`\mathrm{Is}(U)`$ and $`H(Q)`$ are not isomorphic: the group $`H(Q)`$ is not extremely amenable, since the natural action of $`H(Q)`$ on $`Q`$ has no fixed points.

A.M. Vershik asked whether any two isomorphic compact subgroups of $`\mathrm{Is}(U)`$ are conjugate. The answer is in the negative: there exist involutions $`f,g\mathrm{Is}(U)`$ which are not conjugate. Moreover, $`f`$ has a fixed point in $`U`$ and $`g`$ has no fixed points. The proof will appear elsewhere.

The group $`\mathrm{Is}(U)`$ is not Roelcke-precompact. To see this, fix $`aU`$ and consider the function $`gd(a,g(a))`$ from $`\mathrm{Is}(U)`$ to $`_+`$, where $`d`$ is the metric on $`U`$. This function is $``$-uniformly continuous and unbounded, hence the Roelcke uniformity $``$ is not precompact. We slightly modify the space $`U`$, in order to obtain a Roelcke-precompact group of isometries.

Let $`U_1`$ be the “Urysohn universal metric space in the class of spaces of diameter $`1`$”. This space is characterized by the following properties: $`U_1`$ is a complete separable $`\omega `$-homogeneous metric space of diameter 1, and every separable metric space of diameter $`1`$ is isometric to a subspace of $`U_1`$. Let $`G=\mathrm{Is}(U_1)`$. This is a universal Polish group. This group is Roelcke-precompact. Let us describe the Roelcke compactification $`R(G)`$ of $`G`$.

Consider the compact space $`KI^{U_1}`$ of all non-expanding functions $`f:U_1I=[0,1]`$. Then $`K`$ is a $`G`$-space, so there a natural map from $`R(G)`$ to the set $`\mathrm{Exp}K^2`$ of all closed relations on $`K`$ (see Section 4). It turns out that this map is a homeomorphic embedding.

There is a more geometric description of $`R(G)`$: it is the space of all metric spaces $`M`$ of diameter 1 which are covered by two isometric copies of $`U_1`$. More precisely, consider all triples $`s=(M,i,j)`$, where $`M`$ is a metric space of diameter 1, $`i:U_1M`$ and $`j:U_1M`$ are isometric embeddings, and $`M=i(U_1)j(U_1)`$. Every such triple $`s`$ gives rise to the function $`p_s:U_1\times U_1I`$ defined by $`p_s(x,y)=d(i(x),j(y))`$, where $`d`$ is the metric on $`M`$. The set $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ of all functions $`p_s`$ that arise in this way is a compact subspace of $`I^{U_1^2}`$, and $`R(G)`$ can be identified with $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ . Elements of $`G`$ correspond to triples $`(M,i,j)`$ such that $`M=i(U_1)=j(U_1)`$.

The space $`R(G)`$ has a natural structure of an ordered semigroup (but not of a semitopological semigroup; it is likely that the w.a.p. compactification $`W(G)`$ of $`G`$ is a singleton). If $`R(G)`$ is identified with a subset of $`\mathrm{Exp}K^2`$, then $`R(G)`$ happens to be closed under composition of relations, whence the semigroup structure, and the order is just the inclusion. If $`R(G)`$ is identified with $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$, then the order is again natural, and the semigroup operation is defined as follows: if $`p,q\mathrm{\Theta }`$, the product of $`p`$ and $`q`$ in $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ is the function $`r:U_1^2I`$ defined by

$$r(x,y)=inf(\{p(x,z)+q(z,y):zU_1\}\{1\})(x,yU_1).$$

There is a one-to-one correspondence between idempotents in $`R(G)`$ and closed subsets of $`U_1`$. The methods outlined in Section 4 imply the following:

###### Theorem 6.2 ().

The universal Polish group $`\mathrm{Is}(U_1)`$ is minimal.

Thus every topological group with a countable base is isomorphic to a subgroup of a minimal Roelcke-precompact Polish group. More generally, every topological group is isomorphic to a subgroup of a minimal group of the same weight . The proof uses non-separable analogues of the space $`U_1`$. Every topological group $`G`$ is isomorphic to a subgroup of $`\mathrm{Is}(X)`$, where $`X`$ is a complete $`\omega `$-homogeneous metric space of diameter 1 which is injective with respect to finite metric spaces of diameter 1, and for every such $`X`$ the group $`\mathrm{Is}(X)`$ is Roelcke-precompact and minimal. The uniqueness of $`X`$ is lost in the non-separable case, and it is not known whether there exists a universal topological group of a given uncountable weight.


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# Exotic clusters in the excited states of 12Be, 14Be and 15B

## References


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# Entropy of a nonuniformly rectilinearly accelerating black hole

## I introduction

Since Bekenstein suggested that the entropy of a black hole is proportional to its surface area, the concerned research work has got much progress \[1-3\]. The brick-wall model suggested by ’t Hooft gives a statistical explanation to the orgin of black hole entropy . Recently, the brick-wall model is developed to the thin film brick-wall model . In this paper, we adopt the thin film brick-wall model to calculate the entropy of a nonuniformly rectilinearly accelerating non-stationary black hole.

