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# Shot noise and multiple Andreev reflections in d-wave superconductors

## Abstract

We present a theoretical analysis of the shot noise in d-wave/d-wave contacts with arbitrary transparency, including the contribution of multiple Andreev reflections. The multiple charge quanta transferred in these processes are revealed as a huge enhancement of the noise-current ratio at low voltages, which survives for all crystal misorientations. We also show how different ingredients like non-magnetic impurities or a magnetic field produce very characteristic hallmarks in the shot noise, which can be used as a further test of the d-wave scenario in superconducting cuprates.

In the last years the intensive study of the nonequilibrium current fluctuations, known as shot noise, has provided a deeper understanding of the electronic transport in many different contexts Blanter2000 . The shot noise reveals aspects hidden in the usual conductance measurements like the statistics and charge of the carriers, relevant energy scales or transmission information. In the case of superconducting contacts, the noise has been mainly used for the analysis of the effective charges transferred in the different tunneling processes. This effective charge can be roughly defined as the noise-current ratio. A striking example is the recent observation in superconducting atomic-size contacts of effective charges much larger than unity attributed to multiple Andreev reflections Cron2001 , and in quantitative agreement with the theoretical expectations Cuevas1999 . Unfortunately, the analysis of shot noise has been mainly restricted to conventional superconductors, and only a few theoretical works have recently addressed noise in NIS-junctions with d-wave superconductors Zhu1999 .

On the other hand, the origin and nature of the high temperature superconductivity in the cuprates is still an open problem. Different phase-sensitive experiments have provided strong indications that the order parameter in these materials has a dominant $`d_{x^2y^2}`$ component Harlingen1995 ; Tsuei2000 . However, these experiments have not definitively closed the debate about basic questions like the universality of this symmetry or the existence of subdominant components Covington1997 ; Neils2002 . In this sense, it is highly desirable to provide new tools which can further test the different scenarios. Thus, a natural question is: what can the shot noise teach us in unconventional superconductivity? For instance, the shot noise provides fundamental information on the charge of the carriers, as it was shown in complex situations like in the fractional quantum Hall effect Saminadayar1997  or in superconducting point contacts Cron2001 . On the other hand, the shot noise in a junction depends in a different way on the interface properties as compared with the current. In this sense, the study of this quantity can used as a cross-check for the different transport theories, and in turn it can be very valuable to solve the lack of consensus in the interpretation of the tunneling experiments in cuprate junctions Kashiwaya2000 .

In this paper, we present the first theoretical analysis of the shot noise in d-wave/d-wave SIS junctions of arbitrary transparency. We shall show that the zero-frequency noise, $`S`$, may by large exceed the Poisson value $`2eI`$, where $`I`$ is the current, due to the occurrence of multiple Andreev reflections. In particular, at high transparencies the effective charge, $`q`$, defined as $`q=S/2I`$, exhibits a huge enhancement at low voltages ($`q/e1`$), which survives for all crystal misorientations. At low transparencies, contrary to the s-wave case, $`q`$ is not quantized in units of the electron charge due to the averaging over the anisotropic gap. We shall also show that elastic scattering mechanisms like bulk impurities may result in a strong reduction of the effective charge. Finally, we shall show how the Doppler shift of the Andreev bound states in the presence of a magnetic field is revealed in the shot noise. All these features are very characteristic of the d-wave symmetry and can be used as additional tests of this scenario in cuprates.

Our goal is to extend the theory of the shot noise to the case of superconducting cuprates. For this purpose, we consider a voltage biased contact, consisting of two $`d_{x^2y^2}`$ superconductors separated by a single interface of arbitrary transparency. The order parameter on side $`i`$, $`i=L,R`$, is rotated by $`\alpha _i`$ with respect to the surface normal, and we denote junction type by the relative crystal orientations as $`d_{\alpha _L}`$-$`d_{\alpha _R}`$. There are several experimental realizations of this system, among which the bicrystal grain-boundary junctions are ideal examples Alff1998 . To calculate the noise we use the formalism developed in Ref. Cuevas2001 . In that work we introduced a formulation of boundary conditions that mimics interfaces for the quasiclassical theory of superconductivity and that are suitable for arbitrary transparency, and we established the machinery to determine the current fluctuations in unconventional junctions. Here we consider the case of point-contact-like geometry and assume that the voltage drop takes place at the interface. Thus, to compute the noise we first determine self-consistently the local electronic properties of the isolated electrodes. This includes effects on the order parameter profile and on the local density of states (DOS) by pair breaking caused both by quasiparticle scattering off the interface and off homogeneously distributed impurities in the crystals Matsumoto1995 ; Buchholtz1995 ; Fogelstrom1997 ; Barash1997 ; Poenicke1999 ; Poenicke2000 . Finally, the noise is calculated using the local surface Green’s and solving the appropriate boundary conditions for a point contact, as detailed in Ref. Cuevas2001 .

The noise spectral density $`S(\omega )`$ is defined as

$$S(\omega )=d(t^{}t)e^{i\omega \left(t^{}t\right)}\delta \widehat{I}(t^{})\delta \widehat{I}(t)+\delta \widehat{I}(t)\delta \widehat{I}(t^{}),$$

where $`\delta \widehat{I}(t)=\widehat{I}(t)\widehat{I}(t)`$ are the fluctuations in the current. We only consider the zero-frequency limit at zero temperature. In the case of a constant bias voltage, $`V`$, one can show (see Ref. Cuevas2001 ) that the noise oscillates in time with all the harmonics of the Josephson frequency, i.e. $`S(t)=_mS_me^{im\varphi (t)}`$, where $`\varphi (t)=\varphi _0+(2eV/\mathrm{})t`$ is the time-dependent superconducting phase difference. We shall only consider the dc noise, denoted from now on as $`S`$. Furthermore, we assume that the interface conserves the momentum of the quasiclassical trajectories, which allows us to write the noise as a sum over independent trajectory contributions: $`S=\frac{1}{2}_{\pi /2}^{\pi /2}𝑑\widehat{𝒑}_FS(\widehat{𝒑}_F)\mathrm{cos}(\widehat{𝒑}_F)`$, where $`\widehat{𝒑}_F`$ defines the Fermi surface position. For the angular dependence of the transmission coefficient we use the expression $`D(\widehat{𝒑}_F)=D\mathrm{cos}^2(\widehat{𝒑}_F)/[1D\mathrm{sin}^2(\widehat{𝒑}_F)]`$, resulting from a $`\delta `$-like potential. Here $`D`$ is the transmission for the trajectory perpendicular to the interface. In the tunneling regime one can easily demonstrate that the zero-frequency noise reaches the Poisson value, i.e. $`S=2eI`$. Thus, in this limit the noise does not contain new information as compared with the current. For this reason, we shall investigate the case of not too low interface transparency, $`D0.1`$, in which the multiple Andreev reflections (MAR) play a fundamental role in the transport Lofwander2001 ; Poenicke2002 .

Let us start by analyzing the case of a symmetric $`d_0`$-$`d_0`$ junction in the clean limit. In this case, the order parameter is constant up to the surface, and there are no bound states for any trajectory. The noise-voltage characteristics for a single trajectory, $`S(\widehat{𝒑}_F)`$, coincide with those of isotropic s-wave superconductors Cuevas1999 , and can be seen in Fig 1(a). As a consequence of the occurrence of MARs, the trajectory-resolved shot noise exhibits the following remarkable features: (i) the presence of a pronounced subharmonic gap structure (SGS) at voltages $`eV=2\mathrm{\Delta }(\widehat{𝒑}_F)/n`$, (ii) the noise greatly exceeds the Poisson value $`2eI`$ in the subgap region, as can be seen in Fig 1(b), and (iii) in the tunneling regime the effective charge is quantized in units of the electron charge. This last feature, illustrated in the inset of Fig 1(b), was used to suggest that the noise provides a way of measuring the charge of individual MARs in s-wave superconductors Cuevas1999 . Indeed, as mentioned in the introduction, these noise-voltage characteristics have been quantitatively confirmed in the context of superconducting atomic contacts Cron2001 . The natural questions now are: do these features survive after doing the average over the different directions in the Fermi surface? Can we still identify the charge of individual MARs in a d-wave junction?. The answers to these questions can be seen in Fig. 1(c-d). First of all, notice that the SGS is still visible, but it is more rounded than in the s-wave case. It is worth remarking that it is the bulk maximum gap what is revealed in the SGS. Notice also that the effective charge does not show any sign of quantization even at low transparencies (see inset of Fig. 1(d)). This is due to the fact that different MARs contribute simultaneously for different trajectories, and then the discreteness of $`q`$ is washed out. Anyway, the dominant contribution of MAR at high transmission is still manifested as a huge enhancement of the effective charge at low bias ($`qe`$).

Let us now consider the case of a $`d_{\pi /4}`$-$`d_{\pi /4}`$ junction. In this case, assuming specular quasiparticle scattering at the interface, an Andreev bound state forms at zero energy for every trajectory Hu1994 . This implies that the surface acts as a pair-breaker Matsumoto1995 ; Buchholtz1995  and the gap is depressed in the vicinity of the interface, vanishing exactly at the barrier. This order-parameter profile induces not only the appearance of bound states at zero energy, but also at the gap edges, as can be seen in the inset of Fig. 2(b). As a consequence of this local density of states the noise exhibits a pronounced SGS due to resonant tunneling through the bound states (see Fig. 2(a)). As in the case of the current, see Ref. Poenicke2002 , there is an even-odd effect in the SGS, in the sense that the even ($`eV=\mathrm{\Delta }/n`$) structures are more pronounced. Its origin can be understood as follows. In this geometry there are two types of MARs which dominate the transport: (a) those which connect the bound states with the gap edges and (b) the usual ones connecting the gap edges. The first ones give rise to the SGS at $`eV=\mathrm{\Delta }/n`$, while the second ones contribute to the whole series $`eV=2\mathrm{\Delta }/n`$. However, the bound states at the gap edges do not appear for every trajectory, which weakens the SGS due to these processes. On the other hand, as we show in Fig. 2(b) the effective charge is not even quantized at low transparencies, again due to the average over the different trajectories. However, at high transparencies the dominant contribution of the MARs give rise to a huge enhancement of the effective charge at low bias. This is a robust feature which survives for all crystal misorientations, and it is an unambiguous signature of the fact that the MARs control the low voltage transport. Indeed, this pronounced increase of the noise-current ratio at low bias has been recently observed in symmetric bicrystal YBCO Josephson junction Constantinian2002  in, to our knowledge, the first experimental analysis of the shot noise in cuprate Josephson junctions. In this experiment a mean transparency of $`D0.01`$ was estimated, but in our opinion this enhancement is due to MARs in high transparent conduction channels, probably due to the presence of pinholes like in the conventional SIS tunnel junctions of Dieleman *et al.* Dieleman1997 .

