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# 1 Introduction

## 1 Introduction

Empirical evidence, as deduced from astronomical data, has indicated that the physical universe is presently accelerating . This observation, in turn, implies that the universe has a positive cosmological constant or, at least, some exotic form of matter that mimics this constant in the current epoch.111An example of the latter is a dilatonic scalar field that is slowly rolling in a stable potential; also known as “quintessence” . Naturally, one would want to incorporate this observational evidence into our current understanding (albeit limited) of quantum gravity and cosmology. Alas, any such prospect has proven to be a formidable challenge that is far from being resolved. Along with the roadblock of explaining the observed value of the cosmological constant, there is an apparent incompatibility between a positive-valued constant and quantum gravity as we comprehend it. Let us briefly elaborate on these points.

Explaining the Cosmological Constant: On a semi-classical level, the cosmological constant is expected to represent the vacuum energy density of spacetime. Unfortunately, such expectations fail to even remotely predict the observed value of the constant: $`10^{120}`$ (in units of Planck mass to the fourth power). Indeed, this value is many orders of magnitude smaller than that of any naive theoretical prediction; the most optimistic being $`10^{60}`$ (if supersymmetry is broken just above the current accelerator limits). This discrepancy implies some type of subtle mechanism (or combination thereof) that essentially cancels the vacuum density while, at the same time, leaving behind a small, very stable residue. In spite of many interesting attempts in the literature, this problem has yet to be resolved in a way that does not resort to fine-tuning methods or anthropic principles. For a discussion on these attempts and the topic in general, see  and the references within.

On a more fundamental level, one might hope that string (or M) theory222For a lay-physicist’s review on string/M theory and supersymmetry, see . could, after a suitable process of compactification and supersymmetry breaking, give rise to a stable vacuum with a positive cosmological constant. Alas, this does not appear to be the case. Firstly, perturbative string theory, with broken supersymmetry, has inherent tachyonic instabilities. These instabilities, in turn, induce either a large, negative vacuum energy or the decoupling of gravity . Secondly, for non-perturbative string theory (or matrix theory ), the vacuum states of interest are plagued by singular behavior; with this breakdown having been attributed to a relevant “no-go” theorem . Moreover, serious attempts at circumventing this theorem are found to be pathological; for instance, wrong-sign kinetic terms and non-compact “compactification” manifolds. (See  for further discussion and references.)

Incompatibility with Quantum Gravity: Significant to this discussion is that the current acceleration of the universe implies an asymptotically (As) de Sitter (dS) future.333Strictly speaking, an AsdS future need not be the case if the acceleration is explained by, for instance, a quintessence theory . Nevertheless, the same problematic features, as discussed in this section, have been shown to persist in this type of alternative scenario . Unfortunately, many of the quantum-gravitational aspects of dS spacetimes are poorly understood . Much of the difficulty can be traced to dS space having a finite value for its entropy . Moreover, this finite value serves as an upper bound on the observable entropy of any AsdS spacetime . Consequently, it can be expected that, given a positive cosmological constant, gravity will be described by a finite-dimensional Hilbert space. This finite size is, however, directly incompatible with the infinite-dimensional Hilbert space that is inherent to string theory. Furthermore, the same incompatibility issue arises when dS space is considered from a holographic perspective. (Note that the holographic principle  is expected to play a fundamental role in any quantum theory of gravity.) That is to say, it has been conjectured that, in analogy to anti-dS holography , dS space is dual to a conformal field theory (CFT).444In particular, a Euclidean CFT that lives on the boundary at temporal infinity in dS space . There has, since , been a plethora of investigations into this dS/CFT duality. Some very recent studies include . Many earlier papers have been referenced in . However, any CFT should be described (like string theory) by a Hilbert space of infinite dimensionality.

A further complication that arises in AsdS spacetimes (or any spacetime that gives rise to a future event horizon ) is the unclear status of physical observables. First note that physical observables can normally555In this context, the “norm” refers to asymptotically flat or anti-dS spacetimes (which have a vanishing or negative cosmological constant). be defined in terms of S-matrix elements between asymptotically free particle states . Significant to this picture is the existence of an infinitely large boundary at spatial infinity. Conversely, AsdS spacetimes have no such timelike boundary and, therefore, provide no obvious means for defining physical observables. One hypothetical circumvention is to consider the spacelike boundary of an AsdS spacetime at future infinity. However, because of the inevitable event horizon, this boundary ultimately shrinks to a singular point from the perspective of any given observer . Another possibility might be to define the S-matrix as a correlation between states at past and future infinity. However, such a construction would require a global view of the spacetime that is outside the realm of “mere mortals” .

Although the above discussion paints a bleak picture (at least, it was supposed to), some resolution may be possible in the realm of brane-world scenarios . That is to say, one can consider the speculative viewpoint that the physical universe is “trapped” on a 3-brane (or 3+1-dimensional hypersurface) that is immersed within a higher-dimensional bulk spacetime.666It is typically assumed that, of the standard model particles, only the graviton is allowed to propagate off the brane. It is also commonly assumed that all but one of the “extra” bulk dimensions have been compactified to string-scale length. We will, henceforth, adopt these conventions. To be specific, we will focus on Kraus’ generalization  of the Randall-Sundrum model ; whereby a non-critical brane is moving through a static, anti-dS black hole background.777It is interesting to note that, although the graviton is free to propagate into the bulk, gravity will typically remain localized on the brane for the model of interest . Let us take note of the following points of pertinence to this scenario. (i) The brane dynamics will determine the cosmological evolution of the universe; that is, an observer will interpret the brane motion as a cosmological contraction or expansion. (ii) The cosmological constant is now an effective one that can be expressed strictly in terms of bulk parameters; namely, the curvature radius of the anti-dS bulk and the brane tension .

The reason that this brane-world picture may represent an “improvement” (over more conventional descriptions) is that the physical universe can now, in some holographic sense , be regarded as an anti-dS one. Significantly, the quantum-gravitational aspects of anti-dS theories are much better understood than their dS counterparts. Furthermore, the cosmological constant (as measured on the brane) can now be viewed as an input parameter  that has its origins in the bulk theory. One could then hope that such a brane-world picture will eventually be realized out of a string-compactification scenario; perhaps, along the lines of . Meanwhile, the extreme (deranged?) optimist may hope that string theory can even fix the bulk parameters and, therefore, vicariously fix the brane cosmology!

In the current paper, we investigate, as discussed above, the cosmological implications of a non-critical brane moving in a static, anti-dS black hole bulk. In particular, we are interested in the influence of the bulk parameters on the cosmology of a brane universe with a positive cosmological constant. This treatment can be viewed as a generalization of a recent work by Petkou and Siopsis . These authors, however, studied an anti-dS Schwarzschild bulk, whereas the current analysis extends considerations to so-called “topological” anti-dS black holes . Such a black hole solution is still Schwarzschild-like, but the horizon topology is allowed to be, in addition to spherical, flat or hyperbolic. We also note that the two papers interpret the results from somewhat different perspectives.

The remainder of the paper is organized as follows. In Section 2, after introducing the (arbitrary-dimensional) action and bulk solutions of interest, we consider the equation of motion for the dynamical brane. Following prior literature (for instance, ), we express this equation in a form that mimics the standard Friedmann cosmological equation.

In Section 3, with guidance from , we present solutions for the induced brane metric as a function of proper time. (Here, the focus is on the physically relevant case of a 3-brane with a positive cosmological constant.) The form of solution is shown to vary significantly, depending on the values of the relevant bulk parameters. We then classify these various solutions according to identifiable cosmologies. Particularly of interest, a “bounce” cosmology (i.e., a universe that is AsdS at both past and future infinity) is only possible when the black hole mass stays below a critical value. Moreover, this critical value is only non-vanishing when the horizon geometry is spherical.

In Section 4, we interpret the intriguing observations of the prior section from a holographic perspective. Section 5 ends with a summary and some further discussion.

## 2 A Brane-World Scenario

To begin the formal analysis, let us consider a Randall-Sundrum type of brane-world scenario . More specifically, we are interested in an $`n`$+1-dimensional anti-dS bulk spacetime that contains an $`n`$-dimensional brane of positive tension. Assuming, for sake of simplicity, that there are no additional sources of energy/matter on the brane, we can express the gravitational action as follows:

$`={\displaystyle \frac{1}{16\pi G_{n+1}}}{\displaystyle _{}}d^{n+1}x\sqrt{g}\left(R2\mathrm{\Lambda }_{n+1}\right)`$ $`+`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{8\pi G_{n+1}}}{\displaystyle _{}}d^nx\sqrt{h}𝒦`$ (1)
$`+`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\sigma }{8\pi G_{n+1}}}{\displaystyle _{}}d^nx\sqrt{h}.`$
Here, $`G_{n+1}`$ is the $`n`$+1-dimensional Newtonian constant, $``$ signifies the bulk manifold, $``$ represents the brane manifold, $`g_{\mu \nu }`$ is the bulk metric, $`h_{\mu \nu }`$ is the induced metric on the brane, $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_{n+1}<0`$ is the bulk cosmological constant, $`𝒦`$ is the trace of the brane’s extrinsic curvature, and $`\sigma `$ is the brane tension. Note that the second integral is analogous to the Gibbons-Hawking surface term  and is necessary for a well-defined variational principle on the spacetime boundary (in this case, the brane).