Kinnersley has discussed the spacetime of an arbitrarily accelerating point mass . The metric used in this paper is a simple case in which the direction of acceleration doesn’t vary, but the magnitude of acceleration and the mass of black hole vary with time. Because the black hole is accelerated, the horizon is axisymmetric. Unlike the spherically symmetric black hole, the different points of horizon surface may have different temperature \[9-12\]. It is obvious that in this spacetime the thermal equilibrium does not exist in a large region, and the normal brick-wall method encounters difficulty in this situation. The thin film brick-wall model is adopted to overcome this difficulty. Because the spacetime is axisymmetric and the different points of horizon surface may have different temperature, we calculate the entropy density at every point of the horizon at first, then we obtain the total entropy through integration. If we appropriately select relationship between the thickness of film and its distance to event horizon, the thickness vanishes when the distance goes to zero, so the entropy of black hole can be regarded as the entropy of quantum field just on the event horizon.

In Sec. II we give the line element of spacetime and the surface equation of horizon. In Sec. III we use a method which is proposed by Zhao and Dai to study the temperature of the horizon . The entropy of black hole is calculated in Sec. IV in detail, and we give conclusion and discussion in Sec. V.

## II metric of nonuniformly rectilinearly accelerating black hole

The metric of an arbitrarily accelerating point mass has been given by Kinnersley

$`ds^2`$ $`=`$ $`[12ar\mathrm{cos}\theta r^2(f^2+h^2\mathrm{sin}^2\theta )2Mr^1]\mathrm{d}u^2+2\mathrm{d}u\mathrm{d}r`$ (2)
$`+2r^2f\mathrm{d}u\mathrm{d}\theta +2r^2h\mathrm{sin}^2\theta \mathrm{d}u\mathrm{d}\phi r^2\mathrm{d}\theta ^2r^2\mathrm{sin}^2\theta \mathrm{d}\phi ^2,`$
where

$`f=a(u)\mathrm{sin}\theta +b(u)\mathrm{sin}\phi +c(u)\mathrm{cos}\phi ,`$ (3)
$`h=b(u)\mathrm{cot}\theta \mathrm{cos}\phi c(u)\mathrm{cot}\theta \mathrm{sin}\phi .`$ (4)
$`a`$,$`b`$,$`c`$ and $`M`$ are all arbitrary functions of retarted Eddington-Finkelstein coordinate $`u`$. $`a`$ is the magnitude of acceleration. $`b`$ and $`c`$ describe the rate of change of the acceleration’s direction. In the case of nonuniformly rectilinearly acceleration, we have $`b=c=0`$. The metric can be reduced to

$`\mathrm{d}s^2`$ $`=`$ $`(12ar\mathrm{cos}\theta r^2f^22Mr^1)\mathrm{d}u^2+2\mathrm{d}u\mathrm{d}r+2r^2f\mathrm{d}u\mathrm{d}\theta `$ (6)
$`r^2\mathrm{d}\theta ^2r^2\mathrm{sin}^2\theta \mathrm{d}\phi ^2,`$
where

$$f=a\mathrm{sin}\theta .$$
(7)
Using the advanced Eddington-Finkelstein coordinate $`v`$ to replace the retarted coordinate $`u`$, and adopting signature $`(,+,+,+)`$, the metric becomes

$`\mathrm{d}s^2`$ $`=`$ $`(12ar\mathrm{cos}\theta r^2a^2\mathrm{sin}^2\theta 2Mr^1)\mathrm{d}v^2+2\mathrm{d}v\mathrm{d}r`$ (9)
$`2r^2a\mathrm{sin}\theta \mathrm{d}v\mathrm{d}\theta +r^2\mathrm{d}\theta ^2+r^2\mathrm{sin}^2\theta \mathrm{d}\phi ^2.`$
$`\theta =0`$ is the direction of acceleration and the spacetime is axisymmetric. The determinant of metric is

$$g=r^4\mathrm{sin}^2\theta ,$$
(10)
and the non-zero contravariant components of metric are

$`g^{01}`$ $`=`$ $`g^{10}=1,`$ (11)
$`g^{11}`$ $`=`$ $`12ar\mathrm{cos}\theta 2Mr^1,`$ (12)
$`g^{12}`$ $`=`$ $`g^{21}=a\mathrm{sin}\theta ,`$ (13)
$`g^{22}`$ $`=`$ $`r^2,`$ (14)
$`g^{33}`$ $`=`$ $`r^2\mathrm{sin}^2\theta .`$ (15)
Now let us find the horizon equation of the spacetime represented by Eq. (9). Considering the axial symmetry of spacetime, the surface equation of event horizon can be written as

$$H=H(v,r,\theta )=0\text{or}r=r(v,\theta ),$$
(16)
which should satisfy null surface condition

$$g^{\mu \nu }\frac{H}{x^\mu }\frac{H}{x^\nu }=0.$$
(17)
Substituting Eq. (15) into Eq. (17), we get

$$2\frac{H}{v}\frac{H}{r}+\left(12ar\mathrm{cos}\theta \frac{2M}{r}\right)\left(\frac{H}{r}\right)^2+2a\mathrm{sin}\theta \frac{H}{r}\frac{H}{\theta }+\frac{1}{r^2}\left(\frac{H}{\theta }\right)^2=0.$$
(18)
From Eq. (16) we can get

$$\frac{H}{r}\frac{r}{\theta }+\frac{H}{\theta }=0,\frac{H}{r}\frac{r}{v}+\frac{H}{v}=0.$$
(19)
Substituting Eq. (19) into Eq. (18), we have

$$2\dot{r}_H+\left(12ar_H\mathrm{cos}\theta \frac{2M}{r_H}\right)(2a\mathrm{sin}\theta )r_H^{}+\frac{r_{H}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}}{r_H^2}=0,$$
(20)
where

$$\dot{r}_H=\left(\frac{r}{v}\right)_{r=r_H},r_H^{}=\left(\frac{r}{\theta }\right)_{r=r_H}.$$
(21)
Surface $`r_H`$ which satisfies Eq. (20) is the event horizon of nonuniformly rectilinearly accelerating black hole.