In d-wave superconductors the order parameter is very sensitive to scattering from nonmagnetic impurities and surface roughness. In particular, it is known that these elastic scattering mechanisms provide an intrinsic broadening for the zero-energy bound states Poenicke1999 ; Poenicke2000 . For the case of Born scatterers this broadening is $`\sqrt{\mathrm{\Gamma }\mathrm{\Delta }}`$, where $`\mathrm{\Gamma }=1/2\tau `$ is the effective pair-breaking parameter locally at the surface. This is illustrated in the inset of Fig. 2(b) for the case of bulk impurities. The interesting question now is: what is the signature of impurities in the shot noise of a d-wave junction? In Fig. 3 we show the shot noise and effective charge for a $`d_{\pi /4}`$-$`d_{\pi /4}`$ junction for different values of the bulk-impurity scattering rate. As the scattering rate increases, there are two major effects that one should notice: (i) the disappearance of the SGS in the noise, and (ii) a reduction of the effective charge, specially pronounced at low voltages. Both features can be understood as follows: the increase of density of states in the gap region enhances the probability of single-quasiparticle processes, producing the subsequent reduction of the probability of the Andreev processes, which in turn leads to both the suppression of the SGS and the reduction of the effective charge.

Fogelström *et al.* Fogelstrom1997  have shown that the Andreev bound states should split in the presence of a magnetic field perpendicular to the $`ab`$-plane. This splitting results in a splitting of the zero bias conductance peak observed in tunnel junctions Aprili1999 . It is then interesting to analyze what is the signature of this time reversal symmetry breaking in the shot noise. Let us consider a magnetic field perpendicular to the $`ab`$-plane, $`𝐇=H\widehat{𝐳}`$. As mentioned above, this field leads to a Doppler shift in the continuum excitations given by $`𝐯_f𝐩_s`$, where the condensate momentum is $`𝐩_s=(e/c)A(x)\widehat{𝐲}`$, with $`A`$ the self-consistently determined vector potential Fogelstrom1997 . This means that the Andreev bound states are shifted to an energy which, in the limit of a large ratio $`\lambda /\xi _0`$, can be estimated to be $`ϵ_b(\widehat{𝒑}_F)=(e/c)v_fH\lambda \mathrm{sin}\widehat{𝒑}_F`$, $`\lambda `$ being the $`ab`$-plane penetration depth. We shall use a natural field scale set by a screening current of order the bulk critical current, $`H_0=c\mathrm{\Delta }/ev_f\lambda `$, which is of the order of a Tesla Fogelstrom1997 . The screening currents flow parallel to the interface and in opposite directions in both electrodes, which means that the trajectory resolved DOS of the left and right superconductors are shifted by $`2ϵ_b(\widehat{𝒑}_F)`$ relative to each other. As explained in Ref. Poenicke2002 , this shift modifies the threshold voltages of MARs starting and ending in different electrodes, leading to the splitting of the peaks with an odd order $`n`$ in the SGS. On the contrary, since the magnetic field produces a rigid shift of the spectrum, the threshold voltages of those MARs starting and ending in the same electrode are not modified. This means that the positions of the structures with an even order $`n`$ in the SGS remain unchanged. This is illustrated in Fig. 4 where we show the differential shot noise, $`dS/dV`$, for a $`d_{\pi /4}`$-$`d_{\pi /4}`$ junction with transmission $`D=0.2`$ for different values of the magnetic field. Starting at large voltages, the structure at $`2\mathrm{\Delta }`$ splits with applied field. Around $`eV=\mathrm{\Delta }`$ there is a maximum at $`eV=\mathrm{\Delta }`$, unaffected by the applied field, as well as a field-shift of the peak just above $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$. The field dependence of the differential noise is most clearly resolved at larger biases, $`eV\mathrm{\Delta }/2`$, as the marks of the various processes begin to overlap at small bias. The effect of the Doppler shift on the SGS of the noise is only prominent in junctions with a sizable misorientation. For junctions close to the $`d_0`$-$`d_0`$ case, the main contribution to the SGS comes from trajectories close to perpendicular incidence, i.e. with $`\mathrm{sin}\widehat{𝒑}_F0`$ and thus having a vanishing Doppler shift.

In summary, we have presented a theory of shot noise in d-wave/d-wave contacts with arbitrary transparency. We have shown that in the MAR regime these nonequilibrium current fluctuations exhibit very peculiar features like subharmonic gap structure, super-Poissonian noise ($`S2eI`$), reduction of the effective charge $`q`$ by impurities and the splitting of the SGS in a magnetic field. All these features are unique fingerprints of the d-wave scenario, and we hope that our analysis will trigger off experimental study of shot noise in cuprate junctions.

JCC acknowledges the financial support provided by the EU under contract HPRN-CT-2000-00144, Nanoscale Dynamics, and MF by the Swedish research council.


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# A phase transition model for metric fluctuations in vacuum

## Abstract

Regarding metric fluctuations as generating roughness on the fabric of the otherwise smooth vacuum, it is shown that in its simplest form, the effect can be described by the scalar $`\varphi ^4`$ model. The model exhibits a second order phase transition between a smooth (low-temperature) phase and a rough (high-temperature) one, corroborating the absence of metric fluctuations at low energies. In the rough phase near the critical point, vacuum is characterized by a power-law behavior for the fluctuating field with critical exponent $`\beta 0.33`$.

By inducing fluctuations in the metric, quantum effects are generally expected to play a principle role in the structure of spacetime at the Plank scale. Apart from any residual effects they may have on larger scales, these fluctuations become an inseparable part of the spacetime itself when considering its structure down to such fine scales, i.e., at temperatures near as high as the Plank temperature, $`T_P10^{19}GeV`$. Close to $`T_P`$, one may visualize the effect as giving rise to small scale curvature (roughness) on the fabric of the otherwise smooth spacetime. Motivated by this picture, we show that in vacuum such metric fluctuations, in simplest form, can be modelled by the scalar $`\varphi ^4`$ theory. The model exhibits a phase transition at the renormalized Plank temperature $`T_P(\mathrm{})>T_P`$, the transition being of second order between a smooth phase ($`T<T_P(\mathrm{})`$) and a rough one ($`T>T_P(\mathrm{})`$), thus corroborating the absence of metric fluctuations at low energies. In the rough phase near $`T_P(\mathrm{})`$, vacuum is characterized by a power-law behavior for the fluctuations with critical exponent $`\beta 0.33`$.

In the following, we shall appropriately phrase the vacuum in presence (absence) of metric fluctuations as the real (ideal) vacuum.

In accordance with general relativity, we take the ideal vacuum to be a de Sitter spacetime with the line element

$$ds^2=dt^2e^{2Ht}(dr^2+r^2d\theta ^2+r^2\mathrm{sin}^2\theta d\phi ^2),H=\sqrt{\frac{8\pi G\rho }{3}}$$
(1)
where $`\rho `$ is the energy density of the vacuum. Neglecting fluctuations, it is naively expected that $`\rho m_P^4`$, $`m_P`$ being the Plank mass which is of the order of $`10^{19}GeV`$.

Our model Hamiltonian will be defined by the change in vacuum energy due to metric fluctuations, which we now proceed to consider. Since we are not interested in the dynamics of fluctuations we take t=const., thus concentrating on the spatial cross section $`dt=0`$ of the vacuum spacetime near the Plank time. Consequently, hereafter, by vacuum this spatial cross section is meant. Noting that the ideal vacuum is Euclidean, we denote its cartesian coordinates by $`x^i(i=1,2,3)`$. Metric fluctuations are to be regarded so as to generate roughness on the fabric of this ideal smooth vacuum. One way to model these fluctuations would, then, be to view their effect extrinsically and represent the real vacuum by a hypersurface in a higher dimensional Eulidean space. In its simplest form, the effect of fluctuations may described by a scalar field $`\varphi (x^i)`$ so that the real vacuum can be represented by the hypersurface $`x^4=\varphi (x^i)`$ in a four dimensional Euclidean space with cartesian coordinates $`(x^i,x^4)`$; the hyperplane $`x^4=0`$ (corresponding to $`\varphi =0`$) representing the ideal vacuum, of course. The local unit normal to the hypersurface $`x^4=\varphi (x^i)`$ will then be given by

$$[1+(\varphi )^2]^{1/2}(\varphi ,1)$$
(2)
By projecting an element $`d\upsilon `$ of this hypersurface onto the hyperplane $`x^4=0`$, it is readily shown that

$$d\upsilon =[1+(\varphi )^2]^{1/2}d^3x$$
(3)
This is the volume element of the real vacuum. In absence of fluctuations ($`\varphi =0`$), (3) reduces to the volume element of the ideal flat vacuum, as it should. Thus, assuming that real vacuum is not too rough ($`|\varphi |1`$), the contribution of (3) to the excess vacuum energy due to fluctuations will be

$$\frac{1}{2}\rho (\varphi )^2d^3x$$
(4)
The integrand, which arises as a result of volume expansion due to the metric fluctuations, constitutes the ”kinetic term” of our model Hamiltonian. The complete Hamiltonian has to take into account the interaction energy of the fluctuations, represented by the ”potential term” $`V(\varphi )`$, too. Then, naturally assuming that these fluctuations are scale invariant, their scaling behavior is to be studied via the renormalization group techniques. Indeed, it is this renormalizability requirement that fixes the form of $`V(\varphi )`$ unambiguously. Thus bearing in mind that our model is three dimensional and that $`V(\varphi )`$ should be even in $`\varphi `$, we take

$$V(\varphi )=A(T)\varphi ^2+B(T)\varphi ^4,B(T)>0$$
(5)
where $`T`$ is the temperature. Terms beyond $`\varphi ^6`$ have been omitted because they represent irrelevant (non-renormalizable) interactions. Also, the $`\varphi ^6`$ term has been deliberately made irrelevant by taking $`B(T)>0`$ and, therefore, ignored. This is because the latter term pertains to tricritical behavior Blume ; Lawrie  which does not seem to be related to our problem. Now, as is well known, the above potential shows phase transition provided that $`A(T)`$ vanishes at a certain critical temperature which is naturally to be taken as $`T_P`$. This, being the temperature near which metric fluctuations are naively expected to occur, is of course the trial critical temperature; the true critical temparature will be given by the renormalization of this trial value due to the $`\varphi ^4`$ term. Noting that our model is only applicable in the vicinity of the transition point, we can replace $`B(T)`$ by its value, $`b`$, at $`T_P`$ and write

$$A(T)=\frac{1}{2}a(TT_P)$$
(6)
where the constant $`a`$ is taken to be negative because we want the high (low) temperature phase to be the rough (smooth) phase.

Thus, the change in vacuum energy due to metric fluctuations that defines our model Hamiltonian is given by

$$H[\varphi ]=d^3x\{\frac{1}{2}\rho (\varphi )^2+\frac{1}{2}a(TT_P)\varphi ^2+b\varphi ^4\}$$
(7)
where $`a<0`$ and $`b>0`$. This is the standard $`\varphi ^4`$ model which, as is well known (see e.g. Zinn ; Uzunov ), exhibits a second order phase transition at the critical temperature $`T_P(\mathrm{})>T_P`$ given by the zero of the renormalized value of $`A(T)`$. The high temperature phase ($`T>T_P(\mathrm{})`$) near the critical point is characterized by the scale-invariant behavior

$$\varphi (TT_P(\mathrm{}))^\beta $$
(8)
and is therefore rough, while in the low temperature phase ($`T<T_P(\mathrm{})`$) $`\varphi =0`$ so that the vacuum is smooth. The critical exponent $`\beta `$ is found from the standard renormalization of the $`\varphi ^4`$ model Zinn ; Uzunov  to have the approximate value 0.33.

