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# Integration and Conventional Systems at STAR

## 1 Introduction

The STAR collaboration has built a detector to study Nucleus-Nucleus collisions at the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider (RHIC) which is located at Brookhaven National Laboratory. The detector started taking data in the year 2000 and has already published several papers. To achieve this, many years of planning and design were needed.

When the project began, a group of physicists and engineers were given the responsibility to coordinate the activities from the many sub-systems. This group worked with the other STAR groups so that a coherently planned detector was constructed. Each individual sub-system focused on the optimum performance of its design. However, this group, which had a global or overall system level perspective, assured that the individual plans worked well together.

As the sub-systems had several items in common, it was prudent for one group to undertake the design of these common elements. For instance, the cooling and powering of each electronic rack is essentially the same for each sub-system. Similarly, as the over all cable plan is common to each sub-system, it is more efficient to build only one set of cable trays. The integration and conventional systems group was assigned these tasks in addition to defining the boundaries and interfaces between each sub-system. What follows is a description of this group’s activities.

## 2 Overall Layout of STAR

When the accelerator was under construction, RHIC management assigned the STAR detector to the Wide Angle Hall (WAH), located at the 6 o’clock position in the accelerator ring. A diagram of the full STAR facility can be found in Fig. 1. As the WAH was built for the previous accelerator, Isabelle, much of our design was constrained by this existing structure. A large addition, which is called the Assembly Building, was needed to accommodate the assembly of the detector and to house the magnet power supplies and the water and gas system. The largest room in the Assembly Building, called the Assembly Hall (AH), was used to assemble the detector. In this room, the magnet and platforms were constructed. In a separate area, the TPC was tested and then inserted into the magnet. The detector easily moves between the AH and WAH over two metal rails.

At the center of the WAH, RHIC beams collide in a vacuum beam pipe, which is located 4.31 m above the floor. The STAR detector surrounds this beam pipe and provides the data to analyze the collisions. A platform is on each side of the detector. These structures provide a location for the detector electronics, pumps, power supplies, and detector utilities, such as water, power, and gas. The South Platform, which is south of the detector, contains most of the detector electronics while the North Platform holds the magnet controls and power transformers. It is also a support for the magnet and AC power leads. The North and South Platforms and the Detector move as one unit. Only a few utility connections such as power, water and gas need to be disconnected before the detector can travel between the WAH and AH.

As any item in the WAH can not be readily accessed when the accelerator operates, we minimized the equipment that resides there. Nearly all equipment that must be adjacent to the detector can be operated remotely. The electronics in the Data Acquisition Room (DAQ) receive trigger and digital data and also communicate with the detector through an optical Ethernet link. This room is shielded from the accelerator beam by concrete so that it can be accessed during operation of the beam. Adjacent to this room is the Control Room where physicists monitor the data from the detector.

Next to the Assembly Hall is a two-story structure, which houses the magnet power supply, gas and water systems. The Assembly Hall is used when the detector needs extensive servicing and provides a facility for testing sub-systems.

## 3 Integration Drawings

The STAR detector has many layers. As these layers were constructed at different institutions, it was necessary to coordinate the design of each element. Therefore, when such a complex detector is being built, it is necessary to define guidelines so that these detectors can come together cohesively. As the final dimensions of each sub-system are not known at the start of the project, we defined what was called an “envelope”.

Each sub-system is assigned several dimensions in a series of drawings. It is the responsibility of each sub-system manager to assure that his/her sub-system fits completely inside the envelope. To ensure that there are no interferences between sub-systems, space is reserved for utilities, signal cables, support structures and so forth. Often a small “management reserve” is inserted to account for future growth and changes. This reserve could be as small as 1 to 2 cm. These integration drawings provided the guidelines so that the whole detector would come together properly.

Figure 2 depicts a quarter section of the detector. This drawing shows the cylindrical radius and z value of the major components in the detector. This figure is just one of the many series of drawings needed to define the dimensions of the detector. To assure that there was space for the future additions, these subsystems were included in the envelope drawings.

## 4 Safety – Interlocks

An interlock system has been designed and implemented to protect the STAR detector from damage. The STAR Interlock system consists of the interlocks for specific STAR sub-systems as well as a global system, which supervises those systems. All of these interlocks utilize Allen-Bradley Programmable Logic systems.

The inputs to this system include flammable gas detectors, smoke detectors, water leak detectors, and the status of some of the facility systems necessary to operate the detector (e.g. water cooling systems). The actions that the interlock system can take automatically include such things as removing AC power from either selected items or the entire detector. It can also change the STAR flammable gas systems to purge modes with nonflammable gases. Upon sensing a water leak, it can turn off water flow from portions of the detector, remove the High Voltages for the electronics, and ramp down the STAR magnet.

Whenever a fault is detected by the global interlock system, it automatically puts the detector in a safe state. Simultaneously, the system sends alarms both locally in the STAR complex as well as at the RHIC main control room.

There are different levels of response depending on the error condition. For some conditions, the interlock system provides a warning, leaving time for human corrective action. If the condition is not corrected after a defined time, then automated correction is invoked. For other conditions the interlock takes corrective measures immediately. Except for the relatively rare occasions when the entire STAR detector is being physically moved or when the interlock system is being modified, the system is always in operation.

## 5 Grounding

It is the common experience of experiments to find that the detector in an experiment has significantly more electrical noise then was measured in the laboratory. A frequent culprit to noise problems is poorly planned electrical distribution. There may be many different and ill-defined electrical paths, resulting in current loops, which in turn produce spurious electrical signals.

To reduce electrical noise pickup requires a single point ground and a well-planned distribution of electrical power. Care must be taken to avoid coupling from noisy electrical devices such as motors, pumps and switching power supplies. As only the physical building existed before the STAR detector was constructed, we were able to design an electrical system with few prior constraints.

While it is possible to make sure that the detector has a DC resistance greater than 100 M$`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ from any sources other than the single point ground, it is very difficult to completely eliminate the capacitive coupling. Therefore, we had to make an electrical model of the STAR detector. To gauge how much capacitance would be acceptable, we examined the effect of it on the most sensitive element of the base line STAR detector – the TPC digitizing electronics. For instance, the capacitance of a TPC pad is 30 pf with about 1000 electron RMS noise. It was necessary to control the STAR electrical environment so that this noise was not increased significantly on the TPC pads.

We devised a grounding plan that separated the electrical components from each other, reduced stray capacitance, and split the electrical power distribution. The schematic for the plan is shown in Fig. 3. We mandated that the detector should use optical connections when possible, that the detector be electrically isolated in DC resistance, and that the capacitance between the detector and its surroundings be held to less than 5 nf. This value of capacitance was selected so that anticipated noise sources would not appreciatively affect the TPC front-end electronics up to 100 kHz.

A column in the Assembly Hall was selected at the earth contact of the experiment. A total of eight 4/0 cables ground the magnet to this column. These cables provide the single point ground to the detector. We selected this column because is about 30 m away from the beam pipe, and consequently beam induced electrical noise would be attenuated before it reached the column. It was also in a convenient place to ground the detector when it is either in the WAH or AH. It is also adjacent to the DAQ Room so that both the detector and its electronics have the same ground.

The trigger and power supplies to the detector reside on the South Platform. These items communicate with the DAQ room via optical cables. The North Platform, which is electrically isolated from the detector, holds items such as the 480V transformers and magnetic monitoring equipment. We ordered transformers with electrostatic shields so that electrical noise from the power grid did not enter our power distribution system.

## 6 Facility AC Power

The 6 o’clock facilities for the Detector have AC power feeds from two separate substations. The first substation is a 13.8 kVA feed that supplies 480 V transformer power to detector power panel A1 located in the DAQ room. This panel provides power distribution to detector electronics through three shunt trip breakers A11, A12, and A13. Shunt trip breakers are used as required to interlock all detector AC power with the STAR Global Interlocks System (SGIS).

Circuit A11 provides “Clean Power” to 480 V isolation transformer located on the North Platform. From these isolation transformer 208/120 V clean power is distributed to individual electronics racks on the South platform through rack row breaker panels. The second circuit, A12, supplies “Dirty Power” to 480 V transformer on the North Platform for 208/120 V power distribution. This power is used strictly on the North Platform to provide lighting and power for detector subsystem rotary equipment that will generate line noise. The last circuit, A13, provides DAQ and Control Room Power to a 480 V isolation transformer located in the DAQ room. From this isolation transformer 208/120 V clean power is distributed to DAQ electronics racks and to Control Room computer systems.

Shunt trip breakers interlocked to SGIS are assigned to those electronic racks that are temperature sensitive and require Modified Chilled Water (MCW) cooling and leak detection. On each rack, there are P2 rack breaker panels which distribute 208/120 V power to the electronics.

The second AC power feed comes from a 13.8 kVA overhead line to substation-8 located on the East Side of the Facility. This feed provides power to the facilities buildings for conventional systems use and also to power the STAR Magnet DC power supplies. There is a direct 13.8 kVA feed to the Main Magnet switch gear that in turn feeds the Main Magnet transformers and rectifier, which can provide a maximum of 5000 A @ 600 VDC. There is also a 480 V feed to the four other Magnet Trim transformers and rectifiers used to control magnetic field quality in the detector.

## 7 Rack Design

To preserve the life of the electronics, it is important to have the electronics operate close to room temperature. It is widely known that as the temperature of electronics increases, the reliability decreases. Because of the extremely limited space on the STAR platform, we had to pack the electronics as densely as possible. Since we did not want a situation where there was excessive heat build up inside the rack, we decided to put water-cooled heat exchangers in each crate.