## III temperature of black hole

In this section, we use a method \[9-11\] which is proposed by Zhao and Dai to study the temperature of the horizon. The calculation of this method is simple and precision. It can be used to calculate temperature of various black holes, including non-spherically symmetic and non-stationary black holes.

This method is based on the Damour-Ruffini’s scheme . The essential point is that if we use tortoise coordinate, the radial part of Klein-Gordon equation near the horizon will be reduced to the standard form of wave equation as

$$\frac{^2\mathrm{\Phi }}{r_{}^2}+2\frac{^2\mathrm{\Phi }}{vr_{}}=0.$$
(22)
From Eq.(20) we know that $`r_H`$ is the function of $`\theta `$ and $`v`$ on the horizon. So the generalized tortoise coordinate transformation is proposed as

$`r_{}`$ $`=`$ $`r+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2\kappa }}\mathrm{ln}[rr_H(\theta ,v)],`$ (23)
$`v_{}`$ $`=`$ $`vv_0,`$ (24)
$`\theta _{}`$ $`=`$ $`\theta \theta _0.`$ (25)
where $`\kappa `$ is an adjustable parameter. Both $`v_0`$ and $`\theta _0`$ are arbitrarily fixed parameter. They are constant under the tortoise coordinate transformation.

From Eq. (25) we get

$`{\displaystyle \frac{}{r}}`$ $`=`$ $`\left[1+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2\kappa (rr_H)}}\right]{\displaystyle \frac{}{r_{}}},`$ (26)
$`{\displaystyle \frac{}{v}}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{}{v_{}}}{\displaystyle \frac{\dot{r}_H}{2\kappa (rr_H)}}{\displaystyle \frac{}{r_{}}},`$ (27)
$`{\displaystyle \frac{}{\theta }}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{}{\theta _{}}}{\displaystyle \frac{r_H^{}}{2\kappa (rr_H)}}{\displaystyle \frac{}{r_{}}};`$ (28)
Substituting Eq.(10), Eq.(15) and Eq.(28) into Klein-Gordon equation

$$\frac{1}{\sqrt{g}}\frac{}{x^\mu }\left(\sqrt{g}g^{\mu \nu }\frac{\mathrm{\Phi }}{x^\nu }\right)\mu ^2\mathrm{\Phi }=0.$$
(29)
When $`rr_H(v_0,\theta _0)`$, $`vv_0`$ and $`\theta \theta _0`$, the equation can be reduced to

$$\alpha \frac{^2\mathrm{\Phi }}{r_{}^2}+2\frac{^2\mathrm{\Phi }}{r_{}v_{}}+2\mathrm{\Omega }\frac{^2\mathrm{\Phi }}{r_{}\theta _{}}G\frac{\mathrm{\Phi }}{r_{}}=0,$$
(30)
where

$$\alpha =\underset{\genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{rr_H(v_0,\theta _0)}{vv_0,\theta \theta _0}}{lim}\frac{\{2\dot{r}_H+(12ar\mathrm{cos}\theta \frac{2M}{r})[2\kappa (rr_H)+1](2a\mathrm{sin}\theta )r_H^{}\}r^2[2\kappa (rr_H)+1]+r_{H}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}}{2\kappa (rr_H)[2\kappa (rr_H)+1]r^2},$$
(31)
$$\mathrm{\Omega }=\left(f+\frac{r_H^{}}{r_H^2}\right)_{\genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{vv_0}{\theta \theta _0}},$$
(32)
$$G=\left(\frac{2}{r_H}+16a\mathrm{cos}\theta +\frac{2M}{r_H^2}\frac{r_{h}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}}{r_H^3}+\frac{r_H^{}}{r_H^2}\mathrm{cot}\theta \right)_{\genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{vv_0}{\theta \theta _0}}.$$
(33)
We select the adjustable parameter $`\kappa `$ as

$$\kappa =\frac{1}{2r_H}\frac{\frac{M}{r_H^2}a\mathrm{cos}\theta \frac{r_{H}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}}{r_H^3}}{\frac{M}{r_H^2}+a\mathrm{cos}\theta +\frac{r_{H}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}}{2r_H^3}}|_{\genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{vv_0}{\theta \theta _0}}.$$
(34)
Then we have $`\alpha =1`$, and Eq.(30) can be reduced to

$$\frac{^2\mathrm{\Phi }}{r_{}^2}+2\frac{^2\mathrm{\Phi }}{r_{}v_{}}+2\mathrm{\Omega }\frac{^2\mathrm{\Phi }}{r_{}\theta _{}}G\frac{\mathrm{\Phi }}{r_{}}=0.$$
(35)
Separting variables as

$$\mathrm{\Phi }=R(r_{})e^{i\omega v_{}+ik_\theta \theta _{}+in\varphi },$$
(36)
we can verify that the radial wave solutions of Eq.(35) are, respectively,

