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# The informational nature of quantum mechanics: A novel look at the interference experiment

## I Introduction

In his classic EPR argument Einstein , Einstein concluded that the quantum state of a system can not be an objective physical property of the system. Indeed, it has also an anthropomorphic nature because it is a property of the ‘experimental setup’, i.e., the situation that we create by the experiments we choose to perform on the system. A given physical system (e.g. an electron) corresponds to many different setups depending on which parameters we choose to observe and/or control. In this respect, the quantum state is like the entropy in thermodynamics which is not a real property of the physical system but rather a property of the ‘thermodynamic system’; a given physical system corresponds to many different thermodynamic systems depending on which macrovariables one chooses to observe and/or control Jaynes . The analogy is interesting because a quantum state, like entropy, contains information which, therefore, pertains not to the physical system but to the particular experiments we choose to perform on it. Nevertheless, quantum mechanics denys the possibility for any observer to influence the outcome of a measurement once the experimental setup is prepared and particular qualities of an individual observer do not enter the description. The setup forms the objective context and quantum mechanics predicts what unrolls from that in an observer independent manner. The distribution of the outcome is, thus, a characteristic property of the setup so the latter must be taken into account as conditioning the outcome of the experiment.

Starting from this premises, the nature of the probabilities that enter the theory can be explained in terms of the above conditioning. In its most general form, probability can be viewed as expressing the logical relation between a proposition and its conditioning information (see Jaynes2 ; Ballentine  and the references therein); it quantifies what is logically inferable from that information with regard to the particular proposition. The translation of a given information into a definite probability assignment is, thus, an act of inference based on the optimal processing of the available information in a manner that does not arbitrarily ignore any part of it while ensuring that no other arbitrary assumptions have been introduced. In the present context, the conditioning information is the information content of the setup itself; it consists of the preparation information together with whatever physical laws and thought arguments that are relevant to the situation under consideration. The propositions, on the other hand, are the various final results at each repetition of the experiment. The logical relation between the two reduces to a deduction when the information implies the proposition or its denial (in the limit of probability values $`1`$ and $`0`$, respectively); classical mechanics being the ultimate example of such situations. Quantum mechanically, however, the information content of a setup is, in general, inherently insufficient to yield a deduction. Objectively speaking, the degree of control in reproducing a specific result is inherently limited by the setup itself. It is precisely this incomplete information (degree of control) that makes quantum mechanical predictions (experimental results) essentially statistical (irreproducible); the unavailable information (degree of control) is of no consequence to our predictions (the actual results) other than making them statistical (irreproducible). Indeed, by making statistical predictions it is automatically implied that the missing information/degree of control, although relevant to the result of a single repetition, is irrelevant to the outcome as a distribution. Instead, it is the available incomplete information that is represented by a probability distribution and from that it is just not possible to deduce the physical mechanisms that produce a single result. Phrased objectively, a frequency distribution merely represents the limited control of the setup in reproducing a specific result and not the physical mechanisms that give rise to such a result. In other words, it is the information content/degree of control of the situation that is reflected in the actual distribution of the outcome, in the same way that physical causations are reflected in the results of reproducible trials. In short, probability distributions basically describe information and do not correspond to physical causal influences. This is in line with Bell inequality arguments to the effect that quantum mechanical probabilities can not arise out of a causal (local) theory. Adopting such a stand has profound effects on the way we interpret the predictions of quantum mechanics and the actual outcomes of irreproducible trials in general.

What we are essentially implying is that quantum mechanical predictions should be viewed as logical inferences made on the basis of the information content of a given experimental situation. Phrased objectively, they are the only outcomes compatible with the degree of control exerted by the setup itself in reproducing a specific result. In dealing with such situations, the proper question to ask is: what can be logically infered from the prior information about a setup with regard to obtaining the various final results? The (subjective) probability distribution thus assigned is expected to be observed experimentally as the frequency distribution of the outcome, if and only if the information and its logical treatment have been proper. By implementing such a viewpoint in an appropriate framework, it is possible to maintain a sharp distinction between the physical and statistical aspects of quantum mechanics. The former constitutes the information content of a setup while the latter enters the representation of this information by a probability distribution for the outcome through logical inference. This, we suggest, is how quantum mechanics should be viewed and ultimately formulated, i.e., as the theory of optimal processing of (prior) information about given experimental situations. Indeed, the very fact that the physical and statistical aspects of the theory are scrambled up in its present formulation, together with a ‘physical’ instead of an ‘informational’ look at the probability itself, has been the source of many paradoxes as well as the need for interpretation. In the following example, we bring the idea into sharp focus by applying it to the double-beam interference experiment (Mach-Zehnder setup) which arguably lies at the heart of quantum mechanics. Our results will coincide with those obtained via the standard formulation of quantum mechanics in a manner that does not bear the mechanism of wave-particle duality at all.

## II The double-beam interference experiment

In each repetition of the experiment, a single particle is incident on a beam splitter which sends the particle along one of the two arms of length $`r_1`$ and $`r_2`$. The particle is then collected by means of two detectors, one facing each arm. Let us refer to this as setup 1. We also consider a different arrangement (setup 2), in which the two secondary beams are mixed via a second beam splitter in the standard manner.

In each repetition of the experiment we find that only one detector clicks which means that we are detecting a single particle. This is true for both setups. However, the distribution of these clicks is a characteristic property of the setup (and not the particle) which describes its information content. Let $`\{P_i\}`$ denote the probability distribution of the outcome, where $`i=1,2`$ lables the final result (detector click) at each repetition of the experiment. We are interested in infering $`\{P_i\}`$ for each setup on the basis of the information that went into its preparation together with whatever physical arguments that are relevant to the situation. Let us, therefore, consider each setup separately.

Setup 1: This setup is prepared in such a manner that one can associate with every click a path (and hence a path length). This constitutes the prior information about this setup. The length of the arms could have been left unspecified as far as this setup is concerned, because if we change them arbitrarily, the prior information will not be affected in any way. Consistency, then, requires that the subjective probability assigned to this information be independent of the length of the arms. Because of the symmetry of the situation, one infers that $`P_1=P_2=\frac{1}{2}`$ for all $`r_1,r_2`$. This is the distribution that one expects to observe experimentally. It characterizes this setup in that it describes its information content in a unique manner.