Of course, in the above model, we have simply assumed that the fluctuating metric components somehow couple to produce a single fluctuating field $`\varphi (x)`$; we have not considered the possible physical mechanisms (if any) behind the coupling. However, this assumtion, although it simplifies the resulting model considerably, is not fundamental to our approach. What we are essentially pointing out here is that metric fluctuations can be described by phase transition models corroborating the fact that they show no gross effect at ‘low’ energies.


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# References and links

## 1 Introduction

Photonic crystal fibers (PCF) are a new class of optical fibers which has revealed many surprising phenomena and also holds a big promise for future applications (see e.g. ). These PCFs are made from pure silica with a cladding consisting of a regular lattice of air-holes running along the fiber axis. Depending on the arrangement of the air-holes the guiding of light can be provided by either modified total internal reflection  or by the photonic band-gap effect  and PCFs can even be endlessly single-mode  because of the wavelength dependence of the cladding index. For the basic operation we refer to the review of Broeng et al. .

Understanding the shape and radiation pattern, as illustrated in Fig. 1, of the mode in the endlessly single-mode PCF is very important. E.g. in tests and applications this is essential for estimations of coupling efficiencies and for determining the mode field diameter from the far-field distribution. Furthermore, it is fundamentally the simplest structure with a hexagonal cladding, and hence the understanding of this structure will be a natural basis for understanding the modes of more sophisticated PCF structures. In this paper we present a semi-empirical model which is capable of explaining both the near and far-field distribution of the mode, but most importantly also accounts for the fine structure in the transition from the near to the far field. The simplicity of the model allows for a phenomenological interpretation of the shapes of the near and far-field patterns.

## 2 Experiments

The measurements reported are for a PCF with a triangular air-hole lattice with pitch of $`\mathrm{\Lambda }3.5\mu \mathrm{m}`$ and air holes of diameter $`d/\mathrm{\Lambda }0.5`$. The measurements reported here were performed at a free-space wavelength of $`\lambda =635\mathrm{nm}`$, where the light is guided in a single mode in the silica core of the fiber formed by a “missing” air hole. In panel a of Fig. 2 a micro-graph of the fiber structure can be seen.

The near-field distribution was measured using a microscope objective to magnify the mode onto a Si-based CCD camera. In Fig. 2b the intensity distribution is shown at focus. By translating the fiber away from the focal plane, the intensity distribution may be imaged at different distances between the near and the far field. This is shown in panels b to h in Fig. 2. As expected the mode at focus has a hexagonal shape, that extends in the six regions between the inner holes and is sharply confined at the six silica-hole interfaces. However, when the image is defocused, the shape at first transforms into a nearly circular shape (panel c) followed by a hexagonal shape rotated by an angle of $`\pi /6`$ with respect to the focus (panel d). After this the shape again becomes close to circular (panel e) , and finally transforms into the original hexagonal orientation (panel f) with six satellites emerging from the distribution (panels g and h). It is noted that the orientation of the satellites is rotated by $`\pi /6`$ with respect to the six inner holes surrounding the core. In Fig. 3 (right) the intensity distribution in the far-field limit is shown (several centimeters from the fiber end-facet), obtained using a commercial far-field profiler. Here, the satellites have fully developed and as shown in the cross sectional plot in Fig. 3 (left) the peak intensities of the satellites are more than two orders of magnitude lower than the main peak. Hence, a reasonably accurate analysis of the far field may be performed considering only the main peak.

Apart from being a fascinating and intriguing evolution of the mode shape from the near to the far field, it is important to be aware of these transitions in any application that involves imaging of the modes. E.g. for estimations of the mode field diameter and effective area based on near-field analysis, it is important to focus the mode correctly, and the positions corresponding to panel b and panel d in Fig. 2 may easily be confused. They both show the hexagonal shape and have only slightly different mode sizes. Hence, as a measurement procedure for determining the mode field diameter, a direct measurement of the near field may be even more tricky than it is for “standard technology fibers” with circular symmetry.

In panel a of Fig. 4 two cross-sections of the measured near-field distribution are shown, one taken along a line passing through opposite hole centers (1) and the second taken along a line passing between the holes (2) (rotated by an angle $`\pi /6`$ with respect to the first). It is noted that a gaussian distribution is a significantly better fit to the intensity along line (2), motivating a simple interpretation of the mode shape : the mode is a circular gaussian distribution from which a narrow distribution localized at each of the centers of the six inner holes is subtracted. This simple interpretation is theoretically modeled in the following.

## 3 Theory

In order to simulate the radiated field we start from the fully-vectorial fields in the single-mode all-dielectric PCF

$$𝑯(x,y,z)=𝒉(x,y)e^{\pm i\beta (\omega )z},$$
(1)
where $`𝒉(x,y)`$ and $`\beta (\omega )`$ are the transverse fields and the propagation constant, respectively. These we calculate numerically by a fully-vectorial plane-wave method .

Substantial insight in the physics of the radiation problem can be gained by expanding $`𝒉(x,y)`$ in gaussians. Introducing the notation $`𝒔=(x,y)`$ and using that the components of $`𝒉(x,y)`$ can be chosen either real or imaginary we consider

$$I(𝒔)=|𝒉(𝒔)|^2=\left|\underset{j}{}A_ju(𝒔𝒔_j,w_j)\right|^2,u(𝒔,w)=\mathrm{exp}(s^2/w^2).$$
(2)
For the radiation into free space this gives a linear combination of expanding gaussian beams and this is a well-studied problem, see e.g. . Neglecting the small back-scattering from the end-facet, the gaussian $`u(𝒔,w)`$ at finite $`z>0`$ transforms as

$$u(𝒔,w)u(𝒔,z,w)=\left(1i\frac{2z}{kw^2}\right)^1\mathrm{exp}\left[ik\left(z+\frac{s^2}{2R(z)}\right)\frac{s^2}{W^2(z)}\right],$$
(3)
where $`R(z)=z(1+k^2w^4/4z^2)`$ and $`W(z)=w(1+4z^2/k^2w^4)^{1/2}`$. In the following we consider a particular simple linear combination in the PCF;

$$I(𝒔)=A^2\left|u(𝒔,w_c)\gamma \underset{j=1}{\overset{6}{}}u(𝒔𝒔_j,w_h)\right|^2,$$
(4)
where $`𝒔_j=R_c\times (\mathrm{cos}\frac{j2\pi }{6},\mathrm{sin}\frac{j2\pi }{6})`$ with $`(\mathrm{\Lambda }/R_c)𝒔_j`$ being the center position of the six air holes nearest to the core. Here, $`R_c\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ (the radius of the silica core), $`w_c\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ (the mode-field radius), and $`w_hd/2`$ (the radius of the air holes). The first term gives the over-all gaussian intensity profile of the mode and with $`\gamma u(R_c,w_c)`$ the additional six terms of opposite sign suppress the intensity at the six air-holes nearest to the core. For finite $`z>0`$ the intensity transforms as

$$I(𝒔)I(𝒔,z)=A^2\left|u(𝒔,z,w_c)\gamma \underset{j=1}{\overset{6}{}}u(𝒔𝒔_j,z,w_h)\right|^2.$$
(5)
In panel b of Fig. 4 we show an example of the intensity distribution in an ideal PCF with $`\mathrm{\Lambda }=3.5\mu \mathrm{m}`$ and $`d/\mathrm{\Lambda }=0.5`$ at $`\lambda =635\mathrm{nm}`$ corresponding to experimental situation. For the dielectric function we have used $`\epsilon =1`$ for the air holes and for the silica we have used $`\epsilon =(1.4572)^2=2.123`$ based on the Sellmeier formula. While Eq. (5) may seem too simplistic the good fits to gaussians strongly justify it and as we shall see it reproduces the physics observed experimentally.

In Fig. 5 we show the corresponding near field based on Eq. (5). The profile at the end-facet (panel a) first transforms into a close-to-circular profile (panel c) followed by a hexagonal shape rotated by $`\pi /6`$ (panels d to f), a close-to-circular profile (panel g), and finally a hexagonal shape (panels h and i) with the same orientation as at the end-facet (panel a). Comparing with Fig. 2 this is qualitatively in excellent agreement with the experimental observations. The fact that the fully coherent scattering description qualitatively reproduces the experimentally observed $`\pi /6`$ rotation gives strong indications of its nature; it is a phenomena caused by an interference between the different gaussian elements used in the decomposition of the fundamental mode in the PCF. In Fig. 6 we show the corresponding intensity distribution in the far-field limit which is in a very good agreement with the experiments, see Fig. 3. It is seen that the satellites are reproduced and are in fact oriented in the same way as in the experiment. Moreover the relative intensities between the satellites and the main peak in Fig. 6 (left) are very similar to the ones in Fig. 3 (left).

Finally, for fibers where the air holes modify the overall gaussian profile sufficiently (not shown) we find indication of additional higher-order spots further away from the center of the intensity distribution which can also be seen experimentally.

## 4 Conclusion

The evolution of the mode shape of a PCF with a triangular cladding has been investigated in the transition from the near to the far field. When moving away from the near field at the focus of the fiber end-facet, it has been observed that the hexagonal orientation is rotated two times by $`\pi /6`$ after which six satellites emerge in the radiation pattern. In the far-field limit the satellites remain in the pattern, having a relative peak intensity more than two orders of magnitude less than the main peak and with an orientation rotated by $`\pi /6`$ relative to the six inner holes around the fiber core. All these observations have been reproduced theoretically, by approximating the near-field distribution by a main gaussian peak from which six narrow gaussians located near the center of the six inner holes have been subtracted. From the simulations it is concluded that the changes of shape in the radiation pattern are caused by an interference between the different gaussian elements used in the decomposition of the fundamental mode in the PCF.

The results presented here are very important for understanding and analysing the behavior of the mode in many optical systems based on photonic crystal fibers – especially those involving imaging and focusing the mode. Furthermore, the successful idea of decomposing the near field of the mode into seven localized distributions can be adapted in future work aimed at a simple quantitative description of the near and far-field distributions, particularly for relating the measured far field to the physical structure around the fiber core that influences the near field. The latter is very interesting in the field of fiber measurement procedures, since the far-field analysis of conventional optical fibers cannot directly be adapted to PCFs because of the lack of cylindrical symmetry.

## Acknowledgments

We thank J. Riishede and T. P. Hansen (COM, Technical University of Denmark), P. M. W. Skovgaard and J. Broeng (Crystal Fibre A/S) for technical assistance and useful discussions.


text:
# Paramagnetic and diamagnetic states in two-dimensional Josephson-junction arrays

## Figure Captions

Fig. 1 Two-dimensional Josephson junction array with a random distribution of $`\pi `$-junctions. The gray loops represent the $`\pi `$-loops, i.e., loops with an odd number of $`\pi `$-junctions. The figure is just the top-left corner of the mixed array in Fig. 2b.

Fig. 2 Simulated magnetization of a $`20\times 20`$ array at $`f=0.2`$ with $`\beta _L=30`$ and $`\beta _C=63`$: a) without $`\pi `$-junctions, light gray represents diamagnetic loops, gray paramagnetic ones; b) with $`\pi `$-junctions at a concentration of $`c=0.45`$ white and light gray represents diamagnetic loops, gray and dark gray paramagnetic ones.

Fig. 3 Magnetization histogram of a $`20\times 20`$ plane array at $`f=0.2`$ with $`\beta _L=30`$ and $`\beta _C=63`$: a) distribution without $`\pi `$-junctions; b) distribution with $`\pi `$-junctions at a concentration of $`c=0.45`$.