$`\varphi _{\mathrm{in}}`$ $`=`$ $`e^{i\omega v_{}},`$ (37)
$`\varphi _{\mathrm{out}}`$ $`=`$ $`e^{i\omega v_{}+Gr_{}+i(2\omega 2\mathrm{\Omega }k_\theta )r_{}}.`$ (38)
$`\varphi _{\mathrm{in}}`$ is the ingoing wave, while $`\varphi _{\mathrm{out}}`$ is the outgoing wave. Near the event horizon $`r_H`$, $`r_{}=\frac{1}{2\kappa }\mathrm{ln}(rr_H)`$, $`\varphi _{\mathrm{out}}`$ can be rewritten as

$$\psi _{\mathrm{out}}=e^{i\omega v_{}}(rr_H)^{G/2\kappa }(rr_H)^{i(\omega \mathrm{\Omega }k_\theta )/\kappa }.$$
(39)
It is not analytical at the horizon. By analytical continuation rotating $`\pi `$ through the lower-half complex r-plane,

$$(rr_H)|rr_H|e^{i\pi }=(r_Hr)e^{i\pi },$$
(40)
we can extend $`\varphi _{\mathrm{out}}`$ from the outside of the black hole into the inside of the black hole

$$\varphi _{\mathrm{out}}\varphi _{\mathrm{out}}^{}=e^{i\omega v_{}+Gr_{}+i(2\omega 2\mathrm{\Omega }k_\theta )r_{}}e^{i\pi G/2\kappa }e^{\pi (\omega \mathrm{\Omega }k_\theta )/\kappa }$$
(41)
The relative scattering probability of the outgoing wave at the horizon is

$$\left|\frac{\varphi _{\mathrm{out}}}{\varphi _{\mathrm{out}}^{}}\right|^2=e^{2\pi (\omega \mathrm{\Omega }k_\theta )/\kappa }.$$
(42)
Then the spectrum of the Hawking radiation is

$$N_\omega =(e^{\frac{\omega \mathrm{\Omega }k_\theta }{T}}\pm 1)^1,$$
(43)
where

$$T=\frac{\kappa }{2\pi }=\frac{1}{2\pi }\frac{1}{2r_H}\frac{\frac{M}{r_H^2}a\mathrm{cos}\theta \frac{r_{H}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}}{r_H^3}}{\frac{M}{r_H^2}+a\mathrm{cos}\theta +\frac{r_{H}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}}{2r_H^3}}.$$
(44)
We can see that the temperature of the nonuniformly rectilinearly acceleraing black hole depends not only on the time, but also on the polar angle.

## IV Entropy of black hole

In the brick-wall model proposed by ’t Hooft , the black hole entropy is identified with the entropy of thermal gas of quantum fields excitations outside the event horizon. This needs the thermal equilibrium between the external fields and the black hole. However, this qualification is not satisfied in the case of accelerating black hole, because the black hole is non-stationary and the temperature on the horizon is not uniform as shown in Sec. III .

Recently, a new model, the thin film brick-wall model  is developed from the original brick-wall model. This model considers that the entropy of a black hole should be only related to quantum gas near its horizon. Due to this opinion and the fact that the density of quantum states near the horizon is divergent, it is natural to take only the quantum field in a thin film near the event horizon into accout. If we adopt the thin film brick-wall model, we find that although the global thermal equilibrium is not satisfied, the local thermal equilibrium is always exist. So the difficulty encountered by original brick-wall model is overcomed.

Because the spacetime is axisymmetric and the temperature on the horizon is not uniform, we will calculate the entropy density at every point of the horizon at first, then we obtain the total entropy through integration.

In the Sec. II, we have obtained the metric of nonuniformly rectilinearly accelerating black hole shown by Eq.(9) and the horizon equation shown by Eq.(20). Introduce a coordinate transformation

$$R=rr_H(v,\theta ),\mathrm{d}R=\mathrm{d}r\dot{r}_H\mathrm{d}vr_H^{}\mathrm{d}\theta .$$
(45)
The metric becomes

$`\mathrm{d}s^2`$ $`=`$ $`(2\dot{r}_H+12ar\mathrm{cos}\theta r^2a^2\mathrm{sin}^2\theta 2Mr^1)\mathrm{d}v^2+2\mathrm{d}v\mathrm{d}R`$ (47)
$`2(r^2a\mathrm{sin}\theta r_H^{})\mathrm{d}v\mathrm{d}\theta +r^2\mathrm{d}\theta ^2+r^2\mathrm{sin}^2\theta \mathrm{d}\phi ^2.`$
The following calculation about entropy is based on this metric. The non-zero contravariant components of the metric are

$`g^{01}`$ $`=`$ $`g^{10}=1,`$ (48)
$`g^{11}`$ $`=`$ $`2\dot{r}_H+12ar\mathrm{cos}\theta 2Mr^12a\mathrm{sin}\theta r_H^{}+{\displaystyle \frac{r_{H}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}}{r^2}},`$ (49)
$`g^{12}`$ $`=`$ $`g^{21}=a\mathrm{sin}\theta {\displaystyle \frac{r_H^{}}{r^2}},`$ (50)
$`g^{22}`$ $`=`$ $`r^2,`$ (51)
$`g^{33}`$ $`=`$ $`r^2\mathrm{sin}^2\theta .`$ (52)
$`g^{11}=0`$ is just the surface equation of horizon.