Figure 4 shows a typical arrangement for a rack with VME crates. The heat exchangers are modeled after those designed for the D0 experiment. The fans inside the 6U and 9U sections of the VME crate blow the air up. The fans in the back of the crate move the air down to facilitate the airflow. A filter held by a simple metal frame traps dust inside the rack. A P2 breaker panel, which distributes electrical power, is located on top of the rack.

Racks are arranged so that two 19” racks occupy one volume. Blank panels fill all unoccupied outside surfaces. This minimizes the amount of air exchanged in the rack and consequently reduces the amount of dust. Furthermore, keeping the air inside the rack makes smoke detection much more efficient.

## 8 Ground Integrity Detector

As the construction of a detector is very complicated and done by many people, we had a significant concern that the grounding plan would be inadvertently violated. Therefore we built a Ground Integrity Detector (GID), a device which checks to see if there is an electronic path to ground other than the intended single point ground. The device sends an AC 400 Hz signal current through the ground leads and then checks whether all current is returned. It enables us to have a dynamic determination of the integrity of the ground.

The physical layout, which is depicted in Fig. 5, consists of a grounded stanchion with a welded on boss for mounting a current transformer. The boss has a flange to secure the 4/0 cables used to ground the platform. The current transformer detects current in the boss. A supervisory current (400 Hz) is sent through the 4/0 cables from the cable flange to the platform. The transformer does not see this current. If an extraneous path from the platform to ground is accidentally created then that current must pass through the current transformer. The voltmeter will detect this current.

The current transformer output consists of a voltage proportional to the current through the mounting boss. To guard against false readings due to 60 Hz leakage current, the signal must be filtered. The electronics consists of two 400 Hz bandpass filters in tandem preceded by a 300 Hz high pass circuit. The output of the second band pass filter is fed to an active rectifier chip and then to a Simpson controller. The controller provides relative voltage (proportional to extraneous 400 Hz current) as well as preset visual and audible alarm functions.

The eight 4/0 cables are used as a single point ground and are the safety ground for the electronic platform The DC and 60 Hz impedance of the cable array is approximately 0.7 m$`\mathrm{\Omega }`$. However the 400 Hz impedance is about 1.7 m$`\mathrm{\Omega }`$. If a droplight that was connected to another power source were inadvertently hung on the platform, the ground wire in the cord would provide a leakage current to the supervisory current. The magnitude of the leakage current is dependent on many factors, but is typically 300 mA. This value provides a current transformer output of 350 mV at 400Hz. The detector has a sensitivity of 100 mA = 0.168 $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ or about 30 m of number 12 wire.

## 9 Fiber and Cable Plan

The STAR detector differs from previous collider detectors as much of the digitization is on the detector. This design requires that low voltage power cables are the largest volume of cables entering the detector. Because of grounding and the desire to reduce the size of the power supplies, the low voltage power supplies locally provide power to the detector from the platform. These cables were routed from the platform to radial cable trays on the magnet face. All of the data, except for the trigger detector, goes directly from the inner section of the detector and then is routed to the south platform and then to a very simple group of movable supports. At the end of the supports, the cables pass through a concrete tunnel to the DAQ room.

The readout between the detector and Data Acquisition Room is almost entirely made up of fiber optical cable. Because adding connectors in these cables attenuates the signal and reduces the reliability, it was decided that the detector readout chain must be left intact and never broken. Consequently, we designed a flexible overhead “festoon” system for transporting the fiber cable bundle from one hall to the other. This system required the addition of approximately 35 meters of fiber to the total cable run of approximately 100 m.

The festoon easily moves as the detector travels from the WAH to the AH. As a result there is no need to disconnect the data cables when the detector is moved. As the South Platform is rigidly tied to the magnet, there was no need to disconnect the power cables from the detector.

The distance via the cable trays between the South Platform and the detector vary by as much as 11 m because the trays are routed on the radius of the Magnet. If the cables were cut to length, then there would be different timing for signal cables and different resistive losses for power cables. Because we desired that the cable effects be similar, we decided that all similar types of cable should be cut to the same length. This decision resulted in us having significant amounts of excess cable. These surplus lengths were stored in cable trays that run under the second and third floors of the South Platform, and under each floor of the South Platform. The floors were designed so that there was easy access to the cable trays. A typical length for a cable from the South Platform to the detector is 35 m.

## 10 Water Systems

The STAR Facilities have as part of their conventional systems a stand alone water system. The Detector, in full operation, dissipates approximately 4 MW of electrical power through various closed loop water systems with heat exchange to an open air cooling tower.

The magnet closed loop system is a Low Conductivity Water (LCW) system dissipating 3.2 MW using 1100 gpm @ 200 psi while maintaining the aluminum coil assemblies at a mean temperature of 29 C with a $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$T of 11 C. Because the conductor is aluminum, all materials in this system are restricted to aluminum and stainless steel with a water resistivity greater than 5 M$`\mathrm{\Omega }`$-cm. This system goes through two heat exchanges. the first time with the cooling tower as a pre-cooler, and the second with a chiller system used during the warmer months of the year.

Detector electronics, represents approximately 160 kW of power that is dissipated through the Modified Chilled Water (MCW) system. This LCW closed loop water system provides 16 C water using 360 gpm @ 150 psi through a heat exchange with a chiller system. There are secondary closed loop systems that operate off a heat exchanger with the MCW system for cooling TPC, SVT, TOFp, and FTPC detector subsystems.

The Magnet DC power supplies and water-cooled electrical buss are another closed loop water system that dissipates 340 kW through a heat exchange with the cooling tower. As mention previously, both the Magnet and MCW water system dissipate a large portion of their heat, in the warmer months of the year, through a heat exchange with a water chiller system. These 2 - 200 ton capacity chillers are capable of dissipating the 1220 kW load from both the magnet and MCW systems in a heat exchange with the cooling tower.

Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC) control all water systems with alarm and interlock capability. The system can be monitored in the STAR Control Room through an interactive schematic display of the system parameters of each water system.

## 11 Beam Pipe

The beampipe assembly for STAR spans the 16 m width of the experimental hall. Located at the edges of the hall are the two interaction region vacuum pumps. The beampipe near these pumps is 12.7 cm in diameter; but it necks down to only 7.62 cm at 4 m from the interaction point (IP). A layout of the beam pipe can be seen in Fig. 6.

The goal for the beampipe and pumping system design is to maintain a vacuum in the $`10^9`$ torr range at the IP in order to minimize beam-gas interactions. One of the more challenging aspects of the design was to maintain this level of vacuum while minimizing the mass of the beam tube and supports within the constraints of a nearly hermetic collider detector. As is typical of most collider experiments, there are many detector elements that cluster close (within a few cm) to the beampipe and extend the full length of the detector. Additionally, these subdetectors must be installed and removed for maintenance along the beam axis. This means that the opportunities for supporting the beampipe are few and far between. The last structural item of significant mass is located over 4 m from the IP.

To minimize the material near the IP, we use a cone structure fabricated from a carbon fiber-epoxy/Nomex honeycomb material that holds the Silicon Vertex Tracker (SVT) to support the beam pipe. At 54.8 cm from the IP, a spider arrangement of 4 aluminum radial wires (3.18 mm diameter), 4 G-10 insulating rollers (7.19 mm diameter by 25.4 mm long) and a disk (128 mm O.D. by 89 mm I.D. by 6.4 mm thick) fixes the beampipe to the SVT cone. The SVT cone then attaches to the TPC wheel, which is mounted to the magnet.

While the beampipe outside the STAR detector is 1.5 mm Stainless Steel, as it transitions to the smaller 7.62 cm diameter within the detector it becomes 1.24 mm thick Aluminum, then at 76 cm from the IP becomes 1 mm wall Beryllium.

This design utilizes a single standard length of rolled Beryllium tube at the heart of the detector. To reduce the cost, the length of the Beryllium is limited and a thin Aluminum section is welded to it. This economical choice only minimally impacts the number of secondary or stray particle hits in the SVT and TPC. The Beryllium is cleaned and passivated to minimize oxidation and Be dust so that it safer to handle. It was joined via braising to a short 6061-T6 aluminum transition and welded to an Aluminum/Stainless Steel “Conflat” flange by the manufacturer. After arriving at the STAR experimental hall, the end was cut and additional lengths of aluminum tubing were field welded in place to make up the full-length 8.08 m pipe.

Many considerations come into play in determining the beam tube wall thickness. The thickness is a pseudo-optimization of acceptable safety factor from “critical buckling pressure” calculations, the allowable mid-span/mid-support deflections as well as standard or available tube wall thickness and the necessity to be able to handle and transport the pipe. The analyses included the reduced material strength and stiffness at bakeout temperatures ($``$150 C for Aluminum), the imperfections in tube “roundness”, and the extra weight and space requirements of bakeout blankets. We selected a safety factor between 3 and 4. This value produces a relatively robust design that should survive the occasional maintenance and upgrade situations while minimizing both the multiple coulomb scattering for particles that are produced inside the beam pipe and the secondary particles that are created by the beam pipe.