For future reference, we include the following useful identities:

$$\mathrm{\Lambda }_{n+1}=n(n1)/2L^2,$$
(2)
$$h_{\mu \nu }=g_{\mu \nu }\eta _\mu \eta _\nu ,$$
(3)
$$𝒦_{\alpha \beta }=h_\alpha ^\mu h_\beta ^\nu _\mu \eta _\nu ,$$
(4)
where $`L`$ is the curvature radius of the anti-dS bulk and $`\eta _\mu `$ is the unit normal vector to the brane.

It can be shown that the bulk equations of motion are solved by the following (static) black hole spacetimes :

$$ds_{n+1}^2=f(r)dt^2+\frac{1}{f(r)}dr^2+r^2d\mathrm{\Omega }_{k,n1}^2,$$
(5)
where:

$$f(r)=\frac{r^2}{L^2}+k\frac{\omega _nM}{r^{n2}},$$
(6)
$$\omega _n=\frac{16\pi G_{n+1}}{(n1)𝒱_n}.$$
(7)
Here, $`d\mathrm{\Omega }_{k,n1}^2`$ represents the line element of an $`(n1)`$-dimensional constant-curvature (Euclidean) hypersurface, $`𝒱_n`$ is the dimensionless volume of this hypersurface, and $`k`$ and $`M`$ are constants of integration. Without loss of generality, $`k`$ can be set equal to +1, 0 or -1; describing a horizon geometry that is respectively spherical (i.e., the anti-dS Schwarzschild case), flat or hyperbolic. Meanwhile, $`M`$ measures the conserved mass of the black hole and will be regarded as a non-negative quantity.888Technically speaking, the $`k=1`$ hyperbolic solution supports a negative value for the mass . However, we will disregard this controversial scenario, on the grounds that such a black hole is known to induce a negative energy in its holographic boundary theory . Note that such a negative-energy theory would likely be a non-unitary one.

As shown elsewhere (for instance, ), if one assumes an evolving brane and an otherwise static bulk, the brane dynamics can be formulated so as to describe a Friedmann-Robertson-Walker (FRW) universe . For sake of completeness, let us now run through this procedure. As an appropriate starting point, we introduce Gaussian normal coordinates in the proximity of the brane:

$$ds_{n+1}^2=dz^2+h_{\mu \nu }dx^\mu dx^\nu ,$$
(8)
where $`z=0`$ defines the position of the brane. Next, the brane coordinates should be expressed as functions of the proper time, $`\tau `$, as measured by a brane observer. In view of the generic symmetry of the bulk solutions, one can write:

$$x^\mu =(t(\tau ),r(\tau ),\theta _1,\mathrm{},\theta _{n1}),$$
(9)
where $`\theta _i`$ denotes the $`\tau `$-independent coordinates of $`d\mathrm{\Omega }_{k,n1}^2`$.

At this point, it is useful to consider the velocity vector associated with a comoving test particle. That is:

$$u^\mu \frac{dx^\mu }{d\tau }=(\dot{t},\dot{r},0,\mathrm{},0),$$
(10)
where here (and throughout) a dot denotes differentiation with respect to $`\tau `$. Considering that this vector must satisfy $`u^\mu u_\mu =1`$, we are able to obtain the following relation:

$$f(r)\dot{t}^2\frac{1}{f(r)}\dot{r}^2=1.$$
(11)
Substituting the above result into Eq.(5), we find that:

$$ds_n^2=d\tau ^2+r^2(\tau )d\mathrm{\Omega }_{n1}^2,$$
(12)
which notably describes a metric having a FRW form.

We can proceed further by incorporating the unit vector, $`\eta ^\mu `$, which is normal to the brane. The explicit form of this vector can be realized by way of a pair of relations: $`\eta ^\mu \eta _\nu =1`$ and $`u^\mu \eta _\mu =0`$. These equations are readily solved to yield:

$$\eta _\mu =(\dot{r},\dot{t},0,\mathrm{},0).$$
(13)
With the above formalism, we are now suitably positioned to investigate the equations of motion for the brane. First note that the Israel jump conditions  lead, quite generically, to the following tensor equation (for instance, ):

$$𝒦_{\mu \nu }=T_{\mu \nu }\frac{1}{n1}T_\rho ^\rho h_{\mu \nu },$$
(14)
where $`T_{\mu \nu }`$ is the stress-energy tensor of the brane. For this matter-free brane model, the stress tensor is simply $`T_{\mu \nu }=\sigma h_{\mu \nu }`$. Hence, the above condition conveniently reduces to:

$$𝒦_{\mu \nu }=\frac{\sigma }{n1}h_{\mu \nu }.$$
(15)
We can calculate the extrinsic curvature by way of the prior formal definition (4). For current purposes, it is sufficient to consider the component $`𝒦_{\theta \theta }`$; where $`\theta =\theta _i`$ for any choice of $`i`$. In this case:

$$𝒦_{\theta \theta }=_\theta \eta _\theta =\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\theta \theta }^\rho \eta _\rho =rf(r)\dot{t}.$$
(16)
Equating this result with $`\sigma r^2/(n1)`$, as prescribed by Eq.(15), we have:

$$\dot{t}=\frac{\sigma r}{(n1)f(r)}.$$
(17)
Finally, let us substitute the above outcome into Eq.(11). Also defining the Hubble “constant” in the usual way (i.e., $`H\dot{r}/r`$), we obtain the following equation of motion for the brane:

$`H^2`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{f(r)}{r^2}}+{\displaystyle \frac{\sigma ^2}{(n1)^2}}`$ (18)
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{k}{r^2}}+{\displaystyle \frac{\omega _nM}{r^n}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{L^2}}+{\displaystyle \frac{\sigma ^2}{(n1)^2}},`$
where Eq.(6) has been incorporated into the lower line.

Significantly, the above expression - which describes the cosmological evolution of the brane universe - takes on a Friedmann-like form. We can make this connection even more explicit by introducing an effective cosmological constant for the brane universe. The appropriate definition turns out to be:

$`\mathrm{\Lambda }_n`$ $``$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{(n1)(n2)}{2}}\left[{\displaystyle \frac{\sigma ^2}{(n1)^2}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{L^2}}\right]`$ (19)
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{(n2)}{n}}\left[{\displaystyle \frac{n}{2(n1)}}\sigma ^2|\mathrm{\Lambda }_{n+1}|\right],`$
as this leads to:

$$H^2=\frac{2\mathrm{\Lambda }_n}{(n1)(n2)}\frac{k}{r^2}+\frac{\omega _nM}{r^n}.$$
(20)
This above form can, in fact, be identified with the $`n`$-dimensional Friedmann equation for radiative matter (since $`\rho _{rad}r^n`$ is standard for an FRW universe). Notably, an anti-dS black hole in the bulk is, indeed, expected to induce radiative matter in its holographic dual . Also of interest, the horizon geometry of the black hole determines the topology of the spatial slicing in the brane universe.

In the “traditional” Randall-Sundrum model , one is supposed to fine tune the brane tension ($`\sigma `$) so that $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_n`$ precisely vanishes (i.e., a critical brane). However, there is no reason, a priori, for such a fine tuning to occur. In fact, current observational evidence is in favor of a non-vanishing, positive cosmological constant . On this basis, we will assume that $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_n>0`$ is always satisfied in the analysis to follow.999For other studies on non-critical, dynamical brane scenarios, see . Note that this stipulation translates into a critical value for the brane tension. More specifically, $`\sigma ^2>\sigma _c^2`$, where $`\sigma _c=(n1)/L`$. This condition, in turn, leads to an interesting but very open question: can string theory (or any other microscopic framework) be used to constrain the value of the brane tension?

## 3 FRW Cosmology on the Brane

In this section, we will endeavor to solve the cosmological brane equation (20) for all acceptable values of the bulk integration constants; that is, $`k`$ and $`M`$. To be succinct, let us now focus on the physically most interesting and analytically solvable case of $`n=4`$ (also, $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_n>0`$). We do, however, expect that the same qualitative features will persevere for larger values of $`n`$ ; although analytical solutions may no longer be explicitly obtainable.