Setup 2: Here the preparation is such that, because of the mixing produced by the second beam splitter, one cannot associate with every click a path nor a path length; unless, of course, $`r_1=r_2`$, where a path length (but not a path) can be associated. This last point, although seemingly trivial, is a part of the prior information about the setup which must not be disregarded unconsciously. It immediately implies that the prior information cannot be indifferent to the path difference $`x=r_1r_2`$ because it changes when $`x=0`$. Consistency, then, requires that the subjective probability describing this information must depend on $`x`$. We, therefore, write $`P_1=f(x),P_2=1f(x)`$ where $`f(x)`$ is an arbitrary (non-constant) function with range $`[0,1]`$ such that $`f(0)=0`$ or $`1`$. (This is because the beam initially has to enter the first beam splitter along one arm or the other, and this choice for $`x=0`$ breaks the symmetry of the situation.) However, this distribution does not fully describe the prior information about the setup; the very fact that the information is otherwise indifferent to the functional form of $`f(x)`$ has its own consequence which must not be overlooked. In general, it is important to take into account what is left unspecified by the prior information as carefully as what is specified, because the former automatically implies certain invariance properties related to the unspecified circumstances.

Now the change in the prior information produced by the change $`xx+dx`$ is represented by the statistical distance Fisher ; Bhattacharyya ; Wootters  between the corresponding probability distributions, namely,

$$ds^2=\underset{i}{}(d\sqrt{P_i})^2=\frac{f_{}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}}{4f(1f)}dx^2.$$
(1)
This is nonzero, a manifestation of the fact that the information is not indifferent to the value of the path difference. However, because of the indifference of the prior information to $`f(x)`$, $`|ds/dx|`$ (which represents how the information is distributed with respect to $`x`$) is left (a priori) unspecified in this setup; in clear contrast with the situation in setup 1. In view of this unspecified circumstance, the most symmetric and least biased criterion would be to assign, a priori, the same value to $`|ds/dx|`$ for all values of $`x`$. Otherwise, clearly, $`|ds/dx|`$ could not have been completely unspecified; we must have had some kind of prior information about it. This ‘invariance property’ for the metric is just an example of ‘equal a priori rule’; it avoids bias while agreeing with whatever information given. It is maximally noncomittal with regards to the unavailable information; any other criterion would introduce unconscious arbitrary assumptions not warranted by the information content of the setup. Therefore, the proper description of this information is provided by the criterion that

$$\frac{|f^{}|}{\sqrt{f(1f)}}=k,$$
(2)
where $`k`$ is a (positive) constant related to the setup under consideration. This implies the solution,

$$f(x)=\frac{1}{2}(1\pm \mathrm{cos}kx),$$
(3)
so that

$$P_{1,2}=\frac{1}{2}(1\pm \mathrm{cos}kx).$$
(4)
Now, on physical grounds, we know a priori that for a $`x`$-dependent probability distribution to emerge, a finite length scale is needed, in the abscence of which the experimental situation must remain scale-invariant. Thus, $`k^1`$, is to be identified with some relevant property of the setup which, by preparation, has the same value in every repetition of the experiment, acting as a length scale to make $`kx`$ dimensionless. Its value is determined a priori from the preparation information. Given that no such provision has been made in the experimental preparation beforehand, we must set $`k=0`$, yielding, $`P_{1,2}=0,1`$. On the other hand, given that it is the momentum, $`p`$, of the particle that is kept fixed in the experiment, we identify $`k`$ with $`p`$ (in units $`\mathrm{}=1`$). Otherwise, i.e. when we do not know the manner of preparation, $`k`$ remains a free parameter to be determined experimentally; it will turn out to be $`0`$ or $`p`$, depending on the preparation of the experiment. In any case, the experimental distribution of the outcome will reflect this information as a part of the preparation information of the setup.

Result 4 is the only probability distribution compatible with the information content of setup 2 and is, therefore, the distribution we expect to observe experimentally. This is why when the information is tampered with in anyway (as in delayed choice experiments), the outcome must change accordingly. Needless to emphasize, the notion of wave-particle duality, thus, becomes superfluous. The need to resort to wave nature (interference) not only does not arise to obtain the result but also such physical mechanisms, as explained, need not enter its interpretation at all. What represents the particle is an individual detector click and what represents the information content of the setup is the distribution of such clicks. In fact, as far as physical implications are concerned, this experiment is as trivial as setup 1.

It is not difficult to see that the above approach can be adopted to other experiments that have two potential final results at each repetition. For such experiments it is, thus, possible to obtain the standard quantum mechanical probabilities on the basis of their information content, rendering the superposition principle superfluous.

The following comment may be in order. The above approach suffers from the same drawback that has always plagued the use of the “equal a priori rule”. Inspite of its large domain of application, it has the obvious difficulty that it is not invariant under a change of parameters and there seems to be no criterion for telling us which parametrization to use Jaynes ; Jaynes2 . For exapmle, in our argument, if we were to parametrize the probabilities by $`y=\sqrt{x}`$ or $`x^2`$ instead of $`x`$, we would find that the probabilities vary sinusoidally with y, which is not the correct physical result. For the present, we propose to dodge this issue by regarding the approach as a naive form of the (presumably more fundamental) theory of optimal processing of information which would involve pondering into the nature of phase in terms of its role in the proper representation of information. Therefore, the value of the argument mainly lies in serving to stress the informational nature of quantum mechanics in the first place and to bring the underlying philosophy into focus.

###### Acknowledgements.

I would like to acknowledge the hospitality of the Physics Department of Simon Fraser University where this work was carried out during my sabbatical leave. I would also like to thank Professor L. E. Ballentine for reading the manuscript.