## 12 Mechanical Movement of the Detector

The STAR Detector must move 33 m between the Assembly Hall, where maintenance and upgrades occur, to the Wide Angle Hall. Mechanical movement of the 1100 Tonne detector is accomplished hydraulically using the inchworm principle. A set of thick rail plates, on which the 4 - 500 ton Hillman Rollers ride, are imbedded in the hall floor perpendicular to the detector (beam) axis. These plates have a repeated hole pattern for bolting the base of the 30-Ton hydraulic actuators used to move the detector in approximately 1.5 m increments. These actuators both push (extend) and pull (retract) with similar load carrying capability.

The detector was designed and constructed with the cylindrical axis 1.3 cm below beam height, when resting on the Hillman Rollers and floor rail plates. When the detector is moved into the WAH, it is raised vertically to beam height and supported using 4-1000 ton hydraulic actuators, which act as four legs of a table. These actuators are inverted with their pistons pushing against the floor rail plates and their upper bases pushing against the main support carriage. Between the pistons and the floor rail plates are electrical isolator compression pads. Electrical isolators are also used between the Hillman Rollers and the floor rail plates, once the detector is raised to electrically isolate the detector from the building. There are mechanical locking collars on each piston to support the detector load when hydraulic power is removed. Both the horizontal and vertical actuator motions are controlled using a closed loop servo system allowing for precise control of motion parameters of both individual or combined actuator systems.

The detector is restrained from motion in both the Assembly and Wide Angle Halls by the seismic supports. These 4 large devices restrain the detector in the horizontal plane, while maintaining the electrical isolation preventing multipoint grounding. The seismic supports are capable of constraining the detector from 0.25 g horizontal accelerations.

The 2 - 100 ton pole tips on the East and West ends of the detector form the end pieces of the cylindrical magnet steel. They must be removable for accessing the internal detector elements. This is accomplished using a pole tip support carriage for each pole tip. Each carriage weighs 70 tons and is capable of lifting and retracting or inserting the pole tip through vertical, tilt, and linear hydraulic actuator motion. Once the pole tips are inserted, the carriages can be disconnected and retracted away from the detector.

## 13 Performance

The design of STAR took many years to complete. Tools such as 3D CAD were used to simulate the detector and the assembly. Even with this very careful planning process, it was not possible to foresee all the ramifications of our decisions. It certainly could be possible that an overlooked detail could create a fundamental conflict in the assembly of the detector. Furthermore, we had to carefully manage any last minute changes. These items could introduce delay into the project and increase the cost. Furthermore, an unmanaged change could negate the planning processes. The following sections describe our experience as the detector was assembled and subsequently operated.

### 13.1 Assembly

The assembly of all detector elements went very smoothly. The sub-systems were monitored in reviews to make sure that the designers understood the envelope drawings and interfaces. Any change in their design was carefully reviewed to make sure that the ramifications of the modification were understood and changes to other detectors were minimized.

There was no need to modify or retrofit any part of any detector due to interference with a neighboring element. Nor was there a need to change any items due to mismatch at an interface. There was also adequate room for all power and signal cables, gas pipes, cooling lines and structural support elements. Up front thinking and system level design (envelope and interface drawings, interface specifications) of the STAR detector proved very worthwhile.

### 13.2 Movement of the Detector with the Festoon

The detector typically moves between the WAH and AH once per year. The operation of stepping the detector the 33 m from one hall to the other requires 4 hours. Setup and safety checks require a significant fraction of this time.

The festoon lets us rapidly operate the detector after it is moved. When the festoon was first assembled, the only copper cables were a safety/interlock and a trigger bundle cable. After the initial operation, the copper trigger cable was disconnected and replaced by an optical fiber connection. As a 1 cm optical fiber carries all of the data from one of the 24 TPC sectors, the size of the festoon is small. The total diameter of the full cable bundle is about 15 cm. This amount includes all of the TPC, EMC, SVT, FTPC, trigger and miscellaneous cables. This size is very small compared to cable bundles that previous collider detectors needed.

When access is needed to the inner detector, it is necessary to remove the pole tips. The time to disassemble both the magnet water and electrical connections and then move the pole tip out of the way is about 8 hours. The time to restore the pole tip so that the Magnet can be operated is approximately the same time.

### 13.3 Grounding

As the detector was built, it often became hard to balance the requirements of low capacitance with the physical requirements of the detector. Also, the capacitance of the detector to the walls of the building was neglected in the design.

In the early stages of the design when just the Magnet and North and South Platforms were attached, the total capacitance was about 14 nf. This number is significantly higher than the planned number of about 5 nf. After the detector was fully assembled, the final value was about 130 nf. First, this number was measured with the pole tips retracted from the magnet. This particular stray capacitance is not seen when the detector is taking data. Secondly, a number of sub-systems were not installed as planned. For instance, several gas pipes were installed very close to the North Platform, and several cable runs ran on the concrete floor.

When the detector was installed, the GID showed that there was in fact a stray path to ground. This path vanished when the detector traveled to the Assembly Hall and the fault came back intermittently when the detector returned to the WAH. After much investigation, a small metal chip was found which shorted across a detector insulator.

The GID is designed to measure a ground fault of 0.17 $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$. At one time, we tried to measure the capacitance of the detector and found that there was a 400 $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ ground fault. Such a large number could not be measured with the GID and could only be done by disconnecting all ground cables. Similarly, the GID is not designed to measure the capacitive coupling. A careful measure of the true impedance coupling of the detector to the environment can only be done when the ground connection is disconnected. This is not practical to do often, as this measurement requires all power to be turned off the detector.

Tests show there is no significant external electrical contribution to the detector noise from the surroundings for the TPC pedestals. Measurements made show that even with the magnet operating at full current, the pedestals are about 1.1 ADC counts. This value is approximately the same as measured in the laboratory.

### 13.4 Rack Cooling

The rack cooling supplies need to hold the interior rack temperatures low enough to minimize electronic aging. The water system was originally designed to operate at 16 C. However, the water temperature had to be increased to 19 C so that condensation would not happen inside the racks. The higher temperature was needed because the air conditioning system could not dehumidify the air sufficiently when the outside temperature was hot and the outside humidity was high.

Even though the water system ran at a much higher temperature, the VME crate temperatures typically operate at 23 C, about 2 C above ambient temperature and a very comfortable temperature for electronics. Even the highest temperature in a crate was only 27 C.

Several factors contributed to this good fortune. First, the preliminary estimates of the power loads in the crates turned out to be high. For a DAQ crate, the final value was approximately 700 w/crate, which is about 1/2 of the original projection. Furthermore, the flow for the cooling water was specified to be 8 l/min for each radiator. The cooling system exceeded these specifications. The flow in the DAQ heat exchangers varied between 12 to 18 l/min with the highest flow value at the bottom of the rack.

We could have operated the input water temperature at an even higher water temperature. However, the temperature of the TPC water system was coupled to the rack water system and any higher temperature made the TPC cooling system unstable. Consequently, on the most extreme hot and humid days, there was condensation in the crates. When this condition happened, the leak detection system promptly detected the moisture and turned off the power so that the moisture did not damage the electronics. A new dehumidifier system has been added to the WAH air conditioning system to eliminate this condition for the next run.

## 14 Conclusion

The team of integration and system level engineers and physicists was crucial to building the detector on time and on budget. The planning worked well and as a result the final mechanical and electrical environment for STAR was built as intended.

We would like to thank the engineering and technical staffs of Brookhaven National Laboratory and Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory for their effort in building STAR. We also would like to thank the RHIC operations group for their support. Doug Fritz contributed to mechanical integration for this project. John Scheblein, Bill Leonhard, Michael Cherney, and Tonko Ljubicic provided us with vital information for this paper. Howard Wieman has reviewed this manuscript and contributed several thoughtful suggestions. Finally, we acknowledge the financial support from the U.S. Department of Energy, Nuclear Physics.


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# RE-ANALYSIS of MICHELSON-MORLEY EXPERIMENTS REVEALS AGREEMENT with COBE COSMIC BACKGROUND RADIATION PREFERRED FRAME so IMPACTING on INTERPRETATION OF GENERAL RELATIVITY

## Abstract

We report a simple re-analysis of the old results from the Michelson-Morley interferometer experiments that were designed to detect absolute motion. We build upon a recent (1998) re-analysis of the original data by Múnera, which revealed small but significant effects after allowing for several systematic errors in the original analysis. The further re-analysis here reveals that a genuine effect of absolute motion is expected, in what is essentially a quantum interference experiment, but only if the photons travel in the interferometer at speeds $`V<c`$. This is the case if the interferometer operates in a dielectric, such as air, or helium as was the case of the Illingworth (1927) Michelson-Morley experiment. The re-analysis here of the Illingworth experimental data correcting for the refractive index effect of the helium, reveals an absolute speed of the Earth of $`v=369\pm 123`$ km/s, which is in agreement with the speed of $`v=365\pm 18`$ km/s determined from the dipole fit, in 1991, to the NASA COBE satellite Cosmic Background Radiation (CBR) observations. These experimental results refute Einstein’s assertion that absolute motion through space has no meaning. This re-analysis was motivated by developments in a new information-theoretic modelling of reality, known as Process Physics111Process Physics Web Page: http://www.socpes.flinders.edu.au/people/rcahill/processphysics.html, in which the Einstein Special and General Relativity formalisms arise as consequences of an emergent quantum-foam explanation for space. This amounts to an absolute and preferred frame of reference, in what is a unified quantum theory of space, gravity and matter. So Einstein’s theoretical phenomenology survives, and is now explained, even though he used a false premise in his derivation, but his spacetime construct is now seen to have no ontological significance. We predict that new interferometer experiments, operating in dielectric mode, will reveal an inward velocity component of magnitude $`11.2`$km/s due to the quantum-foam flow caused by the matter of the Earth. This is a fundamental test of the quantum theory of gravity that has emerged from Process Physics.