Let us begin here by appropriately re-expressing Eq.(20):

$$\dot{r}^2=\frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }_4}{3}r^2k+\frac{\omega _4M}{r^2}.$$
(21)
It proves to be convenient if we further incorporate the following definitions: $`^2\mathrm{\Lambda }_4/3`$ and $`xr^2`$. The cosmological equation then takes the form:

$$\frac{\dot{x}^2}{4}=^2x^2kx+\omega _4M.$$
(22)
One finds that the solutions of Eq.(22) naturally separate into distinct classes as $`k`$ changes discretely and as the quantity $`4\omega _4M^2`$ varies in relation to unity (or zero). Regarding the mass dependence, we can demonstrate this behavior by rewriting Eq.(22) as follows:

$$\dot{x}^2=4^2\left(xx_+\right)\left(xx_{}\right),$$
(23)
where:

$$x_\pm =\frac{1}{2^2}\left[k\pm \sqrt{k^24\omega _4M^2}\right].$$
(24)
In view of the above consideration, let us define the following (dimensionless) mass parameter: $`\stackrel{~}{M}4\omega _4M^2`$. It then follows that the solutions should be categorized according to $`\stackrel{~}{M}=0`$, $`0<\stackrel{~}{M}<1`$, $`\stackrel{~}{M}=1`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{M}>1`$, as well as $`k=+1`$, $`k=0`$ and $`k=1`$. As it turns out, Eq.(22) can readily be solved for each of these scenarios ($`4\times 3=12`$ in all), and we summarize the results - case by case - immediately below.101010Note that we have omitted any solution in which $`r^2<0`$ for all values of $`\tau `$.
CASE (1a) $`\stackrel{~}{M}=0`$ and $`k=+1`$:

$$r^2=\frac{1}{^2}\mathrm{cosh}^2(\tau ).$$
(25)
CASE (1b) $`\stackrel{~}{M}=0`$ and $`k=0`$:

$$r^2=\frac{1}{^2}\mathrm{exp}(\pm 2\tau ).$$
(26)
CASE (1c) $`\stackrel{~}{M}=0`$ and $`k=1`$:

$$r^2=\frac{1}{^2}\mathrm{sinh}^2(\tau ).$$
(27)
CASE (2a) $`0<\stackrel{~}{M}<1`$ and $`k=+1`$;
Scenario (I):

$$r^2=\frac{1}{2^2}\left[1+\sqrt{1\stackrel{~}{M}}\mathrm{cosh}(2\tau )\right],$$
(28)
Scenario (II):

$$r^2=\frac{1}{2^2}\left[1\sqrt{1\stackrel{~}{M}}\mathrm{cosh}(2\tau )\right].$$
(29)
CASE (2b) $`0<\stackrel{~}{M}<1`$ and $`k=0`$:

$$r^2=\frac{\sqrt{\stackrel{~}{M}}}{2^2}\mathrm{sinh}(\pm 2\tau ).$$
(30)
CASE (2c) $`0<\stackrel{~}{M}<1`$ and $`k=1`$:

$$r^2=\frac{1}{2^2}\left[\sqrt{1\stackrel{~}{M}}\mathrm{cosh}(2\tau )1\right].$$
(31)
CASE (3a) $`\stackrel{~}{M}=1`$ and $`k=+1`$;
Scenario (I):

$$r^2=\frac{1}{2^2}\left[1+\mathrm{exp}(\pm 2\tau )\right],$$
(32)
Scenario (II):

$$r^2=\frac{1}{2^2}\left[1\mathrm{exp}(\pm 2\tau )\right].$$
(33)
CASE (3b) $`\stackrel{~}{M}=1`$ and $`k=0`$:

$$r^2=\frac{1}{2^2}\mathrm{sinh}(\pm 2\tau ).$$
(34)
CASE (3c) $`\stackrel{~}{M}=1`$ and $`k=1`$:

$$r^2=\frac{1}{2^2}\left[\mathrm{exp}(\pm 2\tau )1\right].$$
(35)
CASE (4a) $`\stackrel{~}{M}>1`$ and $`k=+1`$:

$$r^2=\frac{1}{2^2}\left[1+\sqrt{\stackrel{~}{M}1}\mathrm{sinh}(\pm 2\tau )\right].$$
(36)
CASE (4b) $`\stackrel{~}{M}>1`$ and $`k=0`$:

$$r^2=\frac{\sqrt{\stackrel{~}{M}}}{2^2}\mathrm{sinh}(\pm 2\tau ).$$
(37)
CASE (4c) $`\stackrel{~}{M}>1`$ and $`k=1`$:

$$r^2=\frac{1}{2^2}\left[\sqrt{\stackrel{~}{M}1}\mathrm{sinh}(\pm 2\tau )1\right].$$
(38)
In spite of the wide array of solutions, a careful inspection reveals that all of the above can be classified according to one of six possible cosmologies. Let us discuss each of these in turn.
(i) The brane universe is a “pure” dS spacetime, which occurs for cases 1a, 1b and 1c. This particular outcome could have easily been anticipated, inasmuch as $`\stackrel{~}{M}=M=0`$ translates into an FRW theory with no matter and a positive cosmological constant; cf. Eq.(21). The alert reader may have noticed that the three solutions only agree asymptotically. However, all three still describe dS space, just with different choices of spatial slicing. (For a discussion on the various ways of foliating dS space and the associated global properties, see .) The topology of the slicing is, as one might have expected, perfectly correlated with the horizon topology of the bulk black hole.
(ii) Depending on the choice of sign, the brane universe either begins with a “big bang” or ends with a “big crunch”; that is, begins or ends at a singular ($`r=0`$) surface.111111For the cases in question, it is readily confirmed that the curvature (of the induced brane metric) does indeed diverge when $`r=0`$. Hence, these are “true” singularities, beyond which the spacetime should not be analytically continued. This occurs for cases 2b, 2c, 3b, 3c, 4a, 4b and 4c. To be more specific about the form of these solutions, let us first consider the big bang cosmological picture. In this case, the brane universe comes into existence at a time that can be regarded as $`\tau =0`$ without loss of generality.121212The singular surfaces in question do not always coincide with $`\tau =0`$. However, $`r=0`$ does always coincide with a finite value of $`\tau `$. Hence, we are free to rescale the proper time coordinate to agree with the usual conventions. After the bang, the universe expands monotonically (with time) towards an AsdS future; that is, $`r`$ grows exponentially as $`\tau +\mathrm{}`$. Meanwhile, the big crunch picture is simply the time-reversed version of the preceding description.
(iii) The brane universe is AsdS in the infinite past and approaches a static universe (i.e., $`H=\dot{r}/r=0`$) in the infinite future. (The solutions can also describe the time reverse of this description, depending on the choice of sign.) This quite unorthodox cosmology (first recognized in ) only occurs for scenario I of case 3a. Note that such an occurrence is highly model dependent; requiring a spherical horizon geometry with $`\stackrel{~}{M}`$ set precisely equal to unity.
(iv) The brane universe interpolates between a singularity (either a big bang or big crunch) and an asymptotically static universe. This somewhat pathological cosmology only occurs for scenario II of case 3a and (as discussed above) is highly model dependent.
(v) The brane universe is AsdS in both the infinite past and the infinite future (but not pure dS). This type of cosmology strictly occurs for scenario I of case 2a. Note that such a universe can be said to “bounce” when it reverses from a contracting phase to an expanding one at $`\tau =0`$. Further note that, although the size of the universe is minimal at the bounce surface, it still does not become vanishingly small. Such a cosmological model is very interesting, considering that bounce universes can not be trivially constructed. That is to say, adding a finite energy density to an otherwise purely dS spacetime typically induces a big bang or crunch .
(vi) The brane universe begins with a big bang and ends, after a finite time period, with a big crunch. This cosmology only occurs for scenario II of case 2a.

It may be of relevance that, besides pure dS space (i), only the bounce cosmology (v) will eternally avoid the interior of the black hole horizon.131313Setting $`f(r)=0`$ and $`n=4`$ in Eq.(6), we find the horizon location ($`r=r_H`$) to be given by $`r_H^2=\frac{L^2}{2}\left[\sqrt{k^2+4\omega _4M/L^2}k\right]`$. The big bang cosmologies, on the other hand, actually start out at the black hole singularity. Although this latter scenario appears problematic, it can still be resolved with an analytical continuation to Euclidean time . As discussed in the cited paper, the Euclidean version of the big bang (brane) universe manages to remain outside of the bulk horizon during its entire evolution.

Generally speaking, it is interesting to note that the brane cosmology knows very little about the black hole mass, except for its relation to a pair of critical values; namely, $`\stackrel{~}{M}=0`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{M}=1`$. In support of this notion, we point out that the hyperbolic and exponential functions depend only on the proper time, the brane tension and the bulk cosmological constant. (The factors in front of these functions are, of course, essentially meaningless.) Conversely, the brane universe will always be able to make a clear distinction between different choices of the bulk topological parameter, $`k`$.

## 4 Holographic Interpretation

To help make sense of the prior analysis, let us summarize, for each type of horizon topology, how the brane cosmology qualitatively varies as a function of increasing black hole mass.

Firstly, we consider the case of a spherical horizon geometry (i.e., $`k=+1`$), which translates into an anti-dS Schwarzschild black hole. Starting at $`M=0`$ and then “turning on” the mass, we initially observe a bounce cosmology; that is, an AsdS spacetime in both the infinite past and infinite future.141414Note that a pure dS spacetime, which occurs only for $`M=0`$, is really just a special type of bounce cosmology and will be regarded as such in this section. It is also worth noting that the slightest perturbation to the brane world would cause an $`M=0`$ geometry to lose whatever “esteemed” status it did have. As $`M`$ continues to increase, the bounce cosmology persists until a critical value of mass, $`M=M_c(4\omega _4^2)^1`$, is reached.151515This critical mass value was first identified in . Exactly at this critical point, one finds a somewhat pathological cosmology: static in either the infinite past or future. On the other hand, for any $`M>M_c`$, we observe a typical FRW cosmological picture; either a spacetime that begins with a big bang and evolves towards an AsdS future, or else the time-reversed (big crunch) scenario.