Fig. 4 Magnetization histogram of a $`20\times 20`$ plane array at $`f=0.5`$ with $`\beta _L=30`$, $`\beta _C=63`$ and $`\pi `$-junctions distribution at $`c=0.45`$: a) effect of a weak disorder in the current distribution ($`\sigma =20\%`$); b) the same for a stronger disorder($`\sigma =80\%`$).


text:
# Non-commutative compactifications and elliptic curves

## 1 Introduction

Let $`X`$ be an analytic space over a local field ($`𝐂`$, $`𝐑`$ or $`𝐐_p`$), and $`G`$ be a group acting freely on $`X`$. If the action is not discontinuous the quotient $`X/G`$ is not an analytic space. Nevertheless one can define the “category of coherent sheaves on $`X/G`$” (notation $`Coh(X/G)`$) as the category of $`G`$-equivariant coherent sheaves on $`X`$. A typical example studied in this paper is $`X=𝐂^{}`$ and $`G=q^𝐙`$ acting by dilations $`zq^nz`$. If $`|q|1`$ the quotient $`𝐂^{}/q^𝐙`$ is an elliptic curve. If $`|q|=1`$ the quotient is not even a Hausdorff space. In either case the category $`Coh(X/G)`$ is equivalent to the category of certain modules over the cross-product of the algebra $`𝒪(𝐂^{})`$ of analytic functions and the group algebra of $`q^𝐙`$ (see Section 3). According to the philosophy of non-commutative compactifications proposed in \[So1\] the compactification of the moduli space of elliptic curves should also contain objects corresponding to the case $`|q|=1`$. They can be viewed as non-commutative degenerations of ordinary elliptic curves and called non-commutative (or quantum) elliptic curves. They also can be called analytic quantum tori because in non-commutative geometry $`C^{\mathrm{}}`$-versions of these objects are called quantum or non-commutative tori. The latter were introduced by Alain Connes and studied by Connes and Marc Rieffel in the early 80’s (see for ex. \[Co\]).

Elliptic curves (commutative or not) can be viewed as $`q`$-difference analogs of analytic vector bundles with flat connections. In this sense they are a special case of holonomic $`q`$-D-modules (cf. \[Sab\]). There is a vast literature on $`q`$-difference equations. It is mainly devoted to the case $`|q|1`$.

From the point of view of non-commutative geometry our non-commuta-
tive elliptic curves are “bad” quotients. On the other hand, a complex elliptic curve is a $`C^{\mathrm{}}`$-manifold (2-dimensional torus) equipped with a complex structure. Hence one has another degeneration: complex structure degenerates into a foliation. The corresponding categories of vector bundles which carry a flat connection were studied in \[So1\]. It would be interesting to make more precise the relationship between our non-commutative elliptic curves and quantum tori from \[So1\]. We remark that the picture of \[So1\] does not have a p-adic analog, while non-commutative elliptic curves exist over non-archimedean local fields as well.

About the contents of the paper. In Section 2 we prove a theorem characterizing algebraically the category of coherent sheaves on certain quotients of Stein varieties. In Section 3 we define degenerate elliptic curves (there $`|q|=1`$). This includes both analytic and formal versions. In particular, in Section 3.2 we revisit the results of \[BG\] concerning the formal case. We compute their Picard groups and obtain some results about irreducible objects in the category of coherent sheaves. We also discuss the analog of the uniformization of an elliptic curve by a complex line. Using this picture we define the moduli space of non-commutative elliptic curves and prove the analog of Rieffel’s theorem about $`SL_2(𝐙)`$-action on the moduli space of quantum tori. Our approach should work in the case of abelian varieties as well. In this case we expect that the analog of the Rieffel-Schwarz theorem holds (see \[RS\]). The reader will notice that in Section 3 we do not distinguish between ordinary and degenerate elliptic curves calling all of them non-commutative. In the last Section 4 we sketch the case of non-arhimedean quantum tori. There is an evidence that using the ideas of \[KoSo1\] one can apply them to quantization of hyper-Kähler manifolds.

We do not discuss in the paper the general philosophy of non-commutative compactifications as well as various connections and ramifications of this concept. Interested reader can consult with \[So1\]. There are many speculative relations of non-commutative compactifications with some structures in number theory, dynamical systems and physics (for ex. with \[BDar\], \[CDS\], \[De1-2\], \[Mo1-2\]). We hope to address some of them in the future.

Acknowledgements. We thank to Ofer Gabber, Victor Ginzburg, Maxim Kontsevich, Yuri Manin, for interesting discussions. Both authors are thankful to IHES for hospitality and excellent reasearch atmosphere. Y.S. gratefully acknowledges financial support him as a Fellow of the Clay Mathematics Institute.

## 2 Coherent sheaves on elliptic curves

Let $`K`$ be a either a field of complex numbers or non-archimedean field, $`qK^{},|q|<1`$. Recall that the smooth analytic space $`E_q(K)=G_m(K)/q^𝐙=K^{}/q^𝐙`$ is an elliptic curve (in particular it is an algebraic variety). We denote by $`Coh(E_q)`$ the category of algebraic coherent sheaves on $`E_q`$. Since $`G_m(K)=K^{}`$ is an analytic space we have a sheaf of analytic functions $`𝒪_K^{}`$, and the category of analytic coherent sheaves $`Coh(K^{})`$. The natural projection $`\pi :K^{}E_q`$ gives rise to a faithful exact functor (pull-back) $`\pi ^{}:Coh(E_q)Coh(K^{})`$. The image $`𝒞_q=\pi ^{}(Coh(E_q))`$ is the category of $`q^𝐙`$-equivariant analytic coherent sheaves on $`K^{}`$.

The following proposition is well-known (see \[Ki\] for non-archimedean version).

###### Proposition 1

If $`FCoh(K^{})`$ then $`H^i(K^{},F)=0`$ for $`i>0`$, and each $`F_x,xK^{}`$ is generated by $`H^0(K^{},F)`$.

In particular the functor $`\varphi :VH^0(K^{},\pi ^{}(V))`$ is faithful and exact from the category $`Coh(E_q)`$ to the category of modules over the algebra $`A_q^{an}`$ generated by the analytic functions $`f𝒪(K^{})`$ and the invertible generator $`\xi `$ such that $`\xi f(z)=f(qz)\xi `$ for all $`zK^{}`$. Indeed the space of global sections of an equivariant sheaf on $`K^{}`$ gives rise to an $`A_q^{an}`$-module. Notice that $`A_q^{an}`$ contains two commutative subalgebras: the algebra $`𝒪(K^{})`$ of analytic functions and the algebra $`K[q^𝐙]:=K[\xi ,\xi ^1]`$.

The aim of this section is to prove the following result.

###### Theorem 1

The functor $`\varphi `$ provides an equivalence of $`Coh(E_q)`$ with the category $`_q`$ of such $`A_q^{an}`$-modules $`M`$ that $`M`$ is finitely presentable over $`𝒪(K^{})`$, i.e. there exists $`m,n>0`$ and an exact sequence of $`𝒪(K^{})`$-modules

$$𝒪^n(K^{})𝒪^m(K^{})M0.$$

This theorem can be generalized to abelian varieties, and furthermore to certain class of Stein spaces. We would like to state and prove such a generalization.

Let $`X`$ be a Stein space over $`K`$, and $`G`$ be a group freely acting on $`X`$. We assume that $`X/G`$ is a projective algebraic variety and the pull-back $`\pi ^{}(𝒪_{X/G}(1))`$ is a trivial analytic line bundle on $`X`$ (here $`\pi :XX/G`$ is the natural projection). The functor $`\pi ^{}`$ gives rise to an equivalence of the category $`Coh(X/G)`$ of algebraic coherent sheaves on $`X/G`$ and the category $`Coh_G(X)`$ of $`G`$-equivariant analytic coherent sheaves on $`X`$. The functor of global sections $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_X:F\mathrm{\Gamma }(X,F)`$ is an exact functor from $`Coh_G(X)`$ to the category of modules over the algebra $`𝒪(X,G):=𝒪(X)G`$ (cross-product of $`G`$ and the algebra of analytic functions $`𝒪(X)`$). We would like to describe the image of $`Coh(X/G)`$ under the functor $`\varphi =\mathrm{\Gamma }_X\pi ^{}`$. In order to do that we introduce the category $`_G(X)`$ of $`𝒪(X,G)`$-modules $`M`$ which are finitely presentable over $`𝒪(X)`$. This means that there exist $`m,n>0`$ and an exact sequence of $`𝒪(X)`$-modules

$$𝒪^n(X)𝒪^m(X)M0.$$

###### Theorem 2

The functor $`\varphi `$ gives rise to an equivalence of categories

$$Coh(X/G)_G(X)$$

Clearly the previous theorem follows from this one for $`X=K^{}`$, $`G=𝐙`$ acting by $`n(x)=q^nx,n𝐙,xK^{}.`$

Proof. The proof will consists of several steps.

Step 1. Let us check that if $`FOb(Coh(X/G))`$ then $`\varphi (F)Ob(_G(X))`$. It follows from the Serre’s theorem that there exist vector bundles $`W_1,W_2`$ and a morphism $`W_1W_2F0`$. Moreover, we can choose $`W_k=_i𝒪(m_i),k=1,2`$.

Pulling back $`W_i,i=1,2`$ to $`X`$ we get a $`G`$-equivariant analytic bundles $`\pi ^{}(W_i),i=1,2`$ and $`G`$-equivariant analytic coherent sheaf $`\pi ^{}(F)`$. The functor $`\varphi `$ is exact as the composition of two exact functors ($`\mathrm{\Gamma }_X`$ is exact because $`X`$ is Stein). Thus we have an exact sequence of $`𝒪(X)`$-modules

$$\varphi (W_1)\varphi (W_2)\varphi (F)0.$$

By our assumption the pull-backs of the sheaves $`𝒪_{X/G}(l),l𝐙`$ are trivial analytic vector bundles on $`X`$. Hence $`\varphi (W_i),i=1,2`$ are free $`𝒪(X)`$-modules of finite ranks. It follows that $`\varphi (F)`$ is an object of the category $`_G(X).`$

Step 2. Observe that if $`F0`$ then $`\varphi (F)0`$. Indeed, $`\pi ^{}(F)0`$ because $`\pi ^{}`$ is a faithful functor. Since $`X`$ is Stein the sheaf $`\pi ^{}(F)`$ is generated by its global sections which is $`\varphi (F)`$. Hence if $`\varphi (F)=0`$ then $`F=0`$. Similarly one proves that if $`f:VW`$ is a non-trivial morphism of coherent sheaves on $`X/G`$ then $`\varphi (f)0`$. Indeed, consider the subsheaf $`Im(f)`$ of $`W`$. Then $`\pi ^{}(Im(f))`$ is generated by $`\mathrm{\Gamma }(X,\pi ^{}(Im(f)))Im(\varphi (f)).`$

Thus we have proved that $`\varphi :Coh(X/G)_G(X)`$ is an exact faithful functor.

Step 3. We would like to prove that any object of $`_G(X)`$ is isomorphic to some $`\varphi (F),FCoh(X/G).`$

Let $`M`$ be an object of the category $`_G(X)`$. Then for some $`m,n>0`$ we have an exact sequence of $`𝒪(X)`$-modules

$$𝒪^n(X)𝒪^m(X)M0.$$

We consider the localization functor $`M\stackrel{~}{M}:=𝒪_XM`$, where $`𝒪_X`$ is the sheaf of analytic functions on $`X`$. The localization functor is not faithful on finitely generated modules. It is easy to construct an example of a module $`V0`$ such that $`\stackrel{~}{V}=0`$. Nevertheless we have the following result.