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# 1 Introduction

## 1 Introduction

In proton acceleration models the intrinsically produced tau neutrino flux is expected to be very small, typically a factor between $`10^5`$ and $`10^6`$ relative to electron and muon neutrino fluxes. The recent experimental measurements of atmospheric neutrinos suggest that neutrinos could just have vacuum flavor oscillations and the tau neutrino flux would be enhanced. In atmospheric neutrinos the contribution of tau neutrinos would be small but it would not be so in case of extragalactic neutrinos. The appearance of high energy tau neutrinos due to $`\nu _\mu \nu _\tau `$ oscillations can be observed by measuring the neutrino induced upward hadronic and electromagnetic showers or upward going muons.

The muon and electron neutrinos during their propagation through the Earth are absorbed due to charged current and neutral current interactions. We can expect an exponential fall of the numbers of muon and electron neutrinos at high energies due to absorptions after their passage through the Earth. The high energy tau neutrinos are also absorbed in the matter of the Earth but they are regenerated. The tau leptons produced from $`\nu _\tau `$s in charged current interactions again decay to produce $`\nu _\tau `$s of lower energies. The $`\tau `$ leptons produced from $`\nu _\tau `$s in charged current interactions decay in several channels. There are six decay modes of $`\tau `$ leptons described in .In all these decay modes $`\nu _\tau `$s are produced but in only one of these decay modes muons are produced which are expected to be detected by large area muon detectors.

It is possible to detect high energy tau neutrinos by their characteristic double shower events  or by the pileup of tau neutrino events near 100 TeV . It has been pointed out in  the observation of double-bang events is difficult in a first generation telescope such as AMANDA . High energy tau neutrinos initiate a cascade in the Earth which will generate tau neutrinos of reduced energies in each interaction. Once the energies of the tau neutrinos fall below the threshold for absorption they propagate directly to the detector with energies in the range of 10 TeV to 100 TeV. If the source neutrino energy spectrum falls slower than $`E^2`$ all $`\nu _\tau `$s with energies greater than 100 TeV will have their energies reduced to about 100 TeV after their passage through the Earth. In this way a pileup of tau neutrino events is expected to be produced near neutrino energy 100 TeV.

The very high energy $`\nu _\mu `$ neutrinos are absorbed as they penetrate the Earth. The $`\nu _\mu `$ neutrinos which pass through a lesser amount of matter inside the Earth are absorbed in lesser amount compared to the neutrinos which directly cross the diameter of the Earth. The muon neutrino events are maximum in the horizontal direction and minimum in the vertical direction in the muon detector. These events gradually increase from the vertical direction to the horizontal direction. But we expect the tau neutrino events to be uniformly distributed over all zenith angles in the muon detector because they are regenerated during their propagation through the Earth . This is another experimental signature for $`\nu _\tau `$ neutrinos.

In this work we calculate the upward going muon event rates from muon and tau neutrinos of a GRB for very high muon threshold energies of the detector when the muon neutrinos are mostly absorbed during their propagation through the Earth. We can not confirm the observation of appearance of tau neutrinos in the muon detector unless we reach the threshold energy of the detector when the Earth is no more transparent to muon neutrinos. Moreover the muon neutrinos are not significantly absorbed in the Earth if they are coming from horizontal directions. In this case the observation of muons even at very high energies does not provide conclusive evidence of the appearance of tau neutrinos from a single GRB. So the zenith angle at which the GRB is observed also plays a crucial role in providing unmistakeable signature of the tau neutrinos in the muon detector from a single GRB. The proposed kilometer scale IceCube neutrino telescope from its South Pole location will observe a particular GRB at a fixed zenith angle. In that case we do not have the opportunity to observe uniform tau neutrino event rates at all zenith angles. We show that if we receive upward going muons at a very high threshold energy above 30PeV from a GRB then only we can confirm the appearance of tau neutrinos from that GRB. At such high threshold energies the role of atmospheric noise is negligible. We will be able to conclude about the appearance of tau neutrinos from a GRB if we can separate the $`\nu _\tau `$ signals from $`\nu _\mu `$ signals of that GRB using the phenomena of $`\nu _\mu `$ absorptions during the propagation of $`\nu _\mu `$s through the Earth. Also if the burst is bright and nearby then only we expect to detect muon signals from that burst.

We have not considered the tau neutrinos which produce double bang events in this work because they are much less compared to the events in which muons are produced via tau lepton decays $`(\nu _\tau \tau \mu )`$ .

A new effect has been pointed out in . The $`\nu _\tau \tau \nu _\tau `$ regeneration process creates a secondary $`\overline{\nu }_\mu `$ flux. Though the $`\overline{\nu }_\mu `$ flux is at most 0.2 of the $`\nu _\tau `$ flux, the neutral current channels in total ($`\overline{\nu }_\mu `$ and $`\overline{\nu }_e`$ channels) increase the detectability of $`\nu _\tau `$ events by $`40\%`$.

We proceed as follows in this paper. In section 2 we mention about the procedure we have used for calculating the number of tau neutrinos from a GRB. The formulation used in this work to calculate the number of secondary muon events from tau neutrinos of a GRB has been discussed in section 3. The results of this work have been explained in section 4. We find it is possible to detect unmistakeably the signature of tau neutrinos from individual GRBs at zenith angle $`180^{}`$ in a muon detector of $`km^2`$ area if the total energy emitted by the GRB in neutrino emissions ($`E_{GRB}`$) is $`10^{53}erg`$ and its redshift ($`z`$) is below 0.01 or if $`E_{GRB}=10^{54}erg`$ and the redshift $`z`$ of the GRB is below 0.03. We need a muon threshold energy 30 PeV for detecting tau neutrino signals in a muon detector of $`km^2`$ area. One can obtain conditions for detectability of tau neutrino events from a single GRB in $`km^2`$ area muon detector for other values of $`E_{GRB}`$.