The form of metric can be changed to

$`\mathrm{d}s^2`$ $`=`$ $`g_{00}\mathrm{d}v^2+2\mathrm{d}v\mathrm{d}R+2g_{02}\mathrm{d}v\mathrm{d}\theta +g_{22}\mathrm{d}\theta ^2+g_{33}\mathrm{d}\phi ^2`$ (53)
$`=`$ $`\left(g_{00}{\displaystyle \frac{g_{02}^2}{g_{22}}}\right)\mathrm{d}v^2+2\mathrm{d}v\mathrm{d}R+g_{22}\left(\mathrm{d}\theta +{\displaystyle \frac{g_{02}}{g_{22}}}\mathrm{d}v\right)^2+g_{33}\mathrm{d}\phi ^2`$ (54)
$`=`$ $`\widehat{g}_{00}\mathrm{d}v^2+2\mathrm{d}v\mathrm{d}R+g_{22}\left(\mathrm{d}\theta +{\displaystyle \frac{g_{02}}{g_{22}}}\mathrm{d}v\right)^2+g_{33}\mathrm{d}\phi ^2,`$ (55)
where

$$\widehat{g}_{00}=g_{00}\frac{g_{02}^2}{g_{22}}=\left[2\dot{r}_H+\left(12ar\mathrm{cos}\theta \frac{2M}{r}\right)(2a\mathrm{sin}\theta )r_H^{}+\frac{r_{H}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}}{r^2}\right].$$
(56)
We can get the surface equation of horizon from $`\widehat{g}_{00}=0`$. If we let

$$\frac{\mathrm{d}\theta }{\mathrm{d}v}=\frac{g_{02}}{g_{22}},$$
(57)
the metric can be changed to

$$\mathrm{d}s^2=\widehat{g}_{00}\mathrm{d}v^2+2\mathrm{d}v\mathrm{d}R+g_{33}\mathrm{d}\phi ^2.$$
(58)
Like Kerr-Newman Black Hole, we can introduce a dragging angular velocity

$$\mathrm{\Omega }=\frac{\mathrm{d}\theta }{\mathrm{d}v}=\frac{g_{02}}{g_{22}}=a\mathrm{sin}\theta \frac{r_H^{}}{r^2}.$$
(59)
$`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ is just that shown in Eq.(32) and Eq.(43).

Let us substitute the determinant and the contravariant components of metric described by Eq. (47) into Klein-Gordon equation, which describes the scalar field with mass $`\mu `$,

$$\frac{1}{\sqrt{g}}\frac{}{x^\mu }\left(\sqrt{g}g^{\mu \nu }\frac{\mathrm{\Phi }}{x^\nu }\right)=\mu ^2\mathrm{\Phi }.$$
(60)
We suppose that the solution has the following form

$$\mathrm{\Phi }=e^{i(Evm\phi )}G(R,\theta ),$$
(61)
where

$$G(R,\theta )=e^{iS(R,\theta )}.$$
(62)
With WKB approximation, we have

$$g^{11}k_R^22(Eg^{12}k_\theta )k_R+g^{22}k_\theta ^2+m^2g^{33}+\mu ^2=0,$$
(63)
where

$$k_R=\frac{S}{R},k_\theta =\frac{S}{\theta }.$$
(64)
From Eq. (63) we can obtain the relationship between $`k_R`$ and $`k_\theta `$ as

$$k_{R}^{}{}_{}{}^{+}=\frac{Eg^{12}k_\theta }{g^{11}}+\frac{\sqrt{(Eg^{12}k_\theta )^2g^{11}(g^{22}k_\theta ^2+m^2g^{33}+\mu ^2)}}{g^{11}},$$
(65)
$$k_{R}^{}{}_{}{}^{}=\frac{Eg^{12}k_\theta }{g^{11}}\frac{\sqrt{(Eg^{12}k_\theta )^2g^{11}(g^{22}k_\theta ^2+m^2g^{33}+\mu ^2)}}{g^{11}}.$$
(66)
Free energy of the system is given by

$$F=dE\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }(E)}{e^{\beta (E\mathrm{\Omega }k_\theta )}1},$$
(67)
where $`\mathrm{\Gamma }(E)`$ is the total number of modes whose energy is not greater than $`E`$. According to the semiclassical quantization condition and the thin film brick-wall model, we have \[4-7,14,15\]

$`\mathrm{\Gamma }(E)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{4\pi ^3}}{\displaystyle dmd\theta d\phi dk_\theta \left(_ϵ^{ϵ+\delta }k_R^+dR+_{ϵ+\delta }^ϵk_R^{}dR\right)}`$ (68)
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2\pi ^3}}{\displaystyle dmd\theta d\phi dk_\theta _ϵ^{ϵ+\delta }\widehat{k}_RdR},`$ (69)
where

$`\widehat{k}_R`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\sqrt{(Eg^{12}k_\theta )^2g^{11}(g^{22}k_\theta ^2+m^2g^{33}+\mu ^2)}}{g^{11}}}`$ (70)
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\sqrt{(E\mathrm{\Omega }k_\theta )^2g^{11}(g^{22}k_\theta ^2+m^2g^{33}+\mu ^2)}}{g^{11}}}.`$ (71)
Introducing $`\stackrel{~}{E}=E\mathrm{\Omega }k_\theta `$, we have

$$\widehat{k}_R=\frac{\sqrt{\stackrel{~}{E}^2g^{11}(g^{22}k_\theta ^2+m^2g^{33}+\mu ^2)}}{g^{11}},$$
(72)
$$\mathrm{\Gamma }(\stackrel{~}{E})=\frac{1}{2\pi ^3}dmd\theta d\phi dk_\theta _ϵ^{ϵ+\delta }\widehat{k}_RdR,$$
(73)
$$F=_0^+\mathrm{}d\stackrel{~}{E}\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }(\stackrel{~}{E})}{e^{\beta \stackrel{~}{E}}1}.$$
(74)
The surface density of free energy on horizon can be expressed by

$$\sigma _F=_0^+\mathrm{}d\stackrel{~}{E}\frac{\sigma _\mathrm{\Gamma }}{e^{\beta \stackrel{~}{E}}1}.$$
(75)
$`\sigma _F`$ and $`\sigma _\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ are defined as

$$F=\sigma _FdA,\mathrm{\Gamma }=\sigma _\mathrm{\Gamma }dA,$$
(76)
where

$$\mathrm{d}A=r_H^2\mathrm{sin}\theta \mathrm{d}\theta \mathrm{d}\phi .$$
(77)
Now, let us study the integration on $`k_\theta `$ and $`m`$ in Eq. (73). We use little mass approximation in the process of integration, and the result is