###### Lemma 1

The localization functor gives rise to an equivalence of the category of finitely representable $`𝒪(X)`$-modules and the full subcategory of coherent sheaves whose objects are sheaves isomorphic to $`coker(𝒪_X^n\stackrel{f}{}𝒪_X^m)`$ for some $`n`$, $`m`$ and $`f`$.

The inverse functor $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_X`$ associates to a sheaf $`F`$ the $`𝒪(X)`$-module of its global sections.

The lemma follows from the exactness of the localization functor and the functor $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_X`$ and from fact that $`\stackrel{~}{𝒪^n(X)}=𝒪_X^n`$, $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_X(𝒪_X^n)=𝒪^n(X)`$.

Returning to the proof of the theorem we see that

$$\mathrm{\Gamma }_X(\stackrel{~}{F})=F$$

for any $`FCoh(X/G)`$. Summarizing, we have constructed an exact fully faithful functor $`\varphi `$ between the categories in question. This completes the proof. $`\mathrm{}`$

We do not know whether Theorem 2 holds without the assumption of triviality of the pull-back of $`𝒪_{X/G}(1)`$.

## 3 Elliptic curves for $`|q|=1`$

### 3.1 Category $`_q`$

Let $`K`$ be either the field $`𝐂`$ or a non-archimedean local field. Let $`X`$ be Stein space over $`K`$, $`𝒪(X)`$ algebra of analytic functions on $`X`$, $`G`$ a group acting freely on $`X`$.

###### Definition 1

The category of coherent sheaves on the non-commutative space $`X/G`$ is defined as a category of modules over the cross-product algebra $`𝒪(X)G`$ which are finitely presentable over $`𝒪(X)`$.

From the point of view of this definition one should not distinguish between “good” and “bad” quotients. They all are non-commutative spaces.

Let us assume that $`K=𝐂`$. We will use the above definition in two cases: $`X=𝐂^{},G=q^𝐙`$ and $`X=𝐂,G=𝐙𝐙`$ with the natural actions of $`G`$ (by dilations in the first case and by shifts by the lattice in the second one). In this section we will study the case $`|q|=1`$ or when the action of the lattice on $`𝐂`$ is not discontinuous.

By the very definition the category $`_1`$ is the category of coherent sheaves on $`𝐂^{}`$, whose space of global sections is finitely presentable over $`𝒪(𝐂^{})`$, endowed with an automorphism.

It is likely that the category $`_q`$ is also equivalent to the latter, provided that $`q`$ is a root of unity. We do not prove this fact here111Reader may wish to look at the beginning of Section 3.2 where a similar result is proven. and will not use it.

From now on we assume that $`|q|=1`$ and $`q`$ is not a root of $`1`$. We start with the following lemma.

###### Lemma 2

Let $`VOb(_q)`$. Then the corresponding coherent sheaf $`\stackrel{~}{V}`$ is free of finite rank.

Proof. The sheaf $`\stackrel{~}{V}`$ is isomorphic to $`coker(𝒪_𝐂^{}^n\stackrel{f}{}𝒪_𝐂^{}^m)`$ for some $`n`$, $`m`$ and $`f`$. Let $`k`$ be the maximal rank of $`f_x:𝐂^n𝐂^m`$ for $`x𝐂^{}`$ and $`S`$ be the subset of $`𝐂^{}`$ where the rank is strictly smaller the $`k`$. Since $`S`$ is contained in the set of zeros of a holomorphic function on $`𝐂^{}`$ (a minor of the matrix $`f`$), it is discrete. On the other hand, $`S`$ must be $`𝐙`$-invariant. Hence $`S`$ is empty i.e. $`\stackrel{~}{V}`$ is a vector bundle. It remains to observe that any holomorphic vector bundle on $`𝐂^{}`$ is trivial.

###### Proposition 2

The category $`_q`$ is abelian for all $`q0`$.

Proof. For any object $`V`$ of $`_q`$ we have the corresponding coherent sheaf $`\stackrel{~}{V}`$ on $`𝐂^{}`$. If $`f:VW`$ is a morphism in $`_q`$ then $`\stackrel{~}{Ker(f)}`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{Coker(f)}`$ are coherent sheaves. According to the previous lemma they are both free sheaves of finite rank. Hence the spaces of sections $`Ker(f)`$ and $`Coker(f)`$ are $`A_q^{an}`$-modules which are of the type $`𝒪^p(𝐂^{})`$ as $`𝒪(𝐂^{})`$-modules. Hence they belong to $`_q`$. $`\mathrm{}`$

Let $`K(𝐂^{})_{mer}`$ be the field of meromorphic functions on $`𝐂^{}`$. Then we have a functor $`\mu :VV_{𝒪(𝐂^{})}K(𝐂^{})_{mer}`$ from the category $`_q`$ to the category of finite-dimensional $`K(𝐂^{})_{mer}`$-vector spaces.

###### Proposition 3

The functor $`\mu `$ is fully faithful.

Proof. Every object of $`_q`$ gives rise to a coherent sheaf on $`𝐂^{}`$. Hence it suffices to prove the corresponding statement for coherent sheaves. It is easy to see that if $`V0`$ then $`\mu (V)0`$ (otherwise $`V`$ is a torsion analytic sheaf which is $`q^𝐙`$ equivariant. This is impossible because orbits of the $`q^𝐙`$-action are dense in circles $`|z|`$=const). Applying this observation to the kernel of a morphism we see that $`\mu `$ is a monomorphism on morphisms. $`\mathrm{}`$

Notice that the functor $`\xi `$ is not fully faithful in the case $`|q|1`$: it kills all torsion sheaves.

###### Remark 1

The above results hold for $`K=𝐐_p`$ as well.

###### Proposition 4

Suppose that $`q`$ does not satisfy the Liouville property, i.e. there exists $`L>0`$ such that $`|q^n1|=O(n^L)`$. Then the Picard group (i.e. the of isomorphism classes of objects of $`_q`$ which are rank one modules over $`𝒪(𝐂^{})`$) is isomorphic to an extension of $`𝐙`$ by $`𝐂^{}/q^𝐙`$.

Proof. Let $`A=𝒪(𝐂^{})`$. Then $`A`$ is a $`𝐙`$-module: the generator $`1𝐙`$ sends $`f(z)`$ to $`f(qz)`$. Clearly the Picard group is isomophic to $`H^1(𝐙,A^{})`$. The proposition follows easily from the exact sequence

$$0𝐙A\stackrel{exp}{}A^{}\stackrel{v}{}𝐙0$$

(here $`v(f)=𝑑logf=0`$ where the integral is taken over any small circle around $`z=0`$) and from the following lemma

###### Lemma 3

Suppose that $`q`$ does not satisfy the Liouville property. Then $`H^1(𝐙,A)=𝐂`$

Proof. Let $`g(z)=_{\mathrm{}}^+\mathrm{}g_nz^n`$. If $`g_0=0`$ then the equation $`g(z)=a(qz)a(z)`$ has a solution $`a(z)=_{\mathrm{}}^+\mathrm{}a_nz^n`$, where $`a_0=0,a_n=g_n/(q^n1),n0`$. If $`q`$ does not satisfy the Liouville property the series converges. $`\mathrm{}`$

###### Remark 2

It follows from the proof above that for any $`q`$, which is not a root of $`1`$ there is a canonical surjective homomorphism:

$$deg:Pic(_q)𝐙$$

The number $`deg(V)`$ is called the degree of the object $`V`$.

It is an interesting problem to describe simple objects of the category $`_q,|q|=1`$. In the case $`|q|1`$ it is equivalent to finding all irreducible sheaves on the elliptic curve $`E_q`$. They correspond to points of $`E_q`$ (torsion sheaves). A vector bundle is not a simple object in the category of coherent sheaves. The situation changes in the case $`|q|=1`$. It follows from Lemma 3 that if $`|q|=1`$ and $`q`$ is not a root of $`1`$, there are no “torsion sheaves” at all. On the other hand, objects of rank $`1`$ over $`𝒪(𝐂^{})`$ are simple.

We are going to construct some simple objects of higher ranks. For general $`q`$ and $`s`$ with $`s^n=q`$ we have the obvious $`n`$-sheets coverings $`f_n:𝐂^{}/s^𝐙𝐂^{}/q^𝐙`$ and $`g_n:𝐂^{}/q^𝐙𝐂^{}/s^𝐙`$. The coverings give rise to the functors

$$f_n,g_n^{}:_s_q,g_n,f_n^{}:_q_s$$

Mimicking the usual construction one can define the above functors for any $`q𝐂^{}`$. The functor $`f_n`$ corresponds to the following homomorphism of algebras

$$A_q^{an}A_s^{an},f(z)f(z^n),\xi \xi ,$$

while the functor $`g_n^{}`$ corresponds to the homomorphism

$$A_q^{an}A_s^{an},f(z)f(z),\xi \xi ^n.$$

The other two functors are defined as the tensor product $`A_q^{an}_{A_s^{an}}V`$, where in the case of $`f_n`$ the $`A_s^{an}`$-module structure on $`A_q^{an}`$ is given by the first above homomorphism of algebras while in the case of $`g_n^{}`$ it is given by the second one. One can prove that pull-back and push-forward functors satisfy the usual properties.

Remind (see the proof of Proposition 4) that there is a canonical morphism from $`𝒪(𝐂^{})`$ to the Picard group of $`_s`$. Given integers $`k`$ and $`n`$ with $`n>0`$ we denote by $`P_{k,1}`$ the rank one module corresponding to the function $`z^k`$ and by $`P_{k,n}`$ the push-forward $`f_nP_{k,1}`$. The number $`k`$ coincides with the degree $`deg(P_{k,n})`$.

###### Lemma 4

Assume that $`|q|=1`$ and $`q`$ is not a root of unity. Then, for any integer $`k`$ and $`n>0`$ such that $`(k;n)=1`$, the module $`P_{k,n}`$ is simple.

Proof. Assume the contrary, and choose a proper submodule $`WP_{k,n}`$. Consider the pull back $`f_n^{}(W)f_n^{}(P_{k,n})`$. It is easy to show that $`f_n^{}(P_{k,n})`$ is isomorphic to the direct sum of rank $`1`$ objects of degree $`k`$, namely

$$f_n^{}(P_{k,n})=P_{k,1}(_{\mu ,\mu ^n=1}A_s^{an}/(\xi \mu )),$$

where as usual we denote by $`(\xi \mu )`$ the right ideal generated by the expression in the brackets.

Since all objects $`P_{k,1}A_s^{an}/(\xi \mu )`$ are simple and pairwise non-isomorphic it follows that $`f_n^{}(W)`$ is isomorphic to the direct sum of rank $`1`$ objects of the form $`P_{k,1}A_s^{an}/(\xi \mu )`$. In particular, $`deg(det(f_n^{}(W)))=kl`$, where $`0<l=rk(W)<n`$. On the other hand, $`deg(det(f_n^{}W))=deg(f_n^{}(detW))=ndeg(detW)`$. This contradiction completes the proof.$`\mathrm{}`$

Complete description of simple objects is not known.