Key words: Michelson-Morley interferometer, Cosmic Background Radiation (CBR),

COBE, preferred frame, quantum foam, quantum gravity, process physics, aether.

PACS:   03.30.+p, 04.80.-y, 03.65.-w, 04.60.-m

One key unchallenged folklore in physics is that the Michelson interferometer laboratory experiment of 1881 , and repeated by Michelson and Morley in 1987 , that were designed to detect absolute motion, gave a null result, vindicating Einstein’s assumption that absolute motion (motion relative to space itself) has no meaning; it is in principle not detectable in a laboratory situation. Motion of objects is always relative to other objects, according to Einstein. Using this assumption Einstein went on to construct the Special and General Theory of Relativity, which uses the notion of spacetime to avoid any notion of absolute space. Of course Einstein’s formalism has been abundantly confirmed both by the extensive use of the special theory in particle physics experiments and theory, and by the general theory in various experimental and observational situations. Nevertheless we report here experimental evidence that absolute motion is detectable in laboratory experiments, such as those done by Michelson and Morley and others, but that this requires a re-analysis of the operation of their interferometer, as reported herein. This analysis leads to a speed which agrees with that found from the NASA COBE satellite observations on analysing the dipole anisotropy of the Cosmic Background Radiation. Together these results show that absolute motion has been detected. New interferometer experiments are needed to confirm that the direction of that motion is the same as the direction discovered by the COBE mission. These results are profoundly significant to our understanding of reality. It follows from recent work that these experimental outcomes will not be in conflict with the Einstein phenomenology, but require a major re-assessment of what that phenomenology describes .

Recent developments in the new information-theoretic modelling of reality, known as Process Physics , indicate that the Einstein Special and General Relativity formalisms arise as a consequence of an emergent quantum-foam explanation for space, but with this quantum foam amounting to an absolute and preferred frame of reference, in what is a unified quantum theory of space, gravity and matter. In  it was shown how the general theory account of gravity arises from an amalgam of two distinct quantum foam effects, one being the effective diffusion of the quantum foam towards ‘matter’ that acts as a ‘sink’, together with the classical measurement protocol based on the apparent invariance of the speed of light, which uses the radar method to retrospectively assign spacetime coordinates to distant events, that is, spacetime is in fact a historical record of reality, and not reality itself. Here the invariance of the speed of light is caused by the genuine dynamical effect of the quantum foam on moving rods and clocks, as suggested long ago by Fitzgerald and Lorentz to explain the, here now disputed, null result of the Michelson-Morley experiment. Observers adopting this phenomenological property of light within the classical measurement protocol will find, according to Process Physics, that the formalism of the General Theory of Relativity describes their historical records which have the form of a spacetime geometrical construct, but that this spacetime construct has no ontological significance. In this construct the modelling of time by geometry is entirely appropriate; it is essentially a pagination of the historical record. The resolution of the confusion between the geometrical modelling of time in historical records and time as an actual process has now been achieved within the new Process Physics. The older but still current Non-Process Physics modelling of reality, which has been with us since Galileo and Newton introduced the geometrical modelling of time, is now superseded.

An implication of these developments in Process Physics is that it should be possible in principle to overcome the classical measurement protocol effects by using the long-known nonlocality of quantum processes which should be sensitive to absolute motion through this quantum foam. Indeed ever since the Aspect  experiment showed a violation of the Bell inequalities, in the context of the Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen (EPR) nonlocal effects it has been understood that quantum collapse events caused by quantum detectors appear to require a preferred frame, and so appear to be in conflict with Einstein’s assumption. The work of Hardy  and Percival  suggested that ‘double-EPR’ experiments could reveal an absolute frame, and hence absolute motion, though such experiments for this purpose would be extremely difficult. However the old Michelson-Morley interferometer experiment is actually a quantum interferometer, that is, in principle it could be done with one photon at a time, and we inquired why it is believed that it was unable to detect a preferred frame, and so absolute motion. In fact it can do so.

As described in Fig.1 the beamsplitter/mirror $`A`$ sends a photon $`\psi (t)`$ into a superposition $`\psi (t)=\psi _1(t)+\psi _2(t)`$, with each component travelling in different arms of the interferometer, until they are recombined in the quantum detector which results in a localisation process, and one spot in the detector is produced. Repeating with many photons, reveals that the interference between $`\psi _1`$ and $`\psi _2`$ at the detector results in fringes. Before the quantum theory (and in particular before the new quantum foam physics) Michelson designed the interferometer with the idea that any motion through absolute space (then called the luminiferous aether) would result in different path lengths for light waves in the two arms, which would show as a shift in the fringe. Of course as an experimental expediency one rotates the apparatus through $`90^o`$ so that the roles of the two arms are interchanged, this rotation then should result in a shift of the fringes, which is an effect more easily observed. However Michelson and Morley reported a null result, despite a small effect actually being seen. Fitzgerald and then Lorentz then offered an explanation for the null result, namely that the failure to get an effect was caused by the actual contraction of the arm moving lengthwise through the absolute space, as we show below. However long ago it was decided by physicists that the more elaborate Einstein explanation in terms of spacetime transformations was superior to this dynamical explanation.

In reviewing the operation of the Michelson-Morley interferometer (see below) it was noticed that the Fitzgerald-Lorentz contraction explanation only implies a null effect if the experiment is performed in vacuum. In air, in which photons travel slightly slower than in vacuum, there should be a small fringe shift effect when the apparatus is rotated, even after taking account of the Fitzgerald-Lorentz contraction. This appears to have gone unnoticed. As well Múnera  in 1998 has corrected the original results for various systematic errors, and shown that these interferometer experiments do indeed reveal small but significant non-null results, but as expected now, only when they are operated in a dielectric.

We have applied the elementary correction required for the effects of the air, or in one case helium, to various interferometer results as corrected by Múnera for other systematic errors. The correction is in fact large, being some two orders of magnitude. Applied to the Illingworth experiment (1927) the old data now results in a speed of $`v=369\pm 123`$ km/s. Even more amazing is the excellent agreement of this speed with the speed of $`v=365\pm 18`$ km/s determined from the dipole fit, in 1991, to the NASA COBE satellite Cosmic Background Radiation observations .

We now indicate the proper understanding of the operation of the Michelson-Morley interferometers when operated in a dielectric, and then report the corrected results, as shown in Fig.2. The two arms are constructed to have the same lengths when they are physically parallel to each other. For convenience assume that the value $`L`$ of this length refers to the lengths when at rest in the quantum foam. The Fitzgerald-Lorentz effect is that the arm $`AB`$ parallel to the direction of motion is shortened to

$$L_{}=L\sqrt{1\frac{v^2}{c^2}}$$
(1)
by motion through the quantum foam.

Following Fig.(1), we consider the case when the apparatus is moving at speed $`v`$ through the quantum foam, and that the photon states travel at speed $`V=c/n`$ relative to the quantum foam, where $`n`$ is the refractive index of the gas and $`c`$ is the speed of light, in vacuum, relative to the quantum foam. Let the time taken for $`\psi _1`$ to travel from $`AB`$ be $`t_{AB}`$ and that from $`BA`$ be $`t_{BA}`$. In moving from the beamsplitter at $`A`$ to $`B`$, the photon state $`\psi _1`$ must travel an extra distance because the mirror $`B`$ travels a distance $`vt_{AB}`$ in this time, thus the total distance that must be traversed is

$$Vt_{AB}=L_{}+vt_{AB}.$$
(2)
Similarly, on returning from $`B`$ to $`A`$, the photon state $`\psi _1`$ must travel the distance

$$Vt_{BA}=L_{}vt_{BA}.$$
(3)
Hence the total time $`t_{ABA}`$ taken for $`\psi _1`$ to travel from $`ABA`$ is given by

$`t_{ABA}=t_{AB}+t_{BA}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{L_{}}{Vv}}+{\displaystyle \frac{L_{}}{V+v}}`$ (4)
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{L_{}(V+v)+L_{}(Vv)}{V^2v^2}}`$ (5)
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{2LV\sqrt{1{\displaystyle \frac{v^2}{c^2}}}}{V^2v^2}}.`$ (6)
Now, assuming that the time taken for the photon state $`\psi _2`$ to travel from $`AC`$ is $`t_{AC}`$, but that the apparatus travels a distance $`vt_{AC}`$ in that time, we can use the Pythagoras theorem:

$$\left(Vt_{AC}\right)^2=L^2+\left(vt_{AC}\right)^2$$
(7)
which gives

$$t_{AC}=\frac{L}{\sqrt{V^2v^2}},$$
(8)
and including the return trip ($`CA,t_{CA}=t_{AC},t_{ACA}=t_{AC}+t_{CA}`$) results in

$$t_{ACA}=\frac{2L}{\sqrt{V^2v^2}},$$
(9)
giving finally for the time difference for the two arms