$`\mathrm{\Gamma }(\stackrel{~}{E})`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\stackrel{~}{E}^3}{6\pi ^2}}{\displaystyle d\theta d\phi _ϵ^{ϵ+\delta }(g^{11})^2(g^{22}g^{33})^{\frac{1}{2}}dR}`$ (78)
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\stackrel{~}{E}^3}{6\pi ^2}}{\displaystyle d\theta d\phi _ϵ^{ϵ+\delta }(g^{11})^2(g_{22}g_{33})^{\frac{1}{2}}dR}`$ (79)
$``$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\stackrel{~}{E}^3}{6\pi ^2}}{\displaystyle dA_ϵ^{ϵ+\delta }(g^{11})^2dR}`$ (80)
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle dA\frac{\stackrel{~}{E}^3}{6\pi ^2}_ϵ^{ϵ+\delta }(g^{11})^2dR}.`$ (81)
Comparing with Eq. (76), we get the surface density of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }(\stackrel{~}{E})`$ as

$$\sigma _\mathrm{\Gamma }=\frac{\stackrel{~}{E}^3}{6\pi ^2}_ϵ^{ϵ+\delta }(g^{11})^2dR.$$
(82)
The surface density of free energy is given by

$`\sigma _F`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{6\pi ^2}}{\displaystyle _0^+\mathrm{}}d\stackrel{~}{E}{\displaystyle \frac{\stackrel{~}{E}^3}{e^{\beta \stackrel{~}{E}}1}}{\displaystyle _ϵ^{ϵ+\delta }}(g^{11})^2dR`$ (83)
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\pi ^2}{90\beta ^4}}{\displaystyle _ϵ^{ϵ+\delta }}(g^{11})^2dR.`$ (84)
From

$$S=\beta ^2\frac{F}{\beta }|_{\beta =\beta _H},$$
(85)
we can obtain the surface density of entropy, as

$$\sigma _S=\frac{4\pi ^2}{90\beta _H^3}_ϵ^{ϵ+\delta }(g^{11})^2dR.$$
(86)
Because $`g^{11}=0`$ is the surface equation of horizon, $`g^{11}`$ can be expressed by

$$g^{11}=f(r,\theta )(rr_H).$$
(87)
Substituting Eq. (87) into Eq. (86), we complete the integration on $`R`$, as

$`\sigma _S`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{4\pi ^2}{90\beta _H^3}}{\displaystyle _ϵ^{ϵ+\delta }}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{f^2(rr_H)^2}}dR`$ (88)
$``$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{4\pi ^2}{90\beta _H^3f_H^2}}{\displaystyle _ϵ^{ϵ+\delta }}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{R^2}}dR`$ (89)
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{4\pi ^2}{90\beta _H^3f_H^2}}{\displaystyle \frac{\delta }{ϵ(ϵ+\delta )}}.`$ (90)
From Eq.(20),Eq.(52) and Eq.(87), we can obtain the relationship between $`f_H`$ and $`\kappa `$, as

$$f_H=2\kappa (12\dot{r}_H2ar_H^{}\mathrm{sin}\theta +\frac{2r_{H}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}}{r_H^2}).$$
(91)
Substituting Eq. (91) into Eq. (90), we get

$$\sigma _S=\frac{4\pi ^2}{90\beta _H^3}\frac{1}{[\kappa (12\dot{r}_H2ar_H^{}\mathrm{sin}\theta +\frac{2r_{H}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}}{r_H^2})]^2}\frac{\delta }{ϵ(ϵ+\delta )}\frac{1}{4}.$$
(92)
Substituting $`\beta _H=\frac{2\pi }{\kappa }`$ into Eq. (92), we get

$`\sigma _S`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{P}}{\displaystyle \frac{\delta }{ϵ(ϵ+\delta )}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{4}},`$ (93)
where

$$P=90\beta _H(12\dot{r}_H2ar_H^{}\mathrm{sin}\theta +\frac{2r_{H}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}}{r_H^2})^2.$$
(94)
Selecting appropriate cut-off distance $`ϵ`$ and thickness of thin film $`\delta `$ to satisfy

$$\frac{\delta }{ϵ(ϵ+\delta )}=P,$$
(95)
we can obtain the surface density of entropy, as

$$\sigma _S=\frac{1}{4}.$$
(96)
The total entropy is certainly

$$S=\sigma _SdA=\frac{1}{4}A_H.$$
(97)
## V conclusions

By using the generalized tortoise transformation and the thin film brick-wall model, we have studied the temperature and the entropy of a nonuniformly rectilinearly accelerating black hole. Because the black hole is accelerated, the horizon is axisymmetric and the different points of horizon surface may have different temperature. To overcome the difficulty encountered in normal brick-wall medol, we adopt the thin film brick-wall model in which only the local thermal equilibrium is needed. We calculate the entropy density at every point of the horizon at first, then we obtain the total entropy through integration. The result is consistent with the well-known conclusion that the black hole entropy is propotional to its area.