###### Question 1

How to describe all simple objects of $`_q`$ in the case $`|q|=1`$?

At the end of this subsection we will make few comments about the tensor structure on the category $`_q`$ (for arbitrary ground field $`K`$). Let us fix $`qK^{}`$. Notice that the category of $`A_q^{an}`$-modules is a $`K`$-linear symmetric monoidal category. It follows from the interpretation of objects of $`_q`$ as coherent sheaves that the tensor product of finitely presentable over $`𝒪(K^{})`$ modules is again a finitely presentable module. Hence $`_q`$ is a symmetric monoidal category. It can be considered as a difference analog of the category of analytic vector bundles on $`K^{}`$ equipped with a flat connection.

### 3.2 Formal analog of the category $`_q`$

Let $`F:=𝐂((z))`$ and $`R:=𝐂[[z]]`$. We denote by $`_q^{al}`$ the category of finite-dimensional vector spaces over $`F`$ equipped with a semi-linear automorphism $`\xi :VV`$, $`\xi f(z)v=f(qz)\xi v`$ . In other words, this is a category of finite-dimensional representations of the algebra $`A_q^{al}`$ of non-commutative Laurent polynomials $`F[\xi ,\xi ^1]`$.

###### Lemma 5

Assume that $`q`$ is a root of unity. Then the category $`_q^{al}`$ is equivalent to the category of finite-dimensional $`F`$-vector spaces endowed with an automorphism.

Proof. Assume that $`q`$ is a primitive root of unity of order $`n`$ (i.e. $`q^n=1`$ and $`q^k1`$, for $`k<n`$). It is easy to see that the center of the algebra $`A_q^{al}`$ is $`𝐂((z^n))[\xi ^n,\xi ^n]F[\xi ,\xi ^1]`$. Localizing we make $`A_q^{al}`$ into a sheaf of algebras over the $`Spec(𝐂((z^n))[\xi ^n,\xi ^n])=𝔾_m`$. One can easily check that $`A_q^{al}`$ is an Azumaya algebra over $`𝔾_m`$. An object of $`_q^{al}`$ gives rise to a sheaf of modules over the Azumaya algebra supported on a closed subscheme $`S𝔾_m`$ finite over $`Spec(F)`$ . The Brauer group of $`F`$ is trivial. Hence the restriction of the Azumaya algebra $`A_q^{al}`$ to the ind-scheme $`\underset{}{\mathrm{lim}}S`$ (the limit is taken over all finite closed subschemes $`S𝔾_m`$) splits, i.e. isomorphic to the matrix algebra. It remains to notice that the category of modules over a split Azumaya algebra is equivalent to the category of $`𝒪`$-modules on the underlying scheme.$`\mathrm{}`$

In what follows we assume that $`q`$ is not a root of unity.

Following \[BG\] we call an object $`V`$ of $`_q^{al}`$ integral if there exists a $`𝐂[\xi ,\xi ^1]`$-invariant $`R`$-lattice $`LV`$. Integral objects form an abelian subcategory $`_q^f`$ of $`_q^{al}`$. The following theorem was proved in \[BG\].

###### Theorem 3

The category $`_q^f`$ is equivalent to the category of finite-dimensional $`𝐂^{}/q^𝐙`$\- graded complex vector spaces endowed with a nilpotent operator which preserves the grading.

Let us describe a construction of the equivalence functor. It is based on the following easy lemma, proof of which is left to the reader.

###### Lemma 6

Let $`V`$ be an object of $`_q^{al}`$, $`LV`$ be a $`𝐂[\xi ]`$-invariant $`R`$-lattice (we do not require $`L`$ to be $`\xi ^1`$-invariant), and $`\overline{P}L/zL:=\overline{L}`$ be a $`𝐂[\xi ]`$-invariant subspace such that for any eigenvalue $`\alpha `$ of $`\xi :\overline{P}\overline{P}`$ the number $`q^n\alpha `$ is not an eigenvalue of $`\xi `$ on $`\overline{L}`$ for all $`n0`$. Then the embedding $`\overline{P}\overline{L}`$ has a $`𝐂[\xi ]`$-equivariant lifting $`PL`$.

Given an object $`V`$ of $`_q^f`$ we can find a $`𝐂[\xi ,\xi ^1]`$-invariant $`R`$-lattice $`LV`$ such that the eigenvalues of $`\xi `$ on $`\overline{L}`$ satisfy the property in the lemma.222To construct such a lattice $`L`$ we can use the following procedure. First choose any $`𝐂[\xi ,\xi ^1]`$-invariant $`R`$-lattice $`L_0`$. Assume, that it does satisfy the eigenvalues property: numbers $`\alpha `$ and $`q^n\alpha `$ are eigenvalues, for some $`\alpha 0`$ and $`n>0`$. Let $`_\gamma \overline{L}_0^\gamma =\overline{L}_0:=L_0/zL_0`$ be the Jordan decomposition of $`\overline{L}_0`$ (i.e. $`(\xi \gamma )^N\overline{L}_0^\gamma =0`$, for large $`N`$). Choose a decomposition $`L_0=_\gamma L_0^\gamma `$ of the $`R`$-lattice which descends to the latter one modulo $`zR`$. Put $`L_1:=_{\gamma q^n\alpha }L_0^\gamma z^1L_0^{q^n\alpha }`$. It is easy to see that $`L_1`$ is a $`𝐂[\xi ,\xi ^1]`$-invariant $`R`$-lattice. If it still does not satisfy the property in the lemma we apply the above procedure again to $`L_1`$ and so on. It follows that $`V`$ is isomorphic to $`\overline{L}_𝐂F`$ as a $`F[\xi ]`$-module. The action of $`\xi `$ on $`\overline{L}`$ defines a $`𝐂^{}`$-grading ($`\overline{L}_a:=ker(\xi a)^n`$ for large $`n`$). The latter gives rise to a $`𝐂^{}/q^𝐙`$\- grading. Finally, we endow $`\overline{L}_a`$ with a nilpotent operator $`log(a^1\xi )`$. It gives rise to the equivalence functor.

Notice that the argument above shows that there is a functor from the category $`_q^f`$ to the category of finitely generated modules over the algebra of non-commutative Laurent polynomials $`𝐂[z,z^1,\xi ,\xi ^1]A_q^{al}`$. The latter sends $`V`$ to $`\stackrel{~}{V}=\overline{L}_𝐂𝐂[z,z^1]`$.

Now we want to obtain a similar description of the whole category $`_q^{al}`$. We claim that for any object $`V`$ of $`_q^{al}`$, there exists an integer $`n`$ such that the pull back $`f_n^{}(V)`$ is a direct sum of tensor products of integral objects and one-dimensional ones. More precisely we have the following result.

###### Theorem 4

The category $`_q^{al}`$ is equivalent to the category of $`𝐐`$-graded objects of $`_q^f`$ (i.e. each object of $`_q^{al}`$ is direct sum of $`𝐐`$ copies of objects of $`_q^f`$).

Proof. Given a rational number $`\lambda =\frac{k}{n}`$ with $`n>0`$, $`(n;k)=1`$, $`k0`$ unless $`n=1`$, we, first, construct a functor

$$G_{k,n}:_q^f_q^{al}$$

For this purpose we represent the category $`_q^f`$ as a certain “tensor quotient” of the category $`_s^f`$. Namely, consider the full subcategory $``$ of $`_s^f`$, whose objects are $`A_s^{al}`$-modules isomorphic to $`A_s^{al}/(\xi \nu )`$, where $`\nu 𝐂^{}`$ and $`\nu ^n=1`$. Notice that $``$ is a Picard category i.e. a groupoid with a tensor structure such that any object is invertible. Define the “tensor quotient” $`_s^f/`$ to be the category whose objects are those of $`_s^f`$ and morphisms between $`V`$ and $`W`$ are given by homomorphisms of $`A_s^{al}`$-modules $`VMW`$ where $`M=_{\{\nu |\nu ^n=1\}}A_s^{al}/(\xi \nu )`$. This is an abelian category. For any object $`V`$ of $`_s^f`$ and $`E`$ of $``$ the object $`VE`$ is isomorphic to $`V`$ . It is easy to see that the functor

$$g_n^{}:_s^f/_q^f$$

is an equivalence.

Given an object $`V`$ of $`_s^f/`$ we define $`G_{k,n}(V)=f_n(VP_{k,1})`$. (Recall that $`P_{k,1}`$ stands for $`A_s^{al}/(\xi z^k)`$).

We claim that $`G_{k,n}`$ extends to morphisms thus gives rise to a functor. Indeed,

$$Hom_{_q^{al}}(f_n(VP_{k,1});f_n(WP_{k,1}))=Hom_{_s^{al}}(f_n^{}f_n(VP_{k,1});WP_{k,1})$$

Now the claim is an immediate corollary of the following formula:

$$f_n^{}f_n(VP_{k,1})VP_{k,1}M$$
(1)
We leave its proof to the reader.

Notice, that the latter argument also shows that the functor $`G_{k,n}`$ is fully faithful.

Next, we are going to show that the functor

$$_{n,m}G_{k,n}:\underset{k,n}{}_q^f_q^{al}$$

is an equivalence of categories.

First, let us prove that the functor is fully faithful. Indeed, it remains to show that

$$Hom_{_q^{al}}(G_{k,n}(V),G_{k^{},n^{}}(W))=0$$

unless $`n=n^{}`$ and $`k=k^{}`$. Notice, that the group under consideration is a subgroup of

$$Hom(f_{nn^{}}^{}f_n(P_{k,1}V);f_{nn^{}}^{}f_n^{}(P_{k^{},1}W))$$

The formula (1) easily implies that the latter is trivial.

It remains to show that the image of $`_{n,k}G_{k,n}`$ is $`_q^{al}`$.

###### Proposition 5

For any object $`V`$ of $`_q^{al}`$ there exists $`n>0`$ such that $`f_n^{}(V)`$ is a direct sum of $`A_q^{al}/(\xi az^k)^l`$ where $`k,l>0`$ are integers and $`a𝐂`$.

Proof. We start with the following lemma.

###### Lemma 7

All one-sided ideals of $`A_q^{al}`$ are principal.

Proof of the Lemma. For an element $`XA_q^{al}`$, $`X=a_l\xi ^l+\mathrm{}+a_m\xi ^m`$ with $`a_l,a_m0`$ we define $`s(X)=ml`$. It is easy to see that $`A_q^{al}`$ is an Euclidean domain relative to the function $`s(X)`$.

It follows that any finite-dimensional $`A_q^{al}`$-module is a direct sum of cyclic ones (i.e. those generated by a single element). Hence, it is enough to prove the proposition for $`V=A_q^{al}/(X)`$, where $`XA_q^{al}`$. We will do it by induction on the dimension of $`V`$.

Without loss of generality we may assume that $`X=c\xi ^l+a_{l1}\xi ^{l1}+\mathrm{}+a_0`$ where $`a_i`$ are Taylor series in $`z`$ and $`c𝐂^{}`$. Notice that $`L:=Im(R[\xi ]V)`$ is a $`\xi `$-invariant $`R`$-lattice in $`V`$. If $`a_s(0)0`$, for some $`s`$, the element $`\xi `$ induces the operator $`\overline{\xi }:L/zLL/zL`$ which is not nilpotent. Then we can make use of Lemma $`6`$ to reduce the dimension of $`V`$. In general, there exist integers $`n`$ and $`k`$ such that $`c(z^{k/n}\xi )^l+a_{l1}(z^{k/n}\xi )^{l1}+\mathrm{}+a_0=z^{lk/n}(c^{}\xi ^l+b_{l1}\xi ^{l1}+\mathrm{}+b_0)`$ with $`b_i𝐂[[z]]`$ and $`b_s(0)0`$, for some $`s`$, and we can apply Lemma $`6`$ to $`P_{k,1}f_n^{}(V)`$. This completes the proof of the proposition.