## 2 The Number of Tau Neutrinos Produced from Muon Neutrinos of a Gamma Ray Burst

We consider the fireball model of GRBs (Gamma Ray Bursts)  and calculate the expected tau neutrino event rates in a large area muon detector for different choices of the GRB parameters. Each GRB is characterised by its Lorentz boost factor $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$, total energy emitted in neutrinos $`E_{GRB}`$, distance of the GRB from the observer (redshift) $`z`$ and duration of the burst. Also there are other parameters like photon spectral break energy $`E_{\gamma ,MeV}^b`$ and wind variability time $`t_v`$. There is correlation between the parameters minimum Lorentz factor $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$, wind variability time $`t_v`$ and $`E_{\gamma ,MeV}^b`$ for known values of wind luminosity and equipartition parameter $`ϵ_B`$ . We have used this correlation in calculating the number of neutrinos emitted from a GRB. The detail procedure for calculation of number of muon neutrinos produced from a GRB has been discussed in . The original muon neutrinos from GRBs are undergoing oscillations during propagation and tau neutrinos are produced in this way. The probablity of oscillation from $`\nu _\mu `$ to $`\nu _\tau `$ is given by

$$Prob(\nu _\mu \nu _\tau )=sin^22\theta sin^2(\frac{\mathrm{}m^2d}{4E_\nu })$$
(1)
Considering the values of neutrino mass difference and mixing as found from SuperKamiokande data $`(sin^22\theta 1,\mathrm{}m^210^3eV^2)`$  and the distance ($`d`$) of the source of the order of a megaparsec to thousands of megaparsecs the above expression for probablity averages to about half for all relevant neutrino energies to be considered for detection . Independent of the energies of the high-energy muon neutrinos their number is suppressed by a costant factor of half due to neutrino oscillations. The number of muon neutrinos produced from a GRB when multiplied by the probablity of oscillation from muon neutrinos to tau neutrinos gives the number of tau neutrinos produced from that GRB.

Number of $`\nu _\tau `$s produced from a GRB due to $`\nu _\mu \nu _\tau `$ oscillation = Number of $`\nu _\mu `$s from the GRB $`\times Prob(\nu _\mu \nu _\tau )`$

## 3 The Number of Secondary Muons Produced from Tau Neutrinos and Muon Neutrinos of a GRB

The tau neutrinos produce tau leptons in charged current interactions during their passage through the Earth. The energy dependent charged current cross-sections for productions of tau leptons from tau neutrinos and muons from muon neutrinos have been used from . The energy dependent total cross-sections for muon neutrino absorptions have also been used from . We have calculated the number of secondary muons from a single GRB produced via the decays of the tau leptons from $`\nu _\tau `$s using the formula for muon event rate calculation discussed in . The number of muon events has been calculated as a function of the muon threshold energy of the detector of $`km^2`$ area. The probablity of the decay process $`\tau \nu _\tau \mu \overline{\nu }_\mu `$ in which a muon will be produced is 0.18 . The tau lepton carry a fraction 0.75 of the initial tau neutrino energy and the muon produced from $`\tau `$ decay carry a fraction 0.4 of the tau lepton energy . The secondary muons produced from $`\tau `$ decays below the detector lose energy during their propagation. We have used the formula for energy loss of muons in rock from  in calculating the energy dependent ranges of the muons in rock. The procedure for calculation of number of secondary muon events produced from muon neutrinos of a GRB has been discussed in .

## 4 Results and Discussions

We study the appearance of tau neutrinos from a single GRB for the first time. Each gamma ray burst is an individual phenomenon of short duration in the Universe. The observation of the tau leptons from GRBs can be used to probe studies on neutrino oscillations with $`\mathrm{}m^2`$ to a value as low as $`10^{17}eV^2`$ . Here the square of the mass difference is relative to the original $`\nu _{e,\mu }`$. This kind of an observation on $`\nu _\tau `$ appearance would extend the present understanding of neutrino oscillations ($`\nu _\mu \nu _\tau `$) by fourteen orders of magnitude. Neutrino astronomy with tau neutrinos also opens an opportunity to know about the ultra high energy neutrino productions from different astrophysical objects.As has been discussed in  if there exist large angle vacuum neutrino oscillations involving $`\nu _\tau `$ with sufficient value of $`\mathrm{}m^2`$ consistent with Super-Kamiokande results  a pure $`\nu _\mu `$ source of energy upto even $`10^{21}eV`$ can be observed in the muon detector. Since these neutrinos are of very high energy the final $`\nu _\tau `$s always point back to their source.

In Fig.1. the numbers of muon events from muon neutrinos and tau neutrinos of a GRB have been plotted for different muon threshold energies of the muon detector of $`km^2`$ area. The energy of the GRB is assumed to be $`10^{54}erg`$ and the burst is observed at zenith angle $`\theta =180^{}`$.The GRB is at a distance of redshift $`z=0.03`$. The wind luminosity is assumed to be $`10^{53}erg/sec`$. Nearly $`10\%`$ of the initial fireball proton energy or wind energy is released in neutrino emissions from a GRB . The Lorentz factor of the GRB is assumed to be 199.52 for photon spectral break energy $`E_\gamma ^b=50.118MeV`$ . We are interested to know the value of muon threshold energy of the detector at which the number of muon events from tau neutrinos of a GRB outnumbers the number of muon events from muon neutrinos of that GRB. We have varied the threshold energy of the muon detector upto 100 PeV. As we increase the muon threshold energy above 20PeV we observe the number of muon events from tau neutrinos remains constant at a value of nearly 1event/$`km^2`$. Near muon threshold energy 30PeV the number of muon events from tau neutrinos of a GRB is more than the number of muon events from muon neutrinos of that GRB. Also the signal from tau neutrinos does not drop below 1event/$`km^2`$. In Fig.1. we have also plotted the sums of the numbers of muon neutrino and tau neutrino events from the GRB in a muon detector of $`km^2`$ area against the muon threshold energy of the detector.

In Fig.2. the numbers of muon events from muon neutrinos and tau neutrinos of a GRB in a muon detector of $`km^2`$ area have been again plotted as a function of muon threshold energy of the detector. The GRB is assumed to be at a distance of redshift $`z=0.01`$ and total energy emitted in neutrinos is $`E_{GRB}=10^{53}erg`$. It has been shown in  that the mean isotropic equivalent energy emitted by GRBs is of the order of $`10^{53}erg`$. The allowed values of Lorentz factor and corresponding photon spectral break energy have been used from . An initial tau neutrino threshold energy of 100 TeV corresponds to a secondary muon threshold energy of 30 TeV because the muons produced via decays of tau leptons produced from tau neutrinos carry about $`3/10`$ of the initial tau neutrino energy . In this plot we find that near muon threshold energy 30PeV the number of muon events from tau neutrinos of a GRB remains near 1event/$`km^2`$ while the number muon events from muon neutrinos of that GRB falls below 1event/$`km^2`$. When the order of the muon threshold energy is PeV the number muon events from individual GRBs does not change significantly due to the change in the value of minimum Lorentz factor.