$$\mathrm{\Delta }t=\frac{2LV\sqrt{1{\displaystyle \frac{v^2}{c^2}}}}{V^2v^2}\frac{2L}{\sqrt{V^2v^2}}.$$
(10)
Now trivially $`\mathrm{\Delta }t=0`$ if $`v=0`$, but also $`\mathrm{\Delta }t=0`$ when $`v0`$ but only if $`V=c`$. This then would result in a null result on rotating the apparatus. Hence the null result of the Michelson-Morley apparatus is only for the special case of photons travelling in vacuum for which $`V=c`$, as confirmed by the modern vacuum interferometer experiment of Brillet and Hall , which in-effect confirms (1). However if the apparatus is immersed in a gas then $`V<c`$ and a non-null effect is expected on rotating the apparatus, since now $`\mathrm{\Delta }t0`$. It is essential then in analysing data to correct for this refractive index effect. Putting $`V=c/n`$ in (10) we find, for $`v<<V`$ and when $`n1^+`$, that

$$\mathrm{\Delta }t=L(n^21)\frac{v^2}{c^3}+\mathrm{}$$
(11)
However if the data is analysed not using the Fitzgerald-Lorentz contraction (1), then, as done in the old analyses, the estimated time difference is

$$\mathrm{\Delta }t=\frac{2LV}{V^2v^2}\frac{2L}{\sqrt{V^2v^2}},$$
(12)
which again for $`v<<V`$ and $`n1^+`$, gives

$$\mathrm{\Delta }t=Ln^3\frac{v^2}{c^3}+\mathrm{}L\frac{v^2}{c^3}$$
(13)
The value of $`\mathrm{\Delta }t`$ is deduced from analysing the fringe shifts, and then the speed $`v_{MM}`$ (in previous Michelson-Morley analyses) has been extracted using (13), instead of the correct form (11). $`\mathrm{\Delta }t`$ is typically of order $`10^{15}s`$. However it is very easy to correct for this oversight. From (11) and (13) we obtain, for the corrected absolute speed through the quantum-foam $`v_{QF}`$,

$$v_{QF}=\frac{v_{MM}}{\sqrt{n^21}}.$$
(14)
Note that for air at STP $`n=1.00029`$, while for helium at STP $`n=1.000036`$, and so the correction factor of $`1/\sqrt{n^21}`$ is large. The corrected speeds $`v_{QF}`$ for four MM experiments are shown in Fig.2, and compared with the CBR speed determined from the COBE data .

Múnera  has reviewed these interferometer experiments and uncovered systematic errors and as well applied standard statistical tests to the values originally reported. He has noted that the Michelson-Morley experiments and subsequent repetitions never were null, and that correcting for invalid inter-session averaging leads to even larger non null results. Múnera’s new results are as follows. The original Michelson-Morley data  now gives $`v_{MM}=6.22`$km/s with a standard deviation on the mean of $`0.93`$km/s for one set of noon sessions, while giving $`v_{MM}=6.80`$km/s with a standard deviation on the mean of $`2.49`$km/s for $`18^h`$ observations. For Miller , from results at Mt Wilson after moving the Morley-Miller  experiment, the new result is $`v_{MM}=8.22`$km/s with an upperbound at 95% CL of $`v_{MM}=9.61`$km/s and a lower bound at 95% CL of $`v_{MM}=6.83`$km/s. The Illingworth  data (from a helium-filled inteferometer) gives smaller values of $`v_{MM}=3.13`$km/s with an upperbound at 95% CL of $`v_{MM}=4.17`$km/s and a lower bound at 95% CL of $`v_{MM}=2.09`$km/s.

Hence the Michelson-Morley and Miller values for $`v_{MM}`$ appear to differ significantly from the value from Illingworth. But this is now an expected outcome as Illingworth used helium (to control temperature variations) instead of air. Because of the different refractive indices of air and helium the correction factors are substantially different, and as shown in Fig.2 the air and helium filled interferometers now give comparable results, when corrected. We have assumed that Illingworth used helium at STP. We have also used the $`n`$ value for air at STP in correcting the Miller results even though the experiments were performed at altitude on Mt. Wilson.

Of course the vacuum experiment by Brillet and Hall  gave a genuine null outcome as now expected. The presence of gases in these early experiments, rather than high vacuum, was of course an experimental expediency, but only because of this can we now realise the full implications of these long forgotten experiments.

Hence the old interferometer data is not only non-null but the extracted speeds agree, within errors, with the speed determined from analysis of the CBR dipole component observed by the COBE mission. These results demonstrate that absolute motion has a meaning and is measureable.

A new class of experiment can now be carried out using say a rotateable fibreoptic laser interferometer, and such quantum-gravity experiments are capable of measuring the absolute speed and direction of motion of the Earth through the quantum foam that is space. As well the very large gravity-wave laser interferometers could be used in a gas-filled mode rather than a vacuum mode and, if sufficient temperature control can be achieved, they could be used as absolute motion detectors. Daily and seasonal changes in $`v_{QF}`$ will be seen as $`\stackrel{}{v}_{QF}`$ is the vector sum of various contributions due to the effects of the dissipative and non-uniform flows of the quantum foam (which is gravity, ) by the earth, moon and sun, as well as the overall effect of the motion of the Earth and the solar system through the CBR determined quantum-foam frame of reference which is, it now turns out, was one of the main discoveries of the COBE mission.

A task for new interferometers would be to establish the in-ward flow rate of the quantum foam, predicted to be $`11.2`$km/s at the Earth’s surface. This quantum-foam flow is a key test of the quantum theory of gravity that has emerged from Process Physics , and in which Newton’s gravitational constant $`G`$ is a measure of the rate at which ‘quantum matter’ dissipates quantum foam.

The significance of this new interpretation of the outcomes of the various Michelson-Morley experiments can hardly be overstated, it will change forever how physicists comprehend reality. These results undermine Einstein’s assertion that absolute motion has no meaning. The Process Physics supersedes the prevailing Non-Process Physics modelling of reality, which is characterised by the geometrical modelling of time. It is remarkable that these experiments were carried out with such diligence and care so long ago that their data, when now properly analysed, yield speeds consistent with those found from satellite technology 104 years later, and even more so when we understand that some of the experimenters themselves believed they had failed to detect non-null effects. In effect the Michelson interferometer, operating with dielectric medium, is a quantum interferometer that performed the first quantum gravity experiment as it was capable of detecting absolute motion through the quantum foam that is space.

Again we emphasis that the Einstein Special and General Relativity is essentially a model of the potential history of the universe rather than of the universe itself. Clearly if the universe is lawful, then so is its history, though the ‘laws’ for the latter will clearly be different and, as is well known, they have the form of a differential geometry \- the spacetime construct. But in Process Physics we see a deeper understanding of reality in which time is not geometry, it is process.


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# Sub-horizon Perturbation Behavior in Extended Quintessence

## 1 The growth of quintessence linear perturbations.

The recent growing evidences for a vacuum energy component in the Universe  have lead to the development of a number of models, most of which tend to alleviate the theoretical difficulties of the well known “cosmological constant problem” (see  for a review). All these models are replacing the cosmological constant with a “dynamical vacuum energy” provided by an evolving scalar field, often named “Quintessence”. This field should provide the present cosmic accelerating phase through its negative equation of state. Such “dark energy” component has also been modeled in the general framework of scalar-tensor theories of Gravity: in these “Extended Quintessence” (EQ) scenarios -, the Quintessence scalar field is directly coupled to the Ricci scalar $`R`$ in the Lagrangian of the theory: the canonical Ricci scalar term $`\kappa ^1R`$, with $`\kappa =8\pi G_{}`$, is replaced by $`F(\varphi )R`$, where $`F(\varphi )`$ is a function of the quintessence field $`\varphi `$. Here, $`G_{}`$ is a “bare” gravitational constant, generally different from the Newton’s constant G as it is measured by Cavendish-type experiments . In EQ models, a scalar field has thus a double role: at any epoch, its value determines the effective gravitational constant, and the contribution in dark energy density. Of course, such a coupling is not arbitrary: it is instead subject to a number of constraints, mainly arising from the bounds on the time variations of the constants of nature, which must be taken into account. EQ scenarios have been analyzed from different points of view, and there are robust predictions about their possible imprints on the power spectrum of CMB anisotropies . However, the important role of Dark Energy in modern cosmology opens the question of its relation with the other main dark component currently under investigation, the Dark Matter. One major point with Quintessence scenarios is whether a Dark Energy component could affect, in some way, the formation of Dark Matter clumps. In particular, one fundamental question is: can the Dark Energy itself form clumps on certain scales? If we restrict ourselves to minimally-coupled scalar fields, we have to deal with a very relativistic component: indeed, the sound speed of such component turns out to be identical to that of radiation . As a consequence, an “ordinary” (i.e., minimally coupled) Quintessence component becomes homogeneous on scales smaller than the horizon, as its energy density perturbations are rapidly damped out. For this reason, clumps of “ordinary” Quintessence cannot form on such scales. In EQ scenarios, however, the situation can dramaticaly change, since the physical properties of an EQ are deeply modified with respect to those of an ordinary Quintessence field , as is the case for its effective sound speed; one natural question is whether dark energy structures could form in these scenarios, starting from initial small overdensities in the linear regime. In order to give an answer to this question, we start from a definition of the stress-energy tensor $`T_{\mu \nu }(\varphi )`$ of the Quintessence field, which includes a term of purely gravitational origin, in addition to the standard contributions from minimal coupling and non-minimal coupling :

$$T_{\mu \nu }[\varphi ]=T_{\mu \nu }^{mc}[\varphi ]+T_{\mu \nu }^{nmc}[\varphi ]+T_{\mu \nu }^{grav}[\varphi ],$$

with

$$T_{\mu \nu }^{grav}[\varphi ]=\left(\frac{1}{\kappa }F\right)G_{\mu \nu }.$$

The so-defined stress-energy tensor of the Quintessence field is a conserved quantity, as a consequence of the contracted Bianchi identities; drawing the scalar field energy density $`\rho _\varphi `$ from this tensor, it will satisfy the continuity equation. Most importantly, also in $`\rho _\varphi `$ we can distinguish the gravitational contribution from the others, analogously to the separation performed into $`T_{\mu \nu }(\varphi )`$:

$$\rho _\varphi =\frac{\dot{\varphi }^2}{2a^2}+V(\varphi )\frac{3}{a^2}\dot{F}+3\frac{^2}{a^2}\left(\frac{1}{\kappa }F\right).$$