Returning to the proof of the theorem we notice that that the modules $`A_q^{al}/(\xi az^k)^l`$ are in the image of $`_{n,k}G_{k,n}`$. The second remark is that the latter image is closed under the push-forward functor and under taking subobjects.

Now, given an object $`V`$ of $`_q^{al}`$ we choose $`n`$ as in the proposition and consider the canonical morphism

$$f_nf_n^{}(V)V$$

It is easy to see that the morphism is surjective. Combining this with the two observations above we see that $`V`$ is in the image of $`_{n,k}G_{k,n}`$. The theorem is proven. $`\mathrm{}`$

###### Remark 3

1) The argument given above is just a variant of Manin’s proof of the Classification Theorem for Dieudonne modules (see \[M4\]).

2) One can compare our Theorem $`4`$ with a well-known result from the theory of $`D`$-modules which says that, for any vector bundle $`E`$ with a connection on the punctured formal disk, the pull-back of $`E`$ on some finite covering of the punctured disk is a direct sum of tensor products of D-modules with regular singularities (at the origin) and one-dimensional ones.333We could not find a reference for this result. We are grateful to Roman Bezrukavnikov who explained it to one of us. He, in turn, refers to the lectures by Spencer Bloch at the University of Chicago.

###### Corollary 1

Any finite-dimensional $`A_q^{al}`$-module is a direct sum of modules of the type $`A_q^{al}/(\xi ^naz^k)^l`$ where $`n>0,k,l>0`$ are integers and $`a𝐂^{}`$.

###### Corollary 2

For any two complex numbers $`q`$ and $`q^{}`$ (which are not roots of $`1`$) the categories $`_q^{al}`$ and $`_q^{}^{al}`$ are equivalent.

We would like to describe the relation between the category $`_q^{al}`$ and its analytic counterpart $`_q`$.

First, we construct a tensor functor

$$_q^{al}_q$$
(2)
In the process of proving Theorem 3 we observed that there was a functor from the category $`_q^f`$ to the category of finitely generated modules over $`𝐂[z,z^1,\xi ,\xi ^1]`$. Composing it with the tensor product with $`A_q^{an}`$ over the subalgebra $`𝐂[z,z^1,\xi ,\xi ^1]A_q^{an}`$ we obtain the functor $`_q^f_q`$. It immediately follows from Theorem 4 (and from the construction of the equivalence given in the proof) that this functor extends to (2).

Assume that $`|q|1`$. It is easy to see that the image of (2) lies in the subcategory $`Bun(E)_q`$ of vector bundles on $`E:=𝐂^{}/q^𝐙`$.

###### Proposition 6

Assume that $`|q|1`$. Then functor $`_q^{al}Bun(E)`$ induces a bijection on the set of isomorphism classes of objects.

Proof. It follows from the classification of vector bundles on $`E`$ obtained by M. Atiyah that any indecomposable vector bundle is of the form $`A_q^{an}/(\xi ^naz^k)^l`$ where $`n>0,k,l>0`$, $`(n,k)=1`$, $`a𝐂^{}`$. Therefore, the functor induces a bijection on the set of isomorphism classes of indecomposable objects. The proposition immediately follows from this fact. $`\mathrm{}`$.

It was shown in \[BG\] that the restriction of (2) to the subcategory $`_q^f`$ gives rise to an equivalence between the latter category and the tensor category of semistable vector bundles on $`E:=𝐂^{}/q^𝐙`$ of degree zero.

Of course the functor $`_q^{al}Bun(E)`$ is not an equivalence, since $`Bun(E)`$ is not abelian.

We can reformulate Proposition $`6`$ by saying that there is a bijection between the non-abelian cohomology group $`H^1(𝐙,GL(n,F)),F=𝐂((z))`$ and the set of isomorphism classes of $`n`$-dimensional vector bundles on $`E`$.

Now, let $`G`$ be any algebraic group over $`𝐂`$. Using the Tannakian formalism and Proposition $`6`$ one can easily construct a map form $`H^1(𝐙,G(F))`$ to the set of isomorphism classes of principal $`G`$-bundles on $`E`$. We do not know if it is a bijection.

According to \[BG\] this is true if restrict ourselves to the subset
$`Im(H^1(𝐙,G(R))H^1(𝐙,G(F)))`$, on the one hand, and semistable $`G`$-bundles of degree zero, on the other hand.

If $`|q|=1`$, we can not say much more about (2), except that in this case $`_q`$ has more objects then its algebraic counterpart $`_q^{al}`$. Probably the Corollary 2 is not true for $`_q`$.

### 3.3 Uniformization by the complex line

We still assume that $`K=𝐂`$. Complex elliptic curves can be also represented as quotients $`𝐂/L`$ where $`L`$ is a lattice in $`𝐂`$. If $`L`$ is not discrete then the quotient can be considered as a non-commutative space. By definition (cf. \[M2\]) a quasi-lattice in $`L𝐂^n`$ is a free abelian subgroup of $`𝐂^n`$ of rank $`2n`$. If $`L`$ is discrete in the standard topology then it is called lattice.

Let $`L𝐂`$ be a quasi-lattice. We define the algebra $`C_L`$ as the cross-product of the algebra of analytic functions $`𝒪(𝐂)`$ and the group algebra of $`L`$. It is generated by analytic functions $`f(z)`$ and invertible generators $`e_\lambda ,\lambda L`$ subject to the relations

$$f_1(z)f_2(z)=f_2(z)f_1(z),e_\lambda e_\mu =e_{\lambda +\mu },e_\lambda f(z)=f(z+\lambda )e_\lambda .$$

We define the category $`𝒟_L`$ as the category of $`C_L`$-modules which are finitely presentable over $`𝒪(𝐂)`$. Let $`\tau 𝐂𝐐,q=exp(2\pi i\tau )`$. Let us consider a quasi-lattice $`L_\tau =𝐙𝐙\tau .`$ The corresponding non-commutative elliptic curve will be denoted by $`E_\tau `$.

###### Proposition 7

The categories $`𝒟_{L_\tau }`$ and $`_q`$ are equivalent.

Proof. The category $`𝒟_{L_\tau }`$ can be identified with the category of $`L_\tau `$-equivariant analytic coherent sheaves on $`𝐂`$. Similarly the category $`_q`$ can be identified with the category of analytic $`q^𝐙`$-equivariant sheaves on $`𝐂^{}`$. Clearly the category of sheaves are equivalent. $`\mathrm{}`$

### 3.4 Moduli space of quantum elliptic curves

Let $`K`$ be a local field, as in Section 2.1, $`qK^{}`$.

Recall that the category $`_q`$ defines a non-commutative (or quantum) elliptic curve $`E_q`$. Of course, if $`|q|1`$ it is just the usual elliptic curve over $`K`$. The question arises when two quantum elliptic curves should be called equivalent. It is natural to expect (cf. \[Ga\]) that the equivalences are defined by certain functors between the corresponding categories $`_q`$. We do not know such a definition in general. One of the reasons is lack of the general theory of non-commutative analytic spaces. Existing results in non-commutative algebraic geometry (see for ex. \[KR\]) are not sufficient for our purposes. Hovewer, in the case $`K=𝐂`$ we can resolve the difficulty by using the uniformization of elliptic curves by the complex line.

###### Definition 2

We say that that two non-commutative elliptic curves $`E_L`$ and $`E_L^{}`$ corresponding to the categories $`𝒟_L`$ and $`𝒟_L^{}`$ are equivalent if there is a continuous isomorphism of the algebras $`C_L`$ and $`C_L^{}`$ (the topology on the algebras is induced by the topology on the algebra of analytic functions $`𝒪(𝐂)`$).

Moreover we define groupoid of non-commutative elliptic curves putting $`Isom(E_L,E_L^{})`$ to be the set of all continuous isomorphisms of the algebras $`C_L`$ and $`C_L^{}`$ modulo the group of inner automorphisms of $`C_L`$.

###### Remark 4

The reader familiar with non-commutative geometry has noticed that the relationship between the algebras $`C_L`$ and $`A_q^{an}`$ is similar to the one between the foliation algebra of a torus and the corresponding quantum torus in \[Co\]. In particular $`C_L`$ gives rise to a generator-free description of non-commutative elliptic curves.

Given a quasi-lattice $`L𝐂`$ we define a group $`G_L`$ to be the subgroup of $`𝐂^{}`$ consisting of all $`\alpha 𝐂^{}`$ such that $`L=\alpha L`$.

###### Theorem 5

a) Non-commutative elliptic curves $`E_L`$ and $`E_L^{}`$ are equivalent if and only if $`L`$ and $`L^{}`$ are similar (i.e. there exists $`\alpha 𝐂^{}`$ such that $`L=\alpha L^{}`$).

b) $`Isom(E_L,E_L)`$ is isomorphic to the semi-direct product $`(G_L𝐂/L)Pic(E_L)`$ (clearly $`𝐂/L`$ is a normal subgroup in $`G_L`$, and $`Pic(E_L)`$ is a normal subgroup in the semi-direct product of the other two groups).

Proof. The proof will consist of two steps.

i) It is easy to see that the group $`C_L^{}`$ of invertible elements in $`C_L`$ consists of products $`f(z)e_\lambda ,\lambda L`$ where $`f(z)`$ is an invertible analytic function.

Let $`W_L`$ be a vector space consisting of $`fC_L`$ satisfying the following property: for any invertible $`aC_L`$ there exists a constant $`c`$ such that $`afa^1=f+c`$. Let us prove that such $`f=f(z)`$ is a linear function of $`z`$. Indeed if $`f=_jf_j(z)e_{\lambda _i}`$, then taking $`a=e_\mu ,\mu L`$, we see that the derivatives $`f_j^{}(z)`$ are double-periodic analytic function on $`𝐂`$ (we do not assume that the periods are linearly independent over $`𝐑`$). Hence $`f_j(z)`$ are linear functions in $`z`$.

Clearly $`i(W_L)=W_L^{}`$. By composing $`i`$ with an automorphism of $`C_L`$ we can bring it to the form $`i(z)=\alpha z`$ and $`i(L)L^{}`$, where $`\alpha 𝐂^{}`$. Since $`i`$ is continuous we have $`i(f(z))=f(\alpha z)`$ for any $`f𝒪(𝐂)`$.