In Fig.3. the dependence of numbers of muon events from tau neutrinos and muon neutrinos of a GRB on the redshift of the GRB has been shown.The energy emitted in a burst is assumed to be $`E_{GRB}=10^{54}erg`$. The number of muon events falls rapidly as we increase the redshift of the GRB. The detector threshold energy is assumed to be $`E_{th}=30`$ PeV and the zenith angle of observation is $`\theta =180^{}`$. The GRBs are distributed uniformly upto a redshift of about $`z=2`$ . There is only opportunity of detecting tau neutrino appearance from bursts at very low redshifts. From Fig.3. we notice that at all redshifts the numbers of muon events from muon neutrinos and tau neutrinos of a GRB remain nearly equal for muon threshold energy $`E_{th}=30`$PeV.

The numbers of muon events from tau neutrinos and muon neutrinos of a GRB increase linearly with increasing values of $`E_{GRB}`$ which is the total energy emitted in neutrino emissions.

We also find from our calculations that when $`E_{GRB}=10^{53}erg`$ and $`E_{GRB}=10^{54}erg`$ we can not expect to detect tau neutrino signals from individual GRBs in $`km^2`$ area muon detector if their redshifts are more than $`z=0.01`$ and $`z=0.03`$ respectively. We have used the allowed values of minimum Lorentz factor and photon spectral break energy for wind luminosity $`10^{53}erg/sec`$ from . The wind durations are typically of the order of 10 seconds. One can find similar constraints for detectability of tau neutrinos from individual GRBs in $`km^2`$ area muon detector for other values of $`E_{GRB}`$ using the allowed values of GRB parameters such as minimum Lorentz factor, photon spectral break energy and wind luminosity corresponding to those values of $`E_{GRB}`$.

## 5 Conclusion

The detectability of tau neutrinos produced from oscillations of muon neutrinos originated from individual GRBs has been tested for the first time in a muon detector of $`km^2`$ area. The role of the GRB parameters on the detectability of tau neutrinos from individual GRBs has been explained in this work. If the energies emitted in neutrino emissions are $`10^{53}erg`$ and $`10^{54}erg`$ and the bursts are at distances of redshifts less than $`z=0.01`$ and $`z=0.03`$ respectively, it will be possible to detect $`\nu _\tau `$ signals from them in a $`km^2`$ area muon detector in the vertical direction. The muon threshold energy has to be 30 PeV for this purpose. Also the oscillation parameters influence the number of $`\nu _\tau `$ events. One can find out the values of neutrino mass difference and mixing parameters in extragalactic neutrinos by observing the disappearance of muon neutrinos or the appearance of tau neutrinos.

## 6 Acknowledgment

The author is thankful to the referee for helpful suggestions.


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# Ionization freeze-out and barium problem in supernova 1987A

## Ionization freeze-out and barium problem in supernova 1987A

V.P. Utrobin1,2, N.N. Chugai3
1 Institute for Theoretical and Experimental Physics, 117259 Moscow, Russia
2 Max-Planck-Institut für Astrophysik, D-85741 Garching, Germany
3 Institute of Astronomy of Russian Academy of Sciences, 109017 Moscow, Russia

### Abstract

We have shown that in the atmosphere of SN 1987A level populations of hydrogen are mostly controlled by an ionization freeze-out and ion-molecular processes up to $``$ 40 days. The ionization freeze-out effects are important for normal SNe II-P as well. The time dependent effects and the mutual neutralization between H- and H+ may result in a non-monotonic radial dependence of the Sobolev optical depth for H$`\alpha `$ and then in a blue emission satellite of H$`\alpha `$ observed in SN 1987A spectra at Bochum event phase. The relative abundance of molecular hydrogen n(H2)/n(H) $``$ 10-4–10-3 is high enough for the photospheric phase of SN 1987A. We emphasize that the poor knowledge of the far UV radiation field in the envelope of SN 1987A still forbids a truly reliable estimate of the Ba abundance but well-constructed and tested models may improve this situation.

### 1.1 Introduction

As time goes on an impression strengthens that almost everything is well understood with respect to supernova (SN) 1987A in the Large Magellanic Cloud (LMC). But it is not the case. Let us consider merely two neighbor lines: H$`\alpha `$ and Ba II 6142 Å. At early times (during 20–100 days) the H$`\alpha `$ line exhibits a striking fine structure called ”Bochum event” . This phenomenon was originally described as two additional emission-like features, a red emission satellite (RES) and a blue emission satellite (BES). Such an H$`\alpha `$ profile was supposed to result from a superposition of an asymmetric and a spherically symmetric component .

The asymmetric component responsible for the RES detail consisted of the bright core with the radial velocity of $`+4000`$ km s-1 and the extended halo of a lower brightness. A transversal velocity of the core of 2400 km s-1, estimated with the effect of the occultation of the asymmetric component by the photosphere, together with the radial velocity gave the absolute velocity of 4700 km s-1. It was evident that the core of the asymmetric component coincided with the 56Ni clump, which should have the same absolute velocity of 4700 km s-1. The amount of 56Ni in the fast clump was estimated as $`10^3M_{}`$. The symmetric component was adapted to match the BES feature of H$`\alpha `$ and was characterized by the non-monotonic radial dependence of the Sobolev optical depth which had no physical explanation.

The unusually strong Ba II 6142 Å line in early spectra of SN 1987A is a distinctive feature of this supernova , which still remains a subject of great concern after first studies  claimed the large (up to a factor of 20) Ba overabundance derived from the line strength. The problem is that the $`s`$-process nucleosynthesis in massive stars evolving to the presupernova star of SN 1987A  is not able to yield the Ba overabundance in the hydrogen envelope by more than a factor of 1.4 assuming that a total ejecta mass is 15 $`M_{}`$, a mass-cut is at 2 $`M_{}`$ , and the synthesized Ba is completely mixed over the ejecta.