In the last expression, $``$ is the conformal expansion rate, and $`V(\varphi )`$ is the scalar field potential. Let us focus on the last term in the rhs of this equation: noticeably, when $`F(\varphi )\kappa ^1`$, the gravitational contribution to $`\rho _\varphi `$ switches on, feeding $`\rho _\varphi `$ with a term proportional to the total energy density of the universe via $`^2`$. In practice, the Quintessence energy density is dragged by the energy density of the dominant component at any epoch: this effect, which we call “gravitational dragging”, is also active on the time evolution of the perturbations. Indeed, we could perform an analogous division between the various contributions to the scalar field density contrast $`\delta _\varphi \delta \rho _\varphi /\rho _\varphi `$, finding

$$\delta _\varphi =\delta _\varphi ^{mc}+\delta _\varphi ^{nmc}+\delta _\varphi ^{grav},$$

being the gravitational contribution

$$\delta _\varphi ^{grav}=\frac{6\delta F^22a^2(1/\kappa F)\delta G_0^0}{\dot{\varphi }^2+2a^2V6\dot{F}2a^2(1/\kappa F)G_0^0}.$$

Looking at this expression, it is evident that the Quintessence field density contrast can be non-vanishing even when the Quintessence field is homogeneous by itself, provided $`F\kappa ^1`$; in this case, indeed, $`\delta \rho _\varphi `$ is sourced by the $`\delta G_0^0`$ term, containing the total cosmic fluid energy density perturbations, which are generally non vanishing. While the scalar field perturbations $`\delta \varphi `$ contribute to $`\delta _\varphi ^{mc}`$ and $`\delta _\varphi ^{nmc}`$ only, the Ricci scalar perturbations are responsible for the gravitational contribution to $`\delta \rho _\varphi `$; the latter can dominate the dynamics of $`\delta \rho _\varphi `$ whenever $`\delta \varphi ,\delta \dot{\varphi }`$ are negligible and $`F\kappa ^1`$. In other words, the gravitational dragging mechanism forces the scalar field perturbations to behave as the density perturbations of the dominant cosmic fluid component: noticeably, in the matter dominated era, an EQ field can even behave as pressureless dark matter, thanks to the explicit coupling netween $`\varphi `$ and $`R`$. The Quintessence field overdensities receive an injection of power which may potentially enhance them up to the exit from the linear regime, following the matter behaviour. In fig. 1 we plot the logarithmic power of density fluctuations, defined in the Fourier space as $`\delta _k^2=4\pi k^3\delta ^2`$, both for CDM perturbations and for EQ perturbations, in a specific example with $`F(\varphi )=\kappa ^1+\zeta (\varphi ^2)`$ (where $`\zeta `$ is an observationally constrained coupling constant). Note that, at the present time, the quantity $`\kappa ^1F`$ reduces to $`\zeta \varphi _0^2`$ (where $`\varphi _0`$ is the field value at $`z=0`$), which is generally a non-vanishing term. The plots in figure 1 refers to redshifts $`z=5`$ and $`z=1`$; because of the gravitational dragging, linear perturbations in the Quintessence energy density are close to those in the CDM component up to redshifts relevant for structure formation, while they appear to decrease at $`z1`$, when the quintessence field comes to dominate the expansion and the term $`(\kappa ^1F(\varphi ))G_0^0`$ is no more the dominant term in the denominator of $`\delta _\varphi ^{grav}`$. However, scales on which perturbations reached the non-linear regime at some redshift are no more adequately described by the linear approach. At that point, it is quite obvious that a non-linear approach is required to further investigate the Quintessence perturbation evolution.
The same result can be obtained with a different approach, based on the properties of the “effective sound speed” $`c_{eff}^2`$ of a fluid : such a quantity, defined as the sound speed in the fluid rest frame, encloses both the adiabatic and entropic contributions to the sound speed, and it well characterizes the total pressure response to the gravitational collapse. While it is equal to the speed of light for minimally-coupled scalar fields, it turns out to be a scalar field dependend quantity in EQ models; in the gravitational dragging regime, the effective sound speed is inversely proportional to $`\delta \rho _\varphi `$, which can be at the level of perturbations in the CDM component, resulting in low values of $`c_{eff}^2`$. Also the sign of $`c_{eff}^2`$ may be reversed, depending on the sign of the coupling constant, strongly modifying the response of pressure to the variation in the energy density, and radically changing the gravitational collapse scenario for the Quintessence component.

The fact that the Quintessence sound speed gets strongly modified by the coupling to the Ricci scalar, a result which is analogous to the gravitational dragging mechanism described above, allows for the possibility of Quintessence clumps; the characteristic scales for this process have not been investigated yet, and the further evolution of Quintessence energy density perturbations in the non-linear regime deserve a future investigation.

## 2 Possible implications of Quintessence clumpiness.

The intriguing possibility of the gravitational dragging of matter perturbations on Quintessence perturbations is one of the possible grounds where to probe the relation between Dark Matter (DM) and Dark Energy (DE). In recent years, the possibility of DE clumps formation, the stability of spherically symmetric scalar field structures and their relation to the DM component in galaxies, have received increasing attention . In the scenario here proposed, such relation can only be of gravitational type, and may possibly be detected on the galactic scales. The question of how the DM is distributed inside dark halos and cluster is still matter of debate. For example, it is still unknown whether the dark halos density profile is universal, or it depends on properties of the galaxy itself. Kinematic properties, such as rotation curves of disk galaxies, are an excellent probe for DM on galactic scales; it has been shown that independent high-resolution optical rotation curves observations, can probe the halo mass distribution and resolve their structure. An important contribution has been obtained  by the analysis of low-luminosity late-type spirals; the surprising result of this analysis has been that the halo velocity profiles increase linearly with the radius, at least up to the stellar disk edge (the “visible galaxy”). This implies that, over all the stellar disk, the dark halo density is about a constant; similar properties were previously found also for dwarf and low surface brightness galaxies, which are both DM objects . The presence of a constant density central core is in contrast with the CDM scenario, which predicts a steeply cusped density distribution in the same region. The presence of a central singularity in the density profile of DM has to be excluded also as a result of the analysis of gravitational lensing on the cluster scales. This disparity between the model and the data on the galaxy rotation curves requires the introduction of different fields and/or particles, including the DE as a candidate. Indeed, this disparity follows directly from the nature of collisionless particles, which have no physically associated length scale, with the result that DM halos should have zero effective core radii . In order to generate cores in the DM distribution, additional physical properties are required, such as could be provided by Hot Dark Matter (in this case, the central density may be naturally limited by phase space constraints) or an universe dominated by dissipative baryonic matter. Even though these models have to be excluded because they fail in accounting for the observed Large Scale Structure, they are both able to provide a mechanism that limits the central density of the CDM particles, introducing a characteristic scale. In this context, it is extremely interesting the question of how, and whether, the DE has a key role into the structure of the DM halos. If this is the case, we expect that this role is based on the purely gravitational interaction between DM and DE, which may imply a redistribution of DM in the halos, particularly in the central core.

The gravitational dragging mechanism described above opens new perspectives on the relation between DM and DE in collapsed structures, from galactic scales to the scales of galaxy clusters. In particular, predictions for the galactic rotation curves in EQ models should be drawn and compared to observations. A non-linear approach to the perturbation growth in gravitational dragging regime will allow to check for the possibility of constant density central cores in galaxies, and for determining the characteristic scales of eventual Quintessence clumps.


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# Triple-𝑞⃗ octupolar ordering in NpO₂

(Version )

## Abstract

We report the results of resonant X-ray scattering experiments performed at the $`\mathrm{Np}`$ $`M_{4,5}`$ edges in $`\mathrm{NpO}_2`$. Below $`\mathrm{T}_0=25\mathrm{K}`$, the development of long-range order of $`\mathrm{Np}`$ electric quadrupoles is revealed by the growth of superlattice Bragg peaks. The electronic transition is not accompanied by any measurable crystallographic distortion, either internal or external, so the symmetry of the system remains cubic. The polarization and azimuthal dependence of the intensity of the resonant peaks is well reproduced assuming anisotropic tensor susceptibility (ATS) scattering from a triple-$`\stackrel{}{q}`$ longitudinal antiferroquadrupolar structure. Electric quadrupole order in $`\mathrm{NpO}_2`$ could be driven by the ordering at $`\mathrm{T}_0`$ of magnetic octupoles of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_5`$ symmetry, splitting the $`\mathrm{Np}`$ ground state quartet and leading to a singlet ground state with zero dipole magnetic moment.