Secondly, let us consider the flat ($`k=0`$) and hyperbolic ($`k=1`$) horizon geometries; that is, the topological analogues  of the anti-dS Schwarzchild black hole. In essence, we observe the same type of mass dependence as described above, except that the critical mass value is now a vanishing one ($`M_c=0`$) and there is no longer a pathology at $`M=M_c`$. Keep in mind that we are interpreting a pure dS spacetime as a bounce geometry.161616The reader may have noticed that $`r=0`$ at $`\tau =0`$ for a dS spacetime with hyperbolic spatial slicing; cf. Eq.(27). However, this surface is only an apparent singularity (i.e., the curvature remains finite), beyond which the spacetime can indeed be analytically continued . Also of interest, the solution for dS space with flat spatial slices (cf. Eq.(26)) only covers one half of the total manifold. One obtains the other half by reversing the sign in the exponential.

The generic existence of such a bulk mass threshold - effectively separating bounce from big bang (or big crunch) cosmologies on the brane - can be viewed as a direct consequence of the holographic principle. To substantiate this claim, let us next consider the following discussion.

We begin here by recalling (from the literature) a pair of relevant holographic bounds. Firstly, Bousso has demonstrated  that the finite entropy of dS space serves as an upper bound on the observable entropy of a spacetime with a positive cosmological constant.171717This bound was rigorously verified for, in particular, spherically symmetric spacetimes having “physically realistic” matter . Secondly, on the basis of the Bousso bound, Balasubramanian, de Boer and Minic have conjectured  a mass bound that also applies to spacetimes with a positive cosmological constant. More to the point, if such a spacetime has a total energy181818For the purposes of this discussion, any relevant mass or energy should be defined in analogy to that of Brown and York’s quasi-localized energy . in excess of pure dS space, then the Balasubramanian et al conjecture predicts the existence of a cosmological singularity; that is, a big bang or big crunch. Thus, a singularity-free AsdS spacetime (i.e., a bounce cosmology) can only be possible when this mass bound has not been exceeded.

Let us now apply the above concepts to our non-critical brane universe. It is clear from Eq.(20) that a massive black hole in the bulk induces an energy density, in the form of holographic radiative matter, on the brane. Moreover, this holographic brane matter is directly proportional to the mass of the black hole. Since $`M=0`$ translates into a pure dS brane universe (cf. Eqs.(25-27)), one might naively expect that any $`M>0`$ would exceed the conjectured mass bound . That is to say, any non-vanishing value of $`M`$ could be expected to induce a big bang or big crunch in the brane cosmology. This observation fits in very nicely with the $`k=0`$ and $`k=1`$ scenarios, where the critical mass value is exactly at zero. However, the situation is not so pleasantly simple when we consider a spherical ($`k=+1`$) horizon geometry. In this case, the bounce cosmology persists for $`M>0`$, in spite of an apparent violation of the holographic mass bound.

The resolution of the above paradox lies in the precise nature of Bousso’s entropic bound ; again noting that this is the critical antecedent for the mass bound in question . Technically speaking, the holographic entropy bound limits only the “accessible” entropy in a relevant spacetime (i.e., one with a positive-valued cosmological constant). This qualification on the entropy makes an important distinction: accessible degrees of freedom are those which can both influence and be influenced by a given experiment and inaccessible degrees of freedom are those which cannot.191919The philosophy that underlies this distinction is the principle of black hole complementarity . That is, physical consistency in a black hole setting renders causally inaccessible regions as being operationally meaningless. In this regard, it is significant that the causal structure of black hole and dS spacetimes are quite similar . To put it another way, any given observer is causally limited to a specific domain of a relevant spacetime; that is, the observer’s so-called “causal diamond” . Consequently, when an observer attempts to measure the “entropy of the universe”, the actual measurement will only reflect the contents of her causal diamond and not, necessarily, the entire spacetime manifold. (Keep in mind that accessible entropy is an observer-dependent property, so that, in spite of appearances, the entropic upper bound is not really a global concept.)

In view of the above discussion, it follows that the upper bound on mass should not, strictly speaking, apply to the global energy of the spacetime. Rather, the litmus test for the bound should be the “accessible energy” as determined by a given observer. Hence, a brane cosmology with $`M>0`$ (i.e., with a total energy in excess of pure dS space) will not necessarily induce a singularity. That is to say, if no observer can capably measure a mass in excess of the conjectured bound, then the bounce cosmology should persist. It is interesting to note that the existence/non-existence of a singularity is a global property, whereas the holographic mass bound is most accurately viewed as a local concept. Nonetheless, this is not a contradiction, insofar as any given observer may or may not be in causal contact with the singularity (if there is one).202020Or to put it another way, if a tree falls in the forest, does it always make a sound?

One question (at least) still remains to be answered; namely, why is the critical mass value finite when $`k=+1`$ but otherwise zero? This apparent discrepancy can be qualitatively accounted for as follows. First of all, it is useful to recall that the black hole topology effectively determines the foliation of the spacetime on the brane. That is, a black hole with a spherical/flat/hyperbolic horizon geometry induces a brane universe that is foliated by spherical/flat/hyperbolic spatial slices; cf. Eq.(20). Now focusing on the flat and hyperbolic cases, let us point out that the constant-time slices in these spacetimes are typically infinite in extent (since $`d\mathrm{\Omega }_{k0,n1}^2`$ contains an unbounded coordinate). Hence, even the slightest increase in energy density on the brane (i.e., the slightest increase in $`M`$) can lead to significant perturbations in the underlying dS geometry. Hence, on an intuitive basis, even an infinitesimal value for $`M`$ can be expected to violate the mass bound (for at least one hypothetical observer) and thus collapse the spacetime.

Next, let us concentrate on the case of a spherical topology. The constant time slices on the brane are now strictly compact (since $`d\mathrm{\Omega }_{k=1,n1}^2`$ contains only angular coordinates). Hence, a relatively small increase in energy density on the brane should give rise to a proportionally small increase in an observer’s accessible energy. It thus follows, again in an intuitive sense, that the underlying dS geometry (for $`k=1`$) should be somewhat resilient to an increasing black hole mass, as long as $`M`$ does not get too large. This notion is, of course, in agreement with the analysis of the prior section. To reiterate, the bounce universe can persist until reaching some critical value for the energy density; above which, the holographic mass bound finally fails and a singular collapse ensues. It is also worth pointing out that, for general FRW cosmologies (i.e., independent of the brane-world scenario), bounce universes are significantly more favorable when the spacetime is foliated by spherical slices .

## 5 Conclusion

In summary, we have considered the cosmological implications of a dynamical brane-world scenario. In particular, we have studied a non-critical brane moving in the static background of an anti-de Sitter black hole. The novelty of our treatment, as compared to an earlier work , was in allowing for all possible horizon topologies of the Schwarzschild-like black hole in the bulk.

After introducing the relevant action and bulk solutions (of arbitrary dimensionality), we went on to formulate the equation of motion for the brane. Moreover, we were able to recast this expression into a form that mimics the Friedmann equation for radiative matter. Significantly, the energy density of this holographically induced matter is directly proportional to the mass of the bulk black hole. Meanwhile, the horizon geometry of the black hole fixes the topology of the spatial slices in the brane universe.

In the next phase of the analysis, we focused on the physically relevant scenario of a 4-dimensional brane universe with a positive cosmological constant . Under these conditions, we were able to re-express the brane cosmological equation in a readily solvable form. Various solutions were presented for all relevant values of the parameters, $`M`$ and $`k`$, describing the bulk geometry. The most interesting feature was the existence of a critical value for the black hole mass, $`M=M_c`$, which is finite for a spherical ($`k=+1`$) topology but is otherwise ($`k=0`$, $`k=1`$) vanishing. Significantly, when $`MM_c`$, one obtains singularity-free, asymptotically de Sitter bounce cosmologies (including pure de Sitter space when $`M=0`$).212121One notable exception being the finely tuned case of $`M=M_c`$ and $`k=+1`$. This choice of bulk parameters yields a somewhat pathological cosmology that is asymptotically static in either the infinite past or the future. Conversely, if $`M>M_c`$, then only FRW cosmologies having a big bang (or big crunch) are possible.

In the penultimate section of the paper, we went on to interpret this critical mass from a holographic perspective. In particular, we utilized holographic bounds that limit the accessible entropy  and matter  of any asymptotically de Sitter spacetime. On this basis, we were able to provide ample justification for the generic existence of such a critical mass value. Moreover, holographic arguments enabled us to explain why $`M_c`$ takes on a finite value exclusively in the $`k=+1`$ case.