More naturally is to consider the large strength of Ba II 6142 Å as the outcome of specific conditions in the SN 1987A atmosphere. It was recognized that if Ba in the envelope of SN 1987A was mostly in Ba II ion form then the Ba II 6142 Å line might be reproduced with the Ba abundance typical for the LMC . The absence of strong Ba lines in normal SNe II-P was explained then by the fact that Ba in the atmosphere of these supernovae was mostly in Ba III form. An atmosphere model based on solving the radiation transfer equation with the Monte Carlo technique was able to account for the low strength of Ba II lines in normal SNe II-P for the solar abundance, but failed to produce strong Ba II lines in SN 1987A for the LMC abundance . It was acknowledged that this atmosphere model of SN 1987A used for Ba II lines simulation was presumably not adequate enough because of a poor agreement in hydrogen Balmer line intensities.

Generally, until recently the modelling of hydrogen lines in SN 1987A at the photospheric epoch has remained a challenging problem for spectrum synthesis (e.g. ). Situation has changed recently, when it has become clear that the major drawback of standard atmosphere models for SNe II-P was an assumption of the statistical equilibrium. It has been shown in the frame of time dependent chemical kinetics that an ionization freeze-out plays a crucial role in the ionization and excitation of hydrogen in the atmosphere of SNe II-P at the photospheric epoch . Moreover, in the atmosphere of SN 1987A ion-molecular processes might become essential in producing ionization of hydrogen. In view of these results a motivation of the work is to take time dependent effects into account, to construct an adequate model, to succeed in reproducing H$`\alpha `$ profile, and then to study the Ba II 6142 Å line in SN 1987A at the photospheric epoch.

### Model and Input Physics

A full model should be based on the hydrodynamic model and time-dependent radiation transport, and should include self-consistent electron temperature evolution and full reaction network.

Our present model is based on the hydrodynamic model  which has an ejecta of mass 15$`M_{}`$ and a kinetic energy of 1.44$`\times `$1051 erg. The radiation field is treated in the approximation of clear-cut photosphere and above atmosphere. For t$`<`$1.8 days the radiation field in continuum is described by the photospheric radius and effective temperature, taken from the hydrodynamic model, and then by those observed  and by the approximated UV and optical observations . The line radiation transfer is treated in the modified Sobolev approximation  as a purely local process. Instead of solving the energy equation we use two regimes for the electron temperature: radiative equilibrium and adiabatic approximation.

The following elements and molecules are calculated in non-LTE chemical kinetics: H, He, C, N, O, Ne, Na, Mg, Si, S, Ar, Ca, Fe, Ba, H-, H2, H$`{}_{}{}^{+}{}_{2}{}^{}`$, and H$`{}_{}{}^{+}{}_{3}{}^{}`$. All elements but H are treated with the three ionization stages. The level populations of H and Ba II are calculated for 15 and 17 levels, respectively, and the rest of atoms and ions are assumed to consist of the ground state and continuum. The reaction network involves all bound-bound and bound-free, radiative and collisional processes for atoms and ions, and 7 radiative and 37 collisional processes for molecules. To reproduce the chemical composition typical to the LMC situation  all metal abundances are scaled to 1/2.88 their solar values.

### Results

We have developed a time dependent chemistry model for supernova envelope at photospheric phase and investigated spectra of SN 1987A. On day 29 Fig. 1 shows the specific non-monotonic radial dependence of the Sobolev optical depth of H$`\alpha `$ over envelope with minimum near the photosphere. Just such a distribution we need to reproduce the BES feature of H$`\alpha `$ profile. Note that the fractional abundance of molecular hydrogen of the order of 10-4 is high enough for the photospheric phase of SN 1987A. The fit between the observed and calculated H$`\alpha `$ profiles on days 14 and 29 is fairly good in Fig. 1 indicating that we have constructed a correct model.

The influence of time dependent effects on the H$`\alpha `$ profile is shown in Fig. 2. It is clear that the ionization freeze-out plays a key role in producing the ionization and excitation of hydrogen for times nearly up to day 40 when the non-thermal ionization and excitation resulting from radioactive 56Ni decays become essential . In addition, from Fig. 2 it is evident that molecules are mainly responsible for the formation of the minimum of the Sobolev optical depth above the photosphere and, as a consequence, for the BES feature at Bochum event phase. A leading reaction in the neutralization of ionized hydrogen is mutual neutralization between H- and H+: H- \+ H+ $``$ 2 H.

Now when we have got a confidence in reproducing the observed H$`\alpha `$ profile we can study the barium line. In Fig. 3 there is a good fit between the observed and calculated Ba II 6142 Å line but the approximated UV and optical observations result in the Ba overabundance ratio $``$ 12 for the time-dependent solution and $``$ 16 for the steady one. The point is that the fractional abundance of Ba II in the supernova envelope turns out too low to produce the strong barium line with the low Ba overabundance ratio. We have analyzed this situation and found out that, it is evident, the fractional abundance of Ba II is very sensitive to the radiation flux at photon energies responsible for Ba II ionization from ground state and excited levels.

### Discussion

To evaluate the influence of the radiation flux on the Ba II fractional abundance we calculate a toy model with the Ba abundance ratio of 1.4 as predicted from the $`s`$-process nucleosynthesis. In this model the calculated Ba II 6142 Å line matches the observed one as shown in Fig. 3 assuming a reduction of the radiation flux by a factor of $``$ 17 in the far UV region.

So, the far UV radiation field plays a vital role in estimating Ba abundance in SN 1987A. A crucial question is whether the observed flux is an intrinsic flux of SN 1987A or not. Taking a number of uncertainties in measuring the far UV flux of SN 1987A into account it is reasonable to assume that the observed flux is presumably not related to the radiation field in the region where the barium line forms. Thus we have at least two alternatives: pessimistic and optimistic. If we consider the observed flux as responsible for the Ba II ionization in supernova envelope we should accept the Ba abundance as large as 12 or so. And there is nothing more to do. This is the pessimistic alternative. In opposite case we can solve the radiation transfer equation in far UV region, check the solution in some way, and estimate Ba abundance in SN 1987A. It is the optimistic alternative.