For half a century the low temperature properties of $`\mathrm{NpO}_2`$ have mystified theorists and experimentalists alike. Upon cooling from room temperature a *single* phase transition is observed at $`\mathrm{T}_025.5\mathrm{K}`$ Osborne and E. F. Westrum (1953). Similarities with $`\mathrm{UO}_2`$ Caciuffo et al. (1999) suggested a magnetic nature of the phase transition, but no magnetic order was found by neutron diffraction Caciuffo et al. (1987) nor by Mößbauer spectroscopy Friedt et al. (1985), which established an upper limit of $`0.01\mu _\mathrm{B}`$ for the *ordered* magnetic moment $`\stackrel{}{\mu }_{\mathrm{ord}}`$. However, $`\mathrm{Np}^{4+}`$ ions in $`\mathrm{NpO}_2`$ are Kramers ions ($`5f^3`$, $`{}_{}{}^{4}I_{9/2}^{}`$). In the absence of interactions breaking time-reversal symmetry the ground state has to carry a magnetic moment, $`\stackrel{}{\mu }`$, whatever the crystalline environment. A fluctuating magnetic moment of finite size would be revealed by a Curie-like divergence of the susceptibility at low temperatures, whereas the experiments reveal a flat susceptibility between $`15`$ and $`5\mathrm{K}`$ Erdös et al. (1980). Moreover, no evidence for a crystallographic distortion, neither external nor internal, has been found by synchrotron experiments Mannix et al. (1999).

Another element of the puzzle was recently provided by muon spin relaxation experiments, showing the abrupt appearance of a precession signal below $`\mathrm{T}_0`$ Kopmann et al. (1998). This implies that the order parameter (OP) sets up a magnetic field at the muon stopping site and provides definitive evidence that the OP breaks invariance under time reversal. By assuming antiferromagnetic (AF) order of the same kind of that established for $`\mathrm{UO}_2`$, i.e. a type-I, triple-$`\stackrel{}{q}`$ structure, the authors deduced an ordered moment $`\mu _{\mathrm{ord}}0.1\mu _\mathrm{B}`$, a value much larger than the upper limit compatible with Mößbauer spectroscopy. In parallel with this finding, direct evidence for long-range order in $`\mathrm{NpO}_2`$ was obtained through the observation below $`\mathrm{T}_0`$ of superlattice reflections in resonant X-ray scattering (RXS) experiments at the $`\mathrm{Np}`$ M4,5 absorption edges Mannix et al. (1999). The superstructure Bragg peaks occur at $`\stackrel{}{Q}=\stackrel{}{G}+001`$ positions, where $`\stackrel{}{G}`$ is a reciprocal lattice vector. This is the same periodicity found for the AF phase in $`\mathrm{UO}_2`$, and the observations were taken as evidence for the occurrence of longitudinal triple-$`\stackrel{}{q}`$ AF order. Santini and Amoretti Santini and Amoretti (2000) pointed out the possibility of explaining the whole body of experimental evidence assuming magnetic-octupole order instead of magnetic-dipole order. Octupolar order would lift the degeneracy of the $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_8`$ $`\mathrm{Np}`$ ground state and generate an interstitial magnetic field, in agreement with neutron spectroscopy Amoretti et al. (1992) and muon spin resonance results. However, octupolar order can be directly observed in RXS only through E2-resonances, whilst the resonances observed in Mannix et al. (1999) are at the E1 absorption edge. Indeed, all previous experimental data taken at the actinide M4,5 edges indicates a very strong dominance of E1-processes ($`3d_{3/2,5/2}5f`$). To our knowledge there is no evidence for E2 contributions ($`3d_{3/2,5/2}6g`$), and indeed matrix elements involving E2 promotion to $`6g`$ states are expected to be too small to allow for any observable signal.

To clarify the above confusion, we have undertaken a new RXS experiment at the magnetic scattering beamline, ID20, of the ESRF. We performed polarization analysis of the diffracted radiation and measured the dependence of the intensity from the azimuthal angle, $`\psi `$ (the angle describing the rotation of the crystal about the scattering vector). These analyzes were not possible in the experiment reported earlier in Mannix et al. (1999), preventing an unambiguous determination of the origin of the resonance. Indeed, the results we present in this Letter show that the superlattice peaks in $`\mathrm{NpO}_2`$ are not magnetic, but arise from the asphericity of the $`\mathrm{Np}`$ $`5f`$ electron density leading to an anomalous tensor component in the atomic scattering factor. In other words, the superlattice peaks signal the occurrence of electric-quadrupole long range order below $`\mathrm{T}_0`$. This conclusion is incompatible with the particular octupolar model given in Ref. Santini and Amoretti (2000), which predicts an undistorted charge density for the $`5f`$ ground state, with vanishing quadrupole moment.

The experiment was performed on a single crystal of $`0.7\times 0.7\times 0.2\mathrm{mm}^3`$ in volume, with a flat $`(001)`$ surface. A closed-cycle refrigerator equipped with an azimuthal-rotation stage provided a base temperature of $`12\mathrm{K}`$. An $`\mathrm{Au}(111)`$ single crystal was used to analyze whether the polarization of the scattered beam was parallel ($`\pi `$) or perpendicular ($`\sigma `$) to the scattering plane. The incident beam had $`\sigma `$ polarization and the scattering plane was vertical.

Fig. 1 shows the $`\sigma \pi `$ intensity of the $`\stackrel{}{Q}=(003)`$ superlattice reflection as a function of the photon energy, $`\mathrm{E}`$, around the $`\mathrm{Np}`$ $`M_4`$ absorption edge. The data can be fit to a Lorentzian squared line-shape, centered near the E1 threshold. The presence of a resonance in the $`\sigma \sigma `$ channel (not shown) excludes that the scattering arises from dipole-magnetic order, as this would give only $`\sigma \pi `$ resonant scattering. Studies measuring magnetic order at actinide M edges have shown Lorentzian energy profiles, whereas we clearly observe a Lorentzian-squared form, as it is expected when the intermediate state splitting is much smaller than the core hole life time v. Zimmermann et al. (2001).

The results of $`\psi `$ (azimuthal) scans about the $`(003)`$ peak, taken at $`\mathrm{T}=12\mathrm{K}`$ with $`\mathrm{E}=3.846\mathrm{keV}`$, are shown in Fig. 2(a) for both the $`\sigma \sigma `$ and the $`\sigma \pi `$ channel. Fig. 2(b) and 2(c) show, respectively, the $`\psi `$ dependence of the Stokes parameter $`P_1=(I_{\sigma \sigma }I_{\sigma \pi })/(I_{\sigma \sigma }+I_{\sigma \pi })`$ and $`P_2=(I_+I_{})/(I_++I_{})`$ Lipps and Tolhoek (1954), for the $`(001)`$ and $`(003)`$ reflections. $`P_2`$ can be considered as a measure of the phase relation between the two polarization channels and is defined by the intensities measured with the analyzer oriented at $`\pm 45^{}`$ with respect to the scattering plane,

$$I_\pm \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}\left|F_{\sigma \sigma }\pm F_{\sigma \pi }\right|^2$$
(1)
where $`F_{\sigma \sigma }`$ and $`F_{\sigma \pi }`$ are the $`\sigma \sigma `$ and $`\sigma \pi `$ scattering amplitudes.

The dependence of polarization and intensity of the scattered radiation on $`\psi `$ can be modeled with satisfactory agreement by assuming a triple-$`\stackrel{}{q}`$ *antiferroquadrupolar ordering* of ($`\mathrm{\Gamma }_5`$) quadrupoles, and using the ATS cross section Templeton and Templeton (1985); Dmitrienko (1983, 1984) as detailed below and shown by the lines drawn in Fig. 2.

Above $`\mathrm{T}_0`$, $`\mathrm{NpO}_2`$ crystallizes in the Fluorite structure with space group (SG) $`Fm\overline{3}m`$, $`\mathrm{Np}^{4+}`$ at $`4a`$ and $`\mathrm{O}^2`$ ions at $`8c`$ Wyckoff positions. A periodic distribution of electric quadrupoles can be Fourier expanded, whatever the type of order. A triple-$`\stackrel{}{q}`$ structure is obtained when $`3`$ components of the star of the propagation vector $`\stackrel{}{q}`$ enter in the Fourier sum. For $`\stackrel{}{q}_1=(100)`$, $`\stackrel{}{q}_2=(010)`$ and $`\stackrel{}{q}_3=(001)`$, the arrangement schematically shown in Fig. 3 is obtained, with charge distribution distorted along the $`111`$ directions of the cubic unit cell. The SG symmetry is lowered from $`Fm\overline{3}m`$ to $`Pn\overline{3}m`$, the only maximal non-isomorphic subgroup of $`Fm\overline{3}m`$ that is non-symmorphic and simple cubic. Within this SG, $`\mathrm{Np}`$ ions can be accommodated on the $`4b`$ positions, with reduced point symmetry $`D_{3d}`$ but the same crystallographic extinction rules of the FCC para-quadrupolar SG. Oxygen ions can occupy two inequivalent positions ($`2a`$ and $`6d`$), where all coordinates are *uniquely fixed by symmetry alone*, so that this electronic phase transition does not allow a shift of the oxygen ions. The symmetry of the ordered state remains cubic and, apart from a possible change of the lattice parameter Mannix et al. (1999), the transition will not be accompanied by any distortion. In that case, the quadrupolar OP *cannot* be measured with neutron or *conventional* X-ray diffraction techniques.