It should be clarified that our holographic interpretation was conspicuously of a qualitative nature. It would be interesting if one could further apply holographic arguments on a quantitative level and directly predict the critical mass values. In this regard, we note the existence of two distinct holographic dualities that could well come into play. These being: (i) a dual relation between the anti-de Sitter bulk and a conformal field theory (CFT) living on the brane  and (ii) a duality between the de Sitter brane and a Euclidean CFT that lives at temporal infinity . However, progress along these lines may be impeded by a limited understanding of the dual boundary theories. That is to say, in spite of the success of these holographic dualities, the CFTs in question can best be classified as abstractions. Moreover, the de Sitter-based correspondence currently has an unclear status . Nevertheless, we hope to address this intriguing matter in a future study.

On a less speculative note, one might extend the prior treatment by considering more exotic black holes in the bulk or by introducing other forms of matter onto the brane. With regard to the latter scenario, possibilities include conventional dust matter, stiff matter (which also appears as a natural consequence of electrostatic charge in the bulk ) and a $`M^2`$ term. This last contribution appears when the induced brane energy is directly calculated via a Hamiltonian method . Once again, we defer such prospects to a future time.

## 6 Acknowledgments

The author would like to thank V.P. Frolov for helpful conversations.


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# Measurement of the 𝒃𝒃̄ Production Cross Section in 920 GeV Fixed-Target Proton-Nucleus Collisions

## 1 Introduction

The theoretical description of heavy quark hadroproduction has been a subject of great attention in recent years . For fixed target experiments , the predictions, based on perturbative QCD, are compatible with experimental results from pion and proton beams, but both theoretical and experimental uncertainties are large. Only two measurements of the $`b\overline{b}`$ production cross section in proton-nucleus $`p+A`$ interactions were previously reported . Moreover, in collider experiments, the comparison between data and QCD predictions is not satisfactory .

The HERA   B experiment is designed to identify $`B`$-meson decays in a dense hadronic environment, with a large geometrical coverage. Interactions are produced on target wires in the halo of the 920 GeV HERA proton beam. The $`b\overline{b}`$ production cross section ($`\sigma _B^A`$) on a nucleus of atomic number $`A`$ is obtained from the inclusive reaction

$$pAb\overline{b}X\text{with}b\overline{b}J/\psi Y(e^+e^{}/\mu ^+\mu ^{})Y.$$
(1)
The $`b`$-hadron decays into $`J/\psi `$ (“$`bJ/\psi `$” in the following) are distinguished from the large prompt $`J/\psi `$ background by exploiting the $`b`$ lifetime in a detached vertex analysis. We select $`bJ/\psi l^+l^{}`$ decays in both the muon and electron channels and perform a combined $`b\overline{b}`$ production cross section measurement.

In order to minimize the systematic errors related to detector and trigger efficiencies and to remove the dependence on the absolute luminosity determination, the measurement is performed relative to the known prompt $`J/\psi `$ production cross section $`\sigma _P^A`$ . Our measurement covers the $`J/\psi `$ Feynman-$`x`$ ($`x_F`$) range $`0.25x_F0.15`$. Within our acceptance, the $`b`$ to prompt cross section ratio can be expressed as:

$$\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }\sigma _B^A}{\mathrm{\Delta }\sigma _P^A}=\frac{N_B}{N_P}\frac{1}{\epsilon _R\epsilon _B^{\mathrm{\Delta }z}\mathrm{Br}(b\overline{b}J/\psi X)},$$
(2)
where $`\mathrm{\Delta }\sigma _B^A`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }\sigma _P^A`$ are the $`bJ/\psi `$ and prompt $`J/\psi `$ cross sections limited to the mentioned $`x_F`$ range, $`N_B`$ and $`N_P`$ are the observed number of detached $`bJ/\psi `$ and prompt $`J/\psi `$ decays. $`\epsilon _R`$ is the relative detection efficiency of $`bJ/\psi `$ with respect to prompt $`J/\psi `$, including contributions from the trigger, the dilepton vertex and the $`J/\psi `$ reconstruction. $`\epsilon _B^{\mathrm{\Delta }z}`$ is the efficiency of the detached vertex selection. The branching ratio $`\mathrm{Br}(b\overline{b}J/\psi X)`$ in hadroproduction is assumed to be the same as that measured in $`Z`$ decays, with the value $`2(1.16\pm 0.10)\%`$ .

The prompt $`J/\psi `$ production cross section per nucleon, $`\sigma (pNJ/\psi X)=\sigma _P^A/A^\alpha `$, was previously measured by two fixed target experiments . After correcting for the most recent measurement of the atomic number dependence ($`\alpha =0.955\pm 0.005`$ ) and rescaling  to the HERA   B c.m.s. energy, $`\sqrt{s}`$ = 41.6 GeV, we obtain a reference prompt $`J/\psi `$ cross section of $`\sigma (pNJ/\psi X)=(357\pm 8(\mathrm{stat})\pm 27(\mathrm{sys}))\mathrm{nb}/\mathrm{nucleon}`$. About 70%  of the $`J/\psi `$ are produced in the kinematic range covered by our measurement.

Since no nuclear suppression has been observed in $`D`$-meson production  and a similar behavior is expected in the $`b`$ channel , we assume $`\alpha =1.0`$ for the $`b\overline{b}`$ production cross section results presented here; i.e., $`\sigma _B^A=\sigma (pNb\overline{b})A`$.

## 2 Detector, Trigger and Data sample

A side view of the HERA   B  spectrometer is shown in Fig. 1. The spectrometer has a large geometrical coverage, from 15 mrad to 220 mrad in the bending plane and from 15 mrad to 160 mrad in the vertical plane.

The target assembly  consists of two wire stations separated by 4 cm along the beam line, each containing 4 target wires of different materials. A servo system automatically steers the target wires during a run in order to maintain a constant interaction rate. The Vertex Detector System (VDS)  is realized by a system of 20 Roman pots containing seven planar stations (4 stereo views) of double-sided silicon micro-strip detectors (50 mm $`\times `$ 70 mm sensitive area, 50 $`\mu `$m pitch) that are operated in a vacuum vessel at 10 to 15 mm distance from the proton beam. An additional station is mounted immediately behind the 3 mm thick Al window of the vacuum vessel.

A dipole magnet with 2.13 Tm field-integral houses a first set of tracking stations, followed by a second set extending to 13 m downstream of the interaction region. To cope with the large particle flux gradient radial to the beam, the tracker is divided into a fine grained Inner Tracker (ITR)  and a large area Outer Tracker (OTR) . The ITR uses micro-strip gas chambers (typical pitch of 300 $`\mu `$m) with gas electron multipliers. The OTR uses honeycomb drift cells with wire pitches of 5 mm near the beam and 10 mm away from the beam.

The particle identification is performed by a ring imaging Cherenkov hodoscope (RICH) , an electromagnetic calorimeter (ECAL)  and a muon detector (MUON) . The RICH detector uses $`\mathrm{C}_4\mathrm{F}_{10}`$ as radiator. The focal planes of the detector (above and below the beam line, respectively) are read out by multianode photomultipliers. The ECAL is based on “shashlik” sampling calorimeter technology, consisting of scintillator layers sandwiched between metal absorbers. In the radially innermost section, W is used in the absorber, and Pb everywhere else. The MUON system consists of 4 tracking stations located in the most downstream portion of the detector, at different depths in iron and iron-loaded absorbers. It is built from gas-pixel chambers in the radially innermost region and from proportional tube chambers, some with segmented cathodes (pads), everywhere else.

The data sample presented in this analysis was acquired in a short physics run during the HERA   B commissioning period in summer 2000, at $``$5 MHz interaction rate, with a maximum of two target wires operated simultaneously and separated by 4 cm along the beam direction. The two wires were made of carbon (1000 $`\mu `$m longitudinally and 100 $`\mu `$m transversely) and titanium (500 $`\mu `$m and 50 $`\mu `$m, respectively).

The data were collected by triggering on dimuon and dielectron signatures. The MUON pretrigger candidates were based on a double pad chamber coincidence , while the ECAL pretrigger candidates were defined by ECAL clusters with a transverse energy $`E_T>1.0`$ GeV . The First Level Trigger (FLT) required two pretrigger candidates of the same type and forwarded these to the Second Level Trigger (SLT). The SLT is a software filter  running on a farm of 240 PCs. Starting from the pad coincidences and high-$`E_T`$ ECAL clusters, a fast hit-counting algorithm and a simplified Kalman filter were applied to the OTR and VDS data to confirm the lepton pair candidates. An invariant mass cut of $`M>2.0`$ $`\mathrm{GeV}/c^2`$ and an unlike-sign track requirement were also applied in the electron channel. The data from accepted events were assembled and sent to the online reconstruction farm , consisting of 100 dual-CPU PCs. The whole trigger chain allowed a reduction of the initial interaction rate of 5 MHz to a final output rate of 20 Hz . A total of $``$450,000 dimuon and $``$900,000 dielectron candidates were recorded under these conditions.

At the time of data taking, the ITR and the MUON pixel chambers were not included in the trigger. As a consequence, the forward hemisphere of the proton-nucleus c.m.s. is reduced in this measurement, compared to the full HERA   B acceptance.

## 3 Monte Carlo Simulation

A Monte Carlo (MC) simulation is used to determine the efficiency terms in Eq. 2 and to estimate the prompt $`J/\psi `$ background contribution to the $`bJ/\psi `$ decay channel.