We believe that the black hole entropy should be just identified with the entropy of the quantum field on the 2-dimensional surface of event horizon . The thin film brick-wall model can easyly explain this opinion. From Eq. (95) we can get

$$\delta =\frac{Pϵ^2}{1Pϵ}.$$
(98)
That is to say, if the relationship of the thickness $`\delta `$ of thin film and the distance $`ϵ`$ to horizon satisfies above equation, we can always get Eq. (96). Using Eq. (98) we can get

$$\underset{ϵ0}{lim}\frac{\delta }{ϵ(ϵ+\delta )}=\underset{ϵ0}{lim}\frac{\frac{Pϵ^2}{1Pϵ}}{ϵ\left[ϵ+\frac{Pϵ^2}{1Pϵ}\right]}=\underset{ϵ0}{lim}\frac{\frac{P}{1Pϵ}}{1+\frac{Pϵ}{1Pϵ}}=P.$$
(99)
This indicates that if appropriate relationship of thickness $`\delta `$ and distance $`ϵ`$ is selected, when the thin film approaches the horizon, the thickness of the film vanishes and the entropy density expressed by Eq. (96) doesn’t change. In this case, the thin film itself becomes horizon, the entropy of thin film is just the entroy of horizon, and the black hole entropy is just identified with the entropy of the quantum field on the event horizon.

## acknowledgments

We would like to thank colleagues in our group for helpful discussion. We are supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China under Grant No. 10073002.


text:
# Blazhko stars: always distorted?

## 1 Introduction

Long period (10-100 days) amplitude and/or phase modulation of RRab stars, often called the Blazhko effect, has been known for about a century. Although 30–40% of the fundamental mode RR Lyrae stars exhibit the phenomenon theoretical and observational efforts have not led to complete understanding of its physical background. One crucial point that may help in selecting the correct explanation would be to decide what phase of the modulation (if any) corresponds to unmodulated single mode RRab radial pulsation i.e. can be regarded as normal, undistorted behaviour.

It was pointed out by Szeidl (1988) that on the pulsational period – photometric amplitude diagram the large amplitude phases of Blazhko variables fall within the range occupied by normal RRab stars. From the visual inspection of the light curves it can be seen that peculiar shapes occur in the small amplitude phases. These facts indicate that if there is any normal phase of a Blazhko star, it should occur during the phases when the amplitudes are larger. However, we do not know for sure that such a phase really exists, and if it does, whether corresponds to the largest amplitude phase.

In the recent past simple linear relations between the physical properties and the Fourier parameters of the light curves of RRab stars were derived (Kovács & Walker 1999, and references therein) which have been proven to give similarly accurate results to direct spectroscopic methods. A compatibility criterion ($`D_m`$) of the light curves with those of a large sample of RRab stars was given in Kovács & Kanbur (1998, see also ). This method utilizes the interrelations between the Fourier parameters of the light curve and serves as a firmer restriction on the actual values of the Fourier parameters than their possible ranges. To quantify the morphological compatibility between a given RRab light curve and that of a large sample of RRab light curves, the $`D_m`$ parameter was introduced. This parameter represents the maximum value of the deviations of the observed Fourier amplitudes and phases from their predicted values calculated according to the interrelations. Checking whether these relations give correct values in any phase of the Blazhko cycle can help decide which is the normal phase during the Blazhko modulation.

Another tool for checking similarity (or difference) of a Blazhko star to the archetype of the class is to follow their behaviour in the photometric amplitude ($`A_V`$) – radial velocity amplitude ($`A_{v_{\mathrm{rad}}}`$) plane. This type of diagram was first constructed by Kurochkin (1959), who showed that these observed quantities are linearly correlated for different types of pulsating stars. Preston & Spinrad (1967, hereafter PS67) documented the behaviour of three Blazhko type variables in a similar plot.

In this paper we reexamine the light change variations of Blazhko stars utilizing the $`A_V`$$`A_{v_{\mathrm{rad}}}`$ relation, compare the measured and calculated \[Fe/H\] values (Jurcsik & Kovács, 1996) at different Blazhko phases, and measure the compatibility of the light curves with that of normal RRab stars using the interrelations between the Fourier parameters (Kovács & Kanbur, 1998), in order to answer the question: what is the normal state of a Blazhko star?

## 2 $`A_{v_{\mathrm{rad}}}`$ vs. $`A_V`$

Although very few radial velocity observations of Blazhko variables have been published since the appearance of the PS67 paper, the $`A_V`$$`A_{v_{\mathrm{rad}}}`$ diagram of a more complete sample of RR Lyrae stars given by Liu (1991) provides the opportunity and also makes it necessary to refine the positions of Blazhko variables on this diagram. In order to do so, the literature was searched for radial velocity measurements of known Blazhko variables.

Only radial velocity observations with sufficiently good phase coverage to measure the total amplitude could be utilized, provided that a conterporary photometric V amplitude could also be reliably determined.

Table 1 lists the radial velocity measurements as well as the corresponding photometric amplitudes of Blazhko stars. Most of the columns are self explanatory. The Blazhko phases ($`\mathrm{\Phi }_\mathrm{B}`$) of the observations were calculated using the ephemerides given in Table 2.

The radial velocity data are very heterogeneous, obtained by using instruments of different resolutions. A further inconsistency arises from the selection of spectral lines used in determining the radial velocity. The relation between the radial velocity and photometric amplitudes of pulsation defined by Liu (1991) was based on radial velocities of metallic lines, so we considered metallic line velocities if they were given separately from the results for hydrogen lines. In the case of RV UMa, however, only radial velocities of H lines were published in PS67. We attempted to transform these to match the metallic line radial velocities utilizing the extended observations of RR Lyr (Preston et al., 1965). The Balmer lines originate from higher regions of the atmosphere exhibiting a larger velocity gradient than shown by the photospheric metallic lines. It was found that radial velocities measured from H and metallic lines are strongly correlated, and with an appropriate linear transformation can be equalized within their error ranges (see Fig. 1). Although this relation may differ from star to star, we transformed the PS67 radial velocities of RV UMa accordingly, to estimate its metallic line radial velocity amplitudes in different Blazhko phases.