RXS from quadrupolar order has recently been observed in several systems Murakami et al. (1998); McMorrow et al. (2001). It is well described within the framework of ATS scattering Templeton and Templeton (1985); Dmitrienko (1983, 1984), which occurs when the photon energy is tuned to an absorption edge of an atom. The anisotropy of this atom’s polarizability may lead to a finite scattering cross section at reflections which are normally forbidden due to glide plane or screw axis extinction rules. The scattering amplitude arising from E1 transitions can be described by second rank tensors, which are invariant under the point symmetry of the scattering atom.

The scattering amplitude for the induced quadrupolar order must be represented by a symmetric tensor $`\stackrel{~}{f}(\stackrel{}{Q})`$. For $`\stackrel{}{Q}=(00L)`$, with $`L`$ odd, the scattering length is given by $`F(\stackrel{}{Q})=\stackrel{}{ϵ}^{}\stackrel{~}{f}(\stackrel{}{Q})\stackrel{}{ϵ}=\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Phi }}(ϵ_x^{}ϵ_y+ϵ_y^{}ϵ_x)`$, where $`\stackrel{}{ϵ}`$ and $`\stackrel{}{ϵ}^{}`$ are the polarization vectors of the incident and scattered beam, and $`\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Phi }}`$ is proportional to the Fourier component of the quadrupolar operator, $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$. With incident $`\sigma `$ polarization and $`\stackrel{}{h}_0=(100)`$ as azimuthal reference vector, we find

$`F_{\sigma \sigma }`$ $`=`$ $`\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Phi }}\mathrm{sin}(2\psi )`$ (2)
$`F_{\sigma \pi }`$ $`=`$ $`\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Phi }}\mathrm{sin}(\theta )\mathrm{cos}(2\psi ),`$ (3)
where $`\theta `$ is the Bragg angle. The resulting scattered intensities are $`I_{\sigma \sigma }|F_{\sigma \sigma }|^2`$ and $`I_{\sigma \pi }|F_{\sigma \pi }|^2`$. As shown in Fig. 2(a), the experimental data are well matched by this model with one overall scale factor. This factor can be eliminated by calculating the Stokes parameter $`P_1`$. The data are shown in Fig. 2(b), along with model calculations.

The quantities $`I_\pm `$ defined in eq. 1 are given by

$$I_\pm \left|\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Phi }}\right|^2\left(1\mathrm{cos}^2(\theta )\mathrm{cos}^2(2\psi )\pm \mathrm{sin}(\theta )\mathrm{sin}(4\psi )\right).$$
(4)
The Stokes parameter $`P_2`$ can be calculated, and is in good agreement with the experiments, Fig. 2(c).

However, the quadrupolar order *alone* is not a sufficient ingredient, as it cannot explain the absence of a disordered magnetic moment Erdös et al. (1980) and the breaking of invariance under time reversal Kopmann et al. (1998). The lowest-rank multipolar OP consistent with the experimental findings (no ordered and fluctuating dipoles, broken time reversal symmetry) is an *octupole* Santini and Amoretti (2000). Under octahedral symmetry, the seven octupolar operators belong to irreducible representations $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_2`$, $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_4`$ or $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_5`$. A $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_4`$-octupole OP must be ruled out. In fact, this would always be accompanied by an ordering of dipoles as the latter belong to $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_4`$ as well. A $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_2`$ OP is consistent with most properties of $`\mathrm{NpO}_2`$ Santini and Amoretti (2000), but it cannot explain the RXS results, as it does not carry an electric quadrupole moment and the $`\sigma \sigma `$ signal would vanishLovesey (1996). $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_5`$ octupolar operators are given by symmetrized combinations of $`O_i=J_i(J_j^2J_k^2)`$, where $`ijk=xyz`$, $`yzx`$ or $`zxy`$. The little cogroup of the ordering wavevector is $`D_{4h}`$. $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_5`$ decomposes into the tetragonal representations $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_4^{(t)}`$ (1-d) and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_5^{(t)}`$ (2-d), which identify two possible type-I octupolar orders, a “longitudinal” one and a “transverse” one. For a single-$`\stackrel{}{q}`$ structure, both types of OPs are inconsistent with the observed quenching of dipoles and with the present RXS results. There is just one single type of order which can explain all observations, and this is a triple-$`\stackrel{}{q}`$ longitudinal structure, in which the $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_4^{(t)}`$ OPs associated with the three wavevectors of the star of $`\stackrel{}{q}`$ have the same amplitude, $`\rho `$. The simplest conceivable mean-field (MF) Hamiltonian for each of the four sublattices $`s`$ includes the crystal field (CF) potential Santini and Amoretti (2000) and a self-consistent octupolar interaction term

$$\lambda O(\stackrel{}{n}(s))O(\stackrel{}{n}(s))(T),$$
(5)
where $`\stackrel{}{n}(s)`$ represents one of the four inequivalent $`111`$ directions, $`O(\stackrel{}{n}(s))=_{l=x,y,z}O_ln_l(s)`$, $`\lambda `$ is a MF constant, and $`O(\stackrel{}{n}(s))(T)`$ is the self-consistent average value of $`O(\stackrel{}{n}(s))`$, which does not depend on $`s`$ and is nonzero for $`\mathrm{T}<\mathrm{T}_0`$. The MF potential lowers the symmetry of the $`\mathrm{Np}`$ Hamiltonian from $`O_h`$ to $`D_{3d}`$ and splits the $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_8`$-quartet CF ground state into two singlets, $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_5`$ and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_6`$, and one doublet, $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_4`$, of $`D_{3d}`$. $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_5`$ and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_6`$ are complex-conjugate representations, which are degenerate for a time-reversal invariant Hamiltonian, whereas their degeneracy is lifted by the time-odd OP. By choosing the value of $`\lambda `$ which reproduces the observed $`\mathrm{T}_0`$, the level sequence at $`\mathrm{T}=0`$ is found to be singlet-doublet-singlet. The ground state has zero dipole moment and the susceptibility saturates for $`T0`$, as observed Erdös et al. (1980). These properties do not depend on the details of the CF Hamiltonian (i.e. on the precise value of the CF parameter $`x`$ or whether J-mixing is taken into account).

This octupolar OP induces the observed triple-$`\stackrel{}{q}`$ structure of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_5`$ quadrupoles as secondary OP, with an amplitude $`\rho ^2`$ in MF near $`T_0`$. The charge density is distorted along $`\stackrel{}{n}(s)`$, as quantified by the quadrupolar operator along $`\stackrel{}{n}(s)`$, $`\mathrm{\Phi }(\stackrel{}{n}(s))\alpha [3(\stackrel{}{n}(s)\stackrel{}{J})^2J(J+1)]`$ where $`\alpha `$ is a Stevens coefficient. $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$ is negative in the ordered phase, indicating a charge distribution “oblate” along $`\stackrel{}{n}(s)`$. This quadrupolar secondary OP is the quantity observed in the RXS experiment.

The model we propose excludes a lattice distortion or a shift of the oxygen positions. The reduction of the local symmetry at the $`\mathrm{Np}`$ site leads to an electric field gradient along the $`111`$ directions. This explains the line broadening observed below $`\mathrm{T}_0`$ in Mößbauer spectroscopy Friedt et al. (1985). The octupolar order breaks time reversal symmetry and thus allows the occurrence of interstitial magnetic fields as evidenced by $`\mu `$SR Kopmann et al. (1998).

Finally, we remind the reader that we have *inferred* the triple-$`\stackrel{}{q}`$ symmetry and octupolar order from the boundary conditions set out by previous experimental observations, such as the absence of lattice distortions, the analogy to $`\mathrm{UO}_2`$, and from the excellent agreement of our data with the model. At the E2 edge, the principal OP, i.e. the $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_5`$ magnetic octupole, is expected to give a resonant contribution to the scattered intensity Lovesey (1996), comparable to that expected at the same energy from the secondary OP, the $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_5`$ electric quadrupoles. However, no signal has been detected at the E2 edge, indicating that both contributions are below the sensitivity of the experimental device we used. At the E1 edge the intensity is almost entirely of quadrupolar origin, Indeed, the $`\sigma \sigma `$ intensity has no magnetic contributions, and we can fit both the $`\sigma \sigma `$ and the $`\sigma \pi `$ intensities using a single scaling factor, which should not be possible with a sizable magnetic contribution in the $`\sigma \pi `$ channel. Such a contribution could originate from an ordered magnetic moment in the bulk, but Mößbauer spectroscopy establish it unambiguously to be vanishing, or from dipolar order around defects, but this would give broad peaks which are not observed.

Whilst we have no *direct evidence* for a triple-$`\stackrel{}{q}`$ magnetic structure, and cannot directly prove the octupolar model, several predictions about the low temperature properties can be investigated. Octupolar order will split the $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_8`$ CF ground state into a singlet ground state and two excited levels. Inelastic neutron scattering Amoretti et al. (1992) has shown an excitation near $`6.5\mathrm{meV}`$, but the second one is expected to lie below $`2\mathrm{meV}`$, outside the explored energy range. Low temperature specific heat measurements should also show the characteristic signature of the CF spectrum. The integrated entropy from lowest temperatures up to the phase transition should be $`R\mathrm{ln}(4)`$, with a significant contribution from a Schottky anomaly below $`8\mathrm{K}`$. If large single crystals would become available, octupolar order could also be directly observed by neutron diffraction, with a form factor peaking at a finite value of the momentum transfer and reflecting the Fourier transform of the static magnetization density below $`T_0`$.

###### Acknowledgements.

We thank the ESRF and the beamline staff on ID20 for help with the experiments. Discussions with G. Amoretti and R. Walstedt are gratefully acknowledged.