The simulation of heavy quark ($`Q`$) production is achieved, first, by generating the basic process $`pNQ\overline{Q}X`$ including hadronization, using the Pythia 5.7 event generator ; secondly, the remaining part of the process ($`X`$) is given as an input to the Fritiof 7.02 package  to simulate further interactions inside the nucleus.

To describe the prompt $`J/\psi `$ kinematics accurately, the generated events are weighted according to the known prompt $`J/\psi `$ differential cross sections ($`d\sigma /dp_T^2`$ and $`d\sigma /dx_F`$) measured in proton-gold collisions . These results were obtained in the positive $`x_F`$ region, while our measurement covers the range $`0.25x_F0.15`$. MC studies based on the Color Octet Model  of charmonium production show a symmetric $`x_F`$ distribution of prompt $`J/\psi `$ decays. We therefore use the experimental parameterization  to extrapolate to the full $`x_F`$ space. The model dependence of the generated $`p_T`$ spectrum is of less relevance since our $`p_T`$ acceptance is essentially flat.

For the $`b\overline{b}`$ MC simulations, the events generated by Pythia are weighted according to a model with various contributions. First, the generated $`b`$ quark kinematics ($`x_F`$ and $`p_T`$) are given by the computation of M. Mangano et al.  using the most recent next-to-next-to-leading-logarithm (NNLL) MRST parton distribution functions  with a $`b`$ quark mass of $`m_b=4.75`$ $`\mathrm{GeV}/c^2`$ and a QCD renormalization scale $`\mu =\sqrt{m_b^2+p_T^2}`$. Second, the intrinsic transverse momenta of the colliding quarks are smeared with a Gaussian distribution leading to $`k_T^2=0.5\mathrm{GeV}^2/c^2`$ . Finally, the $`b`$ fragmentation is described by a Peterson function  with a parameter $`ϵ=0.006`$ . The subsequent $`b`$-hadron production and decay are controlled by the Pythia  default parameters. The $`b`$-hadron average lifetime is taken from Ref. : $`\tau _b=1.564\pm 0.014\text{ps}`$.

The sensitivity of the final result on the $`b\overline{b}`$ cross section within our acceptance ($`\mathrm{\Delta }\sigma (b\overline{b})`$) has been determined by varying the following $`b\overline{b}`$ MC model parameters: the parton distribution functions (from MRST to CTEQ5 ), the $`b`$ quark mass (in the range $`m_b[4.5,5.0]`$ $`\mathrm{GeV}/c^2`$), the QCD renormalization scale (from $`0.5\sqrt{m_b^2+p_T^2}`$ to $`2\sqrt{m_b^2+p_T^2}`$), the fragmentation function (from the Peterson form  with parameter $`ϵ[0.002,0.008]`$, to the Kartvelishvili form  with parameter $`\alpha _\beta =13.7\pm 1.3`$ ), the intrinsic transverse momentum distribution (with $`k_T^2`$ in the range \[0.125,2.0\] $`\mathrm{GeV}^2/c^2`$) and the fraction of $`b`$-baryons produced in the $`b`$ hadronization process in the range %. The observed variations in the detection efficiencies have been included in the systematic error.

The generated particles are propagated through the geometry and material description of the detector using the Geant 3.21 package . A simulation of the detector response to particles is achieved by reproducing the digitization of electronic signals, with a realistic description of hit efficiencies and problematic channels. The MC events are subjected to a full trigger simulation and reconstructed with the same algorithms as the data.

## 4 $`𝑱\mathbf{/}𝝍`$ Event Selection

Since the observed number of prompt $`J/\psi `$ decays is used as a normalization factor of the $`b\overline{b}`$ cross section measurement, we begin by selecting and counting the number of $`J/\psi `$ decays ($`N_P`$), before applying the detached vertex analysis. The lepton reconstruction in the OTR is seeded with the dilepton trigger track candidates; moreover a matching criteria is applied between the reconstructed track and the trigger track candidate in both the OTR and the VDS. The $`J/\psi l^+l^{}`$ selection and counting procedure differs between the muon and electron channels, due to differences in the background levels, shapes and triggering conditions.

### 4.1  $`𝑱\mathbf{/}𝝍\mathbf{}𝝁^\mathbf{+}𝝁^{\mathbf{}}`$

Three criteria are used to select $`J/\psi \mu ^+\mu ^{}`$ decays and to purify the reconstructed sample from non-$`J/\psi `$ background: a dimuon vertex requirement and muon identification cuts in both the MUON and the RICH systems. The cuts are chosen to give the best signal significance ($`S/\sqrt{B}`$) on the number of seen $`J/\psi `$ ($`S`$) with the observed background ($`B`$). The resulting spectrum is shown in Fig. 2, with $`N_P=2880\pm 60`$ prompt $`J/\psi \mu ^+\mu ^{}`$ decays. The like-sign spectrum shown in Fig. 2 is obtained from the same set of triggered events: the small discrepancy in number of reconstructed events in the background regions arises from the difference in trigger acceptance between the two cases and from physics contributions to the unlike-sign spectrum (Drell-Yan, open charm production).

### 4.2  $`𝑱\mathbf{/}𝝍\mathbf{}𝒆^\mathbf{+}𝒆^{\mathbf{}}`$

The selection of $`J/\psi e^+e^{}`$ decays is more complex due to very large background contributions, mainly from pions interacting in the ECAL and hadrons overlapping with energetic neutral showers. Due to such background, a clear $`J/\psi `$ signal can be reconstructed only by means of strong electron identification requirements. Electron identification in the ECAL is based both on the ratio of the cluster energy $`E`$ to the momentum $`p`$ from tracking ($`E/p`$) and on the search for electron bremsstrahlung signals:

\- the $`E/p`$ distribution is established for a purified $`J/\psi e^+e^{}`$ sample by using a double-bremsstrahlung requirement as described in the following paragraph. The $`E/p`$ spectrum is compatible with a Gaussian distribution of mean $`1.00`$ and width $`\sigma `$9%;

\- bremsstrahlung photons emitted upstream of the magnet maintain the original electron direction; thus they can be used to correct the electron momentum at the vertex and they also provide a clean electron signature (bremsstrahlung tag).

The $`e^+e^{}`$ invariant mass distribution is shown in Fig. 3(a), requiring only that $`E/p`$ be within 1 $`\sigma `$ from unity for each track. Figs 3(b,c) show the improvements in signal significance that are obtained when the bremsstrahlung selection is added to the $`E/p`$ requirement.

Table 1 lists the number of prompt $`J/\psi `$ signal events found for different $`E/p`$ and bremsstrahlung requirements. Using these $`J/\psi `$ sets one can measure the bremsstrahlung tag probability for a single electron redundantly, resulting in an average $`ϵ_{\mathrm{brems}}=0.34\pm 0.02(\mathrm{stat})\pm \mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0.02}(\mathrm{sys})`$. This measured tag probability is in good agreement with expectations from MC simulations. The systematic uncertainties include the observed fluctuations when varying the fitting functions and range used to estimate the amount of $`J/\psi `$ events in the invariant mass spectra.

The good knowledge of the particle identification efficiencies allows us to infer the number of prompt $`J/\psi `$ present in a sample where looser identification cuts have been applied and where no clear $`J/\psi `$ signal is directly visible. Under such conditions, the normalization factor $`N_P`$ can be obtained while preserving reasonable statistics for the final detached vertex analysis, which relies only on the vertex separation cuts for the background rejection, as will be shown in Sect. 5.

The total number of prompt $`J/\psi `$ in our sample with no bremsstrahlung tag requirement and with a 3$`\sigma `$ $`E/p`$ cut is $`N_P=5710\pm 380(\mathrm{stat})\pm 280(\mathrm{sys})`$ (entry in square brackets in Table 1).

## 5 Detached Vertex Analysis

The long decay length of $`b`$-hadrons is used to separate the $`bJ/\psi `$ events from the prompt $`J/\psi `$ and to further reduce the non-$`J/\psi `$ background. The decay length ($`\mathrm{\Delta }z`$), defined as the distance along the beam axis between the $`J/\psi `$ decay vertex and the closest wire (primary production point), is shown in Fig. 4 for a purified sample of $`J/\psi e^+e^{}`$ events (2 bremsstrahlung requirement). The width of the prompt $`J/\psi `$ vertex distribution is more than 10 standard deviations smaller than the mean decay length of triggered $`b`$-hadrons ($``$0.8 cm). Given the achieved vertex resolution, a detached vertex cut proves to be efficient in the signal selection. Additionally, a cut on the minimum impact parameter of both leptons to the production vertex ($`I_v`$) or to the wire ($`I_w`$) is applied in the detached vertex selection. The minimum impact parameter distribution of prompt $`J/\psi e^+e^{}`$ decay leptons (purified sample) to the wire is compared to the corresponding distribution from $`bJ/\psi `$ decay leptons (dashed line) in Fig. 5, illustrating the potential gain in $`bJ/\psi `$ signal-purity when applying a minimum impact parameter cut.