If there was no photometry simultaneous with the radial velocity observations, but the photometric amplitude for the same Blazhko phase could be reliably estimated from close (or distant) photometric observations, Table 1 lists these amplitudes.

Liu (1991) used the $`A_V`$$`A_{v_\mathrm{p}}`$ relation, where $`A_{v_\mathrm{p}}`$ is the pulsational velocity amplitude. Since the transformation of $`A_{v_{\mathrm{rad}}}`$ into $`A_{v_\mathrm{p}}`$ involves further uncertainties, we decided to use the directly measured radial velocity amplitudes. The regression of the $`A_V`$$`A_{v_{\mathrm{rad}}}`$ data of the sample used by Liu (1991, and references therein) has similar error statistics as the $`A_V`$$`A_{v_\mathrm{p}}`$ dataset, justifying our choice.

Fig. 2 shows the behaviour of 5 Blazhko variables in the $`A_V`$$`A_{v_{\mathrm{rad}}}`$ plane in different phases of their Blazhko cycles. In contrast to the early suggestion of PS67 the Blazhko stars seem to behave very similarly.

a) In the $`A_V`$$`A_{v_{\mathrm{rad}}}`$ plane they follow tracks with the same gradient within the limits of the observational uncertainties, these are steeper than the $`A_V`$$`A_{v_{\mathrm{rad}}}`$ relation defined by non-Blazhko variables. This means that the photometric amplitude of Blazhko stars in their smaller amplitude phase is larger than that of a normal RRab star with the same radial velocity amplitude.

b) The amplitude ratio of their photometric and radial velocity changes corresponds to that of non-Blazhko stars within the $`0.10.2`$ mag vicinity of their maximum photometric amplitudes.

## 3 Light curve shapes

The results shown in Sect. 2 hint that normal behaviour phases of Blazhko stars, if any, should be in the larger amplitude phase. To check the compatibility of Blazhko stars’ light curves with that of unmodulated single mode RRab stars we utilize the Fourier decompositions of complete light curves of different Blazhko phases. The compatibility is verified if both the $`D_m`$ criterion according to the formalism of Kovács & Kanbur (1998) is valid, and \[Fe/H\] calculated from the light curve parameters using the Jurcsik & Kovács (1996) metallicity formula is in good agreement with direct spectroscopic measurements. Selection criteria are chosen at the 2$`\sigma `$ limit for $`D_m`$ and $`\pm 0.15`$ dex for the difference between the measured and calculated metallicity values ($`D_m<2`$; $`|\mathrm{\Delta }[\mathrm{Fe}/\mathrm{H}]|<0.15`$).

The observational strategy followed by observers of Blazhko type stars has concentrated mostly on the rising branch and the maxima, thus only very limited complete light curves of Blazhko stars are available. We have constructed 21 nearly complete light curves of four Blazhko variables with spectroscopically known metallicities. These light curves, shown in Fig. 3 are compiled from the observations of consecutive nights of the same Blazhko phases within a limited time interval, in order to evaluate the occurrence of long term changes of any type.

In Fig. 3 light curves with $`D_m<2`$, and $`|\mathrm{\Delta }[\mathrm{Fe}/\mathrm{H}]|<0.15`$ are denoted by circles and crosses in the top right corners, respectively. Only three light curves fulfil both requirements: two light curves of RS Boo and one of RR Lyr. This light curve of RR Lyr is however, not representative for the large amplitude modulation, as these observations were obtained during the minima of the 4-year cycle (JD 2 434 553 –2 434 560), when the amplitude of the modulation was smaller than 0.1 mag (Detre & Szeidl, 1973). The behaviour of RS Boo differs from other Blazhko type variables in many respects, it has an unusually short fundamental mode period, a very long modulation period and only reduced changes in its light curve shape. It is important to note that none of the large amplitude light curves of RV UMa fulfil both criteria, although from Fig. 2 it could be suspected that the large amplitude phase might be undistorted.

## 4 Conclusions

A combination of the $`A_V`$$`A_{v_{\mathrm{rad}}}`$ behaviour and the light curve shapes of Blazhko variables leads to the conclusion that for Blazhko stars with large amplitude modulation there is no Blazhko phase which is compatible with that of a non-Blazhko RRab star. Although the amplitude ratio of the radial velocity and the light change match the normal mode pulsation during larger amplitude phases, none of these light curves has been proven to be undistorted.

Stars which seem to agree with single mode RRab stars in all the studied aspects are RR Lyrae in its low modulation amplitude phase of the 4-year cycle, and RS Boo whose amplitude modulation range is only about 0.15 mag.

This result means restriction for the theoretical explanation of the Blazhko phenomenon. Explanations that predict an undistorted light curve along any phase of a large amplitude modulation seem to be unrealistic.

###### Acknowledgements.

We thank Géza Kovács and Andrea Nagy for providing us with the electronic compilations of RV UMa and RS Boo data, and to Andrew Wilkins for correcting the language of the manuscript. This research has made use of the SIMBAD database, operated at CDS Strasbourg, France. This work has been partly supported by OTKA grants T30954 and T30955.