Notice that $`e_\lambda ze_\lambda =\lambda +z`$. Since $`e_\lambda `$ is invertible we have $`i(e_\lambda )=e_\lambda ^{}g(z)`$ for some invertible analytic function $`g(z)`$ and $`\lambda ^{}L^{}`$. Then $`i(e_\lambda ze_\lambda )=\lambda +\alpha z`$. On the other hand it is equal to $`\alpha \lambda ^{}+\alpha z`$. It follows that $`\alpha L=L^{}`$.

ii) We let the groups $`G_L`$ and $`𝐂`$ act on $`C_L`$ preserving the lattice $`L`$ and sending $`z\alpha z`$ , $`\alpha G_L`$ and $`zz+c`$ , with $`c𝐂`$. It is easy to see that the second automorphism is inner provided $`cL`$. It gives rise to an injective homomorphism from from the semi-direct product $`G_L`$ and $`𝐂/L`$ to $`Isom(E_L,E_L)`$. As we have just proven, any automorphism of $`C_L`$ preserves the subspace of linear in $`z`$ functions. This implies that the image of the latter homomorphism is a normal subgroup. Hence, it is enough to identify the quotient with $`Pic(E_L)`$.

An element of the quotient can be represented by an automorphism $`i`$ of $`C_L`$ identical on the space of functions of $`z`$. We have $`i(e_\lambda )=f_\lambda e_\lambda `$, where $`f_\lambda `$ is an invertible analytic function. It is easy to check that $`f_\lambda `$ define a $`1`$-cocycle of $`L`$ with coefficients in $`𝒪^{}`$. If $`i`$ is an inner automorphism, the cocycle $`f_\lambda `$ is a coboundary. It gives rise to an isomorphism between the quotient and $`H^1(L;𝒪^{})=Pic(E_L)`$. This proves the theorem. $`\mathrm{}`$

###### Corollary 3

Two non-commutative elliptic curves $`E_\tau `$ and $`E_\mu `$ are equivalent iff $`\tau =g(\mu )`$ for some $`gSL_2(𝐙)`$, where $`SL_2(𝐙)`$ acts on $`\mu 𝐂𝐐`$ by fractional transformations.

It follows from the Corollary that the “moduli space” of non-commutative elliptic curves can be identified with the quotient $`\overline{D}/SL_2(𝐙)`$ where $`\overline{D}=\{z𝐂||z|1\}`$ and $`SL_2(𝐙)`$ acts by fractional transformations. Naively, the moduli space consists of the isomorphism classes of algebras $`C_L`$ together with the equivalence classes of the categories $`_q`$ where $`q`$ is a root of 1 (these categories are equivalent to $`_1`$). The action of $`SL_2(𝐙)`$ is not discontinuous on the boundary circle $`D`$. Hence the moduli space is itself a non-commutative space. It can be described in terms of a cross-product algebra. The reader should compare Corollary 3 with the similar theorem of Rieffel about quantum tori (see \[RS\] for the higher-dimensional case).

###### Remark 5

It follows from the Corollary that if $`\tau 𝐐(\sqrt{d})`$, where $`d𝐙`$ is square-free then the corresponding non-commutative elliptic curve has more autoequivalences than a generic one. If $`d<0`$ it is just an elliptic curve with complex multiplication. It was speculated in \[M2\] that in the case $`d>0`$ non-commutative tori can be used for a description of the maximal abelian extension of $`𝐐(\sqrt{d})`$ (Stark conjectures).

Since our non-commutative elliptic curve can be defined not only over $`𝐂`$, the following questions look very interesting.

###### Question 2

Assume that we are working over the local field $`K`$ as in the Section $`2`$.

1. When two categories $`_q`$ and $`_q^{}`$ are equivalent?

2. What is the group of auto-equivalences of $`_q`$?

We don’t know the answer even in the case $`K=𝐂,|q|=1`$.

For usual elliptic curves (i.e. $`|q|1`$) the answer is known thanks to the following result.

###### Theorem 6

Assume that $`|q|,|q^{}|1`$. Then

a) The categories $`_q`$ and $`_q^{}`$ are equivalent if and only if the corresponding elliptic curves are isomorphic.

b) The group of auto-equivalences of $`_q`$ is generated by the group of automorphisms of the elliptic curve $`E_q=𝐂^{}/q^𝐙`$ and $`Pic(E_q)`$. The latter acts on $`_q`$ sending a module $`V`$ to $`V`$, where $`Pic(E_q)`$.

Proof.444The proof bellow has been explained to the authors by Dima Kaledin. Notice that irreducible objects of $`_q`$ are skyscraper sheaves supported at points of $`E_q`$. Therefore, an equivalence $`i:_q_q^{}`$ gives rise to a bijection $`\stackrel{~}{i}`$ between the points of $`E_q`$ and $`E_q^{}`$, which is a homeomorphism with respect to the Zariski topology. Further, line bundles $``$ on $`E_q`$ can be characterised by the property that $`dim(Hom(,F))=1`$, for any skyscraper sheaf $`F`$. Hence $`i`$ induces a bijection between line bundles on $`E_q`$ and $`E_q^{}`$. Therefore it is enough to prove that if $`i(𝒪_{E_q})=𝒪_{E_q^{}}`$ then the functor $`i`$ is induced by an isomorphism of the ringed spaces. Let $`SE_q(𝐂)`$ be a finite subset. We are going to construct a morphism of sheaves restricted to the complements of $`S`$

$$i_{}:𝒪(E_qS)𝒪(E_q^{}\stackrel{~}{i}(S))$$
(3)
Let $`Coh_S(E_q)`$ be the category of coherent sheaves supported on $`S`$. The quotient category $`_q/Coh_S(E_q)`$ is equivalent to the category of coherent sheaves on $`E_qS`$. Furthermore $`𝒪(E_q\backslash S)`$ can be identified with the ring of endomorphism of the identity functor from $`Coh(E_qS)`$ to itself.

The functor $`i`$ induces an equivalence between $`Coh_S(E_q)`$ and $`Coh_{\stackrel{~}{i}(S)}(E_q^{})`$ which, in turn, gives rise to an equivalence

$$i:Coh(E_qS)Coh(E_q^{}\stackrel{~}{i}(S))$$

The latter defines the isomorphism (3). $`\mathrm{}`$

###### Corollary 4

If $`L`$ is a lattice then the group $`Aut(𝒟_L)`$ of autoequivalences of the category $`𝒟_L`$ is isomorphic to the group $`Out(C_L)`$ of outer automorphisms of the algebra $`C_L`$.

###### Question 3

Is the Corollary $`4`$ true for a quasi-lattice $`L`$?

If the answer is positive, then we can say that two non-commutative elliptic curves $`E_L`$ and $`E_L^{}`$ are equivalent iff the correspodning categories $`𝒟_L`$ and $`𝒟_L^{}`$ are equivalent. This observation agrees with the Theorem 6.

### 3.5 Remark about higher genus curves

If a complex curve $`X`$ has the genus $`g2`$ it admits a universal covering by the upper-half plane $`H`$. We have $`XH/\mathrm{\Gamma }`$, where $`\mathrm{\Gamma }SL_2(𝐙)`$ is a Fuchsian subgroup. Applying Theorem 2 we see that $`Coh(X)_\mathrm{\Gamma }(H)`$. Now, if we consider a non-discrete embedding of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ into $`SL_2(𝐙)`$, we define $`Coh(H/\mathrm{\Gamma })`$ as $`_\mathrm{\Gamma }(H)`$. Since the action of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ is now ergodic, we conclude that all objects of our category are free $`𝒪(H)`$-modules. In other words, there are no non-free coherent sheaves on degenerate curves. All the questions addressed above to non-commutative elliptic curves can be addressed to non-commutative complex curves of higher genus. Hopefully arising structures can be used for algebraic study of Thurston boundary of Teichmüller space.

## 4 Non-archimedean quantum tori

This section is independent of the rest of the paper.

Let $`K`$ be a non-archimedean local field, $`L`$ is a free abelian group of finite rank $`d`$, $`\phi :L\times LK`$ is a skew-symmetric bilinear form such that $`|exp(2\pi i\phi (\lambda ,\mu ))|=1`$ for any $`\lambda ,\mu L`$. We denote by $`A(T(L,\phi ))`$ the algebra of regular functions on the quantum torus $`T(L,\phi )`$(see \[So1\]). Thus it is an algebra with generators $`e(\lambda ),\lambda L`$, subject to the relation

$$e(\lambda )e(\mu )=exp(2\pi i\phi (\lambda ,\mu ))e(\lambda +\mu ).$$

There are various completions of $`A(T(L,\phi ))`$ which appear in the literature. In this section we will use the following one.

###### Definition 3

The space $`𝒪(T(L,\phi ))`$ of analytic functions on the non-archime-
dean quantum torus consists of series $`_{\lambda L}a(\lambda )e(\lambda ),a(\lambda )K`$ such that $`|a(\lambda )|0`$ as $`|\lambda |\mathrm{}`$ (here $`|(\lambda _1,\mathrm{},\lambda _d)|=_i|\lambda _i|`$).

###### Lemma 8

Analytic functions $`𝒪(T(L,\phi ))`$ form a $`K`$-algebra.

Proof. We have $`(_\lambda a(\lambda )e(\lambda ))(_\mu b(\mu )e(\mu ))=_\nu c(\nu )e(\nu )`$, where $`c(\nu )=_\lambda a(\lambda )b(\nu \lambda )exp(2\pi i\phi (\lambda ,\nu \lambda ))`$. We need to prove that
$`max_{\lambda ,\nu L}|a(\lambda )||b(\nu \lambda )|`$ approaches zero as $`|\nu |\mathrm{}`$. Since both functions $`a(\lambda )`$ and $`b(\lambda )`$ are bounded on $`L`$ we may assume that $`\lambda `$ belongs to a finite subset of $`L`$. Then $`|a(\lambda )||b(\nu \lambda )|const|b(\nu \lambda )|`$ where $`\lambda L_0`$, and $`L_0`$ is a finite set. Therefore $`|c(\nu )|0`$ as $`|\nu |\mathrm{}`$. $`\mathrm{}`$

Let us fix an isomorphism $`L𝐙^d`$ and $`r=(r_1,\mathrm{},r_d)𝐑_{>0}^d`$. We denote by $`𝒪(T(L,\phi );r)`$ the space of series $`f=_{\lambda 𝐙^d}a(\lambda )e(\lambda )`$ such that $`|a(\lambda )|r^\lambda 0`$ as $`|\lambda |\mathrm{}`$. Then $`𝒪(T(L,\phi );r)`$ becomes a non-commutative Banach $`K`$-algebra with the norm $`f=max_\lambda |a(\lambda )|r^\lambda `$. In the case $`\phi =0`$ an epimorphic image of $`𝒪(T(L,\phi );r)`$ in the category of commutative Banach $`K`$-algebras is called an affinoid $`K`$-algebra (see \[Be\]). One can use non-archimedean quantum tori in order to define a deformation of the sheaf of analytic functions on the rigid analytic space obtained from degenerating hyper-Kähler manifolds in the spirit of \[KoSo1\]. To be more precise, such a degenerating family defines a fibration over an affine manifold $`Y`$ with the fibers being tori (possibly degenerate on the codimension two subvariety $`Y^{sing}Y`$). The sheaf of analytic functions is in fact the sheaf on the non-singular part $`YY^{sing}`$ only. It is an open problem to define it on $`Y`$. One can replace series in commuting variables $`x_i,1idimY`$ by the series in variables $`x_i`$ such that $`x_ix_j=qx_jx_i`$. Then one obtains the deformation of the sheaf $`𝒪_Y`$. Details will appear in the paper of M. Kontsevich and the first author.

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Addresses:

Y.S.:Department of Mathematics, KSU, Manhattan, KS 66506, USA

email: soibel@math.ksu.edu

V.V.: Department of Mathematics, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637

email: volgdsky@math.uchicago.edu