### Conclusions

We have developed a time dependent chemistry model for supernova envelope at photospheric phase that, in connection with hydrodynamic models, provides a powerful tool to investigate supernova spectra.

We have shown that level populations of hydrogen are mostly controlled by an ionization freeze-out and ion-molecular processes up to $``$ 40 days in the atmosphere of SN 1987A. The ionization freeze-out effects are important for normal SNe II-P as well.

The time dependent effects and mutual neutralization between H- and H+ may result in a non-monotonic radial dependence of the Sobolev optical depth for H$`\alpha `$ and then in a blue emission satellite of H$`\alpha `$ observed in SN 1987A spectra at Bochum event phase.

It should be noted that the relative abundance of molecular hydrogen n(H2)/n(H) $``$ 10-4–10-3 is high enough for the photospheric phase of SN 1987A.

We emphasize that the poor knowledge of the far UV radiation field in the envelope of SN 1987A still forbids a truly reliable estimate of the Ba abundance but well-constructed and tested models may improve this situation.

### Acknowledgements

V.P.U. is grateful to W. Hillebrandt and E. Müller for hospitality, for giving an opportunity to participate in the Eleventh Workshop on Nuclear Astrophysics, and for the financial support of his participation at this workshop and staying at the MPA, and also would like to thank Keith Butler for providing him with atomic data on the once-ionized barium. The work in Russia is partially supported by the RFBR (project 01-02-16295).


text:
# IMPLEMENTING POWER LAW INFLATION WITH TACHYON ROLLING ON THE BRANE

## I Introduction

Cosmological inflation has become an integral part of the standard model of the universe. Apart from being capable of removing the shortcomings of the standard cosmology, the paradigm seems to have gained a fairly good amount of support from the recent observations on microwave background radiation. On the other hand there have been difficulties in obtaining accelerated expansion from fundamental theories such as M/String theory. Recently, Sen sen1 ; sen2  has shown that the decay of an unstable D-brane produces pressure-less gas with finite energy density that resembles classical dust. Gibbons has emphasized the cosmological implications of tachyonic condensate rolling towards its ground state. gibbons . Rolling tachyon matter associated with unstable D-branes has an interesting equation of state which smoothly interpolates between -1 and 0. The tachyonic matter, therefore, might provide an explanation for inflation at the early epochs and could contribute to some new form of dark matter at late times ftytgat ; feinstein ; shiu ; paddy2 ; paddy ; jatkar ; hashimoto ; kim ; shima ; minahan ; cornalba ; benoum ; li ; hwang  . An effective potential for tachyon condensate is computed in reference moore ; the expression is exact in $`\alpha ^{}`$ but tree level in $`g_s`$. Sen sen3  has shown that the choice of an exponential potential for the tachyonic field leads to the absence of plane-wave solutions around the tachyon vacuum and exponential decay of the pressure at late times. However, due to the limitations of non-perturbative calculation, it is perfectly legitimate, as pointed out by Padmanabhan paddy , to construct a potential leading to desired cosmological evolution.The evolution of FRW cosmological models and linear perturbations of tachyon matter rolling towards a minimum of its potential is discussed by Frolov , Kofman and Starobinsky kstarobinsky .

Another interesting development in cosmology inspired by String theory is related to Brane World cosmology. In this scenario, our four dimensional space time is realized as an embedding or a boundary (brane) of the higher dimensional space time (bulk). In this picture all the matter fields are confined to the brane whereas gravity can propagate in the bulk. The scenario has interesting cosmological implications, in particular, the prospects of inflation are enhanced on the brane due to an additional quadratic term in density in the Friedmann equation. In this note , following reference paddy  , we construct potentials which can implement power law inflation on FRW brane in presence of normal scalar field as well the tachyonic field. The fact that one can construct $`V(\varphi )`$ for a given $`a(t)`$ has been known earlier ellis  and the method was practically used in reference sstarobinsky . Effects of tachyon in context of brane world cosmology are discussed in reference papas . Dynamics of gauge fields with rolling tachyon on unstable D-branes is studied in reference minahan2 ; akira ; mehen

### I.1  SCALAR FIELD POTENTIAL FOR NON-TACHYONIC MATTER ON FRW BRANE

In the 4+1 dimensional brane world scenario inspired by Randall-Sundrum model randall , the Friedmann equation is modified tocline

$$H^2=\frac{1}{3M_p^2}\rho \left(1+\frac{\rho }{2\lambda _b}\right)+\frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }_4}{3}+\frac{}{a^4}$$
(1)
where $``$ is an integration constant which transmits bulk graviton influence onto the brane and $`\lambda _b`$ is the brane tension. For simplicity we set $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_4`$ equal to zero and also drop the last term as otherwise the inflation would render it so, leading to the expression

$$H^2=\frac{1}{3M_p^2}\rho \left(1+\frac{\rho }{2\lambda _b}\right)$$
(2)
where $`\rho \rho _\varphi =\frac{1}{2}\dot{\varphi }^2+V(\varphi )`$ if one is dealing with universe dominated by a single scalar field minimally coupled to gravity. The pressure of the scalar field is given by $`pp_\varphi =\frac{1}{2}\dot{\varphi }^2V(\varphi )`$ and the equation of motion of the field propagating on the brane is

$$\ddot{\varphi }+3H\dot{\varphi }+\frac{dV}{d\varphi }=0$$
(3)
The conservation equation equivalent to ( 3 ) is

$$\frac{\dot{\rho }_\varphi }{\rho _\varphi }+3H(1+\omega )=0$$
(4)
where $`\omega =\frac{p_\varphi }{\rho _\varphi }`$ is the equation of state for the scalar field. The brane effects in context of inflation are most pronounced in the high energy limit $`V>>\lambda _b`$ ; the Friedmann equation in this limit becomes