The prompt $`J/\psi `$ which survive the detached vertex cuts cannot be distinguished from $`bJ/\psi `$ events and their contribution to the detached $`b`$ signal has to be determined from MC. A study has been performed to ensure that the simulation tool reliably reproduces the real data for the physical quantities defining the detached selection cuts, as illustrated by the good MC-data agreement in Fig. 4 and Fig. 5. In the simulation of the $`\mu ^+\mu ^{}`$ channel, a Gaussian distribution has been added to the standard MC track-slopes, increasing the slope errors by 20% in average, in order to match the parameters observed in data and resulting in a similar good MC-data agreement as in the $`e^+e^{}`$ case.

The optimization of the detached vertex cuts is achieved by maximizing the ratio $`S/\sqrt{B}`$, where $`S`$ is the number of accepted signal events in the MC $`bJ/\psi `$ sample and $`B`$ the number of background events in real data, observed in the whole upstream region and downstream in the side bins of the $`J/\psi `$ invariant mass signal. The systematic errors in the final $`\sigma (b\overline{b})`$ result take into account the variations in the signal estimated under different sets of cuts found by the optimization procedure.

The main background contributions expected in the detached sample are due to combinatorics (bad vertex or track reconstruction) and to double semileptonic $`c\overline{c}`$ or $`b\overline{b}`$ events. The combinatorial yield is estimated through the observed events in the region upstream of the primary interaction (unphysical region), while the charm background level is estimated by means of MC simulations, assuming a $`c\overline{c}`$ production cross section of $`40\mu `$b/nucleon for our 920 GeV proton beam energy . The $`b\overline{b}`$ background yield is estimated by studying the MC mass spectrum of $`b\overline{b}`$ events surviving trigger and selection cuts, with a contribution relative to the observed yield of $`bJ/\psi l^+l^{}`$ events.

### 5.1  $`𝒃\mathbf{}𝑱\mathbf{/}𝝍\mathbf{}𝝁^\mathbf{+}𝝁^{\mathbf{}}`$

The detached vertex cuts found by the optimization procedure in the dimuon channel are: a minimum decay length of 7.5 times the uncertainty on the secondary vertex position 111The typical cutoff is at about 5 mm, with some events down to 3 mm being accepted., a minimum track impact parameter to the assigned primary vertex of 160 $`\mu `$m and a minimum track impact parameter to the assigned wire of 45 $`\mu `$m.

Only 11 events survive these cuts downstream of the primary interaction region with invariant mass above 2.1 $`\mathrm{GeV}/c^2`$ (see Fig. 6). Only a single event is found upstream of the primary interaction.

In order to use the full information of the detached invariant mass spectrum, an unbinned likelihood fit is performed, using the Gaussian parameters of the prompt $`J/\psi `$ signal together with an exponential background contribution with free slope. The output of the fit shown in Fig. 6 yields 1.9$`{}_{1.5}{}^{}{}_{}{}^{+2.2}`$ $`bJ/\psi `$ events. The background slope obtained from the fit is compatible with the simulated charm and bottom quark background shape, although the statistics are low.

From simulation, the expected background from prompt $`J/\psi `$ decays is negligible. The estimated background contributions of semileptonic charm and bottom quark decays, together with the single event expected from combinatorial background (seen upstream) and the number of fitted signal events, are compatible with the 11 events observed downstream of the primary interaction region.

To determine $`\mathrm{\Delta }\sigma (b\overline{b})`$ in our $`x_F`$ range, the prompt $`J/\psi `$ and $`bJ/\psi `$ MC events are submitted to the same analysis chain used for real data. From simulation we obtain the efficiency terms entering in the cross section formula: $`\epsilon _R\epsilon _B^{\mathrm{\Delta }z}=0.41\pm 0.01`$. The corresponding $`b\overline{b}`$ cross section measured in the $`\mu ^+\mu ^{}`$ channel is $`\mathrm{\Delta }\sigma (b\overline{b})=\sigma _B^A/A=16_{12}^{+18}`$ nb/nucleon, obtained by using the weighted average of our target materials. All parameters contributing to the measurement (Eq. 2) are summarized in Table 2.

### 5.2  $`𝒃\mathbf{}𝑱\mathbf{/}𝝍\mathbf{}𝒆^\mathbf{+}𝒆^{\mathbf{}}`$

The cut optimization procedure in the $`e^+e^{}`$ channel results in the following criteria: a minimum decay length of 0.5 cm, a minimum track impact parameter to the assigned wire of 200 $`\mu `$m or alternatively an isolation of the lepton candidate at the $`z`$ of the wire from any other track by a minimum distance of 250 $`\mu `$m. The types and values of the cuts are not exactly the same as in the muon analysis due to the very different background conditions.

The detached selection yields 8 events upstream of the primary interaction region (pure combinatorial background) and 19 downstream events (see Fig. 7). Among the downstream candidates, 10 events are found in the $`J/\psi `$ mass window ($`2.8\mathrm{GeV}/c^2<m_{e^+e^{}}<3.3\mathrm{GeV}/c^2`$).

Similarly to the muon analysis, an unbinned likelihood fit is performed on the invariant mass spectrum of the detached downstream $`e^+e^{}`$ candidates. The shape of the signal is taken from simulated $`bJ/\psi `$ decays, while the background shape is a combination of the shapes obtained from simulated double semileptonic bottom quark decays and from pure combinatorial (upstream) events. The result of the likelihood fit is shown in Fig. 7(b), yielding 8.6$`{}_{3.2}{}^{}{}_{}{}^{+3.9}`$ $`bJ/\psi `$ events. When the background shape used in the fit is replaced by a pure combinatorial background shape or by a pure double semileptonic $`b\overline{b}`$ background, a $`\pm 7`$% variation is observed in the number of $`bJ/\psi `$ events. This contribution is included in the systematic error of our measurement.

The expected background from prompt $`J/\psi `$ decays is of less than 0.2 events at the 90% C.L. in the whole downstream region. As in the $`\mu ^+\mu ^{}`$ case, the estimated background yields from semileptonic charm and bottom quark decays, together with the expected combinatorial background level (8 events seen upstream) and the fitted signal, are compatible with the 19 events observed downstream of the primary interaction region.

Different cut optimization techniques and assumptions have been tested to verify the stability of the signal. The optimizations are performed simultaneously on the three detached vertex cuts ($`\mathrm{\Delta }z`$, $`I_w`$ and the isolation cut) using the background from real data and the downstream $`bJ/\psi e^+e^{}`$ events from MC. Independently on the optimization criteria, a $`J/\psi `$ signal with significance greater than 2 $`\sigma `$ is always observed in the downstream part of the spectrum, while a visible $`J/\psi `$ signal is never present in the upstream part. In Fig. 8, the selected detached events are displayed in a scatter plot of the invariant mass versus the measured decay length ($`\mathrm{\Delta }z`$): a clustering is observed around the $`J/\psi `$ invariant mass for large $`\mathrm{\Delta }z`$ values in the region downstream of the primary interaction.

To confirm the $`b`$ assignment of the selected events, an unbinned maximum likelihood fit is performed on the decay length measurements. A mean decay length of $`0.81\pm 0.03`$ cm on $`b\overline{b}`$ events is expected from MC. We measure $`1.0\pm 0.3`$ cm for the 10 downstream events in the $`J/\psi `$ region ($`2.8\mathrm{GeV}/c^2<m_{e^+e^{}}<3.3\mathrm{GeV}/c^2`$), in good agreement with the $`b\overline{b}`$ interpretation, while the 8 upstream background events yield a mean decay length of $`0.36\pm 0.13`$ cm (measured using $`\mathrm{\Delta }z`$). To further verify that the selected events have features compatible with $`b`$ decays, we performed a visual inspection of the candidates studying extra detached vertices (from the other $`b`$ decay) and extra tracks attached to the $`J/\psi `$ vertex. Both categories of events are observed, and their yields are compatible with MC expectations. Within the limits of the available statistics, the $`J/\psi `$ $`x_F`$ and $`p_T`$ distributions are also compatible with the $`bJ/\psi `$ interpretation.

From MC simulation, we obtain the efficiency terms entering in the cross section measurement (Eq. 2): $`\epsilon _R\epsilon _B^{\mathrm{\Delta }z}=0.44\pm 0.02`$. The corresponding $`b\overline{b}`$ cross section measured in the $`e^+e^{}`$ channel is $`\mathrm{\Delta }\sigma (b\overline{b})=\sigma _B^A/A=38_{15}^{+18}`$ nb/nucleon, obtained by using the weighted average of our target materials. All the parameters used in Eq. 2 are summarized in Table 2.

## 6 Combined Cross Section Measurement

The two measurements, $`\mathrm{\Delta }\sigma (b\overline{b})=16_{12}^{+18}`$ nb/nucleon and $`\mathrm{\Delta }\sigma (b\overline{b})=38_{15}^{+18}`$ nb/nucleon, obtained in the muon and electron channels, respectively, are compatible within statistical uncertainties. In order to extract the maximum information on the $`b\overline{b}`$ production cross section from our data, we combine the $`\mu ^+\mu ^{}`$ and $`e^+e^{}`$ likelihoods in a four parameter likelihood maximization ($`\mathrm{\Delta }\sigma (b\overline{b})`$, $`\mu ^+\mu ^{}`$ background slope, $`\mu ^+\mu ^{}`$ and $`e^+e^{}`$ background yields) on the detached candidates. The fit provides our final result of the $`b\overline{b}`$ production cross section:

$$\mathrm{\Delta }\sigma (b\overline{b})=30_{11}^{+13}(\mathrm{stat})\mathrm{nb}/\mathrm{nucleon},$$
(3)
where the quoted uncertainty has been estimated directly from the fit (see Fig. 9).

The main sources of systematic uncertainty in the present measurement, which are not related to the final $`b\overline{b}`$ statistics, are due to the prompt $`J/\psi `$ cross section reference (11%), the branching ratio Br$`(b\overline{b}J/\psi X)`$ (9%), the trigger and detector simulation (5%), the prompt $`J/\psi `$ MC production models (2.5%), the $`b\overline{b}`$ MC production models (5%), the prompt $`J/\psi e^+e^{}`$ counting (5%) and the carbon-titanium difference in efficiencies (1.7%). Other contributions are below the 1% level. Uncertainties stemming from the background shapes used in the maximum likelihood fits on the invariant masses and from the cut values are dominated by the low statistics of observed detached events. For these sources we assign conservative uncertainties of $`{}_{24}{}^{}{}_{}{}^{+10}`$% and 13% to the $`\mu ^+\mu ^{}`$ and $`e^+e^{}`$ channels, respectively. The overall systematic uncertainty for our measurement, averaged over the muon and electron channels, is of $`{}_{23}{}^{}{}_{}{}^{+20}`$ %.

To compare our measurement with theoretical predictions, we extrapolate the $`\mathrm{\Delta }\sigma (b\overline{b})`$ measurement to the full $`x_F`$ range, relying on the $`b\overline{b}`$ production and decay model described in Sect. 3 which foresee that 92% of $`J/\psi `$ from $`b`$ decays are produced in our $`x_F`$ range. We obtain the total $`b\overline{b}`$ production cross section:

$$\sigma (b\overline{b})=32_{12}^{+14}(\mathrm{stat})_7^{+6}(\mathrm{sys})\mathrm{nb}/\mathrm{nucleon}.$$
(4)
In Fig. 10, this result is compared with the latest QCD calculations  beyond next-to-leading order (NLO). The two predicted values at 920 GeV proton beam are, respectively, $`\sigma (b\overline{b})=25_{13}^{+20}`$ nb/nucleon 222Value based on Ref. , updated with the parton distribution function in Ref. . and $`\sigma (b\overline{b})=30\pm 13`$ nb/nucleon, in good agreement with our measurement. In the same figure, the E789  and E771  experimental results obtained with 800 GeV proton interactions on Au and Si, respectively, are plotted and are seen to be compatible (Fig. 10).

## 7 Conclusions

Events coming from $`bJ/\psi l^+l^{}`$ decays have been identified in a sample of $``$1.35 million dilepton triggered events, acquired in a short physics run during the HERA   B commissioning period in summer 2000. The data analysis results in the identification of $`1.9_{1.5}^{+2.2}`$ $`bJ/\psi \mu ^+\mu ^{}`$ candidates and $`8.6_{3.2}^{+3.9}`$ $`bJ/\psi e^+e^{}`$ candidates.

From these candidates, we compute the $`b\overline{b}`$ production cross section by normalizing to the known prompt $`J/\psi `$ cross section. In the $`J/\psi `$ kinematic range $`0.25<x_F<0.15`$, we obtain $`\mathrm{\Delta }\sigma (b\overline{b})=16_{12}^{+18}`$ nb/nucleon and $`\mathrm{\Delta }\sigma (b\overline{b})=38_{15}^{+18}`$ nb/nucleon in the muon and electron channels, respectively. Within statistical errors, the two results are compatible. The combined result of the $`b\overline{b}`$ production cross section measured by HERA   B at 920 GeV using $`p`$C and $`p`$Ti interactions in our $`x_F`$ range is $`\mathrm{\Delta }\sigma (b\overline{b})=30_{11}^{+13}(\mathrm{stat})\pm 6(\mathrm{sys})\mathrm{nb}/\mathrm{nucleon}`$. Extrapolating this measurement to the full $`x_F`$ range, we obtain the total $`b\overline{b}`$ production cross section:

$$\sigma (b\overline{b})=32_{12}^{+14}(\mathrm{stat})_7^{+6}(\mathrm{sys})\mathrm{nb}/\mathrm{nucleon}.$$
(5)
This result is compatible with the existing measurements  and in agreement with the most recent QCD predictions  beyond NLO.

## Acknowledgments

We express our gratitude to the DESY laboratory and to the DESY accelerator group for their strong support since the conception of the HERA   B experiment. The HERA   B experiment would not have been possible without the enormous effort and commitment of our technical and administrative staff. It is not possible to list here the many individuals who have contributed to HERA   B. We are especially grateful to the following persons and their groups: G. Avoni, C. Baldanza, J. Bizzell, A. Cotta-Ramusino, F. Czempik, I. D’Antone, J. Davila, J. Dicke, A. Donat, U. Dretzler, A. Epifantsev, S. Fricke, W. Funk, A. Gutierrez, F. Hansen, M. Harris, S. Hennenberger, J. Hogenbirk, M. Jablonski, V. Kiva, M. Kolander, Y. Kolotaev, L. Laptin, H. Leich, H. Lüdecke, Q. Li, K. Y. Liu, P. Liu, C. Lu, K. Ludwig, J. McGill, E. Michel, N. Murthy, E. Novikov, S. Omeltchuk, D. Padrazo, H. B. Peters, P. Pietsch, M. Pohl, N. Ratnikova, A. Rausch, W. Reinsch, P. Rose, I. Rostovtseva, R. Rusnyak, W. Sands, P. Solc, S. Starostin000 deceased , K.-H. Sulanke, V. Tchoudakov, M. Tkatch, K. Wagner, P. Wegner, V. Zerkin, E. Zimmer-Nixdorf. We thank the external HERA   B referees R. Forty, D. Froidevaux, R.-D. Heuer, K. Jakobs and J. Jaros for many stimulating discussions and suggestions. We are indebted to our administrative staff U. Djuanda and I. Kerkhoff for their continuous assistance.

In the preparation of this paper, we have benefited from many useful discussions with M. Mangano, P. Nason, and R. Vogt on the theory of $`b\overline{b}`$ production.


text:
# Radio Studies of Young Core Collapse Supernovae

## 1 GMRT observations of supernovae

The ejecta from a core collapse SN interacts with the circumstellar medium (CSM), soon after the explosion. The SN shock (with speed $``$ 1000 times the speed of the progenitor wind) quickly probes the region of the wind which was lost many thousand years before. It thus probes the past history of the star. Relativistic electrons and the magnetic fields inthe interaction region give rise to the radio-emission. The shock heated SN ejecta and the CSM also emit X-rays.

### 1.1 SN1993J and SN1979C

In the next page, we show the GMRT maps of SN1993J in four separate frequency bands. The table gives the summary of GMRT observations of SN1993J and SN1979C. We also display the low frequency spectrum of SN1993J around day 3100.

### 1.2 Other recent supernovae

Although radio and X-ray observations of SNe provide complementary information, both depend upon interaction of superova shocks with CSM. X-ray luminosities reported by Chandra from SN1999gi and SN1999em (both type IIP SNe) are relatively faint (Pooley et al 2001 and Smartt et al 2001). This indicates that they have low CSM density. Schlegel (2001) suggested that the low CSM density implied in the IIP SNe may support a supernova mass-loss order. Since SN1999gi mass, as determined from its presupernova star field’s image (see Table 2 last column) is close to the boundary of a critical stellar mass (Chugai 1997), where it is expected to have undergone more mass loss in the wind compared to SN1999em, it should more radio luminous than SN1999em. This appears not to be the case in our GMRT data (see Table 2), implying that their CSM densities are similar.

In the last figure we show the GMRT maps of SN2001du and SN1995N. SN1995N is detected by GMRT (observed on Nov 8,2000) with a flux of $``$ 4.5 mJy at 1420 MHz. Finally, the table shows the supernovae that were not detected by GMRT.

## 2 Conclusions

Synchrotron self absorption of radio emission from SN1993J may be the dominant absorption mechanism which is determining the spectrum and light curve at current epochs at long wavelengths.
SN1995N is clearly detected with GMRT at 1420 MHz band. This Type IIn supernova is still a radio emitter and a good target for study of spectrum and light curves along with SN1993J and SN1979C.
The optically determined position of SN2001du is consistent (within astrometric errors and size of the synthesized beam) with a region of enhanced radio emission at 2 mJy level at 610 MHz.

We thank the staff of the GMRT that made these observations possible. GMRT is run by the National Centre for Radio Astrophysics of the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research.

Table 2. Results of GMRT observations of SN1999gi and SN1999em

Table 3. Supernovae undetected by GMRT and their 2 $`\sigma `$ upper limits