$$H=\frac{\rho }{(6\lambda _bM_p^2)^{1/2}}$$
(5)
Using the Friedmann equation ( 5 ) and the conservation equation ( 4 ), one obtains the expression for $`(1+\omega )`$

$$1+\omega =\frac{1}{3}\frac{\dot{H}}{H^2}$$
(6)
From the evolution equation ( 3 ) and the expression $`\frac{\dot{\varphi }^2}{2}=V(1+\omega )(1\omega )^1`$, one obtains the differential equation for the potential V

$$\frac{\dot{V}}{V}=\frac{\dot{f}+6Hf}{1+f}$$
(7)
where $`f=(1+w)(1w)^1`$ Integrating ( 7 ) leads to the expression for V as a function of time

$$V(t)=\frac{C}{6H}\left(\dot{H}+6H^2\right)$$
(8)
where $`C=(6\lambda _bM_p^2)^{1/2}`$. Expressing $`f(t)`$ in terms of H and its derivative and using equation ( 8 ) leads to the expression of $`\varphi (t)`$

$$\varphi (t)=\left(\frac{C}{3}\frac{\dot{H}}{H}\right)^{1/2}𝑑t$$
(9)
Equations (8) and ( 9 ) can be used to determine $`\varphi (t)`$ and $`V(t)`$ for a given a(t) on the brane. For $`a(t)t^n`$

$$V(t)=C\left(1\frac{1}{6n}\right)\frac{n}{t}$$
(10)
$$\varphi (t)\varphi _0=\sqrt{\frac{4C}{3}}t^{1/2}$$
(11)
. Combining ( 10 ) and ( 11 ) we obtain the expression for the potential as a function of $`\varphi `$

$$V(\varphi )=\frac{\lambda _b}{2}\left(1\frac{1}{6n}\right)\frac{n}{\left(\frac{\varphi (t)\varphi _0}{M_p}\right)^2}$$
(12)
where $`n>1/6`$. In usual 4-dimensional FRW cosmology, the power law inflation is implemented by an exponential potential whereas its counter part on the brane turns out to be very different. Indeed, we earlier investigated the prospects of inflation with exponential potential on the brane, in a different context, and found the exact solution of the problem. In particular, a(t) was shown to have complicated time dependence through double exponentialssami  .

### I.2 POTENTIAL FOR TACHYON ROLLING ON THE BRANE

As recently demonstrated by Sen sen1 ; sen2 , a rolling tacyhon condensate in a specially flat FRW cosmological model is described by an effective fluid with energy momentum tensor $`T_\nu ^\mu =diag(\rho ,p,p,p)`$, where the energy density $`\rho `$ and pressure p are given by

$$\rho =\frac{V(\varphi )}{\sqrt{1\dot{\varphi }^2}}$$
(13)
$$p=V(\varphi )\sqrt{1\dot{\varphi }^2}$$
(14)
The Friedmann equation on the FRW brane($`V(\varphi )>>2\lambda _b`$) for the tachyonic matter is same as equation ( 5 ) with energy density given by ( 13 ). For the tachyonic field the expression for $`(1+\omega )`$ is also given by equation ( 6 ); however, $`\omega `$ in the present case has a form

$$\omega =\dot{\varphi }^2(t)1$$
(15)
Making use of equations (6), (13), (14) and (15) we get the expressions for $`V(t)`$ and $`\varphi (t)`$

$$\varphi (t)=\left(\frac{\dot{H}}{3H^2}\right)^{1/2}𝑑t$$
(16)
$$V(t)=CH\left(1+\frac{\dot{H}}{3H^2}\right)^{1/2}$$
(17)
Equations (16) and ( 17 ) analogous to (9) and (10) determine the tachyonic field and the tachyonic potential as a function of time for a given scale factor a(t). In case of power law expansion of the universe $`a(t)t^n`$ we obtain

$$\varphi (t)\varphi _0=\left(\frac{1}{3n}\right)^{1/2}t$$
(18)
$$V(t)=C\left(1\frac{1}{3n}\right)^{1/2}\frac{n}{t}$$
(19)
Using Eqs. (19) and (18) we obtain the expression for $`V(\varphi )`$

$$V(\varphi )=2\lambda _b\sqrt{n}\left(1\frac{1}{3n}\right)^{1/2}\frac{1}{\left(\frac{\varphi (t)\varphi _0}{M_p}\right)}$$
(20)
where $`n>1/3`$. Taking the large value of n one may have the desired accelerated expansion with $`V(\varphi )`$ given by ( 20 ). However, a comment regarding the range of n is in order. There are string theory arguments that the tachyonic matter asymptotically evolves to a pressure-less gas , i.e. $`\dot{\varphi }(\mathrm{})=1`$ irrespective of the form of tachyonic potential. And this in tern implies that at late times $`a(t)t^{2/3}`$. In fact, the expressions obtained here are valid in the limit $`V>>\lambda _b`$ which is a legitimate limit at times inflation was operative. But at late times the tachyon field rolls down its potential to the extent that $`V<<\lambda _b`$ and in this limit the brane corrections disappear and equation ( 2 ) reduces to usual Friedmann equation allowing the scale factor to evolve asymptotically as $`a(t)t^n`$ with $`n=2/3`$ \[ 7 \].

To sum up, we have constructed potentials on the FRW brane with and without tachyonic matter which successfully implement power law inflation. It would be interesting to carry out phase space analysis with tachyonic potential to investigate the late time behavior of the power law inflation in usual FRW cosmology as well as in the brane world scenario.
Inspite of the very attractive features of the rolling tachyon condensate, the tachyonic inflation faces difficulties associated with reheating klinde ; sami . A homogeneous tachyon field evolves towards its ground state without oscillating about it and , therefore, the conventional reheating mechanism in tachyonic model does not work. Quantum mechanical particle production during inflation provides an alternative mechanism by means of which the universe could reheat. Unfortunately, this mechanism also does not seem to work: the small energy density of radiation created in this process red-shifts faster than the energy density of the tachyon field. However, the tachyon field could play the dual role of quintessence and dark matter paddy2 .

###### Acknowledgements.

I am thankful to V. Sahni, A. Starobinsky and V. Johri for useful discussions.